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 THE LONDON. PHJNTnTG AETD FTTBlilSHLNG COMPXNV. LIMITED 
 
R URAL LI F li 
 
 Dcsrribcti anti Ellustrntrli, 
 
 IN TllR MASAOEMENT OF 
 
 HORSES, DOGS, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, POULTRY, 
 
 ETC., ETC. : 
 
 l\t\x Crtatnunt in ^taltjj aiib iliscast; 
 
 "WITH AUTHENTIC INFORMATION ON ALL THAT RELATES TO 
 
 MODERN FARMING, GARDENING, SHOOTING, ANGLING, 
 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 BY JOHN SHERER, F.R.G.S. 
 
 COMPLETE SYSTEM OF MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 THE LONDON riilNTlXC; AND J'CBLISIIING COMPANY, LIMITED, 
 LONBO-N A^•D NEW YOKK. 
 

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PREFACE. 
 
 Deferring to the opinion that the end of all writing ought to be instruction, 
 the following pages have been produced with this end constantly in view : 
 but as instruction may belong to the past, without, as well as within, the 
 limits of existence allotted to man, the object in Rural Life has been to 
 approximate as nearly as possible to the present, in order that, while we arc 
 in the land of the living, we may be participators in the enjoyment of the 
 knowledge which, not only in Rural Life, but in every other condition, is 
 daily developing itself around us. Thus, then, this Work has been produced 
 in accordance with the approved principles of the most experienced, intel- 
 ligent, scientific, and practical men of the present day, engaged in the 
 pursuits of which its pages are the record ; and the information it contains 
 is brought down to the time of its i^ublicatlon. 
 
 Another end which has been kept in view in the production of Rural 
 Life, is simplicity and clearness in the arrangement. This, It is believed, 
 has been obtained, not only by laying the Work out in divisions, as a 
 horticulturist does his ground, but in subdividing these into chapters, and 
 these, again, into paragraphs, with, in many instances, separate or inde- 
 pendent *' headings." This, it is thought, has greatly tended to simplify its 
 arrangement ; to lighten any heaviness which might otherwise have 
 appeared in some of its pages ; to facilitate the desire of reference ; and, 
 altogether, to render Rural Life less wearisome in the perusal. As aU 
 pleasure consists In variety, the subjects have been disposed in such a 
 manner as, it is hoped, will secure the reader, whilst seeking for information, 
 from being baffled by confusion, or disgusted with dulness. 
 
 The veterinary portions may, by some, be considered of the first, and 
 by others of the last, importance. But however tins may be, they have been 
 
NiV PREFACE. 
 
 carefully compiled, and not a single recipe given, except upon the authority 
 of well-established practice. In treating such a subject as Farriery, a due 
 degree of delicacy has been observed in the phraseology, but never to the 
 sacrifice of perspicuity. He who would prevent, alleviate, or cure the 
 maladies of brutes, must, in addressing those who may be ignorant of the 
 scientific technicalities of language, be permitted some latitude of expression, 
 in order that what he desires to be done, may be sufficiently understood by 
 those on whom the duty of carrying out his recommendations is to devolve. 
 To the other divisions of Rural Life equal attention has been given ; the 
 principal object having been to reproduce, in as clear a form as possible, the 
 most recent information on the various subjects of which it treats. 
 
 The Engravings are by several of the highest animal artists of whose 
 names this country can boast ; and they have, as may readily be conceived, 
 been produced at great expense. But that which is scarce and good must 
 always command a price proportionate to its value. The original drawings 
 from which the Engravings have been made, being of a class in which 
 excellence is rarely attained, they have been procured with a view to 
 enhance the interest and value of Rural Life; and it is hoped, that 
 the laudableness and realisation of the desire, will secm-e the accomplish- 
 ment of the end. 
 
 J. S. 
 
 London. 
 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Among the ancients, the literature of Agriculture occupied a far liiglier place than that 
 to which it has attained in modern times ; although, within tliese twenty years, Great 
 Britain has made immense advances in the practical manipulations of the science. 
 Mago, the Carthaginian, who is supposed to have flourished in the time of Darius, and 
 to have been the founder of the great Punic family, from whicli Hannibal sprung, is 
 declared to have been the father of agricultural literature. After him come Hesiod, 
 Theophrastus, Xenophon, Cato, Varro, Virgil, Columella, Pliny, and Palladius — all of 
 whom say something, more or less, of Agriculture. Among the writers on this science, 
 if there were no great kings, there were certainly great generals. Columella tells us, 
 that Mago, the Carthaginian, and Hamilcar, did not consider it beneath their dignity, 
 when not engaged in the operations of war, to contribute, towards the general stock 
 of human knowledge, treatises on farming. The books which Mago wrote on the 
 subject amounted to twenty-eight, which were so highly esteemed, that, on the final 
 destruction of Carthage, when the whole of her literature was handed over by the 
 Eomans to their African allies, these were specially excepted, carried to Rome, and 
 ordered, by the senate, to be translated at the expense of the public. Such an honour 
 proves the estimation in which his books were held ; whilst it shows how deeply 
 interested the Eomans were in the subject of Agriculture. On neither Greek nor 
 Carthaginian Agriculture, however, have we the means of gathering very much 
 information. In reference to Greece, we know that Attica was arid, and Laconia full 
 of swamps ; that Megara was deformed with rocks ; and that Corinth depended on 
 foreign importations for her food-supply. But this is not telling us much ; although 
 she could not have been destitute of an agricultural literature, since Pliny laments the 
 loss, in his day, of forty treatises upon the subject. The incidental notices of Herodotus 
 and Thucydides do not yield us much information ; and although we have the work of 
 Theophrastus come down to us, it is not very satisfactory as a book on husbandry. The 
 (Economics of Xenophon are said to have been composed on a farm, which he had 
 bought and occupied near Smyrna, and which is frequently appended to the 
 Memorabilia. Farming, gardening, household management, and instructions relative 
 to the government of wives, form the staple of its pages ; and it contains the passage 
 in which Cyrus the younger presents himself to Lysander in the character of " The 
 Persian Farmer." 
 
 Passing from Greece to Rome, Cato the censor is the first distinguished personage 
 that rises before us as an agricultural writer. He inherited from liis father a Sabine 
 farm, which he cultivated himself, but rather parsimoniously than otherwise. He was 
 by no means an advocate for " high farming ;" but preferred limiting his outlay to 
 making active efforts at improvement. He died 150 years before the birth of Christ; 
 and left room for Varro, one of Pompey's generals and admirals, to take his place in 
 the list of writers on rural affairs. His work, entitled De Re Rustica, has descended 
 
VI 
 
 GENERAL INTEODUCTIOX. 
 
 to us, and proves liim to have been a practical farmer ; although he chiefly relies upon 
 the maxims of Mago, and some Greek writers, for the mode he pursued in cultivating 
 the soil. He lived nearly throughout the century which immediately preceded the 
 Christian era ; and was, for some time, librarian both to Julius and Augustus Caesar. 
 Virgil comes next ; for Cicero can hardly be included in the list. The Georgics are 
 poems of great originality, embracing much smoothness of versification, and elegance 
 of diction, with precise, ample, and sound directions for the husbandman. To him 
 succeeds Columella, who was a native of Spain, and apparently born about the time 
 of the Christian era. His work has come down to us almost entire, and is divided into 
 twelve books. Two of these are on farming and farming premises ; but also contain 
 some directions on the selection and management of agricultural slaves : three on the 
 vine, olive, and orchard fruits ; two on farming and domestic animals, from which he 
 excludes the sporting-d g ; one on poultry ; and one on bees. In the ninth book he 
 breaks into verse on th' subject of gardening; and in three more books treats of the 
 bailiff, his wife, wine, nnegar, jam-pots, and the kitchen garden. Pliny comes next. 
 He died in A.D. 79, and was succeeded by Palladius, who wrote fourteen books of 
 a farmer's calendar, and a poem on the art of grafting. He was a landed proprietor 
 in Sardinia, and also near Naples. As an agricultural writer he is not very highly 
 spoken of ; although, in the middle ages, his work was held in considerable estimation. 
 
 The names we have thus given of the ancient writers on rural affairs, are spread 
 over a period of eight centuries ; and yet, throughout that long lapse of time, we look 
 in vain for any sign of the science of Agriculture being considered a progressive art. 
 There is not the smallest evidence of improvement. With the single exception of 
 lucerne, there is no new object of culture introduced ; and the system which the father 
 unvaryingly pursued, seems to have been equally unvaryingly followed by the son. 
 What were its characteristics is determined in a very few words — system, accurac}', 
 carefulness, and a sharp eye against waste. The whole of the maxims of Cato have 
 a tendency to the repression of outlay ; and the consequence was, that the productive 
 powers of their lands decreased, as the soil became exhausted from the frequency of the 
 crops. What is called high farming — by which is meant a large expenditure, with a 
 view to increase produce — was out of the question ; and instead of looking forward with 
 a view to the means of success, the Eoman farmer seems rather to have possessed the 
 faculty of looking backward, in order to preserve himself stationary in his position. 
 This, of course, was fatal to advancement; and hence the dreary waste of his years, 
 as well as of his lands, in the agricultural course he pursued. Under the division 
 on farming, in the following pages, this subject is noticed in greater detail. 
 
 Of the system of farriery, as practised among the ancients, we possess very little 
 knowledge. We have, occasionally, a slight notice from Columella, who treats at 
 length on the general management of cattle ; and in Renatus, who flourished a couple 
 of centuries later, the subject of animal diseases is more elaborately handled. He 
 urges the necessity of a high cultivation of the veterinary art, not only as being a 
 source of pecuniary gain, but as being the means of enlarging our sympathies with the 
 sufferings of the lower animals. With the exception of the necessarily crude and 
 imperfect performances of these two writers on this subject, no ancient treatise, bearing 
 directly on the diseases to which animals are subject, and composed by a professional 
 man, has descended to us. There are no evidences whatever, in the writers just named, 
 that they were acquainted with the sciences of anatomy and physiology — a circumstance 
 
GENERAL 1 NT K( ) DTCTION. vii 
 
 somewhat singular, as, both in Egypt and in Greece, considerable progress had been 
 iiKulo ill human and comparative anatomy. Amon^^ the ancients, Celsus is the only 
 physician of ctkbrity who is said to have written on veterinary medicine; whilst 
 Xenophon is the most ancient Greek writer who has specially written upon the liorse. 
 His performance, however, is confined to the training of the animal for war and the 
 chase : it is supposed, however, that the ancients had a knowledjjje of the disease which 
 is called the " glanders," and was known under the denomination of the " moist 
 malady." 
 
 Whatever merit may be assigned to ancient writers on veterinary art, arises from the 
 dietetic rules, and the works of domestic management they have bequeathed to us. In 
 other respects they were but in their novitiate. They were powerful in the art of 
 purging ; but what they have left us on the symptoms of disease, has not tended to 
 advance our knowledge ; although it is an evidence that they were not inattentive 
 observers, however far they failed in the application of the proper remedies. In 
 bleeding they were as great as in purging ; but whatever were their drawbacks, they were 
 much superior, not only in learning and eloquence, but even in professional ability, to 
 the vast majority of their pupils of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. 
 At these periods, the mental gloom, which had so long darkened the European continent, 
 began to be dispelled, when, with the general dawn, the works of the ancient veterinary 
 writers became objects of search and desire; and, as fast as they were found, they were 
 translated into the Italian and the French languages. The art became a study. Ruini 
 and others described, anatomically, the body of the horse ; schools began to be established 
 for professional instruction : and, notwithstanding the immense advantages which have 
 arisen from the general diflfu.-ion of knowledge, the labours of these first teachers, after 
 the revival of learning, must still be acknowledged with respect and gratitude. The 
 medicinal part of veterinarianism was more generally cultivated, and, at least in 
 some instances, under accredited medical professors. Every branch of the equine 
 economy — whether as regards the harness or the trappings, equitation, the military 
 menage, or the riding of the horse ; the methodical treatment of the hoof, accompanied 
 with the invention of various forms of iron shoes, as well as their scientific adaptation to 
 the foot — were eagerly pursued, and mostly with success. In the shoeing department, 
 one Csesar Fiaschi greatly distinguished himself; and either invented or recommended 
 the welted shoe as a substitute for calkins and forknails, which were then in use. He 
 is also said to have invented the lunette, a sort of short shoe in the shape of a 
 half-moon, which, since his time, has met with favour from some of the faculty. 
 
 The new art having rapidly diffused itself over a large portion of the European 
 continent, soon reached England, where the cure of diseased or injured animals had, 
 from time immemorial, been given over to the tender mercies of leeches and farriers, 
 whose ignorance generally was only rivalled by their inhumanity. In proof of this, an 
 expression of Markham, a writer on the subject, is confirmative. " Other torments there 
 are," says he, after expatiating upon his cures by the use of fire and the knife. It is 
 probable that the future scintillations of knowledge, first received in this country, 
 occurred in the days of the Tudors ; as we learn from Blundeville, who wrote in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, that French and German farriers were not only employed by the 
 queen, but, in general, by the English nobility and gentry. Yet the progress of our 
 practitioners was slow — possibly arising from the greater amount of countenance beinc," 
 given to the foreigners ; but from the period of which we now speak, to that.of the earlier 
 
viii aENEKAL INTEODUCTION. 
 
 part of the eighteenth century, veterinarianism in England, like the lengthening chain of 
 Goldsmith, only dragged its slow length along. No medical name of the smallest 
 scientific pretensions appears on the veterinary list throughout that long, dreary interval 
 in the medical, surgical, or anatomical branches of the art. To be sure, there is a person 
 of the name of Snape, who crajps up, and who was the farrier of Charles 11, The family 
 of this man, it appears from his book, had, for upwards of 200 years, served the crown in 
 the capacity which, it is to be hoped, he himself worthily filled, as he seems to have been 
 tolerably informed. His anatomical system, arrangements, and nomenclature, were a 
 copy of the Italian school ; but he was a dissector himself, and described from his own 
 observations. Besides Snape, there are the names of Stephens, Martin, Clifford, and 
 Morgan, all of whom are early writers on the veterinary art ; but they are of no merit. 
 Neither is the work of Mascal, the farrier of James I. This book is ludicrous in the extreme ; 
 and it may be taken as a significant sign of the ignorance of the age when he wrote in 
 reference to farriery, that his book passed through numerous editions, notwithstanding that 
 there were other national and even learned treatises on the same subject. It is difficult 
 to account for this : but he was the Icing'' s farrier ; and as there is something in position 
 and a name even in these enlightened days, it is probable that there was a similar 
 something in those of the Scotch Solomon who sat upon the English throne. To the 
 above list may be added the names of De Gray and Gervase Markham, who continued to 
 publish till after the Eestoration. Markham's works have been said to comprise " every 
 absurd, barbarous, and abominable juggling trick," as well as every useful invention which 
 had, up to his time, issued from the brains of either ancients or moderns. Whatever 
 may be the defects and deformities of the works of Markham, however, they had a rapid 
 and widely-extended sale. They enjoyed a high reputation down to the days of Gibson; 
 and even long afterwards were held in esteem among the country leeches and farriers. 
 Fame of this sort is indicative of some merit. Mankind in general are slow to give 
 praise where it is not justly due ; and that which was conferred on the works of Markham, 
 seems to have endured longer than that which was extended to preceding writers on the 
 same subject. It is allowed that his work contains the amplest details of the practice of 
 farriery as then in vogue, with delineations of the instruments in use, not very differently 
 contrived from those employed in the practice of subsequent professors. As a specimen 
 of the nonsense with which some of the writers on farriery disfigured their works, we 
 may instance an example from Dr. Gray. In a case of farcy, this sage equine 
 Esculapius orders the medicine to be administered to the ears of the horse, and 
 drawn up therein. In a case of lameness, he orders a turf to be cut and secreted; 
 and in proportion as the turf decays and wastes away, so shall the lamieness of the 
 animal gradually depart. Could folly go further? Yet men like these were the 
 persons who took upon themselves the cure of the noblest of the lower race of animals, 
 when unfortunately fallen ill or laid up by some injury, which, in all probability, nature 
 herself would have cured, but for the officious assistance of these sagacious prac- 
 titioners. 
 
 In the reign of Elizabeth, a person of the name of Blundeville wrote a fashionable 
 treatise on the " Horse," based on the practice of the continent ; and, in the following 
 reign, Baret produced his Hipponomie, or the Vineyard of Horsemanship. In this work 
 is discussed the relative branches, including the principles and practice of racing, and of 
 that system of equitation peculiar to England. This is followed by a huge folio by the 
 Duke of Newcastle, who enters into details upon the regular management of the horse, 
 
G E N E li A L 1 .N T liL) 1 ) L CT 1 U N. 
 
 IX 
 
 according to the method of the continental schools. Yet whatever light had, as yet, been 
 tliiown upon the subject of vcteriniiry art, down to the reign of George I., the 
 medical care and treatment of horses, and other domestic animals, was confined entirely 
 ti> the leeches, farriers, and cow doctors of the period. Such was the deplf)rablc condition 
 cf this art down to the early part of tlie eighteenth century, wlien it attracted ilie att<^;n- 
 tion of William tiibson, who iuul acted as an army surgeon in the wars of Queen Anne; 
 aiul wlio, to a souiul judgment, seems to have added the essentiality of practical knowledge. 
 He was the first i)rofessional man who, in this country, made the attempt to improve 
 the veterinary art ; and, like all men of sense and observation, seems to have commenced 
 in the right way.^ Reasoning analogically, he gave those, or similar, medicines which 
 acted favourably on the human system, to such animals as were afTected with the same 
 or a similar class of diseases. His work on farriery forms an era in the annals of 
 veterinary literature ; and the fundamental parts of his system became the basis of a very 
 superior practice. A second edition of his work appeared about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, when it was followed by another excellent work on the same subject, 
 by Dr. Bracken, a physician of Lancaster. After him came Bartlet, a surgeon in Bow 
 Street, Covent Garden, who was rather a compiler than an originator of the art. He, 
 however, was the first to introduce the impracticable system of short-shoeing, which 
 had, at that time, been practised in France by La Fosse, a farrier of considerable expe- 
 rience, and a great practical veterinary anatomist. As Bartlet had no pretensions to the 
 art of horse-shoeing, he adopted the rules of La Fosse ; and these, fanciful as they seem 
 to have been, operated beneficially on the practice of England, as it then existed. The 
 subject, however, was not suffered to rest here. A Mr. William Osmer, a surgeon and a 
 sportsman, took it up, and published an excellent treatise on horse-shoeing, reducing the 
 speculative rules of La Fosse to the standard of his own, and that of English experience 
 generally. His book proved of great usefulness ; and being written in a plain and 
 popular style, found its way into the hands of great numbers of the shoeing-smiths 
 throughout the country. Those who had horses, and valued them, were now alive to the 
 importance of the subject of horse-shoeing. The Earl of Pembroke wrote a treatise on 
 it, and Berenger published a respectable work on the grand menage, Clarke, then 
 king's farrier for Scotland, issued a couple of superior treatises on shoeing, and on the 
 prevention of diseases in horses ; and the eighteenth century may be said to have 
 become prolific in veterinary publications and practice. France took the lead in the 
 movement ; but a zeal for the improvement of this branch of science also pervaded 
 Germany, and other continental states. Colleges were founded and established in various 
 countries, in which the science has since continued to be regularly taught. A catalogue 
 of the various continental writers on black cattle and sheep, was made and published in 
 the Giournal di Literati, of Italy. Since that time, the writers on veterinary science 
 on the continent have greatly increased, although comparatively few of them have found 
 their way into this island through the medium of our language. 
 
 We have now arrived at 1792, when the Veterinary College, St. Pancras, London, 
 was established for the treatment of tlie maladies of all domestic animals. At first, 
 however, the institution did not flourish ; but it gradually gained ground ; and now, a 
 much more widely-extended view of the benefits to be derived from its instructive 
 modes of practice to all kinds of domestic animals, is receiving a more favourable 
 recognition. A large number of valuable veterinary publications have issued from the 
 press since the commencement of the present century ; and these are still increasing. 
 
GENERAL INTEODUCTION. 
 
 The structure of the horse, the diseases to which he is subject, and the injuries to which 
 he is continually exposed, have been investigated with the greatest success, not only in 
 Great Britain, but in other countries. Associations have been formed, and colleges 
 founded, for the advancement of veterinary science ; and eminent practical professors are 
 engaged in the dissemination of its principles; so that it has now taken a very elevated 
 position. Its practice is no longer left in the hands of the uneducated and unskilful : 
 the horse, the dog, and the beasts of the farm generally, are no longer subjected to the 
 tortures of callous-hearted and presumptuous ignorance, but are placed under the care 
 of gentlemen who have gained the general respect of the community, and the confidence 
 of those with whom they come in immediate contact, and whose experience, intelligence, 
 and humanity entitle them to the onerous position their profession calls upon them 
 to fill. 
 
 As it is hardly possible to over-estimate the value of the Dog to mankind, a com- 
 prehensive, yet sufficiently full description of all the species of that animal, will be 
 found in the division assigned to their treatment. In the most primitive ages, the dog 
 was the follower and the friend of man ; and so much has his wonderful sagacity, united 
 to his physical qualities, excited the admiration of some nations, that they have even 
 bowed the knee, and worshipped him. In the first books of the Scriptures he is 
 frequently mentioned, but not as an animal which had taken its place among the wild 
 beasts. He is spoken of as one which had become domesticated, and had already iden- 
 tified himself with the social attributes and idiosyncrasies of the lords of the creation. 
 From the remotest times he was held in especial veneration by the Egyptians ; was 
 actually worshipped at Hermopolis the Great ; and, shortly afterwards, in all the towns 
 and cities of Egypt. Juvenal tells us, " that whole cities worship the dog (Anubis) ; no 
 one Diana" — a lamentation in which, no doubt, numbers of his mythological country- 
 men would join. Subsequently, Cynopolis, the "city of the dog," was built in honour 
 of that animal, and splendid festivals instituted in his honour. In the Greek mythology 
 he plays a no less prominent part, and guards the gates of Hades in the form of Cerberus, 
 with three heads, as being indicative of the extreme watchfulness of his character. The 
 Persian fire-worshippers, like the Egyptians, paid him divine honours, and elected his 
 shape to symbolise the Good Principle, which enabled them to baffle the powers of evil, 
 when assailed by them. By the modern Parsees he is still held in high veneration. 
 Leaving the East, and crossing the Atlantic for the West, we find it stated by 
 De la Vega that the Peruvians formerly worshipped the dog ; but it somewhat detracts 
 from any spiritual character with which they may have thought him invested, when we 
 are told that they fed upon his flesh at their festivals. 
 
 If these facts exhibit the profound superstition of the different nations of whom 
 they are recorded, they also go far in proving the possession of qualities which, in this 
 animal, entitles it to universal esteem. But it need not be a subject of wonder why the 
 dog has always held such a high and honourable place in the affections of mankind, as 
 it is his nature to participate in the general enjoyments, sports, pastimes, and even 
 duties and cares of those with whom his lot is cast. Those who have given the slightest 
 study to his habits, must have observed how soon he moulds his disposition to that of 
 his master, or that of the family with whom he is taken into membership. If he should 
 chance to be the property of a poacher or a ruffian, his character usually degenerates, 
 as his natiu-e invariably assimilates itself to that of his possessor. Like his master, he 
 becomes a sort of lawless animal, surly, gross, and rude, and ready for any sort of rough 
 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 and terrible work tbat may fall in his way; but if be belong to a family in wliicb order 
 regularity, gentleness, and good moral dispositions prevail, lie is seldom other thau an 
 animal of <;ri at kindness ami sociability, lie becomes so tractable and docile that ho 
 really sometimes seems to know the character of the conversation which is being carried 
 vu ; and by the silent attention with which he lies and listens, with open eyes, to conver- 
 sation, one would almost believe that ho understood the whole meaning of wliat was 
 being said. We have had dogs by the score ; and the last one we had possessed the 
 peculiarity of frequently sitting before us, and, when we were reading, scannm"- our 
 countenance for a quarter of an hour at a time, with a curiosity and an interest which no 
 disciple of Lavater ever surpassed. He sometimes literally gazed us out of counte- 
 nance, and must have profited wonderfully by his study, as he was a rare physio"-nomist ; 
 which, however, we think all sagacious dogs, more or less, are. The docility and 
 intelligence of the dog, however, are in no situation witnessed to such a remarkable 
 extent as when he has been thoroughly broken-in for the purposes of the sportsman in 
 ^be field. Here ho may be said to be, not only the companion, but the leader or 
 director of his master; in every sense of the word, a real pointer, that, by his action 
 and motions, indicates not only the direction, but points to the very spot where the 
 game shall be found. The possession of the qualities requisite for a service of this 
 kind naturally brings him into intimate relationship with our rural sports, more parti- 
 cularly those in which the gun takes a prominent part. This being the case, he has 
 been, when opportunity occurred, introduced in the following pages, in the division 
 assigned to Shooting ; where, also, is introduced a condensed account of such birds and 
 beasts as come under the denomination of game, which, in this country, confers upon 
 them the privilege of legislative protection. In this division, a brief history of the 
 gun is also given, down to such weapons as were exhibited in the International Exhibi- 
 tion of 1862 ; and, in order to complete this portion of the work, a description of the 
 needle-gun— which may yet become a sporting instrument— so fatal to the Austrians in 
 the late war, has also been given. 
 
 " He to whom an abode in the city lies close at heart, has no need of a country 
 estate," is one of the maxims of Mago ; but he may, for all that, take a lively interest in 
 witnessing, in the field, the massive development of our bovine breeds. Accordingly 
 a large division has been, in the following work, devoted to the description of such of 
 our breeds of black cattle as have been brought to the highest state of perfection. 
 The ancient Carthaginian just quoted made the form of the ox a study, and wrote upon 
 the best means of preserving it in health. "Upon the health of black cattle," says 
 Varro, "I have borrowed a good deal from the books of Mago, which I make my 
 herdsmen carefully read." We like this. All agriculturists should follow the plan of 
 Varro, and make their herdsmen peruse the best works on the management of cattle, 
 sheep, and such animals as form the stock of a farm, and come more directly under their 
 care and management. It may interest our readers to peruse the directions of Ma^o 
 for buying oxen for the plough. The translation is from a minutely critical article In 
 the Quarterly lievieiv. « The young oxen which we buy should be square in their form ; 
 large limbed; with strong, lofty, and dark-coloured horns; broad and curly fronts; 
 rough ears; black eyes and lips; prominent and expanded nostrils; long and brawny 
 neck; ample dewlaps, pendant nearly to the knees; a wide chest, and large shoulders; 
 roomy-bellied, with well-boned ribs; broad on the loin, with a straight, level, or even 
 slightly depressed back; round buttocks; straight and firm legs, by no means weak in 
 
xii GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the knees ; large hoofs ; very long and bushy tails ; the body covered with thick short 
 hair, of a red or tawny colour ; and they should be very soft handlers." Oxen answering 
 to this description would meet with favour even at the present day. As the subject of 
 cattle, however, has been fully treated in the following pages, we will dismiss it here 
 with the remark, that the live-stock of Great Britain are distinguished by the early 
 period at which they become ready for the butcher ; the enormous amount of food they 
 yield in return for the provender they consume ; and the great proportion of meat, of 
 the finest quality, to be obtained from them. 
 
 With the general development and improvement of everything belonging to 
 agricultural science, the Sheep has come in for a large share of attention ; accordingly, it 
 is amply treated of in the division assigned to it. The various breeds are detailed ; and 
 the manner in which Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, proceeded to found his celebrated 
 Leicesters, has been, singularly enough, chosen by Archbishop Whately to illustrate a 
 position in his treatise on Logic. To the scholastic mind, sheep and logic, brought 
 into association by a reasoning archbishop, may sound somewhat strange ; nevertheless, 
 one portion of Bakewell's mode of proceeding is so clearly set forth by the archbishop, 
 that we will make no apology for placing it before the reader. " He (Bakewell) observed, 
 in a great number of individual beasts, a tendency to fatten readily ; and in a great 
 number of others, the absence of this constitution. In every individual of the former he 
 observed a certain peculiar make, though they differed widely in size, colour, &c. Those 
 of the latter description differed no less in various points, but agreed in being of a different 
 make from the others. These facts were his data. * * * * jjis principal merit 
 consisted in making the observations-, and in so combining them as to abstract from each 
 of a multitude of cases differing widely in many respects, the circumstances in which 
 they all agreed." This, as the archbishop has stated it, was the secret of Bakewell's 
 success. He chose the animals of the form and temperament which indicated the surest 
 signs of producing fat and muscle ; at the same time declaring, that all that was not 
 beef in an ox was useless. Thus there was nothing like beef and mutton in the eyes of 
 Robert Bakewell ; and he himself seems to have been a pretty fair specimen of Ms oivn 
 rearing, for he was tall, stout, broad-shouldered, and of a brown complexion ; clothed in 
 a brown loose coat, and scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches, and top-boots. In sheep, 
 however, he regarded size as a vulgar test of merit ; endeavouring to secure a circular 
 body, with as short legs as possible ; a small head ; small neck and bones. It is well 
 known that fat people are not generally large in bone. John Hunter, the great physiolo- 
 gist, confirmed, at least in one essential particular, the observations of Bakewell ; for he 
 affirmed that, in the human subjects he had examined, he found that small bones were 
 the usual concomitant of corpulence. 
 
 The Hog has also received its full share of attention. Both the habits and 
 appearance of this animal are calculated to excite, in a remarkable degree, feelings of 
 disgust ; yet it is an animal of immense value to mankind. It has emphatically been 
 designated the poor man's friend ; and there is no other which comes within the 
 boundaries of the farm-yard more deserving of the distinction. Its flesh is, by tens of 
 thousands, highly relished, in all the forms in which it can be put upon the table ; and 
 however unintelligent, stupid, stubborn, contrary, or perverse it may seem in its 
 disposition, its docility has been frequently proved to be such as to excite ^general 
 wonder. To its management in health, and its treatment in disease ; to the various 
 breeds which have extended its reputation ; and to the care which is necessary to bring 
 
GENEKAL INTKODUCTlOX. 
 
 it to the high state of perfection to which it is cap:il»lo of attaininL^r^ ii considerable 
 portion of the following pages has been devoted. 
 
 Taking a comprehensive view of the subject of PoULTIlY, i( will be b.un.l that, in .-m 
 extensive collection, the geographical history and commercial progress of the civilised 
 globe might, with no inconsiderable degree of certainty, be indicated. "Tims," says 
 Mr. Richardson, " the peacock* represents India; the golden pheasant, and a tribe of 
 lucks, China; the turkey (pride of our yard and table) is one of our many debts duo to 
 America ; the black swan (rival of the snowy monarch of our lakes) reminds us of our 
 Australian discoveries ; while Canada and Egypt have each their goose. The large, fat, 
 white ducks — models of what a duck should be — are triumphs of Jiritish breeding, 
 and afiord a specimen of one of the best productions of Buckinghamshire, since John 
 Hampden. When, however, we turn to the fowl varieties, we find that Spain and 
 Hamburg, Poland and Cochin China, Friesland and Bantam, Java and Negroland 
 (besides our native Surrey, Sussex, Kent, Suflfolk, and Lancashire), have each a cock to 
 crow for them in our poultry-yards." It is further to be observed, that the same close 
 attention to the proper kinds of food, warmth, and symmetry of form, which have built 
 up to their present perfection our short-horned cattle, Leicester sheep, and thorough- 
 bred horses, have similarly brought out the improving qualities of the fowl. It is thus 
 that the elegant, though diminutive and spirited, Bantam has been produced ; as well as 
 the beautiful Spanish and Poland fowls. In 1826, when poultry shows were first 
 established, with a view to draw a wider range of public attention to this branch of 
 rural life, they extended into many parts of the kingdom ; and, gradually increasino-, 
 they were, by 1860, so numerous, that there was hardly a district in England, of 
 any consideration, but could boast of its society for the improvement of poultry. 
 Even the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham, has had its shows of poultry, pigeons, and 
 rabbits. This has not been without its advantages, as it has enabled agricultural visitors 
 to London to compare what has been doing in the way of improving the lesser denizens of 
 the farm-yard; whilst at the annual Smithfield cattle show they are enabled to note the 
 development of meat and fat, and the diminution of offal and bone, in the more stately 
 occupants of the stall and the meadow. What the last half century has done for cattle, 
 sheep, and swine, a comparatively limited period has sufficed to effect for the several 
 varieties of domestic poultry. The increase of size and weight of all classes of improved 
 fowls, is now so much a matter of course, that, to secure prizes, they must combine with 
 those essential requisites, higli condition, quality, beauty of plumage, purity of race, 
 and even uniformity in the markings, as well as in the size and form of the comb and 
 wattles. To all these particulars due attention has been given in the division in which 
 the treatment of poultry will be found. 
 
 A few years since, some Englishmen accepted an invitation from the French 
 government, to cross the Channel with their best live-stock and implements, and enter 
 
 * At the siege of Lucknow, a touching incident occurred in connection witli this beautiful bird. 
 When the besieged were broken with sickness, sorrow, and comparative want, one day a bright-winged 
 peacock lighted on one of the buildings of the beleaguered town, and attracted the eyes of many of 
 the brave, though forlorn, inhabitants. How a taste of the fresh food of that bird would have been 
 relished ! Several muskets were presented at it ; but, with an indescribable sense of humanity, they 
 were lowered again, and the beautiful stranger was sutfered to lly away uninjured. Yet, at that 
 instant — 
 
 " Man's inhumaniiy to man" 
 
 was making countless thousands mourn. 
 
xiv GENEKAL INTKODUCTION. 
 
 into competition with the picked agricultural and mechanical skill of continental Europe. 
 Arrived at the appointed spot, and the comparison made, it was found that they were 
 almost immeasurably in advance of their neighbours in the arts and sciences necessary to 
 the product of meat and corn in the most economical manner, although they worked 
 under a climate not remarkable for its congeniality, and on a soil which has, for ages, 
 been denuded of its virgin fertility. This must have been rather surprising, if not 
 disheartening, to continental growers, breeders, and machinists ; but the best evidence of 
 the superiority of British live-stock, and agricultural machinery, is not to be proved by 
 the medals awarded in Paris or Vienna, but in the constantly increasing exportation of 
 both to all parts of the world where scientific cultivation has superseded the ruder modes 
 of by-gone times. In regard to improvements, said the Earl of Carlisle, in addressing 
 an agricultural meeting of Yorkshiremen, " I saw, on the plains of Troy, the clod-crusher 
 of Crosskill ; the drills, the horse-shoes of G-arrett ; and the ploughs of Howard and 
 Eansome :" and, on the banks of the Danube, the Scheldt, and the Po ; of the Mississippi 
 and the Amazon ; on the shores of the Baltic and the Black Sea ; in Australia, and in 
 Flanders (the cradle of modern agriculture), to English implements is given the same 
 preference as that which is awarded them on the more classic ground of Troy. In 
 so far as our own island is concerned, it has now, for some years, been proved, that 
 the application of steam machinery to the cultivation of the soil, is, in many ways, 
 preferable to the modes usually followed ; and models of engines for the farm, which 
 formerly appeared at our cattle shows, are now replaced by the machines, these 
 represented in working order. This is the case at the Smithfield cattle shows, where 
 the machines of several inventors are exhibited, accompanied with hundreds of 
 testimonials, detailing the practical experience of those who have become purchasers, 
 and who have given them a fair trial upon their own acres. The exhibition of these, 
 united to the very extensive evidence in their favour, whether used on the churlish 
 *' clays," or the *' lighter" soils, completely establish every essential point in the question 
 of steam-power tillage. The saving of one-third of the farmer's teams, on a large 
 holding, repays, in a few years, the prime cost of a steam plough ; while two small 
 farmers can join in the purchase of an apparatus too costly for one. The employment 
 of several hundred machines in breaking up many thousands of acres in a single season, 
 has demonstrated that the work is profitable, in point of economy, over horse labour ; 
 more profitable in the points of excellence and efiiciency, and still more profitable in 
 the point of augmented produce. From these circumstances, and the importance of the 
 subject, a division has been devoted to the practice of modern Farming and Agricul- 
 tural Machinery, in order that the gentlemen who keep their own horses, farm their 
 own estate, and grow their own beef and mutton, may have at hand a means of reference, 
 in Rural Life, to suggest such improvements as may arise from the perusal of its 
 pages. 
 
 The cultivation of a garden was the only occupation of our first parents in 
 Paradise; and from that hour to this, it has been considered, even by those whose 
 position is such as to have placed one within the reach of their power, to be 
 the purest of human enjoyments. "How did you endure your poverty?" asked 
 Alexander the Grreat of Abdalonimus, a Sidonian prince, who had been reduced from a 
 throne to earn his livelihood by cultivating a garden with his own hands. " May 
 Heaven enable me to bear my prosperity as well ! I then had no cares, and my own 
 hand supplied all I required." In this condition he was independent ; and independence 
 
GENERAL INTliODUOTION. xv 
 
 and coiitontiiuiit are greatness and lia[)i)iness nnitcd. The praotico of horticulture, 
 no doubt, helprd to occupy, at h'ast, nuich of the leisure hours of the patriarchs* 
 Homer's garden of Auinous enjoyed an eternal sumnu r ; and (he fruits it produced were 
 the apple, the lig, the pomegranate, tiie pear, the olive, and the vine, watered hy 
 a couple of fountains, and encompassed by a hedge. Judging by the mythology of tho 
 Greeks, they must have been great admirers of gardens, as well as lovers of ilowers and 
 vegetables, as they sought to identify some of the most essential and beautiful products 
 of the earth with the deities whom they worshipped. Thus, tho oak was sacred to 
 Jupiter, the maiden-hair to Pluto, the cypress to Narcissus, and the lily to Juno. Ceres 
 had tho poppy, Minerva the olive, and Venus the apple, the myrtle, and the rose. 
 Flowers, in general, were supposed to have sprung from the tears of Aurora ; while the 
 trembling of a leaf, or the waving of a few blades of grass, indicated the passing of the 
 breath of Zephyrus. All this is redolent of the fine imagination and delicious sweetness 
 which characterised tho taste of the old Greeks. The Romans, too, had their horti, 
 both flower and kitchen ; and the Piso, the Fabii, the Cicero, the Lentuli, and oth(;r 
 distinguished names, are derived from ancestors celebrated for the successful cultivation 
 of those vegetables to which these names were attached. The Britons, in the time of 
 Strabo, had plots of ground combining the properties of a kitchen garden with those of 
 an orchard ; and, after the introduction of Christianity, A.D. 507, gardening was 
 practised as an art congenial to the manners of the Saxons. Under the Danes horti- 
 culture continued to advance ; and, on the establishment of the Normans in this country, 
 we find various notices, not only of public, but of private gardens being attached to the 
 dwellings of the people. In 1107, Brithnod, Abbot of Ely, flourished, and is spoken 
 of as being an improver in gardening. " He performed a great and useful work," 
 says the historian of his monastery : " being skilful in the art of planting and 
 gardening, he laid out very extensive gardens and orchards, which he filled with a 
 great variety of herbs, shrubs, and fruit trees." Notwithstanding this, however, it is 
 questionable whether there was either taste or design in the disposition of his flowers 
 vegetables, and fruit trees ; although we think it hardly conceivable, that a man could 
 take delight in an occupation without evincing some principles of design in view, that 
 it might give a greater zest to his pleasures. But be this as it may, it would appear 
 that, before the reign of Elizabeth, the art of gardening was nothing more than a piece 
 of mechanical routine. It had, so to speak, neither taken shape nor form ; but was 
 pursued as it had always been pursued — namely, without departure from the stereotyped 
 modes of preceding horticulturists. The mighty and majestic Bess, however, had a 
 great taste for flowers ; and it was in her reign that the first regular establishment for 
 the scientific cultivation of plants took place in England. Her successor was also 
 a great patron of gardening ; as was his son, Charles I., in whose reign the first glazed 
 edifices for the preservation of tender plants Avere erected. All this, however, is 
 described more at length in its proper place ; as, also, is the most approved practice 
 of horticulture in fashion at the present time. 
 
 In intimate association with fruits and flowers is the bee, an insect which has, 
 perhaps, attracted more attention, and undergone more careful examination, than any 
 other of the insect tribe. To this busy little creature it was deemed necessary to devote 
 a brief division in the following work, that those who are in possession of a garden may 
 gratify the natural desire of giving an occasional minute to watching the activity with 
 which it seeks and dives into those flowers in which it finds the nectar upon which it 
 
xvi GENERAL INTEODUCTION. 
 
 subsists, and the honey which it produces. For a very long period, the most diligent 
 observers were totally at a loss to account for some circumstances in its history ; there- 
 fore published to the world the most conflicting statements. At length, the Grenevese 
 naturalist, M. Huber, appeared ; and, in a little work, published during the first decade 
 of this century, he cleared away the difficulties. Many of the habits and instincts of 
 the bee, unknown to our grandfathers, appear in the following pages. 
 
 Angling is a sport peculiarly congenial to the quiet of Rural Life, and has found 
 suitable treatment in its proper place. The salmon has not been largely dealt with, not- 
 withstanding that those who favour the pastime, consider the capture of this fish by the 
 rod as their noblest prize. When this monarch of the stream is hooked, nothing can 
 be more exciting ; and the enthusiast, after an hour of terrible anxiety and skill, who lands 
 him fairly upon the bank, we verily believe would feel less glory in having a Roman 
 triumph voted to him, than in surveying the fair and silver side of his beautiful captive, 
 now stretched at length upon the green grass. For the delights of angling we have 
 stores of literary authorities. From gossiping Isaac Walton, down to John Wilson, the 
 Christopher North of the Nodes Ar)ibrosiance of Blackwood, we have the names of many 
 literary lovers of the sport recorded. Even long before their day, the use of the rod was 
 a delight to some of the lovers of literature. The great Raleigh, when banished from 
 court, took to it as a recreation and a pleasure ; and Archbishop Laud, in an epistle to 
 Lord Strafford, in 1638, thus alludes to the salmon, when reposing from the cares of 
 government, at his new residence in the woods of Wicklow : — " I find by your letters you 
 are gone a hunting. I hope you will find time to go a fishing too ; for I mean to be a 
 very bold beggar, and desire you to send me some more of the dried fish (I do not know 
 what you call it) which you sent me the last year. It was the best that ever I tasted." 
 To this he adds — " Do not think to stop my mouth with more of your hung beef from 
 Yorkshire, which was as hard as the very horn the old runt wore when she lived." It is 
 supposed that the archbishop here alluded to salmon, preserved after the manner of the 
 Scotch, who call it kippered. Cotton, the poet and voluptuary, occasionally fled from 
 the world of gaiety in which he lived, to enjoy the pleasures of the rod : Davy left his 
 laboratory ; and even the ethical Paley quitted his desk and easy-chair, that he might 
 enjoy some quiet hours by the stream, where meditation unites with silence to lead a 
 man to thought and reflection. 
 
 Such is a brief resume of the subjects treated in the following pages ; and as infor- 
 mation, rather than amusement, is their aim, it is hoped that the labour of producing 
 them has not been spent in vain, but that their end will be accomplished. 
 
 JOHN SHERER. 
 
 London. 
 
RURAL LIFE 
 
 DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 DIVISION L 
 
 HOESES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 rf r, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 
 THE EAKLY AND AXCIEXT HISTORY OF THE ITOKSE. 
 
 As it is impossible to ascertain, with, any cer- 
 tainty, the original country of the Horse, it is, 
 in a practical work of this kind, unnecessary 
 to enter upon the discussion of the different 
 theories -which, upon this subject, have occu- 
 pied the minds of naturalists, and which have 
 resulted only in the maintenance of opposite 
 opinions. Which was the country where the 
 animal was first brought into a state of sub- 
 jection, is another unsettled point. Colonel 
 Hamilton Smith, notwithstanding his exten- 
 sive researches, seems to have felt the diffi- 
 culty of this one, and to have abandoned it in 
 
 a sentence which appears to indicate a slight 
 sentiment of despair at the futility of his 
 labours. "Wo know," he says, in the 
 twelfth volume of the Naturahsl's Library, 
 " so little of the primitive seat of civilisation, 
 the original centre — perhaps in Bactria, in 
 the higher valleys of the Oxus, or in Cash- 
 mere, whence knowledge radiated to China, 
 India, and E'^ypt — that it may be surmised 
 that the first domestication of the post-diluvian 
 horse, was achieved in Central Asia, or com- 
 menced nearly simultaneously in several 
 regions, where the wild animals of the horse 
 
 1 
 
rOSSIL EEMAINS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [aemenian horses. 
 
 form existed."* Quitting, therefore, these 
 regions of probability, we approach those of 
 greater certainty when we enter upon the 
 fields of the scientific geologist. Here, from 
 discoveries that have, in almost every country 
 of the habitable globe, been made, remains of 
 the horse have been found imbedded in the 
 strata of the earth, in juxta-position with 
 those of other animals. In all the continents 
 of the Old World, vestiges of his bony structure 
 have been exhumed, mingled not only with 
 those of animals which are, now, known to have 
 had an antediluvian existence, but with those 
 of the bear, the deer, the elephant, and the 
 tiger, in every latitude between the extremes 
 of climate. Geological researches in the New 
 World have been attended with similar re- 
 sults ; so that the supposition of Colonel 
 Smith, that "the post-diluvian horse com- 
 menced nearly simultaneously in several re- 
 gions," may, we think, be taken as a theory, 
 which, at least, has probability to support it. 
 There is hardly a district in Great Britain in 
 which equine remains have not been dis- 
 covered: and when we consider this almost 
 universal distribution of the animal, and fur- 
 ther consider his tractability and his adapta- 
 tion to the manifold purposes for which he is 
 used in a state of domestication, we behold a 
 striking evidence of the beneficence of the 
 Creator to man — " the quintessence of dust" 
 ■ — in placing, so readily, within his reach the 
 noblest of quadrupeds, and amongst the most 
 easy to be rendered subservient to his power. 
 
 "Eossil remains," says Colonel Smith, "of 
 the horse have been found in nearly every 
 part of the world. His teeth lie in the Polar 
 ice, along with the bones of the Siberian mam- 
 moth ; in the Himalaya mountains, with lost, 
 and but recently ascertained, genera ; in the 
 caverns of Torquay, Ireland ; and in one in- 
 
 * If Eastern tradition is to be considered of any value, 
 Armenia — the mountainous region of tlie Minni — ought 
 to be viewed as the region where the first post-diluvian 
 horses were located. This country lies at the eastern 
 extremity of Asia Minor, occupying an extent of about 
 300 miles from north to south, and about 430 from east 
 to west. As it lies on the borders of the Caucasus and 
 Mount Taurus, it is extremely mountainous, which would 
 render it unfavourable for the breeding of large numbers 
 of horses; but it has numerous plains and valleys, 
 although of greater elevation than those of southern and 
 western Asia. In the east it is highly fertile, and is the 
 original country whence some of our liiwst fruits have 
 2 
 
 stance in Barbary, completely fossilised. His 
 bones, accompanied with those of the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, tiger, and hyem, rest by thousands 
 in the caves of Cronstadt, in Sevron, at Argen- 
 teuil ; with those of the mastadon in the Val 
 d'Arno ; and on the borders of the Rhine with 
 the colossal urus. All the remains hitherto 
 discovered, appear so perfectly similar in their 
 conformation to the domesticated horse, that 
 they can scarcely be ascribed to other species 
 of the genus. From the commixture of their 
 remains, there cannot be a doubt that they 
 have existed together with several great pachy- 
 dermata. But what is most deserving of atten- 
 tion is, that while all the other genera and 
 species, found under the same conditions, 
 have ceased to exist, or have removed to 
 higher temperatures, the horse alone has re- 
 mained to the present time, in the same regions, 
 without, it would appear, any protracted inter- 
 ruption; since, from the circumstances which 
 manifest deposits to be of the earliest era, 
 fragments of its skeleton continue to be traced 
 upwards, in successive formations, to the pre- 
 sent superficial mould." 
 
 Commencing with the earliest period in 
 which mention is made of the horse, we find, 
 that in Judea, horses were, till the days ot 
 Solomon, very rare. The earliest indirect 
 notice of him is in the book of Genesis, 
 xxxvi. 24 ; where it is said of Anah, the son 
 of Zibeon, that he found mules in the wilder- 
 ness, as he was feeding the asses of his f:ither. 
 The mule being the off'spring of the ass and 
 the horse, it is evident that wild horses, at all 
 events, had then an existence in the wilderness 
 of Idumea or Seir, which is the spot to which 
 reference is made. The earliest direct evi- 
 dence of the existence of the animal, is in 
 Genesis xlvii. 17, where Josepix is said to 
 have given the Egyptians " bread in exchange 
 
 come, such as the apricot and the plum. In the warmer 
 districts, almonds, figs, and pomegranates are cultivated; 
 and here, according to tradition, Noah and his family 
 settled on leaving the Ark. It is now divided into 
 fifteen provinces; the central one of which is called 
 Ararat, where rises the mountain of the same name, on 
 the summit of which the Ark rested after the Deluge, 
 In Armenia and Persia, it is still designated the Kuhi 
 Nuh— the Mountain of Noah. As horses, no doubt, 
 formed a portion of the live-stock of the patriarch, here 
 the first post-diluvian pair must have been located, to be 
 in accordance with the Oriental tradition, which, even 
 down to our own time, prevails iu Armenia. — Eo. 
 
EGYPTIAN uousKs.] MODERN VETEKINAUY PKACTICE. [rERSiAN uonBEs. 
 
 for their horses." In the very minutely de- 
 tailed euumeration of the cattle stores of Abra- 
 ham, Isaac-, Esau, Laban, Job, &l'., thoii'^'li 
 there is a superabuiulauco of other (iiiadrupcil 
 property, no mention whatever is made of 
 horses. Neither in the fourth or tenth com- 
 mandments are horses noticed with the other 
 working animals. In the enumeration, how- 
 ever, of the Eu^yptian cattle property aflected 
 by tlie murrain, they are mentioned in 
 precedence of the rest : " Behold the hand of 
 tlie Lord is upon thy cattle which is in the 
 field, upon the horses, upon tlie asses, upon the 
 camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep." 
 
 In Deuteronomy, chap. xvii. 16, Moses for- 
 bids the Israelites, in the event of their electing 
 from among themselves a king, to allow him 
 "to multiply to himself horses," and thereby 
 foster a lust of dominion and belligerent pro- 
 pensities ; at the same time also creating, what 
 the Lawgiver wished much to prevent — too 
 frequent a communication with Egypt. In 
 the Psalms of David, we find — 
 
 " A horse for prescn'ation is 
 But a deceitful thing." — Psalm xxxiii. 17. 
 
 And in Eccles. x. 7, " I have seen servants on 
 horses." Of Dan, Jacob says, on his death-bed, 
 that, "he shall be a serpent by the way, an 
 adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, 
 so that his rider shall fall backwards." By 
 this time, it is evident that the horse is now 
 tamed and reduced to perfect subjection, for 
 he is ridden. 
 
 Erom whatever country the horse was de- 
 rived, Egypt was undoubtedly, in the most 
 early times, his great breeding-place. The Old 
 Testament proves this by many references; and 
 Colonel Smith says, that to " Egypt we appear 
 to be indebted for the first systematic attention 
 for reviving and improving the breeds of 
 horses. Numerous carved or outlined pictures 
 represent steeds, whose symmetry, beauty, 
 and colour, attest that they are designed for 
 high-bred types." At Jacob's funeral in Judea, 
 there came forth, from Egypt, " chariots and 
 
 * The achievements of this monarch are supposed to 
 have been the labours of several kings, attributed by 
 Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence 
 is a matter of doubt. Be this as it may, however, there 
 is no date, perhaps, in the vehole range of profane chro- 
 nology, more disputed than that of the age in which he 
 is said to have ascended the throne. Various epochs 
 have been assigned, with a difference between them of 
 
 horsemen a very great company." The He- 
 brews were pursued into the Ked Sea by 
 Egyptian horaemnu ; horso and rider bein{> 
 tlu're overwhelnu'd : and Pliaraoh "took G(K) 
 ciiosen chariot.s, and all tlie hor-sen and chariots 
 of Egypt, and all the horsemen, and pursued 
 the Israelites to the lied Sea." Solomon, 
 several ccMituries afterwards, obtained all his 
 horses from I'^gypt. This monarch had 1,1()0 
 chariots, and 12,000 cavalry, and stalling for 
 40,000 horses. With this testimony, tho 
 account given by the Greek writers concurs. 
 According to them, Sesostris (or Sesonchosi'^, 
 as others write his name) was the first who 
 taught men to tame horses and to ride them.* 
 In Solomon's days, the price of a single horso 
 from Egypt was 150 shekels, which, according 
 to Bishop Cumberland's calculation of tho 
 shekel, is about £17 10*. of our money ; a 
 great sum in those times. 
 
 In this inquiry, tho next in order, after tho 
 Egyptians, are the Assyrians, who became tho 
 celebrated cavaliers of the ancient world. Tiiese 
 people are repeatedly alluded to by the Jewish 
 prophets, not only as excelling in the beauty 
 of their horses, and the skill of their horsemen, 
 but also in all the showy ornaments of eques- 
 trian garniture. Their proficiency, however, 
 in this branch of art, did not take place till 
 long after the Egyptians had invented it, and 
 attained to some degree of excellence in its 
 manipulation. Then the Modes, Assyrians^ 
 and Persians, being possessed of more gold 
 and silver than the Egyptians, decked and 
 bespangled the animals they rode, with blue, 
 with purple, and with gold. Persia latterly 
 became most renowned for its horse-riding, 
 and clothed its horsemen most gorgeously. 
 Xenophon says, however, that, before the age of 
 Cyrus, that country had, from its want of wealth, 
 or its mountainous character, no horses ; but 
 that, after his time, from the personal example, 
 encouragements, and recommendations of their 
 king, every man in Persia rode on horse - 
 back.t 
 
 nearly COO years: 1618, 1308, and 972 B.C., have all 
 been given as the periods of his rule. — Ed. 
 
 t In the history of Cyrus, furnished by Xenophon, it 
 is said that this sovereign was the son of Camby.-^es, 
 king of Persia, by Mandana, the daughter of Astya^es, 
 king of the Medes. Conformably to the Persian edura- 
 tional curriculum, he was trained to endure every kind of 
 l)rlvation, exposure to hardships, constant and laborious 
 
 3 
 
SCYTHIAX HOUSES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AXD 
 
 [geeek horses. 
 
 So universal was this the practice, that it is 
 understood that the very name of Persia, by 
 which, ever afterwards, that country became 
 known, was taken from Peeesh — a word in 
 Chaldee and Hebrew ; signifying a horseman. 
 Both in the plains of Assyria and Persia, vast 
 numbers of horses were reared. We read in 
 some authors, of no less than 150,000 feeding 
 on one vast plain near the Caspian Gates. 
 The ancient Persian horse was esteemed a 
 gift of the highest value. Alexander the Great 
 considered the present of one, the noblest that 
 could be made. That this animal was one of 
 great beauty, is unquestionable. Vegetius 
 says — The Persian horses surpassed other 
 horses in the pride and gracefulness of their 
 paces, which were so soft and easy as to please 
 and relieve, rather than fatigue the rider. 
 Their pace, it seems, was as safe as it was plea- 
 sant ; and when they were bred on a large scale, 
 they constituted a considerable part of their 
 owner's revenue. The Nyssean horses, which 
 the kings of Persia used in their expedi« 
 tions, were celebrated as the finest in the 
 world. 
 
 About 500 years before the birth of Christ, 
 Darius undertook his expedition against the 
 Scythians — a people possessing neither towns 
 Bor fields, but living, like the modern Tartars, 
 in movable camps, upon the milk and flesh of 
 their numerous herds. The country of this 
 people was notliiug more than a rude waste, 
 including, with Tartary, most of the present 
 empire of Eussia. They therefore had nothing 
 valuable to lose with an enemy, because they 
 had nothing to defend; and their force con- 
 sisted entirely of cavalry. Here, then, in this 
 barbarous region, the horse seems to have been 
 completely subjugated, and to have formed the 
 principal strength of the Tartars in repelling an 
 invasion of their territory. Notwithstanding 
 the excellence of the Persian cavalry, Darius was 
 forced to retreat ; and, before he reached the 
 
 exercise, with the most simple habits and diet. Such an 
 education was the very best to enable a man to become 
 a subduer and trainer of horses. In his twelfth year, he 
 accompanied his mother to the court of his grandfather 
 Astyages, where everything was of tlie most luxurious 
 description, calculated to enervate, effeminise, and deceive. 
 But Cyrus resisted the temptations with which he was 
 encompassed, and gained for himself the admiration of 
 the sovereign and nobles of Media. When about sixteen, 
 he accompanied his grandfather to the war against Evil- 
 
 Danube, suffered great loss and hardship. 
 When Xerxes, the succeeding Persian monarch, 
 and son of Darius, invaded Greece, he ha6 
 80,000 horse ; which, with his 1,700,000 foot, 
 took him seven days and seven nights to cross 
 the Hellespont. In northern Africa, in Mauri- 
 tania, Libya, and Numidia, horses were nume- 
 rous ; but they are described as having been 
 slightly made, and requiring little or no 
 attention from their owners. Passing into 
 Arabia, there is no mention whatever made by 
 ancient writers of the horses of this country ; 
 and it was not till the later periods of the 
 Jewish monarchy that they became numerous 
 in Palestine. Indeed, generally speaking, 
 Asia Minor had no ancient celebrity for its 
 horses, with the exception of the country 
 around Colophon, between Ephesus and 
 Smyrna, where there was a strong and ac- 
 complished cavalry. This force was deemed 
 invincible ; and was frequently employed as 
 mercenaries by other nations, when engaged 
 in war. 
 
 Passing into Europe, we find that, in Greece, 
 the art of riding the horse, and most probably 
 the arrival of the animal himself, did not long 
 precede the Trojan war. This country lies 
 between the thirty-sixth and forty-first de- 
 grees of northern latitude, and is surrounded 
 by seas, except upon the north, where it is 
 bounded by Epirus and Macedonia. Its 
 original inhabitants were Pelasgians, of wliose 
 origin but little is known, but whose tribes 
 are supposed to have extensively settled in 
 both Europe and Asia. The early inhabi- 
 tants of Greece, however, are not so much to 
 be distinguished by their respective localities 
 as by their several tribes ; for it is found, that 
 as circumstances required, most, if not all of 
 them, migrated from one place to another. 
 The Pelasgi, however, chiefly occupied the 
 Peloponnesus (now the Morea), from which they 
 ramified iuto Thessaly and other parts. They 
 
 Merodach, the successor of Nebuchadnezzar, and regent 
 of Babylon, who had wantonly invaded the territories of 
 Astyages. In this war, his conduct was marked by such 
 wisdom and valour, that he materially promoted the suc- 
 cess which attended the Median army. After this, he 
 returned to Persia, and remained with his father 
 till he was forty years old, when he was recalled to 
 Media, to undertake the military command under his 
 uncle Cyaxares, who was only one year older than him- 
 self. —Ed 
 
OREEK 1I0U8KS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [cental us. 
 
 wore the most powerful of all the tribes, and 
 were foimd in all parts of Greece. Prom this 
 c-ircunist:iiice, tlio whole country was, at one 
 time, callcnl Pelasgia. 
 
 From a period previous to the Trojan war, 
 Grecian fable has transmitted to posterity the 
 story of the Centaurs — semi-human horses and 
 semi-equine men, as Ovid calls them — which 
 warrants the inference that horses had then 
 first made their appearance in Thessaly,tho most 
 northern province of Greece — comprising an 
 extensive vale of singular fertility, and encom- 
 passed on every side by tlie lofty ridges of Olym- 
 pus, Ossa, Pelion, ^ta, and Pindus. It was to 
 the people of this country that the name Hel- 
 lenes — afterwards adopted as the general desig- 
 nation of those whom we, from tlie Latin, call 
 Greeks — was applied, and who early attained 
 to great power. They must have enjoyed 
 some degree of consideration before the Trojan 
 war; for Chiron, their chief, was the preceptor 
 of Achilles. They must also, however, have been 
 ignorant of the picture represented by that of 
 a man and a horse when engaged in the act of 
 riding and being ridden ; for, as the Mexicans 
 ^lid, when they first beheld the Spanish cavalry, 
 the Thessalians fled, panic-stricken at the sight 
 of the double-shaped, incomprehensible monster 
 that charged them. This is the origin of those 
 mytliic absurdities which the genius of Greek 
 sculpture has transmitted to future ages, 
 chiselled, by the most accomplished art, upon 
 their marble tablets. It is surmised that these 
 Centaurs were a tribe of Pelasgi, or emigrants 
 from Phrygia and the southern shores of the 
 Euxine Sea, which were occupied, at an early 
 period, by a colony of Egyptians, planted there 
 by Sesostris in his Phrygian and Scythian 
 expedition. Corroborative of this supposition 
 is the Grecian tradition, recorded by anti- 
 quaries, that Phylere, the mother of the Cen- 
 taurs, cohabited with Saturn in Philyreis, an 
 island near the southern shore of the Euxine ; 
 and that, from that island, she emigrated to 
 Thessaly and the mountains of the Pelasgi. 
 Mr. Touatt, in his able treatise on the horse, 
 offers another interpretation, by which the 
 origin of these monsters may more naturally 
 be accounted for. •'"The Thessalians," says 
 he, " were the pride of the Grecian cavalry. 
 Before the other provinces of Greece were 
 -scarcely ncquaiuted with the miiuo of the 
 
 horse, their subjugation of him was bo com 
 plote, that, in the language of Slmkspearo — 
 
 " ' Tlifsc gallanU 
 Had witchcraft in't — tlu-y prcw into their scaj; 
 And to sudi wondrous doiiij; hroui^iit their horse, 
 As they had been iM<-or])scd, and deini-n:iturcd 
 Willi the brave bea.st.' " 
 
 This power of adhesion to the back of tlio 
 horse, however extraordinary, and however as- 
 tonishing to the Bard of Avon, has not been 
 confined only to the ancients. Mr. Dunn, in his 
 History of the Oregon Territory, and in his 
 description of the Half-breeds of that country, 
 lets us into the secret as to how this power is 
 obtained, and how he has witnessed it exercised 
 in North America. " The Ilalf-breeds," says he, 
 " are a well-informed race, and the men are 
 remarkably ingenious, athletic, and vigorous. 
 In horsemanship they are singularly adroit: 
 nor is this to be wondered at ; for, in fact, they 
 have been trained from their extremest youth 
 to the management of the horse, accompany- 
 ing their parents generally in their trapping 
 excursions on the plains and hills, on horse- 
 back. One of these practised ' Half-breeds* 
 would receive applause from Alexander of 
 Macedon himself, or the best-tutored eques- 
 trian at Astley's. He would mount tlie boldest 
 and most high-mettled Bucephalus of the 
 plains ; give him full play over level and rough, 
 high and lowj river and hill, until he brought 
 him back as tame as a mouse. The cleverest 
 fellow of this school I ever saw, was Joseph 
 McLoughlin,* a natural son of the present 
 governor and a half-bred woman. He was a 
 person of some little distinction from the acci- 
 dent of his birth, independently of his asto- 
 nishing equestrian capabilities. In seeing his 
 feats when managing a wild stallion that 
 galloped and plunged to desperation — clinging 
 to the animal as if he were an inseparable part 
 of him ; playfully tossing his bare head over 
 the upreared head of the horse; while his 
 breech clung to his back with the tenacity of 
 wax, and his heels seemed glued to his ribs, 
 with his hands fastened in his mane — he com- 
 pletely explained to me the fabulous stories of 
 the Centaurs ; for I at once saw that there 
 was some ground for the old fictions of poets 
 and painters in drawing a compound animal, 
 man and horse." 
 
 * The name seems to denote either Irish or Scotch origin. 
 
GEEEK HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [GEEEK HOESEiS. 
 
 Continuing our history regarding the proba- 
 ble migrations of the horse, we might trace, even 
 from the few data afforded by history, his circuit, 
 with the consequent art of equestrian exercise, 
 from Egypt (the original and central riding- 
 echool of the world), into Greece and into 
 Europe. His probable route, however, was 
 from Egypt into Assyria and Persia; from 
 Assyria to Cappadocia, Amazonia, and Pon- 
 tus ; which, on the river Thermoden, was 
 also the residence of the Amazons. In 
 these countries horses were most reared and 
 most admired; and holding the highest position 
 among the lower species of animated nature, 
 they were offered up as sacrifices to the sun. 
 Erom Pontus they passed, with the streams of 
 westward-rushing population, to Phrygia and 
 the southern banks of the Propontis ; and 
 thence, with "horse-taming" Pelops and the 
 Pelasgi, they migrated into Thessaly, where, 
 as already observed, with their novel and 
 terrifying appearance, they confounded the 
 simple aboriginal inhabitants. 
 
 Even at the time of the Trojan war (1192 
 B.C.), it is believed that horses were but 
 rare animals in Greece, and were possessed 
 only by princes or great men, who kept them 
 more for the purposes of display and chariot- 
 drawing, than for use. In the Iliad there are 
 only two references made to horse-riding, and 
 but cue in the Odyssey. The first is where 
 Ulyssus and Diomed capture the horses of 
 Hhesus, and ride them into the Grecian camp. 
 The second is where a horseman is exhibited 
 as riding on four fair coursers, and performing 
 some of the feata which were the common stock 
 of Astleyan representations on the south side 
 of Westminster-bridge. In the Odyssey the 
 reference is made in the form of a simile, 
 which compares Ulyssus, after his shipwreck, 
 bestriding a beam of wood, to the resemblance 
 of a man astride on horseback. 
 
 In these ancient times, the art of shoeing 
 the horse with iron had not been discovered ; 
 so that a strong hoof, " hard as brass," and 
 solid " as the flint," was reckoned one of the 
 good qualities of a steed. In Oriental coun- 
 tries, the dryness of the roads rendered this 
 fortification of the hoof less necessary ; and the 
 muddy ways, and miriness of the ground's 
 surface in the north of Europe, we suppose, 
 first caused and confirmed the practice. Hanni- 
 C 
 
 bal's cavalry, however, lost all their hoofs in 
 the miry and embarrassing march through tlie 
 marshy ground between Trebia and Eesulro. 
 To prevent injury to the hoof, from its contact 
 with the flinty high-roads, it became the prac- 
 tice of both Greeks and Romans to attach to 
 it a sort of sandal, made of sedges or of leather. 
 This original shoe was sometimes further 
 strengthened, by having plates of iron at- 
 tached to it ; and was sometimes adorned with 
 silver and gold, as we read of in the cases of 
 the horses of Poppsea and Nero. 
 
 Neither did the ancients make use of sad- 
 dles or stirrups ; and the Numidian horses 
 had even no bridles, although their armour 
 and their trappings, in so far as appearance 
 went, must have compensated for these de- 
 ficiencies by their gorgeous and extraordinary 
 splendour. On the fresco representations of 
 the Parthenon at Athens, neither the bridle 
 nor the saddle is introduced upon the horse, 
 nor has the rider any other instrument to 
 guide him but a small switch or stick. Ee- 
 ferring to this circumstance, Berenger re- 
 marks, that it may, in some degree, be difiicult 
 to conceive how a switch or stick could be 
 sufficient to guide or control a spirited or 
 obstinate horse in the violence of his course 
 or the tumult of battle ; but the attention, 
 docility, and memory of this animal are such, 
 that it is hard to say to what degree of 
 obedience he may not be reduced. There is 
 no reason why these horses may not be 
 brought to understand the intention, and obey 
 the will of their riders with as much cer- 
 tainty and readiness as our cart-horses in our 
 crowded streets attend to the voices of their 
 drivers, by which they are almost solely gov- 
 erned. Managing the horse without the use 
 of bridle or spur, indicates the perfect subjec- 
 tion to which the animal had been brought by 
 Grecian training ; for it would seem that the 
 gentlest touch of the rider was sufficient for 
 him to be guided in accordance with the will 
 of his master. By a touch on the muzzle he 
 was stopped, and by a touch of the heel he 
 was urged forward. The cruel inventions of 
 the bit and the spur had not yet suggested 
 themselves to the ingenuity of mankind. Yet 
 the obedience of the horse would seem to 
 have then been as complete as the appliances 
 of a confessedly more advanced period of 
 
noRSE-TEAPPiNGS.] M OD EKN VETERI N AE V I'K A CTICE. 
 
 [cHAUiorrt. 
 
 civilisation in the arts could make it. At a 
 later period, we find both tlio bit and tlio 
 bridle introduced into Grecian Bculi)turc3. 
 Neptune made the Komans first to teach 
 " with bits the generous horse to tame." 
 The saddle is a comparatively modern in- 
 vention ; and wo have no notice of the 
 stirrup until about the middle of the 12th 
 century of the Christian era. It, however, 
 was in use a century prior to this period ; for, 
 in the Bayeux tapestry, which was the work 
 of the wife of William the Conqueror, the 
 fi;,'ure of a horse appears, with saddle, bridle, 
 and stirrups. The more ancient heroes made 
 no use of artificial means for the purpose of 
 mounting their steeds. Their agility enabled 
 them to fling themselves upon the backs of 
 their animals with the utmost ease ; but those 
 who fought on horseback with the lance or 
 spear, usually had a loop or a cord depend- 
 inc about two feet from the bottom of 
 the shaft, or a small projection on the 
 shaft itself, by either of which they could 
 assist themselves nito their seats if neces- 
 sary. The horse was sometimes trained to 
 kneel, when his rider was going to mount 
 liim ; and, as ease and effeminacy further im- 
 paired the agility of men, short ladders came 
 into use for the purpose of scaling their 
 horses' backs. Great men had their slaves 
 to assist them both to mount and dismount ; 
 and, subsequently, that all who rode might be 
 accommodated with the means of easily getting 
 upon their horses in situaiuMis where other 
 sorts of assistance could not be procured, the 
 local magistrates of both Greece and Rome 
 had proper stepping-stones set up, at conve- 
 nient distances along the roads. In earlier 
 times, however, it was not as a ridden, but as 
 a war-chariot animal, or as an animal for show, 
 that the horse was principally used. Subse- 
 quently his speed came to be publicly tested in 
 competing for the prize at the Olympic games, 
 founded in honour of Jupiter. Here, in the 
 chariot races, his qualities were put to a severe 
 test. The Olympian festival was instituted 
 776 years before Christ ; and consisted of 
 sacrifices to Jupiter and Hercules, and in the 
 exhibition of contests to their honour. Every 
 fourth year was the period appointed for the 
 recurrence of the celebration, and an olive 
 garlaad was the only prize of victory in the 
 
 different eierciaos. This, however, became a 
 
 distinction greatly envied ; and the interest 
 taken in the contests, coupled with the nanc- 
 tity and splendour of the religious coromoniea, 
 brought together an immense concourse of 
 spectators, and distinguished it beyond all the 
 other iustitutions of a similar kind established 
 in Greece. Not till the twenty-third Olympiad 
 was the horse introduced into the content; 
 and not till the twenty-Iiftli as a chariot-racer. 
 The description of the chariot-racing ia thus 
 given by Mr. Touatt : — 
 
 " The chariots were arranged abreast of each 
 other at the starting-post — for it will appear 
 tliat these gave some important advantages — 
 having been previously decided by lot. An 
 altar was erected on one side, upon which 
 stood a brazen eagle, dedicated to Jupiter, and 
 a dolphin sacred to Neptune. At a signal 
 from the presiding officer, the eagle, by some 
 mechanism, sprang into the air; the dolphin 
 sank under the ground, and away the horses 
 started. The hippodrome, or course, was 
 about one-third of a mile in length ; and at 
 the further end was a pillar, round which the 
 chariots were to be driven, and back again to 
 the starting-place, six times — making rather 
 more than four miles 
 
 " The rounding of this pillar was the Urst test 
 of the skill of the driver and the docility of 
 the horses, and many an accident happened 
 there. This dangerous spot was no sooner 
 passed, than the competitors came at once 
 upon a strange figure, placed to try the courage 
 and nerve of the horses. It was an enormous 
 statue, called Taraxij)pus, the terrifier of tlio 
 horses ; and, according to old writers, well 
 worthy of the name. None of them describe 
 this strange deity ; but all agree that he used 
 sadly to frighten the steeds, and ofu-n t'> 
 endanger their lives, and also the life of t.j 
 driver 
 
 " A little further on was a lofty rock, in the 
 very centre of the course, leaving only a very, 
 narrow defile, in the passing through which the 
 skill of the charioteer was severely tried ; while 
 several men placed on the rock, increased the 
 confusion and the terror of the horses, by the 
 continual braying of their trumpets. 
 
 " As may be well supposed, the number of 
 the competitors was much diminished ere the 
 conclusion of the race. Some ran against the 
 
WAE-H0ESB3.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [WAE-HOilSES. 
 
 pillar ; others were frightened out of the course 
 by the horrible statue ; and not a few were 
 wrecked on that fearful rock. Some were 
 destroyed on the spot; others who escaped 
 without serious injury, were derided by the 
 spectators on account of their want of skill ; 
 and the fragments with which the course was 
 covered, rendered almost every step perilous." 
 The conqueror in such a race, says Pausanias, 
 well deserved the crown which he received, 
 and the honours which were bestowed upon 
 him. 
 
 The moral as well as the physical character- 
 istics of the horse, have, from the earliest 
 times, formed the subjects of poetical admira- 
 tion and enthusiasm. This is especially the 
 case whpu he is viewed as mingling, undismayed, 
 in the heat of the fray — pawing the ground, 
 distending his nostrils, dilating his eyes, and 
 erecting his ears when he hears the braying 
 of the trumpet, or the clashing of arms at no 
 great distance from where he is standing. As 
 the war-steed alone, he is thus sublwiiely de- 
 picted in the Book of Job : — " Hast thou given 
 the horse strength ? Hast thou clothed his 
 neck with his beautiful mane? Canst thou 
 make him afraid as the grasshopper? The 
 glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in 
 the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength. He 
 goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh 
 at fc'i", and is not affrighted. Neither turneth 
 he his back from the sword. The quiver 
 rattleth against him, the glittering spear aiil 
 the shield. He swalloweth the ground with 
 fierceness and rage : neither believeth he that 
 it; is the sound of the trumpet. He sayeth 
 among the trumpets ha! ha! and he smelleth 
 the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains 
 and the shoutings." 
 
 Job was an inhabitant of that country from 
 which our English breed has been so much 
 improved by the importation of horses from 
 the desert ; and this description of the animal, 
 under the influence of a noble excitement, is 
 not less remarkable for its accuracy than for 
 its lofty poetical tone. In the nineteenth 
 verse of the Scriptures, the Hebrew word is 
 translated as signifying "thunder;" but it 
 also signifies the mane of the horse. Accord- 
 ingly, we have substituted the natural feature 
 of the .animal for the hyperbolical and un- 
 meaning attribute of "thunder," with which 
 
 his neck is said to be clothed, but which is 
 quite inappropriate, if not altogether absurd, 
 in the significance of its application. 
 
 In estimating the qualities necessary for 
 war-horses, much depends upon natural dispo- 
 sition. Those of a fretful temper being pro- 
 verbially soft, and not generally to be depended 
 upon, would be ill-suited for the " tented 
 field;" and this does not seem to have escaped 
 the observation of our greatest of dramatists. 
 Such horses are made by him to symbolise 
 false friends. Thus he makes Julius Csesar 
 exclaim — 
 
 " Hollow men, like horses, not at hand, 
 Make gallant show, and promise of their mettle ; 
 But when they should endure the bloody spur. 
 They fall their crest, and, like deceitful jades, 
 Sink in the trial." 
 
 Homer, on the other hand, always speaks of 
 the horse with admiration, and considers him as 
 by nature invested with great dignity. In his 
 conception, an additional respectability is con- 
 ferred, even upon his princes and his war- 
 grooms, by the titlf^s which he bestows upon 
 them of " horse-tnmers" and " horse-whippers" 
 — epithets which, however honourable in days 
 of remote antiquity, are, in ours, associated only 
 with the persons and the mean employments 
 of grooms of the stable and horse-jockeys. It 
 was the practice of ancient poets, as well as 
 of people generally, to dilate upon the beauty 
 and majesty of their horses ; to invest them 
 with attributes of the loftiest description, and 
 to place them in situations in accordance with 
 these high ideas. In this, it must be confessed 
 they were, to a great extent, justified, not only 
 by the noble shape and gallant appearance of 
 the animal, but by his singular disposition, 
 and, consequently, high price ; his being the 
 friend and, as it were, the attendant of princes ; 
 the terrible, yet graceful, accompaniment ot 
 war ; and never seen, as in modern times, 
 degraded to the familiar, yet far more useful 
 purposes of draught in our streets, and hus- 
 bandry in our fields. In Grecian fable, as 
 well as in Grecian mythology, he is also repre- 
 sented in the most imposing situations and 
 attitudes. Proserpine is carried ofl" by Plautus 
 in a chariot drawn by four horses. Neptune, 
 swift as light, strikes the earth with his trident, 
 and the first-born horse rushes forth from its 
 I centre. Aurora ushers in the light of the 
 
GBEEK HOBSEs.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [onEEK nouBEi. 
 
 morning by being represented as drawn by 
 four milk-white horsoa in a rose-coloured 
 chariot. These are all striking evidences of 
 the might and majesty possessed by tiio horse 
 in the Grecian mind, and of the noble pur- 
 poses for which they believed him to have been 
 ordained. The chariot of the Sun is, in Ovid's 
 beautiful fable of Phaeton, drawn by grey- 
 footed steeds ; and Ereehouius, a prince, is by 
 profession, a horse-breaker. In the tlurd 
 Georgia of Virgil, his wonderful performances 
 are thus immortalised : — 
 
 " Bold Erecboinus was tlie first who joined 
 Four horses for the rapid race desigu'd, 
 And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sat: 
 The LajiithDe to chariots add the state 
 Of bits and bridles ; taught the steed to bnund. 
 To run tlie ring, and trace the airy giound ; 
 To stop, to fly, the rules of war to know, 
 T'obey the rider, and to dare the foe." 
 A modern reader, therefore, must enter some- 
 what into the sentiments and feelings of anti- 
 quity, in order to perceive the beauty or 
 propriety of Theocritus's comparison of Helen 
 to a horse, or of Solomon's likening his love 
 "to a company of horses in Pharaoh's cha- 
 riots." The light in which the horse is thus 
 considered as an ornament of royalty, or an 
 appendage of war — not only ornamental, but 
 efficient — is explanatory of many passages 
 scattered over the pages of the Old Testament, 
 and of those of the Greek and Latin Classics. 
 In the days of Xenophon, 600 years later 
 than those of Solomon, the price of a good 
 horse was about 50 danks, or £27 12s.; at 
 least, such was the price paid by Senthes, the 
 Thracian, to Xenophon, for the steed whereon 
 he rode during his retreat from Babylon. As 
 this general was a skilful horseman, as well as a 
 good judge of a horse, it is interesting to see 
 the opinions which, in his age, prevailed re- 
 specting the points of that animal. 
 
 " The firsfc thing which ouglit to to looked 
 at," says he, " is the foot ; for as a house 
 Avould be of no use, though all the upper 
 parts of it were beautiful, if the lesser parts of 
 it had not a proper foundation — so a horse 
 would not be of any use in war if he had 
 tender feet, even though he should have all 
 other good qualities ; for his good qualities 
 could not be made any valuable use of. Thick 
 lioofs make a horse's foot better than thin 
 ones; and it must not be forgotten to see 
 c 
 
 whether the hodfs are high or low, and near 
 the ground both before and behind. The 
 pasterns, or bones immediatt-ly above the 
 hoofs and below the fethtcks, ought not to be 
 straight like those of a goat, for this would 
 shake the rider ; and such legs are more sub- 
 ject to inflammation : nor ought tlieso bones 
 to be too low, for the fetlock would bo chafed 
 and ulcerated if the horse w(;re ridden over 
 ploughed grounds or among stones. The 
 bones of the legs, being the supporters of the 
 whole body, ought to be large ; not, however, 
 too thick with veins. The thighs, under the 
 shoulders, are both strong and graceful when 
 they are large ; and when the chest is also 
 large, it greatly contributes, not only to the 
 beauty and strength of the horse, but to his 
 being able to continue a long time in one 
 pace. The neck should proceed from the 
 chest, and it should be free about the bend ot 
 the head, which should have a small cheek. 
 The eyes should stand well out ; the nostrils 
 be wide, and the ears small. The loins should 
 be broad and short ; the haunches large and 
 fleshy, and such as to correspond wiih the 
 sides and chest of the animal." 
 
 Such is the description of Xenophon ; to 
 which we may add that of Blundeville, who 
 thus speaks of the Greek horses: — "The 
 horses of Greece have good legs, great bodies, 
 comely heads, and are of a high stature ; and 
 very well made forward, but not backward, 
 because they are pyn-buttocked. ISTotwith- 
 standiug, they are very swift, and of a bold 
 courage. But of all the races in Greece, both 
 the horses and mares of Thessaly, for their 
 beauty, bigness, bounty, and courage, of all 
 authors, are most celebrated. For which 
 cause, Xerxes, on his coming into Greece, 
 made a running of horses in chariots, to be 
 proclaimed only in Thessaly, because he would 
 have his own horses to run with the best 
 horses in Greece. Julius Caesar, being dicta- 
 tor of Rome, knowing the courage of tiiese 
 horses, was the first that ordained them as a 
 spectacle before the people, to fight with wild 
 bulls, and to kill them." 
 
 After the Greeks, the Romans followed 
 pretty much in the same path, in reference to 
 the management of the horse. Chariot and 
 horse-races were, at an early period, nitro- 
 duced among them ; and down to the reigns of 
 
 9 
 
EGYPTIAN HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 lEGYPTIAN HOESES. 
 
 the Cffisars, the young men belonging to the 
 equestrian order were enthusiastically devoted 
 to horsemanship. They performed, in the 
 field, similar feats to those which the modern 
 exhibitor executes in the circus-ring : vaulting 
 off and on ; picking up things from the ground ; 
 stretching themselves on the backs of the 
 animals; standing upright; and leaping from 
 one horse to another, were amongst their 
 
 favourite exercises. This people invented the 
 curb bit, and were the first to employ veteri- 
 nary surgeons to attend their horses. To each 
 of their legions horse-surgeons were attached. 
 But after the overthrow of the empire in the 
 fifth century, we lose all trace of any progress 
 having been made in the management and 
 treatment of the horae, whether in a state of 
 I health or disease. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HORSES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 THE HORSE OF EGYPT. | 
 
 Egypt being the country where, it is generally 
 supposed, the horse was first reclaimed, neces- 
 sarily takes priority in treating of the difiereut 
 breeds of that animal as described by travellers 
 and others, who have had opportunities of 
 making observations upon their forms, and 
 testing their qualities in their native climates. 
 This country was, in the earliest ages, distin- 
 guished by its culture, and has a length of 
 about 600 miles, with a varying width. Erom 
 Syene to Cairo, a distance of about 500 miles, 
 its great valley is about eight miles in breadth ; 
 while, in the Delta, it widens, and adds to the 
 extent of the country about ninety or a hun- 
 dred miles. It has two great divisions, named 
 Lower and Upper Egypt. The first comprises 
 that portion of territory which lies between 
 Cairo, the Mediterranean Sea, the Isthmus of 
 Suez, and the Libyan Desert, on the north, 
 and has Grand Cairo for its capital. The second 
 extends from Cairo to Assouan, or Syene, and 
 holds within its area the ruins of ancient 
 Thebes and Dendera. The river Nile is the 
 special glory of this country, watering and 
 fertilising it to an extent which makes it, even 
 at the present time, as fruitful as it was in 
 that of Joseph — " There is corn in Egypt," 
 having become a proverbial expression to denote 
 plenty. This river rises in Abyssinia, traverses 
 10 
 
 Nubia and Egypt, and, after a course of about 
 
 2,000 miles, enters the Mediterranean. Like 
 
 most of the African rivers within the tropics, 
 
 it annually overflows its banks; and thus, in 
 
 a land where rain seldom or ever falls, fullils 
 
 all the purposes which a luxuriant vegetation 
 
 demands for the promotion of its growth. Tiie 
 
 rise commences about the 17th of June, or near 
 
 the summer solstice : by the middle of August 
 
 it reaches half its greatest height ; and, towards 
 
 the end of September, attains its maximum, 
 
 when the waters begin to subside. The fields, 
 
 on which a rich sediment has been loft, are 
 
 then sown with all sorts of grain ; and, in an 
 
 amazing short space of time, the face of the 
 
 whole country is variegated with plants of 
 
 every hue, and with the rapidly-ripening corn. 
 
 As the fertility of the country may be said 
 
 almost entirely to depend upon the inundations 
 
 of the river, their progress is anxiously watched 
 
 and measured by a pillar, called a Nilometer. 
 
 This instrument consists of a thin column or 
 
 pillar, placed about the middle of the river, 
 
 on the point of an island called Ehoda, between 
 
 Cairo and Geeza. It has twenty divisions of 
 
 twenty-two inches each; and its height is 
 
 thirty-six feet eight inches. "When the river 
 
 has risen to the proper height, all the canals 
 
 connected with the Nile are opened, and the 
 
 whole country laid under water. 
 
EGYPTIAN HOESES.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRACTICE, [eqyptian iioe8eb. 
 
 The domestication of the horse, in this 
 country, took pLace very early ; and as he was 
 theu used principally as a war animal, or per- 
 
 haps for the ornamental purposes of a state 
 pageant, he must have hoeu well kept and 
 properly attended. 
 
 EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT. 
 
 The modern animal, however, has immensely 
 degenerated. He is no longer the noble quad- 
 ruped which the poet delighted to describe as 
 the companion of princes; yet, under the 
 vigorous government of Mehemet Ali, in 1821, 
 a veterinary school was established at Abou- 
 Zabel, of which we have an account in the 
 7th volume of the Veterinarian. The degene- 
 racy of the Egyptian horse arose chiefly from 
 the oppressive system which the Turks long 
 pursued, in forcibly taking from the population 
 any valuable animals they happened to have, 
 and appropriating them themselves, without 
 giving, in return, the slightest remuneration. 
 Mr. Wilson— speaking of the corps of the 
 Mamelukes, the body-guard of the Bey— in 
 bis JExpedition to Egypt, says— " Although 
 these horses seldom pass out of a foot-pace, 
 except for a gallop of a hundred yards, most 
 of them are foundered ; and none, if qnicldy 
 trotted ten miles, would be able, from want of 
 wind and stamina, to go further." The shape 
 of the animal, too, is neither prepossessing nor 
 engaging. Burchardt says that he is ugly and 
 coarse, bearing a stronger resemblance to the 
 cart-horse than to the racer. He is frequently 
 to be found with a short thick neck, and thin 
 
 legs and knees. His head is, occasionally, fine ; 
 but the same writer declares that he never saw 
 good legs in an Egyptian horse. Nor are the 
 race capable of bearing much fatigue in any 
 situation; but they are possessed of impetuosity 
 sufficient to render them very desirable as 
 cavalry horses; and it is upon this quality 
 alone, that any celebrity which they enjoy is 
 
 founded. 
 
 The physical features of Egypt are by no 
 means unfavourable to the production of a 
 beautiful breed of horses. The country con- 
 sists mostly of a long and narrow vale, on each 
 side of the Nile ; bounded by parallel ridges 
 of hills and mountains, and covered with a 
 rich vegetation, in the highest degree con- 
 crenial to the nature of the horse. The Delta— 
 Tyin^ between the two extreme branches of the 
 Nile° and the sea, and taking its name from 
 its trian<Tular shape, resembling that of the 
 fourth ktter in the Greek alphabet-is the 
 broadest and the most fertile part ; and pre- 
 sents a fine region for successfully rearmg the 
 animal. Here he might roam at wdl; and, in 
 the days of old, as ho " increased and multi- 
 plied " he supplied other countries with his 
 kind for the purposes of war. It is a remark- 
 
HOESS-STBALING.] 
 
 THE HOKSE, AND 
 
 [ba-ebaet hoeses. 
 
 able fact, however, that although there was a 
 mounted cavalry in Egypt, and, as already ob- 
 served, that Solomon's horsemen were mounted 
 on trained Egyptian animals, there is but one 
 representation of a man on horseback in the 
 whole range of the sculptured and painted 
 antiquities of that country. 
 
 In the Adventures of Giovanni Finati, tlie 
 following anecdote is given of an Arab robber, 
 who, when the Mamelukes were in Egypt, had 
 taken a fancy to the horse and the robe of one 
 of their Beys : — 
 
 "When some of the Mamelukes were en- 
 camped about Minich, a thief set his mind 
 upon carrying off the horse and wearing ap- 
 parel of one of their Beys ; and, with this in- 
 tention, contrived, in the dead of the night, to 
 creep unperceived within the tent, where, as it 
 was winter, embers were burning, and showed 
 the rich clothes of the Bey lying close at hand. 
 The thief, as he squatted down by the fire, 
 drew them softly to him, and put them all on : 
 and then, after filling a pipe and lighting it, 
 went deliberately to the tent door, and tapping 
 a groom, who was sleeping near, with the pipe 
 end, made a sign to him for the horse, which 
 stood piquetted in front. It was brought ; he 
 mounted and rode off. On the morrow, when 
 the clothes of the Bey could not be found, no 
 one could form a conjecture as to wh^-t could 
 have become of them, until the groom, on 
 being questioned, maintained to his fellow- 
 servants, that their master was not yet re- 
 turned from his ride ! and told them how he 
 had suddenly called for his horse in the 
 night; which, at last, seemed to give some 
 clue to what had really happened. Upon this, 
 the Bey, anxious to recover his horse, as well 
 as curious to ascertain the particulars, ordered 
 it to be published abroad, that, if the person 
 who robbed him would, within two days, bring 
 back what he had taken, he should not only be 
 freely pardoned, but should receive also the 
 full value of the animal and of the suit of 
 clothes. 
 
 " Belying on the good faith of his promise, 
 and possibly, too, not a little vain of his ex- 
 ploit, the Arab presented himself, and brought 
 his booty. The Bey also, on his part, punc- 
 tually kept his word ; but since, besides the 
 loss, there was something in the transaction 
 that placed the Bey in rather a ludicrous light, 
 12 
 
 it went hard with him to let the rogue depart 
 so freely, and he seemed to be considering 
 what he should do. Whilst thus resolving, 
 and in order to gain time, he kept continually 
 asking, over and over again, fresh and more 
 circumstantial accounts of the manner in which 
 the stratagem had been conducted : but tlie 
 other was too crafty not to perceive that no 
 good was preparing for him, and began to feel 
 anxious to get safe out of the scrape. He 
 showed no impatience, however, but entered 
 minutely into every detail, accompanying the 
 whole with a great deal of corresponding ac- 
 tion ; at one time sitting down by the fire, 
 and making believe as though he were slily 
 drawing on the diflorent articles of dress, so as 
 to throw the Bey liimself, and all wlio saw and 
 heard him, into fits of laughter. When he, at 
 last, came to what concerned the horse, ' It 
 was,' he said, ' brought to me, and I leaped 
 upon his back ; ' and so in effect flinging him- 
 self again into the saddle, and spurring the 
 flanks sharply with the stirrup-irons, he rode 
 off with all the money that he had received for 
 the animal, in his pocket, and had got much 
 too far, during the first moments of surprise, 
 for any of the bullets to take effect that were 
 fired at liim in his flight ; and nothing further 
 was ever heard of him or the horse." 
 
 The animal of the Bey was, no doubt, of a 
 better quality than are the generality of 
 Egyptian horses, or the speed of the robber 
 would have relaxed soon enough to have 
 allowed him to have been overtaken by that 
 of some of the others that joined in the 
 pursuit. 
 
 THE BARB. 
 
 Proceeding from Egypt along the northern 
 coast of Africa, we enter the states of Bar- 
 bary, which are understood to comprise the 
 i\Iauritania, Numidia, Africa Proper, and 
 Libya of antiquity. These, in succession, 
 answer to the modern Morocco, Algiers, Tuiii.^, 
 and Tripoli — states which formerly seemed to 
 constitute one great political confederacy, 
 though regulating their internal policy and 
 government entirely independent of each 
 other. Barbary derives its modern name from 
 Bar, a desert ; and is divided into two parts by 
 the Atlas mountains, which extend from east 
 to west, and are intersected by deep and 
 beautiful valleys. This, then, is the country 
 
THE BAEB.] 
 
 MODEEN YETEEINAET PEACTICE. [the ahabia^. 
 
 of the horse known as the Barb. Its original 
 country is Arabia; and it was brought into 
 Africa by those Arabs who either voluntarily 
 left their country, or were driven from it by 
 force of arms. The true animal is found in 
 Morocco. Fez, and Tripoli, and is described by 
 Bereuger as seldom exceeding fourteen and 
 a-half \and3 high. He further says that the 
 countenance is indicative of spirit, though fre- 
 quently rounded, and, in this particular, pre- 
 senting a marked distinction to that of the 
 Arabian. The ears are pointed and small, but 
 occasionally they are to be found long and 
 drooping. The crest is generally fine, but 
 prominent, and not overladen with mane. "The 
 neck is of a good length ; the shoulders flat 
 and oblique ; the withers prominent, and the 
 chest almost invariably deep; the back is 
 moderately curved, and the carcass somewhat 
 round ; the arms and thighs are muscular, and 
 strongly marked; the knee and hock are 
 broad and low-placed; the back-sinews sin- 
 gularly distinct, and well-marked from the 
 knee downwards; the pasterns rather long; 
 the feet firm, and but moderately open at the 
 bars." ' ^ The croup, as compared with the 
 Arab, is said to be a little too long ; but the 
 quarters are muscular and well developed. 
 
 The Barb has vastly contributed to the 
 beauty and excellence of the horses of the 
 Iberian peninsula; and when higher quali- 
 ties in the horses of Great Britain were anx- 
 iously sought, the Barb was introduced, and 
 has been the means of greatly improving 
 the racing blood of this country. In Africa 
 mares are never ridden, but always stallions 
 —a practice just reversed in Arabia. ^ The 
 reason for these national peculiarities is ob- 
 vious. The Arab is almost always at war ; 
 and as the stallion neighs whenever it smells 
 the stale of the mare, this would frequently 
 be the means of alarming his enemies when 
 secretly approaching their encampments 
 during the night, in his predatory expedi- 
 tions. The African pursues a difl'erent 
 mode of warfare from this. He trusts to 
 the superiority of his force or skill ; fights 
 by day ; and therefore rides the animal that 
 he deems best adapted to carry him safe 
 through his enterprises, whatever may^ 
 be the danger in which these may involve him. 
 Bruce, in bis African travels, observes, that 
 
 " the best African horses are said to be de- 
 scended from one of tlie five on which Maho- 
 met and his four immediate successors fled 
 from Mecca to Medina, on the night of tho 
 Hegira." But this must be taken as an Oriental 
 fiction, rather than as a statement of sober 
 truth. The aff"ection of the Arab for his horso 
 is so strong, that there is no origin, however 
 noble, to which, so far as breed or race is con- 
 cerned, he would not assign him. D'Arvieui 
 describes the lamentations of one Ibrahim 
 Abou Vouasses, over a favourite mare of noble 
 race which he had parted with, and which he 
 frequently made a journey to Earaa to see. 
 " He would embrace her, and wipe her eyes 
 with his handkerchief, and rub her with his 
 shirt sleeves, and would give her a thousand 
 blessings during whole hours that he would be 
 talking to her. ' My eyes, my heart, my soul !' 
 would he exclaim, ' must I be so unfortunate 
 as to have thee sold to many masters, and not 
 be able to keep thee myself? I am poor, mj 
 gazelle. Tou know well enough, my sweet, 
 that I have brought thee up like a child. I 
 never beat thee, never chid thee, but did 
 cherish thee as the apple of mine eye. God 
 preserve thee, my dearest! Thou art beau- 
 tiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely. God 
 defend thee from the evil eye.' And so he 
 would go on saying a thousand things like 
 these ; he then embraced her, kissed her eyes, 
 and went backwards, bidding her the most 
 tender adieus." 
 
 THE ARABIAN HORSE. 
 
 It is not a characteristic of either the Eng- 
 lish or the Scotch mind, to indicate any 
 
 lo 
 
THE AKABIAN.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the barb. 
 
 affection which they may have for their horses 
 in such generous expressions of endearment as 
 mark those of the poor Arab; yet few can 
 read the touching narrative which Mungo Park 
 gives of his parting with his horse, the worn- 
 out associate of his adventures, in the wilds of 
 Africa, without entering hxrgely into his feel- 
 ings, and deeply sympathising with his forlorn 
 and destitute condition. "Early in the morn- 
 ing," says he, under the date of July 29th, 
 •• my host observing that I was sickly, hurried 
 me away, sending a servant with me as a 
 guide to Kea. But though I was little able 
 ■to walk, my horse was still less able to carry 
 me ; and about six miles to the east of Modiboo, 
 in crossing some rough clayey ground, he fell ; 
 and the united strength of the guide and 
 myself could not place him again upon his 
 legs. I sat down for some time beside this 
 worn-out associate of my adventures ; but 
 finding him still unable to rise, I took off the 
 saddle and bridle, and placed a quantity of 
 grass before him. I surveyed the poor animal 
 as he lay panting on the ground, with sympa- 
 thetic emotion ; for I could not suppress the 
 sad apprehension, that I should, myself, in a 
 short time, lie down and perish in the same 
 manner, of fatigue and hunger. With this 
 foreboding I left my poor horse, and with great 
 reluctance I followed my guide on foot along 
 the bank of the river until about noon, when 
 we reached Kea, which I found to be nothing 
 }nore than a small fishing village." The horse, 
 however, did not die, but was restored, and 
 Park had the great gratification of once more 
 hearing him neigh on his return to Modiboo, 
 
 Major Denham, another celebrated African 
 traveller, also laments the death of his horse. 
 After telling us that the animal had car- 
 ried him from Tripoli to Mourzuk and back 
 again, and also over the whole journey from 
 Tripoli to Bournou, he thus philosophises : — 
 " There are situations in a man's life in which 
 losses of this nature are felt most keenly, and 
 this was one of them. It was not grief, but it 
 was something very nearly approaching to it ; 
 and although I felt ashamed of the degree of de- 
 rangement which I suffered from it, yet it was 
 several days before I could get over the loss. 
 Let it, however, be remembered, that the poor 
 animal had been my support and comfort — may 
 I not say my companion? — tli^ough many a 
 3.4 
 
 dreary day and night ; had endured both 
 hunger and thirst in my service with tho 
 utmost patience ; so docile, that he would 
 stand still for hours in the desert while I slept 
 between his legs, his body affording me the 
 only shelter that could be obtained from the 
 powerful influence of a noon-day sun ; he was 
 the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in 
 the race." 
 
 In the Biographical Slct 'dies of Horses, by 
 Captain Brown, we find recorded the following 
 interesting description of a Barb and his rider 
 at the Cape of Good Hope : — " I should have 
 found it difficult to give credit," says Mr. 
 De Pages, " had what I am now about to 
 relate not happened at this place, on the even- 
 ing of my arrival there (Cape of Good Hope), 
 and had I not been an eye-witness of those 
 vehement emotions of sympathy, blended with 
 admiration, which it had justly excited in tho 
 mind of every individual at the Cape. A 
 violent gale of wind setting in from the north- 
 north-west, a vessel in the road dragged her 
 anchors, was forced on the rocks, and bulged ; 
 and while the greater part of the crew fell an 
 immediate sacrifice to the waves, the re- 
 mainder were seen from the shore, struggling 
 for their lives by clinging to the different 
 pieces of the wreck. The sea ran high, and 
 broke over the sailors with such amazing fury, 
 that no boat whatever could venture oflf to 
 their assistance. Meanwhile a planter, con- 
 siderably advanced in life, had come from his 
 farm to be a spectator of the shipwreck. His 
 heart was melted at the sight of the unhappy 
 seamen ; and knowing the bold and enter- 
 prising spirit of his horse, and his particular 
 excellence as a swimmer, he instantly deter- 
 mined to make a desperate effort for their de- 
 liverance. He alighted, and blew a little 
 brandy into his horse's nostrils ; when, again 
 seating himself firm in the saddle, he instantly 
 pushed into the midst of the breakers. At 
 first, both disappeared ; but it was not long 
 before they floated on the surface, and 
 swam up to the wreck ; when, taking 
 with him two men, each of whom held by 
 one of his boots, he brought them safe to 
 shore. This perilous expedition he repeated 
 no less than seven times, saving the lives of 
 fourteen individuals ; but, on his return the 
 eighth time, his horse being much fatigued, 
 
AFETCAN HORSE.] MODEKN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [desekt houses. 
 
 and meeting a most formidable wave, caused 
 him to lose his balance, and he was over- 
 whelmed in a moment. The horse swam 
 safely to land, but his gallant rider, alas ! was 
 no more." 
 
 Whilst giving a description of the horse's 
 services in this dangerous undertaking, we re- 
 gret the writer has not rescued from oblivion 
 the name of its gallant rider. The exploit of 
 the horse becomes the more prominent 
 feature in this description ; but without any 
 wish to decry the merits of this noble animal, 
 we think, in justice to its rider, who fell a 
 sacrifice to his humanity, an effort should have 
 been made to preserve the name of the man 
 who had performed such repeated acts of 
 heroism. The colony was at this time in the 
 possession of the Dutch ; and, we believe, 
 a vessel was named after the rider, and a 
 pillar ordered to be erected to his memory. 
 The local authorities, however, with the pro- 
 verbial meanness of little minds, refused to 
 bestow upon the son a trifling place which had 
 been filled by his generous father. 
 
 THE DESERT HORSE, AND SWIFT HEIRIES 
 OF AFRICA, Etc. 
 As we proceed towards the west coast of 
 Africa, the Barb is said to improve both in 
 form and gracefulness of action ; but deep in 
 the Sahara desert, tliere is a species called 
 the " wind-sucker, or desert horse" — a de- 
 scription of which, in conjunction with that of 
 the heiries, will now occupy our attention. 
 Mr. Jackson, in his account of Morocco, says, 
 that the shruhach errech, or desert horse, is to 
 the common horse what the desert camel is to 
 the camel of burden ; the only difiereuce be- 
 tween them in point of feeding is, that this 
 horse requires a portion of camel's milk every 
 day ; if it cannot get this, and is obliged, from 
 hunger, to eat barley and straw, particularly 
 when first brought to Morocco, it falls away. 
 However, it gradually recovers, fills up, and 
 becomes handsome to the siglit, but loses all 
 its former speed, so that it is afterwards em- 
 ployed to hunt ostriches, at which sport it is 
 very expert. To the Arabs of the desert, the 
 <)hase of the ostrich is the most attractive 
 and eagerly sought of the many aristocratic 
 diversions in which they indulge ; and the 
 training through which the horse passes, previ- 
 
 ous to the sport, is rather hard. Seven or 
 eight days before the intended hunt, they are 
 entirely deprived of straw and grass, and fed 
 on barley only. They are only allowed to 
 drink once a-day, and tliat at sunset— the 
 time when the water begins to freshen : at 
 that time also they are washed. They take 
 long daily exercises, and are occasionally 
 galloped, at which time care is taken that the 
 harness is right, and suited to the chase of 
 the ostrich. " After seven or eight days," 
 says the Arab, " the stomach of the horse dis- 
 appears ; while the chest, the breast, and tlie 
 croup remain in flesh : the animal is then fit 
 to endure fatigue." They call this training 
 tecTiaha. The harness used for the purpose in 
 question is lighter than ordinary, especially 
 the stirrups and saddle, and the martingale is 
 removed. The bridle, too, undergoes many 
 metamorphoses ; the mountings and ear-fla])3 
 are taken away, as too heavy. The bit is made 
 of a camel rope, without a throat-band, and 
 the frontlet is also of cord ; and the reins, 
 though strong, are very light. The period 
 most favourable for ostrich-hunting is that of 
 the great heat ; the higher the temperature, 
 the less is the ostrich able to defend himself. 
 The Arabs describe the precise time as that, 
 when a man stands upright, his shadow haa 
 the length only of the sole of his foot. 
 
 Each horseman is accompanied by a servant 
 called zemmal, mounted on a camel, carrying 
 four goat- skins filled with water, barley for 
 the horse, wheat-flour for the rider, some dates, 
 a kettle to cook the food, and everything 
 which can possibly be required for the repair 
 of the harness. The horseman contents him- 
 self with a linen vest and trousers, and covers 
 his neck and ears with a light material called 
 havuli, tied with a strip of camel's hide ; his 
 feet are protected with sandals, and his legs 
 with liglit gaiters called trabag. He is armed 
 with neitlier gun nor pistol, his only weapon 
 being a wild olive or tamarind stick, five or six 
 feet long, with a heavy knob at one end. 
 
 The exact position of the ostriches being 
 known, the plans are arranged ; the horsemen 
 divide and form a circle round the game at 
 such a distance as not to be seen. The ser- 
 vants wait where the horsemen have separated, 
 and as soon as they see them at their posts, 
 they walk right before them j the ostriches fly, 
 
 15 
 
HEIEIES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [NUBIAN HORSES. 
 
 but are met by the hunters, who do nothing 
 at first but drive them back into the circle ; 
 thus their strength is exhausted by being made 
 to continually run round in the ring. At the 
 first signs of fatigue in the birds, the horsemen 
 dash in — presently the flock separates ; the 
 exhausted birds are seen to open their wings, 
 which is a sign of great exhaustion ; the horse- 
 men, certain of their prey, now repress their 
 horses ; each hunter selects his ostrich, runs it 
 down, and finishes it by a blow on the head 
 with the stick above mentioned. The moment 
 the bird falls, the man jumps oft' his horse, 
 and cuts her throat, taking care to hold the 
 neck at such a distance from the body as not 
 CO soil the plumage of the wings. The male 
 bird, while dying, utters loud moans, but the 
 female dies in silence. 
 
 When travelling in the desert on these 
 horses, as well as on the heiries, or desert 
 camels, the bowels of the riders become re- 
 laxed by the time they have arrived at the end 
 of their journey. They are then forced to 
 take a draught of camel's milk, which being 
 rejected by the stomach, they drink agaiu. 
 This second draught is, after a longer time, 
 also rejected ; when a third is takeu, by which 
 time the tone of the stomach is generally re- 
 stored to be capable of retaining the beverage, 
 which is converted into nourishment. 
 
 Although hardly coming within the legiti- 
 mate province of our subject, yet in speaking 
 of the " wind-sucker," we deem it necessary 
 to make a few observations on the heirie, of 
 which he is a frequent companion in the desert. 
 
 This animal is, in figure, similar to the com- 
 mon camel of burden, but more elegantly 
 formed. The Arab, with his loins, breast, aud 
 ears bound round, to prevent the percussion 
 of air proceeding from a quick motion affect- 
 ing him, rapidly traverses, upon the back of 
 this abstemious quadruped, the scorching de- 
 sert, the fiery atmosphere of which parches, and 
 almost impedes respiration, to such an extent 
 as nearly to produce sutFocation. 
 
 The motion of the heirie is violent, aud can 
 be endured only by those patient and hardy 
 Arabs who are accustomed to it. These riders 
 will make a journey of three days almost with- 
 out food — a few pipes of tobacco, or a handful 
 of dates, serving to supply their necessities. 
 
 With a bakul, or goat-skin, a porous 
 IG 
 
 earthen vessel filled with water, a few dates, 
 and some ground barley, the Arab travels from 
 Timbuctoo to Tafilelt, feeding his heirie but 
 once, at the station of Arzawad; and this 
 camel, on an emergency, will abstain from 
 drinking seven days. In general, he has a 
 ring put through the upper lip, to which is 
 fixed a leathern strap, answering the purposes 
 of a bridle ; the saddle is similar to that used 
 by the Moors, or what the mountaineers of 
 Andalusia make use of. 
 
 The swiftness of the heirie is thus figura- 
 tively described by the Arabs : — " When thou 
 shalt meet a heirie, and say to the rider 
 'Salem Alic' (peace be unto thee), ere he shall 
 have answered the salutation, he shall be nearly 
 out of sight ; for the swiftness of his camel is 
 like the wind." 
 
 The most inferior kind of heiries are called 
 Talatayee — a term expressive of their going the 
 distance of three days' journey in one. The 
 next kind is called Sebayee — expressing an 
 animal that goes seven days' journey in one ; 
 and this is their general character. There is 
 also one called Tasayee, or the heirie of nine 
 days ; but this species is extremely rare. 
 
 THE NUBIAN OR DONGOLA., AND ABYSSI- 
 NIAN HORSES. 
 
 Nubia, or Dongola, lies to the south of 
 Egypt, and has, on the east, the Eed Sea ; on 
 the west the Desert ; and is bounded on the 
 south by Senaar. The Nile is also its great 
 river, and the date is the principal fruit of the 
 country. The low shrub of the Senna is 
 abundant, and the climate is considered healthy 
 in general. Here there is said to be a breed 
 of horses distinct from any other which 
 either Africa or Arabia produces. Ludolph, 
 who passed through this country in the 17th 
 century, says, that the horses are spirited, 
 powerful, and active, and mostly of a black 
 colour ; that they are used for the chase and 
 for war ; and that they are not fatigued by 
 travelling long journeys, for the labour of 
 carrying or drawing loads is put upon mules. 
 The appearance of this animal is mostly de- 
 scribed as especially noble and majestic. He is 
 usually well-caparisoned ; and although the 
 colour is generally black, yet there are to be 
 found some of them bay and sorrel. Bruce, 
 the Abysainiaa traveller, speaks of the Nubian 
 
AiBTCAN HOESE.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE, [afuican nonnE. 
 
 horse in the following terms : — " What figure 
 the Nubian breed of horses would make in 
 point of swiftness is very doubtful, their form 
 being so entirely different from that of the 
 Arabian; but if beautiful and symmetrical 
 parts, great size and strength, the most agile, 
 nervous, and elastic movements, great endur- 
 ance of fatigue, docility of temper, and, beyond 
 any other domestic animal, seeming attachment 
 to man, can promise anything for a stallion, 
 the Nubian is, above all comparison, the most 
 eligible in the world. Few of them are less 
 than sixteen hands high." 
 
 Bosman, another traveller, describes the 
 Nubian horse as the most perfect of his 
 kind; and says that, in 1816, one of them was 
 sold in Grand Cairo for a thousand pounds. 
 Several of the species have been introduced 
 to England, but with what results we have 
 been unable to ascertain. 
 
 The Abyssinians, according to Bruce, destroy 
 the elephant for food. " They cut the whole 
 of the flesh off his bones into thongs, like the 
 reins of a bridle, and hang these, like festoons, 
 upon the branches of trees, till they become 
 perfectly dry, without salt ; and then they lay 
 them up for their provisions in the season of 
 the rains." This traveller has given an ani- 
 mated description of an elephant hunt, con- 
 ducted by the Africans, who, on such occasions, 
 are greatly assisted by their spirited horses. 
 
 " An hour before day, after a hearty break- 
 fast, we mounted on horseback, to the number 
 of about thirty But there was another body, 
 both of horse and foot, which made hunting 
 the elephant their particular business. These 
 men dwell constantly in the woods, and know 
 very little of the use of bread, living entirely 
 upon the flesh of the beasts they kill, chiefly 
 that of the elephant and rhinoceros. ' They 
 are exceedingly thin, light, and agile, both on 
 horseback and foot ; are very swarthy, though 
 few of them are black ; none of them woolly- 
 headed, and all of them have European features. 
 They are called agageer, a name of their pro- 
 fession, not of their nation ; which comes from 
 the word agar^ and signifies to hamstring with 
 a sharp weapon. More properly it means the 
 cutting of the tendon of the heel, and is a cha- 
 racteristic of the manner in which they kill 
 the elephant, which is shortly as follows : — 
 "Two men absolutely naked, without any 
 
 D 
 
 rag or covering at all about tliem, get on 
 horseback ; this precaution is for fear of beiug 
 laid hold of by the trees or bushes, in making 
 their escape from a very watchful enemy. 
 One of these riders sits upon the back of tlio 
 horse, sometimes with a saddle, and sometimes 
 without one, with only a switch or short stick 
 in one hand, carefully managing the bridio 
 with the other ; behind him sits his companion, 
 who has no other arms but a broadsword, liis 
 left hand is employed in grasping the sword 
 by the handle ; about fourteen inches of tlic 
 blade is covered with whip-cord. This part 
 he takes in his right hand, without any danger 
 of being hurt by it ; and, though the edges of 
 the lower part of the sword are as sharp as a 
 razor, he carries it without a scabbard. 
 
 " As soon as the elephant is found feeding, 
 the horseman rides before him as near his face 
 as possible ; or, if he flies, crosses him in all 
 directions, crying out, * I am such a man and 
 such a man ; this is my horse, that has such a 
 name. I killed your father in such a place, 
 and your grandfather in such another place ; 
 and I am now come to kill you. You are but 
 an ass in comparison of them.'. This non- 
 sense, he verily believes, the elephant under- 
 stands, who, chased and angry at hearing tbo 
 noise immediately before him, seeks to seize him 
 with his trunk or proboscis ; and, intent upon 
 this, follows the horse everywhere, turning and 
 turning round with him, neglectful of making 
 his escape by running straight forward, in which 
 consists his only safety. After having made 
 him turn once or twice in pursuit of the horse, 
 the horseman rides close up alongside of hmi, 
 and drops his companion just behind on the off 
 side; and while he engages the elephant's 
 attention upon the horse, the footman behind 
 gives him a drawn stroke just above the heel 
 or what in man is called the tendon of Achilles. 
 This is the critical moment; the horseman 
 immediately wheels round, takes his companion 
 up behind him, and rides off" at full speed after 
 the rest of the herd, if they have started more 
 than one; and sometimes an expert agagecr 
 AYill kill three out of one herd. If the sword 
 i3 good, and the man not afraid, the tendon is 
 coramonlv entirely separated ; and if it is not 
 cut throu'gh, it is generally so far divided, that 
 the animal, with the stress he puts upon it, 
 breaks the remaining part asunder. In either 
 
 17 
 
ABABIAN HOESE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 'AKABIAN HOESE. 
 
 case, he remains incapable of advancing a step 
 till the horseman's return, or his companions, 
 coming up, pierce him through with javelins 
 and lances ; he then falls to the ground, and 
 expires with loss of blood. 
 
 "The agageer nearest me presently lamed 
 his elephant, and left him standing. Ayto 
 Engedan, Ayto Confu, Guebra Marram, and 
 several others, fixed their spears in the other 
 before the agageer had cut his tendons. INIy 
 agageer, however, having wounded the first 
 efephant, failed in the pursuit of the second ; 
 and being close upon him at the entrance of 
 the wood, he received a violent blow from the 
 branch of a tree which the elephant had bent 
 by his weight, and, after passing, allowed it 
 to replace itself, when it knocked down both 
 the riders, and very much hurt the horse. 
 This, indeed, is the great danger in elephant- 
 hunting ; for some of the trees, that are dry 
 and short, break by the violent pressure of so 
 immense a body moving so rapidly, and fall 
 upon the pursuers, or across the road. But 
 the greatest number of these trees bend with- 
 out breaking, and return quickly to the former 
 position, when they strike both horse and 
 man so violently, that they often beat them to 
 pieces." 
 
 THE ARABIAN HORSE. 
 
 Arabia has been considered, by some natu- 
 ralists, the original country of the horse, but 
 upon what grounds it is not so easy to deter- 
 mine. It has already been shown that Solo- 
 mon received all hia own horses from Egypt ; 
 and those which he sent to the sovereigns of 
 Phoenicia, he also procured from that country. 
 Even so late as the second century of the Chris- 
 tian era, there is a record extant, showing that 
 horses were among the articles exported from 
 Egypt to Arabia ; and, in the seventh century, 
 when Mahomet attacked Koreish, near Mecca, 
 be had no more than two horses in his whole 
 army. Such circumstances speak strongly 
 against the assertion that the horse is origi- 
 nally Arabian ; for if he were so, it is difficult 
 to account for his scarcity in a country which, 
 of all others, ought to have been the most 
 
 • In Medjed the horse is said to feed regularly on 
 <lates ; and it has been asserted, that even boiled and raw 
 flesh are given to them by some of their more wealthy 
 proprietors. Very little water, however, is allowed 
 
 natural for his rapid propagation. At what 
 time the Arabs began to employ him is not 
 very clear. At all events, from the facts just 
 given, it must have been at a comparatively 
 late era. "Where they obtained their breed, it 
 is likewise impossible accurately to deter- 
 mine. In our opinion, Arabia is more likely to 
 have been supplied from the Egyptian stock, 
 rather than from that of any other land ; for 
 if, in the days of Solomon, the Arabian horses 
 had been distinguished, that monarch would 
 have supplied his stables with, at least, a few of 
 them, for the mere purposes of display, if for 
 nothing else. Taking into account tlie phy- 
 sical features of Arabia, we should think it is 
 not very favourable for rapidly increasing the 
 breed of horses. Designated, in its three 
 great geographical divisions, as the Stony, 
 the Desert, and the Happy, it has been com- 
 pared to a coarse garment with a rich border. 
 In its centre it presents nothing more than a 
 dreary plain of sand, alike destitute of water 
 and vegetation — marked only by the tracks of 
 caravans. A chain of mountains runs along 
 the west to the Arabian Sea on the south ; but 
 it has no river of a magnitude sufficient to 
 make it important. The few streams which 
 wander over the country are generally absorbed 
 by the sandy tracts they pervade, and decrease in 
 volume during their progress to the sea. The 
 mountains are few, and its climate is sultry. 
 Vegetables of every description are scarce. 
 The cofi'ee shrub, planted on terraces in the 
 form of an amphitheatre, grows to perfection ; 
 and the date, the tamarind, and the orange, 
 also flourish : but horses neither drink cofi'ee, 
 nor eat tamarinds or oranges ;* and hence are 
 more likely to have had their origin in a 
 country much better adapted by nature to 
 their wants than Arabia seems to be. Burc- 
 hardt says that the tribes richest in horses, 
 are those who dwell, during the spring of the 
 year at least, in the fertile plains of Meso- 
 potamia ; for, notwithstanding all that is said 
 of the desert horse, plenty of nutritious food 
 is absolutely requisite for its reaching its full 
 vigour and growth. The numerous tribes in 
 the Eed Sea, between Akaba and Mecca, 
 
 them, the Arabs thinking that much liquid affects 
 the wind, as well as mars the proportions of their 
 favourite animal, and ••enders him less beautiful to look 
 upon. 
 
AEABiAN HOUSE.] MODEEN VETElilNAET PEACTICE. [auabian uonsE. 
 
 and especially those to the south of Mecca, 
 aa far as Temen, have very few horses , but 
 the Kurds and the Bedouins, in the east, 
 and especially in Mesopotamia, possess more 
 horses, and more valuable ones, than all the 
 Arabian Bedouins put together ; for the rich- 
 ness of their pastures easily nourishes the colts, 
 and fills the studs. " The number of horses in 
 Arabia," he adds, "is not more than 50,000 
 — a number far inferior to that found in any 
 part of Europe or Asia, on an equal extent of 
 ground." 
 
 According to the same author, there are in 
 Syria, at the present day, three breeds of 
 horses — the true Arab breed, the Turk- 
 man, and the Kourdy ; the last being a mix- 
 ture of the two former. From the superior 
 size, and more martial appearance of the 
 Turkman horse, he makes a splendid figure 
 when dressed in Turkish trappings ; and, 
 on this account, is, by the Osmaulis, pre- 
 ferred to the Arab horses. They are trained 
 to walk with great grace ; to start suddenly 
 off at full speed ; to turn with the gentlest 
 touch, and to stop short instantaneously. The 
 Arab horse is more hardy, more beautifully 
 limbed, and much fleeter than the Turkman ; 
 but he is more slender, and less strong in his 
 appearance. The esteem in which the Arab 
 holds his animal, however, has no counter- 
 part in any other country. The Eev. V. 
 Monro, in his Summer''s Bamhle in Syria, 
 when on a visit to the river Jordan, says, 
 that " one of the Arab escort, a great ruffian, 
 was mounted on a white mare of great beauty ; 
 ner large fiery eye gleamed from the edge of 
 an open forehead, and her exquisite little head 
 was finished with a pouting lip and expanded 
 nostrils ; her ribs, thighs, and shoulders, were 
 models of make, with more bone than com- 
 monly belongs to the Syrian Arab ; and her 
 stately step received additional dignity from 
 the manner in which she took it ; whilst the 
 carriage of her tail gave the infallible indica- 
 tion of good family. Having inquired her price, 
 I off'ered the sum ; whereon the dragoon asked 
 one-third more. After much abating and de- 
 bating, I acceded ; and he immediately stepped 
 back in the same proportion as before. This 
 is invariably the practice with the Arabs ; I, 
 therefore, discontinued my attempts to deal. 
 The Arab said he loved his mare better than 
 
 his own life; and that, when mounted upon her, 
 he felt rich as a pasha. Shoes and stocking* 
 he had none ; and the net value of his dress ami 
 accoutrements might be calculated at some- 
 thing under seventeen-pence sterling." 
 
 M. De Chateaubriand, upon wliat authority 
 we know not, records an instance of recipro- 
 cal affection between an Arab horse and hia 
 master ; which, if it be not of pure invention 
 has seldom, if ever, been paralleled. 
 
 An Arab and his tribe had, with complete 
 success, attacked in the desert the caravan 
 from Damascus ; and when the Arabs wero 
 occupied in packing their booty, the horsemen 
 of the pasha of Acre, who had come to meet 
 the caravan, rushed suddenly on the robbers, 
 and killed a considerable number of them, and 
 made others prisoners. Having tied these 
 with cords, they took them to Acre, as pre- 
 sents to the pasha. 
 
 Abon el Masseh, the hero of this predatory 
 attack, had received a ball in his arm during 
 the engagement ; but as his wound was not 
 mortal, the Turks had fastened him upon a 
 camel, and took his horse along with him. 
 
 The evening of the day of their approach to 
 Acre, the party encamped with their prisoners 
 upon the mountain of Safhadt. The legs of 
 the wounded Arab were tied together by a 
 leathern belt, and he was laid near the spot 
 where the Turks slept. Kept awake, during 
 the night, by the pain of his wound, he heard 
 his horse neigh among others picketed round 
 the tents, according to the Eastern custom. 
 Eecognising his voice, he could not resist the 
 desire to see once more the former companion 
 of his life. Accordingly, with great difficulty, 
 he managed to crawl on his hands and knees 
 to his steed. " My poor friend," said he, ad- 
 dressing the animal of his affections ; " what 
 canst thou do among these Turks ? Thou 
 wilt be imprisoned under the roof of a khan, 
 with the horses of an aga or pasha. Tho 
 women and children will no longer bring theo 
 the camel's milk, or barley, or doura in their 
 palms. Thou wilt no more course the desert, 
 like the wind from Egypt. No more wilt 
 thou divide, with thy chest, the refreshing 
 waves of Jordan. O that, though I remained 
 a slave, I could at least set thee free ! Let 
 me try! There, go! return to our tent; 
 tell mv wife that Abon el Masseh returns 
 
 10 
 
AEABIAN HORSE.] 
 
 THE nOESE, AND 
 
 [ABABIAN HOKSE. 
 
 to it no more, and lick the bauds of iny four 
 children." 
 
 Thus speaking, Abon bad, with bis teeth, 
 gnawed the goat's hair which bad served to 
 fasten the Arab horses, and the animal became 
 free. Seeing, however, his master manacled 
 and bound at bis feet, the faithful and intelli- 
 gent creature seized bis master bj the leathern 
 girdle round bis body, set off at a gallop, and 
 carried him to bis tent. Arriving there, and 
 letting him drop on the sand, at the feet of 
 bis wife and children, the horse expired from 
 fatigue. 
 
 The whole tribe wept bis loss ; poets sang 
 bis merits ; and bis name is constantly in the 
 mouths of the Arabs who inhabit the country 
 about Jericho. 
 
 If this is not a fiction, truth is certainly 
 much more strange than romance; but, in this 
 country, we have but a sliglit idea of tlie degree 
 of attachment and intelligence, which the habit 
 of living with the family, of being caressed by 
 the children, fed by the women, and encouraged 
 or cbided by the voice of the master, adds to 
 the natural instinct of the Arabian horse. 
 The breed of the animal has, naturally, a higher 
 intelligence than belong to the horses of our 
 island, arising, perhaps, more from the con- 
 stancy of their companionship or association 
 with man, than from any extraordinary endow- 
 ments which nature has bestowed upon them. 
 
 The same author tells us, that when be was 
 at Jerusalem, there was a Bedouin, who, on 
 being pursued by the governor's guards, rushed 
 on bis mare from the top of the bills that 
 overlook Jericho. The animal scoured, at full 
 gallop, down a declivity, without stumbling, 
 leaving bis pursuers lost iu astonishment and 
 admiration. The poor mare, however, dropped 
 down dead on entering Jericho; and the 
 Bedouin, who would not quit ber, was taken, 
 weeping over the body of bis faithful companion. 
 "This mare," continues Chateaubriand, "has 
 a brother in the desert, who is so famous that 
 the Arabs always know where be is, what be 
 is doing, and bow be does." 
 
 It is generally believed that many Arabs 
 preserve the pedigrees of their horses ; and that 
 there are five noble breeds, each of which they 
 deduce from one of the five favourite mares of 
 Mahomet. These five races, however, diverge 
 into innumerable ramifications ; and any mare 
 20 
 
 of superior excellence may be the original of a 
 new breed, the descendants of which are called 
 after her. " On the birth of a colt of noble 
 breed, it is usual to assemble witnesses, to 
 write an account of its distinctive marks, with 
 the name of its sire and dam. These genea- 
 logical tables never ascend to the gt-and-dam, 
 because it is presumed that every Arab of bia 
 tribe knows, by tradition, the purity of the 
 whole breed. Nor is it always necessary to 
 have such a certificate ; for many horses and 
 mares are of such illustrious descent that 
 thousands might attest the purity of their 
 blood. The pedigree is often put into a small 
 piece of leather, covered with a waxed cloth, 
 and hung by a leather thong round the horse's 
 neck." 
 
 In AVeston's Fragments of Oriental Litera- 
 ture, the following pedigree — much longer, 
 and, no doubt, far nobler than that alluded to 
 by the Laird of Cockpen, as belonging to bis 
 Scotch sweetheart — was found hanging round 
 the neck of an Arabian horse, bought by 
 Colonel Ainslie, during the Egyptian campaign 
 of the British against the French, at the com- 
 mencement of the present century : — 
 
 " In the name of God, the merciful and 
 compassionate, and of Saed Mahomed, agent 
 of the High God, and of the companions of 
 Mohammed, and of Jerusalem. Praised be 
 the Lord, the Omnipotent Creator. 
 
 " This is a high-bred horse, and its colt's- 
 tootb is here in a bag about bis neck, with his 
 pedigree, and of undoubted authority, such as 
 no infidel can refuse to believe. He is the 
 son of Eabbamy, out of the dam Labadah, and 
 equal in power to bis aire: of the tribe of 
 Zasbalab ; be is finely moulded, and made for 
 running like an ostrich. In the honours of 
 relationship, be reckons Zaluah, sire of Mahat, 
 sire of Kallac, and the unique Alket, sire of Ma- 
 nasseb, sire of Alsheb, father of the race down 
 to the famous horse, the sire of Lahalala ; and 
 to him be ever abundance of green meat, and 
 corn, and water of life, as a reward from the tribe 
 of Zasbalab; and may a thousand branches 
 shade his carcass from the hyaena of the tomb, 
 from the howling wolf of the desert ; and let 
 the tribe of Zasbalab present him with a festival 
 within an inclosure of walls ; and let thousands 
 assemble at the rising of the sun in troops 
 hastily, where the tribe holds up under e. 
 
ABABiAN HOESE.] MODEEN VETEEINARY PRACTICE. [ahahiak nonsE. 
 
 canopy of celestial signs within the walls, the 
 saddle with the name and family of the pos- 
 sessor. Then let them strike the bands with 
 a loud noise incessantly, and pray to God for 
 immunity for the tribe of Zoab, the inspired 
 tribe." 
 
 At the birth of an Arabian colt it is never 
 permitted to fall to the ground, but is caught 
 in the arms of those who are waiting beside 
 the dam, washed, and as tenderly handled as 
 if it were destined to become a distinguished 
 member of the human family. At the end of 
 a month it is weaned, and then, for a hundred 
 days, it is nourished with camel's milk. After 
 this time it is allowed a little wheat, which is 
 increased by degrees, while the milk continues 
 to form the largest portion of its aliment. 
 This mode of feeding continues for another 
 hundred days, when the foal is sent forth to 
 pick a little of the herbage that may be 
 growing round the tent of its owner. Some 
 barley is also given; and, if the xlrab can 
 afford it, a little camel's milk in the evening. 
 All this while it, with its dam, inhabits the 
 same tent as the Bedouin and his family, who 
 are to be found, much more frequently, lying 
 with, or rolling upon the mare and her foal, 
 than upon their own natural parents. Tims 
 the animals grow kind and gentle. In the 
 constant habit of receiving good treatment, 
 their tempera are never ruffled ; and the 
 caresses which, from the moment of their 
 birth, are bestowed upon them, they continue 
 to return by every means in their power. This 
 characteristic of the Arab horse is thus re- 
 ferred to by Bishop Heber, who, in his Nar- 
 rative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces 
 of India, says that he was in the habit of riding 
 a little Arabian animal: — " My morning rides 
 are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, 
 good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, 
 that he goes, without starting, close to an 
 elephant ; and so gentle and docile, that he 
 eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as 
 much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog. 
 This seems the general character of Arab 
 horses, to judge from what I have seen in this 
 country. It is not the fiery, dashing animal 
 I had supposed, but with more rationality 
 about him, and more apparent confidence in 
 Lis rider than the majority of English horses." 
 A Ereuch authority, in giving his own per- 
 
 sonal experience of tiie Arabs and their horses, 
 says, that Arabian horses in general como 
 from Nedgid, and are commonly called Nodji. 
 A more noble race is called Kohloni— divided 
 into five dillerout families, or noble Clierifs. 
 These five races, as we have already observed, 
 are the supposed descendants from the five 
 blessed mares of the prophet, and are named 
 Tonaisse, Gilphe, Manegine, Sedie, and Sc- 
 clawe. Besides these, there are a number of 
 other families too difficult to enumerate. It 
 must be owned that there are no certain signs 
 by which one can ascertain whether a horse is 
 a Nedgid or a Kohlan ; for " I have conversed," 
 says he, " with many intelligent Arabs, who 
 all assured me that they could not distinguish 
 them unless the origin of the dam was known 
 to them. For these reasons they kept their 
 mares unstained by tlie leap of an inferior 
 stallion, which is considered one of the prin- 
 cipal sins in the Koran ; and, as this is an 
 injunction imposed upon them by their re- 
 ligion, they preserve it rigidly. If by chance 
 the contrary should happen, the Bedouin does 
 not value the foal the least; and however 
 handsome and promising it may be, he will 
 part with it for a mere trifle. If a Kohlan 
 mare is stinted to a Nedgid stallion, the foal 
 is a Kohlan ; but if only to a Genesidek, the 
 foal also is only a Genesidek ; and a foal only 
 of a Nedgid mare by a Kohlan stallion, is 
 Nedgid. This being the case, among the latter, 
 many horses will be met with as handsome as 
 the first, although of an inferior race; but 
 even the Arabs cannot distinguish them with 
 out knowing the race of the dam." 
 
 Although it is generally asserted that the 
 Arabs keep a stud-book, our French authority 
 denies this to be the case ; and he furtlier says 
 that they do not call together a number of 
 witnesses when the covering act is performed, 
 or when the foal is born: all this is false; 
 "for," he continues, "I have often had oppor- 
 tunities to observe a leap in the night, where 
 scarcely any, and but casual witnesses were 
 present." This, however, might casually be 
 the case; altliough, generally, where purity ot 
 breed is to be anxiously kept, veracious wit- 
 nesses might be called in to testify satisfac 
 torily to the birth. According to our au- 
 thority, the mode of proceeding among the 
 Arabs to procure a foal, is to choose the best 
 
 21 
 
AEABIAN nOESE.j 
 
 THE HOES^:, AND 
 
 [AEABIAIf HOESE. 
 
 horse among their own or neighbouring tribe 
 for a covering stallion, which they travel about 
 with, as Europeans do ; and it is very difficult 
 to purchase him, at least during the covering 
 season. The horse serves three mares daily 
 at about one Spanish dollar each, and travels 
 from tribe to tribe, at times to a great distance. 
 They allow their horses to cover as early as 
 two years old ; and frequently the mares are 
 not older. It happens, however, that not 
 unfrequently they are worthless at three or 
 four years old. Stallions, mares, and foals 
 all graze together. 
 
 The Arab generally rides without a bridle : 
 a halter, with a nose-band covered with iron 
 like a cavesson, serving him instead. In lieu 
 of a saddle, his noble courser has only a piece 
 of wadded linen, with two napes for stirrups, 
 fastened on his back ; and, as in many parts of 
 Grermany, he seldom has the hind feet shod. 
 
 The many scars seen on Arabian horses, 
 have been caused by firing, which is much 
 practised, as a remedial agent, in cases of 
 disease. Many of the horses — even two-year 
 olds — are disfigured by scars above and beneath 
 the fetlocks, which at first might be taken 
 for splents, but which originate from the iron 
 manacles by which they are fastened to prevent 
 them being stolen, to which they are much 
 exposed from their being, during the whole of 
 the day, left out grazing, and at times suffered 
 to stray from the camp to a considerable dis- 
 tance. At night, however, every Arab has 
 each animal before his tent, with one of his 
 legs tied, which prevents him from going far 
 from the spot where his master has, for the 
 time being, pitched his fragile abode. 
 
 Eegarding the formation and shape of their 
 stallions, the Arabs seem to be quite indif- 
 ferent. If the animal runs well, is of the 
 proper origin, and has no superstitious marks, 
 they use hiai as such, and will, without hesi- 
 tation, put him to their best mares; but if 
 the origin of the most splendid-looking stallion 
 is doubtful, and his marks ill-favoured, he would 
 not be put to the worst of mares. In candour 
 it must be owned, that though the stallions 
 may have great faults in point of form, they, 
 at the same time, have extraordinary qualities ; 
 for as soon as they are mounted, all defects 
 vanish. It would be almost impossible to 
 detect any, so noble is their appearance. 
 22 
 
 Many stallions with ugly hind-quarters, and 
 with their tails set very low, appear, when they 
 are mounted, to carry their tails so erect, that 
 one might doubt whether they were the 
 same horses. A few of the finest horses, so 
 far as look goes, exhibit all the character- 
 istics of English thorough-breds, but are 
 much more active and pleasant to ride, when 
 broken in a little after the European fashion. 
 When they are taken raw from the desert, 
 and wholly unused to bridle or spur, they 
 walk with terror on any paved way. They 
 are then difficult to be made to trot, as their 
 habit is to jump, at once, out of a walk into a 
 full gallop, and stop as suddenly ; but being 
 very docile, they are easily broken-in properly. 
 
 The five principal races, which are said to 
 have originated from the five favourite mares 
 of the Prophet, and which only deserve the 
 name of Kohlan, are mostly met with at 
 Bagdad and Orfa. Some European judges 
 prefer the Nedgid to the Kohlan ; but the 
 Oriental prejudice always returns to the 
 Kohlan, as its race is bred more in and in, 
 like our own race-horses. Although it is 
 difficult to say, with any sort of certainty, 
 whether a horse is a Nedgid or Kohlan, 
 yet it may be remarked that the former 
 has somewhat of a Eoman nose and high 
 forehead ; whilst a true Kohlan, with a 
 genuine certificate, has a nose drawn inwards 
 like a jack or pike, large eyes, wide nostrils, a 
 broad front, and a beautiful head. One may 
 buy without difficulty a stallion ; but an Arab 
 seldom parts with a mare ; and, if pressed by 
 necessity, he manages as follows : — First, the 
 price is agreed upon: the purchaser then 
 begins to use the mare, and the first and second 
 foals are delivered to the seller, who, if he likes, 
 has the right to deliver, in return, one foal for 
 the dam. These conditions often vary ; for at 
 times the owner will not sell above a fourth of 
 the mare ; which, in the Arabian language, is 
 called purchasing one foot. 
 
 As few, if any, of our readers are likely to 
 visit Arabia for the purpose of purchasing 
 horses, seeing that a better breed now exists 
 in our own island, it is unnecessary to dilate 
 on the different tribes of desert Cheicks, who 
 may, and may not, be trusted in their horse- 
 dealing transactions with strangers. We may 
 observe, however, that many of the more 
 
AEABiAN noESE.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [aeabian uouse. 
 
 superstitious Arabs are reluctant to show their 
 horses to strangers, from a fear of the "evil 
 eye." The dread of this superstition makes 
 the Arab never omit offering a prayer to 
 Mashalla for protection. Should his horse 
 fall ill after a visit from a stranger, he imme- 
 diately calls in a sort of wizard, who, after 
 muttering some cabalistical words, breaks an 
 egg on the front of the animal ; but whatever 
 may be the imagined efficacy of this talismanic 
 operation, the patient not unfrequently dies ; 
 when the wizard gravely says, " God ordained 
 it so," or "it was written so." Thus does 
 the wizard farrier of Arabia slip out of his 
 dilemma, yet still continues to preserve his 
 character. A veterinary surgeon, however, 
 would step in and administer a proper medi- 
 cine to the animal ; and, without the assis- 
 tance of any magical nomenclature, would 
 save the life of the horse, and smile alike at 
 the remedial egg of the wizard, and the 
 solemnly absurd and cabalistic mode of its 
 application. According to European notions, 
 even some of the prophecies of Mahomet 
 are sheer nonsense, particularly those about 
 colour: others coincide with observations of 
 the present age. If Mahomet actually was 
 inspired by Allah, our wives would do well 
 never to permit their husbands to ride horses 
 which carry the tail on one side, as they are 
 sure to be soon repudiated; and maidens 
 ought to stand in awe of bachelors on stal- 
 lions which have white spots on their thighs. 
 
 No people have surpassed the ancient Ara- 
 bians in the tenacity with which they have pre- 
 served their ancient character and habits. In 
 the life of the modern Bedouins, we still trace 
 the same as that pursued by their remote an- 
 cestors, who, in the days of Moses, and in those 
 of Mahomet, dwelt under similar tents, and 
 conducted their flocks and camels to the same 
 prings and pastures. Descended from Ish- 
 mael, whose hand, as we read in the Book of 
 Genesis, was against every one, the Arab still 
 keeps up his hostility to all men not of his race. 
 In the desert he is a robber, and in the town 
 he has all the vices of civilisation, without 
 relinquishing those of the savage state. To 
 see a horde of this nomadic people enter the 
 desert, with their women, children, horses, 
 camels, sheep, and goats ; to see them pitch 
 their tents, and take up their position on some 
 
 green spot, amidst a sea of sand, may bo 
 deemed one of the most extraordinary episodes 
 that can be witnessed in the great epic of 
 human existence. M. de Portes, an eye-wit- 
 ness of a scene of this kind, furnishes us witli 
 a somewhat minute description of its principal 
 features. 
 
 Eirst appear a few horsemen on tlieii- 
 mares, sweeping along like the wind, armed 
 with long lances, encircling in a gallop the 
 place where they intend to halt, and each indi- 
 vidual choosing a particular spot, according to 
 his own fancy. When he has done this, he 
 immediately drives his lance in the ground, 
 and fastens his mare to it ; as much as to say, 
 " Here shall I pitch my tent." By this time 
 a great many more are arriving; some on 
 horses, but most on camels ; and in tlie dis- 
 tance a formidable army is seen marching up, 
 pde-m^le, very fast. These are their families 
 and the bulk of the tribe, with their tents, 
 baggage, and camels ; some of the animals 
 carrying women or children ; others tents and 
 furniture; and an innumerable host following 
 quickly on foot. Those conveying the families 
 are accoutred accordiog to the wealth of the 
 owner. The camel of the Cheick carries a sort 
 of palanquin, in the shape of a canoe, placed 
 at length, and open in front, that the animal 
 may be guided in his course. This receptacle 
 usually contains three or four women, and as 
 many children ; these last in a state of nudity. 
 Each family now takes the direction of the 
 lance, which it knows, and, in an astonishingly 
 short time, a town appears to have been built. 
 The whole locality teems with life and bustle ; 
 men are shouting and talking; women are 
 getting things into order; whilst naked chil- 
 dren are running about and gambolling in the 
 water, wherever they can find a ditch. 
 
 The camp is pitched without the least regu- 
 larity, only the tent of the Cheick is in the 
 centre, and distinguished from the other tents 
 by its larger size. All the tents are made of 
 camel or goat-skins, without elegance or neat- 
 ness, fastened by two poles six feet high. The 
 interior is divided by a carpet, one half being 
 appropriated by the women, the other by the 
 men and for the reception of strangers. The 
 furniture consists of a few carpets, straw or 
 reed mats, which serve as a bed ; but some of 
 the poorer class sleep on the bare earth, only 
 
 23 
 
ABABIAJ* HOESE.] 
 
 THE HOUSE, AND 
 
 [ababian nOBSE. 
 
 covered by a Tialas. The most necessary uten- 
 sils for cooking are striking addenda to the 
 Btoek of their household " goods and chattels." 
 These generally consist of a pot, of metal ; a 
 large metal or wooden plate ; a cup, of zinc or 
 wood, out of which they all drink without 
 being cleaned ; a coffee-pot of copper, and a 
 cask fabricated of camel-skins. 
 
 Simplicity in everything is one of the grand 
 characteristics of these nomades. In point of 
 dress, the men wear a long wide shirt until it ac- 
 tually becomes rotten ; nor do they ever take it 
 off except at night, when they lie on it, only 
 covered by a mechlas of coarse wool. They 
 also go about barefooted. The Anaze's Arabs, 
 however, display a little more taste. They 
 never leave their tents unarmed; and their 
 weapons consist of a sword, a gun, and a 
 lance; with axes, or other offensive weapons 
 with which they may defend themselves, or 
 destroy those upon whom they make war. 
 
 The women are habited in a long shift of blue 
 linen. They also draw a black veil to a knot 
 under the nose, and let it fall gently over their 
 bodies. This veil they often arrange in such a 
 manner as to show a large ring drawn through 
 the right nostril, and fastened with a chain to 
 the temple. They are fond of exhibiting their 
 lips, painted of a blue colour; and they have 
 many figures eii;;;raved on the chin, cheek, 
 nose, and neck. They never leave their tents 
 uncovered. In height they are above the 
 middle stature — walking nobly and gracefully, 
 with beautiful black eyes, which they have 
 the art of making appear larger than they 
 really are by painting the eyelids : their noses 
 are well formed ; but the other features of 
 their countenances are often disfigured by many 
 different marks. Their hands and arms are 
 always handsome ; but their feet are rather 
 broad, never having been compressed by shoes. 
 The children run about naked, the boys 
 wearing only a tightly laced girdle of leather 
 round their loins. The reason assigned for 
 this custom is, that it makes them strong, 
 enables them to run fast, and, by compressing 
 
 very hardy ; capable of fighting for a whole 
 day; suffering no injury, though constantly 
 exposed to the excessive heat of an almost 
 vertical sun, whilst engaged in exercising with 
 the lance, or wrestling with each other. 
 
 The women attend to the duties of the 
 household, and occupy themselves with weaving 
 and spinning. The affairs of the cuisine do 
 not take up much of their time ; for although 
 the Arabian is voracious, if an opportunity 
 offer for him to gratify himself with some- 
 thing that he likes, he rarely exceeds a pilau 
 of red rice with melted butter. To this, which 
 usually serves for dinner, sour milk, dates, 
 lioney, duphte, &c., are, now and then, added. 
 The women are obliged to grind the corn, 
 which they do by means of a rude species of 
 primitive haud-mill. The bread is baked in 
 flat cakes upon iron plates. The women fetch 
 the water, which is to be procured only at 
 times, and often at a great distance from their 
 tents. So far as cleanliness is concerned in 
 reference to their clothing, both sexes are alike 
 indifferent, generally to a disgusting extent. 
 
 In a religious point of view, though ex- 
 cessively superstitious, they are much less 
 devout than the Osmanlis. Many, however, 
 observe the Eamadan ; and they pray in com- 
 pany, ranged in one line, with a priest at their 
 head, who has a peculiar pride in converting 
 "the human face divine" into something as 
 hideous as possible. Their wealth consists of 
 camels and horses ; of a few herds of sheep 
 and goats, which yield them milk and butter ; 
 they also use camel's milk, but have no cows. 
 The number of camels is generally very con- 
 siderable — many possessing ten, twenty, and 
 upwards ; and the Cheick sometimes owns as 
 many as 300, of which he annually sells a 
 considerable number to the Turcomans, who, 
 it is said, have been known to purchase about 
 2,000, at the rate of 200, and 250 Turkish 
 piasters a-piece, from different Cheicks in the 
 desert. The evening return of the camels to 
 the camp affords a singular sight to a Euro- 
 pean. From 5,000 to G,000 of these camp 
 I attendants, followed by their young ones, 
 
 the stomach, does not allow them to eat so j 
 much as they would otherwise do, if nature gambol along the barren ground like goats; 
 were left to enjoy the freedom of her own j and their clumsy forms partake largely of the 
 conditions. The men also wear this belt. The I ludicrous when they endeavour to cast off 
 children are all usually finely made, none of their usual gravity, and begin to frisk about 
 them being hardly ever deformed. All are ! with all the wantonness of a young gazelle. 
 24 ' 
 
AEABiAN noESE.] MODERN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [peiisia.k nousE. 
 
 During the government of the AVahabees, 
 horses became scarcer and scarcer every year 
 among the Arabs. Foreigners rose to be large 
 purchasers of them, and carried them into 
 Yemen, Syria, and Bassora, which latter place 
 supplies India with Arabian steeds. The 
 reason assigned for their masters parting with 
 their animals was, that they were afraid of 
 having them taken from them by their chiefs ; 
 for it had become the custom, on every frivo- 
 lous pretext of disobedience or crime, to pro- 
 nounce the most valuable Bedouin mare for- 
 feited to the crown. 
 
 For the purchase of Arabian horses of true 
 blood, Syria holds the highest rank in the 
 opinion of judges ; and Nauran is considered 
 the best district, as the horse can there be pur- 
 chased at first-hand, on account of the Arabs 
 encamping there during the spring. For a 
 person, however, pursuing the trade as a profes- 
 sion, Damascus would be the best place to live 
 in. Those animals which are bought for the 
 Indian market at Bassora, are obtained at 
 second-hand from Bedouin dealers, who get 
 them from the Montifell Arabs, who do not 
 pay much attention to the preservation of 
 purity in the breed. 
 
 In considering the characteristic features in 
 the form of the Arab horse, there is a great 
 deal to excite admiration. His neck is long and 
 arched, and springs gracefully from the chest. 
 After the head, the shoulder is superior to 
 that of any other breed. The shoulder-blade 
 has a beautiful backward inclination ; and with- 
 out the smallest indication of clumsiness, is 
 thickly laid with muscle. The legs, though 
 fine and small, are strong and solid. In short, 
 every feature about him, marks his superiority, 
 and justifies the belief in his capability of 
 accomplishing many of the feats which have 
 been chronicled of him. 
 
 The comparative excellences of Oriental 
 horses are thus estimated by a writer in The 
 Sportsman: — "Taking the comparative excel- 
 lence of the diff'erent races, Nejid, between 
 the desert of Syria and Yemen, is generally 
 reckoned to produce the grandest, or noblest 
 horses. Hejaz, extending along the Red Sea, 
 from Mount Sinai to Yemen, and including 
 in it Medina and Mecca, the handsomest; 
 Yemen, on the coast of the Red Sea and the 
 Indian Ocean, and the most fertile part of 
 
 Arabia, the most durable; Syria, the richest 
 \r\ colour; Mesopotamia, the most quiet: 
 Egypt, the swiftest; Barbary, the most pro- 
 lific; and Persia and Koordistan, the mos*-. 
 warlike." 
 
 The introduction of the Arabian into En'> 
 land, and the influence he has had on our 
 own racing-blood, will be noticed in aaother 
 place. 
 
 THE PERSIAN HORSE. 
 
 When, in the days of antiquity, the Persian 
 horse was considered the best for cavalry in 
 the East, the improved Arabian breed had no 
 existence. He is of larger growth than the 
 Arabian, and his principal points are thus 
 described by Berenger : — " They are, in general, 
 small-headed; they have long and somewhat 
 too fine foreheads, and they are rather too 
 narrow-chested; their legs are a little small, 
 but their croups are well- fashioned, and their 
 hoofs good and firm. They are docile, quick, 
 light, bold, full of spirit, capable of enduring 
 much fatigue, swift, sure-footed, hardy in con« 
 stitution, and contented with almost any pro- 
 vender." This is a high character ; but since 
 the time when Berenger wrote, we believe this 
 breed has somewhat degenerated. It is this 
 animal which figures on the Assyrian sculp- 
 tures in the British Museum ; and it was one 
 of this species which Alexander the Great 
 received and esteemed as a valuable and most 
 acceptable present. Under the reign of Cyrus 
 they became remarkable for the splendour of 
 their trappings. In Sketches of Persia, by 
 Sir John Malcolm, he says, that a variety of 
 horses are now produced in Persia ; but that 
 the inhabitants of the districts which border 
 on the G-ulf, still preserve, in a state of purity, 
 those races of animals which their ancestors 
 brought from the opposite shore of Arabia. 
 In Ears and Irak there is a mixed breed from 
 the Arabian, which, though stronger, is still 
 a small horse compared with either the Toorko- 
 man or Khorassan breeds, which, by the sol- 
 diers of Persia, are most prized. Both of these 
 latter races have a large proportion of Arabian 
 blood in them. 
 
 Sir R. Ker Porter gives the following ac- 
 count of the Persian horses, and the mode 
 in which they are managed : — 
 
 •' The Persian horses never exceed fourteen 
 
 25 
 
PERSIAN HOBSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [PERSIAN nORSE. 
 
 or fourteen and a-half hands high, yet cer- 
 tainly, on the whole, are taller than the Arabs. 
 Those of the desert and country about Hillah 
 run very small, but are full of bone and of 
 good speed. The general custom is to feed 
 and water them at sunrise and sunset, when 
 they are cleaned. Their usual provender is 
 barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals 
 are piqueted, is put into a nose-bag, and hung 
 from their heads ; but, if stabled, it is thrown 
 into a small lozenge-shaped hole, left in the 
 thickness of the mud-wall for that purpose, 
 but much higher up than the line of our 
 mano-ers; and there the animal eats at his 
 leisure. Hay is a kind of food not known 
 here. The bedding of the horse consists of 
 his dung. After beiug exposed to the drying 
 influence of the sun during the day, it be- 
 comes pulverised, and, in that state, is nightly 
 spread under him. Little of it touches his 
 body, that being covered by his clothing— a 
 .arge nummud from the ears to the tail, and 
 bound firmly round his body by a very long 
 surcingle. But this apparel is only for cold 
 weather; in the warmer season the night- 
 clothes are of a lighter substance ; and during 
 the heat of the day, the animal is kept entirely 
 under the shade. 
 
 "At night he is tied in the court-yard. 
 The horses' heads are attached to the place 
 of security by double ropes from their halters, 
 and the heels of their hinder legs are confined 
 by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron rings 
 and pegs driven into the earth. The same 
 custom prevailed in the time of Xenophon, 
 and for the same reason — to secure them from 
 being able to attack and maim each other, the 
 whole stud, generally, consisting of stallions. 
 Their keepers, however, always sleep on their 
 rugs amongst them, to prevent accident : and 
 sometimes, notwithstanding all this care, they 
 manage to break loose, and then the combat 
 ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kick- 
 ing, and snorting, rouses the grooms, and the 
 scene for awhile is terrible. Indeed no one 
 can conceive the sudden uproar of such a 
 moment, who has not been in Eastern coun- 
 tries to hear it. They seize, bite, and kick each 
 other with the most determined fury, and 
 frequently cannot be separated before their 
 heads and haunches stream with blood. Even 
 in skirmishes with the natives, their horses 
 , 26 
 
 take part in the fray, tearing each other with 
 their teeth, while their masters are in similar 
 close quarters on their backs." 
 
 To see a specimen of the race-running Per- 
 sian horse, greatly excited the curiosity of Sir 
 E. K. Porter. Accordingly, he went to the 
 races ; and as the sovereign was to be present, 
 doubtless the best animals which the country 
 could produce, had entered the lists. The 
 contending horses were divided into three 
 sets, for the purpose of lengthening the sport ; 
 and they had been in training several weeks, 
 often going over the ground on which they 
 were to run in that time. The consequence 
 of this was, that when the day on which they 
 were to run came, they were so reduced iu 
 weight, that their bodies were nearly cutting 
 the skin. The distance marked for the race 
 was rather longer than the distances chalked 
 out by our sportsmen of Epsom, or New- 
 market, or Doncaster celebrity. It was twenty- 
 four miles ; and that his majesty might not 
 have to wait unamused when he arrived in the 
 field, the horses had set forward long before, 
 by three divisions, from the starting-point — 
 a short interval of time having been allowed 
 to pass between each set — so that they might 
 begin to come in a few minutes after the mon- 
 arcli had taken his seat. The different divi- 
 sions arrived at the goal in regular order, but 
 in such a state of fatigue and exhaustion, that 
 their former boasted fleetness hardly exceeded 
 a moderate canter when they passed before 
 the royal eyes. 
 
 In almost every book of travels that we read, 
 connected with those countries where the Ara- 
 bian and his steed are found, anecdotes illus- 
 trative of that great admiration and ardour of 
 affection which the rider has for his animal, 
 are abundant. The following are given by Sir 
 John Maxwell: — "An envoy had returned 
 from his mission, and taken up his encamp- 
 ment near Bagdad, when an Arab, riding a 
 bright bay mare of extraordinary shape and 
 beauty before his tent, attracted his atten- 
 tion. The Arab, on being asked if he would 
 sell her, said — ' A¥hat will you give me?' 
 ' That depends upon her age ; I suppose she 
 is past five ? ' ' Guess again,' said he. ' Eour ? ' 
 ' Look at her mouth,' said the Arab with a 
 smile. On examination she was found to 
 be rising three. This, from her size and 
 
INDIAN HOUSES.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [indian horses. 
 
 symmetry greatly eulianced her value. The breed from 
 
 envoy said, ' I will give you fifty tomaiia,' a 
 coin nearly of the value of a pound sterling. 
 'A little more, if you please,' said the fellow, 
 apparently entertained. * Eighty — a hundred.' 
 He shook his head and smiled. The offer at 
 Jasfc came to 200 tomans! 'AVell,' said the 
 Arab, 'you need not tempt me further; it is 
 of no use. Tou are a rich e/c/^ee (nobleman). 
 You have fine horses, camels, and mules ; and 
 I am told you have loads of silver and gold. 
 Now,' added he, 'you want my mare, but you 
 shall not have her for all you have got.' " 
 
 Who can help admiring the disinterestedaffec- 
 tion of this semi-savage for his animal! Again — 
 "An Arab sheik or chief, who lived within 
 fifty miles of Bussora, had a favourite breed of 
 horses. He lost one of his best mares, and 
 could not for a long while discover whether 
 she was stolen or had strayed. Some time 
 after, a young man of a different tribe, who 
 had long wished to marry his daughter, but 
 had always been rejected by the sheik, ob- 
 tained the lady's consent, and eloped with her. 
 The sheik and his followers pursued; but the 
 lover and his mistress, mounted on one horse, 
 made a wonderful march, and escaped. The 
 old chief swore that the fellow was either 
 mounted upon the devil, or the favourite mare 
 he had lost. After his return he found the 
 latter was the case; that the lover was the 
 thief of his mare as well as of his daughter ; 
 and that he stole the one to carry off the other. 
 The chief was quite gratified to think he had 
 not been beaten by a mare of another breed ; 
 and was easily reconciled to the young man, 
 in order that he might recover his mare, which 
 •appeared an object about which he was more 
 solicitous than about his daughter." 
 
 HORSES OF INDIA AND THE EASTERN 
 ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 In India there seems to be a considerable 
 variety of breeds of horses. The performances 
 of a few of the races, whether in the point of 
 speed or bottom, are very far from being con- 
 temptible, even when compared with some of 
 our own. In such a climate, where every 
 European must of necessity be mounted, it 
 becomes of importance, for the army as well 
 as civilians, that proper attention should be 
 paid to the selection of the best horses to. 
 
 r 
 the 
 
 Although they are, in general, 
 small, they exhibit ail the evidences of having 
 descended from a good stock. 
 
 The editor of The Horse, published undo 
 the superintendence of the Society for 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, says— 
 
 " The Toorky, originally frona aToorkoman 
 and a Persian, is beautiful in his form, graceful 
 in his action, and docile in his temper. It is 
 said that, when skilfully managed, the grandeur 
 and stateliness of his carriage are equal to 
 what the warmest imagination can conceive of 
 the horse ; his spirit rising as his exertions are 
 required, he exhibits to his beholders an appear- 
 ance of fury in the performance of his task, yet 
 preserving to his rider the utmost grace, play 
 fulness, and gentleness. 
 
 "Next comes the Iranee, well limbed, and 
 his joints closely knit, and particularly powerful 
 in the quarters, but with scarcely sufficient 
 spirit, and his ears large and loose. 
 
 " The patient and docile Cozakee is deep in 
 the girth, powerful in the fore-arm, but with 
 large head, and sadly cat-hammed ; hardy, and 
 calculated for long journeys and severe service. 
 "The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed, 
 and perseverance. 
 
 "The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and, 
 for that reason perhaps, although deficient in 
 strength, and leaving as it were his hind legs 
 behind him, and likewise irritable in temper, 
 yet sought after on account of the peculiar 
 easiness of his pace." 
 
 A sale of horses, near the Company's stud, 
 at Hissar, is thus described by an excellent 
 judge: — '"'Not less than 1,000 horses were 
 shown. They were all above fourteen hands 
 and a-half in height, high-crested, and showy- 
 looking horses. The great defect seemed a 
 want of bone below the knee, which is, indeed, 
 general to all the native horses throughout 
 India ; and also so great a tendency to fulness 
 in the hocks, that, in England, it would be 
 thought half of them had blood spavins." 
 
 A writer in the Sportsman s Magazine, ex- 
 presses himself indifierently upon the qualities 
 of the horses in the East Indies : — 
 
 "The small Mahratta horse," he says, "is 
 an active, serviceable little beast; but, in ten 
 cases out of twenty, extremely vicious, but will 
 often make a capital hunter, in fact, being the 
 only horse in India worth his keep ; the larger 
 
 27 
 
HfDIAN nOESES.] 
 
 THE HOKSE, AND 
 
 [INDIAN HORSES. 
 
 horses from Hindostan being adapted only for 
 the capering of a native Souwarree. They are 
 leggy, under-limbed, and, as far as vice goes, 
 regular man-eaters. 
 
 "The horses from Guzerat and Cutch are 
 certainly endowed with greater amiability of 
 disposition, but are more calculated for pur- 
 poses of display and parade than for anything 
 else. The natives are very partial to this 
 breed, and give long prices for them — frequently 
 as much as two or three thousand rupees. 
 They blow them out to an enormous size, by 
 feeding them on a composition which must be 
 anything but agreeable to the palate of the 
 horse. This consists of a kind of paste, made 
 of pounded grain and sheep's head, wherewith 
 the poor animal is crammed like a turkey. 
 The end of the flowing tail, generally reaching 
 the ground, is dyed of a deep-red colour; a 
 cruelly sharp bit is put into his mouth ; he is 
 buried under a ton of bedding covered with 
 crimson cloth, doing duty for saddle ; and, thus 
 caparisoned, he is deemed fit to carry one of 
 the 'pillars of the state.' It is a pretty 
 sight to see a Souwarree, or procession, accom- 
 panied by a cavalcade thus mounted. On 
 such occasions, the individuals forming the 
 pageant, take every opportunity of displaying 
 their horsemanship — a cavalier occasionally 
 darting from the crowd at the top of his 
 speed, and as suddenly pulling his horse on his 
 haunches in the midst of his headlong career ; 
 then wheeling about, and still at full speed, 
 describing, in an incredibly small space, the 
 difficult figure of eight, with all the apparent 
 ease of a graceful skater." 
 
 It is unnecessary to specify the excellences 
 of some of the individual horses which have 
 acquired celebrity in this country. It is enougli 
 to say that, generally, they have been found 
 possessed of sufficient stoutness to carry the 
 Mahratta warriors tlirough the turmoil of 
 many a hard-fought day, before their power 
 was broken by the fall of Seringapatam, or the 
 death of Tippoo Saib, in 1792. The Mahratta 
 army was principally composed of cavalry ; and 
 to see a troop of them, with their knees as hi»h 
 as the backs of their horses ; their heels firmly 
 adhering to the horses' sides, and their hands 
 clinging to the manes or the peaks of their 
 saddles, is anything but a graceful specimen 
 of horsemanship. His seat, however, is made 
 28 
 
 perfectly secure by the Mahratta; for, like 
 practice in everything else, he becomes, as it 
 were, "to the manner born," and feels suffi- 
 ciently safe in his seat to impress those who 
 see him with the idea that he is both secure 
 and comfortable. 
 
 Most of the horses in the East are picketed 
 during the day, as well as during the night ; 
 and a rope is carried from each side of the 
 head-stall, and fastened to a peg driven into 
 the ground. To the hinder fetlocks a rope is 
 also tied and fastened to a peg, twenty or 
 thirty yards behind the animal. Their eyes 
 are kept covered, and their bodies clothed in 
 such a way as to presei've the beautiful glossy 
 appearance of their coats. 
 
 In the caparisons of his horse the Mahratta 
 displays the usual Oriental taste for show and 
 magnificence. The breast of the animal ia 
 adorned with especial splendour ; and numerous 
 coins of diftereut sizes and value are fashioned 
 into plates, which hang and glitter from his 
 breast, and very often form a rich booty to his 
 conqueror. The mane is usually plaited and 
 braided with silk, decorated with silver knobs, 
 and terminating in a beautiful top-knot rising 
 between the ears. Should the warrior happen 
 to have distinguished himself against his 
 enemies, a few curious tails, said to have been 
 taken from the wild cow, very likely will be 
 found hanging on each side. 
 
 "With this Eastern region the imagination na- 
 turally associates everything that is vast, not 
 only in regard to the physical features of the 
 country, but in regard to the riches it possesses, 
 and the undertakings of its inhabitants. Its 
 rivers are amongst the largest in the world, 
 and its mountain-peaks are the loftiest ; its 
 plains the most extensive, its valleys the most 
 luxui'iant, and its forests realising all "the 
 pomp of groves" described by the poet. It is 
 called by Milton " the gorgeous East," which 
 showered on her kings barbaric pearl and gold ; 
 and is the country of the largest as well as the 
 fiercest of quadrupeds. It has given to the 
 world the most magnificent bird — the peacock 
 — of all the feathered tribes; and has, also, 
 in the institutions of its people, exhibited 
 more instances of gross superstition, revolting 
 cruelty, and deep degradation, than any land 
 on the face of the earth. Its horses, however, 
 are inferior to tue English breed. Even its 
 
INDIAN HOESES." MODEEN VETEEIN-ART PRACTICE. [ikdian nonsEa. 
 
 imported Arabians succumb to the stamina of 
 our "islanders," whicb are novr, unquestionably, 
 the finest animals in the world. 
 
 To the east of our Indian empire, in Burmah, 
 Siam, and China, horses are yet of a smaller 
 breed ; and those of China are usually poor- 
 spirited, meek, and not well made. In Moore's 
 Notices of the Indian Arcliipelago, we are 
 assured that, in every country lying to tlie 
 east of the Burrampooter, and south of the 
 tropic, the horse, however diversified, is little 
 better than a pony. "This fact," says a 
 writer in the Museum of Animated Nature, 
 " after quitting Bengal, is first noticed in the 
 countries of Cassay, Ava, and Pegu. Here 
 the horse seldom equals thirteen hands high ; 
 but is active, spirited, and well formed. As 
 we proceed to the south and west, the horse 
 becomes more diminutive; and those of Lao, 
 Siam, and the southern provinces of China, are 
 inferior in size and beauty to those of Ava 
 and Pegu. The Siamese and Cochin Chinese 
 have no cavalry, and make no use of their 
 ponies, except for riding, on ordinary occasions. 
 Even for this last purpose they are not esteemed, 
 the elephant being always preferred as a more 
 respectable and dignified mode of conveyance. 
 In the Malayan peninsula there are no plains or 
 roads ; and the inhabitants, living almost ex- 
 clusively on the low and woody banks of the 
 rivers, naturally substitute their canoes and 
 boats for beasts of carriage and burden ; and 
 hence the horse has not yet been naturalised 
 amongst them. Proceeding eastward in the 
 Malayan islands, the horse first occurs in the 
 interior of Sumatra ; and here we have two of 
 the best breeds known in those countries — the 
 Achin and Batta, both very spirited, but small 
 and better suited for draught than saddle. 
 
 " Of all the countries of the Archipelago, the 
 horse is most frequent in the island of Java. 
 The Javanese pony is generally larger than 
 that of Sumatra, and has more the form of a 
 horse — is more temperate, and less gay and 
 
 * This is the finest and most valuable island of the 
 Indian Archipelago, and is divided, nearly in its whole 
 length, by a range of volcanic mountains, attaining the 
 height of 8,000 feet above the sea. This range ap- 
 proaches nearest the southern coast, rising into high and 
 rugged hills, against which the surf dashes violently ; so 
 that, with the exception of a few bays, where a landing 
 on the island can be obtained, it is otherwise inaccessible. 
 On the northern side of this mountain ridge the surface 
 
 handsome. Two distinct races may be de- 
 scribed — one of the plains, and one of tho 
 mountains. The first is somewhat coarse, 
 and sluggish in disposition, and bo large as 
 occasionally to reach the height of thirteen 
 hands and an inch. The second is small and 
 hardy, and, as in the case of tlie Kuninghan — 
 a breed in the interior of Cheribon — soii^etimcs 
 very handsome, and giving great pleasure to 
 the eye by his general appearance." 
 
 In Java the horse is used both for tho 
 saddle and as a beast of burden ; but tho 
 natives never use him for agricultural pur- 
 poses, or, indeed, for any species of draught. 
 By Europeans, however, he is extensively used 
 in carriages ; and on the level and well-con- 
 structed roads of Java, four of them will draw 
 a carriage at the rate of twelve, and even 
 fifteen miles an hour. There is, however, no 
 real advantage in employing this diminutive 
 breed for such a purpose, as a pair of Euglisli 
 post-horses, on the same roads, will go as far 
 and as fast without the slightest difficulty. 
 To accomplish this in a carriage of the same 
 weight as the English horses would draw, 
 would require twelve Javanese ponies. One 
 horse, therefore, is equal to six ponies ; and as, 
 at the utmost, a full-grown horse will not 
 consume above twice the quantity of food 
 required for a pony, the charge of maintaining 
 him, in proportion to the work he is capable 
 of performing, is no more than one-third. 
 
 The horse, but of an inferior breed, is found 
 on the islands of Bali and Sombolk; also in 
 the island of Samharra, where there are two 
 different races — those of Samboro and Bima. 
 The last, especially those of Gunong Api, are 
 by far the handsomest breed of the Archi- 
 pelago, and are extensively exported. Passing 
 Samharra, the horse is traced to Elores, Sandal- 
 wood island, and Timor ; but nowhere further 
 to the east, being unknown in the Moluccas, 
 New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands. 
 Next to Java,* the horse is found in greatest 
 
 is low and swampy, intersected by a great number of 
 rivers and fine bays, where good anchorage is obtained, in 
 moderate depth, during the south-east monsoon. The 
 mouths of all the rivers, however, are choked up with 
 mud or sand-banks ; and when they are swelled by the 
 torrents, they inundate all the low lands. The eastern 
 extremity of the island is but thinly inhabited, and very 
 little cultivated. All the European settlements are on 
 the northern coast; but a magnificent mihtary road, con. 
 
 29 
 
rNDIAIf HOUSES,] 
 
 HRE HOESE, AND 
 
 [INDIAN HOUSES. 
 
 abundance on the Celebes, the breed of which 
 is, on the whole, pronounced the best in the 
 Archipelago. 
 
 Within the Eastern Archipelago, as in other 
 parts of the world, the colour of the horse 
 has a singular connection with temper, quality, 
 and locality. The prevailing colour of the 
 Archive ponies is piebald, which becomes 
 rarer and rarer as we proceed eastward. A 
 Eima pony of this colour is as rarely seen as 
 a black Arab. The prevailing colour of the 
 Batta pony is bay and mouse-colour. In 
 Java the best horses are those of the most 
 prevalent colours— namely, bays and greys; 
 the roan and mouse-coloured liorses are very 
 generally good. The worst colours are black 
 and chesnut. The Javanese have such a 
 dislike to the latter colour, that chesnut horses 
 are not permitted to appear at their public 
 tournaments. Bays, greys, and duns, are the 
 best and most frequent colours in the Bima 
 ponies. Blacks and chesnuts are not frequent, 
 but they are not considered inferior. Greys 
 and bays prevail among the ponies of Celebes 
 and the Philippines, nearly to the exclusion of 
 all others. In the plains of Celebes herds of 
 wild horses exist — no doubt the descendants of 
 a domesticated stock. 
 
 Of the speed of the Arab horses in India, 
 we have the following account of an extraor- 
 dinary match, for 1,000 rupees, which arose 
 out of a conversation amongst several oCBcers 
 in one of the performances of the late Mr. 
 Osbaldeston. The distance to be run was 
 seventy miles in four hours and ten minutes, 
 and the number of horses was to be unlimited. 
 
 Eleven horses, the number which it was 
 proposed to employ in the match, were, in the 
 course of a couple of days, mustered by the 
 parties and their friends, and were exercised 
 ■every morning on the race-course here for the 
 short time intervening between the making 
 and coming off of the match. 
 
 structed by the Dutch, traverses the whole length of the 
 island. For upwards of a century the Dutch remained 
 in undisturbed possession of Java, where, however, their 
 rule was most oppressive and odious to the natives ; but 
 in August, 1811, a British force took by storm Batavia, 
 their capital, and the whole colony subsequently sur- 
 rendered. Under the government of Sir Stamford Raffles, 
 whose memory is held by the inhabitants in affectionate 
 Veneration, the prosperity of the island rapidly increased. 
 But in 1816 it was restored to its former masters. 
 
 30 
 
 The backers of Old Time were numerous ; 
 and, in fact, the general opinion was that the 
 match would not be won: the grounds for 
 which were, that the roads were known to bo 
 in a bad state ; that the Bore Ghaut, a steep 
 and winding descent of four miles, with a 
 precipice on one side of the road, had to be 
 passed ; added to which, was the probability, 
 nay almost certainty, of obstruction from the 
 droves of bullocks carrying grain up the 
 country, with which the road is usually at 
 this season thronged. It was, moreover, sup- 
 posed that the horses in training were by no 
 means equal to the performance ; and that an 
 accident, of which there appeared more than 
 a probability, would infallibly lose the match. 
 
 From the confidence of the parties them- 
 selves, however, the betting, at starting, was 
 even on the match being performed in four 
 hours ten minutes ; three to two against four 
 hours ; three to one against three hours fifty 
 minutes ; and ten to one that it was not 
 won in three hours and thirty minutes. 
 
 On the first making of the match, two 
 watches on the chronometer principle, which 
 had been selected for the occasion, had been 
 placed in the hands of a watchmaker; and 
 these having been set on the day preceding 
 the match, one was taken on in the mail to 
 Pauwell by the umpire, whilst the other was 
 reserved for the start at Poena. 
 
 At a quarter past five o'clock in the morning 
 of the day appointed for the event to " come 
 ofi"," Mr. Eawlinson, riding twelve stone, 
 appeared at the starting- place; and the word 
 "oflf" having been given, the match com- 
 menced. 
 
 Only one, and that not a very large drove of 
 bullocks, was met between Poena and Ehan- 
 dalla; the distance, forty-four miles, having 
 been performed in exactly two hours, without 
 any accident having occurred. Here a violent 
 horse had been injudiciously stationed; and 
 
 The population is estimated by the British surveys at 
 more than 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist of Java- 
 nese, who inhabit the interior parts, and are in general 
 the cultivators of the soil ; Malays, Chinese, Dutch, 
 English, and mixed castes. The Chinese are shopkeepers 
 and traders. The Malays are altogether a servile race, 
 and are the servants and drudges of the colonists. The 
 Javanese are of the Hindoo family, their language being 
 a dialect of the Sanscrit ; and their religion is Moham- 
 medanism, wlvich they embraced about three centuries ago. 
 
TOOKKOMAN noESE.] MODERN VETERINABY PRACTICE. [TunKisn nonsE. 
 
 immediately on his being mounted, the curb 
 turned round in his mouth, and he ran away 
 with his rider the v?hole way down the Ghaut ; 
 but lucidly was, after two or three narrow 
 escapes, pulled up safe at Kolapoor. The last 
 horse, when within a couple of miles of home, 
 suddenly leapt off the road into the fields, 
 and alighting on bad ground, fell. No injury, 
 however, was sustained by either horse or 
 rider, who immediately remounted, and arrived 
 in Pauwell at twenty-eight minutes to nine 
 o'clock— thus winning the original match with 
 fifty-three minutes to spare. 
 
 The horse which ran between Wargaon and 
 Carli, was the only one of those employed in 
 the match which had ever appeared on the 
 
 turf. J 
 
 The match was ridden with great nerve and 
 judgment throughout by Mr. Rawlinson, son 
 of Mr. Rawlinson, of Chadlington, Oxford- 
 shire ; and the horses were Arabs belonging to 
 the officers. 
 
 THE TOORKOMAN HORSE. 
 Turkistan is that part of South Tartary 
 north-east of the Caspian Sea ; and has been 
 celebrated, from early times, for producing a 
 pure and very valuable breed of horses. They 
 are called Toorkomans ; and are said to be pre- 
 ferable even to the pure Persians for service. 
 They are large, standing from fifteen to sixteen 
 hands high; swift, and iuexhaustible under 
 fatif'ue. Seme of them have travelled 900 
 miles in eleven successive days. They, how- 
 ever, are somewhat too small in the barrel ; 
 too long on the legs ; occasionally ewe-necked, 
 and always have a head largely out of pro- 
 portion-, yet such are the good qualities of 
 the animals, that one of the pure blood is 
 worth two or three hundred pounds, even in 
 that country. 
 
 The inhabitants of this country generally 
 lead the same sort of life as their ancestors, 
 being norcades, or wanderers. They dwell in 
 tents, which are removed from place to place 
 as their lands become exhausted and pasturage 
 fails to supply them with their necessities, or 
 as they themselves "increase and multiply," 
 and their flocks become too numerous; when, 
 like Abraham and Lot, they separate— the one 
 party going to the right, and the other to 
 the left. The flesh of the sheep and the horse 
 
 forms their chief article of aubaistcnce ; for, aa 
 the poet says, the Tartar first rides his horse, 
 then eats him. To him the horse is, of all 
 animals, the most valuable. What the camel 
 is to the Arab, and the reindeer to the Lap- 
 lander, the horse is to him the prime source 
 of his wealth. 
 
 Captain Eraser, in his journey to Khorassan, 
 thus relates the impression which these horsea 
 made on him : — " They are deficient in compact- 
 ness ; their bodies are long in proportion to their 
 bulk ; they are not well ribbed up ; they aro 
 long on the legs ; deficient in muscle ; falling 
 off below the knee ; narrow-chested ; long- 
 necked ; head large, uncouth, and seldom well 
 put on. Such was the impression I received 
 from the first of them, and it was not for somo 
 time that their superior valuable qualities were 
 apparent to me." 
 
 Mr. John Lawrence says, that it is related, 
 on the authority of a certain Prussian count, 
 that a German prince having, with the utmost 
 care and expense, raised a most valuable breed 
 of horses from a son of the well-known English 
 racer, Morwick Ball, it was one of the first 
 imperial acts of Napoleon I. to honour the 
 proprietor with a military order to have tho 
 whole of them marched to Prance, which was 
 promptly executed. 
 
 On the same authority it is stated, that an 
 Arabian horse was obtained in Germany (pro- 
 bably by the way of Turkey and Hungary), 
 which proved superior, for the beauty, strength, 
 and worth of the stock he produced, to any 
 which had been before known in that country. 
 The name of this famous stallion was Turk, 
 mainatti, a name in equal estimation, in Ger- 
 many, with that of the Godolphin Arabian in 
 England. The valuable stock of this horse 
 has spread over the country; and young 
 Turkmaiuatti, some time, ably supported tho 
 honour of his family. 
 
 It is not unreasonable to suppose that 
 this horse was a native of the country we 
 have just been describing, instead of an 
 Arabian. It is, however, from Arabian Bures 
 that the Toorkomans trace their breed. 
 
 THE TURKISH HORSE. 
 The Turkish horse is descended princi- 
 pally from the Arab, crossed by the Persian 
 and certain other bloods. The body however, 
 
TUEKISH HOESE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, A.ND 
 
 [tUEKISH HOESE. 
 
 is even longer than the Arabian's, and the 
 crupper more elevated. He has contributed 
 materially to the improvement of the English 
 breed. The Byerley and the Helrasley Turk, 
 are names familiar to every one conversant 
 with horses, and connected with our best blood. 
 Asiatic Turkey is the largest and most 
 valuable portion of the Ottoman empire, oc- 
 cupying the central part of the temperate 
 zone in the west of Asia, He has no country 
 more interesting, and few richer in historical 
 remembrances, whether sacred or profane. 
 The garden of Eden is, by many topographical 
 writers, supposed to have been situated be- 
 tween the point where the junction of the 
 Tigris and the Euphrates takes place, and 
 the Persian Gulf; hence it becomes the re- 
 puted scene of the primitive creation of man. 
 Here, according to them, Adam and Eve were, 
 in a state of innocence, placed. 
 
 " His fair large front and eye sublime, declared 
 Absolute rule ; and hyacinthine locks 
 Round from his parted forelock manly hung, 
 Clustering, but not beneath his shoulders broad ; 
 She, as a veil, down to the slender waist 
 Her unadorn'd golden tresses wore 
 Dishevell'd." 
 
 Both Europe and America received from 
 this land their religion and their letters ; the 
 former from Palestine, and the latter from 
 Phoenicia; and the principal events in the 
 life of our Saviour, took place within its 
 boundaries. 
 
 The inhabitants of a country bo eminent in 
 renown, and so high in arts and civilisation, 
 must, at a very early period, have had the 
 horse reduced to a state of domestication. 
 Here was the Assyrian empire, one of the 
 greatest of antiquity ; and here Nineveh, its 
 capital, was laid waste in accordance with the 
 denunciations of the prophet Nahum. From 
 these remote times, the Turkish horse has 
 been a prominent object in war ; and no animal 
 has a more majestic, a more noble and brilliant 
 appearance when carrying his rider, and ex- 
 hibiting his costly caparisons. 
 
 Evelyn, the author of Sijlva, thus describes 
 one of these animals which had been sent over 
 to England in the reign of Charles II., and 
 which he seems to have been fortunate enough 
 to have seen. " I never beheld so delicate a 
 creature !" he exclaims ; " somewhat of a bright 
 32 
 
 bay, two white feet, a blaze; such a head, 
 eyes, ears, neck, breast, belly, haunches, legs, 
 pastern, and feet ; in all respects beautiful, and 
 proportioned to admiration ; spirited, proud, 
 nimble, making halt, turning with that swift- 
 ness, and in so small a compass, as was 
 admirable." The learned and benevolent Bus- 
 bequius, who was ambassador at Constantinople 
 in the seventeenth century, is equal to Evelyn 
 in his admiration of the Turkish horse. 
 
 " There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish 
 horse, nor more respectful to his master, or 
 the groom that dresses him. The reason ia, 
 because they treat their horses with great 
 lenity. I myself saw, when I was in Pontus, 
 passing through a part of Bithynia called 
 Axilos, towards Cappadocia, how indulgent 
 the countrymen v.ere to young colts, and how 
 kindly they used them soon after they were 
 foaled. They would stroke them, bring them 
 into their houses, and almost to their tables, 
 and use them even like children. They hung 
 something like a jewel about their necks, and 
 a garter, which was full of amulets against 
 poison, which they are most afraid of. The 
 grooms that dress them are as indulgent as 
 their masters; they frequently sleek them 
 down with tlieir hands, and never use a cudgel 
 to bang their sides, but in case of necessity. 
 This makes their horses great lovers of man- 
 kind ; and they are so far from kicking, wincing, 
 or growing untractable by this gentle usage, 
 that you will hardly find a masterless horse 
 amongst them. 
 
 "But, alas! our Christian grooms' horses 
 go on at another rate. They never think them 
 rightly curried till they thunder at them with 
 their voices, and let their clubs or horsewhips, 
 as it were, dwell on their sides. This makes 
 some horses even tremble when their keepers 
 come into their stable ; so that they hate and 
 fear them too. But the Turks love to have 
 their horses so gentle, that at the word of 
 command they may fall on their knees, and in 
 this position receive their riders. 
 
 " They will take up a staff or club upon the 
 road with their teeth, which their rider has 
 let fall, and hold it up to him again; and 
 when they are perfect in this lesson, then, for 
 credit, they have rings of silver hung on their 
 nostrils, as a badge of honour and good dis- 
 cipline. I saw some horses, when their master 
 
TUBKiSH HORSE.] M D E R N V ETERIN AR Y PR ACT I C E. [tuekisu iiorsk. 
 
 was fallen from the saddle, stand stock still, 
 without wagging a foot, till he got up again. 
 Another time I saw a groom standing at a 
 distance, in the midst of a whole ring of 
 horses ; and I saw some horses, when tlieir 
 master was at dinner with me in an upper 
 room, prick up their ears to hear his voice ; 
 and when they did so, they neighed for joy." 
 
 There can be no doubt that the law of 
 kindness, constantly operating upon the horse, 
 has the best possible influence on the dis- 
 position of the animal, and inspires him with 
 sentiments of a correspondingly amiable de- 
 scription. The Turks have him so docile 
 and tractable, that they do not hesitate to 
 play at ball, with a goif-stick, on his back. 
 This game is played both in Turkey and 
 Syria, and proves the perfect state of training 
 to which the horse has been brought, as the 
 smallest touch of the bridle makes it wheel, 
 gallop at full speed, or suddenly stop, as the 
 will of the rider commands. 
 
 In Syria, and other parts of western Asia, 
 the horse is fed upon chopped straw and 
 barley ; and of this provender a certain quantity 
 is given morning and evening, none being sup- 
 plied in the interim. " In the spring season, 
 the horses are fed, from forty to fifty days, on 
 green barley, cut as soon as the corn begins 
 to ear. This is termed lying down to grass ; 
 during which time the animals remain con- 
 stantly exposed in the open air ; and for the 
 first eight or ten days are neither curried, 
 mounted, nor led about. After this they are 
 
 * Of the various tribes inhabiting Syria, some are 
 indiscriminately found everywhere, whilst others are con- 
 fined to particular sites. The Greeks proper people 
 certain villages, and form a class of labourers for the 
 country, and drudges for the towns. In many respects 
 they resemble the Irish, and are, like them, " the hewers 
 of wood and the drawers of water.'' The Maronites form 
 a corps of the nation which occupies almost exclusively 
 the territory comprised between Nahr-el-Kelb and Nahr- 
 el-Bared, a region extending from the summit of the 
 mountains on the east, to the Mediterranean on the 
 west. The bordeiing tribes, the Druses, occupy the 
 space from Nahr-el-Kelb to Sour, the ancient Tyre. The 
 country of the Metualis comprehends the valley of Becka, 
 as far as Sour. But this tribe is now dispersed, and 
 likely to become extinct. As for the Ausarichs, they 
 are scattered over the mountains of Autakieh, chiefly in 
 the paslialic of Tripoli. The wandering or pastoral 
 tribes abound principally in the plain of Antioch ; the 
 Kurds, in the mountains situated between Alexandretta 
 end the Euphrates ; and the Bedouin Arabs, on all the 
 
 dressed as usual, and rode out gently ; but are 
 never much worked during the grass season. 
 Some feed the horses witli cut barley in the 
 stable-yards; but the general practice is to 
 confine them to a certain circuit by means of 
 a long tether, in the barley-field. This grazing 
 is considered of great service to the health of 
 the horse, and imparts a beautiful gloss to 
 his coat." 
 
 Everywhere in Asia Minor, as well as in 
 Arabia, Persia, and neighbouring countries, 
 we meet with anecdotes which indicate, to an 
 extraordinary extent, the affection which the 
 natives bear for the horse. Burchardt relates 
 a story which, whilst it places the speed and 
 endurance of one in an eminent point of view, 
 at the same time, shows how even an enemy 
 will express his admiration of an animal ridden 
 by his foe. " A troop of Druses* on horseback, 
 attacked, in the summer of 1815, a party of 
 Beoouins, and pursued them to their encamp- 
 ment ; the Bedouins were then assisted by a 
 superior force ; and becoming the assailants in 
 their turn, killed all the Druses except one, 
 who fled. He was pursued by some of the 
 best mounted Bedouins; but his mare, although 
 fatigued, could not be overtaken. Before his 
 pursuers gave up the chase, they called to 
 him, and begged to be permitted to kiss his 
 excellent mare, promising him safe-conduct 
 for her sake. He might have taken them at 
 their word ; for the pledge of an Arab, in such 
 circumstances, might have been relied on; he, 
 however, refused. They immediately left the 
 
 frontier of Syria adjacent to their deserts, and in the 
 plains of Palestine. The nation is divided into two 
 classes; the people, and the Cheiks or nobles. They live 
 in the mountains, villages, hamlets, and isolated houses. 
 The country is essentially agricultural ; each inhabitant 
 has the :ight over his own farm or pasturage ; the Cheiks 
 are only distinguished from the other natives by a variety 
 in their dress. In other respects they have the same 
 rights and privileges. Among the Maronites there are 
 neither mendicants nor robbers, as among the Arabs; 
 and both by day and night the traveller may pursue his 
 course unmolested. They are monogamous ; and, like 
 the Persians, choose their wives without seeing them. 
 Although Christians, they preserve the Arabic custom of 
 the tahori : and the next of kin of the man assassinated, 
 has the right of taking his revenge. According to a recent 
 census, the Maronite population is estimated at 120.000 
 souls, of whom the men bearing arms amount to 30,000 — 
 a considerable population for a district measuring some 
 150 square miles, and abounding in rocks, and all tbo 
 beauties of natural scenery. 
 
 3t 
 
TUEKISH HOESE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AIN'D 
 
 [etjssiaw hohsb. 
 
 pursuit, and blessing the noble beast, cried 
 out to the fugitive, ' Go and wash the feet of 
 your mare, and drink off the water.' This 
 expression is often used by the Bedouins to 
 show the regard they have for their mares." 
 
 Some of the Turkish, as well as Toorkoman 
 horses, incline to have white legs, against 
 which there is a prejudice held by a great 
 many English grooms — on what account we are 
 not aware, as the celebrated horse Bucephalus, 
 of Alexander the Great, we believe was a 
 skewbald. A writer in the Sporting Magazine 
 thus combats this prejudice: — "Turn to the 
 banks of the Euphrates — to the decayed, but 
 once splendid seats of the caliphs of the 
 Black Banner — to the cradle of the Arabian 
 Tales — to the Queen of the East, Bagdad, 
 the beloved capital of the great Haroun al 
 Easched^and there we have a breed of horses 
 uniting the fire of the Persian, with the sym- 
 metry and enduring qualities of the desert 
 breed. Go further to the southward ; cross 
 the great river ; roam among the settled tribes 
 who have pitched their tents on the very verge 
 of civilisation, near unto the great cities, the 
 dwellings of slaves, as they are not inaptly 
 termed by the Bedouins; and you may lay 
 your hands on the flowing manes of a race 
 of horses — all chesnut, with the starting pro- 
 minent eye like an ember glowing, * full of fire 
 and full of bone,' and all singularly and in- 
 variably stamped with the peculiar distinctive 
 marks of their caste — the white blazed face 
 and white legs (generally three) ; white up to 
 the knee — perhaps the ancestors of the great 
 Eclipse; a chesnut also, with these remarkable 
 marks, and which sometimes break forth in 
 his most distinguished descendants — to wit 
 Sultan, his son Beiram, Harkaway, and a 
 number of winners of our great stakes." 
 
 The Turkish horse is sometimes harnessed 
 to carriages, in the Ottoman empire, where the 
 art of coach-building is still in its infancy— a 
 circumstance which is accounted for by the 
 sedentary character of Turkish habits. The 
 secluded manner of life to which the women 
 of this country are subjected, applies also to 
 the habit of the head of the family himself As 
 for journeys or promenades, they are in accord- 
 ance with the jealous manners of the people, 
 who restrict their rambles to parks or secluded 
 retreats in the environs of mansions. In cop 
 34 
 
 sequence, carriages are so rarely used that they 
 are comparatively useless ; nevertheless, they 
 are to be found as accessories to the best estab- 
 lishments, where they are employed to convey 
 the ladies from the harems to the mosques, to 
 the public baths, and the resorts of pleasure, 
 possessed by the richest Turks in the environs 
 of their residences, or to their country seats in 
 the neighbourhood. For such purposes it is 
 not necessary that the carriages should be of 
 substantial build, similar to those subjected 
 to the wear and tear of London streets. It; 
 is, in general, one of these slim vehicles, with 
 its dais covered with drapery, and with decora- 
 tions, reminding us of the French carriage of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 The Turks prefer horses for riding ; whilst 
 the Arabs prefer mares. According to Burc- 
 hardt, the price of an Arab horse, in 1810 — 
 1816 was from £10 to £120. Some, however, 
 have brought £500 ; and Burchardt mentions 
 a sheik who paid £400 for a mare, and agreed 
 to give to the seller the first female colt she 
 produced, or to keep the colt and return the 
 mare. 
 
 THE CIRCASSIAN HORSE. 
 
 On the plains of Circassia, large herds of 
 horses, and flocks of sheep, are reared for pur- 
 poses of commerce by the Tcherkesses. The 
 most valuable breed of the former has a con- 
 siderable amount of both strength and speed ; 
 and is distinguished by having a mark upon it, 
 of a full horse-shoe. Each breed has some 
 peculiar mark ; to forge which, or place it on 
 an inferior animal, is punishable with death. 
 Most of the wealthiest families make it their 
 aim to have a peculiar breed of horses for them- 
 selves, and, in their own estimation, consider 
 it as excelling that of any other tribe. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN HORSE. 
 
 The Eussian empire comprises all the north 
 part of Asia, and a large portion of Europe, 
 In point of physical extent, it is the largest 
 empire in the world, embracing an area ex- 
 tending from the 18th to the 170th degree of 
 east longitude, and from about the 44th degree 
 of north latitude to the Frozen Ocean. In a 
 country so extensive, it is not to be expected 
 that the horse presents, to our observation, the 
 same features in one place, that it does in 
 
BTTSSiAK HOESB.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [Russian hobsk. 
 
 another. Those animals devoted to the pur- 
 poses of pleasure, as well as those which form 
 the heavy cavalry, are, originally, mostly the 
 descendants of Cossack blood, but greatly im- 
 proved by having been crossed with Poland, 
 Prussian, Holstein, and English blood. The 
 horses forming the lighter cavalry, are, as they 
 have ever been, mostly Cossacks, which have 
 never been tried to be improved, but which are, 
 nevertheless, extremely hardy, capable of con- 
 siderable endurance, and well adapted for the 
 duties they have to perform. For a long period 
 it was believed that no horse, except the Arab, 
 was equal to the Cossack for bearing privation, 
 and, at the same time, uniting with this quality 
 so great an amount of speed as it has been 
 found to possess. In 1825, however, the con- 
 trary was proved. Two Cossack horses were 
 selected from the best breeds on the Black Sea, 
 the Don, and the Ural, and run against two 
 English ones, which greatly excelled the others 
 both in speed and stamina. On this occasion, 
 the English horses were not of the best breed, 
 and were named Sharper and Mina. The 
 account given of this trial of speed and en- 
 durance, shows that it was attended with cir- 
 cumstances the very reverse of such as we 
 should wish to be the accompaniment of similar 
 contests. 
 
 " On the 4th of August, 1825, on the chal- 
 Jenge of the Cossacks, a race, of the cruel dis- 
 tance of forty-seven miles, out and home, was 
 agreed to. The four horses to start together; 
 and the first in, to take the whole stakes. 
 
 "On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at 
 a moderate pace — the English horses following, 
 at the distance of three or four lengths ; but, 
 before they had gone half a mile, the stirrup- 
 leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away 
 with his rider, followed by Mina; and they 
 went more than a mile, and up a steep hill, 
 before they could be lield in. 
 
 *' Half the distance was run in an hour and 
 four minutes Both the English horses were 
 then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their 
 return Mina fell lame, and was taken away. 
 The Cossack horse, likewise, began to flag, 
 when the accompanying Russian began to 
 drag him on by the bridle, throwing away the 
 saddle, and putting a mere child on his back. 
 Sharper, likewise, evidently showed the eflects 
 of the pace at which he had gone when running 
 
 away, and was much distressed. The Cossacks 
 then had recourse to foul play, and actually car- 
 ried on their horse— some dragging him on by a 
 rope, and the bridle at his head ; others pulling 
 him forward by the tail; whilst others kept 
 alongside of his quarters to support hira ; and 
 they relieved each other at this fatiguing work. 
 Sharper did the whole distance in two hours 
 and forty-eight minutes; and the Cossack 
 horse was warped in, eight minutes after him. 
 At starting, the English horse carried three 
 stone more than the Cossacks; and, durin" 
 the latter half of the race, a mere child had 
 ridden the Cossack." 
 
 The barbarous cruelty displayed by the 
 Muscovites in this contest, with the unfairness 
 of their whole proceedings, require no com- 
 ment. They were chagrined at being defeated, 
 and wreaked their ill-feeling upon their animal, 
 because he had not more strength than had 
 been given him by nature. 
 
 The last Czar Nicholas was as anxious for 
 the improvement of the Cossack horses, as he 
 was for the general development of the resources 
 of his country ; and, with that view, instituted 
 races in different parts of his empire. In 
 southern and western Russia, lauded pro- 
 prietors have recently devoted much of their 
 attention, not only to the horse, but to cattle, 
 endeavouring to bring up their various breeds 
 to as high a state of perfection as they can. 
 Russian noblemen, now, have generally large 
 stables ; and the stud of the Russian Countess 
 OrlofF Tshesmensky alone, was composed of 
 1,320 Arabs, English, natives and others. The 
 ground, attached to this stud, comprised 
 nearly 1,100 acres ; and the number of grooms, 
 labourers, and others, amounted to 4,000. The 
 better breed of the Tartar horse is sketched 
 by Berenger, in his Treatise on Horsemanship ; 
 and although this species would seem to be 
 but of a moderate stature, still they are strong- 
 spirited, bold, and active. They have good 
 feet, but narrow ; and their heads are lean and 
 well-shaped. Their fore-hand is long and stiff"; 
 but the legs are over-long. With all these 
 imperfections, however, they are good and 
 serviceable horses, endowed with great speed, 
 and not readily succumbing to labour. They 
 are reared in a manner similar to those of the 
 Arabs — being caressed and fondled, and made 
 companions of. When they are six or eight 
 
 35 
 
SWEDISH HORSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [SWEDISH HOSBE, 
 
 months old, the Tartars make their children 
 ride upon them ; exercise them in small excur- 
 sions ; dress, and, by degrees, reduce them to 
 gentle habits of domestication. After awhile 
 they are made to undergo hunger, thirst, and 
 other privations ; but men do not begin to ride 
 them until they have reached their fifth or 
 sixth year. Then they are mounted by their 
 masters, who exact from them the severest 
 duties, and who gradually inure them to sup- 
 port an almost incredible degree of fatigue. 
 They are made to travel two or three days at a 
 time, almost without resting, and pass four or 
 five days without better nourishment than a 
 handful of grass, and without water. 
 
 Such are the principal portions of the mode 
 in which the Tartars train their horses, is given 
 by Berenger. The discipline is certainly severe. 
 In the Ilazeppa of Lord Byron, we have a 
 beautiful description of a idndred animal to 
 that of the Tartars in the Ukraine : — 
 
 " The steeds rush on in plunging pride, 
 But where are they the reins to guide ? 
 A thousand horse, and none to ride ! 
 With flowing tail, and flying mane, 
 Wide nostrils — never stretch'd by pain — 
 Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein, 
 And feet that iron never shod, 
 And flanks unscarr'd by spur or rod — 
 A thousand horse, the wild, the free, 
 Like waves that follow o'er the sea. 
 On came the troop. * * * 
 They stop, they start, they snuff the air, 
 Gallop a moment here and there, 
 Approach, retire, wheel round and round, 
 Then plunging back with sudden bound, 
 They snort, they foam, neigh, swerve aside, 
 And backward to the forest fly." 
 
 This description is applicable to the wild 
 horse, as he is witnessed in his native state, 
 and when we can hardly imagine a scene more 
 sublime than a thousand of his kind, bounding 
 over the vast steppe, with their manes streaming 
 in the wind, until the whole troop is lost in the 
 distance. 
 
 THE SWEDISH HORSE. 
 
 Mr. Lloyd, in his Field Sports of the North 
 of Europe, says, that "the Swedish horses are 
 small, though hardy, and capable of considerable 
 exertion ; their manes and tails are usually left 
 in a state of nature ; they are seldom cleaned ; 
 and, when in the stable, even in the most severe 
 weather, are rarely littered down. This treat- 
 36 
 
 ment of their horses arises as much from igno- 
 rance as neglect on the part of the peasants. 
 In saying this, however, I am willing to admit 
 that many of them are almost as fond of these 
 animals as if they were their own children. 
 The average price of a good horse, of the de- 
 scription I am now speaking of, may be taken 
 at from five to eight pounds." "■> 
 
 The horse of this country ia fed almost en- 
 tirely on bread, composed of equal parts of 
 oatmeal and rye. To this a considerable quan- 
 tity of salt is added : if setting out on a long 
 journey, a little brandy is given him. Sir A. 
 Brooke, in his Travels in Sweden, says — " We 
 were not a little entertained at the curious 
 group formed by the peasants and their steeds 
 breakfasting together; both cordially partaking 
 of a hard rye cake. The horses sometimes 
 belong to three, or even more propriLiors; it is 
 then higlily amusing to observe tho frequent 
 altercations between them, each endeavouring 
 to spare his own horse. Their affection for 
 their horses is so great, that I have seen them 
 shed tears when they have been driven beyond 
 their strength. The expedition, however, with 
 which these little animals proceed, is surprising, 
 when we consider the smallness of their size, 
 which hardly exceeds that of a pony. The 
 roads being universally good through Sweden, 
 they frequently do not relax from a gallop from 
 one post-house to another." 
 
 In the Scandinavian forest, it often hap- 
 pens that the wild bear attacks the horse, and, 
 fastening upon him, is borne along by the 
 animal whilst writhing under the wounds in- 
 flicted by the claws of the ursine monster. 
 When this is the case, the bear tries to retard 
 the progress of the horse by grasping with one 
 of his paws at the surrounding bushes, which 
 he often, under such circumstances, tears up 
 by the roots. Should he succeed, however, in 
 catching hold of a tree that is firmly embedded 
 in the soil, it is then all over with his victim ; 
 for, owing to his immense muscular power, the 
 career of the horse is at once stopped, and he 
 is almost immediately brought to the ground. 
 
 It seems rather extraordinary that so clumsy 
 and ill-shaped a looking brute as a bear, should 
 be able to run down a horse ; but such, whether 
 owing to the fears of the animal, or to the ad- 
 vantages of ground, is, beyond doubt, of every- 
 day occurrence. Until he has brought bis 
 
LAPLAND HOESE.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [laplattd nonsB. 
 
 victim down, however, it is said, the bear sel- all outlets guarded. The first thing to be done 
 dom makes use of his teeth ; but he strikes his j is to secure the restive reins. Selecting a 
 victim on the back and sides with his terrible j long thong or cord, a Lap takes a turn of 
 paws, in the same manner as if with a sledge 
 
 hammer. Sometimes, however, the horse, by 
 flinging out behind, makes his escape ; for it is 
 not an uncommon circumstance for a bear to be 
 killed, and found minus an eye or a fang, which 
 the peasants suppose, and with some reason, has 
 probably been caused by the heels of horses. 
 
 The wounds which the bear inflicts upon 
 cattle, when be attacks them, are sometimes 
 dreadful to look upon. Mr. Lloyd says that 
 he saw a horse that had been within the 
 clutches of one of tliese monsters, some few 
 days previously, but from which he had been 
 rescued, owing to an accidental circumstance. 
 In the back and neck of the poor steed, were 
 holes of such a size, that, without exaggera- 
 tion, he could almost have buried his hand in 
 them ; this horse, however, died a few days 
 subsequently. 
 
 The suff'erings of animals, when attacked by 
 a bear or other wild beast, must olten be 
 dreadful. JS^early the whole of the hind-quar- 
 ters of a cow, or a horse, have been actually 
 devoured, and yet the poor creatures have been 
 found alive. 
 
 THE LAPLAND HORSE. 
 
 The Laplanders are comprised in two distinct 
 classes, differing entirely from the Swedes in 
 points of person, habits, and language. Tliey 
 consist ofa nomadic and a settled class— the one 
 pursuing a wandering life, and the other living 
 in towns. The reindeer is both their solace 
 and their wealth ; but they are possessed of a 
 small, eager, and willing species of horse. 
 This little creature is employed in drawing 
 sledges over the snow in winter, and, in summer, 
 is turned into the forests, where he selects 
 certain districts to feed in, and from which 
 he rarely wanders. When these districts no 
 longer supply hina with pasture, from the 
 change of the season having set in, he volun- 
 tarily returns to his master to be re-yoked to 
 the sledge, or to draw wood for the winter. 
 
 To be present in an encampment of Swedish 
 Laps, when preparing to milk their " Eeins," 
 or deer, is one of the most exciting scenes 
 that can be presented to human observation. 
 
 The herd is driven within the inclosure, and 
 
 both ends round his left hand, and then 
 gathers what sailors call the higlit in loose 
 folds held in his right. He now singles out 
 a rein, and throws the bight with unerring 
 aim over the antlers of the victim. Sonietimes 
 the latter makes no resistance ; but, generally, 
 no sooner does it feel the touch of the thong 
 than it breaks away from the spot, and is 
 only secured by the most strenuous exertions 
 of its capturer. Every minute may be seen 
 an unusually powerful rein furiously dragging 
 a Lap round and round the inclosure, and 
 occasionally fairly overcoming the restraint of 
 the thong, and whirling its antagonist prostrate 
 on the sod. This part of the scene is higtdy 
 exciting; and one cannot but admire the 
 great muscular strength and the trained skill 
 evinced by all the Laps, women as well as 
 men, who happen to be engaged in it. 
 The resistance of a rein being overcome, 
 the Lap will take a dexterous hitch of the 
 thong round his muzzle and head, and then 
 fasten him to the trunk of a prostrate tree, 
 which, with many other trees, has been brouglit 
 within the level inclosure for tliat special 
 purpose. Even when thus confined, some of 
 the reins plunge in the most violent manner. 
 Men and women then indiscriminately engage 
 both in singling out milk-reins, and in milking 
 them. A wooden bowl is held in the operator's 
 left hand, and he then slaps the udder of the 
 rein, several times, with the pahn of the right 
 hand. After this he moistens the tips of his 
 fliitrers with his lips, and then rapidly completes 
 the operation. Tiie amount of milk yielded 
 by a single rein is, noticing only bowls which 
 had not previously receiveel contributions, little 
 more than a gill; others give at least double, 
 and a few tiirice that quantity; but the fair 
 average is about half a pint. 
 
 This milk is as thick as the finest cream 
 from the cow, and is luscious beyond descrip- 
 tion. It has a pleasing aromatic smell, and, in 
 flavour, reminds us most strongly of cocoa- 
 nut milk. No stranger can drink much of 
 it at a time — it is too rich. "When the rein is 
 milked, the operator takes up a small portion 
 of a particular species of moss, and carefully 
 wipes the drained udder and teats with it ; and, 
 
 37 
 
HOEWDGIAN HOESE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [DANISH nOESB. 
 
 from time to time, the bowls are emptied into 
 the kits, &c. 
 
 It is impossible to give an adequate idea of 
 the impressive, exhilarating appearance of the 
 whole inclosure. Every soul seems, at this 
 time, fully occupied, for even the little Lap 
 children are practising the throwing of the 
 lasso, and evincing great dexterity, although 
 their strength is insufficient to hold the smallest 
 doe. Many of the young reins attempt to 
 suck the parent doe, but are always beaten 
 away by the Laps. Great quantities of the 
 loose hair on the backs of the reins, at this 
 season fall to the ground at a touch. Of these 
 the women form beds, on which to stretch 
 their reindeer skins, and thus save them from 
 contact with the mud floor of the huts. 
 
 THE NORWEGIAN HORSE. 
 Norway is one of tlie most mountainous 
 countries in the world, and possesses a larger 
 breed of horses than Sweden. Of their saga- 
 city and affection, the following story may be 
 taken as a proof: — The master of one of these 
 animals had been dining at the neighbouring 
 town, and, when it was time to return, had 
 drank so much that he could not keep a firm 
 seat in his saddle. The horse seemed to be 
 aware of his master's condition, for he regu- 
 lated himself, as well as he could, according to 
 the unsettled motion of his rider ; but, hap- 
 pening to make a false step, his master rolled 
 oft' his back, and hung with one foot entangled 
 in the stirrup. The horse immediately stopped, 
 and, twisting his body in various directions, 
 endeavoured to extricate him, but in vain. The 
 man was severely hurt, and almost helpless; 
 but the shock had brought him to his senses. 
 The horse looked at him as he lay on the 
 ground, and, stooping, laid hold of the brim of 
 his hat, and raised his head a little ; but the 
 hat coming off, the man fell again. The animal 
 then laid hold of the collar of his master's coat, 
 and raised him by it so far from the ground 
 that he was enabled to draw his foot out of the 
 stirrup. After resting awhile, the man re- 
 gained the saddle, and reached his home. Gra- 
 titude towards the preserver of his life, made 
 the man ever afterwards cherish the horse 
 with the utmost kindness, until old age 
 brought the termination of its career. 
 
 In Norw ay, as in Sweden, the horse is some- 
 38 
 
 times attacked by bears ; and if he happen to 
 have a mare or foal with him, he places either 
 behind, and then attacks the others with the 
 utmost fury with his fore-legs. When he ad- 
 heres to this mode of beating off his enemy, he 
 is generally successful ; but if he turns round 
 to strike with his hind legs, the bear imme- 
 diately runs into him, and he is lost. 
 
 In Iceland there is said to be a breed of 
 horses, descended either from the Norwegian 
 or the Scotch. 
 
 In Finland, there is also a breed of horses 
 which are said to be beautifully formed, and 
 very swift, although not more than twelve 
 hands high. 
 
 THE DANISH HORSE. 
 
 The Danish horses are of such an excellent 
 size, and of so strong a make, tliat they are 
 preferred to almost all others for draught. 
 There are some of them perfectly well shaped ; 
 but tliis is but seldom seen, for, in general, 
 they are found to have a thick neck, heavy 
 shoulders, long and hollow back, and a narrow 
 croup ; however, they all move well, and are 
 found excellent both for parade and war. 
 They are of all colours, and often of whimsical 
 ones ; some being streaked like the tiger, or 
 mottled like the leopard. A good many years 
 ao'o there was an importatioa of some Danish 
 horses in London, which were considered to 
 have good action, and to be very serviceable. 
 
 Of the horses belonging to the Eeroe 
 Islands, subject to the Danish crown, Be- 
 renger thus speaks : — " They are small of 
 growth, but strong; swift, and sure of foot, 
 going over the roughest places with such cer- 
 tainty, that a man may more surely rely upon 
 them than trust to his own feet. In Suderoe, 
 one of these islands, they have a lighter and 
 swifter breed than in any of the rest. On their 
 backs the inhabitants pursue the sheep, which 
 are wild in this island. The pony carries the 
 man over places that would otherwise be inac- 
 cessible to him ; follows his rider over others ; 
 enters into the full spirit of the chase, and 
 knocks down and holds the prey under his 
 feet until the rider can take possession of it." 
 
 THE FLEMISH OR DUTCH HORSE. 
 The Flemish horses are a large race, and 
 powerfully formed. They were once fashion- 
 
FEENCH HOESE.] M D EE N Y ETEKI N AR Y PR ACTI C E. [qerman uokhe. 
 
 able in this country as carriage-horses ; but 
 they and their descendants are now chiefly 
 employed in agriculture. 
 
 THE FRENCH HORSE. 
 
 In France, horses of the Bretagne (Brittany) 
 breed are strongly made, and have, generally, 
 black hair, or brown bay ; good legs and feet, 
 with a hardy mouth, and a head short and 
 clumsy. The horses of Tranche- Comte are 
 said to have the legs of tigers, and the bellies of 
 hinds ; but they are short and thick, and of 
 the middle size, being much better adapted for 
 draught than for riding. The horses of Gas- 
 cony are not unlike those of Spain, but they 
 are not so handsome and active. The best 
 come from Limousin, where they bear a strong 
 resemblance to the Barb, and, like them, are 
 excellent for the chase. They are, however, 
 slow in coming to perfection ; should be care- 
 fully treated while young ; and also should not 
 be backed till they are eight years old. Nor- 
 mandy furnishes the next best, which, though 
 not so good for the chase, are yet better for 
 war. Besides these, there are the horses of 
 Poitou, &c. — all differing from each other in 
 some essential degree ; for France, in its vast 
 extent, has various breeds. Great exertions 
 have been made in that country to cope with 
 England in the production of horses. Napo- 
 leon I. used every means to procure some of 
 our best blood-animals, and he imported largely 
 from Arabia. But all efforts liave hitherto 
 proved unavailing, notwithstanding the French 
 nobility have gone so far as to procure English 
 grooms and jockeys to manage their horses. 
 The beauty, strength, and fleetness of the 
 English horse still bears the bell from all other 
 countries. At Waterloo, the charge of our life- 
 guards proved irresistible ; much of which irre- 
 sistibility must be attributed to the horses they 
 rode, as the French horses are very inferior. 
 
 France is said to contain no fewer than 
 2,500,000 horses ; which, of course, includes 
 every description of the species. Of mares there 
 are about 1,,S00,000, the greater number of 
 which are used for the breeding of mules. Inde- 
 pendent of these, somewhere about 40,000 
 horses are annually imported into this country, 
 either with a view to the improvement of the 
 native breeds, or for the purposes of sale. In 
 reference to the horse employed on the road, 
 
 Mr. Hoiiel, in a work on the varieties of the 
 horse in France, says — " I have not elsewhere 
 seen such horses at the collar, under the dili- 
 gence or the post-carriage, or in the farm-cart. 
 They are enduring and energetic beyond de- 
 scription. At the voice of the brutal driver, 
 or at the dreaded sound of his never-ceaain*' 
 whip, they put forth all their strength, and 
 keep their condition when other horses would 
 die of neglect and hard treatment." 
 
 The editor of The Horse says — " Every coun- 
 try that has occupied itself with the ameliora- 
 tion of its breed of horses, has deemed it neces- 
 sary to have a public register of the names 
 and progeny of those of an acknowledged race. 
 England has had its stud-book nearly halt a 
 century, containing a list of all the horses of 
 pure blood that have existed in the country. 
 France, in the year 1S37, had her first stud- 
 book, in which are inscribed the names of two 
 hundred and fifteen stallions of pure English 
 blood imported into France, or born there ; 
 two hundred and sixty-six Arabs, Barbs, Per- 
 sian, or Turkish horses ; two hundred and 
 seventy-four English mares of true blood, and 
 forty-one Eastern mares. This progeny was 
 also traced so far as it was practicable," A 
 work of this kind must necessarily form an 
 epoch in the equestrian annals of any country 
 where it is kept or produced. 
 
 THE GERMAN HORSE. 
 The German horses were originally from 
 Arabian and Barbary stocks ; nevertheless they 
 appear to be small and ill-shaped ; it is said, 
 also, that they are weak and washy, with 
 tender hoofs. There are, however, some ex- 
 ceptions, as there are so?ne studs, in which 
 particular attention has been paid, as well to 
 their breed as to their management. The Hun- 
 garian horses are excellent for the draught as 
 well as the saddle.' Formerly gipsies were the 
 principal horse-dealers in Hungary; but now 
 there are several noble studs scattered over 
 the country, the trade has, in a great measure, 
 passed out of their hands. The Hussars, who 
 use them in war, usually slit their nostrils; 
 which is done, as it is said, to prevent their 
 neighing; but, perhaps, without any real 
 foundation. The cream-coloured breed ot 
 horses, used for the state-carriages of the 
 court of Englaud, are of Hanoverian breed. 
 
 39 
 
GEEMA.N nOESE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [ITALIAN HOESE. 
 
 The imperial establishment for the breed- 
 ing of horses at Mesohagye's, near Carlsburg, 
 in Austria, is both an excellent and exten- 
 sive one. It is decidedly the finest in 
 the Austrian dominions for the breeding of 
 horses. The Duke of Kagusa describes it 
 as standing on forty thousand acres of land of 
 the best quality, embracing an area of forty- 
 five miles— surrounded, in its whole extent, by 
 a steep and broad ditch, and a plantation sixty 
 feet wide. Orif^inally it was designed to re- 
 cruit the cavalry ; but now it is devoted to 
 the object of obtaining stallions of a good 
 breed, which are sent to different depots, with 
 a view to keep up the necessary supply for the 
 various provinces. To produce these, one 
 thousand brood mares and forty-eight stallions 
 are kept ; two hundred additional mares, and 
 six hundred oxen, are maintained to cultivate 
 the ground. "The plain," says the duke, "is 
 divided into four equal parts, and each of 
 these subdivided into portions, resembling so 
 many farms. At the age of four years, the 
 young horses are all collected in the centre 
 of the establishment. A selection is first 
 made of the best animals, to supply the 
 deficiencies in the establishment, in order 
 always to keep it on the same footing. A 
 second selection is then made from the 
 other horses : none of these, however, are sent 
 away until they are five years old; but the 
 horses that are not of sufiicient value to be 
 selected, are sold by auction, or sent to the 
 army to keep up the cavalry, as circumstances 
 may require. 
 
 "The imperial treasury advances to the es- 
 tablishment, every year, eighteen thousand 
 florins, and is reimbursed by the sale of one 
 hundred and fifty stallions, which are sent to 
 the provinces every year, at the price of one 
 thousand florins each ; and by the value of 
 the horses supplied to the cavalry. The 
 value of a florin ia about 2s. Id. English 
 money. All the other expenses incident to the 
 maintenance and tear and wear of the es- 
 tablishment, are defrayed by what it, in itself, 
 produces. This is, therefore, an immense 
 estate — a farm on a colossal scale — with a 
 stud in proportion, managed on account of 
 the sovereign, and which produces a consider- 
 able revenue, independently of the principal 
 object which is attained — the propagation and 
 40 
 
 the multiplication of the best breeds of horses. 
 He can always supply the wants of his army 
 at a price almost incredibly small. Eor a 
 horse of the light cavalry he pays only one 
 hundred and ten florins; for the dragoons, one 
 hundred and twenty; for the cuirassiers, one 
 hundred and forty ; for the train, one liundred 
 and sixty; and for the artillery, one hundred 
 and eiglity. It is a great element of power 
 to possess at home such an immense resource 
 against a time of war, at an expense so far 
 below that which the powers of the west 
 and south of Europe are compelled to incur." 
 
 It is from the originally warlike character of 
 the Germans that their country takes its name 
 — Germany being derived from the Teutonic 
 Ger-mann, a warring man. 
 
 In Prussia the government has established 
 some extensive studs in different parts of 
 the kingdom, and many noblemen of this 
 country are in the possession of excellent es- 
 tablishments of their own. About the mouth 
 of the Vistula there exists a large breed of 
 horses well-adapted for agricultural purposes ; 
 but in the royal studs, attention has more 
 especially been paid to the improvement of 
 the cavalry horse, which now takes very high 
 rank. 
 
 THE ITALIAN HORSE. 
 
 Of this animal little need now be said. 
 Like everything else in this naturally fine 
 country, the horse " has fallen from his high 
 estate," and is now all but worthless. The 
 races, as they were wont to be run in the 
 davs of Mrs. Piozzi, are thus described by the 
 pen of that lively lady : — " The street is covered 
 with sawdust, and made fast at both ends. 
 Near the starting-post are elegant booths, 
 lined with red velvet, for the court and first 
 nobility. At the other end a piece of tapestry 
 is hung, to prevent the creatures from dasliing 
 their brains out when they reach the goal. 
 Thousands and tens of thousands of people, 
 on foot, fill the course, so that it is a great 
 wonder, to me, still that numbers are not 
 killed. The prizes are exhibited to view in 
 quite the old classical style — a piece of crimson 
 dama^k for the winner; a small silver basin 
 and ewer for the second ; and so on, leaving 
 no performer unrewarded. 
 
 " At last come out the horses without 
 
SPANISH iiousK.] MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE. [pouiuuui:9k iiousi 
 
 riders, but with a narrow leathern strap hung 
 across their bodies, which has a lump of ivory 
 fixed to the end of it, all set full of sharp 
 spikes like a hedgeliog ; and this goads them 
 aK.ng while galloping, worse than any spur 
 could do; because the faster they run, the 
 more this odd machine keeps jumping up and 
 down, and pricking their sides ridiculously 
 enouch ; and it makes one laugh to see that 
 
 thus describes them :— "The neck is long and 
 arched, perliaos sonewhat thick, but clothed 
 with a full anu flowing mane ; tlie head may 
 be a little too coarso- the ears long, but well- 
 placed; the eyes large, bola, and full of fire; 
 their carriage lofty, proud, and noble ; the 
 breast large ; the shoulders sometimes thick ; 
 the belly frequently too full and swelling; and 
 the loins a little too low; but the ribs round, 
 
 y 
 
 me- 
 
 some of them are so tickled by it, as not to | and the croup round and full ; with the legs 
 run at all, but set about plunging in order j well formed, and clear of hair ; and the sinews 
 to rid themselves of the inconvenience, instead ] at a distance from the bone; active and read 
 of driviiifT forward to divert the mob, who ; in their paces; of quick apprehension; a -' 
 leap and caper, and shout with delight, and i .-i.. ^„.i.M..i . _i.„j..-..i. ^- ^.i *. 
 
 lash the laggers along with great indignation 
 indeed, and with the most comical gestures." 
 Eaces of a similar kind take place at Eome. 
 
 THE SPANISH HORSE. 
 
 Spain was early celebrated for a breed of 
 fine horses, which took its rise in the Moorish 
 Barb, when that peninsula was subject to the 
 Moors. When Rome was at its highest splen- 
 dour, the horses of Calpe— the modern Gibral- 
 tar — were in high repute. This part of Spain 
 being situated at the south-western extremity of 
 the Peninsula, opposite theBarbary coast, horses 
 were readily imported from north-western 
 Africa; and hence the origin of the genettes. 
 The Spanish horses are well made and hand- 
 some, as well as very active and nimble; they 
 have fine eyes, handsome legs and heads, and 
 are docile, and easily managed. 
 
 For many centuries they took rank after 
 the Arabian and Barb ; but they could not be 
 considered as being other than Barbs them- 
 selves, having been only transplanted to Eu- 
 ropean soil, where, although they might have 
 become slightly altered iu appearance by the 
 change, they suffered no material injury. "I 
 have seen many Spanish horses," says Solleysel, 
 "and they are all extremely beautiful. They 
 are the nu)st proper of all to be drawn by a 
 curious pencil, or to be mounted by a king, 
 when he unbends to show himself iu his ma- 
 jestic glory to the people." 
 
 The common breeds of the Spanish horses, 
 however, are not to be confounded with the 
 warrior sorts — they having nothing extraordi- 
 nary in them. It is in Andalusia, Estremadura, 
 and Granada, that the highest races are to be 
 found. Berenger, who was an excellent judge, 
 Qt 
 
 mory singularly faithful ; obedient to the utmost 
 proof; docile and affectionate to man, yet full 
 of spirit and courage." 
 
 The food of the modern Spanish horse con 
 sists principally of chopped straw, with a little 
 barley. During the Peninsular war, when 
 the French and English cavalry horses were 
 placed on this fare in Spain, they at first 
 became very much weakened, and many of 
 them died ; but, when they grew a little accus- 
 tomed to it, they regained their strength, and, 
 consequently, their spirit and courage. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE HORSE. 
 The Lusitanian or Portuguese horse was, 
 at one time, so highly celebrated for its speed, 
 that the Eoman historian, Justin, compares 
 it to the velocity of the wind. Berenger, how- 
 ever, who lived before the glory of the Spanish 
 horse had entirely faded away, says that "the 
 Portugal horses are in no repute, and differ as 
 much from their neiglibours, the Spaniards, as 
 crabs from apples, as aloes from grapes." 
 After the annexation of Portugal to Spain, the 
 latter country was preferred for establishing 
 studs; and the former directed its attention 
 rather to the rearing of cattle for the shambles 
 and the plough, and mules and asses for 
 draught. Here, then, the horse became rather 
 the associate of pomp and pleasure ; and such 
 as were wanted, were mostly imported from 
 Spain. The horse is now, however, receiving 
 greater attention than, for a long period, has 
 been devoted to it. 
 
 THE IRISH HORSE. 
 In some of the rich grazing counties of 
 Ireland, such as Meath and Eoscommon, a 
 larcre long blood-horse is reared, of considerable 
 
 41 
 
iniSH HOESE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [native Hotisn. 
 
 value ; but he seldom has the elegance of the 
 English animal. He is larger headed, more 
 leggy, ragged-hipped, angular, yet with great 
 power in the quarters, much depth beneath 
 the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and 
 courage, and among the best leapers in the 
 world. He is not generally, however, so tall as 
 the English horse, being stunted in his growth ; 
 for the poverty and custom of the country 
 impose upon him much hard work, at a time 
 when he is unfit for labour of any kind. For 
 this reason, too, the Irish horse is deficient in 
 speed. There is, however, another explanation 
 of this; and that is, that the thorough-bred 
 Irish horse is not equal to the thorough-bred 
 English. Comparatively speaking, he is a 
 weedy, leggy, wortliless animal, and very little 
 of him enters into the composition of the 
 hunter or the hackney. 
 
 For leaping, the Irish horse has long been 
 considered unrivalled. It is not, however, the 
 leaping of the English horse, striding, as it 
 were, over a low fence, and stretched at his 
 full length over a higher one. It is rather the 
 proper jump of the deer — beautiful to look at, 
 and, both in height and extent, unequalled by 
 the English horse. Much of this difterence 
 of leaping in the two countries, no doubt, 
 depends on the training, and on the nature of 
 the fences in Ireland, where there are so many 
 inclosures with stone walls. 
 
 There are very few horses in the agricultural 
 districts of Ireland, exclusively devoted to 
 draught. The minute division of the farms 
 renders it impossible for them to be kept. 
 The occupier even of a tolerably sized Irish 
 farm, wants a horse that shall carry him to 
 market, aud draw his small car, and perform 
 every kind of drudgery — in short, a horse of all 
 work; therefore the thorough draught-horse, 
 whether Leicestershire or Suffolk, is rarelv 
 found in Ireland. 
 
 If we look to the general commerce of Ire- 
 land, there are few stage-waggons, or drays 
 ■with immense cattle belonging to them. In 
 the north, some stout horses are employed in 
 the carriage of linen ; but the majority of the 
 garrons used in agriculture or commercial pur- 
 suits, are miserable and half-starved animals. 
 
 There is a native breed in Ulster, hardy, and 
 sure-footed, but with little preteusion to either 
 beauty or speed. 
 42 
 
 THE HORSE IN HIS NATIVE STATE. 
 
 We have purposely reserved, till now, our de- 
 scription of the horse in his native state, as seen 
 in the boundless Llanos, or savannas and 
 prairies of South and JS'orth America, where he 
 is entirely free, and where he is seen to the 
 greatest advantage amidst his native pastures. 
 To form anything like a correct idea of this 
 noble animal in his native sim|)licity, we must 
 not look for him in the pastures or the stables 
 to which he has been consigned by n)an ; but 
 in those wild and extensive plains where he 
 has been originally produced, whether in the 
 Old or the New World, and where he ranges at 
 will and riot in the unrestrained license of a. 
 rich, a varied, and a luxuriant vegetation. In 
 this state of haj^py independence he disdains 
 the assistance of man, which only tends to 
 servitude. In the interminable Llano, or 
 prairie, where he wanders at liberty, he seems 
 no way incommoded by the inconveniences to 
 whicii he is subjected in Europe. The verdure 
 of the broad expanse of grass supplies his 
 wants ; and the climate that never knows a 
 winter, is, perhaps, more congenial to his con- 
 stitution than any other, as he naturally seems 
 to be fond of heat. His enemies of the forest 
 are but few, for none but the larger kinds will 
 venture to attack him : and any one of these he 
 is, singly, mostly able to overcome; while, at 
 the same time, he is content to find safety in 
 society ; for the wild horses of those countries 
 always herd together. A gentleman describ- 
 ing what he himself had witnesvsed with a 
 friend whilst travelling in South America, thus 
 notices the horse in his native or wild state : — 
 
 "About half-past ten we discerned a crea- 
 ture in motion at an immense distance, and 
 instantly started in pursuit. Fifteen minutes' 
 riding brought us near enough to discern, by 
 its fleetness, that it could not be a butialo; 
 yet it was too large for an antelope, or a deer. 
 On we went, and soon distinguished the erect 
 head, the flowing mane, and the beautiful pro- 
 portions of the wild horse of the prairie. He saw 
 us, and sped away with arrowy swiftness, till he 
 gained a distant eniinence, when he turned to 
 gaze at us, and suff'ered us to approach within 
 four hundred yards, and then bounded away 
 again in another direction, with a graceful 
 velocity delightful to behold. We paused, for 
 
NATIVE HORSE.] M OD ERN V ETERI N AET PR A CTI C E. [native nonsE. 
 
 to pursue bim with a view to capture, was out 
 of the question. Wiien he discovered we were 
 not following him, he also paused, and now 
 seemed to be inspired with curiosity equal to 
 our own; for, after making a slight turn, he 
 came nearer until we could distinguish the 
 inquiring expression of liis clear, bright eye, 
 and the quiet curl of his inflated nostrils. We 
 had no hope of catching, and did not wish to 
 kill him, but our curiosity led us to approach 
 him slowly. Vf e had not advanced far before 
 he moved away, and, circling round, approached 
 on the other side. He was a beautiful animal — 
 a sorrel, with jet black mane and tail. As he 
 moved we could see the muscles quiver in his 
 glossy limbs ; and, when half playfully, and half 
 in fright, he tossed his flowing mane in the 
 air, and flourished his long silky tail, our admi- 
 ration knew no bounds, and we longed — hope- 
 lessly, vexatiously longed — to possess him. We 
 might have shot him where we stood ; but had we 
 been starving, we could scarcely have done it. 
 He was free, and we loved him for the very pos- 
 session of that liberty we longed to take from 
 him ; but we would not kill him. We fired a 
 rifle over his head ; he heard the shot, and the 
 whiz of the ball, and away he went, disap- 
 pearing in the next hollow — showing himself 
 again as he crossed the distant ridges — still 
 seeming smaller, until he faded away a speck 
 on the far horizon's edge." 
 
 The wild horses which exist in the Llanos of 
 South America, are descendants of those in- 
 troduced by the Spaniards. In the province of 
 Cumana, there are great numbers in the 
 forest, wandering about in companies, gene- 
 rally to the nutuber of five or six hundred. 
 Tliey occupy the great savannas, where it is diffi- 
 cult even to disturb, far less to catcli them. In 
 the dry season, they are sometimes obliged to 
 go eight, ten, and even more miles in search 
 of water; and when this is the case they set 
 out in regular ranks, four abreast. Five or 
 six scouts pre<;ede tlie troop by about fifty 
 jjaces. If tliey perceive an enemy they neigh, 
 and the troop stops; if they evade him, they 
 continue their march; but if any one dares to 
 march across their squadron, they turn on him 
 and crush him under their feet. No foe is 
 capable of withstanding their attack. They 
 .have a regular chief, who marches between the 
 scouts and the squadron — a kind of adjutant, 
 
 whose duty consists in hindering any indi- 
 vidual from quitting the ranks. If any one 
 attempts to straggle, either from hunger or 
 fatigue, he is bitten till he resumes his place. 
 When wild horses are feeding, should anv 
 stragglers be threatened with danger by an 
 enemy, a particular signal, which they all un- 
 derstand, is given, when they close into a denso 
 mass, and trample the assailant to death. 
 When they themselves resolve upon making 
 an attack, their leader shows the example ; and 
 if he considers a retreat necessary, he gives the 
 signal, and it is instantly obeyed. 
 
 The wild horses of Tartary, although easily 
 domesticated, materially differ in character 
 from those on the plains of South America. 
 They will not suffer a stranger to join them. 
 If a domesticated horse come in their way, 
 unprotected by his master, they attack him 
 with their teeth and their heels, and speedily 
 destroy him. They readily submit, however, 
 to the dominion of man, and become perfectly 
 docile and faithful. 
 
 Among the Tartars, the flesh of the horse 
 is a frequent article of food; and although 
 they do not, like the Indians of the Pampas, 
 eat it raw, their mode of cookery would not 
 be very inviting to the European epicure. 
 They cut the muscular parts into slices, and 
 place them under their saddles; and after they 
 have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat be- 
 comes tender and sodden, and fit for their 
 table ; and, at all their feasts, the first and 
 last, and most favourite dish, is a horse's head. 
 
 AVhen water was not at hand, the Scythians 
 used to draw blood from their horses, and 
 drink it ; and the Dukes of Muscovy, for 
 nearly two hundred and sixty years, presented 
 Tartar ambassadors with the milk of mares. 
 If any of this milk fell upon the mane of 
 the horse, the Duke, by custom, was bound to 
 lick it off. 
 
 Troops of wild horses are occasionally met 
 with in the central parts of Africa, the deserta 
 of Arabia, and in a few other parts of the 
 world ; but nowhere do they equal the 
 domesticated horse in form, strength, or even 
 speed. 
 
 The Quagga, in the Zoological Society's 
 valuable collection in Eegent'fj-park, London, 
 belongs to the same family of animals as the 
 horse (fquidce). This specimen is brown; 
 
 43 
 
WILD HOESE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [wild hoesb. 
 
 Iicad, neck, and withers, or front of body, 
 blackish streaked; lower part of body, legs, 
 and tail, white. The hoofs are flattish beneath. 
 It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 it lives on the open plains. Tlie Qungga is 
 said to derive its name from tlie sound of its 
 voice. Thus we read in Pringle: — 
 
 " Tlie timorous quagga's wild whistling neigh 
 Is heard by the brak fountain far away." 
 
 Methuen, in his Life in the Wilderness, in- 
 forms us, that when the supply of antelope 
 meat of his party was exhausted, they occa- 
 sionally had recourse to a steak from the 
 quaoga, and found it very sweet and good, 
 though it looked coarse, and was marbled 
 with yellow fat. He advises travellers in the 
 wilderness, who have an antipathy to anything 
 like horse-flesh, to try to get rid of their 
 dislike as fast as possible; and assures us tliat 
 the Griquas, a nation who dwell in St)uth 
 Africa, prefer the meat of the quagga to almost 
 any other; while his cook ApoUos, who was 
 with the British troops in their expedition 
 to Natal, and was blockaded with them in 
 the trenches by the Boors (when they were 
 compelled to feed on horse-flesii), was par- 
 ticularly fond of quagga steaks, and regarded 
 them as the most savoury food he could 
 obtain. 
 
 THE WILD HORSE OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 All travellers, who have crossed the plains 
 extending from the shores of La Plata to 
 Patagonia, have spoken of numerous herds of 
 wild liorses. Some affirm that they have seen 
 ten thousand in one troop, all apparently 
 under the command of a leader, the strongest 
 and boldest of the herd, whom they implicitly 
 obey. A secret instinct teaches them that 
 their safety consists in their union, and in a 
 principle of subordination. The lion, the tiger, 
 and the leopard are their principal foes, which, 
 as we have said, they trample to death, being 
 led on by their leader, which is the first to 
 face the danger/ iShould the prudence of their 
 leader suggest the necessity of a retreat, the 
 wiiole troop follow in his wake. 
 
 ]n the thinly inhabited parts of South Ame- 
 rica it is dangerous to fall-in with any of these 
 troops, as when they see a horse mounted, 
 they approach as near as they dare, and call 
 upon the mounted horse with much eagerness. 
 41 
 
 On such an occasion, if the rider be not on 
 the alert, and have not considerable strength 
 of arm, and sharpness of spur, his beast will 
 divest himself of his burden, take to his heels, 
 and be gone for ever. 
 
 Captain Head gives tlie following account of 
 a meeting with a troop of wild horses, where 
 the country is more thickly inhabited. Some 
 poor captured animals are supposed to be 
 forced along by their riders, at their very 
 utmost speed : — " As they are thus galloping 
 along, urged by the spur, it is interesting to 
 see the groups of wild horses one passes. The 
 mares, which are never ridden in South Ame- 
 rica, seem not to understand what makes the 
 poor horse carry his head so low, and look so 
 weary. Tlie little innocent colts come running 
 to meet him, and then start away frightened ; 
 while old horses, whose white marks, on the 
 flanks and backs, betray their acquaintance 
 with the spur and saddle, walk slowly away 
 for some distance; then, breaking into a trot 
 as they seek their safety, snort and look behind 
 them, first with one eye, and then with the 
 other, turning their nose from right to left, 
 and carrying their long tail high in the air." 
 
 The same pleasing writer describes the 
 system of horse-management among the rude 
 inhabitants of the plains of South America. 
 Tliey have no stables, no fenced pastures. 
 One horse is usually kept tied at the door of 
 the hut, fed scantily at night on maize; or, at 
 other times, several may be enclosed in the 
 corral, which is a circular space surrounded 
 by rough posts driven firmly into the ground. 
 Tiie mares are never ridden or attempted 
 to be tamed, but wander, with their fouls, 
 wlierever they please. 
 
 When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of 
 the plains, wants horses for himself or for the 
 supply of the traveller, he either goes with 
 his lasso to the corral, and selects those, 
 possibly, who, on the preceding day, had for 
 the first time been backed, or he scampers 
 across the plain, and presently returns with an 
 unwilling, struggling, or subdued captive. 
 When the services of the animals have been 
 exacted, he either takes them to the corral, 
 and feeds them with a small quantity of 
 maize, if he thinks he shall presently need 
 them again, or he, once more, turns them loose 
 on the plains. 
 
•WILD nORSE.] 
 
 IMODEEN VETEIIIXA"RT PEACTTCR 
 
 [wild TionsE. 
 
 Travellers give some amusing Accounts of 
 the manner in which all thia is efl'ected. Miers 
 thus descrihes the lasso, simple in its con- 
 struction, but all-powerful in the hands of the 
 Gaucho. 
 
 "The lasso is a missile weapon used by 
 every native of the United Provinces and 
 Ciiili. It is a very strong plaited thong of 
 equal thickness, half an inch in diameter, and 
 forty feet long, made of many strips of green 
 hide, plaited like a whipthong, and rendered 
 supple by grease. It has, at one end, an iron 
 ring above an inch and a-half in diameter, 
 through which the thong is passed, and this 
 forms a ruiniing noose. The Gaucho, or 
 native Peon, is generally mounted on horse- 
 back when he uses the lasso. One end of 
 the thong is afBxed to his saddle girth : the 
 remainder he coils carefully in iiis left iiand, 
 leaving about twelve feet belonging to the 
 noose-end, in a coil, and a half of which he 
 holds in his right hand. He then swings 
 this long noose horizontally round his head, 
 the weight of the iron ring, at the end of 
 the noose, assisting in giving to it, by a con- 
 tinued circular motion, a sufficient force to 
 project it the whole length of the line." 
 
 AViieu tiie Gauchos wish to have a grand 
 breaking-in, they drive a whole herd of wild 
 horses into the corral. "The corral was quite 
 full of horses, most of which were young ones 
 about two or three years old. The capitar 
 (chief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady 
 horse, rode into the corral, and tiirew his lasso 
 over the neck of a young horse, and dragged 
 him to the gate.". For some time the cole was 
 very unwilling to leave his comrades; but tlie 
 moment he was forced out of the corral, his first 
 idea was to gallop away : however, a timely 
 jerk of the lasso checked him in the most 
 efiectual way. The peons now ran after him 
 on foot, and threw a lasso over his fore-legs, 
 just above the fetlock; and twitciiing it, they 
 pulled his legs from under him so suddenly, 
 that I really thought the fall he got had killed 
 him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated on 
 his head, and, with his long knife, and in a few 
 seconds, cut oft' the whole of the horse's mane, 
 while another cut the hair from tlie end of his 
 ta;l. This, they told me, was a mark that the 
 horse had been once mounted. They then put 
 fc piece of hide iuto his mouth, to serve for a 
 
 bit, and a strong hide halter on hia head. The 
 Gaucho who was to mount, arranged hia spurs, 
 which were unusually long and sharp; and, 
 while two men held the horse by his ears, he 
 put on the saddle, which he girthed extremely 
 tight, lie then caught hold of the horse's 
 ear, and, in an instant, vaulted into the saddle; 
 upon which the man who held the animal bv 
 the halter, threw the end to the rider, and, 
 from that moment, no one seemed to take any 
 further notice of him. 
 
 "The horse, instantly, began to jump in a 
 manner which made it very difficult for the 
 rider to keep his seat, and quite different from 
 the kick or plunge of an English horse: how- 
 ever, the Gaucho's spurs soon set him going, 
 and off he galloped, doing ever}tliing in his 
 power to throw his rider. 
 
 "Another horse was immediately brought 
 from the corral ; and so quick was the opera- 
 tion, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a 
 space which, I think, hardly exceeded an hour. 
 It was wonderful to see the difl'erent manner 
 in which difterent horses behaved. Some would 
 actually scream while the Gauchos were girding 
 the saddle upon their backs; some would in- 
 stantly lie down and roll upon it; while some 
 would stand witiiout being held — their legs 
 stiff', and in unnatural positions; their necks 
 halt bent towards their tails, and looking vicious 
 and obstinate; and I could not help thinking 
 that I would not have mounted one of those 
 for any reward that could be offered me, for they 
 were invariably the most difficult to subdue. 
 
 "It was now curious to look around and see 
 the Gauchos on the horizon, in different direc- 
 tions, trving to bring their horses back to the 
 corral, which is the most difficult part of 
 their work ; for the poor creatures had been 
 so scared there, that they were unwilling to 
 return to the place. It was amusing to see 
 the antics of the horses — they were jumping 
 and dancing in different ways, while the right; 
 arm of the Gauchos was seen flogging them. 
 At last they brought the horses back, appa- 
 rently subdued, and broken in. The sa<l(lles 
 and bridles were taken off, and the young 
 horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing 
 to one another." 
 
 The manufacture of the Gaucho's b >ot.-i is 
 somewhat singular. " Tliey are formrd of the 
 ham and part of the leg-skiu ofaco.'t takeu 
 
 45 
 
VriLD HORSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [wild hoesb. 
 
 reeking from the niotlier, wliich is said to be 
 sacrificed for the sole purpose, just at the time 
 of bearing when the hair has not begun to 
 grow. At this stage the skin strips off easily, 
 and is very white and beautiful in texture and 
 appearance. The ham forms the calf of the 
 boot; the hock easily adapts itself to the heel ; 
 and the leg above tlie fetlock constitutes the 
 foot; the whole making a neat and elegant 
 half- boot, with an aperture suiBcient for tlie 
 great toe to project through." 
 
 When the Gaucho wishes to take a wild 
 horse, he mounts one that has been used to 
 the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon 
 as he comes sufficiently near liis prey, "the 
 lasso is thrown round the two hind-legs; 
 and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side, 
 the jerk pulls the entangled horde's feet late- 
 rally, so as to throw him on his side, without 
 endangering his knees or his face. Before the 
 horse can recover the shock, the rider dis- 
 mounts, and snatching his poncho or cloak 
 from ins shoulders, wraps it round the pros- 
 trate aninud's head. He then forces into his 
 niouth one of the powerful bridles of the 
 country, straps a saddle on his back, and 
 bestriding him, removes the poncho; upon 
 which the astonished horse springs on his 
 legs, and endeavours, by a thousand vain 
 efforts, to disencumber himself of his new 
 master, who sits quite composedly on his back^ 
 and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces 
 the animal to such complete obedience, that 
 he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and 
 strength to the capture ot his companions." 
 
 These animals possess much of the form of 
 the Spanish horse, from which they sprung. 
 They are tamed, as has been seen, with far less 
 difficulty than could be thought possible; and, 
 although theirs is the obedience of fear, and 
 enforced at first by the whip and spur, there 
 are no horses that so soon and so perfectly 
 exert their sagacity and their power in the 
 service of man. They are possessed of no 
 extraordinary speed; but they are capable of 
 enduring immense tatigue, and are frequently 
 ridden fifty or sixty miles without drawing bit. 
 Indeed, it is known that they have been urged 
 on by the cruel spur of the Gaucho, more than 
 a hundred miles, and at tlie rate of twelve 
 miles in the hour. 
 
 Like the Arab horses, they know no inter 
 46 
 
 mediate pace between the walk and the gallop. 
 Although, at the end of a day so hard, their sides 
 are horribly mangled, and they themselves so 
 completely exhausted, there is this consolation 
 for them — that they are immediately turned 
 loose on the plains, and it will be their own 
 fault if they are speedily caught again. The 
 mare is occasionally killed for food, and, espe- 
 cially, on occasions of unusual festivity. Gen- 
 eral San Martin, during the war for indepen- 
 dence, gave a feast to the Indian allies attached 
 to his army; and the flesh of niares, with the 
 blood mixed with gin, formed tbe whole of the 
 entertainment. 
 
 On such dry and sultry plains the supply of 
 water is often scanty. When this is the case, 
 a species of madness seizes on the horses, and 
 their generous and docile qualities are no longer 
 recognised. They rush violently into every 
 pond and lake, savagely mangling and trampling 
 upon one another ; and the carcasses of many 
 thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows, 
 have occasionally been seen in and around a con- 
 siderable pool. This is one of the means by 
 which the too rapid increase of this quadruped 
 is, by an ordinance of Nature, prevented. It 
 is observed by Humboldt, that during the 
 periodical risings of the large rivers, vast 
 numbers of wild horses are drowned. Tiiis is 
 especially the case when the Apure is swollen, 
 and when these animals attempt to reach the 
 rising grounds of the Llanos. 
 
 The bolas is another instrument which is 
 occasionally brought into requisition by the 
 Gauchos for the catching of wild horses. It 
 consists of two balls, of two kinds, attached tr 
 thongs. The first is composed of three rounc 
 stones, about the size of a man's fist, covere'i 
 with strong leather, and attached to a common 
 centre by tough leathern cords, three feet 
 long. The smallest of the three is taken in 
 the hand; and, after whirling the others vio* 
 lently round the head, the whole are thrown to 
 the distance of about one hundred teet, when 
 they so maim and entwine themselves round the 
 limbs of any living creature, that it is impos- 
 sible to escape from them. Tlie other kind is 
 a single ball of the same size, except when it 
 is made of iron or copper, it being then 
 smaller. It is also covered with leather, and 
 lias a leathern thong attached, by which it 
 IS whirled round, and, at tlie hard gali.-p, 
 
WILD HOUSE.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [wild iionsK. 
 
 projected with immense force to the distance of 
 five hundred feet. Tlie launching of tliis weapon 
 amidst a tribe of wild horses, is thus described 
 by Robertson, in his History of Faraguay : — 
 " The herd consisted of about two thousand 
 horses, neighing and snorting, with ears erect 
 and flowing tails, their manes outspread to the 
 wind — aflTriglited the moment they were con- 
 scious of pursuit. The Gauchos set up their 
 usual cry ; the dogs were left in the distance ; 
 and it was not till we had followed the flock 
 at full speed, and without a check, for five 
 miles, that the two headmost peons launched 
 their bolas at the horse which each had 
 respectively singled out of the herd. Down 
 to the ground, with frij^htful somersaults, came 
 two gallant colts. The herd continued its 
 headlong flight, leav7jg behind their two pros- 
 trate companions. Upon these the whole 
 band of Gauchos now ran in ; lassos were 
 applied to tie their legs ; one man held down 
 the head of each horse, and another the hind 
 quarters ; while with singular dexterity, two 
 other Gauchos put the saddles and bridles on 
 their fallen, trembling, and nearly frantic 
 victims. This done, the two men who had 
 brought down the colts, bestrode them as they 
 still lay on the ground. In a moment the 
 lassos which bound their legs were loosened, 
 and, at the same time, a shout from the field 
 so frightened the colts, that up they started 
 on all fours, but, to their astonishment, each 
 with a rider on his back, riveted, as it were, 
 to the saddle, and controlling them by means 
 of a never-before-dreamed-of bit in his mouth. 
 The animals made a simultaneous and most 
 surprising vault; they reared, plunged, and 
 kicked ; now they started off" at full gallop, 
 and anon stopped short in their career, with 
 their heads between their legs, endeavouring 
 to throw their riders. Immovable sat the two 
 Indians ; they smiled at the unavailing efforts 
 of the turbulent and outrageous animals to 
 unseat tliem ; and, in less than an hour from 
 the time of their mounting, it was very evident 
 who were to be the masters. The horses did 
 their very most ; the Indians never lost either 
 the security or the grace of their seats ; till, 
 after two hours of the most violent efil>rts to 
 rid themselves of their burden, the horses 
 were so exhausted, that, drenched in sweat, 
 with gored and palpitating sides, and banging 
 
 down their heads, they stood for five minutes 
 together, panting and confounded; but they 
 made not a single eff'ort to move. Then came 
 the Gaucho's turn to exercise his more posi- 
 tive authority. Hitherto he had been entirely 
 upon the defensive. His object was simply to 
 keep his seat, and tire out his horse. He now 
 wanted to move it in a given direction : way. 
 ward, zigzag, often interrupted was his course 
 at first ; still the Gauchos made for a given 
 l)oiiit, and they advanced towards it ; till, at 
 the end of about tliree hours, the now mastered 
 animals moved in nearly a direct line." 
 
 In 1537, horses were first landed at Buenos 
 Ayres, in South America ; and betweeu forty 
 and fifty years afterwards, they were found 
 wild at the Straits of Magellan. From that 
 time to this, they have continued to multiply 
 and extend the range of their existence. 
 North, south; east, and west, the horse 
 abounds in the American hemisphere. At 
 Terra-del-Fuega, almost every man, woman, 
 and child, have their horses ; even the Indians 
 have them : and, it is not a little remarkable, 
 that the countless troops that now skirr the 
 Llanos of the South, and the prairies of tlie 
 North, should all have sprung from the 
 Iberian stock first taken into Mexico by 
 Cortes, and into Peru by Pizarro. 
 
 We have already alluded to the fact of the 
 horse having been, at some remote period, a deni- 
 zen of the American continent. Professor Owen 
 thinks that they existed there even before the 
 creation of man. In his work on Britinh Fus.sil 
 Mammals, he says — "The species of equiis 
 which existed during the Miocine periods of 
 geology, iu both North and South America, 
 appears to have been blotted out of the Fauna 
 of those continents before the existence of 
 man. The aborigines, whom the S[)anish con- 
 quistadores found in possession of Peru and 
 Mexico, had no tradition or hieroglyphic indi- 
 cative of such a quadrni)ed ; atid the horses, 
 the invaders imported from Europe, were 
 viewed with astonisliment and alarm. The 
 researches of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Lund, have 
 indisputably proved that the genus equus was 
 represented during the Pliocine period, by a 
 species (equus curvkleus) which is shown to be 
 distinct from the European fossils, and also 
 from the existing species. Fossil remains of 
 the horse have been found also in North 
 
 47 
 
AMERICAN HOBSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [AMERICAN HORSE. 
 
 America. Tlie geographical range of tlie genus 
 equus was, tlieretbre, more extensive at tlie 
 Pliocine period, than that of the rhinoceros, of 
 which both the fossil and the existing species 
 are confined to the Old World of the geogra- 
 phers. Tlie horse, in its ancient distribution 
 over both hemispheres of the globe, resembles 
 the mastadon, and appears to have become 
 extinct in North America at the same time 
 with the mastadon gigunteus, and iu South 
 America, with the mastadon of the Andes, 
 and the megatherium. Well may ]\Jr. Darwin 
 say — 'It is a marvellous event in the hi.story 
 of animals, that a native kind should have dis- 
 appeared, to be succeeded, in after ages, by the 
 countless herds iutroduced with the Spanish 
 conquerors.' " 
 
 THE NORTH AMERICAN HORSE. 
 
 Traversing the isthmus of Darien, and enter- 
 ing North America, we find herds of wild 
 horses, the offspring of those which formerly 
 escaped from the Spanish possessions in 
 Mexico — even abounding on the extensive 
 prairies that lie to the west of the Mississi|)pi. 
 They were once numerous on the Kootannie 
 Lands, near the northern sources of the 
 Columbia. The young stallions live iu sepa- 
 rate herds, being driven away by the old ones, 
 and are easily ensnared by using domestic 
 mares as a decoy. The natives are acquainted 
 with the Spanish-American method of taking 
 them with the lasso. Major Long mentions 
 that " horses are an object of a particular 
 hunt to the Osages. For the purpose of obtain- 
 ing these animals — which, in their wild state, 
 preserve ail their fleetness — they go in a large 
 party to the country of the Eed Canadian 
 river, where they are to be found in consider- 
 able numbers. Wlien they discover a troop, 
 they distribute themselves into three parties, 
 two of which take their stations at different 
 and proper distances on the route, which, by 
 previous experience, they know the horses 
 will most probably take when endeavouring to 
 escape. This arrangement being completed, 
 the first party commences the pursuit in the 
 direction of their colleagues, at whose position 
 they at length arrive. The second party then 
 continues the chase with fresh horses, and 
 pursues the fugitives to the third party, which 
 generally succeeds in so far running them 
 48 
 
 down, as to noose and capture a considerable 
 number of them." 
 
 The domestic horse is an object of great 
 value to the nomadic tribes of Indians that 
 frequent the extensive plains of the Missouri, 
 &c. ; for they are not only useful in transport- 
 ing their tents and families from place to place, 
 but one of the highest objects of the ambition 
 of a young Indian, is to possess a good horse 
 for the chase of the butlalo — au exercise of 
 which he is passionately fond. To steal the 
 horse of an adverse tribe is considered to be 
 nearly as heroic an exploit as killing an enemy 
 on the field of battle ; and the distance to 
 which they occasionally travel, and the priva- 
 tions they undergo in their horse-marauding 
 excursions, are almost incredible. An Indian 
 who owns a horse, scarcely ever ventures to 
 sleep after night-fall ; but sits at the door of 
 his tent, with the halter iu one hand, and his 
 gun in the other ; the animal's fore-legs being, 
 at the same time, tied together witli thongs 
 of leather. Notwithstanding all this care, 
 however, it happens vei-y often that the hunter, 
 siiffering himself to be overpowered by sleep 
 for a few moments, awakes from the noise 
 made by the thief galloping off with his animal. 
 
 In Great Britain, opportunities by which 
 the svvinnning powers of the horse might be 
 tested, rarely occur. Mr. Darwin says, that 
 wheu he was in South America, "I crossed 
 the Lucia near its mouth, and was surprised 
 to observe how easily our horses, although not 
 used to swim, passed over a width of, at least, 
 six hundred yards. On mentioning this at 
 Monte Video, I was told that a vessel contain- 
 ing some mountebanks and their horses, being 
 wrecked in the Plata, one horse swam seven 
 miles to the shore. In the course of the day, 
 I was amused by the dexterity with which 
 a Gaucho forced native horses to swim a river, 
 lie stripped off his clothes, and jumping on 
 the back of the animal, rode into the water till 
 it was out of its depth ; then slipping off over 
 the crupper, he caught hold of the tail ; and as 
 often as the horse turned, the man frightened it 
 back by splashing water in its face. As soon 
 as the horse touched the bottom on the other 
 side, the man pulled himself on, and was firmly- 
 seated, bridle iu baud, before the horse gained 
 the bank. A naked man on a naked horse ia 
 a fine spectacle. I had uo idea how well the 
 
CANADIAN HOKSE.] MODERN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [Canadian hoese. 
 
 two animals suited each other. The tail is 
 a very useful appendnge. I have passed 
 a river in a boat, with four people in it, 
 which was ferried across in the same way as 
 the Gaucho. If a man and horse have to 
 cross a broad river, the best plan is for the 
 man to catch hold of the pommel or mane, and 
 help himself with the other arm." 
 
 In Pennsylvania, a horse called the Cones- 
 toga, long in the legs, and light in the carcass, 
 is found. Its height is about seventeen hands, 
 and it is used principally as a carriage-horse. 
 This animal is pretty general in the middle 
 states. In Kentucky and Yirginia, the Eng- 
 lish horse, with a fair quantity of blood, is 
 found. Also in the Southern states, where 
 purity has had greater attention. Shark, the 
 best English horse of his day, was the sire of 
 the best stock in Virginia; and Tally-ho gave 
 his offspring to the Jerseys. 
 
 THE CANADIAN HORSE. 
 
 Winter travelling in Canada is sometimes 
 very expeditious ; and it is surprising with 
 what speed a good Canadian horse will go, 
 when drawing a cabriolet over the ice. In- 
 stances have occurred of their travelling ninety 
 miles, in one of these vehicles, in twelve 
 hours ; but, when this happens, the roads must 
 be very smooth and hard. 
 
 The Canadian horse is a remarkably hardy 
 animal ; his best pace is a trot ; and although 
 he is accustomed to much bad usage and hard 
 work, he is the most willing creature in the 
 world — as the jockeys term it — for he never 
 refuses the draught. In the coldest weather 
 horses come into Quebec from the country, 
 and are left standing in the open air, without 
 any covering, for hours together, while their 
 owners are transacting their business, or 
 drinking; yet they seem not to be any the 
 worse for it. In the winter, like all other 
 quadrupeds of that country, they acquire an 
 increased quantity of fur to protect them from 
 the cold ; and the curry-comb is never used. 
 When they have been heated by fast driving 
 on a cold day, they appear to have a sort of 
 icicle at every hair ; and icicles, two or three 
 inches in length, often hang at their noses. 
 
 In the winter season, travelling on the ice 
 is at all times dangerous ; and it is very 
 common for sleigh, horses, and men, to fall 
 
 H 
 
 through the ice where the water is some 
 hundred feet deep : luckily, however, the weak 
 places are of no great extent, and the traveller 
 extricates hiiiuselt' from the sleigh as quickly 
 as possible, wlien ho lays hold of the ice, 
 which is generally strong enough to support 
 him, thougli it will not bear the weight of the 
 horses. The pulling of tlieae out is done in a 
 manner perfectly unique, the horses being often 
 nearly strangled to save them from suffocation. 
 
 When the horses fall through — for there are 
 generally two in these sleighs — their struggles 
 only tend to injure and sink each other ; but as- 
 they have always round their necks a rope with. 
 a running noase, the moment the ice breaks,, 
 the driver and passengers jump out, and 
 catching hold of the rope, pull it with all 
 their force. This, in a very few minutes,, 
 stops the breath of the horses ; and no sooner 
 does this happen, than they rise in the water, 
 float on one side, and are drawn out on strong 
 ice, when the noose of the rope being loosened, 
 respiration returns. In a short time, the 
 horses are on their feet, and as much alive 
 as ever. This operation has been known to be 
 performed two or three times a-day on the same 
 horses. The Canadians state, that horses which 
 are often on the lakes, become so accustomed 
 to being hanged, that they think nothing at all of 
 it. But, though the case is very common, the 
 attempt does not always succeed ; for it some- 
 times happens that both sleigh and horses go. 
 to the bottom, if not extricated in time. 
 
 Another remarkable fact respecting tho 
 Canadian horses, is said to be a great fondness- 
 for fish. To what extent they carry this- 
 singular appetite we have never heard de- 
 scribed. The kind of fish is said to be a species 
 of cod ; and the manner of catching them is by 
 cutting holes in the ice, and putting down either 
 nets or lines. Over this hole a temporary house 
 is built, large enough to contain half-a-dozen 
 fishermen, and a stove to keep them warm. 
 Such as cannot afford deals to build a house, 
 substitute large pieces of ice, with which they 
 form a kind of defence against the weather, 
 and literally pursue their piscatory sport in an 
 ice-house. 
 
 A correspondent of the Fenny Magazine, 
 sent to that periodical the following instance 
 of sagacity in the North American horse:— 
 "A short distance below Port Erie, and about 
 
 49 
 
CANADIAN HOESE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CANADIAN HOESE. 
 
 a mile from where the river Niagara escapes 
 over a barrier of rock from the depths of Lake 
 Erie, a ferry has long been established across 
 that broad, and there exceedingly rapid, river; 
 the distance from shore to shore being a little 
 over one-third of a mile. On the Canada side 
 of the river is the small village of Waterloo ; 
 and opposite thereto, on the United States' 
 side, is the large river of Black Eock, distant 
 from the young and flourishing city of Buifalo 
 two miles. In completing the Erie canal, a 
 pier or dam was erected — up and down the 
 river, and opposite to Black Eock, at no great 
 distance from the shore, for the purpose of 
 raising the waters of the Niagara to such a 
 height that they might be made to supply an 
 adjoining section of the Erie canal. This pier 
 was a great obstruction to the ferry-boats ; for, 
 previous to its erection, passengers embarked 
 from terra firma on one side of the river, and 
 were landed, without any difficulty, on the 
 other ; but, after this dam was constructed, it 
 became necessary to employ two sets of boats 
 — one to navigate the river, and the other the 
 basin ; so that all passengers, as well as goods 
 or luggage, had to be landed on this narrow 
 wall, and reshipped. Shortly after the erection 
 of the pier- dam, a boat, propelled by horses, 
 was established between this pier and the 
 Canada shore. The horses moved upon a 
 circular platform, which, consequently, was put 
 in motion ; to which other machinery was con- 
 nected, that acted upon paddle-wheels attached 
 to the sides of the boat. The boat belonged 
 to persons connected with the ferry on the 
 American side of the river ; but, owing to the 
 barrier formed by the pier, the horses employed 
 on the boat were stabled at night in the village 
 of Waterloo. The two horses — for that boat 
 had but two — worked admirably, considering 
 the very few lessons they had had previous to 
 their introduction upon the main river. One 
 of the horses employed on the new ferry-boat, 
 had once been a dapple-grey; but, at the 
 period I am speaking of, he had become white. 
 He was still hale and hearty, for he had a kind 
 and indulgent master. 
 
 " The first evening after the horses had been 
 a short time in the stable to which they were 
 strangers, they were brought out for the purpose 
 of being watered at the river — the common 
 custom of this place. The attendant was 
 50 
 
 mounted on the bay horse ; the white one was 
 known to be so gentle and docile that he was 
 allowed to drink where he pleased. I hap- 
 pened to be standing close by, in company with 
 
 my friend W , the ferry contractor of the 
 
 Canada side, and thus had an opportunity of 
 witnessing the whole proceedings of " Old 
 Grizzle," the name that the white horse still 
 went by. The moment he got round the 
 corner of the building, so as to have a view of 
 his home on the opposite side, he stopped 
 and gazed intently. He then advanced to the 
 brink of the river, when he again stopped, and 
 looked earnestly across for a short time ; then 
 waded into the water until it had reached his 
 chest — drank a little, lifted his head, and, with 
 his lips closed, and his eyes fixed upon some 
 object upon the furthest shore, remained for a 
 short time perfectly motionless. Apparently 
 having made up his mind to the task, he then 
 waded further into the river until the water 
 reached his ribs, when oif he shot into the 
 deep water without hesitation. The current 
 being so strong and rapid — the river boiling 
 and turmoiling over a rocky bed, at the rate 
 of six miles an hour — it was impossible for the 
 courageous and attached animal to keep a 
 direct course across, although he breasted the 
 waves heroically, and swam with remarkable 
 vigour. Had he been able to steer his way 
 directly across, the pier-wall would have 
 proved an insurmountable barrier. As it was, 
 the strength of the current forced him down 
 to below where the lower extremity of this 
 long pier abuts upon an island, the shore of 
 which being low and shelving, he was enabled 
 to effect a landing with comparative ease. 
 Having regained terra firma, he shook the 
 water from his dripping flanks ; but he did not 
 halt over a few minutes, when he plunged into 
 the basin, and soon regained his native shot-e. 
 The distance from where Grizzle took the 
 water, to where he effected a landing on the 
 island, was about seven hundred yards ; but 
 the efforts made to swim directly across against 
 the powerful current, must have rendered the 
 undertaking a much more laborious one. At 
 the commencement of his voyage, his arched 
 neck and withers were above the surface ; but 
 before he gained the island, his head only 
 was visible. He reached his own-stable door — ■ 
 that home for which he had risked so much — 
 
fl 
 
 ■■■I 
 
 .J 
 
BEiTisn HORSE.] MODEEN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [bthtish nonsK. 
 
 to tlie no small astonishment of his owner. 
 This unexpected visit evidently made a favour- 
 able impression upon his master, for he was 
 beard to vow, that if old Grizzle performed 
 the same feat a second time, for the future be 
 should remain on bis own side of the river, 
 and never be sent to the mill again. Grizzle 
 was sent back to work the boat on the follow- 
 ing day ; but be embraced the very first oppor- 
 tunity that occurred of escaping, swam back 
 in the way he had done before ; and his owner 
 not being a person to break the promise he 
 had once made, never afterwards dispossessed 
 him of the stable he had long been accustomed 
 to, and treated him with marked kindness and 
 attention." 
 
 THE BRITISH HORSE. 
 
 Having detailed, with as much fulness as we 
 deem necessary, the principal features and 
 characteristics of the horses of those nations 
 which have, more or less, held his qualities in 
 high estimation, we now proceed to give a 
 concise history of the English animal, and to 
 trace the improvement of the indigenous breed 
 of this country to its present exalted state. 
 "We may felicitate ourselves upon the fact, that 
 the efforts of our breeders and trainers to im- 
 prove the horse, have been crowned with the 
 most decided success ; for our animals are 
 vastly superior even to the parent stock, to 
 which we were first indebted for that new 
 infusion of blood which has given them greater 
 size, strength, and speed than are found in the 
 horses of any other country. 
 
 The early history of the English horse is 
 involved in too much uncertainty to allow us 
 to speak with decision upon even the proba- 
 bilities of his nature. It is said, however, that 
 be was comparatively small ia size, and of a 
 wild and uncultivated form. "When the island 
 was invaded by Csesar, be found the British 
 horses regularly harnessed to war-chariots ; 
 but it is supposed probable, that after the 
 people had advanced from barbarism into a 
 tolerable degree of civilisation, the use of the 
 animal was principally diverted to domestic 
 purposes. This supposition rises out of the 
 consideration of our insular position, which 
 naturally made the ocean the element upon 
 which we were best able to cope with our foes, 
 and superseded the necessity of establishing 
 
 an armed cavalry, until contention broke out 
 among ourselves. ]iy the Romans, liowevor, 
 the character of the horse of tliis country must 
 have been changed. In their cavalry were 
 horses from Italy, Gaul, and Spain ; and these 
 crossing with the indigenous breed of Britain, 
 would produce another race different from that 
 which had hitherto occupied the island. In 
 the seventh century, it is on record, that the 
 English then made use of the saddle, and that 
 bishops and others rode on horseback. Before 
 this period these dignitaries of the church 
 pursued their journeys mostly on foot, and 
 only made use of a horse when the circum- 
 stances were of such a character as to demand 
 it. To mark tlieir humility, they rode mares 
 only — the female animal being, at that time, 
 deemed neither so handsome nor so valuable as 
 the male. 
 
 At a subsequent period, during the Saxon 
 sway, it would appear that an excellent breed 
 had risen up ; and that in the time of Alfred, 
 a master of the horse was appointed to look 
 after the breeding and the training of that 
 animal. This is an important fact, inasmuch 
 as it forcibly indicates the height to which the 
 horse had now attained in the royal estima- 
 tion. This ofiicer, in every subsequent reign, 
 was attached to the sovereign, more particu- 
 larly on state occasions. 
 
 On the death of Alfred, Athelstan succeeded 
 to the throne, and this prince received from 
 Hugh Gapet, of France, a present of several 
 German running-horses. This, then, was the 
 cause of another cross in the English breed ; 
 and, as the horses presented were likely to be 
 of the very best kind, we may conclude that they 
 had an improving influence. The animal had 
 now attained a high reputation ; for we find 
 that Athelstan, a.d. 930, forbade the exporta- 
 tion of horses, except as presents to monarchs. 
 He also laboured to improve the breed, which 
 had already began to be considered valuable 
 on the continent. 
 
 About a century and a quarter later, "Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror invaded England, and the 
 success of his expedition soon produced a 
 corresponding effect upon the breed of English 
 horses. In his army were several Spanish 
 animals, ridden by Norman knights ; and the 
 war-horse upon which he himself rode, was a 
 native of Spain. The cross which took placa- 
 
 51 
 
BRITISH HORSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [BRITISH HORSE. 
 
 -with these tended greatly to raise the fallen 
 character of the Euglish horse for activity, 
 spirit, strength, and beauty. After the Con- 
 quest came the Crusades, which brought the 
 Euglish into an acquaintance with the fine 
 horses of Syria and Arabia, and enabled many 
 of our barons to possess themselves of some of 
 these species. Kichard Coeur-de-Lion himself 
 purchased two of the breed at Cyprus, celebrated 
 for their speed and beauty. We are not aware 
 whether these ever found their way to Britain ; 
 but about fifty years later, in the reign of 
 Henry II., we have the first mention of an Ara- 
 bian horse having been introduced to this coun- 
 try. In order to carry the knight of the Middle 
 Ages, invested in all the pomp and panoply of 
 war, a strong animal was necessary. Accord- 
 ingly, spirit, as well as power to carry liis rider, 
 must have been amongst the principal quali- 
 ties requisite to be obtained in the war-horse; 
 
 THE EN'GLTSH WAR-HORSK. 
 
 and these would naturally force themselves 
 upon men as the first objects of cultivation. 
 52 
 
 At this period the bead of the war-horse 
 was adorned with a crest, which, with his 
 flanks and chest, were either wholly or par- 
 tially protected by a mail covering. Indeed, 
 the body of the animal was, in some instances, 
 completely clothed in steel, and his bridle 
 decorated with every adjunct of splendour that 
 the purse of his rider could afford. Bells not 
 unfrequently formed a part of his equipment ; 
 than which, in the language of an old trouba- 
 dour, " there was nothing so proper to inspire 
 confidence in a knight, and terror in an 
 enemy." 
 
 At the early part of the twelfth century, 
 Smoothfield, or Smithfield, begins to be spoken 
 of as a horse-market, a tournament field, and 
 a race-course. Here horses of every descrip- 
 tion were to be seen, from the mighty and ma- 
 jestic charger, down to the light and sleek, am- 
 bling palfrey. Smithfield, however, has long 
 since passed from the character of both 
 a field and a race-course. It is no 
 longer what it was ; and whatever may 
 be the glories of its reminiscences in 
 the mind of the metropolitan anti- 
 quary, it will soon cease to be remem- 
 bered as having been the busy locality 
 even of a cattle-market. 
 
 Passing over the reigns of future 
 monarchs, many of whom laboured to 
 improve the breeds, we come to the 
 days of James I., who was a great 
 lover of field sports, and also a 
 great encourager, if not absolutely the 
 establisher of horse-racing in Scotland. 
 When he came to the English throne, 
 he brought, from his own country, the 
 same passion for sports ; and as he 
 was partial to racing, he determined 
 to try the Arab breed in this exercise. 
 Accordingly, he bought an Arabian, 
 for which he gave five hundred pounds, 
 but which was not very favourably esti- 
 mated by the then Duke of Newcastle, 
 who wrote a book on horsemanship, 
 and pronounced the pet ol James 
 worthless. Tiiis judgment so materially 
 damaged the Arabian in the eyes of 
 English breeders, that the Arab lost 
 caste immediately, and none of his 
 kind regained proper position for nearly a cen- 
 turv afterwards. 
 
BRITISH HORSE.] MODEEN VETERINAET PEACTICE. rBumsH nonsE. 
 
 In the reigns of Elizabeth and James, a 
 considerable number of writers appeared on 
 tlie subject of the liorse, and of farriery. 
 ]51underville, the earliest now known, and one 
 of the ablest, describes the generality of horses 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, as either weak or 
 sturdy jades, adapted only to draw ; with, how- 
 ever, some very creditable exceptions indeed. 
 As an example, he states the fact of one of 
 them having travelled for a wager eighty miles 
 within the day. The great breeders of the 
 country had been accustomed to import, for 
 the stud, "The Turk, the Barbarian, the 
 Sardinian, the Neapolitan, tiie Jennet of Spain, 
 the Hungarian, the high Almaine (German), 
 the Eriezland, the Elanders, and the Irish 
 Hobby." Nevertheless, in those days, horses 
 could not have been very numerous in Eng- 
 land, since Queen Elizabetli experienced the 
 utmost difficulty in mounting two or three 
 thousand cavalry. 
 
 Throughout these early periods, as in modern 
 times, riding on horseback, and trying the 
 speed of horses, was peculiarly an English 
 diversion. The country sports of hunting and 
 hawking are of very ancient date; and our 
 old chronicles furnish us with accounts of the 
 constant diversions in Smithfield, then an ex- 
 tensive plain, where, as already observed, 
 London citizens met, matched, and raced their 
 horses ; the superior social orders joining and 
 taking part with the citizens. 
 
 The unfortunate Charles I. instituted races 
 in Hyde-park ; and, after him, Cromwell kept 
 his stud ; but racing did not, throughout the 
 wars and the Protectorate, flourish as it had 
 done in the days of James I. ^With the 
 restoration of the merry monarch, racing, which 
 liad just lived a fitful season during the reign 
 of the first Charles, was began again with spirit. 
 At this period, with the exception of a few 
 Arab stallions and mares, of a most uncertain 
 lineage, introduced during the last reign, the 
 description of horses to be met with in Great 
 Britain, consisted of the Aboriginal race, the 
 ponderous Norman war-horse, and the un- 
 vicldy Elanders mare, used by the nobility 
 10 drag their state-coaches, and to carry 
 the pillions, upon which English dames were 
 wont to jog behind their burly masters. It 
 would be easy to trace all the variations of 
 the horse, known in this country by the very 
 
 significant names of " half-bred," from these 
 three sources. Of course we look for them 
 no further back than the first introduction of 
 Arab and Persian blood ; and we find them the 
 produce of the stallions of those countries 
 crossed with the English, Norman, and Eian- 
 ders mares. Thus, from the first, descended 
 the old English lumter, showing all the cross- 
 made, hardy franiowork of his dam— the 
 blood-like 'head, and flat sinewy legs of his 
 sire. The roadster, from the same sire, was 
 the produce of the second-class of our native 
 mares. As distinct classes, probably no speci- 
 mens of either are now to be found, their 
 descendants constituting the endless ramifica- 
 tions of all the tag-rag nondescripts, by which 
 the drudgery of town and country work is 
 performed. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Anne the Arabian 
 was brought again into fashion. A Mr. Darlev 
 was the means of this; and it is to the off'spring 
 of the animal — further noticed in our next 
 chapter — which goes by this gentleman's name, 
 that we are principally indebted for the breed 
 of horses which we now possess, and which is 
 unrivalled for strength, speed, and beauty. 
 
 The peculiar English system of breeding, 
 essentially and usefully different from any 
 other country in Europe, had an early com- 
 mencement; but it was confiued to the supe- 
 rior, chiefly to the sporting classes. This system 
 has been gradually and progressively improved 
 to the present time. Within the period of its 
 existence we have produced specimens in every 
 variety of the animal, bordering on attainable 
 perfection. Such, however, it must be acknow- 
 ledged, have been, even in our most vaunted 
 periods, sufficiently scarce ; and our numbers of 
 scientific and judicious breeders have at no 
 period formed the majority. The average, 
 however, of English horses, has possessed a 
 fair proportion of the English principle. Hence 
 their being always in demand for foreign studs. 
 " The coursers of the East," says Mr. Touatt, 
 " might have been easily procured ; a new 
 supply of Arabian blood might have been 
 obtained from the native country of the Barbj 
 but French and Italians, Germans, Eussians, 
 and Flemings, have flocked to the British 
 Isles. The pure blood of the present Barb 
 and Arabian has been postponed, and all have 
 deeply drawn from that of the thorough- 
 
 53 
 
PONIES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [ponies 
 
 bred English horse. This is a circumstance 
 with regard to which there is no dispute. It 
 is a matter of history, and it is highly credit- 
 able to our sporting-men and breeders," 
 
 This national principle of horse-breeding 
 consists in matching the horse and mare in 
 respect to size, substance, blood, and a certain 
 conventional symmetry, so as to obtain a form 
 in the foal, in which may subsist a union of 
 strength and ability for labour, with the 
 powers of activity and speedy progression. 
 We proceed on the principle that, generally 
 speaking, "like produces Hke," although to 
 this rule, like most others, exceptions appear. 
 
 As we imported foreign horses, invariably 
 improving upon those models, so we originally 
 imported the art of farriery and veterinary 
 science from the schools of Italy and Erance, 
 improving upon them likewise. In the earlier 
 periods of which we have been treating, the 
 farriers of note, and the riding-masters in 
 England, were generally Italian and French. 
 They were, indeed, sufficiently barbarous and 
 unenlightened ; but our native artists were in- 
 conceivably more so, when the length of time 
 is considered, through which their art had been 
 in universal practice m all its branches, 
 
 PONIES AND GALLOWAYS. 
 
 There is still one breed of horses, which 
 may be considered aboriginal in Great Bri- 
 tain, and which is the Slietland ponies — called 
 SheUies by the natives of Scotland. The de- 
 scription of these astonishing little animals 
 almost exceeds belief. They are less in size 
 than the Orkney horses ; for some are but nine, 
 others ten hands high ; and they are thought 
 big horses if eleven ; but although they are 
 BO small, they are full of vigour and life. Some 
 of the smaller sizes often prove the strongest. 
 Many of them are so diminutive that an able 
 man could lift them up in his arras ; yet it is 
 said they will carry him and a woman behind 
 him eight miles forward, and as many back. 
 Summer or winter they never enter a house, 
 but, in some places, run upon the mountains, 
 in troops ; and if, at any time, in winter they 
 are straitened for food, they will descend from 
 the hills when the ebb is in the sea, and feed 
 upon the sea-weed. Winter storms and 
 scarcity of food, bring them frequently so 
 
 about the end of June, when they are at their 
 best. They live to a considerable age, reach- 
 ing twenty-six, twenty-eight, or thirty years; 
 and are good for riding at twenty-four. Those 
 of a black colour are esteemed the most capa- 
 ble of endurance. The pied often prove not 
 so good. The smallest of the breed are in the 
 northern isles of Tell and TJnst. The coldness 
 of the air, coupled with their scanty provender 
 and hard usage, may influence their growth 
 to a large extent ; for, even if bigger horses 
 are brought into these islands, their offspring 
 will, in a little time, degenerate. 
 
 After viewing these little shelties, which are 
 almost of as much importance to the cotter of 
 their country, as the fleet Arabian of the 
 desert is to his master, we feel lost in admira- 
 tion at the wisdom of that Power who has 
 adapted animals just to suit the situation in 
 wliich they can be of most service to man. 
 
 Vie, now and then, see some of these small 
 creatures in the southern parts of England, 
 harnessed to a light garden chair, or some- 
 times carrying an almost baby rider. There 
 are several of them in Windsor-park. It would 
 be curious to watch the stock of these little 
 animals, and to see what improvement, in size, 
 a richer pasture would have upon the small- 
 ness of their original breed. 
 
 Besides the Shetland, there is the Highland 
 pony, which is not pleasant to ride, except at 
 a canter. His habits make him hardy, for 
 he is rarely housed in the summer or the 
 winter. The Rev. Mr. Hall says, that when 
 these animals come to any boggy piece of 
 ground, they first put their noses to it, and 
 then pat on it, in a peculiar way, with one of 
 their fore-feet ; and from the sound and feel of 
 the ground, they know whether it will bear 
 them. They do the same with ice, and deter- 
 mine, in a minute, whether they will proceed. 
 The Welsh pony is one of the most beau- 
 tiful little animals that can be imagined. He 
 lias a small head, high withers, deep, yet round 
 barrel, short joints, flat legs, and good round 
 feet. He runs with great speed ; has a wild 
 and roguish look ; and is just such an animal 
 as a spirited girl of sixteen would delight to 
 I be perched upon. When seen tossing his 
 ' mane on the sides of his native mountains, no 
 quadruped can be more attractive. The A¥elsh 
 
 low that they do not recover their strength till , ponies are said to be indebted to the celebrated 
 54 
 
POKIES.J 
 
 MODERN VETEEINAET PEACIICE. 
 
 [ponies. 
 
 Merlin, for their form and qualities. They will 
 live on any lure, and can never be tired out. 
 
 WELSH PONT. 
 
 The New Foresters, notwithstanding their 
 Marsk-blood, are generally ill-made, large- 
 headed, short-uecked, and ragged-hipped ; but 
 hardy, safe, and useful ; with much of their 
 ancient spirit and speed, and all their old 
 paces. The catching of these ponies is as 
 great a trial of skill, as the hunting of the wild 
 horse on the Pampas of South America, and a 
 greater one of patience. 
 
 A large number of ponies, of little value, used 
 to be reared in Lincolnshire, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Boston ; but the breed has been ne- 
 glected, and will, probably, be suffered to die out. 
 
 The Exmoor ponies, although generally 
 ugly enough, are hardy and useful. A well- 
 known sportsman says, that he rode one of 
 them half-a-dozen miles, and never felt such 
 power and action in so small a compass before. 
 To show his accomplishments, he was turned 
 over a gate at least eight inches higher than 
 his back ; and his owner, who rode fourteen 
 stone, travelled on him from Bristol to South 
 Molton, eighty-six miles, beating the coach 
 which ran the same road. 
 
 There is, on Dartmoor, a race of ponies much 
 in request in that vicinity, being sui'e-footed, 
 and hardy, and admirably calculated to get 
 over the rough roads and dreary wilds of that 
 mountainous district. The Dartmoor pony is 
 larger than the Exmoor, and, if possible, uglier. 
 He exists there almost in a state of nature. 
 The late Captain Colgrave, of the prison, had 
 a great desire to possess one of them of some- 
 what superior figure to ita fellows ; and having 
 
 several men to assist him, they separated it 
 from the herd. They drove it on to some rocks 
 by the side of a tor, an abrupt pointed hill — a 
 man following on horseback, while the captain 
 stood below watching the chase. The little 
 animal being driven into a corner, leapt com- 
 pletely over the man and horse, and escaped. 
 
 The horses which were formerly used in 
 Devonshire, and particularly in the western 
 and southern districts, under the denomination 
 of pack-horses, are a larger variety of the 
 Exmoor or Dartmoor breed. The saddle-horses 
 of Devonshire are mostly procured from the 
 more eastern counties. 
 
 It was, we believe, Buffon's opinion, that all 
 horses have been derived from one common 
 stock, and the difference between them in 
 point of strength, size, speed, &c., has been 
 accomplished only by food and climate. This, 
 however, has been disputed ; and the question 
 may be difiicult to answer, whether the pony 
 and large English horse were, or could be, 
 originally from a common stock. It is, how- 
 ever, not impossible that they might have had 
 one common origin ; for if we reflect on the 
 changes which the different modes of feeding 
 effect in the condition of animals, it is not so 
 improbable as it may at first appear. 
 
 Without pausing to discuss the question 
 whether a horse will represent in size what it 
 feeds on, we adduce a circumstance which has 
 some bearing upon it, and which fell under 
 the personal observation of the gentleman to 
 whom we are indebted for it. His father had 
 a mare that brought him no less than fourteen 
 colts, and all by the same horse, and not one 
 of which, at three years old, was under seven- 
 teen hands high. She was in the fifteenth 
 foal by the same horse, when he sold her to a 
 neighbouring farmer, reserving the foal, which 
 was to be delivered in a twelvemonth. 
 
 At her new master's, she was comparatively 
 starved, and she came back at the expiration 
 of the year, so altered as scarcely to be recog- 
 nised. The foal, four months old, was very 
 small. The little animal was put on the most 
 luxuriant diet, but it did not reach more than 
 fifteen hands high, at the expiration of the 
 third year. 
 
 Dr. Anderson says that there was once a 
 breed of small elegant horses in Scotland, 
 similar to those of Iceland and Sweden, and 
 
 65 
 
GALLOWAYS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [galloways. 
 
 which were known by the name of Galloways. 
 The best of these sometimes reached the height 
 of fourteen hands and a-half. One of this 
 description he possessed, it having been bought 
 for his use when a boy. In point of elegance 
 of shape, it was a perfect picture , and in 
 disposition was gentle and compliant ; it moved 
 almost with a wish, and never tired. Tlie 
 Doctor rode this little creature for twenty-five 
 vears ; and twice, in that time, rode a hundred 
 and fifty miles, without stopping, except to 
 bait, and that not above an hour at a time. 
 It came in, at the last stage, with as much ease 
 and alacrity as it had travelled the first. The 
 Doctor says, he would have undertaken to have 
 performed on this animal, when it was in its 
 prime, sixty miles a day for a twelvemonth 
 running, without any extraordinary exertion. 
 
 A Galloway in point of size, whether of 
 Scotch origin or not is uncertain, started when 
 coaches were running, from London with the 
 Exeter mail ; and, notwithstanding the nume- 
 
 rous changes of horses, and the rapid driving 
 of that vehicle, it arrived at Exeter — one hun- 
 dred and seventy-two miles — fifteen minutes 
 before the mail. A gentleman who saw this 
 animal about twelve months after his wonderful 
 performance, described him as being wind- 
 galled, spavined, ring-boned, and a lamentable 
 picture of the ingratitude of man towards a 
 willing and faithful servant. 
 
 In 1754, Mr. Corker's Galloway went one 
 hundred miles a-day for three successive days, 
 over the Newmarket course, and without the 
 slightest distress. 
 
 A Galloway belonging to Mr. Sinclair, of 
 Kirby-Lonsdale, performed at Carlisle the ex- 
 traordinary feat of one thousand miles in a 
 thousand hours ! 
 
 Galloways have greatly decreased in point 
 of numbers. Many of those which are now in 
 use, are obtained either from Wales or the 
 New Forest. The Galloway ia supposed to 
 have originally been of Spanish extraction. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HORSE ; THE SUPPOSED DEGENERACY OF THE RACING BREED, ETC. 
 
 Before considering our Eacers, and their 
 kindred breeds in this country, it may be as 
 well to make a few general observations on 
 the racing animal, and the supposed deteriora- 
 tion of his blood. The subject is one of 
 great interest, and merits the thoughtful con- 
 sideration of all those who are more especially 
 connected with the genus equidce. Some 
 have supposed that the deterioration may have 
 arisen from the fashion of the present mode of 
 breeding for lengtli of stride, and for short races. 
 This, however, might be easily altered by our 
 present stock, without proceeding to the neces- 
 sity of employing fresh blood to invigorate it. 
 There are others, again, who insist that nothing 
 less than a national establishment will prevent 
 our horses from becoming sorry jades. 
 
 The English horse is so identified with the 
 glory of the country, that we could hardly look 
 56 
 
 upon any one as possessed of patriotic feelings, 
 who would see, without a sigh, the degeneracy 
 of our native breed. 
 
 There is, at present, one circumstance, how- 
 ever, which places us in a novel situation in 
 respect to the horse, which time only can de- 
 velop. "We allude to the eflect that railroads 
 may have had upon the breed. It is a well- 
 known fact, that, at the commencement of the 
 railway system of travelling, many spirited 
 coach-proprietors gave almost hunters' prices 
 for their cattle, and that there was a regular 
 demand for horses of any size for the use of 
 coaches. This traffic having in a considerable 
 degree ceased, it will become a matter for con- 
 sideration whether there will be any stimulant 
 for breeding sufficient to carry it on with pro- 
 fit and spirit ; or whether it will be abandoned, 
 and treated with indifierence. 
 
EACE-HOBSES.] MODERN VETERTNAEY PEACTICE. [nACE-HonsES. 
 
 In the event of such a misfortune, we con- 
 fess we should have hailed with joy a national, 
 or any other establishment which might have 
 had the effect of preserving to us our present 
 breed. AVe will not say the time may not come 
 when the legislature may be called upon to de- 
 vise some plan to prevent a native degeneracy, 
 if needed ; because we feel convinced that that, 
 or any other measure, would be resorted to, to 
 prevent what would be considered a national 
 calamity, if not a real disgrace. There formerly 
 were, and still are, two opinions upon this sub- 
 ject ; and fearing that there may be some truth 
 in the degeneracy of the racing blood, although 
 not, we hope, to the extent entertained by the 
 projector of a national establishment, whose 
 plan was published some years ago ; yet, as the 
 subject has a certain interest, we preserve the 
 general features of the scheme propounded. 
 
 If we admit, for the sake of argument, that 
 our horses, now-a-days, are neither so durable, 
 nor possess the speed of an Eclipse or a Chil- 
 ders, does it follow that the breed has become 
 degenerate ? Are the circumstances in other 
 respects so exact, that we have no other alter- 
 native than to place it to the score of degene- 
 racy ? Has the racing blood of this country 
 become so intermixed and assimilated, as to 
 have produced the inconvenience, and to have 
 become the opprobrium of good breeders ; in 
 short, has our racing blood arrived at that 
 pitch of relationship, which constitutes what is 
 called breeding " in-and-in ? " Is the manage- 
 ment of racers now as formerly ? 
 
 Both Eclipse and Childers were about six 
 years old before they raced ; and at the present 
 day, horses run at two and three years old. 
 Is it to be expected that animals worked 
 at so tender an age, can be durable? "We 
 only ask whether the difference of manage- 
 ment between running horses at five or six, 
 and two or three, may not account, at least, 
 for their want of durability ? 
 
 The following are the remarks of the pro- 
 jector of a National Establishment, upon 
 the course which should be pursued in reference 
 to this subject, should it ever be taken up by 
 government. 
 
 A national establishment should commence 
 its functions by obtaining from the East a 
 considerable number of well-selected ponies. 
 The better portion would be found to possess 
 
 much natural speed, stoutness under severe 
 exertion, with limbs and feet peculiarly adapted 
 for moving rapidly on a hard surface. It 
 would bo puerile to bring from so great a 
 distance, such ill-shapen and attenuated crea- 
 tures as those now usually imported under 
 the name of Arabians ; or to employ persons 
 to purchase, who have not had experience of 
 the best horses under severe exertion. They 
 would search in vain amongst Orientals for 
 those properties which are acquired under a 
 system of continued selection. Looking only 
 for natural qualities, they should select animals 
 as nearly in a state of nature as they can find 
 them ; having good symmetry, a full amount 
 of muscle, and whatever natural speed the best 
 animals of the best race are found to possess. 
 
 "When brought to England a further trial 
 should be made. In this we should be content 
 with a degree of speed which is natural, and 
 an amount of structural power as nearly 
 natural as could be procured. The offspring 
 of these small horses should be tried in each 
 succeeding generation ; and we should be 
 satisfied, for a few years, to see the natural 
 speed of the race gradually augment ; retaining 
 only for breeding such as went through their 
 trials satisfactorily. 
 
 It would be folly to buy horses of largo 
 structure in the East, as such would be found 
 to have less speed than the smaller ones ; while 
 factitfous structure can be given by ourselves 
 with only too much facility. 
 
 "Whenever the public shall become alive to 
 the deteriorated condition of our saddle-horses, 
 and anxious to obtain such as are more usetul, 
 the first step must be a recurrence to nature 
 for those properties which art has destroyed. 
 It has been shown that, in the absence of 
 fresh blood, the elongated skeleton of the 
 modern racer can only be shortened by a 
 process which would render him a starveling. 
 The character of the whole race has been 
 reduced, in this respect, to a common level. 
 Some individuals may be more compact than 
 others ; but all have lost something which 
 fresh blood only can restore. If we rear them 
 at a reasonable expense, their growth is stunted 
 — if on rich grass, they lose their speed. 
 "Whether we try to renovate this exhausted 
 race, or substitute another, the objects we 
 seek are a more compact form and greater 
 
 57 
 
RACE-HOESES.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 y^RACE-HOESES. 
 
 vigour ; and these can only be found in horses 
 which are nearer to a state of nature. So 
 long as individual differences in a race enable 
 us to correct individual defects, we may dis- 
 pense with fresh blood, but no longer, 
 
 A national establishment, having selected 
 horses from amongst a fine race, distinguished 
 by their symmetry, their natural speed, and 
 full amount of muscle, should carefully 
 observe how far the artificial properties 
 afterwards given to the race, diminished its 
 natural ones. A mass of facts would, after 
 some years, be obtained and recorded, calcu- 
 lated to throw, for the first time, a steady light 
 on the distant, as well as proximate, conse- 
 quences resulting from factitious causes. These 
 facts are not likely to be collected under any 
 system less permanent and comprehensive than 
 one under the control of a national establish- 
 ment. Its stock should be divided into two 
 portions; both should be placed under the 
 influence of continued selection for speed and 
 stoutness ; but one should be maintained at a 
 structure as nearly naturalas possible. "With 
 such conflicting properties as speed, vigour, 
 and great structural enlargement, a reserve of 
 more natural animals cannot be dispensed 
 with. The enlarged portion of the stock should 
 again be divided into two classes, one being 
 kept for breeding, the other for working. The 
 size of the former should be allowed to become 
 as large as is required to enable it to produce 
 animals sufficiently powerful for working ; 
 every efibrt should be made to keep down the 
 stature of the breeding animals to that point 
 which suffices, by the aid of rich food, to pro- 
 duce working animals sufficiently powerful ; 
 increasing the stature of the race as little, and 
 that of the individuals as much as possible. 
 In breeding horses of the best race, it might 
 be found desirable to have one portion of less 
 speed, but more muscular, than the other, in 
 order to meet that variety of demand which 
 necessarily exists in a highly civilised nation. 
 There should be a certain amount of foreign 
 blood in the horses of our heavy cavalry ; but 
 foreign horses, having a degree of speed which 
 is incompatible with much muscular power, 
 are not so well calculated for heavy cavalry as 
 such as have less speed, but more muscular 
 and constitutional power. Mambrino, Sweet- 
 william, or Sedbury, were better fitted for 
 58 
 
 producing proper stock for cavalry than Sharke. 
 This animal was more advanced by art than 
 the earlier horses as respects speed ; but he 
 was not so well calculated for enabling us to 
 produce powerful saddle-animals. If a foreign 
 race is to assist in the production of our heavy 
 cavalry horses, it should possess as much 
 structural power as can be combined with a 
 sufficiency of actiou, vigour, and sustaining 
 strength. 
 
 The natural qualities of the horse are found 
 nearest perfection when they are in a condi- 
 tion the least removed from one of nature. 
 Artificial structure is obtained b}' rich food, 
 and artificial speed by continued selection. 
 The course of the breeder is easy, so long as 
 it is in one direction ; that is, in advance. 
 When, however, the form of a whole race has 
 become deteriorated, the symmetry, which is 
 lost, can only be recovered by going back to 
 nature. A national establishment would, in 
 this case, renovate the enlarged portion of its 
 stock by having recourse to the animals whose 
 stature had been little increased. Such an 
 institution should ever be at work, preparing 
 smaller animals, by means of trials and con- 
 tinued selection, for being crossed when re- 
 quired with that enlarged portion of its stock 
 which, from time to time, became deteriorated. 
 The smaller animals, until wanted, should be 
 kept in a state of nature as nearly as possible. 
 They would thus retain their vigour while 
 acquiring all the advantages derivable from 
 continued selection ; they could be maintained 
 at the least possible expense ; at one which the 
 sale of the annual draughts would nearly or 
 wholly repay. 
 
 If a new race were to be formed, under the 
 system we have now recommended, capable of 
 running long distances, and carrying consider- 
 able weight without distress, premiums might 
 be again granted to the winners of certain 
 feats upon the turf. To attempt to make 
 modern racers run longer distances, or carry 
 more weight than at present, would be both 
 cruel and useless. A national establishment, 
 undertaking to form a new race of foreign 
 horses, could not be said to succeed, unless it 
 supplied the country with as swift, stout, and 
 powerful animals as were the earlier racers. 
 Knowing accurately the powers of the new 
 race, it could point out the nature of the 
 
EACE-noRSEs.] MODEEN VETEKINARY PEACTICE. [uACE-uoRSKa. 
 
 running for wliich premiums might properly 
 be granted ; and great tasks might again be 
 performed on the race-course without any of 
 the cruelty which attends the present modes 
 of running. 
 
 The stallions, whose stature had been ade- 
 quately enlarged in the establishment for sup- 
 plying the demand of the farmers in the great 
 breeding counties, should be let out under 
 strict regulations, or, in those counties, main- 
 tained by the establishment in a condition best 
 calculated to preserve their vigour. Mucila- 
 ginous food, and other expedients, had recourse 
 to, by private individuals, to make the animals 
 very fat, should not be resorted to. The 
 stallions of a national establishment should 
 make their way to public favour by the good- 
 ness of their stock. No horse should leave the 
 establishment, as a stallion, labouring under 
 any essential defect. If a public establish- 
 ment supplied the breeding counties with the 
 best class of stallions at a cheap rate — bred 
 within its own precincts — the public would be 
 eulightened by example ; and, becoming gradu- 
 ally accustomed to see the best forms, would 
 no longer be satisfied with bad ones. 
 
 In determining the utility of some such 
 plan as here proposed, the reader will do well 
 to ask himself the following questions. Is 
 there a strong disposition in every fine race of 
 the horse, whose structure has been enlarged 
 by unnaturally rich food, to become either 
 coarse or weedy ? Are the plans adopted on 
 the race-course, to prevent coarseness, more 
 than palliative ? And are not some of them 
 objectionable ? Is it not better to recur to 
 nature, when art has disposed a domesticated 
 race of horses to coarseness, than to such a 
 palliative as that of breeding on one side 
 from old parents ? Is not this substituting 
 weediness for coarseness ? If we adopt a 
 system under which both coarseness and 
 weediness are avoided, by recurring, when 
 necessary, to I'resh blood, we should be able 
 to rear and work horses at the least possible 
 expense. Under this system any essential 
 loss of vigour would be instantly repaired by 
 the most economical means. In maintaining 
 vigour in a race of horses without coarseness, 
 we should have laid the best foundation for 
 giving to it those artificial qualities which 
 result from ajinual trials, and continaed selec- 
 
 tion. It is in our power to modify greatly the 
 acquired, as well as the natural, properties of 
 Oriental horses ; but we cannot combine the 
 highest degree of transient speed with the 
 compact skeleton and muscular power dis- 
 played by the earlier horses, and required 
 when great distances are to be traversed, or 
 much weight to be carried. 
 
 The practical utility of the projector's plan 
 and speculations may create doubt in some 
 minds as to the propriety of ever adoptin"- 
 them to the extent of his views. They may, 
 however, stimulate inquiry, and, at some 
 period, be productive of all the benefit the 
 most sanguine may anticipate. It is a subject 
 of vital importance, and of grave deliberation. 
 
 We hear of much despondency expressed 
 that our breed of horses will die out, and that 
 its advantages, some of our continental neigh- 
 bours are of opinion, will not long remain with 
 us : they are fully aware of the source whence 
 we derived this superiority, and, in con- 
 sequence, have endeavoured to establish races 
 on the English plan, which, together with a 
 more careful selection of stallions and mares 
 than we observe in England, will very soon, 
 they say, enable them, to excel us ; and they 
 anticipate a day, not very distant, when we 
 must send to the continent, if not for speedy, 
 at least for sound horses. This hint aboui: 
 soundness may be worth attention ; but, for 
 the rest, there can be little to apprehend. 
 
 The following account for the demand of 
 the racing blood of this country, would, how- 
 ever, make it appear that, in foreign countries, 
 the English race-horse was, at no distant day, 
 held in great estimation. 
 
 England, where, during the last century, 
 the improvement of her breed of horses has 
 been cultivated with unwearied zeal and a 
 lavish expenditure, is now reaping a golden 
 harvest in return for her enterprise and spirit. 
 Purchasers arrive from the four quarters of 
 the globe. America has taken up the specula- 
 tion with an ardour worthy the scion of " the 
 old country;" and .b" ranee, more especially 
 under the reign of JS^apoleon the Third, 
 seems to think it even of national importance 
 to encourage the breeding of horses upon a 
 better principle than that of crossing the 
 Flanders mare with the Norman stallion. 
 With the view of turning the attention of tho 
 
 59 
 
EACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [EACE-nOHSES. 
 
 Erench farmer to a new source of rural 
 industry, the royal breeding stud in Nor- 
 inandy is conducted on a scale of which we 
 have no example in this country. Their stud 
 of stallions is enormous ; and during the 
 season, many of the best sort are sent all over 
 the country. 
 
 Germany purchased largely of our best 
 blood : Holstein, Belgium, Denmark, and 
 Eussia have bought from us : but no pur- 
 chasers formerly came to the English market, 
 or evinced the talent and spirit of the Ame- 
 ricans. France will never be a vent of any 
 consequence for our racing stock, as such. 
 Her government will import our stallions, 
 and encourage the speculation in others, as 
 the means of introducing a better description 
 of horse for general use, particularly for 
 cavalry ; but she will not offer, by the gift of 
 ])ublic money, any inducement for the intro- 
 duction of race-horses into that country. 
 
 We have no fear, however, of France rival- 
 ling us in the breed of horses, so long as we 
 have the law of primogeniture, and so long as 
 France is without it. The expenses of the 
 race-course will never be supported in France 
 .'n the same way as in England, on that very 
 account. In a country like France, where 
 property is so divided, and in a country like 
 England, where money is in such masses — the 
 race-course being a luxury as well as a pleasure, 
 becomes the employment of the nobility of the 
 land : the law of primogeniture preventing the 
 division of estates, secures, at once, the expe- 
 rience and the means of perpetuating the 
 breed of horses of the first quality, from gene- 
 ration to generation ; and this is one of the 
 causes of our superior breed of horses. 
 
 In fact, France does not require such a breed. 
 She has, comparatively speaking, very few cus- 
 tomers for thorough-bred horses, winch would 
 rather encumber than be useful to her. 
 Beyond the army and the court, there are not 
 many Frenchmen but would be content with a 
 moderate-priced horse ; and, we believe, would 
 rather avoid tlie extra care and attention 
 which a higher-bred animal might subject them 
 to. The French, as far as our experience 
 goes, are an economical people, not likelv to 
 encourage any expense which they possibly 
 can do without ; and therefore are perfectly 
 contented with tlieir present breed. There 
 60 
 
 are no hounds kept in the provinces, because 
 there are no primogeniture estates of twenty 
 thousand pounds a-year to support them ; 
 there are no subscription packs, for the same 
 reason that there are no private ones : property 
 is so divided and subdivided, that if it secures 
 comforts, the people are satisfied, and are too 
 wise to embark in anything which they deem 
 extravagant. There is no encouragement to 
 stimulate the breed of hunters ; and the breed 
 of blood horses will, we suspect, remain limited, 
 rather tlian be greatly extended. 
 
 We avail ourselves of the following descrip- 
 tion of a breeding stud, which will confirm 
 the above observations, and show to what 
 extent the breed of the English race-horse 
 was, not many years back, kept up by our 
 native gentlemen sportsmen. 
 
 Within a few miles of Thetford, in Nor- 
 folk, and almost adjoining each other, were 
 situated two of the most celebrated breedin"' 
 establishments in England — Eiddlesworth and 
 Euston ; the former, the seat of Mr. Thornhill ; 
 the latter, of his grace the Duke of Grafton. 
 The proudest feature in the social condition 
 of the land we live in, is, that the promotion 
 and support of objects of national importance 
 which everywhere else is looked upon as the 
 business and peculiar province of a govern- 
 ment, either originates in individual enter- 
 prise, or is the result of public spirit, sup- 
 ported by private wealth or influence. Two 
 princely instances of this are before us. Here 
 a national business — it is such, in fact, be- 
 cause no other country possesses the material, 
 or the knowledge of its use — which from its 
 nature is not suited to the merely professional 
 man, is conducted with all the care and skill 
 that could be brought to bear upon any under- 
 taking solely embarked in for the purpose of a 
 profitable return. 
 
 The Eiddlesworth stud consisted of thirty 
 mares. In loose boxes were three of Mr. Thorn- 
 hill's yearlings, about to be sent to Newmarket. 
 A bay colt, by Emilius, out of Mercy, attracted 
 considerable attention on account of its size ; 
 it was a horse in all but the name. Some 
 Eussians who visited Eiddlesworth, absolutely 
 refused to believe it, till they looked into its 
 mouth. The second was a chesnut colt, by 
 Sir Patrick, out of Mangle-wurzle, with size 
 and substance for a four-year-old. The third, 
 
AEAB HOUSES.] MODEEN VETEEIXAET PEACTICE. [aeab horses. 
 
 a bay colt, brotlier to Mendizabel, by Mer- 
 chant, out of INEisuomer's dams. These tliree 
 yearlings averaged, each, iit'teeu hands two 
 inches high ! 
 
 As tar as the example of these yearling colts 
 go, there can be no cause for suspecting de- 
 generacy ; for, with their immense growth, 
 they had substance as well as height — one of 
 which might be taken for four years old. If 
 these splendid and gigantic animals had bad 
 justice done them, they would not have been 
 put to severe work before five or six years 
 old; yet they were going into training at 
 Newmarket directly. Where there was so 
 much strength and substance developed at so 
 early a period, surely it cannot be unnatural 
 to suppose that, if time were given for the con- 
 solidation of those powers, instead of racing 
 them at two years old, we should not have to 
 deplore the want of durability in our racing- 
 stock. If we sin against nature, however, we 
 must take the consequences ; for we can never 
 do that with impunity. 
 
 It might be interesting here to draw a com- 
 parison between the English racer and the 
 parent stock, as to the difference between them 
 in point of size. The principal cause of this, 
 perhaps, arises out of the superior kind of food 
 which the one receives to the other, and which 
 thus increases the structural economy of the 
 animal. We will, however, rather proceed to 
 give a description of two of the most beautiful 
 Arabs ever seen in this country. They were a 
 ])resent from an Eastern prince, the Imaum of 
 Muscat, to his majesty William the Fourth, 
 and show the difference, in a most striking 
 manner, of the present breed of English racers 
 to that from which they are derived. 
 
 The first \vas a black stallion, standing four- 
 teen hands three inches high, branded M on 
 the off-quarter. Tiiis horse was the most 
 esteemed of the two; his colour, in Arabs 
 of the highest class, being rarely or ever met 
 with. Tears were consumed in selecting this 
 pair sent to his majesty, and no limit put upon 
 their price. Great as the difficulty has ever 
 been to convey a just idea of the horse with 
 the pencil — to put upon paper, words to effect 
 such a purpose, is a ten times more hopeless 
 task. 
 
 The first impression that the sight of this 
 little, unpretending animal, made upon one, 
 
 was anything but such as are in accordance? 
 with our usual anticipations. The issue waa 
 precisely such as one experiences in contem- 
 plating a highly-finished picture— tlie moro 
 you gaze upon it, the more its beauties be- 
 come developed. In this country, we are by no 
 means familiar with the Arab — many have not 
 even seen one: but if the portraits with which 
 every sportsman is familiar of the Darley or 
 Godolphin Arabians, be faithful delineations 
 of the animals they profess to represent, the 
 whole model of the Arab horse, as shown by the 
 one in question, differs toto ccelo from them. 
 " Here I had before me," continues the author 
 of this description, " one, selected by a prince 
 whose subjects have ever been celebrated for 
 trafficking in the purest blood of the desert. I 
 could not doubt his claim to legitimacy. I 
 have said his height is fourteen hands tliree 
 inches ; bis form so angular, that at the first 
 glance it seems to defy all claim to symmetry. 
 The whole character of shape and bearing is 
 closely allied to that of the deer. When you 
 come to a minuter examination of the parts, 
 individually, then you are convinced how pure 
 the fountain must have been whence such 
 blood was obtained. The bead of this horso 
 can be likened to nothing but exquisitely 
 chiselled marble; there is literally no flesh 
 upon it ; it is marble, too, to the touch. The eye 
 is small, but clear to transparency ; the cheek- 
 bones are prominent ; and there is a fixedness 
 about the ears that helps you to think you are 
 really looking upon the work of the sculptor. 
 The jaws stand very far asunder, the nostrils 
 are large and high, and the windpipe is of an 
 extraordinary size. The neck is light, and set 
 on similarly to the deer's : the shoulders more 
 fleshy and upright than suits our taste ; but, 
 below the knee, the legs are perfection : you 
 find quite as much bone as in the largest sized 
 English blood-horse, and the tendons are in 
 your grasp like iron. His carcase, without 
 being very full of substance, is round, and 
 tolerably deep ; his quarters, what we express 
 by vulgar. His thighs are very thin and 
 sinewy, his loins narrow, his hocks perfectly 
 clean and slightly inverted — he is what we call 
 * cat-ham'd.' The tail is well set on ; the dock 
 small; the hair fine and scant, giving it the 
 appearance of a mule's more than that of a 
 horse. His shanks are short, and hard aa 
 
 Gl 
 
ARAB HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [RACE-nOItSES. 
 
 adamant; the pasterns flexible; the hoofa singu- 
 larly hard, but healthy ; and the feet open and 
 roomy. Tou read his temper in his eye ; he 
 is a light-hearted animal, without the slightest 
 taint of vice." 
 
 The other stallion, a bright bay, is described 
 almost in the same words. His head is less 
 perfect, and the bone smaller; but his quarters 
 are fuller, and more softened down by the 
 swell of the muscles. His back, whicli, like 
 the other, is rather inclined to be hollow, is 
 xiot more than eight or ten inches from hip to 
 shoulder. " I never saw a pony's so short. 
 His height is, as nearly as possible, the same 
 as the black; in middle piece he has the 
 advantage. They were both brought out for 
 me, and I saw them in all their paces. In 
 their action, as in their lean, spare forms, you 
 detect nothing superfluous; it is quiet and 
 graceful, and entirely without any expression 
 of exuberant exertion. Utility is the charac- 
 teristic of the Arab horse. I can imagine 
 liim going for days together without fatigue: 
 nature intended him for this, and she has fitted 
 him for endurance. The impression of his 
 extraordinary speed was long o vulgar error, 
 which is now fast exploding. No Arab that 
 ever trod the sand, could live in company with 
 an English race-horse, weight him for inches, 
 or after any fashion you will : with the size of a 
 G-alloway, you cannot have the stride essential 
 to great velocity. Speed, regular and long 
 sustained, no doubt he possesses : our blight of 
 degeneracy is yet unknown to the desert-bred. 
 Before I part with these horses, I cannot 
 but regret that one or two of the mares at 
 Hampton Court were not put to them. Surely 
 nowhere could the experiment have been so 
 properly made. That their stock in the first, 
 or tenth generation, could compete with 
 Emilius or Sultan, no one supposes ; still 
 they are crystal streams, fresh drawn from 
 the spring, whence it is acknowledged we 
 derived the fertilisation of our own turf. If 
 only to trace its progress, it might be a 
 useful lesson, probably a guide of great impor- 
 tance." 
 
 In giving the description of these two very 
 extraordinary high-bred Arabians, selected by 
 a prince who spared no expense, and brought 
 from his own dominions, which is a country 
 also renowned for the breed of horse?, we can- 
 62 
 
 not but suppose that these specimens were of 
 the very highest caste, and the perfect repre- 
 sentations of their kind. 
 
 The gentleman to whom we are indebted 
 for the description of these two beautiful 
 small Arabs, says that there is no resem- 
 blance whatever between them and the por- 
 traits of the Godolphin and the Darley Ara- 
 bians. This, no doubt, is very true ; for these 
 were horses of considerable size and power, and 
 their immediate descendants became racers. 
 To them, however, the English breed is so 
 much indebted, that, under the head of tlie 
 English Eacer, we shall have something to say 
 of both the last-named horses. 
 
 AVe shall now return to the stud at Eiddles- 
 worth — an establishment which, although only 
 in the hands of a private English gentleman, 
 is sufficient to show to what sort of personages 
 we are indebted for the superiority of the 
 English horse, and for the beauty and speed 
 with which wealth and art have united to in- 
 vest him. 
 
 Our first duty is to introduce our readers to 
 the sires of the three yearling colts, of which 
 we have already spoken, and which averaged 
 fifteen hands two inches high. The following 
 is the description of an accomplished sports- 
 man who visited them. 
 
 " I now followed my obliging conductor (the 
 stud-groom) for a visit to the stallions. Their 
 boxes, each with a large walled yard attached 
 to it, are close to his dwelling-house, around 
 which, also, lie various commodious houses for 
 the young stock when it is first taken up, 
 previous to being taken away by tlie pur- 
 chasers, or sent for training to Newmarket. 
 The stallions all lie out— that is to say, their 
 boxes are left open ; and unclothed, and un- 
 touched, they have the run of the yards, 
 night and day, till generally the second week 
 in December. They are then shut up, 
 groomed, and put into condition preparatory 
 to the approaching season. The first I saw 
 was Merchant, by Merlin, out of Quail, by 
 Gohanna. He is a powerful, short- backed 
 chesnut horse, and his stock have shown well. 
 He is a favourite at Eiddlesworth, probably 
 on his sire's account, Merlin having ever been 
 high in Mr. Thornhill's estimation. 
 
 " Next to him came St. Patrick, by Walton, 
 his dam by Dick Andrews. This is a very 
 
ijACU-HOBSEs.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [nACE-uousES. 
 
 fine-looking chestnut horse, hired, I believe, 
 from Mr. Dodsworth. He is light topped, 
 with a good deal of the character of Actajon 
 ;ibout him : his frame is beautifully moulded ; 
 his legs, which have tasted the iron all round, 
 well under him ; fine withered, deep gaskined, 
 with thighs and quarters quite perfect. He 
 is short in the pastern, a quality pronounced, 
 by most men, as demanding praise, but as 
 little esteemed by me as its opposite, long. 
 
 " lu the post of honour, the dwelling nearest 
 lo himself, Tyler introduced me to the steed 
 whose own performances, and those of his 
 descendants, place him without any parallel 
 in the annals of British racing — Emilius, 
 by Orville, out of Emilius, by Stamford, 
 grandam by Whiskey, out of Grey Dinmont. 
 ' And this,' said I, * is Emilius !' as a rough- 
 coated animal, with an eye like a star, came 
 snorting up to me. He was quite €?i deslia- 
 hille to receive company, as it was evident 
 he bad been recently indulging in a roll 
 among the mire of his exercise-paddock. The 
 moment I laid my hand upon his shoulder, he 
 stood still, looked complacently upon me, and, 
 notwithstanding his having been surprised a 
 little mal-apropos, accorded me a reception 
 quite in keeping with his acknowledged liigli 
 breeding. Taking this horse as the standard 
 of perfection of the English blood-horse of the 
 nineteenth century, I will state, as well as I 
 can, the i-esult of a very careful examination 
 of him, and thence draw such inferences as 
 are relevant to my present purpose. He was 
 then in his sixteenth year; and his height 
 over fifteen hands two inches. In colour he 
 was a rich blood-bay (when in his spring 
 form), with four black legs. He was all 
 over sound, and without blemish, save in his 
 ofi" fore leg, with which there seemed to have 
 been something amiss below the knee. Pro- 
 bably the most skilful anatomist would fail in 
 discovering one point of his symmetry faulty. 
 This latter phrase may require explanation: 
 what I mean by it is, that although his frame 
 should be pronounced perfect, as it was ; that 
 in its symmetry, the harmony of each part 
 with the whole, the fitness and relation of 
 every point for its assigned function, defied 
 criticism. You saw before you a form moulded, 
 for speed and strength, as the imagination of 
 the most experienced painter would pourtray 
 
 it. We know that he was swift and strong- 
 let us see if his physical development agreed 
 with the idea ailixed by the eye for power. 
 
 " ' Tyler,' I inquired, * have you a morsel 
 of string ? Never mind,' seeing that he was 
 going to procure it for me at his house. I 
 removed my watch-guard. 
 
 " 'Ah !' said he, seeing the use to which I 
 was about to apply it, * you are going to mea- 
 sure his leg I see : well, I have not seen sucli 
 a thing done since the time that his royal 
 highness the Duke of York was staying at 
 Eiddlesworth. The duke, I remember, came 
 one morning, and took the size of Merlin's 
 near fore-leg just under the knee, and its 
 circumference was full nine inches and a 
 quarter. Now, sir, I like Emilius's leg much 
 the best : it is shaped, as I call it, like a fiddle, 
 with the strings sfandiiig well out from it, the 
 way that a horse's muscle and sinew should 
 do.' 
 
 " Having carefully taken my measurement 
 of his near leg, I entered it in one of the 
 leaves of my pocket-book. It is now before me, 
 ,.iid gives the circumference at exactly eight 
 inches and a-half. This was a little less 
 than the measurement of the ofi:'-leg. I need 
 hardly remark, that the apparent advantage on 
 Merlin's side is easily explained, if his limb 
 was rounder, and consequently less oval than 
 that of Emilius. This would give him, how- 
 ever, no actual superiority, the shape of the 
 bone and sinew of a horse's leg being an oval — 
 shallower, of course, as it extends from bone 
 to niuscle. For this horse, I was given to 
 understand, Mr. Thornhill refused eight thou- 
 sand pounds. 
 
 "Nothing could be more characteristically 
 English than the establishment at Eiddles- 
 worth. Tyler, the stud-groom, was an honest, 
 obliging yeoman, with his mind on a level 
 with his calling. The stock which he pro- 
 duced and reared during a long period of 
 superintendence and care, was the best evi- 
 dence of his fitness for such occupation. I 
 spent a few minutes in his cottage, and it was 
 just the head-quarters in which I should have 
 expected to find him. Everything was ycrupu- 
 lously neat ; all the comforts that his condi- 
 tion could require, were there in abundance ; 
 and the elegancies were in perfect accordance. 
 The walls were decorated with the inodt cele- 
 
 63 
 
BACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOKSE, A.:N D 
 
 [BACE-HOE3E3. 
 
 brated feats of the white and scarlet. There 
 was Sam winning the Derby in 1818 ; Sailor, 
 victorious for the same stakes in 1820 ; a fine 
 plate of Orville ; and one of Herring's admi- 
 rable likenesses of Emilias. In front of his 
 dwelling ran a sparkling stream, and just 
 beyond it was a moving zoological panorama, 
 such as no nobleman in the land could show, 
 and which may be called a description of the 
 once celebrated stud at Eiddlesworth." 
 
 In France, as already observed, there is not 
 the same inducements as in this country 
 for fostering and encouraging thorough-bred 
 horses. Napoleon I. used to send studs into 
 the different French provinces, to maintain 
 the highest breed. One of these, at Auch, 
 capital of Gascony, consisted of horses of 
 various countries— the Arab, Barb, &c. ; and 
 among these was one which attracted much 
 attention. He was an English thorough-bred, 
 Btanding full sixteen hands high ; was called 
 Eomulus, and was said to be above thirty 
 years of age. He had all the appearance of 
 age, having lost his flesh ; but there was his 
 eye and noble forehand, which indicated both 
 dignity and high breeding. There was nothing 
 to resemble him. The other stallions were 
 full of flesh and pretty ; but the English horse, 
 for size and speed, never could appear to more 
 advantage than when in such company. They 
 certainly were handsome and beautiful to look 
 at ; but Eomulus had the same appearance of 
 nobility and dignity over bis tribe, as may be 
 supposed to have been possessed by John P. 
 Kemble, in Coriolanus, over a common actor. 
 
 We have spoken of the division of property 
 in France being very minute; and in Gas- 
 cony, especially, most of the farms are very 
 small, and cultivated chiefly by their pro- 
 prietors. In many of these patriarchal abodes 
 will be found the great-grandfather, sur- 
 rounded by a portion of his descendants, at 
 the same fire; for here the daughters bring 
 their husbands home; and it is a pleasing 
 sight to see them all engaged in one general 
 interest and pursuit : the young girl handling 
 a pitchfork, and filling the cart, with as 
 much animation and zeal as her brothers. 
 But— 
 
 " England, with all thy faults, we love thee still." 
 
 Here we see the large broad hand, and the 
 
 64; 
 
 hale complexion of wholesome labour ! We 
 turn our thoughts to Manchester, to Shefiield, 
 Birmingham, &c., and the thin, pallid, ema- 
 ciated appearance of their inhabitants ; and 
 we never feel the contrast so strong between 
 the happiness of the followers of agriculture, 
 and that of those engaged in manufactures, as 
 at the time when we compare the harmony and 
 quiet incident to rural pursuits, with those of 
 the city. With the condition of riches we 
 have here nothing to do. It is of the condi- 
 tions of men we are speaking ; and what we 
 are mostly thinking of, is the barn with its 
 wheat ; the yard with its dogs, cows, pigs, and 
 poultry ; the fields, and the horses. 
 
 Since the days of Napoleon I., we should 
 think the breed of horses may have, in some 
 degree, improved in France, as a tolerable 
 sprinkling of English mares would have been 
 left in that country by the army of occupation ; 
 and a long peace no doubt enabled the French 
 government to avail itself of all opportunities 
 to improve their breed. It is therefore natural 
 to suppose that her cavalry and artillery may 
 now be better horsed than they were. Hunt- 
 ing, however, is not a popular amusement in 
 France. TheEevolution took away the game- 
 laws, and the rights of the Seigneurs; nor 
 would the present race of French farmers sub- 
 mit very quietly to witness their lands tra- 
 versed by dogs and a field of horsemen ; there- 
 fore, we do not suppose that there is any 
 probability of hunters being wanted beyond 
 the royal chases. 
 
 England is therefore so differently situated 
 to France, that what may suit one country, 
 and, in its effbcts, may be beneficial, to the 
 other might be considered a nuisance. A 
 farmer, in England, surrounded by the squire- 
 archy of his neighbourhood, and partaking of 
 the joys and amusement of the chase, thinks 
 nothing of the damage which a field of horse- 
 men and dogs may do to his corn-crop ; be- 
 lieving he may be repaid for the damage done 
 by their encouraging the demand for horses, of 
 which he is himself the breeder. However, if 
 he does complain, and there is reasonableness 
 in the demand, there is always wealth enough, 
 and we believe liberality enough, to indemnify 
 him for any damage he might sustain on 
 account of the hunting establishment; con- 
 sequently he becomes a partner and preserver 
 
•r 
 
 m 
 
 65 
 
ENGLisn EACEK.] M O D EE N VETEllI X AR Y PK A CT I C E. [enolish baceb. 
 
 of the sport, in protecting the foxes, so essen- 
 tial to the amusement of the chase, and is 
 looked upon as a favourite in his aristocratical 
 ueiehbourhood — a circumstance which insures 
 to him respectability and position. 
 
 In France, where, comparatively speaking, 
 there is little disproportion of wealth, it would 
 be, we think, impossible to create any hunt- 
 ing establishments that would be of a nature 
 sufficiently large to be an encouragement for 
 superior-bred horses. As to breeding these 
 
 for the turf, we believe there will be a very 
 few studs of tliorougli-bred luirses kept. 
 Looking, then, at France in this view, we do 
 not think she will take the palm of breeding 
 the best horses from us. Neither do we 
 think sucli horses necessary for Franco ; if slio 
 obtain a good breed, it is sufficient for all 
 useful purposes, without straining after that 
 which, without inordinate wealtli, might prove 
 an incumbrance rather than an interesting 
 posesssion. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. 
 
 THE RACER. 
 Before entering on our description of the 
 Eacer, we will briefly trace the rise and pro- 
 gress of the English race-course, which has 
 long enjoyed a world-wide renown. 
 
 It has been customary, says the elder 
 Eandal Holme, one of the city heralds, time 
 out of mind, upon Shrove Tuesday, for the 
 Company of Saddlers of the ancient city of 
 Chester, to present to the drapers a wooden 
 ball, embellished with flowers, and placed upon 
 the point of a lance. 
 
 Mr. Lysons, in his Magna JBrittania, men- 
 tions some old articles of a race, for two bells, 
 among the corporation records, the earliest 
 date of which was 1512. 
 
 This ceremony was performed in the pre- 
 sence of the mayor, at the cross in the Eoody, 
 an open place near the city. " But this year 
 of 1540," continues Holme, " the ball was 
 changed into a silver bell, valued at three 
 shillings and sixpence, or more, to be given to 
 him who shall run the best and furthest on 
 horseback, before them, on the same dav, 
 Shrove Tuesday." 
 
 In 1610, Mr. Eobert Ambrye, or Amory, 
 ironmonger, sherifl" of the City of Chester, at 
 his own cost, did cause three silver bells to be 
 made, of good value, which bells he appointed 
 to be run for with horses, " upon St. George's- 
 day, upon the Eoode Dee, from the new tower 
 
 to the netes, there turning to run up to the 
 water-gate ; that horse which come first there 
 to have the beste bell ; the second to have the 
 seconde bell for that year, putting in money 
 and sureties to deliver in the bells that day 
 twelvemonth." The other bell was run for on 
 the same day, upon the like conditions. These 
 trophies were taken to the course with much 
 pomp and ceremony. Chester races are now 
 held the first week in May, which comes as 
 near the original time (old St. Greorge's-day) 
 as possible. 
 
 These bells were denominated St. George's 
 Bells, and, in the last year of the reign of 
 James I., 1634-'5, John Brereton, innkeeper, 
 Mayor of Chester, first caused the horses 
 entered for this race, then called Sfc. George's 
 race, to start from the point beyond the new 
 tower, and appointed them to run five times 
 round the Eoody ; and, according to the 
 younger Eandel Holme, " he who run the last 
 course, or trayne, received the bell, worth 
 eight or ten pounds, and to have it for ever, 
 which monies were collected of the citizens 
 for that purpose." By the author's having 
 added that the winner of this race was to 
 have the bell for ever, is implied, that it had 
 been formerly used as a temporary mark of 
 honour by the successful horseman, and after* 
 wards returned to the corporation. This 
 alteration was made April 23, lG2i. 
 
 (35 
 
ENGLISH EACEE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AXD 
 
 [EXGttSH EACEU. 
 
 Sir Thomas Chaloner, who wrote in the 
 early part of Elizabeth's reign, mentions 
 Henry YIII. as a great admirer of horses, 
 and of his having imported some from Turkey, 
 JSfiiples, Spain, and Elanders, to improve the 
 English breed. 
 
 John Northbrook, a puritanical writer, in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who, though 
 very severe against cards and dice, interludes, 
 and other idle pastimes, allows of horse- 
 racing— a proof that it was no uncommon 
 amusement at that time, when it was con- 
 sidered as a liberal sport, practised for 
 pleasure rather than profit, without the least 
 idea of reducing it to a system of gaming. It 
 is ranked witli hunting and hawking, and 
 opposed to dice and card-playing, by an old 
 Scotch poet, who laments that the latter had, 
 in a great measure, superseded the former; 
 and Conimenius, in 1590, says that tilting, or 
 the quintain, is used instead of horse-races, 
 which, he adds, are grown out of fashion. 
 
 Before the reign of James I., trials of speed 
 were not practised, as at the present day ; nor 
 were any horses kept solely for the purpose of 
 running at stated seasons. It is, however, 
 certain that this comparative mode of ascer- 
 taining the goodness of horses, was not only, 
 previously to this period, known, but that 
 private matches were made between gentle- 
 men, who, relying on their own skill, rode 
 their own horses. 
 
 Soon after the accession of this monarch, 
 who was " inordinately attached to the sports 
 of the chase," public races were established ; 
 and particular horses becoming known for 
 their swiftness, their breed was cultivated, and 
 their pedigrees recorded with the greatest 
 exactness. It was now that they began to be 
 trained expressly for the purpose, attention 
 being paid to the quantity and quality of the 
 animal's food, physic, sweats, and clothing : 
 the weights, also, which seldom exceeded ten 
 stone, were rigidly adjusted. Camden says, 
 that most of the celebrated races in the kins:- 
 dom were called Bell Courses — hence origi- 
 nated the adage, " He bears the bell." In this 
 reign, the value of Enghsh horses began to be 
 duly appreciated, and many were purchased 
 and exported to Erance. Thus, with all the 
 pedantry of this Scottish Solomon, it is evident 
 lie was a noted admirer of all that appertains 
 66 
 
 to the horse; and it is easy to imagine him 
 invested in his sporting garb of forest-green, 
 with a feather in his cap, and a horn at his 
 side, contriving, in the most advanced state of 
 age and imbecility, when unable even to sit on 
 horseback without assistance, to follow the 
 chase, although unable to keep his seat in the 
 saddle without being laced, or tied up in it. 
 
 Sir Simon D'Ewes, in his Journal, speaks of 
 " a horse-race, near Linton, in Cambridge- 
 shire, in the reign of James I., at which town 
 most of the company slept on the night of the 
 race 
 
 Gatherly, in Yorkshire ; Croydon, in Sur- 
 rey ; and Theobald's, on Enfield Chase, when 
 the king was resident, were the spots where 
 races were run. The Arabian, for which James 
 paid five hundred pounds, and which was ridi- 
 culed b}^ the Duke of Newcastle, was of a bay 
 colour, a little horse, and no rarity for shape. 
 He was trained, but disgraced his country by 
 being beaten in England by every horse that 
 ran against him. 
 
 Butcher, in his Survey of Stamford, informs 
 us, that a concourse of noblemen and gentle- 
 men met every Thursday in March, together 
 in the vicinity of that town, in mirth, peace, 
 and amity, for the exercise of their swift- 
 running horses. The prize they ran for was a 
 silver-gilt cup with a cover, of seven or eight 
 pounds, provided by the alderman for the time 
 beins. This sum was raised out of the interest 
 of a stock formerly made by the neighbouring 
 nobility and gentry, the well-wishers to the 
 town. 
 
 Eaces were held at Newmarket, in the latter 
 end of the reign of Charles I., although the 
 Bound Course was not made till 16G6. In 
 this king's reign, races were also run in Hyde 
 Park, as appears from a comedy called the 
 Merry Beggars, or Jovial Crew, 1641. "Shaii 
 we make a fling to London, and see how the 
 spring appears there, in Spring-Garden and iu 
 Hyde Park, to see the races, horses and foot ?" 
 
 At this epoch, however, the country was 
 distracted by scenes which came too closely 
 home to the bosom of every man to allow 
 attention to be paid to subjects which caw. 
 alone be prosecuted with effect in periods of 
 tranquillity. 
 
 Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, men- 
 tions horse-racing as the disport of great men, 
 
ENGLISH KACEU.J MODERN VETElilNAEY PEACTICE. [enolish eaceb. 
 
 and good in itself, though many gentlemen, 
 bv such means, gallop out of their fortunes. 
 
 On the restoration of Charles .11., the great 
 patron of the turf, this sport, so congenial to 
 the habits and manners of a free people, 
 revived. The glory of Newmarket, long ob- 
 scured, first by the violent spirit of contending 
 factions, and next by the puritanical sentiments 
 which pervaded the English mind during the 
 Cromwellian era, again shone in meridian 
 splendour. The palace, erected by James I., 
 and which had fallen to decay during the civil 
 wars, was rebuilt for the better accommodation 
 of the "merry monarch," who personally 
 attended, and not only gave public rewards, 
 but kept and entered horses in his own name ; 
 thus giving an aftable patronage to the sport, 
 at which he seemed to be one of the happiest 
 of the spectators. AVe are told by the quaint 
 Evelyn that his majesty ran his own horses. 
 "On the 10th October, 1671," says he, "after 
 dinner I was on the heath, when I saw the 
 great match run between Woodcock and 
 rieetfoot, belonging to the king and Mr. Eliot 
 of the bedchamber, many thousands being 
 spectators ; a more signal race had not been 
 run for many years." 
 
 When his mnjesty resided at AVindsor, races 
 were held on Datchet Mead : he also occa- 
 sionally visited other places where these sports 
 were instituted — Burford Downs, in particular, 
 as may be inferred from the following doggrel 
 verses, written by Matthew Thomas Baskervile, 
 about the year 1690. 
 
 " Next, for the glory of the place, 
 Here has been rode many a race. 
 King Charles the Second I saw here, 
 But I've forgotten in what year ; 
 The Duke or Monmouth here, also, 
 Made his horse to sweat and blow ; 
 Lovelace, Pembroke, and other gallants, 
 Have been venturing here their talents ; 
 And Nicholas Bainton, on Black Sloven, 
 Got silver plate by labour and drudging." 
 
 To Charles we are also indebted for the 
 breed of our present race of running-horses. 
 With a view to the improvement of our native 
 stock, the Master of the Horse, by some said 
 to have been ISir Christopher AVyvill, and by 
 others Sir John Fenwick, was sent into the 
 Levant to procure horses and mares for breed- 
 ing. The mares thus procured, and also many 
 of their produce, have been styled Royal 
 
 Mares. Dodsworth, though foaled in England, 
 was a natural Barb. His dam, a Barb mare, 
 was imported at this period, and waH called a 
 royal mare. When twenty years old, and 
 with foal, after the king's death, she was sold 
 for forty guineas. 
 
 At this period, the prizes run for became 
 more valuable. Instead of bells, pieces of 
 plate were substituted, as bowls, cups, &c., 
 usually estimated at one hundred guineas 
 each ; and upon trophies of victory, the ex- 
 ploits and pedigrees of the successful horses 
 were commonly engraved, whence, perhaps, 
 much curious information might be obtained, 
 regarding the merits of the various victors. 
 Plates, also, of different value were given ia 
 various parts of the country, and which were 
 generally advertised in the London Gazette. 
 
 William III., notwithstanding the gravity 
 of his character, frequently visited Newmarket; 
 whilst Queen Anne kept race-horses, and 
 entered them in her own name. Her mnjesty'a 
 brown horse, Star, won a plate at York, July 
 30, 1714, at four four-mile heats, the Friday 
 preceding her death, which occurred on Sunday, 
 August 1st. George I., in 1720, discontinued 
 the Cups, as prizes to be run for, and ordered 
 one hundred guineas in specie to be paid to 
 the successful competitor. 
 
 As an illustration of the turf manners at 
 about the period at which we have arrived, 
 it is interesting to know that there was, at 
 Newmarket, the keeper of the liorses ot no 
 fewer than four of our sovereii^Mis. Tiiis illus- 
 trious individual was Tregonwell Framptoa, 
 who kept the running animals of William III., 
 Anne, George I., and George II. 
 
 Frampton was born in the troublesome 
 reign of Charles I., in whose time horse-racing 
 commenced at Newmarket, and was the owner 
 of several running horses. Amongst these 
 there was one matched to run against old 
 Merlin, at Newmarket. IMrrliu was placed 
 under the care of one llescitine, a groom at 
 Newmarket; upon whom Frampton's groom 
 endeavoured to prevail to run the two 
 horses a private trial at the stated weiglits 
 and distance agreed for in the match, ob- 
 serving that, by that means tliey might both 
 make their fortunes. Hesekine refused, but 
 in such a manner as to give the otiier hopes of 
 brin2;in2r him to compliance. 
 
 67 
 
ENGLISH EACEE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [ENGLISH EACEB. 
 
 In the meantime, Heseltine took the oppor- 
 tunity of communicating, bj a letter sent into 
 Yorkshire, the proposed offer to Sir William 
 Strickland, Bart., who was principally con- 
 cerned in making the match. The baronet 
 returned for answer that he might accept it, 
 taking care to deceive Mr. Erampton's 
 groom by letting Merlin carry seven pounds 
 more weight than what was agreed upon. 
 Heseltine shortly afterwards consented to the 
 proposal of Mr, Erampton's groom, who had 
 secretly received instructions precisely similar 
 to those given to Heseltine. 
 
 These lionest grooms now prepared the 
 horses accordingly, and ran the course agreed 
 to in the articles ; when, after an excellent run. 
 Merlin won by something more than his own 
 length. This being communicated to each 
 party by his secret and faithful groom, each 
 flattered himself with certain success. Sir "\V. 
 Strickland, very naturally, concluded that, as 
 Merlin had proved himself superior with even 
 wseven pounds extra on his back, he would very 
 easily win the race ; while Mr. Erampton was 
 decidedly of opinion that, as his horse had run 
 Merlin so hard, carrying seven pounds more, 
 he could not fail ultimately to win. In con- 
 sequence, proposals were made and accepted 
 to an enormous amount, even to an extent 
 greater than was ever known ; some gentlemen 
 — in the secret — staking not only all their 
 cash, but other property besides. 
 
 At length the hour arrived when this im- 
 portant business was to be decided. The 
 horses started ; and the race was won by 
 Merlin by about the same distance as in the 
 private trial. In a short time the secret be- 
 came known; and, though it had originated 
 with Mr. Erampton, it is certainly not a little 
 singular that Sir AY. Strickland should adopt 
 the very same expedients. 
 
 Several gentlemen were completely ruined 
 by this race; and it excited so much attention 
 throughout the country, that the circumstance 
 was at length noticed in parliament, and a 
 bill passed in consequence, to restrain the rage 
 for betting. 
 
 By this bill it was enacted, " that no sum of 
 money, exceeding ten nounds, betted, laid, or 
 agreed to between any party or parties, in 
 future, shall be recoverable by law," 
 
 Eor a number of years Erampton was styled 
 68 
 
 the father of the turf, and died on the 12th of 
 March, 1727, aged eighty-six. 
 
 Let it alwaj's be remembered that the grand 
 and important division of race-horses, in re- 
 spect to their qualifications, is into the stout 
 and the speedy. 
 
 By the first term is meant such as are stout 
 of heart, cool in temper, and firm in constitu- 
 tion ; generally not remarkable for readiness 
 and speed, but calculated to succeed in a long 
 race. By the second, such as are usually said 
 that speed is their best, it is meant that they 
 are best qualified for a short race, possessing a 
 promptitude in the higher degrees of velocity, 
 which must necessarily be of a relatively short 
 duration. These are generally free, and of a 
 warm temperament ; and sometimes, but not 
 invariably, of a weak and washy constitution. 
 
 It may be easily conceived, that the degrees 
 of variation or approximation, in both of these 
 respects, must be infinite, rendering it fre- 
 quently no easy matter to determine positively 
 to which class a horse belongs. As to the 
 extremes, there are horses which have barely 
 racing speed, their sole virtue consisting in 
 their great powers of continuance, by which, 
 in a four-mile race, they were wont to wear out 
 their more speedy antagonists. On the other 
 hand, there are such as no measures of art can 
 enable them to get through a long course in the 
 company of reputed running- horses. These 
 have their distance, beyond which Nature has 
 put it out of their power to go. Of this 
 description were Eireaway, Masquerade, and 
 Eocket of former days. The two first were 
 most successful at the distance of a single 
 mile ; the last, at that of one quarter, or half 
 a mile at most. It is not in the course of 
 nature, that phenomena like Childers and 
 Eclipse — to be spoken of immediately — should 
 be often produced, uniting the extremes of 
 both speed and stoutness, giving the go-by and 
 the distance to all possibility of competition. 
 The most useful racer, perhaps, is the animal 
 that partakes in a nearly equal and consider- 
 able degree of both qualities, but with a supe- 
 rior turn towards speed. Such was the 
 famous Shark, and such was the opinion of 
 Chifney, the jockey of the Prince of Wales, 
 afterwards Greorge IV. 
 
 The expression, to make the play, or to go 
 along, will be easily understood, as leading 
 
ENGLISH EAGER.] MODEEN YETERINAKT PEACTICE. [ekglish haceb. 
 
 away in a race, at a pace of very coBsiderable 
 speed, upon a horse which is presumed to be 
 stout and long-winded, in order to distress 
 those antagonists which are known, or sup- 
 posed to be inferior in stoutness. The object 
 of this is, that such as are fatigued and ex- 
 hausted by long and sharp running, may not 
 have it iu tlieir power to reserve their superior 
 speed for the last push. Amongst horses of 
 equal game, the play may be made by those 
 which are in the best condition. 
 
 Tf''aiti?iff, or malcing a waiting race, is plainly 
 the opposite practice of the above. Here, the 
 rider of the speedy, weak, or jadish horse, 
 always aims to keep in the rear, and go as 
 slowly as possible, until the last few hundred 
 yards, when he well knows his power of speed 
 will be turned to the best account. 
 
 Having thus briefly traced the early history 
 of horse-racing in England, and explained some 
 of the terms of the turf, we now come to speak 
 of the selection made of those sires from which 
 our racing-blood has derived its celebrity. 
 
 The English race-horse, like the game-cock 
 and the bull-dog, are England's peculiar pro- 
 ductions, unequalled for high courage, stout- 
 ness of heart, and patience under suffering. 
 
 Cockfightiog is a wanton and barbarous 
 sport, and is happily now nearly obsolete 
 among the more cultivated classes ; and what- 
 ever cruelties may happen on the race-course, 
 in the punishment administered by some 
 jockeys to their animals, they are at least not 
 very apparent, if they in reality have an exist- 
 ence at all. That the practices of the turf have 
 frequently been such as to degrade its character 
 there can be no doubt ; still, looking at its 
 sport in a national and general way, the emula- 
 tive spirit which is inspired by our races, is of 
 immense importance in maintaining the charac- 
 ter of the EnfTiish horse. The term thorough- 
 bred, as applied to the horse, both in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, indicates him to be either 
 a remote or immediate pure, unmixed de- 
 scendant of the south-eastern courser, Arabian, 
 Barb, Turk, Persian, Syrian, Egyptian, or of 
 the neighbouring countries. The preference 
 given to antiquity and purity of racing-blood 
 has always been considered due to the produce 
 of the Arabian and African deserts. 
 
 In the general outline of the figure, limbs, 
 the shape of the head, and in the countenance, 
 
 the modern Englisli race-horse l)ears the 
 strongest resemblance to the Arabian ; but 
 from the great care and higli keep which he 
 has through so many descents enjoyed in this 
 country, he is of far greater heiglit and bulk, 
 and equally superior in point of power. Art 
 is the handmaid and improver of nature ; and, 
 notwithstanding the boasted speed of animals 
 in the natural state, there is no doubt of the 
 superiority of the trained courser. Thus the 
 British race-horse, even at an equality of size and 
 power to carry weight, is far swifter and stouter 
 in turf phraseology, and more lasting than 
 the natural courser of the desert of the oldest 
 pedigree. Such is the universal experience 
 from trials in this country, and such would, in 
 all probability, be the result, were the rival 
 horses taken young, and trained and tried 
 upon an equi-distant and neutral soil. This 
 opinion may not altogether coincide with the 
 sentiments of those who have been accus- 
 tomed to read and believe in such narratives 
 as recount, without investigation, the speed 
 and extent of the journeys performed in a 
 given time by Arabian horses. A little aid, 
 however, may be given to the judgment of 
 these gentlemen, by recalling to their minds, 
 that there are no mile-posts in the desert ; no 
 clocks or watches wherewith to measure time; 
 no clerks of the course to start the horses, or 
 judges to drop the flag at the ending-post; 
 and that the jockey himself is often the only 
 spectator. He is likewise often the only re- 
 later of his horse's performances ; whilst in all 
 the Eastern writings, ancient or modern, ex- 
 aggeration is the predominant characteristic. 
 
 In the early periods of the turf, recourse 
 must have been had to foreign horses for racers, 
 and also to the bastard breeds, as they were 
 then styled, or mixtures between foreigners 
 and the lightest native breed of the country. 
 Spanish jennets, the descendants of Barbs, 
 were trained: in short, any well-shaped nag 
 with good action in the gallop, was deemed 
 a racer. 
 
 The idea of thorough-breed and its peculiar 
 qualities, had not then taken place ; but was, 
 afterwards, gradually and experimentally de- 
 veloped. The mild climate and gramineous 
 soil of this country, always congenial to the 
 nature of the horse, were found highly to 
 improve, in size and power, the progeny ol 
 
 09 
 
AEABIAX HORSES.] 
 
 THE HOESE. AND 
 
 [ARABIAN HORSES. 
 
 such horses as were brought from the south. 
 Hence, assisted by the systematic care of our 
 turi-breeders, the British race-horse has beau 
 brought to the state of beauty, symmetry, 
 and perfection in which we now behold him, 
 and that superiority which all the world ac- 
 knowledges and admires. 
 
 It is now upwards of one hundred years 
 suice, in this country, the greatest attention 
 has been paid to pedigree, and to preserving 
 the racing-breed pure and unmixed. Acci- 
 dental mixtures there certainly have been, for 
 such are upon record ; but they have been 
 comparatively few — mere drops of common, in 
 the grand stream of pure and high racing- 
 blood. Such crosses have been occasionally 
 apparent perhaps for several generations, in 
 the form and qualities of the produce; but 
 they have been obliterated by time, and are 
 not discoverable in the remote descents. 
 "Within this period, the phenomenon has now 
 and then appeared of a horse not thorough- 
 bred, such as in the cases of Sampson and 
 Eiiv Malton proving winning — even capital 
 racers. But such exceptions will not induce 
 experienced sportsmen to infringe the general 
 rule, of breeding from, or training horses for 
 the course, which are not thoi'ough-bred. The 
 same rule holds, however anomalous it may 
 seem, with respect to foreign horses of the 
 purest blood, from which our thorough-breed 
 is derived. None of them — and the expe- 
 riment has often been repeated — whatever 
 their age, size, or condition, have been found 
 capable of contending on the course, from a 
 race of one hundred yards to one of a bun. 
 dred miles, with their relatives and brethren 
 in blood — the race-horses of this country. 
 
 The ill-success of the Arabian purchased 
 by King James I., and already alluded to, 
 brought the studs of the desert into such 
 disrepute, that we read of but few of them 
 in the scanty annals of the turf, until the 
 reign of Queen Anne, the last of the Stuarts 
 Vtho has occupied the British throne. 
 
 THE DARLEY ARABIAN. 
 Early in the reign of Anne, the famous 
 Darley Arabian was imported. He was sent 
 from Aleppo by Mr. Darley, a merchant, who 
 had settled there, and who had procured him, 
 through his connections, from the Arabian 
 70 
 
 deserts. He is one of those few horses, on 
 the purity of the blood of which we can have 
 a certain reliance. Tlie form of this animal 
 is said to have exhibited every point desirable 
 in a turf horse. The general characteristics of 
 the racer are the Arabian head, the curving 
 and tapering neck, the slanting, lengthened 
 shoulders, the fully-developed muscular quar- 
 ters, the bending hinder legs, the flat limbs, 
 somewhat short downward from the knee, and 
 the long and springing pastern. The Darley 
 Arabian had these excellences, and was the 
 sire of that wonderful racer, Elying Childers. 
 If a judgment might be formed as to the 
 original country of the horse, from the per- 
 formances of the descendants of this animal, 
 then the desert must have been the native 
 soil of the general courser; but as we have 
 already given our opinions upon this point, 
 it need not again be touched upon here. 
 
 The great success of Mr. Darley with his 
 imported stranger, turned the current of 
 fashionable opinion, among English sportsmen, 
 so much in favour of the horses of Arabia, 
 that it became a common inducement to style 
 all horses brought from the Levant, Arabians, 
 whether or not they might have been really 
 such, or Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Turks, 
 or Barbs. This has occasioned much con- 
 fusion and uncertainty ; but it has been ex- 
 perienced, that the horses of all these coun- 
 tries are, in certain degrees, endowed with 
 the properties of the race-horse, and the blood 
 of our Euglish thorough-bred horse is derived 
 from a mixture of all those, although doubtless 
 that of the Arabian and Barb predominates. 
 
 THE GODOLPHIN ARABIAN. 
 
 The Godolphin was imported into this 
 country about five-and-twenty years after the 
 Darley Arabian. Both of these horses were 
 the most celebrated and valuable for their 
 blood and high form, which have yet appeared. 
 There are sufficient reasons, however, for the 
 supposition that Lord Godolpliin's horse was 
 in reality a Barb. 
 
 The portrait of the Godolphin Arabian, by 
 the artist Stubbs, gave rise to some unfavour- 
 able criticisms by his brethren of the pencil, in 
 respect to the elevation of this horse's crest, 
 which was said to be excessive, indeed totally 
 out of nature. It was therefore asserted 
 
TMm nT:^i.^U(iSr(nrium 
 
 'JCIEIM ^K'KiS" X7 JC J": 
 
AEABIA.N uMiSEs.] MODERN VETEEINAET PRACTICE. [eace-hoeses. 
 
 that the painter had drawn on his imagina- 
 tion, in order to adorn a horse with such a 
 lofty and swelling forehand. But, be this as 
 it may, the Godolphia Arabian has been of the 
 greatest importance in the improvement of 
 the breed of the racing stud. At the present 
 dar, we have artists who seize with avidity the 
 occasion of taking the portraits of celebrated 
 horses, and it is not to be expected tl.at any 
 doubt of a likeness will take place in future, 
 however great may be the winning horse of 
 his time. 
 
 The fate of the Grodolphin Arabian seems to 
 have been as chequered as that of many other 
 public characters ; and he was as much in- 
 debted to accident for the development of his 
 powers, as some of the higher breeds of the 
 " lords of the Creation" have been. So little 
 was he valued in France, that he was actually 
 employed in the drudgery of drawing a cart 
 in the streets of Paris. What an ignoble oc- 
 cupation for the blood of an Arab ! A Mr. 
 Coke brought him to England, and gave him 
 to Williams, master of the St. James's Coffee- 
 house, who made a present of him to the Earl 
 of Godolphin. Though now elevated from the 
 cart in the streets of Paris, to the stud of a 
 British nobleman — whose name the Arabian 
 afterwards bore — his merit was still unappre- 
 ciated to the fulness of its extent; and it was 
 not until he had produced a colt foal, the famous 
 Lath, the most elegant and beautiful as well 
 as the best racer of his time, that he was now 
 treated " according to his deserts." He then 
 became, even in a higher degree than the 
 Darley, one of the progenitors of our 
 thoi'ough-bred horses. 
 
 The Godolphin was fifteen hands in heiglit, 
 of great substance, of the truest conformation 
 for strength and action, beai*ing every indica- 
 tion of a real courser. His colour was entire 
 brown bay, with mottles on the buttocks and 
 crest, excepting a small streak of white upon 
 the hinder heels. He was imported into 
 Prance from some capital or royal stud in Bar- 
 bary, whence it was suspected he was stolen. 
 He was foaled in 1724 and died in 1753. 
 
 THE WELLESLEY ARABIAN. 
 
 We introduce this horse because he has 
 
 been considered, although erroneously, the 
 
 finest specimen of a superior Arabian. He 
 
 bore a considerable resemblance to the larf^er 
 war-horse of Europe, possessing the delicate 
 skin, and various other attributes of the 
 south-eastern courser. But it is with reason 
 supposed that he was the produce rather ot 
 some country bordering on the land of deserts, 
 than in Arabia itself. In England, the Arabian 
 or Barbary horse, in process of time, acquires 
 an increase of size, and fulness of form, 
 together with a considerable expansion of tlie 
 hoofs. This is, no doubt, the effect of lower 
 and more moist grounds, and more succulent 
 food than can be found in the deserts. There 
 the dryness and purity of the air and soil com- 
 press the animal body, impart a superior firm- 
 ness and elasticity to the tendinous and 
 fibrous system, allowing greater powers in a 
 smaller compass of substance, and exalting the 
 tone and vigour of the animal spirits. Eor 
 these reasons horses are chosen from the 
 deserts for their fleetness and courage, and 
 from the mountainous regions for coursers. 
 A few of the offspring of the Wellesley 
 Arabian were trained, but not with sufficient 
 success to raise his reputation as a covering 
 animal. This is the last Arabian, or foreign 
 horse trained from, in this country. 
 
 THE DEVONSHIRE, OR FLYING CHILDERS. 
 Childers, a bay horse, somewhat upwards of 
 fifteen hands in height, was foaled in 1715, 
 and was the property of Leonard Childers, 
 Esq., of Carr House, near Doncaster, and sold, 
 when young, to the Duke of Devonshire. He 
 was the immediate descendant of the Darley 
 Arabian ; and his history, as a racer, is so well 
 known, and has been so often repeated, that a 
 few items of it will here suflice. It is said 
 that he was first used as a hunter, and that in 
 the field, both his high qualities and his head- 
 strong, if not vicious disposition, were dis- 
 covered. He was, however, void of any taint 
 of restiveness. It is probable that, like 
 Eclipse, he did not start on the course until 
 five, perhaps not until six years old, when he 
 beat all the horses of his time, at whatever 
 distance. He was never tried in running a 
 single mile ; but since his time, the measured 
 and attested performances of far inferior horses, 
 leave not the shadow of a doubt of his ability 
 to run a mile witiiin one minute of time! 
 A horse called Eiretail, ran, in 1772, a mile in 
 
 71 
 
EACE-nORSES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [nACE-nOESES. 
 
 sixty-four seconds. Carrying nine stone two 
 pounds, he ran over the Bound Course, at 
 Newmarket, three miles, six furlongs, ninety- 
 three yards, in six minutes and forty seconds, 
 when he was judged to move eighty-two feet 
 and a-half in one second of time. He like- 
 wise ran over the Beacon Course, four miles, 
 one furlong, one hundred and thirty-eight 
 yards, in seven minutes, thirty seconds, cover- 
 ing at every bound a space of twenty-five feet. 
 He made a spring or leap of ten yards, upon 
 level ground, with his rider on his back. 
 These are a few of the celebrated feats of this 
 famous horse, which, in 1741, died at the age 
 of twenty-six. 
 
 BLEEDING CHILDERS. 
 Bleeding Childers, so called from his fre- 
 quent bleedings at the nose, afterwards called 
 Young Childers, and finally Bartlett's Chil- 
 ders, was full brother to Flying Childers. He 
 was never trained ; but proved a very superior 
 stallion. The Hampton-court Childers, sire 
 of Blacklecs, was son of the Devonshire Childers. 
 There were, in all, six nearly contemporary 
 racers and stallions of the name of Childers. 
 
 KING HEROD. 
 King Herod, descended by his dam from 
 Elying Childers, was of the highest reputation 
 as a racer; whilst, as a stallion, he stands 
 among the first, if he be not really the very 
 first, in modern times. He has been ranked 
 higher than Eclipse in this respect ; some of 
 his stock having been not only among the most 
 speedy, but the generality of them the stoutest 
 and best constitutioned horses the turf, at any 
 period, has produced. He was a bay, about 
 fifteen hands three inches high, and foaled in 
 1758. He was got by Tartar, out of Cypron. 
 There was another Tartar, got by Blaze ; but 
 Tartar, the sire of King Herod, was got by 
 Croft's Partner — one of our most famous 
 racers — out of Meliora, by Eox. Partner, 
 grandsire of King Herod, was foaled in 1718. 
 He was a chestnut horse, of great power, exqui- 
 site symmetry and beauty, and immediately 
 succeeded Flying Childers, as the best animal 
 at Newmarket, giving weight to, and beating 
 horses of the highest repute, over the course. 
 He was got by Jig — no pedigree of dam — son of 
 the famous Byerley Turk, and shows a pedigree 
 72 
 
 through a list of highly reputed progenitors, 
 concluding with the well-known Old Vintner 
 Mare. Partner died in 1747, aged twenty- 
 nine. Cypron, King Herod's dam, was got 
 by Blaze, a son of Flying Childers, out of Sir 
 AVilliam St. Quintin's Selima, got by the 
 Bethell Arabian, and boasting in her lineage, 
 Champion, the Darley Arabian, and Old Mer- 
 lin. King Herod's pedigree consists of the 
 oldest and purest blood. 
 
 Whilst speaking of the pedigrees of horses, 
 however, we may here observe, with Admiral 
 Rous, that " nothing can be more unsatisfac- 
 tory than the pedigrees of English race-horses 
 up to 1750. Although Charles II. and Queen 
 Anne kept magnificent studs, and agents were 
 employed by the masters of the horse of 
 several successive sovereigns, to purchase 
 valuable Eastern blood, no records were 
 kept, and we are in ignorance respecting 
 the breed of the royal mares. It was not 
 until 1791, that ]\Ir. Weatherly, the keeper of 
 the Match-Book, obtained a list of pedigrees 
 collected by a private gentleman. A register 
 was then kept, and the Stud-Booh was pub- 
 lished in 1808. Since that time a regular 
 account has been kept of the produce of 
 thorough-bred stock ; but many proprietors of 
 brood mares will not take the trouble to 
 register their foals. . . . The original in- 
 tention of the compiler of the Stud-BooJc, was 
 to register all the winners in the official Bacinfj 
 Calendar; but a cloud hangs over the book, 
 threatening a formidable class of rivals to dis- 
 pute the value of the orthodoxy of the pure 
 breed. . . . Although it is an axiom in 
 breeding animals, from man downwards, that a 
 fresh cross of good blood is most desirable, we 
 have failed to have made any improvement in 
 our race-horses by importation of any Eastern 
 blood during the present centuiy, simply 
 owing to the extraordinary superiority which 
 our horses have obtained in point of strength, 
 size, and speed, over the original stock." 
 
 Herod, like Childers and Eclipse, did not 
 start upon the course until five yeai-s old. He 
 never ran anywhere but at Newmarket, 
 Ascot Heath, and York, and always over the 
 course, or four miles ; stoutness or game, and 
 ability to carry weight, being his play. He 
 ran five times for a thousand guineas each 
 race, and won three of them. The last race 
 
BACL-nORSES.j 
 
 MODEEN VETEHINART PRACTICE. 
 
 fllACE-nOIlSES. 
 
 he won was against Ascliam — a curious one, 
 from the circumstance of two aged horses 
 carrying featliers, five stone seven, and six 
 stone, lie won several matches for five hun- 
 dred guineas, and a sweepstake of tliree hun- 
 dred guineas, nine subscribers. 
 
 The fiime of this racer as a stallion, in the 
 Tu)f Register, is truly splendid. In nine- 
 teen years — namely, from 1771 to 1789 — 
 four hundred and ninety-seven of his sons 
 and daughters won for their proprietors, in 
 plates, matches, and sweepstakes, the sura of 
 £201,505 ds., exclusive of some thousands 
 won between 1774 and 1786. He was 
 the sire of the celebrated Highflyer, bred 
 by Sir Charles Bunbury, which was never 
 beaten. Herod also got Woodpecker, Bour- 
 deaux. Anvil, Hammer, Sting, Adamant, 
 Plunder, Quicksand, Eantipole, "Whipcord, 
 and many others, among which were the 
 speediest horses of their day. Tuberose, 
 Guildford, and Latona, were rare examples of 
 the family stoutness, and Laburnum was an 
 excellent and useful racer. The list of brood 
 mares got by Herod is very large. 
 
 King Herod first covered the property of 
 Sir John Moore, Bart., at ten guineas. In 
 1774 his price rose to twenty-five, at which it 
 remained till his death, in 1783, in the twenty- 
 second year of his age. 
 
 This noble animal was so shamefully ne- 
 glected in his latter days, and his body so 
 encrusted with dung and filth, that, it is said, 
 the immediate cause of his death was a mortifi- 
 cation in his sheath. Many much later in- 
 stances are known of covering stallions ne- 
 glected in a similar way. George IV., when 
 Prince of Wales, formerly allowed the breeders 
 in the vicinity of his residence in Hants, the 
 use of a well-bred stallion gratis, excepting 
 the groom's fee of a crown : the consequence 
 of which was the exhaustion of the animal. 
 So many mares were sent, that it was impos- 
 sible for nature to support the continued de- 
 mand ; and the result was the most wretched, 
 puny, spindle-shanked produce to be imagined. 
 
 MARSK. 
 
 This horse was foaled in 1750, and so named 
 from the place where he was bred, being the 
 property of John Hutton, Esq., of Marsk, 
 Yorkshire, who afterwards disposed of him to 
 
 his royal highness, William, Duke of Cumber- 
 land. He was got by Squirt, son of Bartlett'a 
 Childers, out of the Ruby mare. She was 
 from a daughter of Bay Bolton and Ilutton's 
 Bhick Legs — Fox Cub— Coneyskins — Hut- 
 ton's Grey Barb — a daughter of the Byerley 
 Turk, from a Bustler mare. This is one of our 
 highest bred pedigrees, going back to the reign 
 of Charles I. In the year 1750, the duke 
 made an exchange of a chestnut Arabian with 
 Mr. Hutton, for the colt, which his royal 
 highness afterwards named Marsk. 
 
 In Mr. Ilutton's Stud-Boole, printed by 
 Weatherby in 1801, appear the following ex- 
 tracts : — 
 
 " In the year 1750, his royal highness the 
 Duke of Cumberland, gave me — John Hutton 
 — a chestnut Arabian in exchange for a brown 
 colt, got by Squirt, bred from the Ruby mare ; 
 and which his royal highness afterwards called 
 Marsk. 
 
 " My Black Legs was got by the Mulco 
 Bay Turk ; his dame by Coneyskins ; his grand- 
 dam was the old Club-foot mare, got by Mr. 
 Weekes's Hautboy." 
 
 " The above are true copies from Mr. Hut- 
 ton's Stud- Book. E. Geldaet. 
 " Marsk, October, 1801." 
 The history of Marsk, like the Godolphia 
 Arabian, was highly eventful, and distinguished 
 by alternate depression and elevation. 
 
 He was a capital racer, and beat Brilliant ; 
 but he was an uncertain horse. Being in low 
 estimation as a stallion in the duke's stud, 
 he was sold at his royal highness's sale, at 
 Tattersall's, to a farmer for a trifling sum ; 
 and in 1766, as will be observed in the 
 history of Eclipse, covered country mares and 
 foresters, at half-a-guinea. When Mr. Wild- 
 man, the purchaser of Eclipse, found his in- 
 telligence respecting that colt correct, he 
 thought it advisable to get into his possession 
 his sire, and bought Marsk of the farmer for 
 twenty pounds, who professed himself happy 
 at being well rid of a bad bargain. 
 
 This animal has been styled the " prince of 
 horses." 
 
 It is suflBcient to say that, besides so man;: 
 
 other racers of high reputation, he was the sire 
 
 of Eclipse, Shark, Pretender, Honest Kitt, 
 
 Masquerade, Leviathan^ Salopian, and Pontac. 
 
 Shark won sixteen thousand and fifty-seven 
 
 73 
 
BACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AIs'D 
 
 [kace-uouses. 
 
 guineas, in matches, sweepstakes, and plates ; 
 beating the best horses of his day, at their own 
 play, whether for speed or stoutness. 
 
 Marsk seems to have had the caprices of 
 fortune imparted to him as an inheritance 
 from his sire. Squirt, after running with 
 great repute, became a stallion in Sir Harry 
 Harpier's stnd, who esteeming him of no 
 worth, ordered him to be shot. As the hunts- 
 man was leading him out of the dog-kennel, 
 he was begged off by the stud-groom ; and 
 tliis poor, despised, death-doomed animal after- 
 wards got Marsk, the sire of an immense 
 number of excellent horses, whose united 
 winnings are not now to be calculated. The 
 immediate progeny of Marsk, however, realised 
 to their owners upwards of seventy thousand 
 pounds. 
 
 Marsk died in July, 1779, in his twenty- 
 ninth year. 
 
 ECLIPSE. 
 
 Eclipse, fully master of sixteen stone, was 
 bred by William, Duke of Cumberland, of 
 Culloden memory, and foaled during the great 
 eclipse in 1764, whence the name given him by 
 the royal duke. He was got by Marsk, a 
 grandson, through Squirt, of Bartlett's Childers 
 — to be noticed further on — out of Spilletta. 
 Spilletta was got by Eegulus, son of the 
 Godolphin Arabian, out of Mother Western, 
 which mare was got by a son of Snake, full 
 brother to William's Squirrel, her dam by Old 
 Montague, grandam by Hautboy, out of a 
 daughter of Brimmer — her pedigree not pre- 
 served. Such is the carefully chronicled evi- 
 dence of the purity of our race-horses from 
 Oriental blood. 
 
 The proportions of this animal, as given by 
 Mr. St. Bell, the founder of the Veterinary 
 College in St. Pancras, are as follows : — 
 
 The length of the head of the horse is supposed 
 to be divided into twenty-two equal parts, which 
 are the common measure for every part of the body. 
 
 Three heads and thirteen parts will give the 
 height of the horse from the foretop to the ground. 
 
 Three heads, from the withers to the ground. 
 
 Three heads, from the rump to the ground. 
 
 Tliree heads and three parts, the whole length of 
 the body, fi'om the most prominent part of the 
 chest to the extremity of the buttocks. 
 
 Two heads and twenty parts, the height of the 
 body, through the middle of the centre of gravity. 
 74 
 
 Two heads and seven parts, the height of ti:e 
 highest part of the chest from the ground. 
 
 Two heads and five parts, the height of the per- 
 pendicular line which falls from the articulation of 
 the arm with the shoulder directly to the hoof. 
 
 One head and twenty parts, the height of the 
 perpendicular line which falls from the top of the 
 fore-leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock. 
 
 One head and nineteen parts, the height of the 
 perpendicular line from the elbow to the ground. 
 
 One head and nineteen parts, the distance from 
 the top of the withers to the stifle. The same 
 measure also gives the distance from the top of the 
 rump to the elbow 
 
 One-and.a-half head, the length of the neck from 
 the withers to the top of the head. The same 
 measure also gives the length of the neck from the 
 top of the head to its insertion into the chest. 
 
 One head, the width of the neck at its union with 
 the chest. 
 
 Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in 
 its narrowest part. 
 
 The same measure gives the breadth of the head 
 taken below the eyes. 
 
 One head and four parts, the thickness of the 
 body from the middle of the back to the middle of 
 the belly. 
 
 The same measure gives the breadth of the body. 
 
 Also the rump from its summit to the extremity 
 of the buttocks. 
 
 Also the distance from the root of the tail to the 
 stifle. 
 
 Also the length from the stifle to the hock. 
 
 Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to 
 the hock. 
 
 Twenty parts of a head, the distance from the 
 extremity of the buttocks to the stifle. 
 
 Also the breadth of the rump or croup. 
 
 Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore-legs 
 from their anterior part to the elbow. 
 
 Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the 
 hind-legs taken beneath the fold of the buttocks. 
 
 Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the liam 
 taken from the bend. 
 
 Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils. 
 
 Seven parts of a head, the distance of the eyes 
 from one great angle to the other. 
 
 Also the distance between the fore-legs. 
 
 Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees. 
 
 Also the breadth of the fore-legs above the knees. 
 
 Also the thickness of the hams. 
 
 Four parts of a head, the breadth of the pastern, 
 or fetlock joint. 
 
 Also the thickness of the coronet. 
 
 Four-and-a-half uarts of the head, the breadth of 
 the coronet. 
 
 Three parts of a head, the thickness of the legs at 
 their narrowest part. 
 
EACE-nOKSES.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEEINART PEACTICE. 
 
 [HACE-nOESES. 
 
 Also the breadth of the hinder-leg;.?, or shanks. 
 
 Two-and-three-quarter parts of a head, the thick- 
 •less of tlie hind pasterns. 
 
 Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore-leo;s. 
 
 Tvvo-and-a-quarter parts of a head, the tliickness 
 of the fore pasterns. 
 
 Also the breadtli of the hind pasterns. 
 
 One-and-three-quarter parts of a head, the thick- 
 ness of the fore and liind shanks. 
 
 Such are the proportions of this famous 
 horse, which in form, constitution, and action, 
 seemed to comprehend every excellence for 
 the course. When a yearling, be was pur- 
 chased by Mr. Wildman, a sporting sheep 
 salesman of Smitbfield, for seventy-five guineas, 
 on the decease of the Duke of Cumberland, 
 at the sale by auction of bis royal bighness's 
 stud. Marsk, the reputed sire of Eclipse, 
 subsequently, on the New Forest, covered 
 country and forest mares at balf~a-guinea 
 each. But, after the transceudant qualities of 
 Eclipse were established, the same Marsk 
 covered at one hundred guineas a mare, and 
 was advertised in succeeding seasons by Lord 
 Abingdon, bis proprietor, at two hundred or 
 three hundred guineas a mare. Wildman bad 
 a friend in the old duke's stud, from whom be 
 obtained a bint of the superior form of the 
 Eclipse colt ; but making the journey in baste, 
 he did not arrive until the sale had com- 
 menced, and bis object had been already 
 knocked down at seventy guineas. Appealing 
 instantly to bis watch, which he knew to be a 
 correct time-piece, he found the hour had not 
 arrived by several minutes at which tlie com- 
 mencement of the sale had been publicly ad- 
 vertised, and thence firml}^ insisted there bad 
 been no lawful sale, and that the lots knocked 
 down should be put up again. The knight of 
 the hammer, well aware of the resolution and 
 pecuniary weight of Mr. AVildman, very pru- 
 dently oftered him the chance of any lot be 
 should choose. Eclipse was put up again, and 
 Wildman purchased tlie yearling at an advance 
 of five guineas. 
 
 Immediately previous to Eclipse running for 
 the King's Plate, at Winchester, in 1769, 
 Colonel O'Kelly purchased the half share of 
 bim for six hundred and fifty guineas ; and, 
 afterwards, the remaining share for eleven 
 hundred guineas. 
 
 Eclipse, for what reason has never been 
 
 published, did not appear upon tlie turf until 
 he was full five years old, when he was entered 
 at Ej)som for the Maiden Plate of fifty pounds. 
 There can be no doubt that liis trials at Epsom 
 had been watclied, as the odds at startiu"' 
 were four to one in his favour. 
 
 O'Kellj was, doubtless, well aware of the 
 qualities of bis maiden horse, by the large 
 sums he then betted at such considerable odds. 
 In running the second winning-heat, the whole 
 five horses were close together, at the three- 
 mile post, when some of the jockeys used their 
 whips. Eclipse was quietly jogging on at a 
 moderate rate ; when, alarmed by the crack of 
 the whips, he bounded away ; and, notwith- 
 standing his jockey held him back with all bis 
 strength, not one of his competitors could 
 save bis distance. 
 
 In running over tlie coui'se at York, in the 
 following year, for the ISnbscripLion Purse 
 against Tortoise and Bellario, two first-rate 
 racers, but aged, Eclipse took the lead; and 
 the jockey, being unable to hold him, he was 
 more than a distance before his competitors at 
 the end of two miles, and won the race with 
 the utmost ease. At starting, bets of twenty, 
 and in running, one hundred pounds to a 
 guinea were oflered on Eclipse. On a certain 
 race, O'Kelly bet five and six to four that he 
 posted the horses — that is to say, named, before 
 starting, the order in which they would come 
 in. When called on to declare, he named — 
 " Eclipse first, the rest in no place ;" and won 
 his money — Eclipse distancing all the rest. 
 Being distanced, they were, consequently, in a 
 sporting sense, in no place. 
 
 Eleven King's plates, the weight carried for 
 all of them being twelve stone (one excepted, 
 ten stone), were won by Eclipse. In twenty- 
 three years, three hundred and forty-four 
 winners, the true progeny of this matchless 
 courser, produced, to their owners, the sum of 
 £158,071 125., various prizes not included. 
 
 About the year 1779, a noble duke, or some 
 sporting member of bis family, demanded of 
 O'Kelly how much he would take for Eclipse? 
 The reply was—" By the Mass, my lord, and 
 it is not all Bedford Level that would purchase 
 him." AVe state, on the authority of the 
 keeper of a sporting coflee-house, frequented 
 by Colonel O'Kelly, that this gentleman asked 
 the sum of twenty-five thousand pounds down, 
 
 75 
 
RACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND. 
 
 [eace-hoeses. 
 
 un annuity of five hundred pounds on his own 
 life, and the annual privilege of sending sis 
 mares to the horse, as the price for Eclipse. 
 O'Kelly affirmed, that he had acquired upwards 
 of twenty-five thousand pounds by Eclipse. 
 
 Of the speed of this animal too much cannot 
 be said ; but we have no rule by which to judge 
 of his stoutness or game, since no cotemporary 
 racer was able to run for a moment by his side, 
 far less able to try his power of continuance. 
 If it be said, that he contended with middling 
 horses only, the two or three capital ones that 
 met him, having passed their prime, it must 
 be remembered that those liorses he distanced, 
 and probably could have doubly distanced. 
 The jockeys rarely if ever held liim. The 
 liorse was always allowed to ruu according to 
 his own will, yet he never swerved from his 
 course, and, at the ending post, pulled up easily 
 enough. O'Kelly, his proprietor, was yet 
 apprehensive that he might, at some time, 
 break away ; and when the horse run over the 
 course at York, with twelve stone, which he 
 was judged to have performed in eight minutes, 
 a number of men were placed at the ending 
 post, with the view of stopping him, in case 
 the jockey should be unable to pull him up — 
 a precaution which proved entirely needless. 
 He never felt the whip or spur on any occasion. 
 The only cotemporary which was supposed 
 to have any pretensions to contend with 
 Eclipse, was Mr. Shaftoe's famous Goldfinder, 
 by Snap, a beautiful and long-reached brown 
 animal. He was never beaten, and would 
 have met Eclipse, to run for the King's plates, 
 but he broke down previously. 
 
 The characteristics of the Eclipse racers 
 were speed and size ; and many of tliem bent 
 their knees, and took up their feet in the 
 gallop, with extraordinary activity. If few of 
 them were stout, still fewer of them wanted 
 steadiness, a restive or swerving horse being 
 seldom found of that blood. 
 
 The eye of Turf science is directed, in the 
 portrait of Eclipse, to the curve in the setting- 
 on of his head, to his short fore-quarter, to the 
 slant, extent, and substance of his shoulder, 
 the length of his waist, and the breadth of his 
 loins ; to the extent of his quarters, and the 
 length and substance of his thighs and fore- 
 arms. Although a strong, he was a thick- 
 winded horse ; and, in a sweat or under severe 
 76 
 
 exercise, was beard to blow at a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 Eclipse first covered at fifty guineas ; aftei- 
 wards at twenty, being stinted to fifty mares, 
 exclusive of those of his owner ; ultimately 
 at thirty guineas. In his progeny are ranked 
 no fewer than three hundred and thirty-four 
 winners. 
 
 In 1788, his feet having been neglected, he 
 was removed from Epsom to Cannons, in a 
 four-wheeled carriage, drawn by two horses, 
 his groom being an inside passenger with him. 
 The old racer and his attendant took their 
 necessary refreshments on the road together. 
 This splendid quadruped died at Cannons in the 
 following year, on February 28th, aged twenty- 
 five years ; and, according to the precedent of 
 the Godolphin Arabian, cakes and ale were 
 given at his funeral. His heart weighed 
 thirteen pounds ; and his skull was extremely 
 large. It was shown to Dr. Spurzheira, one of the 
 celebrated founders of phrenology, who thus 
 remarked upon the powers of the animal, 
 judging from the craniological development: — 
 " The leading characteristics of Eclipse," he 
 said, " were a remarkably large brain, not only 
 in proportion to the size of the animal, but to 
 horses in general ; indicating great and high 
 courage, unusual sagacity, but deficient in meek- 
 ness, or rather possessed of a vicious temper." 
 He further remarked that considerable difficulty 
 must have been experienced in rendering such 
 an animal subservient to his rider ; but that, 
 when subdued, he could be best governed by 
 gentle treatment, and would prove docile under 
 proper authority. The professor's observations 
 have been esteemed remarkably correct. 
 
 There was an uncertainty in Eclipse's pedi- 
 gree, arising from the circumstance of his dam 
 having been barren in the previous year, and, 
 in the next, covered by both Shakespeare 
 and Marsk, and not coming to Shakespeare's, 
 but to Marsk's time. A strong resem- 
 blance, however, existed in Eclipse, to the 
 progeny of Shakespeare, in the particulars 
 of colour, temper, and certain peculiarities ot 
 form. 
 
 Mr. John Lawrence, who was well acquainted 
 with this animal, says — " Never, to the eye of a 
 sportsman, was there a truer-formed galloper 
 in every part ; and his countenance and figure, 
 as he stood in his box, notwithstanding his 
 
BACE-HOBSES.] MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICE. [eace-hoeses. 
 
 great size, suggested the idea of tlie wild horse 
 of the desert. His resolute and choleric temper 
 was well known ; and although he held a very 
 iUmiliar and dumb converse with us over the 
 bar, we did not deem it prudent to trust 
 Durselves alone witli him in his apartment. 
 Jfe was nevertlieless very kind and friendly 
 with his groom." 
 
 In observing on the general character of the 
 running of this animal, we cannot but remark 
 that it was impossible to make a tool of him, 
 (•ven had it been desired, or had his owner 
 intended to do so. He was no horse that 
 could win a race to-day, and be beaten on the 
 morrow by another horse of inferior powers. 
 Jle seemed to have made up his mind to be 
 always a winner, and resisted all the attempts 
 of his jockeys to force him to accommodate 
 liis pace to that of his opponents. He took 
 tiie lead, and gallantly maintained it, in spite 
 of all opposition. "Were tliere more horses of 
 the temper of Eclipse, there would be less 
 /.'nesse practised on the race-course of the 
 [)resent day. 
 
 In closing the history of this animal, we must 
 quote a few more extended observations of 
 Mr. St. Bell, on some of his proportions. 
 The Essay of that gentleman is replete 
 with sound and practical information, ex- 
 pressed in clear and intelligible language ; and 
 is worthy of the perusal of all those that take 
 an interest in such things as have a tendency 
 to enhance the strength, beauty, speed, and 
 5>plendour of the horse. 
 
 " The difference which results from peculiar 
 conformation," says Mr. St. Bell, "militates, in 
 some respects, against the rules laid down in 
 the geometrical table in use in the veterinary 
 schools on the continent of Europe, and 
 )>roves that no common standard of measure- 
 ment can apply generally to different species. 
 As each species, and even each individual, has 
 its own peculiar beauty, we cannot pretend to 
 establish any general rule of beauty for the 
 horse. Were a man to collect the various 
 beauties of individuals, it might, indeed, serve 
 as a model for the painter, or the statuary, 
 but would be of no use to direct him in the 
 choice of a horse. Eclipse was never esteemed 
 handsome ; but in maJcing, he was nearly per- 
 fect, and speedy in proportion. &- 
 
 " We may propose that the legs of Eclipse, 
 
 in their flexion in the gallop, described each a 
 circle of three hundred and sixty degrees; 
 and, consequently, the extent of the action of 
 each leg was the same in extension. To this 
 may be added the force of action, without 
 which a horse cannot even walk. This mus- 
 cular, and merely mechanical force, can only be 
 computed by experiment ; and well organised 
 as Eclipse was, as to his muscles and the 
 length and direction of his legs, we may ven- 
 ture to assert that, free of all weight, and 
 galloping at full speed, he could cover an 
 extent of twenty-five feet at each complete 
 action of the gallop ; that he could repeat this 
 twice and one-third in each second ; conse- 
 quently that, doing his utmost, he could run 
 nearly four miles in six minutes and two 
 seconds. 
 
 " The excellence of the make of Eclipse 
 may fairly be inferred from his superior speed ; 
 for this speed could result only from a har- 
 monious combination in the organs of pro- 
 gression. Let us now suppose these same 
 organs defective in their proportion, and in- 
 quire what w^ould be the consequence. 
 
 " The Croup and Eump. — An examination 
 of the bones of the ilium, confirmed me in my 
 opinion, held during life, that the croup in 
 Eclipse was disproportionately large. The 
 extent of the os jJtihis and iscJuu7n caused him 
 to go too wide behind. His hind-feet, instead 
 of being parallel with his fore-feet, stood out- 
 ward. This defect, which caused a wavering 
 in the croup, in his gallop, together with 
 other small defects, was overruled by his great 
 muscular powers. A much greater fault in a 
 racer is, when the croup is too narrow, and 
 the muscles, which communicate with the loins 
 and extremities, thin, and, consequently, weak. 
 
 "The SnouLDEE and Arm. — In Eclipse, 
 the shoulder was too much loaded ; but if too 
 spare, the muscles will be weak, and the mo- 
 tions of the shoulder confined. The propor- 
 tion of the arm is commonly determined by 
 that of the shoulder-blade. These two parts, 
 forming together the sides of an angle, 
 more or less open, give to the muscles which 
 move them, a quicker or less power, in propor- 
 tion as this motion is made further from, or 
 nearer to, the axis of the motion. 
 
 "The Hind Leg— the Thigh. — Eclipse 
 was remarkable for length in his hinder parts. 
 
 77 
 
EACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [eace-hoeses. 
 
 67 
 
 The thigh, with the os-ilium, formed a con- 
 siderable angle, whence followed a great ex- 
 tent of motion. The length of the tibia gave 
 beautiful proportion to the leg ; and the hock, 
 from its size, and perfect make, must have 
 produced the greatest possible degree of ex- 
 tension. The leg, pastern, coronet, and foot, 
 fully corresponded." 
 
 In order to see at a glance the dimensions 
 of Eclipse, we make the following extract from 
 the same authority : — 
 
 Height and Length of Eclipse. 
 
 Inches. 
 Height from the withers to the ground . 66 
 Height from the top of the rump to the 
 
 ground 
 
 Length of the body, taken from the most 
 prominent part of the breast to the ex- 
 tremity of the buttocks 69 
 
 Length of the Bones of the Legs. 
 Fore-Legs. 
 
 Shoulder-blade 18 
 
 Humerus, or arm ........ 12 
 
 Cubitus 16 
 
 Canon shank 22 
 
 Pastern, coronet, and hoof 8 
 
 Hind- Legs. 
 
 Os-ilium 12 
 
 Femur, or thigh 15 
 
 Tibia 12 
 
 Shank or leg 14 
 
 Pastern, coronet, and hoof 9 
 
 The skeleton of this splendid animal, after 
 passing through various hands, is now kept 
 in the New Veterinary College, at Edinburgh, 
 
 for which it was purchased for one hundred 
 
 guineas from Mr. Bracy Clark, by Professor 
 
 Gamgee. 
 
 BAY M ALTON, 
 
 This horse was the property of the Marquis 
 of Eockiiigham, and ran the four mile course 
 at York, in seven minutes and forty-three 
 seconds, a feat which had never been accom- 
 plished before in so short a time, by seven 
 Beconds. He combined great speed with con- 
 siderable stoutness. 
 
 One of the severest plate-races on record, 
 was run at Carlisle, in 1761, and in which there 
 were no fewer than six heats, and two of them 
 were dead heats, each of which was contested 
 by the winner of the plate. The winning 
 horse, therefore, ran twenty -four miles, and 
 yet did not break down ■ 
 78 
 
 In 17G3, at Salisbury, and over a four mile 
 course, there were four heats between two 
 horses — the Duke of Grafton's Havannah, 
 and Mr. Wildman's Pam. Yet there was no 
 breaking down. 
 
 One or two more instances of the combined 
 speed and stoutness of former racers, are 
 worthy of being placed on record. 
 
 In October 17'il, at the Curragh meeting, 
 in Ireland, Mr. Wilde engaged to ride one 
 hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours. 
 He performed it in six hours and twenty-one 
 minutes, and employed ten horses. Allowing, 
 therefore, for mounting and dismounting, and 
 a moment for refreshment, he rode for six 
 hours, at the rate of twenty miles an hour. 
 
 In 1745, Mr. Thornhill exceeded this, for 
 he rode from Stilton to London, two hundred 
 and thirteen miles, in eleven hours and thirty- 
 four minutes ; which is, after allowing the least 
 possible time for changing horses, twenty miles 
 an hour for eleven hours, and on the uneven 
 ground of the turnpike-road. 
 
 In 1762, Mr. Shaftoe, with ten horses, and 
 five of them ridden twice, accomplished fifty 
 miles and a quarter, in one hour and forty- 
 nine minutes. In 176:3, this gentleman won 
 a more extraordinary match. He was to pro- 
 cure a person to ride one hundred miles a day, 
 on any one horse each day, for twenty-nino 
 days together, and to have any number of 
 horses not exceeding twenty-nine. He ac- 
 complished it on fourteen ; and on one day ho 
 rode one hundred and sixty miles, on account 
 of the tiring of his first horse. 
 
 Mr. Hull's Quibbler, however, afibrds the 
 most extraordinary instance on record, of the 
 stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse. 
 In December, 1786, he ran twenty-three miles 
 round the flat of Newmarket, in fifty-seven 
 minutes and ten seconds. 
 
 POT-S-OS. 
 
 This was one of the numerous progeny of 
 Eclipse, and holds a foremost place in the 
 racing ranks. He was a chestnut foaled in 
 1773, his dam being Sports-mistress. He was 
 bred by the Earl of Abingdon. At the New- 
 market first spring of 1788, his proprietor had 
 intimated his intention of disposing of some 
 of his horses, whilst Pot-8-os was engaged in a 
 sweepstake of one hundred guineas each, eight 
 
ItACB-EOESES.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINAKT PEACTICE. 
 
 [EACE-noaSE3. 
 
 subscribers. As the horses were starting, 
 Lord Grasvenor asked the Earl of Abingdon 
 the price of Pot-8-os. "Fifteen hundred 
 guineas," was the reply. " With the chance of 
 the race ?" " Oh, certainly !" The transaction 
 was closed ; and, in a few minutes after, Pot- 
 8-03 and the subscriptions were Lord Grosve- 
 nor's. This horse died at Heme Park, New- 
 market, in 1800, aged twenty-seven. His pro- 
 geny hold a place in our best pedigrees. 
 
 HIGHFLYER. 
 This is one of the most celebrated racers on 
 record. He was never beaten, and never paid 
 forfeit. He was a bay horse, descended from 
 King Herod, and foaled in 1774. Sir Charles 
 Bunbury bred and sold him to Viscount Bo- 
 lingbroke, and he afterwards becarse the pro- 
 perty of Mr. Eichard Tattersall. He flourished 
 between the years l776-'80 ; witnessed the 
 establishment of tlie St. Leger, the Derby, 
 and the Oaks ; and when he was christened, 
 the statesman, Charles James Eox, was present 
 at a festive meeting. Although he never 
 started after five years old, his winnings 
 amounted to upwards of nine thousand three 
 hundred pounds, and his immediate descendants 
 netted about one hundred and seventy thou- 
 sand, four hundred pounds. He died at " High- 
 flyer" Hall, Cambridgeshire, an elegant villa 
 near Ely, the property of Mr. Tattersall, Oc- 
 tober 18th, 1793 aged nineteen years. 
 
 ESCAPE. 
 
 On the 20th of October, 1791, Chifney, the 
 jockey of the Prince of Wales, afterwards 
 George IV., rode the prince's famous horse 
 Escape, by Highflyer, in a sweepstakes, from 
 th.e Ditch-In, a distance of about two miles, 
 against Skylark, Pipator, and Coriander; and 
 the last won. On the following day Chifney 
 rode Escape against the same horses over the 
 Beacon course, a distance of four miles, and 
 won. The betting on this race was four and five 
 to one against Escape. Public rumour stated 
 that the prince had gained a vast sum ; but he 
 gave a flat denial to his having won above four 
 hundred pounds on the race ; and having be- 
 lieved, as it was generally rumoured, that Chif- 
 ney had ridden hooty, a public investigation 
 took place, and the whole resulted in the final 
 retirement of his royal highness from the turf. 
 
 Escape beat the best horses in England, 
 over the course of four miles, and was him- 
 self beaten on the same course, by middling 
 horses. He beat Nimble, one of the speediest 
 liorses of his day, across the Plat, a distance 
 of a mile and a quarter; and was beaten on 
 the same course, in a private trial, by Don 
 Quixote, and Lance — horses, we believe, of in- 
 ferior speed to Nimble — several lengths before 
 half the course was ran, and very easily, and 
 a great way at the end ; yet in another trial, 
 two miles over Epsom, he beat Baronet and 
 Pegasus, giving the former, a horse of his own 
 year, and a winning racer, the enormous weight 
 of twenty pounds. Baronet nevertheless beat 
 him, at the same weight and distance, a few 
 days after, at Ascot. 
 
 Erom a detailed account of the trials and 
 public races of Escape, he clearly appears to 
 have been a most uncertain runner. He seemf; 
 to have possessed capital speed, and even great 
 powers of continuance, when well to run; 
 but to have been materially afiected by the 
 very slight and very usual mistakes in train- 
 ing; to have been subject to have the edge 
 of his speed totally blunted by a few degrees 
 of overwork; and his powers, both of speed 
 and continuance, paralysed and rendered inert, 
 by want of due exercise, or by errors in feed- 
 ing, more particularly near the time of his 
 running. There, also, most assuredly, is a 
 perfect analogy of nervous sensibility, of irri- 
 tability, and vacillation of fibre, between the 
 human animal and the race-horse. As men 
 difler, so do horses ; and the warm-tempered, 
 free, unequal, and nervous Escape, ought to 
 have had for his trainer, his manager, and his 
 jockey, such discriminating persons as could 
 fully appreciate his temperament and disposi- 
 tion. Hard-headed and indiscrimiuating grooms 
 of the common type, could have no real con- 
 ception of the delicacy, vigilance, and care with 
 which such an animal required to be treated. 
 
 As the failure of this horse led to the trial 
 of Chifney, his rider, and the retirement of 
 the Prince of Wales from the turf, this seems 
 the proper place to give the opinions relative 
 to the management of a race-horse, elicited 
 from Chifney at his trial ; and, although 
 they are the sentiments of an uneducated, 
 yet they are those of a practical man, aad, 
 on that account, deserving a place in tbu 
 
 79 
 
EACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [llACE-UOESES. 
 
 work. We may premise that Chifney entered 
 into the service of the running stables in 
 1770, and was regularly trained to his voca- 
 tion, under the celebrated professors Eox and 
 Prince. Eiding, he says, "he learned him- 
 self. In 1773, I could ride a horse in a 
 better manner in a race, to beat others, than 
 any person ever known in my time. In 1775, 
 I could train horses for running better than 
 any person I ever yet saw." In 1784, he 
 lived with Lord Grosvenor, riding his lord- 
 ship's race-horses. He afterwards entered 
 into the service of Thomas Panton, Esq., with 
 whom he continued four years, until his en- 
 gagement in the service of the prince. During 
 his continuance with Mr. Panton, he rode 
 most of the Duke of Bedford's race-horses ; 
 and tells us, he was assured by Mr. Panton, 
 that " the Duke of Bedford was always highly 
 pleased with his riding, as he always rode to a 
 T, as his grace told him." His grace is well 
 known to have been very precise in his direc- 
 tions to his jockeys ; and appears to have been 
 so well satisfied with Chifney, that, in all pro- 
 bability, had not his grace then meditated a 
 total retirement from the turf, he would have 
 engaged him for life. Immediately on quitting 
 the service of Mr. Panton, he was engaged by 
 his royal highness the prince, at a salary of 
 two hundred pounds per year. 
 
 " I have said," observes Chifney, " that 
 horses change in their twice running. If a 
 horse is in perfect fitness for running, he 
 immediately becomes exhausted, little or much. 
 He must then change in his running. A 
 horse cannot keep his perfect fitness for 
 running more than one race till rested. I 
 have seen one sweat between a horse's twice 
 running, change him for the worse, asto- 
 nishingly It is destruction to horses to 
 sweat them in the manner they are sweated 
 at Newmarket, as the practice there is to 
 sweat them once in six days — sometimes 
 oftener; and between these days of sweating, 
 it is usual for the horse to go out twice a day, 
 each time having strong exercise. In these 
 sweating-days the horses are mostly covered 
 with cloths, two or three times doubled, and 
 go in their sweats six miles, more or less, and, 
 at times, go tolerably fast. Directly the horse 
 pulls up, he is hurried into the stable, which 
 is on the spot for that purpose. As soon as 
 80 
 
 he gets in, there is often more clothes thrown 
 upon him, in addition to those he had been 
 sweated in. This is done to make the horse 
 sweat the more ; and he stands thus for a time 
 panting, before he is stripped for scraping ; 
 and with being thus worked, clothed, and 
 stoved, he is, at times, so affected, that he 
 keeps breaking out into fresh sweats, which 
 pour from him, when scraping, as if water had 
 been thrown on him. Nature cannot bear 
 this. The liorses must dwindle. 
 
 "Now I think, in the first place, that the 
 horse has been too long at this sort of 
 work for his sinews ; then the clothing and 
 stoving him force his juices from him in such 
 quantities, that his spirit, strength, and speed 
 must le destroyed ; and much clothing jades 
 horses. A horse don't meet with this destruc- 
 tion when he runs, for then he is likely to be 
 lighter in his carcase, lighter in his feet, 
 having plates on, not shoes, which are won- 
 derfully in favour of his sinews ; and he is 
 without clothes, and not stoved, and his course 
 in running is very seldom more than four 
 miles ; therefore, this difference between 
 sweating and running is immense. 
 
 " When a horse pulls up from his running, 
 he has time given him to move gently in the 
 air, and is usually scraped out upon the turf, 
 and by these means he perspires no more than 
 suits his nature. 
 
 " Horses should have different brakes, against 
 weather, to scrape in. Buildings for this, I 
 think, would be most properly made after the 
 horse-dealer's rides in London ; open in front, 
 being out of the weather, and not out of the 
 air. Places of this sort would be much the 
 best for horses to saddle in ; for saddling 
 in close, dark stables, makes them, at times, 
 break out with great perspiration when under 
 that operation. Besides, in fine roomy places 
 of this sort, there would be proper space, &c., 
 for noblemen and gentlemen sportsmen to 
 command a sight of the horses at saddling ^ 
 and horses are less timid, when in a crowd, 
 than they are when not in it, yet hear it. 
 
 " When a horse is first taken into work, 
 after having had a long rest, his carcase is then 
 large and heavy; and the practice is to put 
 more clothes upon him, and order him to go a 
 longer sweat. But the horse, in this stage of 
 his training, is the less able to bear more 
 
EAOE-HOKSES.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAEY PRACTICE. 
 
 [UACE- H0ESE8. 
 
 clothes, and go further in his sweats ; for, he 
 himself being heavy, has, with boy and clothes, 
 at times a great weight upon his legs. There- 
 fore, what with this pressure, and his work 
 heating him, it makes his sinews full and 
 weak ; and thus working a little too fast, or 
 too long, upon his sinews at one stretch, they 
 are forced out of their places. This once 
 done, the horse seldom stands training after. 
 
 " It is ignorant cruelty that causes a num- 
 ber of horses to be unskilfully lamed at New- 
 market; when gentlemen not only lose the 
 use of the animals and their money, but they 
 are deprived of the sport they otherwise might 
 have. 
 
 " The principal care in training horses for 
 running, and hunters and hacks for hard 
 riding, is, to train the legs to be able to carry 
 the carcase. To do this they should first be 
 used to short exercise, short gallops, short 
 sweats, and time given between their work for 
 their sinews to rest, or the best of legs will 
 become destroyed. 
 
 " The legs of horses are very soon destroyed 
 at first coming into work ; but when they 
 have had time to be well trained, scarcely any 
 running or riding will hurt them. 
 
 " Some few, I am informed, have a way of 
 pinching their race-herses in their meat and 
 water. This is another certain way of perish- 
 ing a horse in his spirit and strength. Where 
 a horse is too large in his carcase, he should 
 be well fed, as horses are, I believe, for the 
 most part, at Newmarket ; and, instead of 
 pinching him in his water, where a horse is 
 greedy of it, he should he watered very often, 
 and, at all times, as much as he will drink given 
 to him. He will then drink less, and come 
 straight and strong in his carcase. 
 
 " The outcry is, Why are there so few good 
 runners, or that the turf-horses degenerate ? 
 Some say they think it is from running horses 
 too young. My opinion is, that the best run- 
 ning mares are trained till their ru?ining is 
 gone from them little or much ; then they are 
 turned into the stud, exhausted of their juices. 
 Perhaps they drop a foal in the following 
 year, and so on, year after year, suckling one 
 foal while breeding auother. The mare thus 
 turned into the stud, is drained of her 
 strength ; and being kept continually breeding, 
 without she lays herself barren a year or two 
 
 M 
 
 by her mis-standing to the horse, she will 
 
 remain bereft of her strength. But the chance 
 manner of her being allowed to lay herself 
 fallow, gives her an opportunity of recovering 
 her juices or strength, to enable her to breed 
 a stronger foal, provided the horse that is put 
 to her, is in the same proper state. As it ia 
 with the mares, so is it with the horses. They 
 are turned out of training into the stud, 
 drained of their nature ; and the better run- 
 ners they are, the more are they pressed with 
 mares, and in such numbers as to exhaust 
 their prolific powers. 
 
 " These are my reasons why the turf-horses 
 degenerate in length, speed, and beauty." 
 
 Lord Coleraiue was confederate on the turf 
 with his friend, Mr. Robert Pigott, when his 
 celebrated horse. Shark, was at his best ; Mr. 
 Pigott trusted the whole management of his 
 stables to him. He says — 
 
 " I do not believe there ever was a better 
 horse than Mr. Robert Pigott's Shark, except- 
 ing Eclipse, which was a very uncommon 
 horse. I will tell you what Shark could do, 
 by which you may give a tolerably good guess 
 whether you have nearly the best horse of 
 his year. Run five or six of your young colts 
 together, one mile : if they all come in well 
 together, you may be sure that not one of 
 them is worthy to be kept in training, except- 
 ing you have one amongst them which is an 
 uncommonly large-sized colt, large-limbed, and 
 loose made. It is possible that, when he 
 comes to his strength, and fills up, he may 
 turn out a good horse. If you have one colt 
 which, in the trial, runs clear away from all 
 the rest, you may expect that he will turn out 
 a good runner. Take him, about a fortnight 
 after, run him with two of the others which 
 were the two first of those beaten ; for you 
 must not run him with the worst or last of 
 the lot. Let him give them both twenty-ono 
 pounds. If he does not beat them cleverly, 
 you have no right to expect that he is the 
 best, or nearly the best, horse of his year. I 
 will mention a wonderful trial, when Shark 
 was coming six years old. He ran from the 
 Ditch-In. I borrowed a mare, a good runner, 
 of Mr. Vernon. I think her name was Ata- 
 lanta, but I cannot mention her name for cer- 
 tain. I gave Mr. Vernon fifty guineas for the 
 hire of her ; but then I agreed to have her 
 
 81 
 
IIACE-H0BSE3.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [llACE-HOESES. 
 
 for a fortnight before the race, iii our stables, 
 that he should not run her to death, by which 
 I might have been deceived in the trial. I 
 promised him to run her only once, from the 
 Ditch-In, and, on the third day, again one 
 mile only, and then to return her. John 
 Oakley rode Shark, and Anthony Wheatly 
 rode the trial mare. Shark gave all the other 
 horses, except the mare, twenty-one pounds. 
 There were three others — my horse St. 
 G-eorge, Salopian, and Jack of Hicton. The 
 mare carried four pounds more than them ; 
 consequently Shark gave her only seventeen 
 pounds. As the mare and the rest of the 
 horses were coming down the small declivity 
 just past the Furzes on the town side. Shark 
 had beaten them full three hundred yards : 
 so much so, that I rode up to Oakley and 
 told him to pull Shark up, and go in, in the 
 centre of the group. St. George and the 
 mare had a very severe race ; he just won 
 it ; the other two were beaten three or four 
 lengths. 
 
 " St. George had been turned out in a 
 paddock, at my own house, in Berkshire, for 
 ten months, and well fed with corn the whole 
 time. Before I turned him out, I ran him 
 with Salopian, across the Elut, and Salopian 
 beat him shamefully. 
 
 " E-emember, every horse, including the 
 mare, was of the same age — six years old. 
 Twenty-one pounds is the test of speed ; and 
 this your colt must be able to give to one 
 which is a tolerable good runner, and not to 
 one which cannot run at all, or you have not 
 the best, or nearly the best colt of the year. — 
 So much for racing." 
 
 After recounting the achievements of some 
 of these old racers, the author of The Horse 
 asks, "What are our racers now?" and 
 answers, "They are speedier, longer, lighter, but 
 still muscular, although shorn of much of their 
 pride in this respect." He continues — " They 
 are as beautiful creatures as the eye would 
 wish to gaze on ; but the greater part of them 
 give-in before half the race is run : and out of 
 a field of fifteen, or even twenty, not more 
 than two or three of them will live, in the 
 exertion of their best energies, far within the 
 ropes. And what becomes of them when the 
 struggle is over ? After the severe racing, as 
 it is now called, of former times, the horse 
 82 
 
 came again to the starting-post with not a 
 single power impaired ; and, year after year, 
 he was ready to meet any and every rival. A 
 single race, however, like that of the Derby, 
 now occasionally disables the winner from 
 ever running again ; yet the distance is only a 
 mile and a-half. The St. Leger is more de- 
 structive to the winner, although the distance 
 is less than two miles. The race of the day 
 has been run ; some heavy stakes have been 
 won by the owner ; the animal by whose exer- 
 tions they were gained is led away, and it is 
 sometimes an even chance whether he is ever 
 heard of, or, perhaps, thought of, again. He 
 has answered the purpose for which he was 
 bred, and he has passed away." 
 
 By this quotation, it is evideuu that Mr. 
 Touatt thinks, with Chifney, that the present 
 character of racers has degenerated. Stout- 
 ness has been sacrificed to speed, and the 
 horse has finished the object of his birth and 
 training, when he has won a Derby. But 
 what says the greatest existing authority on 
 this very point. 
 
 " A very ridiculous notion exists," says Ad- 
 miral H. J. Eous, " that because our ancestors 
 were fond of matching their horses four, six, 
 and eight miles, and their great prizes were 
 never less than four miles for equal horses, 
 that the English race-horses of 1700 had more 
 powers of endurance, and were better adapted 
 to run long distances, under heavy weights, 
 than the horses of the present day ; and there 
 is another popular notion that our horses 
 cannot now stay four miles. 
 
 " Erom 1600 to 1740, most of the matches 
 at Newmarket were above four miles. The 
 six-mile post, in my time, stood about two 
 hundred yards from the present railroad 
 station — Six-mile Bottom — and the eight-mile 
 post was clear, south from the station on the 
 rising ground ; but the cruelty of the dis- 
 tances, and interest of horse-owners, shortened 
 the course in corresponding ratio with the 
 civilisation of the country. Two jades may 
 run as fine a race for eight miles, as for half 
 a mile; it is no proof of endurance. You 
 onay match any animals for xohat distance you 
 please, hut it is no proof of great capacity. 
 We have no reason to suppose that the pure 
 Arabian of the desert has degenerated — his 
 pedigree is so well kept ; his admirers in the 
 
BACE-HOHSES.] MODERN VETEEINARY PEACTICE. [eace-hohses. 
 
 East are as numerous, and his value in that 
 market bas not been depreciated. In 1700, 
 the tirst cross from these horses, were the 
 heroes of the turf. Look at the portraits of 
 rijing Childers, Lath, Eegulus, and other 
 celebrated horses, including the Godolphin 
 Arabian. If the artists were correct in their 
 delineations, they had no appearance of race- 
 horses ; they, of course, were good enough to 
 gallop away from the miserable English gar- 
 rans of that era, as a good Arab, or Barbary 
 horse, like Vengeance, would run away from a 
 common hackney in the present day. Amongst 
 the blind, a one-eyed man is a king. 
 
 "My belief is, that the present English 
 race-horse is as much superior to the race- 
 horse of 1750, as he excelled the first cross 
 from Arabs and Barbs, with English mares ; 
 and again, as they surpassed the old English 
 racing hack of 1650. 
 
 " The form of Flying Childers might win now 
 a £30 plate, winner to be sold for £40 ; High- 
 flver and Eclipse might pull through in a £50 
 plate, winner to be sold for £200. This may 
 be a strong opinion ; it is founded on the faith 
 that, whereas one hundred and fifty years ago, 
 the Eastern horses, in their first cross, were the 
 best and fastest in England ; at this day, a 
 second-class race-horse can give five stone to 
 the best Arabian or Barb, and beat him from 
 one to twenty miles. I presume, therefore, 
 that the superiority of the English horse has 
 improved in that ratio above the original stock." 
 The majority of the plates run for during 
 the last century were given to six-year-old 
 horses, carrying twelve stone four miles, from 
 an impression that a horse should not be 
 trained to run a distance under that age. 
 Before 1770, plates, weight for age, were of 
 rare occurrence. At the commencement of 
 the present century, the inauguration of three 
 and four-mile heats, with ten stone four pounds, 
 to eleven stone six pounds, formed the condi- 
 tions upon which the royal plates were usually 
 contested. The system of short races, and 
 liglit weights, was introduced by tSir Charles 
 Bunbury, and the conditions of the royal 
 plates were gradually altered to suit the new 
 style of racing. 
 
 However strong may be the conviction, in 
 the minds of some admirers of the horse, that 
 the modern racer is deiiciieraLing:, there are 
 
 man}' facts which might be adduced to prove 
 the contrary. As to the matter of stoutness, 
 we th.ink, from all we can learn, there can be 
 no question, notwithstanding the opinion of 
 Admiral Eons. Yet neither Flying Childers 
 nor Eclipse kept the turf for more than two 
 seasons ; and we have Catherina running one 
 hundred and seventy-one races, and winning 
 seventy-six times ; we have Fisherman running 
 one hundred and twenty races, and winning 
 sixty-nine ; we have Euphrates running ninety- 
 two ; Isaac, ninety ; Zohrab, ninety ; and Po- 
 tentate, eighty-seven. These figures are little 
 indicative of that degree of degeneracy which 
 some writers would endeavour to make us believe 
 has taken place in the breed of our racers. . 
 
 Having devoted a considerable space to the 
 racers of the last century, we will now briefly 
 record the performances of a few of the present; 
 and passing over Fleur-de-lis, and some others, 
 wo may commence with the celebrated 
 
 BEESWING. 
 
 This horse was, in 1833, bred by Mr. W. Dede, 
 of Nunnykirk, Northumberland. Her sire 
 was Doctor Syntax, the winner of twenty-nine 
 races out of forty-four starts. Her dam, by 
 Ardrossan, out of Lady Ei'za, by Whitworth^ 
 Sylvia, by young Marsh. Her blood is trace- 
 able up to the Darley Arabian. She made her 
 public delut at Newcastle, in June 1835, for 
 the Tyro stakes, but ran out when in a good 
 place. In 1836 she ran for the great St. 
 Ledger, which was won by EHs, the horse of 
 Lord George Bentinck, who, on this occasion, 
 had his animal conveyed in a van, the first 
 time that this mode of conveyance was adopted 
 among racing sportsmen. Beeswing ran eight 
 seasons, starting sixty-four times, and winning 
 fifty. She netted to her owner, seven thousand 
 and eighty pounds. 
 
 ALICE HAWTHORN. 
 
 This fine animal was foaled in 1838, and 
 bred by Mr. John Plummer. Her sire was 
 Mully Moloch, the victor over some of the 
 be.^t horses of his day. In 1854, in his twenty- 
 fourth year, he figures before the world as the 
 sire of eighty-two winners, of whom Alice 
 Hawthorn was the most famous. Her dam 
 was Eebecca, by Lottery. Alice started sixty- 
 nine times, and won fifty and a-half races, 
 
 83 
 
EACE-HOESES.] 
 
 THE HOESE. AND 
 
 [eace-horses. 
 
 netting, ia all, seven thousand eight hundred 
 and ninety-four pounds. 
 
 She subsequently fell to the stud ; and, in 
 1857, produced Thormanby. 
 
 BEADSMAN. 
 
 This beautiful horse was the winner of the 
 Derby in 1858, and was bred by Sir Joseph 
 Hawley, baronet. He was got by Weatherbit, 
 out of Mendicant. He was a black-brown 
 horse, standing fifteen hands two and a-half 
 inches high. He had a beautiful blood-like 
 head, with a fine full eye ; rather long ears, 
 well set on ; a bending neck gracefully joining 
 to his head ; great depth of girth, rather light 
 in his back ribs, good loins and back, muscular 
 quarters and thighs ; large arms, rather small 
 in tlie bone, but strong tendons. He very 
 much resembled his dam, the winner of the 
 Oaks in 1846. 
 
 GOVERNESS. 
 
 This mare was bred by Mr. Gratwicke, and 
 got by Chatham out of a Laurel mare, the dam 
 of Oxonian, Ehedycina (winner of the Oaks in 
 1850), Student, Instructress, &c. She was a fine 
 strapping animal, standing rather more than 
 sixteen hands and an inch ; and a good even, 
 coloured chestnut, without any white, except a 
 blaze in her face; and, for so large a mare, 
 had a good head; powerful and muscular all 
 over, and possessed of a wonderful stride. 
 
 The Derbies of 18G0, '61, '62, '63, '64, 'G5, 
 and ^66, were won successively by Thormanby, 
 Kettledrum, Caractacus, Macaroni, Blair- 
 Athol, Gladiateur, and Lord Lyon. 
 
 Such are a few of the racing celebrities ^ve 
 have chosen, to illustrate the runningr of the 
 present century ; and it now becomes a duty 
 briefly to discuss the humanity of the question 
 as to whether the modern system of racing 
 short distances, is preferable to the old system 
 of lieats, and long distances. Morally, this is, 
 perhaps, the most interesting portion of our 
 subject, and demands the attention of every 
 man possessed of such sentiments as are incul- 
 cated by the gradual development of civilisation. 
 
 In Ohservations on Breeding for the Turf, 
 
 by Mr. N. H. Smith, we find this subject 
 
 touched upon. "The style of racing now," 
 
 observes that gentleman, "is totally difierent 
 
 84 
 
 from that of former days. At present they 
 run, except at country races, with light weights 
 and short distances, where speed only can 
 excel. Formerly they ran with high weights 
 and long distances, where bottom or stoutness 
 was equally necessary ; and hence it may be 
 presumed, that tlie horse possessing qualities 
 which might have brought him into distinction 
 then, would not be calculated to obtain now 
 an equal fame at Newmarket. It is, therefore, 
 very natural to suppose, that this difference in 
 our style of racing, may, in a certain degree, 
 have altered the character of our racing stock. 
 By a reference to former sporting publications, 
 it appears that the horses were then smaller — 
 most likely shorter in the leg — and, no doubt 
 capable of carrying weights and running in 
 better than the present racers, which most 
 probably are, generally speaking, longer in the 
 leg, with less substance. It must be allowed 
 that the horse that can go a good distance 
 the best with high weights, is, for all general 
 purposes, and particularly for giving a value 
 to any intermediate breed between the racer 
 and draught-horse, the best sort of horse to 
 resort to as a stallion ; but there is something 
 inhuman in the former practice of running 
 four-mile heats with twelve stone weights, 
 which must reduce the speed of the best 
 horse in the world to a pace to which a race- 
 horse ought never to be reduced. It is not 
 racing, but a severe trial of constitutional 
 strength, of the most distressing nature to the 
 poor animal, and better calculated to gratify 
 butchers and hawkers, than the tastes and 
 feelings of gentlemen." 
 
 Independent of whatever cruelty might have 
 been exemplified in the length of the former 
 racing-course, there is yet another cruelty which, 
 in the excitement of this sport, is apt to escape 
 general notice. We allude to that which is 
 inflicted by the jockey upon the sides of the 
 animal he rides, by means of spur and whip, 
 urging him on to the utmost of his speed, 
 or rather beyond his utmost, when the animal 
 is literally ready to drop. It ought to be 
 considered an established maxim on the turf, 
 that the efforts of a horse to win a race, are 
 limited only by his physical powers. It is, we 
 believe, generally admitted that the horse 
 enters into the spirit of the race as thoroughly 
 as does his rider ; and, without whip or spur, 
 
BACE-lIOnSES.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEEINAET PRACTICE. 
 
 [uACE-nOESBS. 
 
 will generally exert his energies to tho utmost 
 to beat his opponent. It is beautiful to see 
 liira advancing to the starting-post, every 
 motion evincing his eagerness. The signal is 
 ;;ivcn, and he springs away ; he settles himself 
 in his stride; the jockey becomes a part and 
 portion of him, every motion of the arms and 
 bodv corresponding with, and assisting the 
 action of tho horse. On he goes, eager, yet 
 husbanding his powers. At length, when he 
 arrives at that distance from which the rider 
 Imows that he will live home at the top of his 
 speed, the hint is given, and off he rushes. 
 The race now in reality begins, and every 
 nerve is strained to head his competitor. Then, 
 too, comes the art of the rider, to keep the 
 horse within his pace, and with admirable ffive 
 and taTce, add to the length of every stride. 
 Then, perhaps, the spur may be lightly and 
 ykilfully applied, to rouse every dormant energy. 
 
 A sluggish, lurching horse, may need more 
 punishment than the humane observer would 
 think justifiable; but the natural ardour of 
 the race-horse, roused at the moment of the 
 grand struggle, by the moderate application of 
 the whip and spur, will bring him through, if 
 he can win. 
 
 An anecdote of Forrester will aiford suffi- 
 cient illustration of the natural emulation of 
 the racer. He had won many a hardly con- 
 tested race ; at length, over-weighted, and 
 over-matched, the rally had commenced. His 
 opponent had been waiting behind, but had 
 now overtaken him, when, till within distance, 
 they continued to be close together. It was a 
 l)oint that could scarcely be decided; but 
 Forrester's strength was failing. He made 
 one desperate plunge — seized his antagonist 
 by the jaw to hold him back, and could be 
 scarcely forced to quit his hold. 
 
 In like manner, a horse belonging to Mr. 
 Quin, in 1753, finding his adversary gradually 
 passing him, seized him by the leg, and both 
 riders were obliged to dismount, in order to 
 separate the animals. 
 
 With horses such as these, exhibiting the 
 highest evidence of being thoroughly endued 
 with the true emulative spirit, what need for 
 a severe application of the whip or spur ? 
 AVould the pain, which they by these instru- 
 ments inflict, have carried such horses over 
 one additional inch of ground ? In all pro- 
 
 bability their lacerations would have been 
 thrown away ; they miglit have shortened 
 the stroke for the animals which, perhaps, 
 would have become enraged, and have sus- 
 pended every exertion. AVhat says an autiio- 
 rity upon this subject. 
 
 " Those persons who insist u])on an innate 
 quality in what is termed ' blood,' are led to 
 believe that there is something in the nature 
 of a thorough-bred horse which enables him 
 to struggle in a race far beyond his natural 
 capabilities, and which is distinguished by the 
 term ' game.' We do not think there is. AVo 
 learn from experience, that horses often allow 
 themselves to be beaten by others which are 
 inferior to them, from sheer ill-temper; but 
 their efforts to run a race, we consider to be 
 merely limited by their physical powers, the 
 effect of a proper arrangement of their parts ; 
 and that the operation of the mind, or spirit, 
 has nothing at all to do with it. The hero at 
 the Olympic games had, and the champion of 
 the British boxing-ring may have, feelings 
 which, from the superiority of their nature, 
 and tlie fact of their character, interest, and 
 future happiness being all involved in the 
 event, might have induced them to struggle, 
 even to the very verge of life ; but the same 
 sense of honour, and the same spirit of emu- 
 lation, cannot, at least, in anything like the 
 same ratio, be ascribed to the race-horse. If 
 his own acting potvers be unequal to those of 
 others opposed to him in the race, he yields to 
 that superiority; although it must be admitted, 
 that what are called sluggish horses will not 
 try to exert themselves to the utmost, unless 
 urged to it by the spur and whip ; and others, 
 when spurred and whipped, slacken, instead of 
 increasing their speed." 
 
 To this subject it is unnecessary to give fur- 
 ther attention here: meanwhile, we may ob- 
 serve, that a diminutive brain is usually asso- 
 ciated with dull senses ; whilst a large one is 
 generally possessed of much sensibility, saga- 
 city, and courage ; but, whatever may be these 
 pliysiological distinctions or differences, let us 
 always remember, that though 
 
 " The gcn'rous horse, 
 Restrain'd and awed by man's inferior force, 
 Does, to the rider's will, his rage submit, 
 And answers to the spur and owns the bit ;" 
 
 humanity towards him, as well as towards all 
 
 85 
 
THE HUNTErt.] 
 
 THE HOBSE, AND 
 
 [the nUNTEB. 
 
 other animals, is one of our most imperative 
 duties. 
 
 THE HUNTER. 
 
 Before entering on a particular description 
 of the horse, to which this portion of our work 
 is to b» devoted, we shall enumerate the 
 variety of horses which, under their different 
 appellations, are characterised by more or less 
 distinctive features. We have already de- 
 scribed the racer ; but the hunter, the hack, or 
 hackney, the roadster, the lady's horse, or pad ; 
 the coach, cavalry, and dray horse, have yet to 
 follow. In sporting language, the term horse 
 mdicates one uncut, or a stallion. Gelding 
 has always been a common and familiar term. 
 A horse below thirteen hands — four inches to 
 a hand — in height, is styled a Pony; above 
 that height, and below fcjurteen hands, a Gal- 
 loway. The term coh, refers to a truss, short- 
 legged nag, able to carry any weight. The 
 pach-horse has long since disappeared from 
 amoner us. The cock-tail, a new term in the 
 slang of the inferior turi', indicates a racer not 
 thorough -bred. The icelter horse, is a term of 
 lono- standing, but of unknown derivation. It 
 points to either racer or hunter, master of the 
 highest weight. The designation, tliorough- 
 Ired, belongs to the racer of pure Arabian 
 or Barb blood ; and the term is likewise ap- 
 plicable to the horses of other nations of the 
 south-east. A nag, in which the show of blood 
 predominates, is culled blood-like, or a blood- 
 horse. The degrees of blood in an English 
 horse are expressed by the terms, half-hrtd, 
 three-parts, and seven-eighths hred. The first, 
 or half-bred, is the produce of a racer and 
 common mare, or vice versa — the last cross 
 not so frequent, nor deemed so successful ; 
 the second, of the racer and half-bred ; and the 
 third, of the racer, and the three-part bred 
 mare. This last may, and has, sometimes, 
 raced capitally. Several examples of suc- 
 cessful seven-eighths bred racers, have oc- 
 curred at various periods. Perhaps no in- 
 stances have ever occurred, of a three-part 
 bred horse saving his distance in runing two 
 miles with thorough-bred racers. 
 
 Tlie conventional form of the horse, as to 
 
 the great essentials, may be held referable to 
 
 every variety ; for example, the head should 
 
 be lean, argutum caput, neither long nor short, 
 
 86 
 
 and set on with somewhat of a curve ; the 
 thropple loose and open ; the neck not re- 
 versed — cock-throppled — but rather arched; 
 the loins wide and substantial ; this, more 
 especially, if the back is long ; the tail not 
 drooping, but nearly on a level with the spine; 
 the hinder quarters well spread, as a support 
 to the loins, and as a security against the 
 pasterns, in progression, being cut by the 
 hoofs ; the hinder legs should descend straight, 
 laterally from the hocks, as a preventive to the 
 defect styled sicJcle-houghed, or hammed; at 
 the same time, the curve from the hock should 
 be so placed, that the feet may come suffi- 
 ciently forward to prop the loins, and that the 
 horse may not be said to leave his legs behind 
 him ; the muscles of the tliigh and fore-arm 
 should be solid and full, though some horses 
 are heavy and overdone by nature in those 
 parts. The horse, of whatever description 
 should not be leggy; and, of the extremes, 
 short legs are preferable. The canon, or leg- 
 bone, below the knee, should not be long, but 
 of good substance ; and the pasterns and feet, 
 of a size to correspond with the dimensions of 
 the horse ; the hoof should be dark, the feet 
 and frog tough, and the heel wide and open ; 
 the fore-feet should stand perfectly level, the 
 toe pointing forward in a right line, otherwise 
 the horse will knock, or " cut in the speed," 
 however wide his chest ; in plain terms, he will 
 strike and wound either his pasterns, or his 
 legs immediately below the knees, or both ; 
 the feet standing even, the horse being equal 
 to his work, will seldom, perhaps never, knock 
 or cut, however near the hoof may approach. 
 A full, clear, azure eye, he also should have. 
 
 Such are the requisites of form, whether 
 taken in their widest extremes for the racer 
 or the cart-horse. Eor the hack, hunter, or 
 racer, there are certain other requisites of 
 form and quality. The principal of these are 
 the deep, backward-declining, and, as it is 
 called, the counter, or coulter shoulder, well 
 elevated fore-hand, deep girthing-plaee, with 
 sufficient racing blood to give lightness, action 
 of body, and fineness to the hair and skin. 
 This description applies with perfect aptitude 
 to the hunter, which should have, moreover, 
 great strength of loin and fillet, and should 
 not be high upon the leg. Nor is any addition 
 necessary for the running-horse, or racer, but 
 
THE HUNTEE.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. 
 
 [the huntee. 
 
 Greater general length, wliich is the usual 
 result of full or tliorough blood. As to our 
 coach-horses, such was wont to be the modern 
 rage for speed, that even our mails and stages 
 miglit have been said to consist, in a con- 
 siderable degree, of racers and hunters ; and 
 our private coaches of huutiug-like horses on 
 a large scale. 
 
 In regard to the natui'al and peculiar form 
 of the slow draught horse, he carries his sub- 
 stance in a round, full, and horizontal manner ; 
 his chest is widely developed ; his shoulder 
 rather round and bluff than deep, and its 
 summit, the apex, or top of the fore-hand, not 
 high and acute, but wide. Such a form seems 
 best adapted to the collar, and to enable the 
 animal to draw, or move forward, heavy 
 weights; we, nevertheless, daily see numbers 
 of first-rate draught horses with deep flat 
 shoulders. It used to be held, that a low 
 shoulder facilitated draught ; and such was the 
 form of the old Suffolk sorrel cart-horses, the 
 truest and most forceful pullers of their kind. 
 They were the only breed, collectively, that 
 would draw dead 'puUs ; that is to say, would 
 continue repeated pulls, going down upon 
 their knees to an immovable object — for 
 example, a tree. This, draught horses in 
 general, even the most powerful and the best, 
 cannot be brought to do, whatever may be the 
 severity used towards them ; at the second or 
 third pull, gibhing, as it is called, and turning 
 their heads, as if to point with their eyes, 
 towai'ds their failing loins, is a common 
 circumstance. 
 
 Such are the general characteristics of the 
 lower grades of horses ; and taking the middle 
 of Charles the First's reign, as the date of the 
 introduction of the Eastern animals into this 
 country, it allows us about two centuries and 
 a quarter for the manufacture of the English 
 thorough-bred horse, in his form as he is 
 found in Great Britain, and in Great Britain 
 only. To preserve him in his purity, Arab and 
 Persian mares were, also, imported at the same 
 period, their produce then, as now, being con- 
 sidered and treated purely with reference to 
 the turf, as their ultimate destination. The 
 cross between the Arab stallions and the 
 native mares, was held as the fittest for the 
 field — strength, with a little breeding, enabling 
 any kind of equine flesh on four legs, to canter 
 
 from daylight to noon, alongside the long- 
 eared, short-legged liarrier, or beagle of that 
 day. 
 
 The hunter is generally a horse between 
 fifteen and sixteen hands in height, from tiie 
 half-bred to the thorough-bred species; and 
 ought to be of a lofty fore-hand, and shoulder 
 well formed for action, with wide and substan- 
 tial loins, moderately short legs and pasterns 
 and sound feet. The fashion of riding full- 
 bred and speedy horses, so prevalent of late 
 years, was equally prevalent in the beginning; 
 indeed, was original in the system. But this 
 chiefly takes place in light-soiled counties. 
 Upon strong and heavy soils, a powerful, well- 
 shaped, half-bred horse, may perform satisfac- 
 torily, and make a good figure ; but upon light 
 lands and downs, the speed of the high-bred 
 courser is too much for his powers, and he 
 cannot long hold his way in such superior 
 company. On a general consideration, the 
 three part or seven-eighth bred horse is best 
 adapted for hunting — since, at the same time, 
 acknowledging the superiority of the thorough- 
 bred horse, it is so extremely difficult to 
 obtain him of that make and form which shall 
 sufficiently combine strength with speed, to fit 
 him for his duties. 
 
 Hunting is obviously one of the most severe 
 labours of the horse, yet one that is so gene- 
 rally attractive to him, that there are well- 
 authenticated anecdotes of old hunters, in- 
 spired by the music of their fellow-sportsmen, 
 the hounds, breaking pasture over the most 
 dangerous fences, following the chase, and 
 coming first in at the death. 
 
 Until he has attained his sixth year, the 
 joints of a horse are not sufficiently fixed to 
 carry him well through a season's hunting; 
 although, at five, he should be cautiously and 
 moderately used in the field. His education 
 consists chiefly in being taught to leap the 
 bar, standing, since generally all horses will 
 take a flying leap, in some manner or other. 
 The practice of furzing the leaping-bar around, 
 is well known ; but some grooms are too harsh 
 and hasty with the young horse, whence many 
 animals, of irritable tempers, can never after- 
 wards be made staunch leapers. One of the 
 most extraordinary leaps made by a horse was 
 done at Birmingham, by an animal belonging 
 to a Mr. Beardsworth. On the ground being 
 
 87 
 
THE HUNTER.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [THii: HUNTER. 
 
 accurately measured by some gentleman who 
 witnessed the performance, it was found that, 
 in passing over a bar three feet six inches 
 high, the leap was taken at the amazing dis- 
 tance of seventeen feet seven inches from it, 
 and the whole space of ground covered was 
 twenty-seven feet eight inches. The horse 
 was fifteen hands and a-half high, and carried 
 upwards of twelve stone. He was afterwards 
 ridden over the same bar several times, and 
 cleared upwards of eigl«t yards without much 
 apparent effort. 
 
 The first property of a good hunter is, that 
 he should be light in hand. Eor this purpose, 
 his head must be small; his neck thin, and 
 especially thin beneath; his crest firm and 
 arched, and his jaws wide. The head will 
 then be well set on. It will form that angle 
 with the neck, which gives a light and pleasant 
 mouth. 
 
 Tiie fore-hand should be loftier than that of 
 the racer. A turf horse may be forgiven if 
 his hind quarters rise an inch or two above his 
 fore ones. His principal power is wanted 
 from behind; and tlie very lowness of the 
 fore-hand may throw more weight in front, and 
 cause the whole machine to be more easily and 
 speedily moved. A lofty fore-hand, therefore, 
 is indispensable in the hunter ; the shoulder 
 should be as extensive as in the racer ; also as 
 oblique, and somewhat thicker ; the saddle 
 will then sit in its proper place, and will con- 
 tinue so, however long may be the run. 
 
 The barrel should be rounder, to give greater 
 room for the heart and lungs to play, and send 
 oxygenised blood in greater quantities to the 
 larger frame of this kind of horse ; room to 
 play is all the more essential when the run 
 continues unchecked for such a length of time 
 as to begin to be distressing. A broad chest 
 is an excellence in the hunter. In the violent 
 and long-continued exertion of the chase, the 
 respiration is exceedingly quickened, and 
 a great deal more blood is hurried through the 
 lungs in a given time, than when the animal is 
 at rest. There must be sufiicieut room for 
 this, or the beast will be blown, and possibly 
 destroyed. The majority of the horses that 
 perish in the field are narrow-chested. 
 
 The foot of the hunter is a most material 
 point. It is of consequence in the racer ; yet 
 it is a notorious fact, that numbers of our best 
 88 
 
 thorough-bred horses have had very indifferent 
 feet. The narrow contracted foot is the curse 
 of many of the. racing blood. The work of the 
 racer, however, is all performed on the turf, 
 and his bad feet may scarcely incommode him ; 
 but the foot of the hunter is battered over 
 many a flinty road and stony field; and if 
 not particularly good, will soon be disabled and 
 ruined. 
 
 The position of his feet, also, requires atten- 
 tion. They should, if possible, stand straight. 
 If they turn a little outward there is no serious 
 objection ; but if they turn inward, his action 
 cannot be safe, particularly when he is fatigued 
 or over-weighted. 
 
 The body should be short and compact, 
 compared with that of the race-horse, that he 
 may not, in his gallop, take too extended a 
 stride. This, in a long day, and with a heavy 
 rider, would be a serious disadvantage, from 
 the stress on the pasterns ; and more serious 
 when going over clayey ground, during the 
 winter months. The compact, short-strided 
 horse will almost skim the surface ; while the 
 feet of the longer-reached animal will sink 
 deep, and he will wear himself out by efi'orts 
 to disengage himself. 
 
 The hunter may be fairly ridden twice, or 
 if not with any very hard days, thrice a week ; 
 but, after a thoroughly hard day, and evident 
 distress, three or four days' rest should be 
 allowed. They who are merciful to their 
 horses, allow about thirty days' work in the 
 course of the season ; with gentle exercise on 
 each of the intermediate days, and particularly 
 a sweat on the day before hunting. There is an 
 account, however, of one horse which followed 
 the fox-hounds seventy-five times in one season. 
 We are not aware that this feat has ever been 
 exceeded. 
 
 "We have before said that the horse fully shares 
 in the enthusiasm of his rider ; and it is beautiful 
 to watch the old hunter, who, after many a 
 winter's hard work, is turned into the park to 
 enjoy himself for life. His attitude and his 
 countenance when, perchance, he hears the 
 distant cry of the dogs, are a study for the 
 contemplation of the artist. 
 
 " I was entertained by listening to an Arab 
 peasant," says Sir John Malcolm, in his 
 Sketches in Persia, "describe a fox-hunt which 
 he had seen in the English style. 'There 
 
TUE IIUNTEK.'J 
 
 MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRACTICE. 
 
 [the huntee. 
 
 came tlie fox-devil ; lie poiutiug with a crooked 
 stick to a clump of date-trees ; there he came 
 at a great rate. I hallooed, but nobody heard 
 me, and I thouglit he must get away ; but, 
 when he got quite out of sight, up came a 
 large spotted dog, and then another, and 
 another. They all had their noses to the 
 ground, and gave tongue — whow, whow, whow 
 — I was friglitened. Away went these devils, 
 who soon found the poor animal. After them 
 galloped the Foringees (a corruption of Frank, 
 the name given to a European over all Asia), 
 shouting and trying to make a noise louder 
 than the dogs. No wonder they killed the fox 
 among them.' " 
 
 The following is related by a Wiltshire 
 gentleman, who was an eye-witness of the 
 scene he describes : — " I lent a fine and fiery 
 mare to a friend from town, who had come 
 down to try his Essex dogs against our Wilt- 
 shire breed : at the close of a very fine day's 
 sport, we had to beat a small furze-brake, and, 
 for the purpose of better threading it, my 
 friend dismounted and gave the bridle of the 
 mare to the next horseman. Puss was soon 
 started ; the " halloo" was given ; the person 
 who held my mare, in the eagerness of sporty 
 forgot his charge, loosed his hold, and, regard- 
 less of any other than his own steed, left mine 
 to run, like Mazeppa's, " wild and untutored." 
 But, to the astonishment of all, instead of so 
 doing, or even attempting to bend her course 
 homewards (and she was in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of her stable), she ran the 
 whole course at the tail of the dogs ; turned, 
 as well as she could, when they brought the 
 prey about, and afterwards by very much out- 
 stripping all competitors (for the run was long 
 and sharp), she stopped only at the death of 
 the hare, and then suflTered herself to be quietly 
 regained and remounted. This I conceive to 
 be certainly an extraordinary proof of a natural 
 love for the sport ; but what renders it more 
 remarkable is, that I had only attempted to 
 ride her twice before, after any hounds what- 
 ever. The brace of dogs that were slipped at 
 this course were my own, and the groom had 
 been in the habit of exercising them with the 
 mare. Whether this had any efiect on her 
 actions I am not competent to give an opinion," 
 The passion of horses for hunting was, on 
 one occasion, exemplified in a most extraor- 
 
 dinary manner. Three of the horses of the 
 Brighton coach chanced to have finished their 
 stage, and to have been standing, unharnessed, 
 at the instant Lord Derby's stag-hounds 
 passed in full cry. They started off and 
 joined the hunt, and had the gratification of a 
 run of some length, until the hounds were 
 whipped ofi". Even after this, they followed 
 the stag till they got up to his haunches, and 
 then chased him three miles on the high road, 
 when the stag taking a high fence, left them 
 snorting on the wrong side, to be secured by 
 those in quest of them. 
 
 This deer was more fortunate than one 
 which was hunted by the same pack, as the 
 result will show. Some years since, the Earl 
 of Derby turned out from the Oaks a noble 
 deer, for a day's sport, which, after having 
 traced a very long tract of country, entered 
 the grounds of the late Mrs. Smith, of Ashted, 
 near Epsom, Surrey, and being closely pur- 
 sued by the hounds, it actually leaped through 
 the drawing-room window, the sash of which 
 was down, followed by the pack in full cry. 
 The consternation occasioned in the family, by 
 this strange event, was indescribable. At 
 that critical moment no one was in the apart- 
 ment, some ladies having quitted it a few 
 minutes previously. The window was almost 
 dashed to atoms, and every part of the room, 
 with its rich carpet and corresponding furni- 
 ture, covered with blood and dirt. The animal 
 was soon dispatched by the ferocity of the 
 dogs ; and perhaps so curious an event is not 
 to be found in the annals of sporting. As a 
 companion, however, to this scene, a stag, gra- 
 duating towards the city of Oxford, at length 
 took to one of the streets, through which he 
 was followed by the hounds in full cry, into a 
 chapel, and there killed, during divine service. 
 A horse that had, a short time before, been 
 severely fired on three legs, and was placed in 
 a loose box, with the door, four feet high, 
 closed, and an aperture over it little more than 
 three feet square, and standing himself nearly 
 sixteen hands, and master of fifteen stone, 
 hearing the cheering of the huntsmen and the 
 cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprung 
 through the aperture, without leaving a single 
 mark on the bottom, the top, or the sides. 
 
 If the horse, then, be thus ready to exert 
 himself for our pleasure— and pleasure alone 
 
 8D 
 
THE HTTNTEE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the hunteb. 
 
 is liere the object — it is indefensible and 
 brutal to urge bira beyond his own natural 
 ardour, so severely as we sometimes do, and 
 even until nature is quite exhausted. It is, 
 perhaps, not now so frequent ; but formerly 
 *ve scarcely ever heard of a " hard day," with- 
 out being likewise informed, that one or more 
 horses either died in the field, or scarcely 
 reached home before they expired. Some 
 have been thoughtless and cruel enough to 
 kill two horses in one day. One of the 
 severest chases on record was by the king's 
 stag-hounds. There was an uninterrupted 
 burst of four hours and twenty minutes. One 
 horse dropped dead in the field ; another died 
 before he could reach the stable; and seven 
 more within a week afterwards. 
 
 It is easily conceivable, and it does sometimes 
 happen, that, entering as fully as his master 
 into the sports of the day, the horse disdains 
 to yield to fatigue, and voluntarily presses on, 
 until nature is exhausted, and he falls and 
 dies. Much oftener, however, the poor animal 
 has, intelligibly enough, hinted his distress ; 
 unwilling to give in, yet painfully and falter- 
 ingly holding on; when the merciless rider, 
 rather than relinquish one hour's enjoyment, 
 tortures him with whip and spur, until he 
 drops and expires. 
 
 However unwilling the hunter may be to 
 abandon the chase for the time being, he who 
 " is merciful to his beast" will soon recognise 
 the symptoms of excessive and dangerous dis- 
 tress. To the drooping pace, staggering gait, 
 heaving flank, and heavy bearing on hand, will 
 be added a very peculiar noise. The inex- 
 perienced person will fancy it to be the beat- 
 ing of the heart ; but that has almost ceased 
 to beat, and the lungs are becoming gorged 
 ■with blood. It is the convulsive motion of 
 the muscles of the belly, called into violent 
 action to assist in the now laborious office of 
 respiring. 
 
 In this dangerous situation, life almost 
 quivering in the horse's nostrils, Mr. Youatt 
 says — 
 
 " Let the rider instantly dismount. If he 
 has a lancet, and skill to use it, let him take 
 away five or six quarts of blood ; or if he has 
 no lancet, let him cut the burs with his 
 pocket-knife as deeply as he can. The lungs 
 may be thus relieved, and the horse may be 
 90 
 
 able to crawl home. Then, or before, if pos- 
 sible, let some powerful cordial be adminis- 
 tered. Cordials are, generally speaking, the 
 disgrace and bane of the stable ; but here, and 
 almost here alone, tliey are truly valuable. 
 They may rouse the exhausted powers of 
 nature ; they may prevent what the medical 
 man would call the reaction of inflammation ; 
 although they are the veriest poison when in- 
 flammation has commenced. 
 
 " A favourite hunter fell after a long burst, 
 and lay stretched out, convulsed, and appa- 
 rently dying. His master procured a bottle 
 of good sherry from the house of a neighbour- 
 ing friend, and poured it down the animal's 
 throat. The horse immediately began to 
 revive ; soon after got up, and walked home, 
 and gradually recovered. The sportsman may 
 not always be able to get this, but he may 
 obtain a cordial-ball from the nearest farrier, 
 or he may beg a little ginger from some good 
 house- wife, and mix it with warm ale, or he 
 may give the ale alone, or strengthened with a 
 little rum or gin. When he gets home, or if 
 he stops at the first stable he finds, let the 
 horse be put into the coolest plg^e, and then 
 well clothed, and diligently rubbed about the 
 legs and belly. The practice of putting the 
 animal, thus distressed, into * a comfortable 
 warm stable,' and excluding every breath of 
 air, has destroyed many valuable horses. 
 
 " We are now describing the very earliest 
 treatment to be adopted, and before it may 
 be possible to call in an experienced practi- 
 tioner. This stimulating plan would be fatal 
 twelve hours afterwards. It will, however, be 
 the wisest course, to commit the animal, the 
 first moment it is practicable, to the care of 
 the veterinary surgeon, if such there be in 
 the neighbourhood, in whom confidence can 
 be placed." 
 
 The labours and the pleasures of the hunting 
 season being passed, the farmer makes little 
 or no difl'erence in the management of his 
 untrained horse ; but the wealthier sportsman 
 is somewhat at a loss what to do with his. 
 It used to be thought, that when the animal 
 had so long contributed to the enjoyment of 
 his owner, he ought, for a few months, to be 
 permitted to seek his own amusement, in 
 his own way, and he was turned out for a 
 summer's run at grass. 
 
lkLIIJiLili#i"lj _ i^iHi* Hiwiwiii ■mil 1111. «■ 
 
 % 
 
 1=: 
 so 
 
THE HUNTER.] 
 
 MODERN YETEHINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [the nUNTEE. 
 
 The pages of the Sporting 3Iagazine con- 
 tained, some years back, a controversy on the 
 merits of summering the hunter. Two cele- 
 brated writers were engaged in it ; one under 
 the signature of Nimrod, who recommended 
 summering the hunter in the stable ; the oppo- 
 nent to this measure was the veteran John 
 Lawrence, who advocated the summering of 
 the hunter in the field as the best means 
 of renovating him, and restoring him to his 
 pristine vigour. This controversy was carried 
 on in no very measured or complimentary 
 terms. 
 
 The practice, however, of turning out the 
 hunter seems to us so natural as well as 
 beneficial to the animal, that we feel surprised 
 that a dispute upon such a question could 
 have arisen. The following remarks upon this 
 subject seem so judicious, that we cannot with- 
 hold them from our readers. They proceed 
 from the same writer on the Horse, to whom 
 we have before alluded. 
 
 "Fashion, which now governs everything, 
 and now and then cruelly and absurdly, has 
 exercised her tyranny over this poor quadruped. 
 His field, where he could wander and gambol 
 as he liked, is changed to a loose box ; and the 
 liberty in which he so evidently exulted, to an 
 hour's walking exercise daily. He is allowed 
 vetches, or grass occasionally ; but from his 
 box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's 
 round, until he is taken into training for the 
 next winter's business. 
 
 " In this, however, as in most other things, 
 there is a medium. There are few horses who 
 have not materially suffered in their legs and 
 feet, before the close of the hunting season. 
 There is nothing so refreshing to their feet as 
 the damp coolness of the grass into which they 
 are turned in May ; and nothing so calculated 
 to remove every enlargement and sprain, as the 
 gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily 
 takes while his legs are exposed to the cooling 
 process of evaporation, which is taking place 
 from the herbage he treads. The experience 
 of ages has shown that it is superior to all the 
 embrocations and bandages of the most skilful 
 veterinarian. It is the renovating process of 
 nature, where the art of man fails. 
 
 "The spring grass is. the best physic that 
 can possibly be administered to the horse. 
 To a degree, which no artificial aperient or 
 
 diuretic can attain, it carries olT every humour 
 which may be lurking about the animal; it 
 fines down the roundness of the legs; and, 
 except there be some bony cularfement 
 restores them almost to their original form 
 and strength. "When, however, the summer 
 has thoroughly set in, the grass ceases to bo 
 succulent, aperient, or medicinal ; the ground 
 is no longer cool and moist, at least during tlio 
 day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of 
 flies, are, from sunrise to sunset, persecuting 
 the poor animal. Running and stamping to 
 rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered 
 by the hard ground, and he newly, and perhaps 
 more severely, injures his legs. Kept in a 
 constant state of irritation and fever, he rapidly 
 loses his condition, and sometimes comes up to 
 August little better than a skeleton. 
 
 "Let the horse be turned out as soon .13 
 possible after the hunting seasoii is over. Let 
 him have the whole of May, and the greater 
 part, or possibly the whole of June ; but when 
 the grass fails, and the ground gets hard, and 
 the flies torment, let him be taken up. Ail 
 the benefits of turning out, and that which a 
 loose box and artificial physic can never give, 
 will have been obtained, without the incon- 
 venience and injury which attend an injudi- 
 ciously protracted run at grass, and which, 
 arguing against the use ot a thing from tho 
 abuse of it, have been improperly urged against 
 turning out at all." 
 
 Stable-summering the hunter is favourably 
 considered by Count Veltherin. "I hope," he 
 says, "I may be permitted to adduce some- 
 thing from my own experience, having, for 
 nearly thirty years, constantly had at my 
 country seat from seventy to eighty horses — 
 partly saddle, partly coach, draught, and breed- 
 ing horses and colts ; and that, from preililec- 
 tion to horses, I have always bestowed ])ar- 
 ticular attention upon them. For a long thne 
 it has not been customary, on well-managed 
 estates in this part of the country, to turn 
 horses to grass in summer, or to give them 
 green food in the stable, with the exception of 
 brood mares and their foals." 
 
 Mr. Appleby, in his Letters on Condition, 
 thus states his method of summering the 
 hunter: — "The first step I should take would 
 be to put the horse into a loose box, if con- 
 venient, and, by degrees, diminish his corn, 
 
 91 
 
THE HACKNEY.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the hackney. 
 
 giving him an hour's walking exercise as usual. 
 I should then give him two doses of physic, 
 which would not only cool his habit of body, 
 so as to prevent the danger of iuflamraatory 
 attacks, but would have such an effect on his 
 legs as would enable me to see what injury had 
 been done to them in his work, whether there 
 were any ligamentary enlargements, any injury 
 to the joints or sinews, any callous substances 
 produced by blows; or, in short, anything 
 going wrong. The clear state of his legs, 
 which this treatment will produce, would pre- 
 vent the possibility of working in the dark, as 
 they will become prior — to use the language of 
 grooms — in three weeks, than they would at 
 the expiration of three months' run at grass in 
 the summer." Mr. Appleby, however, further 
 observes, that, under favourable circumstances, 
 he would strongly recommend turning out. 
 " In case of having recourse to blistering, it is 
 most serviceable ; and, after spring, almost 
 necessary; but then the hunter should be 
 turned out only at night, and into a place 
 •where there is but little grass, and have two, 
 if not three feeds of corn a-day ; but nothing 
 else to eat till he goes out, unless it be a few 
 vetches, for four or five days at a time, when 
 they are young and tender, in the months of 
 May or June ; but these should not be repeated 
 more than three or four times, as they tend to 
 make horses very foul ; and when in pod are 
 most injurious to them." 
 
 When we come to speak of the economy of 
 the stable, we wdl also treat of the manage- 
 ment of the hunter. 
 
 THE HACKNEY. 
 
 A Hack, in the modern stable phrase, signi- 
 fies a road horse, and not merely a horse let 
 out to hire, as some of the uninitiated suppose. 
 
 The road horse is more difficult to meet with 
 in perfection than even the hunter or the 
 courser. There are many reasons for this. 
 The price of the hackney, or the horse of all 
 work, is so low, that he who has a good one, 
 will not part with him ; and it is by mere 
 accident that he can be obtained. There are 
 also several faults which may be overlooked in 
 the hunter, but which the road horse must 
 not have. The hunter may start, may be 
 awkward in his walk, or even his trot ; he 
 may have thrushes or corns ; but if he can go 
 92 
 
 a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom, 
 he can both be ^w< up loith and prized; but 
 the hackney, if he be worth having, must have 
 good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too ; he 
 must be sound on his feet, even tempered, no 
 starter, quiet in whatever situation he may be 
 placed, not heavy in hand, and never disposed 
 to tumble down. 
 
 The hackney, like the hunter of the present 
 day, is always a horse with some portion of 
 racing blood; the whole English race, even to the 
 cart-horse, being more or less imbued, and 
 equally improved by it. Thus our road horses 
 are half, three parts, seven-eighths, or thorough- 
 bred. The two latter degrees are, in several 
 respects, not so well fitted for the purpose 
 of travelling as the former : chiefly on ac- 
 count of the tenderness of their less and 
 feet, their longer stride, and straight-kneed 
 action, not so well adapted to the English road 
 pace, the trot. Nevertheless bred hackneys 
 are elegant and fiishionable, and, when good 
 canterers, pleasant to ride ; insomuch, that a 
 certain colonel of the guards of former days, 
 insisted there was the same difference to be 
 felt in riding a bred hack and one without 
 blood, as between riding in a coach and in a 
 cart. One good property in thorough-bred 
 road horses is, that they seldom shy — many of 
 them never. 
 
 The road horse should have a considerable, 
 lofty, yet light fore-hand or crest ; a deep and ex- 
 tensive shoulder ; be well raised at the withers ; 
 straight backed, and have substantial loins and 
 wide fillets, the croup not suddenly drooping, 
 nor the tail set on low. The head should not be 
 thick and fleshy, nor join abruptly to the neck, 
 but in a gradual or tapering form ; the eye full, 
 clear, and diaphanous. The fore-arms and 
 thighs, with plenty of muscular substance, 
 should be of reasonable length, but the legs 
 should, at no rate, be long. Much solid flat 
 bone beneath the knee, is a great perfection in 
 a hackney ; and the feet, standing straight, 
 turning neither inwards nor outwards, should 
 be of tough, dark, shining horn, and the heels 
 wide and open. The saddle-horse's fore-feet 
 should closely approach each other, the wide 
 chest being rather adapted to the collar. Not- 
 withstanding this near approximation of the 
 fore-feet, no apprehension need be entertained 
 of the horse's cutting himself in speed, or 
 
THE HACKNEY.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [the hackney. 
 
 knocking his pastern joints, since these defects 
 arise almost invariably from the irregular 
 pointing of the toe, inwards or outwards, for 
 which, neither a wide chest nor the most skil- 
 ful farriery has ever yet provided a sufficient 
 remedy. A saddle horse, of any description, can 
 scarcely go too close before, or too wide behind. 
 
 Perhaps the best pedigree for a road horse 
 to have, is to be bred from hackney stock on 
 both sides, more particularly for a trotter. The 
 high road is the proper theatre of exercise for 
 such horses ; but there may be sometimes a 
 necessity for exercising them on the pavement, 
 as is the case in London, where the pace should 
 never exceed the slow trot. 
 
 The author of The Horse says — " The hack- 
 ney should be a hunter in miniature, with 
 these exceptions. His height should rarely 
 exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He will be 
 sufficiently strong and more pleasant for work 
 below that standard. He should be of a more 
 compact form than the hunter, and have more 
 bulk, according to his height ; for he has not 
 merely to stand an occasional, and perhaps 
 severe burst in the field, but a great deal of 
 every-day work. It is of essential consequence 
 that the bones beneath the knee should be 
 deep and flat, and the tendon not Md in. The 
 pastern should be short, and although oblique 
 or slanting, yet far less so than that of the race- 
 horse or hunter. There should be obliquity 
 enough to give pleasant action, but not to 
 render the horse incapable of the wear and 
 tear of constant and, sometimes, hard work. 
 The foot is a matter of the greatest conse- 
 quence in the hackney. It should be of a size 
 corresponding with the bulk of the animal — 
 neither too hollow nor too flat ; open at the 
 heels, and free from corns and thrushes. The 
 fore-legs should be perfectly straight. There 
 needs not a moment's consideration with the 
 public, to be convinced that a horse with his 
 knees bent, will, from a slight cause, and 
 especially if he is over-weighted, come down. 
 The fact, however, is, that a horse with bent 
 fore-legs has rarely broken knees. The back 
 should be straight and sliort, yet sufficiently 
 Jong to leave comfortable room for the saddle 
 between the shoulders and the haunch, without 
 pressing on either. Some persons prefer a 
 hollow-backed horse. He is generally an easy 
 one to go. He will canter well with a lady ; 
 
 he may not carry so heavy a weight, nor stand 
 such hard work, but it is a great luxury to ride 
 him. The road horse should be hi^'li in tho 
 fore-hand, round in the barrel, and deep in the 
 chest ; tlie saddle will not then pass too for- 
 ward, but the girths will remain firmly fixed in 
 their proper place." 
 
 A good hack will travel fifty or sixty miles 
 a day with ease; but for long-continued 
 journeys, thirty or forty miles a day is as much 
 as should be required. Let no man expect 
 great performances, unless his horse be full of 
 hard meat, and in conditioj^. Should a man 
 be forced to ride an animal a journey with his 
 full burden of grass-flesh upon him, he must 
 at first ride him moderately ; and by virtue of 
 good solid corn-feeds, his horse will, in a month, 
 attain condition. 
 
 Many persons ride long stages — say thirty or 
 forty miles — without feeding ; but it is incon- 
 siderate, and is injurious to the horse. INIode- 
 rate feeds at the difierent stages, and an ample 
 one at the last, are most beneficial ; a quartern 
 of oats, with a handful or two of beans, are 
 sufficient quantities during the day ; at night, 
 half a peck of oats and a few handfuls of beans ; 
 so that a hack upon a journey of considerable 
 length, may be allowed from a peck and a 
 quarter, to a peck and a half of oats. Hasty 
 travellers will yet find an advantage in starting 
 at a very moderate pace, and in finishing the 
 last three miles of a stage, especially in hot 
 weather, as leisurely as their haste will admit, 
 since, by such means, they will save time; as 
 their horses, on reaching the inn, will be the 
 sooner dry, and ready to feed. On the road, 
 the horse may be indulged, every eight or ten 
 miles, if he requires it, with a few go-downs of 
 water ; and in hot weather, over hard roads, 
 and with fast travelling, when the shoes acquire 
 a burning heat, it is most refreshing to the 
 animal to ride him over his pasterns, momen- 
 tarily, through any water that may be accessi- 
 ble. But a caution of much moment must 
 have place here. Be the weather hot or cold, 
 a horse in a state of perspiration, should never 
 be kept standing any length of time in water. 
 
 In fast travelling, every horseman of common 
 sense will ease his hack up the hills ; in going 
 down also, if he values his own neck and his 
 horse's knees, he will do the same. 
 
 AVe have heard of a respectable butcher, who 
 
 93 
 
THE HACKJfEY.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the hackney. 
 
 kept some good horses. He liad a famous 
 mare that carried him from Birmingliam to 
 Nottingham and back within the twelve liours. 
 This was no mean performance, the distance 
 there and back being close upon a hundred 
 miles. The butcher spoke of it as not being 
 much of an effort. He said the general pace 
 of his horse was eleven miles an hour, and on 
 going down hill he sometimes dismounted, 
 which he considered to be very refreshing to 
 the mare, he being a heavy man. 
 
 "When a hack, always known to ride quiet, 
 does not set off readily, or makes a stop on the 
 road, the rider may be assured that it arises 
 from some sudden painful bodily affection, or 
 something misplaced and galling in his fur- 
 niture. The rider should instantly dismount, 
 and examine both horse and tackle, at all 
 points. The animal may be suddenly griped, 
 or seized with a fit of stranguary, which will 
 appear from his dilated nostrils, sweating at 
 the ear-roots, staring coat, and attempts to 
 stale. Aged and worked hackneys are liable 
 to the stranguary ; in which case, all the rider 
 can do is to lead him about gently, and give 
 him time to void the dripping urine. 
 
 Arrived at the inn, and the horse cool, no 
 extra care or solicitude is required ; he may be 
 led into the stable, stripped, rubbed over 
 whilst eating a lock of hay, and soon be ready 
 for his feed of corn. 
 
 There is nothing more refreshing to a hard- 
 ridden animal, and for abating the excessive 
 and painful heat and tension in his joints and 
 sinews, than to have his feet and legs well 
 washed and bathed in warm water. It is a 
 good precaution used, if the inside of the saddle 
 be made dry and comfortable. If he should 
 not feed well, nor eat his corn with an appetite, 
 it is a hint that rest would be acceptable ; and 
 it should be complied with. 
 
 It will be wise to keep the old adage in view, 
 "that a master's eye makes his horse fat;" 
 either himself or his groom should attend at 
 every feeding-time, to see that the horse has 
 justice done in his food, as to quality as well 
 as quantity. 
 
 There are many highly interesting anecdotes 
 illustrative of the intelligence of the liackney. 
 
 Seldom do we meet with so near an approach 
 towards mind in the brute creation, as was 
 evinced by a horse of Horncastle, Lincolnshire. 
 94 
 
 A Mr. Treevor, of this place, was in posses- 
 sion of a horse, which was, at times, let loose in 
 a yard adjoiuing the stable, where stood a pump 
 and a water-trough. This horse was endowed 
 with an amount of sagacity rarely possessed 
 by the same species. He actually could pump 
 from the well the water he wished to drink. 
 As the pump was frequently used by many 
 persons in the course of a day, it was supposed 
 the docile animal had learned this extraordinary 
 art by noticing them. As the yard which 
 surrounded the pump was always open to 
 public inspection, many persons have seen 
 him elevating the handle with his nose, 
 and then pressing it down in the same way. 
 Such of our readers as may have experienced 
 the corroding bitterness of that sorrow which 
 the unkindness of prejudiced neighbours inflict, 
 will doubtless admire, as a pleasing trait in the 
 character of this noble animal, the amiable 
 instinct, the generous friendship which inclined 
 him to supply a fellow-companion, another 
 horse in the same yard, with a daily banquet 
 from the trough, into which he pumped for him 
 a sufficiency of water, even before he attempt^id 
 to satisfy himself. Such an instance of neigL . 
 hourly kindness is rarely exhibited, even anion, ' 
 mankind, far less among animals of a much 
 inferior race, and not possessed of even tb 
 highest quadrupedal instincts. 
 
 Again, a horse having been turned into a 
 field by its owner, Mr. Joseph Lane, of Fas- 
 combe, in the parish of Ashelworth, was missed 
 the next morning, and the usual inquiries were 
 set afoot, as to what could have become of him. 
 He had, it seems, been shod a few days before; 
 and, as it frequently happens, got pinched in 
 one of his feet. Feeling, no doubt, a lively 
 sense of the necessity of being properly shod, 
 and desirous of relieving the cause of pain, he 
 contrived to unhang the gate, which opened 
 into liis p^isture, with his mouth, and make the 
 best of his way to the smithy — a distance of a 
 mile and a-half from Fascombe — where he 
 waited respectfully at the door, uutil the 
 bungling artist got up. The smith rehites, 
 on opening his shed, that he found him there; 
 that the horse advanced to the forge, and held 
 up his ailing foot; and that he himself, uf)on 
 examination, discovered the injury, took t<ff the 
 shoe, and replaced it more caretuUy, which 
 having done, the sagacious creature set off at 
 
THE HACKNEY.] MODEliN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [tiik hackwkt. 
 
 a merry pace honiewarda. Soon afterwards 
 Mr. Lane'a servants passed by the forf^e in 
 quest of the animal ; and, upon inquiry, received 
 for answer — " Oh, he has been here, and got 
 re-shod, and is gone home again." 
 
 A curious instance of the faculty of memory 
 exhibited in a hackney, occui-red at Bristol, 
 some years ago. A pei'son recognised a horse, 
 bestrode by a countryman, to be one which he 
 himself had lost about nine months before. 
 He seized his property, and put in his claim. 
 " This is my horse, and I will prove it in two 
 minutes, or quit my claim." He then liberated 
 the animal from restraint, let him go at large, 
 and declared his proof to be in the fact that the 
 horse would be found at his stables at some dis- 
 tance ; a circumstance verified in a few minutes, 
 by the two claimants and several bystanders 
 repairing to the stables, where they found the 
 horse "quite at home." 
 
 The hackney has often figured in trotting, 
 matches, a few of which have, from time to 
 time, found their way into print, even beyond 
 the ephemeral fame of a sporting paper. 
 
 A curious match once took place on the 
 Beaconsfield-road, when a Mr. Causton under- 
 took to trot his horse seven miles in haL-au- 
 hour ; and accepted bets that he performed 
 each mile within four minutes and twenty-two 
 seconds — a piece of nice calculation, which 
 was achieved in good style. 
 
 A horse belonging to Mr. Dyson, which 
 had been picked up in Smithfield for a trifle, 
 having accomplished thirty miles in two hours 
 and forty-nine minutes, was produced by Mr. 
 Brian against another, which cost seven 
 pounds, to perform forty miles in four hours, 
 carrying fifteen stone. This struggle "came 
 off" over a ten-mile piece of road, near 
 Hockerill, for one hundred guineas. The 
 lanky emblem of blood and bone, above 
 seventeen hands high, was mounted by an old 
 jockey of the same build, and did the first ten 
 miles in fifty-four minutes ten seconds, the 
 second ten miles in fifty-six minutes fifty 
 seconds, the third ten miles in sixty-three 
 minutes, and the fourth ten miles in sixty- 
 three minutes forty seconds — winning by two 
 minutes and twenty seconds under the time. 
 The horse never once broke from a trot ; and 
 the rider was more fatigued than the animal 
 he bestrode. 
 
 The second great matcli between tlie slate- 
 coloured American horse, and j\Ir. Hyson's 
 AVonder, was another extraordinary instance 
 of trotting. It took place on Sunbury-com- 
 mon. The match was for Mr. Fielder and 
 Mr. Dyson to ride their own horses. Mr. 
 Dyson took the lead, and was fifty yards 
 a-head at the end of the first mile, and the 
 American horse never had a chance at any one 
 period, and was beaten with the greatest ease, 
 by about two hundred yards. Neither horse 
 broke through the match, and the ground — 
 three miles — was done in eight minutes and 
 forty-three seconds. "What makes this per- 
 formance the more wonderful, is not only the 
 speed, but the extraordinary weights which 
 were carried. The riders were both weighed, 
 to determine a bet, at Kingston, after the 
 match, when Mr. Fielder was found to be 
 thirteen stone twelve pounds, and Mr. Dyson 
 fifteen stone four pounds, without saddles. 
 By this it appears that the winner gave the 
 American horse twenty pounds. The slate- 
 coloured horse was considered, for years, the 
 best in America. Another horse belonging to 
 Mr. Williams, beat the slate-coloured Ame- 
 rican, and was backed to trot three miles in 
 nine minutes, for one hundred guineas. It 
 had been reported that the horse was lame, 
 and, up to the evening before starting, six to 
 four was the betting on time, and more than 
 two to one was betted before starting. When 
 at speed the lameness was not apparent ; but 
 the horse was more than three minutes doing 
 the first mile, and there was no increase of 
 speed during the match. The horse broke 
 into a gallop near the George Inn, when 
 about one hundred yards from home ; and the 
 pressure of horsemen was so great at his 
 heels, that the jockey turned him with diffi- 
 culty, and the match was lost by forty 
 seconds. Some thousands w'ere depending on 
 this race. 
 
 A hackney mare, of Mr. Dixon, of Barbican, 
 started at the four-mile-stone on the Eomford- 
 road, to trot thirty miles in three successive 
 hours, carrying Mr. J. Coxeter, weighing 
 nearly fifteen stone. Notwithstanding the 
 heavy weight the mare carried, she performed 
 the distance in thirteen minutes and twenty- 
 seven seconds within the given time. 
 
 So long ago as 1785, a similar match wa8 
 
 95 
 
THE HACKNEY.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the UACKNEr. 
 
 made to trot thirty miles in two hours and 
 a- half, and the accounts state that this was 
 accomplished, leaving four minutes to spare. 
 
 Tom Thumb, an American cob, trotted one 
 liundred miles in harness, over five miles of 
 road on Sunbury-common, in ten hours and 
 twenty-three minutes; and this was con- 
 sidered, and admitted to be, an extraordinary 
 feat. 
 
 Eattler, another American, the property of 
 the same proprietor, beat the celebrated Welsh 
 mare. Miss Turner, over ten miles of ground 
 between Cambridge and Godmanchester, going 
 the distance in thirty minutes and forty 
 seconds ; and this was certainly a feat unpre- 
 cedented in the annals of trotting in this 
 country. The same animal, driven by Mr. 
 Osbaldeston, his then master, performed five 
 miles of road, between Wittlesford-bridge and 
 Eoyston, in thirty minutes fifty-eight seconds, 
 beating Mr. Payne's Eochester, an American 
 entire horse, whose nose touched the wheel of 
 the squire's cart on passing the winning-post. 
 Eattler, ridden by his master, beat Mr. Law- 
 ton's Driver — a pony which had performed 
 seventeen miles within the hour — trotting 
 thirty-four miles in two hours, eighteen 
 minutes, and fifty-six seconds. < 
 
 If, however, the feat of Tom Thumb was 
 considered unprecedented, we have to record 
 a time-match which leaves his performance in 
 the shade — that of a mare, the property of 
 Mr. Dixon, of Knightsbridge, which went over 
 precisely the same ground, and completed the 
 hundred miles in nine hours, fifty-six minutes, 
 and fifty-seven seconds ! A match cart had 
 been provided for the occasion; and, at 
 twenty minutes to six o'clock on an April 
 morning, the mare started, driven by Mr. W. 
 Stacey, a farmer residing in the vicinity of 
 Kingston, under whose surveillance she had 
 been in training since the previous November, 
 when the match was made. She finished her 
 first twenty miles, with great spirit, in two 
 minutes less than two hours, and was then 
 taken out, and had some gruel given her. In 
 three minutes and a-half she was again on the 
 move, and rather increased her speed in the 
 next twenty miles, to make up for her stoppage, 
 but was still within the four hours ; and thus 
 she continued, at the same pace, till she 
 ^ad completed eighty miles, finally winning 
 96 
 
 with three minutes and three seconds to 
 spare ! She showed no symptoms of fatigue ; 
 and, on entering her stable, began to eat her 
 hay as if she had only come off a moderate 
 stage. After resting an hour, she was gently 
 walked to her training-stable, a distance of seven 
 miles, and continued well afterwards. During 
 her match, she was taken out at the comple- 
 tion of every twenty miles, and cordial-balls, 
 washed down with gruel, administered on each 
 stoppage. 
 
 This mare was all English, and no doubt 
 was entertained that she could have accom- 
 plished her undertaking in less time. So con- 
 fident, indeed, was her trainer in her powers, 
 that he offered to back her to do the same 
 distance in nine hours and a-half. 
 
 Captain Halford's match to trot eight 
 miles and a-half in half-an-hour, and to carry 
 eleven stone, with a horse londfide his pro- 
 perty, for one hundred guineas ; and a second 
 match, for a like sum, took place over a two- 
 mile piece of ground at Merston Vale. The 
 ei"ht miles and a-half were done in twenty- 
 nine minutes and fifty-seven seconds. 
 
 A manoeuvre, not dreamt of, was here prac- 
 tised; a jockey of ten stone immediately 
 mounted the same horse, and proceeded on 
 the second match, to the astonishment of all 
 present. The match was lost by thirteen 
 seconds. 
 
 Of the comparative merits of the horse and 
 the pony, as hacks, a good judge thus writes : — 
 " It is, and has for a long time been, a 
 favourite opinion of mine, that a good pony is 
 the best rough-and-ready hack in the world. 
 In a pony is contained, within a small space, 
 what one might call the concentrated essence 
 of strength and speed. 
 
 "It is generally supposed, and I am per- 
 suaded of the correctness of the supposition, 
 that if you want to ruin a young horse, your 
 best plan is to starve him whilst he is young. 
 Every rule, however, has its exception, and 
 the case of the forest ponies is a most marked 
 exception to this one. Starved in his early 
 youth, the Eorester, though small and stunted 
 in appearance, is endowed generally with a 
 more hardy constitution and more untiring en- 
 durance, than any other species of horse in 
 this country. Until he is three years old, the 
 forest pony is scarcelv looked after, and then 
 
THE HACKNEY.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRA.CTICE. [the lady's nottSB. 
 
 he is taken up by his poor proprietor, ex- 
 hibiting a shatrgy coat, an immense pot-belly 
 ewe neck, big head, and ragged mane and 
 tail. To look at him in this stage of hia 
 career, you would suppose that a full-grown 
 donkey was more than an equivalent as an 
 cxcliange for the animal calling himself a 
 horse, in the style in which he appears. If his 
 owner cannot sell him immediately, he puts 
 him into his cart, and he is supported by a 
 lock of hay at night. The poor animal 
 becomes crippled, by hard work put upon him, 
 in his fourth year ; and is, therefore, consigned 
 to the cart of the costermonger or travelling 
 tinker, there to drag on, in hunger and toil, 
 the existence which commenced in hardship 
 and privation. 
 
 "But let us turn from this scene of woe, 
 and suppose our pony born under a more 
 auspicious star. A gentleman sees him when 
 he is first caught ; and as he flatters himself he 
 is a bit of a judge, observes a good point or 
 two ; he has plenty of good feed to spare, 
 and takes compassion upon the poor starve- 
 ling's hard lot. After a summer and autumn 
 of good living, with an improved appearance, 
 and a spice of wickedness in his eye, the 
 pony is, in the winter, driven into the straw- 
 yard, and shares with the cows all the little 
 comforts of a warm and sheltered shed by 
 night, and a crib well filled with hay by day. 
 During this time his master sees what an 
 improvement has taken place in his nag, 
 and, in the spring, gives orders for him to 
 have a little taste of the saddle and bridle 
 in the way of breaking in. Physicked, stabled, 
 and clothed, the dust of four years is, with 
 no little difficulty, extracted from his jacket, 
 and his natural colour is at length opened to 
 the view. He is at last mounted by his master, 
 who discovers that the ragged rascal bought 
 by him out of charity, is by no means unworthy 
 of his purchase-money : he congratulates him- 
 self upon his bargain; and always sup- 
 posing our gentlemen to be a light weight- 
 about ten, but certainly under eleven stone — 
 he discovers, when his nag is five years old, 
 and in good condition, that he is, without 
 any exception, the best hack that he ever 
 obtained at any price; and, moreover, that 
 by means of good and generous keep, his 
 personal appearance is so wonderfully altered 
 
 and improved, that no one could have recog- 
 nised in him the least degree of likeness to 
 the puny forester, that was purchased at the 
 edge of the common for the very sporting 
 price of eight pounds ! 
 
 " Such, reader, has been the case with me ; 
 and I shall ever bless the hour when I rescued 
 from the cart of the costennongor, my gallant 
 little grey. Of course, for hunting, nothiw 
 but a full-sized horse will do, whatever be a 
 man's weight; but for coursing and hacking 
 about, give me a good pony. Then again, the 
 prime cost of ponies is not only infinitely 
 less, but they can be kept in condition at a 
 much less expense than a horse : their con- 
 stitutions are twenty times as hardy ; and if 
 your stud consisted only of them, you would 
 never be called upon to pay a farrier's little 
 account. But the pony not only shines as a 
 hack for the saddle ; in harness he is both 
 useful and ornamental. According to my 
 notions of good taste, there is no turn-out of 
 any nature or kind so pretty as a pair of 
 handsome ponies and a single-bodied wicker 
 carriage. Perhaps I shall be told, in these 
 economic days, that it will not do on account 
 of the expense, as two horses are dearer than 
 one. That position is an erroneous one • for 
 it is by no means an easy task to meet with a 
 good machiner fit for a four-wheeled carriage, 
 well broken, sound, fresh, and handsome, for 
 fifty pounds. I could undertake for that 
 money to buy a pair of ponies, young, hand- 
 some, and well-broken; and I might almost 
 add, harness into the bargain. Then, as to 
 the keep; two ponies of thirteen hands in 
 heio-ht, can be kept well on the same food 
 that is required by one large horse in hard 
 work. They will give an air and style to a 
 vehicle, which, with one horse, would look 
 shabby and commonplace ; and, moreover, 
 will do more work, and go with more ease to 
 themselves, and therefore, of course, more 
 pleasant to the driver." 
 
 THE LADY'S HORSE. 
 Much care seems in general to be used in 
 the selection of ladies' horses ; and ladies them- 
 selves seem to be sufficiently attentive to the 
 necessary accomplishment of horsemanship. 
 This is evident from the comparatively few ac- 
 cidents which happen to them when riding. 
 
 07 
 
THE COACH-HORSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the coach-house. 
 
 This delightful exercise is now very fesliion- 
 able, and we feel assured that it is an exercise 
 which combines health with pleasure to the 
 riders, whilst it exhibits both tlie elegance and 
 the grace of the fair horsewomen in a most 
 marked degree. 
 
 For elegance, a lady's pad should have a 
 considerable show of blood, and should seldom 
 exceed fifteen hands in height. The paces 
 should not be rough ; and an easy slow trot, 
 the pace of health, is a valuable qualification. 
 The canter is of the chief consequence, and 
 it should be made naturally and handsomely, 
 the neck kept gracefully curved, the mouth 
 having pleasant feeling. Such as have these 
 qualifications are natural canterers, and will 
 last at it, and, at the proper signal, will drop 
 into the trot or walk, without roughness, 
 boggling, or changing of legs. But the first 
 and grand consideration is going safely ; for a 
 horse deficient in tliis respect, is, perhaps, 
 always most liable to fall in his canter. The 
 most graceful canterers may be observed to 
 lead generally with the off-leg; but no doubt 
 there is such an error as a horse, both in his 
 canter and gallop, going with the wrong leg 
 first, to the considerable uneasiness of the 
 rider. This is most felt upon worn and battered 
 brutes, which change their legs to procure a 
 momentary ease. 
 
 THE COACH-HORSE. 
 Before entering upon a description of our 
 carriage stock of horses, we will take a glance 
 at the past, and briefly trace the history of the 
 use of carriages in this country, and recount 
 some feats of pedestrianism, which, previous to 
 the making of roads, necessarily occurred as a 
 means of communication between one locality 
 and another. It is even within our own recol- 
 lection, when, in Scotland, the half-silly beggar. 
 or gaberlunzie, was employed to carry letters 
 and messages over ten miles of country, from 
 one friend to another; and our ancestors, 
 instead of communicating by post, were obliged 
 to use running footmen, whose extraordinary 
 performances were sufSciently rapid even to 
 raise astonishment. In making a comparison 
 between the former modes of travelling and 
 the present, we feel a glow of satisfaction at 
 the immense improvement which has taken 
 place, and which almost seems to realise the 
 98 
 
 expression that time is left to pant after us. 
 The invention of the steam-engine has proved 
 of the utmost importance. The mechanical 
 genius of England has adapted it to carry a 
 sliip over the bosom of the Atlantic, with 
 almost as much safety and certainty as the 
 Locomotive whirls her train over the well-laid, 
 rail. By reducing space within a comparatively 
 limited period of time, steam has become a great 
 means of civilisation. It has connected the me- 
 tropolis of the empire with the smallest of the 
 British Isles ; is the most rapid conductor of 
 commerce; and is continually adding to our com- 
 forts, by, as it were, bringing "the ends of tho 
 earth together." In fact, fifty years ago, men, 
 the most advanced in knowledge, and the most 
 sanguine in the expectation of realising im- 
 provements, would be overwhelmed with asto- 
 nishment at the immense stride the arts and 
 sciences have taken in so short a time. 
 
 " In by-gone days, in Scotland," says 
 Chambers, " tliey had a class of officials called 
 running footmen, of whose pedestrian powers 
 many surprising examples are noticed by tra- 
 dition. Eor instance, in the Duke of Lauder- 
 dale's house, at Thirlstane, near Lauder, on 
 the table-cloth being, one morning, laid for a 
 large dinner party, it was discovered that there 
 was a deficiency of silver spoons. Instantly, 
 the footman was sent ofl^" to the duke's other 
 seat of Lethington, near Haddington, full 
 seventeen miles oflT, and across hills and moors, 
 for a supply of the necessary articles. He 
 returned with a bundle of spoons in time for 
 dinner." 
 
 Again, at Hume Castle, in Berwickshire, 
 the Earl of Home had one night given his 
 footman a commission to proceed to Edinburgh, 
 thirty-five miles off", in order to deliver a 
 message of high political consequence. Next 
 morning early, when his lordship entered the 
 hall, he saw the man sleeping on a bench ; and, 
 conceiving that he had neglected his duty, was 
 about to commit some rash act, when the poor 
 fellow awoke, and informed Lord Home that 
 his commission had been executed; and that, 
 having returned before his lordship was stirring, 
 he had only taken leave to rest himself a little. 
 The earl, equally astonished and gratified by 
 the activity of his faithful vassal, rewarded him 
 with a little piece of ground, which, to this day, 
 bears the name of the post rig — a term equi- 
 
THECOACH-noBSE.] MODEEN VETEEINART PEACTICE. [the coach-housb. 
 
 valent to the postman's field, and an unques- 
 fu.nable proof, as all the villagers at Hume 
 dovoutly believe, of the truth of the anecdote. 
 The custom of keeping a running' footman did 
 not cease amongst noble iamilies in Scotland 
 till the middle of the last century. 
 
 The Earl of IVlarch, father to the Duke of 
 Queensberry, and who lived at Ncidpath Castle, 
 near Peebles, had one named John Mann, who 
 used to run in front of the carriage, with a 
 long staff. In the head of the staff there was 
 a recess for a hard-boiled egg, such being the 
 only food taken by Mann during a long 
 journey. 
 
 JS'ext to the pedestrian feats of our fore- 
 fathers, were their equestrian performances. 
 The pedestrian was almost independent of 
 roads; and hence the amazing rapidity of his 
 feats. The rider was not just so independent ; 
 but still a rough way was of less consequence 
 to him than to a wheeled vehicle. Hence 
 it arises that some journeys performed on 
 horseback, in former times, are not much less 
 wonderful than the above examples of rapid 
 pedestrianism. 
 
 Some horsemen of the present day would 
 think it no mean feat, we suspect, to perform, 
 on horseback, one hundred miles a day ; yet 
 this appears insignificant, compared with the 
 account of the rapid travelling of the mes- 
 senger who conveyed to Edinburgh the tidings 
 of the death of " Good Queen Bess." 
 
 Queen Elizabeth died at one o'clock on the 
 morning of Thursday, the 24th of March, 
 1603. Between nine and ten. Sir Eobert 
 Carey left London, after having been up all 
 nisht, commissioned to communicate the intel- 
 ligence to her successor James, at Edinburgh. 
 That nicht he rode to Doncaster, a hundred 
 and fifty-tive miles. Next night he reached 
 Witherington, near Morpeth. Early on Satur- 
 day morning he proceeded by Norham, across 
 the Border; and, that evening, at no late 
 hour, kneeled beside the king's bed at Holy- 
 rood, and saluted him as King of England, 
 France, and Ireland. He had thus travelled 
 four hundred miles in three days, restuig 
 during the tft-o intermediate nights. But it 
 must not be supposed that speed like this was 
 attained on all occasions. 
 
 "When we consider the state of the roads at 
 the period at which this performance took place, 
 
 it cannot be otherwise viewed than as some- 
 what extraordinary. 
 
 At the coininenccment of tho religious 
 troubles, which happ(med in the reign of 
 Charles I., when matters of the utino.st im- 
 portance were debated between the king and 
 bis northern subjects, it uniformlv a|)|)ear8 
 that a communication from Edinburgh to 
 London, however pressing might be the occa- 
 sion, was not answered in less than a fortnight. 
 The crowds of nobles, clergymen, gentlemen, 
 and burghers, who, at that time, assembled in 
 Edinburgh, to concert measures for opposing 
 the designs of the court, always returned to 
 their homes after dispatching a message to 
 King Charles, and assembled again a fortnight 
 after, in order to receive the reply, and to 
 take such measures as might be called for. 
 Even till the last century was pretty far ad- 
 vanced, the ordinary riding-post between 
 London and Edinburgh, regularly took a week 
 to the journey. 
 
 lu consequence of the inattention of our 
 ancestors to roads, and the wretched state in 
 which these were usually kept, it was long 
 before coaching, of any kind, came much into 
 fashion. Though wheeled vehicles of various 
 sorts were in use among the ancients, the close 
 carriage or coach is of modern invention. The 
 word coach is Hungarian ; and the vehicle itself 
 is supposed to have originated in Hungary. 
 Germany certainly appears to have taken the 
 precedence of the nations of Western Europe 
 in using coaches. They were introduced 
 thence into England some time in the 16th 
 century; but were, after all, so little in vogue 
 throughout the whole reign of Elizabeth, that 
 there is no trace of her having ever used oue. 
 Wheel-carriages, however, having some resem- 
 blance to chariots, such as were used by the 
 ancients, were brought into fashion in the time 
 of Eichard II. ; for we find that " he rode from 
 the Tower of London to the Miles End, and 
 with him his mother, because she was sick and 
 weak, in a whirlicote." This veiiicle was little 
 better than a litter put upon wheels. In the 
 reign of Elizabeth we find it mentioned in 
 Stone's Surve)/, " That divers great ladies made 
 them coaches, and rode in them up and down 
 the countries, to the great admiration of all the 
 beholders." 
 
 Lord Grey de Wilton, who died in 1593, 
 
THE COACH-HOESE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [the COACH-HOESE. 
 
 introduced a coach into Ireland, the first ever 
 used in that country. One was introduced 
 into Scotland, we rather think from Prance, 
 about the year 1571. It belonged to the 
 famous Secretary Maitland, of Letliington, who, 
 during the civil war between the adherents of 
 Mary and those of her son James, made a 
 journey in that vehicle from Edinburgh Castle, 
 which he was holding out for the queen, to 
 Niddry in "West Lothian, for the purpose of 
 holding a consultation with some others of her 
 friends ; the first time, it is believed, that a 
 close carriage was ever used in Scotland. 
 
 Eynes Morison, who wrote in the year 
 1617, speaks of coaches as recently intro- 
 duced, and still rare in Scotland. For a long 
 time, these conveniences were only used by 
 old people, who could not well bear riding. 
 The young and active despised them, as tend- 
 ing to efierainacy, and as not being so quick 
 of movement as the horse. 
 
 The Duke of Buckingham, in 1G19, first 
 used a coach with six horses ; a piece of pomp 
 which the Duke of Northumberland thouglit 
 proper to ridicule by setting up one with 
 eight. Charles I. was the first British sove- 
 reign who had a state carriage. Although 
 Henry IV. was killed in a coach — the only 
 one, by the way, he possessed — his ordinary 
 manner of appearing in the streets of Paris 
 was on horseback, with a large cloak strapped 
 on behind, to be used in case of rain. 
 
 In Scotland, previous to the time of the 
 civil war, coaches were only used by persons 
 high in the state. When the Earl of Eox- 
 burgh, an aged minister, was endeavouring to 
 appease the Covenanters, in 1637, he was 
 pulled from his coach in the High-street of 
 Edinburgh, and maltreated. 
 
 Taylor, the Water-poet, complains, in the 
 reign of Charles I., that large retinues of 
 men were now given up by the great, since 
 they had begun to use coaches. 
 
 Till 1564, the only mode of travelling, 
 equivalent to that by stage-coaches and loco- 
 motive carriages in the present day, was by 
 the strings of horses led by the carriers. It 
 is these caravans that EalstaflT and his friends 
 are described by Shakespeare as attackin"- at 
 GadshiU. 
 
 About the year just mentioned, the lono- 
 waggon for goods and passengers came into use. 
 100 
 
 Stage-coaches originated less than a century 
 later, and were for a long time confined to the 
 great lines of road throughout England ; and, 
 till 1678, there were none for distances to 
 which the term stages could be applied. The 
 journey from London to Oxford, in the reign 
 of Charles II., required two days, the space 
 being fifty-eight miles. That to Exeter, one 
 hundred and sixty-eight miles and a quarter, 
 required four days. 
 
 In 1703, when Prince George of Denmark 
 went from "Windsor to Petworth, to meet 
 Charles III. of Spain, the distance being 
 about forty miles, he required fourteen hours 
 for the journey, the last nine miles taking six. 
 The person who records this fact, says that 
 the long time was the more surprising, as, 
 except when overturned, or when stuck fast in 
 the mire, his royal highness made no stop 
 during the journey. 
 
 In 1742, stage-coaches must have been 
 more numerous in England than in Charles 
 II. 's time ; but it does not appear that they 
 moved any faster. The journey from London 
 to Birmingham, one hundred and sixteen 
 miles, then occupied nearly three days. 
 
 The rate of coach-travelling, previous to the 
 country being intersected with railroads, ex- 
 cited almost as much wonder among ourselves 
 as it did among foreigners. The horses were 
 then very hard wrought ; for the art of road- 
 making had not attained its present state of 
 excellence, a»d, in wet weather, some of the 
 coaches might be half-axle deep or more. 
 
 "When I was a school-boy," says a writer, 
 giving a description of the road between Lon- 
 don and Parkgate — the principal place where 
 passengers landed from Dublin, before Holy- 
 head became the regular station for the Dublin 
 packets — " Parkgate, in Cheshire, was the port 
 whence the Dublin packets sailed : there were 
 a few at Holyhead ; but there all the principal 
 intercourse between the countries was eflfected. 
 At that time, probably not one craft of any 
 description passed in a month between Dublin 
 and Liverpool. Upon the arrival of a packet 
 at Parkgate, the passengers made their way, 
 as they best could, to Chester, diverging 
 thence to the several places of their destina- 
 tion. I believe there might be a stage of 
 some kind or other, that undertook to deposit 
 people within some limited ti:ne in London 
 
(SOIM© f® MAmKET 
 
 fMATELLIM© OART i f ALILIE©!! , 
 
THE COACH-HORSE.] MOUEBN YETEEINARY PEACTICE. [the coach-house. 
 
 plying for public hire; but tho manner of 
 accomplishing tiie journey was most usually 
 by means of post-coachea. These carriages 
 were supplied by a person of the name of 
 Paul, of the White Lion, who was celebrated 
 at that period all over England for the mag- 
 nificence of his stud. With him it was a 
 hobby, and must have been a very expensive 
 one. He kept no colour but greys, and of 
 these, he had always from thirty to forty pairs 
 in his stables. I can well remember what 
 splendid cattle they were — his boys wearing 
 black velvet caps, gold bands and tassels, and 
 yellow silk jackets. He built his own car- 
 riages, dark brown, lined with scarlet morocco 
 — doing the whole thing upon a grand scale. 
 A party of six, with one or two servants, 
 would contract with Paul for a set down in 
 London. He sent with them one of his own 
 carriages, with its team of greys, and postil- 
 lions : they accomplished the stages as ar- 
 ranged every day — probably of five-and-twenty 
 miles each — and at the end of eight or nine 
 days found themselves in the metropolis. 
 With this fashion of travelling commenced my 
 experience of the road ; having made my first 
 visit to Babylon the Great through the agency 
 of one of these long jobs. At a later date I 
 can call to mind, on an occasion of being sent 
 for home in the Midsummer holidays, sticking 
 fast in the middle of the turnpike-road be- 
 tween Whitchurch and Malpas — the latter 
 certainly no misnomer. This antecedent of 
 M'Adam was a desert of red sand, quartered 
 by cart-wheels to the depth of two or three 
 feet ; and as the phaeton in which I made my 
 journey ran upon wheels of about half the 
 diameter of those by which the ruts had been 
 formed, of course we were let in up to the 
 axles, where we were anchored. Thio took place 
 in the nineteenth century!" 
 
 Long before the commencement of the pre- 
 sent century, however, many of the leading 
 lines from the metropolis, for a circle of from 
 twenty to fifty miles around it, were far ad- 
 vanced towards their present excellence ; but 
 ■where a journey of two or three hundred miles 
 was to be performed, it went so small a way in 
 the matter of expedition, that the first sixth- 
 part of it could be accomplished at eight miles 
 an hour, where the remainder could with diffi- 
 culty be done at a better speed than four. 
 
 A\nien the use of carriages first began to 
 supersede the old method of transporting mea 
 and merchandise upon horseback, it became 
 absolutely necessary to devise some plan for 
 formuig a solid surface upon the bridle-ways 
 of sand, which off-ered as little support to a 
 wheel as a fallow to the coulter of a plough. 
 Hence arose the system of paving the coutro 
 of the turnpike-roads, so generally adopted in 
 most of the midland counties, and of wliich 
 many specimens are still in existence, more 
 particularly in Cheshire and Lancashire. With 
 the heavy waggons, and their slow pace, while 
 the great reduction in the draught upon this 
 pavement effected a vast saving in the horses, 
 the roughness of the surface was felt as no 
 inconvenience. The gentry, in their coaches 
 suspended from flexible C springs, passed 
 smoothly-over them ; and, as it was almost tho 
 universal fashion to drive from the saddle, 
 accompanied by outriders, the servants also 
 escaped dislocation. But there was a class of 
 devoted wretches for whom no such good luck 
 was found, and who, in an honest effort to 
 procure their daily bread, underwent the 
 agonies of an earthly purgatory without any 
 parallel in a Christian land. When Mr. 
 Palmer invented mail-coaches, as might be ex- 
 pected, he committed a few small oversights ; 
 among these were the boxes of the coachmen, 
 which were without springs, and were con- 
 structed upon the common principle. The 
 consequence was, that the scats upon which 
 tliey were destined to perform their vocations, 
 were pieces of pine, or other obdurate plank, 
 supported upon standards springing from the 
 beds of the fore-axles. These " devil's sedans" 
 were covered with a tanned bull's hide, to 
 which, as a material for sitting on, granite is 
 as an air cushion. An old sufferer, who for 
 the last ten years of his life drove between 
 Chester and Birkenhead, was on the Holyhead 
 mail from Chester to Stafford in those hard 
 times for dragsmen. For better than five- 
 and-thirty years this martyr was a most com- 
 municative coachman, and, withal, had an am- 
 bition for saying smart things. On one occa- 
 sion, when asked how his constitution could 
 have supported such inhuman exercise, and 
 whether it had not proved fatal to men less 
 robust than he was ? " Why, sir," he replied, 
 " it was well enough when once we got used to 
 
 101 
 
THE COACH-HORSE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the COACn-HOllSB. 
 
 it : but I assure you tlie case-hardening was no 
 ioke : some died under the operation, and 
 some did not ; but there never was a man who 
 tried it that it did not make him think of his 
 latter endy' 
 
 The epoch from which we may date the 
 rapid advance in improvement as regards 
 every department of the road, is coeval with 
 tlie system of remodelling our highvTays upon 
 the plan of Mr. M'Adam. That the scheme 
 of road-making which bears the name of that 
 gentleman was not of his invention, all who 
 have travelled in Scotland and Ireland must 
 have known. Still we are indebted to him for 
 its introduction into this country, and for 
 many judicious innovations by which he 
 brouo-ht it to its present perfection. As the 
 facilities for locomotion improved, so did the 
 appliances to aid it. 
 
 The call for increased speed upon the com- 
 mercial roads was afterwards answered on the 
 Birmingham line by the appearance of three 
 "Tallv-ho's," distinguished as the "Patent," 
 the "Independent," and the " Eclipse." Look- 
 ing back to the time they were at work — 
 their chronoraetrical regularity for half a score 
 years — their pace, and the style in which they 
 were worked through the country, and not at 
 the ends alone, we shall hardly find anything 
 in the mail-coach line altogether more complete 
 than thev were. Awful forebodings attended 
 their starting : their speed was pronounced 
 suicidal, and the waste of human life that was 
 to result from it fearful to contemplate. But 
 tliese speculations all proved vain. The only 
 fatal accident we recollect occurring to any of 
 them, was the death of poor Peck, the guard, 
 who was killed by a fall off his coach while it 
 was standing still. 
 
 In the way of fast-work, however, combined 
 with the fashion in which it was done, certainly 
 the pas must be given to the coaches which 
 were put on the Brighton road by Mr. Israel 
 Alexander. Of these there was but one opinion 
 expressed by such as possessed experience in 
 the coaching business, coupled with a wonder, 
 how, by having all England to choose from, it 
 was possible to get together such a lot of horses. 
 On this road the public found elegance com- 
 bined with speed. Taken all in all, Alexander's 
 *' Criterion," with a certain then noble marquis 
 for dragsman, was perhaps the most correct 
 102 
 
 specimen of a stage-coach that has ever ap- 
 peared; but a vast deal of money was sacrificed 
 during the short reign that this concern kept 
 its place in the public eye. 
 
 It is now time to speak of the carriage 
 horse. 
 
 The Clevelands, and the powerful blood-like 
 carriage stock, bred in Yorkshire, and other 
 northern counties, came from the best of the 
 Norman mares, crossed by the Arab only, the 
 Persian blood being considered less likely to 
 throw stock combining symmetry and sub- 
 stance. In his magnificent work on The Illus- 
 trations of tlifi breeds of the Domestic Animals 
 of the British Islands, Professor Low says, 
 in reference to the Cleveland Bay, that "it is 
 the progressive mixture of the blood horses of 
 higher breeding with those of the common 
 race, that has produced the variety of coach- 
 horse usually termed the Cleveland Bay; so 
 called from its colour and the fertile district of 
 that name in the North liiding of Yorkshire, 
 on the banks of the Tees. About the middle 
 of the last century, this district became known 
 for the breeding of a superior class of powerful 
 horses, which, with the gradual disuse of the 
 heavy old coach-horse, became in request for 
 coaches, chariots, and similar carriages. The 
 breed, however, is not confined to Cleveland, 
 but is cultivated through all the great breed- 
 ing districts of this part of England. It has 
 been formed by the progressive mixture of the 
 blood of the race-horse with the original breeds 
 of the country. To rear this class of horses, 
 the same principles of breeding should be 
 applied as to the rearing of the race-horse 
 himself. A class of mares, as well as stallions, 
 should also be used, having the properties 
 sought for. The district of Cleveland owes 
 its superiority in the production of this beau- 
 tiful race of horses to the possession of a defi- 
 nite breed, formed not by accidental mixture, 
 but by continued cultivation. * * * * 
 Although the Cleveland Buy appears to unite 
 the blood of the finer with that of the larger 
 horses of the country, to combine action with 
 strength ; yet many have sought a further 
 infusion of blood of the finer, with that of the 
 larger horses of the country to combine action 
 with strength ; and others have sought a still 
 further infusion of blood nearer to the race-horse. 
 They are accordingly crossed by hunters, or 
 
THE CAVALRT HOUSE.] MODERN VETEKINAEY PRACTICE. [oBAroHX homi. 
 
 troopa were found quite rqual to the task of 
 repelling the forniidiihle charge of the cuiras- 
 siera at Waterloo. ]n a national point of 
 view, there are few objects to which the evo 
 of government ought to be more vigilantly 
 directed, than to the improvement of our 
 cavalry horses, or to the due proportioning of 
 their capacity to the duties they have to 
 perform. "If from the habit of running short 
 distances," says the author of The ILorse, " and 
 at the very early ages of one and two years, 
 with light weights, there is a deterioration in 
 the strength and stoutness of our thorough- 
 bred horses, they will become every year less 
 and less fitted for getting stock sufficiently 
 hardy and powerful to do credit to the courage 
 and discipline of our cavalry." 
 
 thorouQ;h-bred horses, and thus another variety 
 of coach-horse is produced, of ligliter form and 
 higher breeding ; and many of the superior 
 Cleveland curricle and four-in-liand horses are 
 now nearlv thorough-bred. The bay colour is 
 in the most general estimation, but the grey 
 are not unfrequently used." 
 
 The principal points to be looked at in the 
 coach- horse are a deep and well-jiroportioiied 
 body, bone under the knee, and tough feet, 
 perfectly sound, and somewhat open. 
 
 Before, and in some parts, the cruelties prac- 
 tised towards the coach-horse were very great, 
 often arising out of the competition of different 
 proprietors; but these are now much dimi- 
 nished. A more generally enliglitened senti- 
 ment of humanity pen^ades the country in 
 reference to the brute creation; still, in the 
 metropolis, instances of cruelty may not unfre- 
 quently be witnessed towards the over-worked 
 horses of the omnibus and cab. 
 
 The former kind of vehicle, w"hen first used 
 in London, had usually three horses ; but now 
 it has generally only two. These trot and 
 stagger up Holborn-hill, Blackfriars-bridge, 
 and other metropolitan hills, with little allow- 
 ance made for their acclivity, thus punishing the 
 poor animals, and distressing their wind ; when 
 perhaps only the difference of five or ten 
 minutes' delay in the journey, might enable the 
 horses to perform it with comparative ease. 
 
 The Erench say, "England is a hell for 
 horses;" but qualify the censure by a compli- 
 ment that " England is a paradise for women." 
 But however the complimentary portion of 
 this sentence may be taken, the censure as 
 respects our treatment of the horse, remains 
 in all its severitv. 
 
 THE CAVALRY HORSE. 
 
 In the breeding of cavalry horses, a different 
 proportion of blood is necessary, according to 
 the kind of service for which they are in- 
 tended. Some of those for the lighter troops 
 have more blcod in them than others, and the 
 household troops are from half to three-fourths 
 bred. Eormerly the cavalry horse was large 
 and heavy ; and, notwithstanding the grand 
 and imposing action which he exiiibited, with 
 the beautiful style of going to which he was 
 trained, he was "found wanting" when brought 
 into active service. Yet our heavy household 
 
 THE CART OR DRAUGHT HORSE. 
 
 The cart breed was the cross between the 
 Norman stallions and the largest of the 
 Elanders mares, a race substituted in latter 
 years for the pack-horse — bved probably from 
 our own breed and Norman horses — when the 
 improvements in roads enabled the adoption 
 of wheel-carriages for the transit of mer- 
 chandise, to supersede the conveyance by back 
 loads. Thus the aboriginal blood — impoverished 
 by an uninterrupted course of breeding in- 
 and-in — by the introduction of fresh seed, 
 became renovated and invigorated; the com- 
 mon consequence of such change whether in 
 animal or vegetable life. 
 
 It speedily became obvious to all who were 
 engaged in breeding cattle of every description, 
 that vast advantages resulted from the change 
 OF BLOOD, Hence arose the practice of hiring 
 the males of various kinds from distant 
 districts for the season. It is to this practice, 
 as much as the improved methods of treatment, 
 that we owe the excellence of every species of 
 our live stock. Perhaps, it is hardly necessary 
 to observe, that to the difference of soil, is 
 to be attributed such variation in the latter 
 breeds, as have now settled into distinct 
 classes. 
 
 Cleveland horses of the heavy sort, have 
 been known to carry upwards of seven hundred 
 pounds, sixty miles in twenty-four hours, four 
 times a week. 
 
 The Suffolk Punch, a horse of a slower pace, 
 is the produce of the Norman stallion aud 
 
 103 
 
THE STABLE.] 
 
 THE SOESE, AND 
 
 [the stable. 
 
 the Suffolk cart mare; but the true Suffolk, 
 like the true Cleveland, is, now, nearly extinct. 
 The Punch takes his name from the round 
 punchiness of his own form, and is a valuable 
 animal, although degenerated. The Suffolk 
 was wont to be crossed with some of our 
 hunters, and the Duke of Eichmond got many 
 excellent carriage horses from this union. 
 
 The Clydesdale is another excellent breed 
 of draught horses, especially adapted for the 
 agricultural purposes of a hilly country. It 
 is chiefly bred in the Vale of the Clyde in 
 Scotland, whence it derives its name. One of 
 the dukes of Hamil-ton originated the Clydes- 
 dale by crossing the Lanark mare with the 
 Planders stallion. Most of the southern parts of 
 Scotland are supplied with the Clydesdale from 
 this district ; and he has found his way even 
 into some of the southern counties of England. 
 Speaking of his appearance and qualities, Mr. 
 Low says, that " the Clydesdale horse, as he is 
 now bred, is usually sixteen hands high. The 
 prevailing colour is black; but the brown or 
 bay is common, and is continually gaining 
 upon the other, and the grey is not un- 
 frequently produced. He is longer in the 
 body than the English black horse, and less 
 weighty, compact, and muscular, but he steps, 
 out more fully, and has a more useful action 
 for ordinary labour. He draws steadily, and 
 is usually free from vice. The long stride, 
 
 characteristic of the breed, is partly the result 
 of conformation, and partly of habit and 
 training ; but however produced, it adds greatly 
 to the usefulness of the horse, both on the 
 road and in the fields. No such loads are 
 known to be drawn, at the same pace, by any 
 horses in the kingdom, as in the single-horse 
 carts of carriers and others in the west of 
 Scotland. Although they are inferior in 
 weight and physical strength to the black 
 horse, and, in figure and strong action, to the 
 better class of the draught horses of Nor- 
 thumberland and Durham, yet they possess pro- 
 perties which render them exceedingly valuable 
 for all ordinary purposes. On the road they 
 perform tasks that can scarcely be surpassed ; 
 and in the fields they are found steady, docile, 
 and safe." 
 
 The heavy black horses, such as we see in 
 the brewers' carts of London, are bred princi- 
 pally in the midland counties from Stafford- 
 shire to Lincolnshire. They are majestic- 
 looking animals ; and as they have great loads 
 to draw, they require to have great weight 
 themselves, so as not to be shaken in the 
 performance of their duties. All our heavy 
 draught horses, and some even of the lighter 
 sorts, have recently been much crossed by 
 the Flanders breed. This has improved them 
 by raising the fore-hand, flattening and deepen- 
 ing the legs, and giving them greater activity. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ECONOMY OF THE STABLE, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Sanitary improvements in all that relates to 
 the well-being and happiness of the inhabi- 
 tants of our larger towns and cities, have, for 
 a number of years, occupied the attention 
 of philanthropists aud medical men ; and 
 whilst the dwellings of the human have been 
 gradually undergoing a change for the better, 
 we are happy to say that some of those of 
 the equine species have been receiving atten- 
 tion. This, however has not been so general 
 as it is hoped it will yet become. We have 
 104 
 
 still to lament, with Mr. Stewart, in his ad- 
 mirable work on Stahle Economy, that " stable 
 architects have not much to boast of. Their 
 sole ideas are limited to shelter and confine- 
 ment. If the weather be kept out, and the 
 horse be kept in, their objects are attained. 
 If light and air be demanded, the doorway 
 will admit them. If the horse has room to 
 stand, it matters little, though he have none 
 to lie ; and if you can get him into the stable, 
 what consideration is it, though his loins be 
 
ORNAMENTAL STALL DIVISION 
 
 IIMFROYED STABLE FITTINGS BY MESS^^^s GEORGE SMITH S-O GLASa.^W, 
 
THE STABLE.] 
 
 MODEEN YETEEINART PHACTTCE. 
 
 [the 8TABLX. 
 
 strained, or his liauncli bruised in getting out 
 of it." 
 
 Loftiness is oiio of tlie most desirable at- 
 tributes of a stable, and duo regard ought to 
 be paid to its proper ventilation, for liorses as 
 well as men are poisoned by breathing in an 
 impure atmosphere. We will, therefore, here 
 consider some of the moat essential requisites 
 of a healthy stable. 
 
 AIR. 
 
 Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, was the first to 
 advocate the use of well-ventilated stables; 
 and after him. Professor Coleman, of the Vete- 
 rinary College, established them in the quarters 
 of the cavalry troops. Their advantages were 
 soon made apparent in the discontinuance of 
 diseases that formerly dismounted whole troops 
 of soldiers, and in the consequent pecuniary 
 saving which they effected to the government. 
 Chemical science has now ascertained, with 
 the utmost exactitude, the atmospherical con- 
 ditions required for the preservation, in a 
 healthy state, of the animal functions, and 
 Lavoisir adduces a striking instance of the 
 sensible malaria of an atmosphere breathed 
 over and over again by a number of animals 
 confined within a limited space. He shows 
 that when the air out of doors contained 
 27 parts of oxygen, and 73 of nitrogen = 100, 
 the air in the lowest ward of the central 
 hospital at Paris, contained 25 parts of oxygen, 
 71 nitrogen, and four of fixed air ==100. 
 Before the play in the theatre of the Tuileries, 
 the air was 27 parts oxygen, 73 nitrogen; 
 towards the termination of the performance, 
 it was 21 parts oxygen, 76^ nitrogen, and 
 2i fixed air. Thus, in the hospital, the oxy- 
 gen, or living principle, had decreased as twenty- 
 one to twenty-seven, or nearly one-fourth. 
 This proves the necessity of having a well-aired 
 stable for the horse, as well as a well-aired 
 house for oneself to live in. "We have fre- 
 quently observed," says Mr. Karkeek, "a 
 kind of balance between the i-espiration and 
 the digestion ; and he who is a careful ob- 
 server of horses in a healthy, as well as in a 
 diseased state, must have noticed that there is 
 a certain balance between the quantity of vital 
 air received into the lungs, and the quantity 
 of food which can be digested in the stomach." 
 Again, "the blood requires pure air as its 
 
 food; the first efiect of tlio air is to remove 
 the carbonic acid, which the venous blood 
 Lakes up in the circulation ; and when this irt 
 ellected, tlie properties of the blood become 
 instantly changed. In the commencement of 
 this process, the air ia the active agent, and 
 removes the carbonic acid from the circula- 
 tion ; but when this ia eflected, the blood then 
 becomes the acting power, and attracts a 
 portion of the atmosphere. The pure air, or 
 at least it ought to be so, then occupies the 
 place of the carbonic acid which ia just re- 
 moved." 
 
 These facts are sufilcient to show the neces- 
 sity of having the stable well-ventilated. In- 
 deed, the principal cause of mango, bad eyes, 
 glanders, grease, swelled legs, and inflamed 
 lungs, witnessed in many horses, is on account 
 of the smallness, and the ill-ventilated state 
 of their stables. A stable, therefore, with a 
 loft over it, should never be less than twelve 
 feet high ; and if it is to contain three 
 horses, it should not be less than twenty, 
 or twenty-two feet long, and fourteen wide. 
 An aperture should be made near the top of 
 the wall opposite the door, to allow the foetid 
 or foul air to escape ; and to admit the fresh 
 and wholesome air, other two holes, of the same 
 size, should be made on each side of the door, 
 at about the height of a foot from the ground. 
 Stables, however, are not, at all times, built 
 in situations where the convenience of a good 
 ventilation can be readily obtained. Where 
 this is the case, the following remarks by Mr. 
 Brett, veterinary surgeon of the 12th Lancers, 
 when in the Manchester barracks, supply 
 some hints. 
 
 " Suppose a stable to be blocked up by other 
 buildings on all sides except at its two ends. 
 In that case I propose to have a large wooden 
 tunnel, two feet square, running the whole 
 length of the stable under the mangers ; and 
 if it should be a double stable, one tunnel 
 under each row of mangers. These conduits 
 are to come through the end walls of the 
 stable, and to be open at both ends on the 
 outside, for the purpose of admitting a thorough 
 draught or body of air through them. This 
 main stream of air is to be equally dispersed 
 about the stable, by means of perpendicular 
 wooden shoots, or chimneys, six inches square, 
 emanating from this main tunnel, one at the 
 
 105 
 
THE STABLE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the stable. 
 
 head of each stall partition. They should 
 be seven or eight feet long, so as to avoid a 
 draught on the horse's eyes, and open at 
 their tops like chimney-tops, and should stand 
 out two feet from the wall. The rarefied state 
 of the air in the stable, will cause a constant 
 flow of cool air through this main tunnel, 
 and up these chimneys ; and will equalise the 
 temperature of the stable, and entirely obviate 
 the draught of wind that blows in at the 
 horizontal holes in the walls of our stables 
 as at present ventilated. These perpendicular 
 chimneys may have one or two other apertures 
 in them besides the one at their tops, at 
 diiferent heights, that may be opened or closed 
 at pleasure, to admit air by means of a door 
 with a hinge and button, opening on that side 
 next the wall, whereby a direct current of air 
 upon the horse will be averted. If these air 
 passages should not be thought sufficient, other 
 horizontal tunnels branching from the main 
 one, might run from it at right angles under 
 each stall partition, and terminate in a per- 
 pendicular wooden chimney, six feet high at 
 each heel-post." 
 
 The window of the stable should be at the 
 south-east end, and the door at the opposite 
 end. The window should be as high as the 
 ceiling will admit of, and in size proportionate 
 to that of the stable. In a stable of twelve feet 
 high, it need not come down more than four 
 feet, and will then be eight feet from the 
 ground, and out of the way of being broken. 
 The frame of the window should be movable 
 upon a pivot in the centre, and opened by 
 means of a cord running over a pulley in the 
 ceiling, and fastened by means of another cord. 
 With a window of this kind, in a stable with 
 three or four horses, no other ventilation will 
 be required. A person never need be solicitous 
 ibout finding openings for the air to enter, 
 when there is sufficient room above, and means 
 tor it to escape. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enlarge on this branch 
 of our subject, as enough has been said to 
 show the absolute necessity of keeping up 
 a supply of pure air in the stable. That its 
 temperature may be known, no gentleman's 
 stable should be without a thermometer, which 
 should never be allowed to sink below forty 
 or fifty degrees in the winter, or ascend above 
 seventy in the summer. 
 106 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 This is another of the most important 
 elements in a well-constructed stable. 
 
 Where much light is admitted, the walls of 
 a stable should not be white, but of a stucco, 
 or lead colour, and better if painted ; for then 
 they may always be washed clean with soap 
 and water, as well as the stalls, rack, and 
 manger. This should be done once in two or 
 three weeks, or a month at furthest. If the 
 walls are boarded up to the height of about 
 five feet, and this, as well aa the stalls, painted 
 of a light wainscot colour, it will look ex- 
 tremely neat, and the under part of the wall 
 will be kept drier, and appear more comfortable. 
 A stable should be lighted by means of an 
 Argand lamp, suspended from the ceiling, and 
 movable. This will give a far better light, i3 
 cheaper, and more secure than any other con- 
 trivance whatever, except gas-light; and, if 
 properly trimmed, will burn without a particle 
 of smoke. As a general rule, dark stables are 
 uncleanly ; and they are the frequent cause of 
 making the horse start, and of giving him sore 
 eyes, w hen he emerges from them. No stable, 
 however, should have too strong a light, as, 
 like the bed-room of his master, it is a place 
 of rest. The proper quantity, then, should be 
 regulated, which a little observation will very 
 soon enable every possessor of a horse to do. 
 
 THE FLOOR. 
 
 A stable, when properly paved, and kept 
 moderately clean, requires only a shallow wide 
 gutter, twelve inches wide, and one inch deep. 
 The best floor for a stable, by far, is hard 
 brick; and next to that, limestone, not less 
 than one foot square. The floor of the stall 
 should never incline more than one inch in a 
 yard; and the inclination should be continued 
 back to the gutter only. "If the reader," 
 says Mr. Lawrence, " will stand for a few 
 minutes with his toes higher than his heels, 
 the pain he will feel in the calves of his legs 
 will soon convince him of the truth of this 
 remark, ' that too great a slope strains the back 
 sinews, of the leg.' Hence, when a horse is 
 not eating, he always endeavours to find his 
 level, either by standing across his stall, Or- 
 el se as far back as his halter will permit, so 
 that his hind legs meet the ascent on the other 
 
THE STAIL.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [the havokb. 
 
 side of tbe channel." Ifc is also romarked by 
 Mr. Blaine, that — 
 
 " In the stables of dealers in carriage horses, 
 an ascent in the standings of nearh' two inches 
 in the yard is sometimes made, to give a 
 greater appearance of height to the yet unfur- 
 nished four-year-old horses, which are thus 
 often passed upon the unwary as horses of five 
 years old. Is no strain put upon their legs ? 
 Our experience, which has been somewliat ex- 
 tensive in these matters, convinces us that the 
 inequalities in the standings of horses is a 
 fertile source of contraction of the feet. What 
 but the pain and inconvenience which follow 
 an uneven position, occasions horses, when not 
 feeding, to be so frequently found standing 
 across instead of lengthways in their stalls? 
 How frequently, also, will the horse, boxed in 
 a stall, be found with his croup turned towards 
 tbe manger ? To avert these evils, and yet to 
 prevent the retention of the urine, the smallest 
 possible slope should be allowed, which should 
 proceed uniformly to the bottom of the stall. 
 A central grating, with a cesspool, is an im- 
 perfect remedy for the evil; for there must 
 still be a general inequality of surface to carry 
 the urine to the centre. It is further injurious 
 by retaining the urine we wish to avoid ; and, 
 moreover, it promotes a draught of cold air 
 from without, if it be so constructed as to 
 carry the urine out of the doors. It may, also, 
 be remarked, that a central cesspool is utterly 
 useless for mares. It is, therefore, the best 
 plan to furnish each stall with a grating placed 
 over a small trapped drain, at tbe foot of each 
 stall, which will carry off both the urine and 
 the washings into one general cesspool out of 
 doors, and from which, being stopped by the 
 trap, nothing offensive can pass up through 
 the gratings." 
 
 THE STALL, THE MANGER, AND THE RACK. 
 
 The width of a stall should not be less tlian 
 six feet, clear. But when there is sufficient 
 room, it is a mucii better plan to allow each 
 horse a space of teu or twelve feet, where he 
 may be loose, and exercise himself a little. 
 This will be an effectual means of avoiding 
 swollen heels, and a great relie: to animals 
 that are worked hard. 
 
 "With respect to the rack and mangei' — the 
 manger should never be lesa than eighleen 
 
 inches deep ; eighteen inches from the front to 
 the back part ; and two feet in k-ngth. 
 
 In post and waggon stables, where tiio stall 
 is made for a pair ot horses, the manger will be 
 placed at each end, and the rack in the centre. 
 It will then be necessary to put one bar in the 
 centre of the rack, on tiie top, from tlio front 
 to the back part, to prevent tlie horse from 
 throwing out the hay with his nose. 
 
 The rack may have staves in the front 
 like a common rack ; but it is better to have 
 it partly closed in front. The back part of 
 the rack should be an inclined p'ane, made of 
 wood ; should be gradually sloped towards the 
 front, and should terminate about two feet 
 down. Such a rack will hold more hay than 
 ever ought to be put before one horse. The 
 advantages of this rack are numerous. The 
 saving in hay that may be effected by its use 
 is so apparent, that it need not be dwelt upon. 
 A greac saving also may be made in oats, by 
 so fastening the horse's head during the time 
 of feeding, that he cannot throw any of them 
 out of the manger. If a horse is allowed a 
 peck of oats a day, and has, as be may have, 
 one-eighth part of them thus saved, it will 
 amount to nearly a peck in a week. There 
 must not, however, be a diminution in bis 
 allowance on this account. A horse should 
 have one peck of oats in twenty-four hours; 
 but then he should not have more than from 
 eight to twelve pounds of the best hay in that 
 time, given at four, or three times at least. 
 
 Tills kind of rack and manger, from being 
 boarded up in front, will effectually prevent 
 the litter from being kept constantly under 
 the horse's head and eyes, by which he is 
 compelled to breathe the vapours which arise 
 from it. It will also prevent him from getting 
 his head under the manger, as sometimes 
 happens, by whicii means, not unfrequcntly 
 the poll-evil is produced. 
 
 The length of the halter should be only 
 four feet from the head-stall to the ring, 
 tlirougii which it passes. This will admit of 
 the horse lying down with ease, which is all 
 that is required. 
 
 The ring sliould be placed close to that side 
 where the manger is, and not in the centre of 
 the stall. The sides of the stalls should be 
 sufficiently high and deep to prevent their 
 occupants from biting or kicking each other. 
 
 107 
 
LITTEB.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [qroomiitg. 
 
 LITTER. 
 
 Instead of having a large corn-chest in the 
 stable, a handsome seat might be made at the 
 bacb part of it, extending as far as may be 
 necessary. In this there may be partitions to 
 separate the beans or the bran ; and places 
 might be made to rest the arms upon, so that a 
 gentleman might sit down comfortably, and have 
 the pleasure of seeing his horses taken care of. 
 A comfortable stable will be found conducive 
 to the health of the horses, and will be an 
 inducement to the groom to attend to every 
 little circumstance which may contribute to 
 cleanliness. He will not allow the smallest bit 
 of dung to remain swept up at one end, or into 
 a corner, as it commonly is. The pails should 
 be kept outside, and not standing about the 
 stable, as they usually are. If it be necessary 
 to take off the chill from his drink, it is much 
 better, and more easily done, by the addition 
 of a little hot water, than by suffering it to 
 stand in the stable : and while the horses are 
 at exercise, the litter should be all turned out 
 to dry, and the brick floor well washed, or swept 
 out. Some litter should always be allowed for 
 a horse to stale upon, and this should be 
 swept away as often as it is necessary, to pre- 
 vent offensive smells. Litter dried during 
 the day, will serve again as well as fresh straw 
 for the bottom of the bed, and be perfectly 
 free from smell. That which is necessary to be 
 kept under a horse, that he may stale with 
 •comfort, and without splashing himself, is not 
 considerable, and may be changed once a- day. 
 A great saving might be made in it, by turn- 
 ing it out, and drying it ; and if a shed were 
 built adjoining the stable, this could be done at 
 all times, and the horse might be cleaned in 
 the shed in wet weather. 
 
 Neither dogs, fowls, nor goats, should ever 
 be permitted to enter a stable; and dung 
 should be kept at a distance from it. Whilst 
 speaking of these general arrangements, it 
 may not be amiss to notice a good contri- 
 vance in cleaning horses ; that is, to have two 
 straps, one on each side of the stall, about one 
 yard from the head of it ; by these the horse 
 may be fastened during the time he is cleaned, 
 and he will be effectually prevented from 
 biting the manger or the groom. He will also 
 be kept back in the stall, which will enable 
 108 
 
 the groom to clean more perfectly the front of 
 his fore-legs, chest, and neck ; and to move 
 round him. This is better than strapping him 
 to the rack. When the common rack and 
 manger are preferred, the rack-staves should 
 be straight, and brought nearly down to the 
 manger. This may be done without the 
 necessity of a hay-loft, and the manger may be 
 made deep and wide, as already described. 
 
 GROOMING. 
 
 Although it is not usually the case that 
 gentlemen, themselves, look after their own 
 horses when they are stabled ; still, we pre- 
 sume that many desire to have such a know- 
 ledge of the stable department, as will enable 
 them to judge of the competency or incompe- 
 tency of their grooms ; for it is not the good 
 fortune of every one to have a thoroughly pro- 
 fessional groom, who understands his business, 
 and who is trustworthy in all the parts he has 
 to perform in it. There are some who under- 
 take the duties of grooms without understand- 
 ing hardly anything about a stable ; and while 
 gentlemen do not inform themselves of the 
 necessary duties and business of this depart- 
 ment of their establishments, they are likely 
 to be greatly imposed upon, or injured, through 
 the ignorance, indolence, or artfulness of the 
 pretenders they may have engaged. Little as 
 may be thought of the merits of looking after 
 a horse, it has been remarked, that not more 
 than one in ten, upon the average, of stable- 
 men employed in livery-stables and dealers' 
 yards, know even the simple process of properly 
 cleaning or dressing one, though this is the first 
 or principal thing required of them, and nearly 
 all they have to do. This is the case even after 
 they have followed the occupation for years, and 
 been industrious, pains-taking men, who did 
 not spare their labours. Since such is the fact, 
 it is evident that there is more art attached to 
 this profession, than at first suggests itself to 
 the mind. 
 
 There are certain natural qualifications which 
 should be preferred and sought after, if they 
 can possibly be found, in the person that has 
 the care and management of valuable horses. 
 Above all things he should be sober, mild, and 
 patient in his temper, so that he is not easily 
 provoked ; for material injury has been done 
 by passionate persons incautiously striking 
 
GROOMING.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. 
 
 [UUOOMINO. 
 
 horses in a wicked manner, with whatever in- 
 strument might he in their way ; sometimes 
 the corners of tlie curry-comh, the broom-stick, 
 twitch-staff, or even the stable-fork. "We have 
 heard of a groom, who, in a fit of rage wliilst 
 stopping a horse's feet, for which he had a 
 small trowel, actually drove it into the animal's 
 side between two of his ribs. The person who 
 looks after horses should be industrious, and 
 not sparing of his labour at any hour or season ; 
 for horses require much attention to make 
 them fresh and comfortable ; and if a groom is 
 sparing of his labour, they will soon show it, 
 as there are few kinds of work harder than 
 grooming a horse properly. It is true, that 
 an indolent groom may escape censure or com- 
 plaints of persons not very particular or dis- 
 ceruing; but those who are judges cannot be 
 imposed on. The appearance and condition of 
 the animal will discover itself, and cannot 
 escape their notice : for when a person knows 
 that everything is allowed to keep his horses 
 in proper condition, and also Jciwivs lohen his 
 horses are in the condition in ivhich they ought 
 to he, he will never be satisfied to see them 
 otherwise. 
 
 There is no good groom that has not a pride 
 in seeing, not only his horses, but everything 
 in his department in the first style of condition 
 and cleanliness. "Where this disposition exists 
 all goes well. Confidence is inspired, and a 
 trust, which otherwise might be withheld, 
 freely and voluntarily reposed in him, regard- 
 ing all that appertains to his system of man- 
 agement. With these natural qualifications 
 there are practicable requirements, which, with 
 attention, observation, and an apt capacity, 
 may easily be acquired. 
 
 The grand aim of a groom ought to be to put 
 his horses in what is called condition : let us, 
 therefore, consider what is meant by condition. 
 This word is variously applied to the state of 
 the horse, though widely dififerent from what is 
 here implied. Eor instance, we say, a horse is 
 in condition for sale ; that implies he is in 
 flesh, his legs clean and fresh, his coat decently 
 fine, and perfectly sound ; a horse may he all 
 this, hut not in condition for work. Another 
 horse is said to be in good working condition. 
 Such might be said of a post-horse, that is bare 
 of flesh, his joints enlarged, and his legs puffed 
 with windgalls ; yet this horse is capable of 
 
 doing much work ; and his being worked raoro 
 than is requisite to keep him in condition, has 
 put him out of condition. 
 
 Condition, therefore, without an expletive, 
 implies that perfect state of body and limbs 
 in which the whole system is in the most vigo- 
 rous state, and capable of the greatest exertion, 
 if required. This cannot be either obtained or 
 preserved without strictly adhering to three 
 things ; viz., proper food, proper grooming, and 
 necessary exercise. Neither of these must b© 
 omitted, nor injudiciously employed; for, like 
 medicine, properly administered, each does 
 good, but is capable of doing much injury, if 
 profusely taken or misapplied. 
 
 Stable hours should be kept with strict regu- 
 larity. All animals appear to have a knowledge 
 of time ; and it may be observed, in many in- 
 stances, that they observe the periods as cor- 
 rectly as those who attend them, and who, let it 
 be remembered, have recourse to time-pieces. 
 The horse knows his stated hours ; and if he is 
 not attended to, particularly to feed and water 
 at the accustomed time, he will be watching 
 and fretting with much anxiety, and oftentimes 
 will call and ask for his food, in such a manner 
 as those accustomed to horses cannot fail to 
 understand. Eegular and stated hours should 
 be punctually kept, with as little variation as the 
 season or circumstances may require — say five 
 o'clock in summer; but as the days shorten, a 
 later hour is admissible, unless horses are to be 
 ready at an early hour for hunting, or other- 
 wise. In such cases, two hours, at least, before 
 they are wanted, the stable should be visited. 
 If this is not done, and if sufficient time ia 
 not allowed to look after thinys, they cannot 
 be done as they should. 
 
 The first duty of the groom on going to 
 stable, after throwing his eye round to see if 
 any horses are loose, cast, or the like, is to rack 
 and feed. The judgment in racking is to give 
 the horse but little at a time, that he may eat 
 it with an appetite, first clearing out his rack, 
 &c., &c. If a horse leaves hay that is good 
 and sweet, some cause must be assigned for it, 
 and it must be examined into. Sometimes cats 
 will foul the hay ; and horses are very nice in 
 their food, when not kept scanty. If the ani- 
 mal appear to be in health, and the hay has 
 not been blown on by other horses, but is fresh 
 and sweet, it may reasonably be supposed that 
 
 109 
 
GBOOMINO.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [GEOOMIN&. 
 
 he is too plentifully fed, and leaving hay for 
 the sake of oats : this should be guarded 
 against ; therefore, if hay that is good and 
 clean in moderation, is given to him, it is better 
 to shorten his allowance of oats, to bring his 
 stomach to a comparatively small quantity. 
 His morning's racking should be one quarter 
 of his daily allowance, which, on the average, 
 is about three pounds for his breakfast ; for 
 abundant feeding in the morning is not good. 
 A horse cannot work agreeably to himself when 
 over-full; and, therefore, the plan of feeding spar- 
 ingly in the morning should be adopted. If you 
 want some exertion from him, do not suppose 
 that a full belly will make him perform it better. 
 It is the food that he has digested, and from 
 which he has obtained that nutriment and its 
 consequent stimulus that is to support him in 
 his work, and not what you cram into him at 
 the time you want him for great exertion. A 
 good horse, in proper condition, will not flag 
 in twelve hours, if he is required to be at 
 work that time, and, on a moderate computa- 
 tion, supposing he has carried his rider a hun- 
 dred miles, without, as it is termed, drawino- 
 bit. This, however, is not to be expected from 
 every horse ; none but thorough good animals, 
 in proper condition, can undergo such extra- 
 ordinary exertion. 
 
 The quantity of hay which should be given 
 should be well shaken, to clear it from dust 
 and seeds ; aud if it is very dry, as it some- 
 times will be, it ought to be sprinkled with 
 water, to make it more agreeable to the horse, 
 when he will eat it with better appetite. Many 
 horses, when they perceive, or instinctively 
 suppose they are going out with the hounds, 
 or have seen the rider come into the stable 
 with his scarlet coat on, and in Ms ivhite cords, 
 refuse to eat their hay or oats. This, we ima- 
 gine, arises from an impatient anxiety re^^ard- 
 ing the animating prospect of the chase, of 
 which most horses are fond, but some uncom- 
 monly so ; but whether they disregard their 
 food from this feeling, or whether they refuse 
 it, knowing they will be better able to gallop 
 with an empty stomach, it is difficult to deter- 
 mine; certain it iw, however, that horses never 
 perform the worse for it ; and it may be taken 
 as not a bad prognostic, when a horse refuses 
 his food under such circumstances. It is verv 
 common, however, for a horse to be off his food 
 110 
 
 after any great exertion; and this is by no 
 means a pleasant circumstance, especially to a 
 true horse-man. 
 
 After having racked with hay, the next feed, 
 as it is termed, is to serve him with oats. Here 
 we are proceeding in the routine that is to be 
 daily observed ; for, were we to treat of things 
 out of this regular order, young hands might 
 be studying what they should do, and what 
 ought to be done first ; aud it is no uncommon 
 circumstance to see some, that have been in the 
 stable employment for a considerable length of 
 time, not know what to do first, and occasion 
 themselves trouble and loss of time, by doing 
 that which is not urgently required. In serv- 
 ing the oats, whatever is deemed a sufiicieut 
 allowance for the horse, for the day, whether 
 it may be three quarterns or a peck, one- 
 fourth of the quantity should now be given. As 
 sweet and clean food is most agreeable to the 
 animal, as well as beneficial, carefully sift the 
 corn from dust, blow away the chaff, and pick 
 out anything which may be deemed unfit or 
 unpleasant. Frequently will be found among 
 them, rat's dung and cat's dung; therefore clear 
 the manger with a whisp of hay or straw, and 
 throw in the oats ; let them be spread with the 
 hand, to prevent the horse from taking too 
 greedy a mouthful at a time, and swallowing 
 them without chewing. 
 
 While the horses are eating their first feed of 
 corn, which, it must be recollected, is to be 
 given immediately on entering the stable in 
 the morning, prepare the saddles and exercising 
 bridles, that they may be ready to be taken 
 out. These being ready, and placed on for 
 exercise, give the horses a ie^ff go-downs of 
 water ; then, if it be an establishment of some 
 considerable extent, give orders to the stable- 
 boy to make fair the stable during your ab- 
 sence, in the following manner. If it should 
 be a single- horse stable, this process may not 
 be required so minutely : first, throw all the 
 dung otf the litter, clear out behind, then turn 
 up the driest aud best of the litter under the 
 manger, and the wet and muck turn out behind ; 
 this being removed to the dung-heap, sweep 
 clean out, then take a bucket of water, and wash 
 the stall out well. After the water is run and 
 swept away, take the bedding that has been 
 put under the manger, and place it behind the 
 horse's stall, against the wall ; by doing so, aR 
 
GBOOMING.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEKINART PRACTICE. 
 
 [OBOOICWQ. 
 
 the disagreeable smell that may probably arise 
 from the bedding being allowed to remain 
 under the manger, will be removed, and, in all 
 likelihood, the horse prevented from being 
 afiected with diseases of the eyes, glanders, 
 inflamed lungs, &c., &c. This being done, take 
 a little of the litter and shake it in the stall, 
 for most horses stale on first coming into the 
 stable, from exercise, and this will induce them 
 to do so freely. Thus will the stable be free 
 from any efiluvia which arise from the dung 
 and urine. 
 
 The stable being made clean, next com- 
 mences the cleaning of the horses. This is a 
 work that requires more knowledge and judg- 
 ment than at first appears. The curry-comb 
 is the first thing to be applied, and great atten- 
 tion should be paid to the proper mode of 
 its application. Some horses require much of 
 the curry-comb ; others, none : this depends on 
 the state the animal is in, the time of year, &c. 
 Horses that have their coats long and full of 
 dust, such as are just taken up from grass, or 
 such as are come out of persons hands, that 
 either do not know, or do not take the pains to 
 keep their coats clean and fine, will require the 
 free use of the curry-comb. In reference to 
 the comb, its teeth and sharpness should be 
 proportioned to the thickness, length, and foul- 
 ness of the coat. For horses that have been 
 kept in stable, properly groomed, and have 
 their coats fine, thin, soft, and clean, requiring 
 no other use of the curry-comb than merely 
 to clean the brush, or occasionally to rub off 
 any dung that may be on them, the teeth of 
 the comb should be remarkably even and 
 dull, not to scratch them. 
 
 These things being attended to, after strip- 
 ping the clothes off, the curry-comb should 
 next be used, always beginning on the near 
 side at the hind-quarters, and using it in pro- 
 portion to the length and foulness of the coat. 
 If the coat is fast on, long, full of dust, 
 and very filthy, it may be used freely to loosen 
 it, or the sweat that is dried and fastened 
 on the skin and roots of the hair, will appear 
 like a white and saltish dust ; but it is not to 
 be expected that all the dust shall be got out 
 at once. It must be a work of time; and to 
 attempt it by iising the curry-comb too miTch, 
 the coat will be set on end, the pores of the 
 skin will he opened, and the horse will, in con- 
 
 sequence, be very liable to take cold, which will 
 
 obstruct that imperceptible perspiration which, 
 in a healthy state, is always going on; and 
 which, if suppressed, causes to be thrown up an 
 ichorous discliargc, wliich will dry into small 
 scabs. The coat will then stare, put on a rus- 
 setty appearance ; be rough, and have a ven' 
 disagreeable look when compared with those 
 horses whose coats are fine and clean, such as 
 the race-horse, or the hunter, when got into 
 proper condition. Another thing to be ob- 
 ser?«d is, that if it be during the season when 
 the horse is changing his coat, when the hair 
 will come off freely with the curry-comb, it is 
 not advisable to be too free in the use of the 
 comb for the purpose of removing the coat, 
 but let this have its time to come off. "With 
 good feeding the end will be obtained quicker 
 than by scratching the horse's skin with the 
 comb. Providence has wisely ordained that 
 the horse's coat, if exposed to cold, shall grow 
 long, and if he is kept warm, it will remain 
 short. 
 
 Proceeding to curry on the hind -quarters, 
 for the purpose of unmatting the hair and 
 loosening the dust, it is necessary to descend 
 down the quarters, particularly remembering 
 to rub off all dried dung, and taking care not 
 to injure or scratch the horse's legs. It is to 
 be observed that the curry-comb is not to 
 be used below the hock, unless some dung 
 may be there. Whilst employed here, you 
 must handle the comb very lightly ; and with 
 grey or white horses, stains are very trouble- 
 some to remove ; but if a wet sponge is taken, 
 and the hair well moistened where the stain is, 
 then a knob of common stone-llue — such as is 
 used by washerwomen — put into a piece of 
 flannel, and rubbed well on the stains, will be 
 able to remove them. When this is dry, it 
 must be well brushed off. 
 
 After having curried the horse's hind-quar- 
 ters, proceed on to the back, loins, flank, belly 
 shoulders, arms, chest, and neck, omitting no 
 part to which the comb can be conveniently 
 applied. Tender places, or such as have thin 
 hair, need not be touched, neither need the 
 head be touched. Horses are not ticklish 
 when they are full of the dust occasioned by 
 the natural and imperceptible perspiration of 
 the body ; but as they become clean, and their 
 coats short and fine, they are exceedingly 
 
 111 
 
GEOOMINQ.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [qeoomino. 
 
 ticklish, and, therefore, it is necessary to be 
 careful to stand in a secure place. After 
 having curried the near side, proceed in like 
 manner to curry the off side ; but with the 
 difference of using the left hand, which, after 
 a while, becomes the most convenient. This 
 done, the next proceeding is to whisp off the 
 dust raised by the curry-comb, and to rub and 
 whisp well those places which were not proper 
 for the comb to touch. For this purpose, a 
 whisp of some half- worn straw should be made, 
 but a hay-band is better, which should be pre- 
 pared for the purpose, by half untwisting it ; 
 loosening it thus, it will be doubled about a 
 foot in length, and, loosely twisting it together, 
 it will not scatter so fast, till you have made it 
 as thick as you can grasp. If it is dry and 
 harsh, sprinkle it with water. This will make 
 it work pleasanter, and the dust which is in- 
 tended to be removed, will adhere to it, and 
 not fly about so much. 
 
 In whisping the horse, begin at his head, 
 taking the whisp in the left hand for the near 
 side, and resting the right hand on the most 
 sonvenient part of the animal, to steady your- 
 self while the whisp is applied. Then change 
 its situation, beginning first at the top of the 
 neck, down to the shoulders, then the under 
 part of the neck, the chest, particularly between 
 the fore legs, down the arms, knees, and the 
 sinews and fetlocks, taking care to rub out 
 the dirt well from the heels, where the curry- 
 comb cannot be brought into use. Having 
 done this, proceed on in the order of his car- 
 case, on the back, sides, belly, croup, and so 
 on to his hind legs, which ought to be cleaned 
 as carefully as the fore ones. After this, whisp 
 in the same manner his off side, only changing 
 the whisp from the left to the right hand. 
 
 Proceed next to brush the horse over, after 
 having first cleaned the brush well with the 
 curry-comb. Begin at the croup or rump, and 
 well brush the body backwards and forwards, 
 the brush being in the left hand ; for the near 
 side, work up in all parts as before, and finish 
 at the top of the neck ; then in leaving it, 
 brush the horse tlie straight way of the hair, 
 and finish at the near fetlock and heel behind. 
 The same plan should be pursued on the off 
 side, changing the brush to the right hand. 
 Many stable-men attend much to those places 
 that are most conspicuous to the eye, such as 
 112 
 
 the fall of the neck, the shoulders, and hind- 
 quarters. These parts shine the most ; and they 
 do not fail to point out these to you, and say 
 how well they look, which may satisfy some 
 persons, but a judge will not be deceived 
 by external appearances. He expects the 
 parts not immediately in view to be equally 
 attended to. 
 
 After the brushing, which causes much of 
 the dust to be floating about, when a part of 
 it, in all probability, will again settle on the 
 horse, he should be wiped all over with a 
 linen cloth, beginning, as with the whisp or 
 brush, at the head, and so proceeding to every 
 part. This being done, put on his clothes 
 before finishing with his head, mane, tail, and 
 legs, that he may not chill or take cold while 
 you are about them. 
 
 It must be understood that we are here 
 treating of the method to be pursued in the 
 hackney stable, and not in the racing and 
 hunting stable, though there is very little 
 diflerence in treating the hunter and the 
 hack, except it be in a greater addition of 
 clothing and more dressing, the days he may 
 be lying at rest. 
 
 The clothes being properly put on without 
 wrinkles, perfectly smooth, and especially under 
 the roller, loosen the horse's head, take off his 
 stall-collar, and turn him round in the stall, to 
 give his head and ears a complete rubbing and 
 brushing, which is not so easily done with the 
 stall-collar on. The head is now to be brushed 
 over in every part, particularly at the root of 
 the ears, and under the throat ; then, with the 
 dusting-cloth, rub and wipe him well ; pull his 
 ears through the hands, observing that they 
 are clean and soft, and moderately cool ; then 
 comb out his mane and foretop, with a sponge 
 or water-brush, wet the top or roots of the 
 mane, and pass a small cloth for that purpose 
 over it. Tliis cloth being passed from the near 
 side at the top of the mane, and pulled over to 
 the off-side, will make the mane lie smooth. 
 Next put on his stall-collar, and comb out his 
 tail; wipe away any dirt or filth that may be 
 remaining under the tail with a wet sponge, 
 and after with the cloth. The feet of the ani- 
 mal are next to be examined, and the dung and 
 litter picked clean out, and,if necessary, washed. 
 Lastly, the legs are to be rubbed with a clean 
 loose whisp of straw in each hand ; for which 
 
OEOOMIXG.] 
 
 MODERN VETEEINAKY IMiACTICE. 
 
 [exkucise. 
 
 purpose you should go down on both knees, 
 pass the whisp over the logs and tendons, 
 then finish with passing the hands down in 
 like manner, to feel that tliey are perfectly 
 smooth, and that there are no particles of the 
 straw or thistles, which might be among it, 
 adhering or sticking to the hair. These rub- 
 bings will increase the circulation, and, conse- 
 quently, will promote the absorption of any 
 fluid which may be detained in those parts, 
 and whicli, too frequently, occasions swelled 
 legs ; and, if neglected, the heels may crack, 
 and produce grease, which, with a little extra 
 trouble, may, at all times, be prevented. 
 
 The morning's business of the stable being 
 thus completed, the horse will require nothing 
 until noon. 
 
 Before proceeding further, we will show the 
 reasons for feeding the hackney, which is not 
 to be fed in the same manner as you would a 
 hunter that has extraordinary work to do ; yet 
 a hackney should be always in a condition to be 
 able to perform ordinary work with ease to 
 himself and comfort to his rider. 
 
 Moderate exercise for a good hackney is 
 about thirty or forty miles an end, without 
 drawing bit, at the rate of from eight to ten 
 miles an hour. This may be called ordinary 
 work : but to gallop twenty miles, or trot six- 
 teen in an hour, extraordinary work, which, to 
 accomplish, requires a horse to be put through 
 a regular mode of training. 
 
 But to return. At noon give him the like 
 quantity of hay as in the morning, and his feed 
 of corn ; set the stable fair ; that is, put the 
 htter to rights and remove the dung. This is 
 all that is necessary till watering-time, which 
 is about four o'clock, when the horse should be 
 stripped and brushed. 
 
 There are some lads who can hardly be per- 
 suaded of the necessity for this, alleging that 
 they cleaned the animal perfectly well in the 
 mornins:; that he had not been out of the 
 stable, and that the clothing prevented dust 
 from settling on him ; therefore, they cannot 
 conceive the necessity for it ; and many others 
 may be of the same opinion ; but the imper- 
 ceptible perspiration, which is always going on, 
 occasions a scurf, the removal of which greatly 
 relieves the horse. Besides, stripping the 
 cloths off, and brushing him over, greatly re- 
 freshes him, and puts the blood into a freer 
 Q 
 
 circulation. Wipe him down as before, finish- 
 ing with rubbing his legs, which must never bo 
 omitted, combing the mane and tail, &c., then 
 watering. If there is not a probability of the 
 horse going out, let him have a greater quan- 
 tity of water tlian in the monting; and if he 
 be not greedy for water, ho will not drink more 
 than will do him good ; but, if you perceive his 
 belly getting too large, and he appears washy, 
 he must be restricted. Set the stable fair 
 again, and the work is done until the final 
 doing up for the night. 
 
 At about eight o'clock finish for the night 
 by giving him his remaining allowance of hay, 
 which should be double what was given him in 
 the morning, and his remaining feed of corn. 
 Give more abundantly at night, because it will 
 be in so forward a state of digestion in the 
 morning, as not to oppress the wind of the 
 horse when working. This will be a guide 
 how you should vary it upon particular occa- 
 sions, so as to have the animal hi good heart 
 and spirits, but empty, when wanted for expe- 
 ditious purposes. 
 
 The last thing is making up the beds and 
 setting all fair. In making up the beds, con- 
 trive to lay all the worst of the litter in the 
 middle or bottom, where the horse is most 
 likely to spoil it. In throwing down the litter 
 which was placed behind the horse in the 
 morning, reserve the cleanest and driest part 
 to top the bed with, making this up high on 
 each side, and fullest towards the bind quar- 
 ters, that it may be soft and pleasant for him, 
 whichever side he may lay on, as some horses 
 turn frequently in the course of the night. 
 Now throw out all dung, and sweep clean ; see 
 that all the stall-collars are secure, loose cloths 
 taken off, and everything set fan-, and the rou- 
 tine of the stable is finished. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Exercise is so essential to the horse, that 
 feedin'^ and grooming would be of little use, 
 were it neglected, or altogether omitted. It is 
 admitted, that great numbers of horses are 
 killed or spoiled by being over-worked ; and 
 it may be doubted whether as many are not 
 injured in London for want of work. In the 
 metropolis there are several persons who keep 
 horses, but who are so occupied with business, 
 that they cannot ride them out oftener than 
 
 113 
 
EXEECISE.l 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [exebcisb. 
 
 once in a week, and many don't ride them once 
 in a month. The horses of these persons stand 
 at livery, and they are ordered to be exercised. 
 Men employed in livery stables, have seldom 
 less than six or eight, and we have known 
 some to have ten livery-horses to look after. 
 These men, if they rub off the dung, and occa- 
 sionally give them a brush over, omit exercise, 
 not finding time for it. Gentlemen do not 
 like to see or know that boys are permitted 
 to ride their horses; and, without they keep 
 grooms of their own, their horses will go short 
 of exercise. 
 
 Consider, then, those horses that are kept 
 in a livery-stable from week's end to week's 
 end, in many places confined and filthy ; that 
 are sometimes moved about, which they call 
 exercise, but which is merely a ride of, perhaps, 
 fifty or sixty yards long, in a place made up of 
 litter and dung, with a manure-heap at some 
 part of it. In these cases horses literally 
 breathe only air strongly impregnated with 
 the evaporation of dung. Under such circum- 
 stances, it is surprising that they are so well 
 as they are. The disorders with which they 
 are frequently afilicted in such a condition, are 
 principally couffh, not improperly called a stable 
 cough, also weakness in the legs, so that they 
 often make a drop, as it is termed. Various 
 humorial diseases, such as swelled legs, grease^ 
 farcy, and, in all probability, inflamed lungs 
 and glanders, also, are the result. At their 
 best, when they look plump and well to the 
 eye, they are faint, and what is termed foggy, 
 and unable to perform more than what would 
 be common exercise for horses in condition. 
 
 Since, therefore, exercise and air are so 
 beneficial, let us consider in what manner 
 exercise should be given. This is to be regu- 
 lated according to circumstances. Where 
 animals work two or three days in the week, 
 the resting days require no more than airing 
 exercise, for every horse should have, at least 
 two days in the week, such work or exercise 
 that will give him a good sweating, which 
 throws out, through the pores of the skin, what 
 might lodge in the system and create diseases. 
 It likewise frees the horse of the scurf ad- 
 hering to the skin, and occasions >the coat to 
 look fine. Those days, therefore, that the 
 horse is not wanted for work, he must be 
 exercised for the fresh air which is bracing 
 114 
 
 and strengthening to his limbs, refreshing the 
 body, and creating an appetite. The most 
 eligible time for this is in the early part of the 
 day ; but, in wet weather, the best opportu- 
 nities that appear must be taken advantage of. 
 If but one horse is kept by a gentleman, 
 he should order his groom, as soon as the stable 
 has been cleaned out in the morning, which is 
 while the horse is eating his first feed, to brush 
 him over, and put on his exercising saddle and 
 bridle. In cold weather, if it is only intended 
 to walk him, the cloth or sheet may be kept on 
 him under the saddle. In warm weather, how- 
 ever, we do not recommend this ; for, though a 
 horse's coat may be something the fiuer by 
 being kept warm, yet he is certainly the more 
 liable to take cold when he is necessarily de- 
 prived of it. The most open and airy places 
 should be taken for exercise, during which the 
 step of the horse should try to be improved ; 
 and, when he has only walking exercise, he 
 should at least be walked two hours, which 
 will be sufiicient. By aimiiig to extend his 
 walk, he may be greatly improved. On 
 returning, thoroughly clean him, and give him 
 his feed. He might be watered while out, 
 provided it can conveniently be done. If a 
 horse is hearty, and inclined to flesh, we would 
 rather recommend the like exercise in the 
 afternoon, where persons have time and con- 
 venience, than to shorten his feed for that 
 purpose. It would be much better for the 
 horse ; but every one cannot allow his time to 
 be so taken up, for it would be nearly equal to 
 training, and may not be thought necessary. 
 It is more than the generality of horses require ; 
 and many inferior-bred animals which look well 
 to the eye, cannot, for a continuance, stand the 
 ordinary work that a horse has in training. 
 Such is the amazing dift'erence of horses. If 
 inquiry be made of many training-grooms, 
 concerning some high-bred colt or other, why 
 he is not hrought out, they will answer "he 
 would not stand his training;" though, per- 
 liaps, in numerous cases, training, in the pre- 
 sent day, is screwed up to too tight a pitch. 
 
 Should the work of the horse be so moderate 
 as not to occasion a sweat, it is beneficial, about 
 twice a week, to give exercise strong enough 
 to sweat hiai. This may be done in the pace 
 he is mostly ridden hi, that lie may be prac- 
 tised and improved in it. If he be admired 
 
EXERCISE.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICE. 
 
 [exehcise. 
 
 for his trot, it would be wrone; to f:»allop him, 
 as such an act might unsettle him in his 
 esteemed pace. Therefore trot him out for the 
 space of two miles to bring him to a com- 
 fortable sweat, and walk him back. Thus his 
 limbs are extended ; his muscles made supple ; 
 and his ligaments and tendons strengthened. 
 Inactivity debilitates, and over-exertion may 
 sprain and weaken, but moderate exertion is 
 good both for man and beast. 
 
 The sweating of horses occasions considerable 
 labour to clean them; and indolent grooms, 
 and those who have several animals to look 
 after, avoid this part of their business as much 
 as possible. Some would persuade us that 
 there is no necessity for it; but reason and 
 experience teach otherwise. 
 
 When a horse is brought in from work or 
 exercise, if in a sweat, or wet and dirty with 
 sloppy roads and rain, he should not be left 
 until made completely dry, clean, and comfort- 
 able. Some horses, in good condition, will rub 
 dry and clean in a short time ; but others, with 
 long and curly coats, and some from constitu- 
 tion or ill condition, are a long time before they 
 can be made dry; hence, clipping has been 
 introduced ; but this we are decidedly opposed 
 to, as it is to be prevented altogether by good 
 grooming. Besides, dipt horses are apt fre- 
 quently to take cold ; hunters, especially, in a 
 slack day. We have known an industrious 
 groom to work at a horse for four hours, and 
 not leave him until perfectly dry ; and we have 
 known others to cover them with a cloth, and 
 leave them to dry, before they would clean them. 
 Much depends on the habit the animal has been 
 used to, constitution, condition, &c., whether 
 he will take injury from being left in his wet 
 and dirt. Those horses, however, that have 
 been properly groomed, and have all care taken 
 of them to keep their coats fine, and, on all 
 occasions, made dry and comfortable, will be 
 liable to take cold, if neglected at these times. 
 
 Some persons are fond of physicking or 
 bleeding their horses, when there is no appa- 
 rent cause or reason for it. Many grooms 
 take upon themselves the duties of bleeding 
 and physicking at their own discretion. 1l 
 is, therefore, necessary to assign some reason, 
 and to show when, and for what purpose, 
 such modes are to be pursued. It is best to 
 follow such methods as preclude the necessity 
 
 of either ; for, with proper feeding, exercising, 
 and grooming, there will seldom bo occasioa 
 for physic ; but sloth or idleness is the parent 
 of disease; and tluis it hap|)C'n3 with horses, 
 when they are well fed, and have little or no 
 work — horses not being ir.tended to stand in 
 a stall, and fatten like a bullock — the blood- 
 vessels get overcharged, and a partial stagna- 
 tion takes place, so that the economy of the 
 whole system becomes obstructed, and cannot 
 perform its several functions. The stomach 
 cannot digest its contents ; the lungs become 
 oppressed, and have not the requisite freedom 
 of expansion ; consequently, if timely relief bo 
 not given, a catalogue of disorders must ensue, 
 for nature always strives to unburthen herself 
 in some way or other. When any symptom 
 of approaching illness or disorder appears, 
 which may discover itself in various ways, 
 such as by the animal refusing his food, by 
 the appearance of languor or dulness, heaviness 
 of the eyes, heat in the mouth, swelling of the 
 legs, itchings, breaking out in various parts, 
 &c., it will then, in general, be proper to 
 bleed, as a check, and also to allay the irri- 
 tability of the system. In these cases, bleed 
 according to size, constitution, and the nature 
 of the forboding symptoms of the attack. If 
 a horse is very fat, the same quantity must 
 not be taken from him that would be required 
 were he in good working condition ; for hia 
 fat, in the first place, debilitates him, and then 
 taking blood in large quantities does this still 
 further. We have known fat horses frequently 
 fall, in consequence of five or six quarts of 
 blood being taken from them at a time, from 
 the erroneous idea that because they were fat, 
 they could lose so much more blood. If, on 
 showing any of the preceding named symptoms, 
 and the horse happens to be overloaded with 
 fat, great caution respecting bleeding should be 
 shown, and not a too large quantity abstracted 
 from him; but with horses in condition for 
 work, five or six quarts may be taken without 
 danger. In bleeding, sometimes, after pinning 
 up the orifice, the horse shakes himself. If so, 
 it may be taken as a sign that the object has 
 been gained, and that the inflammatory action 
 that was going on in the system, has been 
 reduced. 
 
 If, however, symptoms and circumstances be 
 compared together, to account, if possible, lor 
 
 115 
 
CONDITIONING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [conditioning. 
 
 the cause of complaint ; if the horse has been 
 well kept, consequently full of flesh, and little 
 or no work — for we do not call walking a 
 horse about to stretch his limbs, sufficient to 
 keep him in health — it may reasonably be 
 concluded that the blood-vessels are prevented 
 from performing their natural functions, and 
 evacuations must relieve them. In this case, 
 we prefer a course of alteratives to violent 
 physicking, as less dangerous. 
 
 It may so happen that a horse over-fed, 
 and too little worked, may not discover any 
 symptoms until after a day's riding, and work 
 as some would call it, and from that circum- 
 stance it might not be attributed to the want 
 of exercise ; but here we deceive ourselves, 
 for disease, or the seeds of disease, may have 
 been lurking in the horse, and could not de- 
 velop themselves until he was put to unusual 
 exertion, which might necessarily cause the 
 discovery sooner than it otherwise might take 
 place. 
 
 If a horse has been in regular work or 
 exercise, with a young and tender constitution, 
 he will sicken at unusual exertion. This is 
 termed, taking too much out ofTiim ; but, in such 
 a case, the loss of a little blood, with two or 
 three days' rest, will restore him. Sometimes, 
 however, taking too much blood, and, at the 
 same time, when the horse is very hot, sufler- 
 ing him to cool too fast, will, in all pro- 
 bability, instead of decreasing, increase any 
 inflammatory disposition the system may be 
 susceptible of; but if, at the first, we observe 
 that he does not dung, or empty himself freely, 
 as horses generally do when in health, this 
 will draw attention to his state, and he must 
 have speedy relief, to prevent disease coming 
 on in a more dangerous form. 
 
 CONDITIONING THE HUNTER. 
 
 Every sportsman should know what are the 
 best means to be adopted to get his hunters 
 into condition, and the care and management 
 necessary to their well-being through the 
 season. Hunters are usually turned into good 
 grass after the season is over, though a great 
 deal has been said by some against such a 
 practice. Still we have seen its good efiects 
 as often as stabling them ; but one man may 
 have convenience to stable his hunters all the 
 summer, and ten others may not have this ; 
 116 
 
 consequently, an additional expense would be 
 incurred. But as that which we are about to 
 write is for the use of hunting-men, we shall 
 speak on general principles, which, from prac- 
 tice, we know to be correct. 
 
 Grass, it is well known, be it of ever so 
 good a quality, is not a substantial food. It 
 is cooling and opening ; and though it makes 
 a horse fleshy, nevertheless, it is not that 
 description of flesh which a horse can work 
 on. If we were to attempt to gallop him to 
 the excess which frequently occurs in hunting, 
 we should find him faint and weak, and the fat 
 which has accumulated in the cellular mem- 
 branous cavities, would be thrown off" in the 
 form of a white lathering sweat. This, if 
 checked, might produce inflammation of the 
 lungs, and the horse become a subject for the 
 knackers. Therefore, the first thing to be 
 done to alter this state of the system, in the 
 best and most expeditious manner, is to bleed 
 and physic, but with caution, always paying 
 great attention to the constitution of the 
 animal. 
 
 In the case of horses being taken up from 
 grass, the warmth of the stable is very apt to 
 incline them to itch, and to make them rub 
 themselves a great deal. When they are so 
 inclined, bleeding is highly necessary. 
 
 As Viorses usually have their shoes taken ofi" 
 when turned out to grass, the first thing to be 
 done is to re-shoe him ; then he should be 
 bled according to his size ; from two to four 
 quarts of blood will be sufficient to take from 
 him. After this let him stand quiet, with his 
 head tied up to the rack, without food of any 
 kind for three or four hours. While he is 
 full of grass, he will not drink much water; 
 but after living on dry food, he will drink 
 plentifully if he is allowed. There is no neces- 
 sity, however, for stinting him in water until 
 he has taken his physic. 
 
 His coat will be exceedingly foul, and full of 
 knits ; therefore he will require some good 
 dressings; and the opening of his coat, and 
 the taking of the dirt out, will require him to be 
 clothed. Accordingly, buckle a cloth on with 
 a good broad roller, pretty tight, to assist in 
 reducing the size of his belly. If he has 
 been in the stable three or four days, and 
 emptied the grass out of him, a dose of physic 
 may first be given to him, preparatory to 
 
coNDiTioNrNG.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [coNDixioimfO. 
 
 which — the day on wliicli he takes his niedi- ' 
 cine — he should bo kept on cold bran mashes ; 
 then, at night, say an hour bc>fore the last 
 visit to the stable, bis medicine should be 
 administered to him. The motive for giving 
 the medicine at night, is because some horses 
 having weakly constitutions, the medicine is apt 
 to gripe them, which, on the following day, 
 will be perceptible, and, witli this advantage, 
 it will occur in the day time, when every horse 
 may have attention from any quarter it may 
 be necessary to require it. Having done this, 
 either tie him up close, or put on a muzzle, so 
 tliat he may be kept without food all night. 
 This, on giving him a little exercise in the morn- 
 ing, will occasion his medicine to operate much 
 quicker than any other way. Immediately on 
 returning to stable, give him a handful of the 
 best hay — first having offered him some chilled 
 water to drink — and a bran mash slightly 
 warmed ; for, from the sickness occasioned by 
 the medicine, horses are, sometimes, with diiS- 
 culty induced to eat anything warm during 
 the operating of the physic ; but in such cases, 
 we have invariably horned down about two 
 quarts of gruel at intervals, which, in a short 
 time, bas restored the tone of the stomach. 
 This treatment, with good hay, is the only 
 food necessary till his physic is set, as it is 
 termed— that is, done working. Were more 
 substantial food to be given, it might lessen 
 the effect or operation of the physic, or be 
 thrown out whole and undigested ; conse- 
 quently, it is best not to give any. 
 
 Here it is requisite to caution the gentle- 
 man or the groom, to be certain that the 
 drugs, of which the medicine is composed, are 
 genuine and good. There is no more serious 
 evil than giving to a horse lad and cJiea]) 
 drugs ; and we have experienced this evil to a 
 very great extent, especially in the country. 
 When we have sent a prescription to be made 
 up, whether it bas been from ignorance of 
 the quality of the drugs, or whether from 
 avarice, thinking a cheap or spurious article 
 might do for a horse, we will not pretend to 
 say ; but physic, prepared with bad materials, 
 not only deceives and disnppoints its pur- 
 chaser, but may do infinite mischief, even to 
 the extent of causing the loss of a valuable 
 horse. Therefore, we recommend physic to 
 be bought of sucb vendors as are respectable, 
 
 and who prepare it in large quantities. AVo 
 recommend this, because sucli are not so likely 
 to have stale drugs ; and also are, from expe- 
 rience, likely to be good judges of their quality : 
 whilst, giving a horse-prescription to im 
 apothecary, or country druggist, he will pro- 
 bably prepare it with drugs that have beer* 
 years in his shop, and perhaps, originally, not 
 of the best quality. 
 
 Every groom should be expert at giving a 
 ball. There is an art in doing this properly, 
 which a looker-on cannot easily discover ; and, 
 as it is a material thing to give it well, we 
 shall here point out such particulars as may 
 assist the young practitioner. 
 
 In giving a ball, great celerity must be used; 
 for if it is not done quickly, it becomes dis- 
 aerreeable to the horse, and difficult to the 
 operator. A balling-iron is frequently used 
 by those who are not expert at it, aud it may 
 be best for those who are not in the habit of 
 giving balls ; but those who are accustomed to 
 give them, will do it as well, and sooner, 
 without this instrument. 
 
 Before attempting to give the ball, you should 
 be certain you are tall enough to reach, should 
 the horse raise his head. Let the person who 
 stands on the near side, and holds the mouth 
 of the animal open, put the ball partly into your 
 waistcoat pocket, so much remaining out, that 
 you can easily take hold of it when you have 
 "drawn out the tongue of the horse. Stand 
 before him, and take the farthest hold of the 
 tongue with the left hand, drawing as much 
 out of the mouth as it will admit, and in such 
 a manner as will enable you to press it against 
 his grinders, which will effectually prevent 
 him from shutting his mouth. Having accom- 
 plished this, fold the right hand in as small a 
 compass as possible, holding the ball at tbe 
 extreme end with the three first fingers : then 
 put it over the root of the tongue, thrusting it 
 as far in as you can. This done, withdraw the 
 hand, let go the tongue, and bridle the nose 
 in a little, to prevent the horse from coughing 
 it up. You must now wait patiently until 
 vou see it pass down, and be very attentive, 
 for you cannot be too certain of having seeu 
 it swallowed. If he hesitates to let it pass 
 down, elevate his head a little, and again 
 bridle in the nose, and that will occasion him 
 to swallow it. Some horses will, if you are 
 
 117 
 
CONDITIONING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [conditioning. 
 
 not mindful, bold the ball at tbe top of tbe 
 throat, till you loosen the bead, and then 
 cough it up again ; or suffer it to be lodged at 
 the extremity of the grinders, when you will 
 perceive them chewing it, and at last ejecting 
 it from their mouths: if the whole of this 
 operation be not done expertly, the horse will 
 make the more resistance. We have seen 
 awkward persons torment the horses, ami 
 spoil several balls, before they could get one 
 fairly down. 
 
 As much water as he will drink may now be 
 given. AVarm water will occasion the physic 
 to operate the sooner, if be will drink it ; but, 
 as before stated, offer gruel if he refuses the 
 tepid water. After a few hours, give water 
 that has been standing in the stable some 
 hours ; the raw chill will then be taken off, and 
 will not hurt him. If the physic be prepared 
 without calomel, or other mercurials, which is 
 not proper medicine for conditioning horses, 
 on such occasions cold water should never be 
 administered. If all goes on well, and to 
 your wish, you must not strip his cloth oft', 
 nor dress him till liis physic has done working, 
 which generally will be about the third day. 
 "While his physic is operating, he must not be 
 taken out, though, if it can conveniently be 
 done, he may be put in a loose box, which will 
 afford him exercise quite sufficient until his 
 physic is set. Great care should be exercised 
 in keeping his bocks, legs, and thighs clean. 
 
 When the physic has so operated as to 
 keep the body open for about twenty-four 
 hours, giving him copious and loose stools, you 
 may forbear using means of promoting further 
 operation. Let him stand until his dung is 
 set, and then give him his corn; strip and 
 dress him well. The next day take him out, 
 and give him gentle exercise. 
 
 About the sixth or seventh day from tbe 
 time he took his first dose, the second may be 
 administered, ordering the horse as directed 
 before, and again letting the same time elapse 
 between. The third dose may then be given ; 
 and this, in general, is sufficient to thoroughly 
 cleanse him from that faint or foul condition 
 which green food naturally occasions. Proper 
 diet and exercise will then get him into wind 
 and condition for hunting : but before we pro- 
 ceed with that part, we shall make some fur- 
 ther remarks on physic. 
 118 
 
 We have noticed the manner of ordering a 
 liorse in physic, under the circumstances of 
 the medicine properly operating and achieving 
 its end satisfactorily ; but, from various causes, 
 it may so happen that physic does not take a 
 proper course, or effect the expected object. 
 If physic does not operate in the space of thirty- 
 six hours, there must be some reason for it. 
 It may proceed from its quality, or it may 
 arise from the ball not being completely ad- 
 ministered ; for when a ball is not adeptly 
 given, and the horse gets part of it in his 
 teeth, he may only swallow a part, and the 
 residue may be dropped in his litter, and 
 never after be discovered. It may likewise 
 proceed from the habit or constitution of the 
 horse not being easily moved, so that he may 
 require a stronger dose ; and some animals 
 will keep physic longer in them than others, 
 before it operates. 
 
 Whatever the reason may be, we should not 
 be in haste to administer another dose until 
 we had used the ordinary expedients, and 
 waited to observe the effects. 
 
 When physic does not operate in the space of 
 thirty-six hours, keep the horse warm, for that 
 will assist the operation, and administer about 
 a quart of gruel, into which about a pint of 
 mild ale may be put ; warm and horn it down ; 
 then in a quarter of an hour afterwards, let 
 him be moved about at a brisk walk, or gentle 
 trot, but not sufficiently to heat him, or in any- 
 wise make him sweat. At night, give him a 
 moderately warm mash, into which put about 
 a handful of ground malt ; and if it does not 
 operate by the next morning, we should then 
 be inclined to doubt whether he had really 
 taken the physic, unless he has appeared sick, 
 which will be known by his being heavy and 
 dull, and refusing his hay. On the other 
 hand, if he has only a soft evacuation, it may 
 be in consequence of the warm gruel or mash 
 which has been given him. But if he throws 
 out a copious thin stool, having been sick 
 with it, it may be concluded that he has had 
 all his physic, or, at least, the greater part of 
 it ; yet, if his body is not kept open four-and- 
 twenty hours, having several copious evacua- 
 tions, we may consider his physic not to be 
 sufficiently strong, and should increase the 
 next dose accordingly; for, in general, the 
 first dose of physic operates the most. We 
 
CONDITIONING.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [conditioninq. 
 
 therefore increase the second a little if we 
 think it necessary, and particularly if we do 
 not exactly know the constitution of the horse, 
 it being safer to under-do than to over-do it ; 
 and by the second dose we can pretty well 
 judge what his constitution will bear, and, of 
 course, proportion the dose accordingly. 
 
 On the other hand, it occasionally happens 
 that physic operates too powerfully, owing to 
 various causes, and sometimes to the constitu- 
 tion or habit of the horse's body. It may be that, 
 at the time of administering physic, he is weaker 
 than at other times ; and sometimes it may be 
 that the drugs are of a deleterious nature. In 
 these cases, you will observe the horse only 
 partialis pvirge, accompanied by a kind of 
 involuntary discharge, running down his hind 
 quarters underneath, and all down his hocks 
 and legs in a continuous wet and slimy kind of 
 stream. On these occasions, the horse must be 
 kept still, and great care taken that he does 
 not take cold, whilst he should be wiped as 
 dry and clean as possible. The evacuations 
 being of a very sharp and acrimonious nature, 
 if you find they do not abate in due course 
 of time, proper remedies must be given, or 
 the bowels may become so mucli irritated, 
 that superpurgation may be the consequence. 
 The best thing to give then is rice gruel, 
 which is made in the following manner. Take 
 a large teacup-full of rice, put it into a good- 
 sized saucepan, and boil until the rice is 
 perfectly soft, with two quarts of water. If 
 the whole of the water is absorbed by the 
 rice, put in two quarts more, and when this 
 boils, take it off the fire, and strain it through 
 a piece of tamis, squeezing the rice as much 
 as you can. AVhen this is done, break up 
 the rice as fine as possible, and put it back 
 into the gruel. "When at a proper heat, give 
 the hcrse about half, and, in about an hour^ 
 the remainder. Bran mashes must not now 
 be given, but dry and strengthening food, if he 
 will eat. If the first quantity of rice gruel does 
 not have the desired effect, repeat it. This 
 gruel may be improved by dissolving an ounce 
 of gum-arabic to give with it, which will tend 
 to remove the irritability, and, at the same 
 time, strengthen the stomach, if impaired by 
 the excessive operation of the purging medi- 
 cine. When the purging has been thus ex- 
 cessive, we should let a clear week elapse 
 
 from the time the dung was set, before we 
 give another dose, to let the Btomacli and 
 intestines recover their lost tone, occasionally 
 administering the dissolved gum-arabic in his 
 water, which will greatly assist that purpose. 
 A'"ou must, consequently, bo mindful that the 
 next dose be less in quantity. 
 
 Horses having gone through their physic, 
 you proceed, by proper exercise and diet, to 
 get them into wind and condition for hunting. 
 The physicking has taken between three aud 
 four weeks to get them cleansed from their 
 soft foggy food, and now, about the same 
 space of time is to be allowed to get the flesh 
 firm, the coat clean, the limbs strengthened 
 by exercise, and the wind improved by suitable 
 management of diet. As so much pains has 
 been taken to cleanse the body of soft and 
 foggy food, we must now be careful that 
 nothing but clean wholesome food should be 
 given to the horse. For this purpose, a rack- 
 rein and muzzle must be provided, and they 
 must be alternately used. When the one is 
 taken off", the other should be put on : for 
 instance, put on the muzzle when it is ex- 
 pected that the horse will lie down at night. 
 This is to prevent him from eating his litter, 
 which some horses will do even when it is very 
 foul. When fresh litter is given, many will 
 prefer it to their hay : and although clean 
 straw is not injurious to horses that are not 
 required to gallop much, yet hunters aud 
 racers are not permitted to eat it, because it 
 oppresses the wind. The rack-rein is an iron 
 chain, fixed at the head of the stall, which 
 passes through a ring sewed in front of the 
 nose-band of the stall collar. It is fastened in 
 the same manner as a dog's chain to the ring 
 in the collar ; and, when dressing the horse, it 
 can, after passing it through the collar, be 
 made to fasten him as short as may be thought 
 proper ; but, at other times, the chain must be 
 lon*^ enough to permit the horse to feed out 
 of his rack, or out of his manger, though not 
 to let his head reach down to his litter. 
 
 The first thing to be done in the morning, 
 on coming to stable, is to take off" the muzzle 
 and put on the rack-rein ; then throw into the 
 manger about a quart, or a little better, of 
 oats, according to the constitution of the horse, 
 for some are poor feeders, and must be treated 
 in such manner as will best invite, or occasion 
 
 119 
 
CONDITIONING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [conditioning. 
 
 tliem to eat ; while others, ou the other hand, 
 will eat all that is set before them, and must 
 be stinted to a proper allowance. The oats, 
 for these occasions, should be the best that can 
 be procured — dry old oats, short and plump, 
 clean from all kind of seeds, which are fre- 
 quently to be found, particularly amongst fo- 
 reign oats ; perfectly sweet, free from dust, 
 and white and clear. The oats should be well 
 sifted, and the husks, chaff, or any light oats 
 blown away, and the manger should be per- 
 fectly clean. When the horse has eaten his 
 oats, clear his dung from behind, him, but bu 
 careful not to disturb bis wet litter, so as to 
 occasion the vapour or stench to arise. Tou 
 may strip oiF his cloths, rub the dung, if any, 
 off his hind quarters, hocks, &c., and giving 
 him a light brush over, put on his exercising 
 cloth and saddle ; then turn him round, brush 
 his head and ears, put on his bridle, and take 
 him out for exercise. The stripping and brush- 
 ing are as refreshing to the horse as washing 
 is to ones- self after getting out of bed in the 
 morning. While the horses are out at exer- 
 cise, a person should be left at home to clear 
 away all the wet dung, immediately setting 
 doors and windows open, in order to have the 
 stable sweet against their return, and all the 
 stalls set fair, and the stable cleanly swept. 
 
 Eor exercise, choice should be made of the 
 driest and most open piece of turf, sod, or 
 heath that is in the neighbourhood, and, like- 
 wise where there is some gradual ascents, if of 
 half a mile or a mile in length all the better, 
 to give the horses some genth breathings, in 
 order to bring them into wind. They should be 
 walked the first half hour, letting them empty 
 themselves, yawn, stretch their necks, and enjoy 
 the sweet refreshing morning air, which is invi- 
 gorating, bracing, and strengthening both to man 
 and beast. The walks should be so managed as to 
 bring the horses about this time to a convenient 
 place tc give them a gentle gallop ; beginning 
 slow, and gradually increasing the pace till you 
 finish at a half or three-quarters speed. The 
 length of the gallop should be proportioned to 
 the strength or condition of the horse. If he 
 is faint, so as to sweat soon, stop in time, and 
 walk him, that he may recover his breath, and 
 cool himself. He must not be put into a tho- 
 rough sweat, except on those days appointed 
 for that purpose, which should be about twice 
 120 
 
 a week till he commences hunting, and then 
 he will not require any sweating in exercise. 
 In this manner, alternately walk and gallop, so 
 as not to sweat him till you find it time to re- 
 turn, which you should so manage as to keep 
 him out about two hours. After the conclu- 
 sion of the last gallop, the horse having reco- 
 vered his breath, and cool, it should be con- 
 trived to have water at hand to let him drink, 
 and then allow him an hour's walk home. 
 If the water should chill him, and make liis 
 coat stare, a gentle gallop to warm him will be 
 proper, hut he must not he sweated. 
 
 Horses generally prefer to stale on litter, as 
 they are not then splashed by it ; and if the 
 wet litter is spread in a convenient place, with- 
 out the stable — some yards are thus purposely 
 strewed — the horses, standing a minute or two 
 before they are put in the stable, or during the 
 time the groom dismounts, will stale, by which 
 means the stable will be kept clean and healthy. 
 When put into the stable, a bit of hay, well 
 shaken from dust and seeds, should be given. 
 The quality of hay for hunters should be the 
 choicest that can be procured, grown on a rich 
 meadow, and cut before it gets too ripe. 
 Hay, when it stands too long before it is cut, 
 may answer the farmer's purpose by seeding 
 his ground, and wanting less making ; but to 
 be good for a horse, and especially a hunter, it 
 should be cut when young, before it seeds, and 
 with the sap in it. If it is then well made, 
 and got in, in the dry, it will, fourteen months 
 after, cut out as green as a leek, and the flowers 
 will retain their beauty nearly as well as when 
 growing. Hay will never be better than when 
 twelve or fourteen months old : but such as we 
 have described is not always to be procured ; 
 yet good meadow hay, that has not been 
 heated too much in the stack, may be purchased 
 very frequently. Indeed, we have heard 
 some experienced followers of the chase say, 
 that they preferred it a little brown ; but, if it 
 is twelve months old, having a fragrant sweet 
 smell, it cannot be too green. New hay must 
 not, on any account, be given. We give this 
 caution because of the faintness which is in 
 new hay, and which will be as detrimental as 
 giving him grass ; that is to say, if it is meant 
 to preserve the horse in good hunting con- 
 dition. 
 
 Having put the horse to the rack-rein with 
 

 
 iM TMis ]p^aD)]D(n)Cie: 
 
 i2^ TMK ^fJP.=S^JB-]LM 
 
coxDiTioNiNO.] :MODEli]S' VETEEINAEY PliACTICE. [conuitionino. 
 
 a bit of Imy before Inm, wliisp his legs, for tlieso 
 ought always to be the first and last things 
 attended to, and particularly after physic; 
 then strip his clothing half off ; that is, to about 
 the middle of the back, and give the fore-quar- 
 ters a good thorough dressing. This being 
 done, get dry clothing, and place on the parts 
 cleaned, slip off the exercising cloths, and dress 
 well his hind-quarters. This being done, re- 
 move the clothing from his fore-quarters, and 
 brush him well over, agreeably to the manner 
 we have before directed. After this, give his 
 feed of oats, being double the quantity, or 
 nearly so, to what was given before going out ; 
 then having whisped his legs as the last thing, 
 shake up his litter, and set the stable fair ; if he 
 has cleaned the rack of the hay — for it is best 
 to give but little at a time, that he may eat it 
 with better appetite — you may give a bit 
 more, if you think it necessary, but never give 
 more than he ivill clear ivith a good appetite. 
 
 Having been up at the stable and out at 
 exercise since five o'clock at this season of the 
 year, it will now be high time to breakfast. 
 Leave, therefore, the hunters on the rack- 
 rein, while you are discussing your morning 
 repast, and they will finish their hay. 
 
 On returning to the stable, observe that all 
 have cleared their racks. If they have had 
 sufficient time, and the racks not clear, take 
 the hay away, loosen the rack-reins, put on the 
 muzzles, and leave them for three hours quiet, 
 that they may lie down if they are so disposed. 
 It is a desirable thing for horses to rest their 
 legs at all convenient opportunities. 
 
 This will bring you to what is termed middle 
 day, or it may be one o'clock; for, as the days 
 at this season are beginning to get shorter, you 
 must be at the stable as punctual as the clock, 
 so that you may contrive to be at home from 
 exercise before dark. Tou should proceed 
 now, in like manner, as in the morning, putting 
 on the rack-rein, giving them a mouthful of 
 hay, and a feed of oats in moderation ; for they 
 are not to be tilled or incumbered with food, 
 particularly hay, when they are going to be 
 taken out. "While the horses are feeding, clear 
 the dung from behind them, as in the morning ; 
 then strip and brush them over previous to 
 putting on their exercising cloths and saddles, 
 and take them out, as in the morning. If you 
 are situated in a country that nft'ords a variety { 
 
 of suitabh; places for exercise, vary these as 
 often as convenient. This will bo the inoro 
 agreeable to both horse and man. Keep oft" 
 the gravel roads, choosing to go on the turf as 
 much as possible. Having been out about two 
 hours, in which time you have given the iiorses 
 two gentle breathings, let them have water, 
 and return. 
 
 The stable, as before, in your absence, should 
 be cleared of all wet litter, and aired and re- 
 freshed against your return. After giving the 
 horses the opportunity to stale, bring them into 
 the stable, and repeat the rubbing of their loo's, 
 thoroughly dressing them, having, at the same 
 time, given them a mouthful of hay to amuse 
 them. After dressing, give them a feed of oats, 
 and a bit more hay, if they have cleared the 
 rack of what they had at coining in. This will 
 bring you to about five o'clock in the afternoon, 
 at which time you may leave them on the 
 rack-rein to eat their hay ; and between seven 
 and eight return to finish up for the night. If 
 a sufficienc}'' was given them at leaving stable 
 at five o'clock, they will need no more, the 
 horses having had three hours to take their 
 hay. If a horse is a slow feeder, he ought to have 
 cleared his rack by this time; and such horses as 
 have not done this, should have it taken from 
 them ; for the horse that is glutted with hay 
 will not have any appetite for it ; and as it is 
 always standing by him, you should be mindful 
 not to give too much, so as to occasion him 
 to leave any. Tou have now to feed with oats 
 for the last feed ; see that all their cloths are 
 put on right, not atwist, but smooth, and with- 
 out a wrinkle about them, and that every horse 
 finishes his corn, not leaving any; then loosen 
 the rack-rein, put on the muzzle, and make up 
 a good bed. Having plenty of dry litter, and 
 a large stall to lay his legs out at full length, 
 leave him for the night. 
 
 This is the daily duty of the hunting stable, 
 without any material difference, except on the 
 days appropriated for sweating, whic!: must be, 
 at least, two in the week, till the imnting com- 
 mences. When this takes place, and if the 
 horse be hunted twice in the week, there will 
 be no occasion for sweating exercise. 
 
 We would not recommend hunters to be 
 kept over-warm with cloths. They are Ire- 
 quently exposed to cold and wet ; and the more 
 tender thev are kept, the more likely they are 
 
 121 
 
CONDITIONING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [conditioning. 
 
 to take cold ; therefore, hoods and fillet-cloths 
 nriv be dispensed with ; but we think it highly 
 necessaiy that each horse should have two 
 cloths — one for exercise, which will occasionally 
 be brought home wet and dirty ; the other for 
 putting on in the stable. The cloths should be 
 occasionally scoured ; and the exercising cloth, 
 as often as it gets damp by rain, sweat, or dirt, 
 carefully dried. 
 
 On the days for giving the horses sweating 
 exercise, which may be on Tuesdays and Satur- 
 days, or any other days equally distant, contrive 
 that the sweats may be given as contiguous to 
 liome as possible, particularly if the air is thin 
 and piercing. The object of this is to enable 
 vou to get home in good time for the purpose 
 of scraping and rubbing them dry. When a 
 horse is in a thorough sweat, and a chilling air 
 penetrating under a wet cloth, he is almost 
 sure to take cold, cough, &c. ; therefore, the 
 stable or rubbing-house should be conveniently 
 at hand to prevent such a circumstance from 
 occurring. 
 
 After having walked the animal for about an 
 hour, bring him to the place where it is in- 
 tended to gallop him, and begin very mode- 
 rately, gradually increasing his speed till it 
 attains to half or three-quarters, if he is 
 hard to sweat. Continue him at that rate 
 until he is in a proper perspiration, which will 
 be sooner or later, according to his state. If 
 he is fleshy and foggy, he will perspire soon, and 
 his wind will be distressed. In this case, he 
 must be galloped the slower, not to distress 
 his wind, but to make him sweat, which will 
 reduce his fat, and bring him into wind as that 
 diminishes. If tlie horse is in good wind, and 
 hard to sweat, his condition is improving, and 
 stronger gallops may be given him without 
 injury. The object and intention of these 
 sweats are, to those that are in wind, to keep 
 them so ; and to those that are not in wind, 
 by strong exercise, to get them into that desir- 
 able condition, by reducing all grossness arising 
 from too much fat. The exercise, likewise, 
 cleanses the coat, and makes it sleek and soft ; 
 for the imperceptible perspiration continually 
 going on, adheres so closely to the roots of the 
 hair or coat, that it is not easily got out ; but 
 these profuse sweatings bring it away, when, 
 if the coat is-well dressed after a good sweat- 
 ing, it becomes much finer. 
 122 
 
 The condition of the "havae is to be dis- 
 covered and judged of by his sweating. If he 
 perspires soon, and puts on the appearance of 
 soap lather, he is then what is called foggy, 
 and must have strong exercise to carry it ofl'. 
 If he requires strong exercise to bring him to 
 a sweat, and the sweat is clear like water, and 
 dries soon, he is then in good condition, and 
 fit for immediate work ; but if he perspires 
 profusely with little exertion, and it is thin, 
 though like water, and he is a long time 
 drying, it shows a weak, faint habit of body. 
 Indeed, we may call it a bad constitution, that 
 will not bear much work, especially as a 
 hunter. Some horses sweat more profusely 
 than others. This, however, is not always to 
 be regarded as weakness, if it proceeds from 
 strong exercise, and soon dries. Constitutions 
 differ in horses as much as in men. 
 
 The horse having had his sweating gallop, 
 should be brought into the stable, and well 
 scraped and rubbed dry, with all possible dis- 
 patch. A clean dry cloth — not the one he has 
 been sweated in — should be put upon him, 
 and should be made clean against its being 
 required again. If he had no water while out, 
 give him some after he is perfectly cool and 
 comfortable; and if the weather is cold, 
 the chill should be taken off, but it need not 
 be made warm. Water that has stood several 
 hours in a warm stable, is sufficiently chilled, 
 and may be given ; or, after rubbing him, 
 he may be walked about, and v.-ater given, and 
 a gentle gallop taken, to warm him, but not to 
 heat him. Then he should be brought home. 
 
 A horse treated in this manner will, in three 
 or four. weeks, after having been through his 
 physic, be fit for hunting, if proper regard is 
 paid to his feeding. His food should be of 
 the best and cleanest quality, and the quantity 
 should be regulated according to circumstances; 
 such as size, constitution, &c., &c. Having 
 ai-rived at this stage, the daily exercise of the 
 horse will now be, on the average, not less than 
 twenty miles a day. With this exercise, the 
 quantity he eats will not hurt him, if he does 
 not get too fat; for the hunter must have 
 plenty of good feed, but must not be bur- 
 thened with flesh. If he feeds heartily, he 
 must have strong exercise to keep his flesh 
 down. If inclined to run to belly and be fat, 
 he must be stinted proportionably, or occa- 
 
CONDITIONING.] MODET^N YETERINAEY PEACTTCE. [oonditionino. 
 
 sionally given alterative medicine ; but when 
 he comes to hunt throe times a week, there will 
 be no necessity to stint him, and ho will never 
 be burthened with flesh with such exercise. 
 
 The horse being got into condition, and the 
 hunting season commenced, the sweating pro- 
 cess ceases, and instead of giving exercise, to 
 keep his flesh down, and preserve his wind, 
 the exercise is now for tlie purpose of walking 
 ofl" stiftuess, occasioned by over-exertion ; 
 bracing the system which may have been 
 relaxed by excessive work, and creating an ap- 
 petite. Hard running and long distances, con- 
 tinued for many hours, will afiect a horse more 
 or less, particularly at the beginning of the 
 season, before he is accustomed to it, so that 
 his appetite will fail as well as his limbs become 
 stiff". Attention must, therefore, be turned 
 towards recovering him from that debility 
 which is caused by over-fatigue. 
 
 Toung horses, and such as are not seasoned 
 for hunting, though in condition, are mostly 
 affected by severe days. These, therefore, 
 must not be expected to hunt more than one 
 day in the week ; for it will take nearly the 
 rest of the week for them to recover from 
 a hard run, either with fox or stag. Seasoned 
 hunters, however, will stand their work twice, 
 and, in many cases, three times a week ; though, 
 for a continuance, this is too much for any 
 horse, unless it is with harriers only, where 
 there is seldom much hard running. 
 
 To order the horses well when they hunt, feed 
 and dress them much after the same manner as 
 before directed ; only, when going out in the 
 morning, rather shorten their allowance of hay 
 in the evening, and increase their corn, but do 
 not gorge them. They should always have a 
 good bed to invite them to lie down, and stretch 
 their legs ; but the muzzles must be kept on ; 
 for, though many do not constantly use these, 
 yet, if they be used at all, this is the most proper 
 time to do it. In the morning the horse should 
 be put on the rack-rein, but hay should not be 
 given him. This we would recommend for 
 constant practice ; and if it is made a rule not 
 to give him hay until he comes home from 
 exercise, he will not pine, or look or long for 
 it. If the distance is considerable where the 
 hounds are to meet, or if the covert be twelve 
 or more miles distance, the horse may have a 
 moderate feed of oats. Let him be thoroughly 
 
 cleaned, his legs well rubbed, and his saddle put 
 on, moderately girthed, at least au hour boforo 
 going out. This will cause liiin to empty iiim- 
 self ; for most horses, when the saddle is put 
 on, relieve themselves by dunging if they can. 
 A quarter of an hour before wanted, put on 
 his bridle, and have him ready, buckling hiiu 
 to the stall-reins. Let him stand till wanted, 
 with a cloth thrown over the saddle. 
 
 When a horse returns from hunting, it neces- 
 sarily follows that all expedition should be used 
 to get him clean, and made to feel comfortable. 
 If there has been very hard running, and ha 
 comes home leg-weary and tired, cleaning will 
 be more refreshing than feeding, and therefore 
 must be first attended to. He may have a sweet 
 bit of choice hay put into his rack to amuse 
 him, if he will eat while he is dressing ; bur 
 when it has been a long day, and hard riding, 
 many animals will be off" their feed, particu- 
 larly young and unseasoned horses. Tiiis, as 
 a matter of course, is to be expected, though it 
 is most desired that they should feed, which is 
 a sign of a constitution for extraordinary 
 labour. On the hounds being drawn ofi^, and the 
 day's hunt finished, the horse should be tho- 
 roughly cleaned. His head and ears should be 
 particularly well rubbed, and his body made 
 perfectly dry in every part. He should be 
 minutely examined to see that he has received 
 no injuries from stakes, stumps, boughs, bram- 
 bles, thorns, rails, flints, &c. ; likewise, that be 
 has not been galled with the saddle, girths, or 
 breast-plate, if he has worn one. "When he 
 has been refreshed with a thorough good clean- 
 ing, he will be more inclined to feed than 
 before ; but if he will not, his appetite will come 
 as his weariness wears off. 
 
 On returning home from hunting, it is usual 
 to let the horse drink — for he is sure to bo 
 thirsty — at some convenient pond. But ho 
 should not be suffered to drink too mucii at a 
 time. About ten go-downs will be sufiicient, 
 till he is ridden to another convenient place, 
 where he may be allowed to have the like 
 quantity, and thus by degrees he will quench 
 his thirst before he gets home, which will be 
 better than letting him drink a vast quantity 
 of cold water at once. Should an opportunity 
 not have been had of giving him water on the 
 way home, he must, on his return, have it with 
 the chill off; and what is even better than this, 
 
 123 
 
CONDITIOIXG.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CONDITIONINO. 
 
 a bucket of chilled water, but not warm, into ' 
 which about a handful of oatmeal should be : 
 thrown. When his thirst has been partly 
 quenched he will probably eat. I 
 
 The legs, from excessive labour will, ofj 
 course, be weary, and often inclined to heat 
 and inflammation, particularly if the horse has 
 been ridden among brambles, thorns, or furze. 
 The greatest attention must, therefore, be paid 
 to them. Hot tcater should always be ready 
 against his being brought in from hunting, for 
 the purpose of washing his legs ; for nothing is 
 more grateful and refreshing to these members, 
 when they burn with heat and weariness, than 
 soaking them well in hot water. It opens the 
 pores of the skin, and draws out the lieat. Let 
 the water be hot, and bathe the legs well with 
 it, having two pieces of woollen cloth, one to 
 remain in the water, whilst the other is being 
 used, so that by alternately changing them the 
 leg will be kept constantly warm. Apply these 
 well round the fetlock, joints, and pasterns. Do 
 this for at least three-quarters of an hour ; after 
 which wipe them as dry as possible with a 
 sponge ; then carefully feel with your hands for 
 any brambles or thorns that may be lodged in 
 the skin ; for the hand may now discover what 
 the eye cannot perceive. Whatever may be 
 found of this kind, must be picked out with 
 care, so as not to enlarge the apertures they 
 themselves have made, nor break or leave any 
 part of them in. Much care, therefore, is ne- 
 cessary in extracting these foreiga bodies ; for 
 they frequently produce a blemish, from the 
 scab or scratch they occasion, by which the 
 value of the horse is greatly deteriorated. 
 
 In some instances we have known thorns to 
 penetrate so deep as to break within the skin ; 
 and, if such are not discovered, which it is 
 sometimes difficult to do, an abscess will form. 
 If this should be the case, immediately on 
 discovering it, take linseed meal, four ounces, 
 common turpentine, one ounce : mix well 
 together with scalding water, and apply warm 
 to the part affected, in the shape of poultice. 
 This, in all probability, will draw out the 
 offending particle ; after which it must be 
 dressed, as a common wound, with tincture of 
 myrrh and aloes, three or four times a day. 
 
 A case of the above kind occurred with a 
 valuable horse, when the village farrier was 
 Bent for. This professor opened the tumour 
 124 
 
 on the top or upper part, the consequence of 
 which was that there was little or no discharge. 
 He then introduced a piece of tow saturated 
 with butter of antimony ; the consequence of 
 which was a wound of an amazing extent. The 
 veterinary surgeon was then sent for, when a few 
 days' poulticing, accompanied with cooling medi- 
 cine, produced a healing process ; but the horse 
 had always a blemish. Being a well-known 
 good hunter, however, this did not take so 
 much off his value as might have been expected. 
 Had the stupid fellow punctured below, instead 
 of above the abscess, it would have relieved 
 itself, and prevented the blemish, and, of 
 course, the disagreeable eye-sore. 
 
 We mention this, in order to show the 
 necessity of carefully examining for thorns. 
 Should a similar circumstance happen, take 
 a middling-sized abscess lancet, and open the 
 abscess at the bottom. By this means the 
 accumulated pus will discharge itself. Then 
 treat as above. Apply a bandage round the 
 part, which will keep the lips of the wound toge- 
 ther, and accelerate the healing of it. 
 
 Having carefully searched, and extracted 
 brambles or thorns, whisp and wipe the legs 
 pei'fectly dry. After this, and after the 
 animal has had his water, if he will not feed, 
 it is most likely for the best. Extraordinary 
 exertion, perhaps, more than he has been sea- 
 soned to, may have caused an inward or sym- 
 pathetic fever ; and, until he has had rest, free 
 circulation of air, and a little cooling medicine, 
 the appetite will not return. In such a case 
 give — Barbadoes aloes, one drachm ; ginger, two 
 drachms, formed into a ball, with half an ounce 
 of common soap. Give this to the horse if his 
 appetite has not returned by the morning after 
 the chase. Some persons mahe themselves 
 very uneasy on such occasions ; and many are 
 for giving a warm mash, which, of all things, 
 the horse will not eat. Others are for giving a 
 cordial ball, or something comfortable in the 
 shape of a warm drink, all of which is of no 
 use whatever. We recommend patience until 
 the morrow ; and if it should be deemed neces- 
 sary, repeat the medicine. If nothing of a 
 dangerous tendency exhibits itself, such as in- 
 flammation of the lungs, &c., make him up a 
 good bed, and leave him to rest. 
 
 In the morning, the horse will, in all proba- 
 bility, feed a little ; you must then proceed as 
 
CONDITIONING.] MODERN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [conditionino. 
 
 before directed, and take liim out to exercise ; 
 after which, take linseed meal, two ounces, 
 glauber salt, two ounces, warm water, three 
 pints ; give this drink the moment he comes 
 in from exercise, and in the course of two days 
 the horse will be lit for work again. Keep 
 giving hira sufficient exercise to take off that 
 stiftuess which naturally occurs Irom extra- 
 ordinary exertion ; and the fresh air will greatly 
 contribute to recover his lost appetite. 
 
 Though we term this walking exercise, we 
 do not mean that you are not to exceed a 
 walk the whole time you are out. What we 
 mean is to give the animal such exercise as 
 will put the blood in free circulation without 
 overheating it. A gentle gallop, therefore, 
 may be given him for a short distance, but not 
 such as will cause him to break out in a sweat, 
 particularly after giving water : gallop by way 
 of warming it. Choose the airiest place for 
 exercise, such as open downs, or high and dry 
 grounds ; and when you return to stable, the 
 horse, if he has not been very sick indeed, will 
 have found his appetite. 
 
 Horses that become weary, and sicken at a 
 day's hunt — which may be the case with even 
 good animals, at the commencement of the 
 season, or young horses, till they get properly 
 seasoned to their work — will require some days 
 to recover before they are fit to hunt again. 
 A week's respite may be necessary with some ; 
 others will recover in half the time. The 
 sooner the horse comes to his appetite, the 
 sooner he will be fit for labour, provided he 
 has not been nursed with warm mashes and 
 comfortable drinlcs, as tliey are termed, which 
 have a tendency to relax and open the body, 
 and should only be given when he is in reality 
 ill; but loss of appetite from over-fatigue only 
 requires rest to be restored ; therefore, avoid 
 all the nostrums of the stable; which we are 
 sorry, in too many instances, abound. 
 
 With regard to heat, or inflammation from 
 the saddle or girths, washing the parts with 
 goulard, is, perhaps, the best thing that can 
 be done ; and to the legs, if hot and swollen 
 with fatigue, is the best repellant and cooler, 
 and should be always kept ready at hand for 
 such occasions. To prepare it, get a quart 
 bottle, and take — extract of lead, 4 dracinus ; 
 water sufficient to fill the bottle. The stable 
 Ehould never be without this lotion. It is 
 
 cheap, efficacious, and ought always to bo at 
 hand. Washing the logs— whicli may have re- 
 ceived scratches, &c., in hunting— with it, will 
 heal them quicker than any otlier application. 
 
 Tiio feet are likewise to bo attended to at 
 all times. On the horse's return home, all 
 road-dirt, or gravel, should be carefully picked 
 out ; and particular care should be taken that 
 no gravel is lodged under the shoe at the heels 
 and quarters, as by such lodgment, corn may 
 be produced, with all its natural consequences 
 of tenderness and lameness. AVhen the legs 
 are washed with warm water to cool and 
 refresh them, it will, at the same time, be well 
 to relieve with it the feet, whicli must have un- 
 dergone a considerable quantity of labour. 
 AVater is very beneficial to the feet, which are 
 less injured by travelling on wet roads than on 
 dry ones ; and the hoof at grass, being con- 
 tinually wet with the dew and moist ground, 
 is in a better state than when kept in the 
 stable. The casual wet met with in exercise 
 on the roads, or the moisture of the turf or 
 grass, where exercise is given, will contribute 
 to preserve the feet from the injurj"- which 
 continually standing in a hot and dry stable 
 occasions. It is, perhaps, not too much to 
 say, that one -half of the pleasure-horses kept 
 in London, incur lameness, and are ruined by 
 standing so much in the stable. 
 
 Training the hunter is a simple process, all 
 that is required being to bring him into good 
 wind, without, at the same time, reducing him 
 too low in fi-esh, or injuring his sinews ; since, 
 on a long chase, more especially over a heavy 
 country, a horse needs the aid of his fuL 
 bodily strength, and of his unimpaired tendi- 
 nous and muscular powers. It is extremely 
 dangerous to ride over the country, a horse 
 which is weak in his joints, or has the commou 
 hurt in his back sinews; but the danger is 
 tenfold in taking a flying leap upon such an 
 animal where the opposite descent is con- 
 siderable, and the stress upon his lower limbs 
 in his landing, with a heavy weight upon his 
 back, must be excessive. Training must com- 
 mence with two or three doses of physic should 
 the horse be gross, and not have been pre- 
 viously trained. A young horse, in his first 
 training, will require most work; but it is 
 better rather to under-do than exceed in this, 
 because if a horse come into the field rather 
 
 125 
 
CONDITIONING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [teimmins. 
 
 imder-worked, being full of good meat and 
 heart, the easy remedy is to favour and ride 
 him carefully the first week or two; but 
 should the training groom set you upon him 
 liarassed and weakened by too much exercise, 
 he will get worse as the season advances, and, 
 perhaps, be totally ruined by the end ; ex- 
 clusive of the risk of failing in a long and 
 important day. Old hunters from spring 
 grass, which they ever ought to enjoy, can 
 scarcely be trained too lightly. The true test 
 is, to see that their wind in its course is free 
 nnd unembarrassed. To this point, however, 
 their exercise must at any rate extend. The 
 lighter the horse's clothing the better, in 
 view of the heats and colds he must necessarily 
 undergo in the chase. An early morning's 
 gallop, at a good steady stride, but not speedy, 
 of a mile or two, with a canter after water in 
 the afternoon, is sufficient for the hunter, and 
 two months ought to bring him into good 
 condition. A young horse may have, once a 
 week, a tolerably sharp rally for one or two 
 miles, a method which should never be prac- 
 tised with a seasoned hunter ; to which, indeed, 
 walkino- exercise may be often substituted for 
 the gallop. 
 
 Some think that even the simple process 
 now described is not necessary, and that 
 horses that are taken up and worked in the 
 day, and with a feed or two of corn, and 
 turned out at night, with an open stable or 
 shed to run into if they please, are as active, 
 healthy, and enduring, as those which are 
 most carefully trained, and confined to the 
 stable during the hunting season. Many a 
 farmer has boasted that he could beat the 
 most numerous and the best appointed field, 
 and that his horse never wanted wind, and 
 rarely tired. 
 
 It is true that the farmer may enjoy a good 
 day's sport on the animal that carries him to 
 market, or possibly, occasionally performs more 
 menial drudgery; but the frothy lather with 
 which such a horse is covered, in the early 
 part of the day, unmistakeably evinces his 
 inferiority. There is, however, one point in 
 which the untrained horse has the advantage. 
 Accustomed to all weathers, he rarely suffers, 
 when, after a sharp burst, there comes a sudden 
 check, whilst the pampered and shivering 
 stabled horse is exposed with him for a con- 
 126 
 
 siderable time to a piercing north-easter. The 
 one cares nothing about it ; the other may 
 carry home the seeds of dangerous disease. 
 
 TRIMMING. 
 Many gentlemen attached to their horses, 
 are sometimes fond of trimming them. This 
 operation frequently fills up a leisure hour in 
 the morning, and there is a self-gratification in 
 being able to perform it without the assistance 
 of any one. AYe have known some gentlemen 
 so celebrated for squaring a horse's tail, that 
 they have frequently been invited to perform 
 that operation for many distant friends ; con- 
 sequently it will not be out of place to in- 
 troduce the method of performing this opera- 
 tion in the most gentlemanly and skilful 
 manner. 
 
 Trimming is one of the principal duties in 
 the business of a groom, and every one who 
 has the care of horses, should qualify himselt 
 to perform it, as it is allowed to set off an 
 animal to much advantage. Many horses are 
 exceedingly troublesome to trim, and, in order 
 to accomplish it, require most extraordinary 
 means to be adopted. We have known large 
 sums of money given for trimming such 
 troublesome horses. We are of opinion that 
 the animals become so from the improper 
 methods taken with them at first, by those 
 who had not patience to coax, nor ability to 
 accomplish by compulsion, and therefore em- 
 ployed such means as made the horse des- 
 perate, without being able to effect their pur- 
 pose. Most horses have such a dislike to be 
 trimmed, particularly about the head, that 
 few stand without the twitch ; and if they 
 stand tolerably quiet with that, it is as much 
 as can be expected ; but if, with a little coaxing, 
 it can be done without the twitch, it will be 
 the better. There is great care, skill, and 
 judgment required in trimming: care, that 
 you do no injury, by the unsteadiness of the 
 horse, with your scissors; skill, that you may 
 not disfigure him by scoring, notching, and 
 the like ; and judgment to trim him in such a 
 style as will be most proper and advantageous 
 to his appearance. 
 
 Begin at the head— first, with the foretop, 
 and clip close and smooth only that part on the 
 forehead which is in the way of the front of the 
 bridal and stall-collar. Next clip away that 
 
TRIMMING.] 
 
 MODEKN VETERINAEY PEACTICB. 
 
 [teimmino. 
 
 part on the poll, where the head-stall of the 
 bridle, or stall-collar comes, taking care to 
 remove as little towards the node as possible ; 
 or, if the animal is clipped beyond where the 
 head-stall of the bridle comes, it will disfigure 
 the neck. The next point is to trim out the 
 ear, which will be found a little difficult to do ; 
 and few horses will stand quiet to have it done 
 without being pinched with the twitch. 
 
 The scissors most handy for trimming ears, 
 are such as are narrow in the blades, the points 
 not too sharp, but well cut. Begin with 
 clipping the inner part of the ear, going not 
 too near the edges, till the long hair on 
 the inside is cleared out ; then gradually ap- 
 proach the edges, drawing the outside skin of 
 the ear- back, so as not to clip so close as to 
 leave the edge of the ear bare, and thereby 
 disfigure it. The outside skin of this organ is 
 very loose; and as it is held with the left 
 hand, while being clipped with the right, it is 
 :;pt to be drawn so far forward as to deceive 
 the operator, by making him clip too near the 
 edge. Care must therefore be taken that no 
 notches or scallops appear on this part. Having 
 clipped to the edges, and no farther, the out- 
 side hair will stand projecting beyond these, 
 quite even and regular if the operation has 
 been properly done. 
 
 At the bur and root of the ear, a quantity 
 of long flossy hair grows, which must be partly 
 clipped away, and that on the inside must not 
 beieft in scores and notches. You finish with 
 the scissors, by clipping the hair that projects 
 round the edge of the ear, cutting it all round, 
 so as to preserve the exact beauty and shape 
 of the organ, leaving, to be singed at the root, 
 a quantity of hair which the scissors would 
 only score. 
 
 All superfluous hair about the face and 
 beard, under the eyes, and about the nose 
 and lips, should be clipped as closely as possible. 
 Eough horses, lately come from grass, and 
 coarse-bred ones, have a quantity of unneces- 
 sary hair growing very thick under the throp- 
 ple, and about the throat. This must be re- 
 moved. 
 
 The fore-legs are the next parts to be 
 handled, and great pains should be taken with 
 them. Thorough-bred animals, kept in the 
 stable, and properly groomed, seldom require 
 trimming about these members, as all super- 
 
 fluous hair rubs off with their dressings. AVhen 
 lately taken in from grass, liowever, a littlo 
 long hair will appear on the back sinews, and 
 on the fetlock-joints, which may bo taken off, 
 by using a small quantity of powdered resin, 
 say as much as may be taken up between tlie 
 finger and thumb ; and this will remove it with 
 as much ease to the horse, as facility to the 
 person trimming. Let the compressed hairs be 
 cut to any length, provided no ridges will be 
 seen ; and if properly done, it will scarcely be 
 perceived that it has been touched. The 
 coarser the breed of the animal, the more 
 useless hair will be found on the legs, and 
 within the pastern. "Where it is abundant, it 
 must be removed with the scissors, beginning 
 next to the heel. Clip it clean out within the 
 pastern, and under the fetlock-joint. The ad- 
 joining part will then be able to be so nicely 
 tapered, that the sudden break from short to 
 long will not appear, which otherwise would 
 be the case. The soft spongy piece of flesh 
 at the back extremity of the pastern -joints, 
 can be pared down, if necessary, with a sharp 
 knife, and the portions above left in such a 
 manner as to resemble the legs of a thorough- 
 bred horse. The hair, up the back sinews, 
 must be raised with the comb, and cut in 
 equal lengths, tapering it towards the sinew, 
 in such a way as to prevent the appearance 
 of all scores or ridges, allowing that portion 
 next to the back sinews to be the shortest. 
 
 As there are some horses a little bent at the 
 knee, the hair, within that joint, should not be 
 chpped too close, as it will make that defect 
 appear more conspicuous, and defeat the object 
 of trimming, which is to make the animal ap- 
 pear to more advantage than belonged to it 
 before the operation was put in practice. Care 
 must, theretbre, be taken to conceal as many 
 of the defects as exist. Where the legs are 
 straiglit, however, all the flossy hair within 
 that joint may be removed. Eound the coro- 
 net of the hoofs the hair should be clipped 
 regular and even. The four legs being thus 
 trimmed, there only remains the tail for the 
 further operation of the scissors ; for the mane, 
 unless it is what is called hogged, must not be 
 touched with that instrument. 
 
 As fashion and fancy are ever wavering, the 
 tail and ears have always been subject to such 
 changes as are agreeable to the taste of the 
 
 127 
 
TBIMMING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [trimming. 
 
 times. At one period, a switch tail ; at an- 
 other ; a full bushy tail ; then a blood tail ; then 
 another; and then again a short switch tail, 
 about a foot and a-half long. This being the 
 case, it may here be as well to make a few re- 
 marks upon them separately and individually. 
 The switch tail requires no cutting ; the long 
 hair being left on it after the end of the dock 
 is broken off, is pulled underneath, and at the 
 sides, with an iron instrument, made for the 
 purpose— but now seldom to be seen, except 
 m the carter's stables— till it is tapered to 
 a point, leaving only about eight inches below 
 the dock. 
 
 There is much reason in this sort of tail, 
 seeing that nature designed this appendage to 
 strike the flies from the bodies of such animals as 
 are possessed of one. Man, however, to accom- 
 modate himself, denudes the brute of its natural 
 property, simply because the tail annoys him 
 when it is switched about in hot or dirty wea- 
 ther, thus depriving the animal of that which | 
 was intended for its own especial comfort. 
 
 The bushy tail is permitted, to preserve all 
 the hair that grows upon it. Holding the tail 
 to that elevation in which the animal usually 
 carries it, the scissors are employed to cut in 
 a perpendicular direction, within about half an 
 inch of the end of the dock. There is much 
 art and ingenuity in cutting tails of this kind 
 perfectly square, leaving both sides of equal 
 length, and permitting no projections or hol- 
 lows at the end. 
 
 The brush-tail was formerly deemed suitable 
 to such horses as were well nicked, and carried 
 it high, and bent upwards. A tail of this kind 
 was rounded in such a manner, that, when it 
 was up, it resembled the hair of a brush. Much 
 ingenuity is required to cut it true and even. 
 
 The blood tail has been in vogue for many 
 years, and is perhaps the most becoming of 
 any. It requires the least art or ingenuity in 
 cutting. The hair has only to be combed out 
 and held together with the left hand, when the 
 ends are cut oft square, at a proper length, 
 generally about three inches below the end of 
 the dock. After this it is combed out, and 
 any irregularities that may appear are taken 
 away. The hair of the blood horse's tail is 
 generally thin, and of an easy flowing nature ; 
 and having always a becoming appearance, is, 
 as we have said, greatly iu fashion. 
 128 
 
 The thin tail is a mean representation of the 
 blood tail; and tails of half or inferior bred 
 horses, are fuller and more bushy than those of 
 blood animals. Hence, to bring these to some 
 resemblance of the blood tail, the under hair 
 is plucked to thin it, and by such means they 
 are made to appear like a thin ragged tail. 
 The ends are squared in the same manner as 
 blood tails are done. 
 
 Thin-tailed horses have, in general, been re- 
 marked to be good ones. But the difierenco 
 between them and blood animals is easily dis- 
 covered; and for this reason should, perhaps, 
 be more properly denominated ragged-tailed. 
 
 After all these operations, which we have so 
 minutely described, there only remains for the 
 mane to be pulled and singed. To do this, 
 first, comb it thoroughly, laying it very smooth 
 and even. Then begin at the top, and taking 
 hold of a few of the longest hairs at the points 
 with the right hand, separate them from the 
 other hair, by moving the comb in an upward 
 direction. If you have hold of no more than 
 would be about the thickness of a straw, twist 
 the hair round the back of the comb, and pluck 
 it out. Continue to act iu like manner till 
 that part is reduced to the thinness and length 
 desired. Proceed in the same way down the 
 mane, making all alike, and repeatedly combing 
 it out. Hairs left longer than the rest must 
 be plucked, not cut. The fore-top is a great 
 ornament, and should be left long, so that it 
 will tuck under the bridle, and reach three or 
 lour inches below. The extreme ragged points 
 may be taken off" with the scissors, so that the 
 mane may be left thin at the points. It is not 
 to be squared, however, so as to look thick and 
 bushy. Singeing now finishes the operation of 
 trimming. Eough horses, newly taken from 
 grass, usually require a good deal of singeing 
 all over,, they having long downy hair project- 
 ing beyond the rest of their coats. 
 
 Eor the purpose of singeing, a candle with a 
 large wick is required, and the head is the first 
 part to commence with. The long downy hair 
 which projects beyond the rest, may be singed 
 to a level with the coat. The outside of the 
 ears will have some; and there will be much at 
 the bur of these. The candle must not be kept 
 long in one place, or it may burn the animal ; 
 therefore, where there is much singeing re- 
 quired, it is better to rub the singed part, to 
 
TEIMMINO.] 
 
 MODERN VETElilNARY PK.iCTlCE. 
 
 [food. 
 
 let it cool, and apply the candle again. Take 
 care, however, not to continue this so long as 
 to blister the skin. The places whicli want the 
 most singeing, are at the root of the ears, the 
 thropple, about the throat, and the adjoining 
 part of the neck. Put the hand now over the 
 eyes, and singe all the light straggling hairs 
 perceived about them and the brows, forehead, 
 cheeks, beard, and the like. The thropple and 
 throat require nuniy repetitions, the hair being 
 so abundant and tliiek, that it is extremely 
 necessary that frequent wipiugs be resorted to, 
 to see that the singeing has not been performed 
 irregularly. 
 
 The head and throat being operated upon, 
 and finished, with a candle, the remaining parts 
 of the body are to be singed with straw. For 
 this purpose, take as much long clean straw at 
 a time as has about the thickness of three 
 fingers, and lighting one end, begin at the neck, 
 and pass the flame from one part to another. 
 Great care must be taken not to singe the 
 mane ; proceeding thence to the chest, shoul- 
 ders, breast, and every part where long and 
 downy hair is perceived projecting beyond 
 the general coat, being cautious not to make 
 the blaze too large, or continue it too long in 
 cue place, particularly where there is but little 
 hair, as under the flank, and within the thighs, 
 &c. Then giving the horse a good wiping, 
 and brushing over completely, the trimming is 
 finished. 
 
 "VVe may observe, that horses which have 
 been kept for a time in the stable, and pro- 
 perly groomed, have not those long downy 
 coats, and consequently do not require singe- 
 ing all over the body. The beard, the ears, 
 mane, and the tail, are generally all that a 
 blood animal requires to be trimmed when he 
 is kept in the stable. Coarser animals, how- 
 ever, require the heels and other parts to be 
 trimmed, though the coat may be kept in 
 such a state as not to stand in need of it. 
 "We have observed that some horses are trouble- 
 some to trim. The means usually adopted, in 
 addition to the twitch on the nose, or some- 
 times on the ear, are those of the gag with 
 the halter, put through the mouth, and over 
 the ear: the more that horses struggle with 
 these appliances, the more they gag and pinch 
 themselves. 
 
 To keep the legs still, while trimming, a 
 
 person should be employed to hold up one 
 while the other is undergoing the operation. 
 If a hind leg, a side-lino may bo put on to 
 draw up the other, which ia not being trimmed. 
 These are the usual expedients, but they 
 ought only to be put in practice when the horse 
 cannot be coaxed to stand without them. 
 
 An abundance of litter in the stall is ad- 
 visable, as it may prevent accidents in the 
 event of the horse struggling hard whilst 
 undergoing the operation. 
 
 FOOD. 
 
 In regulating the food of a horse, the first 
 points to be attended to are quality aiid quan- 
 tity, which ought to be proportioned to his 
 habit of body or constitution, and the nature 
 of his work. If tlie quality is bad, it will make 
 him foul, and will not afford the same degree 
 of nutriment that clean wholesome food will 
 yield : if he is fed too plentifully for the work 
 or exercise he has, it will make him too fleshy 
 and gross, and probably do him material injury. 
 Again, if a disproportionate quantity of hay ia 
 given, it will cause him to drink too freely ; 
 blowing him out with a description of food 
 which aff"ords the least nutriment. A horse 
 thus fed cannot endure much labour, and his 
 wind becomes distressed. 
 
 Hay, however, is the natural food for horses, 
 but is not sufficiently strengthening for 
 them to work upon now-a-days ; therefore, to 
 be kept in condition, they must be fed 
 sparingly with it, although it be of the very best 
 quality. The quantity necessary for a horse 
 depends much on his size, constitution, and 
 the nature of the work he has to perform. 
 Hence, if he is put to fast work, his food 
 should be of that quality that aff'ords the most 
 nutriment, that lies in the smallest compass, 
 and requires the least water to digest it. 
 When these are attended to, his wind will be 
 the least distressed. If his work is hard, that 
 is, continued for several hours, but not at any 
 extraordinary speed, he may have a greater 
 quantity of hay, and even of beans with his 
 oats. Chaff", if sweet and good, is proper for 
 some animals that have thin light carcases, and 
 not worked hard. Such as eat their corn greedily 
 without masticating it, and scatter it among 
 their litter, should have a handt'ul or two of 
 good sweet clover chaff; which will be iiifiuitely 
 
 129 
 
TOOD-l 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [MANGEB-rEEDTNG. 
 
 serviceable, as it will oblige them to chew or 
 masticate their oats with the chafF before they 
 can swallow it. But though chaff is filling, it 
 must BE sjparmghj given, as it fills them up, 
 and inclines them to drink much, when they 
 will appear plump and fair, hut not he in con- 
 dition for %corlc. It is most proper for slow 
 draught horses. 
 
 The quantity of hay necessary for a saddle- 
 horse, is from eight to sixteen pounds 'per day, 
 according to size, constitution, and his work. 
 About twelve pounds will be found generally 
 sufficient ; but large carriage horses require 
 from sixteen to twenty pounds. If horses get 
 lank and hollow in the flank and quarters, 
 their allowance should be increased ; but, on 
 the contrary, and for the sake of having them 
 flit and plump, they must not be supplied with 
 too much hay and water. An animal when 
 fat, is less fit for work than when lean, pro- 
 vided his leanness is not occasioned by starva- 
 tion, for he may be rendered poor by his work 
 exceeding his keep. If a horse is stinted to 
 an allowance that keeps him in tolerable con- 
 dition with only a little walking exercise, and 
 then put to work without an increase of food, 
 he will, of course, become thin ; but if not 
 given so much work as to exhaust his strength, 
 as well as his flesh, he will be nothing the 
 worse for it. Increase his food, and he will 
 be better for w'ork than before. 
 
 Oats of quality are the most nutritious food 
 for saddle-horses, when given in proper quan- 
 tities ; say three-quarters per day, provided his 
 ■R'ork is no more than exercise ; but if the 
 horse is kept to constant hard work, he is in 
 no danger of being over-fed if he has as much 
 as he can eat. The qualities of oats will be 
 discussed further on. 
 
 Beans are excellent and stimulating for hard- 
 worked animals; but of their properties we 
 shall speak under their own specific headings. 
 Here, however, we may observe that the small 
 and plump bean is usually the best, by all means, 
 for such horses as are either lightly worked or 
 required to go at speed, as they need more 
 water to digest them, and swell in the stomach. 
 They may, however, be allowed to animals 
 that travel at a moderate rate, or such as are 
 employed in draught work. They are also 
 good for coach or omnibus horses if given in 
 small quantities. 
 130 
 
 Water is usually given twice a day ; some, 
 however, give it three times ; but this plan of 
 watering does not do so well for travelling as 
 for draught horses. Soft water is esteemed 
 preferable to hard spring water ; hence rivers 
 and running streams, or such springs as supply 
 ponds, where the water gets impregnated and 
 softened by a loomy or chalky soil, is better 
 than hard spring pump water. The quantity 
 in this, as in food, must also be regulated by 
 circumstances, size of horse, constitution, &c. 
 Some animals will not drink immoderately, and 
 may safely be left to their discretion ; wiiile 
 others, if permitted, will swill, and render 
 themselves incapable of work, by causing im- 
 moderate perspiration and distress of wind. 
 "When the work is done for the day, a reason- 
 able quantity may be allowed. Half a stable- 
 pailful of water is generally sufficient for the 
 morning. 
 
 MANGER-FEEDING. 
 
 The system of manger- feeding which has now, 
 for some years, been adopted on the road, arose 
 no doubt from a desire in the proprietors of 
 horses to till the stomachs of their animals in 
 the shortest possible space of time, in order 
 that they might get more rest on the road; 
 and among farmers it is becoming more general. 
 It is certainly well adapted for horses not over- 
 worked through speed ; whilst it is an econo- 
 mical way of feeding, as by mixing a portion 
 of chafi" with the corn and beans, the animal is 
 compelled to chew his food. He cannot bolt 
 the straw or hay ; and while forced to grind the 
 chafi", he also grinds the oats and beans. By 
 the adoption of this plan more nourishment is 
 yielded, and the stomach is more slowly filled. 
 Independently of this, the increased quantity of 
 saliva thrown out in the lengthened grinding 
 operation softens the food, and renders it better 
 fitted for digestion. 
 
 Chaff may be composed of equal quantities 
 of clover or meadow hay, and wheaten, oaten, 
 or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or 
 half an inch in length, and mixed well to- 
 gether ; the quantity of oats or beans is after- 
 wards added, and mixed with it. The beans> 
 and oats should be bruised, because the whole 
 oat is apt to slip out of the chaff and be lost ; 
 but when it is bruised, and especially if the 
 chaff is a little wetted, this will be less likely 
 
MANGEE-FEEDiNO.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [manqer-feediko 
 
 Ho 
 
 to occur ; and even if a portion of it escape the 
 grinders, it will be partly prepared for dii};es- 
 tion by the act of bruising. Tlie prejudice 
 against bruising the oats is, in so far as regards 
 the slow draught horse, entirely unfounded. 
 The quantity of straw in the chad" will always 
 be sufficient to counteract any supposed pur- 
 gative quality in the bruised oats. Animals of 
 quicker draught, unless they are naturally dis- 
 posed to scour, will thrive better with bruised 
 than with whole oats ; inasmuch as a greater 
 quantity of nutriment will be extracted from 
 the food, and it will be easy to proportion the 
 quan' ity of straw or beans necessaiy to coun- 
 teract any mischievous consequences to the 
 bowels of the horse. The principal alteration 
 that should be made in the diet of the post or 
 stage-coach horse, should be to increase the 
 quantity of hay, and diminish that of the straw. 
 Two trusses of hay may be cut with one of 
 straw. It is remarked by Professor Stewai-t, 
 that " many horses swallow their corn in great 
 haste ; and when much is eaten, that habit is 
 exceedingly dangerous. The stomach is filled 
 — it is overloaded before it has time to make 
 preparation for acting on its contents — the 
 food ferments, and painful or dangerous colic 
 ensues. By adding chafl" to his corn, the horse 
 must take more time to eat it, and time is 
 given for the commencement of digestion be- 
 fore fermentation can occur. In this way 
 chaff is very useful, especially after long fasts." 
 This system, however, is not well adapted to 
 either the hunter or the race-horse; because 
 their food must be in smaller bulk, in order 
 that the action of their lungs may not be im- 
 peded by the distention of the stomach ; still 
 many hunters have gone well over the field, 
 which have been manger-fed, the proportion of 
 corn, however, being materially increased. 
 
 Eor the agricultural and cart-horse, eight 
 pounds of oats and two of beans should be 
 added to every twenty pounds of chafi". Thirty- 
 four, or thirty-six pounds of the mixture, will 
 be sufficient for any moderate-sized horse, 
 even with hard work. The dray and large 
 •waggon-horse may require forty pounds. Hay 
 in the rack at night is, in this case, to be 
 omitted altogether. The rack, however, may 
 remain, as it is useful for the sick horse, or to 
 contain tares, or other green meat, w^hich may 
 occasionally be given. 
 
 rses take great delight in this provender- 
 but damaged straw should not bo ' 
 
 UBcd for 
 g cliali; as the corn it contains may tempt 
 a horse to eat, even if it bo not good. Moro 
 injury is done by eating damaged hay or 
 musty oats, than is generally imagined. There- 
 fore the advantage of this system of manger- 
 feeding, will, as a matter of course, be entirelv 
 counteracted, if it be made the vehicle fo*r 
 the consumption of unwholesome materials. 
 One of the most important advantages to be 
 derived from manger- feeding is, that the ani- 
 mal, by the union of eating nutritious matter 
 with the more bulky kind (hay-chafl"), his 
 stomach is filled the sooner, and has, con- 
 sequently, more time for rest — a very con- 
 siderable consequence to a horse on the road. 
 
 Where the manger system of feeding is not 
 adopted, or where the hay is still given at 
 night, and chaff and corn in the day, there is 
 no error into which the farmer is so apt to 
 fall as that of giving an undue quantity of 
 hay, and that generally of the worst kind. If 
 the manger system is good, there can be no 
 necessity for hay ; or if there is, only for a 
 small quantity of it; but if the rack is over- 
 loaded, the greedy horse will be eating ai! 
 night, instead of taking his rest; and when 
 the time for the morning feed arrives, hh 
 stomach will already be filled. He will theri, 
 from the want of sleep, be less capable of 
 work, and from the long-continued distention 
 of the stomach rendering it impossible for his 
 food to have been properly digested. 
 
 It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay 
 
 with water in which salt has been dissolved, 
 
 as it is more palatable to the animal. Indeed, 
 
 the horse will leave the best unsalted hay 
 
 for that of an inferior quality which has been 
 
 moistened with brine ; and there can be no 
 
 doubt that the salt very materially assists the 
 
 process of digestion. The preferable way to 
 
 use the salt is to sprinkle it over the diflerent 
 
 layers as the rick is formea. From its attrac« 
 
 tion for water, it would combine with that 
 
 excess of moisture, which, in wet seasons, is 
 
 I the cause of too rapid and violent fermentation, 
 
 and of the hay becoming mow-burnt, or the 
 
 I rick sometimes catching fire, and it would 
 
 ' become more incorporated with the hay. The 
 
 j only objection to its being thus used is, that 
 
 1 the colour of the hay is not so briixht; but 
 
 131 
 
OATS.] 
 
 THE HOBSE, AND 
 
 [baulet. 
 
 this would be of little consequence for liome 
 consumption. 
 
 The comparative advantages of chaff and 
 rack-feeding, are thus given by Professor 
 Stewart : — 
 
 " Where the stablemen are careful, waste of 
 fodder is diminished, but not prevented, bj 
 feeding from the manger. 
 
 " Where the racks are good, careful stable- 
 men may prevent nearly all waste of fodder, 
 without cutting it. 
 
 " An accurate distribution of fodder is not a 
 very important object. 
 
 " No horse seems to like his corn the better 
 for being mingled with chaff. 
 
 "Among half-starved horses, chaff-cutting 
 
 promotes the consumption of damaged fodder. 
 
 " Full-fed horses, rather than eat the mixture 
 
 of sound with unsound, will reject the whole, 
 
 or eat less than their work demands. 
 
 " Chaff is more easily eaten than hay. This 
 is an advantage to old horses and others 
 working all day— a disadvantage when the 
 horses stand long in the stable. 
 
 "Chaff ensures complete mastication and 
 deliberate digestion of the corn. It is of con- 
 siderable, and of most importance in tliis 
 respect. All the fodder need not to be 
 mingled with the corn; one pound of chaff 
 being sufficient to secure the mastication and 
 slow ingestion of four pounds of corn. 
 
 "The cost of cutting all the fodder, es- 
 pecially for heavy horses, is repaid only when 
 hay is dear, and wasted in large quantities. 
 
 "Among hard-working horses, bad food 
 should never be cut." 
 
 We will now briefly enumerate the principal 
 vegetables which enter into the food of the 
 horse. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 In almost every part of Great Britain, oats 
 have been selected as that portion of the food 
 which is to afford the principal nourishment. 
 They contain seven hundred and forty-three 
 parts out of a thousand, of nutritive matter, 
 and should be old, heavy, dry, and sweet. 
 New oats will weigh ten or fifteen per cent- 
 more than old ; but the difference consists prin- 
 cipally in watery matter, which is gradually 
 evaporated. New oats are not so easily ground 
 down by the teeth as old ones, and form a 
 132 
 
 more glutinous mass, difficult to digest. There- 
 fore, when eaten in considerable quantities, 
 they are apt to become so unwholesome as to 
 occasion colic, and even staggers. Oats should 
 be plump, bright in colour, and free from 
 unpleasant taste or smell. The musty smell 
 of wetted or damaged corn, is caused by a 
 fungus which grows upon the seed, and which 
 has an injurious eftect on the urinary organs, 
 and often on the intestines, producing profuse 
 staling, inflammation of the kidney or colic, 
 and also of the bowels. This musty smell 
 may be removed by kiln-drying the oats, but 
 care should be taken that too great a degree 
 of heat is not employed. This, however, should 
 be sufficient to destroy the fungus, without 
 injuring the vitality of the seed. Kiln-burnt 
 oats are not so grateful to the animal, as they 
 acquire a heating quality, which not unfre- 
 quently produces inflammation of the eyes, and 
 mangy aflections of the skin. All the expense 
 of threshing the unthreshed oat-straw would 
 be saved if cut for chafl". It is better than 
 barley straw, but does not contain so much 
 nourishment as that of wheat. When the 
 horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of 
 the latter must vary with his size and the 
 work to be performed. Nine or ten pounds 
 a day will be a fair allowance for one of 
 fifteen hands one or two inches high, in mode- 
 rate work, with a proportionate quantity of hay. 
 In summer, when green food is given daily, 
 reduce the quantity one-half. Such animals 
 as work on the farm, have from ten to fourteen 
 pounds, and the hunter from twelve to sixteen. 
 There is no kind of food that can be safely 
 substituted for good oats; as they have an 
 inherent strengthening property which is not 
 possessed by other kinds of food. 
 
 For the weary and tired horse, a pint of 
 oatmeal thrown into a pail of water, is an 
 admirable drink. It forms, also, an excellent 
 gruel for the sick horse, leaving it to be drunk 
 of his own accord when slung in his box, and 
 water is denied him. As a poultice it is also 
 excellent, having more stimulating properties 
 than linseed meal when used alone. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 Barley is a common food of the horse on 
 various parts of the continent, and, before the 
 introduction of oats, seems to have constituted 
 
WHEAT.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINAEY PRACTICE. 
 
 [beaxs. 
 
 almost his only food. It is more nutritious cuuistance arises from the water p.assint* rapidly 
 than oats, containing nine liundrodaiultwi'nty througli the stomach and small intestines in 
 
 parts of nutritive matter in every thousand. 
 There seems, however, to be something neces- 
 sary besides a great proportion of nutritive 
 matter, in order to render any substance whole- 
 some, strengthening, or fiittcning. AVliere 
 horses are very hardly worked, barley does not 
 seem to agree with them so well as oats. They 
 are more subject to inliammatory complaints, 
 and particularly to surfeit and mange. "When 
 barley is given, the quantity should not exceed 
 a peck daily. It should be always bruised, 
 and the chaff should consist of equal propor- 
 tions of hay and barley-straw, and not be cut 
 too short. If the farmer has a quantity of 
 spotted or uusaleablebarley whichhewishesthus 
 to get rid of, he must very gradually accustom 
 his horses to it, or he will probably produce 
 serious illness among them. For animals that 
 are recovering from illness, barley, in the form 
 of malt, is often serviceable, as tempting their 
 appetite and restoring their strength. It is 
 best given in mashes — water, considerably be- 
 low the boiling heat, being poured upon it, 
 and the vessel or pail kept covered for half an 
 hour. 
 
 GRAINS. 
 Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone 
 or mixed with oats or chalf, or both, may be 
 occasionally given to draught horses; they 
 would, however, afford very insufficient nou- 
 rishment for such as are employed iu quicker 
 or harder work. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 "Wheat is, iu Great Britain, more rarely given 
 than barley. It contains nine hundred and 
 fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. "When 
 farmers have a damaged or unmarketable 
 sample, they sometimes give it to their horses, 
 and, being at first used in small quantities, 
 they become accustomed to it, and thrive and 
 work well. It must, however, always be bruised 
 and given iu chafl'. Wheat contains a greater 
 proportion of gluten or sticky adhesive matter 
 than any other kind of grain. It is difficult of 
 digestion, and apt to cake and form obstruc- 
 tions in the bowels. This will oftener bo the 
 
 its way to the cacum, carrying off with it all 
 the starch, which is the most nourishing pro- 
 perty of wheat, and leaving the sticky masa 
 behind to accumulate and harden, and obstruct 
 the intestines, and frequently to destroy the 
 animal. A horse that is fed on wheat should 
 have very little hay. The proportion shoulil 
 not be more than one truss of hay to two ot 
 straw. 
 
 AVhcaten flour, boiled iu water to the thick- 
 ness of starch, is given with good effect in 
 over-purging, and this especially if combined 
 with chalk and opium. 
 
 BEANS. 
 Beans contain only five hundred and seventy 
 parts of nutritive matter, yet they add con. 
 siderably to the strength of the horse. This 
 fact forms a striking illustration of the prin- 
 ciple, that the nourishing or strengthening 
 effects of the different articles of food, depend 
 more upon some peculiar property which they 
 have, or some combination which they form, 
 than on their actual quantity of nutritive 
 matter. There are many horses that will not 
 stand hard work without beans being min"-led 
 with their food. Those that have a tendency to 
 purge, it may be necessary to restrain by the 
 astringency of the bean. There is no traveller 
 who is not aware of the difierence in the 
 spirit and endurance of his horse, whether he 
 allows or denies him beans on his journey. 
 They afibrd not merely a temporary stimulus, 
 but they may be daily used without losing 
 their power, or producing exhaustion. Two 
 pounds of beans may, with advantage, be 
 mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse, 
 during the winter. In summer, tlie quantity 
 should be lessened, or they should be alto- 
 gether discontiniied. They are generally given 
 whole, which is very absurd; for the young 
 horse, the teeth of which are strong, seldom 
 requires them ; while the old horse, to which 
 they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely 
 able to masticate them. He, from being 
 unable to break them, swallows many whole, 
 and drops much corn from his mouth, iu the 
 ineiiectual attempt to crush tiiem. Beans 
 
 case if the horse is suliered to drink much ' should not be merely split, but bruised. They 
 
 water soon after feeding upon it. This cir- 
 
 will even then give sufficient employment to 
 
 133 
 
PEAS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [the tuenip. 
 
 the grinders of the animal. Some postmasters 
 use cbafF with beans instead of oats. "With 
 liardly-worked horses they may possibly be 
 allowed; but in general cases, beans, without 
 oats, would be too binding and stimulating, 
 and would produce costiveness, and probably 
 megrims or staggers. Neither the hard-worked 
 coach-horse, nor the washy one, nor the old one, 
 could perform their tasks without them. To 
 turf horses they are sometimes given as a 
 stimulant. The straw of the bean is highly 
 nutritive, and is usually given to horses. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 Peas are occasionally given, and appear to 
 be, in a slight degree, more nourishing than 
 beans, and not so heating. They contain five 
 hundred and seventy-four parts of nutritive 
 matter. Eor horses of slow work they may be 
 used; but the quantity of chaff should be 
 increased, and a few oats added. They have 
 not been found to answer with animals of 
 quick draught. It is essential that they should 
 be crushed ; otherwise, on account of their 
 globular form, they are apt to escape from the 
 teeth, and many are swallowed whole. Ex- 
 posed to warmth and moisture in the stomach, 
 they swell very much, and may painfully and 
 injuriously distend it. Many horses have 
 died from gorging themselves with peas ; and, 
 on opening them, their stomachs have been 
 found to have burst by the swelling of the 
 vegetable. In proof of the swelling property 
 of them, let a small phial be filled with them, 
 tightly corked, and warm water poured upon 
 it ; the peas will burst it in a few hours. 
 
 In some northern countries, the meal of the 
 pea is not only given as food to the horses, 
 but, in cases of diabates, is used as a remedy. 
 
 TARES 
 Of the value of tares, as forming a portion 
 of the late spring and summer food of the 
 stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no 
 doubt. They are very nutritive, and act as a 
 gentle opening medicine. "When surfeit-lumps 
 appear on the skin, the horse begins to rub 
 himself against the divisions of the stall, and 
 the legs swell, and the heels threaten to crack : 
 a few tares cut up with the chaiT, or given 
 instead of a portion of the hay, will often 
 aflbrd. sometimes immediate, and generally rapid 
 134 
 
 relief. Ten or twelve pounds may be supplied 
 daily, and half of that weight of hay sub- 
 tracted. It is an erroneous notion, that, 
 given in moderate quantities, they either 
 roughen the coat or lessen the capability for 
 hard work. Tares furnish a greater propor- 
 tion of food for a limited time than almost any 
 other kind of forage croo. 
 
 RYE GRASS. 
 
 Hje grass supplies a valuable article of food, 
 but is inferior to the tare. It is not so nutri- 
 tive; is apt to scour; and occasionally, late 
 in the spring, it has appeared to become in- 
 jurious to the horse. 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to 
 the tare and the rye grass, but nevertheless 
 is useful when these cannot be obtained. 
 Clover hay is, perhaps, preferable to meadow 
 hay for chaif. It will sometimes tempt the 
 sick animal, and may be given with advantage 
 to horses of slow and heavy draught; but 
 custom seems properly to have forbidden it to 
 the hunter and the hackney. 
 
 LUCERN. 
 
 Lucern, where it can be obtained, is to be 
 preferred even to tares, and sainfoin is superior 
 to lucern. Although they contain but a small 
 quantity of nutritive matter, it is easily di- 
 gested, and perfectly assimilated. They speedily 
 put both muscle and fat on the horse that is 
 worn down by labour, and they are almost a 
 specific for hide-bound. Some farmers have 
 thought so highly of lucern as to substitute it 
 for oats. This may do for the agricultural 
 horse of slow and not heavy work ; but the 
 animal from which speedier action is sometimes 
 required, as well as the one of* all work, must 
 have a proportion of hard meat within him. 
 
 THE SWEDISH TURNIP. 
 This root is an article of food the value of 
 which has not been sufficiently appreciated, 
 and particularly for agricultural horses. It 
 does not contain much nutrition, but is easy 
 of digestion, quickly fattens the animal, and 
 produces a glossy skin. It may be given once 
 a dav — at night after the work is done, when 
 it will be extremely grateful. 
 
POTATOES.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERIXARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [bread. 
 
 CARROTS. 
 
 The virtues of this root are not sufTiciently 
 esteemed, adding to the strength and stamina 
 of the horse in health or in sickness. Some 
 farmers allow a bushel of sliced carrots a-day, 
 with chaff, without any oats ; and tlie horses 
 are said to be equal to all slow or agricultural 
 work. Stewart, in his Stable EcoJiomij, re- 
 marks, that "this root is held in much esteem. 
 There is none better, nor, perhaps, so good. 
 "When first given, it is slightly diuretic and 
 laxative; but, as the horse becomes accus- 
 tomed to it, these effects cease to be produced. 
 They also improve the state of the skin. They 
 form a good substitute for grass, and an ex- 
 cellent alterative for horses out of condition. 
 To sick and idle horses they render corn un- 
 necessary. They are beneficial in all chronic 
 diseases connected with breathing, and have a 
 marked influence upon chronic cougb and 
 broken wind. They are serviceable in diseases 
 of the skin, and, in combination with oats, they 
 restore a worn horse much sooner than oats 
 alone." 
 
 POTATOES. 
 Potatoes have been sliced and given with ad- 
 vantage in their raw state, mixed with the 
 chaff; but, where there has been convenience 
 to boil or steam them, the benefit has been 
 much greater. Some have given boiled pota- 
 toes alone ; and horses, instead of turning from 
 them, have come to prefer them even to the 
 oat; but it is better to mix them with the 
 manger feed, in the proportion of one pound 
 of potatoes to two-and-a-half of the other in- 
 gredients. Professor Low says, that fifteen 
 pounds of potatoes yield as much nourishment 
 as four-and-a-half of oats. Von Thayer says, 
 that three bushels are equal to one hundred 
 and twelve pounds of hay ; and Curwen says, 
 that an acre of potatoes, in the feeding of 
 horses, goes as far as four acres of hay. In 
 feeding a horse on this root his water must be 
 much curtailed. 
 
 BREAD FOR CATTLE AND HORSES. 
 
 The French frequently feed their horses on 
 
 bread ; and various other attempts at economy 
 
 are practised out of the common management 
 
 of feeding them wilh raw corn, which, no doubt, 
 
 may bo beneficial. Wo have hoard of a team 
 of liorses, at Liverpool, to which boiled corn 
 was always given, and tho water boiled after- 
 wards to drink. This was said to nouritth thera 
 at much less expense than tlie common method 
 of feeding adopted. 
 
 It is equally necessary to seek for economi- 
 cal food for cattle as for man. To lessen tho 
 consumption of food in rearing, preserving, and 
 maintaining the liealth and strength of cattle, 
 is to save so much for the benefit of mankind. 
 Many neglected plants, growing in marsliy 
 ground, the tender leaves of difl'erent trees de- 
 prived of their resin by infusion, chopped straw, 
 &c., are substances and resources which may be, 
 and are in many instances, usefully employed. 
 
 In Sweden, oat bread is used for horses, and 
 is found much cheaper and more salutary than 
 the simple grain. It may be remarked that 
 horses always pass some parts of the oats they 
 have eaten, whole ; their stomachs labour much 
 to digest food, some part of which is entirely 
 lost, and is even dangerous to them. Oats 
 ground and baked would not occasion these 
 inconveniences. 
 
 Experience has shown, that in Sweden, one 
 ton of oats makes four hundred and eighty 
 loaves, on which a horse may be better kept — 
 at the rate of two loaves a day — for two 
 hundred and forty days, than if he had had six 
 tons or even more of raw oats. The husk of 
 the oats remains mixed with the flour ; and the 
 weight of the water, a large quantity of which 
 is necessarily employed in making the dough, is 
 gained. It has also been calculated in Sweden, 
 that after all expenses have been taken into 
 consideration, a great saving is effected by 
 feeding horses on bread made of oats and rye. 
 There liay is never given without mixing it with 
 two-thirds of chopped straw, and adding to it 
 bread broken up. The better to preserve this 
 bread, it should be made in the shape of calces ; 
 and if it be prepared like biscuit, it will keep 
 for a lengthened period of time, without losing 
 its nutritive qualities. 
 
 Good bread for cattle may be made from the 
 farinaceous parts of the horse-chestnut, acorns, 
 maudragora, dog's-grass, &c. These sub- 
 stances may be used in the composition of 
 bread for cattle, together with potatoes reduced 
 to powder. 
 
 In all agricultural experiment-s, we must 
 
 135 
 
TTJRNIKa-OUT.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [turning- OUT, 
 
 i.ever allow ourselves to be discouraged ; 
 creatures accustomed to a particular diet, will 
 sometimes refuse a superior one for that to 
 which they are habituated. It should be fre- 
 quently presented to them, and before long 
 they will relish it. Why should not leaves, 
 chaff, straw, heath, fern, &c., reduced to powder, 
 be mixed with this bread ? Beetroot, or 
 potatoes a'jd flour, will serve as a vehicle for 
 all these substances ; whilst experience soon 
 proves the quantities for producing the neces- 
 sary proportions to form the required material 
 of a substantial consistence. 
 
 In closing this portion of our work, it may 
 be desirable to many to be made acquainted 
 with the nourishing properties known, by 
 chemical analysis, to exist in several of the 
 most necessary vegetables. 
 
 1,000 parts of wheat contain 955 parts of 
 putritive matter ; barley, 920 ; oats, 743 ; peas, 
 574 ; beans, 570 ; potatoes, 230 ; red beet, 
 148 ; parsnips, 99 ; carrots, 98. 
 
 Of the grasses, 1,000 parts of the meadow 
 cat's-tail, contain at the time of seeding, 98 
 parts of nutritive matter ; narrow-leaved mea- 
 dow grass in seed, and sweet-scented soft 
 grass in flower, 95 ; narrow-leaved and flat- 
 stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile mea- 
 dow grass in seed, and tall fescue, in flower, 
 93 ; sweet-scented soft grass, in flower, and the 
 aftermath, 77 ; florin cutin, 76 ; tall fescue, 
 in the aftermath, and meadow soft grass, in 
 flower, 74 ; cabbage, 73 ; crested dog's-tail, 
 and brone, when flowering, 71 ; yellow oat, 
 in flower, 66 ; Swedish turnips, 64 ; common 
 turnips, 42 ; sainfoin, and broad-leaved and 
 long-rooted clover, 39 ; white clover, 32 ; and 
 lucern, 23. 
 
 TURNING OUT TO GRASS, OR THE STRAW- 
 YARD. 
 
 When horses have been hard worked, turn- 
 ing out becomes a natural consequence, to 
 refresh their limbs : they are occasionally 
 turned out wlien not wanted for present use. 
 The hunter, when the season is over, is turned 
 into good grass, which cools the system, and pre- 
 vents too great an incumbrance on the master's 
 pocket. It also refreshes his limbs, which, if 
 he has been regularly hunted throughout the 
 season, stand in need of it. If, however, he 
 has only occasionally been so, and is now 
 13G 
 
 wanted for the road, there is no necessity for 
 turning him out. AVe have heard of horses 
 having been kept in a stable twelve years 
 without eating any green food, yet have con- 
 tinued in health and condition : while there are 
 some constitutions that will not look well in the 
 stable for almost any continuance of time, but 
 soon sufler from indi";estion, and hide-bound 
 when their coats assume a chill and russet 
 hue. Grass, however, is by no means impro- 
 per for horses. On the contrary, it is good-, 
 and such as are kept for pleasure, and only 
 moderately used, may be put to grass, and 
 yet, with a little corn, worked occasionally all 
 the summer. 
 
 Turning-out in winter to a straw-yard, is a 
 practice with those who maintain a liorse foi 
 pleasure in summer, and have no occasion for 
 him in winter. Those who cannot aff'ord the , 
 expense of keeping a horse in the stable in 
 winter, endeavour to persuade themselves that 
 it is beneficial to the animal to be put into the 
 straw-yard, and famished with cold and hunger 
 for five or six months. Consequently, this 
 practice is not to be recommended. Far better 
 to sell the animal if the expense of stabling 
 him cannot be afforded. 
 
 When gentlemen have convenience of their 
 own to turn horses out in winter, there is no 
 doubt of their being taken care of. In open 
 weather there is good pasturage ; and in hard 
 weather, an out-house or stable to lie in, with 
 plenty of hay. But as we are here speaking 
 of straw-yards, where all that come are taken 
 in, the practice of sending them to such re- 
 positories is a dangerous, if not a bad one. Not 
 but that some animals may seem well enough 
 when they are deeply bedded with clean and 
 wholesome straw, of which they can cull the 
 ears to fill themselves ; but where they are 
 taken in for pay, some men scarcely ever think 
 their yards are overstocked, and provender, 
 which is scarcely fit for the horses to lie upon, 
 becomes their food. 
 
 Giving green food in the stable is called 
 soiling. It is not often convenient for those 
 who keep no more horses than they have use 
 for, to turn them out to grass, more particu- 
 larly in a season when people take pleasure on 
 horseback, or travel on business. The work of 
 animals of this description is hardly to be called, 
 exercise; which frequently consists of an 
 
TUENiNO-ori.] MODERN VETEEINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [PIITSICKINO. 
 
 average, of not more than ten miles a day, and 
 at a pace seldom exceeding more than six or 
 eight miles an hour. Under such circum- 
 stances, green food in the stable has a cool- 
 ing influence, and acts as an alterative, and 
 therefore should be given. Indeed, there are 
 some constitutions that do not thrive witliont 
 it, dry food for a long continuance of time not 
 agreeing with them, but making them lank and 
 thin. Such descriptions of horses arc hardly 
 worth keeping, except for light work, as their 
 paces and action may be very pleasing. 
 
 Green food being a kind of natural physic, 
 cooling, and operating as a gentle laxative, 
 many deny the necessity of any other kind of 
 medicine. In its operative principle, more 
 especially if the animal works on it, his litter 
 ■will be verv soft, if he does not quite scour. 
 This is a great benefit to the horse, by clear- 
 ing out the alimentary canal, and producing 
 that healthy secretion of functions nature is 
 so desirous of. After a time, however, the 
 purgative principle passes off, and he voids his 
 dung in rather a soft state than otherwise. An 
 animal kept on green food should not be put 
 to immoderate work, as it may produce in- 
 flammation of the intestines, and its frequent 
 consequence — death. 
 
 To those who have not given this part of 
 our subject the consideration it merits, it may 
 be as well to observe, that green food, when 
 cut, soon spoils. Therefore, those who buy 
 the bundles of vetches or tares which are 
 brought into market, must be careful to see 
 that they are fresh and cool. Such vegetables 
 being frequently cut the day before, and tied 
 up in bundle, are full of moisture, and become 
 heated, and soon begin to rot. They should, 
 therefore, be fresh every day, and no more 
 taken in than can be consumed, as they soon 
 spoil if they happen to be pretty moist. If, 
 therefore, there is no certainty of a regular 
 supply, a good plan is to untie the bundles, 
 and spread them on the spare room of tlie floor 
 of the hay-loft. This will preserve them fresh 
 for two or three days. Should the animals 
 be in the habit of feeding on chaff", ifc is good 
 
 policy to have a layer of vetches cut up with 
 
 it. This will bo found cooling and refreshing, 
 especially if the weather is warm, and the 
 horses in full work. 
 
 PHYSICKING. 
 
 In the course of this work wc shall have occa- 
 sion to make reference to cathartic and other 
 balls. Those which, from experience, have been 
 found the most beneficial, we have arranged in 
 the subjoined form, and distinguished them b^ 
 numbers, so that an easy reference, at all 
 times, may be made to the different ingredients 
 of which they are composed. 
 No. 1. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Ginger (powdered fine) . . 2 drachms. 
 If for immediate use, form into a ball, with 
 treacle ; but if not, with soft soap. "When the 
 horse is properly prepared with bran mashes, 
 as directed in our preceding pages — " On the 
 Management of Hunters" — this ball will be 
 found sufficiently strong for any animal. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes . 
 Ginger . . . . 
 
 . . G drachms. 
 . . 1 ,. 
 
 Form into a ball, as prescribed for No. 1. This 
 ball is generally found strong enough for saddle- 
 horses of all descriptions. 
 No. 3. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes .... 4 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 d 
 
 Though this quantity of aloes will act as a 
 drastic purge on some constitutions, it will 
 scarcely move others. In the above foriiiulio 
 of purgative medicines, you have simply those 
 that actually stimulate the intestines to get 
 rid of their contents. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes .... 5 drachms. 
 
 Cape Aloes c 5 „ 
 
 Ginger „ .....•• 2 „ 
 Mix, and form into a ball, with soft soap, for 
 large carriage or cart horses ; then treat as 
 above. This will be found to prove pretty 
 effective. 
 
 
BEEEDING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [breeding. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BREEDING ; BKEAKING-IN ; CASTRATION. 
 
 BREEDING. 
 Having already touched upon this important 
 subject, we shall here more particularly enter 
 into it; for it is unquestionable, that within 
 the last thirty years our horses have under- 
 gone a considerable change. The opinion, 
 among those who may be supposed to be the 
 best capable of forming a correct judgment, 
 is, that there are fewer good hacks and hunters 
 than there were formerly ; and, if such be the 
 case, it must necessarily form one of the first 
 considerations of breeders to endeavour to dis- 
 cover the causes of this deterioration, and to 
 adopt such means as may be the most likely 
 to restore the breed, as well as to improve 
 the character of our horses. Whether con- 
 sidered socially or nationally, this is an object 
 of too much importance to be neglected. 
 
 Our observations will here be of a general 
 nature, and will be very simple. The first 
 axiom we would lay down is, that " like pro- 
 duces like ;" that the progeny will inherit the 
 qualities of its parents. Eeferring to the sub- 
 ject of diseases, we must again state our con- 
 viction, that there is. scarcely one affliction 
 by which either of the parents is afiected, 
 that the foal will not inherit, or, at least, ex- 
 hibit a predisposition to. So certain is this 
 the case, that it may safely be affirmed that 
 even ill usage or hard work, where either has 
 been so excessive as to lay the seeds of disease 
 in the parents, such disease will indubitably be 
 found to descend to their progeny. Undeniable 
 evidence, repeated again and again, has decided 
 the fact, that blindness, roaring, thick wind, 
 broken wind, spavins, curbs, ring-bones, and 
 founder, liave been bequeathed, both by the 
 sire and the dam, to the oftspring. It should 
 likewise be recollected, that although these 
 blemishes may not appear in the immediate 
 progeny, they frequently will in the next gene- 
 ration. Hence the necessity of some know- 
 ledge of the parentage both of sire and dam. 
 Mr. Baker, of Beigate, speaking of hia own 
 138 
 
 experience in this matter, says — " A foal had 
 apparently clear and good eyes ; but the first 
 day had not passed before it was evident that 
 it was totally blind. It had Grutta Serena. 
 
 " Inquiry was then made about the sire, for 
 the mare had good eyes. His were, on the 
 slightest inspection, evidently bad ; and not one 
 of his colts had escaped the direful efi"ects of 
 his imperfect vision. 
 
 " A mare had been the subject of farcical 
 enlargement ; and not being capable of per- 
 forming much work, a foal was procured from 
 her. She survived; but the foal, soon after 
 birth, evinced symptoms of farcy, and died. 
 
 " A mare was lame from navicular disease. 
 A foal was bred from her, that, at five years, 
 could scarcely go across the country, and was 
 so^d for a few pounds. The mare was a rank 
 jib in single harness ; the foal was as bad." 
 
 Peculiarity of form and constitution are also 
 inherited. This is a most important, but ne- 
 glected consideration ; for however desirable 
 or even perfect may have been the conforma- 
 tion of the sire, every good point may be neu- 
 tralised by the defective form, or want of blood, 
 in the mare. There are niceties here, of which 
 some breeders were wont to be aware, and 
 they employed their knowledge to prevent it 
 to great advantage. "When they were careful 
 that the essential points were good in both 
 parents, and that some minor defect in either 
 should be met, and got rid of, by excellence 
 in that particular point in the other, the re- 
 sult was creditable to their judgment, and 
 highly profitable. Other breeders, less skilful, 
 often so badly paired the animals, that the 
 good points of each were, in a manner, lost. 
 The defects of both were increased, and the 
 produce far inferior to both sire and dam. 
 
 Of late years, these principles have been 
 much lost sight of in the breeding of horses for 
 general use ; and the following is the explaua 
 tion of it. There are nearly as good stallions aa 
 there used to be. Eew horses but such as aro 
 well-formed and valuable, will be selected and 
 
bueedtko.] 
 
 MODEllN VETERINARY PRACTICK. 
 
 [UUEEDINO. 
 
 rctainoil as stallions. Tiiov are always the very 
 [)rime of tlio breed ; but the mares uro not 
 uliat they used to be. I'ovorty luuj induced 
 many of the breeders to ])art wiLii those from 
 whieh they used to raise their stock, and which 
 were worth their weight in gold ; and the jade 
 on which the farmer now rides to market, or 
 which he employs on his farm, costs him but 
 little money, and is only kept because he can- 
 not get much money for her. It has, likewise, 
 become the fashion for gentlemen to ride mares, 
 almost us frequently as geldings ; and thus the 
 better kind are taken from the breeding ser- 
 vice, until old age or injury renders them worth 
 little for that purpose. 
 
 In the third volume of The Veterinarian, 
 this will be found strikingly pointed out by 
 Mr. Castloy, an intelligent veterinary surgeon. 
 
 It ought to be as deeply impressed as pos- 
 sible on the minds of breeders, that peculiarity 
 of form and constitution are inherited from 
 both parents; that the excellence of the mare 
 is a point of quite as much importance as that 
 of the horse ; and that out of a sorry mare, let 
 the horse be as perfect as he may, a good foal 
 will rarely be produced. All this is recognised 
 upon the turf, although poverty or careless- 
 ness has made the general breeder neglect or 
 forget it. 
 
 In the midland counties it is recognised in 
 matching the breed of cart-horses ; and the 
 strict attention which has been paid to it, has 
 brought our heavy draught animals to almost 
 the same perfection, in their way, as it has 
 brought our blood horses. It is an unaccount- 
 able fact, however, that in our saddle-horses, 
 our hunters, and, to a great extent, our car- 
 riage-horses, this should be left to chance. 
 
 That the constitution and endurance of the 
 horse are inherited, no sporting man ever 
 doubted. The qualities of the sire or the 
 dam descend from generation to generation, 
 and the excellences or defects of certain 
 animals, are traced, and justly so, to some 
 peculiarity in a ipr-distant ancestor. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be affirmed with justice, 
 that there is more difficulty in selecting a 
 good mare to breed from, than a good horse, 
 because she should possess qualities somewhat 
 opposite. That sufficient room may be given 
 for the growth of the foelus, her carcase should 
 be long, and yet with this there shaald be 
 
 coiiipactncss of form and Bhortneas of log, 
 AVhat can be expected from the practice of 
 those who purchase worn-out, Hpavined, foun- 
 dered nuires, about which they funey tlioro huvo 
 been some good points, and hend thom fur 
 into the country to breed from ; aud, with all 
 their variety of shape, to bo covered by tho 
 same horse ? In a lottery like this, there 
 may be, now and then, a prize, but there must 
 bo many blanks. If horse-breeders, possessed 
 of good judgment, would pay the same at- 
 tention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell 
 did in sheep, they would probably attain 
 their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly 
 to their advantage, wliether for the collar or 
 the road, for racing or for hunting. 
 
 As to the shape of the stallion, little satis- 
 factory can be said. It must depend on that 
 of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to 
 be bred ; but if there is one point which 
 we should say is absolutely essential, it is 
 this, "compactness" — as much goodness and 
 strength as possible, condensed into a little 
 space. 
 
 Next to compactness, the inclination of tlio 
 shoulder will be regarded. A huge stallion, 
 with upright shoulders, never got a capital 
 hunter or hackney. From him the breeder 
 can obtain nothing but a cart or dray-horse, 
 and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite 
 form of the mare. On the other hand, au 
 upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely 
 necessary, when a mere slow draught animal 
 is required. 
 
 It is of no little importance, tliat the parents 
 should be in full possession of their natural 
 strength aud powers. It is a common error 
 to suppose that because a mare has once been 
 good, she may profitably be used to breed 
 from when she is no longer capable of ordinary 
 work. Her blood and perl'ect frame may 
 ensure a foal of some value, but he will inherit 
 a portion of the worn-out constitution of her 
 from whom he sprung. 
 
 On the subject of breeding in and in — that 
 is, persevering in the same breed, and selecting 
 the best on either side — much has been said. 
 The system of crossing requires larger ex- 
 perience and judgment, perliaps much larger 
 than breeders usually possess. The bad 
 qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted 
 on the original stock ; and once eugrafted there, 
 
 L39 
 
BKEEDlNa.J 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [BKEEDrNG. 
 
 are not, for many generations, eradicated. 
 The good qualities of both are occasionally 
 neutralised to a most mortifying degree. On 
 the other hand, it is the fact, however some 
 may deny it, that strict confinement to one 
 breed, no matter how valuable or perfect, pro- 
 duces gradual deterioration. The truth here, 
 as in many other cases, lies in pursuing the 
 middle course. Crossing should be attempted 
 with great caution, and tlie most valuable 
 points of the same breed should be preserved, 
 but varied, by being frequently taken from dif- 
 ferent stocks, with reference to either one or 
 more excellences which these may have been 
 discovered to possess. This is the secret of 
 the turf. The pure south-eastern blood is 
 never left, but the stock is often changed with 
 manifest advantage. 
 
 A mare is capable of breeding at three or 
 four years old. Some have injudiciously com- 
 menced to breed at two years old, before the 
 form or strength of the mare is sufficiently 
 developed, and with the development of which 
 this early breeding will materially interfere. 
 If she does little more than farm work, she may 
 continue to be bred from, until she is nearly 
 twenty ; but if she has been severely worked, 
 and bears the marks of it, let her liave been 
 what she might in her youth, she will deceive 
 the expectations of the breeder in her old age. 
 The mare comes into " season" about Feb- 
 ruary, and continues "horsing," at intervals, 
 until the end of June or middle of July. Her 
 term of gestation is from eleven to twelve 
 months ; but some have been six weeks beyond 
 the eleven months. We may take, however, 
 eleven months as the average. In running 
 horses that are brought so early to the starting- 
 post, and whether they are foaled early in 
 January or late in April, rank as of the same 
 age, it is of importance that the mare should go 
 to cover as early as possible. For other breeds, 
 the beginning of May is the most convenient 
 period. The mare would then foal in the early 
 part of the following April, when there would 
 begin to be sufficient food for her and her colt, 
 without confining them much to the stable. 
 
 From the time of covering to a few days be- 
 fore the expectation of foaling, the drauglit 
 mare may be kept at moderate work, not only 
 without injury, but with decided advantage. 
 Her labour may be continued up to the very 
 140 
 
 time when she is expected to foal — of which 
 she will give at least a day's notice, by the ad- 
 hesive matter that will appear about her teats. 
 "When this is observed, it will be prudent to 
 release her from work, and keep her near home, 
 and under the frequent inspection of some 
 careful person. 
 
 "When nearly half the time of pregnancy has 
 elapsed, the mare should have a little better 
 food. She should be allowed one or two feeds 
 of corn in the day. This is about the period 
 when mares are accustomed to slink or abort 
 their foals, or when abortion occurs. At this 
 time, therefore, the eye of the owner should be 
 frequently upon them. Good feeding and mo- 
 derate exercise will be the best preventives 
 against any mishap that may be likely to occur. 
 The mare that has once sliuked her foal is 
 liable to a similar accident again, aud 
 
 ever 
 
 therefore should never be suflered to be with 
 other mares about the time that this usually 
 occurs, which is between the fourth and fifth 
 months ; for such is the power of imagination 
 or of sympathy in the mare, that if one sufters 
 abortion, several others in the same pasture 
 will be certain also to prove abortive and share 
 the same fate. Farmers wash, paint, and tar 
 their stables to prevent some supposed infec- 
 tion. The infection lies in the imagination. 
 
 If a mare has been regularly exercised, aud 
 apparently in health while she was in foal, little 
 danger will attend the act of parturition. If 
 otherwise, and any signs of danger, it will be 
 better to have recourse to a well-informed 
 practitioner, rather than run the risk of injur- 
 ing the mother by the violent, and frequently 
 injudicious attempts which are often made to 
 relieve the animal. 
 
 So soon as parturition has taken place, the 
 mare should be turned into some well-shel- 
 tered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into 
 when she pleases; and as, supposing she has 
 foaled in April, the grass is scanty, she should 
 have a couple of feeds of corn daily. The 
 breeder may depend upon it, that nothing is 
 gained by starving the mother and stinting 
 the foal at this time. It is the most important 
 crisis in the life of the horse; and if, from 
 false economy, his growth is arrested, his puny 
 form and want of endurance will ever after- 
 wards testify to the error that has been com- 
 mitted. The corn should be given in a trough 
 
UnEEDIXO.] 
 
 :M'>i)i:iix vi:ti:im x A i; V practice. 
 
 [iJUKKDISa. 
 
 on the ground, that the foal may partake of it 
 with the mother. AVhcn the now grass is 
 abundant, tlio quantity of corn may be gradually 
 lessened. 
 
 After foaling, the mare maybe made to per- 
 form a moderate amount of labour in about a 
 montli. The foal is at llr-it shut iu the stable 
 during the hours of work; but as soon as it 
 acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the 
 mare, and especially when she is at slow work, 
 it will be better for the foal and the dam that 
 they should be \ ogether. The work will con- 
 tribute to the health of the mother; the foal 
 will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive 
 better, and will be hardy and tractable, and 
 gradually familiarised with the objects among 
 which it is afterwards to live. While the 
 mother, however, is tlius worked, she and the 
 foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of 
 corn, at least, should be added to the green 
 food which is supplied to them when turned 
 out after their work, and at night. The mare 
 will usually be found again in " season," at or 
 before the expiration of a month from the time 
 of foaling, when, if she be kept principally for 
 breeding purposes, she may be put again to the 
 horse. 
 
 To return, however, to the foal. It is not 
 generally known that the refusing to suck, 
 which is the cause of the death of many foals, 
 as well as the scouring, which about the third 
 day kills many more, are both produced by irri- 
 tation, and consequent inflammation of the 
 bowels, from the retention of a few small hard 
 faeces in the rectum. These are generally more 
 in quantity in proportion as the keep of the 
 mare has been higli. 
 
 The cure is simple* a few hours after the 
 foal has been dropped, a tallow candle sJiould 
 invariably he passed into the rectum; and when 
 the passage has been sufliciently softened, the 
 faeces can easily be extracted by the finger. 
 
 In cases where scouring kills foals at a sub- 
 sequent period, it is generally to be attributed 
 to the foal heating itself by violent exercise. 
 Consequently the mare, for the first day or two 
 that she is let out — supposing her to be housed 
 — ought only to be walked about with a halter, 
 and the same practice pursued at the time of 
 her first " horsing." 
 
 Some mares will not allow their foals to suck. 
 This arises from the tenderness of their teats. 
 
 In such cases thoy should have their lieads tied 
 up, and, if necessary, bo otlu-rwise prevented 
 from kicking while they are milked by hand. 
 Tliu milk should be rubbed over the teats for a 
 short time, after which they will allow the foal 
 to suck. 
 
 Should the mare's milk be obstructed ano 
 fail, either from her having taken cold orolier 
 cause, if out, she should immediately be tn«eu 
 up to the house, and enticed to lie down itpDn 
 a largo and deep-littered bed of fresh straw, in a 
 loose box, and every method adopted to cuin- 
 fort her, and to encourage the secretion of milk. 
 To promote this end, as much warm mild ale 
 should he allowed as she will drink. Sliould 
 she refuse this she may be drenched with a 
 couple of quarts, to he repeated as frequently as 
 may appear necessary — her food being the 
 finest and most fragrant hay, sweet grains, 
 with mashes of corn and pollard. In cases of 
 chill, and great weakness, tlie old well-known 
 article, cordial ball, may be given iu warm 
 ale. 
 
 Should, however, the case be inflamma- 
 tory, from previous high condition and fulness 
 
 of blood, COEDIAL BALL AND ALL STIMULANTS 
 
 SHOULD BE STitiCTLT AVOIDED, aud the regimen 
 confined to warm water and gruel, in as copious 
 quantities as can be administered. Should 
 further measures of similar tendency be indi- 
 cated, a mild solution of Epsom salts — ten or 
 twelve ounces in a pail of warm water — may be 
 given, which she may be induced to drink by 
 means of being kept short of water. Should 
 the symptoms demand it, a moderate quantity 
 of hlood may he drawn, but not otherwise. 
 Daily walking exercise abroad, the mare being 
 clothed, if necessary, should follow this treat- 
 ment, until she is sufficiently recovered to bo 
 returned to her pasture. 
 
 During her inability to give suck, the foal 
 must be sustained on cow's milk. This alien 
 milk will generally disorder and gripe the foai, 
 tor which the best remedy is two or three spoon- 
 fuls ofrhuharh in powder, tvilh an equal quantity 
 of maynesia, in warm gruel. This medicine 
 should be given to the foals of working marcs, 
 which are often griped by sucking pent milk. 
 The disorder arising from wet and cold, a table 
 spooiful each, of the best brandy and syrup 
 of white p)oppies, may be given several times. 
 Mares that give birth early, aud in bad weather, 
 
 141 
 
BEEEDIKQ.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [BEEAKING-rN". 
 
 ehould invariably be brought to the house to 
 foal. 
 
 Mares travelling with young foals ought not 
 to go above fifteen miles a day, and their pace 
 should be entirely regulated by the natural pace 
 of the foals, which must never be hurried so that 
 they be left behind. Every mile or two the mares 
 should be allowed to stop a little, and the 
 foal be permitted to suck and rest itself. 
 Thus the journey ought to occupy the whole 
 of the day. 
 
 Mares having dead foals, ouglit to lose a 
 little Hood, he fed moderately on cooling masJies 
 with a little nitre, and on kg account be al- 
 lowed COEN. Moderate walking exercise is 
 very desirable for mares before foaling ; and 
 alternate mashes of plain and of scalded bran 
 are much to be recommended. 
 
 It should be observed that geldings must 
 not be admitted among the brood mares, as by 
 leaping them, or harassing them about, abor- 
 tion may be occasioned. 
 
 In five or six months, according to the 
 growth of the foal, it may be weaned. It 
 should then be housed for three weeks or a 
 month. There can be no better place for this 
 than the rick-yard, as affording both food and 
 shelter. The mother should then be put to 
 harder work, and have drier meat. One or two 
 urine balls, or a physic hall, will be useful if 
 the milk should be troublesome, or she should 
 pine after her foal. 
 
 There is no principle of greater importance 
 than the liberal feeding of the foal during the 
 whole of his growth, and at this time in parti- 
 cular. Bruised oats and bran should form a 
 considerable part of his daily provender. Should 
 a dairy be upon the ground, a plentiful supply 
 of new milk will, in a wonderful degree, hasten 
 his development. The farmer may be assured 
 that money is w^ell laid out which is expended 
 on the liberal nourishment of the growing colt; 
 yet, while he is well fed, he should not be ren- 
 dered delicate by excess of care. A racing 
 colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined 
 to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural 
 horse, should merely have a square rick, under 
 the leeward side of which he may shelter him- 
 self ; or a hovel, into which he may go at night, 
 or at any time run out of the rain. — By attend- 
 ing to these observations, their good efiects 
 will soon make themselves apparent. 
 142 
 
 BREAKING-IN. 
 The process of breaking-in should commence 
 from the very period of weaning. The foal 
 should be daily handled, partially dressed, ac- 
 customed to the halter, led about, and even 
 tied up. The tractability, and good temper, 
 and value of the horse, depend a great deal 
 more upon this than breeders are aware. 
 Everything should be done as much as possible 
 by the man by whom the colts are fed, and 
 whose management of them should be always 
 kind and gentle. There is no fault for which 
 a breeder should more emphatically correct his 
 servant than for harshness towards the rising 
 stock ; for the principle on which their after 
 usefulness is founded, is early attachment to, 
 and confidence in man ; aud obedience, im- 
 plicit obedience, resulting principally from his 
 attentions. 
 
 There is nothing of greater importance to 
 the owner of the horse than his being well 
 broken. To insure this, great care should be 
 taken to put the animal under the care of a 
 man well qualified for his duties ; for nothing 
 is easier than to spoil the mouth of a horse, if 
 left to the management of an injudicious person. 
 It has been observed that more horses ha^e 
 been spoiled in the breaking than can ever be 
 recovered afterwards, even if mounted by the 
 most skilful riders. 
 
 After the second winter, the work of break- 
 ing-in the cart colt may commence in good 
 earnest. The animal may first be bitted, 
 with such an instrument as will not hurt his 
 mouth, and much smaller than such bits as are 
 in common use. With this he may be suffered 
 to amuse himself, aud to play, and to champ 
 for an hour, on a few successive days. 
 
 Having become a little tractable, portions of 
 the harness may be put upon him, and, last of 
 all, the blind winkers. In a few days after- 
 wards he may go into the team. It would 
 add to his confidence and feeling of security 
 if another horse could be put before and an- 
 other behind him, besides the shaft horse. 
 Let there be first only the empty waggon, and 
 let nothing be done to him, except that he 
 may have an occasional pat or kind word. His 
 companion horses will keep him moving, and 
 in his place. In some instances not much 
 time passes, not even the first day, before he 
 
BRKAiciNU-m.] MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICK 
 
 [BitliAK12ia>UI. 
 
 will begin to pull with tho rest, wlioii liia loail 
 may bo gratlually inoreadi'd. 
 
 Tho agricultural horso is wanted to rido as 
 well as to draw. His first lesson should, 
 thoreCoro, bo given when ho is in tho team. 
 Let his i'eeilor, if possible, bo first put upon 
 hiiu : ho will be too much hampered by his 
 harness, and by tho other horses, to make 
 Muich resistance ; and, in tho majority of cases, 
 will quietly and at once submit. In riding, 
 no whip or spur should bo used in giving the 
 animal his first lessons. 
 
 "When he begins to understand his business, 
 backing, tho most difficult part of his work, 
 may be taught hira. To accomplish this he 
 must first be made to back well without any- 
 thing behind him, then with a light cart, and 
 afterwards with some heavier load, taking the 
 greatest care not seriously to hurt the mouth. 
 If the first lesson causes soreness or inflam- 
 mation of the gums, the colt will not readily 
 submit to a second. If he has been rendered 
 tractable before, by kind usage, time and 
 patience will do all that can be wished Here. 
 Some carters are in the habit of blinding the 
 colt when teaching him to back. This may 
 be necessary with the restive and obstinate 
 one, but it should be resorted to only when all 
 other attempts to back him have failed. It 
 is an admirable plan to teach a horse to back 
 without blinkers, for many accidents have oc- 
 curred from horses h.iving had their bridles 
 slipped oft', and through not being accustomed 
 to see the vehicle behind them, have become 
 terrified, and set oiF at full speed, to the de- 
 struction often of themselves and of whatever 
 object with which they may come in contact. 
 
 The colt having been thus partially broken- 
 in, the necessity of implicit obedience may be 
 taught him. This is not to be done by 
 severity, but by firmness and steadiness. The 
 voice will go a great way, but whip or spur is 
 sometimes indispensable. The application of 
 either of these instruments, however, is not to be 
 of such a severe kind as to excite the animal to 
 resistance, but to convince him that his driver 
 or master has the power to enforce submis- 
 sion. Few horses are naturally of a vicious 
 disposition. It is generally bad usage w'hich 
 has first provoked resistance, which has 
 brought upon them severer chastisement, and 
 which, as a matter of course, the fear or the 
 
 stubbornnesB of tho quadnipod has atill fur- 
 ther iucreaHi'd. Open warfare then onaues; 
 dislike takes place on both sides; tho man 
 liates tho horso, and tho horso hatoH tho man ; 
 when both aro rendered unfit to perform their 
 dutica pro|)erly together. Correction may, or 
 must bo used, to enforce implicit obedience 
 after tho education has proceeded to a certain 
 extent, but tho early lessons should bo incul- 
 cated with kiudness alone. Young colts an; 
 sometimes very perverse ; many days will oc- 
 casionally pass before they will permit the 
 bridle to be put on, or the saddle to bo worn ; 
 but one act of harshness will often double or 
 treble this time. Patience and kindness will, 
 after a while, prevail. This, succeeded by ad- 
 ditional kindness and soothing on the part of 
 the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being 
 suffered by the animal, all resistance becomes 
 at an end. 
 
 The same principles will apply to the break- 
 iug-in of the horse for the road or the chase. 
 The handling, and some portion of instruction, 
 should, as we have said, commence from the 
 time of weaning. The future tractabilitv of 
 the animal depends much on this. At two 
 years and a-half, or three years, the regular 
 process of breaking-in should come on. If it 
 be delayed until the horse is four years old, 
 his strength and obstinacy will be more diffi- 
 cult to overcome. A headstall is put on the 
 colt, and a cavesson, or apparatus to confine 
 and pinch the nose, affixed to it, with long 
 reins. He is first accustomed to rein, then 
 led round a ring on soft ground, and at length 
 mounted and taught his paces. Next to pre- 
 serving his temper and docility, there is nothing 
 of so much importance as to teach him every 
 pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and 
 thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate 
 and sometimes long-continued lesson, taught 
 by a man who will never 8uff"er his own temper 
 to overcome his discretion. 
 
 After the cavesson has been attached to the 
 headstall, and the long rein put on, tho first 
 lesson is, to have him led quietly about by the 
 breaker. A steady boy should follow behind, 
 and occasionally threaten with the whip, 
 but never give an actual blow, his only duty 
 being to keep the colt up. When the animal fol- 
 lows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the 
 ring, and walked round, right and left, in a very 
 
 143 
 
BEEAKING-IN.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [breaking-tn. 
 
 fimall circle. Care should be taken to teach 
 him this pace thoroughly, never suffering him 
 to break into a trot. The boy with his whip 
 may here again be necessary, but not a single 
 blow should ever be administered. 
 
 Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he 
 should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily 
 at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging 
 him on, and the cavesson restraining him. 
 These lessons should be short. The pace 
 should be kept perfect and distinct in each, 
 and docility and improvement rewarded with 
 Trequent caresses and handfuls of corn. The 
 length of the rein may now be gradually in- 
 creased, the pace quickened, and the time ex- 
 tended, until the animal becomes tractable in 
 these his first lessons ; towards the conclusion 
 of which, crupper-straps, or something similar, 
 may be attached to the clothing. These, play- 
 ing about the sides and flanks, accustom him 
 to the flapping of the coat of the rider. Any 
 annoyance which they may at first occasion 
 will pass over in a day or two, when the ani- 
 mal finds that no harm to him arises from them. 
 
 Next comes the bitting. The bit should be 
 large and smooth, and the reins should be 
 buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. 
 The reins should at first be slack, and very 
 gradually tightened. The object of this is to 
 prepare the animal for the more perfect man- 
 ner in which the head will be afterwards got 
 into its proper position, when he is accustomed 
 to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should 
 stand in front of the colt, and take hold of 
 each side-rein near to the mouth, and press 
 upon it, which is a mode of beginning to 
 teach him to stop and to back at the pressure 
 of the rein. Every act of this sort should be 
 rewarded by some soft or gentle endearments, 
 and no eagerness or desire to punish any oc- 
 casional carelessness or waywardness which 
 the yet unbroken animal may be inclined to 
 display. 
 
 The colt may now be taken into the road or 
 street to be gradually accustomed to the objects 
 among which his services will be required. 
 Here, from fear or playfulness, a considerable 
 degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. 
 A.S little notice as possible should be taken of 
 these symptoms of timidity or wildness. The 
 same or a similar object should be soon passed 
 again, but at a greater distance. If the colt 
 144 
 
 still shies, let the distance be farther increased, 
 until he takes no notice of the object ; then he 
 may be gradually brought nearer to it, usually 
 without the slightest difficulty. If, however, 
 there is an attempt made to force him close to 
 it in the first instance, the remembrance of 
 the contest, which such an act generally causes, 
 will be associated with the object, and the habit 
 of shying will be established. 
 
 Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, 
 the whip may have been shown, but will 
 scarcely have been used. The colt must now, 
 however, be accustomed to this instrument of 
 authority. Let the breaker walk by the side 
 of the animal, and throw his right arm over 
 his back, holding the reins in his left ; and oc- 
 casionally quickening his pace, let the horse be 
 touched with the whip very gently. It is 
 astonishing how soon the association of the 
 touch of the whip and the quickening of the 
 pace become fixed in the mind of the animal. 
 If necessary, the touches may gradually fall a 
 little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the 
 monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. 
 The lessons of reining in, stopping, and back- 
 ing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to 
 be practised at the same time. 
 
 He may now be taught to bear the saddle. 
 Some little caution will be necessary in putting 
 it on at the first. The breaker should stand 
 at the head of the colt, pat him, and engage his 
 attention, while one assistant, on the off-side, 
 gently places it on the back. Another, on the 
 near side, will then slowly tighten the girths. 
 If the animal submits quietly to this, as he 
 generally will, when the previous process of 
 breaking-in has been properly conducted, the 
 ceremony of mounting may be attempted on 
 the following or on the third day. The breaker 
 will need two assistants to accomplish this 
 operation. He will remain at the head of the 
 colt, patting and making much of him. Tiio 
 rider will then put his foot into the stirrup, 
 and bear a little weight upon it, while the man 
 on the off-side presses equally on the other 
 stirrup-leather ; and, according to the docility 
 of the animal, he will gradually increase the 
 weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup. 
 If the colt is uneasy or fearful, he should be 
 spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthful of 
 corn given to him: but if he offers serious 
 resistance, the lessons must terminate for that 
 
i;i:EUviN(i-iN.] MODHKX VETEKINARY PRACTICE. [uuKAKiNO-iy. 
 
 day ; he may probably be in better humour on 
 tlie noxt. 
 
 "Wlu-n till' riili'i- has balaiu-cd liimst'lf for a 
 minute or two, he may gently throw liis leg 
 over, and (juietly seat himself. The breaker 
 will then load the animal round the ring, 
 the rider sitting perfeetly still. After a ft'w 
 minutea ho will take the reins, and handle 
 them as gently as possible, guiding the horse by 
 the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, 
 and especially when he thinks of dismounting; 
 and, after having dismoinited, ofl'ering him a 
 little corn or green meat. The use of the rein 
 in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg 
 and the touch of the heel in quickening his 
 pace, will soon be taught him ; when the educa- 
 tion will be nearly completed. 
 
 The horse having thus far submitted himself 
 to the breaker, these pattings and rewards 
 must be gradually diminished ; and implicit 
 obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity 
 will not often be necessary. In the great 
 majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled 
 for: but should the animal, in a moment of 
 waywardness, dispute the command of the 
 breaker, he must, at once, be taught that he is 
 the slave of man, who has the power, by other 
 means than those of kindness, to bend him to 
 his will. The plan of the education of the 
 horse is similar to that which experience and 
 wisdom have suggested to be adopted in the 
 education of the child. Pleasure is, as much 
 as possible, to be associated with the early 
 lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, coercion 
 must be called in to confirm the habit of obe- 
 dience. Tyranny and cruelty will, in the horse, 
 more speedily excite a feeling of disobedience 
 even than in the child ; and, on every possible 
 practicable occasion, a desire to resist the 
 power of command. The restive and vicious 
 horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, 
 made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. jSoue 
 but those who will take the trouble to try the 
 experiment, are aware how absolute becomes 
 the control which the due admixture of firm- 
 ness and kindness will soon give him over any 
 horse. The breaker should keep in his mind 
 continually the Latin proverb, " quod factum 
 est his factum est ;" what is well done, is twice 
 done. 
 
 Shying is very frequent among young horses ; 
 and, where it appears, it should be particularly 
 
 attended to by the breaker-in. It nriseH from 
 several causes— namely, fear, roguery, want of 
 work, or defective vision. Tlio more racing- 
 blood a horse has, the less ho is subject to this 
 infirmity or vice. The only remedy for it, it) 
 to hold hard and keep quiet. As to the whip 
 and spur, and the silly cheeking a really fearful 
 animal with a sharp curb, as though the intent 
 were to break his jaw-bone, is an injudicious^ 
 if not a cruel practice. Mr. Lawrence savs — 
 " With aflected shyers, some severity mav bo 
 necessary. ' Chaps' generally fix upon some 
 particular shying butt: for example, I recol- 
 lect having, at difierent periods, three hacks, 
 all very powerful ; the one made choice of a 
 windmill for the object or butt, the other a 
 tilted waggon, and the last a pig led in a 
 string. I was once placed in a very danger- 
 ous predicament by this last, on a road filled 
 with carriages. It so happened, however, that 
 I rode the two former when amiss from a 
 violent cold, and they then paid no more 
 attention to either windmills or tilted waggons, 
 than to any other objects, convincing me that 
 their shying, when in health and spirits, was 
 pure afiectation. It is a thing seldom, per- 
 haps never, thought of or attended to, which 
 however detracts nothing from its conse- 
 quence, to accustom colts, during their break- 
 ing, to all the chief objects of their terror, 
 which may occasion the vice of shying. After 
 a colt shall have been a considerable time in 
 hand, and his education nearly finished, should 
 he be a careless and blundering goer, not sufii- 
 cieutly bending his knees, he should be fre- 
 quently, but with great care, exercised daily 
 in a slow trot, over rough and uneven roads. 
 
 " To connect vices with their anomalies 
 together, I once had a fine hunting mare, au 
 incorrigible biter; as a proof of which, before 
 she came into my possession (but I was unap- 
 prised of it), she had killed a stable-boy ; yet 
 her biting was entirely confined to the stable, 
 nor did she ever show either that or any other 
 kind of vice abroad, riding perfectly quiet." 
 
 These defects in the horse will be more fully 
 spoken of when we come to treat of his dan- 
 gerous habits or vices in another part of this 
 work. There also we will notice the power of 
 the Irish "whisperer," Sullivan, over the 
 animal ; and notice IMr. Earey's mode, which, 
 in conjunction with the recent inventions of 
 
 145 
 
CASTKAXIOK.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CASTKATION, 
 
 Dr. Bunting, are likely, at no distant day, to 
 sinjersede all the more antiquated systems of 
 breaking-in. 
 
 CASTRATION, 
 
 The period at which this important opera- 
 tion may be best performed, depends much on 
 the breed and form of the colt, and the pur- 
 pose for which he is destined. For the 
 common agricultural horse, the age of four or 
 live months is the most proper time, or, at 
 least, before he is weaned. Very few horses 
 are lost when cut at that age. The operation 
 should be performed when the weather is not 
 too hot, nor the flies too numerous. "We, 
 liowever, enter our decided protest against the 
 recommendation of valuable, but incautious 
 agricultural writers, that " colts should be cut 
 in the mouths of June or July, when flies 
 pester the horses, and cause them to be con- 
 tinually moving about, and thereby prevent 
 swelling." One moment's reflection will con- 
 vince the reader that nothing can be more 
 likely to produce inflammation, and conse- 
 quent swelling and danger, than the torture 
 of the flies hovering round, and stinging the 
 sore part. 
 
 If the horse is designed either for the 
 carriage or for heavy draught, the farmer 
 should not think of castrating him until he is 
 at least a twelvemonth old ; and, even then, 
 the colt should be carefully examined. If he 
 is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, 
 and low in tlie withers, he will materially im- 
 prove by remaining uncut another six months ; 
 but if his fore- quarters are fairly developed at 
 the age of twelve months, the operation should 
 not be delayed, lest he become heavy and 
 gross before, and perhaps has begun too de- 
 cidedly to have a will of his own. No specific 
 "ge, then, can be fixed ; but the castration 
 should be performed rather late in the spring, 
 or early in the autumn, when the air is tem- 
 perate, and particularly when the weather is 
 dry. No preparation is necessary for the 
 sucking colt, but it may be prudent to bleed 
 and to pliysic one of more advanced age. In 
 the majority of cases, no after treatment will 
 he necessary, except tliat the animal should be 
 sheltered from intense heat, and more par- 
 ticularly from wet. In temperate weather he 
 
 will do much better running in the field than 
 nursed in a close and hot stable. The mode- 
 rate exercise which he will take in grazint^ 
 will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large 
 and well-ventilated box, however, may be per- 
 mitted. 
 
 The manner in which the operation is pei- 
 formed will be properly left to the vetm-inary 
 surgeon. No comuiorj gelder should, now-a- 
 days, be permitted to perform this operation. 
 The old way of opening the bag, or scrotum, 
 on either side, cutting ofl" the testicles, and 
 preventing bleeding or haemorrhage, by the 
 temporary compression of the vessels while 
 they are being seared with a hot iron, may 
 not, perhaps, be entirely abandoned. There 
 is at least an appearance of brutality, and, we 
 believe, much unnecessary pain inflicted, when 
 the spermatic cord — the vessels and the nerve — 
 is tightly compressed between two pieces of 
 wood, as in a powerful vice, and left there 
 either until the testicles drop off", or is re- 
 moved on the following day by the operator. 
 
 To the practice of some farmers, of twitch- 
 ing their colts at an early period, sometimes 
 even so early as a month, there is stronger 
 objection. When the operation of twitching 
 is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly 
 as possible round the bag, between the testicles 
 and the belly. The circulation is thus stopped, 
 and, in a few days, the testicles and the bag 
 drop off; but not until the animal has greatly 
 suffered. It is occasionally necessary to tighten 
 tlie cord on the second or thii'd day, and in- 
 flammation and death have frequently ensued. 
 
 A new mode of performing this operation 
 has recently been introduced — the operation 
 by Lorison. It has the merit of apparently 
 inflicting far less pain upon the animal, and 
 entirely supersedes the brutal firing system. 
 In performing it the scrotum is cut in the 
 same manner as we have already described, 
 and the vas deferens exposed and divided. A 
 pair of forceps, made for the purpose, is then 
 used to seize the artery, which is twisted half- 
 a-dozen times round. As soon as the hold of 
 the artery is relinquished, the coils are left 
 untwisted, and the haemorrhage has ceased. 
 The testicle is removed, and there is neither 
 sloughing nor danger, neither of whicli is 
 desirable. 
 
 146 
 
BIDING.] 
 
 MODEKN VETEEINAKY P"R\rTIP'^ 
 
 [bidiwo. 
 
 CnAPTEU VII. 
 
 luniMi : i.KAriNO. 
 
 RiniNG. j 
 
 In a treatise which lias ibr its object a full 
 tli'scription of the horse iu every situation in 
 which that noble animal ia employed, it cannot 
 be deemed out of place to devote a brief space 
 to the equestrian art, to which, more especially, 
 that quadruped was originally subjected. In 
 our observations upon training the horse, we 
 have not even alluded to what is called the 
 grand menage, but have strictly confined our- 
 selves to that branch of breaking-iu which 
 constitutes the proper education of the English 
 horse for the field and the road. Accordingly, 
 those animals which require a higher degree 
 of perfection iu the menage, we have purposely 
 left to the care of those professors of the riding- 
 schools, whose business it is to teach horses to 
 perform such feats as not only display their 
 wonderful docility, tractability and agility ; but 
 their sagacity, as well as the entire subjection 
 to which they have been reduced by the power 
 of man. Therefore the horsemanship to which 
 wo shall here confine ourselves, will be restricted 
 to that which is practised in the modern English 
 school. 
 
 "When the horse is led out, saddled and 
 bridled, the next object of the rider ought to 
 be to examine the state of the various equip- 
 ments of his horse, and to ascertain that every 
 part of them is strong, and has been so placed 
 as to insure his own safety as well as the 
 comfort of the animal he is to ride. The first 
 object will be the bridle, to see that the head- 
 stall be of a proper length, neither too loose 
 nor too short; to see the curb-chain hooked 
 in its proper place, leaving the snafile above, 
 and clear; the fore-top hair placed under the 
 band of the bridle, and the reins untwisted and 
 even. 
 
 The saddle should be put perfectly even 
 and centrical on the back of the horse, so as 
 not in the least to impede the motion of his 
 shoulders ; and the girths, buckled one over 
 the other, sufBciently tight to retain the 
 saddle firmly in its place. The real horseman 
 
 inspects everything; lie loaves nothing to 
 clianco. When a groom once knows that liia 
 horse has to uiulergo the critical examination 
 of his master, it will have a tendency to make 
 him careful in bringing the animal out in a 
 perfect state. 
 
 Mr. Lawrence thus describes the next pro- 
 ceeding : — " The nag being led out and held, 
 the jockey, that is to be, approaches the near 
 left shoulder; and gathering up the reins 
 between the fingers in his left hand, the thumb 
 upwards, at the same time weaving his fingers 
 into the mane of the horse, he acquires a hold- 
 fast and purchase. The whip is held with the 
 reins, in the left hand. With his right hand 
 he then takes hold of the stirrup, the flat aide 
 of the leather being placed towards him, and 
 into the stirrup inserts his left foot. Next, 
 placing his right hand on the cantle or after- 
 part of the saddle, and making a moderate 
 spring or vault, being cautious, at the same 
 time, to keep his foot and spur clear of the 
 horse, he seats himself, and the left hand still 
 retaining its hold of the mane, with the right 
 he adjusts the stirrup to that foot. Being 
 seated at his ease, as in a chair, and looking 
 forward between the ears of his animal, he will 
 find himself iu a square and even position with 
 him. The two forming a perfect centaur." 
 
 His next object is to adjust the reins, sup- 
 posing tliem the bridoon or snafile, and curb, 
 which should be done by leaviug the rein of 
 the latter rather slack, the chief pressure being 
 upon the snafile rein ; the curb he reserves for 
 occasional use, when a more than ordinary 
 command over the mouth of the horse may be 
 necessary ; the curb rein may then be drawn 
 with the requisite force. The right foot being 
 fixed in the stirrup, the whip, with its handle 
 upwards, is gently withdrawn from the left to 
 the right hand, and its usual place is down 
 behind the calf of the leg. As to the seat, a 
 man will sit upright, as in his chair; but ia 
 the common, and more particularly the sporting 
 seat on horseback, the spine is bent in a 
 
 147 
 
KIDIXG.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 Feidtno. 
 
 Bmall degree outward, being directly coutrary 
 to the form in military equitation. The stirrup 
 leathers should be of such length as to admit 
 of the knee being sufficiently bent to retain a 
 firm hold of the saddle; but not to that degree 
 as to hoist the rider much above it when he 
 stands in his stirrups. Nor should they be so 
 long as to represent him as being a straight- 
 kneed jockey, which detracts from his power 
 on horseback, and is dangerous in respect to 
 that pressure which has sometimes occasioned 
 rupture in the belly of the rider. The foot, for 
 the road or for sporting, indeed for the most 
 secure seat, should be placed home in the 
 stirrup, the toe rather elevated, and turned 
 somewhat outward ; thence arises a centre 
 union of force between the foot and the knee, 
 the toe being turned out, and the knee inward, 
 pressing the saddle, which assures a firm seat. 
 This is the very essence and groundwork of 
 the seat in the speedy trot and gallop ; and 
 when to it are added the firm grasp of the 
 thighs and the hold on the bridle, the stability 
 of the seat is perfectly secured. 
 
 In military riding the seat is said to depend 
 entirely on the equipoise, or balance, a point 
 of consequence, no doubt, but which, on try- 
 ing occasions, can only be maintained as above 
 stated. It has been observed of bad horse- 
 men that they can scarcely keep their spurs 
 from the sides of their horses ; but such can 
 never be the case with the above seat, in 
 which the greater difficulty is to reach their 
 sides with the spurs. The act of spurring, 
 contrary to the military mode, is performed 
 with a kick, the toe being somewhat more 
 turned out. 
 
 In dismounting, the left hand, inclosing the 
 reins, resumes its former place in the mane, 
 and the rider lands from the same side on 
 which he mounted, with his horse safe in hand. 
 Particular situations may render it necessary 
 to mount on the oft" side. The convenience is 
 ■considei able when the animal will stand still, 
 unheld at the head, to be mounted ; a point of 
 •obedience, however, to which some spirited 
 and impatient horses can scarce]}^ be reduced. 
 When a horse is held for mounting, it should 
 be by the checks of the bridle, not tlie reins, 
 and least of all by the curb rein. 
 
 Being mounted, the rider may find the 
 stirrup-leathers too long or too short. In 
 148 
 
 applying the remedy the attendant should be 
 careful to draw the buckle of the stirrup- 
 leather to the top, and to leave the pad of the 
 saddle smooth and even. The arms should 
 hang easily down the waist, and, though the 
 elbows are bent, they must not be awkwardly 
 elevated or protruded. The bridle is held 
 about level with, or rather above the pommel 
 of the saddle, at a length somewhat beyond 
 it, towards the rider. The reins should not 
 be held so long and loose as to diminish the 
 power of the rider in supporting the horse by 
 a pull, in case of a false step. Few are left 
 now of the school of Bakewell, who taught 
 that the rider could afford his animal no pos- 
 sible support in case of stumbling, but that, 
 by pulling at him, would rather accelerate his 
 fall. The horse, well aware of the purpose for 
 which he is mounted, will, in general, proceed, 
 on his head being loosed ; if not, an intima- 
 tion, by gently moving the reins, or pressing 
 his sides witli the calves of the legs, will be 
 sufficient. If a steady and quiet hack — and on 
 such only a tyro should be mounted — he will 
 commence with a walk, and, in all probability, 
 continue that pace till put forward by his 
 rider. Horses, indeed, full of good keep, high 
 spirited, and having had little work, will, at 
 starting, be impatient of a slow pace, and cut 
 a few capers ; on which the rider has nothing 
 to do but to sit quiet with a mild and steady 
 hand, until this merry fit is over. The proper 
 starting pace, the walk, being continued at the 
 rider's option, the intimations above described, 
 or a gentle touch on the buttock with the 
 whip or stick, will cause the animal to advance 
 to his next pace, the slow or jog-trot — the best 
 pace of the horse, perhaps, to those who ride 
 for their health's salce, granting the motion be 
 not too rough. In the walk, the slow trot, 
 and the canter, the rider sits on his saddle as 
 in his easy chair. In reference to the move- 
 ment of the horse in the canter, Mr. Blaine 
 says, " that the hind-legs are thrown in, and 
 while elevated, the oft' fore-leg becomes raised 
 from the ground, but the near fore-leg is not 
 elevated until the hinder ones are replaced; 
 and this constitutes the grand difference be- 
 tween the canter and the gallop. The sensa- 
 tion to the rider is as different as possible, and 
 so is the action to the eye also. If this be 
 established, it will call to mind that the whole 
 
niuixo.] 
 
 !\rODERN VETEllINAKV I' i; A (" T I C K. 
 
 [UIUINO. 
 
 weirjlit of the boil^' must at one time rest com- 
 plotfly on tlie near tbro let; ; and that this 
 does tako phice in the canter, is evident from 
 the efl'ects observed ; for it is a reuiarkablo 
 fact, though seldom noticed by old writers, 
 that in all cantering horses tho near fore leg is 
 more deteriorated, and exhibits more ellects of 
 work than tho oil". Judicious horsemen, sen- 
 sible of this, do not tliereforo permit their 
 norses always to lead on the same leg, but 
 frequently change the centre, and gallop, 
 canter, and trot sometimes with the right, and 
 sometimes with the left shoulder forward. 
 The right foot is usually employed in the lead, 
 when a horse is breaking-in as a * canterer,' 
 and it is proper so to commence the breaking- 
 in. If the horse is awkward, or strikes off 
 falsely, tighten the near rein, which, inclining 
 his head to the left, naturally advances his 
 right shoulder, and produces the disposition, 
 when he is pressed forward by the hand, the 
 whip, or the heels, to canter with the right 
 shoulder forward. But wo revert to our cau- 
 tion to avoid the con/inued use of the leading 
 leg, which the reader may rest assured will 
 sutler greatly, and become eventually con- 
 tracted iu the foot, gorged in the pastern, or 
 lamed by splints. Some professed horse- 
 women use a screw-crutch for their saddle, by 
 which they can shift their seat ; and to those 
 who ride a great deal, this is a very salutary 
 custom, as the constant use of one posture 
 has drawn the figure of the rider hei'self a 
 littb awry." In the speedy trot he makes 
 more use of his knees, hitching, or his body 
 rising or falling in unison with the motion of 
 the horse. This motion of rising in the 
 stirrups saves an immense amount of fatigue 
 to the horse and unpleasantness to his rider. 
 The Romans condemned the trot, and called it 
 the crucifier or torturer. In the swift gallop 
 the rider stands in his stirrups, chiefly depend- 
 ing on the grasp of his knees and thighs. 
 Formerly it was the practice to ride a galloper 
 with stirrup-leathers too short, which made the 
 seat unsteady, and too much dependence was 
 placed for support on the reins. It is ob- 
 viously impossible to lay down a precise rule 
 in this case. The length at which to ride a 
 racing-pace, whether trot or gallop, must be 
 left to the judgment and convenience of the 
 rider, with the remark that, of the extremes. 
 
 riding loo .short is the worst. Rising in the 
 trot, and lifting and working the horse along 
 with the reins in tho gallop by tho jockey, are, 
 no doubt, practices purely English. 
 
 Beyond tho slow trot, tho motion of few 
 horses is sufliciently smooth and easy to en- 
 courage the rider to sit upon tho saddle, nor is 
 the appearance of such a seat very graceful. 
 It is preferable then, if more speed in tho trot 
 be desired, to advance to that degree in which 
 the rider may rise in his stirrups; in order to 
 perform this easily and gracefully, the rate 
 must be somewhat considerable. To put tho 
 animal into a canter, a touch of tho left heel, 
 and a gentle pull of the right rein, for which 
 the right hand may be used, is the proper 
 method. 
 
 Of the liand-gallop, with the riglit shoulder 
 forward, Mr. ]31aine says — "At the instant the 
 horse elevates his fore quarters by means of 
 the muscles of the loins, he throws his fore 
 legs also forwards, through the agency of the 
 muscles distributed to the shoulders and arms ; 
 but it appears that he does not elevate his 
 fore limbs equally ; the right is raised a little 
 more, and it is likewise carried a little further 
 forward than the left, which makes the action 
 a pace not a leap. During this elevation, and 
 in some instances preparatory to it, the ri'dit, 
 or oft' hind foot, moves slightly forward, but 
 only sufficient to gain a true centre, and to 
 correspond with the increased forwardness of 
 the right shoulder; the near hiud leg, it must 
 be remembered, yet remains fixed. The fore 
 extremities now reach the ground, the near 
 fore a little before its fellow, the oft" fore 
 doubling over it and placing itself a little 
 beyond it ; and the slower the gallop, the 
 more considerable will be the distance between 
 the placing the fore legs. As soon as the near 
 fore leg has met the ground, and before the 
 oft" fore has yet taken its lull bearing, the 
 hinder legs are moved in the following manner: 
 — the near hind elevates itself; and, as it 
 reaches the ground, the oft" hind passes it and 
 becomes placed also. It is now that the horse 
 begins to be all in air in this pace; for on the 
 next spring that the hind quarters make — the 
 lore quarters being already elevated froiu tho 
 last impulse — the animal is, of necessity, com- 
 pletely detached from the ground. The next 
 period when he is likewise so, is when the fore 
 
 149 
 
EIDINQ.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [riding. 
 
 quarters, meeting the ground, gain a new im- 
 pulse by their rebound ; the haunches are again 
 thrown in to take their share in the support, 
 and, also, to give their impelling power to the 
 mass." 
 
 The simplest of all the paces of the horse is 
 the full gallop. " Simple as it is, however," 
 says the same eminent veterinary surgeon, 
 "it cannot, in any instance, be commenced 
 ■without the intervention of the slower gallop, 
 in which one of the hinder legs is first 
 advanced to establish a new centre ; for it 
 would require too great an eff'ort to raise the 
 fore parts at once from a state of rest by 
 means of tlie loins, and to throw them for- 
 wards at the first action to a considerable dis- 
 tance by means of the hauuches and thighs. 
 The fact is well known to jockeys and other 
 sporting characters, and they often derive 
 profit from the circumstance, by wagering 
 with the unwary, that no horse shall be found 
 to gallop one hundred yards while a man runs 
 fifty, provided each start together ; in which 
 case so much time is lost in acquiring the due 
 momentum, that the man has often won ; make 
 but the race for one hundred and fifty yards, 
 and the horse would beat ; for now the im- 
 petus being acquired, he arrives at sufiicieut 
 momentum to overtake his antagonist. In the 
 extended gallop, the fore parts, when raised, 
 are forced forward by the alternate flexions and 
 extensions of the angles of the hinder parts ; 
 and as both of the fore and both of the hind 
 legs, in the racing gallop, become opposed to 
 the ground in succession at the same moment 
 — that is, as the two fore feet at once beat the 
 ground togetlier, and then the two hind, so it 
 is evident that the gallop, if full, is nothing 
 more than a repetition of leaps. Quickly as 
 these leaps are repeated, yet the surface of 
 ground passed over at each of them must 
 necessarily be great to accomplish the pace at 
 which the good racer goes. Hambletonian, in 
 his match against Diamond, is said to have 
 covered eighty-three-and-a-half feet of ground 
 in a second ; and by the calculations of M. 
 St. Bel, Eclipse covered eighty-five feet of 
 ground in the same time, when at the top of 
 his speed. Every turf amateur must have re- 
 marked the horizontal position of the body in 
 the racer at the momentous struggle. Every 
 departure from a rectilinear form of the body 
 150 
 
 would detract from the rapidity of its flight, 
 and, therefore, even the head and neck are 
 carried so as to fall within the line of the 
 trunk. As a compensation, however, for the 
 loss of the power sustained, the limbs are 
 most extensively flexed, that the circles they 
 form may be more extended." 
 
 On any critical occasion, whether arising 
 from embarrassment on the road, or from un- 
 quietness in the horse, the reins may be taken 
 separately in each hand ; and this is mucti 
 practised both in riding and driving. Ii 
 obviously increases the power of the ridei 
 over his animal, and is useful in cases of start- 
 ing and shying, or in any attempt to turn 
 round, in plunging, kicking, or rearing. In 
 the latter case, common sense will inform the 
 rider, that he must lean forward with slack 
 reins, or he may pull the horse o'/er ; certainly 
 one of the most dangerous accidents among 
 the many which appertain to equestrian art. 
 Whilst leaning forward, he should apply his 
 spurs sharply to the sides of the horse — a 
 punishment which will cure him of this vice, 
 granting it is curable. 
 
 In the opposite habit of kicking out behind, 
 which some animals have the knack of doing 
 very high, with jerks not very comfortable to 
 the rider's back-bone, the precisely opposite 
 course is to be adopted, to avoid a somersault 
 over the shoulders of the horse. The rule 
 now is — sit back, sit fast, pull hard, holding the 
 head of the animal as high as possible, and 
 spurring with force at every interval of kicking. 
 Having the opportunity also, use the whip 
 eftectually on the thigh, the belly, and, if 
 necessary, on the jaws. In a confirmed case 
 of vice, nothing skort of intimidation and 
 absolute conquest will succeed. Such severity, 
 indeed, instead of a cure, may sometimes pro- 
 duce desperation ; and when patience and 
 mild measures will succeed, they are infinitely 
 preferable. We would always recommend 
 that spurs be worn. With a restive horse 
 they are indispensable; and in the case of 
 being placed between two objects, one of 
 which alarms him, and the other dangerous 
 for him to come in contact with, the spur on 
 the dangerous side is of unspeakable use, as 
 constituting the principal dependence in aid 
 of the hand of the rider to keep the horse in 
 his safe and r^roper place. 
 
R litis a.] 
 
 MODERN YT/rEIMXAin' PI{A(^TICE. 
 
 [uiuiNa. 
 
 Adams, an equestrian writer, saya, the 
 body must iilways bo in a situation, not only 
 to preserve its balance, but to maintain its 
 seat. The distinction between the balance 
 and the seat may be thus marked. Tiio 
 balance is the centrical or equilibrium position 
 of the body, whatever may be the motion of 
 the horse. The seat is the horseman's firm 
 hold of the saddle, in situations where he 
 mi«»ht be liable to be thrown over the animal's 
 neck, or to fall backwards over his tail. 
 
 To preserve the balance, it is evident the 
 body of the rider must keep in the same direc- 
 tion as the horse's legs. For example, if the 
 horse move straightly and uprightly on his legs, 
 the body of the rider must be preserved in a posi- 
 tion similarly upright ; but if the horse bends 
 or leans, as when running in a circle, or trot- 
 tinsr round a corner, the rider must lean in 
 the same direction, or his balance will be lost. 
 The balance, indeed, may be preserved by a 
 different seat ; but the seat will not be secure. 
 
 Mr. Adams further remarks, that if the 
 hand is held steady, as the horse advances in 
 the trot, the fingers will feel, by the contrac- 
 tion and dilatation of the reins, a small sensa- 
 tion or tug, occasioned by the measure of 
 every step. This, which is reciprocally felt in 
 the horse's mouth, by means of the corre- 
 spondence, is called the appui ; and while the 
 oppui is preserved between the hand and the 
 mouth, the animal is in perfect obedience ^o 
 the rider, the hand directing him with the 
 greatest ease, so that he seems to work by the 
 will of the rider rather than the manipulative 
 power. The hand then possesses, indepen- 
 dently of other aids, more than sufficient 
 strength to control and direct the horse that 
 is broken and obedient. 
 
 Berenger furnishes us with five directions on, 
 the functions of the hand. They are these: — 
 
 1. Hold your hand three fingers' breadth from 
 your body, as high as your elbow, in such 
 manner that the joint of your little finger be 
 upon a right line with the tip of the elbow ; 
 let your wrist be sufficiently rounded, that 
 your knuckles may be kept directly above the 
 neck of the horse ; let your nails be exactly 
 opposite your body, the little finger nearer to 
 it than the others ; your thumb quite flat 
 upon the reins, which you must separate by 
 vuttiug your little finger between them, the 
 
 right rein lying upon it. Thio is the firut and 
 general position. 
 
 2. Does your honso go furward ; or rather, 
 would you have him go forward ? ]f so, yield 
 to him your hand ; and for that purpose, turn 
 your nails downward in such a manner as to 
 bring your thumb near your body ; remove your 
 little linger from it, and bring it into the place 
 where your knuckles were in the lirst position, 
 keeping your nails directly above the neck of 
 your animal. 
 
 3. If you would make your horse go back- 
 ward, quit the first position, and let your wrist 
 be quite round. Then allow your thumb to bo 
 in the place of the little finger in the second 
 position, and the little finger in that of the 
 thumb ; turn your nails quite upward, and 
 towards your face, and your knuckles will be 
 towards your horse's neck. 
 
 4. If vou would turn your horse to the right, 
 leave the first position, and carry your nails to 
 the right ; then your hand upside down, in 
 such a manner that your thumb be carried out 
 to the lefc, and the little finger be brought to 
 the right. 
 
 o. If you would turn to the left, quit again 
 the first position; carry the back of your 
 hand slightly to the left, so that the knuckles 
 may come under a little, that the thumb may 
 incline to the right, and the little finger to the 
 left. 
 
 These different positions, however, adds 
 Berenger, are, when taken singly, insufficient, 
 unless the horseman be able to pass from the 
 one to the other with readiness and order. 
 
 We have spoken of terrifying the vicious 
 horse into subordination by severity; but a 
 man of right feeling and rellection will always 
 endeavour to render the labour of his animal 
 as little irksome, and as comfortable to him as 
 possible, and will, therefore, give him his reiu, 
 and bear as lightly on his mouth as may be 
 consistent with such a hold upon him as the 
 necessity of the emergency may require. If it 
 appears we have laid much stress on the fixed- 
 ness and grasp of the reins, we intended that 
 grasp, like the curb of the bridal, to be only for 
 occasional use ; but by no means that the rider 
 should be a mere fixture, as though nailed to 
 the saddle. On the contrary, he should learn 
 to sit at his ease, pliable to tlie motions of his 
 horse, and in full possessiou of a just equipoise. 
 
 151 
 
niDING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AI^D 
 
 [eidikg. 
 
 In speaking of bridles, Tve should observe 
 that the curb alone, and with single rein, is an 
 unfair bridle, and entirely deceptive to the 
 rider, since its first effect is to torture, and 
 ultimately to harden the mouth of the animal^ 
 depriving it of that sensibility which is the 
 basis of what we sliould call a good mouth. 
 The curb, beside, is an awkward bit with whicli 
 to effect the turn, it being only calculated for 
 pulling straight forward. In former days the 
 snaffle was deemed the severest bit, no doubt 
 from its having been made small and sharp. 
 Since then the snaffle has been changed into a 
 mild bit, although hard and sharp snaffles still 
 remain. Young horses should be first put to 
 work with mild bits, and chiefly accustomed to 
 the snaffle, which will ensure a good mouth, 
 sufficiently hard for fair pulling, yet with a 
 due share of sensibility and liability to be 
 affected and acted on by the occasional use of 
 the curb. The snaffle bit should be of con- 
 siderable thickness, particularly at the ends 
 next to the reins, and not made so long that 
 the joint will work into the bars of the mouth. 
 Many riders prefer a good snaffle-bridle horse 
 to any other; still we think there is an ad- 
 ditional convenience in the double-reined bri- 
 dle, in case of a rein breaking. 
 
 In reference to the lady's horse, her pad 
 
 should indicate considerable blood ; and should 
 
 rarely exceed fifteen hands in height ; its paces 
 
 should be rough ; and the trot should be both 
 
 slow and easy, which is the pace of health, 
 
 and which is a valuable quality. The canter, 
 
 however, is the principal requisite, which 
 
 should be both natural and graceful ; the 
 
 neck handsomely curved, and the mouth 
 
 possessed of a pleasant feeling. "Whatever 
 
 may be the natural beauties of such animals, 
 
 however, the grand consideration is in the 
 
 safety of their step ; for a horse deficient in 
 
 this respect, is perhaps, in his canter, always 
 
 most liable to " kiss the ground." The most 
 
 graceful canterers may be observed to lead 
 
 generally with the off" leg; but, no doubt, 
 
 there is such an error as a horse, both in his 
 
 canter and gallop, going with the wrong leg 
 
 first, to the great uneasiness of the rider. 
 
 This is more particularly felt on worn and 
 
 battered horses, which change their legs to 
 
 procure for themselves a momentary cessation 
 
 from weakness, weariness, or pain. 
 
 152 
 
 The person who attends for the purpose of 
 assisting a lady to mount her animal, should 
 be close to her, join his hands, by placing his 
 fingers within each other, to form a stirrup 
 for her left foot, as near to the ground as 
 possible. Her left knee must be quite straight, 
 which will facilitate tlie assistant's eff"ort to 
 place her in the saddle — an act facilitated by 
 a moderate spring from herself. 
 
 Some masters teach their lady pupils to 
 ride on either side of the liorse, and recom- 
 mend the pommel of the saddle to be made 
 very low, that the knee may not be thrown 
 too high. They also recommend that the 
 pommel be made with a screw, to be taken off 
 in case of a lady wishing to change sides when 
 she rnay desire it. 
 
 Ladies' riding-shoes should be always straight- 
 soled, as, in case of accident, there is the risk 
 of the foot hanging in the stirrup, when the 
 sole, according to the old fashion, is hollow 
 next the heel. A lady's pad should par- 
 ticularly be accustomed to walk off" quietly; 
 and with respect to his improvement in that 
 pace, it is accomplished by touching him gently 
 behind with the whip. 
 
 In case a lady should have to dismount with 
 the assistance of only one person to hold her 
 horse, steps or a chair are requisite. If there is 
 not this convenience, she springs from her seat ; 
 and should her pad, which is so often the case, 
 be upwards of fifteen hands, she may some- 
 times meet with a strained ankle, or some other 
 accident. Having an assistant, she gives him 
 her left hand, and holding herself by the 
 crutch of the saddle, she alights. Her pre- 
 liminary act, however, is gently to change her 
 whip from the right to the left, or bridle hand, 
 leaving its end to hang down the near shoulder 
 of her pad, placing the reins upon the upright 
 horn of the saddle, on which, also, she rests 
 her right hand. Her garments clear of giving 
 any obstruction, she may then, turning a little 
 to the right, make her spring towards the 
 assistant, who is ready to break her fall. She 
 should be careful, on quitting the stirrup, to 
 keep her knee upon the crutch, as a security 
 in case of the horse starting. It is perhaps 
 unnecessary to mention, that a gentleman who 
 attends a lady on horseback, rides on her near 
 side; and that it is one of his first duties, 
 to keep himself between the lady and any 
 
LKAl'lNO.J 
 
 -^lODERN VETERINAKV P U A CT K' H. 
 
 [leavino. 
 
 carriages or horsemen that may bo inoL wilh 
 in passing and repassing' tlu'in. 
 
 LEAPING. 
 As to leaping, initiatory practice may be 
 had at tlie bar, at school, or at any iences 
 which may present themselve3. The rules for 
 sitting, in a leap, are precisely tho same as 
 those which refer to an animal when unquiet, 
 and alternately rearing and kicking. If it is 
 a flying leap, sit last, give the nag his head, 
 and preserve your own circumspection. It 
 may bo often necessary to touch your horse 
 with the spur or whip towards the finish of 
 his leap, in order to make him clear his hind 
 le"s ; but in the whole of this feat, much 
 ought, indeed must be, confided to the animal 
 himself. If seasoned, and a staunch fencer, it 
 is a perilous thing to drive him at a leap that 
 he, most assuredly the best and safest judge, 
 has refused. How many accidents have hap- 
 pened from this vain-glorious practice! Nor 
 is it always prudent to drive a raw horse, by 
 the force of whip and spur, at a fence that has 
 alarmed him, as it may render him habitually 
 desperate and careless. 
 
 The way to make a horse a steady, prompt, 
 and safe fencer, is to suffer him to take it by 
 degrees, and spontaneously. Some very ex- 
 cellent hedge-fencers are naturally shy of 
 timber, in particular palings and hurdles. 
 Such horses cannot be safely put to these im- 
 pediments of any considerable height. 
 
 For leaping, the Irish horse is unrivalled. 
 It is not, however, the leaping of the English 
 horse, striding, as it were, over a low fence, 
 and stretched at his full length over a higher 
 one; but it resembles the jump of the deer. 
 The training of the Irish horse must, we sup- 
 pose, make this difference, as in riding, in 
 that country, a horseman has to meet with 
 fences very different from those character- 
 istic of England — stone walls being common. 
 "We will, however, more particularly enter 
 into a description of some of the varieties of 
 leaps. 
 
 The standing leap is naturally the first to 
 be described ; and although some daring Mel- 
 tonians may pronounce it as somewhat slow, 
 still it requires very skilful management to ac- 
 complish it well. In a little treatise, entitled 
 Graceful Eiding ; a Foclcet Manual for 
 
 Equestrians, by .Mr. Waite, a riding-master, 
 wo have tho movements whicli occur in tho 
 standing-leap, very clearly and briefly de- 
 scribed. "Let the rider," Hays this professor, 
 " take up his horse at an animating pace ; halt 
 him with a tight hand upon hia haunches; 
 when rising at the leap, the rider should only 
 just feel the reins, so as to prepare for slacken- 
 ing them when ho springs forward, yielding 
 them without reserve, as at the time tho horso 
 must bo left quite at liberty. As tho horse's 
 hind feet come to the ground, the rider must 
 again collect him, resume his usual position, 
 and move on at the same pace, and his body 
 must be inclined forward as the horso rises, 
 and backwards as he alights." 
 
 In the flying-leap the horse must not be 
 hurried, " but taken up at a brisk pace, with a 
 light and steady hand, keeping his head per- 
 fectly steady and straight to the bar or fence. 
 This position is the same as in the standing- 
 leap ; and the aids required are the same as 
 for making a horso canter. If held too tight 
 in the act of leaping, the horse is likely to 
 overstrain himself and fall. If hurried at a 
 leap, it may cause hini to miss his distance, 
 and spring too soon or too late ; therefore his 
 pace must be regulated, so that he may take 
 ins spring distant enough, and proportionate 
 to its height, so that he may clear it. When 
 Hearing the leap, the rider must sit perfectly 
 square, erect, pliant and easy in the act of 
 .leaping: on arriving at the opposite side of 
 the leap, throw the body well back, and again 
 have the horse well in hand." 
 
 AVe have spoken of the Irish horses as being 
 excellent leapers ; and in what is called the 
 doithh leap, or luck jump, their vast stretch is 
 exemplified to an extraordinary extent. It is 
 observed by Mr. Apperley, in vol. xi. of the 
 Encijclopcsdia Britannica, the power which 
 some horses have of giving an additional im- 
 Detus to their flight after they have left the 
 ground in a leap. "After all," says he, "tho 
 most extraordinary fact relating to the leapiug 
 of horses, is the power they have of extending 
 themselves, by a second spring as it were, 
 when, on being suspended in tlie air, they per- 
 ceive something on tho further side of a fence 
 for which they were not prepared. That they 
 occasionally do this under good horsemen, all 
 qood horsemen of experience can vouch lor; 
 
 153 
 
LEAPING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [leaping. 
 
 but whence the fulcrum ia derived, it would be 
 difficult to determine." 
 
 In reference to this power in the horse, Mr. 
 Blaine is of the same opinion, and, indeed, cites 
 Mr. Apperley in support of it. The buck-leap 
 is not made when the horse is at the top of 
 his speed, but when at a trot, canter, or short 
 hand-gallop. Buck-leapers, however, are not 
 considered very safe, especially if there is 
 fatigue in the cases of the animals making 
 them. "The horse, in such a case," says Mr. 
 Blaine, "not being able to bear the jar of a 
 secondary effort of the joints to relieve him- 
 self, the attempt often brings him down, and 
 thus it is that buck-leapers are seldom safe 
 ones. We would caution the nervous rider 
 aeainst the dangerous custom which some have, 
 at every downward leap, of grasping the cantle 
 of the saddle with the whip-hand, for it not 
 only displaces the body, and, consequently, un- 
 steadies the seat, but it has likewise dislocated 
 the shoulder. We have seen others elevate 
 the whip-hand at every flying leap ; and the 
 action appears to have become so natural to 
 them as not at all to discompose their seat. 
 In Ireland this is very common ; and among 
 the regular 'Pats,' it is accompanied with a 
 vociferous 'hough,' the rise of the hand and 
 voice being synchronous ; neither is it impro- 
 bable that, from custom, both the action and 
 sound are inspiriting to the rider — perhaps to 
 the horse also." 
 
 What are called the trial-leaps of the Irish 
 horses are, perhaps, the most extraordinary 
 instances of springing power that are to be 
 found in any country in the world. They are 
 taken over stone walls of six feet high, built 
 firm throughout by coping and dashing. When 
 Mr. Blaine was with his regiment in Ireland, 
 he had opportunities of witnessing some of 
 these daring feats. " Over these walls it was 
 a very common occurrence for their crack 
 fieldsmen to ride, but it was owned that some 
 of the stones were usually displaced in the 
 leap. Indeed, it was this very circumstance 
 that deprived the enterprise of half its danger. 
 A good horse there, when hunting, seldom 
 baulked such a leap ; for he is aware that 
 
 either his knees or his breast will displace the 
 first tier of loose stone ; the next rider who 
 follows does the same ; and each one who 
 succeeds, is in more and more peril from the 
 loose stones, which very frequently give horse 
 and rider an awful somersault. That high 
 fencing-horses are almost, as it were, indigenous 
 to Ireland, we might conclude from the cir- 
 cumstance that, at one of the great horse fairs 
 held at Ballinasloe, the parish pound, which is 
 six feet in height, forms the trial-leap of the 
 high-priced horses bought there, each of which, 
 we are told, is expected to leap it ere the bar- 
 gain is concluded. It is also recorded of a 
 descendant of old Pot-8-os, from an Irish half- 
 bred mare, that she leaped a wall of seven feet 
 high, built for the purpose, in Phoenix Park, 
 Dublin.' = 
 
 On the 24th of February, 1792, an Irish 
 bay horse, for the honour of Ireland, leapt 
 standing, the wall of Hyde Park, which was 
 six feet and a-half high on the inside, and 
 eight on the outside, where a long bed of 
 dung was laid to receive him on his descent. 
 This horse was the property of Mr. Bingham. 
 It was twice done by the same animal, which, 
 on the second leap, merely displaced a few 
 bricks. Steeple-chasers, of later years, are also 
 said to have achieved some extraordinary leaps. 
 Charity, winner of the Newport Pagnel Steeple- 
 Chase in 1841, cleared twenty-eight feet and 
 a bank; and Peter Simple, at the Liverpool 
 Steeple-Chase, cleared the artificial water-cut, 
 opposite the Grand Stand, leaving his mea- 
 sured foot-prints thirty-two feet from bank to 
 bank. 
 
 We will conclude these feats of leaping by 
 giving a sustained instance of this power in the 
 horse ; and which shows the wonderful stamina 
 possessed by some of the species. A match 
 was made between Sir Charles Turner and the 
 Earl of March, upon these conditions, that the 
 former should " ride ten miles within the hour, 
 in which he was to take forty leaps, each leap 
 to be one yard, one quarter, and seven inches 
 high." The stake was 1,000 guineas, which 
 Sir Charles, with great ease, won upon a Gal- 
 loway, in thirty-six minutes. 
 
 154 
 
Q 
 
 1^ 
 
aoou roiNTs.] 
 
 AlODJ-KN VKTKKl N'AliY IMPACT ICE. 
 
 f(JO()D I'OIVTS. 
 
 CIIArTER A'TII. 
 
 i»UB(irASlN(i A HOUSK ; CIIOOSINO ; EXAMlNATUtN FOR DEFECTS AND DISKASE ; JIDCINC oK ACE llY 
 
 Tin; TEETH. 
 
 REMARKS ON TIIK PURCHASING OF A 
 HORSE. 
 
 Soundness in a liorse is one of tlio first 
 requisites in its purchase or sale; and there 
 are few subjects upon which greater doubt, 
 difTiculty, and annoyance has arisen, than 
 upon tlie condition and qualities of the animal 
 that is about to pass from the hands of one 
 master to those of anotlier. There are few 
 trades in which there is more deception prac- 
 tised than in the one pursued by tlie horse- 
 dealer. " Beautiful as tlie animal is," says the 
 editor of The Horse, " and identified as he is 
 BO much with our pleasure and our profit, he 
 has been the object of almost universal regard ; 
 and there are few persons who do not pretend 
 to be somewhat competent judges of his form, 
 qualities, and worth. From the nobleman, 
 with his numerous and valuable stud, to the 
 meanest helper in the stable, and not ex- 
 cluding even the mechanic, who scarcely crosses, 
 or sits behind a horse once in a twelvemonth, 
 there is scarcely a man who would not be 
 offended if he were thought to be altogether 
 ignorant of horse-flesh. There is no subject 
 on which he is so positive ; there is no subject 
 on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient ; 
 and there are few horses, on some points of 
 which, these pretended and self-sufiicient judges 
 would not give a totally opposite opinion. 
 
 "The truth is, that this supposed knowledge 
 is rarely founded on principle, or is the result 
 of the slightest acquaintance with the actual 
 structure of this animal, or that form and 
 connexion of parts, on which strength, or 
 fleetness, or stoutness, must necessarily de- 
 pend. If we were constructing or examining 
 a machine composed of levers and pullies, and 
 by which we purposed to raise a great weight, 
 or to set in motion certain bodies with a given 
 velocity, we should fail in our object, or ex- 
 pose our ignorance of the matter, if we were 
 not aware what kind of lever, or connexion of 
 levers was necessary, and in what situation 
 the ropes should be placed, and in what direc- 
 
 tion the force should be applied, and by what 
 mt'ans we could obtain mechanical advantage, 
 and by what peculiar construction it would in- 
 evitably be lost." 
 
 These observations show to us the necessity 
 of studying the anatomy of animals, before we 
 have any pretensions to be critically acquainted 
 with the cause of their powers. However, it 
 will be sufiicient for our general readers to 
 lay down the commonly received opinions on 
 points which constitute what may be considered 
 an eftective animal. 
 
 As everything in nature is adapted to some 
 especial purpose, so has every horse its own 
 particularity. Horses, however, not only differ 
 in kind, but, like men, in utility, in temper, in 
 stamina, they also differ. The selection of 
 them, therefore, in regard to these particulars, 
 constitutes one of the nicest duties of the 
 judge or buyer, who must readily perceive good 
 or bad conformation; trace genealogy in the 
 outline, and discover their excellences and 
 their opposites with readiness and certainty. 
 
 It requires some experience, but more at- 
 tentive observation, to be what is termed, in 
 equine phraseology, a good judge. To know 
 at once, at a glance, whether the nag is likely 
 to suit ; whether ho is cut out for a hackney, 
 or is calculated for harness, is a power which 
 only extensive observation and experience can 
 give. Does he look like a hunter, or has he 
 any good looks about him ? Does he show any 
 blood, or is he all over a mongrel 'i The man 
 who knows these things, we sliould recommend 
 to the uninitiated in the mysteries of horse- 
 dealing, to make purchases for them. 
 
 At the risk of repeating ourselves a little, 
 we must here generally describe tlie outward 
 appearance of the horse again, in order to 
 bring this more directly under the notice of the 
 readers who may have the intention of pur- 
 chasing one. In the first place, the head 
 should be small. A large head is considered a 
 bad point, inasmuch as it really, under certain 
 circumstances, detracts from the powers of the 
 
 155 
 
GOOD POINTS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 Fgood points. 
 
 auimal. He lias, in fact, more to carry. It is 
 a burden to him ; and the only way in which he 
 can possibly carry it to advantage, is at the 
 extremity of a short and upright neck. Next 
 to size, its shape becomes a consideration. 
 The forehead should be broad and flat, the 
 eye staring and full of tire ; the ears thin, fine, 
 and often erect ; the nostrils circular, dilated, 
 and reddened within ; the lips soft, thin, and 
 hairless ; the jowl extended, and the cheeks 
 well marked. This, at least, is what it should 
 be in the thorough-bred ; and, as a general 
 rule, the nearer any other description of horse 
 approaches to this, the better is the family he 
 springs from, and the more sanguine we may 
 be in determining the extent, variety, and ex- 
 cellence of his qualities. 
 
 After the head comes the neck, which, if 
 good, will make the crest form an arch, or 
 agreeable curve, frona the poll to the withers. 
 It will be of proportionate length, and will 
 progressively increase in breadth as it ap- 
 proaches the chest. A long neck, if it is 
 straight, or but little curved, is objectionable. 
 It has been said that short-necked horses are 
 better winded than others, because the air has 
 less distance to pass to and from the lungs ; 
 but it is an opinion to which little deference 
 may be paid. The neck should be thin — at 
 least, not thick and heavy — and rounded and 
 straight along its lower margin. Should the 
 canal of the jugular vein be deep, and the 
 windpipe full and prominent below it, we mav 
 regard it as a sign of good wind. If the arch 
 of the neck is reversed, i. e., below instead of 
 above, and the crest, or what ought to be the 
 crest, near the withers, is hollow and sunken, 
 the animal is, as we have before observed, said 
 to be "ewe-necked," which is one of the 
 greatest natural deformities common to these 
 parts. Under such circumstances, it is usual 
 for a dealer to say that " the neck is put on 
 the wrong side upwards;" but, in reality, it 
 appears to arise from its junction with the 
 chest being too low down. 
 
 Of all the points of a horse, the shoulder, 
 for a hackney or a hunter, is of the utmost 
 consequence. Without a good shoulder, no 
 animal can ride well. He may be a good 
 harness-horse, or he may race well, but it is 
 physically impossible for him to carry his rider 
 with ease and pleasure on the road. But how 
 15G 
 
 are we to know what it is that constitutes a 
 good shoulder, and what it is that makes it 
 a bad one ? To instruct the reader upon 
 these points, it will be necessary to say some- 
 thing on its internal mechanism. The scapulas' 
 or shoulder-blades, are attached to the ribs by 
 many powerful muscles, which move them, 
 during the action of the auimal, round their 
 own axes ; or, at least, in a very similar way ; 
 and though, they can only revolve through the 
 small segment of a circle, that segment is 
 greater in proportion as they are more ob- 
 liquely placed against the sides of the chest ; 
 hence it will be seen, that what is called an 
 oblique shoulder, is most advantageous for 
 motion. It is said, that the best shouldered 
 animals have generally thin withers ; but this 
 anatomical condition is not indispensably 
 necessary to the formation of a good shoulder, 
 although we are aware that there are some 
 judges of a contrary opinion. If, in viewing 
 the fore parts of a horse, we find he rises upon 
 the withers, and that no traces of his blade- 
 bone can be seen under the skin, but that all 
 appears smooth and level, we may conclude 
 that the shoulder is oblique. A more certain 
 proof of this, however, will be found by carry- 
 ing the eye from the top of the withers to the 
 extremity of the point of the shoulder. If it 
 is upright, or nearly so, unless it be in a 
 thorough-bred horse, such an animal is only 
 fit for the collar. That horses have been fast 
 runners on the turf with bad shoulders, is no 
 proof that they would not have galloped 
 better with good ones ; and we must recollect, 
 that, in a racer, the hind quarters are con- 
 sidered of primary importance. On the road, 
 however, we know that bad shouldered animals 
 are neither pleasant nor safe hackneys. They 
 step short ; are puddling walkers ; roll about 
 in the trot, and are exceedingly liable to fall. 
 
 Tlie fore legs, Mhen viewed laterally, should 
 descend in a straight line from the bottom of 
 the shoulder; but when seen in front, they 
 ouiiht to incline ccutlv inwards. If the elbow 
 projects directly backwards, and the toe points 
 with precision forwards, we may rest satisfied 
 that the horse is not twisted in his fore legs. 
 Turning the toe in or out in standing, is apt 
 to be accompanied with distortion, or de- 
 formity of the limb. Tliis circumstance, 
 therefore, is seldom seen without materially 
 
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MODERN VETEHINARY PHACTICE. 
 
 GOOD POINTS.] 
 
 lessoning the valiio of a horse. Of tlic two 
 faults, turning tlictn out is the greater; for 
 the pointing inwiinls is seKloni carried to 
 extreme. A good arm is broad anil thick ; 
 long, when compared to the leg, and marked 
 exteriorly by nmyeular j)rominences. Tho 
 elbow cannot prt'ject too far back ; and tho 
 more plump tho muscle is immediately above 
 it, wo may conclude that so nnieli the greater 
 are the powers of the anin-.al. 
 
 The knees ought to be large, broad in front, 
 and distinctly marked with several bony 
 knobs ; lateral thickness is also of much im- 
 portance. AVIien the radius — the bone of the 
 arm — instead of descending in a straiglit Hue, 
 is directed backwards, so that the knee appears 
 to recede from it, tlie horse is said to be calf- 
 kneed, a term which expressly conveys the 
 idea we have of this formation, which is always 
 objectionable for the saddle, thougli it may do 
 for the collar. The leg should fall in exactly 
 perpendicular from the carcase, and be short 
 when compared with the arm — tlio converse 
 of this being indicative of weakness — and of 
 sufficient breadth to enable a purchaser, even 
 at a distance, to distinguish the tendons and 
 bone, with perfect clearness in their relative 
 situations. If this cannot be done, there is 
 reason to suspect tiiat he is wliat is called 
 gummy — an eftect produced by hard or pre- 
 mature work, for it is never a natural defect. 
 Should the legs be round and straight below, 
 they are called sliJty, and are never firm and 
 good ; but the best, and only correct way to 
 judge of these members, is to pass the hand 
 down them. If they measure much round, 
 and the sinews feel firm, hard, and distinct, 
 like ■well-braced cords ; and if the intervening 
 spaces between bone and sinew are clean — free 
 from gum — we may pronounce them good. 
 
 The fetlock, as a joint, should be of large 
 dimensions, in proportion to the other parts. 
 No joint, in fact, is too large, provided its bony 
 prominences are seen with the naked eye, and 
 its ligaments perfectly perceptible to tiie touch 
 of our fingers. Knuckling over in the fetlock 
 is a sign of either original mal.formation, such 
 as uprightness in the pasterns, or else is the 
 result of hard work ; and the tottering aflec- 
 tion of the limb, accompanying this state, is 
 caused by local debility, and excessive irrita- 
 bility in the nervous system. The pasterns 
 
 [good points. 
 
 always deserve tlie attention of tho buver: 
 whou good, their lengtli is in proportion to 
 that of other purls ; and tla-y siiould huvo a 
 considerable obliijuo inclination downwards 
 and forwards to the foot. Jlorsen willi very 
 oblicpie pasterns, are likely to break down; 
 and, for this reason, they should never bo bhod 
 with tliin-heeled shoes. On tho other hand, 
 if they are very nliort and upright in theso 
 joints, they are seldom or ever sure-footed, and 
 will, from work, soon become stilty or groggy. 
 
 The hoof is the next point to be considered, 
 and we cannot be too careful in its examina- 
 tion. "No foot, no horse," is a trite, but verv 
 true saying. I'irst, we siiould look to its size. 
 A small foot is not only objectionable in itself, 
 even though it be a natural formation, but is 
 often a characteristic of disease ; and a small 
 and upright hoof is a morbid leature in a horse. 
 White hoofs are to be viewed with suspicion, 
 for they are really weaker, and more liable to 
 disease than black ones; and if an animal has 
 one white, and the other dark, and he is lame, 
 in nine cases out of ten, it will be found that the 
 halting arises from some affection in the white 
 hoof. It must be observed, too, that the na- 
 tural form of the hoof is not destroyed by 
 narrowness at the heels. A good hoof is cir- 
 cular in the tread, or nearly so, measuring as 
 much from side to side as from toe to heel: 
 but it is frequently found that hoofs that are 
 morbid, measure as much from toe to heel 
 as twice the lateral diameter. On the other 
 hand, the wall of the hoof, which should, at all 
 times, be perfectly smooth and free from ridges 
 — the contrary indicating disease — may be very 
 oblique ; in which case it is not only circular, 
 but spreads out, in the tread, to such a degree 
 as enables a judge at once to pronounce it in a 
 state of morbidity. Large horses, bred in low 
 marshy situations, are most subject to this kind 
 of foot; and the strong and upright foot is 
 likely to become contracted ; so is this one sub- 
 ject to a disease called ileshy soles. Indeed, 
 in the former, the sole is concave ; but, in llio 
 latter, it is flat, on whicli account dill'ereut 
 modes of shoeing are necessary, in order lo 
 meet the requirements of each case. 
 
 In speaking of tlie body or carcase, it may bo 
 subdivided into tho chest, the belly, and tlie 
 loins. So far as regards the constitution of 
 the horse, bis stamiua, or his bottom, no part 
 
 157 
 
GOOD POINTS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [OOOD POIIS-TS. 
 
 is of more consequence than the chest ; bat like 
 that of many other parts, no particular construc- 
 tion of it is, for all sorts of animals, the best. 
 The chest of the cart-horse should be circular, 
 broad in the bosom, and large in the girth ; 
 that of the thorough-bred, more circumscribed, 
 but not flat-sided, very deep, and also exten- 
 sive in the girth ; so that the two difier more 
 in width than in depth. A full and prominent 
 breast is a fine point; and the ribs should 
 stand out with sufficient curve to afford space 
 enough within. For this reason some prefer 
 a shoulder of middling thickness, if it is an 
 obhque one; because, besides the one men- 
 tioned, it has another advantage — of enabling 
 the rider to feel that he has something sub- 
 stantial under him. A narrow-carcased horse 
 is always exceptionable, for he is commonly 
 an indifferent feeder. If we expect dura- 
 bility in a horse, the barrel should be round, 
 and capacious enough to give room for the 
 heart and lungs to play. This organisa- 
 tion is essential to those animals from which 
 hard work is daily expected. The opposites of 
 this form are generally of weak constitution, 
 although they may give sufficient satisfaction 
 to those riders who merely use them for summer 
 recreation. They are generally what is termed 
 loasJi.y, parting with their food too quickly, and 
 perfectly incompetent to perform any great 
 labour, or endure continued hard work, 
 
 The back should be perfectly straight, as 
 one that is hollow indicates want of strength, 
 although such a form is often extremely plea- 
 sant to the rider. A roach back, the reverse 
 of a hollow back, is by no means handsome, 
 but it is stronger. One objection to it, how- 
 ever, is, that it is apt to chafe from the saddle. 
 The loins are a point which merit the most 
 particular attention. A hollow back and a 
 narrow loin are generally indicative of natural 
 weakness ; but the latter is far more exception- 
 able than the former. A horse so formed can 
 seldom carry much weight, is easily knocked 
 up, and often proves a bad feeder. His con- 
 stant hoUowness in the flank, and his lank ap- 
 pearance altogether, after a day's hunting, 
 amply demonstrate his utter incapability of 
 sustaining the great exertion necessary to the 
 satisfactory performance of his situation. 
 
 The manner in which the tail is set on must 
 not be overlooked. A horse that carries two 
 168 
 
 good ends — of which the head forms one, and 
 the tail the other — always looks grand and 
 showy. Above all others of his species, the 
 charger should possess these points in perfec- 
 tion, to coincide with the grandeur of his car- 
 riage in the ostentatious parade of a field-dav. 
 In most horses this posterior appendage should 
 form, when elevated, a straight line, or nearly 
 so, with the back. A gentle declivity of the 
 croup, however, from the summit of the rump, 
 denotes the blood-like quarter, and adds much 
 grace to this part in the thorougli-bred animal. 
 Should this line, however, decline very much, 
 the quarters lose much of their beauty as well 
 as their natural power. Nothing is so ugly, in 
 a full-quartered horse, as to see the tail set on 
 low down, and, as it were, springing abruptly 
 from the rump. The dealers fig all horses in- 
 discriminately ; but this is certainly injudicious, 
 for it subjects those which naturally carry good 
 tails, to the same suspicion as it does those which 
 may be really figged to answer the purposes of 
 the dealer. Eiery and spirited hackneys sel- 
 dom require nicking ; and hackneys are often 
 called cock-tails, in contradistinction to those 
 that are thorough-bred, which never carry any 
 but a drooping tail. A cocked-tail is incom- 
 patible with a blood-quarter ; hence blood- 
 horses should never be figged or nicked. 
 
 The quarters may be full, small, or fine and 
 blood-like. Eull quarters are such as are pos- 
 sessed by cart-horses, large machiners, and 
 hackneys able to carry weight. These animals 
 are wide in the hips, though these are but in- 
 distinctly marked, in consequence of being 
 enveloped by large, coarse, and flabby muscles. 
 People are too apt to regard wide iiips as an 
 objectionable point, from their giving to the 
 horse the appearance which is called ragged, and 
 which is produced by a bad loin, and lank, flat, 
 and weak quarters. Were these parts well 
 formed, the hips might be pronounced of the 
 best description. The small quarter is one 
 that is often seen in a horse of this form ; and 
 though its general contour may be regular and 
 uniform, it is altogether disproportionately 
 small when compared with the carcass. If it 
 grows narrow towards the hinder part, the 
 animal is said to be goose-rumped. 
 
 Of all other structures, the blood-like quar- 
 ter is the best adapted for speed. In the 
 blood-horse the tail is set on high up, and the 
 
MUSTLES «f liar HOKSE 
 
GOOD POINTS.] 
 
 MODEEN VETEBINAPvY TRACTICE. 
 
 [defects. 
 
 Lips aro lofty atul prominent, but not ragged ; 
 BO tliat many of our best racers aro higher 
 boliiiul than before; the spaces between them 
 ami the points of tlio quarters great, as are 
 also those between the latter parts and the 
 stillea. The haunches want the jilump and 
 round appearance of the full quarter; but so 
 far from either being lank or thin, tliey are 
 .striped with bold and prominent muscles, free 
 ■from the adipose and cellular substance which 
 constitutes the flabbiuess of those with full 
 quarters, and are so distinct, that even through 
 the skin, we can distinguish where one ends 
 and another begins. The stifles should pro- 
 ject boldly forwards, and have a perceptible 
 irregularity of surfiice. Thighs, when long, 
 thick, and muscular, are pronounced to be 
 '• good." The hock, of all other parts in tlic 
 racer, is of the utmost importance ; it should 
 be broad, flat, and of largo dimensions. The 
 propulsion of the animal machine is effected 
 chiefly by those muscles which are attached to 
 the point of the hock ; so that the more this 
 projects, the greater the force these can exert, 
 simply on the principle of the lever. 
 
 The half-bred horse, with good hocks, pos- 
 sesses the same advantage in hunting as the 
 racer does on the turf. The point of the hock, 
 as we have before observed, cannot stand out 
 too much ; indeed, the greater its dimensions 
 altogether, the better, provided it be not 
 gummy, or that its various bony projections 
 and sinewy parts are distinctly seen or felt. 
 If the hock is narrow, its point round and not 
 well defined, it is said to be straight; and, 
 from its being liable to curbs, is called a curhy 
 hock. Should its point be directed inwards, 
 and the toes turned outwards, the horse is 
 said to be cow-hoclced, or cat-hammed. As 
 this is a part very liable to disease, as well as 
 to original mal-formation, the nicest examina- 
 tion is required to detect all that may prove 
 disadvantageous or injurious to its function, 
 the proper performance of which is of so much 
 importance, that the propulsion of the \Yhole 
 machine depends chiefly upon it. 
 
 In spite of the old adage, " that a good horse 
 is never of a bad colour;" still colour is, by 
 many persons, esteemed of considerable im- 
 portance. Bays and browns are considered, 
 generally, good colours, as they are almost 
 invariably accompanied by black legs, and, as 
 
 a consequence, good black hoofH, which aro 
 always preferable to white ones. Chestnut 
 colours and roans aro much up])roved of. The 
 dark iron-grey is ol'ten a colour sought after; 
 yet, horses of this colour, as they advance in 
 years, gradually become lighter; and, ut the 
 age of eight or nine, will be nearly white. 
 (J rooms have an objection to this colour, and 
 with some justice; for the animals stain them- 
 selves so frequently by even lyiug down, that 
 it is almost impossible to keep them clean 
 without washing them, and this renders them 
 liable to take cold. There is also an objection, 
 generally, to the natural softness of their hoofs, 
 a circumstance which makes it difllcult to shoe 
 them firmly and well. 
 
 Such, generally speaking, may be considered 
 the essential properties of an elTective animal ; 
 and what constitutes sometimes its opposite we 
 will now consider more particularly. 
 
 Tlic editor of The Horse says — " That horse 
 is sound in which there is no disease, nor 
 any alteration of structure in any part which 
 impairs, or is likely to impair his natural use- 
 fulness. That horse is unsound that labours 
 under disease, or that has some alteration of 
 structure that does interfere, or is likely to 
 interfere with his natural usefulness. One 
 horse may possess great speed, but is soon 
 knocked up ; another will work all day, but 
 cannot be got beyond a snail's pace : one with 
 a heavy forehead is liable to stumble, and is 
 continually putting to hazard the neck of his 
 rider; another, with an irritable disposition 
 and a washy make, loses his appetite, and begins 
 to scour if a little extra work is exacted from 
 him. The term unsoundness cannot be applied 
 to either of these ; it would be opening a door 
 to endless wrangling. The buyer can discern, 
 or ought to know, whether the form of the 
 horse is that which will render him likely to 
 suit his purpose ; and he should try him suffi- 
 ciently to ascertain his natural strength, 
 endurance, and manner of going. Unsound- 
 ness, we repeat, has reference only to disease, 
 or to that alteration of structure which is con- 
 nected with, or will produce disease, and lessen 
 the usefulness of the animal." 
 
 These principles will be best illustrated by 
 a brief consideration of the usual supposed 
 causes of unsoundness. 
 
 jBroJcen.-hiees certainly do not constitute 
 
 159 
 
DEFECTS.] 
 
 THE HORSE. AISTD 
 
 [defects. 
 
 uusoundness after the wounds are liealed, 
 unless they interfere with the action of the 
 joint ; for the horse may have fallen from mere 
 accident, or through the fault of the rider, 
 and received no injury beyond the blemish. 
 No person, however, will buy a horse with 
 broken knees until he has thoroughly tried 
 him, and satisEed himself as to his form and 
 action. 
 
 - Capped HocTcs may be produced by lying on 
 an unevenly paved stable, with a scanty supply 
 of litter, or by the habitual vice of kicking. In 
 neither of these cases, however, would they 
 constitute unsoundness, although in the latter 
 they would be an indication of vice ; but, in the 
 majority of instances, they are the consequence 
 of sprain of the hock ; and, when accompanied 
 by enlargement, constitute uusoundness. A 
 special warranty should always be taken 
 against capped hocks. 
 
 Contraction is a considerable deviation from 
 the natural form of the foot ; but not neces- 
 sarily constituting unsoundness. It requires, 
 however, a most careful examination on tlie 
 part of the purchaser or veterinary surgeon, to 
 ascertain that there is no heat about the 
 quarter, or ossification of the cartilage ; that 
 the frog, although diminished in size, is not 
 diseased ; that the horse does not step short, 
 and go as if the foot were tender ; and that I 
 there is not the slightest trace of lameness. 
 Unless these circumstances, or some of them, 
 are detected, a horse must not be pronounced 
 to be unsound because his feet are contracted ; 
 for many horses possessed of feet singularly 
 contracted, are perfectly free from lameness. 
 A special warranty, however, should be required 
 wliere the feet are at all contracted. 
 
 Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. 
 
 The portion of the foot in which they are 
 
 situated will not bear the ordinary pressure 
 
 of the shoe; and any accidental additional 
 
 iDressure, emanating from the growing down of 
 
 the horn, or the introduction of dirt or gravel, 
 
 will cause serious lameness. They render it 
 
 necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a 
 
 bar shoe, for the purpose of protecting the 
 
 weakened and diseased part; and they are 
 
 very seldom radically cured. They are usually 
 
 found in white feet with weak low heels ; but 
 
 they are too common in feet of all colours, 
 
 Gougli. This is a disease, and consequently 
 
 IGO 
 
 unsoundness. However slight may be its de- 
 gree, and of whatever short standing it may be, 
 although it may sometimes scarcely seem to 
 interfere with the usefulness of the horse, yet 
 a change of stabling, or slight exposure to wet 
 and cold, or the least over-exertion, may at 
 other times cause it to degenerate into many 
 dangerous complaints. A horse, therefore, 
 should never be purchased with a cough upon 
 him without a special warranty ; or if — the 
 cough not being observed — he is purchased 
 under a general warranty, that warranty is 
 thereby broken. 
 
 It is not law, however, that a horse may be 
 returned on breach of the warranty. Unless 
 the seller of the horse has contracted to take 
 him back, he is not necessarily bound to do so. 
 He is liable in damages, however. Lord Ellen- 
 borough says — " I have always held that a 
 warranty of soundness is broken, if the animal, 
 at the time of the sale, had any infirmity upon 
 him that rendered him less fit for present 
 service. It is not necessary that the disorder 
 should be permanent or incurable. "While he 
 has a cough he is unsound, although that may 
 either be temporary or prove mortal." In 
 giving judgment upon another case, the same 
 authority said — " I have always held it, that a 
 couf^h is a breach of the warranty. On that 
 understanding I have always acted, and think 
 it quite clear." According to this judge, there- 
 fore, cough is a breach of warranty. 
 
 Boaring, Wheezing, Whistling, Iligh-Uow- 
 ing, and Grimting, being the result of altera- 
 tion of structure or disease in some of the air 
 passages, and interfering with the perfect 
 freedom of breathing, and especially when the 
 horse is put on his speed, without doubt con- 
 stitute unsoundness. There are decisions to 
 the contrary, which are now universally ad- 
 mitted to be erroneous. Broken wind is still 
 decidedly unsoundness. 
 
 Crih-hiting. Altliough there is some dif- 
 ference of opinion on this point, nevertheless 
 crib-biting must be regarded as unsoundness. 
 This unnatural sucking in of the air must, to 
 a certain degree, be detrimental to digestion, 
 dispose to colic, and interfere with the strength, 
 usefulness, and health of the horse. Some 
 crib-biters are good goers ; but they probably 
 would have possessed more endurance had 
 they not acquired this habit ; and it is a well- 
 
DEFECTS.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAEY PRACTICE. 
 
 [defects. 
 
 established fact, that as soon as a horso be- 
 comes a crib-biter, lie, in more than nine cases 
 out of ten, begins to lose condition. Ho is 
 not, to the experienced eye, tlie same animal 
 ho was before. It may uot lead to absolute 
 disease, or it may rarely do so to any con- 
 siderable degree ; but a horse that is deficient 
 in condition, must, to that extent, have his 
 capability for extraordinary work diminished, 
 although not so often as to be apparent in 
 ordinary work ; and so fiir, the horse is unsound. 
 Altliough the habit may have had its origin in 
 a mere trick, yet, when it has become con- 
 firmed, the animal is greatly deteriorated by it. 
 
 The wear of the front teeth, and even the 
 frequent breaking of them, make a horse old 
 before his time, and sometimes render it diffi- 
 cult, or almost impossible, for him to graze, 
 when his state or the convenience of the owner 
 requires that he should be turned out. 
 
 Curb constitutes unsoundness while it lasts, 
 and perhaps while the swelling remains, al- 
 though the inflammation may have subsided ; 
 for a hotse that has once thrown out a curb, 
 is, for a while at least, very liable to do so 
 again on the slightest extra exertion. Ahorse, 
 however, is not returnable, although he should 
 spring a curb five minutes after the purchase ; 
 for it is done in a moment, and does not ne- 
 cessarily indicate any previous unsoundness or 
 weakness of the part. 
 
 Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to seri- 
 ous injury of the legs, and indicating that he 
 is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait 
 inconsistent with safety, is rather productive 
 of unsoundness than is unsoundness itself. 
 Many horses go lame for a considerable period 
 after cutting themselves severely ; and others 
 have dropi)cd from the sudden agony, and en- 
 dangered themselves and their riders. As some 
 doubt, however, exists on this subject, and as 
 it is a very material objection to a horse, cut- 
 ting, when evident, should have its serious 
 consequences provided against by a special 
 warranty. 
 
 Enlarged Glands. The enlargement of the 
 glands under the jaw has not been so much 
 considered as it ought, in an estimate of the 
 soundness of the horse. Simple catarrh will 
 occasionally, and severe afi'ection of the chest 
 will generally, be accompanied by swelling of 
 these glands, which docs uot subside for acou- 
 
 siderablo time after tho c<ild or fever has ap- 
 parently been cured. To Hiiglit etdargements 
 of tho glands under tho jaw much atlentioii 
 need not be paid; but if they are of co«. 
 siderablo size, and espocially if they are teuder, 
 and tho glands at tho root of the ear j)artici- 
 pate iu the enlargement, and if the membrane of 
 tho nose is redder than it should be, we should 
 hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound. 
 Tho tumidity must, in our opinion, be con- 
 sidered as a symptom of disease. 
 
 Enlarged Hock. A horse witli enlarged hock 
 is unsound. Tiie structure of this complicated 
 joint being so materially aifected, that although 
 the animal may appear for a considerable time 
 to have the capacity of doing ordinary work, 
 he will occasionally fail even in that, and a few 
 days' hard work will always lame him. 
 
 The Eyes. That inflammation of the eye of 
 the horse which usually terminates in blindness 
 of one or both eyes, has the peculiar character 
 of remitting or disappearing for a time, once or 
 twice, before it fully runs its course. The eve, 
 after an attack of inflammation, regains so 
 nearly its former natural brilliancv, that any 
 one even well acquainted with horses will not 
 always recognise the traces of former disease. 
 After a time, however, the inflammation returns, 
 and the result is decisive. 
 
 As the horse is being led out of the stable 
 into the light, his manner and action should be 
 closely observed. If he turns his ears so as to 
 catch whatever noises may be coming irom 
 different directions, lifting his feet unusually 
 high, hanging back on tho halter, and aj)pa- 
 rently taking every step with caution, sus- 
 picion should at once be awakened that all is 
 uot right with his eyes. When the animal is 
 given to start, it is, by many, considered a sigu 
 of some degree of defective vision. There is 
 one cause of blindness by which the initiated 
 buyer may be readily deceived : this is in the 
 case of Gutta Serena, or paralysis in the optic 
 nerve. "In this irremediable aflection," says 
 the author of The Horse, " the textures of the 
 eye appear natural and unimpaired. There is 
 no apparent alteration of structures, no cloudi- 
 ness, no opacity ; the only indication being the 
 large and unmoveable state of the pupils, whicl 
 remain equally distended in the dusk of even- 
 ing and tho glare of the noon-day sun." 
 
 If a man buys a horse actually blind, he will 
 
 161 
 
DEFECTS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [defects. 
 
 certainly repent of his bargain, but he cannot 
 get rid of it. He must therefore be careful, 
 as the law will not protect him if he does not 
 use common precaution. 
 
 Lameness, from whatever cause arising, is 
 unsoundness. However temporary it may be, 
 or however obscure, it lessens the utility of the 
 horse, and renders him unsound for the time. 
 How far his soundness may be afterwards 
 affected, must depend on the circumstances of 
 the case. A lame horse is for the time an un- 
 eound one. 
 
 Lord Ellenborough, in the case of Elclon v. 
 Brogden, says — " I have always held, and now 
 hold, that a warranty of soundness is broken 
 if the animal, at the time of sale, has an infir- 
 mity upon liim which renders him less fit for 
 present service. It is not necessary that the 
 disorder should be permanent or incurable. 
 While a horse has a cough he is unsound ; 
 although it may either be temporary or may 
 prove mortal. Tlie horse in question having 
 been lame at the time of sale, when he was 
 warranted to be sound, his condition subse- 
 quently is no defence to the action." This 
 judgment is confirmed by the decision of Mr. 
 Baron Parke ; but lawyers, as well as doctors, 
 sometimes differ in their judgments. Chief 
 Justice Eyre says — " A horse labouring under 
 a temporary hurt, which is capable of being 
 speedily cured or removed, is not an unsound 
 horse ; and where a warranty is made that such 
 a horse is sound, it is made without any view 
 to such an injury ; nor is a horse so circum- 
 stanced within the meaning of the warranty. To 
 vitiate the warranty, the injury the horse has 
 sustained, or the malady under which he 
 laboured, ought to be of a permanent nature, 
 and not sucli as may arise from a temporary 
 injury or accident." 
 
 Neurotomy. A question has arisen how far 
 n horse that has undergone the operation of 
 the division of the nerve of the leg, and has 
 recovered from the lameness with which lie 
 was before affected, and stands his work well, 
 may be considered to be sound. It was the 
 opinion of Chief Justice Best that such a horse 
 was unsound ; and, in our opinion, there can- 
 not be a doubt about the matter. An animal 
 on which this operation has been performed 
 may be improved ; may cease to be lame, may 
 go well for many years ; but there ia no 
 162 
 
 certainty of his continuing to do so ; and he is 
 unsound. 
 
 Fumiced-foot. When the union between 
 the horny and sensible lamina, or little plates 
 of the foot, is weakened, and the coffin-bone 
 is let down, and presses upon the sole, and the 
 sole yields to this unnatural weight, be- 
 com.es rounded, and is brought in contact with 
 the ground, and gets bruised and injured, that 
 horse must be unsound, and unsound for ever, 
 because there are no means by which we can 
 replace the coffin-bone in its original situation. 
 
 Lateral Cartilages. When these become ossi- 
 fied, it almost invariably causes lameness, and 
 constitutes unsoundness. 
 
 Qmdding. If the mastication of the food 
 gives pain to the animal, in consequence of 
 soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop 
 it before it is perfectly chewed. This, as an 
 indication of disease, constitutes unsoundness- 
 Quidding sometimes arises from irregularity 
 in the teeth, which wound the cheek with their 
 sharp edges ; or a protruding tooth renders it 
 impossible for the horse to close his jaws so as 
 to cliew his food thoroughly. Quidding is 
 unsoundness for the time ; but the unsound- 
 ness will cease when the teeth are properly 
 filed, or the soreness relieved, or the cause of 
 the imperfect chewing removed. 
 
 Quittor is unsoundness. 
 
 'Ring-hone. Although when the bony tu- 
 mour is small, and on one side only, there is 
 little or no lameness, yet there are a few in- 
 stances in which a horse with ring-bone has 
 worked for many years without lameness. 
 From the action of the foot, and the stress 
 upon the part, tlie inflammation and the forma- 
 tion of bone contract a tendency to spread so 
 rapidly, that we must pronounce the slightest 
 enlargement of the pasterns, or around the 
 coronet, to be a cause of iinsoundness. 
 
 SavuJcrach is manifestly unsoundness. It 
 may occur without the slightest warning ; and 
 no horse can be returned for the appearance of 
 one that is sprung after purchase. The usual 
 cause of this disease is too great brittleness of 
 the crust of the hoof; but there is no infallible 
 method of detecting this, or the degree in 
 which it must exist, to constitute unsoundness. 
 "When the horn round the bottom of the foot 
 has chipped off so much that only a skilful 
 smith can fasten the shoe without pricking the 
 
DEFECTS.] 
 
 MODERN VETEllINARY PIIACTK^R. 
 
 [u/.tKCTb. 
 
 horse, or even when there is a disposition in 
 the horn to chip and bivak olV in a much less 
 di*f;rt'i> than this, tho animal may probably be 
 roturnud as unsountl ; for this briltlenoss ot'tlic 
 iTust is a didoaso ot the part, or it is such an 
 aitei-ed strncturoof it as to interfere materially 
 witli the usefulness of the horse. 
 
 Sjjnrin is uiisoumlnoss, uhether tho bony or 
 the blood-spavin. In the first, lameness is pro- 
 duced, at least at starting, in ninety-nine cases 
 out of a hundred ; and there is enlargement of 
 the hoek, which rapidly spreads witli quick and 
 hard work, although tho horse may bo capable 
 of, and may even get better at slow work. If 
 there is no lameness, still a spavined horse 
 should be rejected, because the bony enlarge- 
 ment is too near a very important and compli- 
 cated joint, and on the least injury or sprain 
 of that joint, would spread over it, and materi- 
 ally interfere with its motion. 
 
 Boff or Blood-spavin is unsoundness, be- 
 cause, although it may not be productive of 
 lameneds at slow work, the rapid and powerful 
 action of the hock in quicker motion will pro- 
 duce permanent, although not considerable 
 lameness, which can hardly ever be with cer- 
 tainty removed. 
 
 SpUrit. It depends entirelj'- on the situation 
 of the bony tumour on the inside of the shank- 
 bone, whether it is to be considered as un- 
 soundness. If it ic not in the neighbourhood 
 of any joint, so as to interfere with its action, 
 and if it does not pi-ess upon any ligament or 
 tendon, it may be no cause of unsoundness, 
 although it is often very disagreeable to look 
 upon. It does not lessen the capability and 
 value of the animal. 
 
 Stringhilt. This singular and very un- 
 pleasant action of the hind leg must be deter- 
 mined as a sign of unsoundness. It is an 
 irregular communication of nervous energy to 
 some muscle of the thigh, observable when tho 
 horse first comes from the stable, and gradually 
 ceasing on exercise. It has usually been found 
 in those horses that have a more than common 
 degree of strength and endurance; but, how- 
 ever this may be, it must be set down in the 
 catalogue of those morbific affections which 
 more or less deteriorate the qualities of the 
 horse. 
 
 Thichening of the lack sineics. Sufllcient 
 attention id not always paid to the fineness of 
 
 tho legs of tho In.rse. If the flexor tendons 
 
 have been sprained ho as to produce con- 
 siderable thickejiing of tho ccllulur HubBtanco 
 in which tlieir sheaths aro enveloped, they 
 will long afterwards, or perhaps always, bo 
 liable to sprain from causes by wliich thev 
 would otherwise be scarcely alfected. Tii'o 
 continuance of any considerable thickness 
 around tho sheaths of tho tendons, indicates 
 [)reviou8 and violent sprain. Ti)i8 very tiiick- 
 ening will fetter the action of the tendons ; and 
 after much quick work, will, from the very 
 Iriction, occasionally renew the inflammation 
 and the lameness ; therefore, such a horse 
 cannot be sound. It requires, however, a littlo 
 discrimination to distinguish this from the 
 guDiminess or roundness of leg, peculiar to 
 some breeds. There should be an evident 
 difference between the injured leg and tho 
 others. 
 
 Thorouglipin, except it is of great size, is 
 rarely productive of lameness, and therefore, 
 when unaccompanied by any such appearance, 
 cannot be termed unsoundness. As it is the 
 consequence of hard work, and now and then 
 does produce lameness, the hock should bo 
 most carefully examined, and there should be 
 a special warranty against it. 
 
 Th'ush. There are various cases on record 
 of actions having been raised because of the 
 thrush in horses, and the decisions have been 
 much at variance, or perfectly contradictory. 
 Thrush has not always been considered oy 
 legal authority as unsoundness. AV^e, how- 
 ever, consider that it is so. This disease con- 
 sists of a discharge of foetid matter from tho 
 frog, accompanied with considerable tender- 
 ness of the part, and sometimes of the whole 
 foot. It is not uufrequently brought on by 
 the horse standing in the stable without exer- 
 cise; but it is most commonly caused by th'^ 
 negligence of the groom allowing tho frog to 
 become rotten from the filth of the stable. 
 
 Wiiidgalls. There are few horses perfectly 
 free from windgalls, but they do not interfere 
 with the action of the fetlock, or cause lame- 
 ness, except when they are numerous or large. 
 They constitute unsoundness only when they 
 cause lameness, or are so large and numerous 
 as to render it likely that they will cause it. 
 
 In the purchase of a horse the buyer 
 usually receives, embodied in the receipt, what 
 
 163 
 
WAEEANTT,] 
 
 THE HORSE, A.ND 
 
 [WAEEANTT, 
 
 is termed a warranty. It sHould be thus ex- 
 pressed : — 
 
 "Eeceived of A. B. forty pounds for a grey 
 mare, warranted only five years old, sound, 
 free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive. 
 "£40. C. D." 
 
 A receipt including merely tlie word " war- 
 ranted," extends only to soundness : " war- 
 ranted sound" extends no further. The age, 
 freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and 
 drive, should be especially named. This war- 
 ranty embraces every cause of unsoundness 
 that can be detected, or that lurks in the con- 
 stitutiC'H at the time of sale, and to every 
 vicious habit which the animal has hitherto 
 shown. To establish a breach of the warranty, 
 and to be enabled to return the horse, or re- 
 cover the price, the purchaser must prove that 
 he was unsound or viciously disposed at the 
 time of sale. In cases of cough, the horse 
 must have been heard to cough previous to 
 the purchase, or as he was led home, or as 
 soon as he had entered the stable of the pur- 
 chaser. Coughing, even on the following 
 morning, will not be sufficient; for it is pos- 
 sible that he might have caught cold by change 
 of stabling. If he is lame, it must be proved 
 to have arisen from a cause that could not 
 have occurred after the animal was in the pos- 
 session of the purchaser, " No price will 
 imply a warranty," or be equivalent to one; 
 there must be an express warranty. A fraud 
 must be proved, in the seller, in order that the 
 buyer may be enabled to return the horse or 
 maintain an action for the price. The war- 
 ranty should be given at the time of sale. A 
 warranty, or a promise to warram the horse, 
 given at any period antecedent to the sale, is 
 invalid ; for the horse is a very perishable 
 commodity, and his constitution and his use- 
 fulness may undergo a considerable change 
 within the compass of a few days. A war- 
 ranty after the sale is invalid, for it is given 
 without any legal consideration. In order to 
 complete the purchase there must be a transfer 
 of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement 
 or the payment of earnest-money. The least 
 sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal pro- 
 mise to buy or to sell is binding without one 
 of these. The moment either of these is ef- 
 fected, the legal transfer of property or de- 
 livery is made ; and whatever may happen to 
 164 
 
 the animal, the seller retains or is entitled to 
 the money. If the purchaser exercises any 
 act of ownership, by using the horse without 
 leave of the vendor, or by having any operation 
 performed, or medicines given to him, he 
 thereby makes him his own. The warranty of 
 a servant, we believe, is considered to be bind- 
 ing on the master, notwithstanding that Lord 
 Kenyon had some doubt on this subject. 
 
 If the horse should be afterwards discovered 
 to have been unsound at the time of warranty, 
 the buyer may tender a return of it ; and if it 
 is not taken, may raise an action for the price. 
 The vendor, however, is not bound to annul 
 the contract, unless he had so agreed to do. 
 Although not legally compelled to give notice 
 to the seller, of the discovered unsoundness, it 
 will be better for it to be done. The animal 
 should then be tendered at the house or stables 
 of the vendor. If he refuse to receive him, the 
 animal may then be sent to a livery stable and 
 sold. After this, an action — the horse having 
 been tendered — may be brought for expenses, 
 as well as for price. The keep, however, can 
 be recovered oiily for the time that necessarily 
 intervened between the tender and the deter- 
 mination of the action. It is not legally ne- 
 cessary to tender or return the horse as soon 
 as the unsoundness is discovered. The animal 
 may be kept for a reasonable time afterwards, 
 and even proper medical means used to remove 
 the unsoundness ; but courtesy, and indeed 
 justice, will require that the notice should be 
 given as soon as possible. Although it is 
 stated, on the authority of Lord Loughborough, 
 that " no length of time elapsed after the sale 
 will alter the nature of a contract originally 
 false ;" yet there are cases on record in which 
 the plaintiff was nonsuited because he did not 
 give notice of the unsoundness in a reasonable 
 time. The extent of this reasonable time must 
 depend on many circumstances. 
 
 It used to be supposed that the buyer had 
 no right to have the horse medically treated, 
 and that he would vitiate the warranty by 
 doing so. The question, however, would be, 
 has he injured or diminished the value of the 
 animal by so doing ? It will generally be pru- 
 dent for him to refrain from all medical treat- 
 ment, because the means adopted, however 
 skilfully employed, may have an unfortunate 
 effect, or may be misrepresented. 
 
ANvV^'OMT of the HORSE. 
 
TN'AKItANTY.] 
 
 ^rODERN VETEHINART PRACTICE. 
 
 [WAUHANTT. 
 
 The purclinsor, possibly, may like the horso, p[unrd, nnd prevents him from bo closel 
 
 notwithstaiuliiiij^ his discovered defect, and ho 
 mar retain and hrin;:; his action for tho do- 
 
 Iv exam- 
 
 inin<» tho horse* na ho otherwiMo would havo 
 done; but if ho buys a blind horse, thinlunfj 
 
 preciation in vahie on account of the unsound- ' him to be sound, and without a warranty ho 
 ness. Few, howi'ver, will do this, because tho . has no remedy. Tho law supposes every ono 
 retention of the horso will cause a suspicion ' to exercise common circumspection and com- 
 tliat the defect was of no threat consequence, mon sense., 
 
 and will give rise to much cavil about tho 
 amount of damaLres ; and, after all, very slight 
 damages will probably be obtained. 
 
 Upon this point Lord Eldon says — " I take 
 it to be clear law, that if a person purchases a 
 horse that is wr.rranted, and it afterwards turns 
 
 A man should have a more perfect know 
 ledge of horses than falls to the lot of most, 
 and a perfect knowledge of tho vendor too, 
 who ventures to purchase one without a 
 warranty. 
 
 If a person buys a horso warranted sound. 
 
 out that the horse was unsound at the time of and discovering no defect in him, and relying 
 the warranty, the buyer may, if he pleases, ] on the warranty, resells him, and tho unsound- 
 keep tho horse, and bring iin action on the | ness is discovered by the second purchaser, and 
 warranty, in which he will havo a right to the horse returned to tho first purchaser, or 
 
 recover the difierence between the value of a 
 sound horse and one with such defects as ex- 
 isted at the time of warranty, or he may return 
 the horse, and bring an action to return the 
 full money paid ; but, in the latter case, the 
 seller has a right to expect that the horse 
 shall be returned to him in the same state in 
 which he was when sold, and not by any means 
 diminished in value; for, if a person keeps a 
 warranted article for any length of time after 
 discovering its defects, and, when he returns it, 
 it is in a worse state than it would have been 
 if returned immediately after such a discovery, 
 I think the party can have no defence to an 
 action for the price of the animal on the ground 
 of non-compliance with the warranty, but must 
 be left to his action on the warranty to recover 
 the difference in the value of the article war- 
 ranted, and its value when sold." 
 
 Where there is no warranty an action may 
 be brought on the ground of fraud ; but this is 
 very difficult to be maintained, and few pos- 
 sibly will hazard it. It will be necessary to 
 prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that 
 the purchaser was imposed upon by his false 
 representation ; and that, too, in a case in 
 which a person of ordinary circumspection 
 might have been similarly deceived. If the 
 defect was evident to every eye, the purchaser 
 has no remedy. He should have taken more 
 care. If, however, a warranty was given, it 
 extends to all unsoundness, palpable or con- 
 cealed. Although a person should ignorantly 
 or carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted 
 sound, he may return it. The warranty is his 
 
 an action commenced against him, he has his 
 claim on the first seller, and may demand of 
 him not only the price of the animal, or the 
 difference in value, but every expense that 
 may have been incurred. 
 
 Eeal exchanges, whether of one horse for 
 another, or a sum of money being paid in 
 addition by one of the parties, stand on the 
 same ground as simple sales. If there is a 
 warranty on either side, and that is broken, 
 the exchange is vitiated ; and if there bo no 
 warranty, deceit must be proved. 
 
 The trial of horses on sale is a very intricate 
 one; and often leads to doubts and disputes. 
 It is well known that a horse from a dealer's 
 stable is seldom or ever fit for hard work 
 until he has undergone some preparation and 
 training. It is right that the purchaser should 
 have a trial of him, but he should try him in a 
 fair way ; that is, in a way consistent with the 
 state in which the animal is. If a horse from 
 a dealer's stable is galloped far and fast, it 
 is probable that he will soon show distress ; 
 and if 1)0 is pushed farther, inflammation and 
 death may ensue. The dealer rarely gets com- 
 pensated for this ; and if it should occur soon 
 after the sale, the animal is returned, if alive, or 
 an action is brought for its price. When acci- 
 dents have arisen in the fair trial of a horse, 
 the decisions of the courts of law have been 
 strangely contradictory ; and, indeed, it is often 
 difficult to determine whether the fault rests 
 with the horse or the rider. If the horse 
 is retained after the specified time of trial, he 
 is supposed to be sold, with all his faults. 
 
 165 
 
PUECHASIIfG.] 
 
 THE PIOESE, AXD 
 
 [PUECHASING. 
 
 lu London, and in most great towns, there I horses ; and that important advantage con- 
 are repositories for the periodical sale of horses tinned undiminished to his successors. I first 
 
 by auction. They are of great convenience to 
 the seller, who can, at once, get rid of an animal 
 with which he wishes to part, without waitiiig 
 nonth after month before he obtains a pur- 
 chaser, and is thus relieved from the nuisance 
 or fear of having the horse returned on account 
 of breach of the warranty, because in these 
 places only two days are allowed for the trial ; 
 and, if he is not returned within that period, 
 he cannot be afterwards returned. They are 
 also convenient to the purchaser, who can thus 
 in a large town soon find a horse that will suit 
 him, and which, from this restriction as to 
 returning the animal, he will obtain twenty or 
 thirty per cent, below the prices of the dealer. 
 Although an auction may seem to ofier a fair 
 and open competition, there is no place at 
 which it is more necessary for a person not 
 much acquainted with horses, to take with him 
 an experienced friend, and, when there, to 
 depend on his own judgment or that of his 
 friend, heedless of the observations or ma- 
 no3uvre3 of bystanders, the exaggerated com- 
 mendations bestowed upon some horses, and the 
 thousand faults found with others. There are 
 always numerous groups of low dealex's, copers, 
 and chaunters, whose business it is to delude 
 and deceive. 
 
 In speaking of the convenience and useful- 
 ness of the London horse repositories, Mr. 
 John Lawrence says : — 
 
 "It was perhaps about the year 1740, or 
 somewhat later, that Beavor, supposed to have 
 first introduced the plan of sale in this mode, 
 opened the horse repository in Little Saint 
 Martin's Lane, London. He was succeeded by 
 Aldridge, father of Mr. Aldridge, who retired, 
 parting with the concern to Mr. Morris. 
 Tattersall's repository at Hyde Park Corner, 
 was opened about the year 1760, by Mr. 
 Tattersall, who had previously resided at 
 "Worcester, and was proprietor of the stallion, 
 Young Traveller. He was also engaged awhile 
 in London, with Beavor. After the then 
 Duke of Cumberland's decease, his stud was 
 sold at Tattersall's in 1765. Old Tat, as he 
 was, in due time, familiarly called, was so for- 
 tunate at his very outset, as to obtain the 
 countenance and patronage of persons of the 
 highest distinction, who took an interest in 
 166 
 
 knew old liv. Tattersall, in 1773. He was a 
 shrewd, assiduous, and observant man, precisely 
 one of those qualified by nature to be faher 
 forhmce, the maker of liis own fortune; and he 
 aciiieved it, becoming the founder of an opulent 
 and respectable house." 
 
 We shall now endeavour to put the unwary 
 on their guard against the nefarious and cheat- 
 ing practices of what are called Horse-clmunters. 
 There is scarcely a provincial newspaper pub- 
 lished in which some of these individuals do 
 not figure, either as advertisers, or before the 
 magistrates in some equivocal transaction. The 
 horse seems a conductor to all sorts of villany. 
 He is himself the object of great cruelties, and 
 is surrounded by the most heartless of man- 
 kind. There is no article of commerce carried 
 on in which a man has more right to have his 
 suspicions excited than in horse-dealing. If a 
 man goes to a repository, it would almost be 
 the next thing to a miracle if there was not a 
 cliaunter to oppose him. He runs up the price 
 to the inarTc, gives the horse a good character, 
 and expresses his high admiration of his great 
 qualities. The same was wont to be done to 
 a large extent in Smithfield, as well as in 
 places of private bargain, where the cliaunter 
 Vv'ould approach, and make an open, though 
 fallacious offer, bidding very near the price 
 asked. 
 
 There is another swindling method practised 
 among farmers' servants, or countrymen who 
 are not likely to know much about country 
 notes. They are what are called liberal pur- 
 cliasers, and pay what is asked ; but pay in 
 worthless money. In this case the country- 
 man is so pleased with tlie liberality of his 
 customer, that he is disarmed of all suspicion ; 
 and like the stranger in London, he is deprived 
 of his horse as the other is of his money by 
 such kind, friendly fellows, that do not know 
 what to do with him or for him, until they de- 
 spoil him of all the cash he has got. 
 
 Some time ago, an instance of doing a coun- 
 tryman occurred in Somersetshire. A farmer 
 sent his man to Staftbrddale Fair, to sell a 
 horse, which he speedily did for £24, being 
 the price he asked. Elated with his success, 
 he returned in great good humour with him- 
 self, and laid the money on the table before 
 
PURcnASiKo.] MODERN VETEEINAUT PRACTICE. [pubcdasixo. 
 
 his master. Tho farmer was equally pleased ; 
 but on a litllo closer exam innt ion, ho found 
 tlmt poor Jolui had been duped by sharpers. 
 The notes paid him were a ten-pound note 
 and a five-guinea note— of banks which had 
 stopped payment— and a one-pound Dorset- 
 shire note, altered into ten. John attempted 
 to trace the swindlers, but without sueeoss. 
 The same gan^ passed a ten-pound note of a 
 bank that had stopped nearly fifty years before. 
 There seems some fatality connected with 
 hor.-e-Hesh, that immediately leads to roguery. 
 Yv'e never heard of any directions given for the 
 purchase of a horse, but that among the first 
 cautions was, "never buy one of a friend." 
 Such seems the overwhelming contamination 
 of this traffic, that friendship itself is no secu- 
 rity against rascality ; and the moment a man 
 has one to sell, some degree of suspicion seems 
 to attach itself to him. Tho horse-dealer 
 seems almost, by common conpcut, to be placed 
 out of the pale of respectability; and if his 
 conduct were in a parallel with his character, 
 he would be a most accomplished deceiver. 
 
 A. dealer in a large way has generally a stock 
 of horses on hand, from which it may be easy 
 to select. If not, his general resources are 
 such, that he can very quickly supply any per- 
 son with what he wants. To the uninitiated 
 in buying horses, a respectable dealer is the 
 most eligible party to transact business with. 
 "When we reflect on the catalogue of dis- 
 eases, imperfections, and vices to which a horse 
 may be liable, and which is left to the tyro to 
 discover, the risk he runs in making a purchase 
 is immense. Although he may give a good 
 price for a horse, even more than its value, 
 still he runs less risk in buying from a re- 
 spectable dealer than from strangers. If he 
 may have paid a top price, he is unlikely to 
 be so cheated as he might be by the chaunling 
 tribe. The dealer has a residence ; and if there 
 be anything to complain of, he knows where to 
 find him. It is natural to suppose that a dealer 
 has an opportunity of selling a horse at a 
 better price than most other individuals ; and 
 it being his trade, it is but reasonable that he 
 should have his profit. Therefore, in recom- 
 mending a tyro to commence his buying from 
 a dealer, we do so on account of believing it to 
 be the least hazardous of any other; for we 
 will not indulge the aspirant after knowledge 
 
 of the horao in tho hoj)o that ho may gain it 
 without sulfering some pecuniary losses, as well 
 as disappointment. 
 
 After he has gained some experience, it will 
 bo quite time enough for him to enter the 
 bazaars and repositories, to trade on his own 
 judgment ; and if he has a taste for the pursuit, 
 he will not rest satisfied till he has matured 
 that judgment to such an extent as to find 
 pleasure as well as profit in exercising it. 
 
 Dealers never like to take a horse back ; and 
 when this is done, the purchaser must expect 
 to make some considerable sacrifice. No man 
 likes to return money for any article that lio 
 may have sold in his shop ; but to a dealer in 
 horses, it is particularly objectionable. Per- 
 sons who discover a horse returned, may natu- 
 rally enough suppose that it was from some 
 fault; and although the fact might be from 
 some sheer caprice, still his value would be 
 decreased in the opinion of those who knew it ; 
 and before he can be sold for his former value, 
 he must wait till a stranger comes, who may 
 know nothing of his being a returned horse. 
 Persons conversant with buying and selling 
 horses never think of returning them, unless 
 from unsoundness ; but the unskilled, or those 
 who are not in the habit of disposing of horses, 
 may naturally apply to the party to take them 
 back again, and think him, perhaps, an unfair 
 dealer if he refuses, on their allowing him a 
 few guineas to boot. The fact is, a quick 
 return is the very soul of horse-dealing; for 
 without it, the expense soon eats the profits 
 up. A fresh horse is more likely to meet with 
 a purchaser than such as have lain longer in 
 the stables. Hence the dealer's repugnance to 
 returned horses. 
 
 In looking out for a horse in a dealer's 
 stables, the attention of some attendant is soon 
 attracted, when he will endeavour to put the 
 horses into a fidgetty state by his presence, in 
 all probability with a whip in his hand. But 
 this should, at once, be checked. The object 
 is to see the animal in a state of repose, and 
 as far from any exciting causes as possible. It 
 may be difiicult to take a quiet survey; for 
 the attendant is not always obedient, but will 
 often persevere in exciting what is wished to 
 be seen in a quiescent state ; and sometimes 
 parties desirous of purchasing are compelled 
 to leave the stables in disgust. 
 
 167 
 
PFECHASING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [PUECHASING. 
 
 If, however, an animal likely to suit the pur- 
 pose for which he is wanted is seen, return the 
 next day, and take an opportunity of seeing him 
 ia the stable. A horse in his stall is, so tar as 
 it goes, one of the most satisfactory situations in 
 which he can be examined. By watching the 
 motions of his legs and feet, lameness may be 
 easily detected should it exist ; and so may his 
 quietness in the stable be tested. Much know- 
 ledge of his disposition may be traced in his 
 countenance, which, to the horse, as well as 
 to the man, forms a general index to his dis- 
 position. There is not a surer index. 
 
 "We will now suppose that a suitable horse 
 has been seen, and that his price has been 
 ascertained, when the ceremony of examining 
 for purchase will commence. On being as- 
 sured that he is quiet to approach, you will 
 give some gentle warning with your voice, and 
 go up to him on his near (left) side, and 
 laying your hand on his forehand (to regard 
 bis height), you will proceed thence to examine 
 his eyes, mouth, and countenance ; still holding 
 his head, and turning your own to the right- 
 about, you have a view of the curve of his 
 neck, the height of his foreliaud, the position 
 of his shoulder, and the substance of his 
 forearm. Eeturning to his forehand, you 
 descend to his legs and feet, minutely ex- 
 amiuing with your fingers every part, from 
 above, below, withinside, and without, not 
 forgetting the knees, as the value of the ani- 
 mal depends much on their perfect state. 
 
 Having satisfied yourself respecting his fore 
 parts, your eye will glance over his back, 
 girthing-place, carcass, and loins ; thence pro- 
 ceeding to his hind quarter, and the setting 
 on of his tail. Tou will judge how far he 
 agrees in each and every respect with those 
 rules of proportion already laid down in this 
 work. The hinder legs and feet will demand 
 a share of attention equally minute as the 
 fore ones ; nor should the inside or hollow of the 
 hock be passed by without careful examination, 
 since it often happens, that the injuries of 
 hard labour are most apparent in those parts. 
 A survey of the other side will complete the 
 stable examination. Some prefer examining 
 the eyes in the stable. To do this, place the 
 horse in such a position as will let the light 
 fall only in one direction, and see that they 
 are of the same size, and equally full; that the 
 168 
 
 haws are not prominent, and that one does 
 not project more than the other; that the 
 eyes are perfectly clear and transparent, and 
 that their pupils are exactly alike in size as 
 well as in colour. 
 
 Mr. John Lawrence, in speaking of the too 
 common practice of dealers using the whip, 
 gives the following caution, as well as ex- 
 presses his honest indignation at its practice. 
 
 " Suffer no person belonging to the seller to 
 be with you in the stall — unless you know 
 and are well satisfied with the dealer's cha- 
 racter — during your inspection, that the horse 
 may not be rendered unquiet, either designedly, 
 or at the mere presence of an habitual tor- 
 mentor, A short time since, I had occasion 
 to examine an animal for a friend at the 
 stable of a considerable dealer. He was a 
 very beautiful and well-shaped nag, but, as 
 is commonly the hard fate of such, he ap- 
 peared to have done too much work. The 
 attendant, from a superabundant share of 
 regard to my safety, must needs hold his head 
 whilst I exanlined his legs, still assuring me 
 he was perfectly quiet. Nevertheless, every 
 time I attempted to feel below his knees, the 
 horse started, and flew about the stall in a 
 strange manner, to the no small risk of my 
 toes and shins. Whilst I stood musing and 
 wondering what could possibly ail the animal, 
 I discovered a short whip under the arm of 
 the jockey, with which he had, no doubt, 
 tickled the neck and chest of the horse, when- 
 ever I stooped down with the intent of 
 handling his legs. I wished this adept good 
 morning. 
 
 "A fair quiet stable survey is a material 
 prelude, the horse being under none of that 
 excitement which will probably take place in 
 him when abroad upon the show ; unless, 
 indeed, he should have been previously subject 
 to that most barbarous stable discipline which 
 I, too often, witnessed in days of yore ; but 
 which, I hope, does not exist at the present 
 time — at least, not in so great a degree, or so 
 usually disgrace the conduct of our dealers, 
 I refer to the daily, probably hourly, attendance 
 of a fellow with a whip, who flogs and cuts the 
 horses up and down in their stalls, causing 
 them to jump and fly about as if mad; keeping 
 them in such a constant state of apprehension, 
 that they dread the approach of any human 
 
PURCHASINO.] 
 
 3i()i)i:iiX A' i:ti:ki XA i:v n: ac ruM^.. 
 
 [PUBCUASINQ. 
 
 being. The motive of this was to render them 
 active, ready, ami livily on a show, and to hido 
 defoi'ts; and, as an oxa<,'i;oration of this mon- 
 strous barbarity, the unfortunate cripples had 
 even an additional share of this dise-iplino, 
 being whipped and beaten most cruelly for put- 
 ting out, in order to ease, a crippled limb. This 
 was a constant practice at the repositories, 
 with the poor worn-out machiners and post 
 hacks ; and I have related, in my own treatise, 
 the case of a beautiful mare — so totally worn 
 out, that every step she took was obviously 
 attended with acute torture — whipped, and cut, 
 and beaten, and checked with the curb, witli all 
 the force that a powerful ruffian could exert, 
 whilst the tears were dropping from her sight- 
 less eyes." 
 
 To return. The horse being led out, 
 will most probably be placed upon rising 
 ground, for the purpose of showing his fore 
 quarters to advantage, which, also, affords the 
 buyer an opportunity of another examination 
 in a good light. Now is the time for regarding 
 whether he be sound or not ; for though the 
 dealer may declare that he is as sound as a 
 hell, still we should disregard what he may say 
 on that subject, and judge for ourselves. 
 
 Having spoken of the eyes, we must now 
 regard his wind. If good, on being nipped in 
 the gullet, he will utter a noise that cannot 
 fail to strike the ear as the emission of a sound 
 pair of lungs ; but if these are diseased, he will 
 give vent to a dry, husky, short cough. "We 
 have, however, seen a strong man sometimes 
 pinch the gullet of a horse with all his might, 
 without being able to make him cough. There 
 IS another way of detecting a broken-winded 
 animal, and that is by directing attention to 
 bis flanks ; which, under such circumstances, 
 will work either much quicker than ordinarily, 
 or heave deeply, and with great irregularity. 
 
 Besides these, there are two other defects, 
 which, though not anything like so distressing 
 to the animal itself, are disagreeable to hear. 
 Those horses affected with them go under the 
 denomination of "whistlers," and "roarers." 
 The first may be known by the peculiar 
 wheezing he is addicted to, when put to sudden 
 or long-continued exertion; and the other by his 
 making a roaring Boise under similar circum- 
 stances. Either will display itself by the pur- 
 chaser giving him a smart cut with his whip. 
 
 After niai^iii:^ r, itain that there is no en- 
 largement of the glands, tiuit tlie nostrils are 
 fre(! from any fa'tid smell, and that that most 
 terrible of all diseases, the glanders, may not 
 be apprehended, pass tlie hand down his legs, 
 and if any unnatural protuberance or pufli- 
 ness is found, or if, in feeling first one leg and 
 then the other, any difference between them 
 is discovered, disease, moro or less, is present. 
 Tiie animal may not bo lame, but ho is not 
 clean upon his legs. Splints, windgalla, and 
 ringbones, may be present without occasioning 
 lameness ; but they are all unnatural, are con- 
 sidered blemishes, and are all to be regarded 
 with a suspicious eye, as either denoting past 
 hard work, or betokening future evils. On 
 the same principle, a horse may have a spavin, 
 and be only stiff from it at starting ; or he may 
 have a curb, or a thorough-pin, and be per- 
 fectly sound ; but these are still blemishes, 
 and, as such, detract from his intrinsic value. 
 
 Tiie horse is next trotted in hand, or ridden ; 
 during which, the first look-out will be to dis- 
 cover whether he bends his knees sufficiently, 
 and goes clear of both hind and fore legs; 
 whether he goes wide enough behind, and 
 whether his feet stand straight. His reining 
 may then be observed, to see in what state he 
 carries his head, whether be appears light in 
 hand, or otherwise. Should he thrust out his 
 head, he will go heavy in hand. Tlie mode in 
 which be is shod should also be well observed. 
 A second-hand horse, or one which bas been 
 a considerable time in work, may be warranted 
 sound ; but care should be used to observe 
 whether be knuckles with bent knees, or has 
 any other impending cause of unsoundness. 
 Animals which appear stale and dingy in their 
 coats, with perhaps a mixture of grey hairs; 
 and one low in flesh, and dull, with his coat 
 'dead, may be suspected of rottenness. There 
 may be no objection to buying a horse merely 
 because he is low in condition. The appear- 
 ance of such an animal will be readily per- 
 ceived ; and a horse merely suffering from not 
 having had a kind and generous master, oughb 
 not to prove an impediment to his again having 
 one. Indeed, we have often felt great pleasure 
 in restoring a horse which has sufl'ered from 
 neglect, to good condition. Many a good one 
 has been restored, even after be bad been sent 
 to the knackers. 
 
 IGO 
 
TEETH.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [TEEin. 
 
 A naturally vicious horse will show his dis- 
 position in the designing glance of his eyes, 
 and by laying back his ears. It is true, the 
 kind and playful horse will lay down his ears ; 
 but he will not be a very skilful physiogno- 
 mist who cannot easily discriminate between 
 the countenance of a vicious and a playful 
 one. The wicked and resolute expression of 
 the one is generally so determinedly indexed, 
 that there are but few men who will not 
 instantly discover it. It is hardly necessary 
 to caution our readers against the purchase of 
 such an animal. 
 
 These various examinations of the intended 
 purchase may probably give satisfaction, as far 
 as the eye is concerned ; yet there may be 
 solid objections to be adduced against their 
 being made final. The horse has now been 
 shown to every advantage by the seller. He 
 has been ridden by a jockey, accustomed, by 
 his profession, to make the most of any animal 
 he has to show ; by one whose able hands and 
 habitual use of the spurs, do not fail to com- 
 mand the most implicit obedience from the 
 animal, and which will make him put his best 
 foot forward. A buyer, expecting to find the 
 accomplishment of all this under his own 
 management of the horse, may find himself 
 very unpleasantly deceived. Many horses are 
 occasionally restive when mounted by a timid 
 rider, and have cunning enough, very soon, to 
 ascertain that fact; while, with a good and 
 fearless rider, they will go quietly. 
 
 We should always recommend, before the 
 buyer pays his money, that he should claim 
 the privilege of riding the animal several miles 
 on the high road, in his walk, trot, canter, and 
 gallop, and then judge for himself whether he 
 is likely to suit him in his paces or not. It 
 should be remarked, that the wind and con- 
 dition of horses made up for sale, must not be 
 put to immediate and too severe tests ; and if 
 wanted for hard work, should have sufficient 
 preparation by moderate daily exercise, and 
 pui'ging, if necessary. 
 
 We have purposely refrained from alluding 
 to the teeth till now, these being incontestably 
 the parts of the body capable of furnishing 
 the most certain indications of the number of 
 years that the animal has lived ; and the in- 
 cisors, or nippers, in particular, are here our 
 best informants. They are, indeed, the only 
 170 
 
 teeth that give correct ideas of the age of the 
 horse throughout almost the entire duration 
 of his life. The difficulty of examining the 
 molars or grinders, and the irregularity of 
 their table, prevent our being able to obtain 
 any result from their inspection. The period 
 of the protrusion of the tushes varies much ; 
 and they do not rub against each other, 
 but sideways and across, and can only be 
 considered as an accessory means of judging. 
 Besides, the mare is not always provided with 
 them. 
 
 Professor Owen, in his treatise on The 
 Principal Forms of the Skeleton and the Teeth, 
 says, that teeth, like bone, are the result of 
 the combination of certain earthy salts with a 
 pre-existing cellular basis of animal matter. 
 " The salts are nearly the same as those in 
 bone, but enter in a larger proportion into the 
 composition of the tooth, and render it a harder 
 body. So composed, teeth are peculiar to the 
 back- boned — vertebrate — animals, and are at- 
 tached to parts of the mouth, commonly to the 
 jaws. They present many varieties as to 
 number, size, form, structure, position, and 
 mode of attachment; but are principally 
 adapted for seizing, tearing, dividing, pound- 
 ing, or grinding the food. In some species 
 they are modified to serve as formidable 
 weapons of offijnce and defence ; in others, as 
 ends in locomotion, means of anchorage, in- 
 struments for uprooting or cutting down trees, 
 or for transport and working of building mate- 
 rials. They are characteristic of age and sex ; 
 and in man they have secondary relations, 
 subservient to beauty and speech. 
 
 " Teeth are always related to the food and 
 habits of the animal, and are therefore highly 
 interesting to the physiologist. They form, 
 for the same reason, important guides to the 
 naturalist in the classification of animals ; and 
 their value, as zoological characters, is en- 
 hanced by the facility with which, from their 
 position, they can be examined in living or 
 recent animals ; whilst the durability of their 
 tissues renders them not less available to the 
 paljeonthologist in the determination of the 
 nature and affinities of extinct species, of 
 whose organisation they are often the sole 
 remains discoverable in the deposits of former 
 periods of the earth's history. 
 
 " The substance of teeth is not so uniform 
 
TEKTII.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAKY PltACTlCE. 
 
 [teeth. 
 
 aud clmrnctoristio of such. In another part 
 of his work, Profi-ssor Owen Ht-locts tho 
 liorso ns an cxatuplo of bucU herbivorous 
 dentition. 
 
 Tlio f^rinding teetli of this uiiiiiuil are "six 
 in number, on eaeli side of both upper and 
 lower jaws, with tliick, square crowns of ^reat 
 loiigtl), and deeply implanted in tho sockets; 
 those of the upper jaw being slightly curved. 
 AVhen the summit, or exposed ends, of these 
 teeth begin to be worn down by inaatication, 
 the interblended enamel, dentine, and cement, 
 show the pattern figured in tho accompanying 
 engravings. It is penetrated within by a 
 valley, entering obliquely from behind for- 
 wards, and dividing into, or crossed by, the 
 two crescentic valleys, which soon become 
 insulated. There is a large lobe at tho 
 end of the valley. The outer surface of the 
 crown is impressed by two deep longitudinal 
 channels. In the lower jaw the teeth are nar- 
 rower, transversely, than in the upper jaw, and 
 are divided externally into two convex lobes, 
 by a median longitudinal fissure ; internally 
 they present three principal, unequal convex 
 ridges, and an anterior and posterior narrower 
 ridf^e. All the valleys, fissures, and folds, in 
 both upper and lower grinders, are lined with 
 enamel, which also coats the whole exterior 
 surface of the crown. Of the series of six 
 teeth in each jaw, the first three, p 2, 3, 4, 
 are premolars ; the rest, m 1, 2, 3, are true 
 patternof the folds of enamel I molars, used lor the purpose of grinding the 
 
 that penetrate the substance of the tooth, and j food." 
 
 add to its triturating power, 
 
 is almost endless ; but it 
 
 would seem that the folds 
 
 have an invariable tendency 
 
 to a transverse direction 
 
 across the crown of the ^^ 
 
 tooth in the rodents. Tliis ;3=.-' 
 
 direction relates to the shape ^^- — =- — ■ - 
 
 of the joint of the lower y, , , / ; 
 
 jaw, which almost restricls 
 
 it to horizontal movemcn: - 
 
 to and fro, during the act ^ 
 
 of mastication. In the trne- 
 
 ,..,,,. . , GRINDIVG SURFACES OF THE UPPKR AND LOWER MOLARS OF A HORSi.. 
 
 hooted herbivorous annuals, 
 
 in which the joint of the lower jaw allows The accompanying plates show the appear- 
 
 a free rotatory movement, the folds of ance of the teeth at diilerent ages, and indi- 
 
 enamel take other forms and directions, cate the age of an animal by their lonu 
 
 with modifications, constant in each genus, and marks. 
 
 ' 171 
 
 ns in bone, but consists commonly of two or 
 more tissues, characterised by the proportions 
 of their earthy and animal constituents, and by 
 the size, form, and direetion of the cavities in 
 tho animal basis, which contain the larth, the 
 fiuid, or the vasenlar pulji. 
 
 " The tissue which fiu-ms the body of the 
 tooth is called ' dentive.' 
 
 " The tissue which forms the outer crust of 
 the tooth is called the ' cement.' 
 
 " The third tissue, when present, is situated 
 between the dentive and cement, and is called 
 ' enamel.' " 
 
 The teeth called compound, or comjdex, in 
 mammalia, differ, as regards their composition, 
 n. only by the difi'ereut propor- 
 
 tion and disposition of con- 
 stituent tissues. The accom- 
 panying cut isthelongitudinal 
 section of the incisor of a 
 iiorse ; d is the dentive, e 
 the enamel, and c the cement, 
 a laver of which is reflected 
 into the deep central depres- 
 sion of the crown ; s indicates 
 the coloured mass of tartar 
 and particles of food which 
 fill up the cavity, forming the 
 " m.ark" of the horse-dealer. 
 In pursuing this interest- 
 ing subject still further, we 
 find that the variety in the 
 
 /7 
 
 ^^- 
 
 SECTION OF HORSE S 
 INCISOR. 
 
THE HOESE, A^^D 
 
 TEETH.] 
 
 Pig. 1 shows the end of a jaw which marks 
 four years and a-half old. The horse-dividers 
 newly shot out, are still quite fresh, and not 
 as yet on a level with the incisors or nippers. 
 The inner edge of the latter are still un- 
 touched, and lower than the external edge. 
 The sucking corner teeth are much more worn, 
 and present only the extremity of the funnel. 
 
 Eig. 2 shows a horse just closing up to five 
 years old. The corner teeth have appeared a 
 short time, and are quite fresh and untouched. 
 The nippers begin to lose the mark ; the ex- 
 ternal edge of the dividers has undergone 
 some wear ; but the inner edge is nicked, and 
 as yet untouched, and lower than the outer. 
 
 Eig. 3 represents the age of a six-year-old. 
 The nippers have lost their mark ; the dividers 
 have nearly lost theirs ; but the inner edge of 
 the corner teeth is still untouched, and also 
 slightly nicked. 
 
 Eig. 4 exhibits a jaw, in which the incisors, 
 or nippers, mark seven years old complete ; 
 and both the nippers and dividers have en- 
 tirely lost the mark; the inner edge of the 
 corner teeth is on a level with the outer, in 
 consequence ot the tear and wear they have 
 undergone. 
 
 Eig. 5 shows an eight-year-old : all the 
 teeth have lost the mark, and the nippers have 
 begun to assume the oval form. The re- 
 mainder of the funnel is close to the inner edge 
 of the table of the tooth. 
 
 Pig, (5. — This engraving is taken from the 
 teeth of a horse that was eight years old off. 
 All the incisors have lost the mark, and tlie 
 septum of the root appears on the table of the 
 nippers, in the shape of a small transverse 
 zone, situated in front of the funnel, and quite 
 close to the outer edge of the tooth. 
 
 Eig. 7 exhibits the mouth at nine years old. 
 The incisors or nippers are rounded, and the 
 dividers have likewise begun to assume a 
 rounded form. The remainder of the funnel 
 of these four teeth is round, and quite close to 
 the inner edge of the tooth. Tiiese teeth also 
 show the septum of the root, which is most 
 prominent in the nippers. 
 
 Eig. 8 exhibits the mouth of a ten-year-old. 
 Here we see merely the rudiment of the funnel 
 in the nippers, as well as in the dividers ; whilst 
 the remainder of the central enamel touches 
 the inner edge of the table of the tooth. The 
 172 
 
 [teeth. 
 
 nippers and the dividers are rounded, and the 
 corner teeth present an oval form. 
 
 Eig. 9. — Erom the appearance of the teeth, 
 as here represented, the horse has attained his 
 eleventh year. All the incisors are rounded, 
 and now carry only a slight trace of the cen- 
 tral enamel, which touches the inner edge of 
 the table of the tooth. The septum of the 
 root appears in all the teeth, and the re- 
 mainder of the funnel is smaller in the nip- 
 pers than in the dividers and corner teeth. 
 
 Eig. 10 shows the mouth of a twelve-year- 
 old, the nippers having lost the central enamel, 
 and the septum of the root being rounded. 
 
 Eig. 11 — This engraving is taken from the 
 mouth of a horse thirteen years off. The nip- 
 pers have become triangular ; the dividers are 
 also assuming that form, and the corners are 
 still rounded. The septum of the root is 
 rounded in the four latter, and is seen in the 
 middle of the table. The tushes are very much 
 worn. 
 
 Eig. 12. — The horse to which this mouth 
 belonged, ruight have been thirteen or four- 
 teen vears of age. The nippers are triangular, 
 and the dividers are becoming so. The tushes 
 are still more worn than in the preceding 
 figure. 
 
 We will now briefly recapitulate the most 
 important points to be attended to, in this 
 chapter, in the purchase of a horse. However, 
 it must be borne in memory, that 
 " Whoe'er expects a perfect horse to see, 
 Expects what never was, or is, or e'er shall be." 
 
 It is well known that there is a general idea 
 in the Ciinds of many, that a hoi'se begins to 
 decay after he has attained his eighth year. 
 Than this nothing can be more absurd. Mr. 
 Blaine remarks, that "a very considerable at- 
 tention to the subject, over a wide field of 
 observation, has impressed the writer with the 
 propriety of drawing the following comparison 
 between the ages of horses and men ; that is, 
 at these several periods of comparison, the 
 constitutions of horses and of men may be 
 considered as in an equal degree of perfection 
 and capability for exertion, or of debility and 
 decay, according as youth or age preponderates. 
 Thus the first five years of a horse may be 
 considered as equivalent to the first twenty 
 years of a man ; or thus — a horse of five years 
 may be comparatively considered as old as a 
 
A (^E Df Qi^ H OK ^Sli 
 
 4' J Yf^rs f'/r^ 
 
 If Years C'ld 
 
 Cenn/i^ 3 Years 0/d 
 
 21 Yea7-s Old 
 
 7 Years (Ud 
 
 ,S' Years Old 
 
 r) Years- fRd 
 
 12 Years 07J 
 
 23 '2 Yeats CM 
 
 U Yeai-s Old 
 
 /.', ,>rJ6 Year.y O/d 
 
SKELETON.] 
 
 :M0J)K1{\ VETEIUNARV I' K A (" 1' K" i:. 
 
 [hkeleton. 
 
 raan of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man 
 of forty ; a horse of tifteeu, as a man of fifty ; 
 a liorso of twenty, as a nmu of sixty ; of twenty- 
 live, as a man of seventy ; of thirty, as a man of 
 ciglity ; and of thirty-five, as a man of ninety. 
 So far from this comparison being too mucli in 
 favour of the horse, we are disposed to think 
 it too little so. Horses of thirty-five years of 
 age are as common as men of ninety, provided 
 it be taken into the account that there are, at 
 least, fifty human subjects to every horse ; and 
 unquestionably, a horse of forty-five is less rare 
 than a man of one hundred and ten." 
 
 In enumerating tlie qualities to bo attended 
 to in the purchase of a horse, Professor Stew- 
 art gives the following summary : — 
 
 The Head. — For the eyes; for cataract, 
 glass eyes, and specks. The nostrils ; for glan- 
 ders, tumours, and cold. The glands between 
 the branches of the lower jaw ; for enlarge- 
 ment. The throat; for mark of crib-biting 
 strap, and the tenderness which accompanies 
 cold. The teeth ; for the age and marks of 
 crib-biting. The veins of the neck ; to see that 
 both are entire. 
 
 The Fore Leg axd Shouldee. — The seat 
 of the collar ; for tumours. The point of the 
 elbow ; for tumours. The knee ; for blemishes 
 and stiffness of that joint. The shank ; for 
 speed-cut, splint, and strain. The fetlock-joint ; 
 for enlargement, mud-galls, neurotomy, string- 
 
 halt, and marks of cutting. Tho pastern ; fur 
 ringbone. 
 
 The Foot. — For side-bones; sand-crack, con- 
 traction, thrush, corns, and Qat- solos. Tho 
 shoe; for signs of cutting. 
 
 The Tuunk QuAurKus. — Eacli side of tho 
 chest ; for marks of blisters and rowels. Tljo 
 space between the fore legs ; for the same. 
 The stifle ; for enlargement. Tho groin ; for 
 rupture. 
 
 TuE Hock. — For capped-hoi-k ; thorough- 
 pin, bone-spavin, and bog-spaviu — not blood- 
 spavin. Then the horse should be mounted 
 and ridden a few hundred yards at a gallop, in 
 order to quicken his breathing, and thereby 
 display the presence or absence of roaring, 
 thick wind, or broken wind. 
 
 As to the prices to be given for certain 
 horses, Lord "William Lennox says, that a 
 hunter of the best description, if in a dealer's 
 possession, should be about £loO, the odd £50 
 to be more or less as the horse appears to be 
 worth it. A strong and likely hack, £10 to 
 £00. No more should be given for this sort 
 of animal, as good ones can always be got at 
 that price. A horse for general work — that is, 
 either for the field or in harness, £G0 to £S0, 
 a little more or a little less, in accordance w ith 
 the apparent qualities of the animal. From 
 these prices, he says, "you must resolve not to 
 deviate easily." 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SKELETON OF THE HOKSE ; HIS ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION'. 
 
 Iw his Introduction to his great work on Na- 
 tural History, Buflbu remarks, that it is only 
 by comparing that we can judge ; and our know- 
 ledge turns entirely on the relations that things 
 bear to those which resemble them, and to those 
 which differ from them ; so if there were no 
 animals, the nature of man would be far more 
 incomprehensible than it is. The truth of this 
 is made at every step we take in the science of 
 comparative anatomy, which, from time to time, 
 
 has revealed the most unanticipated wondera 
 relative to the most extraordinary resemblances 
 in the structure of animals perfectly distinct. 
 For example: who would, beforehand, expect 
 that the same bones would be found in the 
 horse as in the seal? Yet a comparison of 
 their skeletons demonstrates this to be tho case 
 to a very great degree. Of all animals, the 
 rhinoceros, rather than the camel or tlie dro- 
 medary, has the nearest affinity to tlie horse; 
 
 173 
 
SKELETON.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [skeleton. 
 
 altliough a different modification of the entire 
 skeleton may be traced in the animals with 
 toes in even number, as compared with the 
 horse and other odd-toed hoofed quadrupeds. 
 
 HORSE (Eqmcs Cahallus). 
 The vertebral formula of the horse is — 7 
 cervical, C ; 19 dorsal, D ; 5 lumbar, L ; 5 sa- 
 cral, 8; and 17 caudal. Eight pairs of ribs 
 directly join the sternum, 60, which consists 
 of seven bones and an ensiform cartilage. The 
 neural arches of the last five cervical vertebrse 
 expand above into flattened, subquadrate, hori- 
 zontal plates of bone, with a rough tubercle in 
 place of a spine ; the zygapophyses, z, are un- 
 usually large. The perforated transverse pro- 
 cess sends a pleurapophysis, pi, downwards and 
 forwards, and a diapophysis, d, backwards and 
 outwards, in the third to the sixth cervicals 
 inclusive ; in the seventh the diapophysial part 
 alone is developed, and is imperforate. The 
 spinous processes suddenly and considerably 
 increase in length in the first three dorsals, 
 and attain their greatest length in the fifth 
 and sixth, after which they gradually shorten 
 to the thirteenth, and continue of the same 
 length to the last lumbar. The lumbar dia- 
 pophyses are long, broad, and in close juxta- 
 position ; the last presents an articular con- 
 cavity, adapted to a corresponding convexity 
 on the fore part of the diapophysis of the first 
 sacral. The scapula, 51, is long and narrow ; 
 and, according to its length and obliquity of 
 position, the muscles attached to it, which act 
 174 
 
 upon the humerus, operate with more vigour ; 
 and to this bone the attention of the buyer 
 should be directed, as indicative of one of the 
 good points of a horse. The carocoid is 
 reduced to a mere con- 
 fluent knob. The spine 
 of the scapula, 51, has no 
 acromion. The humerus, 
 53, is remarkable for the 
 size and strength of the 
 proximal tuberosities, in 
 which the scapular mus- 
 cles are implanted. The 
 joint between it and the 
 scapula is not fettered by 
 any bony bar connecting 
 the blade- bone with the 
 breast-bone ; in other 
 words, there is no clavicle. 
 The ulna, represented by 
 itsolecranal extremity, 54, 
 is confluent with the radi- 
 us, 55. The OS magnum, in 
 the second series of carpal 
 bones, 5Q, is remarkable for its great breadth, 
 corresponding to the enormous development of 
 the metacarpal bone of the middle toe, which 
 forms the chief part of the foot. Splint-shaped 
 rudiments of the metacarpals, answering to the 
 second, ii, and fourth, iv, of the pentadactyle 
 foot, are articulated respectively to the trape- 
 zoides and the reduced homologue of the unci- 
 forme. The mid- digit, Hi, consists of the me- 
 tacarpal, called "cannon-bone," and of the 
 three phalanges, which have likewise received 
 special names in veterinary anatomy, for the 
 same reason as other bones have received them 
 in human anatomy. " Phalanges" is the gen- 
 eral term of these bones, as being indicative 
 of the class to which they belong; and " hae- 
 mapophyses" is the general term of parts of 
 the inferior arches of the head-segments ; and 
 just as from the modifications of these hsema- 
 pophyses, they have come to be called " max- 
 illa," "mandibula," '• ceratohyal," &c. ; so the 
 phalanges of the horse's foot are called — the 
 first, "great pastern bone;" the second, " small 
 pastern bone;" and the third, which supports 
 the hoof, the " coffin-bone ;" a sesamoid ossicle 
 between this and the second, is called the 
 "caronary." The ilium, 52, is long, oblique, 
 and narrow, like its homotype, the scapula; 
 
SJaEILETON «lt BOTTi- SITKl'CTil'KE OF TME HORSE 
 
zoo. CLASS.] 
 
 jrODEliN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [zoo. ctJdm. 
 
 tho iscliiuin, G3, is unusually produced back- 
 wards. Tlio extreme points of tlieae two bones 
 show the extent to which tlie bending muscles 
 and extending muscles of tlio leg are attached ; 
 and, according to tlio distance of these points 
 'rom the thigh-bone, tho angle, at which 
 they ftre therein inserted, becomes more fa- 
 vourable for their force. Tho longer, there- 
 fore, and the more horizontal the pelvis, the 
 better tho bind-qu.irter of the horse ; and its 
 qualities for swiftness and maintenance of 
 speed, depend much on the " good point" due 
 to the development of this part of the skeleton. 
 The femur, G5, is characterised by a third 
 trochauter springing from the outer part of the 
 shaft, before the great trochanter. There is a 
 splint-shaped rudiment of the proximal end of 
 the fibula, G7, but not any rudiment of the 
 distal end. The tibia, GG, is the chief bono of 
 the leg. The heel-bone, " c»lcaneum," is much 
 produced, and forms what is called the " hock." j 
 The astragalus is characterised by the depth ! 
 and obliquity of the superior trochlea, and by 
 tlie extensive and undivided anterior surface, 
 which is almost entirely appropriated by the 
 naviculare. The external cuneiforme is th(> 
 largest of the second series of tarsals, being in 
 proportion to the metatarsal of the large middle 
 digit, Hi, which it mainly supports. The dimi- 
 nished cuboides articulates partly with this, 
 partly with the rudiment of the metatarsal, 
 corresponding with that of the fourth toe, iv. 
 A similar rudiment of the metatarsal of the toe, 
 corresponding with that of the second, ii, 
 articulates with a cuneiforme medium — here, 
 liowever, the innermost of tho second series ot 
 tarsal bones. 
 
 In the zoological classification of the horse, 
 he is placed in the division vertebrata — the 
 class mammalia — the tribe ungulata — the order 
 pachydermata — and the family solipida. The 
 generic character is, front teeth, in the upper 
 jaw, six, parallel ; in the lower jaw, six, some- 
 what projecting ; canine teeth, one on each 
 side, iu both jaws, remote from the rest ; feet 
 vtith undivided hoofs. 
 
 Of the solipida, there are several species, as 
 the horse, the ass, the mule, the zebra, and the 
 quagga. 
 
 Equus CahaUics is the common horse. 
 
 £quus asinus, the ass, which has long been 
 condemned to a state of the lowest servitude, 
 
 and considered as a species of less dignity tban 
 
 tho horse; and has acquired, in most parts of 
 Europe, a character of contempt. In its 
 natural state, however, it exhibits an appearanco 
 superior both in beauty and vivacity. It is a 
 native of Asia, living, like the rest of this gonus, 
 in a gregarious manner. It is also said to bo 
 found in Africa, but very rarely iu Syria and 
 Arabia, where it was, in ancient times, ex- 
 tremely common. In its natural state its 
 colour is white, or a very pale silver grey, with 
 a tinge of straw-colour on the sides of the neck 
 and body. Along the back runs a deep brown 
 stripe of thickish wavy hair, to the beginning 
 of the tail. This stripe is crossed over tho 
 shoulders, as in the tume animal, by anothei 
 of similar colour ; but it is said that this is 
 peculiar to tlie male. 
 
 The food of the wild ass consists chiefly of 
 saline, or bitter and lactescent plants. It ia 
 also fond of salt or brackish water. The 
 manners of these animals very much resemble 
 those of tho wild horse. They assemble in 
 troops, under tho conduct of a leader or 
 sentinel, and are extremely shy, vigilant, and 
 .swift. 
 
 The mule is nothing more than a hybrid 
 animal, between this species and the horse; 
 differing in strength, size, and beauty, accord- 
 ing to the predominancy of its parental species, 
 ^lules are little used in this country ; but in 
 Spain and some other parts of Europe they 
 are in much esteem, and are remarkably sure- 
 footed. 
 
 Equus zebra, or the zebra, is a native of tho 
 hotter parts of Africa, being found from 
 ^Ethiopia to tho Cape of Good Hope ; living 
 iu large herds, and possessing much of tho 
 manners both of the wild horse and the a&j. 
 It is both extremely swift and vigilant. It is 
 of a wilder disposition than either of the 
 former animals ; and even such as have been 
 taken very young, are with difficulty brought 
 to any degree of familiarity, and have rarely 
 been made to submit to tho bridle. 
 
 Equtis quapga, or the quagga, is nearly allied 
 to the zebra, but marked with fewer and larger 
 nunds, of a brown colour, and chiefly disposed 
 on the fore parts of the animal, while the 
 hinder parts are spotted. Tho ground-coloup 
 of the quagga is of ferruginous tinge, especially 
 on the thighs and back. It is of a more dociio 
 
 175 
 
SPLINTS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [splints. 
 
 nature than the zebra, and is said to have 
 been domesticated at the Cape. It inhabits 
 the same parts of Africa as the zebra, but is 
 
 found in separate herds, never associating with 
 that species, perhaps on account of the in- 
 herent ferocity of the latter. 
 
 CHAPTER X, 
 
 SPLINTS; bone-spavin; kingbone; anchylosis. 
 
 SPLINTS. 
 Splints are bony excrescences, situated on 
 the inside of the fore leg, and rarely occur on 
 the outside, in consequence of that part in the 
 structure of the horse being more under his 
 direct weight. When the horse has one of his 
 fore legs off the ground, there is more weight 
 thrown on the inside of the leg that is on the 
 ground ; consequently, the small inside bone 
 united to the shank bone has more work to 
 perform than the outer one, from the super- 
 abundant weight it has to sustain ; hence in- 
 flammation frequently begins in the attach- 
 ment of the large to the small bone, which is 
 of a cartilaginous substance, and, on tlie 
 slightest exertion, readily assumes a disposition 
 to form bone. But splint will frequently 
 occur in horses that never have done a day's 
 work. Even when young, and racing about 
 the fields at grass, splint will be produced ; but 
 •when this happens from such a cause, it seldom 
 produces lameness, as the coolness of the 
 atmosphere in which they are kept acts as a 
 sedative, and reduces the inflammation. Splints 
 arising from travelling, exhibit much more in- 
 flammation than they do when they arise from 
 the cause just mentioned. This is frequently 
 caused by the warmth of the stable in 
 which the horse has to lie ; and although the 
 disease may not have assumed a form above 
 half the size of a pea, it will be the means of 
 producing the most painful lameness. Another 
 cause of splint is occasioned by the speedy-cut, 
 which is just under the knee. This has been 
 known to proceed so ftir, that valuable horses, 
 good hackneys, have been doomed by it to slow 
 work during the remainder of their lives. The 
 cause of this is from its interfering with the 
 176 
 
 bones of the knee, or proceeding inwards, and 
 thereby affecting the suspensory ligament. 
 The remedies for splints are now more humane, 
 and have a better effect, than those formerly 
 in use. The practice at tlie Royal Veterinary 
 College, is to divide the skin above and below 
 the enlarged bone ; then to pass a seton im- 
 mediately over it, changing and dressing the 
 seton, consisting of coarse tape, every day with 
 a digestive ointment, composed of the following 
 ingredients : — 
 
 Hog's Lard . . . 
 Common Turpentine 
 
 6 oz. 
 
 2 „ 
 
 Another method practised at the College was 
 to cut down on the top of the splint, and divide 
 the periosteum, or the membranous skin-like 
 substance immediately attached to the bone ; 
 the stretching of which, in consequence of the 
 bony excrescence or splint, is the cause of the 
 lameness. These remedies, however, though 
 practised at this royal establishment, are not 
 calculated for practice either in town or country, 
 as both of them leave a considerable llemish, 
 which always deteriorates the value of the 
 horse. The following mode of treatment leaves 
 no blemish, and is generally successful. If the 
 case is a recent one, 
 
 Spirit Turpentine 1 oz. 
 
 Olive Oil 2 „ 
 
 Eub this well on the part, night and morniagi 
 and wind a woollen bandage moderately tight 
 round tiie leg. By removing the ordinary 
 shoe, and putting on a thick-heeled one, it 
 will greatly relieve the affected part. Should 
 the lameness not disappear in the course of 
 three days, then some stronger application 
 

 
 '/; 
 
 
 ^ J ^ 
 
 V 5 
 
 ^ i 
 > ^ 
 
SPLINTS.] 
 
 irODEEN VETEKINAUV riiACTICR 
 
 [no>'E-8PAVijr. 
 
 must be made, more especially if the spliut 
 is larrro. 
 
 MiTcurial Ointment 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 Kub a piece of this, about the size of a liazlc- 
 mit, on tlie part, morniiij^ aud niglit, as long as 
 any rotnains : then apply 
 
 Blister Ointment 2 drachms. 
 
 Ev this method of practice splints will be got 
 rid of witliout the fear of blemish or injury to 
 the leg. If there is an obligation to have 
 recourse to the last remedy above named, have 
 a cradle on the neck of the horse, as he may, 
 by biting it, bo kept more safe from blemish. 
 
 During the application of the local remedies, 
 take of — 
 
 Cape Aloes G drachms. 
 
 Resin, powdered, 6 ,, 
 
 Common soap, to form into a mass. 
 
 Divide into three balls, and give one every 
 second day. For food, give half bran and half 
 corn, made moderately wet. Mr. Youatt says, 
 that if splints are worth while to meddle with 
 at all, their treatment is very simple ; and 
 recommends the hair to be closely shaved off 
 round the tumour — the application of a little 
 strong mercurial ointment rubbed in for two 
 days, to be followed by an active blister. If 
 the spliut is of recent formation, it will gene- 
 rally yield to this, or to a second blister. 
 
 Professor Sewell introduced anew treatment 
 of splints. He removed any inflammation 
 about the part by fomentations or poultices, 
 and then performed the following operation. 
 He commenced by pinching up the skin imme- 
 diately above the bony enlargement, witli tlie 
 finger and thumb of the left hand ; and with 
 the knife, or lancet, or scissors, made an orifice 
 sufficient to introduce a probe-pointed bistoury, 
 with the edge on the convex side. This he 
 passed under the skin the whole length of 
 the ossification beneath, cutting through the 
 thickened periosteum down to the bone. Tiiis 
 being satisfactorily completed, he drew the 
 knife several times backwards and forwards — 
 inserting a small tape or seton, which, if the 
 tumour was of long standing, was kept in a 
 few days. Tliis operation is attended with 
 very little pain to the animal. 
 
 2 a 
 
 nONE.Sl'AVlN. 
 This is an exostosis or bony enlargement in 
 or about the inner part of the hock joint; but 
 more particularly at its lower part; or, in 
 some cases, at the upper end of the leg bone, 
 though spavin may occur on any part of the 
 hock. From the peculiar construction of the 
 hock joint, the number of bones which are 
 there, and its being the seat whence the prin- 
 cipal propelling motion arises, it is little to be 
 wondered at, that horses are so very liable to 
 spavin. Young animals are especially subject 
 to it, in consequence of farmers and breeders 
 putting them to work at too early a period. 
 Farmers generally commence using their young 
 horses in the summer, to assist in drawing 
 their hay or bringing in their corn. Now, as 
 colts pull awkwardly at first, any sudden strain 
 made on uneven ground, or a sudden start 
 forwards, or from the violent exertion put on, 
 the animal will, in all probability, strain his 
 hock. Tliis being a very complicated joint, 
 any of these causes may produce considerable 
 inflammation, lameness, and spavin ; though 
 there are a great number of horses affected 
 with what is termed spavin, that never go lame 
 at all, and some of them even very excellent 
 hunters. This arises from the situation in 
 which the bony enlargement has it seat. If it 
 is at the upper end of the leg bone, and in such 
 a situation as not to interfere with the small 
 bones of the hock joint, it may grow to a very 
 considerable substance, and but slight lame- 
 ness exist. Should this be the case, the 
 treatment of spavin may consist in the use 
 of gentle counter-irritants, which invariably 
 remove the lameness in a very short time. 
 Cooling lotions or repellers, as they are exceed- 
 ingly slow in their operation, and seldom cr 
 ever restore the horse from lameness, are not 
 to be recommended. In colts, however, the 
 mildest methods should be preferred, though 
 their effects are much slower. For a miid 
 application, take — 
 
 Cantharidcs, powdered 
 ^Vhite Wine Vine<:ar . 
 
 4 drachms. 
 4 oz. 
 
 Put tlicse into a six-ounce bottle, and let the 
 mixture stand three or four days, shaking the 
 bottle four or five times a day. At the ex- 
 piration of that time it will be fit for use, 
 
 177 
 
BOIfE-SPAYIN.] 
 
 THE HOESE, A.ND 
 
 [eingboke. 
 
 Eub about two table spoonfuls of the lotion 
 on the hock night and morning, shaking the 
 bottle well each time. Should this not have 
 the desired effect, apply a 
 
 Strong Blister. 
 
 Cantharides, powdered ... 6 drachms. 
 
 ^Mercurial Ointment .... 4 „ 
 
 Hog's Lard 2 ounces. 
 
 Clip the hair off close, say an inch and a-half 
 further round than the spavin extends. Eub the 
 blister well in with the hand. In all probability 
 this blister will remove the spavin entirely, or 
 at least the pain and lameness ; for, when 
 once bony matter is formed, it is difficult to 
 completely remove it. Be careful that the horse 
 wears a cradle in every case of blistering. 
 
 Some spavins may require a second or third 
 blister. In such cases repeat the above at an 
 interval of about three weeks — not earlier — to 
 prevent the chance of having a blemish. 
 
 With full-grown horses, as well as with old 
 ones, this disease is with difficulty remedied. 
 As success, however, sometimes attends even 
 the milder methods, it should not, even at any 
 age of the animal, deter us from trying other 
 remedies. Bold adventurers succeed some- 
 times with them, "where superior skill, under 
 the direction of prudence, fails ; but notwith- 
 standing this, their more frequent ill effects, 
 by exciting excessive pain and inflammation, 
 and even causing death, should induce great 
 caution in their use. 
 
 If the ointment is not effectual, recourse 
 must be had to firing. In this operation care 
 must be taken not to fire through the skin; 
 for wherever this is done, a blemish will be 
 certain to be left. Lay the following blister 
 on lightly, but on no account let it be rubbed 
 in, or a blemish will be the result. 
 
 31ild Blister, 
 Cantharides, powdered ... 2 drachms. 
 Hog's lard 2 oz. 
 
 Smear this, or lay it lightly on the part 
 fired. In the course of five weeks, should this 
 first firing not have had the desired eflect, fire 
 again, and extend beyond the edges of the 
 first operation, and apply the blister again. 
 Mr. White, in his Compendium of the Veteri- 
 nary Art, says that the only cure for this com- 
 plaint is firing, and blistering immediately after. 
 178 
 
 The practice for the cure of spavins made 
 use of at the Eoyal Yeterinary College, is by 
 introducing setons over the diseased part, 
 dividing the skin above and below the spavin, 
 about two inches; then with a blunt seton 
 needle, introducing tapes — generally two — and 
 dressing daily with digestive ointment, com- 
 posed of the following proportions : — 
 
 Common Turpentine ...... 3 oz. 
 
 Hog's Lard 8 do. 
 
 These are melted together over a slow fire. 
 The setons are suffered to remain for about a 
 fortnight, being changed daily at each dressing. 
 In some cases a very good effect is produced 
 by this mode ; but, like all other remedies, it 
 is not applicable to all stages of the disease ; 
 in the early or incipient state, it may be 
 considered a good remedy. During the ope- 
 ration of any of the above methods of practice, 
 the following medicine should be adminis- 
 tered : — 
 
 Cape Aloes ...... 
 
 Linseed meal with soft soap, 
 
 2 drachms. 
 
 formed into a moderately sized ball. Give 
 one about every third day. Medicine that 
 will act on the urinary organs must not be 
 given while using so much blistering ointment. 
 
 RINGBONE. 
 
 This disease takes its name from its situa- 
 tion, which is at or about the joint of the large 
 and small pastern bones. Erom the existence 
 of great inflammation, it spreads round the 
 coronet, capping the hoof with a bony ring. 
 
 This is produced by the ligaments having 
 been injured by over-exertion; and it more 
 fi-equently occurs in the hind than in the fore 
 limbs. Overweighting the animal will produce 
 it, or putting him to work before he finished, 
 as it is termed. Any severe strain, and even 
 blows will produce it. And, as it is not un- 
 common for ill-tempered grooms or carters to 
 kick their horses about their fetlocks, the 
 eflect of such an act may be to set up inflam- 
 mation, and ultimately to produce ringbone. 
 
 Horses aflected with ringbone, may or may 
 not be lame. It all depends on that degree of 
 inflammation which would increase the greater 
 deposit of bony matter, and occasion the 
 disease to spread, which it frequently will do, 
 

 ^■ 
 
 
 V; 
 
 Hi. 
 
 i^ ^ 
 
nixr.noNE.] 
 
 MODERN VK'l'KKlNA K V I* li A CTl C IL 
 
 [anciiylosih. 
 
 even so far timt the cofTm-boiip, and the navi- 
 cular, or nut-bono, partake of tho iliscaso. 
 
 " Horses with short uprii^'ht joints," says 
 tlio editor of The Horse, " aiul with small fici 
 and high aetion, aro oftenest, as may bo sup- 
 posed, the suhjeets of this disease, which is the 
 consequence either of concussion or sprain of 
 the pastern joints. It is also more frequent 
 in the hind foot than the fore ; because, from 
 the violent action of the hind lepjs in propel- 
 ling the horse forward, tlio pasterns aro more 
 subject to ligamentary injury behind than 
 before ; yet the lameness is not as great there, 
 because the disease is confined principally to 
 the ligaments, and tho bones have not been 
 injured by concussion ; while from the position 
 of the fore limbs, there will generally be in 
 them injury of the bones to be added to that 
 of the ligaments. In its early stage, and when 
 recognised only by a bony enlargement on 
 both sides of the pastern joint, or in some few 
 cases on one side only, the lameness is not 
 very considerable, and it is not impossible to 
 remove the disease by active blistering, or by 
 the application of the cautery ; but there is so 
 much wear and tear in this part of the animal, 
 that the inflammation and the disposition to 
 the formation of bone rapidly spreads." 
 
 If the horse should be lame, the best plan 
 to adopt is, to relieve the vessels as near the 
 part as possible, by bleeding in the foot to the 
 amount of at least two quarts. After replac- 
 ing the shoe, and applying a pledget of tow, 
 administer the following ball : — 
 
 Aloes, Cape 6 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 Form with soft soap. 
 
 Should this not De sufficient to purge the 
 horse, increase the dose, as may be necessary, 
 with a drachm or two of aloes, at the same 
 time having the horse fed on bran mashes for 
 at least a day previous. "When the physic is 
 set, apply the mercurial blister as prescribed 
 
 in the case of spavin, and keep it open by 
 
 occasionally ap|)lying hog's lard to tho part 
 for live or six days. In the coutho of threo or 
 lour weeks, should tho animal not have got rid 
 of his lameness, recourse nujst Ixr had to firing, 
 which should bo done at least half way up tho 
 largo pastern bone, and down to tho hoof, in 
 what is called diamonts. After this, lay some 
 mild blister on ; and, in most cases, the lame- 
 ness will be altogether removed. If it should 
 not, repeat the firing, and blister again. 
 
 ANCHYLOSIS. 
 The origin of this disease is an inflammation 
 of tho ligaments, connecting joints togetlier, 
 and occurring in the fore legs, particularly 
 between the large and small pastern bones. 
 It may also arise from sprain or laceration, as 
 well as from various other causes, such as 
 tumefaction of the ends of bones, caries, frac- 
 ture, dislocation. As tho horse becomes ased. 
 stiffness in the joints is also apt to occur. 
 Anchylosis, however, is a disease which more 
 frequently occurs in the spine, or back-bone, 
 than in any other part. "When this is the 
 case, the horse is termed rigged in the back, 
 because he is most generally affected about 
 the loins. The difficulty he shows in turning 
 — giving to his body a kind of jerk, according 
 as he may be turned either to the left or the 
 right — has given rise to the term rig ; and if 
 he be trotted, he will have such a rolling gait, 
 accompanied with such apparent weakness, 
 that what is the matter with him is at once 
 perceived. There aro, however, many horses 
 called clanked in the hack, which may, in a 
 measure, be restored, for slow work, by giving 
 them as much rest as possible ; as this kiua 
 of anchylosis of the back-bone does not inter- 
 fere with the animal employed in slow farm 
 labour. If the disease takes place in either 
 tho fetlock joints, pasterns, knee, hock, ot 
 stifle, the horse will be totally useless, and 
 a cure is impossible. 
 
 179 
 
TEACTUBES.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [feactubes. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 FIIACTUEES. — THE head; PaBS ; LIMBS; BLADE-BONE; ABM; ELBOW; SHANK-BONE; THIGH-BONE; 
 PASTERNS ; COEFIN-BONE, AND NAVICULAR BONE. 
 
 FRACTURES. 
 Pbactubes mean a division of a bone into two 
 or more parts, or fragments. A simple frac- 
 ture is vrhen the bone only is divided, and 
 not protruded through the skin. A com- 
 pound fracture is a division of tlie bone, witli 
 a laceration of the integuments, the bone 
 mostly protruding. A comminuted fracture is 
 where the bone is splintered in more than one 
 direction. A fracture is also termed trans- 
 terse, oblique, &c., according to its direction. 
 
 The fractures that most generally occur are 
 in the head, occasioned by horses running 
 violently against a post or bar ; the ribs, hip- 
 bone, thigh-bone, and, indeed, all bones of the 
 leg, caused either by falls, or kicks from other 
 horses. "We will first consider 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE HEAD. 
 
 Although this is not a very common case, 
 still, it is likely to occur. A case illustrative 
 of the manner in which it sometimes happens^ 
 took place in India. At the usual watering- 
 time of the horses in the afternoon — about 
 five o'clock — one of them broke loose from the 
 hands of the man who attended him. This 
 occasioned a tremendous outcry among tlie 
 soldiers, many of whom ran after him, and so 
 frightened the animal, that he fled with all the 
 reckless speed he could command. In this 
 state he made a desperate rush into his stand- 
 ing in the stable, and fractured hie skull 
 against its top bar with such violence, that he 
 was knocked down by the effects of the blow. 
 He received a wound on the head about au 
 inch wide. Fearing that concussion of the 
 brain had taken place, the veterinary surgeon 
 had the horse bled to the amount of six 
 quarts, the head frequently fomented with 
 warm water, and no food given to the animal 
 that night. In the morning he appeared 
 better. The fomentations were kept up, •and 
 six drachma of aloes given him. This treat- 
 180 
 
 ment was continued for two days, when the 
 process of healing the skin was commenced, 
 and accomplished in about a week. 
 
 At the end of the third day, when about to 
 discharge the horse as cured, it was found 
 that he was attacked with Jock-jaw. This cir- 
 cumstance suggested that the bone must have 
 been fractured, and that pressure on the brain 
 was the consequence. The horse was imme- 
 diately cast, and two sections in the skin, 
 forming two sides of a triangle, made with the 
 scalpal. On examining the parietal bone, it 
 was found that the skull had a perpendicular 
 fracture of about an inch and a quarter in 
 length, and that a piece of bone had been 
 splintered ofi^, about three-quarters of an inch 
 long. The splintered bone was now extracted 
 with a pair of sharp-pointed forceps, the skin 
 drawn down, and half-a-dozen sutures attached. 
 The fracture was then treated as a common 
 wound, and dressed with digestives until 
 granulations began to form. Under this 
 treatment, it was completely healed in about 
 three weeks. The lock-jaw yielded, by de- 
 grees, to copious bleedings and solution of 
 aloes, day by day, until purgation was pro- 
 duced. This interesting case is represented 
 in the accompanying Plate of the horse's 
 head. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PLATE.—" FRACTURES." 
 
 A shows the situation of the parietal suture, 
 running perpendicularly up the front of the 
 head. 
 
 B, the fractured part, just on the suture. 
 
 C, the skin dissected and laid back, the 
 upper part being held in its situation by an 
 assistant. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 
 Fractures of the ribs frequently occur, and 
 are very often produced by kicks from other 
 horses, more especially when at grass than at 
 
u 
 
 H 
 O 
 < 
 
PRACTUBES.] 
 
 3[0DEKN VETEUlNAlii' PRACTICE. 
 
 [yUACTUUES. 
 
 any otlier time. Tlicy are, also, freqiuMitly the 
 itli't't of blows dealt to such aiiiinala ad are 
 iisi'd in larj^e towns by costerinongers and 
 dustmon, who, if a horse cannot travel at the 
 rate they rciinire, a lar-^e stick is made to re- 
 sound on his sides with an inhunciiiily only 
 equalled by the ignorance of the brute who is 
 entrusted with the use of such a weapon. 
 These fractures generally unite of themselves ; 
 Nature setting up the healing process herself, 
 and the accident seldom or ever coming to 
 light until the beast finds its way to the yard 
 of the knacker, " The two ribs behind the 
 elbow," says Hurtrel d'Arboval, "are the 
 most subject to fracture ; and the false ribs, 
 from the yielding motion which they possess, 
 ere least liable." 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE SPINE. 
 
 Fracture of the spine may arise from lying 
 down in a narrow stall, in which there is diffi- 
 culty in rising again ; or sometimes from the 
 horse turning over in the standing, whilst 
 lying down, so that there is not room for him 
 to get his hind legs clear of the stall-post. 
 "Where this is the case, he struggles to regain 
 his feet, and the ligament of his back becomes 
 so much strained, that inllammation com- 
 mences, and in all probability terminates in 
 anchylosis. It sometimes occurs in casting a 
 horse to perform an operation, notwithstanding 
 every possible care may have been taken to 
 prevent it. 
 
 For this fracture there is no remedy. In 
 the eleventh volume of the Veterinarian, Mr. 
 AV. C. Spooner relates a case of spine-fracture 
 of considerable interest. A horse had been 
 clipped about three weeks, and was subse- 
 quently sharply galloped upon rough ground, 
 and pulled up suddenly and repeatedly, with 
 the object of sweating him- - After this, he did 
 not go so well as he had done previously, nor 
 would he canter readily, although he had been 
 much used to that pace. Two days before he 
 was destroyed, the groom was riding him at a 
 slow pace, when he suddenly gave way behind, 
 had to be carried home, and he could not 
 afterwards stand. He had, it is supposed, 
 slightly fractured the spine when being sud- 
 denly pulled up, but without displacing the 
 bones. There are, doubtless, many similar 
 cases to this. 
 
 Attempts have been made to euro this frac- 
 ture by blisters and charges, but uuvcr with 
 any good ellect. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE LIMBS. 
 As in all other cases of fracture to which 
 the horse is liable, those of the limbs are as 
 difficult to euro as any. Consequently, in 
 many instances, the animal has to bo de- 
 stroyed ; but many fractures of the limbs may 
 be restored so far as still to make the horse of 
 considerable value. This will especially bo 
 the case if ho is a well-formed stallion, or if 
 she is a good mare. The breed of either may 
 not only be kept up, but may be useful fur 
 many purposes. Of a case of fracture of the tibia, 
 Mr. J. S, Mayer gives an interesting account. 
 A horse had received a blow on this part of the 
 leg, but for two or three days little notice was 
 taken of it. "When he, however, was called in to 
 examine him, he found the tibia to bo obliquely 
 fractured, about midway between the hock 
 and the stifle, and a small wound existing on 
 the inside of the leg. The process of setting it 
 was as follows : — The leg, from the stifle down 
 to the hock, was well covered with an adhesive 
 compound, then wrapped round with fine tow, 
 upon which another layer of the same adhesive 
 mixture was laid, the whole being well splinted 
 and bandaged up, so as to render what was 
 a slightly compound fracture a simple one. 
 The local inflammation and sympathetic fever 
 that supervened were kept down by anti- 
 phlogistic measures. At the end of six weeks 
 the bandages and splints were removed, and 
 readjusted in a similar way as before ; and, at 
 the termination of three months from the 
 time of the accident, he was discharged cured : 
 the splints being wholly taken off, and merely 
 an adhesive stay kept on the leg. The horse 
 is now at work, and quite sound, there being 
 merely a little thickening where the callus is 
 formed. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE BLADE-BoNE. 
 Fracture of the blade-bone is not at all un- 
 frequent, and particularly the neck of tlio 
 bone. This is caused either by kicks, or falls 
 when going at a fast trot ; so that when tlie 
 horse comes to tlie ground, one leg is ex- 
 tended before him, and the other under his 
 bodv. With coach-horses, it most frequently 
 
 181 
 
FEACTUBES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [rEACTUEES. 
 
 takes place. The remedy is, first to draw 
 about four quarts of blood from the plate 
 vein, at the anterior part of the leg. The 
 animal should be slung, so that the feet just 
 touch the ground. This being completed, 
 bathe well with flannel dipped in hot water. 
 Eepeat this until the inflainination appears to 
 subside. Feed with cold bran mashes, and 
 give the following ball : — • 
 
 Cape Aloes 4 drachms. 
 
 Linseed Meal 1 do. 
 
 Form with soft soap. 
 
 If this should not be sufficient to keep the 
 system cool, repeat it in three days. 
 
 Apply the following liniment to the shoul- 
 der : — 
 
 01 Terebinth 2 oz. 
 
 01 Oliva 2 do. 
 
 Continue this treatment for about three 
 weeks, then give the horse a month's run at 
 grass, where he will be most likely to lie quiet. 
 By the end of this time he will probably be 
 fit for work. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE ARM. 
 
 This bone is frequently fractured from its being 
 so exposed and so very liable to kicks. When it 
 occurs, however, there is a much greater proba- 
 bility of efiecting a cure of it than there is in the 
 fracture of the blade-bone. In treating for it, 
 the horse must be slung lightly, as in the pre- 
 ceding case ; but, instead of taking blood from 
 the arm, let it be taken from the jugular vein 
 of the neck. Treat in every other respect as 
 directed for the foregoing ; and take a piece of 
 very broad tape, four yards long, and bind it 
 round the fractured part tolerably tight. Let 
 it remain on two days, then remove and apply 
 more of the liniment ; after which put the tape 
 on again, and continue in this manner until 
 the horse can put his foot to the ground. 
 When he is able to do this, remove the sling, 
 and let him have a loose box for a week or 
 two before he is turned out. 
 
 Mr. Gloag, of the 10th Hussars, tells us of 
 an entire black cart-horse, which was grazing 
 in a field into which some mares had been 
 accidentally turned. One of them kicked him 
 severely a little above the knee. He, how- 
 ever, contrived to get home ; and being care- 
 fully examined, there was found a simple frac- 
 182 
 
 ture of the radius, about an inch and a-half 
 above the knee. The ends of the fi-actured bone 
 could be heard distinctly grating against each 
 other, both in advancing the leg, and turning 
 it sideways from the body. He was imme- 
 diately placed in a sling not completely 
 elevated from the ground, but in which he 
 could occasionally relieve himself by standing. 
 The leg was well bathed with warm water, and. 
 the ends of the bone brought as true to their 
 position as possible. Some thin slips of green 
 wood were then immersed in boiling water 
 until they would readily bend to the shape of 
 the knee ; and they were tied round the joint, 
 reaching about nine inches above, and six below 
 the knee, the ends of them being tied round 
 with tow. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE ELBOW. 
 
 This is one of those fractures which must be 
 united in the same manner as we have seen prac- 
 tised in regard to the arm. There is, however, 
 sometimes great difficulty in keeping the limb 
 sufficiently relaxed to accomplish this ; there- 
 fore, when the horse is slung, a side line should 
 be put on, or, as a makeshift, the end of a halter 
 fostened round the pastern, and passed up to 
 the sling-tackle ; the foot being drawn about 
 four inches off the ground, to relax the flexor 
 muscles. When this is done, proceed in the 
 same manner as recommended in the preceding 
 practice of the arm. 
 
 Mr. Touatt recommends a large quantity of 
 tow, saturated with pitch, to be placed round 
 tlie elbow, and confined with firm adhesive 
 plasters, the ground being hollowed away in 
 the front of the injured leg, so that no pres- 
 sure shall be made by that foot. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE SHANK-BONE. 
 When a fracture of this bone takes place, it 
 may be restored, with good management ; be- 
 cause bandages and other compresses may be 
 applied with greater facility, and in greater 
 variety, after securing the horse by means of 
 assistants. The first article to have ready is 
 a leathern bandage something like a leathern 
 boot, about seven inches long, with holes in it, 
 as represented in one of the engraved sheets of 
 this work. This must be so made, that, when 
 it is laced, it should not touch the edges by a 
 quarter of an inch. Being prepared with this. 
 
FllACTVEES.] 
 
 MOTtEKN VETEKINA"RT PT^ACTTCE. 
 
 [foactubeb. 
 
 ])lace the ends of tlio fnicturi-il liinl) as cvfiily 
 iu contact as ])ossible ; then got an assistant to 
 lace the boot tight on, which will act as a kind 
 of pplont, to socnre the bone in its proper 
 situation. After this, bandage the leg well 
 Jroin the knee to the fetlock, with four yards 
 of a llannel bandage. Hemovo all straw and 
 litter ; and if much iiTitatiou appears about him, 
 give- 
 Cape Aloes ....;. 4 drachms. 
 
 Resin 1 do. 
 
 Soft soap to form the ball. 
 
 The flannel bandage must not be removed for 
 at least a week ; when a little of the liniment 
 prescribed for the fractured blade-bone may be 
 poured iu at the top of the boot, so that it may 
 run dowu between the boot and leg. Pursue 
 this plan until the boot can safely be removed, 
 then apply the liniment and the woollen bandage 
 only. For food, if the animal is accustomed 
 to the stable, give half bran and half oats made 
 damp. If the accident occurs while the horse 
 is at grass, give bran mashes only. 
 
 In the representative plate, A shows the 
 form in which the boot is to be made; B 
 B, the lengtli from top to bottom, about seven 
 inches ; C, the lace to draw the edges together [ 
 within a quarter of an inch, in order to give it 
 the requisite tightness. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE THIGH-BONE. 
 
 Tlie thigh-bone is somciimes fractured at its 
 lower head, where it joins the bones of the 
 hock, though this is by no means a common 
 case. There is no doubt, however, that many 
 horses are killed from the appearance of the 
 fracture ; the leg, below where it has occurred, 
 dangles and shakes about, as if only sustained 
 by the common integument — or skin — so that 
 the horse literally goes on three legs. It arises 
 sometimes in consequence of the temper of the 
 horse, or it may occur from a sudden slip of 
 the hind leg on wet slipperv stones, iu going up 
 hill. 
 
 A horse had got his leg entangled between 
 the foot-board and the bar, and so near to the 
 middle that he could not extricate it. He con- 
 sequently made a sudden plunge, and snapped 
 his tliigh just above the head of the lower end 
 of the thigh-bone. He was put into a friend's 
 stable, bard -by where the accident happened, 
 
 and the vi-trrinary surgeon wan imnicdiatelv 
 sent for. The K'g was dangling as if by a piece 
 of cord, and the liorBe was reatless, and Hwcat- 
 ing jirofusely from the pain he was HuHV-ring. 
 Tlie treatment was as follows: — 
 
 The surgeon ilrst got an old horse-collar, 
 which ho put on the horse ; then a roller, to 
 which was fastened the top of the collar, with 
 a strap to prevent its getting forward on to 
 his neck. The bow part of a halter was then 
 put round the fetlock joint of the fractured 
 leg, passing the other end between the foro 
 legs of the horse, and into the collar, the end 
 of which was given to an assistant to hold 
 until the horse's leg was got into a proper 
 situation. A good woollen bandage was next 
 procured ; and the gentleman to whose house 
 the horse had been taken, fortunately happened 
 to have by him three parts of a bottle of 
 liniment, composed of oil turpentine and oil 
 olive. Two table-spoonfuls of this liniment 
 was gently rubbed on the part ; then the man 
 who held the halter was desired to draw tho 
 leg gently forward, until the parts were brought 
 as even together as possible. This being satis- 
 fitctorily accomplished, an assistant, with tho 
 bandage, bound the parts up tight and firm ; 
 after which the halter was made fast to tho 
 bottom of the collar. The bone was now re- 
 placed. The bandage was not removed for a 
 week, when the limb was found to be doinf? 
 well. The liniment was continued, and the 
 line kept to the foot for three weeks, when the 
 horse was able to be moved about a few 
 yards. On account of the restlessness of the 
 animal, no medicine could be given him, and 
 two men sat witli him day and night. His 
 principal food was bran mashes, as a sub- 
 stitute. This animal being an entire horse, 
 and a favourite, the owner would have him 
 castrated, which operation was performed on 
 him ; and, on getting well, he turned out one 
 of the best gig horses in the country. 
 
 Another case was that of a fine brown horse 
 belonging to a gentleman residing in Ked 
 Lion-street, Holborn; and the accident oc- 
 curred when going up Holborn Hill, during 
 the frost of a winter day. 
 
 The horse was placed under the care of a 
 very skilful metropolitan veterinary surgeon; 
 but the owner of the horse, regretting tho 
 accident very much, wished he could get rid 
 
 183 
 
DISLOCATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, A,ND 
 
 [dislocations. 
 
 of him at five pounds. The veterinary surgeon 
 who treated the last case, bought him at that 
 price, vrith a further stipulation that he should 
 have stable-room, and a man to look after him 
 for a month.. Within that period the horse 
 was removed to his owner's stable, whence 
 he was turned out for another month. By 
 this time he had become perfectly upright, 
 and was sold for twenty-five pounds. During 
 the month the horse remained with the gentle- 
 man of whom he was purchased, he underwent 
 the same treatment as described in the other 
 case. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE PASTERN BONE, THE 
 COFFIN-BONE, AND NAVICULAR BONE. 
 
 There is no remedy for these. "When the 
 fracture is in the lower pastern, and of neither 
 a compound nor a complicated nature, it may 
 be reduced by proper bandaging ; and this has 
 sometimes been the case. When it is in the 
 upper pastern, it is easily discovered, and is 
 often the result of a violent efibrt made by the 
 horse to prevent himself from actually falling 
 when he has made a stumble. In treating for 
 
 it, if it runs laterally across the bone, a band- 
 age steeped in some adhesive matter is applied 
 from the coronet to the middle of the leg. 
 Over this some damp or wet pasteboard should 
 be moulded, and afterwards enveloped in a 
 linen bandage.^ A small spleut should next be 
 applied, before and behind, on each side, and 
 the hollow places filled with tow, with the view 
 of giving them an equal bearing. Should this 
 not be sufficient to insure security, other 
 splents, thicker and broader, should be placed 
 over those, extending to the knee or the hock. 
 In reference to the coffin-bone, Mr. Percivall 
 says — " Buried as the coffin-bone and navicular 
 bones are within the hoof, and out of the way 
 of all external injury, as well as of muscular 
 force, fracture of them cannot proceed from 
 ordinary causes." Erom whatever causes these 
 fractures are produced, however, " Let your 
 remedies," says Mr. Mayer, "be governed by 
 those principles of science, those dictates of 
 humanity, and that sound discretion which, 
 while they raise the moral and intellectual 
 superiority of man, distinguish the master of 
 his profession from the bungling empiric." 
 
 CHAPTER XII, 
 
 DISLOCATIOIS'S. — THE STIFLE-BONE; SESAMOID BONES. 
 
 THE STIFLE-BONE. 
 Dislocation of the stifle-bone frequently 
 happens from kicks and slips out of the hind 
 leg, so that the boce becomes thrown out of 
 its socket. When this happens, the limb be- 
 comes totally helpless, and the horse draws it 
 after him in the most distressing manner. 
 
 The treatment is to extend the limb forward, 
 and fasten it in the same manner as described 
 for fracture of the tibia. Having done this, 
 place one hand against the bone, and press 
 moderately from you with tlie other ; then 
 take hold of the point of the hock, and you 
 will feel the stifle-bone snap into its place or 
 socket. A re-occurrence of this accident can 
 184 
 
 only be prevented by using counter-irritants 
 all round the joint. Eor these take 
 
 01 Terebinth 3 oz. 
 
 01 Oliva; .0 3 do. 
 
 Apply three or four table-spoonfuls to the 
 stifle, all round the joint, morning and niglit. 
 This will create considerable swelling; and by 
 so doing, keep the stifle-bone in its socket. 
 Should this not be found sufficiently powerful 
 to retain the bone in its place, take 
 
 Cantharides 1 oz. 
 
 01 Terebinth 4 do. 
 
 Shake well together when used. 
 This will occasion a considerable swelling, but 
 will Jiave the desired effect. 
 
THB SESAMOIDS.] M ODERN VETERI N AR Y PR ACTI CE. [tub sesamoids. 
 
 THE SESAMOID RONES. 
 
 Sesnmoids is the wiuno ^ivcii to tlioso bones 
 wlvicli are situated at the baek part of the let- 
 lock joint, and are attached, at the upper end 
 or point, to the suspensory ligament, the llexor 
 tendons passing in a concave groove between 
 the two, in their passage to the pastern and 
 coUin-bones. They ta!ce their name from their 
 resemblance to maize, or wliat is perhaps 
 better known as Indian wheat. They have a 
 peculiar elastic movement. Every step the 
 liorse takes, and more especially in the fast 
 trot or gallop, they partially descend, on hia 
 putting his foot to the ground. This is easiest 
 seen in long-pasterned horses, where the fetlock 
 — hair — almost seems to touch the ground. If 
 the animal is over-weighted, this will be dis- 
 tinctly observed. 
 
 The inelastic connection which these bones 
 have below, to the head of the large pastern 
 bone, and the decided elastic connection they 
 have above to the suspensory ligament, clearly 
 show how easy they may be partially, if not 
 altogether dislocated. This is more ready to 
 happen on the inner side, in consequence of 
 the superincumbent weight being thrown on 
 that side when the other foot is in the air, or, 
 to speak more plainly, off the ground. 
 
 The action of the sesamoids being back- 
 wards and downwards, the upper end of the 
 elastic attachment expands ; and this expan- 
 sion, driven to excess, either by over-weight, 
 heavy ground, or when the animal is at the 
 top of his speed, brings the non-elastic attach- 
 ment below into such violent action, that the 
 bones become incapable of contending with it. 
 The consequence of this is, that the liga- 
 mentous attachment is ruptured. This is not 
 an unfrequent case ; for in racing as well as in 
 hunting, the horse sometimes makes a sudden 
 drop, which, in many instances, is taken for 
 what is termed "breaking down;" but it is 
 no such thing. It is the rupture of a portion 
 of the lower attachment of the sesamoid bones, 
 principally on the inner side — when this side of 
 the fetlock joint will appear much larger than 
 the outer. If the hand is passed down the leg. 
 
 over the part, pressing gradually aa it is moved 
 down, the seat of partial dislocation will at 
 once bo discovered, not only by the projection 
 of the upper end of the bone, but by tho 
 ))aiti whicli tho horse will show ht:nMo!f to bo 
 Builering on pressing tho most prominent part 
 of the bone. 
 
 This accident has occurred, and tho inflam- 
 mation run BO very high, that the whole of 
 the leg, up to tho knee, has been swollen to 
 such an extent, that the disease has been taken 
 for strain in the back sinews, when, iu fact, it 
 entirely arose from this partial dislocation of 
 one of the sesamoid bones. 
 
 The curative treatment of this disease always 
 involves a considerable space of time ; although 
 the time might be very much shortened if per- 
 sons discovered the part affected at once. All 
 liniments, or blisterings, will never perma- 
 nently remove it, though they may relieve it ; 
 but when the horse is brought into use again, 
 he becomes lame. On this account recourse 
 must at once be had to firing; not in a partial 
 manner, but it must be extended a little above 
 the bifurcation of the suspensory ligament — 
 say about an inch, and as far as half-way down 
 the large pastern bone. Fire all round the 
 leg completely; then lay lightly on it — 
 
 Cantharides 
 Host's Lard . 
 
 4 drachms. 
 2 oz. 
 
 Take the necessary precaution to prevent tho 
 animal either rubbing or biting the leg. "Whilst 
 he is in the stable, give him bran mashes cold, 
 and 
 
 Cape Aloes 4 draclims. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 ^lix, to form a ball, with soap. 
 
 If he should be costive, which is sometimes 
 the case, repeat the medicine before he has a 
 run at grass, which he ought to have in about 
 nine days after the firing. The accompanying 
 explanatory engraving, showing a section of 
 tho foot, its bones and ligaments, with the 
 appearance of the hoof in a healthy and 
 diseased state, will greatly assist the reader in 
 obtaining a knowledge of tho anatomy of that 
 important member of the horse. 
 
 185 
 
OEEASE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AjS^D 
 
 [geease. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 geease; mange; suefeit; mallenders; sallendeks; warts; hide-bound; farcy. 
 
 GREASE. 
 
 EoRMEBLT this disease was a pest to tlie 
 stables of almost every horse-master in the 
 kingdom ; and though simple in itself, the real 
 cause of it lay in obscurity for many years. It 
 is not only disagreeable, but painful in the 
 greatest degree, and not unfrequently lays the 
 foundation of other diseases, such as cracked 
 heels, canker, and their kindred affections. 
 Nothing was more common than to see it in the 
 stage and hackney-coach horses, the farmer's 
 horse, and, indeed, every kind of horse except 
 the racer. Grease is an inflammation and 
 suppuration of the vessels of the skin, gene- 
 rally in the hind legs ; the circulation being 
 weaker thei'e, on account of their being situated 
 at a greater distance from the heart, when, 
 from a want of uniformity of action with the 
 other parts in the circulation, a congestion 
 takes place. 
 
 The cause of this disease is the quickening of 
 the circulation by the horse being brought into 
 a hot stable, most likely with his hind legs wet, 
 the evaporation of which produces cold, to be 
 followed by congestion, as the warm stable 
 increases the action of the heart. 
 
 It does not aflfect all horses alike, nor all 
 parts alike, certain descriptions of animals 
 being more susceptible to the disease tiian 
 others. Thorough-bred horses, such as the 
 racer, are the least subject to it, principally 
 from the fineness of their skin, and the care 
 which is taken of them — proper attention 
 being paid to the temperature of their stables. 
 If a thorough-bred horse were exposed to cold 
 for years, his skin would become thicker and 
 thicker ; and such horses would degenerate. 
 
 There are many circumstances which pre- 
 dispose to grease. The first is, thick skin and 
 white hair, which is a proof of a weak circulation. 
 Another circumstance is the colour and make 
 of the animal — light chestnut, with white legs, 
 narrow chests, and long legs. "Everything," 
 says the editor of The Horse, " that has a ten- 
 18(5 
 
 dency to excite inflammation in the skin of the 
 heel, is a cause of grease. Therefore, want of 
 exercise is a frequent source of this disease. 
 The fluid which accumulates about the extre- 
 mities, and is unable to return, is a source of 
 irritation by its continued pressure. When 
 high feeding is added to irregular or deficient 
 exercise, the disease is still more likely to be 
 produced. "Want of cleanliness in the stable 
 is a frequent source of grease. When the 
 heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened 
 by the constant moisture surrounding them — 
 irritated by the acrimony of tlie dung and the 
 urine, and little prepared to endure the cold 
 evaporation to which they are exposed when 
 the horse is taken out of the stable. The 
 absurd practice of washing the feet and legs 
 of horses when they come from their work, and 
 either carelessly sponging them down after- 
 wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is 
 however, the most common origin of grease." 
 
 This disease often breaks out in October, 
 when the legs of the animal begin to feel the 
 change of season, and are wet and cold. After 
 being brought into stable, the heat causes eva- 
 poration to take place ; and in proportion as 
 liorses become cold, so are they susceptible of 
 heat, if not governed by specific limits. 
 
 Grease may be either local or constitutional. 
 In its local form it is generally severe in pro- 
 portion to the relative temperature the parts 
 have been exposed to. Heat after cold is then 
 an exciting cause, and according to the pre- 
 vious cold, it acts ; the cold being in part gov- 
 erned by moisture, and the length of time 
 occupied in evaporating : if, therefore, the legs 
 of an animal with much hair, hold most water, 
 and produce much cold, so will they be pro- 
 portionably liable to grease. 
 
 Erom these facts, it is natural to conclude, 
 with Mr. Youatt, that the practice of wash- 
 ing the legs, without they are afterwards wiped 
 dry, is bad ; for, by rubbing them quite dry, 
 there is done to the vessels of the heels a 
 sunilar act to that which the heart is doing: to 
 
GREASE.] 
 
 l\ror>E"RX VT:TEKTXArvY PTtACTICE. 
 
 1 MANOE. 
 
 tlic arteries ; namely, iiu-reasiiip; tlie eireulation, 
 and preventing congestion and inlhimination. 
 If the dirt cannot be perfectly rubbed oft" it is 
 better to leave a little of that than have a great 
 deal of grease. 
 
 In order, then, to avoid grease, when horses 
 are brought into the stable, let them have as 
 much air as possible, by opening the windows, so 
 ns to make the increase of circulation gradual. 
 
 Many opinions have been advanced, to show 
 that grease is only local; but other cases 
 show it to be tlioroughly constitutional. This 
 is proved by the fact of many horses having it 
 during a number of years, though the greatest 
 pains may have been taken with them to pre- 
 vent it. " There is no rule without exception ;" 
 and impurities may be lurking in the system. 
 If this is the case, nature takes tliese means to 
 get rid of them, and wisely selects those parts 
 as remote as possible from the vital principle 
 of action ; for, it is well known, from the kind 
 of horse, and the care constantly taken of him, 
 if it appears at all, it must arise from diseased 
 blood, or an hereditary taint from sire to dam. 
 
 In the treatment of grease, the first thing to 
 be done is to bleed the horse according to size 
 and condition, to the extent of from three to 
 six quarts. After this, give him bran mashes 
 only ; regulate him as directed in the article 
 on Conditioning Hunters: at night, give him 
 one of the doses of physic, as recommended at 
 the conclusion of the same article. Take a 
 bucket of warm water, and some soft soap, and 
 well wash out his heels ; free them from all 
 scurf and scabs, dirt, and any other offensive 
 matter that may be lodged in them. This 
 done, get for a poultice four ounces of linseed 
 meal ; pour sufiicient hot water to make it of a 
 proper consistency ; then, just as about to 
 apply the poultice, have ready a pot of diges- 
 tive ointment, composed of the following : — 
 
 Common Turpentine 4 oz. 
 
 Hog's Lard 12 do. 
 
 Melt together over a slow fire. 
 Mix about two ounces of this with the poultice, 
 and fasten it round the horse's legs by means 
 of an old stocking, which should first be drawn 
 on the leg, tied round the hoof, and then 
 turned down to receive the poultice in the 
 hollow of the heel. Poultices do no good ex- 
 cept they are always kept moist. Therefore, 
 at night repeat the washing with the soft soap, 
 
 itc, and also the poultice. Do this until the 
 heels are thoroughly clean and appear hrallhy ; 
 then eoMimencu healing them with tin; fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Common Turpentine 2 oz. 
 
 I log's Lard 2 do. 
 
 Alum, finely powdered .5 do. 
 
 Melt the turpentine and lard together; then 
 sprinkle in the alum, and stir till cold. Should 
 this not be found sufficiently strong, add 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc 1 nz. 
 
 These remedies are generally found sufficient 
 to heel the cracks and sores of the heels ; but 
 care must be taken not to stop the discharge 
 too suddenly, and especially if of a constitu- 
 tional nature. 
 
 Some constitutions will not even admit of 
 ointment being applied. If such be the case, 
 prepare 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc 8 oz. 
 
 Boiling Water 2 pints. 
 
 Apply this lotion frequently to the heels. 
 
 If a mild lotion be required, first use alum 
 instead of the zinc, varying the dressing as it 
 may be requisite. 
 
 At the end of five or six days, give another 
 dose of physic, as directed before. The horse 
 should have exercise, if the weather is dry ; 
 but on no account should his legs be suffered 
 to get wet. A bandage round them will be 
 found highly beneficial ; and, by all means, 
 put him in a loose box, or bay of a barn, that 
 he may exercise himself at liberty. "When the 
 process of physicking is concluded, give diu- 
 retic balls, composed of the following ingre 
 dients : — 
 
 Resin, powdered 8 oz. 
 
 Isitre, do. 4 do. 
 
 Juniper Berries 4 do. 
 
 Soft soap, to form the n.ass, and divide into twelve. 
 
 Give one of these balls every second day. 
 By this treatment grease will be got rid of; 
 but constantly bear in miud, to prevent it 
 there is nothing to equal cleanliness. 
 
 MANGE. 
 
 This distemper is so universally known, 
 that a general description of its most pre- 
 dominant features is unnecessary. Let it 
 suffice that a mere superficial view of it 
 
 187 
 
MANGE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [maxgs. 
 
 instantly conveys to the spectator a very strong ] 
 idea of wretchedness and poverty. Nothing, 
 indeed, can convey this stronger than seeing 
 nature exhausted, and sinking under a com- 
 plication of disease, debility, and poverty. 
 
 This disease, however, is very little seen 
 amongst horses of any estimation ; on the 
 contrary, it is almost entirely confined to the 
 lowest stables, and the lowest proprietors. It 
 is observed to fall chiefly upon those that 
 are ill-fed, or scarcely know what corn is, at 
 least, by tlie taste, but are kept entirely on 
 the refuse of provender, barren pastures, musty 
 hay, separated hay-bands, swampy mossy 
 ground— so poor, that it yields the smallest 
 portion of nourishment. From such feeding, 
 nature may support a wretched existence, but 
 cannot be furnished with such sustenance as 
 is necessary to the maintenance of the frame 
 of the horse in a healthy state. From this 
 mode of living — rather starving — originates 
 the severe and inveterate disease known as 
 the mange ; and where it has been allowed to 
 commit its ravages to a considerable extent, it 
 is in the last degree painful to contemplate 
 the poor animal that is suffering from it. It 
 is a pimpled vesicular corruption, and is in the 
 highest degree contagious. " Among the truly 
 healthy, so far as my experience goes," says 
 Mr. Blaine, " it never arises spontaneously ; 
 but it does readily from a spontaneous origin 
 among the unhealthy." 
 
 It is by low feeding that the mange is often 
 generated, when the blood becomes thin and 
 weak, and loses a considerable portion of its 
 vital principle. Thus extravasated and unre- 
 strained, its morbid efiects and virulence soon 
 display themselves upon the surface, with a 
 severe and constant irritation and itching, prin- 
 cipally about the neck, and under the hair of 
 the mane ; though all parts of the animal are 
 subject to it, occasioning him to be constantly 
 rubbing himself, till with this and the loss of 
 hair from different parts, he bears the uni- 
 versal appearance of approaching excoriation. 
 Many persons of the old school are in the 
 habit of applying powerful caustic applications, 
 which may have the desired effect ultimately ; 
 but the pain the poor dejected brute under- 
 goes beneath such treatment, suggests to 
 humanity that immediate death would be 
 much more merciful. 
 188 
 
 The mange itself is found in the existence 
 of a parasite burrowing in the skin, known as 
 the Acarus scahiei equo, which bears a strict 
 analogy to the parasite which produces tlie 
 same disease in the dog, and the itch in man. 
 It belongs to the family of mites, and is found 
 in all kinds of preserved animal and vegetable 
 substances. It has eight legs, and has an 
 uncommon power of tenacity in adhering to 
 the skin. 
 
 In treating for the mange, commence to 
 feed, night and morning, with half iran and 
 half malt, or with equal parts of oats and hran. 
 It is preferable to have the malt made slightly 
 wet, not sloppy. Sprinkle a handful of coarse 
 hrown sugar in it ; then mix all together, and 
 give morning and night. Eor the middle- day 
 feed, give a quartern of sweet oats, with a 
 handful or two of chaff. During this treat- 
 ment, which must be continued for at least a 
 week, when it will begin to soften his skin, 
 give the best and sweetest hay that can be 
 procured. 
 
 At the expiration of a week, when the 
 frame becomes more invigorated, discontinue 
 the mashes, and let the diet be changed to 
 good oats, with a handful of bran night and 
 morning, first sprinkled with water, that one 
 of the following powders may just adhere 
 to it : — 
 
 Sulphur • . . 1 lb. 
 
 Prepared Antimony 1 do. 
 
 Eub these well together in a mortar, and 
 divide into twenty-four equal parts. For the 
 middle-day feed, continue the oats and chaflf, 
 dry. External applications may now be begun. 
 Eor these, procure a pail of warm water, and a 
 quarter or half a pound of soft soap, or more 
 if required, and tie a portion of it in a linen 
 or woollen rag. Let every infected part be 
 thoroughly washed, and well cleansed with 
 this, by forming a substantial lather, till no 
 scurf or filth remains on the surface. Then 
 rub tenderly with a linen towel until dry, and, 
 on the following morning, begin to rub in a 
 necessary portion of the following ointment 
 upon every part affected, as the urgency of 
 symptoms may require ; and repeat daily until 
 satisfied of the cure : — 
 
 Mercurial Ointment (weak) . . . . 8 oz. 
 
 White Hellebore, powdered ... 3 do. 
 
 Olive oil, sufficf-^nt to make it soft. 
 
UAVGE.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [suhfkit. 
 
 Or, uso the followin«:j, which may he a mure 
 convtMiieiit a]>[)lication : — 
 
 "NVliitf lli'llfbori', pcnvclcred . . . . -1 oz. 
 Boil tliis ill thivo pints t)t' wattT until rt'Juccil 
 to one quart ; then add — • 
 
 Muriate of tjuicksilver ... 2 diaclims, 
 after having been dissolved iu 
 
 Muriatic Acid 3 drachms. 
 
 This lotion is to bo applied to all the aft'ected 
 parts •with a small piece of sponge, having first 
 poured a portion of it into a saucer. This is 
 a verv eflicacious remedy, and the disease has 
 been perfectly cured by it in three dressings. 
 It should not be applied, however, until the 
 horse is sufficiently strong to bear the appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Continue the use of the powders before 
 mentioned, with, occasionally, nitre iu his water 
 — an ounce is sufficient at one time — for three 
 weeks or a month ; and so soon as it is con- 
 ceived, by his condition, that he is in a state to 
 bear it, take away a moderate portion of blood 
 — say between two or three quarts ; give him 
 afterwards two mild doses of physic, selected 
 from the prescriptions on that article. This 
 will be found greatly to renovate him. 
 
 The horse, from his previously impoverished 
 condition, will be much restored by the fol- 
 lowing tonic medicine : — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 12 drachms. 
 
 Gentian, powdered . . . . 12 do. 
 
 Ginger, ditto .... 6 do. 
 
 Form into a mass with honey, divide into six 
 balls, and give one every day. By this means 
 his constitution will be strengthened; and 
 that poverty-stricken look with which he had 
 before been stricken, will gradually disappear. 
 Witli regard to the horse's trappings or ap- 
 pointments, such as the saddle, bridle, clothing, 
 or harness, either gig or cart, they should be 
 well washed and cleansed with soft soap and 
 hot water. The stable should be well limed and 
 whitewashed, so that every particle of the 
 disease may be totally eradicated. This and 
 good keep will prevent a recurrence of the 
 affliction. In the treatment of tiie mange, 
 Mr. Touatt doubts the propriety of bleeding 
 in some conditions of the patient. " If mange 
 is the result of poverty, and the animal is 
 much debilitated, bleeding will increase the 
 evil, and will probably deprive the constitution 
 
 of tlie power of rallying. Physic, liowever, ia 
 indispensahlo in every case. It i.s the firHt step 
 in tile progress towards a cure. A incrciirial 
 ball will be preferable to a common aloetic one, 
 as more certain and eifectual in its operation, 
 and tho mercury probably having somo in- 
 fluence in mitigating tho disease. In thin, 
 liowever, mange, in the horse, resembles itch in 
 tiie human being. Medicine alono will never 
 effect a cure. There must be some local ap- 
 plication. There is this additional similarity — 
 that which is most eflectual in curing the itch 
 in the human being, must form the basis of 
 every local application for the cure of the 
 mange in the horse. Sulphur is indispensable 
 for every unguent for mange. It is the sheet- 
 anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In an early 
 and not very acute state of mange, equal por- 
 tions of sulphur, turpentine, and train oil, 
 gently but well rubbed on the part, will bo 
 applied with advantage. I'arriers are fond ol 
 the black sulphur ; but that which consists of 
 earthy matter, with the mere dregs of various 
 substances, cannot be so effectual as the pure 
 sublimed sulphur. A tolerably stout brush, 
 or even a curry-comb lightly applied, should 
 be used, in order to remove the dandritf or 
 scurf wherever there is any appearance of 
 mange. After that, the horse should be 
 washed with strong soap and water as far as 
 the disease has extended; and when he has 
 been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be 
 well rubbed in with the naked hand, or with a 
 piece of flannel. More good will be done by a 
 little of the ointment being well rubbed in, 
 than by a great deal being merely smeared 
 over the part. The rubbing should be daily 
 repeated." 
 
 SURFEIT. 
 
 Of surfeits there are two kinds, originating 
 in different causes ; one being no more than 
 an advanced stage of hide-bound, or out of con- 
 dition, which, having been long neglected, 
 continues to increase, with all its concomitant 
 symptoms, till tho blood becomes affected, and 
 Nature sets up this process to relieve herself 
 through the skin. 
 
 The other kind of surfeit may be attnbutea 
 to drinking cold water. This differs from the 
 other in cause, but very little in effect ; and ia 
 that kind where, from ignorance or inattention, 
 
 189 
 
STJEFEIT.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [mallendees. 
 
 a horse is suffered to drink immoderately of 
 cold water when in a violent perspiration, and 
 the blood, consequently, in the highest degree 
 of circulation. 
 
 The shock nature sustains by this revulsion 
 may be easily imagined. The blood, when in 
 its greatest velocity, is instantaneously checked 
 by the sudden application of cold to the 
 stomach. The stomach and skin having an 
 intimate sympathy, the pores of the latter 
 become, as it were, instantly plugged up, when 
 serous parts of the blood, which extravasates 
 itself, and, by an effort of nature, is propelled 
 to the skin for transpiration, is obstructed, and 
 has its passage to the surface absolutely pre- 
 vented, and rendered impracticable. Thus 
 fixed, it becomes united with the perspirable 
 matter already confined there — forming a 
 morlid combiuation — and is, in the course of 
 time, compelled, by the progress of internal 
 inflammation, to make its way through the 
 skin, upon which it, at last, appears in a variety 
 of forms, assuming distinct degrees of malig- 
 nancy, according to the state, habit, and consti- 
 tution of the subject at the time of attack. 
 
 In treating for this disease, first remove cu- 
 taneous obstruction, correct the acrimonious 
 state of the blood, and gently quicken the circu- 
 lation. The better to gain this object will be 
 to take away a moderate portion of blood, 
 about three quarts, that the impetus may be 
 encouraged ; open the body with warm bran 
 mashes; and according to the mildness or inve- 
 teracy of its appearance, give — as the case may 
 require — either two or three of the following 
 purging balls, allowing sufficient time between 
 each dose, and exerting more than usual pre- 
 caution on account of avoiding cold ; for 
 although this quantity of mercury will be 
 remarkably gentle in operating, and may be 
 administered with the greatest safety and 
 effect ; still great care is required in all cases 
 where this mineral is given, whether to man or 
 beast. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes 6 drachms. 
 
 Calomel 1 do. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 Soft soap, sufficient to form the ball. 
 
 After the course of physic has been regularly 
 gone through, let strict attention be paid to 
 the directions set down relative to food, dress- 
 ing, and water. In three days after the last 
 190 
 
 dose of physic, begin with the following course 
 of alterative powders : — 
 
 Antimony, powdered 1 lb. 
 
 Sulphur . . 1 do. 
 
 Cream of Tartar 4 oz. 
 
 These are to be well mixed together, and 
 divided into twelve equal parts, giving one 
 every night with a feed of corn ; which, being 
 first sprinkled with water, the powders will 
 adhere to it, and ensure their consumption. 
 A handful of chaff is excellent to make the 
 powders adhere. "Whilst giving the alteratives, 
 occasionally give an ounce of nitre in the 
 morning water. 
 
 Should any trifling eschars, scabs, or exco- 
 riations prove obstinate upon any part of the 
 body, they may be washed with a solution of 
 zinc. 
 
 Zinc 1 oz. 
 
 Boiling Water 6 „ 
 
 Dissolve the zinc in the boiling water, and 
 apply to the sores, with a small piece of 
 sponge. This must be continued until the sores 
 are healed. 
 
 MALLENDERS. 
 
 These are cracks, situated directly on the back 
 part of the knee-joint ; occasioned, in general, 
 more by neglect in grooming, than by any 
 casual or constitutional defect in the subject. 
 The matter they discharge is, in some cases, 
 thin, and of an acrimonious nature. In others, 
 it forms a kind of glutinous discharge, and 
 makes an appearance of small scabs, or scurfy 
 eschars upon the surface, constituting a want 
 of flexibility, and frequently causing consider- 
 able lameness. The first thing to be done is, 
 to have the parts well washed with soft soap 
 and warm water ; repeating the washing night 
 and morning, till the eschars relax from their 
 rigidity, and separate of themselves. This 
 will be considerably promoted by rubbing in 
 lightly, after each washing, a small quantity of 
 hog's lard, which will loosen the scabs, and 
 cause them to fall off much easier when 
 washed. 
 
 As soon as the cracks are perfectly free 
 from scabs or scurf, apply the following oint- 
 ment :■ — • 
 
 Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 1 oz. 
 
 Hog's Lard 1 ». 
 
 Gunpowder, finely powdered . 4 drachms. 
 
WABTS.] 
 
 MODEHN VETEKINARY PRACTTCi:. 
 
 [niDE«BOUN]». 
 
 Let thoao bo well worked toi^jetlicr, ami ap- 
 plied inoruiiig ami night. Tliia will stinuilaU' 
 the parts, and make them quickly heal. The 
 washing, morninp; and night, niuat bo continued 
 about an hour previous to applying tho oint- 
 ment ; whicli will give the parts time to dry. 
 Sliould a percept i bio foulness in tho subject 
 justify the measure, take away a proper 
 cjuantity of blood, according to the size of the 
 animal ; and, occasionally, put an ounce of 
 nitre in his water, for a fortnight ; or, give 
 half a dozen of diuretic bulls, as follows : — 
 
 Powdered resin 3 oz. 
 
 Linseed meal 1 ,, 
 
 Soft soap to form the mass. 
 
 Divide into six, and give one every morning 
 the first thing. Should these remedies appear 
 not to assist the cure, and the cracks not heal 
 so fast as desired, then proceed to stronger 
 means. 
 
 Cape aloes ....... 8 dtaclinis. 
 
 Calomel 2 „ 
 
 Form into a mass, with linseed meal and soft 
 soap, and divide into two balls. Give at 
 intervals of about five days, according to the 
 strength of the horse. 
 
 SALLENDERS 
 
 Are situated upon the fore part of the hock, 
 and are to the hind legs what mallenders are 
 to the fore legs. They originate in the same 
 cause, and are cured by the same means. 
 
 WARTS 
 Are troublesome things on account of the itch- 
 ing sensation with which they are attended. 
 They are, also, extremely offensive to the eye 
 of the owner, especially if they bleed much, 
 besides making it highly disagreeable to ride a 
 horse in such a state. The only means to re- 
 move them is, either by ligature, or the knife. 
 In many cases it is necessary to have the 
 horse cast. Some warts are situated in such 
 places, that one has not an opportunity of pro- 
 perly getting at them, without incurring con- 
 siderable danger. If it be the intention to re- 
 move them by ligature, take of 
 
 Arsenic 1 diaclim. 
 
 Tlog's lard . ^ 1 „ 
 
 Mix, and apply to that part of the ligature 
 embracing the wart, once a day ; or apply, in 
 the same manner, butter of antimony, anoint- 
 
 ing the part witli tho feather-end of a i)en. 
 The Uiost ellectual manner, however, iy to 
 remove them with tho knife; and immediately, 
 but slightly, cauterise tho part. This has 
 been found to answer better than any other 
 application. 
 
 HIDE-BOUND. 
 
 This disease has been attributed to many 
 causes, and appears in a want of llexibility of 
 the skin, which is pervaded by a general stiff- 
 ness, that seems to form an entire adhesion to 
 the flesh, without the least partial separation 
 or distinction. There is plainly perceived 
 underneath the hair, a kind of dusty scurf, 
 that raises it up in different parts, and gives it 
 another hue, the coat, in many places, forming 
 an appearance of two or three colours, and 
 showing at once that the insensible perspira- 
 tion, which should always be going on, is 
 either retarded, or wholly stopped. 
 
 The horse exhibits a general languor, dull- 
 ness, heaviness and weakness. His excrement 
 is dark, foul, and very offensive. He sweats 
 much upon every moderate exertion, and his 
 coat stares, the hair turning different ways, 
 the eflluvium of which is highly disagreeable, 
 and affords evident proof of weakness and de- 
 debility. 
 
 The probable cause of all this is most ap- 
 parent in bad food, and want of that proper 
 care which the animal requires in the stable. 
 These are the principal causes of this disease • 
 still there are others, all centring in poverty ; 
 such as allowing him to feed on the long, lank 
 grass, which is found in low swampy lands in 
 the autumn, and musty hay, or bad oats, which 
 may in some degree allay hunger, but not 
 gratify the appetite ; for being in itself desti- 
 tute of the quality of superior food, it does 
 not sufficiently contribute to the generating of 
 blood, or stimulating the system. 
 
 The sources for the supply of chyle being 
 thus obstructed, tho lymphatics are deprived 
 of their due proportion of nourishing fluiJ, and 
 become, not only in some measure contracted, 
 but in a great degree inactive. This, with the 
 want of external care and dressing, contribute 
 to an almost universal obstruction of the cuta- 
 neous pores. 
 
 Although we have called hide-hound a disease, 
 yet, under judicious management, it is scarce!/ 
 
 101 
 
HIDE-BOUND.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [faect. 
 
 entitled to that designation, being in fact no 
 more than a temporary inconvenience. To 
 cure it, therefore, take away about two quarts 
 of blood, and in three or four hours after, give 
 a mash of malt, oats and bran, equal parts, 
 continuing the same every night for a fort- 
 night, stirring in it one of the following 
 powders : 
 
 Flour of brimstone 12 oz. 
 
 Antimony 1 lb. 
 
 Let these be well rubbed together, and divided 
 into twelve parts. Give other feeds, morning 
 and noon, of equal parts of oats and bran 
 moistened with water. If the continuance of 
 the bran should relax his body more than 
 seems judicious, put into his feed a handful of 
 split beans, and the same quantity of chaff. 
 This method of treatment will be found to 
 succeed ; but it should be accompanied with 
 regular and substantial dressing, air, exercise, 
 sound good oats, the best sweet hay, and fresh 
 soft water. "When by this means, he begins 
 visibly to improve in his hide, coat, and condi- 
 tion, let him have, twice in the week, a brushing 
 gallop, to produce a tolerable sweat, and 
 enliven the circulation, taking great care to 
 let him stand still until he is perfectly cool. 
 Then dress him thoroughly, and persevere in 
 this every night and morning until he is well. 
 Should this method be unattended with suc- 
 cess, there must be lurking in the system 
 something else that should be removed. Take, 
 therefore, 
 
 Blue pill . . • . , . . 2 drachms. 
 
 Aloes, Cape 4 „ 
 
 Give this in the evening, and keep all food from 
 him during the night. In the morning treat as 
 in administering a dose of physic. In the course 
 of four or five days, repeat the medicine, and, 
 if a third dose should be required, which will 
 be ascertained from his appearance, let him 
 have it, taking care that he does not get chilled 
 during the action of the mercury. The follow- 
 ing powder has been recommended to be given 
 daily in his food without having recourse to 
 \he preceding preparations : — ■ 
 
 Cantharides, finely powdered . 5 grains. 
 
 Pimento 5 drachms. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 2 do. 
 
 Should the animal reject his food with this in 
 it, form it into a ball, with treacle, and give it 
 for a week or a fortnight as the occasion may 
 192 
 
 require. In the early part of summer, a good 
 piece of grass will be found of great service. 
 
 FARCY. 
 This is one of those diseases, to cure which, 
 and its co-disease, glanders, the veterinary 
 profession have been more puzzled than with 
 all the other diseases to which the horse is liable. 
 Eor a long period the cause of this complaint 
 was hidden in obscurity. All old writers said 
 it was something the matter with the blood, 
 but could not tell what. The Erench studied 
 the disease, and its nature, but still little pro- 
 gress was made towards elucidating its cause. 
 "We are now, however in a position to be able 
 to define the disease in a much more en- 
 lightened form, although its cure cannot at aU 
 times be effected. 
 
 Farcy may be defined to be an inflammation 
 and suppuration, attendant with ulceration of 
 the absorbents of the skin. It was formerly 
 thought to be a disease of the veins, but this 
 is not the case. Its seat or locality is in 
 the superficial absorbents of the skin cover- 
 ing the veins. Were it otherwise, the veins 
 would ulcerate and open, and considerable 
 bleeding take place. Externally, the skin may 
 be said to be the only visible part susceptible 
 of farcy ; but when the disease becomes violent 
 the lungs partake also of it. Every part of 
 the skin is susceptible of the disease, but not 
 all parts equally so. AVherever the skin is 
 thinest, there it is much more liable to become 
 affected than where it is thick. 
 
 The commencement of the disease is gene- 
 rally accompanied with swelling and inflamma- 
 tion, and, at length, a single tumour appears. 
 This goes on until matter is formed, suppura- 
 tion takes place, and of course ulceration. 
 The tumours do no always suppurate, but 
 often become hard and scliirrous. These, in 
 the old farriers' language, are called " hiids, or 
 farcy buds ;" there are frequently many of 
 them, forming a kind of chain enlarging to 
 an alarming degree. Such are the common 
 symptoms and appearance of the disease. It 
 takes place most frequently in the hind legs. 
 
 There is a poison connected with this dis- 
 ease, which, if applied to the skin of a sound 
 horse, will produce inflammation and matter 
 of the same kind ; and if the matter becomes 
 absorbed, it will, in all probability, produce 
 
TARCT.] 
 
 MODEKN VHTRRTNAKV I'KACTICE. 
 
 [fauci. 
 
 glanders. But in all cases this might not 
 occur, as there aro some constitutions much 
 more susceptible of disease than others. 
 
 However, this exi)erinient proves the in:itter 
 to be contai^ioiis, because it is possible to pro- 
 duce it on a heullhy aiiiiual. There is nnotlu'r 
 curious fact connected with this poisonous 
 matter. If it is inserted deep below the skin, 
 it does not produce farcy; but is absorbed 
 into the system, and may produce glanders. 
 In this case the absorbents do not inllame, 
 which would prove farcy to be a skin disease, 
 in which the deep-seated absorbents become 
 aflected, and the superficial ones not so. From 
 this cause, if a horse with farcy were to be 
 flaved at this stage of the disease, there would 
 not be the least appearance of it under the 
 ekin ; nor can it be produced in a sound 
 horse without an abraded surface. It may 
 be produced, however, if applied to the mem- 
 brane of the nose of the animal in such a 
 manner as not to abrade the surface. Pro- 
 fessor Coleman's opinion is, that one horse in 
 a stable cannot communicate it to another, 
 without an abraded surface. This would seem 
 to prove that it is generated, and that con- 
 stitutional diseases cannot be produced except 
 by contact. If poisoned atmosphere be in- 
 haled, disease may be propagated by breath- 
 ing it, whilst contagion requires the actual 
 contact of the diseased animal ; though there 
 is little or no distinction, for the poison dot b 
 not come in contact with the lungs under 
 infection. Such diseases are mostly the effect 
 of crowded and filthy stables, and such as are 
 contagious may be produced without contact. 
 With regard to farcy, it has been questioned 
 whether one in one thousand ever becomes 
 affected by the actual touch of this matter, 
 showing clearly that it is not a local disease. 
 Formerly it was thought by some to be caused 
 by drinking cold water, and eating beans ; but 
 it is more likely to be produced by a poisoned 
 atmosphere — an atmosphere over and over 
 again impregnated witli what escapes from the 
 lungs, the skin, the dung, and the urine. 
 During the French war, when an expedition 
 was despatclied to Quiberon, the horses which 
 were shipped on board the transports had to 
 be closed in under the hatchways, so that the 
 poor animals were well-nigh suffocated with 
 beat. The consequence of this was, that when 
 2o 
 
 they were disembarked, nearly every ono of 
 them was cither farcied or glmidered. 
 
 Pure air is so important to life, in every 
 condition, that even the strongest animal, if 
 deprived of it, soon exhibits symptoms of dis- 
 tress. Farcy, therefore, is a consecjuenco of an 
 impure atmosphere, and is intimately connected 
 with glanders. " They will run into each 
 other," says Mr. Youatt ; " or their symptoms 
 will mingle together ; and before either arrives 
 at its fatal termination, the otlier will generally 
 appear. An animal inoculated with the matter 
 of farcy will often bo afflicted with glanders, 
 while the matter of glanders will frequently 
 produce farcy. They are different types of the 
 same disease. There is, however, a very material 
 difference in their symptoms and progress; 
 and tliis most important one of all — that while 
 glanders is incurable, farcy, in its early stage 
 and mild form, may be successfully treated." 
 
 The same writer further adds, that farcv, 
 like glanders, springs from contagion and bad 
 stable management. " It is produced by all 
 the causes which give rise to glanders, with 
 this difFereuce — that it is more frequently 
 generated, and sometimes strangely prevalent, 
 in particular districts. It will attack, at the 
 same time, several horses in the same ill-con- 
 ducted stable, and others in the neighbourhood 
 who have been exposed to the same predis- 
 posing causes. Some have denied that it is a 
 contagious disease. They must have had little 
 experience. It is true that the matter of farcy 
 must come in contact with a wound or sore, 
 in order to communicate the disease ; but 
 accustomed, as horses are, to nibble and play 
 with each other, and sore as the corners of 
 the mouth are frequently rendered by the 
 bit, it is easy to imagine that this may be 
 easily eft'ected ; and experience tells us that a 
 horse having farcy ulcers, cannot be suffered to 
 remain with others without extreme risk." 
 
 Horses most predisposed to farcy, are those 
 that are narrow-chested, with flat sides and 
 long legs. Common farriers say they can cure 
 the disease, because they think it is a merely 
 local affection, and consequently easily treated. 
 In tiiis ^"^lief, they burn the ulcers, aud may, 
 in some instances, perform a partial cure, if 
 the poison has not thoroughly pervaded the 
 system. But in most cases, when thus locally 
 treated, it breaks out again even at the end 
 
 193 
 
FAEOT.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 LTFAEOT. 
 
 of twelve months, and sometimes terminates 
 in glanders. When the lungs are not touched, 
 a cure is sometimes effected by such treatment. 
 If the disease is purely local, as when the buds 
 are on the legs only, indicating that it is con- 
 fined to the lymphatics of the skin, the disease 
 may be reduced ; but if the poison has got 
 into the system, a perfect cure may, in general, 
 be despaired of The probability, however, of 
 expelling the disease will depend upon the 
 circumstance of its being local or constitu- 
 tional ; and, if the latter, to what extent the 
 system has been affected by it. Should the 
 membrane of the nose have become at all 
 ulcerated, or the membranes lining the bones 
 of the head, have begun to secrete and dis- 
 charge a disagreeable matter, the chances are 
 a hundred to one of succeeding in a cure. 
 
 If the horse should be in tolerable condition 
 he should be immediately bled, according to 
 strength, size, and constitution ; and the fol- 
 lowing ball given to him : — 
 
 Cape Aloes 8 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 Form with soft soap. 
 
 Treat as directed in administering doses of 
 physic. Should the farcy buds diminish, or 
 no increase take place in those which are 
 formed, give a second dose of medicine, and 
 treat as before. The next thing to be done is 
 to lay the farcy buds open. These will be 
 found principally on the inside of the hind leg, 
 frequently down the neck, in the line of the 
 jugular vein, along the back, and frequently 
 on the face. When found in this last, the cure 
 is always doubtful. Some persons open the 
 buds with a lancet, and apply the actual cautery, 
 to destroy at once by fire what is imagined 
 cannot be done any other way : but objection 
 has been taken to this mode of treatment. 
 It is better first to open all the abscesses with 
 a lancet, after squeezing out the matter, which 
 must be exceedmgly carefully done, for the 
 pain the horse experiences when undergoing 
 this operation makes him very fidgetty ; and 
 it is sometimes attended with great danger. 
 After all the matter is cleared away from the 
 sores, a little sulphate of zinc should be applied 
 to each of the opened buds. This application 
 will be found highly beneficial on first opening 
 the buds. If this has been done in the morn- 
 ing, let it be agaiu repeated at night ; then ou 
 194 
 
 the morrow, wash the sores well with the fol- 
 lowing lotion. 
 
 Extract of Saturn .■..,.: 2 ozs. 
 
 Spirits of Wine, camphorated . . 8 do. 
 
 White Wine Vinegar 1 pint. 
 
 Mix well together, and keep it close stopped 
 for use ; then take of — 
 
 Prepared Antimony . . , . . 1 lb. 
 
 Sulphur « . 12 ozs. 
 
 Cream of Tartar. ...... 8 do. 
 
 Incorporate well in a mortar, and divide into 
 twenty equal parts, giving one part every 
 night in his corn, first sprinkling with water 
 to insure the adhesion of the powders. This 
 proportion is meant for the distemper in its 
 mildest state, when the buds have made their 
 first appearance. 
 
 Should the distemper be in a more advanced 
 stage, bleeding should be repeated, in a proper 
 time and in a moderate degree ; and upon the 
 scabs or eschars peeling from the buds, they 
 should be occasionally washed well with the 
 following : — • 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate .... 2 drachms 
 
 British Brandy ^ pint. 
 
 White Wine Vinegar .... 1 do. 
 
 Tinct. Myrrh and Aloes ... 2 ozs. 
 
 Water ^ pint. 
 
 First dissolve the sublimate in the brandy, 
 then add the other articles, and shake well 
 together: or, take 
 
 Sugar of Lead 1 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc ..... 1 do. 
 
 White Wine Vinegar .... 1 pint. 
 
 Water | do. 
 
 Mix together. 
 
 Tor internal medicines, an immense number 
 have been tried, and some with excellent 
 effect ; but the variety being great, the right 
 one is not at all times chosen. The following 
 formula, however, has been found excellent. 
 
 
 v^aniuuiL 
 Arsenic 
 
 ins . . 
 
 
 
 
 . 4 
 
 gruiiis. 
 do. 
 
 
 Sulphate 
 
 of Iron . 
 
 
 
 
 . 1 drachm 
 
 
 Gentian 
 
 o . • O 
 
 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ginger 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Form into a ball with soft 
 
 soap. 
 
 
 G 
 
 ive one every morning, 
 
 first 
 
 thing. 
 
 Or, 
 
 
 Corrosive 
 
 Sublimate . 
 
 . , 
 
 , 
 
 4 grains. 
 
 
 Su.(jiiate 
 
 of Iron . 
 
 
 , , 
 
 , 
 
 2 dr 
 
 ichms. 
 
 Form into a convenient-sized ball, with linseed meaJ 
 and soft soap. 
 
rAncY.] 
 
 MODERN VETEKl-NAiii i'liACTICE. 
 
 [faboy. 
 
 Give every morning. Or, 
 
 Blue Pill 2 tlraclims. 
 
 Aloes 1 do. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 ^lix together for one ball, witli .-i liltlo oil of 
 turpentine, and give one every seeond morning. 
 Great oaro must bo taken to watch the hor.se 
 that he does not become salivated. If cither 
 of the foregoing prescriptions should appear 
 to take his appetite away, let him remain for a 
 day or two, without giving him any of them. 
 AVhilst administering these medicines, the 
 horse should be well kept, and fed without 
 stint. Au ounce of nitre may occasionally be 
 dissolved in his morning water, as he will then 
 be most likely to drink. A little green meat 
 will bo good for him ; and when he is getting 
 better, give him a run at grass in some place 
 handy, and a feed of corn morning and evening. 
 Speared malt is excellent at this time ; also, 
 about a teacupful of linseed poured into a 
 quart of boiling water ; mixing with it, eight 
 or nine good potatoes, well boiled and worked 
 up together. This may be given with his 
 corn at his mid-day feed. He may, at first, 
 refuse to take it ; but this dislike will, by a 
 little perseverance, soon be overcome, when the 
 benefit that will arise from it will be, at once, 
 apparent. Carrots are very good, chopped up 
 fine; also turnips of the Swedish kind, as 
 they contain more saccharine matter than any 
 other ; also parsnips ; but of these, a few only 
 should be given at a time ; for, if given in 
 quantities, they are apt to cause gripes. The 
 treatment, as practised at the Eoyal Veterinary 
 College, is by administering from two to five 
 drachms of sulphate of copper, in solution, in 
 about a pint of water ; increasing or decreasing 
 the dose, as circumstances may require ; and 
 also applying to the sores daily a solution of 
 the same sulphate, in the quantity of two 
 ounces to a pint of water. In the recent 
 edition of White's Compendium of the Veteri- 
 nary Art, edited by Mr. Spooner, that gentle- 
 man says, that the treatment of farcy " must 
 be very similar in its nature to that recom- 
 mended for glanders, but with a much greater 
 probability of success. The system must be 
 supported by a generous, though not too 
 stimulating, diet, and the vegetable and mineral 
 tonics administered aa in glanders; but, if 
 
 the sulphate of copper bo employed, two or 
 tliree drachms will bo a Hunii-iently htrong 
 dose. Carrot.s or green food will bo a useful 
 addition to tlio diet. Tlu; hiids Bhould bu 
 opened witli a lancft, and, wlnii Ihc mutter in 
 evacuated, a caustic should be a|»plied to tho 
 ulcers. The lunar caustic will form a useful 
 application; but other caustics may bo em- 
 ployed. An ointment composed of two drachma 
 of hydriodate of potash; lard, or palm-oil, 
 two ounces ; mercurial ointment, two ounces, 
 should be rubbed daily in tho course of tho 
 enlarged lymphatics. The horse should bo 
 exercised daily, and properly groomed; and 
 the above treatment continued until all symp- 
 toms of farcy entirely disappear." la tho 
 Materia Medica there is a better form of this 
 ointment, in which the mercury and the iodine 
 are chemically combined. 
 
 The same gentleman observes that the most 
 favourable symptoms presented by this disease 
 are often delusive ; for even when it appears to 
 have succumbed to the skill of the practitioner, 
 it breaks out again and again, and sometimes, 
 when the morbid poison has thoroughly pene- 
 trated the system, after many months, it will 
 make its appearance in the form of fatal farcy 
 or glanders, 
 
 Mr. Blaine tells us of a horse so dreadfully 
 afflicted with farcy that it was unable to stand, 
 when it was drawn into a field of tares, and 
 left there to take his chance. When the poor 
 brute had devoured all that was within his 
 reach, hunger forced him to search for more ; 
 and managing to crawl along, and eat as he 
 went, he eventually recovered. 
 
 The dinioclide of copper has been introduced 
 by Professor ]\Iorton, and beneficially used in 
 farcy, as well as in such other diseases, as 
 have a resemblance to glanders. It is usually 
 combined with the root of gentian, to which 
 small quantities of cantharides may be added 
 with advantage. When an increased soreness 
 of the diseased parts appear, its application 
 should cease for a time, although this is an 
 indication of the absorbent vessels being stimu- 
 lated into increased action. 
 
 Water farcy is entirely different from the 
 common farcy, of which we have here been 
 treating, and is spoken of in another part of 
 this work. 
 
 195 
 
WIKD GALLS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [B0G-SPAVI5T. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SWELLINGS AND TUMOURS. — WINDGALLS ; BOG-SPAVIN ; THOROUGH-PIN ; 
 
 ABSCESS ; TUMOUR ON THE KNEE. 
 
 CAPPED HOCK : SEROUS 
 
 WINDGALLS. 
 
 WiNDGALLS consist of a kind of cyst, or sac, 
 attendant on most, or all joints, and frequently 
 occasion lameness, and, if not this, tliey are a 
 great eye-sore. These sacs are situate on 
 both sides of the tendons, just above the fet- 
 lock joints, on the fore, and not unfrequently 
 on the hind legs likewise. They become 
 enlarged, generally, from hard work, causing 
 a greater determination of blood to the part, 
 and continue to increase until they become 
 disagreeably large. It is from this circum- 
 stance, that liniments, or lotions, are applied 
 to them to reduce them, and this apparently 
 takes place ; but when the animal is again put 
 to work, they as certainly begin again to 
 enlarge, and when they grow to the disagree- 
 able size we sometimes see them, thev never 
 af^ain contract, so far as to allow the affected 
 part to assume its original form. 
 
 Eor the cure of these unsigiitly things, lini- 
 ments, lotions, and even blistering have little 
 or no effect. Perhaps the best plan to be 
 adopted is first to clip the hair off" all round 
 the leg, over the fetlock joint, and about three 
 inches above the seat of the enlargement. 
 When this is done, the whole of the clipped 
 part should be well rubbed with mercurial 
 plaister, thoroughly melted. This should be 
 effectively applied with a paint-brush, and 
 none of the parts overlooked. This done, a 
 flannel bandage, about three yards long, and 
 about three inches broad, should be bound 
 tight round the leg, and allowed to remain so 
 situated for a fortnight ; when by clipping it 
 with a pair of scissors down the front of the 
 leg, it may be allowed to fall off, and tlie limb 
 be set at liberty. A cradle must be used. 
 Should this mode of treatment not be found 
 effectual, the parts may be fired, or the burses 
 opened in the following manner: — Have the 
 horse cast, and with a pretty large abscess- 
 lancet lay open the enlarged hursce at bottom, 
 or lower part, to such an extent as to enable 
 the finger to be introduced, which should be 
 196 
 
 done and turned in it several times. This will 
 break the membrane of the sac. Then put a 
 suture in the wound, and draw the lips of it 
 together, and allow the animal to rise. This 
 treatment will, at first, cause some little 
 swelling, which should be bathed well with 
 warm water, two or three times a day, and a 
 bandage applied. When the inflammation 
 has considerably subsided, treat the puncture 
 as a common wound. If the case is a bad one, 
 and the windgalls very large, so soon as the 
 inflammation has subsided, cast the horse 
 again, and fire the parts, which has been found 
 to act very successfully. The horse should 
 have a loose box, and a dose or two of physic, 
 during the time he is resting. In the treat- 
 ment of these enlargements iodine and mer- 
 curial ointments have been advantageously 
 used in proportion of three parts of the former 
 to two of the latter. Blistering causes their 
 disappearance for a time ; but, with work, they 
 are sure to return. 
 
 BOG-SPAVIN 
 
 Is a disease, very common where there is 
 hard work, especially in young horses, when 
 they have been too early used. The hock ia 
 liable to more diseases than any other joint 
 belonging to the horse ; it being designed for 
 very extensive motion ; but the motion of it, 
 during natural labour, is very different from 
 that which occurs when an animal is thrown 
 upon his haunches, or pulled up suddenly, or 
 when taking high and wide leaps. These 
 violent motions of the joint, are, as may well 
 be supposed, likely to produce disorder. Bog- 
 spavin, then, is an enlargement of the mucus 
 capsule, situated immediately in the bend of 
 the hock, and near to the superficial vein, 
 passing obliquely over the part ; in fact, it may 
 be said to be a corresponding disease to wind- 
 galls in the fetlock joint. It does not always 
 produce lameness.; but, when so large as to 
 do this, and prevent the horse from working, 
 the tumour should be immediately opened aa 
 
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THOBOUOH-piN.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [capped hock.. 
 
 directed in wiiulj^alls. Great care, liowever, 
 must be taken not to puneturo tlio vein, wliieh 
 may be easily prevented, by tyin-,' a liUet of 
 tape round the bottom part of the thigh. This 
 will enable the course of the vein to bo dis- 
 covered, and, consequently, avoided. Having 
 made the puncture, and found out the mucus, 
 put into tiio wound a little sulphate of zinc, 
 and proceed in all other respects as described 
 for windgalls. 
 
 The editor of The Horse says, that the old 
 and absurd method of passing a ligature above 
 and below the enlarged portion of the vein, and 
 then dissecting it out, is not in the advanced 
 Btage of veterinary science practised by any 
 surgeon who regards his reputation ; it being 
 merely the consequence, not the cause of the 
 disease. The only method of relief which holds 
 out any promise even of temporary success is 
 exciting considerable inflammation on the skin 
 and thus rousing the deeper seated absorbents 
 to carrv away the fluid cflused in the enlarged 
 bag. For this purpose, blisters or firing may 
 be tried ; but in the majority of cases the dis- 
 ease will bid defiance to all appliances or will 
 return and baffle our hopes when we bad 
 seemed to be accomplishing our object. 
 
 Where there is bog- spavin the horse should 
 only be used for ordinary work. Hard or 
 rapid work is out of the question. 
 
 THOROUGH-PIN 
 
 Is a bursal enlargement, situated in the 
 upper and back part of the hock, the tumour 
 fshowing itself on either side ; hence its name, 
 thorough-pin. This seldoni occasions lame- 
 ness. It is caused by over-weighting, immo- 
 derate riding, and ill-management in the break- 
 ing of young horses. 
 
 For its treatment proceed precisely as 
 directed for windfalls and hog-spavin. 
 
 " I have," says Professor Spooner, " known 
 a troublesome and obstinate lameness produced 
 from the upper thorough-pin, or perhaps ratlier 
 from some strain of the tendon which attended 
 it. It gave way, however, at length, to a seton 
 placed over the part — not througii it. I have 
 also succeeded in removing a very large tho- 
 rough-pin in the lower situation in a high-class 
 race-horse, by the long-continued application 
 of equal parts of iodine and mercurial oint- 
 ment; previously, however, stimulating the 
 
 part with a mild liquid bli.stcr. Tho Bubject 
 was a race-horse of great value, and the tho- 
 rough-pin entirely disappeared in about two 
 weeks. In such cases the synovial fluid in tho 
 thorough -pin coagulates, and becomes orgauiaed 
 and firm." 
 
 CAPPED HOCK 
 Is a largo swelling, rising at the point of tho 
 hock; and although seldom detrimental to tho 
 action of the horse is, however, very objection- 
 able to the eye. It is produced chiefly by kicks, 
 lying on hard stones, or other injuries to which 
 the point of the hock is so very liable. It is 
 sometimes hereditary. This may be taken as 
 proved from the following fact. A veterinary 
 surgeon was called in to see a horse, and was, 
 at the same time, requested to look at a brood 
 mare, and two of her colts, lying in a field close 
 at hand, which were considered of excellent 
 make and form. The dam was a known good 
 one. She was a light chestnut mare, and the 
 colts were of the same colour, one a three-year 
 old, but the other a yearling ; and all three, 
 dam and colts, were afi"ected with capped hocks. 
 There had been a colt, which would then have 
 been two years old, but it had been dead about 
 six months, and he had capped hocks too. 
 These were all got by difl'erent horses. This 
 goes a great way in proving that like begets 
 like. 
 
 If capped hock is not relieved soon in its 
 early stage, it frequently becomes of consider- 
 able size, and what is strange, the skin seems 
 to thicken as it becomes larger. 
 
 In treating for it in an early stage repellents 
 such as the following should be used — 
 
 Sal-ammoniac 1 oz. 
 
 Si)irits of Wine 1 do. 
 
 Vinegar 8 do. 
 
 Eub some of this lotion on the point of the 
 hock, nigiit and morning. Should this not 
 promote the absorption of the fluid, introduce 
 setons on each side of the hock, and keep the 
 discharge up for a fortnight, dressing every day 
 with digestive ointment, composed of 
 
 Common Turpentine 4 oz. 
 
 Hog's Lard 4 do 
 
 Melt together over a slow fire, and dress the 
 setons with it, when these are changed every 
 morning. 
 
 Should this not Lave the desired effect at 
 
 197 
 
SEEOUS ABSCESS.] 
 
 THE flOBSE, AND 
 
 [the knee. 
 
 once, puncture with a lancet, and fire in the 
 manner represented in the engraving, entitled 
 Capped Hock. Whilst using the above reme- 
 dies, give a mild dose or two of physic. 
 
 SEROUS ABSCESS. 
 
 This kind of tumour is produced by various 
 causes, and is situated at the point of the 
 elbow. It sometimes grows to an amazing 
 size, even to that of a child's head. Serous 
 abscesses are not always alike in their contents, 
 Bome of them containing a yellowish fluid, and 
 that in a considerable degree. This may be 
 discovered by the undulating feeling they have 
 when pressed between the thumb and finger. 
 Others are hard, will not yield to pressure, and 
 sometimes approach to callosity. Both kinds 
 are generally produced in heavy dray-horses 
 by their lying down on rough paved stables, 
 and frequently when they double their fore 
 feet up under them. The large calkins of the 
 shoes then just come in contact with the point 
 of the elbow, and a bruise will produce them. 
 They may sometimes be caused by kicks, but 
 this is not usually the case. If it were so the 
 horse would instantly go lame, whereas by 
 bruising gradually, the disease continues grow- 
 ing, and may produce lameness. 
 
 In treating for these tumours, supposing 
 they contain the serous fluid, take up the skin 
 in the most dependent part, and make an orifice 
 with the seton scissors to let out the fluid. 
 Then insert the finger, as if preparing to place 
 3n a tent, which should be done with tow, 
 smeared over with the following digestive oint- 
 ment: 
 
 No. 1. 
 Sulphate of Copper, finely powdered . 1 drachm. 
 
 Common Turpentine 2 ozs. 
 
 Hog's Lard 4 do. 
 
 Melt the turpentine and the lard together' 
 and when nearly cold, sprinkle in the sulphate 
 of copper. Or, 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Red precipitate 4 drachms. 
 
 Common Digestive Ointment . 4 ozs. 
 "What is here meant by the common digestive 
 ointment, is the turpentine and hog's lard alone. 
 
 This will promote a healthy discharge, if the 
 
 first recipe does not. Keep this open for a 
 week or nine days. If the parts should swell 
 much, foment them three or four times a day, 
 with flannels dipped in hot water, until the 
 swelling abates. Professor Spooner treats this 
 tumour in the follovring manner. " If the col- 
 lection of fluid be not extensive, we may first 
 endeavour to disperse it by external stimu- 
 lants ; in this attempt, however, we shall gene- 
 rally fail, when we must evacuate it by making 
 a considerable opening, so as to admit a free 
 escape of the fluid, which will again form ; or 
 what will still be better, we may insert a seton 
 through the tumour. After this a solution of 
 blue or white vitriol should be injected, so as 
 to stimulate the sides of the cavity and pro- 
 duce an altered action. After some time pus 
 will be secreted instead of serum, and then the 
 part will soon get well." 
 
 The hard kind of tumour must be treated in 
 another way ; and the only way it can be, to be 
 effectual, is, at once to make an incision down 
 the middle of the tumour, and dissect it com- 
 pletely out, then insert a pleget of tow, smeared 
 with No. 1 ointment above, and sew up the 
 wound until within an inch and a half of the 
 bottom, which orifice must be kept open during 
 the suppurative process; but when that has 
 stopped, dress as for a common wound, with 
 compound tincture of myrrh. 
 
 THE KNEE. 
 Sometimes enlargements on the knee take 
 place, but they are of little consequence. — A 
 itumour about the size of a walnut formed on 
 the knee of a horse. It was punctured with a 
 very small abscess lancet, the matter squeezed 
 out, the part blistered, and the horse ordered 
 to be turned out. In a month, he came up, 
 and no person could discover the place that 
 either the puncture or blister had made. The 
 horse was of great value. The same line of 
 practice we would recommend in all similar 
 cases, as it is simple, and not likely to be 
 attended with much danger; whereas a more 
 complicated course might be followed by 
 evil consequences. AVhere a simple mode 
 will eff"ect our object, it is always best to 
 adopt it. 
 
 198 
 
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THJB ETS.] 
 
 INIODERN VETERINARY PR ACT I TK. 
 
 [tiik kyk. 
 
 CnAPTER XV. 
 
 TUE Eii: AND ITS DISEASES. 
 
 THE EYE IN GENERALr— THE MUSCLES OF 
 THE EYE. 
 
 Ik speakinc: of tlio muscles of tho eye, tlie 
 orbicularis first comes under our notice. This 
 muscle surrounds, and is attached to the bones 
 of the orbit. It passes under the loose skin 
 of the upper eyelid, which has great motion ; 
 and its ollice is to close the eyelid perfectly, 
 or to assist in ])erforming the involuntary act 
 of winking. The antagonistic muscle to tliis 
 is the levator paljjelrce, rising from the pos- 
 terior part of the orbit, and passing over the 
 orbit, contiguous to the lachrymal glands, 
 which are placed in the hollow of the orbit 
 above the eye. This pair of muscles is in 
 almost unceasing action, and like all other 
 muscles would become weary ; but by acting 
 in opposition they obtain intervals of rest. 
 Thus, when the eyes are shut, the orbicularis 
 is in action ; but when awake, the levator 2^(il- 
 pebrcs. This last, however, is relaxed by the 
 act of winking, which is clearly one intention 
 of winking: another is to allow the tears to 
 pass over the orbit for the pur;iose of removing 
 extraneous matter, by means of the action of 
 the eyelids. 
 
 To accomplish the various movements of the 
 eye, there are four straight muscles, two 
 oblique, and one retractor, or drawing-back 
 muscle, the powers of which are very supe- 
 rior to those in the muscles of the human 
 subject. Returning, however, to the straight 
 muscles, we commence with the levator ones, 
 which rise from the posterior part of the 
 orbit, pass over the retractor muscle, and are 
 attaclicd to the sclerotic coat. They are for the 
 purpose of directing the eye upwards. Tiie 
 eye always acts in unison with these muscles. 
 The next are the abductor, which originate in 
 the posterior part of the orbit, and are inserted 
 into the anterior part of the sclerotic coat 
 on the outside. These direct the eye from 
 the nose. The depressors rise in the pos- 
 terior part of the orbit, and are inserted into 
 the inferior part of the sclerotic coat. The 
 
 adductors have the same origin, and are inserted 
 into the sclerotic coat towards tho inner can- 
 thus. All these muscles acting together, have 
 the power of drawing the eye into the orbit; 
 but their action is inconsiderable. 
 
 Tho oblique muscles are two. One takes its 
 rise from the inferior part of the orbit, and ia 
 inserted into the sclerotic coat below. Tho 
 other, called the irochliaris, also rises in tho 
 same part, and going through a pulley-like 
 adaptation, is inserted into the anterior part 
 of the sclerotic coat, and thus draws the eye 
 forward. The principal use of these muscles 
 is to act in opposition to those which are 
 straight, by drawing the eye forward. 
 
 The retractor occult, rising from the supe- 
 rior part of the orbit, surround the optic nn-ve, 
 but are separated from it by adeps (i. e., lut) ; 
 and that the fibres may not aflect thu nerve, 
 they are not attached to the sclerotic coat, 
 where the nerve emerges. Here we may men- 
 tion how the inner and outer canthus may be 
 distinguished. AVhen the eyes are separated 
 from the body, it is the broad side which forms 
 the inner canthus, over which the haw plays. 
 In the structure of birds, for example, there is 
 an organisation somewhat similar to tho haw 
 in the horse, called the membrana nictitans, a 
 semi-transparent membrane, having a muscle 
 and a tendon. In the horse this is carlilnir'^ 
 edged with black, at the anterior part fasteiK i 
 to the conjunctiva by the cellular membrane ; 
 and if an attempt is made to pass the finger 
 between the eye and the haw, the action will 
 be prevented by the conjunctiva, showing that 
 the conjunctiva is a reflected membrane over 
 the cellular attachment. Tho haw is divided 
 into two parts. The anterior part is convex 
 on the outer surface, and concave on the inner, 
 to fit the convexity of the eye. The haw acts 
 as a kind of shield ; but not being suflicieut to 
 cover tlie whole orb, whilst in its natural situa- 
 tion, the retractor muscle acts first, by whicli 
 means the ball of the eye presses upon tho 
 adeps, and the haw, in consequence, is forced 
 
 199 
 
THE ETE.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the ETE. 
 
 over the eye, showing that it has no separate 
 movement, but is dependent on the retractor 
 muscle, and performs its functions by moving 
 a part to which it is least attached. 
 
 The lachrymal glands ax'e placed above the 
 levator palpelrce, lying close to the sclerotic 
 coat, and moisten the eye. 
 
 The eyelids are peculiar in the horse. The 
 bottom one has no lashes, but the upper one 
 has a double row iu the centre, but not extend- 
 ing from cantJius to cantJius. They are seldom 
 diseased, or even the cause of disease. 
 
 The conjunctiva is immediately connected 
 with the eyelids, the haw, and the orbit. It 
 possesses three different structures ; that is, 
 three separate degrees of vascularity. It lines 
 the inner surface of the eyelids, and covers the 
 eye-ball, being reflected over every part. This 
 membrane is highly vascular in that part 
 ■which lines the eyelids, and is less so over the 
 opaque cornia, and still less over the transpa- 
 rent cornia, never admitting red particles of 
 blood, unless in a state of inflammation. The 
 eyelids possess a secretion of their own, to 
 protect them from the tears, which, though 
 congenial to the eye, are not so to the edges 
 of the palpehrcB. It is a well-known and 
 somewhat singular fact, indicating the dif- 
 ferent degrees of susceptibility to which 
 different parts of the animal structure are 
 liable — that the salt that is in tears will at any 
 time inflame the cheek, but not the eye ; whilst 
 warm water applied to the eye, will inflame 
 it, f^nd be congenial to, and relieve the cheeks. 
 The apparent use of the eyelid is to pro- 
 tect the eye from foreign matter, and also to 
 regulate the admission of light. Independent 
 of these, the inner surface of the upper eye- 
 lids, covered by the conjunctiva, is connected 
 with the tears, which flow between the eye- 
 ball and the lid, the conjunctiva being thus 
 prevented from coming in contact by a fluid. 
 The eyelids also secrete a fluid of their own, 
 which prevents any tendency to irritation. 
 The action of the lachrymal glands is carried 
 on, at intervals, even in sleep, though there 
 may be but little wanted; but any foreign 
 matter, even the wind, will excite their action. 
 This is occasioned by the nerves of the eye- 
 ball being irritated, and the tears, iu conse- 
 quence, being thrown out to alleviate such 
 irritation. Between these glands aud the 
 200 
 
 mental character of the horse, there is also 
 great sympathy; and when their action is 
 excited, so that the secretion has become too 
 great to be carried off by the nose, the tears 
 flow over the cheeks, which constitutes weeping. 
 This secretion is also aflected by the action of 
 the retractor muscle, which, operating with 
 the adductor muscle, the eye-ball is brought 
 to the inner canthus, and the haw forced over 
 the eye-ball. Extraneous matter very seldom 
 occasions blindness ; for the tears and the eye- 
 ball moving in one direction, and the haw in 
 a contrary one, any such matter is quickly 
 dislodged. 
 
 The use of tears is to keep the parts moist 
 and transparent, and to remove the waste from 
 evaporation, which is always going forward in 
 moist external surfaces. Having performed 
 their office of lubricating the eye-ball, and the 
 parts attached, they pass into the duct, called 
 puncta lachrymalis, situated at the inner 
 canthus of the eye. This duct in the horse is 
 little larger than in the human subject, and 
 passing through a canal, partly bony and 
 partly membranous, terminates at the lower 
 end of the nostrils, much increased in size. 
 The construction of this junction in man is 
 much more complicated than it is in the horse, 
 and is very frequently subject to disease by 
 becoming obstructed. In the horse this very 
 seldom occurs ; and when it does, it is attended 
 with but very trifling inconvenience. The 
 action of the haw takes place from any cause 
 which produces pain or inflammation ; and this 
 may be continued so long, that the retractor 
 and adductor muscles will permanently con- 
 tract, when the haw, being completely power- 
 less of itself, is left protruded out. When 
 this is the case, there is no difficulty or danger 
 in cutting it out with a pair of scissors. 
 
 In the horse there is no opaque cornea 
 visible; whilst in man, it constitutes a promi- 
 nent feature of the organ ; aud although it does 
 not appear to give any additional perfection to 
 the vision, it adds greatly to the beauty aud 
 expression of the eye. 
 
 The transparent cornea is more or less con- 
 vex iu all animals. In horses, it is not cir- 
 cular, but horizontally oblong, being more 
 contracted at the outer than the inner part. 
 The ball of the eye is also denser aud more 
 trausparent. By a law of optics, the rays of 
 
THK KYE.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAPvY PT^NrTTri' 
 
 ["tiik kvk, 
 
 lii^lit pas3 through a tninsparont eonirx body, 
 nud become bent, whilst convcyiiii; objoots to 
 v focus, which again convoys tliom to the 
 retina, thus constituting vision. In somo men 
 tl\o cornea is frequently too convex, in conse- 
 ijueuce of which tho rays of light are brought 
 to a focus before they reach tho retina. 
 This constitutes near-sightedness ; the reverse 
 taking place with old people, tho cornea 
 being too flat. Of defective sight iu the 
 horse it is more difficult to judge ; but there 
 is no doubt that many horses with prominent 
 eves, and very convex, have imperfect vision, 
 as they, invariably, are very apt to shy, or to 
 start. 
 
 In eiamining the eye, and looking into the 
 anterior chamber, which contains the aqueous 
 humour, the iris appears, the centre of which 
 is perceived in the opening called the pupil. 
 Looking steadily at it, there is a blueness 
 apparent, showing that there is free access to 
 the back part of the eye through the pupil, 
 and also showing that the iris divides the 
 humours of the eye into two spaces, which are 
 called the anterior and the posterior chambers. 
 The iris appears to hang as a curtain between 
 the cornea and the crystalline lens, and is com- 
 posed of two orders of muscular fibres. It 
 demonstrates the colour of the eye ; as, for 
 instance, when it is black, or blue, it forms 
 an eye of the same colours. In bay horses it 
 is of a cinnamon colour. Sometimes it is 
 white, constituting a wall eye, with which 
 tliere are generally associated white hairs on 
 the eye-lashes and orbit. The colour of tho 
 outer part of the iris is no criterion for the 
 posterior, which is generally black, and is the 
 part that is of service to the sight of the 
 animal. The shape of tho iris, at the circum- 
 ference, is oblong, like tho transparent cornea. 
 It is very muscular, and its fibres are radiated, 
 and wound round the circumference with 
 another order of muscular fibres. Another 
 order winds round the inner margin, and the 
 union of the two is by the radiated expansion 
 of one order of fibres and of the blood-vessels. 
 The opening of the iris, or the pupil, is not 
 a solid body, but a passage left for the rays of 
 light to penetrate to the posterior chambers ol' 
 the eye. The iris undergoes many changes, as 
 to size, in all animals. In the horse it changes 
 its form, from round to oblong, and vice versd. 
 20 
 
 In cats, the changes are well Ht-en ; for, in a 
 strong liglit it becomes cxtrenK'ly oblung, but 
 perpendicular; whil.st in tlio horso it ia hori- 
 zontal. The object of this adaptation ia at 
 once obvious. In order to secure ita prey tho 
 cat haa to look upwards and downwards, but 
 not laterally ; whilst the horso has to look ia 
 all directions ; so that, although the pupil be- 
 comes horizontal, it is never very narrow. 
 Tliere is also, in tho horse's eye, a peculiarity- 
 of structure which seems to have the power of 
 excluding light. This is effected by four glan- 
 dular bodies, two placed at the lower edge of 
 the upper margin of tho iris, and two at tho 
 lower margin. These a'-e not seen in a weak 
 light, when the pupil is large ; and seldom in 
 the dead subject ; but make their appearance 
 in prominent eyes, under a strong light. They 
 are black, and covered with the nigrum pig- 
 mentum, or black paint, which, in the dead eye, 
 becomes a mucous. These bodies may almost 
 be called an internal eyelid, and, united to the 
 iris, they complete the curtain. 
 
 By observing the effect of different degrees 
 of light on the iris, it will be seen that it be- 
 comes stimulated by the action of the rays, 
 and expanding, through the nervous energy, 
 makes the pupil much smaller. On the other 
 hand, if the iris contract, the pupil appears so 
 much larger. This portion of the optical organ 
 is possessed of an abundance of nerves and mus- 
 cular fibres. The muscular fibres are of two 
 orders, the one appearing a kind of sphincter — 
 signifying to shut up— at the inner margin, 
 and which when excited by a strong light, at 
 tlie same moment, contracts. The transverse 
 order relax and elongate, and thus the pupil is 
 diminished. The stimulus of light being re- 
 moved, the transverse preponderate and dimi- 
 nish the iris, whilst they enlarge the pupil. 
 It would appear that the circular or sphincter 
 order, require a very strong stimulus to be 
 able to overcome the constant superabounding 
 power of the transverse order, the varied action 
 of the pupil taking on different forms, accord- 
 ing to the strength of light. In a weak light 
 these become circular, from the transverse 
 fibres being in full play ; but, as in a strong 
 light the pupil becomes oblong, it would appear 
 that the transverse fibres have not an equal 
 power of relaxation, except at the top and 
 bottom ; for, at the corners, they scarcelv relax 
 
 201 
 
THE ETE.]| 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [the etb. 
 
 at all. There is considerable sympathy be- 
 tween the iris and the retina, as in cases of 
 gutta Serena, or glass eyes, as it is termed ; or 
 when the optic nerve and the iris have lost 
 their sensibility. 
 
 In considering the outer coats of the eye, 
 we will commence with the sclerotic, which is 
 composed of tendinous material, very dense, 
 but not equally thick all over, the thickest 
 part being its posterior. This part, as it re- 
 ceives more pressure against the orbit, wheu 
 under the influence of the retractor muscle, 
 nature has proportioned the means to the end, 
 and made it thicker, in order that it might be 
 capable of repelling the pressure it was destined 
 to receive. Anteriorly, there is a groove re- 
 ceiving the posterior edge of the transparent 
 cornea, called the ciliary processes — the white 
 folds at the margin of the uvea in the eye, 
 covered with black matter ; there is a passage 
 through the sclerotic coat for the optic nerve, 
 which does not pierce it at its centre, but 
 pierces the sclerotic and choroid coats at the 
 inferior part. 
 
 The choroid coat is on the inner side of the 
 sclerotic, and is very vascular, possessing many 
 blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents. Its ap- 
 pearance varies in different animals. In white 
 ferrets, and also in those classes of persons 
 commonly called " albinos," with long white 
 hair, the colouring matter is wanting, and the 
 arteries of the coat are alone seen. The con- 
 sequence is, the bottom of the eyes look red, 
 "Where this formation exists, there is an inca- 
 pability of seeing in a strong light, objects 
 being best seen in the dark, which is most 
 properly called a diminution of light ; and in 
 sympathy with such, the eye-lashes are always 
 white, and the hair of the head white also, 
 Frequently in smaller animals all the hair is 
 white, as we find in white mice and white rats. 
 In man, generally, both surfaces of the choroid 
 coat, the one in contact with the sclerotic coat, 
 the other witli the retina, are covered witli a 
 black pigment, which, in the dead animal, be- 
 comes a kind of mucus. But here there is a 
 difference according to circumstances. Negroes 
 have it much blacker than the inhabitants of 
 temperate regions, and have a power of ab- 
 sorbing superfluous rays of light, to an extent 
 that renders vision even painful. Thia coat, 
 in borses, is of great importance. All the 
 202 
 
 pigment or colouring matter below the optic 
 nerve, being about one-third of the whole, is 
 black, but above it is green and blue, which are 
 separated from the other by a distinct hue. 
 This compound, in the living eye, imparts to it 
 the appearance of sky-blue, which, seen through 
 the humours, is of a greyish hue. Horses fre- 
 quently, and by very eminent men, have been 
 pronounced unsound from having this grey 
 cast or shade in the eye. The optic nerve 
 having pierced these two coats within, tlie 
 black covering is lined here with a little pig- 
 ment. It is then distributed over the whole 
 of the surface, as far as the junction of the 
 opaque cornea with the ciliary processes. The 
 object of this variegated coat, and why it should 
 occupy the superior part in particular, is, that 
 the rays of light may pass through the nerve 
 going beyond the retina. In man, from the 
 colour of the pigment, the rays become ab- 
 sorbed, and terminate accordingly ; but in a 
 pigment that is not black, they do not termi- 
 nate, but are reflected back, striking the nerve 
 a second time, and the effect is then an in- 
 creased degree of vision. In the horse, the 
 rays strike the nerve twice, but only at the 
 upper part, where the green pigment is situated. 
 The rays thus received are obviously the weak- 
 est, especially when the head of the animal is 
 near the ground, which is his natural position 
 when in the act of grazing ; the black pigment 
 then receives the strong superior rays ; and 
 thus by a skilful combination the light is 
 equalised, and sharp keen sight produced. 
 
 " The reader may see in the dusk, or even 
 when duskiness is fast yielding to utter dark^ 
 ness," says Mr. Youatt, " the beautiful sea-green 
 reflection from the eye of the horse. ... If 
 the reader has not examined this beautiful pig- 
 ment, he should take the earliest opportunity of 
 doing so. He will have a beautiful illustration of 
 the care taken by the Supreme Being that each 
 shall suit his situation. The horse has not the 
 intelligence of man, and may not want, for any 
 [)urpose of pleasure or improvement, the vivid 
 picture of surrounding objects which the retina 
 of the human being presents. A thousand 
 minute but exquisite beauties would be lost 
 upon him. Ir', therefore, his sense of vision 
 may not be so strong during the day, it is made 
 up to him by tlie increased power of vision in 
 the uiirht." 
 
^lODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 THE ETB.] 
 
 The cri/sfalJine lens is not exactly ft porfi-ct 
 IcMis, tlio ftiitoric^r siili- briiit; rather the flattest. 
 It is contained in a perfect capsule or bag, ft 
 fluid separating tlie eapsulo from tho lens, 
 which is called the liquor morgagni, from IM. 
 !Morgagni, the name of its first discoverer. 
 This capsule does not adhere to, but is con- 
 fined in its position by the tunica vitrea, being 
 reflected over its edge, at which part, also, it is 
 surrounded by the choroid coat, formed into 
 folds, called the ciliary processes. It was for- 
 merly doubted how these parts grew ; but 
 doubts were dispelled on its being discovered 
 that both arteries and veins are situated in 
 these parts. Tiie lens is not only flatter an- 
 teriorly, but is not of the same structure 
 throughout, the outer surface being like a 
 mucus or jelly; whilst within, it becomes harder, 
 even to the centre. From this arrangement 
 tlie rays of light are bent from one degree to 
 another, in proportion as they approach the 
 centre — the crystalline lens acting as a refract- 
 ing glass, receiving the rays, in some measure 
 refracted by the cornea and aqueous humour, 
 and bringing them to a focus on the retina. 
 
 " When either the cornea or the crystalline 
 lens is too convex," says Mr. Spooner, "the 
 object is brought to a focus too soon, and vision 
 is indistinct, and the person near-sighted." 
 This, he adds, as we have already observed, is 
 a frequent defect in the eyes of horses that 
 shy, in which we often find full goggle eyes. 
 "When, however, the cornea or the lens is too 
 flat, a contrary effect is produced, and the 
 object is not converged soon enough. This is 
 often a complaint in old people, who are 
 relieved by convex glasses, whilst the former 
 defect is relieved by concave lenses. 
 
 The iris has an involuntary power of 
 changing under difierent degrees of light. It 
 also has another power independent of the 
 efiects of light — namely, that of looking at a 
 minute object, though the light be weak, and 
 becoming larger as the pupil gets smaller, and 
 vice versd. The pupil being small, the rays 
 are confined to such as proceed from the 
 object alone. Thus there is no confusion of 
 images on the retina, but the smallest object is 
 seen ; and, as in the last instance, when the 
 object to be seen is large, the iris contracts, 
 that the rays may be admitted from all parts 
 for a perfect representation. 
 
 [the eye. 
 
 In examining tho ciliart/ processes, they are 
 nothing more than a continuation of tlie cho- 
 roid coat which surrounds tho capsule of tho 
 crystalline lens. They are called choroidea, 
 and are tho actual foldings of that membrane. 
 Their object is to prevent tho passai;(! of any 
 rays of light on the outside of tho lens, which 
 otherwise would render vision imperfect. 
 
 The vitreous humour is of a peculiar com- 
 position. Although it seems to be a kind of 
 jelly, it is not; but nearly of the same fluidity 
 as the aqueous humour. This appearance 
 arises from its being contained in cells, and 
 not in a single capsular bag. A proof of this 
 is found in the breaking of the cells, when the 
 fluid drops freely. It is also admirably formed ; 
 for being in contact with the expansion of the 
 optic nerve, it cannot alter its position, or be 
 injured by pressure. 
 
 The phenomenon of vision is both curious 
 and grand. In the first place, all objects to 
 be seen require a sufficient quantity of light to 
 render the optic nerve sensible. Although 
 different animals require difierent degrees, 
 man requires the most — a fact demonstrated 
 by the construction of his eye, which has a 
 small transparent cornea, and a black pigment. 
 The vision, to be perfect, must be painted on 
 the retina; and here is a curious fact, that 
 though we have two eyes, we see only one 
 object; yet there is an object painted on each 
 retina, but only one on the sensorium. Being 
 possessed of only one sensorium, so long as 
 the object is the same, there is only one im- 
 pression formed ; but immediately objects 
 change, there are difierent impressions fornied. 
 All objects on the retina being painted upside 
 down, the rays of light cross each other, and 
 meet in a point near the lens, when they pro- 
 ceed through the vitreous humour nearly in 
 the same right lines. 
 
 Objects presented to the eye have their 
 images painted on the black part of the retina, 
 the rays of the incident pencils converging to 
 their proper foci there, by the refraction of tho 
 different humours; and for this office they are 
 admirably adapted ; for as the distance between 
 the back and front of the eye is very small, 
 and the rays of each of the pencils that form 
 the image fall parallel, or else diverging on the 
 eye, a strong refractive power is necessary for 
 bringing them to their foci at the retina: but 
 
 203 
 
USTLAMMATION.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [iNFLAMMATIOIir. 
 
 each of the humours, by its peculiar form and 
 density, contributes to cause a convergence of 
 the rays : the aqueous from its convex form ; 
 the crystalline by its double convexity and 
 greater density than the aqueous; and the 
 vitreous by a less density than the crystalline, 
 joined to its concave form. 
 
 The structure of the eye is in general adapted 
 to the reception of parallel rays ; but, as the 
 distances of visible objects are various, so the 
 eye has powers of accommodating itself to rays 
 proceeding from different distances by altering 
 the distances of the crystalline from the retina, 
 which is done by the action of the ciliary 
 ligaments. We will now speak of the diseases 
 of this organ. 
 
 INFLAMMATION. 
 
 The conjunctiva is that membrane which 
 lines the eyelids, and covers the cornea and 
 the haw of the eye. Its inflammation is one 
 of the most common diseases to which this orb 
 is subject. 
 
 When inflammatory appearances have be- 
 come manifest in this part, the first thing to 
 be ascertained is, whether the transparent 
 cornea is affected or not. One sign is, that 
 the iris, at the border of the pupil, will not be 
 seen without difficulty. Attention must then 
 be directed to the other eye ; and not finding 
 the pupils exactly alike as to size, &c., it may 
 safely be inferred that the smallest is in a state 
 of disease ; the sphincter muscle of the iris 
 having become contracted from sympathy. 
 The next thing to be observed is the blood- 
 vessels of the membrane under the eyelid. If 
 these appear turgid, and even if there is only 
 one of them shooting into the transparent 
 cornea, it is a diseased eye. Attention must 
 then be directed to the glandular bodies at the 
 upper edge of the iris ; and if these are not 
 alike in colour, it may be predicted that the 
 horse will go blind from the effect of little 
 lymph being lodged there from previous inflam- 
 mation. The haw is likewise a criterion to go 
 by. If the haw is not the same in each eye, 
 but one protruding more than the other, the 
 indication is bad. These incipient appearances 
 of this disease are of great importance ; for as 
 this disease is the one to which the horse is most 
 usually subject in the eye, it should be vigilantly 
 watched, as it frequently results in blindness. 
 204 
 
 This disease generally comes on in the night, 
 and is then thought of but little moment ; the 
 groom supposing the eye to be injured by the 
 halter, or by rubbing it against the manger, 
 or some rough place in the stall ; but this is 
 seldom the case ; and, as to producing it by 
 blows, it is exceedingly difficult to wound the 
 eye. If, however, it should be occasioned by a 
 blow, there will be an abrasion on the external 
 surface ; on examining which, it will be easy to 
 determine how to proceed. Take of 
 
 Extract of Saturn ... 4 drachms (| oz). 
 
 Spring water sufficient to fill a common-sized 
 wine-bottle. 
 Apply this lotion frequently every day. Or, 
 
 Take Sulphate of Zinc 1 oz. 
 
 Dissolve in the same quantity of water as 
 above. Either of these recipes, if the inflam- 
 mation arises from a blow, will effect a cure' in 
 a few days. 
 
 This disease does not often attack aged ani- 
 mals, if they have not been previously affected 
 with it. They are most subject to it between 
 four and six years old, when their growth 
 is becoming nearly completed, and when, if 
 highly kept, a plethoric habit is produced ; the 
 solids of the body ceasing to grow, and the 
 deposit of fat becoming greater than the sys- 
 tem requires. Young horses are, in early life, 
 but little susceptible to this disease. When 
 an attack commences, if nothing is done to 
 prevent it, the inflammation increases rapidly, 
 until the pupil is hid, and the whole surface 
 of the eye appears bloody. This, however, may 
 be wholly removed. The attack flies from eye to 
 eye ; first beginning in one, then in the otlier 
 eye, probably at the interval of some months, 
 till one or both become blind. If one only 
 is lost, the general opinion is, that the other will 
 become perfectly sound, and be much stronger. 
 Erom these circumstances it would seem not 
 to be a local disease, but constitutional. It is 
 produced generally by living in a poisoned at- 
 mosphere. In cases where it has appeared, it 
 has been observed that the horses either do 
 not perspire at all, or perspire profusely, from 
 languor. The inflammation having its origin 
 in the conjunctiva, all the other parts partake 
 of it. The iris secretes pus, which falls into 
 the posterior chamber, where absorption takes 
 it up, or probably ulceration takes place. 
 Even the constitution appears to undergo a 
 
4^" 
 
 5^ 
 
 ''^ '' 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 5te4 
 
 
IKTLAMMATION.] MODERN VETEEI 
 
 change, when bliiulnesa ensues. This periodi- 
 cal oplithalmia «jenerally ceases when one or 
 both of the eyes go out, although, at first sight, 
 one cannot tell how tho constitution has been 
 afiectetl by the loss of this organ, or seo a 
 reason why the inflaniniation sliould not recur 
 at intervals. 
 
 Tho disease may also arise from tho effects 
 of purging ; but this only causes tho constitu- 
 tional tendency to tho disease being brouglit 
 into effect, producing debility from the medi- 
 cine becoming tho exciting cause. The disease 
 then is constitutional, and requires effectual 
 remedial measures to be adopted. Take of 
 
 Bhie Pill 12 drachms. 
 
 Opium 2 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal 1 oz. 
 
 Form into a mass with soft soap, 
 
 and divide into six balls. Give one every 
 second morning fasting. Or, take of 
 
 Sulphate of Copper .... 12 drachms. 
 Or, of 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 12 drachms. 
 
 Form either of these into a mass with 
 linseed meal and soap, and divide into six 
 balls, and give one every morning about eleven 
 o'clock. These two last are 3trengthenit>^, 
 and when the disease arises from debility, will 
 be found of essential service. Bleeding gene- 
 rally, according to the strength of the animal, 
 should not be omitted, as it will relieve it in 
 all its stages, though not eventually cure it. 
 A good lotion may be composed of 
 
 Common Salt, -^ table-spoonful and a-half. 
 Spring Water, as much as will fill a wine-bottle. 
 
 Bathe the eyes several times in the day with 
 this ; or, take either of the lotions prescribed 
 for blows in the eye. 
 
 The insertion of setons between the jaws have 
 done good for a time ; and considerable benefit 
 has arisen from the following prescription — 
 
 Tartar Emetic 1 drachm. 
 
 Hog's Lard 1 oz. 
 
 Form into an Ointment. 
 
 Eub a little on the side of the horse's cheek, 
 and also underneatii the eye, until small 
 pimples appear. Great care must be taken 
 to prevent its going into the eyes. 
 
 For simple ophthalmia, local and general 
 bleeding and physic are adviaed. Warm fo- 
 
 NAET PRACTICE. 
 
 [CATAttACT. 
 
 mentations should bo at first uHcd, and tho fol- 
 lowing lotion applied six or eight tirne.i a day : 
 
 Cold Water i ,,i„t. 
 
 Tincture of Opium. , . , . . 1 oz. 
 
 When the inflammation has abated, but a film 
 is still leit on the cornea, apply with a cainel'H 
 hair brush, twice a day, a few drops of tho iui- 
 lowincr : 
 
 Distilled Water 
 Nitrate of Silver 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 1 or 2 grains. 
 
 The horse should be kept in a cool and clean 
 stable, where there arc no offensive exhalations 
 from manure. 
 
 Mr. Peall relates an experiment which ho 
 made on a horse affected with ophthalmia. " I 
 have ordered him," he says, " to be removed 
 from the stable, where I observed he kept 
 both eyes shut, into the open air, or to a very 
 cool situation, and have watched the effects of 
 the change. In the course of half-an-hour I 
 have commonly found him begin to open his 
 eyes gradually ; and in the course of two or 
 three hours, to keep them open boldly, and lor 
 a continuance, even though the situation he 
 was placed in was not darkened or shady ; for 
 it cannot be denied that strong light is very 
 prejudicial in such cases. Now to prove that 
 the stimulus of the volatile alkali — the vapours 
 of foul litter — was more offensive to the in- 
 flamed organ than that of light, I have placed 
 the animal again in a hot stable, which did not 
 admit much light, and, in the course of a few 
 minutes, have observed him begin to close his 
 eyes gradually, and, after an hour or two, to 
 keep them constantly shut. Not satisfied, 
 however, with this, I have removed the horse 
 back again to a cool situation, and have ob- 
 served the same effects to be produced as have 
 been already detailed." 
 
 CATARACT. 
 
 Tho common termination of the foregoing 
 disease is cataract; which is inflammation in 
 tho capsule of the lens with opacity. The 
 opacity invariably begins in the centre, from 
 its being the hardest, and having less of living 
 power, so that the circulation becomes more 
 easily aflected. There being no simple cataract 
 in the horse, many appearances of the lena 
 take place when the eye is affected by the dis- 
 ease. In some, a general determination of 
 
 205 
 
AMAUEOSIS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 ["W0UND3 
 
 blood to the coats of the eye, when irritation 
 ensues. The retractor muscle then acts from 
 sympathy, which produces pressure on the 
 tunica vitrea, and the cells of the vitreous 
 humour are destroyed, together with the cap- 
 sule of the lens. To prevent the lens floating 
 about, lymph is thrown out, forming an arti- 
 ficial capsule. By this action of the retractor 
 aiuscle, the aqueous humour is pressed upon 
 by the lens through the other parts, and this 
 humour against the transparent cornea. To 
 prevent the eye from bursting, the humour 
 becomes absorbed ; the lens is thrown against 
 the iris, which dilates, coming in contact with 
 the transparent cornea; the pupil in con- 
 sequence becomes lost. From these compli- 
 cated effects, an operation is both difficult and 
 useless. It has been performed several times 
 at the Eoyal Veterinary College. But even if 
 imperfect vision is restored, it is detrimental to 
 the horse, causing him to shy, and rendering 
 him unsteady and dangerous. When cataract 
 occurs in the human subject, couching is prac- 
 tised ; but, in the horse, this is all but imprac- 
 ticable. 
 
 GUTTA SERENA, OR AMAUROSIS, 
 
 Is another disease of the eye of the horse, 
 consisting of a paralysis of the optic nerve, 
 which becomes insensible to the light, though 
 admitted througn a perfect organ. It is much 
 more common in the human subject than in 
 horses. Blistering behind the ears, on both 
 sides, has been repeatedly tried for it, but 
 without any success. Kowels between the 
 jaws, kept open for a length of time, have also 
 been tried, but without any satisfactory result. 
 
 On one occasion, a young veterinary surgeon, 
 just emanated from the Royal Veterinary 
 College, and who had not seen any practice 
 previous to his going to that establisiiment, 
 was called to a horse affected with inflamma- 
 tion of the eyes. He at once pronounced the 
 necessity of taking blood ; but being rather a 
 timid operator, he, in striking the phleme, only 
 just touched the jugular vein, the blood scarcely 
 deigning to flow. Consequently he pinned up 
 that side, and proceeded to the other, with no 
 better success. The result was, that the 
 horse's neck became greatly swollen, and 
 though it was well bathed, it had no effect. 
 Suppuration took place, and the horse lost tlie 
 vein on both sides : but while this was going 
 on, the inflammation entirely left his eyes. 
 The gentleman to whom he belonged kept 
 him for two or three years after, but no in- 
 flammation ever returned. 
 
 Gutta Serena has followed an attack of 
 stomach staggers, and, in many instances, has 
 come on from excessive loss of blood after 
 castration, and from ruptured liver. It has, 
 also, appeared in a temporary form after 
 apoplexy, and during gestation. 
 
 In treating for it, copious bleeding at the 
 neck, followed by a dose of physic, is recom- 
 mended. Local applications to the eye are of 
 little service. 
 
 "When the disease proceeds from the livei^ 
 stomach, or any other viscera, bleeding is not 
 always to be adopted, but should be regulated 
 by the general health of the animal. AVhen 
 the above treatment fails, calomel, combined 
 with opium, may be tried, and, in obstinate 
 cases, strychnine. 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 
 wounds — wounds in general; wounds of the head; chest; abdomen; joints; sheaths of 
 
 tendons; arteries; veins; knees; gun-shot wuunds; sutures. 
 
 WOUNDS IN GENERAL. 
 Wounds are a species of injury to which 
 horses are not only perpetually liable, but 
 206 
 
 they consist of so many difFeredt kinds, and 
 require such various modes of treatment — 
 according to the cause, appearance, situation, 
 
■WOUNDS.] 
 
 l\rODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 depth, ami state of the wound, or habit of the 
 Bubject— tliat to discuss the whole of them 
 with all possible or probable circumstances 
 III which they appear, would be to write a 
 volume on them alone. Even that space 
 would, perhaps, not wholly be exhausled w hen 
 we consider the simple and complex characters 
 which they frequently assume, and the diilicul- 
 ties which, in uumeroua instances, are involved 
 in their treatment. To enlarge, therefore, 
 upon every probable means by which a wound 
 may be received, is unnecessary ; accordingly, 
 we will exhibit their most prominent features, 
 with the best means of their cure. 
 
 "Wounds in general are subject to a great 
 deal of variety, both in their nature and ex- 
 ternal appearance. The diflerences depend, in 
 a very great measure, on the nature of the 
 injured parts, the manner in which the wound 
 has happened, and its extent. 
 
 Flesh wounds are, in appearance, nature, 
 and degrees of danger, quite different from 
 those of the tendons. There is also an essen- 
 tial difference between such as are made with 
 a sharp-cutting instrument, and others, in 
 which the fibres, besides being divided, have 
 suffered considerable contusion and laceration. 
 A wound made with a narrow-pointed instru- 
 ment, is also of a very different nature from 
 one that has an ample orifice. 
 
 The degrees of dimger attending every 
 wound, depend very much on some of the 
 following circumstances : — 
 
 The extent of the injury ; the more or less 
 violence which the fibres of the part have 
 suffered, besides their division ; the nature of 
 the blood-vessels, or nerves, which happen to 
 be cut; the nature of the wounded part, in 
 respect to its general power of healing favour- 
 ably or not; w^hether the operations of the 
 system at large, and life itself, can be well 
 supported or not, while the functions of the 
 wounded part are disturbed, interrupted, or 
 suspended by the accident; the age of the 
 patient, the goodness or badness of his con- 
 stitution, and the opportunities which there 
 may be of receiving proper aid and assistance 
 of every kind. 
 
 As a general observation, we may state,, that 
 a wound that is hiade with a sharp-cutting 
 instrument, and which takes the chai'acter of 
 a mere incision, is attended with less hazard 
 
 than any other kind of wound whatever. The 
 fibres have only simply been divided. They 
 havo BU./ered no contusion, nor laceration; 
 and are, consequently, Il-hs likely to infiamo, 
 suppurate, or slough, and likely to admit 
 of being united again in a very expeditious 
 manner. 
 
 Lacerated woumis, are those in which the 
 fibres, instead of being divided by a cutting 
 instrument, have been torn asunder by some 
 violence, capable of overcoming their force of 
 adiiesion. The edges of such wounds, instead 
 of being straight and regular, are jagged and 
 unequal. 
 
 Con/used ivounds is a terra applied to such aa 
 are occasioned by some blunt instrument, or 
 surface, which has violently struck a part of 
 the body. 
 
 Lacerated and contused wounds differ from 
 simple incised wounds, in appearing, at first 
 view, much less alarming than the latter, while 
 in reality they are much more dangerous. In 
 simple cut wounds, the retraction of the parts, 
 and the bleeding, are generally much more 
 considerable than in a lacerated wound of the 
 same size. Notwithstanding these circum- 
 stances, however, they commonly admit of 
 being healed with far greater ease. Indeed, 
 lacerated and contused wounds are scarcely 
 ever attended with any serious effusion of 
 blood, even though some large blood-vessels 
 may be injured. In judging of the severity of 
 these, this is apt to lead some persons, even 
 practitioners, astray ; for, in proportion as there 
 is little bleeding, it may with safety be con- 
 cluded that serious violence has been done to 
 the fibres and blood-vessels. 
 
 A punctured wound is one that is made with 
 a narrow- pointed instrument, and has its ex- 
 ternal orifice small and contracted, instead of 
 being of a size proportionate to its depth. A 
 wound produced by the thrust of a sword or 
 bayonet is an example of a punctured wound. 
 
 Wounds of this description are in general 
 infinitely more dangerous than incised ones, 
 notwithstanding the latter have the appear- 
 ance of being by far the most extensive. Tho 
 degree of danger, in cases of punctured wounds, 
 always depends on the additional injury, and 
 rough violence, which the fibres have suffered, 
 besides being divided. 
 
 Some of tho disagreeable consequences of 
 
 207 
 
•\VOUNDS.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [■WOUNDS. 
 
 such wounds are also imputed to the frequent ] 
 great depth to which they are liahle to extend. 
 In consequence of this, important parts and 
 organs are often injured. Such cases are less 
 easily cured, owing to the difficulty of ex- 
 tracting any extraneous substances which may 
 happen to be lodged in the wound. AH punc- 
 tured wounds and stabs are at the same time 
 dangerous, inasmuch as they are particularly 
 apt to be followed by a considerable amount 
 of inflammation, fevers, deep-seated abscesses, 
 sinuses, &c. 
 
 Wounds of this description are, in this 
 country, not very common. The stings and 
 bites of certain insects, and the bites of vipers, 
 mad dogs, cats, &c., are the only instances 
 which we meet with. The only insects to be 
 dreaded are the stings of the wasp, or the 
 hornet. This insect, to appearance, is the 
 most formidable creature of the winged tribe 
 in Britain, the sting being frequently attended 
 with the most acute pain and inflammation. 
 Even the sting of the wasp, should it occur 
 where the skin is thin, such as on the inside 
 of the thigh, occasions extreme pain and 
 irritation. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE HEAD. 
 
 "Wounds of the head of the horse do not so 
 frequently occur as might be expected. The 
 principal occur on the ears, the eyelids, the 
 nose, or the salivary gland or duct. This duct 
 is situated at the angle of the jaw, where the 
 pulse of the animal is felt. It is sometimes 
 liable to be torn, when the saliva escapes by it, 
 instead of passing on to the mouth to mix 
 with the animal's food. It also frequently 
 occasions great debility. 
 
 Erom the situation of the parotid duct, and 
 its liability to become wounded, what is called 
 a salivary fistula may be the consequence, 
 unless steps are immediately taken to afibrd 
 relief. The cheek and face become considerably 
 swollen ; to prevent the increase of which, the 
 actual cautery should be used. A budding- 
 iron, however, is the best instrument; after 
 using which, draw the lips of the wound 
 together with a suture, and apply adhesive 
 plaister over the whole, in strips, about a 
 quarter of an inch apart, first cutting the hair 
 close ofl" all round the part, that the plaister 
 may adhere more firmly. 
 208 
 
 Lacerations of the horse's ear sometimes 
 occur. In such cases have him cast, and the 
 lacerated part cut ofi". After this operation, 
 if it should not look at all pleasant, remove as 
 much more as will make it do so; then crop 
 the other ear to correspond. This is the only 
 method that can be pursued, as, from the little 
 vascularity of the ear, it being principally 
 composed of gristle, union cannot be expected 
 to take place. 
 
 The eyelids frequently become lacerated, 
 and very much torn, from nails or splinters of 
 wood about the rack, manger, or standing. 
 In this case, a small curved needle, with 
 whity-brown thread, should be taken, and 
 sutures introduced in such a manner as to 
 bring the parts as much in contact and as 
 near to the appearance they had before the 
 accident took place. After this, use the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc ^ oz. 
 
 Spirit of Wine 2 do. 
 
 Water 16 do. 
 
 Apply this lotion to the parts afiected three 
 or four times a day. 
 
 Wounds of the nose, or nostril, sometimes 
 occur, and are exceedingly difficult to heal, in 
 consequence of our not always being able to 
 apply proper remedies. The only thing to be 
 done is to sew up the lacerated parts, and 
 apply compound tincture of myrrh, as in a 
 common wound. It is difficult, in such cases, 
 to recommend another distinct mode of treat- 
 ment without the real nature of the wound is 
 perfectly ascertained. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE CHEST. 
 
 These wounds occur mostly in large towns, 
 where there is considerable movement with all 
 kinds of vehicles ; when the shaft of one car- 
 riage comes in contact with the horse of the 
 one he may chance to meet, enters his chest, 
 and often causes immediate death to the horse. 
 In such cases the first thing to be ascertained 
 is the depth of the wound ; and, in order to 
 restrain the rapid action of the circulation, 
 copious bleeding must be used. A piece of 
 tow, well smeared with digestive ointment, 
 should be introduced into the wound, in order 
 to procure a discharge as soon as possible. 
 The horse should be kept without food for at 
 least twelve hours ; at the expiration of which, 
 
WOUKDS.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 a ball, composed of the following ingredifiils, 
 sboulil bo given : — 
 
 Aloes 4 (Jiachms. 
 
 Kosin 2 do. 
 
 Form Nvitli soft soap nrul linsi'ed meal. 
 
 If, by this time, the parts should have beconio 
 much swollen, bathe them well with hot water; 
 and if the discharge is once produced, it is a 
 sign that the animal is going on well. Con- 
 tinue the dressing, with the medicine occa- 
 sionally, and a cure will soon be effected. 
 Should the wound, however, not have been 
 made in the direction before named, but have 
 entered the cavity of the chest, and the lungs 
 become in anv means ruptured, the case is then 
 hopeless. This will easily be ascertained by 
 air rusliiiig out of the wound, and by the pecu- 
 liar scarlet hue of the blood. 
 
 If swelling should take place between the 
 legs, or under the chest, take the phleme and 
 strike it, to let out the air which has been ex- 
 travasated. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 "Wounds of the abdomen generally arise from 
 the horse having been gored with the horns of 
 some mischievous bull or cow, whilst in the 
 field, or by his having been staked, or not un- 
 frequently by some of the hooks carelessly 
 attached to the harness. These have some- 
 times been the cause of frightful lacera- 
 tions, when lock-jaw has been known to su- 
 pervene. 
 
 When they are so severe as to penetrate the 
 cavity of the abdomen, they are attended with 
 much danger. If any of the intestines should 
 protrude, they should be carefully replaced, 
 unless they should be very cold, or mortifica- 
 tion appear; in which case the parts should be 
 well bathed with warm water, not too hot at 
 first, but made warmer by degrees, until it 
 approaches to blood-heat ; then, after return- 
 ing the intestines, sew up the external wound, 
 and apply a roller, padded, to the part. Neither 
 food nor water should be given, but clysters of 
 gruel, and also gruel as a draught ; but this 
 sparingly at first. AV^hen the roller is to be 
 removed it should be done with the greatest 
 caution; and if appearances are favourable, 
 a pleget of tow, and a large adhesive plaister 
 over the whole ; then the padding and the rol- 
 ler should be applied as before. In such cases 
 2i 
 
 e()i)ion8 bleeding nh<>uld be used, as booh oh the 
 first dressing is over. Jf morlificution uhould 
 have taken place, tho horse will soon evince 
 it; but, shtiuld better fortune attend the 
 treatment, he must be brought on bv degrcee, 
 and not be fid loo freely lor some time. 
 
 WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 
 
 From the tendinous and membranous nature 
 of the parts which surround the large joints, 
 wounds in them, wluther of a punctured or 
 incised kind, are attended with great danger; 
 and, although these joints are not very sensitive 
 in a sound state, yet, when inllamed they be- 
 come exceedingly so, and frequently are the 
 cause of violent pain and fever. 
 
 Superficial wounds of the joints are often dis- 
 agreeable cases ; but the danger is always 
 increased when the injury penetrates the cap- 
 sular ligament. When this is the case, it may 
 be detected by the introduction of a probe, and 
 frequently by a discharge of the synovia, which 
 is secreted by the inner membrane of the cap- 
 sular ligament of the joint, for the purpose of 
 facilitating its motion. But as a discharge of 
 a similar kind may proceed from mere wounds 
 of such (Jjurscd viucosce) synovial bags, as in 
 the case of windgalls, &c., that lie under the 
 tendons of muscles, in the vicinity of joints, 
 we might be deceived, were we not acquainted 
 with the situation of these little membranous 
 bags. Wounds which penetrate large joints, 
 must be held as much more dangerous than 
 those in which only these bursa are opened. 
 
 Almost all the joints of the horse are liable 
 to be laid open, and their cavities exposed. 
 The stifle, the pastern, and the knee, have been 
 seen all at once, completely exposed; but the 
 knee-joint is, of all others, the most fre- 
 quently liable to accident. It does sometimea 
 occur to the shoulder-joint, but very rarely. 
 When a joint is penetrated, there is an escape 
 of synovia, or, as it is commonly called, joint- 
 oil. In consequence of the escape of this fluiJ, 
 the ends of the bones are brought together, 
 occasioning, in conjunction with the air getting 
 in, considerable inflammation through the 
 whole extent of the capsular surface, and caus- 
 ing that exquisitely tender sensation which the 
 horse feels on having the joint touched. In 
 some cases the fever runs so high as to prove 
 fatal. AlU instance of this occurred at the Eoyal 
 
 209 
 
■WOUNDS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AN^D 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 Veterinary College. A large cart-horse was 
 brought in with an open joint. Ultimately 
 the opening closed, but new granulations 
 formed, and a wound about the size of half-a- 
 crown was the consequence. This wound was 
 ordered to be dressed with spirits of turpentine, 
 which was accordingly done ; but, from symp- 
 tomatic fever, the animal died in three or four 
 (lavs. When a joint is early discovered, after 
 being penetrated, the synovia will flow white 
 and pure, or it may have a little tinge of blood 
 in it ; but, if the accident is not discovered for 
 three or four days, the joint-oil will be found 
 to put on a yellowish colour, and the dis- 
 charge be considerably increased. If means are 
 not speedily taken to close the external open- 
 inw, coagulable lymph is thrown out; and in 
 consequence of the inflammation being great, 
 the vessels may inosculate together, and in all 
 probability a stifl:' joint will supervene. In 
 some cases, the pain and irritation are so great, 
 that the animal either sinks under it, or be- 
 comes a mere skeleton. But this need not be 
 considered a matter of surprise, when we reflect 
 on the treatment of the old farriers, who, in 
 general, made use of strong stimulants, taken 
 from their long list of infallible nostrums. 
 
 The treatment of open joints, if discovered 
 in their recent state, may not be so difficult. 
 The first object to which attention should be 
 directed is to remove all extraneous matter, 
 such as dirt, gravel, and any other substance that 
 may aggravate the aftected part. Then proceed 
 to close the wound, which must be first com- 
 menced by clipping oflE" the hair for some dis- 
 tance all round it. If not large, strips of 
 adhesive plaister should be applied, drawing 
 the lips of the wound as closely as possible 
 together, and placing over them a pleget ol 
 tow, and immediately after a linen bandage, 
 about three yards long, and four inches wide, 
 so that the shutting-up of the cavity may be 
 complete. In addition to this, the symptoms 
 of irritation, both local and general, must not 
 be neglected; for if the symptomatic fever is 
 high, the case must be treated accordingly. 
 This will be discovered by the animal having 
 lost his appetite, the heat and dryness of his 
 mouth, as well as the quickness and weakness 
 of his pulse, and his breathing short. Il 
 these are the symptoms — which in all proba- 
 bility will occur — immediately take from two 
 210 
 
 to four quarts of blood, and give the following 
 ball :— 
 
 No. 1. 
 Cape Aloes ...... .1 drachm. 
 
 Digitales .2 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal U do. 
 
 Form with soap. 
 Give a ball of this kind night and morning, 
 until the fever and irritation are abated. Or, 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Cape Aloes 1 drachm. 
 
 White Hellebore 1^ do. 
 
 Linseed Meal 3 do. 
 
 Form into a ball, and give as the first. By 
 this means the irritation will be allayed, the 
 fever abate, and the beating of the pulse be- 
 come less rapid. 
 
 When the wound is more extensive, or more 
 irregular, sutures should be employed with 
 the pleget of tow, as before described. The 
 part should be well bandaged, and every means 
 taken to keep the horse aa still as possible. 
 Use a neck- cradle, lest, from the irritation, he 
 may be inclined to gnaw the part affected. If 
 these appliances have not the desired effect, 
 recourse must be had to the actual cautery ; 
 and, if the opening is not too large, the budding- 
 iron, of as good a shape as can be used, must 
 be brought into operation, and the edges 
 lightly touched with it. If the wound should 
 be large and irregular, use a firing-iron care- 
 fully. These means have succeeded when all 
 others have failed. Let the iron be heated to 
 a dull red heat, which will be quite sufficient; 
 and care must be taken not to insinuate it too 
 far, otherwise considerable inflammation may 
 follow. A stoppage of the synovia will show 
 when the cautery has been sufficiently applied, 
 when a pleget of tow must be put over it, and 
 a poultice of bran, wetted frequently with the 
 following : — 
 
 Sal-ammoniac, powdered . . . 4 oz. 
 
 Sugar of Lead 1 do. 
 
 Vinegar 3 pints. 
 
 AVater , . 1 do. 
 
 If the oozing of the synovia recommences, 
 apply the iron again ; and, as often as the 
 oozing appears, repeat it, by which success may 
 eventually be calculated on. In some aggra- 
 vated cases blisters have been immediately 
 applied with good effect. Rowels are some- 
 times employed as near the part as convenient, 
 
WOUNDS.] 
 
 MODERN VETERIXAKV PRACTICE. 
 
 [worxus. 
 
 but tlioro is little faith to bo put in tlioin. | bocoine useful in tlio suppression of lircinorr- 
 Give bran uiaslies, or lialf bran nnd oats made lia<»o on tlio prineiple of pressure; tlic eau- 
 
 tlanij) : it' tlien- is uiueii ilillu-ulty in uiluiinis- 
 tering the fever-bulls, give of 
 
 Glauber Salts 4 oz. 
 
 Linseed Mt-al - do. 
 
 Hot Water 1 'P'^rt 
 
 tery-caustics and styplies are otberwiHo ap- 
 plied. 
 
 Tbe different tbin'^a tliat Imvo been praised 
 as infallible, in tbeir application to wounded 
 arteries, would seldom or ever bavo succeeded 
 
 I^Iix well together for a diiiik, ami repeat it | without compression. This was always requi- 
 moriiing and night. In mixing tbe meal witli site, even in the using of caustics, which were 
 
 bound on with suflieient tightness to resist tho 
 impulse of the blood in the artery and tho 
 premature separation of the eschar, occasioned 
 by the actual or potential cautery. 
 
 AVhen tbe blood does not issue from any 
 particular vessel, but from numerous small 
 ones, compression is preferable to the ligature. 
 Tbe em{)loyment of the latter renders it 
 necessary to tie the whole surface of the 
 wound. The sides of the wound should be 
 brouf^ht accurately together, compressers placed 
 over tbe part, and a roller applied with suffi- 
 cient tightness to make effectual pressure, but 
 not so forcibly as to produce a danger of tho 
 circulation being completely stopped. If com- 
 pression can ever safely be trusted in bleedings 
 from large arteries, it is when these vessels lie 
 immediately over a bone, against which they 
 can be advantageously compressed. 
 
 The ligature, being well known to be a safe 
 and easy means of stopping haBuiorrbage, is 
 attended with much less pain tlian former 
 methods. It may, indeed, be set down as a 
 rule, that where large arteries are wounded, 
 no styptic application whatever should bo 
 trusted; but iminediate recourse should be 
 had to the ligature, as being, when properly 
 applied, the most simple and safe of all 
 methods. In explaining the action of the 
 li (mature, when applied round an artery, with- 
 out including the surrounding parts, we bavo 
 found the internal coat of the vessel is torn 
 throu"h by it. If the ligature is tied round 
 with sufficient tightness, it will cut through 
 tbe inner and middle coats ; and although it is 
 immediately removed, the vessels always be- 
 come permanently impervious at tbe part 
 which was tied as far as the tirst collateral 
 lied to that side of the wound which is branches, above and below tbe obstructed 
 
 parts. This division of the internal and 
 middle coats of tbe artery, produces an ob- 
 struction to the circulation of blood through 
 
 211 
 
 the above, do so lirst in a basin with a little 
 cold water, to prevent its clotting together. 
 
 ^vou^■DS of the sheaths of tendons. 
 
 This sort of wounds frequently occur both 
 in tbe bind and fore legs, during hunting, 
 staking, and tho stubbing-in of coppices. 
 Tbev are also sometimes produced by the 
 stable-fork, and are often attended with con- 
 siderable pain. Tbeir treatment differs in no 
 respect whatever from that laid down in the 
 description of wounds of tbe joints. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE ARTERIES. 
 Every one who pretends to deal with the 
 wounds of a horse, should have an intimate 
 knowledge of tbe course of the arteries, so 
 that in performing operations he may avoid 
 wounding them. For stopping the flow of 
 blood there are several methods ; and unless 
 they are performed with perfect coolness, they 
 are apt to be done in such a manner as may 
 be tbe cause of proving fatal to tbe patient. 
 How necessary, therefore, is it that every 
 practitioner should have a thorough acquain- 
 tance with the arterial system. Bleeding 
 from arteries is stopped generally by compres- 
 sion and astringents, by ligatures, by the actual 
 and potential cautery ; sometimes by styptics ; 
 and not unfrequently, if the artery be only 
 wounded, by dividing it altogether. 
 
 It must be plain to every one who under- 
 stands tbe course of tbe circulation, that pres- 
 sure made on that part of a wounded artery 
 which adjoins the wound nearest the heart, 
 must check the effusion of blood. The cur- 
 rent of blood in the veins, running in tbe 
 opposite direction, requires tbe pressure to be 
 app 
 
 most remote from the heart ; and as pressure 
 is the best means of impeding hasmorrbage, so 
 is it the most effectual. Tbe ligature, the 
 applicatiou of a roller and compressers, only ' its canal 
 
WOUNDS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AXD 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 There must be a small quantity of stagnant 
 blood, just witbiu the extremity of the artery ; 
 but this does not, in every instance, imme- 
 diately form a coagulum capable of filling up 
 the canal of the artery. In most cases, only 
 a slender coagulum is formed at first, which 
 gradually becomes larger by successive addi- 
 tions. This coagulum is always at first of a 
 tapering form, with it," base at the extremity 
 of the artery. But its formation is not mate- 
 rial ; for, soon after tlie ligature has been 
 applied, the end of the artery inflames, and 
 the wounded internal surface of its canal 
 being kept in close contact by the ligature, 
 adheres, and converts this portion of the 
 artery into an impervious, and, at first, conical 
 sac. It is to the effused lymph, that the base 
 of the coagulum adheres, when found to be 
 adherent. Lymph is also efi'used between 
 the coats of the artery, and among the parts 
 surrounding its extremity. In a little time 
 the ligature makes the part, on which it is 
 directly applied, ulcerate, and, acting as a 
 tent, a small aperture is formed in the layer of 
 lymph effused over the artery. Through this 
 aperture, as long as the ligature remains, a 
 small quantity of pus is discharged; and 
 finally, the ligature itself escapes, and the 
 little cavity, which it has occasioned, granu- 
 lates, and fills up. Tlie external wound then 
 heals, leaving the cellular substance, a little 
 beyond the end of the artery, somewhat 
 thickened and indurated ; but, if it should be 
 in a situation where a bandage can be applied, 
 it ultimately becomes absorbed. 
 
 As all styptics are not to be depended on, 
 the judicious practitioner will seldom apply 
 them, as they generally tend to irritate, and 
 rarely do good. They are sometimes, how- 
 ever, proper to be applied to diseased surfaces, 
 where the vessels seem to have lost their natu- 
 ral power, or disposition to contract or draw 
 themselves together again. 
 
 Firing, or the actual cautery, is an excellent 
 styptic to stop the bleeding of an artery, as 
 in docking, castration, &c. It is generally re- 
 sorted to as the safest styptic iu operations of 
 feslulous withers, and iu dissecting out fungus 
 fli'.-h, where there is a number of small arteries 
 w liich are apt to be wounded. The actual cau- 
 tery is the only means that here can be em- 
 ployed with any good effect. In these cases 
 212 
 
 the horse's body should be kept open with 
 alterative medicines; such as the foUowino': — 
 
 Cape Aloes 2 drachms. 
 
 Sulphur 3 do. 
 
 Form into a ball with soft soap. 
 Give one occasionally, and feed with half bran 
 and half oats made damp. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE VEINS. 
 "Wounds of the veins are generally produced 
 by incautiousness in blood-letting ; and al- 
 though this operation is performed by some of 
 the greatest bunglers that possibly could take 
 a phleme and blood-stick in hand, yet it is fre- 
 quently so dexterously done, that no evil 
 effects spring from it. Still, it does happen 
 even with the most experienced practitioner, 
 either from inattention in pinning up the ori- 
 fice, drawing the skin a considerable way out, 
 or not adjusting the lip of tlie wound equally 
 together, that blood becomes extravasated into 
 the surrounding cellular membrane. This, 
 however, may sometimes arise from the foul 
 constitution of the horse, when every little 
 scratch or wound has a tendency to inflame 
 and suppurate. "Where this is the case, apply 
 the following: — 
 
 Sal-ammoniac . , . . . , 1 oz. 
 Extract of Saturn -^ do- 
 Vinegar 1 pint. 
 
 "SVater 1 do. 
 
 Shake these well together in a bottle, and 
 apply frequently during the day. If absorp- 
 tion takes place, and the parts regain their 
 former appearance, all is well ; but if the 
 tumour suppurates, and on pressing the part 
 a fluctuation is felt, a depending opening 
 should be made, or a seton introduced tlirough 
 it. If inflammation should rise from the vein 
 itself, it must spring from the use of rusty or 
 unclean phlemes ; but the probability is, that 
 it has been punctured through, in cousequeuae 
 of driving the phleme with too great violence 
 in the act of bleeding. It also sometimes 
 arises from the horse being suftered to have his 
 head at liberty immediately after bleeding, in- 
 stead of being tied up for at least two or three 
 hours; the pin causing irritation, the horse 
 is inclined to rub against anything that is in 
 his way, such as the edge of the manger, &c. 
 Sometimes this morbid action arises from the 
 constitution. "When this ia the case, it begins 
 
wounds] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 to make its appearance in about two or ihrco 
 days after tlie oporation of bluod-ltttinj;;, by a 
 small tumour at tlu> situation of tlie orifice, 
 the lips of wiiich unclose and look red, with a 
 sort of ichorous discharge, sonu'tinu-s accom- 
 panied with blood. In this case, if the pro- 
 gress is not stopped, the tumefaction extends 
 along the course of the vein towards the 
 head ; the vessel becomes hard, and the bli)od 
 contained in the trunk, I'orms into a iirm 
 coagulum, bv which it becomes impervious, 
 and all attempts to save it afterwards prove 
 a failure. Suppuration of the tumour now 
 begins to makes its appearance ; but this is not 
 always the case in the immediate part where 
 the original puncture took place; abscesses 
 will form in various situations above. If not 
 taken in time, the morbid action will extend 
 upwards so as to involve the side of the head 
 as well as the neck in the disease ; and when 
 this occurs, it greatly interferes with the horse's 
 eating and drinking. In such instances symp- 
 tomatic fever is apt to run high, and, from the 
 excess of irritability brought on, the animal 
 frequently becomes a victim. 
 
 The treatment for inflammation of this sort 
 is altogether dillicult, and frequently doubtful. 
 It has been by some writers thought, that in 
 the early stage of the disease, the better plan 
 is to close the venial orifice, which is to be 
 done by the use of the budding-iron, applied 
 to its outer edge. But tiiis, by others, has 
 not been approved ; for if sloughing of the 
 part is caused, it will not remove the main 
 disease. It may, however, have a tendency to 
 heal the orifice without having any connexion 
 with the vein, where the disease may be going 
 on all the time, to a very considerable extent. 
 It is also said, that the ichorous oozing once 
 being stopped, the vein will become in all 
 respects as it was at first. This, however, has 
 been either questioned, or wholly denied ; ior 
 if the vein once takes on inflammation, its 
 obliteration is certain to follow. Nor is this 
 of so much danger as many persons would 
 have us believe. tStill, in such cases, the head 
 of the horse should be kept tied up, so that he 
 may have as little motion as possible. 
 
 The treatment adopted in such cases, and 
 pursued with most success, has been, instead 
 of using the cautery, to heal up the original 
 wound — to keep that wound open, then intro- 
 
 duce a probe as far as poa»ib!o, np the course 
 of the vein towards the head. AVIilmj thid Imn 
 been done, the operator hhould ft-el down upon 
 the end of the probe with his fing.-r, cut down 
 on the course of the vein about an inch above 
 tho end of the probe, and apply a ligature 
 firmly. The probe-pointed history should then 
 bo taken, and a slit made uj) tho length of 
 the vein, which may bo obliterated. Lt-t tluG 
 wound be well washed with warm water, and 
 a suture or two aj)plied, and a piece of tow or 
 tape dressed with digestive ointment, until sup- 
 puration takes place. After this, in all pro- 
 bability, the sutures will come awav, when 
 dressing as for a common wound, with com- 
 pound tincture of myrrh, should be begun. ]f 
 abscesses or sinuses have become formed, the 
 best method of treatment to be adopted is to 
 introduce setons, so that the matter formed 
 may escape by a depending orifice. Sometimes 
 these sinuses assume an indolent manner, 
 and become very troublesome. "Where this 
 happens, inject them with a solution of sulphate 
 of zinc, which will generally be found suQi- 
 cieutly strong to answer all purposes. Tor 
 this injection take of ' 
 
 Sulj)hate of Zinc 1 02. 
 
 ^\'iiter 4 do. 
 
 Let tlie water be warm, and dissolve tha 
 sulphate of zinc in it. This injected into the 
 sinuses will be found of great service, and less 
 irritable than corrosive sublimate, copperas, &c. 
 During the application of the foregoing reme- 
 dies, give the following : — 
 
 Blue Pill 8 (h-achms. 
 
 Cape Aloes 8 do. 
 
 llesin 8 do. 
 
 Form iato a mass with linseed meal and soft soap. 
 
 Divide into six balls, and give one every second 
 morning, first thing on going to stable. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the plate and 
 thigh vein becomes inflamed, in consequence of 
 the phleme being driven in too far, and punc- 
 turing the facia and parts uuderneatij tho 
 vein. Should this be the case, the best appli- 
 cation is, to bathe well with hot water five or 
 six times a day, and make up a ball of the fol- 
 lowing ingredients :^ 
 
 Cape Aloes ; . 4 drachms. 
 
 liesin 2 do. 
 
 Porm with sofl soap, 
 and give one every second daj. 
 
 213 
 
WOUNDS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 BROKEN KNEES. 
 Horses, in the act of falling, endeavour, as 
 much as possible, to save their head from com- 
 inf in contact with tlie ground; but if not able 
 in time to put forth their fore leg to do this, 
 tbe knees generally become the sufferers, and, 
 in some cases, to a very considerable extent. 
 In such accidents, great laceration, open joint, 
 and, at least, shaving, as it were, the hair com- 
 Dletely off the knee to a greater or less extent 
 generally occur. 
 
 Should the cavity of the knee be opened, and 
 joi7it oil escape, sufficient instructions as to the 
 proper method of treatment to be adopted, 
 have been given m the article Wounds of the 
 Joints, to which we beg to refer. But when 
 the laceration only extends to the skin, there 
 is only one safe, and, we should say, proper 
 mode of treatment. In the first place, all irri- 
 tating applications are to be avoided ; and, in- 
 stead of them, the knee and surrounding parts 
 should be well bathed with hot water for at 
 least half-an-hour. A poultice, composed of 
 linseed meal and warm water, should then be 
 applied, and continued until the inflammation 
 13 subdued. After this, apply the following: — 
 
 Extract of Saturn 2 drachms. 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh, compound . 2 oz. 
 
 Water 3 do. 
 
 Apply this to the wounded knees, until they 
 are skinned over; then put on a mild blister, 
 which will prevent, in many bad cases, even 
 the appearance of a scar, if well managed. 
 
 This being accomplished, the next thing is 
 to promote the growth of the hair. Many 
 recipes are given to make the hair grow, but 
 most of them are useless ; for nothing iacts 
 specifically in this way. AYIiatever gently 
 stimulates the skin being the most proper for 
 this purpose, use every day a little of the 
 digestive ointment, wliich is an article no stable 
 ouglit to be without ; or use the following, 
 especially if the knees are black : — 
 
 Digestive Ointment . , . . 1 oz. 
 Gunpowder, rubbed fine ... 1 drachm. 
 
 Mix, and rub the part with some of it dally. 
 
 GUN-SHOT WOUNDS. 
 
 Gun-shot wounds are made by hard bodies 
 violently projected from cannons, muskets, and 
 214 
 
 other fire-arms. Those from the rifle, how- 
 ever, occasion by far the greater number. 
 They are the most considerable of the con- 
 tused kind of wounds; and what is to be said 
 of them, will apply, more or less, to all con- 
 tused wounds, according to kind and degree. 
 Daily observation shows that balls which ob- 
 liquely strike a surface, do not penetrate it. 
 but are reflected, although they may be im- 
 pelled with the greatest force, and although 
 the body struck may be as soft and yielding 
 as water. This alteration in the course of the 
 ball, not only occasionally happens on touching 
 the surface of a body, but also sometimes after 
 it has penetrated its substance. A bone or a 
 tendon may change the direction of a ball, if it 
 touches them obliquely. Hence it is manifest 
 how it happens that the track of a gun-shot 
 wound is not always straiglit, and how the 
 balls sometimes run under the integument for 
 a considerable distance, both in the body and 
 the limbs. 
 
 A ball, when it strikes a part of the body, 
 may cause four kinds of injury. JFirsf, it may 
 only occasion a contusion, without penetrating 
 the part, on account of its being too much 
 spent, or on account of the oblique way in 
 which it has struck the surface of the body. 
 Secondly, it may enter and lodge immediately 
 under the surface of a part, in which case, the 
 track of the wound has only one aperture. 
 Thirdly, it may pierce through and through; 
 and then there are two openings, one at the 
 entrance, and the other at the exit of the ball. 
 In such cases, the circumference of the aper- 
 ture, where the shot has entered, is usually 
 depressed ; that of the opening whence it 
 escaped is elevated. At the entrance, there is 
 commonly more contusion than at the exit of 
 the ball; and the former is generally nar- 
 rower; the latter wider, and more irregular, 
 especially when the round smooth figure of 
 tlie ball has been changed by its having struck 
 a bone. Fourthly, a cannon-ball may tear ofi" 
 a whole limb. 
 
 Gun-shot wounds differ very much, according 
 to the kind of body projected, its velocity, and 
 tlie nature and peculiarities of the parts struck 
 by it. The projected bodies are mostly bullets, 
 sometimes cannon-balls. Erom the contusion 
 which the parts sufter on the violent passage 
 of the ball through them, there is most com- 
 
■WOUNDS ] 
 
 ^rODET?N VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [WOQXDS. 
 
 nionly a part of the solids surrouiuliiip: the 
 woiimi, ili-aiK'neJ, wliii-h is afterwanls thrown 
 off in tl>o form of sU)ui,'h, and wluch prevents 
 8iH-h woniuls from hi>alini» so readily at 
 first, and makes most of them suppurate. 
 This does not take place equally in every gun- 
 shot wound, nor in every part of the same 
 wound ; and the diHerenco commonly arises 
 from the variety io the velocity of the body 
 projected ; for, where tiie ball has passed witli 
 little velocitv, whicli is sometimes the case at 
 its entrance, but still more frequently at the 
 part last wounded, the injury may often be 
 healed by the first intention. 
 
 Foreign bodies are more frequently met 
 with in gun-shot wounds than any others, and 
 are commonly of three kinds. Firsi, pieces 
 of clothing, leather, part of a girth, or other 
 things which the ball may have forced before 
 it. Secondly, the ball itself. Third/ 1/, loose 
 splinters of bone. It is only when the ball 
 strikes a naked part, does not touch a bone, 
 but goes through and through, that the wound 
 can be free from extraneous matter. Foreign 
 bodies are the cause of numerous unfavourable 
 symptoms, by irritating sensitive parts, and 
 exciting pain, inflammation, haemorrhage, and 
 long suppurations. They are more productive 
 of such evils, the more uneven, pointed, and 
 hard they are. Hence spicula; of bone are 
 always most to be dreaded. 
 
 "When a ball strikes a bone, the concussion 
 produced is another occasion of bad symptoms 
 to be added to those already mentioned. 
 AVhen sliglit, its effects are confined to the 
 part injured. Sometimes they extend to the 
 ueiglibouring joints, in which they produce 
 considerable inflammation, frequently abscesses, 
 and, in many cases, stifl" joint, rendering the 
 animal ever afterwards useless. 
 
 From the circumstance of the inner surface 
 of gun-shot wounds being more or less dead- 
 ened, they are late in inflaming. But when a 
 ball has fractured a bone, and caused great 
 injury to the softer parts, independently of 
 what has been caused immediately by the ball 
 itself, the inflammation will probably rapidly 
 come oii, because the deadened parts will bear 
 no proportion to the laceration, or wound in 
 general. 
 
 "When the ball moves with little velocity, 
 
 not 80 likely to bo fractured, and the parta 
 are less deadened. JIow ever, w hen ihu velocity 
 is just enough to splinter a bono which is 
 touched, the splintering is generally more ex- 
 tensive than if the impetus of the ball had 
 been much greater, which would rather havo 
 taken a piece out. When tho ball moven 
 slowly, it is more likely to be turned by any 
 resistance it may encounter in its passage 
 through parts; ami hence the wound is more 
 likely to take a winding course. When a ball 
 enters a part with great velocity, but is almost 
 spent when it comes out again, in conse- 
 quence of the resistance it has met with, thero 
 may be a great deal of sloughing about the 
 entrance of the wound, and little or none 
 about the exit, owing to the difl'erent degrees 
 of celerity with which the projectile has tra- 
 versed the parts. 
 
 As the ends of the torn vessels are contused 
 and compressed, gun-shot wounds have little 
 tendency to bleed much ; and unless very con- 
 siderable vessels are lacerated, they do not 
 bleed at all : sometimes not in this case. The 
 greatest danger of bleeding is always when 
 the dead parts are detached eight or ten days 
 after the injury. Angular, uneven bodies, sucii 
 as pieces of iron, cut lead, &c., always occa- 
 sion far more dangerous wounds than round 
 even bodies, like leaden bullets. Wounds oc- 
 casioned by small, are frequently more perilous 
 than others produced by larger balls, because 
 their track is so narrow that it cannot be 
 traced, nor the extraneous body itself so easily 
 extracted. Such a shot oftentimes injures a 
 viscera, when there is not the smallest ex- 
 ternal symptom of this being the case. Some- 
 times a great part of the danger arises from tho 
 number of shots whicli have entered. 
 
 In treating for gun-shot wounds, the first 
 thinf" to be done is to ascertain, if possible, 
 their extent; which is, at all times, best done 
 with the finger, in preference to a probe. 
 Besides, in extracting the ball, or any foreign 
 piece of matter, which ought always, at once, 
 to be extracted, the finger will act as a 
 director. If extraneous substances remaining 
 in the wound, either loosen gradually, and 
 come into view, they may be easily removed ; 
 but if they be easily removable, or continue 
 concealed, they may prevent the cure, and 
 
 the mischief is generally less ; the bones are | frequently give birth to a fistulous ulcer. In 
 
 215 
 
VrOLNDS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [wounds. 
 
 some instances foreign bodies remain in during 
 life, without inconvenience ; and, in other 
 cases, after a time they bring on a renewal 
 of inflammation and suppuration. Sometimes 
 a foreign body changes its situation, and 
 afterwards makes its appearance at a part 
 altogether away from its original seat, where 
 it may excite inflammation and suppuration. 
 
 "When tlie ball lodges in the wound, it is 
 often difficult to trace it, as the parts collapse 
 after its passage ; and as it does not regularly 
 take a straight direction through the injured 
 part, but oftentimes a very tortuous one, 
 which is more apt to occur as the ball is 
 more spent. In every case in which it is not 
 easily discoverable, all painful examinations 
 should be abandoned, and the foreign body 
 left in its situatior', where it rarely creates 
 any trouble. 
 
 Sometimes tlie ball may be both easily 
 found and extracted. If the integuments 
 under which it is lodged, should be so contused 
 that they will probably slough, they are to 
 be considered as already dead ; and an opening 
 is to be made in them for the extraction of 
 the ball. But when the ball lies so remotely 
 from the skin that it can only just be felt, 
 and the skin itself is quit® esinjured, no 
 counter-opening ought to be made. The 
 wound will heal better with the ball left in, 
 and far less inflammation take place in the 
 vicinity of this extraneous body, than about 
 the orifice of the wound. A counter-opening 
 always renders the inflammation at the bottom 
 of the wound as great as at its orifice. It is 
 better to let the wound heal up, and extract 
 the ball afterwards. 
 
 As a certain portion of tlie parts surround- 
 ing the orifice made by the ball, becomes 
 bruised, sloughing must be expected, as it is 
 the operation of separating the bruised or 
 dead bodies from the living. In some cases 
 this takes a little time, when it should be 
 hastened on, by applications such as the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine • . • , , , 3 oz. 
 Olive Oil 3 do. 
 
 Shake well together in a bottle, and rub some 
 on, for a distance of six inches all round the 
 wound. This will stimulate it to put on the 
 suppurative process. Apply a tent in the 
 wound, smeared over with the common di- 
 216 
 
 gestive ointment. When the suppurative pro- 
 cess appears too great, desist from applying 
 the liniment, and use, instead, the following 
 lotion : — • 
 
 Alum 1 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc 2 drachms. 
 
 Water ........ 1 pint. 
 
 Dissolve the alum and zinc in the water. 
 
 Apply this two or three times in the day. The 
 horse should be supported well ; for, in general, 
 these cases come at a time when provender is 
 short, as in time of warfare, &c. Bleeding in 
 gun-shot wounds is not to be recommended, 
 unless symptomatic fever should run high ; and 
 even then it should be done with caution ; for 
 it frequently happens, when the sloughing 
 takes place, the wound bleeds rather more than 
 is to be desired. In such cases use an astrin- 
 gent lotion. As before stated, keep the horse 
 well, or disappointment in all the treatment 
 may in a great measure be the result. Give 
 the following every morning: — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 10 drachms. 
 
 Grbger 12 do. 
 
 Gentian 12 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal 6 do. 
 
 Form into a mass with soft soap. 
 
 SUTURES. 
 
 In the treatment of wounds, sutures have 
 been frequently mentioned. It may therefore 
 not be improper to name those principally in 
 use, and the method of applying them. 
 
 A suture, in surgery, means a mode of unit- 
 ing the edges of a wound, by keeping them in 
 contact with stitches. 
 
 The Inferrupied Suture. — The wound being 
 cleansed of all clots of blood, and its lips brought 
 evenly into contact, a curved needle, armed 
 with a ligature of thread doubled, or good twine, 
 is to be taken, and carefully passed from with- 
 out, inwards to the bottom, and so on from 
 within outwards. Care must be taken to 
 make the puncture far enough from the edge of 
 the wound, lest the ligature should tear quite 
 through the skin and flesh. The other stitches 
 are only repetitions of the same process. The 
 threads having been all passed, generally begin 
 to tie them in tha^middle of the wound ; 
 though if the lips of the part be carefully held 
 together by an assistant, it will not be of great 
 consequence which stitch ia tied first. The 
 
UL0SB8.] 
 
 VETRRTVAin" PPvArTTrE. 
 
 [ULCIBS. 
 
 comrium rulo is, that oiio auturo is Biidi- 
 cieiit for every inch of tho wouml ; but in some 
 instances a stitch must bo nioro frciiuently 
 made than tliia, partiouhirly when a wound 
 gapes very much, in consequence of a trans- 
 verso division of nnisoles. It is necessary to 
 pierce the skin at a sudieient distance from 
 the sides of the wound, lest the thread should 
 cut throui^h the llesh in a short time ; the dis- 
 tance should bo about three or four-tenths of 
 nn inch. "When a wound is very deep, it would 
 be wrong, and even, in many instances, dan- 
 gerous to drive the needle through a vast 
 ihiclcncss of parts. Other wounds, of consid- 
 erable length, might not be in some places 
 four-tenths of an inch deep, though it is true, 
 sutures — the interrupted one at Jeast — can 
 never be requisite at such points. 
 
 The interrupted suture obviously receives its 
 name from the interspaces between the stitches; 
 and it is the one most frequently employed. 
 Its action is always to be assisted and sup- 
 ported, either by a bandage, if the wound is 
 
 in the limbs. If in other bituntiouH, by adhe- 
 sive plaister, Ac. 
 
 The Glover s Suture. This hud rIho tho name 
 of tlie cunlinut'd suture. It was executed by 
 introducing tlie tieedlo first into one lip of tlio 
 wound from within outward.s, then into tho 
 other the same way, and in this manner tho 
 whole track uf the wound was sewed up. Hut 
 the glover's suture is now almost fallen into 
 desuetude, as improper to be employed in cases 
 of common wounds. When it is remembered 
 in making this suture, how many stitches are 
 unavoidable, bow unevenly they are made, and 
 in what a puckered state the suture drags tho 
 edges of tho skin together, and what irritation 
 it produces, we can no longer be surprised at 
 its now being never practised. 
 
 The Ttcistcd Suture is not very applicable to 
 the horse, though by some writers it is recom- 
 mended for certain wounds, as the eyelids, lips, 
 nostrils, &c. It may be advantageous in somo 
 cases, but the interrupted has been preferred 
 to all others, and on all occasions. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 ULCERS. — TJLCBKa IN GENERAL ; POLL-EVIL ; FISTULOUS WITHERS ; ULCERS IN THE MOUTH ; STRAJfai.ES ; 
 
 VINES. 
 
 ULCERS IN GENERAL. 
 Ulceration is the result of a certain process 
 which sores sometimes undergo in animal 
 bodies. In this process the lymphatics appear 
 to be, at least, as active as the blood-vessels. 
 An ulcer may be defined as a chasm formed 
 on the surface of the body by the action of 
 the absorbents in removing parts back into 
 the system. Or, in other words, it consists of 
 the absorption or removal of substance. It is 
 a useful process of nature, though very usually 
 a troublesome disease. At first, Ic may be 
 difficult to conceive how a part of the body 
 can be removed by itself; but there is not 
 more difficulty in concdiVing this, than how a 
 body can form itself. Both facts are equally 
 well confirmed. When it becomes necessary 
 2 p 
 
 that some whole living part should be re- 
 moved, nature effects the object by conferring 
 a new activity on the absorbents, and by 
 throwing the part to be absorbed into a stati- 
 which yields to this operation. Tlie absorp- 
 tion of whole parts in disease, arises from 
 several causes, but those we have principally 
 to contend with, either arise from the parts 
 becoming bruised, or from constitutional irri- 
 tability. 
 
 Ulceration, or, in other words, absorption, 
 takes i)lace much more readily in the cellular 
 and adipose substance, than in muscles, ten- 
 dons, nerves, and blood-vessels. Hence, in 
 the progress of pus to the skin or surface of 
 the body, ulceration often takes a circuitous 
 course. The skin itself being highly organ- 
 
 217 
 
OLCEES.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [poll-evil. 
 
 ised, considerably retards the bursting of 
 abscesses, so that when ulceration is spreading, 
 the edges of the skin hang over the ulcerated 
 part. 
 
 "When the disease takes place, in conse- 
 quence of the death of an external part, it 
 occurs first on the outer edge, between the 
 dead and living substance. 
 
 Abscesses constantly make their way to the 
 surface of the body by ulceration. 
 
 The parts which are situated between an 
 abscess, or any extraneous substance, and the 
 nearest surface, are those which are most sus- 
 ceptible of the disease. This is one of the 
 most curious phenomena connected with the 
 process under consideration. It shows that 
 there is a principle in the system, by which 
 parts are always prone to free themselves from 
 painful or disagreeable affections. Slight pres- 
 sure from without will even produce a thicken- 
 ing of parts, such as pressure from the saddle, 
 the harness, &c. ; but, though this may occur, 
 still there appears to be a corresponding back- 
 wardness to admit disease. 
 
 There is one difference between the advance- 
 ment of an encysted tumour, to the surface of 
 the body, and the progress of an abscess in 
 the same direction, viz., that the former does 
 not excite ulceration of the cyst, but an in- 
 terstitial absorption of the sound parts, be- 
 tween the cyst and the skin, till the cyst and 
 the external skin come into contact. When 
 this has occurred, inflammation takes place, 
 and absorption becomes accelerated into 
 ulceration. In an abscess, the progressive 
 ulceration begins in the cyst, at the same time 
 that the interstitial absorption, in the second 
 part covering the matter, is going on. The 
 action of progressive absorption is to remove 
 surfaces contiguous to irritating causes, as in 
 the case of tumours, pressure becomes a cause. 
 
 That pressure is a frequent cause of ulcera- 
 tion, is daily proved by the efiects of harness 
 and other parts of the furniture of horses. 
 
 That irritating substances produce ulcera- 
 tion, needs no illustration. 
 
 Progressive absorption may occur, either 
 with or without suppuration. We have in- 
 stances of the latter, in cases of extraneous 
 bodies which travel about the system without 
 producing irritation enough to give rise to 
 the secretion of pus. 
 218 
 
 Absorption, with suppuration, in other words 
 ulceration, either happens in consequence of 
 suppuration already begun, in which event the 
 pus acts as a pressure, or when absorption 
 attacks external surfaces from particular irri- 
 tations or weakness, in which suppuration 
 must follow. 
 
 The principal ulcerations to which the 
 horse is most liable are poll-evil, fistulous 
 withers, ulcers of the mouth, and strangles. 
 
 POLL-EVIL. 
 
 This, of all ulcers, in the horse, is the most 
 troublesome to deal with ; for, though the 
 veterinary surgeon may complete a cure, the 
 time and.expense incurred, neither remunerate 
 him for his applications and trouble, nor do they 
 gain him any credit as a professional man. In 
 this disease, the old farriers went violently to 
 work with all the scalding materials the drug- 
 gist's shop could supply ; but the milder system 
 adopted by the modern veterinary practitioner, 
 has, in a great measure, done away with their 
 unskilful and unsnrgical modes of treatment. 
 Still it happens, unfortunately, that this 
 disease is not generally brought under the 
 notice of the veterinarian until the village far- 
 rier has expended all his recipes and knowledge ; 
 and after all this it is more than ten-to-one, if he 
 has really discovered the part that is aflected. 
 We will therefore endeavour to point out the 
 nature and real situation of poll-evil. 
 
 Foil-evil is an unhealthy inflammation, 
 which takes place at the back of the ears from 
 blows or bruises, or other injuries which the 
 horse may have sustaind on that part. It is 
 frequently found in farm or cart-horses, which 
 are sometimes cursed with evil-disposed carters 
 who, in a passion, will strike them about the 
 head with the butt-end of their whips, or 
 whatever they may chance to have in their 
 hand. We have seen a horse knocked down 
 senseless, with comparatively a slight blow at 
 the back of the ear. Now, there is a mucous 
 capsule at the conjunction of the head with 
 the first bone of the neck, over which passes 
 the ligamentum colli, or as the farriers term it, 
 the pax-fax of the neck. These parts, from 
 blows or other injuries, contract inflammation, 
 and hence an ill-conditioned ulcer is formed ; 
 and from its situation being near the head or 
 knowl, it is called poll-evil. Chestnut horses are 
 
rOLL-ETIL.] 
 
 JIODKRN VETElilNAliY PliACTlCE. 
 
 [roLt-rvii, 
 
 more ausoejitiblo of it tlmii liorsca of any otiior 
 colour: at loast such has beeu observed to bo 
 the case ; and it is attributed to the delicacy of 
 constitution in light die.stnut aninmls, more 
 than to auytliiiiijj else. There is scarcely a case 
 of poll-evil that, either directly or indirectly, 
 arises from constitutional disposition. Hay- 
 seeds about the head may induce the liorse to 
 rub, and, in consequence, produce irritation ; 
 dragging back in the halter may occasion 
 bruises, and both of these actions may produce 
 ulceration. 
 
 PoU-tfvil, when first discovered, will fre- 
 quently yield to repellent applications, of which 
 the following may be tried — - 
 
 Sal-ammoniac 4 oz. 
 
 Sugar of Lead 1 tlo. 
 
 Vinegar 1 jnnt. 
 
 Apply this lotion constantly to the poll of the 
 head, by keeping cloths on continually wet. 
 In applying the cloth, have it sufficiently large, 
 to allow two holes to be cut in it, so that it may 
 be passed easily over the horse's ears, by which 
 means it will be retained in its place. This 
 cloth can easily be renewed, or with a sponge 
 apply more of the lotion ; in the meantime 
 feed ou bran mashes, and give — 
 
 Cape Aloes 6 drachms. 
 
 Juniper Berries 2 do. 
 
 Form with soft soap. 
 Let a ball, composed of these ingredients be 
 given twice a- week. 
 
 Should the tumour appear stationary, and 
 the process of absorption not likely to com- 
 mence, great benefit has been found from ap- 
 plying a liquid blister, composed of — 
 
 Cantharides , . 1 oz. 
 
 Vinegar 3 do. 
 
 Spirits of ^^'ine 1 do. 
 
 Put these togetaer, in a bottle, and frequently 
 shake it. In eight or ten days it will be lit 
 for use. liub about two table-spoonfuls on 
 the tumour night and morning. 
 
 "When all hopes of preventing an abscess 
 have ceased, it must then be promoted, by 
 stimulating tbe skin, and instead of poultices 
 or applications of warm water, the following 
 should be applied — 
 
 Oil of Turjientine ~ oz. 
 
 Oil of Olives 2 do. 
 
 Eub this well into the swelling, night and 
 morning, until on pressure under the finger 
 
 and thumb, it is found to fluctuate. When 
 the maturation ia pcrlect, which iiuiy be known 
 by tlie soft feel of the tumour, the next thinfj 
 to be taken into consideration is, to efl'ect tho 
 evacuation of tho contained matter, at the 
 most depending situation, to prevent tho for- 
 mation of sinuses. Nothing is so good in this 
 case as introducing setons on both sides of 
 tho neck. Should tliese act well, a speedy 
 cure may be anticipated. But when from im- 
 proper management, matter baa not onlv 
 formed, but has been suffered to remain, or 
 has only evacuated itself by a superficial open- 
 ing either natural or artificial, and not from 
 one in a depending situation, whereby a re- 
 accumulation of pus has taken place, the con- 
 sequence is that the ligaments have taken on 
 disease, which may have extended under the 
 cervical ligament, leaving it hollow below. In 
 such cases the healthy secretion always ceases, 
 and instead of it a thin ichorous or glairy dis- 
 charge is set up. This ichorous matter pene- 
 trates into the interstices of the muscles, when 
 sinuses become formed in every direction, and 
 if not speedily relieved, caries of the bones of 
 the neck is the consequence. From this ne- 
 glect, or bad treatment of the disease, horses 
 may frequently be seen with what is called a 
 stiff neck, poking their noses and heads out in 
 the most disagreeable manner imaginable. To 
 prevent these eflects active measures should 
 be taken. An experienced veterinary surgeon, 
 who can handle the scalpel with dexterity and 
 confidence, should, at once, be called in, and the 
 horse immediately cast. "When this has been 
 done, a careful examination should be made 
 with the probe and the finger, that the extent 
 and direction of the sinuses may be ascertained. 
 This should not be negligently or slightly done 
 so as to have a doubt upon the mind, but with 
 the utmost precision and certainty. As you 
 have got the horse confined, and fairly under 
 your command, the most critical examination 
 must be made, for the cure will greatly depend 
 upon this, and the horse, to a large extent, be 
 relieved from unnecessary pain. In making 
 this examination the finger will be found of 
 much more service than the probe ; therefore, 
 carefully examine the ulcer with it, more espe- 
 cially, if caries should have taken place ; for 
 this must be dissected out before a cure caa 
 possiblv be eioected. Of these things the old 
 
 219 
 
POLL-ETIL.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [wiTHERa. 
 
 farriers knew notliing; consequently, if they 
 could Leal the external opening, they imagined 
 they had accomplislied a great feat ; and hence 
 the liability of the parts to become diseased 
 again. Hard and callous edges must be re- 
 moved, and the smaller sinuses laid open, so as 
 to form a cavity. If all this is not thoroughly 
 attended to, and done when the whole seems 
 on the point of healing, a new tumour will 
 suddenly arise as the result of the carious 
 bone, or of some portion of ligament remaining 
 in the abscess. In this case, the experienced 
 veterinarian, who is expert with the knife, and 
 fully acquainted with the anatomy of the parts, 
 will not hesitate how to act. In the hands of 
 the common farrier, much injury has frequently 
 been done from the injudicious use of the knife. 
 Even the cervical ligament has been known to 
 be divided by ignorant pretenders, who having 
 no character to lose, grope on in the dark for 
 the paltry fee of a few shillings, sooner than 
 acknowledge themselves in error. Instead, 
 therefore, of hazarding any of these evils, the 
 practitioner will be justified in this state of the 
 case in introducing setons, even to the number 
 of three or four on each side, going down to 
 the bottom of each sinus, no matter how deep 
 it may be. "When this has been dexterously 
 done, dress the setons with the following mild 
 blister ointment, every day : — 
 
 Cantharides, powdered . . 2 drachms. 
 
 Hog's Lard 3 oz. 
 
 Continue this until the matter becomes of a 
 good consistence. Where cases of great ob- 
 stinacy occur, and this fails to produce a 
 good effect, stronger means must be adopted. 
 Therefore use the following : 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate ... 2 drachms. 
 Water 2 oz. 
 
 Dissolve the sublimate in the water, and in- 
 ject the sinuses with the mixture. If this 
 does not produce any amendment, proceed to 
 scalding, in order to overcome the morbid 
 action, and produce a kind of inflammation, 
 from which healtliy granulations may follow. 
 To obtain this try either of the following : 
 No. 1. 
 Arsenic, finely powdered . . 2 drachms. 
 Digestive Ointment . . . 4 oz. 
 
 No. 2. 
 Corrosive Sublimate ... I5 drachm. 
 Digestive Ointment . . . 4 oz. 
 220 
 
 No. 3. 
 Butter of Antimony ... 3 drachms. 
 Oil of Turpentine . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 To render any of the above properly applica- 
 ble melt either of them in an iron ladle to a 
 scalding heat, and, as the horse lies on the 
 ground, carefully pour the liquid into the 
 wound, putting in, at the same time, a little 
 tow. At the end of four or five days, slough- 
 ing will commence. After this apply digestive 
 ointment, and treat as a common wound. If the 
 wound should not be going on satisfactorily ap- 
 ply the scalding composition again. Splints ex- 
 ternally applied by pressure, have been found of 
 great benefit in the treatment of Poll-evil. In 
 the fifth volume of the Veterinarian, Mr. A. 
 Gray says, "A mare was sent to me, and I 
 proceeded to examine the extent of the disease. 
 I found two deep sinuses, one on each side of 
 the neck, the bones of which could be dis- 
 tinctly felt with the probe. After cleaning 
 away the matter I took a scalpel and laid both 
 orifices open, in an oblique direction down- 
 wards ; then, having fomented the parts with 
 warm water, I dressed the wounds with tinc- 
 ture of myrrh and aloes ; and, in order to 
 apply pressure to the parts — for in this I 
 founded all my hopes of success — I had two 
 pieces of wood prepared, about twelve inches 
 Ions: and three broad; thicker in the middle 
 than at the edges, which were rounded off", and 
 also a long flannel bandage, four inches broad. 
 I then placed two pledgets of tow next the 
 wounds, putting on the pieces of wood, one on 
 each side, and then applied the bandage over 
 all, and as tightly as I could, without im- 
 peding deglutition. It is necessary while 
 putting on the bandage, to keep the nose ex- 
 tended, in order to adapt the bandage more 
 perfectly to the part, and apply it more 
 closely. I removed the bandage, night and 
 morning, and had the parts well fomented and 
 dressed with the tincture. In the course of 
 four weeks the mare was well." 
 
 FISTULOUS WITHERS. 
 This disease is, in general, the consequence 
 of neglect, or the careless manner in which the 
 saddle is fixed to the back of the horse. AVhen 
 it is too wide in the trees, the pressure, 
 coming repeatedly on the withers with double 
 force, the parts become bruised and pinched, 
 
■WITHEns] 
 
 MODEEN VETET^INARY PRACTICE 
 
 [ULCEBS. 
 
 and inevitably begin to form matter. It is 
 frequently tlie case that this ia uot taken 
 notice of till the evil hna been repented, and 
 bruise upon briiiso inllieted, when inflainina- 
 tion and swelliiiir ensue, threatening an una- 
 voidable suppuration. This culpable neglect 
 is sometimes followed by error, for, during 
 tbe time tbat the process of nature is going 
 on, and the matter in the tumour forming, the 
 repellent lotion, as prescribed for poll-evil is 
 generally used. Here now begins a terrible 
 struggle between the powers of nature and 
 art; for these applications failing in repelling, 
 or dispersing the contents, have their proper- 
 ties distributed over the integuments, where, 
 by repeated application, an induration is pro- 
 duced very unfavourable to the abscess in its 
 more advanced state. Nature, at last, becomes 
 predominant, and effects her purpose. The 
 tumour suppurates, and, as a consequence, a 
 discharge comes on, but without one of those 
 advantages tliat would have been acquired had 
 the efforts of nature been attended to and 
 properly encouraged, instead of being opposed. 
 This is the origin and progress of what con- 
 stitutes a confirmed fistula, which falls under 
 the very method of cure described in the case 
 of poll-evil. It should be remembered that 
 all sinuses or cavities into which the probe can 
 be passed should be laid open, taking care to 
 make no transverse opening across the withers, 
 and to avoid dividing the long ligament. Care 
 should be taken to make the incisions on each 
 side, or on both s,des, in a longitudinal direc- 
 tion, if it should be required. Should tlie dis- 
 charge not assume a healthy appearance, a 
 preparation of the following proportions should 
 be made : 
 
 Digestive Ointment . , , , 2 oz. 
 
 Red Precipitate 2 drachms. 
 
 Form into an ointment, and apply every morn- 
 ing to the wound, until the discharge becomes 
 more healthy. Should this application be suc- 
 cessful, in obtaining a healthy discharge of 
 
 ing process. If the lotion ia not used, it may 
 be as well to warm the precipitate ointment in 
 an iron ladle, and pour some of it into the 
 wound, so that it may penetrate every ttinuH 
 that has been formed. 
 
 Incisions or scarifications should bo made 
 whenever necessary, and all callous, hardened 
 parts dissected out, and, if required, two or three 
 setons passed in the most depending situutiona. 
 This method should be pursued in preference 
 to any other, unless the wound has been suf- 
 fered to proi-eed some considerable time, and a 
 vast formation of proud or fungus flesh allowed 
 to be formed. Then the knife becomes the 
 only remedy, Tliis mode of treatment should 
 have the preference on all occasions ; con- 
 sequently, if the milder metliod should not 
 succeed in restoring the parts, then the scald- 
 ing method, as prescribed in poll. evil should 
 be resorted to. 
 
 Let it be borne in mind, however, notwith- 
 standing the recommendation of all these re- 
 medial measures, that this disease, when first 
 discovered, may be completely removed by re- 
 pellent applications, but, when bruise after 
 bruise is suffered to go on, and matter to be 
 formed, repellents do more harm than good. 
 If none of the preceding applications should 
 be at all successful, proceed to scalding, such 
 as described under the heading of poll-evil. 
 
 If a clean sore can be obtained by cutting 
 open the part freely, and if there are no 
 sinuses, Professor Spooner recommends mild 
 dressings or tents of digestive ointment, tinc- 
 ture of myrrh, &c. These, however, seldom 
 effect a cure, therefore repeated dressings with 
 caustic ointment, must generally be resorted to 
 
 ULCERS IN THE MOUTH. 
 
 Ulcers in the mouth sometimes proceed from 
 the irritation of too severe a bit, or from soino 
 sympathetic inflammation, such as a ra^fTed 
 tooth, and frequently from constitutional irri- 
 tation, when watery tumours, similai to ("urn- 
 
 pus, try the following, in order to heal the boils in tlie human subject, frequently appear. 
 
 As a remedy for this, the following preparation 
 is recommended to be applied to the sores 
 three or four times a day: 
 
 wound as soon as possible : 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Compound Tincture of Myrrli 
 Tincture of Cantharides . , 
 
 2 oz. 
 1 do. 
 1 do. 
 
 Inject this mixture to the bottom of the wound 
 two or three times a day, and it will produce a 
 l.calthy secretion of pus, and promote the heal- 
 
 Spirits of Wine . 
 Vinegar . , 
 Honey . . , 
 Alum, burnt 
 
 2 oz. 
 2 do. 
 1 do. 
 
 4 dradutis, 
 221 
 
STRANGLES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [STEAKGLES. 
 
 Take a small stick, with some linen or tow tied 
 to the end of it, and apply this as often as 
 above directed. As all persons do not know 
 the meaning of burnt alum, make it thus. 
 Buy an ounce of common alum, put it in tlie 
 fire-shovel, and set it on the fire, when the 
 heat will evaporate the watery matter from the 
 alum, leaving that which is burned, and which 
 is technically called alumen ustum. 
 
 STRANGLES. 
 
 The apparent sensation of suffocation is the 
 probable origin of the name of this disease, 
 with which many horses are, at some period of 
 their lives afflicted. Although subject to it 
 at all times of life, the periods of attack are 
 mostly when they are rising three or four 
 years old. Horses, at that time of life, are 
 generally taken in from grass, though colts at 
 grass frequently become affected ; but animals 
 removed from grass to a warm stable, are much 
 more liable to tscke the disease, which would 
 lead to the inference that it is the heated atmo- 
 sphere, combined with the stench of the dung 
 and urine, which produces inflammation and 
 suppuration of the submaxillary glands. 
 
 This is brought on, nine times out of ten, 
 when the horse is brought into the stable, 
 either to be broken into saddle or harness. In 
 those cases where it takes place out of doors, 
 poverty is the principal cause, producing ex- 
 treme debility, and, most frequently, horses so 
 attacked, and in so weak a state, generally, or 
 at least most frequently, become victims to the 
 disorder, and not unfrequently are affected 
 with glanders. 
 
 The first attack generally commences with 
 a dull sluggish heaviness and inactivity, the 
 horse becoming dispirited, losing his appetite, 
 having a hollow husky cough, occasioned by 
 the irritabdity of the inflamed glands, and sore 
 throat. To excite a degree of moisture in the 
 mouth, with tlie view of allaying this disagree- 
 able sensation, he is often picking his hay, but 
 eating little or none. A degree of sympto- 
 matic fever comes on, and a consequent clammi- 
 ness and thirst is perceptible ; but the animal 
 appears to have great difficulty in swallowing 
 water. As tlie disease advances, he becomes 
 proportionally languid and inattentive. Be- 
 tween the jaws there is an apparent swelling 
 of the glands, which is, at first, very hard, 
 222 
 
 exceedingly painful, and visibly increasing. 
 He now swallows with great difficulty, heaves 
 at the flanks, and his whole appearance urges 
 the necessity of an immediate attempt to 
 relieve nature. 
 
 For the treatment of this disease care must 
 be taken not to bleed the animal, unless the 
 febrile symptoms run very high, and then only 
 in small quantities, as would be done in catar- 
 rhal affections ; for the debility with which it 
 is accompanied will not allow much blood to 
 be taken from him. In almost any case, a 
 couple of quarts should not be exceeded, 
 unless there is much heaving at the flanks, 
 and the pulse is hard and quickened, and the 
 extremities cold. " Unless the symptoms of 
 fever are particularly severe," says Professor 
 Spooner, " and inflammation of the windpipe 
 and lungs is threatened, it is better to avoid 
 blood-letting ; and if employed, it should be 
 with moderation. The bowels should be mode- 
 rately relaxed, for which purpose two or three 
 drachms of aloes may be given in a ball; but 
 rarely, if ever, repeated. Two drachms of 
 nitre, and one of tartarised antimony, may be 
 given twice a day in a mash. He should avoid 
 drenching as much as possible, in consequence 
 of the soreness of the throat. A stimulating 
 liniment should be rubbed on the swelling, 
 and a warm linseed meal poultice applied and 
 changed twice a day." 
 
 Use a nose-bag, frequently replenished with 
 hot water and bran, for the purpose of steam- 
 ing the nostrils, and promoting a discharge. 
 Should the tumours break inwardly, you will 
 find this of great service. The next thing to 
 be done is to promote the suppuration of the 
 swelling as quickly as possible ; but this must 
 not be attempted by poultices. These have a 
 tendency to do much more harm than good, 
 unless there is a man constantly in attendance, 
 for the moment the poultice becomes cold, it 
 acts as a repellent to the tumours, and ob- 
 viates what is wished to be produced. Take, 
 therefore, of 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 
 OHve Oil . . 
 
 3 oz. 
 3 do. 
 
 Apply this liniment to the throat, and tumours 
 between the jaws, three times a day, having 
 first clipped oflf the hair close, to allow the 
 liniment to act quickly. Should this not pro- 
 
BTltAKOLES.] 
 
 MODERN VETEKINART PRACTICE. 
 
 lvivks. 
 
 duco suppuration 80 spooilily ua untii.-i[):ito(l, 
 usft tlio Ibllowini;: 
 
 Cnnthariilfs '^ ilraclmis. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine . . . -<>/.. 
 
 Olive Oil '^ '!"• 
 
 Shako well together in a bottli\ t\)r two days, 
 aiul apply as directeel in the lornier. 
 
 Either of these applieatit)n3 will produce a 
 speedy suppuration of tho tumours, and on 
 feeling them, they will bo found to undulate ; 
 at this period the lancet may be introduced to 
 let the matter out; but never lance the 
 tumours unless there is a perfect certainty 
 that matter has formed. If tho tumour should 
 break of itself, and the opening be small, 
 enlarge it with the lancet. Have the parts 
 now well fomented, and washed with warm 
 water two or three times a day ; always re- 
 membering to wipe them dry with a linen cloth. 
 This being done, a hood should be placed on 
 his head, with a piece of flannel to cover the 
 jaws. AVhen the discliarge has terminated, 
 and the orifices made with puncturing appear 
 red and healthy, proceed to the healing process, 
 which naturally of itself would take place ; but 
 it is necessary to assist nature. To do this, 
 take 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc .... 1 drachm. 
 
 Vinef^ar 2 oz. 
 
 Watery solution of Aloes. . . 3 do. 
 Dissolve the sulphate in the acid, then add the 
 solution of aloes. 
 
 Apply this mixture to the sores, morning and 
 night. 
 
 Eor feed, any nourishing diet will be proper ; 
 but whatever this is, it must be given in small 
 
 then princi[ially when horscH aro aHi'dod bv it 
 at grass, and especially in conHftjuence of their 
 being oiili/ colls. At this timo they uro not 
 brought under tho eye of the master ho often 
 as they otiierwiso would be. But if tho horso 
 is kept in tho stable, tho danger generally 
 occurs from neglect, or absolute cruelty, in 
 riding or driving to extremity. When tho 
 disease has commenced, and gone so far as to 
 produce fever, and then indammation, it gener- 
 ally terminates in glanders ; consequently tho 
 greatest care as to cleanliness is of tho highest 
 importance, such as sponging the nostrils well 
 out every morning and evening ; and he sliould 
 be kept warm. 
 
 VIVES. 
 
 Vives is the name given to strangles, when 
 the parotid gland alone is attacked. How 
 the name arose we cannot now ascertain ; but 
 as the disease is generally known by that term, 
 it would be folly to change it in a general work 
 of this kind. 
 
 It consists of an injlammation and enlarge' 
 ment of the parotid glands, situated and com- 
 mencing at tlie base of the ear, and continued 
 down to the angle of the jaw. By old farriers 
 it is called bastard strangles ; but this is an 
 error, for they never suppurate ; but occasion 
 great pain to the horse whilst eating, in conse- 
 quence of the action of the jaw continually 
 pressing on the enlarged gland. 
 
 These swellings at times become so fixed, 
 that cough and considerable irritation are pro- 
 duced about the anterior part of the epiglottis, 
 which covers the wind-pipe in the act of swal- 
 
 quantities. Try the horse with half bran and j lowing, to prevent food passing down that tube, 
 oats slightly wetted ; and when he begins to and when food comes in contact with it, cougli 
 
 swallow tolerably well, give Lira a little 
 speared malt in his feed. This will rouse him 
 from that debilitated state the disease has 
 reduced him to ; and to further strengthen his 
 system give the following: 
 
 Cape Aloes G draenms. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron .... 6 do. 
 
 Gentian 12 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal . . . .12 do. 
 Form into a mass with soft soap, and divide into 
 six balls. 
 
 Administer one every second day. 
 
 There is a consolation in this disease that a 
 symptom of danger occurs but seldom, and 
 
 is almost sure to take place. In consequence 
 of this, the irritation is frequently so great, 
 that tho horse will cough repeatedly, with such 
 violence, that it would lead one to suppose 
 that the rupture of some vital part must bo 
 the result. 
 
 In this disease, stimulants, in order to pro- 
 mote a discharge, should never be applied, lest 
 there should be left a blemish, which will 
 greatly lessen the value of the horse. Tho 
 method found best in treating for it is to 
 apply tho following : — 
 
 Ammonia ...... 1 oz, 
 
 Olive oil 4 do. 
 
 223 
 
EASTAUD STRANGLES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [bheumatism. 
 
 E-ub about two table-spoonfuls of this lini- 
 ment on each gland, morning and night, and 
 take of 
 
 Cape aloes ..... 6 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 „ 
 
 Form into a ball with soap, 
 
 and give. If the horse's throat should be 
 at all sore, giving a ball is always attended 
 with difficulty ; and should this be the case, 
 take of 
 
 Glauber salts 4 oz. 
 
 Linseed meal 2 do. 
 
 Mix the linseed meal with a little cold water 
 first in a basin, then take about a quart of hot 
 water, and dissolve the salts. When this is 
 done, mix altogether, and carefully horn it down. 
 This must be repeated morning and night, 
 until the swelling goes down, and the horse 
 begins to feed better. Should the ball have 
 
 been given, five or six days should be allowed 
 to intervene before the dose is repeated. 
 
 Some animals are extremely awkward, either 
 to give a draught, or to make take a ball. 
 Should such be the case, take of 
 
 Sulphur 12 oz. 
 
 Glauber salts, finely powdered . 1 lb. 
 Well work together in a mortar, 
 
 and give one in the horse's feed morning and 
 night. 
 
 Eor feed, bran mashes should be given cold ; 
 but if he should not take to these well, a 
 handful of sweet oats should be mixed with 
 them to entice him to eat. In all cases when 
 sick horses are to be fed, the hands should be 
 free from unpleasant smells, as the senses of 
 the animal are so exceedingly delicate, that 
 the least offensive smell will cause him to re- 
 fuse all kinds of food, let hia appetite be ever 
 so good. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 KHEUMATISM. — ANTICOR; LAMPAS ; WARBLES; SiTFAST ; BRUISES; BARBS. 
 
 RHEUMATISM. 
 
 EnEUMATisM in horses has, in England, been 
 little treated on ; though the French have 
 written considerably on it ; and this, in all 
 probability, was the cause of drawing the atten- 
 tion of the veterinarian to the subject. 
 
 The disease is characterised by fever, pains 
 in the joints, increased by the action of the 
 muscles belonging' to the joint, the disease fre- 
 quently flying from one joint to another, and 
 this most frequently in young horses. In 
 aged animals the back and loins become the 
 parts principally afiected ; the horse going 
 stifl", scarcely able to turn, and his legs moving 
 under him more like jointless props than legs. 
 It is frequently preceded by shivering, heat, 
 thirst, and quickened pulse ; and some persons, 
 from these symptoms, are apt to think that 
 inflammation of the lungs has taken place. 
 However, the young surgeon must not be de- 
 ceived by these appearances ; for after the 
 224) 
 
 above symptoms the pain soon commences and 
 fixes on the joints. 
 
 Eheumatism may occur by pain in the joints 
 without fever, and this mostly with coach or 
 hack horses, from being ridden or driven hard, 
 until they perspire very much, and are after- 
 wards allowed to stand in a draft of wind. It 
 may arise also, at all times of the year, espe- 
 cially when there are frequent vicissitudes of 
 weather, from heat to cold. Obstructed per- 
 spiration is the principal cause which produces 
 rheumatism. We have an account of a horse 
 affected with sciatica, a species of rheumatism, 
 which he suddenly caught. The gentleman to 
 whom he belonged, had been riding rather 
 sharp in the mouth of March. On coming 
 home, he turned the animal into the stable, his 
 groom at the moment being otherwise em- 
 ployed. On the man going to see him, he 
 immediately led the horse to a pond in the 
 yard, to water. Consequently he received a 
 
BiiEUMATiBM.] IMODETiX YETEHINATlY PRACTICE. 
 
 ["a NT ICO R. 
 
 Biidden chill from tho wator ; niul tho wind b-^ blod ; for the cold nml wt-t j,'tMicrally uro tl>o 
 
 being cold at the reason of tho year, added to 
 the dilatory manner in wliieh grooms work al 
 their horses, an attack of sciatica was tlie re- 
 sult. Thia waa sliown by the horse tirst lifting 
 one hind leg, then the other, and especially in 
 wet weather and after strong exercise. In thia 
 case, the ho. se's urine was always thick and 
 muddv, made in small quantities, and very 
 frequently. Thia was a case of confirniod 
 chronic rheumatism. The horse was purchased 
 by a coach proprietor for little more than half 
 his wortli. Jle was worked for about five years, 
 but never recovered, and ultimately died ot 
 inflammation of the lungs. 
 
 This disease most frequently attacks coach 
 and hack-horses in the back and loins. For 
 the treatment of such, abstract about three 
 quarts of blood, according to size and consti- 
 tution ; and if the inflammatory symptoms are 
 severe, give the following : — 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes, from 4 to 6 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 » 
 
 Digitalis 1 n 
 
 Form a ball with soft soap. 
 After the bowels are freely opened, take of 
 
 Oil Turpentine . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Olive Oil 2 do. 
 
 Ammonia , .... 4 drachms. 
 
 Apply some of this liniment to the spine, 
 where the stiffness appears greatest, which 
 will, in all probability, be across the loins. 
 Should this not prove efl'ectual, success in the 
 treatment has often resulted from the intro- 
 duction of setons, one on each side of the back- 
 bone, near the loins ; dressing, at the same time, 
 with digestive ointment. Before introducing 
 these, cast the horse. 
 
 "When this disease attacks young horses, it 
 is generally in the acute form ; but it is mostly 
 unaccompanied with fever. Colts, about two 
 or three years old, are mostly subject to it, and 
 principally in the winter months, when they 
 are at grass, and the pasture is bad, not con- 
 taining any nourishment. Acute rheumatism 
 arises as much from debility as any cause, 
 the colt not being able to bear up against the 
 inclemency of the weather. As soon as the 
 lameness is discovered — for here the joints are 
 the principal seat of disease, especially the 
 fetlock joints — have him immediately housed ; 
 and should it arise from debility, he must not 
 
 eaii-es, and he n quires tonic nudicineM to rouce 
 and strengtlicn his system. In the lirst place, 
 therefore, take of — 
 
 Gt'iitiaii, pDwdercd . . . I'J <h,iflini8. 
 Aiiise-seed, do. . . .1-' „ 
 
 Liquorice, do J _' „ 
 
 Antirnuiiy, do. .... 1 Ui. 
 Sulphur 1- oz. 
 
 Kub well together in a mortar, and divide into 
 twelve packets. Give one night and mornini; 
 in the feed of the horse. For food, give good 
 hay, and half oats and bran, three times a 
 day. 
 
 Applv flannel bandages to all the logs, round 
 the fetlock and pasterns. This, in general, will 
 remove the pain, after having rubbed in some 
 of the foregoing liniment; but the joints must 
 not be bathed, as, by so doing, the evaporation 
 arising afterwards will produce cold, and con- 
 sequent stiffuess, leaving the matter worse than 
 it was at first. 
 
 Some of the old farriers have termed this 
 disease, theflijing lameness, in consequence of 
 its frequently going from one part to another ; 
 but we may remark, that should The Modern 
 System of Farriery fixU into the hands of agri- 
 culturists, &c., where the term has become fa- 
 miliar, they will then know how to detect and 
 treat the disease 
 
 ANTICOR. 
 
 This is a disease of the chest or belly, being 
 a species of tumour formed by the debde state 
 of the absorbents ; they, in consequence, not 
 being able to perform their functions: hence 
 a serous fluid becomes deposited in the 
 cellular membrane, which greatly abounds in 
 these parts ; and the fluid running together to 
 the most pendent part, forms the tumour called 
 anticor, from its being against or near tho 
 chest, or the heart. The disease is not fre- 
 quent in this country, but it is common on tho 
 continent. In treating for it, bleeding is not 
 to be recommended ; but give halT bran and 
 half oats made wet, for corn feeds, and plcnt) 
 of good hay ; then take of 
 
 Ca]ie Aloes, .... 
 
 Kesin 
 
 Sulphate of Iron . 
 Linseed Meal . . . 
 Mix, and form into a mass with soft soap, 
 
 22o 
 
 6 drachms. 
 6 „ 
 10 „ 
 4 
 
LAMPAS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [bruises. 
 
 Administer one of these balls every morning. 
 Put an ounce of nitre into the water of the 
 horse every night. 
 
 LAMPAS. 
 
 This consists of an enlargement or tumefac- 
 tion of the roof of the mouth or palate, and is 
 particularly to be observed in young horses. 
 In some cases the enlargement becomes so 
 prominent, as to project below the teeth of the 
 upper jaw. This generally occurs when the 
 horse h changing his teeth, or the tusks mak- 
 ing their appearance. Another cause is, when 
 horses are first taken from grass — which is, of 
 course, soft food— and then put into a stable on 
 hay and oats, both being hard meat, which oc- 
 casions the palate to enlarge and inflame. 
 Erom this cause the horse is not only deprived 
 of a great portion of the nutriment necessary 
 to his support, but he becomes poor, weak, de- 
 jected, and altogether out of condition. Its 
 origin has been attributed to the change which 
 takes place on being taken from grass and put 
 into warm stables. This, however, is not likely 
 to be the case, for breeders of horses generally 
 have their stables cool enough. 
 
 In treating for lampas, scarification has been 
 recommended; but tliat operation has not 
 been generally successful, although it has been 
 recommended by many veterinary surgeons. 
 This disease more frequently comes under 
 the notice of the common farrier than that of 
 the surgeon ; and by its so doing, custom has 
 established a useful and expeditious extirpa- 
 tion of it by the actual cautery (represented 
 in our Plate of Instruments) : and though no 
 advocate for violent remedies where they can 
 possibly be avoided, yet this is a cure so 
 speedily effected by an expert operator, and 
 the suftering to the animal is so very trifling, 
 that when a comparison is drawn between the 
 temporary inconvenience and the immediate 
 advantage, no hesitation can be made respect- 
 ing the operation. 
 
 When the operation has been performed, 
 the horse should be allowed to wash his mouth 
 out with clean water; and nothing should be 
 applied to the wound, which will heal of itself 
 in a iew days. If an application is made, it 
 will only increase the pain of the animal, and 
 in a few seconds he will have it all licked off 
 again. 
 
 226 
 
 WARBLES. 
 These are swellings or tumours formed on 
 the sides or some part of the back, in conse- 
 quence of the unequal pressure of the saddle. 
 They may also arise either from the excessive 
 heat and friction, or the edge of a narrow 
 saddle-cloth coming directly under the seat of 
 the rider, and not uufrequently from the girths 
 being too short, and the buckles at either one 
 side or the other being set below the saddle 
 pannel. If the pressure is repeated, and the 
 groom does not perceive it, the tumour will 
 sometimes suppurate. A sore will be the 
 consequence ; and it will probably be somewhat 
 troublesome for several weeks. 
 
 As soon as the tumours are perceived, and 
 before matter is formed, the following repellent 
 should be used several times in the course of 
 the day, and applied to the tumour, with a 
 piece of sponge : — • 
 
 Sal-ammoniac . . . , 2 oz. 
 
 Sugar of Lead . . , , ^ do. 
 
 Vinegar 1 pint. 
 
 Water 1 do. 
 
 The horse must have perfect rest in a loose 
 box or barn, and a saddle or anything irritating 
 must be kept from him. If the tumour re- 
 mains hard, and has no appearance of going 
 away, it then becomes what is termed 
 
 A SITFAST. 
 
 For this there is only one certain and 
 expeditious cure. All applications in the 
 shape of blisters, liniments, &c., meant to 
 soften the tumour, will avail nothing. There- 
 fore, take a scalpel, and dissect the tumour 
 completely out, and dress with common diges- 
 tive ointment, in which has been rubbed down 
 a little red precipitate. When this has brought 
 the wound to a healthy appearance, treat it 
 two or three times a day with compound tinc- 
 ture of myrrh. 
 
 If, in the first instance, warbles should 
 break, wash and dress first with the ointment 
 as above, and then heal with the tincture. In 
 the meantime, let the saddle pannel be altered, 
 that a recurrence of the accident may not 
 happen. 
 
 BRUISES. 
 
 These consist of tumours, which are formed 
 by external injuries, such as kicks from other 
 
btone] MODEKN VETERl 
 
 borses, or pnsaionnte grooms, OJi tlie leys and 
 otlior pnrta of the boiiy. If the bruise is aliglit, 
 and even tliough lamenesa is the result, it fre- 
 quently booiimes reduced almost apparently of 
 itself; but if tlie injury siiould be severe, the 
 extravasated blood will then become a source of 
 pain and irritation. In some cases the blood is 
 thrown out instead of becoming absorbed; 
 coagulates, and, at length, becomes vascular, 
 when the enlargement remains permanent. 
 
 The treatment of bruises varies according to 
 ciroumstauces. If the case is not too severe, 
 take of 
 
 Camphor 1 oz. 
 
 Spirits of AViiie 8 do. 
 
 Dissolve the camphor in the spirits, and rub 
 on a portion every morning and night, or 
 take 
 
 Brandy 4 oz. 
 
 Vinegiir 4 do. 
 
 Mix, and apply as above. If the bruise is in 
 such a situation as will admit of a bandage, 
 never omit it — flannel is the best. If the 
 tumour remains hard and unyielding to the 
 above treatment, stimulate the absorbents by 
 applying mercurial ointment, well rubbed in 
 for three or four days; alter which apply a 
 
 NAKY PRACTICE 
 
 [btonb. 
 
 blister. Should this nut succeed, recourtje 
 must bo bud to firing. 
 
 IJARIiS. 
 These are small lumoura situated under the 
 tongue, and frequently the cause of much 
 pain, so that the horse, without great dillieultv, 
 cannot nuisticate his food. Tliey are ea^*ilv 
 seen on draw ing the tongue on one side, where 
 two little prominences make their ap[)earanco. 
 They arise from an inflammatory action, exist- 
 ing in the salivary ducts, produced either from 
 symptomatic or local fever, and are generally 
 attended with a large flow of saliva. The 
 farriers of former days used to recommend 
 their being entirely removed, by nipping 
 them oir with a pair of scissors ; but there is 
 no necessity for this. The following treat- 
 ment will do away wiLli them. Take of 
 
 Alum 1 oz. 
 
 Water 4 do. 
 
 Dissolve, and apply with a bit of sponge, tied 
 to the end of a stick, several times a day. 
 Gi"e the horse an ounce of nitre in his water, 
 for about five or six mornings, and a reduction 
 in the enlargement will soon be perceived ; and 
 by-and-by they will altogether disappear. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 STONE. — STONE IN THE INTESTINES; THE KIDNEYS; THE BLADDEE. 
 
 STONE IN THE INTESTINES. 
 
 TiiE horizontal situation of the body of the 
 horse, and the nature of his food, render him 
 particularly liable to concretions in the intes- 
 tines, which generally take place in the colon, 
 from a peculiar curvature which this has of 
 doubling on itself. At this curve, stone is 
 usually found. 
 
 Most of these concretes, however, are in 
 their beginning composed of salubrious matter, 
 which first collects around some accidental 
 nucleus, as a nail, or stone. It also very fre- 
 quently occurs amongst millers' horses, from a 
 portion of the griudiug-stones, by friction 
 
 having become mixed with the food upon 
 which horses are commonly fed. From frequent 
 deposits of a portion of the alimentary con- 
 tents coming in contact with the nucleus, 
 layer upon layer becomes formed, utitil, in 
 some cases, they are of an enormous size. 
 These calculi, in many instances, are so dense 
 and hard as to admit of a fine polish ; while some 
 are of a softer nature, and appear more liko 
 indurated dung, and will break easy. Hair 
 balls have frequently been found in the intes- 
 tines, especially in neat cattle; and are very 
 troublesome, being the cause of great incon- 
 ; venience. 
 
 227 
 
fiXOSE.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [stone. 
 
 Horses do not appear to suffer so much 
 from calculi as might, at first, be expected; 
 and then the disease only appears like an 
 attack of gripes, caused by some obstructed 
 dung in the intestine, giving pain. When the 
 passage is rendered free, the pain immediately 
 ceases. Calculi frequently, or always, however, 
 bring on a fatal strangulation, and consequent 
 inflammation. In such cases the horse usually 
 falls a victim. 
 
 The cure of this malady is out of our power, 
 and its prevention is little less so, unless we 
 perceive the horse addicted to eat roots or lick 
 up the earth, to which he is sometimes given. 
 The only chance of prevention, then, is to give 
 bran mashes for a day or two, until his dung 
 becomes moist. If in regular work, let him 
 resume his usual food. 
 
 STONE IN THE KIDNEYS. 
 Stones sometimes form in the kidneys, or in 
 their C3":ities. In the horse they accumulate 
 till they iill the whole of the cavity ; and we 
 have heard of a case, in which, from the 
 inflammation produced thereby, the kidneys be- 
 came totally absorbed, and a large tumour was 
 formed in their place. This animal could with 
 difficulty walk: he was accordingly ordered to 
 be destroyed ; and on opening him, it was 
 found that the right kidney had become a 
 complete stone. 
 
 STONE IN THE BLADDER. 
 
 Though this disease is not so frequent in 
 the horse as in the human subject, still we 
 have no doubt of its occurring more frequently 
 than is generally supposed. This is made 
 pretty evident at the yard of the knacker, for 
 very many calculi are there found, after death, 
 in the bladder. The symptoms of its presence 
 are frequent inclination to make water, voided 
 in small quantities, and accompanied with ex- 
 cessive pain. Sometimes a sudden stoppage 
 of it takes place ; and this is very frequently 
 attended with extremely sharp spasmodic pains. 
 The horse then walks wide behind, or appears 
 loth to move along, and occasionally reels 
 about, with a staggering gait. The remedy was 
 discovered, and, we believe, first brought into 
 practice, by Mr. Sewell. The presence of stone 
 in the bladder is not very difficult to discover ; 
 for, if we examine the bladder, and introduce 
 228 
 
 the hand up the rectum, and feel for the bladder, 
 just beyond the bone called the pubis, there it 
 will be met with. When this is the case, try 
 whether there is any hard substance present. 
 If so, it is stone in the bladder. 
 
 For the removal of the substance, introduce 
 a long, well oiled whalebone staff up the 
 urethra, until the end of it is felt just under 
 Vae anus ; then take a scalpel, and cut per- 
 pendicularly down upon it, and enlarge the 
 opening to about an inch and a-half. Into 
 this opening pass a long whalebone probe, or, 
 as it is called, a sound ; the end of which will 
 be felt to strike against the stone. Being 
 satisfied of this, withdraw the instrument, 
 and introduce your forceps, for the pur- 
 pose of extracting the stone. If the opening 
 should not be large enough, take a concealed 
 history, and cut up a little, as the horse is 
 supposed to be lying on his back. Then en- 
 deavour to seize the stone, and withdraw it 
 whole. Should this not be practicable, the 
 stone must be taken hold of by degrees, and 
 broken down by means of the forceps. Then 
 withdraw the pieces, and empty them. Continue 
 to do this until perfectly satisfied that the 
 whole of the stone is removed. This being 
 done, inject warm water into the bladder, 
 which will give the horse great ease. He 
 may now be allowed to get up, when, in all 
 probability, some sediment and urine may 
 escape from the wound for a day or two. 
 This need not occasion any alarm ; but con- 
 tinue to bathe the parts two or three 
 times a day with warm water. After this 
 time, the wound will close, the urine pass off 
 in its natural channel, when the wound should 
 be treated as a common one, by applying to it, 
 twice a day, compound tincture of myrrh. 
 Should the horse take on any appearance of 
 fever, give him, in his feed, with half bran and 
 oats, made slightly wet — 
 
 Antimony 12 oz. 
 
 Sulphur 12 do. 
 
 Digitalis e drachms. 
 
 Mix, and divide into twelve powders. Adminis- 
 ter one in his feed every night. 
 
 With mares the operation is less difficult, 
 as the parts may be dilated instead of being 
 cut; but to them the use of a round-headed 
 catheter, sufficiently large in the bore to 
 allow the sound to pas? through it, is recom- 
 
W0BM8.] 
 
 MODEHN VETERTNATIY PRACTICE. 
 
 [WOBMI. 
 
 mended. Wlion tliis is introduced, and the 
 urine dnwii otV, piisa the sound down tlie 
 catlioter into llu' bhuKler. Ihivin-: iiccoin- 
 
 Bntisfii'd yourHi'lf of tlio onlculi bi-ing there, 
 proceed iih before directed for u horse. 
 
 This operation does not geuerully luil if con- 
 
 pliahed this, wilhdraw the catheter, and liaving ducted with euflicient caro. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 -WOUMS TN general; jaundice, or yellows; DIARRUCF a, looseness, or SCOtJRINO; 
 
 CRIB-BITING. 
 
 WORMS IN GENERAL. 
 "Wn"EN worms have secured a settlement in 
 either the stomach or intestines of the horse, he 
 becomes a prey to perpetual annoyance, till 
 efiectual methods are taken for their total ex- 
 tirpation. 
 
 Tliere are three kinds of worms to which the 
 horse is liable ; first, the long white worm, very 
 much resembling the common large earth-worm, 
 but much longer and harder. At its middle it 
 is about the size of a large swan-quill, and 
 regularly tapers off to the ends. Tlie length 
 of these worms varies from six inches to 
 twelve, and they generally occupy the small 
 intestines, and are at times exceedingly trouble- 
 some, frequently occasioning gripes, and not 
 unfrequeutly inflammation, by their excessive 
 irritation. 
 
 Another kind of worm is the small thread or 
 needle-worm, which is frequently found in all 
 the intestines, but more particularly in 
 the large. It has also been found in some of 
 the blood-vessels, in the windpipe, and in the 
 lungs. This worm occasions great disturbance 
 in the system when it becomes numerous, but 
 not to the same extent as the last named. 
 
 There is a third kind of worm, called bots, 
 which comprises two species. For almost all 
 we know of this worm, we are indebted to Mr. 
 Bracey Clark. Its history is simply this : — 
 A species of gad-fly, " the sestrus eqtti, is, in 
 the latter part of the summer, exceedingly 
 busy about the horse. It is observed to be 
 darting, with great rapidity, towards the knees 
 and sides of the animal. The females are de- 
 positing their eggs on the hair, and which ad- 
 
 here to it by means of a glutinous fluid, with 
 which they are surrounded. In a few days 
 the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the 
 slightest application of warmth and moisture 
 will liberate the little animals they contain. 
 The horse, in licking himself, touches the egg; 
 it bursts, and a small worm escapes, which ad- 
 heres to the tongue, and is conveyed with the 
 food into the stomach. There it clings to the 
 cuticular portion of the stomach, by means of 
 a hook on eitiier side of its mouth ; and its 
 hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must 
 be broken before it can be detached. It re- 
 mains there, feeding on the mucus of the 
 stomach during the whole of the winter, and 
 until the end of the ensuing spring; when, 
 having attained a considerable size, and being 
 destined to undergo a certain transformation, 
 it disengages itself from the cuticular coat, is 
 carried into the villous portion of the stomach 
 with the food, passes out of it with the chyme, 
 and is evacuated with the dung. Tiie larva, or 
 maggot, seeks shelter in the ground, and buries 
 itself there; it contracts in size, and becomes 
 a chrysalis, or grub, in which state it lies in- 
 active for a few weeks ; and then, burst- 
 ing from its confinement, assumes the form 
 of a fly. Tlio female becoming impreg- 
 nated, quickly deposits her eggs on those 
 parts of tlie horse which he is most accus 
 tomed to lick, and thus the species is per- 
 petuated." 
 
 A horse affected with worms will be known 
 by a dry yellowish matter adhering to the 
 fundament, and running two or three inches 
 down below. This is merely the soft part of 
 
 229 
 
TYOUMS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 ["WOEMS. 
 
 the worm, whicli, in making its escape, irritates 
 the sphincter muscle, and becomes crushed. 
 This frequently occurs in cart-horses. AYorms 
 are also often to be detected in the dung, espe- 
 cially the thread worm and the long white worm. 
 The long worm is too strong in itself to be 
 crushed by the sphincter, and the thread worm 
 is too small for any impression to be made on 
 it. There are other symptoms which indi- 
 cate the presence of worms in the horse. Eor 
 example, they occasion irregular appetite ; ren- 
 der the bowels at one time costive ; and, as irri- 
 tation arises, making them again loose, with an 
 unhealthy secretion attached to the dung. 
 AVhen hots are prevalent, the animal is fre- 
 quently rubbing his tail against the sides of 
 the stall, or against a post, and betraying 
 many symptoms of a restless uneasiness. 
 
 The long white worm is very hurtful. Horses 
 affected with it may eat well, and appear 
 hearty, but they do not thrive. They become 
 hide-bound ; and in consequence of the skin 
 sympatlusing so much with the stomach, the 
 coat stares, and feels rough. This worm is 
 very frequently attended with a short dry 
 cough ; sometimes it produces gripes, with hot 
 breath, which smells very disagreeable. 
 
 Eor the treatment of worms, there are but 
 two articles that any reliance can at all be 
 placed in, and that can lay claim to approba- 
 tion ; and one of these is calomel. Antimo- 
 nials and preparations of tin have each their 
 advocates, and so has train oil. A few of the 
 products of the vegetable kingdom, in the opi- 
 nion of some, are never-failing, such as rue, 
 savin, box, &c., and also tobacco. Experience, 
 however, has determined the specific efi'ects of 
 calomel in this case as absolutely infallible, be- 
 fore tlie power of which every species of woruis 
 and their oviparous remains, indiscriminately 
 fall, and are totally exterminated without the 
 shadow of a doubt. So soon, therefore, as they 
 are suspected, or at least so soon as they are 
 ascertained to have taken possession, it will be 
 prudent to prevent a horse from getting injured 
 in his appetite, reduced in flesh, or altered in 
 condition by their constantly preying upon the 
 contents of the stomach or alimentary canal. 
 To do this, first prepare him as for a dose 
 of physic, by giving bran mashes, &g., and 
 let the dose be adapted to the strength, size, 
 and condition of the subject by these rules. If 
 230 
 
 the horse is thorough bred, and delicate in 
 form, take — 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Calomel 1| drachm. 
 
 Linseed Meal 2 do. 
 
 Form the ball with honey. 
 In administering this ball be particular. 
 Give it the last thing at night ; then put the 
 setting muzzle on, and let the horse remain 
 without food until the morning, when give a 
 warm mash of bran. Replace the muzzle ; and 
 when leaving him, give a handful of sweet hay. 
 Proceed in this manner until about six o'clock 
 at night, when administer the following : — 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes 5 draclmis. 
 
 Gentian 2 do. 
 
 Form into a ball with honey. 
 
 Put on the muzzle again, and by the time 
 you visit the stable in the morning, it is ten to 
 one but the physic has operated. He must 
 now be treated — but with the greatest care — • 
 as in the ordinary course of physic. Probably 
 the reader may not at first imagine why the 
 calomel is recommended to be given alone-, 
 but a small quantity of this medicine so given, 
 eicfhteen hours before the aloetie medicine 
 is given, is not only more elficacious locally, 
 but the whole S3'stem becomes impregnated 
 with it. Another thing, superpurgation is not 
 so likely to supervene. There is also another 
 reason; the horse will purge without being taken 
 out to exercise, which when exhibiting calomel is 
 very advantageous, as he does not run so much 
 risk of taking cold. After the lapse of about five 
 or six days, repeat both the balls, as directed 
 above; but do not increase the quantity of the 
 calomel or aloes, until the operation of the 
 second dose has been observed, when a judg- 
 ment will be able to be formed w-hetlier the 
 aloes will require increasing or decreasing in 
 quantity. If the horse should want it, or you 
 think the worms are not altogether dislodged 
 from their hold, give a third dose. 
 
 If tlie animal is strong in make, and more 
 like a hackney or coach-horse for size, he may 
 be given, 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Calomel 2 drachms. 
 
 With the aloetie balls increased 1 do. 
 Proceeding as before laid down. 
 
 Should he be a large, strong, and foul wag- 
 gon-horse, the calome' ball may be increased to 
 
JAUNDICE.] 
 
 MODEKN VETEETXART PRACTICE. 
 
 [JAUNDIOB. 
 
 two drachma nnd n-linlf; and if a vorv larpjo 
 horse, evon to tlirco tlnu'l\ina, and tlio uloi'tic 
 ball in proportion. By proceodin<j in this 
 courso, tho subjtrt will, in a few days, with 
 proper caro and attention, and fjood food and 
 exercise, be freed from tho insects with which 
 he has been tiirmented. 
 
 As there will, however, most nndtiulitmlly, b(> 
 horses, tronhled witli worms, in the possession 
 of those who, from the nature of their voca- 
 tions, cannot submit them to so long a respite 
 from business as is necessary for a regular 
 course of the preceding medicines, it will 
 naturally be expected that an effectual substi- 
 tute should be held forth for the satisfaction 
 of all parties : consequently, wo now come 
 to the second remedy, which has been found 
 very efficacious in expelling worms. 
 
 Glauber's Suits 4 oz. 
 
 Linseed Meal 1 do. 
 
 Hot Water 1 quart. 
 
 First mix the meal in a little cold water, to 
 prevent its getting lumpy ; and when sufficiently 
 worked up, put it into the salts and hot water. 
 Give this drtijght with a horn every morning 
 fasting, for six successive mornings. The 
 horse may go to exercise, or slow work of any 
 kind. If he should be perceived to perspire 
 a good deal, and appear faint, discontinue 
 the niedicines for a few days ; then commence 
 again, until satisfied the worms are completely 
 removed. 
 
 JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS. 
 
 This is a disease usually called yelloivs, and 
 is common to horses of every description. It 
 arises from various causes, the most material 
 of which we shall endeavour to explain. 
 
 The more simple and least dangerous com- 
 plaint passing under this denomination, arises 
 solely from an obstruction in the biliary ducts ; 
 for the horse has no cystic duct, or gall- 
 bladder, like most other animals. By this 
 obstruction the bile does not flow into the 
 intestines, where, by its peculiarly stimulating 
 property, it excites the peristaltic motion by 
 which they expel their contents. The bile thus 
 impeded in its usual progress, becomes ab- 
 sorbed, incorporating itself again with the 
 blood, and, through the system of circulation, 
 diffusing itself over every part, and denoting its 
 
 presence by an early appearance of vfUowneM 
 in tho eyes, mouth, tongue, nnd Balivn. To 
 these invariable symptoniH may bo added, thoHO 
 not altDgether so certain in tiicir early ntato — 
 a general heaviness nnd dnllnesM, nccompanied 
 with loss of nj^petite, nnd consequent n-jeclion 
 of food; the animal taking little more than will 
 barely sustain nature. All this is attended 
 with a slight Bymptomatic fever, which keeps 
 pace with tiie disi-ase. A sluggishness, or aver- 
 sion to motion, is plainly perceptible ; a foul 
 faint sweat appears upon the least exercise, 
 and the urine is of a dark brown, or saflVon 
 tinge: the dung varies much in diiferent sub- 
 jects, but is, in all, many degrees paler, and 
 more undigested than that of horses in high 
 condition. 
 
 The indications ot cure naturally arise out 
 of the very description of the disease, to cfiect 
 which there will not be considerable difficulty, 
 provided it be taken in its early stage, when it 
 iiiav, most probably, be totally removed by the 
 following :— 
 
 Cape Aloes 12 drachms. 
 
 Calomel 6 do. 
 
 Liquorice, powdered ... 6 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal 2 do. 
 
 Form into a mass with sofi soap. 
 
 Divide into twelve balls, and give one every 
 second day. Give the horse half bran and 
 oats wetted for morning and evening feed, and 
 scalded bran mashes for his middle-day lecd. 
 If the bran mashes do not suflicieutly relax 
 the bowels, give occasionally a clyster of warm 
 water, into which throw a handful of bait. 
 
 During this course of medicine, every atten- 
 tion must be paid to appetite, food, and gentle 
 exercise. Mashes of malt and bran may be 
 occasionally given at night, to keep the body 
 lax, and not sutler it to get too much debili- 
 tated, but to make the evacuations regular. 
 
 The disease, if arising from the cause before 
 mentioned, and treated in its infancy, will 
 generally submit to the above course; but in 
 more advanced cases, double the quantity may 
 be required ; and, in addition, three or four 
 quarts of blood taken from the animal will be 
 found highly beneficial. In almost all cases, 
 however, the above balls will be found to have 
 the desired efi'ect. Should you not be so fortu- 
 nate, or the disease happen to be in a large 
 cart-horse, increase the dose of aloes a little, 
 
 231 
 
JAIJKDICE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [diatirf(EA. 
 
 according to circumstances. If the horse should 
 be weak and emaciated, decrease it a little. 
 After the medicine has completely set, and ttie 
 animal appears to be going on well, give the 
 following : — 
 
 Cordial Ball. 
 
 Anise-seeds 1 oz. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 Liquorice 1 do. 
 
 Caraway Seeds 1 do. 
 
 Treacle sufficient to form the mass. 
 
 Give an ounce of this mixture every morning 
 fasting. Should the subject be a cart-horse, 
 increase the quantities of each, and give an 
 ounce and a- half for a dose. 
 
 During the time of taking this, let the 
 former instructions relative to food, exercise, 
 dressing, &c., be strictly adhered to, with such 
 other attentions as circumstances may require, 
 remembering to relinquish the medicine every 
 second morning, or once in three mornings ; 
 but not to discontinue it entirely till all symp- 
 toms disappear. 
 
 A distinct kind of this disease, arising from 
 a remote and very discouraging cause, is that 
 which originates in an induration, or schir- 
 rosity of some part of the liver, and which 
 will be indicated by pressing the hand 
 sharply against the region of that organ on 
 the right side. In this species there is little or 
 no hope of obtaining a cure. "We can only 
 palliate the disease. The first thing to be 
 done, is to extract blood, to the quantity of 
 three, four, or five quarts. This is of course 
 premised to reduce the contents of, or take off 
 Home degree of stricture from, the vessels. 
 Eemove obstructions of the body by mashes of 
 bran and speared barley, for two or three days 
 previous to administering any medicines. 
 When the bowels are pretty lax, give 
 
 Calomel 6 drachms. 
 
 Antimony , . . . 6 oz. 
 
 Sulphur 6 do. 
 
 Rub well together in a mortar, and divide into 
 six powdera. Give one of the powders in his 
 feed every other nigiit, first having slightly 
 sprinkled the corn with water. On the inter- 
 mediate days, in the mornings, give 
 
 Glauber Salts 3 oz. 
 
 Linseed Meal 2 do. 
 
 Cream of Tartar . , • . 1 do. 
 Dissolve the glauber salts and cream of tartar 
 232 
 
 in a quart of warm water, then add the meal, 
 being first mixed with a little cold water. 
 Horn this draught down carefully ; and if the 
 disease appears to be removed, give a course of 
 the cordial ball, as directed in the preceding 
 case. 
 
 DIARRHCEA, LOOSENESS, OR SCOURING. 
 
 This disease is indicated by a weakness in 
 the absorbents to take up the watery matter 
 secreted within the intestines ; consequently, 
 an increased action of the peristaltic motion is 
 set up to get rid of this watery fluid ; and from 
 this cause the evacuations of the dung are pro- 
 duced in a liquid form. It is not like dysentery ; 
 for here the purging, from the first, continues 
 until arrested, the dung also being in a con- 
 stantly fluid state, there being none of that 
 slimy matter attached to it that is in dysen- 
 tery. There is little or no fever connected 
 with this disease ; and if the pulse should 
 at all become quick or hurried, it proceeds 
 more from debility than from any other cause. 
 This is diiferent in those horses which are 
 likely to purge from excitement; for many 
 horses, full of good keep, with their bowels 
 regularly open, sufficiently healthy, on going 
 to hounds, commence purging instantly. This 
 must spring from nervous excitement. Some 
 horses, more especially light chestnut ones, 
 are liable to purge from the least excitement. 
 Flat-sided, long, lank-legged animals are more 
 subject to intestinal, and other internal dis- 
 eases, than any other kind of horses. In 
 diarrhoea, however, the horse appears dull, 
 heavy, and inactive, seemingly oppressed, and 
 visibly overloaded, though without any appear- 
 ance of pain, but subject to gene/al disquie- 
 tude ; whilst the discharge is large in quantity, 
 dark in colour, and foetid in smell. 
 
 Diarrhoea seems to depend on an increase of 
 the peristaltic motion, or of the secretion of 
 the intestines ; and besides the causes already 
 enumerated, it may arise from many others, 
 influencing the system generally, or the par- 
 ticular seat of the disease. Of the former 
 kind are colds, checked perspiration, excite- 
 ment, and other disorders, drastic cathartics, 
 spontaneous acidity, &c. In this complaint, 
 each discharge is usually preceded by a mur- 
 muring noise, with a sense of weight and un- 
 easiness in the hypogastrium ; and then a horse 
 
STABRnSA.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAHY PRACTICE. [cbib-bxtino. 
 
 is called tvash-hcUird. AViion it ia protrnctcd, 
 the niiiinal lo.-;ea his a]r|)t.'titt.', his couiitiMianco 
 becomes dull, the ekiu KeiieniUy liiv, hard, 
 and the coat staring. Ultimately great de- 
 bility and emaciation, and swelling of the legs, 
 ot'ten supervene. Sometimea the disease arisis 
 from ulceration of the surface of the in- 
 testines. The bile also, from some peculiar 
 change in its nature, occasioned principally 
 by bad food, will produce diarrhoea. The 
 disease, though not so much thought of as it 
 ought to be, is the cause of many a valuable 
 animal becoming a victim, from iiiij)roper 
 treatment ; for some people are apt to go to 
 the other extreme, and administer a long list 
 of astringents to stay the purging, which is 
 liighly improper. Debility, and dtbility alone, 
 is the cause of diarrhoea, let it be brought on 
 by whatever means it may. 
 
 For its treatment, first, a proper attention 
 should be paid to the food of the animal, such 
 as his hay and corn, which ought to be of the 
 very best quality. Then give of 
 
 Blue Pill .... U oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron. . . 16 drachms. 
 
 Glauber Salts ... 16 do. 
 
 Liquid Laudanum . . 16 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal ... 16 do. 
 
 Mix the sulphate of irou with the glauber 
 salts together in a mortar, and pound them 
 very fine ; then add the other ingredients, 
 working them well together. 
 
 Divide into twelve balls, and give one morn- 
 ing and night. 
 
 Boil a teacupful of rice, until it is entirely 
 soft; then squeeze it through a thin tamis, or 
 cloth, and give it in the horse's water to drink. 
 
 Should these means not succeed, give the 
 following : — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron . . 
 Arsenic .... 
 Gentian .... 
 Cape Aloes . 
 Mix well together, and form into a mass, with soft 
 soap. 
 
 Divide into twelve balls, and give one every 
 morning. 
 
 By pursuing this course of strengthening 
 medicine, the horse will speedily regain his 
 appetite, and his usual courage and power. 
 In some cases it is recommended to give a 
 few cordial halls, aa prescribed in the foregoing 
 2 H 
 
 12 drachms. 
 
 1 do. 
 12 do. 
 12 do. 
 
 case, at intervals, until the diHoaso id i-ntirely 
 removed. 
 
 CIUIMHTING. 
 
 The peculiar action of crib-biting cannot bo 
 mistaken, on seeing the horse? that has it, feed ; 
 for, at every swallow, an eructation is [)roduced, 
 which, by making the edge of the mangiT a 
 fixed point, he is enabled to do with ease. 
 This has, by sume writers, been said to be ex- 
 ceedingly ])ainful to the animal; but, very fre- 
 quently, we find crib-bitters not only high-con- 
 ditioned animals, but fat ; and whatever creates 
 pain, cannot produce fat. Still there is a dif- 
 ference in crib-biting horses. Some will crib 
 badly, and get fat ; others will become lean ; 
 and this appears extraordinary at first sight, 
 but is of great importance ; for, as the horso 
 keeps in ilesh or condition with crib-biting, or 
 falls ofi', so will he bo sound or otherwise. 
 
 The disease, or habit, more properly speaking, 
 takes place mostly in young animals ; and here 
 our opinion diifers from many others ; for wo 
 think it is frequently occasioned by uneasiness 
 in cutting the breeding-teeth. Sometimes the 
 cause is, from horses being ill- fed, when they 
 are particularly hungry. Many animals wear 
 away their fore teeth to such a degree that 
 these will not meet, which arises from the 
 inability to gather up their food. But there 
 is one decided symptom of taking in air, and 
 expelling it also at the same moment; for, if it 
 is observed that the horse, while swallowing, 
 expels air, and at the same moment inhales 
 fresh, it is shown in the operation by the ex- 
 pansion of his nostrils. 
 
 By some writers, crib-biting has been de- 
 scribed as similar to dyspepsia in the human 
 subject ; but this is impossible, or bow would 
 one Iwrse take it from the other standing in 
 the same stable ? — which we have known fre- 
 quently to be the case ; and it is a well-knowu 
 fact, that no training groom will allow a crib- 
 biter to stand in his stable. "We could give 
 numbers of instances to prove the propensity 
 of its being infectious, having had upwards of 
 one hundred and fifty hack horses at one time, 
 and four or five of them rank cribbers. 
 There have been persons who have attempted 
 to introduce cures for crib-biting, but they have 
 not always proved infallible. One is, to buckle 
 a strap round the neck of the horse tightly, 
 
 233 
 
DROPSY.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [deopst. 
 
 which will prevent it for the time being ; an- 
 other is, to have a number of sharp-pointed 
 studs driven into the strap, to prick the neck 
 and throat every time the subject swallows. 
 Now, if these were efficacious, dyspepsia might 
 be easily cured by tying a neckerchief a little 
 tighter than common ; but it is not so, for 
 remove the straps from his throat, and he is 
 as bad as ever. 
 
 Professor Coleman says crib-biting arises 
 principally from long fasting, and the noise 
 which arises from the air that is swallowed. 
 But we would ask how spasms of the stomach 
 arise when a man has been without food or 
 drink the whole of the day ? Does not the 
 stomach secret wind of itself? or why take a 
 glass of gin or brandy to remove any wind that 
 may be in the stomach ? One may feel blown 
 up, as it is said, without food. As gas is gene- 
 rated in the dead, so is it in the living subject. 
 Debility alone will generate it equally in the 
 horse as in the man, only with this difference — 
 that the man can indulge, and the horse cannot. 
 
 Some say that giving horses bad keep will 
 produce the affection ; but there is no truth in 
 this ; for if we look at the horses of farmers, 
 which are kept on the refuse of the farm, we 
 do not find more crib-biters in them than else- 
 where. No ; but we find them principally 
 amongst high-fed horses ; and the reason for 
 this we shall endeavour to explain. — Highly-fed 
 
 animals are rarely subject to have much hay 
 given them ; consequently, the stomach never 
 becomes so full as when it is distended with 
 natural food, such as hay or grass only ; for 
 we never heard of a crib-biting horse at grass 
 or on hay only. The real cause is found in a 
 spasmodic affection of the diaj)hragin, generally 
 produced by an error in the dietary of the 
 animal ; for if you feed with a considerable 
 quantity of corn, and little hay, crib-biting is 
 produced, and vice versd. 
 
 To obviate this affection, the whole of the 
 veterinarians have been equally puzzled. Some 
 years ago, a Mr. Tare invented a kind of 
 muzzle, through which the horse could eat, but 
 was not enabled to seize the manger, in conse- 
 quence of two iron bars being fixed longitudi- 
 nally to the mouth part. This invention, how- 
 ever, like many others, entirely failed ; for, 
 when removed, the horse would take to his old 
 habit again. Prepared chalk, in two-ounce 
 doses, has been tried, but with no better suc- 
 cess. The only thing found, in the shape of a 
 palliative, has been to remove the horse thus 
 affected into a stable by himself, without 
 manger, stall-sides, or anything he can take 
 hold of; and give all his food on the ground, 
 both hay and corn. By this means this 
 troublesome affection has been removed in a 
 great degree, though an entire cure has not 
 been effected. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 DROPSY — OF THE HEAD ; THE CHEST; PERICARDIUM; BELLY; SKIN J SWELLED LEGS. 
 
 DROPSY. 
 Deopsy is a preternatural collection of serous 
 or watery fluid in the cellular substance, or 
 different cavities of the body. It receives dif- 
 ferent appellations, according to the particular 
 situation of the fluid. 
 
 When it is diflused through the cellular 
 membrane, either generally or partially, it is 
 called anasarca. 
 
 When it is deposited in the cavity of the 
 234 
 
 cranium, it is called hydrocepTialus ; when in 
 the chest, liydrotliorax ; when in the abdo- 
 men, ascites; and when within the scrotum, 
 hydrocele. 
 
 We thus particularly enumerate the special 
 names this disease takes, in accordance with 
 its situation, that the reader may not be led 
 astray by the pretender, or country farrier 
 These diseases are of a family nature, and prin- 
 cipally originate in debility : such as long-con- 
 
DROl'ST.] 
 
 MODEllN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [DB0P8T. 
 
 tinued evacuations, the 8uppressit)n of urine, be found for their cause. If they appear in a 
 
 '":n''"L'r'a iiorse, not hav in-; been recently ridden, 
 it may naturally bo concluded that it ia con- 
 gestion of the brain, which may exi«t without 
 any viaible pain or pressure. Should this bo 
 the case, the animal must not be bled, but 
 take of 
 
 the sudden striking-in of eruptive humours, 
 the obstruction of the lungs, exposure for a 
 length of time to a moist atmospliere, laxity of 
 the exhnlents, defective absorbents, topical 
 weakness — in which case it is most frecpientj 
 and, indeed, it may arise from anything that 
 produces debility. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 This atiection does not frequently attack the 
 horse ; but when it does so, it is very likely 
 to puzzle the young practitioner, as he may be 
 apt to take it for the staggers, the symptoms 
 being very like those which appear in that 
 disease. Water in the head, when it occurs in 
 the horse, is generally in consequence either of 
 injuries done to the brain itself, or of blows 
 from falls, or from schirrous tumours, or ex- 
 crescences within the skull, from original 
 laxity, weakness in the brain, or from general 
 debility, and an impoverished state of the 
 blood. 
 
 AVith respect to its proximate cause, very 
 opposite opinions are still entertained by many 
 clever writers ; which, in conjunction with the 
 equivocal nature of its symptoms, prove a 
 source of considerable embarrassment to both 
 old and young practitioners. . Some believe it 
 to be inflammatory, and, in consequence, bleed 
 largely. Slight inilaramation, in the first case, 
 may cause a deposition of fluid on the brain ; 
 but this inflammation has, by its eflects, pro- 
 duced debility. A torpor of the absorbent 
 vessels may also occasion the disease, and a 
 consequent debility in those vessels to perform 
 their functions. 
 
 It sometimes happens in horses that are 
 brought up immediately from grass, and ridden 
 rather sharper than they ought to be, which 
 causes congestion of the brain ; but as we 
 shall have to speak of that disease in its proper 
 place, we will now enter on the symptoms of 
 dropsy in the head. 
 
 AVhon a horse is attacked witli tliis, he re- 
 fuses his food, hangs his head down in the 
 manger, is dull, and seems careless of all kinds 
 of nourishment ; hanging liimself forward, rest- 
 ing his whole weight on his fore legs, looking 
 as if he was going to sleep, and wanted rous- 
 ing up. 
 
 When these symptoms appear, a reason must 
 
 Watery solution of Aloes 
 Nitre .... 
 Linseed Meal 
 
 '1 do. 
 . '1 do. 
 Mix for a drink, and give immediately. 
 
 Let the horse have plenty of room, such as 
 a loose box, or bay of a barn. Let him havo 
 plenty of straw, in case he should lie down, 
 and be inclined to roll or knock himself about. 
 Should this treatment not appear to reliete 
 him, apply a blister to the poll or back of tho 
 neck, composed of 
 
 Cantharides 
 Ilog's Lard 
 
 2 drachms. 
 2 oz. 
 
 Let this ointment be well rubbed in beliind 
 the ears. 
 
 Should the disease be occasioned by blows, 
 or falls, &c., examine the head well for any 
 convincing proof of the pain that may be exist- 
 ing there. Should there be evidence of this, 
 do not hesitate immediately to open the tem- 
 poral artery, and abstract as much blood as 
 you can, without the horse's fainting. Should 
 he begin to tremble, it is time to leave ofi", for 
 the object has been gained. 
 
 Secure the artery in the following manner: — 
 Have a curved needle, armed with doubled 
 whity-brown thread, and take up the lips as 
 directed in sutures ; then lay a pledget of tow 
 over the orifice, tie up the suture, and tho 
 bleeding will be stopped. 
 
 For feed, give very little, or no hay, but 
 bran mashes. Do not give any corn. We re- 
 commend bleeding, if tiie disease arises from 
 blows, because this is most likely to stimulate 
 the absorbents to perform their natural func- 
 tions. For the medical treatment, proceed as 
 before directed. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE CHEST. 
 
 This, as a primary affection, is not common 
 in the horse ; but, as a secondary attack, is fre- 
 quent, and more especially in an attack of in- 
 flammation. It consists of a collection of fluid 
 within the cavity of one or both of the plurae; 
 
 235 
 
DEOPST.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [deopst. 
 
 and when this is the case, there can be no doubt 
 of its arising from debility. Many gallons of 
 fluid have been found so formed within a very 
 short space of time ; in some instances pus has 
 been discovered ; in others, matter and other 
 coagulahle masses. 
 
 The causes of this disease are found prin- 
 cipally to be connected with the termination 
 of inflammation of the lungs, and are gene- 
 rally to be discovered by the peculiar action of 
 the horse in breathing, and even in his method 
 of standing — straddling wide with his fore legs. 
 Not unfrequently his breathing is accompanied 
 with a jerk ; and if close attention is paid, the 
 water in his chest may be heard to make a 
 sudden noise, as if disturbed. This arises 
 from the lungs taking in air, and, in con- 
 sequence, becoming dilated, and occasioning 
 the rumbling noise in the chest with the 
 water. Horses that are ill-treated, and have 
 bad keep, will sometimes have dropsy of the 
 chest, when little or no inflammatory action 
 has been going on. Such as have it from 
 these causes, may perform slow work for some 
 time without the disease being discovered, the 
 poverty of the masters not enabling them to pro- 
 cure assistance in time, whereby bad condition 
 is produced in the horse, and consequent debi- 
 lity, until nature takes compassion on the poor 
 animal, and finishes his career in death. On 
 opening the animal, a quantity of yellowish 
 serous fluid is found floating about his chest, 
 the lungs are contracted and smaller, on account 
 of the fluid interfering with them in the cavity, 
 when the horse is then pronounced rotten. 
 
 In treating for this disease, care must be 
 taken not to determine too hastily on bleeding ; 
 for this should never be done, even though 
 the pulse is quick, for the quickness is in con- 
 sequence of dehility, and not arising from fever. 
 "When the aflEection is formed, it is seldom or 
 ever that any iuflammatory action remains ; 
 consequently, blood-letting would be highly 
 injurious, and the result would prove that the 
 cause had been mistaken for the eff*ect. Ex- 
 perience, of course, is the best guide in such 
 cases. 
 
 JNIedicines to promote nausea are frequently 
 said to have a good eft'ect ; but we have not 
 found this to be the case, although we have 
 tried them several times, such as white helle- 
 bore, in two-dram doses, every five hours. In 
 236 
 
 administering the following, however, our most 
 sanguine expectations have been realised. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron . . . . 2 oz. 
 Juniper Berries . . . . 2^ do. 
 
 Myrrh 2 do. 
 
 Antimony 1 lb. 
 
 Sulphur 8 drachms. 
 
 Form into a mass with soft soap. 
 
 Divide into twelve balls, and give one night 
 and morning. 
 
 Eowels and setons sometimes do good in 
 this disease, but they are so long in acting 
 that we would recommend blistering the sides 
 and chest in preference. Give the most nutri- 
 tious food possible ; oats, with a few beans in 
 them for corn, with the best old hay, and let 
 oatmeal, or rice, be boiled in the animal's water. 
 Should the above remedies fail, the last re- 
 source is to puncture, or tap the chest. 
 Although this operation is delayed almost to 
 the latest period of the disease, and very unfre- 
 quently succeeds ; still we have been successful 
 in a cure, when driven to this extremity. The 
 earlier it is performed, however, the greatei 
 the probability of its having the desired eft'ect. 
 
 AVe will now describe the mode of perform- 
 ing the operation. 
 
 The situation most eligible for the opening, 
 is that wherein a depending orifice may bo 
 gained for the complete evacuation of the 
 water, without danger of wounding important 
 parts by the puncture. If it is carried too 
 low, the mediastinal folds, or even the pericar- 
 dium may be endangered ; but this would only 
 occur where the puncture was attempted per- 
 pendicularly, so as to make it between the 
 cartilages of the ribs ; but in either of the 
 costal openings, between the seventh and 
 tenth ribs, about an inch above their termina- 
 tion into cartilage,* an opening may be first 
 made by a scalpel, towards the anterior edge 
 of the rib, to avoid wounding the intercostal 
 vessels, first drawing the skin a little forwards 
 or backwards, to ensure a future closing to 
 the access of air. Having done this carefully, 
 introduce a three-inch trochar, by penetrating 
 the muscle between any of the above-men- 
 tioned ribs; then withdraw the trochar, and 
 allow the cannula to remain in until the whole 
 of the fluid is drawn off". Having performed 
 this operation, and the discharge of the fluid 
 * See Plate f Skeleton. 
 
a, 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a' 
 
 a 
 > 
 
 
 N 
 
 <u 
 
 Oh 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 S 
 
 tH 
 
 ■< 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 c=3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 fo 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 '00 
 
 ^ 
 
 P! 
 
 t? 
 
 ■i 
 
 •H 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 IV 
 
 r^ 
 
 riA 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
DBOPST.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [dbopbt. 
 
 is such as to carry conviction that you were 
 corrt'ct in your juiisjjmont, puncture the oppo- 
 site cavity in a siiuihir manner. If the droi)sy, 
 or accumulation of thiicl is fully formed that 
 is, if one or both cavities be nearly filled with 
 serosity — less caution is necessary in the intro- 
 duction of the trochar ; and if tlio operation 
 is performed early in the disease (which, in 
 general, it should be, to ensure success), then it 
 is necessary to proceed more cautiously, to 
 avoid puncturing the lungs. 
 
 Having introduced the trochar only bo far 
 as to observe the gush of Uuid, put the can- 
 nula forward, and retract the other so as to 
 have the cannula alone in the orifice. The 
 cannula must be pushed up to its collar, where 
 it will remain until the fluid is all drawn ofY. 
 
 Coagula, or even the inflation of the lungs, 
 is sometimes found to obstruct the flowing of 
 the latter portions of the fluid. To obviate 
 this, introduce a probe into the cannula occa- 
 sionallv, until you are satisfied that the whole 
 has come away. 
 
 When the wh.ole of the fluid has been with- 
 drawn, take out the cannula, and close the 
 orifice by adhesive plaister, or by the common 
 suture. Tou must not think of performing 
 the operation a second time, although this is 
 frequently done with the human subject; for 
 having drawn off the fluid, reliance must be 
 placed on the medicine before prescribed. 
 Should water again accumulate, the debility 
 will be so much the more increased, and the 
 natural consequence will be that the animal 
 will sink under the disease. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE PERICARDIUM. 
 
 Dropsy of the pericardium is an increased 
 collection of fluid in the sac surrounding the 
 heart ; therefore called dropsy of the heart. 
 The symptoms are the same as in the pre- 
 ceding case ; but there is no means of cure 
 for it; therefore, we must submit to nature in 
 this case, and allow her to perform her own 
 operations, obeying her laws. 
 
 Frequently the veterinary surgeon is blamed, 
 in this disease, for the losing of an animal which 
 it was impossible to preserve. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 
 
 This, like the last-named disease, seldom oc- 
 curs in the horse ; but when it does, there is 
 
 frequently great dilliculty in detecting it. It 
 may take place afti-r inllamiualion of noine of 
 ihe abdominal vi.><cera ; and connistM of nii in- 
 creased deposit of fluid within the cavity of 
 the belly. Here is formed what is calKd ihe 
 peritoneal sac, only of such dimensioiiH as to 
 hold its natural organs, such as the stomaclj, 
 liver, intestines, &c. If water escapes into 
 this cavity, it at once becomes a foreif,'n b(uiv, 
 and is known by the tension of the abdomen, 
 and by the undulations which are felt by ono 
 hand, when the belly is gently struck by the 
 other. Also, if the ear is placed on one side 
 of the belly, and some person desired lightly to 
 force the opposite with the hand, the undu- 
 lating motion of the water will be heard per- 
 fectly distinct. 
 
 In this disease, the urine is made in small 
 quantities, the thirst is great, and the breath- 
 ing quick and laborious. This is in conse- 
 quence of the fluid having taken up a portion 
 of the cavity of the abdomen, and the lungs 
 having become pressed upon, and not left suf- 
 ficient room to perform their natural functions. 
 From the abdominal viscera, too, pressing ui)on 
 the diaphragm, the flesh becomes wasted, as 
 well as the adipose matter, which is frequently 
 found fl.oating in the fluid. 
 
 For this continuation of symptoms we can- 
 not always rely on a cure ; but the disease for- 
 tunately happens but seldom, and then it is 
 frequently the sequel of some other disorder of 
 the viscera. If the animal, however, has sta- 
 mina sufiicient, there is a probability of re- 
 covery. Diuretic medicines are the only means 
 to rely on, combined with tonics; and we can- 
 not recommend anything better than the pre^ 
 scription laid down for dropsy in the chest. 
 If possible, give exercise, rub the legs well, and 
 bandage with flannel. AV'e have found a cure, it' 
 taken in time, efl'ected by blistering all fbu' 
 legs ; and where the blisters rise well, this is 
 pretty certain of being the case. 
 
 WATER FARCY, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 The proi)er name of this disease is anasarca; 
 but we have kept to the name it is generally 
 known by, and that because it most frequently 
 happens with young horses, and consequently, 
 not having left the hands of the agriculturist, 
 who might be somewhat puzzled without the 
 
 local name. 
 
 237 
 
DROrSY.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [swelled legs. 
 
 "Water farcy is described as a species of 
 dropsy, rising from a serous fluid being spread 
 between the skin and flesh ; or, ratlier, it is a 
 general collection of lymph in the cellular sys- 
 tem. It shows itself first by a swelling under 
 the horse's belly. This tumefaction is soft and 
 inelastic, and when pressed upon by the finger, 
 retains its mark for some time. By degrees it 
 ascends and occupies the trunk of the body and 
 the neck ; even the eyelids, face, and nostrils 
 appear bloated ; the lips are much swollen ; also 
 the legs and the sheath become greatly en- 
 larc^ed. When the disease arrives to this pitch, 
 breathing becomes difficult, the urine small in 
 quantities, and dark coloured ; the bow^els are 
 costive, and perspiration much obstructed. A 
 remarkable thirst, attended with emaciation of 
 the whole body, takes place ; and to these symp- 
 toms may be added, a dull heavy appearance, 
 and sometimes a cough. 
 
 In some cases the watar oozes out through 
 the pores of the skin ; and the hair, which is, 
 during the spring and the fall, rather longer 
 than at other periods, becomes covered with 
 the fluid thus effused. 
 
 This disease may be brought on by all the 
 causes which produce the last-named ; but 
 here we should say that debility is the chief 
 cause. It is very frequent in the spring and 
 the fall of the year, when horses are weak from 
 moulting. "When the disease is partial, it is 
 not so difficult to cure as when it has become 
 general. In treating for it, we must proceed 
 to rouse the system by giving tonics, the most 
 successful of which will be found in the follow- 
 iAg:— 
 
 Cantharides 
 
 , 1 drachm. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 
 
 . 2 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Copper . 
 
 . . 2 do. 
 
 Gentian . 
 
 . . 4 do. 
 
 Mustard 
 
 . . 3 do. 
 
 Ginger 
 
 . . 3 do. 
 
 Mix, and form into a mass with soft soap 
 
 Divide into twenty-four balls, and give one 
 every morning. 
 
 If the swellings bave become considerable, 
 puncture them with a middle-sized phleme, or 
 lancet, in several places, and allow the fluid to 
 evacuate. 
 
 Great care must be taken to keep the 
 horse warm. He must be clothed well, and 
 well dressed morning and night; by which 
 238 
 
 means tbe exhalants of the skin will be opened, 
 and the animal greatly relieved. Attention 
 must also be paid to hia feeding, and the most 
 nutritious kinds of food given him ; oats, with 
 beans, malt, and occasionally a few carrots. 
 When the weather will permit, let him have 
 exercise, with his clothing on. This will de- 
 termine blood to the skin, and give him great 
 relief; always remembering to put on him, after 
 he has been dressed, a dry cloth. Do not for- 
 get to bandage his legs well with new flannel 
 bandages. If he should not be in the debili- 
 tated state described, give him, in addi- 
 tion to the medicine prescribed, two or three 
 times a week, at night-time — ■ 
 
 Aloes, Cape . . . .12 drachms. 
 
 Nitre 12 do. 
 
 llesin 12 do. 
 
 Mix, and divide into six balls. 
 
 SWELLED LEGS. 
 
 Swelled legs is a very prevalent disease of 
 the horse, principally affecting the hind, or 
 only one of the hind legs, although the fore 
 are not exempt from the affection. It arises 
 from various causes ; but the one we have now 
 to speak of, is occasioned by a deposition of 
 fluid in the cellular membrane of the limbs — 
 commonly in their lower parts, below the 
 knee to the hoof. If the disease is suffered to 
 increase, the skin cracks, and ultimately dis- 
 charges pus, and then the complaint falls 
 under the head " Grease," which is treated of 
 in its proper place. 
 
 Swelled legs may be brought on by poverty, 
 or wet straw-yards, especially where the animal 
 has not been fed well, but kept on the out- 
 sides of hay-stacks, or that musty bad hay 
 with which the farmer can do nothing else. 
 
 The complaint may supervene on other long- 
 protracted diseases, and any of the above causes 
 may produce it. Bad grooming will also bring 
 it on ; and the disease is very painful, and at 
 times occasions lameness, and gives a great 
 deal of trouble. 
 
 In all the foregoing stages, it is not difficult 
 to restore the patient ; for it is evident that the 
 disease has arisen from the debility of the 
 absorbents to take up the eff'used fluid, and 
 return it into the system. In treating for it, 
 therefore, we must employ tonic medicines to 
 arouse them to a new action. Bleeding is not 
 
DIABETES.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [diabetls. 
 
 at all necessary ; but we wouUl recomiiioiul i\\c 
 following : — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron .... l-> .In.rl.ms. 
 
 Cape Aloes 12 do. 
 
 Juniper Berries ....<> «o. 
 
 Myrrh do. 
 
 Form into a mass with soft soap. 
 
 Divide into six balls, and give one every morning. 
 Let the horse's legs be well rubbed and ban- 
 daged. Give him gentle exercise once or twice 
 a day; and these things being attended to, 
 with good grooming and nutritious diet, as 
 sweet oats, with a little chall' and bran, and 
 occasionally a few carrots and speared barley, 
 will restore him. Avoid, of all things, giving 
 beans, as, when a horse comes from grass, or 
 the straw-yard, and beans immediately given 
 to him to force him, as it is called, the heels 
 generally, after swelling, become cracked. 
 This leads us to consider those other causes 
 which occasion swelled legs, as heated and 
 foul atmosphere, standing long in dung and 
 urine, living high in the stable, and having 
 
 little or no work. ]n coach-horHcs in particu- 
 lar, where their jounieya do not exceed ei^^htor 
 ten miles a ilay, which are genenilly performed 
 in an hour, or a trillo of time more, the diHeiwo 
 ia brought on by their titaiuling in the stablo 
 twenty-three hours out of the twenty- four. 
 Horses coming into hot stables with their 
 heels wet from having been in water, and 
 not immediately attended to — in most of tlieso 
 cases local debility is the cause ; but we 
 should not say general debility ; because it 
 occurs to horses high fed and exercised, as' 
 well as to plethoric animals, which sometimes 
 are neglected. In treating for swelled legs in 
 plethoric horses, bleeding will be highly neces- 
 sary, with a course of physic — according to 
 strength and constitution — of the purging- 
 balls. After this, administer a dozen of diuretic 
 balls, as prescribed in the list of medicines at 
 the end of this work ; and proceed as recom- 
 mended in the article Condition, to which we 
 beg to refer the reader ; and which will bo found 
 to contain all the directions necessary. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII, 
 
 DIABETES; BLOODY URINE ; STRANG UAKY ; URINARY ORGANS. 
 
 DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING. 
 
 Diabetes is not frequently found in the horse ; 
 but as it is occasionally, it deserves notice. 
 Its indications are great thirst, accompanied 
 with a voracious appetite, gradual emaciation 
 of the whole body, and a frequent discharge of 
 urine, containing a large proportion of saccha- 
 rine and other matter, voided even in a quan- 
 tity exceeding that of the aliment or fluid 
 introduced. These are the characteristics of 
 this disease. But it is always much milder 
 when symptomatic, than when it appears as a 
 primary affection. It may be occasioned by 
 the too frequent use of strong diuretic medi- 
 cines, severe evacuations, or by anything that 
 tends to produce an impoverisa-id state ot the 
 blood, or general debility; such as bad hay, 
 heated oats, or such as may have been long on 
 their passage, either from the Baltic or Ireland. 
 
 It has, however, taken place, in many instances, 
 without an obvious cause. 
 
 That which immediately gives rise to the 
 disease, has always been considered as obscure, 
 and various theories have been advanced to 
 account for it. It has been usual to consider 
 it as the effect of relaxation of the kidneys, or 
 as depending on a general coUiquation of the 
 fluids. The liver has been thought, by some, 
 to be its chief source ; but this organ is hardly 
 ever affected by it. 
 
 The primary seat of the disease, although 
 not absolutely determined, is considered, by 
 the majority of practitioners, to be dependent 
 on a primary aHection of the kidneys. 
 
 It sometimes comes on so slowly and imper- 
 ceptibly, without any previous disorder, that it, 
 now and then, attains to a considerable degree, 
 and subdiita long without being accompanied 
 
 239 
 
DIABETES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AXD 
 
 [UEINB. 
 
 by evident disarrangement in any particular 
 part of the system. The intense thirst which 
 always, and the voracious appetite which fre- 
 quently attend it, being often the only re- 
 .Tiarkable symptoms. It, however, generally 
 happens that a very considerable affection of the 
 stomach precedes the coming on of the disease ; 
 and that in its progress, besides the symptoms 
 already mentioned, there is great dryness and 
 roughness of the coat. 
 
 Under a long continuance of the disease, 
 the body becomes much emaciated; the legs 
 swell, great debility arises, and the pulse is 
 weak and small. 
 
 In some instances, the quantity of urine ex- 
 pelled is much greater than can be, by any 
 means, accounted for from all sources united ; 
 and when subjected to analysis, it is found to 
 contain a considerable quantity of saccharine 
 matter. 
 
 On dissecting and examining the kidneys of 
 horses which have fallen victims to this disease, 
 they have invariably appeared to have been 
 much affected. In some instances they have 
 been found in a loose flabby state, much en- 
 larged in size, and of a very pale colour. In 
 others, they have appeared much more vascular 
 than when in a healthy state, approaching 
 pretty nearly to what takes place in inflam- 
 mation. The bladder, in almost all cases, is 
 found to contain a considerable quantity of 
 muddy urine. 
 
 In treating for it, there have been a great 
 variety of remedies proposed ; but their success 
 is generally precarious, or, at least, only tem- 
 porary. Medicines determining blood to the 
 skin, are good for it ; therefore we recommend 
 the following: — 
 
 Antimony , . . • . . 1 lb. 
 Sulphur 1 do. 
 
 Eub together in a mortar, and divide into two- 
 ounce packets. Give one in the feed, morning 
 and night ; first making the feed slightly damp, 
 that the powder may adhere to it. 
 
 It" the horse should appear weak and much 
 debilitated, give him one of the above powders 
 in his feed every night, and the following the 
 first thing in the morning : — 
 
 Opium I drachm. 
 
 Catechu 3 do. 
 
 Arsenic 10 grains. 
 
 Form into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. 
 240 
 
 In addition to this, give about a pint of fresh 
 lime-water, with a horn, every mid-day. To 
 make the lime-water, take of quick-lime, 
 light and fresh-burnt, one pound ; put it into 
 an earthen vessel, and pour upon it two gallons 
 of water ; let it stand until the lime is settled, 
 then pour off" the clean water. It must be 
 kept in bottles, well corked. Keep the horse 
 warm, and well clothed, and give moderate ex- 
 ercise. Do not ride him, but lead him, the 
 groom riding another. Great attention must 
 be paid to his food. If it is at a time of the 
 year when new hay can be got, give some to 
 prevent him from being thirsty. Oats must 
 not be given, but barley, speared, or wheat 
 with it ; but not much. 
 
 BLOODV URINE. 
 
 This is a disease generally caused by some 
 injury done to the kidneys, in straining to draw 
 heavy loads, or carrying heavy burdens. It may 
 be caused by ulceration of the kidneys, pro- 
 duced by violent exercise, or bursting some of 
 the smaller vessels or other urinary passages, or 
 any causes that may occasion rupture of the ca- 
 pillary blood-vessels in those parts. If there 
 is a sudden discharge of pure blood by the 
 urinary passages, it comes from the kidneys; 
 but if a small quantity of dark-coloured 
 blood, whether it be mixed with purulent 
 matter or not, it proceeds from the bladder. 
 
 In prescribing for a cure, avoid giving diure- 
 tics, for they are very hurtful ; and endeavour 
 to restore the parts to a healthy state as soon 
 as possible. With a view to this desirable end, 
 give the following : — 
 
 Catechu 3 drachms. 
 
 Opium 1 do. 
 
 Alum 2 do. 
 
 Aloes, Barbadoes . . . 1 do. 
 Form into a ball with honey or treacie. 
 
 Give one morning and night. 
 
 Many persons apply hot sheep-skins to the 
 loins, but we never saw much good effiect arise 
 from their application. On applying the follow- 
 ing, however, great good will arise to the loins 
 of the animal. 
 
 Liquor of Ammonia . , . , 2 oz. 
 
 Olive Oil 2 do. 
 
 Eub this on the loins morning and night. 
 Mix, and when applied, shake the bottle well. 
 If the horse is in high condition, take three or 
 
BTBANOrABT.] 
 
 MODEKN VETEKINAKY PRACTICE. 
 
 [btbakouaht. 
 
 four quarts of blooi.1 from him, aiul kot'p Iiim 
 warm. 
 
 STRANUU.\RY. OR OBSTRUCTION OF URINli:. 
 
 Thi3 disease consists of an obstruction, or 
 temporary suppression of urine, and may arise 
 from dilVorent causes ; for, the parts appro- 
 priated to the secretion and excretion of urine 
 are so numerous, that the exact cause of the 
 disease becomes a matter of ambiguity and 
 uncertainty, even to very good judges. 
 
 Stranguary, sometimes, is a concomitant of 
 inflammatory colic, and is then the effect of 
 pressure from the indurated ficces, or hardened 
 dung, retained in the rectum. AVhen it docs 
 not arise from this cause, it may proceed from 
 inflammation of the kidneys themselves, from 
 ulceration, spasms in any particular part, in- 
 flammation of the neck, or the bladder itself. 
 
 "When it is the consequence of colic, and 
 proceeds only from that cause, it may be con- 
 sidered merely symptomatic, and may be en- 
 tirely subdued on its first appearance, Tlie 
 signs of the suppression are too palpable to be 
 mistaken. The animal is in an almost per- 
 petual position to stale, without effect — indi- 
 cating, by action and attitude, the expectation 
 of an unusual discharge ; when, after frequent 
 straining, the effort terminates in a groan of 
 seeming disappointment. He does not, in 
 general, appear in acute pain, but seems full in 
 the flank, somewhat dejected, and, to a minute 
 observer, appears not only conscious of his 
 inability to stale, but as if supplicating assis- 
 tance and relief. 
 
 The most certain means of affording relief 
 is to abstract about three or four quarts of 
 blood, which will re);?x the parts ; then intro- 
 duce the hand into the rectum, and remove all 
 hardened dung. This operation — which, by 
 the old farriers, is called hack-raking — being 
 done, throw up an emollient clyster, com- 
 posed of — 
 
 Thin Gruel .... 3 pints. 
 Common Salt .... 3 table-spoonfuls. 
 
 Let this be injected nwiderattrly warm, and 
 retained in the body as long an posMible, by 
 keeping the tail pressed down against tlio 
 fundament. If the bleeding and clvMlcru have 
 not iuid the desired effect in a moderalu time 
 repeat the clyster, and give — 
 
 C:>mi)lior 2 (Irachin*. 
 
 Nine 1 (,/.. 
 
 Form into a ball witli treacle. 
 Administer as soon as possible. 
 
 These are safe, mild, and efficacious mea- 
 sures, and, in general, produce the desired 
 effect, without any uneasy sensations, liepeat 
 the remedies every four or five hours, until the 
 object is gained. 
 
 Tlius much for stranguary occasioned by 
 spasm, or inflammation of the neck of the 
 bladder; but it may proceed from inflam- 
 mation or ulceration of tiie kidneys, accom- 
 panied with a paralytic afl'ection or palsy of 
 the parts; in either of which, symptoms are 
 frequently doubtful, and seldom certain. Cir- 
 cumstances may constantly vary in different 
 subjects, so as to render the true seat of 
 disease a matter of conjecture only. 
 
 Tiie only symptoms to which some certainty 
 may be attributed are the following : — If pro- 
 ceeding from spasm, on either part, there may 
 be frequent periodical relaxations, which will 
 permit the urine to flow in small quantities 
 for a very short time, when it may as suddenly 
 stop. In this case, the urine will be of its 
 usual colour, or at times rather darker, as if 
 not perfectly complete in its secretion from 
 the blood. In such a case the treatment 
 should be as just pointed out, but with the 
 addition of repeating the bleeding. 
 
 AV^here the case originates in palsy, or ulce- 
 ration of any of the above-named organs, ful- 
 filling the functions of the evacuations, no 
 great expectation of cure can be indulged in, 
 especially if the case is really one of palsy, 
 which approaches certain death, and which ex- 
 hibits all tlie characteristics of the most dan- 
 gerous species of disease. 
 
 2 I 
 
 'Zi^ 
 
CASTBATTON.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CASTEATIOK. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 CASTRATION, OR GELDING; HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 
 
 CASTRATION, OR GELDING. 
 The operation of castrating a horse is by the 
 removal of his testicles, when, in technical 
 language, he becomes what is called a gelding. 
 The operation is the cause of the loss, to a 
 cousiderable degree, of that fiery disposition 
 sometimes displayed in the entire animal, or 
 stallion. The geldiug is considered of so 
 much more general use, that few entire horses 
 are kept, except in the racing stud, or by 
 individuals, to breed from. 
 
 The proper time for castrating colts, is 
 when they are about twelve, or from that to 
 eighteen months old; but we have known both 
 testicles, even at that age, not having de- 
 scended into the scrotum. When such is the 
 case, the operation must be delayed a few 
 months longer. Some breeders, according to 
 the custom of their locality, will have their 
 colts cut when they are only about three 
 months old ; but, for all general purposes, we 
 should recommend that colts should not be cut 
 earlier than at twelve months. By this time 
 they are better formed, and it is at a time 
 when they cannot be used for any kind of work. 
 In Yorkshire they do not cut until the 
 animals are three or four years old ; hence the 
 high breed of coach-horses in that county. 
 Breeders there work them until they are 
 nearly four or more years old, then castrate 
 and bring them out at five years fit for the 
 dealer ; and, with the exception of cart-horses, 
 they are the most valuable kind to breed from. 
 
 There is a great difterence in castrating 
 young colts and old horses — the former re- 
 quiring no preparatory means to be employed, 
 in consequence of their having been con- 
 tinually at grass. Not so, however, with old 
 horses, which should be bled, and liave a dose 
 of physic, and be fed on bran mashes for a week 
 before the operation takes place. 
 
 In effecting the operation, the mode of pro- 
 ceeding is to have the horse led out on to 
 some soft straw or loose manure, then the 
 hobbles put on, and the animal cast on his left 
 side. The off hind leg should be secured with 
 242 
 
 the side line, passed through a web collar 
 buckled round the neck, and the line taken 
 round the heel, and again through the collar. 
 Before the operation is commenced, everything 
 should be made perfectly and securely fast, that 
 there may be no possibility of its giving way. 
 Having everything in readiness— such as the 
 smallest scalpel, the clams armed with fresh 
 tow, and a curved needle armed with fine 
 pack-thread, in case of accident — take one of 
 the sacs of the scrotum firmly in the left hand ; 
 then having the scalpel in the right, make a 
 section in the skin in the most depending part 
 of the bag, through tlie integuments, and of 
 sufiicient length for the testicle to protrude. 
 Having accomplished this, lay down the 
 scalpel, grasp the protruded testicle with the 
 right hand, and gently draw back the scrotum 
 witli the other, so as to expose the spermatic 
 cord, on which fasten the clams sufficiently 
 tight to prevent its slipping. All this being 
 done, take the searing-iron, of a dark red heat, 
 and saw the testicle oft'. AVe say saw, because 
 if a saw-like motion is made, the end of the 
 cord becomes cerated, and then requires but 
 little more from the iron. Although in all 
 cases it is necessary to touch the end of the 
 cord again before loosening the clams, to pre- 
 vent bleeding, it is easily accomplished, pro- 
 vided due care is used. The clams may now 
 be gradually loosened; and if blood does not 
 appear, proceed with the other in the same 
 way. Should a little blood escape from the 
 first orifice, do not feel alarmed, for it may be 
 only from the struggling of the horse, which 
 may be permitted now to get up, and let him 
 be placed for a 'ie.'ff days in a barn or out- 
 house. AVhea the horse has been housed, 
 give a diuretic alterative ball, composed of the 
 subjoined ingredients : — 
 
 Cape Aloes .... 3 drachms 
 
 Resin 2 do. 
 
 Form into a ball with soft soap. 
 
 Continue the feed of bran mashes for three 
 or four days, then turn him out. 
 
 We have never found this simple method to 
 
CASTRATION.] 
 
 M01")T:rvX VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [CARTEATIOir. 
 
 fail, if proper care were taken ; alllu)ii';li it is 
 a matter of WDinler to us that many horses 
 do not die, from the nninh brutal manner 
 in wliielv the operation is pertornied in aomo 
 counties. Some veterinariana will not per- 
 form the operation at all, as it requires all the 
 skill of the surgeon. 
 
 AVhilst serving in India, there was a case in 
 which we were con.sulted, the subject of which 
 was a beautiful chestnut horse. Although he 
 was perfectly quiet and docile, the scrotum 
 had become so much enlarged in one of the 
 sacs, that it hung down within a few inches of 
 the hock of the animal. On examining this, 
 the testicle was found remarkably small ; but 
 it contained a considerable quantity of fluid, 
 which proved the fact that the horse was 
 affected with hydrocele. The fluid could 
 readily have been extracted ; but fearing the 
 bag might fill again, it was determined to per- 
 form an operation. Accordingly, on cutting 
 through the tunics of the scrotum, at least 
 three quarts of yellowish fluid escaped. At 
 this time it was difficult to retain hold of the 
 testicle, from the considerable enlargement of 
 the scrotum. However, this was done, and 
 the clams put well on ; but not being con- 
 tented with doing well, the testicle was imme- 
 diately removed with a scalpel, leaving the 
 cord only within the clams. AVith the hor.-.Vs 
 struggles, and the cremaster muscle being oa 
 the stretch, he easily withdrew it from be- 
 tween that instrument, when the cord of 
 course receded into the sac, and bleeding com- 
 menced most furiously. A straight needle was 
 then taken, and the glover's suture intro- 
 duced, when the scrotum filled with blood to a 
 tremendous extent. The horse was then 
 ordered to be kept quiet by himself, and six 
 drachms of aloes given him, with bran mashes 
 and hay. On the following day, the scrotum 
 was immensely large. Some warm water and 
 a sponge was then procured, and the stitches 
 becun to be cut. When this was done, it was 
 found that three parts of a common stable- 
 pailful of coagulated blood came tumbling 
 down through the orifice made for the escape 
 of the testicle. The scrotum was now well 
 syringed with warm water, into which about 
 two ounces of chloride of lime had been put, 
 until all appeared safe, and no discharge of 
 blood whatever was seen. The scrotum was 
 
 dressed in tluH manner for three or four davs 
 internally, and regularly balhed with warm 
 water outwardly, and around the uhealh, three 
 times a day. In three days ovtr a month iho 
 horse was fit to be ridden. 
 
 The clams used in India are made from a 
 round piece of wood about the size of tho 
 hanille of a sweeping-broom, and are about 
 live inches long. They are slit down tho 
 middle; so that they have two flat sides, with 
 a groove about the size of a goose-quill up the 
 middle. This groove is filled with corrosive 
 sublimate, one drachm, and hog's lard suifi- 
 cient to form an ointment. They are, before 
 placing on the cord, tied together at one end, 
 then at the other pressed together with pincers 
 and tied at the other : these are taken off on 
 the morrow after the operation. 
 
 In performing the operation of castration, 
 there are cautions required, and those of 
 moment ; and although the operation is mainly 
 performed by ignorant men, who are called 
 cutters or gelders, and, to all appearance, 
 things go on as they should do; yet if any 
 alteration for the worse takes place, these men 
 do not understand what to do. It therefore 
 behoves every man who undertakes the opera- 
 tion, to be well informed, not only of the parts 
 involved in it, but their means of cure. 
 
 The greatest enemy the operator has to 
 contend with, is inflammation of the parts. 
 Should this take place, and the horse walk 
 stiff on his hind legs, moving with a straddling 
 gait — especially if he be an old one — the parts 
 should be well bathed with warm water three 
 or four times a day, and each time wiped 
 thoroughly dry ; then the enlarged scrotum 
 and sheath should be rubbed all over with 
 o-ood digestive ointment, some of which may 
 be introduced into the sac, which will promote 
 a discharge. Give tho ball, as recommended 
 before, every second day, until the swelling 
 goes done. 
 
 The food must be regulated according to 
 the ar^e or size of the horse; but much cora 
 must not be given him ; bran mashes, greeu 
 food. Six'., are the best. To old animals, if 
 attacked with swellings after the operation, 
 a dose of physic must be given; and they 
 should be bled. All the other applications 
 will be needful to be attended to, precisely in 
 the same manner as directed for young horses. 
 
 243 
 
HBfiNIA.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [hernia. 
 
 Lock-jaw not unfrequently supervenes on 
 this operation in India, ia consequence of the 
 injury the nerve sustains, from the operator 
 pulling at the testicle too forcibly, as already 
 described. 
 
 HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 
 
 Hernia, or rupture, is the displacement of a 
 portion of the abdominal contents, from the 
 cavity outwards, by some of the natural, or by 
 some artificial openings. The intestines are 
 by far the most common of the abdominal 
 viscera. Wlien such displacement occurs 
 through an oiiening, and the protruded part 
 can be readily returned, it is considered as 
 reducible hernia. If, on the other hand, the 
 opening is too small, of course it becomes 
 irreducible. If the mouth of the sac around 
 the intestine constricts, and produces inflam- 
 mation of the gut, it then forms what is called 
 strangulated hernia, and sometimes proves 
 fatal, unless relief be promptly obtained. 
 
 From the position of the horse, stallions are 
 frequently affected with scrotal hernia, from 
 the scrotal cavity remaining open to the 
 abdomen, and the intestine descending ; but 
 this is not the case with geldings, for the 
 absorption which takes place after castration, 
 almost prevents the possibility of scrotal hernia. 
 In India, scrotal hernias are almost of daily 
 occurrence, especially with horses which have 
 violent action to perform, and are of a loose 
 weak nature. Castration is not general in 
 India ; and the relaxing state of the climate 
 may be considered to be the principal cause of 
 this, as the operation is attended, not only 
 with inconvenience, but great danger. 
 
 Omental hernia is exceedingly common in 
 the East, where the operation of castration 
 having been performed on a horse, the omentum 
 protrudes of itself. The clams were put on, 
 and the finger introduced into the sac, which, 
 as far as it could be felt, was ripped ofi". The 
 horse did well afterwards. Accidents, violent 
 ♦ exertion, kicks, gores from neat cattle, may 
 produce ventral hernia in any part of the 
 Cfwity, and they will form a pouch or sac. 
 
 Horses may die from strangulated hernia; 
 the death of which may be attributed to simple 
 ententes, or any other cause. There was, in 
 Devonport, a case of a black horse, which, on 
 being brought into stable, evinced symptoms of 
 244 
 
 ententes. He was bled to about six quarts ; 
 ordered gruel with clysters, as if for enterltes. 
 Some hours afterwards it was found that 
 the horse was not better. Counter-irritatioa 
 was then prescribed, but to no efiect- The 
 horse died soon afterwards ; and on opening him, 
 a strong ligamentous cord, as tliick as a man'a 
 finger, was found inserted into the peritoneum, 
 and continued up to the mesentery, into which 
 it was equally firmly inserted. Now, by some 
 violent exertion in going on the roads of 
 Cornwall, where the horse was worked, the 
 intestines had been thrown over this cord, and 
 could not replace themselves. Strangulation 
 was the consequence, clearly showing that vio- 
 lent exertions produce the disease. — To return, 
 however, to our subject. 
 
 Most cases of reducible hernia, originating 
 in accident to the walls of the abdomen, can 
 only be supported by a bandage ; the great 
 force of the abdominal muscles, and our in- 
 ability to keep the animal perfectly still while 
 the parts unite, preventing their permanent 
 reduction. 
 
 With scrotal hernia, however, we have a 
 much greater advantage ; and although the 
 temporary reduction of the gut may be com- 
 monly aflected by the application of the texis, 
 or by pressure, we have performed this opera- 
 tion when the accident never occurred again. 
 
 The symptoms whicli indicate scrotal hernia 
 appear in some of the actions of the animal. He 
 paws continually ; lies down, and as frequently 
 gets up ; sweats profusely about his loins and 
 quarters ; sometimes takes a roll ; but this ap- 
 pears to be done with sucli difliculty, that after 
 immediately doing so, he will jump up so sud- 
 denly, that it is difficult to get out of his way. 
 If the horse is an entire — for we have heard 
 writers talk of scrotal hernia in geldings, al- 
 though an instance never came under our notice 
 — examine well the scrotum, in reference to its 
 fulness and tensity. Being satisfied on this 
 point, have the horse's four legs secured, and 
 drawn by a rope until he completely lies on his 
 back. This being done, endeavour to return 
 the gut, by taking hold of the scrotum of the 
 diseased side, and pressing it back through 
 the fore finger and thumb. Should this not 
 be readily accomplished, recourse must be had 
 to the operation for hernia. When this is the 
 case, take the diseased sac into the left hand 
 
BTBAIN8.] 
 
 MODERN VETERTNAKY PTJArTICi:. 
 
 [BTRAiyS. 
 
 lightly; then, instead ot'ciittintjiit tlio most prii- 
 duloiis j>iirtofthes;u',a3 in castration, ciiutiously 
 cut into tlie sac near the seatn or pubis, runnin<j 
 between the saes of the serotmn. Next take 
 tlie scalpel, and divide the inte-^iiini. nts care- 
 fully, until the contents of the sac can be felt 
 with the fin^;er. The opening made should be 
 so small as only to admit the point of the 
 fore iin<:er. If the sac should bo large or di- 
 lated, tirst make an incision on the side, tliat 
 the fore finger may be introduced as far as 
 possible ; tuen a second cut should be made, 
 allowiug the fiuger to bo the dire"*^^'^" This 
 
 being accomplished, introtluco the fmger into 
 the abdomen, and feel fur the abdominal ring. 
 When this has been accomplirthed, tako a bin- 
 tory, and run it down by your finger, and 
 partially cut through the ring, keeping the 
 edge of the history bearing forward and up- 
 ward. Should you succeed in reducing the 
 hernia at first, the object is gained ; but if not, 
 vou may cautiously try again, and divide the 
 ring, should such be required. Immediately 
 castrate the horse on that side. Give a gentlo 
 dose of mcdiciue and soft food, as braa 
 mashes, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 STRAINS. — STRAINS IN GENERAL; IN TnE SHOULDER; BACK SINEWS ; OVER- STEPPING ; BREAKING-D0T7N ; 
 RUPTURE OF THE BACK SINEW; STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT; COFFIN JOINT; ROUND BONE; 
 STIFLE JOINT; ON CURB. 
 
 STRAINS IN GENERAL. 1 
 
 Strain's are of two kinds; the one originating' 
 in the ligamentary parts, by which the different I 
 joints are preserved in contact : the other, in 
 a relaxation of the muscles or tendons, or in a 
 rupture of any of the membranes covering or 
 adhering to such tendons, the purposes of 
 which are the direct office of motion. Hence 
 it is, that the farrier and the groom are so fre- 
 quently at a loss for their definition of any 
 particular lameness, fixing by conjecture upon 
 any part, and attributing it to any cause but 
 the right one. In giving their judgments, of 
 course, they are seldom directed by any mental 
 information, having little or no conception or 
 scientific knowledge of the structure of parts, 
 their purposes or appropriations. 
 
 The elastic part of a tendon or sinew, is that 
 which is the muscular, of which, in fact, the 
 tendon is a continuation only, with this differ- 
 ence, that the tendon is made by nature to 
 occupy a much smaller space than the muscle; 
 for it would destroy the synmietry of the ani- 
 mal if the mn?cles of the fore leg were to extend 
 down to the heel, instead of that fine uniform 
 make which the tendon gives, especially to the 
 
 race-horse. The tendon is not of that elastic 
 nature that some writers have described, but it is 
 in the muscular end where the elasticity exists. 
 This, at first sight, may appear strange, for the 
 injury takes place in the tendon, and not in the 
 muscle ; and for this reason, the non- elasticity 
 of the tendon and its sheath will rather sub- 
 mit to rupture, from want of the elastic 
 quality. These tendons, or sinews, are strong 
 substances, composed of innumerable threads 
 or fibres, possessing the properties of extension 
 and contraction to a certain degree, beyond 
 which their flexibility cannot be extended 
 without palpable injury and certain lameness; 
 for by overstraining their elastic quality, small 
 as it is, rupture is the consequence, accom- 
 panied with lameness in proportion to the 
 injury sustained. 
 
 To render this idea as clear as possible, let 
 us suppose that a horse is going at his best 
 pace on the trot, and in so doing his toe covers 
 a prominence, or the edge of one. In such a 
 case the heel has no support ; and the conse- 
 quence is, an extension of the tendons, or a 
 rupture of the same ; by which means part of 
 nature's work is destroyed, and what is termed 
 
STRAINS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [strains. 
 
 letting down of the back sinews, has taken place. 
 Instances of this are frequent on the turt, 
 when the horse is said to be " broken down." 
 
 When this has happened, the first thing to 
 be done is to prevent, as much as possible, in- 
 flammation from taking place in the parts. 
 
 To this end, take away, so soon as convenient 
 after the injury is sustained, a portion of blood 
 adequate to the state and strength of the sub- 
 ject, from a vein as contiguous to the part 
 affected as may be consistent ; and as success 
 will in a great degree depend upon the earliest 
 applications, take of 
 
 Vinegar 1 quart. 
 
 Make this hot, and add extract of Saturn, one 
 ounce. 
 
 Foment the leg wdtb this until it is ex- 
 hausted — say for two or three times a day ; 
 and after each fomentation, bandage the 
 leg well and firm, with a woollen bandage. 
 Give bran mashes for a day or two, and the 
 following : — ■ 
 
 Cape Aloes . , , . 2 drachms. 
 
 Juniper Berries . . . 1 do. 
 Form into a ball with soft soap. 
 
 Give one every other night. 
 
 After fomenting with the above for two days, 
 use the following embrocation. Let two or 
 three table-spoonfuls be gently and gradually 
 rubbed into the affected part, every night and 
 morning, always remembering to use the ban- 
 dage tolerably tight and firm : — 
 Liniment for Strains. 
 
 Barbadoes Tar .... 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine 
 
 Opodeldoc 
 
 Mix well together, and keep well stopped for 
 
 2 oz. 
 2 do. 
 4 do. 
 
 "Whilst applying this liniment, rest must be 
 given to the animal. Too much stress cannot be 
 laid upon this first necessity, from which the 
 greatest good must certainly result. It is to the 
 want of patience and mercy only, that we are to 
 attribute the blemishes to be found in such an in- 
 finite number of fine horses. Were such horses 
 indulged with proper time in the field, or the 
 luxury of a loose box, many of them would 
 be saved from having their legs seared with 
 the hot iron. Although the present age is full 
 pf equestrian sagacity and penetration, few can 
 be found, whose reason or experience has de- 
 monstrated to them the absolute necessity of 
 246 
 
 time and rest to restore the tone of a relaxed 
 muscle or tendon. 
 
 AVhen the horse has continued in the stable, 
 under the treatment mentioned, for at least a 
 fortnight, he should, if in the winter-time, have 
 his liberty in a loose box, bay of a barn, or large 
 stable, where he will, by a natural attention to 
 his own ease and safety — unless hurried, driven, 
 or disturbed, which should by all means be pre- 
 vented — sufficiently guard the injured parts. 
 On the contrary, if in the summer, he should 
 be turned into a paddock or pasture, alone, at a 
 distance from other animals, where he cannot, 
 by their neighings, be excited to any exertion 
 of spirit or extravagance that may occasion a 
 relapse. In either case, if the enlargement of 
 the part does not subside, and the lameness 
 bears no visible marks of amendment so soon as 
 may be reasonably expected, take him up, and 
 apply a liquid blister, composed of the following 
 ingredients : — 
 
 3Iild Liquid Blister. 
 
 Cantharldes, powdered ... 4 drachms. 
 
 Vinegar 4 oz. 
 
 Mix well together. 
 
 This must be gradually rubbed over the 
 whole part for at least half-an-hour, letting 
 it, if possible, be entirely absorbed around the 
 seat of pain; then apply the bandage as before 
 described, and shorten the halter, to prevent 
 the horse from gnawing the part. At the 
 expiration of three or four days, he may 
 either be turned otit, or put into a loose box, 
 as the time of year may serve; but let the 
 time of year be what it may, a loose box is 
 preferable to anything. When be is first 
 brought into use, let bis work or exercise be 
 gentle, for fear of a relapse. If this should 
 occur from some accident or misadventure, the 
 following lotion must be applied to the affected 
 part : — 
 
 The best Vinegar, or Verjuice . . 1 quart. 
 
 Common Salt 4 oz. 
 
 Rub the parts well with this twice a day. 
 
 By pursuing this mode of treatment, we 
 have seen the complete cure of many, without 
 the necessity of firing, which is in general by 
 far too hastily adopted, and hurried on by the 
 frequently unnecessary anxiety of the farrier. 
 With all kinds of strains, however, the animal 
 must have rest ; and to this alone, nine times 
 out of ten, the cure is to be attributed. Even 
 
BTnATNS.1 
 
 MODEltN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [STRAIXS. 
 
 lifter firing, in extreme cases, turiiint; cut, and 
 t:ikin<; the liortio up souiui, tho oun^ or souiui- 
 noss is rather to bo assignod to the rest than 
 the firing. 
 
 Strains in the ligainonlary parts are in gene- 
 ral oceasioned by sudden jerks, short turns, or 
 they may arise iVoni the limbs sinking in deep 
 ground, and tlie exertions wliich have to be made 
 to get tliem extricated. The ligamentary parts 
 being situated at the junction of bones, and, 
 in some cases, covered with muscles and soft 
 parts, no great expectation of relief can be 
 formed from the eilicacy of external applica- 
 tion, when the seat of pain is unluckily so 
 remote from tlie surface. AVe will now, how- 
 ever, enter upon a more especial description 
 of strains, and their mode of treatment, when 
 they occur in particular parts of the anatomical 
 structure. 
 
 STRAIN IN THE SHOULDER. 
 
 Strain in the shoulder was formerly called 
 chest, or body founder. AVhere there is strain 
 in the shoulder, there cannot be the slightest 
 mistake in discovering it, for the horse, in his 
 pace, makes a circuitous or rotary motion of 
 the leg that is aftected, and drags his toe on 
 the ground, in endeavouring to bring it forward. 
 He also, if we may be allowed tiie term, ap- 
 pears to hutch up that side altogether, in 
 endeavouring to walk. 
 
 These strains are frequently the consequence 
 of a side wrench, or slip, by which the fore 
 legs become so widely separated, that the 
 muscles are stretched to an unnatural extent, 
 or, in some cases, are actually ruptured ; the 
 greatest pain being evinced. The ligamentous 
 attachment also participates in the injury, as 
 the muscles of tliese parts are of themselves 
 of a peculiarly delicate and tender nature, so as 
 easily to become ruptured. Slioulder strains do 
 not frequently occur ; though grooms and 
 farriers, and other persons connected with 
 horses, are often led, from habit, to attribute 
 to them every lameness they do not under- 
 stand, and the seat of which does not make 
 itself evident to the untutored senses ; for, on 
 viewing a horse in front, the muscles of 
 one shoulder will sometimes appear wasted. 
 Though this be so evident, it requires more 
 than usual explanation to make even in- 
 telligent persons believe that the evil did 
 
 not originate where it appears to liavo done. 
 In all affections of tlie feet, where tlu'ro 
 is much [tain and lainenctss, nine timed 
 out of ten, tho lameness is placed on llio 
 shoulder, and this in consequence of persons 
 not knowing the real seat of disease; for the 
 horse will draw his fore legs closer together, 
 wlien the spine of tlie blade-bono becomes 
 prominent, and the whole substance seeina 
 lessened. Tlie origin is from inaction, in 
 which case muscles always diminish ; added to 
 which, the })ain the animal is continually in, 
 occasions him to give rest to the diseased 
 limb. 
 
 It is very necessary, therefore, to be ablo 
 accurately to distinguish shoulder strain ; and 
 if proper attention is paid to the rules before 
 laid down, as to the action of the leg, there 
 will be but little difficulty in at once pro- 
 nouncing where the seat of lameness exists. 
 AV^hen the horse is at rest, the limb is gene- 
 rally pushed forward, the animal scarcely daring 
 to touch the ground with it, the toe only jusl 
 resting on it, as we see when he seems to be 
 in tlie act of lifting the leg. By these means 
 it is easy to distinguish shoulder strain from 
 diseases of the feet ; for in those cases, the 
 horse puts his foot straight out — what is called 
 pointing — ^resting on the entire foot. These 
 symptoms being so entirely different to affec- 
 tions of the feet, there can be no difficulty in 
 determining between the two, especially if, in 
 taking the leg off the ground, and extending 
 it forward as much as possible, the muscles of 
 the chest are at the same time pressed. This 
 will at once determine, in the miud of a judge, 
 the seat of lameness. 
 
 The seat of the lameness being discovered, 
 we refer the reader to that portion of the 
 W'Ork treating of Strains in General; and, 
 as a remedy, we recommend the use of tho 
 liniment directed for strains. 
 
 Some people prefer what are called repellents, 
 or cold applications ; but these will be always 
 found to fail, nothing answering so well as a 
 remedy that will promote the action of the ab- 
 sorbents, and, at the same time, act as a counter- 
 irritant. Should the injury to the parts occa- 
 sion a degree of fever, let blood be taken from 
 the jugular vein, according to the size and 
 strength of the animal. Apply then the tar 
 liniment; but do not apply a common blister, 
 
 247 
 
STRAINS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [strains. 
 
 whether the lameness arise from a ligamentous 
 strain of the shoulder, or from the muscles of 
 the chest ; for, at best, either blemish or 
 eschar will be produced. As a mild applica- 
 tion in the form of a blister, we recommend 
 the mild liquid blister in the article on Strains 
 in General. Apply as directed under the 
 head of that article, rubbing on the affected 
 part, morning and night, until tlie swelling 
 and inflammation will not allow this to be 
 continued longer. Be not alarmed at this, 
 but wait for two or three days, and the 
 swelling will subside, when the application 
 should be repeated, until the same effects 
 again prevent the application. In this way a 
 mild inflammation should be kept up for a 
 week or ten days, in accordance with the abate- 
 ment of the disease. It is very seldom neces- 
 sary to continue the application after the 
 second time, the disease generally yielding by 
 that time to its use. This will be found a 
 much more eligible mode of practice than the 
 common blister ointment. 
 
 In addition to the above remedies, the 
 alterative medicine, as before directed, must 
 not be forgotten to be given, as it will not 
 only keep the system cool, but will promote 
 the absorption of any extravasated fluid that 
 may have taken place iu consequence of the 
 injury. 
 
 There is one thing in strain of the shoulder, 
 which must in nowise be lost sight of; and 
 that is rest. We have already mentioned this 
 in the article on Strains in General; but it 
 cannot be too deeply impressed on the minds 
 of the keepers of horses ; for, though the lame- 
 ness may disappear on bringing the animal 
 first to work, iu nine cases out of ten, the 
 lameness will return on the least exertion. We 
 would, therefore, again recommend at least a 
 month or two in a loose box, or in a field 
 wliere he can be quiet, previous to using him, 
 though he may not appear lame. 
 
 Horses sometimes, from other horses, receive 
 kicks, which aftect the shoulder, and occasion 
 considerable lameness, when there is no strain 
 whatever. When such is the case, bathe the 
 shoulder well with warm water ; after which, 
 wipe completely dry, and apply the tar lini- 
 ment, as directed before. Insert a rowel in 
 the chest, which will be preferable to bleeding 
 in the plate vein. 
 248 
 
 STRAIN OR CLAP IN THE BACK SINEWS. 
 A strain, or clap in the back sinews, is not 
 thought so much of by some writers as it 
 really deserves ; but it rarely occurs, that a 
 horse when once strained in his back sinews, or 
 tendons, or their sheaths, ever becomes able to 
 perform much hard work. Still, we have known 
 both race-horses and hunters to be capable of 
 work after an accident of this kind ; but not 
 frequently so. However, as the disease is one 
 which often occurs, we must do our best to 
 alleviate the acuteness of the pain under which 
 the animal labours when visited by such an 
 affliction. ** 
 
 Referring to the article on Strains in 
 General, it is there stated, that laceration of 
 some of the ligamentous fibres may occasion 
 the aflection ; still it is, however, more gen- 
 erally confined to a distension of those parts, 
 and of the sheaths of the tendons beyond their 
 structural capacity ; although there is little 
 reason to doubt that the tendons themselves 
 are also sometimes acted on. This disease 
 may occur to the hind legs, as well as to the 
 fore ones ; but we never saw it attack the hind 
 legs. It may, however, be brought on in the 
 fore legs by treading on anything suddenly ; 
 such as in downward leaps, in attempting to 
 recover a false step, or treading unevenly on 
 any hard or prominent substance. It is also 
 occasioned frequently by lowering the heels too 
 much, or too suddenly, by which the tendons 
 are brought too much into action. When the 
 injury has occurred, inflammation, with all its 
 attendants of heat, swelling, pain, and lame- 
 ness, and, in all probability, an incapability of 
 extending the limb, come on. The eft'usion 
 fi'om the ruptured vessels may be absorbed 
 with proper treatment ; but if coagulate lymph 
 is once formed, it will either be accomplished, 
 or, perhaps, not at all. More especially this will 
 be the case if the lymph should be thrown out 
 between the tendon and its sheath, where it is 
 not so readily absorbed, and where it may 
 form callosities around the back sinews, which 
 so frequently follow these accidents, and, by 
 their enlargement, obstruct the motion of the 
 limbs, which is felt in a great degree after ex- 
 ertion, and is shown in a particular manner at 
 first starting. Having become warm, however, 
 the lameness apparently leaves him ; and it is 
 
oveb-steppinq] modern VETERINAUT PTIACTICT3. [nnEAKiKO-Di.wN. 
 
 then said bv persons wlio have to drive suoli a | cannot pot out of the way of the hind ones, 
 horse, " Oh ! it wilt (/o ojj'as he hecovws warm ;" I When tliia ocrurH it is very liable to injure llio 
 not at all rt'lK'otiiiu; on the sulVcriiiKs of the fore leps, and, in some cases, bo iiiuc-h so, nu to 
 
 poor animal. The artion of exeirise, oceasiun- 
 ing friction, prudiiccs warmth, stimulates the 
 iibsorbenta to ttike up the lliiul Iroin the 
 mouth of the ruptured vessels, and conse- 
 quently, for ft time, or when the liorse is in 
 action, the swelling and lameness either 
 partially or wholly disappear. i'rom these 
 circumstances, the advantage of hand-rubbing 
 and the flannel bandage will at once be per- 
 ceived. 
 
 Por the treatment of strain in the back 
 sinews, we must refer our readers to where we 
 have treated of strains in general. Here, how- 
 ever, we may add, that on the first discovery 
 of the accident, the shoes should be taken olf, 
 and the heels turned up about half an inch. 
 This will greatly relieve the pain under which 
 the animal may be labouring. Bleed in the 
 plate vein ; next bathe the leg in warm water, 
 and use the "tar liniment," as before directed. 
 If symptomatic fever should come on, use the 
 alterative medicine, and a cooling diet, as bran 
 mashes, and a few carrots, now and then ; corn 
 need not be so plentifully given. 
 
 Should the repetition of the liquid blister 
 not be successful, have recourse to firing ; and, 
 with care, this operation may be performed 
 not only with neatness, but as scarcely to be 
 seen. We have, in severe cases, been obliged 
 to fire twice, which has proved successful ; still 
 we do not recommend firing until all other 
 remedies fail ; and previous to which, we would 
 advise the application of mercurial plaister ; 
 or, perhaps, what may be more convenient, 
 mercurial ointment. Take of 
 
 Mercurial Ointment (strong) . , , 2 oz. 
 Kub a portion of this on the diseased part, 
 first warming it to make it ])liable, morniug 
 ana night, for three days ; then, waiting one 
 day, apply the liquid blister as before described. 
 Put a cradle on the neck of the horse, to pre- 
 vent his biting the parts ; and if he appears 
 rritable, tie him up to the rack. 
 
 OVER-STEPPING. 
 Over- stepping, or, as it is called by some, 
 over-reaching, arises from a peculiar length of 
 action which the hind lejis have to the fore 
 
 throw the horse dnwn. 
 
 ()ver-ste|)ping Homctimes liappeiiH from the 
 toe of the hind foot being too long, and not 
 squared oil" properly. It may also occur from 
 bad rilling, in j)ulling up short, or by a \uirnQ 
 galloping with the wrong leg first, which alto- 
 gether alters his gait, so much bo as to bo 
 uncomfortable to both " man and beast," Tho 
 consequence is, that in the attempt to get 
 himself into the proper mode of gallop, he will 
 strike his hind foot against his fore leg; and, if 
 he does not come down, will lacerate the leg, 
 sometimes in a terrible manner. AN'^henever 
 tlie wound is such as to leave a flap of skin, 
 whether it is U[)ward3 or downwards, or side- 
 ways, it should immediately be cut ofl*as close 
 as possible, as a reunion of the parts can 
 never take place; and by leaving the flap, and 
 attempting to efl'ect the reunion of the parts, 
 there would be a thickening and a greater 
 blemish, and its removal would be found 
 necessary at last. 
 
 Though we have introduced this afFection in 
 the chapter on Strains, it probably would have 
 been better in the chapter on Wounds ; but it 
 so frequently happens that the tendons become 
 injured by the blow inflicted, that we may be 
 pardoned for including it with diseases of the 
 tendons. 
 
 In treating for over-stepping, poulticing wilV 
 
 be highly advisable ; and nothing can be better 
 
 than a warm bran poultice, which should be 
 
 applied until the inflammation is subdued, 
 
 always recollecting to bathe the leg in hot 
 
 water, AVheu the inflammation is removed, 
 
 use the following two or three times a day : — 
 
 Hog's Lard . . • . . .2 oz. 
 
 Alum, finely powdered ... 3 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc , . . . i do. 
 
 Work these ingredients well together in a 
 mortar, and apply as above. A cure may be 
 expected in a few days, 
 
 BREAKING-DOWN, 
 
 Breaking-down is a terra so generally under- 
 stood, that it is familiar to all sportsmen and 
 horsemen, though, in medical language, it ia 
 called ^^riiplure of the suspensory ligaments. 
 
 ones, in consequence of which the fore legs , This is an accident that most frequently occurs 
 2k' 249 
 
EUPTUEE.] 
 
 THE HORSE, A.ND 
 
 [coffin joint. 
 
 to young horses, either in breaking or train- 
 ing, and more particularly so to the race-horse 
 than to any other. The severe training the 
 race-horse has to undergo at the present day, 
 makes him exceedingly liable to rupture the 
 suspensory ligament ; as the fixed point of it 
 being immediately under the knee, and then 
 inserted into the heads of the sesamoid bones, 
 puts this ligament so much upon the stretch, 
 that at every bound the horse takes, there is 
 no wonder it becomes ruptured ; especially 
 when we take into consideration the age at 
 which horses are brought to the course now-a- 
 days, to what they formerly were, and also the 
 pace at which they go. Though the distance 
 may be short, it is tlie pace that kills. 
 
 It has been supposed by some, that this 
 accident has arisen from a rupture in the 
 flexor tendon ; and we have known, after the 
 operation of neurotomy, the flexor tendon to 
 be partially divided, and the horse go as if 
 rupture of the suspensory ligaments had taken 
 place. The limb, in such a case, betrays the 
 greatest- weakness, and the fetlock is almost 
 brought to the ground. 
 
 A perfect cure is seldom obtained ; but there 
 have been cases where horses have broken 
 down, and been able to race again, and become 
 valuable. AVe could relate several instances 
 of the sort ; but we will rather proceed to the 
 cure of breaking-down. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to bathe the 
 lesf well in hot water : then send for the shoe- 
 ing smith, and direct him to put on a high- 
 heeled shoe, in order to relieve the parts. The 
 horse, in consequence of the pain he endui-es, 
 will be anxious to eat. Therefore give him 
 cold bran mashes, and the alterative ball, as 
 prescribed in " Strains in General." This 
 being done, apply the tar liniment, as before 
 directed, well bandaging the leg, from the 
 knee to the fetlock joint, or a little below it. 
 If, after the trial of this application for about 
 a fortnight, it does not succeed, proceed to 
 firing ; for the mode of performing which, see 
 Plate. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE BACK SINEW. 
 
 This is an injury that does not frequently 
 occur, though the former injury is in many in- 
 stances mistaken for it ; but they are not the 
 same cases. Though the membranes and the 
 250 
 
 small vessels supplying them with blood, fre- 
 quently become ruptured, and occasion great 
 lameness, still the substance of the sinew rarely 
 is ruptured. In such a case we should recom- 
 mend the same treatment as in the preceding, 
 which will be always found the best; and if 
 necessity requires it, recourse to firing must be 
 had. Here rest will be a grand auxiliary, and 
 in a loose box, if possible ; for, from the fre- 
 quent excitements which a horse has in the 
 field, he is apt to forget his lameness for the 
 time, and commence galloping about, much to 
 his detriment, and to the retardmjBut of his 
 cure. Slinging has been recommended in cases 
 of this injury ; but the great difficulty in keep- 
 ing horses suspended is such, that we never 
 saw any good arise from it. 
 
 STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 
 This arises from injury done, to the liga- 
 mentous and tendinous connexion of these 
 parts, either from long-continued exertion, or 
 from the eff"ects of more momentary, but vio- 
 lent efforts ; such as are made in leaping, 
 or alighting on unequal or stony ground ; by 
 which means the leg may be turned aside, 
 similar to sprain of the ankle of the human 
 subject. Another cause is, that some horses, 
 let them be going at whatever pace they may, 
 occasionally have a peculiar drop behind. This 
 principally arises from debility, or from the 
 animal having travelled too far, and exhaustion 
 taken place. Though this at first seems but 
 trifiing, it occasions great pain to the horse. 
 Here the tar liniment will be found of great 
 benefit, seldom failing to remove the lameness 
 in a few days. In all these cases, the warm- 
 water bath and the flannel bandage should be 
 used. 
 
 STRAIN IN THE COFFIN JOINT. 
 
 Strain in the coffin, as it is termed by far- 
 riers and grooms, is not so common a case as is 
 generally thought to exist ; for its being con- 
 fined partially to the hoof, prevents its being 
 subject to those strains to which other joints 
 are liable. 
 
 When a horse becomes lame, an attentive 
 examination of the feet and coronet should not 
 escape the attentive observer; but if heat is 
 found about the coronet, this is not to be taken 
 for the disease. 
 
BTBAINB.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 The lateral lij;aiuc»ta iiiiitiii<? the small pas- 
 tern bone to the coUin bone, beinj^ the seat, of 
 disease, not iinfrequently ossilic matter ia He- 
 ereted, arisinij i'roin tbo inflammation that pro- 
 ceeds from the strain. To ascertain if tliis be 
 tiie ease, pass the hand carefully down the fet- 
 lock-joint, until it comes to two little promi- 
 nences. Just above the.se is the junction or 
 union of the large and small pastern bones : and 
 where this disease exists, considerable heat 
 will be felt; and on pressure, the horse will ex- 
 hibit considerable pain and uneasiness. 
 
 In treating for this kind of strain, bleed in 
 the pastern vein, or, probably, what will be more 
 convenient, take blood from the foot: pi-evious 
 to which, immerse the foot in hot water for at 
 least half-an-hour, changing the water as it be- 
 comes cool, xifter this, apply the mild blister 
 ointment, as directed in the list of medicines. 
 Should this prove ineffectual, have recourse to 
 firing. 
 
 STRAIN OF TIIE ROUND BONE. 
 
 The old farriers attribute lameness behind 
 to strain in the round bone, or stifle, just as 
 their fancy Jeads them to favour one or the 
 other, liowevei', sometimes the ligaments of 
 this joint become injured by violence. A 
 horse in a narrow stall, may injure himself, 
 either by turning round, or by getting up, or 
 lying down ; and we have known some so 
 much injured, tliat what with their exertions 
 in getting up, and with the narrowness of the 
 stall, they have considerably injured them- 
 selves in making an effort to rise. This in- 
 jury has arisen from the ligaments of ttie 
 articulation bone of the thigh with the pelvis 
 becoming strained. 
 
 For the treatment here we must not employ 
 either blister or setons, for the deep-seated 
 situation of the injury prevents this mode of 
 treatment being of much avail ; and if the 
 part is fired over, there is then a confirmed 
 blemish. The best thing to do is to use 
 
 Tartar Emetic 
 Hog's Lard . 
 
 1 drachm. 
 1 oz. 
 
 Rub these well together, and apply to the 
 parts affected, morning and night, until pim- 
 ples arise ; then desist. Apply a little hog's 
 lard occasionally, to make the parts supple ; 
 and all will, in a short time, be right. 
 
 STRAIN OF Tlir. .STIFLK-JOINT. 
 
 Injury or strain of the Htifle-joint freijuently 
 rtCvMirs from the horso slipping nuddenly out- 
 wards, and causing the ligaments to become 
 extended beyond their capacity. It may also 
 arise from kicks or other injuries. In such 
 cases the limb has a peculiar rotatory motion, 
 being dragged after the animal with the 
 greatest pain, and apparently even with a con- 
 siderable effort to move at all. Sometimes 
 the muscles of the thigh are the parts alono 
 which are injured, and which produce the 
 lameness. 
 
 For treatment, wo recommend the " tar 
 liniment," which wo have always found to 
 have the desired effect. Should this not suc- 
 ceed, try the mild liquid blister, set down in 
 " Strains in General." Do not think of 
 firing, as the blemish thereby incurred is a 
 stain in the horse's character ever afterwards. 
 
 ON CURB. 
 
 This affection has been generally applied to 
 a partial dislocation of the os calcis ; but this 
 is not the case, it being a rupture of the mem- 
 branes of the sheath of the tendons just passing 
 over the lower end of the metatarsal bones of 
 the hock-joint, which sheath is placed there to 
 strengthen the parts where the most consider- 
 able point of action in the hind extremity is 
 required, llence this affection arises so fre- 
 quently from any sudden action ; from leaps, 
 or where the propelling motion is brought 
 most into use ; also rearing, or a sudden slip 
 will produce it. It frequently makes its ap- 
 pearance unexpectedly from the above causes- 
 Curb may appear without lameness, from 
 malformation of the hock, which is called 
 sichlcd hocked, though no curb in reality 
 exists. The lameness arising from curb is 
 excessively painful to the horse, though some 
 writers deny this ; but any thexcal rupture 
 camiot possibly occur without giving great 
 pain, as the animal cannot move without 
 bringing the diseased parts into action. 
 
 For the cure of curb, the practice at tho 
 Royal Veterinary College, is to put on a high- 
 heeled shoe, and bathe the hock frequently 
 with cold water, or cold salt and water ; but 
 these applications seldom or ever succeed. 
 "When this is the case, a seton is passed over 
 
 25J 
 
^JfrLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [mrLAMMATIONS. 
 
 the part, which has just as much effect as 
 passing a seton down the fore leg, in order to 
 remove this accident. For feed and medicine 
 
 we refer to the article on " Strains in 
 General ;" where all the required informatiou 
 will be found. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 INFLAMMATIONS. 
 
 The term inflamviation is generally under- 
 stood as expressing that state of a part in 
 which it is painful, hotter, and somewhat more 
 turgid than it naturally is ; such topical 
 symptoms, when present in any considerable 
 degree, or when they affect very sensitive 
 parts, being attended with fever, or a general 
 diseased action of the system. 
 
 The susceptibility of the body to inflamma- 
 tion is of two kinds — the one original, con- 
 stituting a part of the animal economy, and 
 beyond the reach of human investigation ; the 
 other acquired from the influence of the 
 weather, sudden changes from hot to cold, and 
 also from cold to hot stables, not well venti- 
 lated ; blows, kicks, &c. The first kind of sus- 
 ceptibility cannot so well be diminished by 
 art, as some animals are exceedingly liable to 
 inflammatory attacks from their form ; such as 
 narrow-chested horses, or light chestnut ones. 
 The second may be lessened by the mere 
 avoidance of the particular causes upon which 
 it depends. 
 
 Inflammation may, with great propriety, be 
 divided into the healthy and the unhealthy. 
 Of the first, there can be only one kind ; of 
 the second, there may be many, according to 
 nature and situation, and kind of disease. It 
 may also be divided into the acute and chronic. 
 Healthy inflammation is generally quick in its 
 progress, for which reason it must always 
 rauk as an acute species of the affection. 
 Chronic inflammation is always accompanied 
 with a diseased action, as exemplitied in 
 iumours, &c. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF INFLAMMATION. 
 There is much foundation for believing that 
 252 
 
 healthy inflammation is obedient to ordained 
 principles, according to the tone of the consti- 
 tution, or the structure or situation of the 
 parts aflTected. The nature of the existing 
 cause can have no share in modifying its 
 appearance, whether this be occasioned by the 
 application of heat, or by violence done. 
 Healthy inflammation is always the same in 
 its nature, and all the influence is propor- 
 tioned to the degree of violence accompanying 
 these causes. 
 
 The observations of experience, as being the 
 only solid basis of all medical as well as other 
 knowledge, has infcv'aed the practitioner, that 
 parts which, from their vicinity to the source 
 of the circulation of blood, undergo inflamma- 
 tion more favourably, resist disease better 
 than those parts which are more remote from 
 the heart. The extremities are more prone to 
 inflammation and disease in general, than 
 parts nearer the heart ; and when inflamed or 
 cracked, they are longer in getting well. The 
 circumstance of their being depending parts, 
 which retards the return of blood through the 
 veins, must also increase the backwardness 
 of such parts in any salutary process. 
 
 Inflammation, when situated in highly or- 
 ganised and very vascular parts, is more dis- 
 posed to take a prosperous course; and is 
 much more reducible by art, than parts of an 
 opposite texture. The nearer, also, such vas- 
 cular parts are to the heart, the greater will 
 be their tendency to do well in inflammation. 
 Hence, inflammation of the skin, cellular sub- 
 stance, muscles, &c., more frequently ends 
 favourably than the same affection of bones, 
 tendons, ligaments, &c. It is also more 
 manageable by surgery ; for those parts which 
 
oiLAMMATiOKS.] MODERN VETERTNAKY IMIACTICE. [inflammatiovb. 
 
 are not what anatomists term vascular, scimm 
 to enjoy only interior j)o\vt>rs ot" life; and this 
 explains tho diiliculty of riMnovintj any in- 
 Haniiuat.'iry action tliat may arise in tiie teiulons 
 of the lej,', which, from their whiteness, are 
 not very vascular. 
 
 But inflammation of vital parts, though these 
 may be exceedingly vascular, cannot go on so 
 favourablv as in other parts of resembling 
 structure, but of dilVcrent functions; because 
 the mutual operations of universal health 
 depend so much upon the sound condition of 
 such organs. Tiie truth of this observation is 
 illustrated in cases of inflammation of the 
 stomach or lungs, «&e. 
 
 In strong constituHons, inflammation always 
 proceeds more propitiously than in weak ones ; 
 for where there is much strength, there is con- 
 siderable irritability. In weak-constitutioned 
 horses, the operations of inflammation are back- 
 ward, notwithstanding the part in which it is 
 seated may, comparatively speaking, possess 
 considerable organisation and powers of life. 
 
 Inflammation, wherever situated, is always 
 most violent on that side of the point of 
 inflammation which is next t^ the external 
 surface of the body; and this is particularly 
 exemplified in gun-shot wounds. Suppose a 
 ball were to pass into the thigh, to within an 
 inch of the opposite side of the limb, we 
 should not find that inflammation would be 
 excited along the track of the ball, but on the 
 side next the skin which had not been hurt. 
 If a ball should pass quite through a limb, 
 and carry into the wound a piece of the 
 saddle clothing, lodging in the middle, equi- 
 distant from the two orifices — which is not 
 unfrequently the case in cavalrv regiments — 
 the skin immediately over the extraneous body 
 would inflame, if the passage of the ball were 
 superficial. 
 
 We see three very remarkable eflfects follow 
 the prevalence of inflammation — viz., adhe- 
 sions of parts of the body to each other, the 
 formation of pus, or suppuration, and ulcera- 
 tion ; a process in which tho lymphatics 
 are more concerned than the blood-vessels. 
 Hence the terms adlunive, suppurative, and 
 ulcerative inflammation. 
 
 All parts of the body, however, are not 
 equally liable to each of the preceding conse- 
 quences. In the cellular membrane, and in 
 
 the circum.^ci ibcd cavities— csppcialjy tho cavity 
 of tho chest- tho adhesive Htago takes plnco 
 more readily than in theotherB; suppuration 
 may bo said to fiillow next in order of fro- 
 qucncy ; and lastly, ulceration. Now, tho 
 ulcerative stage of inflammation moMt fre- 
 quent in die horse, attacks tho air-cells of 
 the lungs, or the kidney.s, but docs not seem 
 to afl'ect, more than partially, any other mucous 
 membranes. The suppurative inllammatitni 
 comes on more readily than either the adhesive 
 or the ulcerative stage. Adhesions, which 
 originate from the slightest degree of inflamma- 
 tion in other situations and structures, can 
 only be produced by a violent kind in the 
 above-mentioned parts. Ulceration is more 
 frequently met with upon mucous surfaces 
 than adhesive ones. 
 
 The cellular membrane appears to be much 
 more susceptible of the adhesive inflamiuatioa 
 than the adipose, or fatty cells, and much 
 more readily passes into suppuration. Thus, 
 we see the cellular substance, connecting 
 muscles together, and the adipose membrane 
 to the muscles, inflaming, suppuratirig, and 
 the matter separating the muscles from their 
 lateral connections, and even the fat from the 
 muscles, while the latter substance and the 
 skin are only highly inflamed. But it must 
 be allowed, that in situations where fat abounds, 
 we Very frequently meet with abscesses. Tiiis 
 is so much the case, that fat has been ac- 
 counted a more frequent nidus for the collec- 
 tion of matter, than the cellular substauce. 
 We have spoken above of the inflammation of 
 the fats ; but this is not an expression strictly 
 true. Fat has no vessels, or principle of life, 
 or action of its own ; consequently, we cannot 
 suppose it can either inflame or suppurate. 
 We know that it is itself a secretion ; and, 
 when an abscess is formed in it, we under- 
 stand that the mode of action in the vessels 
 naturally destined to deposit fat, has been 
 altered to that adapted to tho formation of 
 pus. When we speak of the fat being in- 
 flamed, we mean that the membianous cells 
 in which it is contained, and by which it is 
 secreted, are thus affected. 
 
 Tiie dcei)ly-situated parts of the body, moro 
 especially the vital ones, very readily admit of 
 the adhesive stage of inflammation. Tlie cir- 
 cumstance of deeply-seated parts not so readily 
 
 253 
 
IKFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [inflammations. 
 
 taking on tbe suppurative stage of inflamma- 
 tion, as the superficial ones do, is strikingly 
 illustrated in cases of extraneous bodies ; which, 
 if deeply lodged, only produce the adhesive 
 inflammation. By this process, a cyst is formed, 
 in which they lie without any inconvenience ; 
 and they may even gradually change their 
 situation without disturbing the parts through 
 which they pass : but no sooner do these same 
 bodies approach tlie skin, than abscesses im- 
 mediately arise. 
 
 All inflammations, attendant with disease, 
 j)artake of some specific quality, from which 
 simple inflammation is entirely free. 
 
 When the constitution allows the true adhe- 
 sive and suppurative stages to occur, it is to 
 be regarded as the most healthy. 
 
 SYMPTOMS AND NATURE OF HEALTHY IN- 
 FLAMMATION; PHLEGMON. 
 
 Swelling, heat, and pain are the principal 
 symptoms of phlegmonous inflammation ; and 
 this term is usually applied to a circumscribed 
 tumour. These are the first appearances ob- 
 served in every case of phlegmon ; and when 
 they are slight, and the part aflected is of no 
 great extent, they have commonly very little, 
 and sometimes no apparent, influence on the 
 general system. But when they are more con- 
 siderable, and the inflammation becomes exten- 
 isive, the soft parts are more swelled than the 
 harder ones. 
 
 Although all the symptoms of inflammation, 
 such as swelling, throbbing, tension, may be less 
 inanifest when the afl'ection is deeply situated, 
 yet they certainly exist, as in poll-evil, fistu- 
 lous withers, &c. Frequently, in horses dying 
 of inflammation of the lungs, the air-cells of 
 these organs are found crowded with a larger 
 jiumber of turgid blood-vessels than they have 
 when in the healthy state. Coagulable lymph, 
 and even blood, ai'e extravasated in the sub- 
 stance of these viscera, which of course become 
 heavier, and feel more solid. 
 
 The extravasation of coagulated lymph, 
 ■which is one of the chief causes of the swell- 
 ing, is also one of the most characteristic 
 signs of phlegmonous inflammation. Common 
 inflammation exists wherever the blood-vessels 
 appear to be more numerous and enlarged 
 than they are in a natural state, accompanied 
 with an eftusion of coagulating lymph, whether 
 254 
 
 upon the surface of a membrane, or a bone, or 
 in the interstices of the cellular substance, 
 and attended with throbbing and acute pain 
 in the part aflected. Various causes produce 
 inflammation. 
 
 REMOTE CAUSES. 
 The remote causes of inflammation are 
 several in number, but very easy of compre- 
 hension, because only divisible into two general 
 classes. The first includes all such agents as 
 operate by their stimulative or chemical quali- 
 ties — as, for instance, cantharides, large doses 
 of aloes, heat, &c. The second class of causes 
 are those which act mechanically ; such as 
 bruises, wounds, &c. After saying thus much, 
 it seems quite unnecessary to give a detail of 
 each particular remote cause. 
 
 One remote cause, however, and not the 
 least singular, is cold ; which appears to act in 
 diflereut ways. Eirst, it may be applied in 
 such a degree, and for such a length of time, 
 as to destroy the vitality of the part directly, 
 in which case sloughs are formed. In India 
 this is a frequent occurrence with b jth the 
 horse and the native Indian. In the horse, it 
 is called by the native harsatee, and is exceed- 
 ingly troublesome to be healed. Likewise m 
 the native, in the cold season, it is not uncom- 
 mon for pieces to come out of the thighs (which 
 are principally bare) as large as half-a-crown. 
 In the horse, from the troublesome teasing of 
 the flies, it becomes exceedingly annoying to 
 the surgeon. Secondly, it may be applied in a 
 less degree, or for a shorter time ; and after- 
 wards a stimulant, such as heat, may be applied, 
 which will excite inflammation. The produc- 
 tion of inflammation by any agent, depends, in 
 a great degree, upon the suddenness of the 
 operation of the agent which excites it ; for a 
 quantity of stimulus, which, if suddenly ap- 
 plied, would produce inflannnation, may be 
 applied slowly witli impunity. Hence, every 
 slight stimulant will produce inflammation and 
 sloughing, in parts which have been weakened 
 by cold. Thirdly, a part sympathises very 
 much with the contiguous ones. If a part is 
 weakened by having its action reduced, and if 
 then the debilitating cause is removed, the 
 action of the part will be increased from sym- 
 pathy with the neiglibouring parts. But, as 
 the action ought to be very little, the power 
 
iNFr.AMMATioN.] MODERN VETERTNATIT PTlACTfCE. [inflammatk.:?. 
 
 l)cMng snmll, iiiflnmmntion must arise from tlio 
 ju-tion being increased beyond the power. 
 "NV'e onght, tlierefore, in this ease, to diminish 
 tlio action of the neighbourinj:; parts, in order 
 to prevent an extension to a part which cannot 
 bear the eflect of it without becoming diseased. 
 
 PROXIMATE CAUSE. 
 
 Numerous opinions have been entertained 
 upon this subject; but almost every theory lias 
 been built upon the supposition of there being 
 some kind of obstruction in the inflamed parts. 
 
 AViiile the circulation of the blood was un- 
 known, and the hypothetical notions of the 
 power of the liver, in preparing and sending 
 firth the fluid, continued to prevail, it is not 
 astonishing that the theories of so many writers 
 should be imperfect. 
 
 It was formerly supposed that the liver was 
 the centre of the vascular system, from vrhich 
 the blood went forth by day to the extremi- 
 ties, and returned again by night. If, then, any 
 peccant matter irritated the liver, the blood 
 was sent out more forcibly ; and if, at the same 
 time, any part of the body were weakened, or 
 otherwise disposed to receive a greater quantity 
 of fluid from the rest, then a swelling was pro- 
 duced by a flow^ of humours to this place. 
 Fluxions, or flows of humour to a place 
 might happen, either from weakness of the parts 
 which allowed the humours to enter more 
 abundantly, or from the place attracting the 
 humours, in consequence of the application of 
 heat, or other agents. 
 
 The ancient writers who suppose that the 
 blood had very little motion, and that its course 
 could easily be directed or changed, recom- 
 mended heat to some part which was remote 
 from a recent inflammation, by which they 
 imagined that the current of blood was altered, 
 and a revulsion made. A revulsion was also 
 made by raising a tumour in some other part, 
 or giving nature an opportunity of discharging 
 the humours from distant parts, by applying 
 blisters, &c. When blood was drawn from the 
 vicinity of the fluxion, or congestion, the mode 
 was called derivation, which only dillered froni 
 revulsion in the distance to which ttie humour 
 was drawn being less. Our present object is 
 only to trace the leading doctrines which have 
 at different times prevailed, as being the proxi- 
 uiate cause of inflammation. 
 
 From the theories of fluxion and cniigostion. 
 which were quite incompatible with the lawn of 
 circulation of the blood, we turn O'lr attention 
 to the doctrine of obstruction. 
 
 IJy some writers obstruction has been 
 strongly advocated, attributing it to a visciditv 
 of the blood, and also imagining it to occasion 
 a resistance to the circulation in the part 
 aflected ; hence, incri'a>ing it in the other 
 vessels, proving an irritation to the heart, and 
 augmenting the force or attraction of the blood 
 in that part of the vessel which was behind the 
 obstruction, causing heat and pain, ami conse- 
 quently an acrimonious state of the fluids, to 
 be followed, in all probability, by gangrene. 
 
 The viscidity cannot be admitted as a proxi- 
 mate cause of inflammation, because we have 
 no proof, say some authors, that this state 
 ever exists ; for, as they say, " "Were a 
 viscidity to occur, it would exist in the whole 
 mass of blood alike, and could not be supposed 
 to produce only a local disorder." This, how- 
 ever, is not true, for all parts are not so suscep- 
 tible of taking disease as others ; consequently, 
 any poison producing inflammation that may 
 have been taken into the system, may afiect one 
 part, and that only ; and this from the suscepti- 
 bility of the part. 
 
 As for the supposition of the co-operation 
 of an acrimony of tlie fluids, the proportion of 
 the saline matter of the blood has never been 
 proved to be greater in this than in any other 
 state of the body. Even were a general dis- 
 order of this kind to be admitted, no rational 
 explanation of the proximate cause of local 
 inflammation could be deduced from it. 
 
 According to the opinion of one of our best 
 authors, inflammation is to be considered only 
 as a disturbed state of parts which require to 
 be restored to a natural mode of action. In- 
 flammation in itself, therefore, is not to be 
 considered as a disease, but as a salutary 
 operation, the consequence either of some 
 violence, or some disease. Tiie same author 
 further remarks, that the act of iuflammation 
 is to be considered as an increased action of the 
 vessels; which action, at flrst, consists simply of 
 an increase, or distension, beyond the natural 
 size of these. This increase seems to depend 
 on a diminution of the muscular power of the 
 vessels; whilst, at the same time, the elastic 
 power of the artery is to be dilated in the same 
 
 25.3 
 
INFLAMMATION.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [iNFLAMMATIOlT. 
 
 proportion. This is, therefore, something more 
 than simply a common relaxation. The whole 
 may be considered as a necessary operation of 
 nature. Owing to this dilatation, there is a 
 greater quantity of blood circulating in the 
 part, wLich is in accordance with the common 
 rules of the animal economy ; for whenever a 
 part has more to do than simply to support 
 itself, the blood is there collected in a larger 
 quantity ; and nature never errs. The swelling 
 is produced by an extravasation of coagulable 
 lymph, with some serum; but the lymph 
 differs from the common lymph, in conse- 
 quence of passing through the inflamed vessels. 
 It is this lymph which becomes the uniting 
 medium of inflamed parts. Vessels shoot into 
 it, and it has even the power of becoming 
 vascular itself. The pain proceeds from spasm. 
 When a part cannot be restored to health, 
 after injury by inflammation alone, or by 
 adhesion, then suppuration, as a preparatory 
 step to the formation of granulations, and the 
 restoration of the part, takes place. 
 
 An increased action of the vessels is now 
 universally regarded as the proximate cause of 
 inflammation. This opinion is greatly sup- 
 ported from a review of the several existing 
 causes of the affection, which, being in general 
 of an irritating nature, must, when applied to 
 any living or sensitive parts, occasion a preter- 
 natural exertion of the vessels. The method 
 of cure, as we shall presently show, tends also 
 to coiifirm this doctrine with respect to the 
 cause of inflammation. 
 
 SYMPTOMS OF INFLAMMATION FURTHER 
 CONSIDERED. 
 
 The essential symptoms are swelling, heat, 
 and pain. — Swelling.— Thh effect arises from 
 several causes. Eirst, from the increased quan- 
 tity of blood in the vessels. Second, from the 
 effusion of coagulating lymph and the deposi- 
 tion of a new matter. Third, from the inter- 
 ruption of the absorbents, or their incapacity 
 to perform their office or functions. 
 
 Heat. — It was formerly imagined that heat 
 was produced by the attraction of the red glo- 
 bules, of which blood is composed, against the 
 »ide3 of the vessels. Modern philosophy, how- 
 ever, teaches us, that a fluid may flow with the 
 utmost velocity through a pipe, for a thousand 
 years, without producing a single particle of 
 256 
 
 heat. The most commonly received opinion 
 now is, that the production ot animal heat de- 
 pends on the different degrees of power which 
 arterial and venous blood have to combine with 
 caloric ; whilst in the minute arteries, the blood 
 is combined with certain substances. In con- 
 sequence of this, its capacity is diminished, and 
 heat is given out. When the venous blood, 
 however, has been freed from such substances 
 in the lungs, its capacity is increased, and 
 the heat which is given out by the decom- 
 position of the air which we inhale, is ab- 
 sorbed. These facts show that the augmented 
 heat of inflammation arises from the increased 
 velocity of the circulation in the part affected. 
 More blood is transmitted into the minute ar- 
 teries ; the capacity of a greater quantity of 
 this fluid for heat is of course necessarily in- 
 creased, and more caloric extracted. 
 
 Faiti. — This is observed to be the greatest 
 during the diastole of the arteries. The affec- 
 tion is probably owing to the unnatural state 
 of the nerv^es, and not to mere distension, as 
 many have asserted. Were the latter cause a 
 real one, the nain would be proportioned to it, 
 
 THE BLOOD IN INFLAMMATION. 
 
 Blood, when taken out of the living vessels, 
 spontaneously separates into two distinct parts; 
 the serum, and the crassamentum. The latter is 
 a compound substance, consisting chiefly of co- 
 agulating lymph and red globules, which are 
 the heaviest ingredients in blood. Blood taken 
 away from an animal affected with inflam- 
 mation, is longer in coagulating, and coagu- 
 lates more firmly than under any other cir- 
 cumstances, lieiice, the red globules not 
 being so soon commingled with the lymph, 
 descend by their gravity ; and being moro or 
 less divested of the red colouring matter, they 
 are, from their appearance, termed the buffy 
 coat, or inflammatory crust. The firmer and 
 more compact coagulation of the lymph presses 
 out an unusual quantity of serum from it, and 
 the surface of the sizy blood is often formed into 
 a hollow, the edges being drawn inward. These 
 changes are, in some cases, a more infallible sign 
 of the existence of inflammation, than the state 
 of the pulse itself. At the same time, they are 
 probably only a criterion of some unusual ope- 
 ration going on in the system. In peritoneal 
 inflammation, the horse, sometimes, seems to 
 
iwTLAMMATioN.] MODERN V KT K IM N A 11 Y PRACTICE [inflammation. 
 
 be in the most feeble state ; and the pulse, 
 abstractedly considered, would then rather in- 
 tluco the practitioner to employ tonics and 
 sliinulants, than evacuations; but should the 
 continuance or exasperations of the disorder, 
 or any other indication, lead to the use of the 
 lancet, then the Itijfi/ coat and the concave, sur- 
 face of the blood, clear away all doubt con- 
 cerning the existence of inllaiiunation. 
 
 TERMINATION OF INFLAMMATION. 
 
 LiJIammation is said to have three different 
 terniiuations; or, in other language, after it 
 has continued a certain time, it either subsides 
 entirely, induces a disposition in the vessels to 
 form pus, or completely destroys the vitality 
 of the part. 
 
 AVhen the inflammation is to end in the 
 first-named manner, which is the most favour- 
 able, the pain becomes less, the swelling 
 abates, and every other symptom gradually 
 disappears, till at last, the part is wholly re- 
 stored to its natural size. There is no forma- 
 tion of pus, or any permanent injury of struc- 
 ture. This termination of inflammation is 
 termed resolution. It is fortunately the most 
 common, as well as the most desirable manner 
 in wiiich the affection should end. 
 
 If, however, notwithstanding the applica- 
 tion of the iisual remedies, the several symp- 
 toms of heat, pain, &c., instead of diminishing, 
 rather increase, and the tumour gradually 
 acquires a larger size, becomes soft, and some- 
 what prominent in the middle, or towards its 
 most depending part, the inflammatiou has 
 ended in suppuration. 
 
 The worst, but happily the least frequent 
 consequence of common inflammation, is the 
 death or mortification of the part alfected. 
 The signs of this disastrous event are a change 
 of colour in it, from being of a bright red, to a 
 livid hue ; small vessels, filled with a thin 
 fa'tid serum, arise on its surface, and air is 
 plainly felt to exist in the disordered locality. 
 The pain, indeed, is diminished, but the pulse 
 sinks ; while the tumour is gradually metamor- 
 phosed into a black fibrous mass. 
 
 These are the three most usual termina- 
 tions of inflammation. By many writers, how- 
 ever, another disorder has been treated of, 
 in which inflammation is apt to end — namely, 
 scirrhous. But, although that complaint may, 
 2 L 
 
 perhaps, in a few iiKstuuces, follow inflainina- 
 tion, yet it is far from being a common con- 
 sequence of it. lltMice, ulthougli iiillamma- 
 tory aihi-lion may justly be mcnlioiud au 
 one of tiie many exciting causes of acirihous, 
 yet the consideration of this disorder can 
 never with jiropriety bo introduced into uu 
 account of inllamination. 
 
 Common inllammation, particularlv when it 
 ailects glandular parts, is often observed to 
 leave indurations behind it. Such indurations, 
 however, are not at all malignant, and are 
 very dillcrent in their nature from what is im- 
 plied by a real scirrhous. 
 
 TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION, 
 
 The grand principle to be observed in the 
 treatment of inflammation, is to endeavour to 
 lessen that immoderate action of the arteries, 
 which is now commonly considered as the 
 proximate cause. 
 
 The first circumstance to be attended to, in 
 all cases in which resolution is to be attempted, 
 is the removal of all such exciting causes of 
 the disorder as may happen to present them- 
 selves, foreign substances in wounds, fre- 
 quently excite inflammation, and ought to be 
 extracted as speedily as possible. A piece of 
 bone, or a nail taken up in the foot, or even a 
 thorn in the leg, often gives rise to the afl'ec- 
 tion, and requires immediate removal. Such 
 things as these may often be detected and re- 
 moved at once ; and this is doing a great deal 
 towards the cure of the inflammation. Many 
 of the exciting causes are only of momentary 
 existence ; yet, though they may no longer 
 exist, the process of inflammatiou continues to 
 follow the violence and irritation which were 
 suddenly produced, and still remain. Hence, 
 when taking away, if possible, the remote 
 cause, it is proper, by other means, to mode- 
 rate the increased action of the vessels. 
 
 If inflammation is consequent on an in- 
 creased action of the vessels, and if a greater 
 quantity of blood is impelled into, and circu- 
 lates through the diseased part than is neces- 
 sary in the natural state, it follows that hlccd- 
 i?ig must be a principal means of relieving it. 
 The reason of this is, that it lessens the action 
 of the whole arterial system, and, of course, of 
 that part which is aft'ected, and thereby dimin- 
 ishes the quantity of blood transmitted to the 
 
 257 
 
INFLAMMATION.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [inflammation. 
 
 part affected, by reducing the whole mass in 
 the circulation. 
 
 Bleeding, however, is often misemploj^ed, 
 especially when regarded as the only remedy 
 for this disease, and other steps are neglected. 
 The obstinacy and vehemence of the process, 
 in weak constitutions, prove that depletion is 
 not invariably proper. When inflammation is 
 combined with an unhealthy state of the ali- 
 mentary canal, blood should be taken away 
 with great caution. A great deal of indura- 
 tion, with little pain and heat in the inflamed 
 part, the probability of a long and copious 
 suppuration, and the dependence of the in- 
 flammation on local weakness, are particular 
 instances in which phlebotomy should be spar- 
 ingly employed. Bleeding is quite unneces- 
 sary when the disease is local, and symptomatic 
 fever low. 
 
 On the other hand, bleeding is highly bene- 
 ficial in all cases in which the disease is simple 
 and uncomplicated, and attended with a high 
 degree of febrile disturbance. Hence, inflam- 
 mation of the eye, which is a most sensitive 
 part, particularly requires a free evacuation of 
 blood. Inflammation of the lungs, brain, or 
 stomach, which are organs, the sound state of 
 which is highly essential to the regular con- 
 tinuance of all the various operations in the 
 animal machine, particularly demands the em- 
 ployment of the lancet ; for, if a successful 
 effort is not promptly made to stop such in- 
 flammation, death itself, in all probability, will 
 be the result. 
 
 The sooner that bleeding is practised, the 
 greater will be its efilcacy, and the more 
 rapidly the blood will be evacuated. Bleeding 
 near the part affected is usually more effectual 
 than when done in a remote situation. These 
 remarks chiefly relate to general bleeding ; 
 but in local inflammation, topical bleeding is 
 scarcely ever improper. It is always a point 
 ■worth considering, whether bleeding in or near 
 the part, will answer better than taking blood 
 from the general habii ; for less may be re- 
 moved in this way, and the constitution not so 
 much affected. Although, in many cases, the 
 general habit may be relieved by bleeding, yet 
 the part specially affected will always require 
 this most. That local bleeding has a very 
 considerable influence on the inflamed part, 
 is proved by the sudden relief obtained from it. 
 258 
 
 The modes of performing local bleeding are 
 by the lancet ; or, if in the feet, by first re- 
 moving the horn with the drawing-knife, and 
 puncturing the vein with a strong abscess 
 lancet ; other parts, such as the thigh-vein, 
 pastern, &c., are also bled with the lancet ; 
 the eye, likewise, with the small eye-lancet, 
 the temporal artery, &c. But never bleed in 
 the jugular or the plate-vein with any other 
 instrument than the common phleme and 
 blood-stick: but particularly the jugular; for 
 should a misfortune happen with any other in- 
 strument, an action at law might be the con- 
 sequence. 
 
 In continuation of the treatment for inflam- 
 mation, the bowels must not be forgotten ; and 
 in exhibiting medicine in such cases, great 
 care is necessary. The exhibition of small 
 doses of aloes is good, or Glauber's salts, in 
 the shape of draught, will be found very effica- 
 cious, and is a principal means of diminishing 
 inflammation. 
 
 Direct purging is in nowise to be recom- 
 mended ; as it frequently ends in superpurga- 
 tion and death. Saline medicines must lessen 
 the quantity of circulating blood, inasmuch as 
 they increase the secretion from the intestinal 
 arteries. Hence they must operate beneficially 
 in the cure of local inflammation, much upon 
 the same principle as bleeding does. A very 
 great authority and writer, was of opinion, that 
 purging lowers action without diminishing 
 strength ; by which we are probably to under- 
 stand, without producing a very lasting or 
 permanent loss" of strength. With respect to 
 mild laxatives in inflammation, none are pre- 
 ferable to the above ; but, of the two, the saline 
 draught is preferable to the aloetic. AVe may 
 here remark, that besides the benefit which the 
 local ii}flammation derives from the judicious 
 administration of purgatives, the costiveness 
 and heat which usually attend the symptomatic 
 fever, are also relieved by the same means. 
 
 Nauseating medicines, which have the power 
 of producing sickness, lessen, for a tinje, the 
 action, and even the general powers of life. 
 This is in consequence of every part of the 
 body sympathising with the stomach, and the 
 eftect may be very quickly excited. Sickness 
 lowers the pulse, makes the small vessels con- 
 tract, and rather disposes the skin to perspira- 
 tion. But nothing more than nausea should 
 
INFLAMMATION.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflaj^uatxok. 
 
 be caused. Nausealinpj nu'dieiiies employed 
 iil'ter bleedinp once or twiee, are oWru prodiio- 
 tivo of considerable bciielit ; but there lire 
 some afleetiona in wliieli they cannot be used, 
 ^iueh as iuilammatioii of the 8tt)inaeh and in- 
 testines. In all suprrficial inllammations, 
 however, they may be safidy and advantage- 
 ouslv exhibited, as well as in most internal in- 
 flammatory aflVetions, especially in the lungs. 
 Indeed, in every instance in which there is an 
 urgent reason for putting n sudden check to 
 the continuance of the alVection, tliey may be 
 used. The employment of nauseating doses 
 of white hellebore or digitalis, to the amount 
 of l-\ to 2 drachms, three or four times a day, 
 is very efllcacious. 
 
 Opium has been frequently recommended 
 bv many veterinary surgeons ; and we liave 
 seen its good effects, especially in inflamma- 
 tion of the bowels. During its employment, 
 the bowels should be kept open by clysters. 
 Care must be taken to give it in sufficient 
 doses ; for small quantities not only fail in 
 fulfilling the object, but frequently produce 
 quite an opposite efiect. It likewise occasions 
 a moisture on the surface of the body, which 
 experience shows is eminently serviceable in all 
 inflammations. Opium, combined with aloes, 
 is an excellent remedy in cases of inflamma- 
 tion of the feet ; no person but such as may 
 have used this drug, would believe the relief 
 given to so painful a disease. 
 
 In all cases of inflammation, corn must be 
 prohibited ; and even when the inflammation is 
 abated, great care must be taken in administer- 
 ing anything of a highly stimulating nature. 
 Watery, cooling, mucilaginous drinks, taken in 
 a lukewarm state, are the most proper, such 
 as oatmeal gruel, and mashes of bran with 
 chilled water. These take off heat, and tend 
 to soothe the increased action of the whole 
 arterial system. The stable in which the 
 horse is kept, should not be warmer than 
 his comfort requires ; for, of all things, heat 
 keeps up any increased action in the body in 
 the most powerful manner. For the same 
 reason, the animal should not be covered with 
 a superfluous quantity of clothes. 
 
 The whole body, but more especially the 
 inflamed part, should be preserved as free as 
 possible from every kind of motion. Exercise, 
 and muscular exertion of every kind, accele- 
 
 rate the circulation; and hence tlieir periii- 
 cious efli'ct on innaninuitioii, by deUTmining n 
 larijcr quantity of blood to the part aflVctcd. 
 
 With the exci'ption of what hat* bct-n 8tated 
 concerning topical bleeding, all the fon-going 
 remarks relate to the general treatmt nt of 
 inflammation. Wo bhall next consider its 
 local eflects. 
 
 It has been already observed, that inflam- 
 mation is attended with an increanc of heat in 
 the part aflected ; and it is a well-known fact, 
 that the action of the arteries, as well as any 
 other action carried on in the animal economy, 
 is promoted and increased by the influence of 
 heat. For this reason, an obvious mode to bo 
 pursued is, to reduce the temperature of the 
 inflamed part by the topical application of 
 cold; and, in particular, by continually ab- 
 stracting the heat generated in the part, by 
 keeping up a constant evaporation from its 
 surface. 
 
 Preparations of lead, and otlier sedative and 
 astringent substances, are such as are in the 
 greatest repute for bringing about the resolu- 
 tion of inflammation. 
 
 AVe have remarked, that cold applications 
 used in the resolution of inflammation, are 
 commonly such as are of an astringent and 
 sedative quality; but the whole class of medi- 
 cines which are found to possess these proper- 
 ties, can never be recommended as topical 
 remedies for phlegmonous inflammation. The 
 sulphate of zinc, and sugar of lead, combined 
 with vinegar, are the only medicines of an 
 astringent and sedative class, whicii seem to 
 have acquired permanent celebrity for their 
 efficacy in resolving inflammation. 
 
 Extensive experience, and long-established 
 trials, have now fully confirmed the virtue of 
 all local remedies, in which the sugar of lead is 
 the active ingredient. The preparations of 
 lead certainly merit the appellation of seda- 
 tives. An abatement of the difl'erent symp- 
 toms of pain and tension, and the communi- 
 cation of an agreeable soothing sensation to 
 the part, are almost always the direct palpa- 
 ble effects. Every man of experience and ob- 
 servation will allow, that while there is a 
 chance of accomplishing resolution, no local 
 applications to phlegmonous inflammation are, 
 in general, so proper as cold lotions, contain- 
 ing the acetate of lead. 
 
 259 
 
I]S'rLAMMATIO>'.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AjSTD 
 
 [iNFLAWMATIO'. 
 
 Many objections have been raised against 
 the lead lotion, from its poisonous quality, but, 
 iu inflamed parts, there is an impediment to 
 absorption, and this circumstance may tend to 
 render the employment of lead a matter of 
 safety. 
 
 Sugar of lend, with vinegar and water, as 
 follows, is the best method of applying it. 
 
 Sugar of Lead .... 4 drachms. 
 
 Dissolve in Vinegar . . . 4 oz. 
 
 Then add Water .... 2 lbs. (1 quart). 
 
 When not inclined to employ a solution of 
 lead, try the sulpliate of zinc. For this pur- 
 pose, four drachms of this metallic salt is to be 
 dissolved in a quart of water. Take a piece of 
 linen, well wetted with the lotion, and apply 
 it to the inflamed part. 
 
 Many persons ascribe very little real eflBcacy 
 either to the acetate of lead, or sulphate of 
 zinc, contained in the above applications ; and 
 they attribute all the good that is produced, 
 entirely to the evaporation kept up from the 
 surface of the inflamed part, and to the cold- 
 ness of the fluid in which the metallic salts 
 are dissolved. Those who entertain these sen- 
 timents, think the application of cold water 
 alone, quite as eflicacious as that of any medi- 
 sated lotion whatever. 
 
 There are particular cases of inflammation 
 m which the extravasation of blood and lymph 
 into the interstices of the inflamed part is ex- 
 ceedingly copious, while the swelling is con- 
 siderable, and the pain not particularly great. 
 In such instances, it is a grand object to rouse 
 the absorbents, in order to remove the extra- 
 vasated fluid ; and with this view, a more 
 powerful discutient lotion than the Saturnine 
 one should be employed bometimes it is 
 better to use embrocations and liniments, than 
 any sort of lotion ; and we have found it to 
 succeed in general the beat ; and for this pur- 
 pose recommend 
 
 Oil of Turpentine , , , . 3 oz. 
 
 Olive Oil 3 do. 
 
 Mix, and apply to the part. 
 Or, take 
 Mustard Oil : 4 oz. 
 
 Apply this alone, and it will be found very 
 eflicacious, especially if the disease is iu the 
 joints. 
 
 When the part afiected is not very tender, 
 or when it lies deep, applications of hot vinegar, 
 2G0 
 
 or the Saturnine lotion, have been applied, 
 but with little or no good effect. Alcohol and 
 ether have acquired some celebrity as local 
 remedies for inflammation. Perhaps one great 
 reason why they are not more extensively 
 used in this way, is the expense attending 
 such treatment, as these fluids evaporate with 
 great rapidity. Alcohol may possibly prove 
 useful from its astringent qualities ; but it 
 seems much more rational to ascribe its virtue, 
 as well as that of ether, to the powerful man- 
 ner in which the evaporation of such fluids de- 
 prives the inflamed part of its heat. 
 
 WARM APPLICATIONS, EMOLLIENT POUL- 
 TICES, AND FOMENTATIONS. 
 
 The absurdity of attempting to reconcile 
 every useful practice with a philosophical 
 theory, is, in no instance, more strikingly ex- 
 emplified than iu the opposite descriptions of 
 local applications which are deemed of service 
 in inflammation. The generality of cases un- 
 doubtedly receive most relief from the use of 
 cold sedative astringent lotions ; but there are 
 constitutions and parts which derive most 
 benefit from the local employment of warm 
 emollient remedies. 
 
 Inflammations of the foot, broken knee, and 
 strain of the back sinews, may be specified as 
 examples in which, generally speaking, warm 
 emollient applications are better than those 
 which are cold and astringent. In all cases 
 of inflammation, however, which manifestly 
 cannot be cured without suppuration, the 
 emollient plan of treatment ought to be- at 
 once adopted, as in either fistulous withers or 
 poll-evil ; for the sooner the matter is formed, 
 the sooner the inflammation is stopped. The 
 inflammation attending gun-shot wounds, is 
 of this description ; also, injuries received from 
 the goring of cattle in the field, &c. 
 
 Warmth and moisture together, or, in other 
 words, fomentations, are commonly had re- 
 course to, in cases of inflammation ; but when 
 the warmth is as much as the sensitive princi- 
 ple can bear, it excites action. In many 
 cases warmth does no good, and therefore it 
 might be supposed to increase the action of 
 dilatation, and do harm ; but if the pain should 
 arise from the contraction of the inflamed 
 vessels, benefit would be the result, tnough we 
 must doubt whether this change is produced, 
 
FETEU.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 ri.VEB. 
 
 as niakiiii; llie vt'ssi-ld cDiiLraL-L would probiibly 
 give case. 
 
 In acklition to what liaa boon already ob- 
 servod, it seonis almost impossible to j,mvo any 
 useful practical advice, witli respect to tlioso 
 cases in which warm emollieut applications 
 should be used in preference to cold astringent 
 ones. The veterinary sur!:;eon, however, who 
 consults the feelinj;s and comfort of the animal 
 under his care, will seldom commit any serious 
 error. Hence, in all cases in which ths first 
 kind of topical applications seem not to pro- 
 duce the wonted degree of relief, let the 
 second sort be tried. From the opportunity 
 of comparison, a correct judgment may then 
 be easily formed. 
 
 Seqardinq jwuUices, the linseed meal should 
 take the preference, and it is easily prepared. 
 Put as much hot water into a basin as the 
 size of the poultice requires ; previous to 
 which, mix the meal with cold water, so that 
 it does not clot in lumps when brought into 
 contact with the hot w ator ; then gradually 
 mix, till the mass is of a proper consistence. 
 Yery i'requently, a little sweet oil or hog's 
 lard is also added, to keep the application 
 soft and moist for a longer time. 
 
 Fovientations are excellent ; and in most 
 cases of recent inflammation, as strains or 
 bruises, nothing can be better. The benefit 
 we have perceived from the application of 
 warm fomentations, has been surprising. 
 
 Bv pursuing the treatment here recom- 
 mended, the resolution of the inflammation 
 will, in general, begin to take place, either in 
 the course of three or four days, or in a 
 shorter space of time. At all events, it may 
 usually be known, before the expiration of 
 this period, how the disorder will terminate. 
 
 If the heat, |min, and other attendant nymp- 
 toms abate, and especially if the tumour begina 
 to decrease, it may tlien bo couHidered almost 
 a certainty, that, by a continuance of tho 
 same jjlan, a total resolution will, in timr. bo 
 eflocted. 
 
 On the other hand, when all tin- ni'.. rent 
 symptoms increase, and particularly wlien tho 
 tumour becomes larger and comparativelv soft, 
 attended with a more violent throbbing pain, 
 it may then be concluded that tho case will 
 proceed to suppuration. Hence, an imine- 
 diate change of treatment suggests itself; and 
 such applications as were proper while resolu- 
 tion seemed practicable, are to be discon- 
 tinued, and others substituted. This remark 
 refers to the employment of cold astringent 
 remedies, which, when suppuration is inevit- 
 able, only do harm, by retarding what cannot 
 be avoided, and by affording no relief of tho 
 pain and other symptoms. If the inflam- 
 mation, however, should be already treated 
 with emollients, no alteration of the topical 
 applications is requisite, in consequence of the 
 inevitability of the formation of matter. In- 
 deed, emollient poultices and fomentations aro 
 the chief local means, both of promoting sup- 
 puration, and of diminishing pain, violent 
 throbbing, &c., which always precede this ter- 
 mination of inflammation. 
 
 "When the system is too much reduced by 
 the injudicious continuance of the rigorous 
 a)iti])hIot/istic treatment, the progress of tho 
 ensuing suppuration is always retarded in a 
 disadvantageous manner, and the animal be- 
 comes too weak to support either a long- 
 continued, or a profuse discharge, which it 
 may not be possible to avoid ; but which should 
 be especially noticed. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 FEVERS.— FEVER IN GEKERAL ; INFLAMMATORY FEVER; COMMON FEVEIl ; BISTEMPEP, OH IXFI.UENZA ; 
 MALIGNANT FEVER; SYMPTOMATIC FEVER; CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. 
 
 Under the head of Fever in General, we can j the horse. It is particularly interesting to 
 only class inflammatory fever aa belonging to j veterinary surgeons, as being the frequent 
 
 2G1 
 
TEVEli.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [fever. 
 
 consequence of surgical operations, especially the iufiammation be near the heart, but per- 
 
 after firing or blistering. 
 
 This fever is known and distinguished by 
 several names ; some calling it inflammatory, 
 some symptomatic, and others sympathetic. 
 It is sometimes idiophatic ; that is to say, it 
 occasionally originates at the same time with 
 the local inflammation, and from the same 
 causes. In other instances — indeed, in all 
 ordinary surgical cases — it is symptomatic, or, 
 in other words, it is produced, not directly by 
 the causes which originally produced the in- 
 flammation, but in consequence of the sym- 
 pathy of the whole constitution from the dis- 
 turbed state of the part. 
 
 The idiophatic inflammatory fever is said to 
 be always preceded by chilliness. The symp- 
 tomatic, or sympathetic inflammatory fever 
 sometimes takes place so quickly, in conse- 
 quence of the violence of the existing cause, or 
 of the local inflammation, that no preceding 
 coldness is observable. 
 
 If, however, the local inflammation is more 
 slowly induced, and consequently operating 
 more gradually on the system, then the cold- 
 ness is evidently perceived. 
 
 The symptomatic fever induced by wounds 
 or other injuries, is excited more slowly, and 
 its period of formation is longer. This fever 
 is not produced when the inflammation only 
 afiects parts in a slight degree, but it con- 
 stantly makes its appearance if the local in- 
 flammation is considerable, or if it afiects very 
 sensitive parts. 
 
 The degree in which this fever is excited, 
 does not altogether depend on the absolute 
 quantity or violence of the inflammation, but, 
 in a great measure, on the degree of local 
 inflammatory action, compared with the natural 
 power and action of the part aftected. Parts, 
 in which the action is naturally slow, are 
 extremely painful when inflamed, and the 
 system sympathises greatly with them. Hence 
 the constitution is very much affected when 
 tendons, hones, or ligaments are the parts 
 inflamed. Severe inflammation of a large 
 joint, every one knows, is apt to excite a 
 most alarming, and even a fatal derangement 
 of the system. 
 
 In common parts, as muscle, cellular mem- 
 brane, skin, &c., the symptoms will be acute, 
 the pulse strong and full, and the more so, if 
 202 
 
 haps not so quick as when the part is far 
 from it. 
 
 If the inflammation is in tendinous, liga- 
 mentous, or bony parts, the symptoms will be 
 less acute. The stomach will sympathise more, 
 the pulse will not be so full, but perhaps 
 quicker ; there will be more irritability, and 
 the blood will not be so much pushed into 
 the small vessels ; and therefore it will forsake 
 the skin. 
 
 It seems to be a material circumstance, that 
 parts near to the heart, always exhibit symp- 
 toms more violent, and the constitution is 
 more affected, than when parts are situated 
 further from that source of circulation. 
 
 If the heart or lungs are inflamed, either 
 immediately, or affected secondarily by sym- 
 pathy, the disease produces more violent effects 
 upon the constitution, than the same quantity 
 of inflammation would produce, if the part 
 affected was not a vital one, or one with which 
 the vital parts did not sympathise. If the part 
 is such as the vital ones readily sympathise 
 with, then the sympathetic action of the latter 
 will aflfect the constitution. 
 
 When the inflammation is situated ia a part 
 not very essential to life, and causes a general 
 affection of the system, called inflammatory fever, 
 the pulse is fuller and stronger than in general, 
 and the blood is pushed further into the ex- 
 treme arteries, than when the inflammation is in 
 a vital part. The animal, after showing many 
 occasional symptoms, is at first rather roused. 
 The pulse is as described when the consti- 
 tution is strong and not irritable ; but if this 
 is extremely irritable and weak, as in many 
 animals it is, the pulse may be quick, hard, and 
 small, at the commencement of the iufiam- 
 mation, just as if vital parts were affected. 
 The blood also may be sizy, but it will be loose 
 and flat on the surface. 
 
 The ordinary symptoms of inflammatory 
 fever, accruing in consequence of local inflam- 
 mation in common parts, are as follows : the 
 pulse is frequent, full, and strong ; all the secre- 
 tions are diminished ; the animal is restless ; the 
 perspiration is obstructed ; the skin is dry and 
 hot ; the hair staring ; the urine high-coloured, 
 and made in small quantities ; and the mouth 
 hot and dry, attended with great thirst. These 
 are the consequences. 
 
FEVKItS.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAKT PRACTICE. 
 
 I'TETKnS. 
 
 TO UKLIKVL: INFLA-MMATOHY FK\ Kll. 
 As tho ffbrilo ilisturbiuifi' of tho t^vstcm is 
 produced, aiul eiiLirely kept up, iu almost 
 everv iuatance, by tho loeal iullamiualiou, it 
 must be evideut that tlio uieaiis employed lor 
 diminishing tho excitin-j; cause, are also the 
 best for abating the constitutional eilects. 
 Hence, it very seldom happens that any par- 
 ticular measures are adopted expressly lor the 
 fever itself, as this aftection is sure to subside 
 in proportion to the local lessening or resolu- 
 tion of the inilammation. But wlien the fe- 
 brile disturbance is considerable, and the iu- 
 fl.nnmatiou itself ia also considerable, the agi- 
 tated state of the system may have, in its turn, 
 a share in keeping up, and even in increasing 
 the local alf'^'ction, and should be quieted as 
 much as possible. However, in these very in- 
 stances, we should probably be led to a more 
 rigorous adoption of the autiphlo^'istic plan of 
 treatment, from an abstract consideration of 
 the state of the local inflammation itself, with- 
 out any reference to that of the constitution. 
 Indeed, the increased action of the heart and 
 arteries, and the suppression of the secretions, 
 require the employment of antiphlogistic means, 
 with alterative medicine, which will, in all pro- 
 bability, restore the animal in a few days. 
 
 But we think it riglit to repeat, that it is 
 hardly ever necessary to have recourse to such 
 an evacuation as general Heeding, merely on 
 account of the fecer, as this is only an effect, 
 which invariably subsides iu proportion as the 
 local cause is diminished. 
 
 COMMON FEVER. 
 
 Common fever is a rare occurrence in the 
 horse; but it is not so much its extreme rarity 
 which renders its existence disputed, as that 
 the constitutional tendencies of the animal are 
 such as seldom allow general fever to prevail iu 
 him without a more active and local translation 
 of the inflammation to some vital organ. 
 
 AVe have frequently met with this fever, and 
 are convinced that many inflammations of vital 
 organs begin by an attack not local, and con- 
 fined to that immediate part, but by one which 
 exists iu the first instance, as a general, difl'uscd, 
 inflammatory action of the vascular system at 
 large. Most veterinarians are aware, that it 
 ia a common practice, when a horau is observed 
 
 at tho very first approiich of illiu-ss, to rouse 
 him by several mcauH. Atnong hurHC-dealers, 
 especially, and other proprieloru of liorHcs, 
 wlu'n disease occurs in t'ne spring of the year, 
 it is tiio custom to watch them narrowly, and 
 to put 8omo plan into practice of tho above 
 kind, immediately after which they frequently 
 observe no more of the complaint. It, how- 
 ever, tho first cold fit is passed over without 
 attention, a hot stage generally succeeds. Iu 
 due time the horse again shivers, his hair 
 stares, and he becomes subjected to other 
 symptoms of illness, and the disease ia then 
 fully formed. The means pursued for this 
 end are various ; but they are all such as teiul 
 to rouse tho flagging powers, during the cold fit, 
 into such a degree of increased action, as consi- 
 derably to overbalance the augmented vascular 
 action produced by the morbid attack, as shall 
 be greater than the increased action of the 
 complaint. It is upon justly appreciating tho 
 two degrees of action, and upon putting the 
 forced one against the diseased one in sufli- 
 cient strength, that the salutary effort consists. 
 Were such a plan to be put into practice 
 when a topical inflammation of some im- 
 portant and vital organ had actually taken 
 place, it would, most undoubtedly, greatly ag- 
 gravate it ; but as in diff"used inflammatory 
 action constituting fever, there is a specific 
 character not wholly dependent on the in- 
 crease of the vascular power, so the production 
 of an artificial action, greater than the diseased 
 one in the earlier stage, will sometimes over- 
 come tho febrile one. 
 
 The causes of this fever are a plethoric state 
 of the body in general, full feeding, with but 
 little or no exercise, sudden alteration in 
 diet, excessive fatigue, and great and rapid 
 change in temperature. Long deprivation, like- 
 wise, from either food or water, particularly the 
 former, may bring it on ; but an alteration of 
 cold to heat is certainly the most common 
 of tho existing causes, as well as of most of 
 the inflammatory attacks of the horse. The 
 vessels of the skin seem, in these cases, to bo 
 first acted on, and this from a sudden chill, in 
 consequence of coming in contact with a cold 
 atmosphere, producing those symptoms ; first, 
 a shivering fit, the skin shaking violently, the 
 hair staring, the legs, ears, and muzzlo feeling 
 intensely cold. All these symptoms remain 
 
 263 
 
mVEES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [fevers. 
 
 according to tlie violence of the attack. The 
 horse's mouth is generally found dry and hot, 
 and he is seeu frequently to lick his lips, as if 
 he wished for some moisture. The skin is 
 found alternately hot and cold, with occasional 
 sweatings ; the bowels rumble, and are flatu- 
 lent, and he appears altogether uneasy, and 
 seems more in want of a restorative than any- 
 thing else, by v/hich means the debility and 
 fever would be carried off. 
 
 Such is usually the first stage of fever ; but 
 it is very common for it, at this period, to sink 
 its specific character of true fever, into a local 
 attack on some particular organ, as the brain, 
 lungs, bowels, kidneys, and not unfrequently 
 the feet. Under any of these circumstances, 
 the primary character of fever is lost, and the 
 remaining febrile symptoms become secondary 
 and symptomatic. 
 
 The preference it may have in these in- 
 stances for any one organ over another-, is not 
 easily accounted for ; but it may be connected 
 with local circumstances, particularly with 
 such as have had a tendency to produce an 
 unusual determination of blood to a part. 
 Violent and long-continued exercise will in- 
 duce a disposition to it in the lungs, from the 
 very great quantity of blood forced through 
 them during exertion. AVater, if thrown over 
 a horse when hot, is very apt, by checking 
 perspiration, to bring on a state of the bowels, 
 or of otlier viscera, predisposing them to in- 
 flammation. 
 
 A heavy and awkward rider, travelling a 
 great distance, subjects the kidneys to such 
 injury, that they often require but little addi- 
 tional stimulus to assume inflammation. It 
 is equally notorious, that severe riding in tlie 
 enow, or the custom of washing the feet when 
 a horse is very hot, particularly in frosty 
 weather, will produce, by reaction, a determi- 
 nation of blood to these parts, with a febrile 
 irritation. The consequence of severe and 
 injudicious management, may, by translation, 
 be converted into acute founder, and such ap- 
 pears the origin of many acute founder cases. 
 The disease is then said to have settled in the 
 horse'' s feet. It remains to be noticed, that in- 
 dependent of these purely local attacks, there 
 is great reason to believe that this fever not 
 unfrequently degenerates into the catarrhal 
 epidemic ; for many cases which commence 
 204 
 
 with a simple rigour, are often prevented from 
 proceeding further by overcoming the first 
 attack. 
 
 Should none of these attacks occur, how- 
 ever, but, on the contrary, should this fever 
 remain, after the first stage, purely idiopathic 
 (vvliich is very seldom the case), ib is invari- 
 ably the same in any two subjects, although 
 marked by sufficient general characters to de- 
 scribe them. The pulse loses fullness, but is 
 hard, and increased in quickness. 
 
 What we have described, may be considered 
 as constituting the principal stage of this 
 fever, to which, under favourable circum- 
 stances, there succeeds a softer and less fre- 
 quent pulse. The countenance looks more 
 lively; and although the muscular weakness 
 rather increases, the irritability lessens, tlie 
 secretions also return to their natural state? 
 the mouth feels cool and moist, and the heat 
 of the body becomes gradually natural. Slight 
 sjMuptoms of returning appetite also appear, 
 under which circumstances a resolution of the 
 fever is formed. 
 
 Eor the treatment of simple fever, which 
 generally comes on after a journey, the groom 
 should immediately report the same the in- 
 stant the cold fit or rigour comes on ; then 
 procure two or three men to work at the 
 horse with dry straw with all their vigour, 
 whilst he, in the meantime, is preparing the 
 following drau";ht : — 
 
 Good Ale (warmed) . 
 
 . 
 
 1 quart 
 
 Ginger . . . . 
 
 . 
 
 . ^ oz. 
 
 Anise Seeds . 
 
 , 
 
 . ido. 
 
 Give immediately ; and after rubbing the ani- 
 mal well, clothe him warm, give him a good 
 bed of clean straw, and bandage his legs up 
 with flannel. Should the reader have one of 
 the cordial balls, recommended in the list 
 of medicines at the end of the first section of 
 this work, take one and break it up, and dis- 
 solve it in the warm ale. If warm ale cannot 
 be immediately procured, take half-a-pint of 
 gin, and three half pints of water, to which 
 add either the ginger or the cordial ball. On. 
 the morrow give the following alterative : — 
 
 Cape Aloes 2 drachms. 
 
 Juniper Berries .... 1 do. 
 Form into a ball with soft soap, and sufficient 
 linseed meal. 
 
rEVTJiis.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE 
 
 [fevkhb. 
 
 After tins feed tho horao ns usinil. IIo will 
 be lit for work in two days' time. 
 
 Tlie distompiT, or intluenza in liorsoa, at- 
 taoka tlioin at all seasons of the year, and 
 under almost any circun)stances ; bnt it is in- 
 finitely more prevalent at some times, and 
 under some eireumstan'ces, than at others. 
 This is especially the case in the spring, near 
 the sea-coast, and when the wind is blowing oif 
 the sea from the south-east. This has been 
 demonstrably proved. No age is exempt from 
 this disease. In large towns, horses are 
 very liable to it, particularly if their heads 
 are fastened in a south-east direction, and 
 the rack at the top left completely open. 
 Occasionally, however, it rages in a truly 
 epidemic form, when the liability to its attack 
 is almost uniform among all varieties, with the 
 exception that, even under this state, young 
 animals, and those newly brought into stable 
 management, are more liable to it than older 
 ones. Tlie spring appears to be the time of 
 year when they are most subject to this disease, 
 the prevalence of which is materially increased 
 by the variable state of the atmosphere, as 
 in great and sudden changes from dry to wet, 
 and from heat to cold, and still more certainly 
 if these are accompanied with an easterly wind. 
 Now and then it is found to occur in wet 
 autumns also. It has been disputed whether 
 it is contagious ; but on this point we do not 
 think it difficult to decide, for we have seen a 
 number of horses stabled together, and some 
 of them not the least affected, while others, 
 standing near them, have suffered greatly from 
 an attack. This can only be attributed to the 
 susceptibility of the constitutiou of some to 
 be afiected by the disease more readily than 
 others, though it may appear to exhibit all the 
 characteristics of contagion. 
 
 Many foreign writers have fallen into the same 
 error with some of our English veterinarians, 
 and confounded this disease with percemonia, 
 and other diseases of the chest. This mistake 
 is not to be wondered at in practitioners of 
 moderate experience, from the circumstance of 
 these diseases possessing some symptoms in 
 common, and, in fact, from itself frequently 
 terminating in that complaint ; but this is 
 to be attributed more to unskilful treatment 
 than to a disposition of the disease, in itself, 
 to such a result ; for, in a sea-coast practice, 
 2 M 
 
 wo could count, in one year, three humlred 
 cases in which not a single patient was lost. 
 
 The first indication of tlio disenHo ia a loss 
 of appetite. The horse loi)ka dull and heavy ; 
 his legs and ears are cold ; his mouth warm 
 and dry; and he fncpiently attempts to blow 
 his nose, from which comes a purulent dis- 
 charge, aiul he breathes rather hard. The pa- 
 rotid glaiids under his ear, and extending to 
 the angle of the jaw, are much swollen. Some- 
 times the suhmaxillary glarid, between the 
 jaws, become swollen, but not frequently. His 
 ears continue cold, and he cougiis dreadfully ; 
 the violence would almost lead to the belief 
 that some important organ would be ruptured. 
 This continues sometimes for three or four 
 minutes, with such distressing violence to the 
 horse, that it pains the observer. Sore throat 
 is always an attendant on inflammation of the 
 tonsils. The animal cannot swallow his driidc 
 but with such difficulty as ratlier to resemble 
 sucking than swallowing; if he is inclined to 
 eat, the hay is quidded, and returned again, 
 from an incapability of passing it over the 
 glottis. Sometimes the inflammation proceeds 
 down the windpipe, and then the cough is ex- 
 treme. It is also sore to the touch on the 
 outside of the throat. Indeed, in some cases, 
 the horse evinces great restiveness when the 
 hand is laid on his throat, on tlie enlarged 
 glands, or the windpipe. In some cases the dis- 
 charge from the nostrils becomes of a mucous 
 character ; but this is a favourable omen. 
 
 The causes of this disease, as before de- 
 scribed, are principally dependent on a vari- 
 able atmosphere, acting upon a peculuir apti- 
 tude in the constitution of the horse to be- 
 come affected. In some years, this aptitude is 
 more general than in others; and if an 
 unusually variable temperature takes place in 
 the climate, with atmospheric moisture, the 
 disease assumes a more epidemic type. 
 
 In treating for it, the animal must never bo 
 bled ; for, what is this distemper ? — nothing 
 more than sore throat, which may extend as 
 before described; but, then, bleeding is bad, 
 because no vital organ is aflected. Remove 
 the soreness from the throat, and the animal 
 gets well. The very fact of the horse having a 
 difficulty of swallowing, proves that the dis- 
 temper extends little or no farther than the 
 rima and epiglottis, the membranes of which 
 
 265 
 
METERS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [feyees. 
 
 are of such a delicate nature, that certain 
 atmospherical changes will affect them. The 
 means of cure are so exceedingly simple, that 
 it almost doubly strengthens this fact. Use 
 the following receipt, which will seldom, if 
 ever, be found to fail : — 
 
 Glauber Salts * . , . , 4 oz. 
 
 Linseed Meal 2 do. 
 
 Let these be well mixed with two quarts of 
 hot water; and when of a proper heat, let 
 them be carefully horned down. Eepeat them 
 night and morning. 
 
 This draught will lower the inflammatory 
 action that may be going on in the system, 
 and the horse's mouth will get gradually cool, 
 and everything in the shape of fever leave 
 him. 
 
 In such cases of this distemper, the attempt 
 to give a ball cannot be made, for the soreness 
 of the horse's throat will prevent him from 
 swallowing it. Let warm water, or chilled 
 water, in which a handful of oatmeal has been 
 mixed, be placed in his manger, so that he 
 may indulge in it should he think proper. If 
 his bowels should at all appear costive, back- 
 rake, and give two or three clysters, until there 
 are evident signs of a relaxation of the bowels. If 
 the horse should make frequent efforts to blow 
 his nose, without discharging anything, apply 
 a nose-bag made of coarse cloth, with a por- 
 tion of scalded bran in it to steam his head. 
 This will produce the desired discharge, and 
 you may rest satisfied that he is progressing 
 towards a better state. Bandage his legs, and 
 dress him well ; give him good warm bedding, 
 and prevent, as far as possible, all draughts from 
 entering the stable. For food, bran mashes 
 will be the best thing, but only in small 
 quantities, and cold, for he will not eat much 
 until the soreness of his throat is removed. If 
 large quantities are given at once, and the dis- 
 charge from the nose becomes copious, he will 
 refuse his fooii afterwards. Horses will 
 scarcely touch warm bran mashes at any time 
 of the disease. Therefore, if a few vetches or 
 grass can be procured for him, he will be most 
 likely to eat them. To remove the soreness 
 of the throat, make use of counter-irritants ; 
 the best of which is composed of the following 
 ingredients : — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 3 oz. 
 
 Olive Oa 3 do. 
 
 2G6 
 
 Mix, and rub tbis liniment all round the throat, 
 on the swelled glands ; and if the disease 
 should have been of some days' standmg, rub 
 on about half-way down the neck, as far as 
 the windpipe can be felt. Should this lini- 
 ment not be found suflSciently strong, take of 
 
 Mild Blistering Liquid . . . 4 oz, 
 and apply to the parts, morning and night. 
 (See List of Medicines.) 
 
 In consequence of the difficulty of swallow- 
 ing, and the consequent debility arising from 
 the want of proper nourishment, the horse 
 naturally becomes weak, and requires art to 
 assist nature, after all febrile symptoms are 
 gone, which will easily be ascertained by the 
 recovery of his appetite, the coolness of his 
 mouth, and his spirits being greatly enlivened. 
 At this time you may venture to give him the 
 following tonic ball : — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron ... 12 drachms. 
 
 Aloes, Cape .... 6 do. 
 
 Gentian 12 do. 
 
 Mix, and form into a mass with honey. 
 
 Divide into six balls, and give one every morn- 
 ing. 
 
 In proceeding as before described, no fear 
 need be entertained as to success in curing 
 the distemper, no matter in what shape it maj 
 have made its appearance. 
 
 MALIGNANT FEVER. 
 
 IlaUgnant or putrid fever in horses is of 
 rare occurrence ; and when it does occur, it is 
 generally a sequel of the distemper just de- 
 scribed ; principally arising from the debili- 
 tated state to which the animal is brought by 
 too much Heeding for that disease. The system 
 is consequently so much lowered from its 
 natural standard, that the disease may take on 
 a putrid or typhus form. When the disease, 
 from improper treatment, is allowed to arrive 
 at this state, it then may, in some measure, be 
 said to become infectious, but not iu any other 
 form of the disease. 
 
 The malignant epidemic of horses always 
 commences by similar appearances to those 
 which characterise the mild epidemic. In fact, 
 the one is only a heightened degree of the 
 other, pushed into a putrid type ; not by 
 the violence of its action, as supposed by some, 
 but by reducing the arterial system below 
 its proper standard. Another proof of this 
 
rEA'ETlB.] 
 
 MODERN VETEllINARY PllACTICE. 
 
 [rEVXB& 
 
 di'bilitv oxi^tinj; in tlio inalif^iiant kind, is seen 
 in tlie purging wliicli is usually pivsi'i\t, and a 
 fcBtid, stinkinpf disclinrf^o from tlio nose also- 
 The breath is likewise jiarticularly disacjrecablo, 
 and the pulse quick and small, attended with 
 extreme weakness. 
 
 In treatinc: of nialis^nant cpidi'mic, it is 
 hardly necessary to say anything about bleed- 
 ing, as that may be considered the principal 
 cause of the disease. As soon as any appear- 
 ances of malignity present themselves, the 
 most active means must be employed to sup- 
 port the strength, rouse the action of the 
 system, and destroy tlie putrid tendency. For 
 the accomplislimcnt of this, take a nose-bag, 
 and fill half-lull witli bran ; then take 
 Chloride of Lime . . . . 2 oz. 
 Water (warm) .... 1 gallon. 
 
 Moisten the bran with this liquid, and put the 
 bag on the horse's head, that he may inhale 
 the chloride, which will remove the putrid 
 tendency. Care must be taken not to have 
 the water too hot. Repeat three or four 
 times a day, for about half-an-hour each time. 
 Give malt mashes, and nutritious glysters, 
 either of rice-water or starch, and administer 
 the following ball: — 
 
 Cantharides .... 5 grains. 
 
 Arsenic 5 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron ... 2 drachms. 
 
 Aloes, Cape , . . . 1 do. 
 
 Juniper Berries ... 1 do. 
 
 Let these be well incorporated ■with honey, 
 and given every morning, or every second 
 morning. By this method of treatment a suc- 
 cessful termination of the disease may be 
 anticipated. 
 
 SYMPTOMATIC FEVER. 
 
 A symptomatic fever is a degree of inflam- 
 mation and increased circulation, occasioned 
 by some distinct or local pain, and is not a 
 disorder within itself; but probably the eflect 
 of, and dependent on, some other disease for its 
 being produced. This fever is so influenced 
 by the cause, and so entirely regulated by its 
 changes, either for better or worse, as to be 
 constantly reduced to an alleviation of the 
 original complaint, and totally dispelled by a 
 removal of the disease to which it is a conco- 
 mitant. The fever being only a symptom of 
 Bome other, the mere eflect of preternatural 
 
 heat excited by extreme pain, and not a 
 distinct disease, let the original cause bo re- 
 moved, and, as a matter of course, the eflccl 
 will cease. 
 
 It has been repeatedly urged by authors of 
 great repute, that every fever is one and the 
 same disorder, only appearing difl'erentlv, ac- 
 cording to the various circumstances it meets 
 with in dific-rent constitutions ; and much 
 might be advanced in favour of this assertion. 
 For want of due attention to the diflerence of 
 stages, many fine horses have been hastily 
 condemned. Persons should not only be ac- 
 curately nice in the discrimination of disease, 
 but, by attending minutely to circumstances, 
 endeavour to develop the indications of nature, 
 and strengthen all her eff'orts. In such cases, 
 no person can be too well acquainted with the 
 qualities of medicines, or with what is to bo 
 expected from their efi'ects ; and should have in 
 view, on every emergency, their operations, 
 whether certain or probable relief is to be 
 obtained. These ends should be promoted by 
 every fair and gentle means which circum- 
 stances may justify, or discretion dictate. 
 
 Symptomatic fever is most frequently 
 brought on by a general cutaneous obstruc- 
 tion, or sudden constriction of the pores of the 
 skin, which will constitute the foundation of 
 every fever to which the animal can possibly 
 be subject. Inflamed feet will produce it ; 
 tumours of almost all descriptions ; even nail- 
 ing a shoe on too tight will produce sympto- 
 matic fever; besides wounds, and almost all 
 operations that are attended with severity, 
 blisters, &c. 
 
 With respect to symptoms, the most certain 
 of these are, a universal heat, and disordered 
 pulse ; a palpable disquietude and uneasiness, 
 shifting from place to place. Tlie horse labours 
 under difiicult respiration ; his mouth is very 
 dry, his tongue parched and hot; be declines 
 his food, but will drink water; and sometimes 
 seizes his provender with seeming eagerness, 
 then drops it in disappointment. The body is 
 generally costive ; and in the early stage of 
 disease, there is a alight proportion of obstruC' 
 tion of urine. 
 
 Let a fever proceed from whatever cause, 
 the modes of cure are still the same ; such as 
 diminishing the preternatural heat to that 
 degree which constitutes its healthy state. 
 
 2G7 
 
FETEES.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [feteus. 
 
 Remove all internal obstructions ; and by a 
 proper and judicious administration of medi- 
 cines, calculated to subdue the original cause, 
 all dependent symptoms will certainly subside. 
 Eor tliis purpose administer emollient clysters, 
 after having back-raked the horse, so that easy 
 evacuations may be promoted, and give 
 
 Digitalis . . , from H to 2 drachms 
 Aloes, Cape .... 1 do. 
 Make into a ball, with soft soap. 
 
 Administer one every morning, which will 
 lower the action of the heart and arteries, and 
 entirely remove their inflammatory action : or 
 give the saline draught, as prescribed. (See List 
 of Medici7ies). Give nitre, about an ounce in 
 the horse's water every night ; feed with bran 
 mashes, or green food, if it can be provided 
 fresh ; if not, a few sliced carrots mixed with 
 his mash, and a handful of oats, will entice him 
 to eat, and prevent that considerable debility 
 which frequently arises from symptomatic 
 fever. Have his legs well rubbed, and mode- 
 rately clothed, and let him be well littered 
 down with clean dry straw. 
 
 CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. 
 
 Catarrh, or common, cold, is one of the most 
 frequent attacks of fever to which the horse is 
 subject. Cold, indeed, is an indefinite name 
 for catarrh, which consists in an inflammation 
 of the rima glottis, or top of the windpipe, 
 which is covered with a highly sensitive mem- 
 brane, even more sensitive than the nerve 
 itself. 
 
 This is the seat of catarrh and cough ; and 
 when it is affected, the horse is said to have 
 caught cold. This expression, however, is apt 
 to mislead from the true nature of the real 
 cause ; for this cold defines no particular de- 
 gree in which it has been caught. The truth 
 is, it is the change from one degree of tem- 
 perature to another, the warm air acting as a 
 stimulus, and the cold as a sedative ; and thus 
 people, without reflection, attribute the attack 
 to catching cold. Horses are necessarily ex- 
 posed to these variations of temperature many 
 times a day ; and this is demonstrated par- 
 ticularly in man, without going to individual 
 cases, but to numbers ; for, in removing a 
 whole regiment from comfortable barracks to 
 open camp, cold operates, but no catarrh ; but 
 on again returning to barracks, which pro- 
 268 
 
 duces the effect of high temperature, catarrh 
 becomes common ; and it is a known fact, 
 tliat deaths are never so few as in the open 
 field. 
 
 Horses that are kept in the open field in 
 winter, are not attacked with catarrh, inflamed 
 lungs, grease, &c. ; but when brought into the 
 stable, catarrb immediately makes its appear- 
 ance. This sudden change cannot be referred 
 to simple heat, but to a poisoned atmosphere, 
 which is generated in stables, breathed many 
 times over ; nature not having intended 
 animals to breathe the same air a second time. 
 The closer we adhere to her laws, the less pro- 
 bability is there of disease. 
 
 Horses will certainly lose flesb by being 
 kept in cold fields ; for animal oil wants a cer- 
 tain temperature for its increase. Horse- 
 dealers are well aware of this in preparing 
 their animals for sale. By these facts, dif- 
 ferent changes are proved ; hence badly-con- 
 structed stables, and contaminated air, are the 
 veterinary surgeon's best friends. 
 
 Thus, then, taking cold is, properly speak- 
 ing, taking heat, the disease being of an in- 
 flammatory nature. 
 
 Catarrh being proved to be an inflammation, 
 originating in congestion, cold cannot possibly 
 produce this, but the direct contrary. This 
 may be proved by bringing a frozen animal to 
 the fire, by which means you excite inflamma- 
 tion, and destroy him ; but if you rub him 
 with snow, he revives, because the snow, with 
 friction, is warmer than the body, and becomes 
 of a sufficient degree of heat. But the idea 
 that cold produces catarrh, arises from its 
 existing mostly in cold weather ; but what the 
 cold does is this — it renders the parts more sus- 
 ceptible of heat. Persons may ask, why aro 
 the cartilages of the windpipe more particu- 
 larly affected ? The» answer is, that they have 
 been made thus sensitive as a kind of safe- 
 guard to the lungs ; and when we consider 
 that, in bringing horses into stables, it is from 
 cold to heat, and from a pure to an impure 
 atmosphere — this being more than a simple 
 change — the question then arises, how are we 
 to prevent it ? We must acknowledge that 
 all animals fatten sooner in a warm tempera- 
 ture than in one of the reverse ; but then the 
 change must be gradual, being mindful that 
 the air all this time should be pure ; for the 
 
TEVERS ] 
 
 ATODERN VETElllNARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [fxtebb. 
 
 diseases of horses mav almost nil be referred 
 to ignoraiiiM.^ ami iu'-,'leot ; ajul, in the same 
 manner, tliia will, to a very largo extent, apply 
 to all animal creation. 
 
 As it is neeessary to have horses stabled, 
 for our many frequent uses, pure air has as 
 much to do with the prevention of catarrh, as 
 anything else ; for a poisoned atmosphere pro- 
 duces more or less efiect upon nil animals, in 
 accordance with their habits. AVe, ourselves, 
 are born in a comparatively impure atmo- 
 sphere, and brought up in it ; but use witli us 
 is second nature. A horse, on the contrary, 
 comes into the world in a pure atmosphere, 
 never breathing the same air twice. Therefore 
 the opposite must take greater effect on horses 
 than on us ; and hence we seldom see them ill 
 until they are brought into stables. Then the 
 horse becomes sick, and the owner is surprised ; 
 but it ought to be a greater surprise that the 
 animal should live at all. Although no advo- 
 cate for cold stables, yet we are no friend to 
 such as are heated by dung and urine. 
 
 Horses generally become diseased during 
 the night, the impure air then collecting ; for 
 during the day there is a partial ventilation. 
 Most persons on visiting a stable the first 
 thing in the morning, are well aware of the 
 effect of the air on their eyes. 
 
 Common catarrh often takes a great hold of 
 the constitution ; the irritation causing cough, 
 and not unfrequeutly ending in chronic cough, 
 from the irritability of the nerves, occasioned 
 by the previous attack. If the inflammation 
 attacks the membrane which lines the nose, a 
 discharge will be the consequence, sometimes 
 from one or both nostrils ; nature endeavour- 
 ing, by this means, to relieve herself. This 
 inflammation frequently, or almost always, 
 affects horses coming into large towns. Horse- 
 dealers are well aware of this, and often try to 
 prevent it, by turning them into a loose place, 
 for the attack seldom or ever comes on whilst 
 they are on the road in exercise, and breath- 
 ing pure air. Mistaken kindness will often 
 permit them to rest when the journey is over ; 
 but, however much the horse may have tra- 
 velled, he should have walking exercise the 
 next day. The first few days are of the 
 greatest consequence. 
 
 The cause of catarrh, according to the doc- 
 trine laid down at the Koyal Veterinary Col- 
 
 lego, is common cold ; but other causes will 
 [M'oduee the same effects, and deserve great 
 attention Jrorn every possessor of hor.><e8. 
 What is called cold, may arise not only from 
 breathing impure air in stables, but from tho 
 real applicalion of cold, when the animal is in 
 an excited state, or in a state of perspiration, 
 and allowed to stand in a draught of air. 
 
 In this, as in many other diseases to which 
 the horse is subject, cold acts differently upon 
 different constitutions; the injury sustained 
 being in some respects regulated by the degree* 
 of heat, or perspiration, in which the animal 
 was at the time of his being exposed to the 
 original cause, from which some idea may bo 
 formed of its probable duration and severity. 
 The effects of cold are not only soon dis- 
 covered where there is constant attention and 
 care, but an observation may be very early 
 made on what part it more immediately directs 
 its attack. In all cases, either of the eyes, 
 throat, or the head, it will discover itself, more 
 or less, in a cough, or in an obstruction in 
 breathing, according to the severity of the 
 attack. So soon as a horse is in this state, a 
 symptomatic fever attends, which is to bo 
 understood as a degree of febrile heat, or irri- 
 tability, dependent on the original cause, and 
 which gradually ceases as the primary disease 
 is found to d-acline. 
 
 In treating for this, bleed moderately, say 
 two or three quarts — not enough to debilitate 
 the animal ; that is, according to his size, state, 
 and condition. In about three hours give him 
 a bran mash, having first removed all his hay 
 out of the rack. Mix an ounce of nitre with 
 his water morning and night. Continue thi# 
 treatment for two or three days, giving occa- 
 sionally a handful of sweet hay, wetted. This, 
 in many cases, when taken in the early stage, 
 will prove successful. Should this treatment not 
 produce the desired effect in the early stages, 
 and should the attack have been neglected, 
 and the disorder have made rapid progress; 
 should the cough be ^nolent and constant, tho 
 horse very dull and heavy, declining all kind 
 of food, and the symptomatic fever running 
 high ; perhaps the disease will not imme- 
 diately submit to the above treatment so soon 
 as may be wished or expected ; therefore repeat 
 the bleeding in two or three days at farthest, 
 according to the state aud necessity, altering 
 
 269 
 
ROAEING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [eoaeinq. 
 
 the maslies to equal parts of malt and bran, 
 scalded with boiling water. When nearly 
 cool enough for the manger, stir in it— 
 
 : oz. 
 do. 
 
 Glauber Salts .... 
 Liquorice, powdered . 
 
 Let this be repeated every night and morning, 
 continuing the noonday feed dry, and the nitre 
 as before. Good grooming and gentle exer- 
 cise must not be neglected. 
 
 It should be remembered, that cough, or 
 colds, thus treated, before they have been 
 suftered by neglect or. penury to become obdu- 
 rate by long standing, generally submit to a 
 very small degree of trouble or expense ; whilst 
 tardiness in procuring expeditious relief, is 
 often productive of evils that no future as- 
 siduity can relieve. A critical discharge at 
 the nostrils may come on, which may termi- 
 nate either in chronic cough, brolcen wind, in- 
 flamed lungs, or even in glanders. To obviate 
 
 these misfortunes, if they do occur, give a 
 dozen of the following balls, not neglecting the 
 nitre in the water : — 
 
 Turkey Figs ...... 4 oz. 
 
 Liquorice, powdered . , . . 4 do. 
 
 Aniseed 4 do. 
 
 Ginger „ . 1 do. 
 
 Caraway Seed, powdered . p . 1 do. 
 Honey sufficient to form into a mass. 
 Divide into eighteen balls, and give one every 
 morning. 
 
 To say precisely in what time the cure will 
 be completed, is impossible ; but this method of 
 treatment is strongly recommended. 
 
 The treatment for cough, at the Eoyal 
 Veterinary College, is — 
 
 Cape Aloes . .... 1 drachm. 
 
 Linseed Meal, about ... 2 do. 
 Soft soap to form the ball. 
 Give one every morning. Sometimes a dram 
 oi 4ijgitalia is combined with the above. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIL 
 
 COUGHS ; PvOARTXr, ; CHRONIC COUGH ; THICK WIND ; BROKEN WIND. 
 
 ROARING. 
 
 Tub horse is very subject to this disease, 
 especially carriage-horses, and particularly 
 those of the Yorkshire breed, whose fine up- 
 standing height, of from sixteen to eighteen 
 hands, and their long necks, cause them to 
 be sought after in London for the carriage. 
 In driving them, the coachman is enabled to 
 shorten his bearing-rein to any length he 
 thinks proper, and thereby bring his horses' 
 necks into a beautiful curve. This is done 
 to exhibit thein in style, or what these knights 
 of the whip call, bringing them out in form, 
 though, by such means, the disease called 
 roaring is produced. In many cases where 
 this disease exists, it is exceedingly unpleasant 
 to hear the noise the horse makes every time 
 he breathes ; indeed, in some cases, it is so 
 distressing, that from exertion the animal will 
 fall ; yet, this tight bearing-rein must be used. 
 270 
 
 Let U3 here, however, explain what it is that 
 principally is the cause of this complaint. 
 
 Roaring is occasioned by anything that ob- 
 structs the air-passages, or, in other words, 
 anything that impedes the air from passing up 
 and down from and to the lungs. Inflammation 
 of the fine secreting membrane which lines the 
 windpipe, will frequently produce it, from an 
 alteration of the arterial action, by which an 
 effusion of coagulable matter may be thrown 
 out, and become organised, and, in consequence, 
 remain as a permanent obstruction to the pas- 
 sage. Inflammation of the lungs will also some- 
 times occasion it ; strangles also will, by pro- 
 ducing getieral inflammation round the throat, 
 frequently cause it. But the most painful 
 cause of roaring is, the tight reining-in of 
 carriage-horses, by which the windpipe be- 
 comes distorted, or, in other words, contracted 
 and diseased. The horse, in his natural state, 
 
BOABINO.] 
 
 MODERN VKTK RIN'AKY PKACTICR. [ciikonic couoii. 
 
 feeds oft* tlie grouiul ; c'oii.siuiucntly, liis uock 
 id at lull strotcli ; bul ulicn lie bicoiiies dDinos- 
 tiojitoil, this natural strolcli of it is rumovetl 
 from hiin, for ho has his rack level witli liis 
 heail, and tlie manger but littlo lower, so that 
 those muscles of the throat, counectinj; the 
 \vinil[iipe with the spur-hone, as it is sometiiiioa 
 called, and the inner sides of the posterior 
 part of the jaw, become, in a manner, useless ; 
 consequently, contraction takes place ; and as 
 nature finds but little or no use for them in 
 such a case, so absorption takes place, and they 
 become shortened. It is from this cause that 
 we frequently see cart-horses, when turned 
 out to grass for a few hours, spread their fore 
 legs so cxtraordiifarily wide. This is the 
 natural consequence of their not being able to 
 reach the ground from the contraction and ab- 
 sorption of a portion of these muscles. 
 
 Another cause, and, perhaps, the principal 
 cause of roaring, is the partial absorption, or 
 lapping over of the ligamentous cartilego union 
 existing between each ring of the windpipe, 
 fi'om the horse's head being so bridled in by the 
 bearing rein. (See Flate). It has been re- 
 marked by a very eminent practitioner, and one 
 particularly so at the Eoyal Veterinary College, 
 that the throat-strap being buckled too tight 
 may be the cause ; but, if this were the case, 
 not one out of every cart or waggon horse 
 would escape, especially when we take into 
 consideration the heavy harness with which 
 they are appointed ; but this is not the case 
 with carriage or saddle horses, the harness of 
 which is of the lightest description, and espe- 
 cially at the present A^y. 
 
 In treating for roaring, we must premise 
 that its cure is very difllcult, indeed not prac- 
 ticable. It may, however, be prevented; and, 
 as "a preventive is better than a cure," we 
 will endeavour to describe how this is to be 
 accomplished. In the first place, the rack out 
 of which the horse eats his hay should be 
 altered. It should be on the ground, so that 
 the horse's neck shall be on the full stretch, or 
 as it is in a state of nature when in the act of 
 cropping his food. By this means, those liga- 
 mentous attachments of the rings of the wind- 
 pipe would become elongated, or be kept in 
 their natural situation. That corrugation of 
 the membrane, which might, under other cir- 
 cumstances, become thickened, would be re- 
 
 moved, and so prevent a contraction or reduc- 
 tion of the compass of tho air-pasnago, by 
 which tho unpleasant noise of roaring is pro- 
 duced. Nature never intended a horse to Imvo 
 his hay just opposite his nose. All horses in 
 India feed otF the ground, and it is a rare thing 
 to meet with a roarer there. 
 
 CHRONIC COUGH. 
 
 Chronic cough consists in a violent action of 
 the diaplu-agm, and tho abdominal muscles 
 producing a forcible expiration of tiie air from 
 the chest, ejected with much violence, with the 
 intent of removing any extraneous body that 
 may intercept the passage of tho air. When- 
 ever it accompanies a general aflection of tho 
 constitution, it most frequently assumes tho 
 chronic form. Catarrh, and inflammation of 
 the lungs, are usually attended with cough ; 
 and even if those diseases are removed, chronic 
 cough supervenes. It is, also, a very common 
 attendant of thick wind, broken wind, glanders, 
 and pulmonary consumption. Worms also 
 will produce coughs. It also exists, at times, 
 without any attendant difficulty of breathing, 
 the horse eating well, and appearing in good 
 condition Sometimes a chronic or permanent 
 cough appears to afi'ect the animal when goinfi' 
 to stable in the morning, or at the different 
 feeding times. This is in consequence of ad- 
 mitting the cold air into the stable, which 
 becomes a source of irritation to the air- 
 passages. It is no uncommon thing for horses, 
 on first go n,' out to exercise, to cough ; but; 
 this is in consequence of coming in contact 
 with cold air. A cough of this description is 
 very common, and will sometimes aflect tho 
 horse for years, yea, even his whole life. In 
 other instances it does not end in so harmless 
 a manner; but, upon any occasional cold 
 taken, becomes aggravated ; and when this 
 repeatedly occurs, the bronchiju become so 
 permanently affected, that chronic cough is 
 established. 
 
 The eflects and termination of chronic 
 cough are dependent in a considerable degree 
 upon the causes producing it. iVom what we 
 have observed of the termination of inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs, it will be easily seen that an 
 irritation often remains iu the air-passages 
 after that disease, as well as in some cases of 
 catarrhal affections. In either of these cases, 
 
 271 
 
CHEONIC COUOH.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [thick wikd. 
 
 any cliange of atmosphere excites these ex- 
 cessively irritable parts into action ; making 
 the horse cough whenever he is moved in or 
 out of the stable ; for the air being either 
 hotter or colder than what was before 
 breathed in the regular way, becomes a source 
 of irritation. Drinking cold water will, from 
 the same reason, produce the same effect for a 
 time, if given in the stable; but if a horse is 
 allowed to drink at a pond, where the water is 
 of tlie same temperature as the atmosphere, 
 no ill effects will result. Any irregularity of 
 motion or hurry in the pace of the animal will 
 produce this cough ; and in some cases, it is 
 continued to such a length of time, as to be 
 truly distressing. There are instances in 
 which the irritability of the bronchial mem- 
 brane itself, does not seem so much increased 
 as to alter either the quantity or quality of 
 the mucus secreted. It may become inordinate 
 in quantity, where horses, when they cough, 
 discharge it at the nose, or it may be more acrid 
 in quality ; but, in either case, it proves a 
 source of continual irritation. In some ca:es, 
 the deposit of adhesive matter in the air-pas- 
 sages, arising from catarrhal inflammation or 
 inflamed lungs, will produce chronic cough, 
 and the deposit will then cause irritation. This 
 deposit of lymph-like matter is sometimes 
 removed by the violence of the cough ; and by 
 administering expectorants, a separation is 
 frequently obtained, when great quantities of 
 this obstructive matter is brought up. In 
 Bonie constitutions, a large portion of it becomes 
 absorbed, and this may be assisted to a great 
 extent by administering proper medicines. 
 
 The remedies for chronic cough are applied 
 in accordance with the symptoms it exhibits; 
 and when it appears from a want of mucous 
 secretion, we know of no medicine so effective 
 as the ball prescribed in catarrh. On the 
 other hand, if the mucous secretion should 
 flow in such quantities as to cause the horse 
 to be weakened by it, then it will be proper to 
 administer the following : — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron . . . 2 drachms. 
 Gentian . . . i ^2 do. 
 
 Aloes 1 do. 
 
 Honey to form the ball. 
 One of these balls to be given daily. 
 
 If the secretion should be of an acrid, watery 
 description, a course of mercurial medicine 
 272 
 
 should be tried, being careful, at the same 
 time, that the animal does not get a chill 
 during the time this medicine is being given 
 him. The following is recommended as 
 good : — 
 
 Blue Pill 2 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 do. 
 
 Form into a ball, with soft soap. 
 
 Give one of these balls every second day for 
 a fortnight. If the horse should reject his 
 food in the course of the exhibition of the 
 medicine, desist from giving it for a i'ew days, 
 and commence again. This we have known 
 to remove very severe attacks of chronic 
 cough, and frequently, when attended with 
 worms, when the coat was staring and dry, 
 and the stools foetid and slimy. 
 
 In chronic cough, great attention should be 
 paid to the food of the animal— never to give 
 clover. It is heating, and altogether unfit for 
 horses so affected. Chaff, also, is not to be 
 recommended in this disease. Good sweet 
 oats and hay, both made a little damp, will be 
 found the best. Carrots, occasionally, are ex- 
 cellent ; so also are a few Swede turnips ; or 
 even a few potatoes cut up will afford great 
 relief. Occasionally, bran mashes, with a little 
 scalded linseed, will also prove useful. 
 
 In cases of chronic cotigh, where it appears 
 of an aggravated nature, insert a rowel in the 
 chest, and dress with the digestive ointment. 
 (See Ointments, in the medicinal part of this 
 section). Keep the rowel in for at least a fort- 
 night. Should the cough be very severe, apply 
 the following liniment to the whole length of 
 the horse's windpipe night and morning. 
 
 No. 1. 
 Oil of Turpentine . , . . 3 oz. 
 Olive Oil 3 do. 
 
 Apply as above directed. 
 
 Or, No. 2. 
 Cantharides . . . o . , 1 oz. 
 Olive Oil 5 do. 
 
 Let these remain in a bottle for about six 
 days, occasionally shaking it, and then apply 
 as above directed. In cases of coagulable 
 lymph being deposited in the windpipe, these 
 liniments will greatly tend to remove it. 
 
 THICK WIND. 
 
 This disease is generally the sequel to in- 
 flamed lungs, which baa thickened the air- 
 
TUICK W'NU.] 
 
 :^IODE]iX VETRIUXARY PliACriCE. 
 
 [uitOKLN WIND. 
 
 passngcg, and consequently prevented a free 
 and unimpeded respiration. It is a disease 
 rarely occurring of itself, but euperveniiig 
 after some otlier inflammatory attack to which 
 the air-passagos may have boon subject, such 
 aa catarrh, &c. Long-continued exercise, 
 quickened beyond the capacity of the lungs to 
 bear, is frequently a cause ; and such is par- 
 ticularly the case when horses are driven or 
 ridden hard with full stomachs. It is also not 
 unfrequeutly produced when horses are too 
 fat, or, in other words, out of condition, when 
 inflammation is superinduced in the air-paa- 
 eages. Confinement will frequently produce 
 it, by eiciting an inflammatory diathesis, 
 especially if over-feeding, with a want of exer- 
 cise, be added to it. 
 
 Tlie remote causes of thick wind are to be 
 found in morbid vascular action. The proxi- 
 mate causes are more obscure ; but the 
 examination of morbid subjects, in most in- 
 stances, shows some disorganisation in the 
 structure of the lungs. A deranged state of 
 the lungs, and especially if the atmosphere is 
 at all thick and heavy, will give rise to it. 
 The most usual appearance it presents, is a 
 morbid alteration in the minute bronchial 
 ramifications of the blood-vessels, occasioned 
 either by a thickening of their own mem- 
 branous structure, or by a deposit within them 
 of coagulable lymph, which, necessarily, con- 
 tracts or lessens their functional capacity, 
 rendering air-passages much smaller than they 
 are in a natural state, when difllculty of res- 
 piration is produced, and the animal is called 
 foggy, or thick-winded. 
 
 Thick wind is easily discovered by any per- 
 son at all acquainted witb horses. A sense of 
 fulness in the right side of the heart induces 
 the animal to respire hastily. The force with 
 whicb this is done occasions the sound so well 
 known as the distinguishing mark of thick 
 wind, which often degenerates into, what is 
 called, broken wind. 
 
 For the treatment of thick wind, there is no 
 ybetter remedy than the cordial pectoral hall, 
 given in the list of medicines at the end of 
 this section, administered occasionally in the 
 morning, when the afiection appears, more 
 than usual, to distress the animal, and render- 
 ing him apparently less capable for the per- 
 formance of his duties. 
 
 2n 
 
 HIIOKKN WIND. 
 
 This aflfoction of the lungs and air-pasaagcH 
 has a long time puzzled both English as well 
 as French writers on vetoriiuiry suhjcots, but 
 without eitlior being satisfied, until the all- 
 penetrating genius of Professor Coleman, of the 
 Koyal Veterinary College, threw a liglit on tho 
 subject before unknown. The theory of that 
 gentleman is a correct one. He discovered it 
 to be a rupture of the air-cells of the lungs, 
 so that tlie tiiin membrane covering those, 
 becomes raised up ii\ small bladdt^rs, wherever 
 the rupture takes place. This opinion baa 
 been thoroughly proved, on examination after 
 death, in such subjects as bad been affected 
 with the complaint when living. The alteration 
 in the structure of the broken-winded lung is in 
 general very considerable. It has been asserted 
 that, in very few instances, no change whatever 
 has been detected, and the lungs have presented 
 little or no morbid appearance ; but this we 
 should very much doubt, having dissected seve- 
 ral horses affected with broken wind, and 
 having examined their lungs minutely, and 
 always found great derangement in them. 
 The alteration consists principally in an em- 
 physematous state, dependent on the air, as 
 above stated, being extravasated not only 
 throughout the parenchyma in minute air- 
 bubbles, but also extended over the thin mem- 
 branous covering. This extravasation is, in 
 most cases, so complete, as to render the lungs 
 specifically lighter than ordinary, and to make 
 them crepitate and crackle under the hand. 
 They are also, in every instance, of a paler 
 colour. 
 
 The invariable presence of emphysema in 
 such cases being fully established, it is not to 
 be wondered at that a cure has never been 
 established for broken wind. Some writers 
 have said that there may be a possibility of 
 cure, but without making mention of the 
 curative means. "We shall, therefore, offer our 
 opinion as to the best means of relieving the 
 disease, without making any pretensions to 
 the discovery of a perfect remedy. 
 
 AVhere broken wind exists, it is easily 
 known by tho peculiar action occasioned by 
 the respiration of the horse. The cough, also, 
 which accompanies it is of a peculiar kind, 
 and seems to be forced o.it with a sort ot 
 
 273 
 
BEOKEN WIND.} 
 
 THE HOESE. AND 
 
 [broken wind. 
 
 grunting noise. The difference between the 
 inspirations and the expirations — the breath- 
 ing-in, and the breathing-out — is also most 
 remarkable, but easily accounted for. Inspi- 
 ration, or the act of drawing in the breath, is 
 effected with the ordinary ease ; but the ex- 
 travasated air already diffused through the 
 cellular tissue, is still the real cause of this 
 difficulty, by offering a resistance to the com- 
 plete ejection of the atmospheric air contained 
 in the bronchial cells. Consequently, the 
 broken-winded horse inspires with ease, but 
 respires with a protracted and great effort, by 
 means of very forcible contractions of his 
 abdominal muscles. The respiration is per- 
 formed by two apparent efforts, in one of 
 which tlie usual muscles operate, and in the 
 other the auxiliary muscles, particularly the 
 abdominal ones, are put on tlie stretch to 
 complete the expulsion more perfectly. When 
 this has been done, the flank falls with peculiar 
 force, and these muscles resume their relaxa- 
 tions. 
 
 Horses affected, may receive a palliative 
 to the distress under which they frequently 
 labour; but a perfect cure is impossible. The 
 best remedy we have been able to discover to 
 relieve broken wind is the followinsf, and 
 ought always to be kept in the stable, espe- 
 cially if the horse is required to do some extra 
 work : — 
 
 JEhr Brohen Wind. 
 
 Gum Galbaniura 
 
 Amoniacum 
 
 Assafoetida 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Form into a mass with honey. 
 Divide into twelve balls, and give 
 sionally. 
 
 Horses, from their prone position, are liable 
 to pursiveness and broken wind ; for in 
 them the intestines press much against the 
 diaphragm, or midriff, and, in consequence, on 
 the lungs, and thereby cause the oppression of 
 breathing. One remedy is, having particular 
 care to their exercise and feed. The exercise 
 should be gentle, and moderate as to its con- 
 tinuance. The food should always be the best 
 of the respective sorts, and frequently given 
 in small quantities, that the stomach may 
 
 2 oz. 
 
 2 do. 
 
 2 do. 
 
 4 do. 
 
 one occa- 
 
 never be too full. All dry food, such as corn, 
 hay, bran, &c., should always be moistened 
 with water to prevent thirst, which generally 
 attends this afiection ; particularly the haj, 
 the flavour of which is much improved by 
 damping, or sprinkling it with water. The 
 corn should be increased in quantity, and less 
 hay given ; and what is given should be of the 
 best description, sweet, clean, and well shaken, 
 to divest it of all dirt and dust. Care should 
 be taken not to make the hay too wet ; for, if 
 so, the horse will not eat it. 
 
 When there is convenience, broken-winded 
 horses are best when kept out at grass at all 
 times, their corn being continued as when 
 they stood at hay ; but when kept at grass 
 for the purpose of relieving their wind, they 
 should not be taken up to stable, except for 
 immediate use ; for, if taken from grass to dry 
 meat, they become more oppressed in their 
 breathing, from the difference of the change of 
 food. If convenience cannot be had for con- 
 stant running in the field, they may be soiled 
 in a loose box in the stable, with any green 
 food that may be in season at the time. 
 
 By care, in this method, numbers of horses 
 have been much relieved, and made useful for 
 many years. 
 
 There is also a small degree of broken wind, 
 which, by dealers, is called pursiveness. Many 
 pursive horses evince several signs of broken- 
 windedness, yet never become thoroughly 
 broken-winded, if not ill-used, or neglected. 
 Great and foul feeders are always more or less 
 thick-winded; and, except their diet and exer- 
 cise are carefully managed, they will readily 
 become so. 
 
 Due attention being paid to the diet and 
 exercise of pursive horses, according to the 
 directions already given for the broken-winded, 
 tar-water, to the quantity of one or two pints 
 each, may be administered the morning they are 
 going to work. If to this be added a pint of 
 warm ale, it will be found of great benefit in 
 relieving the wind. Another excellent remedy 
 for pursive horses is the cordial pectoral ball. 
 The stable where horses are at all affected in 
 the wind, however slightly, ought never to be 
 without a good supply of this invaluable 
 medicine. 
 
 274i 
 
OLAN'DERS.] 
 
 MODEliN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [ai,.\NDEU8. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIIL 
 
 JLANDERS. 
 
 Glanders is a discasp, tlie treatment of which 
 has proved a perfect puzzle to tlie most scienti- 
 fie veterinarians. | 
 
 There is no doubt that it is contagious, and it 
 is generally thought incurable. The vast num- 
 ber of horses which have fallen victims to ' 
 glanders, especially in the army, and in estab- , 
 lishments where large numbers are kept, has i 
 attracted particular attention to the subject, 
 especially in Trance and Italy ; where, so 
 carlv as about the beginning of the last cen- j 
 tury, many attempts were made to discover a 
 remedy for it. 
 
 Lafosse, an eminent French veterinarian, 
 considered it a local disease, and thought he 
 had found a successful mode of treating it, in 
 perforating the bones which cover the frontal 
 sinuses, and injecting, through the opening, 
 astringent and other liquids. 
 
 After this opinion had beep published, some i 
 English farriers made a trial of it ; and others 
 poured detergent lotions into the nostrils, the 
 nose being drawn up for the purpose, by 
 means of a pulley. Attempts were also made 
 to cure it by arsenical fumigations ; and some 
 went so far as to burn out the submaxillary 
 glands between the jaws, or to slough them 
 out by caustics. Tlie various preparations of 
 mercury, copper, iron, and arsenic, have like- 
 wise been used. At the Royal Veterinary 
 College, a solution of from two to five drachms 
 of the sulphate of copper, combined with a 
 little linseed meal, is the remedy made use of. 
 Prom the circumstance of horses having 
 sometimes escaped the disorder, though they 
 have been standing in the same stall or stable, 
 or drinking out of the same bucket or trough 
 with a glandered animal, many have been led 
 to doubt its being contagious ; and the little 
 care that some large proprietors have taken to 
 prevent the spreading of the disorder, in con- 
 sequence of such an opinion, has been the 
 cause of very numerous and serious losses. 
 That the glanders is contagious, has been 
 clearly and indisputably proved by numerous 
 
 experiments, and the manner in which it is 
 propagated has likewise been satisfactorily da- 
 monstrated. At tlio same time, it must bo 
 admitted, glanders will arise from inoculation ; 
 and this not by wilful intention, but from 
 accident ; for, suppose a glandered horse to 
 have stood in a stall, and some of the matter 
 from his nostrils to have hung about the man- 
 ger — a fresh horse coming into that stall, 
 may, from its strangeness, smell about, when 
 any rough substance that he may come in con- 
 tact with, may occasion an abrasion of the skin. 
 Should this abrasion touch tlie poisoned mat- 
 ter of glanders, the horse will decidedly be- 
 come affected. 
 
 In a general way, however, close unwhole- 
 some stables, hard work, and bad provender, 
 sudden changes from cold and wet weather to 
 hot stables— in short, anything that will weaken 
 the animal considerably, is likely to produce 
 glanders and farcy. There will be no longer 
 any danger in admitting this opinion, if, at 
 the same time, we keep in view the contagious 
 nature of the disorder, in whatever manner it 
 may be produced. For, if such cruel and 
 foolish treatment of horses does' not produce 
 glanders or farcy, it may produce otlier 
 disorders, which are often more speedily fatal ; 
 and if it does not actually produce a dis- 
 order, it weakens the constitution to such 
 a degree, that the animal is rendered more 
 susceptible of the contagion of glanders, as well 
 as of other diseases. It is from this cause that 
 glanders spreads so rapidly among post and 
 coach-horses; while, among horses of a 
 different description, its progress is generally 
 
 slow. 
 
 Some writers have said that glanders has 
 often been generated in the cavalry, by putting 
 the horses, immediately after coming from 
 camp, where they are constantly exposed to 
 the weather, into warm stables, and giving 
 them a full allowance of oats. This, it is true, 
 has often brought on inflammation, and in- 
 flammatory disorders of several descriptions, 
 
 275 
 
GLANDEKS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [glanders. 
 
 which have proved very destructive, especially 
 the catarrhal kind ; iu which cases they are 
 accompanied with a discharge from the nostrils. 
 The acrimony of this discharge will sometimes 
 even ulcerate the nostrils, and the disease 
 would then be considered as a decided case of 
 glanders. Frequently we have known the 
 distemper, or epidemic catarrh, produce this 
 effect. 
 
 The first symptom of this disease is generally 
 seen in a discharge of glairy matter from one 
 or both nostrils ; principally, or usually from 
 one only, and more frequently from the left 
 than from the right nostril ; a swelling of the 
 submaxillary glands, or kernels between the 
 jaws, and generally on the side of the jaw 
 corresponding to the affected nostiul, and fre- 
 quently attended with cough ; the membrane 
 of the nose, especially that which covers the 
 cartilaginous part, or septum, becomes, from 
 the fineness of its texture, ulcerated ; as do the 
 many small blood-vessels distributed thereon. 
 In consequence of this, it becomes more sus- 
 ceptible of the disease, especially in its acute 
 form. 
 
 Sometimes, however, glanders is accompanied 
 by a disorder of the superficial absorbents of 
 the skin, named farcy, which has been con- 
 sidered by many authors as a distinct disorder ; 
 but we think that it is always a symptom of 
 glanders, whether it appear in a local or con- 
 stitutional form. 
 
 Glanders is divided into two stages — the 
 acute and the chronic ; or the first and the 
 second stages. Acute glanders is generally 
 attended with acute farcy, such as chancrous 
 ulceration about the lips, face, or neck, with 
 considerable or painful swellings on different 
 parts ; some of these swellings appearing in, 
 what the old farriers called, a corded, or 
 knotted vein. Ulceration and swelling of the 
 hind leg, or sheath, and sometimes of the fore 
 leg, with corded veins, and what is termed 
 farcy-buds on the inside of the limbs, also 
 accompany glanders. Acute glanders often 
 spreads rapidly, and either destroys the animal, 
 or renders him such a pitiable and hopeless 
 object, that the proprietor is usually induced 
 to have him destroyed, 
 
 Ciirouic glanders is generally very mild in 
 the first stage, and does not affect the appe- 
 tite, or the general health and appearance of 
 276 
 
 the animal. Horses affected no further with 
 it, when properly fed and taken care of, and 
 worked with moderation, will often continue 
 in regular work for several years. Many 
 glandered animals have been known to get rid 
 of the disorder while working ; and, on several 
 occasions, fresh -purchased horses, and par- 
 ticularly if old ones, have escaped the dis- 
 order. Hence it is that many have been led 
 to believe that the glanders is not contagious. 
 
 The second stage of glanders is marked by 
 ulceration within the nostrils, or an appear- 
 ance in the matter which indicates ulceratiooi 
 though it is sometimes too high up to be seen. 
 The matter is in larger quantity, more gluti- 
 nous, sticking about the margin of the nostril 
 and upper lips, and occasionally obstructing the 
 passage of air, so that a sort of snuffling noise 
 is made in breathing. 
 
 The matter is frequently streaked with 
 blood, and the horse sometimes bleeds from 
 the nostrils in working. When this happens 
 in the first stage of the disorder, however 
 early it may be, it indicates the approach of 
 the second stage. The matter begins to have 
 an offensive smell, which it scarcely ever has 
 in the first stage. In the second stage, the 
 matter is generally discharged from both nos- 
 trils ; whilst the glands under the jaw become 
 larger, harder, and fixed more closely to the 
 jaw-bone. They are also generally more 
 tender to the touch than in the first stage. 
 The inner corners of the eye are also mattery. 
 The animal loses flesh and strength, and is apt 
 to stale more than usual. He coughs heavily 
 and hard, and at length dies in a miserable 
 condition, generally farcied as well as glan- 
 dered. It is with this disease as it formerly 
 was with small-pox inoculation, and is now 
 with vaccination. If a person happens to 
 meet with one or two cases, or even half-a- 
 dozen, of horses escaping the glanders, after 
 standing in a stable with one that is glan- 
 dered, he thinks himself fully warranted in 
 concluding that the disease is not contagious. 
 Satisfied with this decision, he gives himself 
 no further trouble about it, and pays no atten- 
 tion to anything that may be said or written 
 in opposition to his own opinion. 
 
 It is a remarkable circumstance, that glan- 
 ders cannot be communicated by applying the 
 matter which is discharged from the nose of a 
 
GLANDEItS.] 
 
 MODERN VKTKKINAKV I'KACTICE. 
 
 [ULANDEBS. 
 
 i^landercd horse, to the nostrils of a sound one, 
 even though a piece of lint soaked in the 
 matter is put up the nostrils, and kept in con- 
 tact with the pituitary membrane tor a short 
 time, or even if the matter is thrown up the 
 nostrils by a syringe. But if the smallest 
 quantity is applied in the way of inoculation, 
 either to the membrane of the nostrils, or to 
 any part of the body, there will be produced a 
 glamleroua ulcer, from which farcy-buds and 
 corded lymphatics will proceed. After a short 
 time the poison will get into the circulation, 
 and the horse will be completely glandered. 
 
 The circumstance of glanders not being 
 communicated by a]iplying matter to the nos- 
 trils, enables us to account for a horse 
 escaping the disorder, as he sometimes does, 
 after being put into a glandered stable, or 
 standing by the side of a diseased animal. 
 AYe have great reason to believe that glanders 
 is frequently communicated by accidental in- 
 oculation. Glanders can also be communi- 
 cated by the air, by the effluvium which issues 
 from the glandered horse, ia the same way 
 that putrid fever is communicated ; yet we 
 knew a traveller who used to journey from 
 Deptford to London daily, and who kept two 
 liorses in the same stable, one of whicli was 
 highly glandered, and remained so for three 
 years ; but the other horse never caught the 
 infection, which would lead to the supposition 
 that there must be, in some instances, a 
 predisposition to the disease before it can be 
 caught. Glanders, it has been said, cannot 
 be produced by the matter applied to an old 
 wound or ulcer ; but of this we have great 
 doubts. A sound horse has been inoculated 
 with glanderous matter which had been mixed 
 with ten times its weight of water. This pro- 
 duced some degree of inflammation, and a 
 small ulcer of a suspicious nature ; but after 
 two or three days the ulcer got quite well. 
 This shows that glanderous matter may be so 
 far weakened by dilution with water, saliva, or 
 the watery secretion from the lower part of a 
 glandered horse's nostrils, wjen be has the 
 affection in a very slight degree only, as to 
 render its being incapable of communication to 
 others. On the other hand, when a large 
 opening is made in the skin of a sound horse, 
 and a piece of tow or lint, soaked in the glan- 
 derous matter, is put into it, in the manner 
 
 that rowels are inserted, the disorder is com- 
 municated iu 80 violent a degree, that tlio 
 animal is destroyed by it, generally in a few 
 days. The same efl'ect may be produced if 
 glanderous matter is mi.xed with a little warm 
 water, and injected into the jugular vein of a 
 sound horse. 
 
 A horse affected with glanders, may inocu- 
 late himself, and thereby produce farcy. Horses, 
 when out at grass, are frequently affected by 
 an itching, and are apt to bite their heel.i, 
 when the flow of matter from the nostrils in- 
 oculates them, and produces farcy. The pos- 
 sibility of this circumstance taking place may 
 be easily proved by inoculating a glandered 
 animal iu any part of his body with some of his 
 own matter. There are many ways in which 
 a sound horse may be accidentally inoculated 
 with the matter of glanders, for the slightest 
 scratch in any part of the body is sufficient. 
 Horses that are cleaned with a curry-comb, 
 are very liable to be scratched iu those parts 
 where the bones are most prominent ; such aa 
 on the inside of the hock, the knee, and on 
 the shank-bones. To such scratches glan- 
 derous matter may be applied even by tlie 
 hands of the groom, after he has been examin- 
 ing the nose of a glandered horse, or wiping off 
 the matter from his nostrils. It may, also, be 
 done by the horse himself transferring glan- 
 derous matter from the nose of a diseased 
 animal, or from the manger, or other part 
 where any matter has been deposited ; for 
 horses are very fond of rubbing their noses 
 against the manger or stall ; and a glandered 
 animal will generally rub off the matter from 
 his nose against the manger, the rack, the stall, 
 or against another horse. If a sound horse 
 happens to stand by one that is glandered, they 
 will often be seen nabbing, or gently biting 
 each other, or rubbing their noses together, 
 when glanders to the sound one may be the 
 result. In short, when we know that glanders 
 is thus communicated, we can conceive a variety 
 of ways iu which a horse may be accidentally 
 inoculated. On one occasion, at the Koyal 
 Veterinary College, two grooms, who had tho 
 superintendence of the glandered stables, be- 
 came, themselves, affected with the disease, 
 and were obliged to be removed into an 
 hospital. 
 
 AVhen a horse has been twitched, he gene- 
 
 277 
 
GLAXDEIIS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [glandees. 
 
 rally rubs big nose and lips with considerable 
 force against the manger, and may thus easily 
 iaoculate himself with a glandered splinter or 
 Aail. The parts where the local farcy first 
 appears, are those most likely to be acciden- 
 tally inoculated ; namely, the inside of the 
 hocks, the knees, the shanks, the lips, and the 
 under-jaw, where grooms are often trimming 
 off the long hair with sharp-pointed scissors, 
 or singeing with a candle, and causing an 
 itching, which makes the horse rub the part 
 against the manger. In this way the heels 
 frequently become wounded. Horses that ar,? 
 kept on grains, bad hay, or any kind of bad 
 provender, are liable to itching humours, which 
 make them nab or bite their skin, and scratch 
 the hind leg with the opposite foot. We may 
 often see them bite, rub with the nose, and 
 alternately scratch with the hind foot, the other 
 leg. Even after inoculation, a month may 
 elapse before the disease makes its appear- 
 ance ; and in all experiments for the production 
 of glanders, some days, at any rate, will elapse 
 before any ulcer or chancre is produced. It 
 will be a week or two before farcy-buds or 
 corded lymphatics will appear; and in some 
 cases, probably, a month before the running 
 from the nostrils will come on, except when a 
 young ass is the subject of experiment. If we 
 reflect upon all these circumstances, there will 
 be no difficulty in admitting the following con- 
 clusions, in reference to glanders — namely: 
 That glanders ia a contagious disorder, com- 
 municable by inoculation, or by the effluvium 
 proceeding from a glandered animal, that may 
 have been kept in a stable with others, which, 
 from weaker constitutions, have greater sus- 
 ceptibility to be afiected by the disease, than 
 others of a more robust and strong constitu- 
 tion. It has been also asserted by some clever 
 veterinarians, that swallowing a quantity of 
 the matter made into balls will produce the 
 disease ; but this we never found to be the 
 case, as we have tried it in several instances, 
 both on horses and asses. In doubtful cases — 
 that is, when there is much difficulty in deter- 
 mining whether the discharge from a horse's 
 nostril is glanderous or not (and such cases 
 frequently occur) — he should be removed to a 
 stable, to remain by himself Then purchase 
 an ass, which may always be obtained for a 
 lew shillings, and inoculate him with some of 
 278 
 
 the glandered matter. "We have generally 
 done this in the inside of the fore lew, on the 
 plate-vein ; and in two or three days, ample 
 proof will be aflbrded, in the actual condi- 
 tion of the horse, whether your judgment be 
 correct or not. We recommend this plan, 
 because a valuable horse may be preserved at 
 the expense of a iew shillings. If the matter 
 is really glanderous, a peculiar kind of sore or 
 chancre will be produced. From this ulcer, 
 corded veins, as they are termed, will proceed, 
 and farcy-buds, or small tumours, will take 
 place. In about a week the animal will run 
 at the nose, and, in a short time, take on all 
 the appearance of complete glanders. 
 
 In such a case, the disease is always very 
 rapid, and always proves fatal. If the matter 
 is not glanderous, no effect will be produced 
 by it. In large establishments, where many 
 horses are kept, this will be found a valuable 
 test for determining with certainty the nature 
 of a discharge from the nostrils. However 
 mild the glanders may be, and although 
 ulceration of the nostrils cannot be seen, and 
 the quantity of matter that may be discharged 
 is small, and the animal appear in good health 
 and condition, the ass will be as certainly 
 affected by the matter as if the disease were 
 in the last stage, or in its most virulent degree. 
 
 For the sake of those gentlemen and agri- 
 culturists who may reside at some considerable 
 distance from a regular veterinary surgeon, we 
 will describe the method of performing the 
 operation of inoculation. 
 
 Cut off a little hair to the size of half-a- 
 crown, from the inside of the fore legs, where 
 you can feel the vein. We prefer this part, 
 because we have found the poison act quicker 
 when injected here than in any other place, it 
 being immediately on a large vein, which 
 renders the communication of tlie poison to 
 the system more expeditious. Then take a 
 lancet, and introduce it under the skin, for 
 about three-quarters of an inch in length. 
 The orifice must be wiped free from the few 
 drops of blood which may make their ap- 
 pearance. Have ready lint or tow that has 
 first been well impregnated wnth the glandered 
 matter, and introduce it into the opening with 
 a probe, or small slip of wood. This being 
 done, make a small wadding of tow, and place 
 over all. Apply a bandage to the part, to keep 
 
01 ANUKUS. 
 
 l\rODETlN VETEKTXArvY PRACTICE. 
 
 [0I,\MDKR.S. 
 
 in the lint, nnd let it remnin for a few days, 
 and patit'iitly wait tlio result. 
 
 If tlio mattor is glaiuliM-ous, tlio part will 
 become e.Xfessivcly sore in about two days, and 
 a scab will form on it. Tliia, in a short time, 
 will be thrown oft', leaving a peculiar kind of 
 ulcer, which will often spread rapidly, causing 
 a painful swelling of the adjacent part, with 
 corded veins, or farcy-buds. After this, glan- 
 ders will soon appear. No other matter will 
 produce such au ellect; showing at onco tl"<) 
 nature of the disease. 
 
 When colts are kept at grass, as they gene- 
 rally are, until three or four years old, they 
 will have passed tlirough a disease by which 
 the whole constitution appears to be depurated, 
 and consequently becomes invigorated. This 
 is called strangles, which most frequently occurs 
 when colts are kept on poor pasture, and which 
 debilitates the animal to such au extent, that 
 it often degenerates into glanders. AVhile the 
 colt is at grass, and kept well, the disease gene- 
 rally runs its course without much inconve- 
 nience to the animal, and without requiring the 
 uiterference of art ; but when he is takeu up, 
 broken-iu, put to work, and kept in hot sta- 
 bles, and incautiously fed upon hard and 
 stimulating food, before strangles has taken 
 place, a horse has often this disease with great 
 severity. 
 
 Sometimes strangles comes on, and does not 
 pass through its course in the natural way ; the 
 swelling under the jaws does not suppurate, or 
 become an abscess, but remains hard ; or a 
 superficial opening takes place, from which 
 a small quantity of matter is discharged, and 
 this is sometimes supposed to degenerate into 
 glanders. 
 
 This kind of glanders often terminates in 
 consumption. It is accompanied with cough, 
 and tlie discharge is generally from both nos- 
 trils, and more like pus than the matter wliich 
 comes from the real glanders arising from 
 contagion. From its not being contagious, 
 however, it should be distinguished by another 
 name. "NVe would restrict the term glanders 
 to those discharges from the nose which are 
 capable of communicating the disease to other 
 horses. This would be found highly useful in 
 practice. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of the most 
 difficult part of this subject, namely, the cure 
 
 of glanders; and it is needless to say anything 
 of tho niodo of prevention beyond obKerving, 
 that this can only bo accomplished bv taking 
 caro that no glanderous matter cornea in 
 contact with tho horse, or mixes with his food 
 or water; and tliat the only method of purify- 
 ing an infected stable is, to remove everything 
 on which glanderous matter may have fulk-n, 
 and to thoroughly wash and scrape tho tixturef<, 
 such as tho rack and manger. The stable 
 should be well whitewasheti, and the stall 
 strewed with a solution of chloride of lime. 
 
 We have observed that glandered horses 
 have, in several instances, been known to get 
 entirely free from the disorder while employed 
 in moderate work, and carefully fed and at- 
 tended to, with little or no medicine. Tho 
 general opinion of both English aed Frencli 
 veterinarians, we believe is, that glanders is 
 incurable, but that farcy is curable. During 
 an extensive experience, we have succeeded in 
 curing many cases of farcy, when it has been 
 a local disorder ; but such cases are generally 
 followed by glanders, although there has been 
 often a considerable interval — from a few 
 weeks to a few months — between the dis- 
 appearance of the one, and the appearance of 
 the other. AVhen glanders and farcy appear 
 at the same time, or when farcy breaks out in a 
 glandered horse, it would depend upon the state 
 of the blood, as to its impregnation with the 
 glanderous poison, whether we should recom- 
 mend him to be immediately destroyed. AV'e 
 would, however, make an exception to this 
 where a glandered horse has inoculated himself. 
 Then the farcy is at first only local ; but as 
 it soon becomes a fresh source of contamina- 
 tion, and, in a short time, increases the dis- 
 order, it always becomes necessary to destroy 
 the animal. The cure of glanders cannot bo 
 accomplished without great care and consider- 
 able expense ; and rarely at all, we believe, 
 except in its first stage, or mild form. 
 
 The expense of the cure does not depend so 
 much on the sort of medicines employed, as the 
 length of time that is necessary to eftect it ; 
 and it also must be recollected, that in saying 
 the disease is curable, it is by no means to be 
 understood that there is a certainty of success 
 in adopting any mode of treatment. There- 
 fore, unless the horse is of considerable value, 
 in good condition, and glandered only in a mild 
 
 279 
 
THE HOKSE, AXD 
 
 EPILEPSY.] 
 
 def^ree, it is not worth while to attempt the 
 cure. It should also be recollected, during the 
 treatment, that so long as there is any discharge 
 from the nostrils, there is danger of its com- 
 municating the disease to other animals. Calo- 
 mel has been tried, even to salivation, without 
 the desired effect; also, Ethiop's mineral, or 
 quicksilver rubbed down with chalk ; but these 
 are fallacious, and we may say, useless. Tonic 
 medicines, and those principally of the mineral 
 kind, have been resorted to ; and the present 
 practice of the Eoyal Veterinary College, for 
 this disease, is to administer certain quantities 
 of sulphate of copper. This was formerly done 
 in balls ; but it is now found much more con- 
 venient, and we believe is more beneficial to 
 the animal, to be exhibited as follows: — 
 Sulphate of Copper, from 2 to 5 drachms. 
 Linseed Meal . . . . 1 oz. 
 Warm Water . . . . 6 do. 
 Dissolve the sulphate in warm water ; then add 
 the meal, stirring them well together, until in- 
 corporated. Give this draught every morning. 
 We have seen some good effects arise from 
 this, when the horse has commenced with it in 
 the early stage of the disease ; but when the 
 disease has got a firm hold of the lungs, it is 
 of little or no avail. We have succeeded in 
 several cases, when advised of the state of the 
 animals in time, by giving the following, either 
 
 [epilepsy. 
 
 in form of a ball, or a solution, as in the 
 last : — • 
 
 Sulphate of Iron ... 3 drachms. 
 
 Gentian 3 do. 
 
 Form into a ball with treacle. 
 It is better to give this in the form of a 
 ball ; whilst the horse should be turned out into 
 a pasture of grass by himself, to prevent all 
 possibility of his coming in contact with any 
 other horses. If possible, a warm shed should 
 be in the paddock or field. Give the ball 
 about the middle of the day, and, every night 
 and morning, a feed of good oats and beans. 
 By turning the animal out, he will breathe the 
 natural air, not respiring his own over and 
 over again, as if in the stable. Then, by the 
 tonic medicine and good feed, if he is of any 
 constitution at all worth the expense, it will 
 be found that this is the only practicable 
 means of removing glanders. Constitution 
 has so much to do with the disease, that if 
 well supported by art, these are the only 
 means to be adopted. We should say, never 
 treat a horse affected with glanders in a stable. 
 The horse, also, by hanging down his head to 
 gather his food, relieves himself, and the dis- 
 charge comes more freely from him. However, 
 practice and experience in the treatment of 
 this disease, must be the leading features for 
 obtaining a knowledge of it. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 EPILEPSY; PALSY; SPASM; COLIC, OR GRIPES; TETANUS, OR LOCK-JAW; STRING-HALT. 
 
 EPILEPSY. 
 
 The affection termed epilepsy, frequently 
 affects cart and waggon horses more than any 
 other kinds ; and in diflerent counties and 
 localities, it assumes a variety of names, such 
 as meagrims, sturdy, turnsick, the falling-sick- 
 ness, the falling -evil, &c. The aftection, in its 
 first attack, comes on suddenly, and without 
 any previous indications. The animal, if in 
 exercise, stops short, shakes his head, and 
 looks wandering ; ia which state he continues 
 2S0 
 
 a short time, and then will go on as before. 
 If the case should be a violent one, he fre- 
 quently falls to the ground, or commences 
 turning round and round, until he drops ap- 
 parently senseless. 
 
 The whole system appears agitated by 
 strong conviilsions ; he dungs and stales in- 
 sensibly, at times becoming exceedingly vio- 
 lent ; at others, appearing as if life were ex- 
 tinct, unconscious to everything around him ; 
 his eyea seeming fixed, and often his jaws 
 
KPILEPSY.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE. 
 
 [palsy. 
 
 are so closely set, that lii.s mouth cannot bo 
 loiwd open. At other timea ho labours 
 uniK-r convulsive motions, and his limbs 
 ehako so violently, that ho even breaks the 
 pavement with his feet, if he fall in such a 
 
 P.\LSY. 
 
 I'ulsi/ is wlicn a part of tho body Iosch its 
 power of moving;, or feeling, or both. Tliia 
 disease, amonyst tho old farriers, wua called 
 
 situation. Sometimes, wldle the legs are still', plant-struck, or shrew-run. 
 
 the head and body are violently agitated. 
 These varieties of symptoms frequently at- 
 tacking him alternately, it is not to be 
 wondered at that the allection should remain 
 on him, in some instances, two or three hours, 
 more or less, and then that he should recover, 
 sometimes without any return of it ; at others, 
 the fits are more or less troublesome, according 
 to the success of the means applied for relief. 
 As the fit goes off, there is generally a foam- 
 ing at the mouth ; the foam being white, and 
 resembling that of a healthy animal. 
 
 The causes of epilepsy are several. It 
 appears to be dependent on a kind of spas- 
 modic affection of the brain, either from too 
 tight reining up, or the colhir pressing too 
 hard. It may also arise from blood being 
 forced to the head by constitutional disorders. 
 AYorms is a cause of it. Horses of very full 
 habit, plethoric, or over-fed, are liable to 
 it, particularly when not having constant 
 exercise. 
 
 For the curative means for epilepsy, nothing 
 can be done while the horse is enduring the 
 fit but the following, which will be found 
 excellent : — • 
 
 Strong Liquor of Ammonia . . 1 oz. 
 AVhile the convulsion, or fit, is on, hold the 
 bottle of ammonia frequently to his nose ; and 
 in all probability he will immediately j'lmp 
 up, or, at least, in a very short time, with the 
 fit driven from him. Should he be a large 
 cart-horse, in high condition, take four or six 
 quarts of blood from him ; feed him on cold 
 bran mashes, and give a dose of physic or two, 
 according to his strength or size. The mer- 
 curial ball, composed of blue pill and aloes, 
 is also very good in this case. If it can be 
 procured, occasionally feed with grass ; but 
 hard food must be lessened. "We have seen 
 some poor farmers' horses attacked violently 
 with this disease, and have attributed it to the 
 excessively hard and bad arrangement of the 
 harness with which they were furnished. There- 
 fore too much care cannot be bestowed on the 
 gearing with which a horse is caparisoned. 
 2o 
 
 If there is only a trembling, or shaking in 
 the part, or if only one limb is attacked, it Ih 
 seldom dangerous. Jiut when it seizes both 
 limbs behind, the case is very troublesome and 
 difficult to cure. Tlie horse going at the slowest 
 pace, reels about, and, with difficulty, is able to 
 stand at all. On turning round, he is obliged 
 to form an immense circle, to accomplish the 
 act, which frequently ends in a fall. 
 
 This, of course, would lead our attention to 
 examine the horse's loins, which always occa- 
 sion him to exhibit pain on pressure; showing 
 that there must be some morbid action going on 
 in the spinal marrow ; either in the substance 
 itself, or the parts that cover it. Or, perhaps 
 from some accident, a small portion of bone is 
 pressing upon it there ; and consequently de- 
 prives the posterior nerves of their action. 
 We have no doubt that it may occur from 
 turning in a narrow stall ; for it is truly dis- 
 tressing to see some horses placed in such hen- 
 coop stalls as they are, when, in endeavouring to 
 come out, they twist themselves almost double. 
 As this affection is not of unfrequent occur- 
 rence, every person who knows the value of a 
 good hackney, will be glad to see it removed. 
 The stimulating applications are the best, such 
 as the following : — 
 
 Cantharides, powdered . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine .... 2 do. 
 
 Olive Oil 3 do. 
 
 Mix, and shake well together in a bottle, 
 and apply a portion of it over the loins, night 
 and morning. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Tartar Emetic .... 2 drachms. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Form this into an ointment, and apply, until 
 small pimples arise. Give the mild mercurial 
 alterative ball — (Sicq List of Medicines') — every 
 second or third day. Some people are ex- 
 ceedingly fond of applying what are called 
 changes, and ordering a run at grass for a iev 
 months. A cure by such means is sometimes 
 effected ; but in this case, as in many others 
 among tho old farriers, the praise is agcribed 
 
 281 
 
BPASMS.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [colic, oe gripes. 
 
 to the least deserving part of it. The farrier 
 says, " It was my change that restored the 
 horse;" leaving rest and Br. Green com- 
 pletely out of the question. In India there is 
 a disease called Jcumree, wliich always ends 
 in complete paralysis of the hind quarters. 
 Most of the horses used in that country are 
 stallions ; and these are the subjects that be- 
 come aftected. AYe never saw it in a mare or 
 gelding, with the exception, that the horse, on 
 the commencement of the attack, had gone 
 through the operation of castration, which is 
 imagined to be a remedy for it ; but we never 
 found one cured by this, or any other remedy ; 
 for the horse will continue getting worse and 
 worse, until he is unable to rise at all, and is 
 consequently destroyed. 
 
 SPASMS. 
 Spasm is an irritability of the muscular fibre, 
 excited by an action of the nervous system, 
 producing various affections, known under the 
 general name of spasm, but subdivided ac- 
 cording to the part aftected with this excite- 
 ment. When universal, it forms tetanus ; when 
 confined to the bowels, it forms gripes; and 
 when it attacks the neck of the bladder, ob- 
 struction to the urine follows. Inflammation 
 of the sensorium, or of the nerves, or of the in- 
 vesting membranes of these organs, can produce 
 this excitement. Thus, in phrenites, the horse 
 is excited to exertions much beyond his usual 
 powers. Irritation occasioned by foreign sub- 
 stances can also produce it; perhaps, by ex- 
 citing an immediate inflammation, although the 
 instantaneous spasm which follows mechanical 
 pressure and irritation, both in the sensorium 
 and the nerves, can scarcely be accounted for 
 thus. 
 
 In medical treatment, sedatives act either 
 by allaying the nervous excitement, or relaxing 
 the part aftected with spasm ; such as opium, 
 tobacco, &c.: antispasmodics, also, by rousing 
 the heart and arteries to a new action ; as gin 
 and pepper, spirit of turpentine, rendering the 
 part above or below the disposition to be ex- 
 cited. In very violent cases of spasmodic af- 
 fections, copious bleeding, combined witli solu- 
 tions of aloes and opium, are powerful anti- 
 spasmodics. In the spasmodic state of the neck 
 of the bladder, nauseating medicines are found 
 to be the best antispasmodics ; such as digitalis, 
 282 
 
 or white hellebore. The remedies which act by 
 altering tlie susceptibility of the parts, are prin- 
 cipally bleeding, purging, or clysters, and other 
 evacuants, which diminish the excess of power; 
 and are, therefore, extremely proper in plethoric 
 subjects, or wlien the spasm is attended with 
 great vascularity. AVhen, on the contrary, the 
 spasm attacks a subject already in a debili- 
 tated state, recourse must be had to the stimu- 
 lant remedies, to bring the part to a state to 
 resist the impressions. (See List of Medicines^. 
 
 SPASMODIC COLIC, OR GRIPES. ' 
 
 Spasmodic colic is, amongst agriculturists, 
 known as fret gripes, &c. Although it is 
 termed flatulent, or windy colic, wind is not 
 so predominant a symptom as it is in the 
 human subject. The small intestines seem 
 more the situation of spasmodic colic than 
 any other part of the horse ; but there are 
 instances where the large intestines have be- 
 come aff'ected; and when it proceeds so far 
 back as the rectum, the bladder then also par- 
 ticipates in the convulsion, and frequent ejec- 
 tions of urine occur. In other instances the 
 neck of the bladder suflers, and suppression of 
 urine then becomes remarkable ; but these 
 are only in extreme cases. Colic is dependent 
 on a spasm of the muscular structure of the 
 intestines. We have evident proof of this 
 from the appearances which present them- 
 selves after death, where cases have proved 
 fatal ; when the small intestines, more espe- 
 cially, will be found puckered and drawn toge- 
 ther ; or some portions will afford marks of 
 violent contractions, as though they were tied 
 round with a cord. Occasionally we find an 
 interception, or one portion of intestine in- 
 vagiuated within the other ; in which case in- 
 flammation is usually brought on by it. 
 
 Spasmodic colic, however, generally exists 
 without inflammation, though it frequeutly 
 terminates in it, when suffered to have a long 
 continuance, from there being no speedy 
 remedy at hand, or no surgeon living in the 
 neighbourhood to administer proper relief. 
 Eubbing the belly with a hard stick, &c., 
 should, on such occasions, on no pretence 
 whatever, be done. Powerful purgatives to 
 overcome the costiveness, usually present, fre- 
 quently have this tendency ; but a still more 
 frequent cause is the invagination of one por- 
 
COLIC, on GRIPES.] I^rODERN VETERIXA"RT PRACTICE, [colic, on oripes. 
 
 tion of iiitostiiio witliiii nnollior. In nttciuU 
 ing to the meilicnl treatment of colic, care 
 sliouUl be takon that it is not confoumied 
 with iiillammation of tlio bowels; tho romo- 
 dies for each of thoso diaoascB being diainetri- 
 callv opposite to each other. 
 
 Spasmodic colic generally nialces its appear- 
 ance very suddenly, and is not marked, as in 
 inllamniation of the bowels, by previous indis- 
 position ; the horse being, at once, attacked 
 with considerable uneasiness, shifting his posi- 
 tion from side to side, pawing the ground, and 
 stamping with his feet, impatiently and vio- 
 lently. 
 
 In a few minutes after tliis, tlie pain will 
 appear to go oft", and leave the animal toler- 
 ably easy; but in inflammation of the bowels, 
 the pain constantly occasions the stamping, 
 and it does not pass away, even for the shortest 
 space of time. As the colic proceeds, remis- 
 sions of pain become less and less. The horse 
 lies down frequently, and, on rising, shakes him- 
 self, looking anxiously round to his sides, and 
 sometimes, in desperate cases, even biting at 
 them, or snapping at them with his teeth. 
 He also strikes at liis belly with his hind feet, 
 as if determined to remove his sufferings 
 himself. In inflammation of the bowels, the 
 above symptoms are seldom so severe, the 
 pain not being so great. Wlien on the ground, 
 he frequently rolls on his back; in which 
 situation he will remain four or five seconds, 
 or probably roll over ; neither of which he 
 does in simple inflammation. 
 
 The pulse is the next thing to command 
 attention, which, in colic, seldom becomes 
 much altered from its natural state, unless 
 the affection has existed some considerable 
 time, when marks of general irritation some- 
 times present themselves ; the pulse being 
 somewhat hardened and quickened. Occa- 
 sionally, when the paroxysms are on, a slight 
 alteration may then be felt ; also in the 
 early stages, should the pain be great ; but 
 slight alterations comu and go as the pain 
 passes off. 
 
 If the horse is under the immediate influ- 
 ence of existing spasm, he will, in some in- 
 stances, present a full bounding pulse, but 
 oftener a wiry, though quickened beat ; both 
 of which may be taken for inflammation. The 
 legs in colic are but seldom affected, and 
 
 never remain cold fop considerable periods of 
 time together ; but tho coat stares, and the 
 horse breaks out frequently into cohl swcatH. 
 He often attempts to stale, without effect; at 
 other times ho stales frequently. Oonerally 
 ho is costive; a few dry balls only being forced 
 from him during tho spasmodic fits. 
 
 Spasmodic colic is produced by cold super- 
 veniiig on heat, either through the medium of 
 application to tho skin, or by sudden applica- 
 tion to the bowels, in the form of cold water, 
 taken when tho horse is very warm. Costive- 
 iieas will sometimes occasion it, through im- 
 proper food ; also tares, or vetches, given on 
 their being first cut. When they are full of 
 moisture, the animal is apt to eat greedily of 
 them ; and especially if the weather is warm. 
 
 In some, gripes are frequent, under every 
 variation of food, situation, habits, &c.; so as 
 to give reason to suppose there must be some 
 peculiarity of formation, hereditary tendency, 
 or the presence of calculi in the intestines of 
 such animals as are subject to them. 
 
 For the cure o? gripes, we should recommend 
 bleeding, more or less liberally, according to tho 
 violence of the disease, or its longer or shorter 
 duration ; or its continuance, without miti- 
 gation. Extensive bleeding is one of the most 
 powerful relaxers of spasm with which we are 
 acquainted ; and, instead of its being an anta- 
 gonist to the antispasmodic treatment, usually 
 adopted by internal remedies, it is found to bo 
 infinitely increased in efficacy ; and especially 
 when conjoined with opium. Though most of 
 the ordinary cases of gripes will pass away 
 with the common treatment of stimulants, and 
 many go off without any treatment at all, yet 
 bleeding is always a safe and prudent precau- 
 tion, as a preventive of inflammation ; and, in 
 more aggravated cases, it becomes essentially 
 necessary, both to combat tho inflammatory 
 tendency, and to promote the relaxation of the 
 spasmodic irritation. It is likewise particularly 
 to be noticed, in violent or protracted cases, to 
 counteract the irritative qualities of the anti- 
 spasmodics, which, in simple gripes, may do no 
 harm, yet may do so when an inflammatory 
 tendency is at all suspected, or already begun. 
 In every such case, bleed liberally ; say, at 
 least six quarts ; which, if the horse is in any- 
 thiuc: like moderate condition, cannot do barm. 
 AVe have known horses bled in the mouth for 
 
 283 
 
LOCKED-JAW.] 
 
 THE HORSE, A.ND 
 
 [locked JAW, 
 
 gripes ; but never saw any good arise from it. 
 Giving the animal a brisk trot for about a 
 quarter of an hour, after either of the following 
 remedies, we have proved to be exceedingly 
 beneficial ; but he should never be made to go 
 faster than the trot. Brushing the belly well 
 ■will be of service ; but never rub it with a 
 Btick, as this tends to bruise the parts, more 
 than to do good. AVe have known the tur- 
 pentine liniment, rubbed well all over the abdo- 
 men, to be a great assistant in removing the 
 spasm. Hot fomentations we do not approve, 
 as the water that may lodge in the hair, when it 
 becomes cold, will frustrate all good intentions. 
 As internal remedies, either of the following 
 will be found very efficacious in removing the 
 disease : — 
 
 No.l. 
 
 Ground Black Pepper . . . | oz. 
 
 Tincture of Opium . . . 1 do. 
 
 Good Ale (warmed) ... 1 pint. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Common Gin ^ pint. 
 
 Tincture of Opium . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Good Ale (warmed) ... 1 pint. 
 
 Tf costiveness should be present, give — 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Oil of Peppermint .... 2 drachms. 
 
 Castor Oil 6 oz. 
 
 Tincture of Aloes . . . . 4 do. 
 
 Should the costiveness continue, the horse 
 must be back-raked, and warm clysters ad- 
 ministered, with a handful of salt thrown in 
 each, about three quarts at a time, until the 
 bowels are relieved. Should other means of 
 assistance not be ready at hand, give the fol- 
 lowing. — 
 
 Ground Black Pepper . 1 teaspoonful. 
 
 Common Gin , . . -^ pint. 
 
 Good warm Ale ... 1 do. 
 Should the disease continue longer than may 
 have been expected, repeat the remedies until 
 relief is obtained. If the clysters should not 
 have the desired effect, take a large onion, 
 peel, and quarter it, and pass it up the 
 rectum, which will speedily stimulate it to 
 action. 
 
 TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW. 
 
 Tetanus, or Locked-jaw, is a violent spasmodic 
 contraction of the muscles, coming on in the 
 elevation of the lower jaw, and extending, 
 
 284 
 
 more or less, to all the muscles destined to 
 perform voluntary motion. This disorder, 
 which may be excited by different causes, is 
 much more common in hot climates than in 
 tempefate. However, it too frequently occurs 
 in this country, and happens to be one of 
 great difficulty to cure, especially in conse- 
 quence of wounds ; and more particularly after 
 injuries of tendons and ligamentous parts. 
 It is one of the most fatal symptoms which 
 can possibly arise in these cases, and there- 
 fore demands the most assiduous attention of 
 the veterinary surgeon. 
 
 Tetanic complaints generally affect middle- 
 aged, or old horses, more frequently than young 
 ones. The causes producing them are cold 
 and moisture applied to the body while it is 
 very warm ; and sudden vicissitudes of heat 
 and cold ; or they may be produced by punc- 
 tures, lacerations, or other lesions of nerves in 
 any part of the body. There are, probably, 
 some other causes of this disease ; but they 
 are neither distinctly known, nor well under- 
 stood. If the disease proceeds from cold, it 
 commonly comes on in a few days after this 
 being taken ; but if it arise from puncture, 
 or other lesion of a nerve, the disease does not 
 come on for many days after the lesion has 
 happened — very often, when there is neither 
 pain nor uneasiness remaining in the wounded 
 part ; and very frequently when the wounded 
 part has been entirely healed up. The disease 
 sometimes attacks suddenly, with great vio- 
 lence; but, more generally, it makes its ap- 
 proaches by slow degrees to the violent stage. 
 In this case it comes on with a sense of stiff- 
 ness in the muscles of the neck, which, gradu- 
 ally increasing, renders the motion of the head 
 difficult and painful. The haw of the eye, 
 also, will be seen protruding, on the least 
 motion of the hand being raised towards the 
 head. 
 
 As the rigidity of the neck increases, there 
 is commonly, at the same time, a sense of un- 
 easiness felt about the root of the tongue, 
 which, by degrees, causes a difficulty in, and, 
 at length, an entire interruption of swallowing. 
 Willie the rigidity of the neck goes on in- 
 creasing, there arises a pain, often violent, at 
 the lower end of the back, which makes the 
 tail stick out with a quivering motion. When 
 this pain arises, all the muscles of the neck. 
 
locKED-JAW.] ]\rODERN VETEllINART PRACTICE. 
 
 [LOCKEO-JA.'Vr. 
 
 aiul particularly those of tho upper part of it, 
 are iuiinediately atlocted witli 8pasin, lis it 
 were, drawiiiu; tho upper part of tho head 
 violeiitlv ai\d stroiii^ly baekwartlH. At the same 
 time, tlio muscles which draw up the lower jaw, 
 and which, upon the lirst approach of the 
 disease, were allected, nro now generally 
 iilllicted with more violent spasm, and aet the 
 teeth so closely together, that they do not 
 aduiit of the smallest opening. 
 
 This is what has been named loclced-jaw, or 
 tetanus, and is often the principal part of the 
 disease. When it has advanced thus far, the 
 pain at the top of the neck and lower jaw is 
 renewed witli violence. As it proceeds, a 
 greater number of muscles become affected 
 with spasm. After those of the neck, those 
 along the whole of tho spine become affected, 
 bending the trunk of the body strongly back- 
 wards, whilst the horse keeps his fore legs 
 stretched directly out before him. 
 
 At the extremities, botii the flexor and tho 
 extensor muscles are commonly at the same 
 time affected, and keep the limbs rigidly ex- 
 tended. Though the extensors of the head 
 and back are usually the most strongly affected, 
 yet the flexors, or those muscles of the neck 
 which pull the head forward, as well as the 
 muscles which should pull down the lower jaw, 
 are also, often at the same time, strongly 
 afl'ected with pain and spasm. During the 
 whole of the disease, the abdominal muscles 
 are in a violently spasmodic state, so that the 
 belly of the horse is strongly contracted, and 
 feels as hard as a piece of board. 
 
 At length, the flexors of the head and trunk 
 become so strongly affected, as to balance the 
 extensors, and to keep the head and trunk 
 almost in a straight line, and so rigidly ex- 
 tended, that they are incapable of being moved 
 in any way. It is to this state the term tetanus 
 has been strictly applied. 
 
 At the height of the disease, every organ of 
 Voluntary motion appears to be affected, and 
 amongst the rest, the muscles of the face. The 
 eyes also seem distorted, commonly rigid, and 
 scarcely movable in their sockets. The nose 
 also appears drawn up; and the spasms are, 
 everywhere, attended with most violent pain. 
 The utmost violence of spasm is, however, not 
 constant; but, after subsisting a minute or 
 two, the muscles admit of some remission of 
 
 their contraction, although of no such relaxn. 
 tion as can allow tho action of their antago- 
 nists. Tho remission of contraction gives also 
 some remission of pain ; but neither is of ion-' 
 duration. Tho attacks of the disease are sel- 
 dom attended with any fever. Wiien tho 
 spasms are general and violent, tho pulse is 
 contracted, hurried, and irregular; and tho 
 respiration is allected in like manner. Tho 
 heat of the body is commonly not increased. 
 The extremities are generally cold, with a cold 
 sweat over the whole of the body. Blood is 
 frequently drawn in this disease ; but it never 
 exhibits any inflammatory crust ; and all ac- 
 counts seem to agree, that the blood drawn is 
 of a looser texture than ordinary, and that it 
 does not coagulate in the usual manner. It is 
 no less extraordinary, that in this disease, tho 
 natural functions are not either immediately 
 or considerably affected ; and it is usual for the 
 appetite of hunger to remain through its whole 
 course. 
 
 Tliis disease frequently follows docking and 
 nicking ; it has also been known to occur after 
 castration. 
 
 To cure tetanus is very difHcult. So 
 many remedies have been tried, and so many 
 failures arisen, that there can be no certain 
 remedy pointed out for the removal of so dis- 
 tressing an affection. The cold bath had, i'oi' 
 a long time, its advocates ; but without any real 
 good. If one horse got well under such treat- 
 ment, it was applied to all, but not with genera.' 
 success ; consequently, it fell into disuse. 
 Bleeding, as a relaxant to the spasmodic action 
 of the muscles, has also shared the same fate. 
 Blistering the whole course of the spine has 
 met with no better success. Even the old far- 
 rier's remedy, of docking the tail about an 
 inch, does not seem to carry a specijic with it. 
 Unctions, balsamic, and spirituous embroca- 
 tions, which many practitioners have recom- 
 mended, are not only useless remedies, but 
 even hurtful. If the case arise from a wound, 
 a local inflammation ought to be excited in the 
 wounded part itself, and the inflammation 
 roused as high as may be consistent with the 
 resolution afterwards. We certainly know 
 that nothing promotes a general phlogistic 
 diathesis through the system more than a 
 wound, attended with a high degree of inflam- 
 mation ; but this is not alwavs to be obtained, 
 
 2^5 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [INFLAMMATIONS'. 
 
 though the strongest stimulants the whole list 
 of medicines could produce may be applied ; 
 for we have found that in wounds productive 
 of tetanus, there is an absolute want of this 
 inflammation, so necessary to the cure and 
 well-being of the patient. To obtain this in- 
 flammation, the best thing to do is to enlarge 
 the wound as much as may be convenient, and 
 insert a pledget of tow, dipped in warm oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 We have restored a horse from tetanus by 
 a strong solution of aloes, combined with 
 laudanum, as under : — 
 
 . 3 oz. 
 . Ido. 
 
 Give this mixture frequently ; say every three 
 hours. If the jaws are so closely set that it 
 cannot be given to the horse by the mouth, 
 have his head elevated by force, and pour the 
 mixture into a quart bottle ; then carefully 
 pour it down one of his nostrils ; which, after 
 a little time, he will not resist. When he has 
 bef^an to take the above without much di65- 
 culty, break a little of the cordial pectoral 
 ball with it. Continue this until you see a 
 change for the better; which will be known by 
 the jaws becoming loose, when a favourable ter- 
 mination to the disease may be expected. Give 
 clysters the whole of the time you are exhibit- 
 
 Spirituous solution of Aloes 
 Laudanum .... 
 
 ing tlie medicine. We have administered 
 prussic acid ; but never with any good effect. 
 We have also administered brandy, with the 
 cordial pectoral ball dissolved in it, with good 
 effect. In conclusion, we should never give 
 a case of tetanus up, until we have tried every 
 means possible. 
 
 STRING-HALT. 
 
 String-lmlt is an involuntary and convulsive 
 motion of the muscles, which either extend or 
 bend the hock ; principally considered in the 
 superficial muscles, or the facia lying on the 
 inside of the thigh, and causing the horse to 
 twitch up one or both his hind legs in a most 
 remarkable manner. Strains and blows are 
 the causes to which this disease is generally 
 attributed. We once were called to a horse 
 that had been cast into a ditch, and we were 
 obliged to employ ropes to extricate him. He 
 had struggled very hard whilst in the ditch, 
 but, when released, he had the aff"ectiou of 
 string-'halt in the leg that was underneath. A 
 cure is seldom effected. We have known soap 
 liniment, well rubbed on in the inside of the 
 thigh, to relieve the disease ; but never saw a 
 perfect cure. On some parts of the continent 
 it is considered a graceful movement when in 
 both legs. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OP THE BRAI>f, OK MAD STAGGERS; INFLAMMATION OP THE STOMACH, OR STOMACH 
 STAGGERS; INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS; PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN, OR MAD 
 
 STAGGERS. 
 
 Mad Staggers is one of those diseases 
 which, happily, seldom aff'ects the horse ; and 
 it is fortunate for the poor animal that such is 
 the case, for the pain arising from it must bo 
 intolerable. This disease, like many otliers 
 has acquired various names, constituting, in 
 former practice, a variety of different diseases ; 
 though by the advancement in veterinary 
 Boience, they have all been nearly reduced 
 286 ' 
 
 under two heads. These names were applied 
 to such disorders as principally affect the liead, 
 having their seat in the brain, or vessels lead- 
 ing thereto ; such as apoplexy, convulsions, 
 epilepsy, stag-evil, frenzy, or fever, &c., &c. 
 
 Mad staggers, or inflammation of the brain, 
 may be defined as being a determination of 
 blood to the brain, causing considerable pres- 
 sure on that organ, as well as on the vessels 
 leading to it. How far the pretended accu- 
 racy, formerly distinguishing one of these 
 
TKFLAMMATI0N8.] MODERN VETERINAKT PR.\( TKM^. [inflammatioxs. 
 
 diseases from nnotiuM-, may bo nppreoiablo by 
 moilerix comprelu'nsioii, or ivceivo giMionil 
 criHlit, wo know not; but oontVss, whore tho 
 
 patient, and throws himself about in n most 
 extraordinary manner, as if ho were fri^jhtened ; 
 or he falls into n drowsy state, holding his 
 
 judijmeut has to be formed from observation head low, and resting it on tho manger. 
 
 alone, maile by a close scruliny of the 
 patient, circumstances very seldom so far 
 concur as to enable us to form so singular a 
 distinction. Experience and observation may, 
 undoubtedly, do much, in a collection of simili- 
 tudes and probabilities, but never suflicient to 
 enable us to ascertain the distinct, invariable 
 causes and efl'ects of diseases, where the most 
 
 Tiien, all of a sudden, he will commence 
 throwing himself about again. If tho disease 
 should not be s|)eedily alleviated, but continuo 
 for a day or two, ho will exhibit a kind of 
 vacant stare, or watchfulness; tho eyes will 
 appear set, as it were, in the head — ^their sight 
 almost gone; his nostrils expanded, his head 
 raised as high as he possibly can, as if staring 
 
 trilliii" dillerence is hardly acknowledged. I at the rack, lie now becomes more furious 
 More particularlv is this the case wheu it is and violent ; dashes about the pavement in 
 considered that the cause of all these disor- ' convulsive and insensible struggles ; perhaps, 
 dors is iu the original seat of nervous irrita- j falls, then suddenly rises again, to renew his 
 bility, the brain ; or in those parts connected i violence. 
 
 with, or dependent on its structure and pur- 
 ]ioscs ; except when tlie diseases are under- 
 stood to be symptomatic, or dependent upon 
 
 Diseases originating iu the most abstruse 
 recesses of nature, though of a very com- 
 plicated construction, may proceed from a 
 
 some original remote cause — as the effect of variety of Cfl«/sf5, clearly comprehended ; as, iu 
 hots, preying upon the stomach or intestines, ! all probability, they may likewise do, from 
 internal ulcerations, or complaints not imine- many that we are entirely unacquainted with. 
 diately discoverable. These may sometimes Among the former is that which originates 
 
 happen, but very rarely, to affect the frame 
 with symptoms truly alarming. 
 
 Horses, upon the approach of any of those 
 disorders whose seat is directly in the brain, 
 or nervous system, display considerable weak- 
 ness and inactivity ; seeming to move reluc- 
 tantly, reeling, or staggering in their walk ; 
 frequently blinking with their eyes, as if their 
 vision were imperfect, and feeling some disa- 
 greeable impression, or uneasiness, from the 
 
 in the increase of the velocity of the blood, 
 instantaneously affecting the brain, as we find 
 when we exceed the bounds of humanity, and 
 exhaust the strength and power of an animal, 
 made by nature sufficiently strong to accom- 
 plish almost every task the ingenuity or 
 avarice of man might be supposed to invent. 
 In corroboration of this, the premature deaths, 
 occasioned by increasing the velocity of tho 
 blood beyond the limits prescribed by nature. 
 
 effect of light. They are also much averse to I extend principally to post-horses, in the 
 
 being handled about the head, and are brought 
 out of the stable with difficulty. In time, a 
 visible tremor comes on ; and, after reeling, or 
 frequently turning round, if loose, they fall 
 almost lifeless to the ground, having only the 
 perceptible power of breathing with violence 
 and agitation. 
 
 Horses affected with staggers have a disin- 
 clination for food of all kinds. They have also 
 a slight discharge of moisture from the eyes, 
 which, if attentively observed, even in the 
 earliest stages of the disease, will be found 
 inflamed, and somewhat flushed in colour. 
 Hence the blinking of which we have spoken. 
 The nostrils also may be observed redder than 
 usual ; but this is not always a true symptom. 
 As the disease advances, the horse appears im- 
 
 treme heat of summer; and may be attributed 
 to the impatience of travellers, or inhuman 
 drivers. 
 
 To these, some, but very few, private horses 
 may be added, being hard driven upon long 
 journeys ; and others, imprudently ridden and 
 improperly managed during chases of great 
 length, in strong deep countries, with fleet 
 hounds. 
 
 Others become the subjects of these disor- 
 ders, from great irritation in the stomach and 
 bowels ; the powerful effects of bots in the 
 intestinal canal; sharp and acrid medicines; a 
 repulsion of any morbid matter from the sur- 
 face, without its being carried off by proper 
 evacuauts, &c. They are frequently known 
 to attack very suddenly ; at other times their 
 
 2S7 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [titflammatioxs. 
 
 approach is indicated by the symptoms before 
 recited. 
 
 The most rational method of ctore for these 
 diseases is, by correcting or discharging the 
 primary cause, which will be to allay the 
 spasms, and to reduce the extreme degree of 
 irritability, by strengthening the nervous sys- 
 tem. To obtain this end, the first step will, 
 at all events, be to draw blood, the quantity to 
 be regulated according to the state of the sub- 
 ject. In cases of real alarm and danger, take 
 from six to eight quarts away at once ; and we 
 have seen much relief obtained in bleeding 
 from the jugular vein, and the thigh vein, both 
 at the same time. It causes a greater revul- 
 sion in the system, although it becomes abso- 
 lutely necessary afterwards to stimulate and 
 rouse the animal powers. As little can be 
 done during the time of the fit or paroxysm, 
 prepare a clyster of warm water, in which a 
 handful of salt should be put, and given as 
 soon as possible. 
 
 Should spasms or convulsions prove so 
 violent, that by a contraction of the muscles 
 the jaws become locked, or fixed for any con- 
 siderable length of time, recourse must be had 
 to nutritive clysters, that the constitution may 
 be supported. Notwithstanding its inability 
 to receive aliment by other means, there are 
 several kinds of nutritive clysters, that may 
 easily and expeditiously be prepared, consist- 
 ing of broths of different kinds, which most 
 houses have in readiness. Oatmeal gruel, in 
 which a little starch has been mixed, is an ex- 
 cellent strengthening clyster. These clysters 
 should frequently be given, until a ball can be 
 safely administered. If the mouth be not suf- 
 ficiently open to admit of the hand being safely 
 introduced, take one of the cordial restorative 
 balls — see List of Medicines — and dissolve it in 
 about a pint of warm water, and carefully horn 
 it down. This will rouse the system from the 
 debilitating effects of the spasms. 
 
 If the horse is not sufficiently relieved, but 
 still keeps drowsy, and inclines to hang his 
 liead down, or bear against anything, as it 
 were, for a resting-post, immediately bleed again 
 from the opposite jugular vein, and also from 
 the opposite thigh-vein, taking as mucli blood 
 away as he can possibly bear. Then take of 
 Tartar Emetic .... 1 drachm. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 1 oz. 
 288 
 
 Form into an ointment, and rub the whole at 
 once on the forehead. This will cause pimples 
 to rise, which will speedily relieve the brain. 
 
 Should any local paralytic affection, or con- 
 traction of the muscles, produce a stiffness or 
 inactivity upon any part, recourse must be had 
 to friction, with penetrating embrocations ; for, 
 during the paroxysms of the disease, the animal 
 is so liable to injure himself locally, that it is 
 necessary to use stimulating applications to 
 remove the bruises, &c., that he may have 
 received. Tor this purpose take 
 
 Oil of Tar 4 oz. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine .... 2 do. 
 
 Spirits of Wine 2 do. 
 
 Mix, and apply to the parts affected, night and 
 morning. This must not be negligently done, 
 and should be persevered in for twenty minutes 
 at each dressing. 
 
 Horses of a full plethoric habit, when at- 
 tacked with this disease, should, as soon after 
 recovery as they are able to bear it, be brought 
 under a course of regular evacuations ; such as 
 are most applicable to their size, state, consti- 
 tution, and condition. If they are inclined to 
 fluctuating humours, or viscid heavy foulness, 
 give one or two purging-balls, according to 
 strength, &c., as before remarked. (See List of 
 Medicines). If purgative medicine should be 
 considered too strong, change it to alterative, 
 which will act more mildly, and have a good 
 effect. Give, at the same time, soft food, as 
 bran mashes, or mashes with a little corn in 
 them. 
 
 If the disease should have arisen from worms 
 affecting the stomach, administer the mer- 
 curial purging-balls ; for which, see List of 
 Medicines. 
 
 INFLAIMMATION OF THE STOMACH, OR 
 STOMACH STAGGERS. 
 
 Stomach staggers is a disease to which many 
 horses fall victims ; few, or rarely any, recover- 
 ing from the effects of its attack. Geuerall}' 
 speaking, it almost always proves fatal ; and al- 
 though many practitioners have boasted of being 
 possessed of a remedy, and although many cures 
 have been said to have been effected by them, 
 such cures have not taken place in what may 
 be denominated stomach staggers. In exam- 
 ining horses that have died of this disease, the 
 stomach has been generally loaded with hard, 
 
iNFi.AMMATioys.l AT(M)ERN VETERINARY TliACTlCK. fiNKLVM.MAnoNs. 
 
 dry food; so large sometimes in quantity, that , TIuto is notliin<^ except excesaive exertion, 
 
 it is ilifliciilt to concL'ivo liow it couUl havo sus- 
 taiiiod tlio load. 
 
 The disease may exist in a great variety of 
 degrees ; for it may go on until tlio stomach 
 contains from fifty to sixty pounds ; but, iu 
 such a v-Mso, we consider it to bo of the worst 
 description, and absolutely incurable. The 
 same disease, however, tliough in a consider- 
 ablv less degree, occurs much more tVequently 
 than the public are aware of. It is often 
 curable by simple means, and without diffi- 
 culty ; and yet often terminates fatally, 
 through ignorance, or unskilful management. 
 As the degree in which the disease happens is 
 various, so are the symptoms diversiiied, and 
 distinguished by a variety of names. They all 
 originate, however, in the same cause, and 
 that is indigestion. The name staggers has 
 been applied, when the disease exists iu a 
 sufiicient degree to disturb the functions of 
 the brain : but this does not happen until the 
 vital power of the stomach has, to a certain 
 exteut, been impaired by a continuance, or a 
 frequent repetition of improper feeding ; and 
 this morbid state is more rapidly induced, 
 when, in addition to improper feeding, the 
 animal is worked hard, and generally ill- 
 treated. How often do we see a great num- 
 ber of horses confined the greater part of 
 a market-day iu the court or stable of a 
 public-house, without food, and none given to 
 them until they return home, probably a dis- 
 tance of many miles, when they are permitted 
 to eat, even to repletion, nothing but bad hay. 
 Thus is a load of indigestible food taken into 
 the stomach, at a time when its vital power 
 has been diminished by fasting ; but such is 
 the power of this important organ, that it will 
 resist for a time even this treatment ; and it 
 is only by a repetition of such injuries that it is 
 at length rendered incapable of digesting suffi- 
 cient food to restore itself and sustain the body. 
 Tliat degree of exhaustion, or diminished 
 power, or, rather, that debilitated condition of 
 the btomach which gives rise to staggers, is 
 seldom curable. If the animal docs recover 
 from the disease, the morbid state of the 
 stomach is such, that unless he is afterwards 
 fed in the most careful manner, he generally 
 dies suddenly; and the supposition is that 
 this is the result of some other disorder. 
 
 perhaps, that does so much injury to the 
 8tt)maeh as bad hay ; and when tlie.xu cuusch 
 are combined, the most formidahlo diseases 
 are produced, and almost all of them depend 
 on the diminished energy of the stomach. 
 
 If we consider the im|)()rtant odice of the 
 stomach — namely, the preparation of food in 
 order to form blood, and thereby repair the 
 waste or wear which all the muscles are con- 
 stantly undergoing —what can be expected 
 when it is su[)[)lied with food that contains 
 but little nutriment, and requires its utmost 
 exertions in order to digest it ? The exces- 
 sive exertions in which horses are commonly 
 employed in this country are sufficiently 
 known. Custom, we fear, has so familiarised 
 many avaricious horse proprietors to these 
 cruel exertions, as to prevent them from view- 
 ing the situation of the horse as they ouglit ; 
 and we frequently hear them boasting of their 
 driving or riding an animal so many miles iu 
 a short space of time, as if the merit of 
 the perfortnance was due to them instead of 
 to the quadruped The stomach-staggers, 
 however, is not so common as it used to be. 
 We have known farmers absolutely ruined by 
 the disease, from its having continued among 
 their horses until all of them have been de- 
 stroyed. The better feelings which have taken 
 place among this class, and which are still 
 spreading, render diseases among their horses 
 far less frequent than they used to be. A con- 
 currence of the causes before noticed — that is, 
 excessive exertion and improper feeding — were 
 wont to be most frequent amongst post and 
 stage-coach horses ; and it is here that 
 diseases of the digestive organs are oftenest 
 to be met with. Stomach-staggers, how- 
 ever, is not the symptom that occurs ; it is one 
 of a difiereut description ; that is, flatulent 
 colic, or gripes. The condition of the stomach, 
 which produces this, is exhaustion of its vital 
 power ; differing from that which produces 
 stomach-staggers, not only in degree, but also 
 in kind. In stomach-staggers, the power of 
 the stomach is so gradually diminished, that 
 the disorder almost imperceptibly takes place, 
 and is rarely observed until it is incurable. In 
 the other, the disease is more rapidly de- 
 veloped, and therefore the eflect is different. 
 
 In most instances this disease has termi- 
 
 289 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOKSE, AND 
 
 [iNFLAMMATIOKS, 
 
 nated fatally, in consequence of medical advice 
 not being called in early enough, and its 
 ravages snflered to go on until the animal is 
 irrecoverable; but even if the veterinarian is 
 called in early, be is frequently baffled in his 
 attempt at a cure, let his abilities be ever so 
 great ; for, if he administer medicine in the 
 shape of balls, they become completely neutral- 
 ised, in consequence of the over-distention of 
 the stomach, and the consequent inflammation 
 set up, A draught, however, should be given 
 as early as possible. Some writers have re- 
 commended a solution of aloes in large doses, 
 but this we consider quite contrary to good 
 practice ; for, tliough the grand object should 
 be to remove the contents of the stomach as 
 early as possible, aloes would be most likely to 
 debilitate that organ, and produce nausea ; con- 
 sequently it would be incapable of acting on its 
 contents ; for costiveness of the stomach and 
 intestines cannot be overcome without acting 
 on both, and that iu a very different manner. 
 To overcome the one, use the following 
 clyster : — 
 
 Common Salt 8 oz 
 
 Tincture of Aloes .... 4 do. 
 Warm Water 2 quarts. 
 
 Inject — after first back-raking — and hold the 
 tail well down upon the anus, that the horse 
 may retain the clyster as long as possible. 
 Kepeat this operation until the bowels are 
 quite empty. At intervals, apply to the region 
 of the stomach — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 
 Olive Oil . . 
 
 4 oz. 
 2 do. 
 
 Eub this well in ; and should it not have the 
 desired effect, repeat the quantity. At the 
 same time give the following : — ■ 
 
 Common Gin 1 pint. 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Camphor 1 do. 
 
 First dissolve the camplior in the gin ; then 
 add the tincture. Give this new-milk warm. 
 If the animal sliould not appear better in the 
 course of an hour, repeat tlie draught. This 
 will, in all probability, stimulate the stomach 
 to a new action, to get rid of its contents. 
 We have restored several horses by the above 
 treatment ; and, if taken in time, we question 
 its ever failing. Everything having passed off 
 agreeably, administer good gruel frequently; 
 290 
 
 but give little or no hay, aa that will tend to 
 irritate the stomach in its weak state. Bran 
 mashes, with oat or linseed meal mixed in 
 them, will be good enough ; but refrain from 
 giving corn of any kind, until satisfied he is 
 perfectly recovered, as the least irritating food 
 may occasion a relapse. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 This disease is one of the greatest diffi- 
 culty with which theveterinarian has to contend, 
 as it proves so frequently fatal. It was not un- 
 derstood by the older farriers, and consequently 
 they administered hot stimulating drugs, which 
 they conceived would banish or eradicate a 
 disorder, which generally ended in death, 
 until the establishment of the Royal Veteri- 
 nary College, when a new system of practice 
 was promulgated. The disease is now under- 
 stood, and thousands of horses that would ha-ve 
 been doomed to the dog-kennel, have lived to 
 follow the chase; saying nothing of the nume- 
 rous roadsters and hacks, as well as draught- 
 horses, that have lived double their time, from 
 the well-known knowledge and experience 
 which have been diffused through the veterinary 
 world during the present century. There is iu 
 the human subject a disease called pleurisy, 
 which consists of an inflammation in the thin 
 membrane which covers the substance of the 
 lungs, which, being intimately connected with 
 the substance of the lungs itself, and the cavity 
 of the chest, has been thought to have been a 
 disease of itself in the horse ; but such is not 
 the case. The pleura of the horse is seldom or 
 ever the situation of the disease. If the pleura 
 should be diseased iu the horse, it is in con- 
 nection with the substance of the lungs. When- 
 ever the blood is prevented from circulating 
 freely through the lungs, it becomes the origin 
 of several other disorders. 
 
 Disease, it is well known, is not always sent 
 as a punishment, but is intended by nature as a 
 process by which the animal economy should be 
 changed or restored ; and nature provides many 
 more forces than one, to remove a portion of all 
 kinds of animals periodically. This law rules 
 the vegetable kingdom also. But the diseases 
 of horses mostly spring from their artificial 
 life ; and to none are they more subject than 
 to inflammation of the lungs. 
 
 Against the symptoms of pneumonia, or in- 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINAHT PRACTICE. [inflammations. 
 
 the pnu'titioner from mislakiiij^ tlii'in for those 
 of i-al.-inh, or of the imu'oua iiuMnbraiu's in 
 coiitimiitv, with which thi-y may be coii- 
 fouinii'd ; tliough tho experieiiciHl votcrinarian 
 will readily distinguish between the two. In 
 the catarrlial epidemic, the extremities do not 
 continue invariably cold, but are sometimes 
 cold and sometimes warm. The distress of 
 countenance is uot so great ; sore throat is 
 commoidy present; breathing is less laborious, 
 and the [)uLse seldom oppressed. 
 
 The cough in catarrh is generally deep, 
 and very painful ; a weakness, not correspond- 
 ing with the violence of the symptoms, is very 
 early seen in the complaint; and, though the 
 lining of the nostrils may be inflamed in catarrh, 
 it is seldom so much so, '\'( pneumonia be coming 
 on, as to present a purple hue. The principal 
 necessity which exists for making a careful dis- 
 tinction between the two diseases, arises from 
 its not being found prudent, in the catarrhal 
 affection, to push the bleeding, and other parts 
 of the depleting system, so far as in the pneu- 
 monic ; and also from the greater necessity of 
 placing the horse in a cool temperature in the 
 latter, to what exists in the former. Inflam- 
 mation of the lungs has, also, by the inex- 
 perienced, been occasionally mistaken for colic; 
 because the animal sometimes exhibits consi- 
 derable uneasiness, and often looks round to 
 his sides; in which mistaken cases, the treat- 
 ment generally pursued has been such as to 
 increase the disease. But, in colic, acute pain 
 is shown to be felt. By turns the horse lies 
 down and rolls, and then suddenly rises, 
 stamping with his fore feet, or kicking at his 
 belly with his hind legs ; while, in peripneumonia 
 he never lies down, but stands stupidly quiet, 
 exce[)t now and then, when he may look at his 
 flanks, but without any of the indications of 
 pain to which he is forced by colic. It may be 
 added, also, that the nasal membrane, in colic, 
 remains unaltered in colour, unless inflam- 
 mation of ihe lungs be at hand. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 The alternation of heat, with cold, is pro- 
 
 bably the most usual cause of this complaint. 
 
 It was formerly considered that it could only 
 
 be produced by removal from a warm to a 
 
 flammation of tho lunga, it is necessary to guard the Budden access of a warmer medium pro- 
 duces it also, though certaiidy not to an eipial 
 extent. Exposure to Kimple cold has been 
 said never to produce this disease; and, though 
 turning horses to grass without preparation 
 may emaciate them, it never produces peri- 
 pneumony: but this appears not to be; borne out 
 by experience, and has occasioned ill conse- 
 quences. Human subjects, horses, cows, sheep, 
 and dogs, are all more liable to coughs, cold^, 
 and pneumonic affections, in cold than in warm 
 climates. The persons wlio slaughter horses in 
 London, are accustomed to expect a great 
 number in the winter, especially if it is severe 
 and frosty, from the fatal effects of inflamed 
 lungs. Hunting on a cold scent, with frequent 
 checks, or travelling with a cold wind blowing 
 against the chest ; washing the legs and body 
 with cold water while the animal is hot; a 
 sudden removal from a warm stable to a cold 
 one — any of these may cause inflammation of 
 the lungs, if great care is not taken ; and, as 
 has been remarked, the removal from a cold 
 stable to a warmer one, or from grass to a warm 
 housing, without preparation, may also produce 
 it. In i'act, so liable are horses to afiections ot 
 the chest from a change of temperature — whe- 
 ther it be from a warmer to a colder medium ; 
 or otherwise, from a colder to a warmer — that 
 it is very seldom a horse is brought from a 
 dealer's stable, that does not, in a day or two, 
 exhibit some cough. When he is removed 
 from a cold temperature into a hot one, it is 
 evident that the hot medium immediately at- 
 tacks the seat of inflammation ; and as hot air 
 must tend to accelerate the circulation, it is 
 not difficult to give a reason why it produces the 
 disease, and this more certainly if the heated 
 air is less pure than that which the animal was 
 removed from. "When, on the contrary, the 
 removal takes place from a warm to a colder 
 situation, perhaps a similar eftect also takes 
 place. The cold air immediately aflects the 
 lungs, which may, by its sedative properties, 
 particularly if the change is very great, be sud- 
 denly weakened. But it is not only by appli- 
 cation to the immediate cellular substance of 
 the lungs, through the medium of respira- 
 tion, that cold acts injuriously on them. It 
 oftener exerts its baneful influence through the 
 medium of the skin, with which these organs 
 
 colder temperature; but it is now known that | are connected by a sympathetic and peculiar 
 
 291 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [inflammations. 
 
 union, and which is liable to be at all times 
 exposed to the vicissitudes of temperature ; for 
 botii skin and lungs appear emunctores of the 
 fcecal parts of the blood, and hence the sym- 
 pathy between them is observed to be very 
 great. Anything, therefore, that may prevent 
 the exit of this fcecal matter, called perspira- 
 tion, from the vessels of the skin, will throw 
 much more of it on the lungs. When, there- 
 fore, in addition to these occasional causes, we 
 consider that the lungs are very large, as well 
 as very important organs, and that in an ani- 
 mal of speed tliey are peculiarly extensive in 
 their surfaces, and extremely vascular in their 
 structure, we shall be at no loss to account for 
 their tendency to inflammation. 
 
 This tendency, also, seems much heightened 
 in common with the proneness to other dis- 
 eases, by artificial life ; for in a state of nature, 
 or one nearly approaching to it, they are seldom 
 attacked. Even cows experience this increased 
 tendency, arising from artificial habits, as may 
 be observed in those kept near London, and 
 other great cities, where they are more arti- 
 ficially supported, and subjected to occasional 
 housing. 
 
 Cure of Injiammaiion of the Lungs. — The 
 principal modes of cure are two : first, to 
 lessen the increased vascularity or distension 
 of the lungs, by bleeding ; and second, to 
 endeavour, by external stimulants, to change 
 the diseased action : that is, by raising an 
 external inflammation, we try to lessen the 
 internal one ; and it must be remarked, that 
 as this disease is obstinate and quickly fatal, 
 so the treatment must be active and imme- 
 diate. The cure should therefore be promptly 
 begun by bleeding, according to the age, size, 
 and strength of the animal, regard also being 
 paid to the length of time the disease has 
 existed ; for, when the treatment is com- 
 menced too late, the bleeding cannot be carried 
 to the extent that it may be, at an earlier 
 stage of the complaint. As a general rule, 
 bleedings for inflammation of the lungs, 
 should nevf>- be continued longer than is 
 necessary to raise the pulse ; that is, sup- 
 posing this to be previously in a depressed 
 state, which, in tv\XQ pneumonia, it usually is: 
 and in every stage it is quick, and without 
 fulness, even though somewhat hardened. 
 More good is, also, gained by one bleeding 
 202 
 
 within the first twenty-four hours of thg 
 disease, than from numerous repetitions of it 
 afterwards. From a moderate-sized horse, 
 five, six, or seven quarts, or even more, may 
 be drawn ; and should the symptoms indicate 
 a necessity for it, particularly if the pulse 
 rises on the first bleeding, in five or six hours 
 take three or four quarts more ; and as long 
 as the breathing continues laborious, the ex- 
 tremities permanently cold, and the pulse 
 depressed, but rising on the flowing of the 
 blood — so long the bleeding should be repeated 
 to the amount of two or three quarts at a 
 time, at intervals of six or eight hours. This 
 is recommended under a supposition that the 
 treatment commences soon after the attack ; 
 but if otherwise, and violent symptoms have 
 existed thirty-six or forty-eight hours, the 
 bleeding must be repeated with more cau- 
 tion, and the pulse most attentively watched ; 
 or the opposite extreme may be fallen 
 into, and such debility succeed, as may pro- 
 duce the very event desired to be avoided-^— 
 namely, the hastening of gangrene or efi^usion. 
 It is of considerable importance to draw the 
 blood quickly, by means of a large orifice, as 
 directed under General Inflammation, and to 
 suffer the blood drawn, to cool gradually with- 
 out disturbance, when the bufty surface will 
 have an opportunity of showing itself, and afibrd 
 conclusions to be drawn whether bleeding 
 should or should not be further persisted in. 
 Immediately after the first bleeding, some active 
 stimulants should be applied to the surface of 
 the chest. Blisters have the effect of takmj,' 
 off" the hair, which disfigures the horse for a 
 long time afterwards ; and therefore their use 
 is sometimes objected to. They, however, act 
 by stimulating the parts not immediately 
 affected, and prove a counter-irritant ; and 
 there is no specific virtue in one matter more 
 than another, beyond its degree of stimulating 
 action to the part to which it is applied. The 
 degree of irritation necessary, must be pro- 
 portioned to the degree of inflammation it is 
 intended to counteract, by also becoming a 
 counter irritation. (See Blisters). If that 
 be very considerable, the medicinal stimulant 
 must be so likewise ; and we know of none 
 whose energy is great in this respect, that 
 will not raise the cuticle, and separate the 
 hair. Consequently, as blisters act powerfully 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINAllY PRACTICE. 
 
 [consumption. 
 
 as stitnulaiita, aud piirticiilarly na tlioy coii- 
 timio such action lor some time, tliey Hliould 
 uevor bo dispensed with. AVheiiever, there- 
 fore, the symptoms are at all iirf^ent, [)roceed, 
 at once, to blister tho chest, ami between tho 
 tore lei^s, and also from the sides behind the 
 
 Should this not relieve the cough 08 much as 
 desired, give — 
 
 Linseed Mi-al . . . . •_) oz. 
 
 Oatiiual 2 lio. 
 
 ^^'a^m Water 
 
 Mix well t()i,'i'thcr, and boil. 
 
 2 ijiiartii. 
 Admini.ster this 
 
 elbows; as it should be remembered that draught every six hours, until relief is obtained 
 active blistering is the quickest mode of sub- i With regard to food, no particular anxit-ty need 
 duing the intlammatiou. The state of the be maniteatcd for tho first twenty-four hours, 
 bowels should be next attended to, and gentle daring which, the less the animal cats the bet- 
 
 relaxatiou encouraged ; but not purging. To 
 obtain this end, back-rake, and throw up a 
 laxative clyster (see List of Medicines) ; but 
 active purging must, by all means, be avoided. 
 Mr. Colemau formerly recommended, after 
 blistering or i-owelling, that the horse might 
 be turned out into the opeu air, however cold, 
 without other medical treatment than nau- 
 seating doses of aloes. Latterly he recom- 
 mended, and with very great propriety, a well- 
 ventilated box, with slight clothing, taking 
 care that the legs are well rubbed and ban- 
 daged, either with woollen bandages, or, if not 
 with these, with hay or straw ; aud should 
 this not have the desired efiect of producing 
 warmth in the extremities, a blister to be 
 applied to them, which would be found more 
 efficacious. The muzzle, ears, and the whole 
 of the head, in fact, may be considered as an 
 extremity, and, as such, should likewise be 
 particularly attended to. The ears may be 
 hand-rubbed, and the head clothed in a neck- 
 
 ter, uidess green food can be procured for him. 
 This being more cooling and opening, should be 
 given, if possible; but, in its absence, bran 
 mashes may be allowed cold, with only a small 
 quantity of hay. Corn should on no account 
 be given, or the head steamed with hot mashes. 
 As before observed, we must abstain from pro- 
 ducing purging, and also carefully endeavour 
 to avoid costiveness. The extremities must 
 also be carefully examined, as to their hotness 
 or coldness, and every endeavour made to keep 
 tliem as warm as possible. By steadily pursu- 
 ing this mode of treatment for a day or 
 two, it will then be seen whether the pa- 
 tient is getting better or not. If the fever 
 and iuflamnuition appear to have quite lelt 
 him, still continue the linseed and oatmeal 
 gruel, in which, once a day, put 
 
 Pul. Gentian .... 1 drachm. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron ... 1 do. 
 If the disease should occur ia mild open 
 weather, the horse would be greatly benefited 
 
 hood; and the animal littered well up to the | by being turned to grass, for one or two hour 
 belly with clean straw. It must, at the same 
 time, be kept in mind, that the more care 
 taken to promote warmth in the surface and 
 the extremities, by clothing, &c., so the more 
 care should be taken to counteract anv ten- 
 dency these means might have to encoura"-e 
 arterial excitement, which is best effected by a 
 cool and pure temperature of about fifty degrees. 
 For internal medicine, take of the followin"' 
 immediately after the first bleedin": — 
 
 Cajie Aloes I drachm. 
 
 Digitalis 1 do. 
 
 Nitre 3 do. 
 
 Mix with honey to form a ball. 
 
 Give every six hours, or ofteuer, according to 
 the urgency of the disease. In cases where 
 cough is present and troublesome, add to the 
 former — 
 
 Liquorice powder ... 2 drachms. 
 
 in the warmest part of the day — 
 
 PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. 
 Pi^lmonary consumption may also be called 
 chrouic inflammation of the lungs. It is u 
 disease that commences slowly, but almost 
 always ends fatally. It frequently follows cold, 
 or is a sequel of acute inflammation of the 
 lungs. In these instances, the horse, for some 
 time, seems not to be afiected with any disease, 
 though the lungs are decidedly touched the 
 whole time, lie is, however, occasionally ob- 
 served to be affected, aud gradually a short dry 
 cough comes on ; the coat becomes also harsh, 
 dry, and altogether unsiglitly. As the disease 
 advances, we always distinguish a peculiar 
 smell about him, rising both from his skin and 
 his dung. At length the appetite becomes 
 affected, and pus, mixed with mucus, whicu 
 
 2uy 
 
riGESTlON.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [digestion. 
 
 in the latter stages is mixed with coagulse, is 
 observed to be passed from the nostrils. This 
 escapes by the mouth also, as well as the uose, 
 in the act of coughing. In the still more ad- 
 vanced stages, the discharge increases, and is 
 attended with au exceedingly disagreeable 
 ^inell. The hair falls off in patches, the body 
 wastes, and the complaint either degenerates 
 into farcy or glanders, or the animal sinks 
 under the disease itself. If a horse is de- 
 stroyed in the early stages, the tubercles ap- 
 pear like knots, or kernels, dispersed through 
 the substance of the lungs. They are some- 
 
 times smaller, or larger, as the case may be; 
 
 mostly darker, but sometimes lighter, than the 
 surrounding substance. In later stages these 
 are found to degenerate into abscesses, and 
 terminate iu universal ulceration. When 
 horses are opened at this point of the disease, 
 they are said to be rotten. 
 
 Horses affected with consumption, may do a 
 considerable deal of slow draft work, by occa- 
 sionally giving them one of the restorative balls 
 (see List of Medicinfs) ; but a perfect cure 
 is impossible; palliatives being the ouly reme- 
 dies that can be made use of. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 DIGESTION ; INDIGESTION 
 
 DIGESTION. 
 By digestion is meant that process by which 
 the food, or certain parts of it, are converted 
 into a white fluid (resembling milk), named 
 chyle. To render it fit for undergoing this 
 process, which is performed by the stomach, it 
 is necessary that it should be perfectly masti- 
 cated, and mixed with saliva. Supposing, then, 
 that the food is of good quality, and in suffir 
 cient quantity, a defect in the organs of masti- 
 cation, a deficiency of saliva, or a want of vital 
 power in tlie stomach, must render the opera- 
 tion imperfect, and the chyle formed by it 
 unfit for the purpose for which it was de- 
 signed — namely, the formation of pure blood. 
 Mastication is often rendered painful, and, 
 consequently, is imperfectly performed, by a 
 defect iu the grinding teeth ; that is, by keen 
 edges, or sliarp points being formed iu the 
 upper grinders, which wound the cheeks, and 
 sometimes are the cause of ulcers being formed 
 there. 
 
 Horses constantly fed on dry food, and 
 never allowed grass, are the most subject to 
 this, The upper and under grinders do not 
 meet each other horizontally, but have an 
 oblique inclination inwards; and the grinders 
 of the upper are more distant from each other 
 294. 
 
 than those of the under jaw. By this arrange- 
 ment, the food, as it is grouud, falls inward 
 upon the tongue. 
 
 The inside of the upper grinders, when 
 worn down nearly to tlie gum, as happens 
 frequently in horses of the above description, 
 allows some portions of the corn to fall into 
 the mouth before it is masticated, and this is 
 generally swallowed unbroken. The horse 
 feeling sensible of this, tries to throw the 
 wear upon the outer edge by an inclination 
 and ])eculiar motion of the jaws, which the 
 French express by the phrase ''^ /aire les 
 forces.^' In doing this he often wounds the 
 cheek with the upper grinder, which, in such 
 cases, is always worn to a very keen edge. 
 The cheek inflames and swells, and becomes 
 still more liable to injury. Iu this way a per- 
 manent thickening of the part takes place, 
 and, not unfrequently, deep ulcers. From this 
 cause a horse swallows a considerable portion 
 of his corn without chewing it ; and such corn, 
 being indigestible, is always voided with the 
 dung. For a time, this defect may be reme- 
 died, by rasping the outer edges of the upper 
 grinders with a concave file made for the pur- 
 pose. Whenever corn is found in the dung of 
 the animal, there is reason to suspect the 
 
"-^%% 
 
 a :§ 
 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
DlULbllU.N.l 
 
 MODERN VETRIilN'ATlY PRACTICE. 
 
 [iNDioKsnoy. 
 
 existence of tliia defect; but sotuctimoa a 
 horse will swallow com um-lu'wcil, I'lercly 
 from eiigeniesa in leoilini^. IMinij; tlic toflh 
 does not, however, iiUbril porinuneiit relief; for, 
 if a horse is again fed on corn, tiio teeth once 
 more soon wear to a sharp edge, and the injury 
 is repeated ; and though filing oif the sharp 
 points prevents him, for a time, from wounding 
 his cheeks, it does not prevent the corn from 
 falling, unchewed, into his mouth, and from 
 being swallowed in that state. There is not, 
 however, so niuoh difiieulty in niatiticatiiig hay, 
 provided the animal is allowed t;uilieient time. 
 It does not so readily fall into the mouth until 
 it has undergone considerable chewing, and 
 then it is more easily placed under the grinders 
 again, by means of the tongue. The hay is at 
 length masticated with great difGculty, and, 
 after being kept in the mouth a considerable 
 time, is rolled up like a chewed quid of tobacco, 
 and thrown out into the manger. Such horses 
 are named by dealers, quidders ; and unless 
 led ui)ou bruised oats, or soft food, must bo 
 starved. In such cases the muscles of deglu- 
 tition, or swallowing, are more or less para- 
 Ivsed ; so that if the animal is turned out, the 
 grass will return through his nose, instead of 
 being swallowed, and he will be starved to 
 death. Horses having such defects in their 
 grinders, should be fed with bruised oats, 
 grains, bran, or other food that does not re- 
 quire mastication. 
 
 "When a horse is at grass, there is a sufE- 
 cient supply of saliva for the purposes of mas- 
 tication, swallowing, and digestion; but when 
 be is taken into the stable, and fed upou dry 
 food, there must, of necessity, be a deficiency 
 of saliva. The only method of compensating 
 for this deficiency, and of randering the I'ood 
 as fit as it can be made for mastication, 
 swallowing, and digestion, is to dip the hay in 
 water, and make the corn quite wet. This 
 should never be omitted. 
 
 There is one cause of imperfect mastication, 
 however, which should not be permitted to 
 happen in the stable ; yet it often does happen: 
 anil that is, dentition, or cutting teeth, espe- 
 cially when a horse is changing his grinders, 
 ■wiiich he does between the third and fifth 
 year — not partially, as has been stated, for all 
 the grinders are changed for permanent teeth. 
 A horse ought to be kept out during a great 
 
 part of this perind ; ami if ho is kept in, when 
 lie is observed to fhcw with great diniculty, 
 he should inivo soft food. A want of vital 
 power in the stoiiujch, is a disease \Nhieh, in tli« 
 horse, exists more frequently than persons are 
 aware of, and arises wholly from improj)cr 
 feeding, assisted however, too often bv im- 
 moderate work. By improper feeding is meant 
 the quantity and quality of the hay that ia 
 commonly given. This injures the stomach, 
 not only by its deficiency in nutritious matter, 
 and the impure chyle generated from it — 
 thereby leading the animal to eat a greater 
 quantity than he otherwise would — but by the 
 distension which the stomach suffers, which 
 does it a serious injury, rendering respira- 
 tion difficult, and weakening the whole mus- 
 cular system. When a horse is constantly fed 
 in this way, not only the stomach, but all the 
 large bowels are loaded, and the diaphragm is, 
 to a great extent, prevented fi'om performing 
 its office. 
 
 INDIGESTION. 
 In a healthy state of the stomach of a 
 horse, his appetite is such as to lead him to 
 eat only such food as is fit for the formation 
 of pure blood. This food is grass, for he is 
 certainly by nature a graminivorous animal. 
 His stomach is remarkably small, and requires 
 to be frequently supplied ; therefore, in a state 
 of nature, we find him almost constantly feed- 
 ing. How great, then, must be the change 
 which he suffers when taken into the stable; 
 and what serious evils ought we not to 
 expect, unless this change is gradually brought 
 about, and his diet and exercise carefully 
 attended to! When we consider in what 
 manner ho is generally treated, there cannot 
 be any difficulty in believing that the stomach 
 must, of necessity, be brought into a morbid 
 condition. The labour he is employed in is 
 generally excessive : the food which is most 
 natural to him is often deficient in nutri- 
 ment; for even grain is not suitable, because 
 not natural to him ; and we find that horses 
 which have always been kept in a state of 
 nature will refuse grain, and require some 
 time, and the stimulus of hunger, to be 
 brought to eat it. Good hay will always be 
 preferred by them, especially when it has that 
 fragrant amell, and greenish colour, whicli it 
 
 295 
 
INDIGESTION.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [mDiaESTioiT. 
 
 ought always to have. But, considering the 
 use to which horses are applied, grain becomes 
 a necessary diet ; and, if properly dispensed, is 
 the best food that can be given them. Hay, 
 when really good, and allowed in moderation, 
 is a very suitable diet, but requires to be 
 assisted with grain, in a quantity proportionate 
 to the work to be done. Some grain should 
 always be given ; as, without it, the quantity of 
 hay necessary for the support of the animal 
 would so distend the stomach, as to induce 
 gradually, by a continuance of such feeding, a 
 morbid, or depraved appetite. As it is, the 
 hay generally given, even what is considered 
 good, is so deficient in nutriment, difficult of 
 digestion, and is eaten in such immoderate 
 quantities, that the laborious exertions re- 
 quired in the muscular structure of the 
 stomach to extract what nourishment it does 
 contain, is such, as must of necessity bring on 
 a morbid or depraved appetite ; aud what is, if 
 possible, of still greater consequence, an ex- 
 hausted state of sensorial power. 
 
 Wheaten straw, when the reed has been 
 carefully separated from it, is much better 
 fodder for horses than what is called middling, 
 or indifferent hay; but the daily quantity 
 should never exceed four or five pounds. 
 Grain must be more freely given in this case, 
 of course ; but such a diet is far better than 
 that commonly given to horses in this country. 
 
 In France, wheaten straw is very commonly 
 used as food for horses ; and the manner the 
 owners have of distributing their diet, well de- 
 serves the imitation of the dealers in this coun- 
 try. The daily allowance is given at three differ- 
 ent times — viz., a moderate quantity early in the 
 morning, a smaller quantity at noon, and the 
 largest portion at night. It is a general prac- 
 tice, in this country, to give an immoderate 
 quantity of hay at a time. To give even bad 
 hay, to distribute the daily allowance injudi- 
 ciously, both of water and oats — to give beans 
 unbroken, and to work horses while their 
 stomachs are distended with food, much 
 evil is done, and many fatal diseases brought 
 on. So general are these practices, that we 
 meet with but few horses with stomachs in a 
 perfectly healthy condition. So numerous are 
 the degrees of morbidness of the stomach, 
 between the healthy state and that extreme 
 degree of derangement, when the appetite has 
 296 
 
 become depraved, inordinate, and even vora- 
 cious, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to 
 bring each of them under a distinct head. It 
 will be sufficient for the purpose we have in 
 view, to notice them, as they relate to the 
 organs of respiration ; that is, to treat of those 
 diseases of the lungs and their appendages, 
 arising from a morbid conditioD of the diges- 
 tive organs. These diseases are commonly 
 known by the name of chronic cough, roaring, 
 and hroken wind. To accomplish this in a 
 manner sufficiently clear and intelligible, it is 
 necessary to give a concise description of the 
 organs of respiration, and those of digestion. 
 
 The mouth, the tongue, the throat, and the 
 passages to the stomach and lungs, are covered 
 with cuticle, but of various degrees of thickness ; 
 so that the sensibility of the different pa^ts is 
 nicely adapted to the purposes for which they 
 are designed. These purposes are — gathering 
 the food, masticating it, moistening it with 
 saliva, and swallowing it. The first is effected 
 by the front teeth ; the second by the grinders ; 
 the saliva is separated from the blood by three 
 pair of glands, named parotid, sublingual, and 
 submaxillary. 
 
 The latter have always been described as 
 lymphatic glands ; but there is no difficulty in 
 demonstrating that they secrete saliva, and 
 their excretory ducts may be seen near the 
 tonsils. The parotid glands pour out their 
 saliva through an opening between the second 
 and third grinder, on each side ; and the sub- 
 lingual by two small tubular papillae under the 
 tongue. It is by the motions of this organ 
 that the saliva, necessary not only to facili- 
 tate mastication and swallowing, but likewise 
 to perform a very important purpose in the 
 stomach, necessary to digestion, is produced. 
 
 The masticated food is placed, by the motions 
 of the tongue, into the upper part of the gullet, 
 or oesophagus, which is named pharynx. The 
 pharynx is large, and capable of considerable 
 dilatation, but soon contracts into a small 
 but strong muscular tube, named oesophagus. 
 The part where the oesophagus begins, is so 
 contracted as to have the appearance of a stric- 
 ture; and it is here that the strong cuti- 
 cular, or, as it is commonly named, insensible 
 coat of the stomach, begins. When ^he food 
 gets into the pharynx, it is swallowed into the 
 oesophagus, and thence falls into the stomach, 
 
rxFLAMMATiONS.] MODERN VETERINAllY PRACTICE. [iwrLiMMiTioKi. 
 
 bv the imisi-uhir contract Idii of thoso parts. 
 Tliere id a glandular cavity on each sido of tho 
 throat, uaiiK'd tonsil, which secretes a imicous 
 fluid, wbicli is retained in tlio cavity until 
 wanted, by a scuii-cartilagiuous flap. This has 
 been described as the opeuing of the eustachian 
 tube; but tliis opening is situated itninediately 
 above it. The mucous fluid is forced out by 
 tho action of gaping, when it is wanted. The 
 tonsil is the part affected in strangles; and 
 the matter formed in this glandular cavity, 
 passes d )\vu through the excretory duct of the 
 submaxillary gland, inflames it, and causes it 
 to become an abscess. This abscess is cora- 
 uionlv, but erroneously, supposed to be the seat 
 of strangles. The horse's stomach has nearly 
 one-half of its surface lined with a strong cuti- 
 cular membrane, which lines the oesophagus, 
 and terminates abruptly, and by a fringe-like 
 edge. It is on this part that bots are usually 
 found. Sometimes, however, they leave tliis 
 part, and attach themselves to the sensitive 
 
 part of tho utomach — properly so named — 
 where tho food is nourished and rendered fit 
 for being converted into blood. In the horse, 
 digestion and ciiylilicatioix aro performed in 
 tho stomach only, not by any particular juice 
 that is formed there, but by virtue of its sen- 
 sorial power, which it derives in comnuju with 
 all the vital organs ; and, in a more especial 
 manner, from the cerehrum or brain, and Irom 
 that part of the brain named corpora pi/rami- 
 dalia, through the eight pair of nerves, or jjar 
 vagum, as tliey are termed. 
 
 It appeared necessary to go thus far into a 
 description of the digestive organ — that is, the 
 organs subservient to digestion — in order to 
 impress upon tho reader's mind the importance 
 of the stomach in tlie animal economy ; and to 
 show how liable it must be to become diseased, 
 when frequently distended with unwholesome 
 food, containing little nutriment, and requir- 
 ing great exertion to be digested — such as the 
 hay often given to horses. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 INFLAMMATIONS. — INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART ; BOWELS; INTESTINES; LIVER; KIDNEYS; BLADDER; 
 
 NECK OP THE BLADDER. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. 
 Inflammation of tlie heart is a disease that 
 rarely affects the horse ; but it does occur 
 sometimes in conjunction with inflammation 
 of the lungs. In such cases, a quantity of 
 water becomes effused in the pericardium, and 
 constitutes water at the heart. The symptoms 
 are so very much like those of inflammation of 
 the lungs, that it is frequently mistaken for 
 that disease. However, this is rather an ad- 
 vantage than otherwise ; for here the same 
 remedies may be brought into application. 
 Still, there is one symptom by which inflam- 
 mation of the heart may be discovered to have 
 a distinct existence from all other diseases ; 
 that is, by the rebounding noise that organ 
 makes at every pulsation, which may be clearly 
 beard by any person standing in the stable, 
 2 Q 
 
 though unacquainted with the disease. Also, 
 by placing the ear to the chest, it will be found 
 that, at every pulsation of the heart, the fluid 
 in the pericardium makes that undulating 
 noise so peculiar to this disease, that it is 
 almost impossible, with a little attention, to 
 mistake it. On examining the pulse at the 
 usual place, it will be found hard and wiry, 
 and occasionally to have a fluttering motion. 
 This will at once suggest the necessity of im- 
 mediately drawing blood, not in a definite 
 quantity, but as the pulse becomes affected; 
 for if too much be taken, it will increase the 
 debility which the horse is labouring under. 
 However, bleeding must be resorted to ; and 
 that as extensively as possible. After this, the 
 bowels must be examined ; and if at all costive, 
 be must be back-raked, and clysters of warm 
 
 297 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [INFLAMMATION'S. 
 
 water and salt thrown up until the passage 
 becomes free and open. Also, take of 
 
 Solution of Aloes . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Glauber Salts . . . . . 4 do. 
 
 Linseed Meal . . » . . 1 do. 
 
 Hot "Water .... 2 quarts. 
 
 Mix, and give every six hours. This will not 
 only allay the irritation of the heart, but will 
 moderately open the bowels as required. Place 
 the animal in a loose bos, or bay of a barn, 
 and treat, in other respects, as for inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 
 
 Next to inflammation of the lungs, inflam- 
 mation of the howels is the most frequent and 
 fatal of the local affections to which the horse 
 is subject, and of which there appears two dis- 
 tinct kinds ; the one affecting their villous 
 coat, or surface, and producing purging ; the 
 other attacking the peritoneal coat, and usually 
 accompanied with obstinate costiveness. It is 
 the latter that forms the subject of our present 
 consideration ; the former will be treated of 
 hereafter. From an imperfect acquaintance 
 with the art, it has been common for farriers 
 to mistake inflammation of the bowels for spas- 
 modic colic, and the error has often proved 
 fatal to the affected horse ; for the comfort- 
 able things, and heating drenches given on 
 such occasions, always increase tlie inflam- 
 mation, and frequently produce gangrene. A 
 careful distinction should, therefore, be made 
 between the two, which may readily be done, 
 if sufficient attention is given to the difference 
 of characteristics which they severally display. 
 
 The symptoms of inflammation in the bowels 
 are usually first indicated by a shivering fit, to 
 which succeeds heat of skin, restlessness, loss 
 of appetite. The mouth is particularly hot 
 and dry, and the inner membranes of the eye- 
 lids, and the linings of the nostrils, rather 
 redder than natural. As the inflammation 
 advances, the pain increases, and forces the 
 animal to lie down and get up again fre- 
 quently ; but, as the pain is less acute, he very 
 seldom rolls on his back, as he does when 
 afilicted with gripes. Sometimes, however, he 
 kicks at his belly, or stamps with his feet ; and, 
 in all cases, scrapes his litter or stall with his 
 hoofs, and looks wistfully round towards his 
 sides. The pulse is frequent ; sometimes rising 
 298 
 
 to seventy, and hard and wiry ; but in gripes 
 or colic the pulse is scarcely ever affected ; and 
 even the breathing, in inflammation of the in- 
 testines, is not usually so laborious as we at 
 first might expect, in consequence of the pain- 
 fulness the belly is labouring under. In this, 
 like most other inflammatory cases, the extre- 
 mities are cold ; while the surface of the body 
 is often hot, but scarcely ever exhibits any 
 natural perspiration. The bowels are usually 
 confined ; and if any evacuation takes place, it 
 consists of hard, dry matter, rather inclining 
 to a black colour. The urine is made sparingly, 
 and is high-coloured ; and a strong sign of 
 the complaint is a very early and excessive 
 debility. 
 
 The causes are various ; but they are gene- 
 rally dependent on the application of unseason- 
 able cold ; such as washing when hot, or 
 plunging the animal into a river. The drink- 
 ing of cold water has likewise produced it, 
 though more frequently this occasions spas- 
 modic gripes. A long retention of the faeces 
 may bring it on ; as likewise hernia, or intus- 
 susception, which is occasioned by one part of 
 a gut becoming invagiuated within another. 
 It may also be produced by metastasis, or the 
 translation of the inflammatory diathesis of 
 another part, or of general fever, or by the 
 communication, by continuity, of the inflamma- 
 tion from other parts, as we have often wit- 
 nessed. Another, and not unfrequent cause, 
 arises from flatulent colic, either neglected or 
 improperly treated, which many times dege- 
 nerates into inflammation of the bowels under 
 such circumstances. Calcular concretions have 
 also brought it on. 
 
 In treating for this disease, as for most of the 
 other inflammations of important organs, it 
 requires very energetic and early measures to 
 be adopted. Indeed the treatment must here 
 be still more prompt than in most other cases, 
 as an instance of recovery seldom occurs where 
 the treatment has been delayed beyond the 
 second day. In fact, twenty-four hours of this 
 disease frequently destroys the horse. Bleed- 
 ing is the first thing to be done ; and if the 
 subject be young, large, and plethoric, six 
 or seven quarts may be safely taken away. 
 Should the symptoms, after this, continue un- 
 abated, the same may be repeated in four 
 hours, to the amount of four or five quarts 
 
TKSCEEi- €)F TME ABBv^MEIf ©F TME KOMI 
 
 L Suspensory lig'a.nienr 
 
 2 The IJiapb ragrn , 
 
 3 The Liver . 
 
 4 The Stcmach . 
 
 5 The Omenium . 
 
 6 The SpLeen . 
 
 7 Pancreas . 
 
 8 Diiodenini! . 
 S Aorta , 
 
 10 Vena Cava . 
 
 11 Vena Pcanax'jin . 
 
 12 The Kidneys . 
 
 13 Vena Psnali-s 
 14- The Uretei-s 
 
 1615 Ven^e Seminales. 
 
 1616 0-?ariiim . 
 1717 Art Seminalis. 
 18 18 Coriena Enteris. 
 
 19 The Entens . 
 
 20 The Bladder 
 
 21 Pari of the rectum . 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflammations. 
 
 more; nor should even n third blt.'eclin<jj, thougli 
 in a lesa dojj^roe, bo omitted in other four hours, 
 if the irifl.iniinatory appearances have not be- 
 come mitii^atoil. The blooding may be known 
 to have a sahitary on'oot by the pulse boccuning 
 softer and fuller, particularly if it shows a dis- 
 position to rise as the blood ilows. Here also 
 it is proper that the blood bo abstracted 
 quickly, and from a large orilicc. 
 
 As soon as the tirst bleeding is over, the 
 animal should be back-raked, in order to re- 
 move any hardoncd dung that may obstruct 
 the passage, and which, if sulfored to remain, 
 will infallibly aggravate the complaint, and, 
 indeed, in many instances, is the cause of it. 
 The distressing stranguary that sometimes 
 accompanies inflammation of the bowels, is 
 also, frequently, as much produced by the 
 pressure of hardened excrement, as by any- 
 thing else. 
 
 It is not the dropping away of a few balls 
 of hardened dung, or the passage of some 
 thin glairy matter, which shows that no ob- 
 struction exists ; on the contrary, when these 
 are present, a most obstinate costiveness may 
 yet remain farther up in the passage ; and a 
 flow of thin faeces may escape by a groove, 
 formed by the side of an obstructing portion 
 of dung. Unless, therefore, there be an evi- 
 dent free passage to all the fsecal matter, and 
 unless the excrement be wholly softened, it is 
 always proper to rake ; for it must not be lost 
 sight of, that whether as a consequence, or a 
 cause, constipation aggravates the disease, and 
 is always present. 
 
 A complete recovery seldom, if ever, 
 takes place, until these faecal matters are re- 
 moved. It is always of consequence to bear 
 in mind, that as the state of the bowels, is 
 such as not to render it prudent to allow of 
 strong purgatives being given by the mouth, 
 so the greater activity is required to empty 
 them mechanically, and by the assistance of 
 clysters, which should be thrown up very fre- 
 quently. The next thing to be done is to raise 
 a brisk external inflammation over the bellv, 
 to lessen thereby the internal affection ; and, 
 in this case, even cantharides are hardly quick 
 enough in their action. A more speedy deter- 
 mination to the skin may be made, by first 
 fomenting the belly with hot water for a 
 quarter of an hour, and then by applying a 
 
 large mustard poultice, farther liquified with 
 oil of turpentine, or with the li(juid blister 
 (see List of Mfdicines), which may bo .spread 
 on coarse linen, or a horse-cloth. What, how. 
 ever, is still more preferable, ia the fleshv side 
 of a newly stripped sheepskin, covered with it, 
 and then applied close to the belly by means 
 of flannel rollers, to retain it in its situation. 
 AVlien tliis has remairu'd on for three or four 
 hours, if an evident abatement of symptoms 
 does not show itself, proceed to blister in the 
 usual way. It next becomes a consideration 
 as to what remedies may be given by the 
 mouth, which must greatly depend on the de- 
 gree of costiveness with which the animal is 
 distressed. In a ca-se where the obstruction 
 does not appear obstinate, we should recom- 
 mend that castor and linseed oils be given 
 combined— six or eight ounces of each, shaken 
 together, with a little gruel. When the bowels 
 are more closely constricted, take of— 
 
 Solution of Aloes . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Sokuion of Khubarb . . . 2 do. 
 
 Good Gruel i quart. 
 
 Repeat this every three or four hours, till full 
 evacuation is obtained. Before the costiveness 
 is overcome, care must be taken not to in- 
 crease the distension of the bowels with 
 much liquid given by the mouth ; but when a 
 passage is obtained, take about three quarts of 
 good oatmeal gruel, and the same quantity of 
 linseed-meal tea. Mix these well together, 
 and keep them constantly warm, and occa- 
 sionally horn a little down; when consumedi 
 repeat the quantity. 
 
 This must be the only food given to the 
 horse until a decided amendment is apparent, 
 when he may, by slow degrees, be brought 
 into the use of his ordinary food ; but this, at 
 first, must be dealt out to him with a verv 
 sparing hand, lest the disease return, in whicii 
 case it almost always proves fatal. In case 
 the animal is very restless, a loose box would 
 be the most preferable place for him ; or, if 
 situated in the country, where no such tliitif^ 
 can b^ obtained, the bay of a barn, or even 
 the floor, well littered down with straw, 
 would be preferable to a stable or stall. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES FROM 
 SUFERPURGATION. 
 
 As the former affection consists of a phleg- 
 
 299 
 
IITFL A MM ATIOITS . J 
 
 THE HORSE. AN'D 
 
 [iNELAMMATIONS. 
 
 monous inflammatory attack on the peritoneal 
 covering of the iutestines, this is usually an 
 affection of their villous surface, the conse- 
 quence of the administration of improper 
 purging medicines, either as to quantity or 
 quality, by which such a state of irritation is 
 produced as ends in inflammation. It is 
 always accompanied with purging ; whereas the 
 former has almost always costiveness con- 
 nected with it. Neither is the pain so acute 
 in the latter ; consequently the horse seldom 
 exhibits so much uneasiness by rolling or 
 stamping. The pulse is also quick and small, 
 but seldom hard. If the symptoms of in- 
 flammation be very active ; that is, if the pain 
 approaches distress, if the extremities feel 
 cold, and the pulse betokens much vascular 
 action, three quarts of blood may be drawn ; 
 but, unless these appearances exist in force, it 
 will be more prudent to omit it. Stimulants 
 should, however, be applied to the bowels, as 
 directed in inflammation of them ; the cloth- 
 ing, also, should be warm, and means taken to 
 keep up the circulation in the extremities by 
 hand-rubbing and bandaging. The stable 
 should likewise be kept warm, and the follow- 
 ing drink given every four hours : — 
 
 Prepared Chalk , . . . 1^ oz. 
 
 Rice 2 do. 
 
 Boil the rice in three pints of soft water, until 
 it is a complete jJwZp; then squeeze it through 
 a fine cloth. Add the chalk to the liquor, 
 breaking down the lumps, and give at a proper 
 warmth. As before instructed, give every four 
 hours. Should this not appear to relieve the 
 animal, take of — 
 
 Laudanum 1 oz. 
 
 Gum-arabic 2 do. 
 
 Pirst boil the gum-arabic, in rather more than 
 a quart of good oatmeal gruel ; then add the 
 laudanum, and give as before directed. During 
 the exhibition of the medicine, continue to 
 apply clysters of rice and water, made as 
 shown above. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 
 
 The liver of the horse is, of itself, seldom 
 the first affected with inflammation, though, 
 when other great abdominal inflammations 
 take place, it frequently participates in the 
 disease. 
 
 The symptoms of this complaint generally 
 
 3U0 
 
 commence in appearances not very unlike a 
 slight attack of inflammation of the bowels ; 
 but they are unattended with that rising up 
 and lying down, which, so frequently, is an 
 accompaniment of the latter disease. Still, 
 the horse will often turn his head to his 
 right side, evincing considerable pain ; and if 
 his right side be pressed with the hand, he 
 will make a peculiar grunting noise, indicative 
 of suftering. If he be turned round in his 
 stall, to the right hand, it will be with great 
 difficulty, which will further show the pain he is 
 labouring under. The extremities are gene- 
 rally cold ; considerable heaving at the flank 
 takes place ; the pulse is quick and hard, and 
 the mouth is hot, attended with a yellowness 
 of the lining of the membrane which covers it. 
 The nostrils and the conjunctiva of the eye also 
 participate in this yellow tinge. These ap- 
 pearances, taken collectively, are the indica- 
 tions which lead to the discovery of this 
 complaint. 
 
 The disease is frequently attended with 
 costiveness ; and in consequence of the secreted 
 bile not passing oft' in its usual way, it be- 
 comes absorbed in the system ; and hence 
 that yellowness of the skin and of the 
 finer membranes. Occasionally, a disagreeable 
 morbid secretion is set up, and the horse's 
 dung becomes loose, and remarkably black, 
 attended with an exceedingly offensive smell. 
 If the disease should terminate in violent 
 discharges of the above-named black foetid 
 stools, the animal frequently falls a victim 
 in a comparatively short time — not longer 
 than two or three days. 
 
 Por the cure of inflamed liver, first bleed to 
 the full extent of the powers of the animal; 
 and, if necessary, repeat in five or six hours. 
 Well blister the sides of the belly ; and if 
 costiveness should appear, back-rake, and 
 throw up clysters of salt and water every 
 three hours ; then take of — 
 
 Blue Pill 2 drachms. 
 
 Cape Aloes 3 do. 
 
 Form into a ball with honey ; 
 and repeat every six hours until it operates. 
 
 In cases where purging has commenced, the 
 bleeding should be more moderate and sparing, 
 unless the inflammation run high ; in which 
 case discretion must be the guide in the mode 
 of treatment to be adopted, for a repetition cf 
 
iirrLAMMATiONS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflammation. 
 
 bleeding is sometimca hero less advisable than 
 in the fornior instance. Take of — 
 
 Linseed Meal ... .2 ounces. 
 
 Oatmeal ~ *!'>• 
 
 Cateclui Piil 1 ill'- 
 
 Make into good gruel, with three pints of 
 soft water, and give morning and night. If 
 the horse appear weak, and much debilitated, 
 take the following : — 
 
 Cape Aloes fi drachms. 
 
 Sulphate oflron ... 6 do. 
 Powdered Opium ... 4 do. 
 
 Blue Pill G do. 
 
 Form into a ma^ss with honey ; 
 
 and divide into six balls. Givo one every 
 second day. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 
 
 The horse is very liable to this affection, 
 which is of such a dangerous nature, that if 
 remedial means are not early resorted to, mor- 
 tification may take place, and the death of the 
 animal be the result. 
 
 The symptoms of this disease are various — 
 the animal, for the most part, being dull ; the 
 urine also is made in small quantities, and is 
 the colour of porter, and occasionally blood3\ 
 As the inflammation increases, the urine be- 
 comes sometimes wholly suppressed. He 
 stands with his hind legs wide apart, as if 
 attempting to stale ; exhibits great thirst, 
 and is frequently inclined to drink ; but this 
 must be guarded against. Diuretic medicine 
 of every description must be carefully avoided, 
 as tending to determine more blood to those 
 organs than is necessary. The legs are apt to 
 swell greatly, and there is a difficulty in 
 moving him in the stall, from the pain which 
 he evinces in his hind quarters. This disease 
 sometimes arises from severe exercise, if taken 
 with a heavy rider. Cold rainy nights will 
 produce it, where the water lodges consider- 
 ably on the region of the loins. 
 
 For the treatment, the principal sheet- 
 anchor is bleeding plentifully, to the amount 
 of from four to six quarts ; and, if the inflam- 
 matory symptoms still continue for the space 
 of four or five hours, bleed again. After the 
 first bleeding, proceed to back-rake, and clear 
 the rectum out well ; then throw up clysters 
 of warm water, until the bowels appear to 
 have a free passage. A blister over the loins 
 
 might do good ; but hero it \h better avoided, 
 as the active principle of tho blister lying in 
 the Spanish flies, may become ahBorbed, and, 
 entering into tho system, do conHitler:il>ly moro 
 harm than good; therefore uso tho fiUowin" 
 ointment ; — 
 
 Tartar Emetic . . .2 drachms. 
 
 IIo'j's Lard . ^ . . 2 ounces. 
 
 AVork well into an ointment, and apply to tho 
 loins, night and morning, until pimples make 
 their appearance ; then desist. Tie a cradle 
 round the neck, to prevent him biting tho 
 part. Clothe moderately ; bandage the legs ; 
 and for litter, give plenty of good clean straw. 
 For drink, give gruel frequently, in small 
 quantities ; feed with hay of the best quality, 
 and moderately; givo half bran and half oats, 
 made moist with cold water. Also administer 
 the following every morning: — • 
 
 Antimony Pul. . . , .12 ounces. 
 
 Brimstone Pul 4 do. 
 
 Cape Aloes 12 drachms. 
 
 Mix with honey, to form a mass ; 
 
 and divide into twelve balls. Give one every 
 morning, the first thing. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 The bladder may become inflamed through- 
 out its whole body, or the affection may bo 
 confined to the neck of it only ; and as dif- 
 ferent symptoms arise, as either the one or the 
 other of these are the immediate seat of 
 disease, so we shall describe them sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 AVhen a mucous membrane is inflamed, it 
 ceases to secrete mucus. This takes place in 
 the inflammation of the internal coat of the 
 bladder ; and when it ceases to secrete the 
 irritable portion of mucus, it is constantly 
 endeavouring to rid itself of it. 
 
 This complaint may be distinguished from 
 inflammation of the kidneys, by what has been 
 said with regard to that disease ; and irom in- 
 flammation of the neck of the bladder, from 
 what follows. 
 
 As the inflamed bladder cannot long retain 
 its contents, so there is a frequent evacuation of 
 a small quantity of urine ; and, on passing tho 
 hand up the rectum, the bladder will be found 
 hot and tender, but empty. The horse will 
 also be observed to have a disposition to dung 
 frequently, as wpU as to stale, from the sym- 
 
 301 
 
HTDEOPHOBIA.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [htdeophobia. 
 
 pathy of the rectum with the bladder. The 
 fever is generally considerable, and the pulse 
 is harder and fuller than natural ; but as the 
 disease proceeds, it usually becomes op- 
 pressed. Its causes may originate in the 
 translation of fever ; perhaps sometimes by 
 cold, alternating with heat ; and it has been 
 occasioned in mares, by passing some irritating 
 substance up the urethra, to excite them. 
 
 Sometimes inflammation of the bladder ter- 
 minates fatally, in consequence of mortifica- 
 tion ; but if mucus be again secreted, there 
 is every hope that all things may terminate 
 well, a complete restoration effected, and 
 the animal, after a time, be as capable of 
 performing his duties as ever. 
 
 For the cure, bleed according to the height 
 of the fever ; and, if no alteration take place 
 for the better, bleed again, as the pulse may 
 indicate ; back-rake, throw up clysters of 
 warm water, holding the tail down firm, to 
 prevent their speedy rejection. However, if 
 such should be the case, have ready plenty of 
 hot water to continue the injections, as in this 
 case they act as fomentations to the bladder, 
 and thereby greatly tend to relieve it. Eor 
 internal remedies, give the same as in the pre- 
 ceding article, 
 
 INFLAMxMATlON OF THE NECK OF THE 
 BLADDER. 
 
 Sometimes the neck of the bladder takes on 
 inflammation alone ; and this occurs more fre- 
 quently to horses than to mares. 
 
 It is to be distinguished from inflammation 
 of the kidneys, because, in passing the hand 
 up the rectum, the bladder will be found dis- 
 tended. This will also prevent its being mis- 
 taken for inflammation of the body of the 
 bladder. The frequent making of a little 
 water will not, however, distinguish either of 
 the foregoing complaints from this, as, in 
 inflammation of the neck of the bladder, there 
 is sometimes a small quantity of urine evacu- 
 ated at diflferent times ; for, after the bladder 
 is distended, there will be, by the force of the 
 distension, a few drops now and then squeezed 
 out. In this disease, however, frequent 
 staling will not take place until the bladder 
 is fully distended ; whereas, in the former 
 disease, it will come on at the very first ; and 
 likewise in the latter case, the distended 
 bladder may be felt even by the belly. The 
 treatment of this disease is so very much like 
 the two preceding cases, that a repetition of 
 them is here quite unnecessary, 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 MOHBID POISONS.— nYDROPHOBUi BITES OF KEPTILE3 ; VEGETABLE POISONS; MINERAL POISONS; 
 
 STINGS. 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA. 
 This disease seldom attacks the horse ; and 
 when it does, it arises from the bite of some 
 other animal ; such as a dog, or cat, that may 
 be allowed to remain in the stable. 
 
 We never saw more than two cases of mad- 
 ness, and those were frightful enough. The first 
 was in a large bay carriage animal, which oc- 
 curred at the Royal Veterinary College. The 
 symptoms which made their appearance first 
 were, his refusing all kinds of food and water ; 
 he was then taken with a kind of shivering fit, 
 302 
 
 after which he broke out into a profuse sweat, 
 stared vacantly around him, began to be ex- 
 tremely restless in his stall ; and was then 
 placed in a loose box. No sooner was he 
 placed there than he began to roll and tumble 
 about, reeling and staggering from one side of 
 the box to the other ; biting at the manger and 
 rack with the greatest violence ; biting his 
 own sides until they bled, and raising his fore 
 feet as high as he could. Indeed, the sight 
 was terrifying to behold ; foaming at the 
 mouth, with eyes glaring and glassy. From the 
 
uTDiioiMKnuA.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [I'OIBONS. 
 
 agonising torment the poor animal was in, lio 
 was left for a short time ; but on retuniitig to 
 the box, he was lying on tlie lloor, con)j)letely 
 exhausted, lie was immediately ordered to 
 be destroyed. 
 
 The most satiataetory symi)tom3, in eases of 
 this kind, is tho dread of water which the 
 horse usually exliibils. Professor Diipuy 
 iMves us an aeeount of this circumstance: — 
 " A rabid horse was confined in one of the 
 siek-boxes. His food was given to hiui 
 tln-ough an opening over the door, and a 
 bucket was suspended from it, and sup- 
 plied with water by means of a copper tube. 
 As soon as he heard the water falling into the 
 pail, he i'ell into violent convulsions, seized the 
 tube, and crushed it into pieces. AVhen the 
 water in the bucket was agitated, the convul- 
 sions were renewed. He would occasionally 
 approach the bucket, as if he wished to drink ; 
 and then, after agitating the water for an in- 
 stant, he would fall on his litter, uttering a 
 hoarse cry ; but he would rise again almost 
 immediately. These symptoms were dread- 
 fully increased if water were thrown upon his 
 head. He would then endeavour to seize it 
 as it fell, and bite with fury at everything 
 within his reach, his whole frame being dread- 
 fully convulsed." 
 
 Mr. Youatt says, that if a horse is bitten 
 under suspicious circumstances, he should be 
 carefully examined, and every wound, and even 
 the slightest scratch, well burned with the 
 lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). The scab 
 should he removed, and the operation re- 
 peated on the third day. The hot iron does 
 not answer so well, and other caustics are not 
 80 manageable. In the spring of 1S27, four 
 horses were bitten near Hyde Park, by a mad 
 door. To one of them the lunar caustic was 
 twice severely applied — he lived. The red-hot 
 iron was unsparingly used on the others, and 
 they died. The caustic must reach every part 
 of the wound. At the expiration of the fourth 
 week the horse may be considered to be safe. 
 
 The other case was that of a cart-horse, the 
 symptoms of which were so very like the pre- 
 ceding, that they need little or no description ; 
 the horse liaving been shot after the attack had 
 been on him about three hours. To prevent 
 such cases, no dogs should be suffered to sleep 
 in stables. 
 
 BITES OF RKITILKS. 
 Reptiles frequently inllict fatal wounds; 
 but in this country tho udder is tho only ono 
 that wo have known to bite either horses or 
 cattle ; and wlien this occurs, and ia attended 
 with swelling, take of — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine . . , . . 2 oz. 
 Olive Oil 4 uo. 
 
 Mix, and rub a portion of the liniment on tho 
 parts alfected, morning and night. 
 
 VEGETABLE POISONS. 
 
 Of this class of poisons we have only the 
 yew-tree that produces any particularly dele- 
 terious efl'ects upon horses ; and when this is 
 once eaten, the animal wastes away by degrees, 
 until death puts a period to his sulFeringa- 
 Two horses that had been employed in carry- 
 ing fodder, were thoughtlessly placed under a 
 large yew-tree, of the leaves of which they 
 eagerly partook. In three hours they began 
 to stagger; both of them dropped; and before 
 the harness could be taken oft" them, they were 
 dead. On being opened, a large quantity of 
 yew-leaves were found in their stomachs, which 
 were contracted and inflamed. The water- 
 dropwort; the water- parsley ; the common 
 hemlock ; euphorblum, or spurge ; colocynth ; 
 elaterium; bryary root ; savoin ; and common 
 brake, are all classed among the vegetable poi- 
 sons ; but there is little danger of the horse 
 hurting himself by them. 
 
 MINERAL POISONS. 
 The numerous minerals given in veterinary 
 practice, do not produce the same poisonous 
 efl'ects which might be anticipated from their 
 name and properties, and which they ajipear 
 to have when given to the human subject. 
 Arsenic and corrosive sublimate are both used 
 in veterinary practice ; but, in all probability, 
 the former will soon disappear from the medi- 
 cal list. 
 
 STINGS OF HOUNETS. 
 These are very annoying, and are frequently 
 the cause of much pain and irritation to tho 
 horse. AVe have heard of a horse being at- 
 tacked by hornets, and stung until the inflam- 
 mation occasioned proved fatal. The best 
 
 303 
 
THE FOOT.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [corns. 
 
 Application in sucli cases is vinegar, which put 
 on the inflamed parts, two or three times a 
 day. The spirit of turpentine is also good, 
 
 and, if administered with discretion, and a pro- 
 per regard to quantity, mixed with a certain 
 proportion of oil, may be beneficial. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 DISEASKS OF THE FEET.— THE FOOT IN GENERAL ; CORNs ; INFLAMMATION ; CONTRACTION, OR NAVI- 
 CULAR DISEASE ; GROGGINESS ; PUMICED FOOT ; THRUSH ; SANDCRACK ; PUNCTURED FOOT ; OVER- 
 REACHING ; aUITHOR ; CANKER ; F.ALSE QUARTER. 
 
 THE FOOT IN GENERAL. 
 Whoever has seen the anatomy of the horse's 
 foot, must acknowledge it to be one of tlie 
 finest pieces of mechanism ever fashioned by 
 Nature. It ought to form a part of the study 
 of every man who keeps a horse ; and if those 
 lovers of horses, the country gentlemen, were 
 well acquainted with the anatomy of the foot, 
 they would, themselves, have an opportunity 
 of preventing the many errors committed by 
 bungling farriers in the shoeing of their horses, 
 and the veterinary surgeon would receive less 
 blame than sometimes falls to his lot. Por 
 example: the veterinarian is supposed to be 
 proprietor of a shoeing forge, with several 
 workmen ; and, above all, he is supposed to 
 have Q. foreman, to see that all shall be right. 
 What is the consequence? A gentleman 
 sends for the surgeon, and informs him that 
 his horse is ill-shod at his establishment, and 
 he scarcely can ride him, he stumbles so. The 
 consequence is, that the surgeon orders him 
 to his forge, and promises he will see and 
 attend to the shoeing himself. He does so, 
 and the shoes are taken olf, and in all proba- 
 bility their having been nailed on too firmly is 
 the cause of all tlie evil. Tliis being attended 
 to, under the master's eye, immediate relief is 
 given, and the horse is sent away with satis- 
 faction. But how is it tliat neither the fore- 
 man, nor any other of the workmen could 
 discover this, but the master alone. Now, if 
 the master have any medical practice, he can- 
 not be in two places at once. Therefore the 
 shoeing department must be left to the fore- 
 man, who, unfortunately, frequently under- 
 stands as much about the matter as the piece 
 304 
 
 of iron he is working on ; but, in case of a 
 repetition, the surgeon gets the blame ; and, in 
 all probability, he stands a chance of losing an 
 employer. Many persons would say, "How 
 is this ; the man has shod horses for these 
 twenty years, and he ought to know ?" An 
 easy answer follows : " Does he know the ana- 
 tomy of the horse's foot ?" " No ; I am not 
 aware that he does." 
 
 But to return to the foot. It will not be 
 necessary to advert to the anatomy of that im- 
 portant organ. Our business is to point out 
 its various diseases, with the best means of 
 cure, which we shall endeavour to do ; and as 
 corns are so common, we shall treat of them 
 first. 
 
 CORNS. 
 
 Corns originate in an injury done to one of 
 the most vascular parts ; and itself is equally 
 vascular, and instead of tending to increase the 
 cuticle (i. e., the horn) over it, derives its 
 principal character from being inimical to 
 every future growth of it. These very trouble- 
 some aftections arise from injury done to the 
 vessels of the sensitive sole, exactly at the sur- 
 face of union between it and the horny sole, 
 whereby blood becomes extravasated within 
 the angle of the inflexions of the heels ; that is, 
 between the outer crust and the bars. They 
 appear, in every instance, the effect of improper 
 pressure, by which the sensitive vascular sole 
 becomes acted on between the horny sole and 
 the heels of the coffin-bone. This disease is 
 equally produced, whether thf pressure arise 
 from the horn of the sole, or the horn of the 
 walls ; and it is from the pressure of the walls 
 
C0BN8.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE. 
 
 [corns. 
 
 of the heels bruising the sensitive solo, that 
 corns are so common to contracted feet, and 
 also to weal; hoofs. It is also to the increased 
 weakness of the inner wall and heel of the 
 hoof tliat corns are so much more frequent in 
 the inner than the outer heel ; and it is from 
 the superior strength of the hinder heels that 
 they are less liable to them. But though the 
 contraction of the walls of the heels docs often 
 occasion the complaint, it is much more fre- 
 quently the consequence of pressure of the 
 sole, the very form of which shows that it 
 never was intended to bo thus acted on; for 
 the crust meets the ground, and the sole re- 
 cedes from it in every part. The general 
 mode in which injurious pressure is given 
 to the sole, is either by an improper form of the 
 shoe applied, by not removing the horn op- 
 posed to the seat of corns, or by neglecting to 
 renew the shoe at, proper intervals. To one 
 or other of these errors most corns may be 
 attributed. 
 
 Bad shoeing operates in various ways, but 
 in none more commonly than by the thickened 
 unequal heel of the shoe, which is, in general, 
 formed into a sort of clubbed end, that pre- 
 vents its presenting a level surface towards 
 the foot; on the contrary, a bulbous projec- 
 tion indents itself into the very part, as though 
 purposely placed there to produce this injury. 
 The custom, also, of making the seat of the 
 shoe slant, or level inwards, is, we believe, 
 sometimes productive of corns ; but the heel, 
 for nearly an inch before its termination, 
 should be made perfectly flat, and the same 
 thickness as any other part of the shoe. 
 
 Neglecting to prepare the foot for the shoe 
 is also a fruitful source of corns ; for that part 
 of the horny sole which fills up the acute 
 angle, between the crust and the bars, the 
 pressure on which is so injurious, is, in a state 
 of nature, protected by the prominences of the 
 frog and bars, as well as by the inclined direc- 
 tion of the latter; but as artificial habits alter 
 the shape of the foot, this part becomes ex- 
 posed. Therefore, in preparing a foot for the 
 shoe, this angular portion should bo so pared 
 as to remove it from contact with the iron, 
 without weakening the horny covering of the 
 sensitive sole. For so surely as this part 
 becomes subjected to pressure for any con- 
 eiderable length of time, so surely extravasa- 
 2s 
 
 tion will take place, and a corn bo formed, all 
 the more rapidly if the Iieela are weak. 
 
 The third conjinon cause is the ncf^lcct of 
 
 removing, or renewing, the shoes at proper 
 intervals. AVheti a shoo has been long worn, 
 the growth of the hoof carries it forward, by 
 which the parts originally opposed to tho 
 heels are carried beyond them, and now presa 
 on tho sole, often becoming indented within 
 the lino of tho crust, and producing a most 
 injurious pressure. Sometimes, also, either 
 from tho original form of the shoes, or by long 
 wear, they become loose and "springy,'' as 
 smiths call it, at the heels ; in w Inch cases 
 gravel is apt to make its way between tho 
 shoe and the foot, aud, by the pressure of tho 
 heels during action, is indented into the sub- 
 stance of the horn. Other gravel is received in 
 the same manner, which presses the first still 
 onward, till at last it meets tho sensitive part. 
 Aa soon as this takes place, inflammation 
 ensues, and a very difi'erent complaint is 
 formed to that of common corns ; for in every 
 instance of this kind, suppuration proceeds, 
 and the matter, unable to make its exit below, 
 or sideways, forces its way upwards, aud a 
 small tumour appears at the coronet, which 
 breaks, and discharges a purulent matter. 
 
 But the common eflect of pressure from 
 long-worn shoes, is the extravasation of a little 
 blood ; which, on paring away tho horn at tho 
 angular point of the heel, or heels, appears as 
 a black or red speck, as it may have been 
 longer or more newly thrown out from its 
 vessels ; and it may bo followed with tho 
 paring knife to its source in the sensitive part. 
 If the injury has been considerable, this blood 
 itself may irritate, and, similarly to gravel, 
 produce suppuration. In general cases, how- 
 ever, this extravasation remains unchanged ; 
 and, unless attended to, a weakened action of 
 this part of the solo becomes permanent, and 
 blood continues to be thrown out ever after, 
 upon any occasional renewal of the pressure. 
 In such cases, the horn itself, over the part, 
 proves a source of future irritation ; therefore, 
 horses with old corns, only go well when 
 fresh shod and their hoofs are newly pared ; 
 for as soon as tho portion of sole between the 
 bars grows to a level with the surrounding 
 horn again, the sensitive solo receives a fresh 
 bruise, and lameness once more appears. It 
 
 305 
 
COENS.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [INPLAMMATION". 
 
 is by conteraplatiug this possible termination 
 of corn, that the law has wisely considered 
 every horse with tiiis complaint as unsound. 
 
 In treating for corns, when they first ap- 
 pear, it is not difficult, by proper means, 
 entirely to remove them ; but when they have 
 existed some time, the injured parts become 
 weakened, and the diseased action of throwing 
 out blood, instead of secreting horn, becomes 
 characteristic of them. As soon, therefore, as 
 corns are discovered, the cure should be imme- 
 diately attempted ; first, by removing, with a 
 fine drawing-knife, every portion of diseased 
 horn around, and the whole of the extravasa- 
 tion likewise; avoiding, however, the wound- 
 ing of the sensitive sole underneath. Having 
 done this, take a pledget of tow, and well 
 moisten it with compound tincture of myrrh, 
 over which put tow sufficient to fill up the 
 hollow of the foot; put on a bar-shoe, and 
 secure the tow in the hollow of the foot by 
 two sticks, laid across each other, and fastened 
 underneath the edge of the shoe. This will 
 act on the sensitive sole, by destroying the 
 unsound parts, and by stimulating the re- 
 mainder to a healthy secretion of the parts to 
 produce new horn. Change the dressing 
 every day, and care must be taken not to let 
 the foot get wet. In this way corns may be 
 permanently cured, when not of too long 
 standing. 
 
 When the derangement of this part of the 
 Bole, however, has become habitual and perma- 
 nent, a,palliative treatment only can be pursued. 
 In the first place, the pressure of the horn 
 must be guarded against, by a regular and fre- 
 quent paring-out of that portion between the 
 inflexion of the heel ; and if the hoof be very 
 strong, and at all disposed to contract, the 
 quarters also should be attended to, and not 
 allowed to become too high, or too thick. We 
 have also, in very strong feet, found the use of a 
 short shoe sometimes of the greatest service ; 
 but, to a weak foot, either a chambered or a 
 bar-shoe is preferable. When the weakness 
 is very considerable, or the corn a very bad one, 
 a bar-shoe will be found the best support, and 
 should be constantly used ; remembering, in 
 those aggravated cases, to remove occasionally 
 all the surrounding horn likely to press on the 
 injured part; at the same time, taking care not 
 to let the frog rest continually on the bar of 
 306 
 
 the shoe, or it may be apt to bruise it. When- 
 ever such a horse is shod, it is proper for the 
 corn to be dressed with some active stimulant ; 
 such as tar, well rubbed in, and covered well 
 with tow to keep the wet and moisture from it. 
 By doing this regularly when shod, and about 
 once a week also in the intermediate time, we 
 have rendered horses, before useless, able 
 afterwards to work with comfort to themselves, 
 and satisfaction to their owners. In slight 
 cases of corn, the shoe proper to be used is 
 one of rather more substance than common, 
 with the web a little wider than usual, and 
 its width equal throughout ; that is, as wide 
 at the heels as at the toe. It should also ex- 
 tend to the termination of the heel, and no 
 farther, and be well laid ofi" the quarter, which 
 is, generally, the inner one. This will allow 
 the quarter to expand ; and, in all probability, 
 prevent a repetition of the pressure from the 
 bone above. This shoe will afford ease and 
 protection. Future pressure must be avoided 
 by keeping the seat of corns clear from offend- 
 ing. 
 
 ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET. 
 
 Of all the definite and well-marked diseases 
 incident to the horse, this has been most mis- 
 taken among the old farriers, and the least 
 noticed among the modern. In many works 
 on Farriery it is not even mentioned ; and, in 
 most, is little more than hinted at. 
 
 This is almost unaccountable, as it is a dis- 
 ease that is very common among horses. 
 When this disease has come under the notice of 
 the common farriei', he has considered it to be 
 a disease of the chest, in consequence of the 
 horse resting his fore legs, because of the 
 muscles and cellular membrane having become 
 absorbed and wasted away. Hence has arisen 
 the name of chest-founder ; and most of the 
 applications were made to the chest of the 
 animal, instead of his feet. It frequently 
 happens that metastasis takes place, or transla- 
 tion of fever from one part to another, as iu 
 inflamed lungs, &c. The feet then frequently 
 become aflfected, whilst the lungs become re- 
 lieved. In some cases obstructed perspiration 
 will produce it, from sudden alteration of tem- 
 perature, and standing a long time in the 
 stable, especially if it be kept immoderately 
 warm. The vessels of the feet not being able 
 
i>FL.vMMATiox.] MODERN VETERIXAllT PRACTICE. [i>rLAMM.viiu.v. 
 
 to bear the sudden alteration, distend ; and 
 inflammation beoomea tho conscquonce. In 
 many cases it occurs prior to an attack of 
 symptomatic fever ; both diseases being fre- 
 quently occasioned by loiif^-continucd exertion, 
 particularly on hard roads, with subsequent 
 exposure to cold. Under such circumstances, 
 inflammation of the feet may bo confined to 
 one foot, or two ; or it may attack the whole 
 four ; but it is more common to the fore feet. 
 
 AVhen a horse labours under inflammation 
 of the feet, persons in attendance on him can- 
 not discover, quickly the seat of disease ; con- 
 sequently, /he continues to get worse and 
 worse, until a veterinary surgeon is called in, 
 when it is found that the horse is breath- 
 ing with diflaculty, and, in all probability, is in 
 a profuse sweat. The groom then informs him 
 that the animal has been labouring under a 
 severe shiverinc; fit, frequently lying down, 
 stretching out all-fours, and groaning with in- 
 tense pain. The practitioner soon discovers 
 the seat of disease from the peculiar manner in 
 which the horse stands. lie also discovers a 
 singularity in his shifting and lifting up his 
 legs ; standing, by drawing his hinder legs 
 under towards his chest, to relieve the fore less 
 from the weight that is naturally upon them. 
 The practitioner will, however, be commonly 
 saved the trouble of much doubt in his ex- 
 amination, for he will, in general cases, not be 
 called in till the features of the complaint are 
 Eufficiently developed, by the utter impossi- 
 bility to make the horse remain on his legs. 
 On the contrary, when forced up, ho will lie 
 down again almost immediately, exhibiting 
 every symptom of distress and uneasiness. 
 
 As soon, likewise, as the complaint has risen 
 to any height, the feet will be found intensely 
 hot, and the pastern arteries pulsating very 
 strongly. These symptoms alone will serve to 
 mark the disease. There is sometimes a little 
 tumefaction around the fetlocks ; and when one 
 foot is held up for examination, it gives so 
 much pain to the other, that the horse is in 
 danger of falling. The poor brute groans and 
 breaks out into profuse sweats, to be succeeded 
 by cold fits. His eyes are moist and red ; and 
 his whole appearance shows that he is la- 
 bouring under a most painful inflammatory 
 afiection. 
 
 In this state the complaint exhibits itself 
 
 the first two, three, or four days, after winch 
 its ofl*i'ct3 are various. In tho worst cases, 
 when the symptoms wo have stated have evi- 
 denced themselves a few days, a slight suppu- 
 ration of tho hoof, at the coronet, may bo ob- 
 served. From this may be pressed a small 
 quantity of reddish icluir, or thin matter. 
 
 Thi.s inflammation, however, is not sufllciently 
 active to force off the hoofs, which have, in a 
 great measure, gradually become imperfect, and 
 sometimes deformed. This imperfect resolu- 
 tion may be known before its efiects on tho 
 horn have become apparent, by the very pecu- 
 liar gait the horse has when taken out, and 
 which once seen, can never be forgotten. His 
 manner is to throw his feet forward in a seem- 
 ingly burlesque style, and bring them down 
 with an odd action on the heel. In fact, he 
 clearly shows that he has lost the proper sen- 
 sibility of his feet. In other cases, again, of 
 imperfect resolution, the lamina?, losing their 
 elasticity and power, yield to the weight and 
 stress of the coffin-bone, which becomes pushed 
 backwards, and, in its passage, draws with it 
 the anterior crust of the hoof, which thus falls 
 in. The pressure also of the coffin-bone de- 
 stroys the concavity of the horny sole, which, 
 instead, becomes convex or pumiced, leaving a 
 large space towards the toe, filled with a semi- 
 cartilaginous mass, which is not the unfrequent 
 termination of inflammation of the foot. 
 
 "When the attack is not commenced with 
 extreme violence, or when an early and judi- 
 cious treatment has been adopted, the inflam- 
 mation becomes easily removed, and, in the end, 
 the animal will recover the use of his feet. 
 
 In treating inflammation of the feet, there is 
 but one certain path to pursue ; and that is, on 
 first discovering it, to bleed largely, to the ex- 
 tent of six quarts, at least ; and give cold bran 
 mashes, and prepare the horse as for a dose of 
 physic {^QQ List of Medicines ; where you can 
 select a ball of any strength, according to tho 
 size or power of the animal). The next object 
 is to attend to the feet themselves. 
 
 After removing the shoes, pare the feet out 
 nicely, to as great an extent as they will ad- 
 mit; which will not be very much, in conse- 
 quence of the hardness of the sole, produced by 
 the inflammation. This done, rasp round the 
 foot and the edges of the wall, so that a shoo 
 may be lightly nailed on when required. This 
 
 307 
 
INrLAMMATION.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CONTBACTION. 
 
 being finished, bleed each foot largely at tlie 1 
 
 toe- then lightly nail on the shoes (after suffi- CONTRACTED FEET; OR. THE NAVICULAR 
 
 ' O J n \ J T^TCC A CT7' 
 
 cient blood has been taken from the feet), and 
 
 place a pledget of tow on each orifice. Over all 
 place a poultice of cold bran, made wet with 
 water ; and frequently have cold water squeezed 
 over it from a sponge. In addition to this, 
 apply to the fetlock-joint, what is now termed 
 n "swab" (to be bought of any of the saddlers); 
 but, in case this cannot be done, take a piece of 
 coarse woollen cloth, of sufficient width to go 
 round the leg, and of sufficient length to hang 
 down over the hoof. This must be constantly 
 kept wet with cold water. Sponge-boots we do 
 not approve, as they are apt to induce " thrush," 
 or at least make the frog so rotten, that in 
 mending one bole another is made. The horse 
 should not be encumbered with much litter, 
 unless behind, for his fore legs to stand on ; and 
 what is given should be made wet with water. 
 By this means he will have an opportunity of 
 cooling his fore legs as much as possible ; and 
 should he be inclined to lie down, which in the 
 early stages of the disease he may, the litter 
 behind will prevent him from iujuriag his hips 
 or his hocks. 
 
 Should the febrile symptoms not seem so 
 speedily to abate as may be desirable, bleed 
 ^"ain from the jugular, to the amount of four 
 quarts. An opportunity will now be obtained 
 of gently moving the horse about, which will 
 enable a judgment to be formed as to whether 
 there is any amendment in bis feet. If so, the 
 dressing must be continued as before ; bearing 
 in mind, that the orifice made in the foot will 
 occasion some degree of lameness. 
 
 If the lameness, however, should still appear 
 to be greater, or not at all relieved, bleed in 
 both plate-veins, abstracting about two quarts 
 from each vein ; but do not even think of blis- 
 tering the coronet, though we kuow that some 
 practitioners are favourable to this. Give an- 
 other dose of physic, which is better, in these 
 cases, than all the blisters in the world. By 
 adopting these cooling remedial measures, an 
 amendment both in the feet and the constitu- 
 tion of the horse will be perceived. This, like 
 all other diseases of the feet, will require care 
 and attention, even after the animal has got 
 apparently sound ; and will be productive of 
 good. If, while at grass, he should lose his 
 foot-stopping, let it be immediately replaced. 
 308 
 
 DISEASE. 
 
 Contracted feet is a disease that has been 
 long known ; and " navicular disease" arises, 
 nine times out of ten, out of the former, or is 
 occasioned by it. 
 
 Contracted feet are those which have the 
 horn of the crust lessening the natural size of 
 the foot, and pressing upon the sensitive parts 
 within, and thereby causing pain and lame- 
 ness. This occurs principally on the inner 
 quarter of the crust, because it is the weakest, or 
 thinnest of the two, and is generally the conse- 
 quence of had slioeing. There are other causes, 
 however, which contribute to inflammation of 
 the feet ; such as too hot stables, and standing 
 on hot dry straw, with little exercise to put 
 the feet into action. 
 
 The navicular disease proceeds in a great 
 measure from contracted feet ; for, as before 
 observed, as the horn of the crust presses on 
 the soft and sensitive parts within, so the 
 elastic parts become fixed, and the multiplicity 
 of these parts contained within the hoof get 
 diseased, in consequence of being squeezed up, 
 as it were, in a vice: the coffin-bone, the 
 navicular bone, and not unfrequently the 
 small pastern-bone, all become more or less 
 injured. 
 
 The reason why the navicular bone is more 
 subject to disease than either the coffin or the 
 pastern-bones, is in consequence of its attach- 
 ments, and the work it has to do. Every time 
 the horse raises his foot, this bone ascends also, 
 and descends when he puts his foot to the 
 ground; the flexor-tendon, also, being fixed 
 into the coffin-bone, and the navicular bone 
 immediately above it, the small pastern-bone 
 working immediately above that, the whole of 
 the weight of tlie animal is thrown upon tliis 
 bone. We ask, then, how can this bone per- 
 form its proper functions, when prevented by 
 contraction of the horny box, or hoof, in which 
 it is contained? Of course, any person of 
 common sense will answer, "it cannot!" 
 Hence arises the complaint called navicular 
 disease. "We have mentioned that the small 
 pastern rests on the navicular bone. In con- 
 sequence of the confinement of these bones, 
 their action is not free ; and the lower end of 
 the small pastern-bone chafing against the 
 
CONTRACTION.] :\rODErvN veterinary practice. [coN'TiiACTioir. 
 
 navicular bono, seta up inflammation, and tho , 
 liorso goes lame. It unfortunately happens, 
 however, that the poor animal, especially if ho 
 is a hariiesi^-horse, is still doomeil to suflVr 
 until tho inllainmation runs so high, that tho 
 absorbenta commence their work by removing 
 the fiue membrane with which tho navicular 
 bone ij! covoroJ, and absorbing tho gristly cover- 
 ing also, Tho inflammation still being kept 
 u|i, the bone becomes all'octed, and caries, or 
 mortification, may tako place ; and then tho 
 navicular disease has arrived at its height. 
 
 The principal causes of these diseases we 
 believe to be bad shoeing; though in going 
 over our subject, we shall, in all probability, 
 mention others of a minor nature. 
 
 The old-fashioned method of preparing and 
 rasping the feet, has occasioned more lame- 
 ness than any one thing ; for what with 
 paring the frogs away, and opening the heels, 
 as it is termed, with scarcely touching the 
 sole of the foot, was enough to produce con- 
 traction ; added to which, there was the ac- 
 companiment of a very high-heeled shoe. 
 These means, with a little thought, will im- 
 mediately explain to the experienced horse- 
 man, why the feet of his animal become con- 
 tracted. 
 
 Owners of horses are sometimes to blame in 
 not having their feet pared frequently enough. 
 If the horse should wear his shoes rather light, 
 they will let him go as long as six weeks 
 without paring, and even longer ; not thinking 
 of the injury the foot is, all this time, sus- 
 taining by its improper growth. 'No man 
 should let his horse go, without removing the 
 shoes, longer than a fortnight, and new shoes 
 should be put on every month. An oppor- 
 tunity is then given both of examining and 
 paring out the feet properly, and watching 
 that they do not grow out of form ; but the 
 custom of nailing the shoes oa so exceedingly 
 tight, particularly where the crust is not 
 strong, must affect the feet, and prevent the 
 ordinary expansion. 
 
 Shoes of a bad form are very hurtful, except 
 it be for slow-working cart-horses, which have 
 feet of all shapes. 
 
 Thick-heeled shoes are sometimes the cause 
 of contraction ; but we have seen thin-heeled 
 shoes produce it, by constantly bearing too 
 much on the frog. Still, a moderate bearing 
 
 on tho frog ia highly necessary. But there 
 are so many strangely fashiuned feet which 
 pass through tho hands of a smith, that it ia 
 next to an impossibility, unless hy he a clevef 
 fellow, for him to know wtiat Kind oi slioo u» 
 tho best to be generally adapted to them. 
 
 AVo have read of authors wondering how it 
 was that farm-horses had such fine open feet, 
 when they are the worst shod, and mostly 
 with high calkins; but we think tho matter ia 
 easily solved, when we reflect that their feet 
 are kept open from pressure below ; and, though 
 they may have high calkins, and the frog con- 
 siderably cut away, it is forgotten that tho 
 rough land they have to plough, or harrow, 
 perhaps is in balls, the size of large potatoes, 
 all acting as so many expanders while the 
 horse is going over them. Again, if the 
 weather be wet, and the soil damp, this keeps 
 the feet cool and moist ; and, of course, renders 
 them more susceptible of expansion. 
 
 Artificial heat has a great tendency to pro- 
 duce contraction, especially in hunting-stables, 
 where horses are kept in the highest con- 
 dition ; also, in racing-stables, where they are 
 kept on good dry litter, half-way up their legs, 
 and every hole and crevice stopped to pre- 
 vent the least air from coming iu. The heat 
 that is thus generated, dries up the hoof, and 
 necessarily disposes it to contract. 
 
 Heat also, applied by the shoeing smiths, 
 will produce it, if not discontinued ; for heat, 
 as they apply it to the foot, has a different 
 tendency during the actual time they are 
 applying it, from the gradual continued heat 
 of the stable. Moisture, on the other hand, 
 has a directly opposite efiect, its application 
 greatly tending to counteract the contractile 
 disposition. It also softens the hoof, and 
 assists the weight of the horse in expanding 
 the foot ; but sometimes, from the extreme 
 thickness of the hoof, it will not even yield to 
 moisture. In the natural state, it is well 
 known that the hoofs must be accustomed to 
 considerable moisture, of which they are 
 mostly deprived in artificial life. A horse 
 confined to the stable, frequently doea not 
 get his feet moistened once a day ; but in a 
 state of nature, half his feet may be said to be 
 exposed to moisture half his time, either from 
 dew, or from being immersed in rivers or 
 ponds. Farmers' horses are much more bcue- 
 
 809 
 
COITTEACTION.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [CONTEACTIOK. 
 
 fited than many others, most of them being 
 generally turned out, and therefore less sub- 
 ject to this disease ; though, certainly, the 
 cutting away of the frogs and bars more than 
 is necessary, is the principal cause of con- 
 traction in them. Long standing in the stable 
 will frequently produce it, more especially if 
 one foot happens to be lame, which will fre- 
 quently become contracted from the want of 
 the necessary and natural weight to preserve 
 it in a state of expansion. 
 
 The symptoms of contraction of the foot, 
 and navicular disease, are seen in the hoof 
 becoming lengthened ; and the frog, instead of 
 having that fullness seen in the natural frog, 
 appears squeezed between the heels, and is 
 not unfrequently ruptured. The feet of all 
 horses do not in contraction become lengthened ; 
 but where the heels are very weak, the inside 
 lieel may be observed, on standing immediately 
 behind the animal, to turn-in remarkably 
 sharp. When this is the case, horsemen term 
 it being toired in. Sometimes the contraction 
 is principally perceptible round the coronet ; 
 but this arises when the disease is subsequent 
 to inflammation of the feet, and the usual 
 secretion at the coronet goes on, but an un- 
 healthy secretion becomes set up. This, how- 
 ever, is not a common case, as contraction 
 generally begins below. 
 
 The hind feet are seldom or ever very liable 
 to contraction ; and when that does take place, 
 it is not attended with those serious conse- 
 quences which result when the disease attacks 
 the fore feet, little attention being required to 
 restore them. 
 
 The horses of dealers are very liable to con- 
 traction, from being removed from the cooling 
 pasture of the farmer, and then travelling, 
 perhaps, from a hundred to a hundred and 
 fifty miles, to be immediately placed in a hot 
 stable. These animals, if their feet are not 
 kept moist, are sure to go lame in tlie course 
 of a week's time. Contracted hoofs are almost 
 always produced by the causes already detailed; 
 and the general concavity of the sole, with the 
 thickness of its substance, greatly adds to the 
 pain usually felt in progression. From the 
 pain the horse is in during his standing iu the 
 stable, he sometimes puts one leg before the 
 other, the most painful one being generally 
 pointed under the manger. This, by horse- 
 310 
 
 men, is termed ^^ pointing, ov fencing,'^ and is a 
 certain sign of the disease. Such an animal, 
 when going on the road, is always inclined to 
 canter; for, if in a walk, or trot, where one 
 fore leg is iu the air at a time, it is ten to one 
 but the weight of his rider brings him down. 
 Whenever, therefore, this is observed, however 
 free from lameness he may appear, such feet 
 are diseased ; and frequently, on close inspec- 
 tion in these cases, a shortened step may bo 
 detected, and a sudden drop of the knee, or 
 fetlock joint, termed ^^ going feelingly^'' as 
 though he were passing over hot bricks ; for 
 such horses seldom or ever step true, but 
 always trip, or stumble. 
 
 Nor can we wonder that lameness should be 
 the consequence of contraction, when we con- 
 sider how exquisitely sensitive are the inter- 
 nal parts of the foot, and how completely they 
 fill up the cavity, which, being lessened, must 
 subject the otlier parts to pressure, between 
 the hard substances of the coffin-bone, the 
 walls, and sole. Inflammation frequently goes 
 on to that extent, that a deposit of coagulable 
 lymph takes place between the laminae, and 
 sometimes over the sensitive sole, which, in a 
 great measure, destroys its natural sensibility. 
 This is called, by the old farriers, " numbness''' 
 of the foot ; but this is not the end of the 
 matter, for the inflammation will extend 
 to the bones and cartilages ; and while the 
 former throw out bony matter, the latter will 
 become absorbed, and bone be deposited to 
 supply their place. This necessarily produces 
 great lameness and pain to the poor animal. 
 
 In treating for this disease, we must observe 
 that feet are of such variety, that a general 
 prescription would not be of much use ; but, as 
 we have said that contraction may arise from 
 extei'nal as well as internal causes, iu many 
 cases palliatives only can be administered. 
 Fortunately, however, where internal derange- 
 ment has not taken place, although the pres- 
 sure may be great, and considerable lameness 
 ensue, still the ill effects are not of a lasting 
 nature ; for by enlarging the hoofs, the pres- 
 sure may be removed, and the pain mitigated 
 or entirely taken away. No means, of course, 
 would be equal to a perfect cure ; and conse- 
 quently it would not be wise to recommend 
 a tedious and expensive process, when a pal- 
 liative mode ought to be adopted ; but in the 
 
CONTRACTION.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [uUOOGINfSf. 
 
 latter case, a perfect euro nmy follow a ju- 
 dicious mode of treatiuout, and thercforo those 
 circuuistauces should not prevent us from try- 
 ing it. If the conUactiou has not been of long 
 duration, by proceeding slowly and carefully, 
 this object may bo obtained, and particularly if 
 the cause of the disease is ascertained, and if 
 there is every reason to believe that the inter- 
 nal parts are not materially alVccted. 
 
 There have been invented, by many inge- 
 nious and clever veterinarians, a variety of me- 
 chanical contrivances to remove contraction of 
 the foot ; but few of them have been attended 
 with permanent success, though, iu some in- 
 stances, they have allbrded temporary relief; 
 but as soon as they were removed, the foot 
 contracted much faster than before. 
 
 All these are now done away with, and a 
 more simple and effectual plan has been 
 adopted. This is by applying moisture, and 
 having more regard to shoeing. In extreme 
 cases the operation of neurotomy must be 
 performed. In cases of contraction, take 
 blood from the plate-veins — say two quarts 
 from each — and administer alterative medicines 
 every other day. (See Medicines). Apply 
 swabs, or woollen cloth, round the hoofs, as 
 directed iu the last article, always kept wet 
 with cold water; then direct the farrier to pare 
 out so much of the sole as will cause it to yield 
 to the pressure of the thumb. He must be 
 careful not to remove the bars, or any part of 
 them. The frog likewise must not be cut 
 away, except such ragged parts as may be 
 injurious. The heela may now be rasped 
 down, until they are as low as the crown of 
 the frog, if they will admit of it; if not, as 
 close as possibly can be done. This being 
 accomplished, place on an old thin shoe, witla 
 but one nail in the inside, so that it does not 
 press on the inner quarter. Remove all 
 bedding, excepting a little every other night, 
 as the more he stands, the quicker will be the 
 expansion. Give hini cooling diet, such as 
 half bran and oats, made tolerably wet ; carrots, 
 or clover, grass, «S:c., &c. Continue this treat- 
 ment for a week, and watch the progress of it ; 
 and, if he should not be particularly lame, let 
 him be exercised two hours, morning and 
 night. 
 
 At the Royal Veterinary College, there is 
 an ingenious contrivance to apply moisture to 
 
 the feet: the floor is t:ilten up where the 
 fore legs of the animal wuuld come, and the 
 earth is removed. The paving is then re- 
 l)laced, atul cemented, ho aa to bo water-ti"ht. 
 The hor.se is then led into this ftanding, where 
 ho renuiins a considerablo time, up to his 
 knees in water. The object of this is to applv 
 continual moisture, adding pressure at Ih'o 
 same time ; for the moisture must bo accom- 
 panicd with pressure, or the end will not bo 
 answered. It is with a view to this purpose 
 that we would order f(jur hours' exercise per 
 day in this disease. INIany persons are fund 
 of scoring the hoof at the quarter, with a Sue 
 drawing-knife, so that it may have a hinge- 
 like action ; but this is of no service without 
 the application of moisture, for the scorino's 
 become so dry, that they make the matter 
 worse than it was. 
 
 Supposing every resource to have failed in 
 the successful treatment of this disease, we 
 must, at the last, have recourse to excising a 
 portion of the pastern nerve, which is termed 
 neurotomy. This is the only remedy in extreme 
 cases, which are then termed the navicular 
 disease. How to perform this operation we 
 will describe when we come to the subject of 
 Operations. 
 
 GROGGINESS. 
 Groggy feet, by stablemen and grooms, for a 
 length of time, used to be considered an in- 
 flammation of the laminas; but, since the 
 anatomy of the horse's foot has become known, 
 it has been discovered to be an inflammatory 
 action going on in the articulating cartilages 
 and their membranes; also in the ligaments 
 connecting the large and small pastern bones 
 which have sometimes been corroded, and iu 
 such a state of disorganisation, as to tend to 
 a bony deposit, and eventually to anchylosis, 
 or stiff joint. "We know of no treatment 
 likely to relieve the parts but firing, and re- 
 peated blistering. In this complaint the horse 
 will go upon his toe, the joint immediate! v 
 within the hoof being stiff. Many workin<» 
 animals in London are affected with this 
 disease, the poor animals sometimes being so 
 excessively lame, as to excite the commisera- 
 tion of every one who sees them. Professor 
 Stewart, in his Stable Economi/, says, " that it is 
 common among all kinds of fast workers ; and 
 
 311 
 
PUMICED FOOT.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [pumiced foot. 
 
 long journeys at a fast pace will make almost 
 any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of 
 stable care may help to increase, but never 
 can alone produce grogginess. It is one of 
 the evils of excessive work." In most cases 
 it admits of no remedy. 
 
 PUMICED FOOT. 
 
 Pumiced foot is a morbid secretion of the 
 sensitive laminse, which forces the hoof from 
 those laminated parts which cover the cofl&n- 
 bone, so that a partial separation takes place 
 between the two, whilst an inflammatory 
 attack goes on slowly and gradually. This 
 may be observed by the front of the hoof 
 giving way, or falling in, and receding from 
 its usual obliquity ; the sole also, at the same 
 time, becoming nearly flat. This is the time 
 that the horse begins to falter, and show 
 lameness, especially , if going over newly- 
 repaired roads ; when, ^if he should tread on a 
 sharp stone, it will probably be with difiiculty 
 that he will save himself from coming down. 
 Prom this curious disease, he appears to 
 secrete little or no horn for the shoe to lie 
 upon, which makes feet of this kind ex- 
 ceedingly difficult to shoe ; and still, what 
 appears strange, the sole becomes thinner and 
 thinner, and at length bulges out, forming a 
 perfect convex. This convexity becomes 
 greater, or less, as the disease is more severe. 
 Large cart-horsea are very subject to pumice, 
 especially those used in large towns, where 
 they are continually battering their feet on 
 the stones, producing a slow inflammation, 
 ending in pumiced feet from irritation. 
 
 The pressure which the coffin-bone, thus 
 displaced, makes on the fleshy sole, sometimes 
 causes an absorption of its own edges, but 
 always an interruption to the healthy secre- 
 tion of horn. The sole, therefore, being unable 
 to bear the weight of the animal, as it would 
 be in a healthy state, loses its concavity, and 
 yields to the altered form of the parts above 
 it. The whole of the parts within become 
 deranged in structure, as well as situation, 
 and the receding of the coffiu-boue towards 
 the heels, where it rests, produces an altered 
 line of declivity. 
 
 Palliatives are the only means by which 
 this sort of feet can be treated with any 
 degree of success. A cure is impossible, as 
 312 
 
 the parts can never be reinstated in their 
 original form. Here, shoeing is the principal 
 remedy ; and, with this properly done, we have 
 known many horses with pumiced feet work 
 well for a considerable time. "With regard to 
 the shoeing, particular attention must be paid 
 to the thinness of the wall, or crust ; also, the 
 sole being so exceedingly thin, in putting on, 
 the greatest care is necessary, that no part of 
 the shoe bears thereon. Most smiths are 
 acquainted with the kind of shoe that is best 
 for pumiced feet, it being rather a peculiar 
 one. The framing of this shoe is with an 
 exceedingly wide web, and made thick enough 
 to be, what is called, chambered out very 
 much, almost covering the sole altogether. 
 This is done in order to prevent stones, &c., 
 from injuring the sole of the foot. This shoe 
 should be carefully nailed on, with more than 
 the usual number of nails ; but allowance must 
 be made for the extra number in the size, as 
 "^ye*," or " sixes," will be sufficiently large. 
 This sort of shoe we have found generally to 
 answer exceedingly well ; but where it has not 
 answered, we have placed on a bar-shoe, and 
 shouldered it down at the quarters, so that it 
 did not touch the crust, or heels behind. 
 Prom the form of this shoe, we have seen 
 great benefit arise. After having it placed 
 on, the sole and crust should be well smeared 
 with the following : — 
 
 Alum pul 2 oz. 
 
 Tar 3 do. 
 
 This application, occasionally used, will harden 
 the hoof and sole ; for moisture, in this disease, 
 must be strictly avoided ; and horses so afiected 
 should never be turned out to grass. 
 
 A similar afiection to pumiced feet, known 
 by the name of a "Seedy Toe," is thus de- 
 scribed by Mr. Spooner, in his work on the 
 foot of the horse : — " It can scarcely be called 
 a disease, but it is rather a natural defect, 
 which may be considerably increased by labour 
 and bad shoeing. It arises from too great 
 dryness of the horn, which renders it brittle, 
 and causes its fibres to separate. There is a 
 want of that tough elastic material which 
 connects the longitudinal fibres together, and 
 produces that strong bond of union between 
 them and the horny laminae of the sole. 
 There is a hollow space within the foot, which 
 sometimes extends upwards and around, so as 
 
THRUSn.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [riiuL'sit 
 
 to admit a large probe. Neither the bone nor 
 tlio lamina', liowevor, are exposed, but arc 
 still protected by the internal portion of tlio 
 crust. Tlio only thing to bo done is to anoint 
 the foot ocoaeionally, particularly the allocted 
 part, with tar and grease. A blister may 
 also be applied to excite the development of a 
 new growth of horn, that which has become 
 dry and brittle being occasionally cut away." 
 
 THRUSH. 
 
 TJirusJi is well known to be a disease of the 
 frog of tlie foot, and is defined to be a rupture 
 of the cleft of the frog, from which is dis- 
 charged a highly oftensive kind of foetid or 
 ichorous matter. In fact, this complaint con- 
 sists of a diseased action of the sensitive frog ; 
 for, instead of secreting that elastic horny 
 substance, composing the healthy frog, it se- 
 cretes pus, which escapes between the cleft of 
 the horny frog. 
 
 Some consider it as of trifling importance, 
 but we have seen it of the greatest conse- 
 quence, and would recommend great caution 
 in the treatment of thrush, though almost 
 every groom has a sovereign remedy for it ; 
 but he probably looks no further than the seat 
 of the disease, not thinking that another affec- 
 tion of the foot is proceeding rapidly, as 
 thrush will sometimes lay the foundation for 
 contraction, by the excitement of the parts 
 around. 
 
 The disease is frequently produced by mois- 
 ture ; more especially if it be of an acrid ten- 
 dency, as that of dung, urine, &c. ; but in this 
 case, the hind feet are generally the parts most 
 aflected, from their being more in the dung 
 and urine ; and there is great danger of its 
 producing grease and canker, if sufiered to go 
 on for a length of time. Contraction is a 
 cause of thrush, by squeezing the heels to- 
 gether, until the rupture of the frog takes 
 place. It is not, however, a general cause, as 
 there are many contracted feet without thrush. 
 The difierent actions of the secreting organs | 
 is here made plain ; the inflammatory action I 
 going on in sensitive lamina?, increases the ' 
 growth of horn, so that the frog never comes 
 in contact with the ground: this, of course, 
 promotes contraction, and the contraction rup- 
 tures the frog; and all for want of what? 
 taoiQ frog-pressure ; for as the frog is deprived 
 2s 
 
 of its nJiiavvX frog-prcssurc, so do the lieols con. 
 tract, and so will tho fni<r become ducn-ased ; 
 consequently, diminishing tho secretion of 
 horny frog. A horse, with an open tiirush, 
 or what is termed a running thru.sli, cannot bo 
 considered safe; for a Btono getting into tho 
 cleft of tho frog, will invariably bring him 
 down, from tho great pain which the pre.s:iuro 
 of this foreign substance gives him. 
 
 It has been argued by some very clever men, 
 that thrush is purely local ; but wo have seen 
 many cases where it has been constitutional. 
 For example, many horses which have had 
 thrushes, have had them stopped, the parts all 
 dried up, and clean feet brought to view. But, 
 in a few weeks' time, examine their eyes, and 
 it is ten to one but they will be found either 
 Mind, or going blind. AVe have used all kinds 
 of depletive medicine ; also tonics ; but all to 
 no purpose. Should there be fear of the horse 
 losing his sight, it is better to put up with 
 thrush, which can easily be again produced, by 
 stopping the fore feet with hot horse-dung for 
 a couple of nights. 
 
 Thrushes are generally stopped with littb 
 difficulty. Almost every astringent will stop 
 the flowing of thrush. We have known them 
 stopped with tincture of myrrh and tow; but 
 in such cases we should not class thrush ainonjr 
 the constitutional, but among the local diseases. 
 Further, horses seldom or ever, with such 
 thrush, go lame, unless it is allowed to go on, 
 when the inflammation, in consequence, pro- 
 duces contraction. Tar alone is a very good 
 remedy. The following is what we have gene- 
 rally used : — 
 
 Calamine, prepared . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Wliite Vitriol 1 drachm. 
 
 Tur 3 oz. 
 
 Mix well together; but before using, the frog 
 should be well examined, and all the decayed 
 parts, sinuses, or wherever the discharge has 
 made its way, removed, so that the applicatioa 
 may be thoroughly applied. This will, also, 
 prevent a further harbour for dirt and mois- 
 ture. The whole frog must now be smeared 
 well over with tho mixture ; then a pledget of 
 tow taken, well charged with it, and forced to 
 the bottom of the cleft of the frog, and into 
 every other fissure or opening that may be, 
 omitting none. The back parts of the frog, 
 where it joins the heels, are sometimes cracked. 
 
 313 
 
EANDCBACK.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [SANDCRACK. 
 
 These, also, should be anointed. To dress the 
 feet neatly, great care should be taken that 
 the tow does not hang out, as it may catch 
 objects, and thereby be drawn out. To pre- 
 vent this more effectually, take a good-sized 
 piece of tow, and place it over the frog, fasten- 
 ing it with two thin pieces of wood, laid across 
 each other. If the case is a bad one, renew 
 the dressing every day ; but should it not be 
 so, every second day; always observing the 
 stoppage of tow, to prevent dirt and moisture 
 from getting in. 
 
 "When a horse is affected with thrush, he 
 should, in no case, be turned out; for the 
 night- dews, besides other liabilities to come in 
 contact with moisture, will inevitably undo all 
 that has been done towards eradicating the 
 disease. Hunters, that have what is called a 
 summer's run at grass, rarely come up to 
 stable, but some of them have got thrush, evi- 
 dently from the moisture. The groom, pro- 
 bably, thinks this of little importance at the 
 time ; though coming into a warm stable, &c., 
 with such an affection, soon proves that the 
 foundation of contraction is laid. 
 
 A great many, on this account, assert that 
 thrush is the cause of contraction. In the 
 above case we would strongly recommend the 
 bar- shoe, shouldered down from the quarters. 
 
 SANDCRACK. 
 
 SandcracJc may be termed a division of the 
 horny fibres of the hoof, in a direction from 
 the coronet downwards. It is more common 
 to the fore than the hind feet. "When the bind 
 feet are affected, it is chiefly amongst cart- 
 horses, but not from the same cause as the 
 fore feet of other horses. Cart-horses, with 
 their immense high-heeled shoes, are apt, from 
 the least irritability, to rub one foot, or the 
 heel of one foot, against the front of the other, 
 thereby causing a sore at the coronet, which 
 splits the hoof downwards, and becomes what 
 is termed sandcrack. 
 
 In the fore feet of horses, the disease fre- 
 quently attacks the quarters, as well as the 
 front of the hoof, especially if this is hard and 
 dry naturally. It may also be brought on by 
 injuries done to the coronet; such as those 
 which arise from stubs, bruises, &c. 
 
 The fissure, or cleft, is not always of the same 
 depth ; and is sometimes of such a trifling na- 
 314 
 
 ture as not even to penetrate the horn, where 
 it causes very little inconvenience. This is the 
 state in which sandcrack should be looked to 
 • — that is, in its early stage — when the curative 
 process will be much milder, and the disease 
 brought quicker to a termination. At other 
 times it goes through the horn, but does not 
 divide any of the sensitive parts underneath. 
 However, neglect, and continued work, will 
 commonly bring any case from the slightest 
 to the most aggravated state. "When the 
 crack has completely penetrated the hoof, it 
 becomes a most painful affection, and produces 
 extreme lameness. Tliis pain arises princi- 
 pally from the edges of the horn pressing upon 
 the soft parts, whenever the foot is put to the 
 ground. 
 
 In treating for sandcrack, different methods, 
 according to the nature of the disease, must 
 be adopted. In the first place, having exam- 
 ined the foot well, the sole should be par- 
 tially pared out, and the heels lowered, and a 
 shoe put on, laid off the quarters moderately, 
 if the crack is in front. Tour next attention 
 must now be given to the cleft or fissure. 
 Not the least particle of dirt should be suf- 
 fered to remain in it ; but should there appear 
 fungus or proud flesh, the probe should be used 
 to feel whether sinuses have been formed. If 
 so, all horn that may cover them, must be re- 
 moved with a fine drawing-knife, and laid com- 
 pletely bare, to prevent their going further. 
 Touch the fungus then with lunar caustic, and 
 fill the fissure up with tow, saturated in com- 
 pound tincture of myrrh, first pouring the 
 sinuses full, if there be any, and covering the 
 whole with another piece of tow. This done, 
 bind the whole on with a piece of well-tarred 
 twine. Let this dressing be carefully applied 
 for two or three days, when, if the fissure is 
 going on well, take a firing-iron, and draw it 
 aci-oss it, both at the top and bottom. This 
 will prevent its extending either way. Draw 
 your lines almost to the quick, but not through. 
 After this, dress the foot again, binding well up, 
 as before directed. On a second examination, 
 if the parts do not suppurate, they will be found 
 dry, and looking kindly. If this is the case, 
 take a fine drawing-knife, and pare down the 
 edges of the fissure, taking care not to draw 
 blood ; and observe if there appear any oozing 
 at the edtres. If so, apply a little of the solu- 
 

 5=^ 
 
 cO F° pQ fC 
 
PUNCTURED FOOT.] MODEEX VETETtTXART PRACTICE, [puxctcked foot. 
 
 tion of nitrate of silver to tlio edges, with tlie 
 point of ft featliiT: thon procei'd to ilrosa the 
 •woiiiul with tar, till tho fissure full, ami smear 
 the foot all over with it. Have ready a pledget 
 of tow, which place over all, as before. Put on 
 a bar-shoe, and lay it off well at the fissure, so 
 that tiiere may be no bearing. Tiicn take the 
 brush, and apply tar all over tho foot again. 
 Repeat this dressing at least twice a week. 
 
 During the disease, the horse should have 
 eight or tea alterative balls. (See List of 
 Medicines). 
 
 PUNCTURED FOOT. 
 Punctured foot is a very com men thing with 
 horses, and is frequently attended with a great 
 deal of pain ; and in some cases it is followed 
 by death. As the under part of the foot is so 
 continually exposed to sharp bodies of every 
 kind, whilst travelling, it need be no cause of 
 wonder that the foot does occasionally strike 
 upon something by which it receives a punc- 
 ture. Sometimes, even the heel of the shoe 
 may be too long ; and if accidentally the animal 
 should step on it, and partially pull it off, a 
 nail will probably pierce the foot. The acci- 
 dental puncture of a nail during shoeing, is 
 also one of tho most frequent causes of it. 
 Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their 
 effects to the parts injured. A puncture 
 through the fleshy frog, even to the vascular 
 portion, is not so productive of bad conse- 
 quences, as probably may be a more super- 
 ficial opening made through the centre of the 
 sole, which may destroy the animal. AVhen- 
 
 spongy flesh make its appearance through, 
 touch it lightly with diluted butter of anti- 
 mony, and put tho dressing over the part. Theao 
 simple modes of dressing will be fuund to have 
 a much more beiu-ficial eflcct than niont 
 of those violent caustics, so much in com- 
 mon use. 
 
 Sometimes deep posterior punctures may 
 penetrate as far as the tendon itself, and pro- 
 duce great pain and inflammation. In such 
 cases, if the accident be early discovered, in- 
 troduce a little tow, saturated with tincture of 
 mvrrh. If the inflammation be great, bleed 
 from the plate-vein, and give alterative medi- 
 cine (see Medicine) every second day. 
 Should this not reduce the inflammation so 
 quickly as desired, apply a bran poultice, as be- 
 fore directed. 
 
 The most common cases of puncture are 
 those which arise from a wrong direction of a 
 nail, during the operation of shoeing, in which 
 it either presses on, or actually wounds the 
 sensitive laminoB. This is frequently known to 
 the workman; but, through laziness, he will 
 not draw it out again, or a great deal of injury 
 might be prevented. Were the nail immedi- 
 ately taken out, and a little tincture of myrrh 
 poured down the hole, the smith might intro- 
 duce a much smaller nail, and all things would 
 go on well. 
 
 If suppuration, however, should arise, the 
 shoe must be taken ofi", and the horn that may 
 have been covering the confined part must be 
 neatly cut away, to its tarthest extent, de- 
 taching a portion of the fleshy part from the 
 horny sole. Should it proceed upwards, and 
 
 ever a puncture is made of suflicient depth to 
 
 penetrate the bony connections, and synovia j break out at the coronet, it sometimes takes a 
 
 escapes, the parts should be carefully examined long time to heal ; but recourse must be had to 
 
 with a probe ; and if the suppuration has not every means to prevent such an unhappy cir- 
 
 commenced, apply compound tincture of myrrh curastance. However, after having pared out 
 
 on a small bit of lint. This treatment, in a the sole as directed, next take the probe, and 
 
 few days, will heal the wound. Do not forget I ascertain if any other sinuses are formed 
 
 to place a large pledget of tow over all to keep 
 out the wet and dirt. 
 
 If this treatment has been neglected, and 
 Buppuration has taken place, a bran poultice, 
 moistened well with goulard water, should im- 
 mediately be applied to the part affected, morn- 
 ing and night ; and be renewed every day^ 
 until a healthy secretion takes place, when 
 the wound should be dressed with compound 
 tincture of myrrh. Should anything like 
 
 If 
 
 not, proceed at once to poultice with linseed 
 meal, into which a large piece of digestive oint- 
 ment should be well worked. (See Medicines). 
 Repeat this every day until the wound 
 begins to look healthy. When such is the 
 case, apply tincture of myrrh (first having 
 placed on the shoe), and a large pledget of 
 tow over all, fastened in with two pieces of 
 stick, crossed, as instructed iu other applica- 
 tions for the feet. Five or six days may 
 
 315 
 
OYEIl-EEACHING.l 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [qttittoe. 
 
 elapse before the discovery of the disease. If 
 so, have the shoe taken off, and let the smith 
 tap round the foot with his hammer. If the 
 horse does not flinch, let him try vrith his 
 pincers, by which he will easily discover the 
 seat of lameness, when he should act as directed 
 above. 
 
 OVER-REACHING. 
 
 "Wounds about the coronet are very common, 
 from one foot being set on the other. Hence 
 it is called over-reaching, and generally occurs 
 from a blow of the hind foot against the fore 
 foot, wounding the edge of the coronet, or that 
 part between the hair and hoof. We have known 
 the hind foot strike as high up as Vaefetloclc, 
 and make a complete sore ; but such is to be 
 considered only as a simple wound, or rather 
 as a laceration, or bruise. In no case let the 
 old farriers dress the sore, as they invariably 
 apply caustic remedies, which will make the 
 matter much worse than before. Eirst, wash 
 away every particle of dirt that may be in the 
 sore, or around it, with warm water and 
 sponge ; then take a pledget of tow, and satu- 
 rate it in compound tincture of myrrh, and 
 bind on with a linen bandage. Eepeat this 
 morning and night until the wound is healed. 
 
 As we have here given a remedy for over- 
 reaching, a preventive cannot be out of place. 
 Over-reaching generally occurs in horses 
 having thick, upright shoulders, which par- 
 tially deprive them of the action of the fore 
 leg, as they cannot throw it out in the bold 
 manner in which horses whose shoulders are 
 placed more obliquely, do. The consequence of 
 this is, that the hind legs, having more freedom 
 of action, reach the fore legs before they are 
 able to get out of the way, which is the cause 
 of what is called over-reaching. 
 
 To prevent this disagreeable affection, the 
 horse should be shod high before, which will 
 assist him in getting his fore legs on ; and 
 without calkins behind, which will render their 
 action slower, and thereby make all four legs 
 work in unison. 
 
 QUITTOR. 
 
 Quittor is one of the most troublesome 
 
 wounds of the foot the veterinarian has to 
 
 contend with. It must have existed some 
 
 time when a peculiarly unhealthy state ex- 
 
 316 
 
 hibits itself, the ulcerated surface producing a 
 diseased secretion, which may spread consider- 
 ably around, and, in consequence, afiect other 
 parts. The tracts, called sinuses, are not diffi- 
 cult to ascertain, when we see the foot de- 
 pending ; and we all know that matter is sure 
 to find a deepened orifice, if possible ; but, 
 when covered with horn, how is that to bo 
 obtained ? Simply by the spreading of the 
 matter itself amongst sensitive parts, which, in 
 their turn, become diseased. Now the prin- 
 cipal care should be to lessen all this, or, m 
 other words, to remove the irritation then 
 existing. But if the injury should extend to 
 the ligamentous and cartilaginous parts, their 
 living powers being small, a very difterent 
 complaint is formed, and sometimes a very 
 tedious and troublesome one springs up, from 
 the difficulty of forming granulations in parts 
 with such small living powers. 
 
 Quittor may arise from pricks in shoe- 
 ing, punctures, and over-reaching ; but with 
 draught-horses, the most common cause is 
 from wounds, or bruises, inflicted by a tread 
 on the coronet. AVe never saw this disease 
 in the front of the foot. It principally occurs 
 at the quarters, in the neighbourhood of the 
 lateral cartilages ; although we have heard 
 some say that the whole margin of the coronet 
 is liable. 
 
 The great difficulty of treating quittor, from 
 its being so unpleasant a disease to contend 
 with, brought into use, by the older farriers, 
 some of the most violent means of cure. These 
 they adopted from their ignorance of its na- 
 ture : the burning out with a red-hot iron 
 was one of their favourite plans ; but, happily, 
 this is nearly abolished. 
 
 A quittor, when it had entered on the 
 process of ulceration, and had dead portions of 
 matter thrown ofl: by suppuration, the farrier 
 would say a core is come out. The wound 
 should then be treated as a simple wound, or 
 abscess ; for farriers are too apt, on these occa- 
 sions, under the idea of assisting the coring 
 out, to introduce strong stimulants. Eeduce 
 the inflammation as much as possible, and 
 thin the surrounding horn ; and if the matter 
 appears to penetrate in a direct line, down- 
 wards only, make an opening in the hoof 
 below; but, in other cases, merely dress in 
 any mild way, either with a weak solution of 
 
QUITTOK.] 
 
 MODERN VETEEINART PRACTICE. 
 
 Biilpliatc of zinc, or compound tiiictnro of 
 iMvrrh. Put the horse on bran mashes, and 
 j',ivo alteratives. (See MfJicinrs). 
 
 AVheu the ooinphiint liaa assumed tlio ap- 
 pearanec of conlirmed quitter, and no lonj^er 
 retains tlio character of a simple bruise, 
 wound, or abscess, it must then be considered 
 as an ulcer, composed of difterent branches or 
 minuses, or, as the old farriers term them,^>/};ci\ 
 Here the coriug-out system has been abun- 
 dantly used. On some occasions of bad quitter, 
 a portion of ossified cartilage has come away ; 
 and this is by no means au uncommon oc- 
 currence. 
 
 In treating for quittor, the first thing to be 
 done, is to examine well with a probe the ex- 
 tent of the ulcer, with the number and direc- 
 tion of the pipes. Should one of the pipes 
 run inward, and come in contact with a firm, 
 hard body, it is more than probable the bone 
 is bare. Portions of the coffin-bone have 
 been known to slough off; but we never 
 knew a horse recover when that has been the 
 case. If the capsular ligament becomes ulce- 
 rated, and the joints exposed, such a case is a 
 hopeless one, when the pipes run at the back 
 of the cartilages ; but when these take an in- 
 ward direction, they produce a hopeless case. 
 If the direction of the sinuses, however, is out- 
 ward and downward, or backward towards the 
 heels, the cure then may not prove difficult. 
 The next object ia to stimulate the parts to a 
 healthy action, which may be done by intro- 
 ducing any of the following : — Verdigris, or 
 corrosive sublimate (finely powdered), butter 
 of antimony, arsenic, solutions of potash, and 
 lunar caustic. These are all excellent reme- 
 dies for the disease. Prudence and humanity 
 dictate that the mildest should be tried first. 
 Therefore try zinc, powdered fine, and fill the 
 orifice full, nearly up to the skin, and gently 
 pressing it to the bottom of the wound ; then 
 lay a bit of tow over the sore, and bind on 
 with a bit of broad tape. Keep the horse as 
 quiet as possible ; and he must not be allowed 
 to go out to grass or to work. If the milder 
 treatment fails, a liquid stimulant, with which 
 you will be able to reach all the sinuses, must 
 be used. Tincture of cantharides, with tur- 
 pentine, or a mild solution of caustic alkali, 
 or the lunar caustic, introducing small pledgets 
 of tow with whichever of these may be 
 
 [CANKEE. 
 
 Bcltcted, or which may appear tho best for 
 combating tho disease. Should theao also 
 fail in producing tho desired object, more 
 active stinuilants must be resorted to. Thuro- 
 foro mix about au ounce of tur with finely 
 powdered corrosive sublimate ; then take small 
 pieces of tow, and impregnate well with tho 
 mixture; next place one of tho pledgets thus 
 impregnated at tho end of tho probe, and 
 lightly press it to tho bottom of tho sinus. 
 Do the same until every one ia charged ; then 
 fill up to tho top of the orifice with the mix- 
 tures. Caution must bo used when intro- 
 ducing the pledgets, so that no force may be 
 felt in the operation. If the quittor should 
 be what the farriers CdWfoul, mix a drachm of 
 verdigris \\ith the above. It would be well to 
 thin the horn a little round the parts, as it 
 will have a tendency to remove the pain that 
 naturally arises. Let the dressing remain on 
 for two or three days, until sloughing takes 
 place. If the parts look red and clean, it may 
 be expected that, by simple dressings of tinc- 
 ture of myrrh, the wound will heal, from its 
 healthy appearance. 
 
 If, unfortunately, this should not be tho 
 case, proceed again in the same manner aa 
 before, until a healthy appearance is made. 
 During the application of these remedies, 
 alterative medicines, every second day, must 
 not be neglected to be given. (See Medicines). 
 
 CANKER. 
 CanJccr is one of the most obstinate and 
 destructive diseases to which the horse is 
 subject. It consists in the separation of the 
 horn of the insensitive from the sensitive sole, 
 caused by suppuration having taken place 
 between the two, and may be variously pro- 
 duced. It may spring from neglected thrush, 
 in which the sensitive sole participates in the 
 inflammation of the sensitive frog. Neglected 
 grease will sometimes occasion it. In both 
 cases it is frequently engendered amongst 
 cart-horses, particularly where they are crowded 
 together, for there is more grease and thrush 
 iu large cart-horse establishments than in any 
 other ; and if care is not taken in time, 
 canker soon shows itself. It often arises from 
 pricks ; and when such is the case, the flexor™ 
 tendon becomes injured — in all probability 
 locked-jaw may supervene. Treads, bruises, 
 
 817 
 
CANKEB.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [pALSE QUABTEE. 
 
 or bad corns may now and then occasion it. 
 It seldom occurs in the fore feet, clearly show- 
 ing that dung and urine are among the gene- 
 causes. 
 
 Canker is a formation of fungus, or proud 
 flesh, produced by an unhealthy secretion, and 
 has the appearance of a cauliflower. In treat- 
 ing for it, the first thing to be done is to 
 reduce this to a level with the parts that 
 appear healthy. This will be efiected with a 
 sharp scalpel; and although considerable 
 bleeding will take place, it need give no alarm. 
 Have a bottle of butter of antimony ready 
 (see Medicines), and, with a feather, touch 
 every part of proud flesh, and between the 
 parts. Next proceed carefully, with a probe, 
 to examine what extent of the sensitive is 
 separated from the horny sole ; and exactly to 
 the extent of separation must the sole be 
 nicely pared away, with a very fine and sharp 
 drawing-knife ; for the horny sole, once sepa- 
 rated, never re-unites, but becomes a foreign 
 body, and, as such, injurious. Every portion 
 of separated horn should be carefully removed ; 
 and this must be attended to at every future 
 dressing. Again examine, with the probe, if 
 the disease has proceeded in any other direc- 
 tion. If so, it must be treated as above, 
 by a careful removal of all detached parts ; 
 let these be cut away, neatly and evenly, and 
 no rough edges suffered to remain. 
 
 By using the above means the fungus may 
 be removed ; but so long as any of this fungus 
 continues sprouting or growing, so long the 
 cankered action is going on. Before pro- 
 ceeding further, that must be completely done 
 away with ; for while it is there, no secretion 
 of firm horn will take place. If a secretion of 
 thin horn, which will sometimes occur over 
 many portions of the surface, is perceived, it 
 must be carefully removed at each dressing, 
 until the application of caustic stimulants and 
 pressure produce a healthy surface, and a 
 proper quantity of pus only, which will finally 
 end in good horn. After the whole of the 
 sole has been brought to secrete good matter, 
 sprinkle it with the following : — 
 
 Sul. Zinc, finely powdered , , . i oz. 
 Verdigris Ido. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Blue Vitriol ........ 1 oz. 
 
 Alum 1 do. 
 
 Sprinkle either of these all over the sole, so as 
 lightly to cover it ; then lay a pledget of the 
 finest and cleanest tow on the whole ; fill the 
 cavity with other tow thickly over the bottom 
 of the foot, fastened in with strips of wood, as 
 before directed, crossing each other. This 
 will keep up a firm and equal pressure. After 
 this, take a piece of coarse cloth or sacking, 
 and wrap the whole well up in it. This will 
 keep the foot dry, as nothing tends to in- 
 crease the growth of proud flesh so much as 
 moisture. 
 
 There is a great fault in not dressing cank- 
 ered feet sufficiently often. They ought, at 
 least once a day, to be dressed ; and if the case 
 is bad, they ought to be examined morning and 
 evening. Trouble, in this disease, must not be 
 considered ; for if the foot becomes neglected, 
 the parts are much longer in healing, and> 
 when healed, are not nearly so firm as if well 
 attended to. Horses affected with this disease 
 should never be turned out. In order to 
 avoid moisture, the mild caustic mode of treat- 
 ment, with the pledget of tow nicely fitted 
 into the foot, will be found to equal any 
 dressing, when applied with care. Alterative 
 medicines should be given every second day. 
 (See Medicines). 
 
 FALSE QUARTER. 
 JFahe quarter generally arises from one or 
 the other of the preceding diseases ; in both of 
 which, from the injury done to the coronary 
 vascular ligament, at one particular part, it can 
 never afterwards secrete horn in a perfect line ; 
 but the interruption which first originated be- 
 tween the old and the new horn, continues to 
 be propagated. Consequently, it is called false 
 quarter ; and it, of course, very much weakens 
 the foot. Sandcrack is sometimes produced hy 
 it. The only remedy is, to continually blis- 
 ter the coronet at the quarter; and to shoe 
 with a bar-shoe, well laid off" at the seat of 
 disease. The hoof may be dressed with tar, 
 or the foot-ointment (see Medicines), and 
 kept as free from dirt as cossible. 
 
 318 
 
BHOEI^O. 1 
 
 AfO-pERN VETERINAET PRACTICE. 
 
 [snoEiJfo. 
 
 CUAITKU XXXV. 
 
 SHOEING 
 
 SnoFTNG, liko all other thiugs connoctcd willi 
 the liorso, has received coiisitlerablo iin- 
 provemeut3 within the last half century. In- 
 deed, the great improvement made in this 
 department of art, since the establishment of the 
 Royal Veterinary College, precludes the neces- 
 sity almost of olleriug an opinion at all on the 
 subject ; and the able works of Professor Cole- 
 man, Mr. Bracy Clark, and Mr. Groodwin, set 
 forth all that is necessary on the subject. A 
 few observations here, however, seem to be de- 
 manded from us. The anatomy of the foot 
 of the horse is now clearly understood, and 
 without such knowledge no man can shoo one 
 properly; and the benctit derived from this 
 knowledge cannot but rejoice those who recol- 
 lect the numbers of valuable animals that were 
 formerly crippled and rendered useless by igno- 
 rance of shoeing. The post-horses, stagers, and 
 hackney coach-horses, were composed princi- 
 pally of crippled horses, or such as were termed 
 groggy in the feet. These poor animals would 
 stand with their feet forward, or, as it is called, 
 pointing, in the greatest anguish, shifting from 
 foot to foot alternately, to gain a little ease, 
 their very countenances expressive of extreme 
 pain ; but now, comparatively, few so affected 
 are to be seen. With care, the foot may be 
 preserved to the last. Formerly, a young horse, 
 fresh from the breeder, \TOuld, in the space of 
 two years, have his feet gradually become unfit 
 and unsafe for any gentleman's riding, and in his 
 very prime he would be cast off to hard labour, 
 rendered more intolerable by increasing pain. 
 
 Though the improved system has now become | 
 almost so general, that every person employed in 
 shoeing horses knows how it ought to be done ; 
 nevertheless, there should be, in practising it, 
 a degree of care >vhich some men will not 
 observe ; but will pursue their own way, and 
 fancy they know better than all the veterinary 
 surgeons in the world ; and, in spite of every 
 endeavour to teach them, they will do as 
 they like at last. It may be necessary to ap» 
 
 l)riso the man who forges the shoe, whetlier 
 Lho horse is apt to interfere, which is called 
 e-utting ; or whether he over-reaches with his 
 hind foot, striking against his fore shoo ; which 
 is extremely unpleasant. These things may bo 
 prevented to a great extent, or, indeed, totally, 
 by making a proper shoe, and placing it accord- 
 ingly. The interfering is remedied by leaving the 
 inner heel as high as possible, and paring the 
 outer heel in moderation, whilst the inner heel 
 of the shoe is made thicker than the outer. This 
 raising of the inner heel throws the fetlock 
 joints outwards, or wider apart; which, with 
 that part of the toe that is liable to interfere, 
 pared close, and the shoe nowise projecting, 
 will prevent the interference, or what is called 
 cutting. 
 
 The hind shoe striking against the fore, is 
 prevented by shortening the heel of the hind 
 shoes, so that the hind foot moves in unison with 
 the fore foot; for this striking arises, principally, 
 with heavy forehanded horses, that cannot get 
 their fore feet so quickly out of the way of the 
 hind; and produces that unpleasant noise 
 which arises from their striking, and which, at 
 times, is almost beyond bearing. 
 
 AVhen horses, newly shod or removed, go 
 unsteadily or unsafe, which before went safe 
 and well, it is reasonable to suppose that the 
 shoes have not been put on properly. "We 
 have seen horses, on being removed from the 
 farrier's shop, go as if crippled at every step, 
 and, to all appearance, as if it were with the 
 greatest difficulty they could keep themselves 
 from falling down. The shoes may seem to 
 be put on right enough, and the nails may 
 appear to be properly driven in, so as not to 
 touch the sensitive part of the foot; but 
 the evil arises from the shoe not having an 
 equal bearing; that is to say, not equal at the 
 heels and at the toe: but we have no objec- 
 tion to the shoe bearing on the outer heel, 
 hut it should not, hy any means, hear on the heel 
 and quarters inside ; for if this be the case, 
 
 319 
 
■RESTBAIKTS.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AXD 
 
 |_BESTBAINTS. 
 
 corn, contraction of the hoof, thrush, &c., will 
 be produced. Although we do not approve of 
 the shoe being so hot when it is applied, as to 
 sear the foot, yet its application should be 
 made when it is moderately hot, to show 
 where the shoe bears, and where it does not, 
 that the rasp may take down some places till 
 the bearing becomes equal. This is a less 
 evil than putting the shoe on at hazard, where 
 there is not equal bearing on the outer side 
 and toe. The driving of the clenches down 
 too much, may cause pain and uneasiness; 
 but it is not so likely to pinch when the shoe 
 sits solidly, as when it does not. Eor this 
 reason, in shoeing, advise but two nails to he 
 driven in the inside, and those tivo next the toe. 
 Ey this the shoe is neither drawn nor warped ; 
 for, you must recollect, the shoe not being 
 elastic, and it being nailed to an elastic body, 
 something must give way ; and the elastic body 
 will, sooner than the non-elastic : and, further, 
 this occasions the shoe frequently to break; 
 and, what is most singular, the breakage almost 
 always takes place at the quarters where the 
 most elasticity exists; proving that there is 
 not so much fault in the iron, as in the con- 
 finement by the shoe of the elastic part of the 
 hoof. 
 
 When extreme lameness, and consequent 
 uneasiness happen immediately after shoeing, 
 the shoes should be instantly taken oif, to 
 ascertain how they were fitted on ; though it 
 frequently occurs, that drawing out the two 
 back nails of the inner quarter will at once 
 give relief. Not that we are to expect horses 
 with bad feet to go so pleasantly in new shoes 
 as old ones. Those with thin flat feet cannot 
 be supposed to go so well as those with strong 
 feet ; consequently a different shoe is required. 
 A shoe to, suit soft thin feet, ought to be well 
 chambered out, as it is called, with a broad 
 web, and only bearing on the edge of the 
 crust : but horses having such feet should have 
 the bar-shoe ; and until it is, in some measure, 
 settled to the foot, the horse will go tender 
 and unpleasantly. 
 
 The substance and weight should be pro- 
 portioned to the work or employment of the 
 horse. Never load the foot with more iron 
 than is necessary to preserve it. If the foot is 
 light, let the shoe be light also ; and if the 
 horse works principally on the road, his shoes 
 should be somewhat stouter. In thus propor- 
 tioning the weight of the iron to the strength 
 or weight of the hoof, a large part of the art ot 
 properly shoeing horses is involved. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 OPERATIONS AND EESTRAINTS.— BRONCHOTOJIY ; (ESOPIIAGOTOMY ; NEUROTOMY; DOCKING; KICKING; 
 CROPriNG: BLEECTIING; PURGING; FIRING; BLISTERIxNG. 
 
 "When it is necessary to perform any painful 
 or unpleasant operation on the horse, from his 
 strength and power of resistance, it is neces- 
 sary, for our own security, as well as for the 
 safety of the animal, to restrain him in such a 
 way as to prevent any danger that might 
 otherwise arise from his struggles. Horses, 
 like men, difi'er much in temper ; and some of 
 them, when undergoing any operation, bear 
 pain very difierently to others : but it is always 
 wise to be guarded against the worst ; and very 
 few important operations should be attempted 
 320 
 
 without casting. Great care should be taken to 
 be as humane as possible, and prevent as much 
 pain as lies in our power; though, at times, 
 means are obliged to be resorted to. 
 
 There are other restraints besides the Jiohhle, 
 such as the twitch. This latter instrument is 
 most frequently used by all classes of horse- 
 men; for there is hardly an operation per- 
 formed that does not require the twitch, wliicli 
 no stable should be without. Still, if used 
 with violence, it is apt to make an animal 
 more uneasy and restive than otherwise j couse- 
 
f^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
BESTUAINTS.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERIXAllY PRACTICE. 
 
 [UEiXUAlXia. 
 
 qupiitly, great care is required in usinj; it. To 
 make a twitch, the stall" should bo about thirty- 
 six or thirty-eight ineliea long, with a Binall 
 ring-bolt driveu firm into one end; then a 
 piece of sash-line should be put through the 
 eye of the bolt, and the ends tied together, 
 about six inches from the end of the bolt. 
 This completes the twitch. 
 
 Most persons, and especially the inexperi- 
 enced, guard only against the hind feet; but 
 they will find that a blow from a horse's fore 
 foot, if properly directed, will como with ter- 
 rible force. In all operations, there foro, it is 
 best to blindfold the animal, as by so doing he 
 becomes greatly intimidated ; nor will he often 
 strike without being much irritated. 
 
 Another kind of instrument, principally 
 used by smiths, is what are termed harnacles, 
 ■vrhich is a kind of clam, with a gaugiug-ring 
 to regulate its tightness, and is sometimes ap- 
 plied to the horse's ear at the time of shoeing. 
 It is, we believe, at times used for the nose ; 
 but not unless the animal is first blindfolded. 
 Sometimes all can be done that may be 
 wanted, by an assistant holding up the oppo- 
 site leg. With regard to holding up the hind 
 leg, one hand should always have a fast hold 
 of the point of the hock. The horse cannot 
 move then without giving warning ; and should 
 he feel inclined to kick, you will be enabled to 
 get from him without danger. It is highly neces- 
 sary that these precautions should be attended 
 to, for two reasons ; the one, to prevent any 
 accidents that tlie operator may be liable to; 
 and the other, that he may not be suspected, 
 by those around him, of not knowing his 
 business. 
 
 There is another restraint, called the side- 
 line ; and though very simple in its nature, of 
 great use, and now in very general application. 
 Many veterinarians use only the side-line, con- 
 sidering it to be quite sufficient both for the 
 safety of the man and the horse ; but, if the 
 animal makes a sudden plunge, it is ten to one 
 that he comes down altogether. It consists of 
 a hobble-strap, and about six or seven yards of 
 rope, nearly the thickness of a man's thumb, 
 and is termed a neck-collar. To make use 
 of the side-line properly, a roller, made on pur- 
 pose, should be used. It should have several 
 rings on the pad part, both on the sides and 
 top, to answer convenience. All things being 
 
 ready, put on this, and then slip the neck* 
 cuUar on, down to the horso'a shoulder, and 
 strap the neck-collar to a ring of the roller. 
 By this means, if the horse should by chance 
 hold down his head, the side-line will not get 
 shifted (which it would do, if fastened round 
 the neck alone). Now buckle the side-line on 
 to the fetlock, on the side on which you are to 
 stand ; pass the line or ropo through the horse's 
 legs, and through the neck-collar, taking it 
 back, after giving it one turn round the collar, 
 to the fetlock. Do the same there ; then bring 
 it back again to the collar, where make 
 fast. After this confinement, anytiiing may 
 be done with the horse on the side on which 
 the line is. 
 
 Hobbles are used when a horse is to be cast ; 
 and then one hobble-leather is placed on each 
 fetlock, each leather having what is termed a 
 D ring attached to it ; one ring and leather 
 being fastened to a long rope, very supple, but 
 strong, and about an inch and a quarter in dia- 
 meter. In putting on tJio hobble, observe 
 which side you want to cast on. If it be on 
 the olf-side, place the rope-hobble on the near 
 fore fetlock, then buckle the three others on, 
 and, taking the end of the rope, hand it to an 
 assistant to thread the ofi'-fore-foot D ring. 
 Let him pass the rope to the ofi'-hiud hobble- 
 ring, when you will receive it, and pass it 
 through the ring of the hind hobble of your 
 side. After this, carry the rope up to the near 
 fore foot again, and put it through the ring 
 there ; which ring must be considerably larger 
 than any other, because there is double the 
 quantity of rope in it. All this time the horse 
 should be blindfolded. Having your proper 
 strength ready, desire them to pull steady, and 
 together; then you will place your hand against 
 the horse's ribs, at the same time pushing him, 
 when he goes down easily. There is a plan 
 used at the Eoyal Veterinary College, of one 
 person having a piece of webbing fastened to 
 the roller, who stands at the opposite side, and 
 gives a smart pull, just as the horse is otf his 
 legs, which quickly brings him over. By fol- 
 lowing the above directions, the horse may bo 
 said to be rather let down than cast or thrown. 
 
 The moment the horse is thrown, the rope 
 must be fastened with what is termed a half- 
 hitch, in which a small pad of straw is inserted, 
 and by which means the rope is drawn much 
 
 321 
 
NEUROTOMY.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 (nefeotomt. 
 
 tighter. The person at the head must keep 
 that secure; for all the eflforts to disengage 
 himself are first begun by endeavouring to get 
 his head at liberty, so that he may raise his 
 fore parts. Plenty of straw should be placed 
 underneath his head, so that he may lie as 
 easy as possible. Care also must be taken 
 that the horse breathe freely when down, and 
 that no more time be wasted in the operation 
 than is absolutely necessary, as many animals 
 struo^o-le the whole of the time, and exhaust 
 themselves very much. 
 
 BRONCHOTOMY. 
 
 Broncliotomy is an operation performed on 
 !he bronchia, or wind-pipe, in bad cases of 
 strangles, or when tumours exist in the throat, 
 which threaten the animal with suffocation ; 
 or if an apple, potato, or a piece of carrot has 
 slipped into the oesophagus, &c. 
 
 The operation of tracheotomy is not of a 
 difficult nature, and consists in making a lon- 
 gitudinal section through two or three of the 
 rings, occupying about an inch square, that 
 may be taken away from the front of the car- 
 tilaginous substance. A flexible tube should 
 then be introduced into the opening, and re- 
 tained there as long as possible. — This opera- 
 tion has been performed in cases of roaring ; 
 those who performed it thinking the obstruc- 
 tion much lower down than it is. 
 
 CESOPHAGOTOMY. 
 
 The oesophagus may be readily divided, in 
 cases of strangulation, from the obstruction of 
 too large a ball, an apple, or from the accu- 
 mulation of dry bran and chaff, which some- 
 times takes place in greedy horses. 
 
 NEUROTOMY. 
 
 I^eurotomrj, or the nerve operation, spoken 
 of some time back, now comes under our 
 notice. We have stated that this operation 
 was performed for diseases of the feet, princi- 
 pally of such as are dependent on a contracted 
 form, or otherwise altered in the form of the 
 hoofs, excepting the pumiced hoof. The nerves 
 having been long known as the medium of 
 sensation, many cases of lameness in the feet 
 occur, which render horses useless, principally 
 from the pain and tenderness consequent on 
 the pressure of some parts of the foot, long 
 322 
 
 since altered by disease ; but which are not 
 now actively engaged in a disorganising pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Where there is reason to expect considerable 
 disorganisation of the internal parts of the feet, 
 such as ossification, or total absorption of the 
 articular cartilages, or diseased alteration of 
 the bones within ; the horny box, or where 
 inflammation of the laminae may have wholly de- 
 stroyed their sensibility, or where the mucous 
 capsules have, from disease, ceased to yield any, 
 or but a partial supply of synovia — in all such 
 cases the operation cannot be expected to re- 
 store the mobility of anchylosed parts, nor 
 can it restore the lost organisation ; but, even 
 in such cases, when morbid processes are not 
 actually going on, but seem stationary, and 
 the animal is rather suffering under the efiecta 
 of former than of present disease, this opera- 
 tion has, by rendering the animal less suscep- 
 tible to the pain of pressure, enabled him to 
 move and exert himself with more ease to him- 
 self, and benefit to his owner. When violent 
 inflammation is in the foot, however, that must 
 be removed, or tried to be removed, before 
 the operation is attempted to be performed. 
 
 Sometimes it has happened, in such cases, 
 by removing sensation and rendering the 
 animal willing to exert himself more than the 
 state of the parts will allow, that great aggra- 
 vation of the disease has frequently followed. 
 We believe it has never been found to answer 
 in the disease called pumiced foot ; the opera- 
 tion there being particularly hurtful. Neither 
 should we recommend it in any disease of the 
 foot, until we had tried every other means 
 without accomplishing some good Should suc- 
 cess not attend other applications, we should 
 not then hesitate in immediately performing 
 this operation. In others, according to cir- 
 cumstances, with the exception before insisted 
 on. Neurotomy has been found to render 
 many horses with contracted feet, and other 
 wise foot-lamed, not only useful, but has ren- 
 dered them nearly as perfect, in their mode of 
 going, as ever. Some have hunted, many have 
 made excellent roadsters, and all have been 
 fitted for carriage work of every description. 
 
 The importance of tliis operation, though 
 great in veterinary practice, is in some mea- 
 sure removed, when attended with misfortune 
 afterwards. This may arise from the iuflam- 
 
HEUBOTOMT.] 
 
 MODERN N^ETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [neueotomt. 
 
 mation not being properly subdued at the time 
 of perfurniing the operation; 8o that the disease 
 still went on. with all its eonsequences. llow- 
 ever, we prefer the higlier to the lower opera- 
 tion, as wo have seen less ill consequenees 
 arise from it. Some veterinarians prefer the 
 lower one. For rinc;-bone, the lower one should 
 never bo praetised. One reason for givini; 
 preference to the upper operation to the lower 
 is, that after tho operation, the end of the 
 nerve freqiiently draws itself up, and forms a 
 bulbous end. This coming in contact with the 
 joint, the horse goes as lame as ever in the 
 course of a few days. AVhat is the conse- 
 quence ? Why, the higb operation is obliged 
 to be performed, and the horse is immediately 
 upriglit. If a similar formation manifests a 
 disposition to attach itself to the higher part 
 of the nerve, in this mode of operating, it be- 
 comes protected by the tendon, and nothing 
 further is heard of it ; for, where no lameness 
 returns, there is reason to suppose that the 
 disease is overcome. 
 
 AVhilst practising in Devonshire, a very large 
 proprietor of liorses, and a mail-contractor, 
 had the misfortune to lose an animal, by both 
 hoofs coming off, and which was not discovered 
 until after he had arrived in the hotel-yard. 
 He evinced not the least lameness during his 
 journey, and was driven by one of the most 
 humane men who ever sat upon a box. Another 
 instance occurred to the- same gentleman, and 
 by the same coach. On taking the horses off, 
 cue of the leaders appeared to go stiff before ; 
 and thinking it was a slight inflammatory action 
 of the foot, his feet and legs were bathed in hot 
 •water. On the morrow, however, he could not 
 move his fore feet in the stall, and, of course, a 
 more minute examination was required. This 
 enabled us to detect the bones grating to- 
 gether at the large and small pasterns. The 
 horse was immediately de;>troyed, and both 
 large and small pasterns were fractured in an 
 oblique direction : — one of the specimens the 
 owner presented us with. 
 
 Description of the FJate of Nerve Opera- 
 tion. — This plate shows the two methods that 
 have been coamiouly employed in performing 
 the operation of neurotomy. It is of the 
 greatest importance to observe that the nerve 
 should be divided with a very sharp knife. 
 The neurotomy knife is the best to use, and 
 
 should bo always kept in good order. Some 
 operators uso curved bistorya und Hcirtaora, 
 which are superfluous. When tlie diviBion is 
 made with sci.s.sor.s, that part of tho nerve may 
 become numbed, and then it is that tho bul- 
 bous lump forms, much to tho disadvantage of. 
 the horse, as well as to the success of tho 
 operation. 
 
 Description of the Figure. — A represents 
 the horse's leg taken off a few inches below tho 
 knee, and also the foot removed. B the situa- 
 tion for tho high operation. C tho nervo 
 running behind the artery. D tho artery. 
 E a blunt-ended needle, armed with whitey- 
 brown thread, to take up the nerve with. Tho 
 reason of its being blunt is, to prevent it from 
 injuring the arterj'. ¥ the two tenaculum, 
 employed to show the parts. The one on tho 
 left hand represents the operator's finger 
 drawing back the skin ; the one on the right 
 shows the finger of an assistant, whilst tho 
 operator inserts the armed needle under the 
 nerve. Gr the situatipn of the low operation. 
 
 We remarked that preference was given to 
 the high operation, performed even a little 
 higher than the locality marked in the plate. 
 Eor, when performed in this part, the nervous 
 communication with the foot is more com- 
 pletely cut off", and the cicatrix is quite out of 
 the way of being struck with the other foot. 
 
 In this part, the nerve lies rather deeper, 
 especially on the inside of the leg, than it does 
 nearer the fetlock -joint ; but there is no difll- 
 culty in finding it, if a little cellular menibrano 
 is carefully removed. Three-quarters of an 
 inch of the nerve is quite enough to be cut 
 away, and tho incision of the skin need not 
 exceed one inch. After the nerve has been 
 cut out, tho wound should be closed by one 
 stitch, and a linen bandage should be applied, 
 moistened with cold water, and allowed to 
 remain on for a day or two, when it may bo 
 removed, and the wound dressed with com- 
 pound tincture of myrrh, and tow dipped 
 therein. Apply the bandage again. 
 
 Mode of Ferforming the Operation. — Tho 
 first thing to bo done is to cast the horse in 
 the most convenient and easy place that caa 
 be selected. Allow the leg intended to bo 
 operated upon to be taken out of the hobbles, 
 and fasten a piece of webbing round the 
 pastern, to be held firm by an assistant ; the 
 
 323 
 
NEUROTOMY. ] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [DOCKma. 
 
 leg should be suffered to rest on a bundle of 
 hay, or straw, to raise it up for the conve- 
 nience of the operator. All things being thus 
 arranged, the hair must be clipped close off 
 the part intended to be operated upon, 
 whether it be for the high or the low 
 operation. Then sponge with water; and 
 when the instrument has been used, have 
 ready the sponge in case of profuse bleeding, 
 which is sometimes the case, and is apt to 
 cause confusion, unless the blood be imme- 
 diately taken up. The pulsation of the artery 
 will now be readily recognised. Then cut 
 down a little posterior to such pulsation, but 
 still keeping the finger on the artery. When 
 a section has been made of about an inch, 
 completely through the skin, lay the knife 
 down, and open the orifice with the thuuib 
 and finger, and have it sponged, when the 
 nerve will be seen running immediately be- 
 hind the artery, perfectly white. Next intro- 
 duce the blunt-ended needle, under the nerve, 
 and draw it through as far as convenient. 
 After finely dissecting the cellular membrane 
 from the nerve, it may be divided as high up 
 as the section will admit. This will occasion a 
 violent struggle in the horse ; but dissect as 
 far down as may be thought proper, and excise 
 what quantity of nerve you like, and he will 
 make no resistance whatever. The skin should 
 be now drawn neatly together, and a stitch or 
 two placed in it; then dress as before de- 
 scribed. On removing the bandage, after the 
 first day or two, dress with compound tincture 
 of myrrh. Small pledgets of tow, dipped in 
 this mixture, and applied every day, will soon 
 make the parts heal. 
 
 It may clearly be seen, that the motive for 
 using the nerve operation, is to relieve pain. 
 Stallions, with pumiced feet, suffer greatly 
 from pain ; and we may be sure, where such is 
 the case, it unfits them from getting healthy 
 progeny. After the nerve operation many 
 of them have proved healthy and vigorous. 
 Marcs also, which, from the same causes, have 
 ceased to feel the periodical cestrum, or incli- 
 nation for tlie horse, after the operation have 
 resumed their fecundity. The operation is, 
 therefore, not only beneficial in removing 
 lameness, but also bodily pain arising from 
 other sources ; which makes it very necessary 
 to be understood. 
 324 
 
 DOCKING. 
 
 Docldng is an operation performed almost 
 on all horses, excepting the racer and the cart- 
 horse ; both of which are allowed to enjoy 
 nature's gifts without any curtailing. Still, 
 we cannot but say, that from the improvement 
 which docking makes in our hackney horses, 
 it is not likely that it will fall into disuse. 
 The excessive docking, however, that some 
 horses undergo, does not add to their beauty ; 
 although some argue that a short dock 
 strengthens a horse. Eor ourselves, we are 
 no advocate for the short dock ; neither do 
 we approve of docking colts almost as soon as 
 dropped, as being at all beneficial to the future 
 growth of the animal. Early docked colts 
 will have less hair on them than at a more 
 matured age; and as the irritation occasioned 
 by docking in these young animals, makes 
 them apt to rub their tails against anything 
 they come near, it is the cause of making the 
 hair either very rough, or rubbing it off alto- 
 gether. The length of the dock must be left 
 to choice ; about nine inches is the general 
 length now-a-days. When the leugth has 
 been determined on, the long hair should be 
 fastened back from that part, while, about an 
 inch or two below, it should be shorn clear 
 away. Apply the docking-machine to this 
 part, first finding a joint, and the dock is 
 removed at one stroke. Various means have 
 been adopted to stop the bleeding ; but none 
 is equal to the actual cautery, which, if mildly 
 applied, answers every purpose without further 
 trouble. Simple as this operation may appear, 
 the old farriers were wont to make a dreadful 
 fuss over it ; and what with burning the 
 horse's tail half off, and resining it besides, it 
 became a matter of wonder that the animal 
 escaped locked-jaw, which frequently super- 
 venes on docking, and the violence used after- 
 wards. 
 
 The bleeding scarcely ever proves fatal, and 
 seldom injurious, therefore there is little neces- 
 sity for cauterising ; but if the bleeding 
 should continue, the thiug to be done is, to 
 take a handful of flour, and, applying it to 
 the end of the dock, draw all the long hair 
 down over it, and tie as close to the dock as 
 possible. This will soon plug up the ends ot 
 the arteries, and stop the bleeding. 
 
yiCKlNO.] 
 
 IMOPF.UX VKTEKTXArvV riJArTTCR 
 
 [nicking. 
 
 Many persons nro \cvv foml of elevating Wo should Imvo mentioned that, previous to 
 the tail', with an idea tliat'tho horse will carry ! casting the animal, the hair of tho tail ought 
 one that is much superior, if done so. IJut ] to have been plaited, mid tho end neatly turnt-d 
 this is not the case. If lock-jaw should make i back, and bound linn with wax-end. AVhcn 
 its appearance, immediateh' operate anew, all this has been done, tako tho nicking-knifo, 
 without restraining the blood at all, ns its loss j which is double-edged, and which makes it 
 will bo both useful and necessary in such a more convenient, and prevents the trouble of 
 
 case. Administer large doses of opium, or, if 
 the moutii sliould bo so much closed, laudanum 
 in gruel must be given frequontly ; say, an 
 ounce at a time ; of tiie opium, four drachms. 
 
 If it should put on a gangrenous appear- 
 ance, apply oil of turpentine to the part 
 several times a day. Hot applications be- 
 tween applying tho turpentine will also be of 
 great service. 
 
 KICKING. 
 The practice of nicking is now almost out 
 
 turning. Tlio mode of making tho sections 
 must be left to the discretion of tho operator. 
 Tliey should, however, always be made in tho 
 middle of a tail-bone, not at a joint, which will 
 easily be discovered by tlie prominences rising 
 at either end of tlie bone. This should be 
 carefully attended to, otherwise the most serious 
 consequences may arise. 
 
 It is the practice with some veterinary sur- 
 geons to make a section through the integu- 
 ments only, beginning at the roots of the hair 
 on one side, and carrying it across the bellies 
 
 of date. There is little doubt it originated from of the muscles; then doing the same on the 
 
 the circumstance of large fine horses carrying 
 their tails ^^ tucked in,'" as it is termed, but 
 ■which tended to reduce their value, except 
 when they happened to be under excitement, 
 then thev would carry their tails erect enough. 
 "With nicking, as with castration, a favour- 
 able time of the year should be selected for it ; 
 and we should recommend the spring, when 
 the weather is not too hot or too cold ; for, in 
 cold weather, the granulating process may 
 become stopped; and, in very hot weather, 
 lock-jaw may supervene. The modes of 
 securing the horse for the operation are 
 various. The break, or trevis, was a favourite 
 
 other side ; and, lastl}', making these sections 
 meet by a light and careful division of tlie in- 
 teguments only, on the median lines of the 
 tail. Such is not only a very cautious, but a 
 proper mode for young practitioners, and is 
 also consistent with good practice; but it is 
 apt to take up more time than older and more 
 experienced veterinarians are willing to give it. 
 The first section should not be nearer, in the 
 smallest horse, than two inches and a-half ; and 
 in full-sized animals, three, or three inches and 
 a-half, as the centre of the tail-bones may ind"- 
 cate. In mares, one section less than that in a 
 horse is admissible. The most expert operator 
 
 mode of the old practitioners, but it is now j will, however, find it prudent, when the sec 
 
 entirely done away with. A strong rail, or 
 leapiug-bar, across a stall, was another means ; 
 but these were used only by grooms and 
 dealers. Most veterinarians are in the habit 
 of casting the horse for this operation, and we 
 ourselves have always done so ; for the more 
 eecure and safe the horse can be made, the 
 less time is taken up in the operation, though 
 dealers are sometimes very expert at perform- 
 ing this operation standing. The more secure 
 way, however, is preferable. 
 
 The horse being properly secured, have the 
 twitch ready to place on the nose. Have also 
 two bundles of straw or hav, and raise the all complete, the bleeding that ensues need 
 
 tions are made, to examine them caremlly, 
 that they are all equal in depth, and that the 
 depressor-muscles have been completely di- 
 vided. 
 
 Should any difference appear in these re- 
 spects, and should such unequal division be 
 allowed to remain, the operation will bo in- 
 complete, and the horse would, in all pro- 
 bability, carry his tail awry. Added to which, 
 any portion of the muscle being left undivided, 
 would tend to prevent the others from retract- 
 ing, and might also serve to promote a reunion 
 of them. Being satisfied that the sections are 
 
 horse's feet, so that he may lie on his back ; 
 prop him up in this position with the hay or 
 straw, by placing a bundle on each side of him. 
 
 not be considered of consequence, nor will it 
 show itself until the tail is relaxed. The ends 
 of the tendons must now be looked to, and, 
 
 325 
 
NICKING.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [nicking. 
 
 witli a sharp and strong pair of scissors, the 
 projecting ends thereof nipped off; enough 
 will always protrude to be taken hold of with 
 the forceps. 
 
 The removal of these ends will not only 
 separate the attachments of the muscles fur- 
 ther from each other, which, if reunited, would 
 of course frustrate the operation; but their 
 removal will greatly facilitate the healing of 1 
 the wounds. 
 
 The section being thus completed, the hae- 
 morrhage must be restrained, which is done in 
 various ways. Some do this by means of strips 
 of cotton, tow, hemp, &c., which is twisted, 
 and inserted into each nick, and separately 
 tied on the back of the tail. As good practice 
 as any is to take a piece of lint, or a pledget of 
 tow, and introduce it into each section suffi- 
 cient to fill it up, over which place linen strips, 
 long enough to tie on the back of the tail, 
 which is then tied sufiiciently tight to restrain 
 the bleeding. Should the bleeding, however, 
 continue to be more than was anticipated, 
 place another, rather broader, linen bandage 
 over each section. It becomes necessary now 
 carefully to watch these bandages, that they 
 do not create too much heat and inflammation 
 in the tail. Should this be the case, and the 
 bleeding not be stopped, take a sponge which 
 has been dipped in cold water, and squeeze the 
 water on the top of the tail several times a 
 day. This will cool the parts, and also tend 
 to stop the bleeding. "When perfectly satis- 
 fied on this point, loosen the bandages a little ; 
 and if all things look favourable, let the tail 
 remain until the morning, when snip the 
 bandage, and set the member free. 
 
 Many persons difier in their mode of after- 
 dressing the sections. Some prefer lint only ; 
 others lint with tbe mild digestive ointment, 
 and a bandage over all, in both instances. 
 There is one advantage in dressing with the 
 digestive ointment (see Medicines) ; and that 
 is, it is apt to promote the suppurative pro- 
 cess, while the other is not. By promoting 
 suppuration, there is more chance of avoiding 
 lock-jaw; but in the first dressing, nothing 
 promotes the healing process so much as dry 
 lint. "Watching the wounds, that they be kept 
 from dirt and fungus, leave them to heal of 
 themselves, without any application but the 
 bandages. 
 326 
 
 "Were a nicked tail left to itself, there is no 
 doubt but the divided muscles would again 
 unite, and the tail be carried nearly as it was 
 before. To keep the divided end apart, there- 
 fore, it is necessary that the tail should ba 
 suspended until the parts become cicatrised, 
 and such junction prevented. In former days, 
 a cushion, or pad, was formed, and fixed to 
 the horse's rump, by means of buckles and 
 straps, and the tail fastened back to this 
 pad. 
 
 The Irish nicked horses may always be 
 readily discovered from their having a peculiar 
 curl-up at the end of the tail. This is caused 
 by their having the last joint of the tail 
 broken. 
 
 The modern mode of suspending the tail is 
 
 by double pulleys, which is not only a simple 
 
 mode, but a convenient one, as they are 
 
 capable of being regulated at pleasure. The 
 
 apparatus consists of two pulleys fixed to a 
 
 beam or joist in the stable, as wide apart as 
 
 the stall in which the horse is placed. The 
 
 wheels of these are made sufficiently large to 
 
 admit of a kind of roller — similar to one used 
 
 for window-blinds — and about a foot, or a foot 
 
 and a-half longer than the stall is wide. 
 
 Another pulley, corresponding to the two 
 
 others, runs loose on the roller, with this 
 
 addition — that instead of having an end to 
 
 fasten up anywhere, there is a larger wheel, 
 
 but made only wide enough for the suspension 
 
 cord to run on. This done, the end of the 
 
 line must be made fast to the horse's tail, by 
 
 means of first having introduced a good strong 
 
 skewer through the plait, and double at the 
 
 end of the tail. Then take another pulley, 
 
 one end of which is to be fastened to a beam 
 
 or joist, immediately behind the horse, and as 
 
 far back as possible. The line fastened to the 
 
 pulley on the roller is passed over the one 
 
 just nailed up, and to the end of this line a 
 
 weight is suspended. By this pulley being in 
 
 a right line with the centre of the stable, 
 
 the horse is in no danger of having his tail 
 
 grow asido ; but if he has a tendency to rest 
 
 on one side of the stall more than on the 
 
 other, take a bundle of furze, and nail against 
 
 the side of the stall he may be so inclined 
 
 to bear against, and vice versa. The weight, 
 
 for the first day or two, should not be more 
 
 than will keep the tail straight; then, by 
 
CUOPPINO.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [bleeding. 
 
 additional weight, elevate the tail a little from 
 tue horizontal lino, advancinp: every two or three 
 days, until it has attained the lieight desired ; 
 but never go to the perpondicuUir or erect 
 position. Tho elevation, however, ought to 
 depend on tho height the tail is wished to 
 bo carried in future. The carriage of the 
 tail sliould therefore be examined every two or 
 three days; keeping in mind, that after the 
 pulleys are no longer used it frequently droops 
 a little. 
 
 AVith regard to giving the horse exercise 
 during the time t]ie tail is in pulleys, we 
 should say it is decidedly wrong, and would 
 cause the animal great and excruciating pain 
 on being placed in them again. It would be 
 very like tearing open an old wound. But 
 there is a means of keeping him in health 
 without exercise, by giving him an ounce of 
 nitre in his water, two or three times a week, 
 and an alterative powder (see Medicines) every 
 day in his feed, which should be half bran 
 and half oats, made moderately wet, so that 
 the powders may easily adhere to it; not 
 sloppy, that the medicine can run off. 
 
 Some attention will be requisite with regard 
 to the tail, to prevent the hair coming off; 
 but this will happen in some measure, no 
 matter how great muy be the caution used. 
 At the end of about seven or eight days 
 the tail should be taken out of the pulleys, 
 and unplaited ; then it should be carefully 
 combed out, and a little hog's lard applied to 
 the roots of the hair; when make fast again. 
 This should be done every five or six days ; 
 and it is the only and best means to keep the 
 hair on, though some cannot be prevented 
 from falling off. 
 
 The only things now to be mentioned, are 
 the casualties attending the operation of nick- 
 ing, the principal of which is inflammation. 
 This may run so high, as to produce mortifi- 
 cation, lock-jaw, &c. ; but as we have before 
 treated of these specifically, there is no neces- 
 sity for here repeating what has already been 
 said, which will be found under their re- 
 spective headings. 
 
 CROPPING. 
 
 Custom has nearly abolished the practice of 
 cropping. Circumstances, however, may occur 
 to render it necessary; such as one ear 
 
 becoming blemished ; therefore, at tho makers 
 of surgical instruments, we can always obtain a 
 sort of curved clams, called cropping irons. 
 Into these one of tho ears is intruducc-d, and 
 the upper part is cut off at one stroke, with a 
 knife of sufiicient length. The portion cut off 
 will serve as a guide for forming tho other 
 crop. In this operation a young i)ructitioner 
 is apt to be alarmed at tho retraction of tlio 
 skin from the cartilages ; but the exposed 
 edges disappear in a few days. Horses often 
 continue for a long time very shy about tlie 
 head after cropping ; consequently, both bridle 
 and halter should be used without a forepart or 
 fronting, till the ears are quite well. Tho 
 bridle should also be made to unbuckle on 
 one side from the bit, so that the head-stall 
 may be dropped on, without the hand being 
 raised to pass over the ears. This will naturally 
 operate in dissipating the customary shyness 
 which otherwise so long remains, and which is 
 never wholly lost, if force and cruelty be 
 afterwards used. Gentle means will be always 
 found to be best. 
 
 BLEEDING. 
 
 Bleeding is practised in several ways. Blood 
 is sometimes taken from the arteries. If the 
 trunk be considerable, it may be punctured, 
 but must afterwards have a ligature passed 
 around it. If it be less considerable, it will 
 be sufficient to divide the trunk of the vessel, 
 which having emptied all its ramifications, 
 recedes by its muscularity within the integu- 
 ment, and the bleeding stops. The temporal 
 artery is occasionally opened on both sides. 
 These arteries may readily be detected at three 
 or four inches below the root of the ear, iu a 
 line with the nostrils. The angular artery is 
 sometimes opened for inflammation of the 
 eyes. 
 
 Bleeding at the toe also abstracts blood from 
 both veins and arteries. In drawing blood 
 from the foot, it should not be done iu the 
 ordinary way of paring down the marginal 
 line, with part of the sole, but the sole only, as 
 close to the marginal line as may be; then a 
 fine drawing-knife, or strong lancet should bo 
 taken, and the veins running round the margin 
 of the foot punctured, when, from the great 
 vascularity of the foot, the blood will flow 
 copiously. 
 
 327 
 
fSLEEDING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [PUEGmO." 
 
 "Witli regard to instruments employed to let 
 blood, the common blood-stick and phleme, 
 and a variety of lancets, are in use. The lan- 
 cet is the most surgical-looking instrument ; 
 but, perhaps, the phleme is preferable in country 
 practice, where necks of all thicknesses have to 
 be contended with. We have seen some prac- 
 titioners make one puncture through the skin 
 first, then another through the coats of the 
 vein ; and without some experience the vein is 
 also apt to be altogether missed, in attempting 
 to do it with a lancet. The lancets and phlemes 
 should be always clean, and highly polished ; 
 and, after bleeding, their points examined. 
 
 Blood is most frequently taken from the 
 jugular vein, though there are other superficial 
 veins, from which blood may be taken with 
 advantage, such as the plate and thigh veins. 
 
 The proper place for bleeding at the jugu- 
 lar vein is about two inches below the branch- 
 ing ofi" of that vein, towards the head. To 
 perform the operation, the principal require- 
 ment is a steady hand. If the intention is to 
 bleed on the near side, take the phleme in the 
 left hand, and bold it with the finger and 
 thumb. Then, with the middle and third 
 fingers raise the vein by carrying the hand the 
 backward way of the hair. The vein being 
 raised as high as required, strike the phleme 
 with the blood-stick in the centre of the vein. 
 Let your assistant receive the flowing blood in 
 a bucket, whilst you replace your tackle, and 
 prepare, with a pin and tow, to bind up the 
 orifice. This being done, let a wet sponge be 
 applied, and remove the blood. 
 
 In abstracting blood, it should be an inva- 
 riable rule never to let it fall on the ground. 
 A bucket is generally the usual utensil for 
 receiving it. By chance a graduated can is 
 sometimes met with, in well-regulated stables ; 
 and exceedingly useful it is ; as then you have 
 a certain measure, by whicl) you can regulate 
 the quantity of blood wished to be taken away. 
 Ton will frequently find you take much more 
 on the graduated principle, tlian if you trusted 
 to chance. As, for example, in a large horse, 
 with a strong attack of inflammation upon him, 
 on the first bleeding the recovery mainly de- 
 pends. Tou are here working in the dark ; 
 jbr it will be next to an impossibility to ascer- 
 tain what quantity of blood is tf'.keu, without 
 some measure for a guide. 
 328 
 
 In all inflammatory afiections, it is important 
 to draw the blood from a large orifice, and as 
 quickly as possible, though the general system 
 may be weakened from hastily drawing blood. 
 The disease, however, gives way to such treat- 
 ment much quicker than if blood were drawn 
 from a small orifice. 
 
 There are two kinds of blood-letting, termed 
 local and general. 
 
 Local blood-letting is abstracting blood as 
 near to the part aftected as possible ; and a 
 few ounces thus abstracted frequently does 
 more good than if a quart were taken from the 
 system generally. 
 
 General Heeding is that wherein the system 
 at large partakes of the operation, depleted by 
 the stores more immediately derived from the 
 heart. 
 
 Blood-letting, in veterinary practice, is very 
 important. The amazing quickness with which 
 some diseases run their course, and which ap- 
 pear to be only arrested by blood-letting, is, ia 
 many instances, to be considered as our only 
 sheet-anchor ; and therefore is so much resorted 
 to in most fevers, and those internal inflamma- 
 tory aifections to which the horse is so ex- 
 ceedingly liable. Blood-letting is also impor- 
 tant as a criterion of the state of the disease^ 
 certain appearances of the abstracted fluid pre- 
 senting certain indications which act as a guide 
 for future treatment. Indeed, if it were not 
 from a knowledge of the difierent states of the 
 blood and the pulse, we should be in continual 
 error ; therefore, the state of the blood in health, 
 as well as in sickness, should be well attended 
 to. 
 
 PURGING. 
 
 Purging, it is well known, is produced in tlie 
 horse with the view to renovate him, and to 
 bring him into condition; and though it may 
 be treated lightly by a great many persons, 
 still it is a very important matter, especially 
 when we read of the number of race, and other 
 horses, that annually foil victims on account of 
 the bad management they receive during the 
 time of their physic. Though almost every 
 groom declares he can put a horse through ins 
 doses of physic as well as any man, yet, were 
 he asked how the medicine acts, or, if things do 
 not go on quite so well as expected, what is the 
 reason, he ia completely puzzled, and does not 
 
PUEUINU.] 
 
 MODERN VETEKINAET PEACTICE. 
 
 [I'lUUINO. 
 
 know where to look for an answer, or how to 
 
 explain the meaning of cathartic, or purging 
 nietlioinc. 
 
 Cathartics, or pnrging medicines, act by 
 stinuilatiiig the intestines to a more frequent 
 evacuation of their contents. They also in- 
 crease the matter so expelled ; and, under 
 some circumstances, alter tlie quality of it too. 
 This being the simple operation of purging, it 
 is evident that many erroneous notions are 
 entertained relative to it. 
 
 Purging is nsed to reduce swelled legs ; but 
 no purgative will act on the legs immediately ; 
 for it cannot, in the first instance, remove 
 fluids from any other parts but the stomach 
 and bowels. Ultimately it may remove the 
 fluids from other parts to make up the defi- 
 ciency, and thus the legs become lessened. 
 
 Notwithstanding there are certain peculi- 
 arities of constitution generally, and certain 
 states of the alimentary canal, which particu- 
 larly render this process very salutary to the 
 horse, and which are essentially necessary 
 to keep him up to that standard of condi- 
 tion which is now the pride of every gentle- 
 man and sportsman; still, purging has its 
 limits, and, if carried too far, which is some- 
 times the case by those ignorant of its effects, 
 it ends in the serious injury, and even the 
 death of the animal. 
 
 There are various uses to which purgative 
 medicines become applicable, but they may 
 generally be arranged under such as are given as 
 remedies for existing diseases. Those exhibited 
 as a preventive against a probable one also, 
 are greatly used for promoting a certain state, 
 called condition. 
 
 Cathartics are most beneficially used against 
 inflammation, and almost all diseases of in- 
 creased action, except such as affect the alimen- 
 tary canal. By increasing the waste of the 
 watery parts of the blood, cathartics tend to 
 deplete the system, and to lessen arterial ac- 
 tion. In active inflammation they greatly 
 assist bleeding, and, in other cases, are supe- 
 rior to it, and can be advautngeously employed 
 when that cannot be, with propriety, attempted, 
 as in fevers possessing a low or putrid cha- 
 
 advantages here are striking. In plethoric 
 cases, which produce hltous deposits in the 
 legs, itc, as in horses just removed from grass, 
 wo depend on jmrgatives for their removal. 
 In pursy, thick-winded animals, physic not 
 only prevents further accumulation, but also 
 stimulates the absorbents to tako up >omo of 
 the existing deposit. In dyspeptic cases, in 
 hide-bound, in lampas, and others, arising from 
 the deranged functions of the stomach, mild 
 purgatives act in the most salutary manner. 
 
 In the removal of worms, also, tliey act 
 most beneficially, by ejecting them, as well as 
 the nidus in which they are lodged. 
 
 As preventives, purgatives are extensively 
 employed when horses are taken from grass, or 
 the straw-yard, and at once removed into a 
 heated temperature, covered with clothing, 
 and fed with a full diet. Were it not for 
 bleeding and purging, more particularly the 
 latter, we should find all the consequences of 
 plethora show themselves soon after ; as hide- 
 bound, surfeits, swelled legs, cracked heels, 
 ophthalmia, and, not unfrequently, inflamed 
 lungs also. Here, and in all similar cases, 
 purgatives carry oS the superabundant blood 
 formed. 
 
 It is another fact, which serves to exemplify 
 the absence of analogy between the action of 
 purgatives on the horse and on the human 
 subject. When an emaciated horse is removed 
 from hard work, and harder fare, and at once 
 put to rest and a full diet, so far from his con- 
 dition being improved, unless lie has been pre- 
 pared for the change by previous purging, his 
 skin becomes fixed, his belly still more and 
 more tucked up, and his hair often actually 
 falls off". The same change, when accompa- 
 nied by a judicious use of purgatives, operates 
 so much to his advantage, that in a few weeks 
 he becomes almost a new animal. 
 
 Physic is also most beneficially given at 
 particular seasons, as at the spring and fall, 
 to obviate the effects of the diflerent stat« 
 into which horses fall at those times ; being 
 then apparently weak and emaciated, yet, at 
 the same time, suftering from increased arte- 
 rial action, employed in working the periodical 
 
 racter; for such appear to be often dependent I change in the constitution. At these times, 
 on some morbid change within, or some morbid I two or three mild purges will stimulate the 
 combinations formed by the biliary fluid, which defective digestion, remove morbid accumula- 
 purging acts particularly u^n ; so that its tions from the bowels, occasioned thereby, and, 
 
 li u 
 
 329 
 
PUli&ING.l 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [PUEGING. 
 
 by a sympathetic effect between the skin and 
 the alimentary canal, they will assist in the 
 change of the new hair for the old. 
 
 Furgaiives are given to fromoie condition ; 
 and if their tardiness of action altogether shut 
 them out from any other medicinal use, their 
 beneficial influence in producing condition, 
 would, of itself, render the subject important 
 to all those connected with horses. If, like- 
 wise, they excited only the condition required 
 in the young, the robust, and the already lust}' 
 animal, it would cause little surprise, and 
 the method of action would be clear ; but 
 when we know that they equally promote it in 
 emaciated animals, even wdthout apparent dis- 
 ease, it requii'es an intimate acquaintance with 
 the requisite functions of the animal, to enable 
 us to account for the fact. In such cases we 
 give mild doses only, which prove a valuable 
 stimulant and tonic to the stomach and bowels, 
 thus promoting their digestive powers, and 
 consequent capability of separating more or- 
 ganic molecula from the ingesta. They also 
 stimulate the sluggish biliary and pancreatic 
 secretions, which are so necessary to a healthy 
 digestion, and formation of chyle, from which 
 alone strength and bulk can be augmented. 
 Luxury and refinement have introduced an 
 artificial state of condition beyond that; sim- 
 ply, a healthy functional state. 
 
 Such condition is not only necessary to bring 
 the animal up to our present ideas of beauty, 
 but also to enable him to undergo exercise, 
 which, in a state of nature, was not expected 
 from him, as hunting, racing, &c. To promote 
 this state, purgatives are indispensably neces- 
 sary ; and it is from this view that the subject of 
 physicking derives its popularity with the mere 
 horseman : though we hold it in no less con- 
 sideration under every point of view connected 
 with the well-being of this valuable animal. 
 In promoting condition, purgatives not only 
 act favourably on the digestive organs, but 
 their beneficial influence extends to the other 
 solid and fluid parts of the body also. By 
 their means the watery parts of the blood are 
 removed, the absorbents become stimulated, 
 and take up all the interstitial fluid interposed 
 between the moving masses, as well as that 
 distributed within the cellular membrane ; and 
 by this means strength is augmented, and the 
 weight of useless matter diminished. The uu- 
 330 
 
 necessary adeps, or fat of the body, is also re- 
 moved by the same process, which allows 
 the muscular fibres to be more rectilineally 
 placed, and, in their action, to be constantly 
 gaining a greater increase of power. It is 
 thus that physic draws up the belly, and 
 hardens the flesh. The lungs also are enabled 
 to act more advantageously by its agency, their 
 capacity being greatly enhanced by the ab- 
 sorption of incumbering matter, either solid or 
 fluid. In this way the wind, as well as the 
 strength, is increased by perfect condition. 
 
 Salutary, however, as may be the operation 
 of purgatives on horses, judiciously managed, 
 and properly timed, yet hurtful in the ex- 
 treme, and often fatal, are the consequences 
 brought about by an ignorant employment of 
 them, and an erroneous mode of managing 
 them when they are employed. In all inflam- 
 matory affections of the stomach and bowels, 
 cathartics must be highly injurious, except in 
 inflammation of the bowels, when the obstruc- 
 tion cannot be overcome by any other means. 
 They are almost equally hurtful in inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs ; and it is probable, from the 
 powers they call forth in the horse to produce 
 purging, occasioned by his structural pecu- 
 liarities, that in all great visceral inflamma- 
 tions, active purgatives should be admitted 
 with caution. In farcy and glanders, they 
 seldom do other than harm ; and in chronic 
 aftections, attended with great debility, they 
 are only admissible in some peculiar instances, 
 specified in the treatment of such diseases. 
 Physic is hurtful, however, principally from 
 the frequency and quantity sometimes given. 
 Grooms suppose that every ordinary case re- 
 quires three doses ; the reason for which, 
 many have humorously thus given : — " The first 
 being intended to stir up the humours ; the 
 second to set them afloat ; and the third to 
 carry them oftV 
 
 To very young horses, and to delicate 
 feeders, the giving of three doses of physic 
 must be attended with most injurious conse- 
 quences, and such as they cannot recover from 
 for months ; sometimes never. In such cases, 
 one or two very mild doses are all that is re- 
 quired, or ought to be permitted ; and it is 
 doubtful, without some " foulness," as it is 
 termed, or rather extreme fulness and plethora, 
 whether, in ordinary cases, two moderate doses 
 
punoiNo.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [pUttOINQ. 
 
 be not all tlmt is noeesaary to ensure the con- 
 dition of sadillo and carriage horses. It is an 
 unfortunate prejudice, engendered by igno- 
 rance, and kept alive by obstinacy, " tliat to do 
 jiinch good with physic, it must be very ntrong." 
 "We have many times been told by grooms, 
 that the dose of physic given could not bo 
 strong enough, for it had not purged the 
 animal more than fiftoen or sixtoon times. In 
 many cases, those knowing gentlemen are not 
 satisfied unless a horse have from twenty to 
 thirtv evacuations. Super-purgation has de- 
 stroyed hundreds of animals, and it has irre- 
 parably injured thousands. Extra purging 
 debilitates the horso more than the human 
 subject, probably from a lax state of bowels 
 being more common in man, owing to the 
 presence of both cystic and hepatic bile, as well 
 as a dependent situation. It is hardly pos- 
 sible to conceive a more deplorable object 
 than a horse under the action of a too 
 strong purgative ; the liquid aliments escaping 
 almost involuntarily from his anus, excoriated 
 with the violence and frequency of the ejec- 
 tions ; the belly drawn to the flank, cold sweats 
 bedewing the frame, appetite totally lost, and 
 the strength so decreased as to leave tlie 
 animal hardly the power of tottering from one 
 stall to another: and yet to this state does the 
 brutality and ignorance of a number of the 
 old farriers doom the horses of their employers. 
 The number and strength of the physicking 
 doses are not the only evils to which the 
 horse is liable, from improper purgation ; the 
 articles used are likewise of an injurious 
 nature. Frequently, with the coarsest aloes, 
 the groom's prescription directs gamboge, 
 which greatly increases its drastic qualities. 
 Keither, indeed, are these persons, or indeed 
 some practitioners, so attentive to previous 
 preparation as they should be. 
 
 A powerful dose of physic, given to a horse 
 at hard work, and on full keep, without previ- 
 ous mashing, hurries the hardened faeces for- 
 wards, until they are formed into an impene- 
 trable mass. Inflammation ensues, and on the 
 third day the horse is found dead, and swollen 
 immensely. In hot -weather, inflammation 
 supervenes on physic, when at all too active, 
 and dysentery is a very common consequence of 
 summer purging. "Wlien good physic has been 
 properly given, it has been often rendered in- 
 
 jurioua, and even dcRtructive, owing to the 
 carelessness of the persona nttcnding tlie 
 animal. Cold water, at such times, muHt not 
 bo given ; the door nuist not bo l.jft opcu, or A 
 sudden cliill nuiy bring on iiillammation of tho 
 bowels ; also immoderate exercise nujHt bo 
 carefully avoided, and only such given as will 
 make tho horso comfortably warm, and tlien 
 he should bo brought immediately into tho 
 stable. 
 
 Of the proper articles to be used in purging, 
 a great discrepancy of opinion [)revails ; but if 
 the distinction between laxative and purga- 
 tive be maintained, it would tend to reconcilt 
 these difterences. There are numerous articles 
 which simply relax the bowels, i. e., slightly 
 increase their peristaltic motion ; but very few 
 which produce active purgation. Of the for- 
 mer, bran, calomel, neutral salts, castor, lin- 
 seed, and olive oils are the most usual ; but it 
 must be confessed, that with the exception of 
 bran, all the others occasionally fail. There 
 are some other medicines which act on the 
 bowels, but they are not to be depended on as 
 purgative medicines. The most proper we 
 shall place at the end of this section. 
 
 The purgative for horses is, almost in every 
 instance, aloes. Much difference of opinion 
 exists on the preference due to the various 
 kinds of aloes ; nor can we ever arrive at a 
 just conclusion on this subject, until we unite 
 a conclave of lionest druggists, both wholesale 
 and retail, from whom alone something like a 
 knowledge of the various sorts can only be 
 expected. For all large horses, however, we 
 should decidedly use the Barbadoes aloes for 
 purging; and for small, thin animals, the Cape 
 aloes. But neither large nor small horses 
 should ever be attempted to be purged without 
 first relaxing the bowels with bran mashes. 
 
 The quantity of aloes requisite for purgation 
 is also very various, and must depend on the 
 animal's customary food and constitution. This 
 is a matter not to be wondered at, but, never- 
 theless, is a strong reason against leaving the 
 management of purging to ignorant hands. 
 Some horses are exceedingly difllcult to purge, 
 whilst others are easily affected. Old, gene- 
 rally require more than young animals, to 
 purge them ; and if at hard meat, it makes 
 much difference in tliis respect. These facta 
 serve to show the extreme necessity of pre- 
 
 331 
 
PUEGING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [PFEGING. 
 
 scribing a very moderate quantity as the first 
 dose for a horse with whose constitutional 
 peculiarities we are unacquainted. The requi- 
 site quantity is also greatly dependent on 
 various other circumstances. Horses fresh 
 from grass purge with a much less dose than 
 those long stabled ; and for such as are used to 
 bran mashes as daily food, a moderate quantity 
 only is requisite ; while in other instances, by 
 mashing three times a day for several days, 
 four or five drachms may do the work of eight. 
 This shows the extreme importance of pre- 
 vious mashing, particularly in weakly horses, 
 and also in such as have been previously ac- 
 customed to much hard food. Form, also, in- 
 fluences the quantity requisite. A thin, nar- 
 row-chested, lank-sided animal will purge more 
 readily than a circular, deep-carcassed one. It 
 may be considered, therefore, that the quantity 
 required to purge horses, both prudently and 
 effectually, ranges between five drachms and 
 ten; the extent of which range will serve to 
 indicate that something more is requisite than 
 a blind acquiescence in any acknowledged re- 
 ceipt, or invariable form. Thus far as regards 
 the account of aloes generally ; we shall pre- 
 sently advert to them more particularly. For 
 the formation of physic-balls, and the quanti- 
 ties required, see List of Medicines. 
 
 When it is thought proper to give mercu- 
 rial physic for worms or skin affections, two 
 drachms of calomel may be given in a mash 
 the night previous, first mixed with a table- 
 spoonful of flour. This, by lying all night in 
 the horse, may, perhaps, assist its efficacy, par- 
 ticularly in case of worms ; and the aloetic 
 ball may be given the next morning; recol- 
 lecting, at the same time, that it should be 
 something less strong, on account of the calo- 
 mel already administered. In giving physic, 
 the intestines should always be prepared by 
 bran mashes, which should be given two or 
 three days previously ; nor, indeed, should the 
 physic be ever administered until the stools 
 present some appearance of softening. The 
 first dose given to an animal with whose con- 
 stitution we are not well acquainted, should 
 be a very mild one ; for, as we have before re- 
 marked, some horses being so much more easily 
 purged than others, it is necessary to use dis- 
 cretion ; and if the dose does not operate, it 
 can do no harm. 
 332 
 
 Exercise is of the greatest importance in 
 physicking; but not to the severity of either 
 trotting or galloping. Brisk and continued 
 walking is all that ought to be allowed. Half 
 the quantity of any cathartic, with sufficient of 
 walking exercise, will operate nearly as much 
 as a double dose without ; so that the degree 
 of purging may be always regulated nearly to 
 our wish. When physic does not work kindly, 
 the exercise should be repeated at short inter- 
 vals — say two hours — until it does ; and thea 
 it should be altogether omitted, in case of 
 bringing on fatigue. Chilled water must be 
 given, as it is particularly necessary to recol- 
 lect that ample dilution of the bowels is of 
 the utmost consequence to ensure the physic 
 working kindly. Entice the horse, therefore, 
 to drink by every means ; and on no account 
 forget the necessary precaution of giving him. 
 pure water from a perfectly clean pail. When 
 it is either smoked or greasy, it cannot be ex- 
 pected that an animal possessing a delicate 
 palate will drink. During the working of the 
 physic he should be kept warm, both in the 
 stable and by clothing ; and he must be exer- 
 cised (if in winter) in clothes proportioned to 
 the cold. 
 
 When a purge is to be given, proceed as 
 follows : — After having fed with bran mashes, 
 for a day or two previous to the one in which 
 you intend giving the ball, give the purge the 
 last thing at night, keeping the animal warm. 
 In the morning, when you come to the stable, 
 offer him warm water, or chilled, but not cold. 
 If you take him out to exercise immediately, 
 the medicine, in all probability, will operate in 
 the course of twenty minutes, or half-au-hour. 
 AVhen such is the case, go home at once, and 
 give a handful of the best sweet hay you can 
 procure. This will recruit his spirits, and he 
 will then be able to eat his mash, which give 
 in about an hour after. '^ Cease now to exer- 
 cise, until the physic is what is termed set, 
 when feed in the usual way, until another dose 
 is given. Wliy we recommend giving the 
 medicine at night, is in consequence of its 
 sometimes producing gripes, which generally 
 come on in the night after the morning on 
 which the medicine has been given, and which 
 may cause inflammation of the bowels, and 
 the death of the horse, when no one is present 
 to attend to him. But if the medicine is given 
 
KHrNO.] 
 
 MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [riRixo. 
 
 as directed, nt lu-^'lit, tlicii there ia the t'ollow- 
 m<; day to watch him, and take advuiitago of 
 auvtliing that niny occur. 
 
 It occasionally happens, that notwithstand- 
 ing every attention, physic will not work on 
 the second day ; in which case, let nothing 
 tempt tho practitioner to give another doso 
 immediately ; for it sometimea happens that 
 purgatives will not act until tho third day. But 
 when a case of non-purgation occurs, always 
 wait until the third day, when, if no symptoms 
 of purging appear, either let the horse rest 
 altogether for two days longer, and then give 
 him rather a stronger dose, or commence by 
 administering to him a quarter of the original 
 dose every sii Lours, till it purges ; giving 
 him mashes, exercise, and warm water, as 
 before directed. Let it also be remembered, 
 that it is erroneous to encourage liquid 
 purging to twenty, thirty, or more dejections. 
 Ko good attends this practice. We never 
 wisli any horse to have more than from twelve 
 to thirteen liquid evacuations. All beyond 
 this weakens the intestines, and injures him. 
 
 In the usual course of physic, on the next 
 day after the operation of the purgative, the 
 faeces will resume nearly their former con- 
 sistency and shape, when the physic is said to 
 be set. If it, however, continues to operate 
 with nearly the same violence as on the day 
 before, it must be regarded as super-purgation, 
 and recourse must be immediately bad to the 
 treatment already directed for that disease. 
 If otherwise, he may now return to his former 
 habits, giving him corn at first rather sparingly, 
 with moderate exercise ; and, in five or six 
 days from the physic setting, if the operation 
 has been only ordinary, a second dose may be 
 given, which is commonly required to be a 
 little stronger than the first. After this, with 
 the same caution, if it be deemed necessary, a 
 third dose may be given, which is usually con- 
 sidered a course of physic ; but the number of 
 doses ought never to be under the arbitrary 
 direction of custom, but should be regulated 
 by existing circumstances. 
 
 FIRING. 
 
 Firing is performed for two purposes ; one 
 
 for the forming a permanent bandage, which 
 
 it does by destroying the elasticity of the 
 
 skin, and lessening its surface ; the other for 
 
 raising an active inflammation, and thereby 
 exciting absorption. Sometimea it is used to 
 answer one of these purposes only ; and some- 
 times to promote both conjointly. 
 
 Tho Arabs fire tho joints of their young 
 colts to strengthen them, by tho constant 
 bandage tho cicatrix forms to the part. Somo 
 English breeders of blood-horses have done 
 tho same ; but it is rare. 
 
 In splents, spavins, and ring-bones, firing is 
 used as a strong stimulus to the surrounding 
 absorbents, to remove any extraneous sub- 
 stance recently deposited ; hence the osseous 
 matter which forms such swellings, becomes 
 swallowed up by these vessels, and is thus 
 removed. These are instances where firing is 
 used, principally to promote external inflam- 
 mation to relieve an internal one. But even 
 here, the future pressure, occasioned by tho 
 cicatrix, is an assistant, and often a principal, 
 in the removal of the adventitious deposit. 
 
 To increase the original inflammation, or to 
 keep it up, it is common in these cases to 
 apply a blister over the firing. In enlarge- 
 ment after violent strains we fire the \e"s, 
 both to excite the absorbents and to remove 
 the deposit of coagulable lymph ; and also, by 
 straightening the skin, to act as a permanent 
 bandage ou the part for the future. The 
 various cases in which firing is considered 
 necessary are dispersed through the body of 
 this \vork ; and it would be unnecessary to 
 enumerate them here. "We may observe, how- 
 ever, that as it is a painful operation, it should 
 never be resorted to but when absolutely 
 necessary ; and the more so, as it leaves a 
 permanent blemish. As blisters act in the 
 same way, except that they leave no perma- 
 nent blemish ; so, when absorption only is 
 required, their repeated application will often 
 supersede the necessity of firing ; and as they 
 can be applied as often as wished, as pro- 
 moters of absorption merely, they are, in many 
 instances, greatly to be preferred. On the 
 subject of blistering immediately after firing 
 different opinions are entertained. 
 
 A morbid sensibility, or rather an affection 
 of feeling, induces some to blame the adoption 
 of such remedial agents as do not square with 
 the popular outcry. A life devoted, as ours 
 has been, to the amelioration of the miseries of 
 some of the noblest of the brute race, prevents 
 
 333 
 
TIEING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [BLTSTEUINr*. 
 
 US from inflicting unnecessary or needless pain 
 on them ; but when, by momentary addition to 
 their suffering, years of future pain may be 
 prevented, we would not court popularity by 
 joining in decrying all painful operations. 
 
 AVhen it is of consequence to keep up the 
 irritation, or even to increase it, which we dare 
 not do by deeper firing, or by lines too near 
 each other, blistering, immediately after, is ad- 
 missible. Such cases occur in long-continued 
 enlargements, ligamentary, or osseous diseases ; 
 but, when firing is applied to four stale ex- 
 tremities, or even to two, which present only 
 the ordinary appearance of disease, it is not 
 only unnecessary, but it is wantonly cruel. It 
 is also dangerous, and has proved destructive. 
 
 The mode of firing difiers according to cir- 
 cumstances. The general mode adopted at the 
 Eoyal Veterinary College is in straight lines, 
 up and down the course of the hair, or in per- 
 pendicular lines ; the reasons for this are well 
 known. If it be applied as a bandage, in no 
 direction can it corrugate the skin in so eftec- 
 tive a manner, as by lines drawn inversely to 
 the action, as well as the enlargements of the 
 parts. As the principles of the firing-iron 
 have become perfectly known, it is unnecessary 
 to expatiate upon them here. 
 
 As there are several methods of firing, so 
 are there several kinds of irons used for it, of I 
 various sliapes. The principal are, the searing- 
 iron, which is used for the tail, and wliich is 
 probably called into request more frequently j 
 than any other. Then the hudding-iron, for 
 touching cavities, and searing farcy-buds. 
 There is, also, the common firing-iron, the 
 iron to remove lampas, and some others, ac- 
 cording to the particular purposes forwhicb 
 they may be required. To practitioners these 
 are all pretty well known, and all should be 
 tolerably thick at the back to retain the heat ; 
 and, when used, should only be heated to a 
 dull-red heat. 
 
 "Wlicn performing the operation of firing, 
 care should be taken to have a piece of board 
 near, to rub the edge of the iron on. This will 
 prevent its getting too sharp, and cutting 
 through the skin. The iron, also, by this 
 means becomes cleared of all scales, which 
 would be a very great interruption to the ope- 
 rator if he bad no means of speedily removing 
 them. 
 
 834. 
 
 Firing is not so simple an operation as many 
 persons are inclined to consider it ; for, if the 
 true skin is penetrated, a wound is produced, 
 and great inflammation and ulceration may 
 result, and leave a bad blemish. To prevent 
 this, if the iron be made very hot, it must bo 
 passed very quickly and lightly over the parts ; 
 then, as it gets cool, it can be drawn more at 
 leisure ; and, if the parts should not be level, 
 they must be lightly touched over again, in 
 order to make the whole look well. Eing- 
 bones, or old spavins, require the most severe 
 firing, and are even then not very successfully 
 treated. AVe have, in that case, fired a second 
 time, which, in many instances, has had the 
 desired efiect. In all cases of firing, the hair 
 must be closely clipped ofi" the parts, for the 
 smoke arising from burning is apt to confuse 
 the operator. 
 
 AVe have heard of some operators chalking 
 out the lines first ; but we never saw such a 
 practice. After the firing is completed, a mild 
 blister ointment should be lightly applied to 
 the parts ; after which the animal should have 
 rest, and not immediately be put to work 
 
 BLISTERING. 
 
 Blistering is an operation of great utility, 
 and, when attended with care, it is as safe a 
 one as can be performed. It acts more as a 
 local blood-letting, if care be taken to lance 
 the vesicles as they may arise ; for, if these are 
 not quickly removed, the serum may become 
 again absorbed, and the surface restored by a 
 slight eifort of inflammation, without havinsr 
 the desired eff"ect. They then become more 
 like what is called siveating-hlisters, because 
 the cuticle, or scarf-skin, does not rise; but 
 when, by continued irritation, or by rupturing 
 the vessels, the cutis becomes exposed, suppura- 
 tion succeeds, and the part becomes thoroughly 
 blistered. 
 
 The salutary action of blisters depends, first, 
 on the stimulus they give to the absorbents; 
 and next, on the inflammation they excite, 
 proving a counter-irritant to some other part. 
 They act in the removal of injurious deposits, 
 as enlargements arising from strains of the 
 back-sinews, or ligaments ; sometimes they do 
 good when applied to spavins or splents ; but, 
 should either of these diseases be of long 
 standing, stronger applications must be had 
 
TAMINO.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [tamino. 
 
 ret*our3o to, or the uiildor blistiTs usihI, and 
 ropt'atcd t'very day. ^Mercurial ointinent, well 
 rubbed iu on any bony oxcresceuce, tor a day 
 or two previous to applying tho blister, will 
 greatly tend to promote the absorption of tho 
 oilendinix parts. 
 
 Iu inllaininatory afTectiona, wo find blisters 
 of great importance, acting as counter-irritants; 
 and it appears singular that two inflamma- 
 tions seldom exist iu tho neighbourhood of 
 each other; therefore, when such an aflectiou 
 has taken place iu any part, and it is desired 
 to be removed, we raise an artificial inflamma- 
 tion iu its neighbourhood by means of blisters. 
 In iiillauimatory affections of the lungs and 
 bowels, it is proper to blister the chest, belly, 
 Ac, by which means the inflammatory action 
 may be shifted from the vital organs to parts 
 of less importance; for if a horse affected with 
 inflamed lungs be blistered either iu the 
 chest or belly, and if the blister does not 
 properly rise, he will probably die of slieer 
 debility. The blister oiutment generally ought 
 to be bought at the druggist's, as it is some- 
 times made of such irritating materials, that 
 the animal is put to the most excruciating 
 pain imaginable, when we well know that the 
 blistering properly lies iu the cantharides 
 only. 
 
 Before applying a blister, the hair should 
 be cut ofl" as closely as possible from the part, 
 and around it. The blister ointment should 
 then bo well rubbed in for ten or fifteen 
 minutes, on which thorough application of it, 
 its operation mainly depends. Having done 
 this, smooth the hair downwards, and spread a 
 little more ointment on the surface, with a 
 spatula. If there is occasion to blister the 
 
 pasterns and fetlocks, apply n little hog's InrJ 
 to tho hollows of tho heels. This will often 
 prevent tho formation of grease or troubleaomo 
 sores from tho discharge of tho blister fulling 
 on these parts. 
 
 Another caution i.-<, that when a blister is 
 acting, tho litter should all be removed from 
 under him, lest tho straws tickle and irritate 
 his legs 80 much, that ho may not only at- 
 tempt to gnaw them, but strike them against 
 the manger, or one against the other. I'o 
 prevent this, the horse must be tied up to tho 
 rack for at least two days, when the prin- 
 cipal irritation will have left him. But never 
 blister without putting a cradle round his 
 neck. It will prevent him biting his legs, or 
 attempting to do so. Cradles may generally 
 be had at most of the turners' shops; or, 
 should there bo an obligation to make one, 
 ! take eight or ten pieces of broom or mop- 
 handles, and cut them into lengths of about 
 two feet long, and make holes in both ends, 
 so that they may bo threaded with a piece 
 of strong cord, and then fasten them around 
 the horse's neck. The horse then becomes 
 effectually prevented from biting or tearing 
 himself. If blistering once does not answer 
 the purpose anticipated, and you determine to 
 blister again, first wash off, with soap and 
 water, all scurf that may have been left by tlie 
 first, before applying the second blister. A\^hen 
 it is intended to turn a horse out after blister- 
 ing, care should be taken that all the parts 
 are healed, or flies and dust may get into the 
 sores, and become exceedingly troublesome. 
 
 Sweating blisters are generally of a milder 
 nature than others, and in consequence fre- 
 quently applied.— (See Blistering Linimenty 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIL 
 
 RESTIYENESS.— T.\MIXG SYSTEMS PURSUED BY THE "JUMPER," ITIE " WHISPERER," MADAME I6ABELIE, 
 
 AXD MR. RAREY; VICES. 
 
 It has been said of naturally vicious norses, I temporarily subdued by some master spirits, 
 that however they may have been cowed and I they are never to be depended upon ; but will 
 
 335 
 
TAMING.J 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [taming. 
 
 return to their dangerous practices on any 
 opportunity which their caprice may dictate^ 
 or chance may throw in their way. The fol- 
 lowing statement of facts quite bears out this 
 opinion, and shows the danger of keeping any 
 naturally vicious animal, under the impression 
 that he may become quiet and harmless. 
 
 Eestiveness may be considered the effect of 
 bad temper, and, perhaps, worse breaking; 
 and like all other habits founded on nature, 
 and fixed by an evil education, it may be 
 considered inveterate. Whether it appear 
 in the form of kicking, rearing, plunging, or 
 bolting, or in whatever way it may threaten 
 danger to the animal or its rider, it rarely ad- 
 mits of a cure. It may be true, that a reso- 
 lute and determined rider may, to a certain 
 degree, subjugate the animal ; or the horse 
 may form his attachments, and, with some par- 
 ticular person, become comparatively, or per- 
 fectly manageable ; still we believe it to be a 
 rule that admits of very few exceptions, that 
 he neither displays his wisdom, nor consults 
 his safety, who thinks he has so far subdued a 
 restive horse, as to be able, at all times, to 
 repose trust in him. 
 
 An excellent veterinary surgeon, and a 
 man of great experience in horses, says, in 
 The Veterinarian — " Erom whatever cause the 
 vicious habits of horses may originate, whether 
 from some mismanagement, or from natural 
 badness of temper, or from what is called in 
 Yorkshire, a mistetcli — whenever these ani- 
 mals acquire one of them, and it becomes in 
 some degree confirmed, they very seldom, if 
 ever, altogether forget it. In reference to 
 driving, it is so true, that it may be taken as a 
 kind of aphorism, that if a horse kicks once in 
 harness, no matter from what cause, he will be 
 liable to kick ever afterwards. A good coach- 
 man may drive him, it is true, and may make 
 him go, but he cannot make him forget his 
 vice; and so it is in riding. You may con- 
 quer a restive horse ; you may make him ride 
 quiet for months, nay, almost for years toge- 
 ther; but I affirm, that under otlier circum- 
 stances, and at some future opportunity, he 
 will be sure to return to his old tricks again." 
 
 This writer gives two singular and conclu- 
 sive instances of the truth of this doctrine. 
 ^'When a very young man," he says, "I re- 
 member purchasing a horse at a fair in the 
 336 
 
 north of England, that was offered very cheap, 
 on account of his being unmanageable. Ifc 
 was said that nobody could ride him. I found 
 that the animal objected to have anvthing 
 placed on his back, and that, when made to 
 move forward with nothing more than a saddle 
 on, he instantly threw himself down on his 
 side with great violence, and would then en- 
 deavour to roll upon his back. 
 
 "There was, at that time, in Yorkshire, a 
 famous colt-breaker, known by the name of 
 ' Jumper,' who was almost as celebrated in 
 that country for- taming vicious horses into 
 submission, as the famed ' Whisperer' was in 
 Ireland. I put this animal into * Jumper's' 
 hands, who took him away, and in about ten 
 days brought him home again, certainly not 
 looking worse in condition, but perfectly sub- 
 dued, and almost as obedient as a dog ; for he 
 would lie down at this man's bidding, and only 
 rise again at his command, and carry double or 
 anything. I took to riding him myself, and 
 may say, that I was never better carried for 
 six or eight months, during which time he 
 never showed the least vice whatever. I then 
 sold him to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said 
 that he would give him a summer's run at grass? 
 and show him a very fine horse at the great 
 Horncastle fair. 
 
 " Happening to meet this gentleman the fol- 
 lowing year, I naturally enough inquired after 
 my old friend. ' Oh,' said he, ' that was a bad 
 business — the horse turned out a sad rebel. 
 The first time we attempted to mount him, 
 after getting him up from grass, he in an in- 
 stant threw the man down with the greatest 
 violence, pitching him several yards over his 
 head ; and, after that, he threw every one that 
 attempted to get on his back. If he could not 
 throw his rider, he would throw himself down. 
 We could do nothing with him, and I was 
 obliged at last to sell him to go in a stage- 
 coach.' " 
 
 In the next story, "Jumper's" counterpart, 
 and superior, the Irish " Whisperer," is brought 
 on the stage, and, although he performs won- 
 ders, he cannot radically cure a restive horse. 
 "At the Spring Meeting of 1804, Mr. Whal- 
 ley's 'King Pippin' was brought on the Cur- 
 rai^h, at Kildare, to run. He was a horse of the 
 most extraordinarily savage and vicious dispo- 
 sition. His particular propensity was that of 
 
TAMTTTO.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 [taxttko. 
 
 {[y'uvj; at and worrying nuy pordoa wlio cnmo 
 within his reach ; and if ho had an opportunity, 
 ho would get hia head round, soizo his rider by 
 the log with hia tei'th, and drag him down iVoni 
 hia back. For this reason he was always rid- 
 den iu what is called a sword ; which is no- 
 thing more than a strong Hat stick, having 
 one end attached to the cheek of the bridle, 
 and the other to the girth of the saddle, a con- 
 trivance to prevent a horse of this kind from 
 getting at his rider. 
 
 " King Pippin had long been difficult to 
 manage, and dangerous to go near ; but on the 
 occasion in question, ho could not be got out 
 to run at all. Nobody could put the bridle 
 upon his head. It being Easter Monday, and, 
 consequently a great holiday, there was a 
 large concourse of people assembled at the 
 Curragh, consisting principally of the neigh- 
 bouring peasantry ; and one countryman, more 
 fearless than the rest of the lookers-on, forget- 
 ting, or, perhaps, never dreaming that the 
 Detter part of courage is discretion, volun- 
 teered bis services to bridle the horse. No 
 sooner had he committed himself to this opera- 
 tion, than King Pippin seized him somewhere 
 about the shoulders, or chest, and shook him 
 as a dog would shake a rat. Fortunately for 
 the poor fellow, his body was very thickly 
 covered with clothes, for, on such occasions, 
 an Irishman of this class is fond of displaying 
 his wardrobe ; and if he has three coats in the 
 world, he is sure to put them all on. 
 
 " This circumstance, in all probability, saved 
 the individual who had so gallantly volun- 
 teered the forlorn hope. His person was so 
 deeply enveloped in extra clothing, that the 
 horse never got fairly hold of his skin ; and 
 I understand that he escaped with but little 
 injury, beside the sadly rent 'and totally ruined 
 state of his wardrobe. 
 
 " The * "Whisperer ' was sent for, who, having 
 arrived, was shut up with the horse all night, 
 and, in the morning, he exhibited this hitherto 
 ferocious animal, following him about the 
 course like a dog ; lying down at his command ; 
 suffering his mouth to be opened, and any 
 person's hand to be introduced into it ; in 
 short, as quiet as a sheep. 
 
 " He came out the same meeting, and won 
 ft race, and his docility continued satisfactory 
 for a lo»g time ; but, at the end of about three 
 2 X 
 
 years, hia vice returned, and then ho ia said 
 to have killed a man, for which iio waa de- 
 stroyed." 
 
 It may bo interesting to give soiiio account 
 of this extraordinary tamer of equine vice. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Townsend, in hia Statistical 
 Survey of Corky first introduced the " "Whis- 
 perer" to the notice of the public generally, 
 although his tame had, long before, been spread 
 over that part of Ireland. He ia mentioned 
 also iu Crokers Fairy Legends and Traditions 
 of Ireland. Tlic following is an extract from 
 that work : — 
 
 " He was an awkward, ignorant rustic, of 
 the lowest class, of the name of Sullivan, but 
 better known by the appellation of the * AVhis- 
 perer ;' his occupation was horse-breaking. 
 The nickname he acquired from the vulgar 
 notion of his being able to communicate to 
 the animal what he wished by means of a 
 whisper, and the singularity of his method, 
 seemed in some degree to justify the attribute. 
 In his own neighbourhood, the notoriety of 
 the fact made it seem less remarkable ; but I 
 doubt if any instance of similar subjugating 
 talent is to be found on record. As far as the 
 sphere of his control extended, the boast of 
 veni, vidi, vici, was more justly claimed by 
 Sullivan than by Caesar himself. 
 
 " How his art was acquired, and in what it 
 consisted, is likely to be for ever unknown, as 
 he left the world without divulging it. His 
 son, who followed the same trade, possessed 
 but a small portion of the art, having either 
 never learned the true secret, or having been 
 incapable of putting it into practice. The 
 wonder of his skill consisted in the celerity of 
 the operation, which was performed in privacy, 
 without any apparent means of coercion. 
 Every description of horse, or even mule, 
 whether previously broken, or unhandled, 
 whatever their peculiar habits or vices might 
 have been, submitted without show of resis- 
 tance to the magical influence of his art, and 
 in the short space of half-an-hour became 
 gentle and tractable. This effect, though in- 
 stantaneously produced, was generally durable. 
 Though more submissive to him than any 
 others, they seemed to have acquired a docility 
 unknown before. 
 
 *' "When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for 
 which he was either paid according to the dis- 
 
 337 
 
rAMTNG.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [TAMIHtJ. 
 
 tance, or generally two or three guineas, he 
 directed -the stable, in which he and the object 
 of the experiment were, to be shut, with 
 orders not to open the door until a signal was 
 given. After a tete-a-Ute of about half-an- 
 hour, during which little or no bustle was 
 heard, the signal was made, and, upon opening 
 the door, the horse appeared lying down, and 
 the man by his side, playing with him like a 
 child with a puppy dog. From that time he 
 was found willing to submit to any discipline, 
 however repugnant to his nature before." 
 
 "I once," continues Mr. Townsend, "saw 
 hia skill tried on a horse which could never 
 before be brought to stand to be shod by a 
 smith. The day after Sullivan's half-hour's 
 lecture, I went, not without some incredulity, 
 to the smith's shop, with many other curious 
 spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the 
 complete success of his art. This, too, had 
 been a troop horse ; and it was supposed, not 
 without reason, that after regimental disci- 
 pliue had failed, no other would be found 
 available. I observed that the animal appeared 
 terrified whenever Sullivau either spoke or 
 looked at him. How that extraordinary as- 
 cendancy could have been obtained, it is diffi- 
 cult to conjecture. 
 
 " In comnlon cases this mysterious prepara- 
 tion was unnecessary. He seemed to possess 
 an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the re- 
 sult, perhaps, of natural intrepidity, in which, 
 I believe, a great part of his art consisted ; 
 though the circumstance of the t^te-a-tete 
 shows that, on particular occasions, something 
 more must have been added to it. A faculty 
 like this would, in some hands, have made a 
 fortune; and I understand that great offers 
 were made to him for the exercise of his art 
 abroad. But hunting was the passion of Sul- 
 livan. He lived at home in the style most 
 agreeable to his disposition, and nothing could 
 induce him to quit Duhallow and the fox- 
 hounds." 
 
 Mr. Castley, a writer in the Veterinarian, 
 witnessed the total failure of the younger 
 Sullivan. He says—" We liave in the regi- 
 ment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer, 
 that has always been very difficult to shoe ; 
 but seven or eight years ago, when we first 
 got him, he was downright vicious in that re- 
 spect. "When the regiment was stationed at 
 33S 
 
 Cork, the farrier-major sought out the son of 
 the celebrated ' Whisperer,' and brought him 
 up to the barracks, in order to try his hand 
 upon Lancer, and make him more peaceable to 
 shoe ; but I must say this person did not 
 appear to possess any particular controljiug 
 power over the animal, more than any other 
 man. Lancer seemed to pay no attention 
 whatever to his charm ; and, at last, fairly 
 beat him out of the forge. Time, however, 
 and a long perseverance in kind and gentle 
 treatment, effected what force could not. The 
 horse became pretty quiet to shoe." 
 
 Did we not know, from the recent per- 
 formances of Mr, Karey, that such things are 
 possible, it would seem almost incredible, that 
 a man being left only one night in King Pip- 
 pin's stable, should have produced such an 
 alteration in that animal's ferocity. It is said 
 some have the power of disarming the rage of 
 the most savage dogs ; and the " "Whisperer" 
 appears to have found out the same charm for 
 the vicious horse. 
 
 " Jumper" seems to have had extraordinary 
 power over other animals besides the horse ; 
 for he is said to have tamed a buffalo for the 
 saddle, for Mr. Tempest, and a pair of rein- 
 deer for Lord Fitzwilliam. The manner of his 
 treatment seems sufficiently intelligible. His 
 charm consisted chiefly in fearlessness and 
 brute force. He would generally try rough 
 measures first ; and in his perilous encoun- 
 ters with some of these troublesome animals, 
 had nearly every bone of his body fractured. 
 " Jumper," however, seemed to have some sort 
 of magic about him ; for it is said, when he 
 had, by dint of punishment, striven in vain to 
 conquer an unruly horse in the market-place 
 of Wakefield, he alighted, stood on the near 
 side of the animal, brought the head almost 
 back to his ofF-shoulder, by forcibly pulling at 
 his off-rein, and then sternly gazed at him 
 over the withers for two or three minutes. 
 The animal began to tremble, and broke out 
 in a profuse perspiration. "Jumper" then 
 loosened his hold of the rein, and patted and 
 caressed him, and was immediately followed by 
 him round the market-place, perfectly subdued. 
 
 "Jumper" is described as having been em- 
 ployed in the contested elections for Yorkshire, 
 covered with orange plush from top to toe, 
 and scampering in every direction over the 
 
TAMING.] 
 
 MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE. 
 
 [MB. BAaET. 
 
 county. Sonu'timos ho would cxchan-^o tliiii 
 coiitumo for a bear-skin, enveloped in wliich, 
 and mounted occasionally on a buflali), ho was 
 indeed a most fonnidahlo looking ohject. 
 
 Tho system of Mr. Rarey now demands our 
 attention. 
 
 The tnminjT method pursued by this Ame- 
 rican gentleman has been considered very 
 
 This power of fixinjj tho eyes upon tho face successful ; at least, it has received an exten- 
 of any animal, seems to have an almost over- sive patronaj^o in this country, lie begins to 
 ■whelming ellect of bringing them into a stato make tho acquaintance of tho colt when at 
 of subjugation. It was but tho other day that j pasture, and by tho mildest means, and, alinoHt 
 we read, in an American paper, of a Yankee j without any physical signs, entices tho animal 
 
 exhibiting himself as a snake-charmer. The 
 manner in which ho proceeded was thus detailed 
 — "A tall, bony, Yankee-looking foreigner, 
 last from California, made bis appearance in 
 Virginia, with a box of snakes — rattlesnakes, 
 moccasins, black snakes, vipers, &c. lie 
 collected a crowd around him, though at a 
 respectful distance, and grasping with both 
 hands a bunch of snakes, coiled them round 
 
 to enter a stable, barn, or out-house, in tho 
 immediate neighbourhood. An old horse is 
 then let in, and the colt is, without any stir, 
 surrounded, and left alone with tlie operator. 
 Nothing of life is then permitted to be in his 
 presence save tho man who has to tame him, 
 and who strives to absorb the whole of the 
 attention of tho animal. Gentleness be- 
 comes the rule. Everything calculated to 
 
 his neck, and thrust them into his bosom, as if excite fear, or raise alarm, is discarded from 
 they were strands of silk or cotton. Their i the appearance and conduct of the man, wlio 
 twistings and turnings seemed to give him approaches the animal holding out his hands, 
 pleasure, while the by-standers were filled | and speaking to him in the softest tones. By- 
 
 with very opposite emotions. He professes 
 to tame his savage friends by moans of mes- 
 merism, and thus fights the rattlesnake with 
 his own weapon. Some in the crowd sug- 
 gested that no should take a wild, untamed 
 snake, and show his power over it, which he 
 agreed to do for twenty-five dollars. This 
 sum was readily subscribed, and a rattlc'snakcj 
 caught the day oeiore, was soon procured. 
 The operator examined him with some caution, 
 but presently turned the box over, and threw 
 the venomous reptile upon the green sward. 
 He kicked him about several times, caught 
 him by the tail, and threw him back and 
 forth, and finally seized him in the middle, 
 and held him at arm's length. The snake 
 turned his head towards him, and their eyes 
 met ; the latter fixed his gaze steadily upon 
 
 aud-by the colt gains confidence, and will ap- 
 proach him, and smell his hands, when he 
 must take the opportunity of first stroking 
 the nose, and then tho face, cheeks, and neck. 
 "When the colt has yielded itself entirely to 
 this kind of treatment, a leathern belt is very 
 quietly passed up and on to his head, which is 
 the first step towards real subjugation. For 
 this purpose a rope halter should not bo em- 
 ployed, being objectionable because of its 
 coarseness. When this is accomplished, a plain, 
 smooth snaffle-bridle, with a moderate-sized 
 snaffle-bit, is passed into the mouth, and fitted 
 to the head. All this must be done without 
 hurry, and nothing whatever should be allowed 
 to move or agitate the feelings of the animal. 
 When this has been done, the next point is to 
 landle, with the utmost gentleness, the neck. 
 
 the snake, and kept it so for several minutes, , shoulder, and near fore leg. After this, the 
 when he suddenly coiled it round his neck, shank is taken in the palm of the hand, and 
 thrust it in his bosom, as he had done the the foot raised from the ground. This move- 
 others, and the snake seemed entirely docile, i ment is assisted by pressing the back sinew 
 Two days after he repeated his experiment, i with the finger and thumb, or by turning the 
 for twenty dollars, on a large rattlesnake j colt's head and neck well to the left. When 
 which had just been caught, and with similar I tho foot has been once stirred, the operation 
 results. A crowd of ladies and gentlemen must bo repeated until the animal will permit 
 witnessed the singular exhibition. It was the foot to be bent near to the elbow-joint, 
 painful to behold, though the individual seemed and to be kept for a time in that position, 
 to have the most entire confidence in his , The body is next handled, the hand passing 
 ability to control the horrid animals." along to the hind quarter and leg. The hind 
 
 339 
 
MB. EAEET.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [mme. isabelle. 
 
 leg must now be raised as high as possible, 
 and the tail well handled. The same process 
 is then to be carried out on the left side of 
 the colt, which concludes the handling. Should 
 any disposition to restiveness be exhibited on 
 the part of the colt, both of the fore logs must 
 be immediately strapped up, and the animal 
 brought to the ground upon his knees. If 
 there is not about the depth of a foot of straw 
 on the ground, knee-caps should be employed 
 'for protection. Tor the near fore leg, the 
 strap should be an inch in breadth, and about 
 three feet in length. When the colt is 
 strapped well up, he is induced to more about 
 on three legs, the bridle being used in such a 
 manner as to effect this. When the animal 
 becomes reconciled to this condition, the 
 handling of the body and hind legs is again 
 proceeded with. When this is borne with suffi- 
 cient patience, a surcingle or roller should be 
 fastened round the body. Should there be 
 any restiveness shown by the animal while 
 bending up the near fore leg alone, the off 
 fore leg must at once be proceeded with. 
 
 The strap for this purpose must be about 
 six feet in length, of the thickness of a strong 
 rein, and about an inch or an inch and a 
 quarter in width. It has a loop of three 
 inches, or a metal D at one end. The loop or 
 D is passed round the pastern of the off fore 
 leg, the point of the strap taken through it, 
 and the strap drawn tight to the pastern. 
 The point of the strap is then carried within 
 the surcingle or roller, and held tightly in the 
 right hand. When the operator is desirous 
 of raising the off fore leg, he inclines the head 
 of the colt, by the aid of the bridle, to the 
 right or left hand ; and the instant the foot is 
 removed, it is drawn up to the surcingle with 
 force, and retained in that position, if possible. 
 Generally speaking, a succession of violent 
 plunges will succeed the fall, during the whole 
 of which the person must retain his hold upon 
 the leg ; and, by placing his shoulder to the 
 near forehand of the horse, with a strong 
 bearing upon the off-rein to bend the head 
 and neck outwards, so that the animal cannot 
 collect with advantage his muscular force, 
 be is soon compelled to yield up the con- 
 test. 
 
 AVhen the animal has become quiet, the 
 head, neck, body, limbs, and tail, should be 
 340 
 
 handled in succession, until he is completely 
 resigned to the process, and several opportuni- 
 ties should be taken to sit down upon tho 
 body, the forehand, and the hind quarters. 
 Whilst this is going on, the saddle, without 
 girths, or stirrups, may, for a short time, be 
 placed on the body, or the harness laid upon 
 the hind quarters. When you have to deal 
 with a Zebra, or a horse as savage and 
 wicked as " Cruizer" — a horse that can kick as 
 fiercely from one leg, as others can from two — 
 in that case, to subdue and compel him to lie 
 down, have a leather surcingle, with a ring 
 fastened to the belly-part ; buckle the hobbles 
 on the hind legs, and pass the ropes through 
 the ring. When the horse is thrown down 
 by strapping up the fore legs, the hind legs 
 must be drawn close up to the ring in the 
 surcingle. By-and-by the animal becomes 
 quite tamed, and is thoroughly subdued. 
 Gentleness, as far as it can possibly be prac- 
 tised, is the rule in Mr. Barey's system ; and 
 in no case is the whip or stick used, if it can 
 be avoided. 
 
 We now come to the system of Madame 
 Isabelle, who received testimonials from almost 
 all the continental authorities ; and her success 
 at the cavalry depot at Maidstone was un- 
 rivalled and unquestioned. She there broke- 
 in a horse in six lessons, the property of Lord 
 Granville ; and the feat was accomplished in 
 the presence of the Duke of AVellington, Lord 
 Zetland, General Murray, and others. But 
 what was more extraordinary, she caused the 
 horse to be broken-in by the groom of Lord 
 Granville, whom she instructed at the same 
 time in equitation. On one occasion she had a 
 mare, which had the bad habit of taking a 
 branch of the bit between her teeth, which 
 were by no means easily re-opened — and run- 
 ning away with her rider, according to her 
 own good will and pleasure. She "stood 
 over" before, and " out" behind ; in conse- 
 quence of the abuse of the " bridoon," her 
 houghs were in very bad condition, although 
 well-shaped. Madame Isabelle undertook, 
 nevertheless, to bring them round and break 
 her in, which certainly was not an easy task, 
 when the temper and physical defects of the 
 brute were considered. She succeeded, how- 
 ever, to a most extraordinary degree, and finally 
 made her " coquette" as elegant an animal 
 
MME. IBABELLE.] M OD EltN VETE Kl X A li Y rUACTlCE. [mmi:. isuielle. 
 
 ns coultl bo seen. It was upon this animftl — 
 wliioh Madame IsabfUo coiisidtTs ri,i,'litly iiamoil, 
 from tho character abovo given, ami otluT little 
 incidental pleasantries, such as niakiiiji; the 
 *' clack ot* her teeth heard," and "exhibiting 
 her foot in tho air"— that the action of tho 
 "Surfaix Cavalier" was first tried; and the 
 Buccess obtained so proved the excellence of tho 
 system, that the fair " hippodamast" at onco 
 adopted it. In a work which she has pub- 
 lished on tho subject, she says—" I subse- 
 quently applied this action to horses of all ages 
 and of every description, and discovered its 
 infallibility, inasmuch as it succeeded without 
 one single exception ; but as this action was 
 produced by the hand, it became very fatigue- 
 ing, and also could not be produced with abso- 
 lute certainty, because great tact was neces- 
 sary. I then invented the ' Iron Cavalier.' 
 I had well calculated all its desired effects, so 
 as to produce exactly the action of the hand 
 of an accomplished horseman, but with the 
 great superiority arising from its fixed posi- 
 tion, and its direct effects upon tbe salivary 
 glands, the size of which it diminishes consid- 
 erably. Thus with me the * Surfaix Cavalier' 
 solved the problem of brcaking-in." 
 
 The following explanation of this lady's 
 system is slightly altered from a review of it 
 in The Field:— 
 \ The " Surfaix Cavalier," the instrument by 
 
 which Madame Isabelle produces such an 
 effect, is the ordinary surcingle, which is put 
 on over the saddle ; and if the horse is shaped 
 in the usual way — that is, where the loins are 
 neither long nor weak, nor the withers very 
 high — the saddle should be placed four inches 
 behind the shoulder. There is a steel band 
 inserted on either side of the girths, which 
 extends from the near to the off side. The 
 " Iron Cavalier" is a flat iron rod, nearly six- 
 teen inches in length, which is fixed upon the 
 centre of the " surfaix," or surcingle, upright, 
 with a slight inclination forwards. There are 
 four cross-bars on either side of the centre 
 rod, each about four inches long, terminating 
 in circular holes for the insertion of the reins : 
 each pair is nearly four inches apart from 
 the others, the uppermost cross-bars being at 
 the extremity of the central rod, which, as 
 stated before, stands up nearly sixteen inches 
 in height. The cross-bars range across the 
 
 body of tho horao ; tho circular holes aro 
 marked in pairs, 1, 2, !}, 4 ; No. 1 being tho 
 lower pair, No. 4 tho upper. Thero aro four 
 reins, each about eight feet long, and at ono 
 end punched with iioles marked from ono to 
 twenty-four, which aro about If inches apart, 
 giving a range for tight or loose reins. Tho 
 bits are made to bo effective, but not punish- 
 ing, Tho cavessons aro lighter than usual; 
 and, during tho operation of breakiiig-in, tho 
 ordinary bit and snalllo reins are always put 
 on, in addition to those belonging to tho 
 " Surfaix Cavalier." 
 
 These are the instruments used by IMadamo 
 Isabelle; tho "Iron Cavalier" being an im- 
 provement, and a very great one indeed, upon 
 the old "dumb jockey," the effect of which 
 was to act like a stiff and rigid band upon the 
 ribs ; while the action of the " Iron Cavalier" 
 is only felt on tlie steel bands in the girth 
 when the horse draws too tightly on the reins; 
 the movement of these steel bands having the 
 same effect as the rider's legs should have. 
 With these remarks, we proceed to the in- 
 structions laid down by Madame Isabelle for 
 the breaking a saddle-horse in twelve lessons, 
 whether mounted or not. 
 
 There are twenty-seven lessons laid down as 
 necessary for a horse to go through before he 
 can be considered thoroughly broken-in. It 
 will give a clear idea of the routine, to enume- 
 rate these in their order, as they are con- 
 stantly referred to in the practical working out 
 of the object. The first gives directions " to 
 saddle and bridle" a horse, and place the 
 "Surfaix Cavalier." No. 2, "to lift the fore 
 legs; to free tho action of the legs." This 
 forms the important lesson of suppleing a horse, 
 or, as it may be literally termed, it is teach- 
 ing him the use of his legs. No. 3, " to lead 
 a horse to the riding-school." No. 4, "Pas 
 iV <jquilihre decompose, forward and backward." 
 " This movement has for its object, to accustom 
 the horse to the man, and to make him quiet 
 and attentive, two things indispensable to 
 proper breaking; to habituate him to tho 
 support of the bit, and the action of his jaws 
 upon it; to divide his powers equally and 
 regularly ; to ' lead' with the proper foot in all 
 his paces ; to prepare him for tho gallop, and 
 to rein back readily." Nos. 5 and G, "to 
 bring a horse to the knowledge of the whip 
 
 341 
 
MME. ISABELLE.T 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [mme. isabelle. 
 
 and the long whip." Nos. 7 and 8, " to bring 
 a horse to the knowledge of the spur, and 
 to start by diagonal action." Nos. 9, 10, 11, 
 and 12, are respectively "the flag, the drum 
 and pistol shot, the music, and the sabre 
 lesson." No. 13 is headed "left-about— right- 
 about." Nos. 14 and 15, "pirouette on the 
 forehand and on the haunches." Nos. 16, 17, 
 18, 19 are for " movements of the two pistes 
 or tracks," which is efi'ected by teaching a 
 horse to cross the near legs over the off legs, 
 taking generally an oblique direction, Tliis 
 movement is commonly called the "passage," 
 incorrectly, according to Madame Isabelle. No. 
 20, " to start at a walk and at a trot " No. 21, 
 " to produce a noble carriage ;" No, 22, to 
 "rein back" a horse; No. 23, "to teach the 
 effects of the reins on starting at a gallop ;" 
 No. 24, to " rassejnhler" a horse. This exer- 
 cise, with No. 2, are the two principal ones for 
 what may be termed putting a horse on his 
 legs. No. 2 is to make the horse's limbs 
 Bupple by teaching him to lift his legs properly. 
 To " r«sse7H5Zer" may be called keeping a horse 
 together. The horse's croupe is placed against 
 a wall, so that he cannot go back ; and in 
 this position, by means of the whip and the 
 click of the tongue, he is made to move all his 
 legs readily. Nos. 25 and 26 are jumping and 
 mounting lessons ; and No. 27 is the climax of 
 all — the Eiding Lesson. 
 
 In reference to these lessons, Madame Isa- 
 belle quaintly observes — " If it is not possible 
 to have a riding-school — a courtyard, a corner 
 of a garden, or even the highway will suffice 
 for want of a better substitute." And it is 
 stated as a positive rule, that " all the lessons 
 ehould be an hour and a-half long during the 
 whole of the breaking-in." In the first lesson, 
 after saddling and placing the " Surfaix Cava- 
 lier" on, the reins must be fixed in the first 
 holes, and the horse is exercised in No. 5, the 
 whip lesson ; No. 4, the pas d'equilibre decom- 
 pose ; and in No. 14, the pirouette on the shoul- 
 ders. In the second lesson, the bit reins are 
 fixed in the second holes, the snafSe reins in 
 the fourth holes. In addition to those exer- 
 cises in the first, the horse is put to No. 16, 
 the movement of the two pistes, and No. 20, 
 the starting at a walk or a trot. In Lesson 3, 
 the four reins are fixed in the seventh 
 holes,- and No. 17, the movement of the two 
 342 
 
 pistes with the lunge and the whip, and No. 
 22, the "rein back," are brought into play. 
 In Lesson 4, the four reins are fixed in the 
 eighth holes. The horse is taught No, 6, " the 
 knowledge of the long whip," and No. 18, the 
 movement of the two pistes with diagonal 
 action. In Lesson 5, the four reins are fixed 
 in the tenth holes. The horse is made ac- 
 quainted with the use of the spur. He is also 
 made to " ras^emhler" (No. 24), and to go 
 through No. 13 and No. IS. In the sixth 
 lesson, the four reins are fixed in tlio- twelfth 
 holes ; and Lessons Nos. 8, 21, £ ._. 23 are 
 added to the operations. In the seventh 
 lesson, the reins are fixed in the fifteenth holes, 
 and all the preceding operations are repeated. 
 In Lesson 8, the four reins are fixed in the 
 sixteenth holes, and the horse is " rassemlled''^ 
 and "reined back," and then is put to No. 19, 
 the movement of the two pistes, the body 
 being bent to the side to which the horse 
 moves ; but for this the reins are changed, the 
 near bit and snaffle reins are fixed in the 
 eleventh holes, and the off bit and snaffle reins 
 in the sixteenth. In the ninth lesson, the 
 reins are fixed in the eighteenth holes. 
 The horse goes through all the preceding ex- 
 ercises, and is now taught to jump. No, 25. 
 The three last lessons are devoted to repeti- 
 tions, the only diflerence being in the reining 
 up ; and the horse is then considered tho- 
 roughly broken-in and fit for the riding lesson 
 ■ — when, instead of the "Iron Cavalier," a 
 soldier appears in the saddle, and every direc- 
 tion is given for teaching him equitation. 
 
 We have thus entered somewhat minutely 
 into the system of Madame Isabelle, in order 
 to show of what it consists. The directions 
 are very minute; so much so, indeed, as in 
 some cases to appear not to be required. But 
 it has been proved by experience, that this 
 aggregate of minute points is essential for re- 
 alising the great object — namely, the speedy 
 and perfect breaking-in of the horse. Of the 
 horses in this country, Madame Isabelle ob- 
 serves, that the English use them, but do not 
 break them in, and thus it is that so many are 
 rendered vicious ; and, if the cause is sought, 
 " it loill he seen that it has arisen, amongst the 
 greatest number of them, from the injustice and 
 hrutalilg of which they have been the victims'* 
 — an additional evidence to the fact, that gen- 
 
GIBOINO.] 
 
 ^I D E 11 N V K r !•: K 1 N A K Y V R A (J 1' 1 C E. 
 
 [UITINQ. 
 
 tleues3 or humanity, whether applied to mnn J 
 or bea.st, ia ii imich better breuker-iu than . 
 cruelty or barbarity. This new systt-m ollVrs 
 every advantage that ean be desired ; it breaks- 
 in the horso quiekly, without fatiguing liim in 
 the least ; develops his powers, enlarges his j 
 action, iuereasea his speed ; renders him supple ^ 
 and elegant, gives him a perfect mouth, and ^ 
 makes him also docile and conlident with men. j 
 There is also another very material point — that 
 "the breaking-iu of the horse, and the iustruc- , 
 tion of the mau are so intimately connected, 
 that while training the animal, the mau cannot 
 fail to teach himself." 
 
 "U'e will now proceed to remark upo^ some 
 of the most prominent vices of the horse. 
 
 AVhen a horse begins to gib, persuasion 
 should be first tried ; and, afterwards, reason- 
 able coercion, but no cruelty ; for the brutality 
 which is often exercised in attempting to 
 compel a gibbiug horse to throw himself 
 habitually in the collar, never yet accom- 
 plished tlie purpose. Such an animal may be 
 put in an omuibus as a wheeler, and particu- 
 larly as the near-wheeler ; or in the middle of 
 a team at agricultural work ; and iu these situa- 
 tions he might be serviceable, but nowhere 
 else. It will be useless for him to attempt to 
 gib there, for he will be dragged on by his 
 companions whether he will or not ; and find- 
 ing the inutility of resistance, he will soon be 
 induced to work as well as any other in the 
 team. This reformation will last while he is 
 thus employed ; but, like restiveuess generally, 
 it will repossess him when he returns to his 
 former occupation. Some instances of com- 
 plete reformation have taken place ; but they 
 are the exceptions to the rule. 
 
 AVheu a horse, not accustomed to gib, be- 
 trays a reluctance to work, humanity will de- 
 maud that some examination should take place, 
 before measures of severity be resorted to. 
 Sometimes the withers are wrung, and the 
 shoulders sadly galled; and the pain, which, 
 even with a fair draught, may be intense on level 
 ground, becomes iusupportable when going up 
 a steep acclivity. These things should be ob- 
 served, and, if possible, rectified; for, under 
 such circumstances, severe punishment might 
 produce obstinacy and vice, but not willing 
 obedience. 
 
 A horse, with raw shoulders, or that have 
 
 frequently been bo, will not start with a cold 
 collar. AVhcn the collar has acquired the 
 warmth of the parts on which it preHses, the 
 animal will go without reluctance. Sonjo de- 
 termined gibbers have been reformed by con- 
 stantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth 
 round the shoulders, so that the coldneay *jf 
 the collar should never bo felt ; and others 
 have been cured by keeping on the collar night 
 and day, although the animal is not able to lie 
 down so completely at his ease, as without it; 
 aud this a tired horse ought always to be able 
 to do. When an animal gibs at his work, it 
 has sometimes been useful to lino the collar 
 with cloth instead of leather ; the perspiration 
 is more readily absorbed ; the substance which 
 presses on the shoulder is softer, and it is more 
 readily eased ofi" at a tender place. 
 
 Biting may often be the consequence of 
 natural ferocity; but it is a habit frequently 
 acquired from the foolish and teasing play of 
 grooms and stable-boys. "When a horse is 
 tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mis- 
 chievous youths, ho will first pretend to bite 
 his tormentors. By degrees he will proceed 
 farther, and actually bite them ; and very soon 
 after that, he will be the first to challenge to 
 the combat, and, without provocation, seize 
 some opportunity to gripe the incautious 
 groom ; and then, as the love of mischief is a 
 propensity too easily acquired, this war which 
 commenced half playful and half in earnest, 
 will becomo habitual to him, and will degene- 
 rate into absolute viciousuess. Nothing can 
 here be done in the way of cure. Kindness 
 would aggravate the evil, and no degree of 
 severity will correct it. Prevention ia in the 
 power of every proprietor of horses. TVhilo 
 he insists on gentle and humane treatment ot 
 his animals, he should systematically forbid 
 this horse-play. It is that which can never 
 be considered as operating as a reward, and 
 thereby rendering the animal tractable ; nor 
 does it increase the affection of the beast for 
 his groom, because he is annoyed and irritated 
 by being thus incessantly teased. 
 
 Kicking, as a vice, is another consequence 
 of the culpable habit of teasing the horse. 
 There is no cure for this vice ; and the owner 
 of kicking horses cannot be justified iu keeping 
 them. " I have seen," says Professor Stewart, 
 in his Stable Economy, " biters punished until 
 
 3i3 
 
KICKING.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [etjnning away. 
 
 they trembled in every joint, and were ready 
 to drop, but have never, in any case, known 
 them cured by this treatment, if by any other. 
 The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse 
 is as ready and determined to repeat the offence 
 as before. He appears unable to resist the 
 temptation ; and, in its worst form, biting is a 
 species of insanity." The system of Mr. Earey, 
 however, might be tried. Some acquire a 
 habit of kicking at the stall, and particularly 
 at night, from mere irritability and fidgetiness. 
 This is productive of considerable inconve- 
 nience, as disturbing the other animals; and 
 frequently the kicker does himself some injury, 
 Mares are more subject to these freaks than 
 horses. This is a habit very difficult to cor- 
 rect. "We have seen it attempted by fasten- 
 ing a thorn-bush, or a piece of furze against 
 the partition or post. When the horse finds 
 himself pricked by the bushes, it has a ten- 
 dency to prevent his kicking, and perhaps, in 
 the end, may cure him of this very disagree- 
 able and dangerous habit. Should this method, 
 however, fail, recourse is had to the log, though 
 the legs are often not a little bruised by it. A 
 rather long and heavy piece of wood, attached 
 to a chain, is buckled above the hock, so as to 
 reach about half-way down the leg. When 
 the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg 
 will receive a severe rap from the log, and the 
 repetition of the blow may induce him to be 
 quiet. 
 
 Kicking in harness, however, is a much 
 more serious vice, and those horses that are 
 so fidgety in the stable are the most apt to 
 do this. From the least annoyance about the 
 rump or quarters, some horses will kick most 
 violently, and destroy everything within their 
 reach. Cautions may certainly be used. If 
 the shafts are very strong and without flaw, 
 or if they are plated with iron underneath, and 
 a stout kicking-strap used, which will barely 
 allow the animal the proper use of hia hind limbs 
 in progression, but not permit him to raise 
 them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking, 
 he may be prevented from doing mischief. 
 Still there may be possibiUty of accident ; the 
 strap may break, and extreme danger may 
 ensue. A horse that has once begun to kick, 
 whatever may have been the original cause of 
 it, can never be depended on again; and he 
 will be very unwise who ventures to sit behind 
 U4i 
 
 him. Eor this vice Mr. Earey's system has 
 proved a thorough remedy. 
 
 Restiveness on being Mounted. — ^When the 
 difficulty of mounting arises not from eager- 
 ness to start, but from unwillingness to be 
 ridden, the sooner such a horse is disposed of 
 the better. He may be conquered by a deter- 
 mined rider, but a skilful horseman alone will 
 manage him ; and even he will not succeed 
 without many and even dangerous contests. 
 In the frequent strapping up of the near fore 
 leg, however, a remedy has been found for this 
 vice. — Mr. Earey's system is here again recom- 
 mended as a complete specific. 
 
 REARING 
 
 Sometimes proceeds from mere playfulness, 
 carried to an unpleasant and dangerous extent ; 
 but it is oftener a vice, and consists in a 
 desperate effort to unseat the rider. Some- 
 times it may be the result of using a deep 
 curb and sharp bit. Some of the best horses 
 will contend against this curb ; and if the rear- 
 ing proceeds from this cause, it may be pre- 
 vented by using a snaffle bridle. It is other- 
 wise a vice of such a dangerous description, 
 that no rational man would think of mounting 
 a horse addicted to it a second time. 
 
 The horse-breaker's remedy of pulling him 
 backward on a soft piece of ground, is not 
 only a dangerous, but a brutal one. Many 
 animals have been injured in the spine, and 
 others have broken their necks, by being thus 
 suddenly brought over ; while even the horse- 
 breaker, who fears no danger, is not always 
 able to extricate himself from the failing 
 horse. Some animals, however, will be tho- 
 roughly tamed by a persevering system of 
 soothing lessons, in which the voice of the 
 trainer must be made familiar to him. He 
 will then desist from his habit, and cease to 
 rear the moment he is spoken to. 
 
 RUNNING AWAY. 
 Some headstrong horses will occasionally 
 endeavour to bolt with the best riders. 
 Others, with their wonted sagacity, will en- 
 deavour to dislodge the timid or unskilful. 
 Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the 
 excitement of the chase ; others will run 
 away, prompted by a vicious propensity alone. 
 There is no cure for this. The method which 
 
TTOIOTJSITEBS.] 
 
 MODERN VETEKINAliY TllACTICE. 
 
 [CBIB-BlTINGk 
 
 afloril3 any probability of aucccsa, is to riJe ] 
 uith n strong curb ami sharp bit ; to have tlio 
 horse always firmly in band : and, it bo will 
 run away, and the place will admit of it, to 
 give bim (si)ariiig neitbcr curb, whip, nor 
 epur) a groat doal more running than be hUos. 
 Tborougbly trained borsc3, bowever, bavo no 
 habit of this kind. 
 
 VICIOUS TO CLEAN. 
 
 There are a great many horses quiet to ride 
 that are very difGcult to clean. The origin of 
 this is, probably, some maltreatment. la 
 YOung animals, the skin is very delicate. If 
 they have been curried with a too sharp comb, 
 or rubbed too hard with an uneven brush, the 
 recollection of the torture they may have felt 
 makes them impatient, and even vicious, 
 durino- every succeeding operation of the kind. 
 Many grooms, likewise, seem to delight in 
 producing these exhibitions of uneasiness and 
 vice ; although when they are carried a little 
 too far, and endanger the limbs of the grooms, 
 the animals that have been almost aggravated 
 into these exhibitions of irritation are bru- 
 tally kicked and punished. 
 
 This, however, is a vice wliich may be con- 
 quered. If the animal is dressed with a light 
 hand, and whisped rather than brushed, and 
 the places where the skin is most sensitive are 
 avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will 
 allow, he will gradually lose the recollection of 
 former ill-treatment, and may become tract- 
 able and quiet to be cleaned. Strapping up the 
 fore leg is a plan now adopted for the cure of 
 this vice. 
 
 VICIOUS TO SHOE. 
 
 Nothing can be more annoying to a traveller 
 than having a horse of this description. Meet- 
 ing with an accident on the road, which dc- 
 mands the attention of the smith, this func- 
 tionary is applied to, and, necessarily, dislikes 
 the job as much as the traveller would himself. 
 In nine cases out of ten, this vice has been 
 caused by want of patience, and by injudicious 
 management at the commencement of the 
 shoeing of the horse ; and it is, in reality, a 
 Very serious vice. It not only exposes the 
 animal to occasionally severe injury from his 
 own struggles, but also from the correction of 
 the irritated smith, whose limbs, and even life 
 2t 
 
 being in jeopardy, is Bomctimos a little too 
 beavy-handeii in his mode ot correction. Such 
 a horse is very liable, and without any lault oi 
 the smith, to bo pricked and lamed in shoeing; 
 and if the habit should bo confirmed, and it 
 becomes necessary to cast bim, or put him in 
 the trevis, the owner may bo assured that no 
 long time will elapse before some formidable 
 and even fatal accident will take place. 1;, 
 therefore, mild treatment will not correct the 
 vice, the animal cannot be got rid of too soon. 
 " Horses, however, that have been vicious for 
 a lifetime, are rendered quiet to shoe in one, 
 two, or three lessons of taming. Indeed, 
 upon the first instance of being thrown down, 
 and thoroughly handled while in the horizontal 
 position, the smith can shoe them with the 
 greatest ease." 
 
 Horses have many unpleasant habits in the 
 stable and on the road, which cannot be said 
 to amount to vice, but which materially lessen 
 their value. 
 
 CRIB-BITING. 
 
 The only remedy for this vice is a muzzle, 
 with bars across the bottom, wide enough to 
 enable the animal to eat his corn and pull 
 his hay, but not to grasp the edge of the 
 manger. If this be worn a very long time, 
 the horse may, possibly, forget the habit; but, 
 in the majority of cases, the desire returns 
 with the power of gratifying it. 
 
 Most of the other bad habits and vices 
 of the horse, have been remarked upon in their 
 appropriate places in previous portions of this 
 work. 
 
 This is the proper place to notice Dr. Bunt- 
 ing's patent break for harness horses, whicii is, 
 perhaps, the most complete invention that has 
 yet been made public for the purpose of sub- 
 duing vicious horses, and the training of 
 colts. " The principle," says the editor of The 
 Horse, " is the same as that in the old thrash- 
 ing machine, in which horses are placed be- 
 tween poles from a centre, and driven round in 
 a circle. Dr. B. has improved upon the machine 
 by the addition of a cart, or carriage, which is 
 fixed to the end of each pole, &c., having 
 strong bars of wood, of about fourteen feet in 
 length, placed at their extremities. These bara 
 are made *to be' movable, to admit the 
 borso between them; and to these bara the 
 
 345 
 
MEDICIJIES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 horse is strapped witli strong straps above and 
 below. The driver sits upon one of the poles, 
 and, with strong driving reins attached to the 
 horse, and a good whip, he can break in one 
 or more horses with the utmost ease. Dr. 
 Bunting's plan, in combination with that of 
 Mr. Earey, will meet every case of restiveness 
 that can enter into the perverse disposition of 
 any horse, because it combines the several 
 systems of coursing, driving, and, if necessary, 
 riding also, at one and the same time, by the 
 addition of a stable-leg in the saddle, provided 
 the leg be furnished with post-boy's leather 
 guards to protect the limbs from being crushed 
 against the poles, without the possibility of 
 danger or mischief to the animal through 
 plunging, rearing, or kicking ; since the weight 
 of the wheels, and the strength of the appa- 
 
 ratus, will immediately exhaust his strength 
 for evil, and prevent that last resource of vice, 
 the throwing down of himself. By these 
 means any description of horse can be broken- 
 in with the utmost facility, and with much 
 greater quickness than has ever yet been at- 
 tained. The slug can be roused, the impetuous 
 restrained, and the kicker and the biter will 
 soon be convinced of the uselessness of their 
 utmost efforts. This apparatus can be made 
 to hold several 'horses at the same time. A 
 common capstan-head, to move backwards a3 
 well as forwards, will answer the purpose. 
 Dr. Bunting has found that poles, of seven 
 yards in length, are the most appropriate for 
 the machine, since longer poles would be too 
 elastic, and shorter ones would too much cir- 
 cumscribe the size of the circle." 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MEDICINES, EMPLOYED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 5 
 
 xy 
 
 3 
 
 VllJ 
 
 9 
 
 iij 
 
 Err. 
 
 XX 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 The weights and measures used in the com- 
 pounding of medicines, are troy weight and 
 wine measure, which are divided and charac- 
 terised as shown in the subjoined tables. 
 
 Troy Weight. 
 The Pound (lb.) contains 12 ounces 
 " Ounce ... 8 drachms 
 " Drachm ... 3 scruples 
 " Scruple . . .20 grains 
 
 Wine Measure. 
 
 The Gallon (longum) contains 8 pints viij 
 
 " Pint . . .16 fluid ounces fl % xvj 
 
 " Fluid ounce . 8 fluid drachms fl 5 viij 
 
 " Fluid drachm . 60 minims . . w\^ Ix 
 
 AcACiyE GuMMi — Gum-arabic. 
 
 Gum is a thick, transparent, tasteless fluid, 
 which exudes from certain species of trees, and 
 is adhesive, and gradually hardens without 
 losing its transparency. It is chiefly obtained 
 from different species of the mimosa, particu- 
 346 
 
 larly M. Nilotica, a native of Egypt and Arabia, 
 whence it takes the name of gum-arabic. Its 
 specific gravity is about 1-4. It is not changed 
 by exposure to the air, but is deprived of its 
 colour by the action of the sun. By heat ifc 
 becomes soft, and is speedily reduced to the 
 state of charcoal, which enters largely into its 
 composition. Its constituent parts are carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen, with smaller proportions 
 of nitrogen and lime. The oxygen is much 
 less in quantity than the saccharine matter. ' 
 
 Gum readily dissolves in water ; and the so- 
 lution, which is thick and adhesive, is known 
 by the name of mucilage. It is soluble also 
 iu the vegetable acids. Sulphuric acid decom- 
 poses it, and converts it into water, acetic acid^ 
 and charcoal. With the assistance of heat, 
 muriatic acid and nitric acid produce a similar 
 cflect. It is insoluble iu alcohol and ether. 
 Such are the chief properties of gum-arabic, 
 which is gathered in July and August. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Mucilaginous, chiefly used 
 to form a vesicle for the exhibition of active 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 MODERN VETEllINAKT PlJArxiCE. 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 remedios ; one to two onncoa being dissolved in 
 about :i pint and a-half of water. 
 
 AciDUM AcETicuM— yic<'/i<j Acid—Vinejar. 
 Vinegar is a liquid of a reddish or yellowish 
 colour, haviniij a pleasant sour taste, and an 
 agreeable odour. Its specific gravity varies 
 from 10135 to 10-251 ; aud it ditlers also in its 
 other properties, according to tho liquid form 
 in which it has been procured. It is very sub- 
 ject to decomposition ; but Scheclo discovered, 
 that if it is made to boil for a few moments, it 
 may be kept afterwards for a long time without 
 alteration. Besides acetic acid and water, 
 vinegar contains several other ingredients, such 
 as mucilage, tartar, a colouring matter, and 
 often also two or more vegetable acids. "When 
 
 ' commonly called muriatic acid gas, or, in con- 
 j formity to more modern nomenclature, hy- 
 I droehloric aciil gas. ^luriatic acid may also 
 readily bo procured by acting upon common 
 salt with sulphuric acid ; the evolved gas must 
 be received over mercury. It was iirnt ob- 
 tained pure by Dr. Priestley, but its com- 
 position was discovered by Scheele, and after- 
 wards most ably investigated by Davy. Mu- 
 riatic acid gas extinguishes flame ; is readily 
 absorbed by water, which takes up iSO times its 
 bulk, and has a specidc gravity increase from 
 1* to 1'210. Thus dissolved in water, it forms 
 the liquid muriatic acid or spirits of salts ; 
 and may easily be procured by distilling a 
 mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and common 
 salt, as directed in the London Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 distilled at a temperature not exceeding that of I The marine acid in commerce has a straw 
 
 colour; but this is owing to accidental im- 
 purity ; for it does not obtain in the acid 
 produced by the impregnation of water with 
 the aeriform acid. The muriatic acid is one of 
 those longest known, and some of its com- 
 pounds are among those salts with which we are 
 most familiar. It should be kept in stoppered 
 bottles, and the proof of its goodness is in its 
 weight. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Caustic applied externally, 
 and the best -we have in every case where a 
 caustic is required. It is most commonly used 
 as a solvent for oxymuriate of mercury, in th* 
 liquor hydrargijris oxymuriates. 
 
 boiling-water, till about two-thirds of it have 
 passed over, all these impurities are left be- 
 hind, and the product is pure acid diluted with 
 vrater. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Very useful in sprains or 
 bruises. Equal parts of boiling-water and cold 
 vinegar form a good fomentation. Extract of 
 lead or baysalt may be added with advantage. 
 As an inward remedial agent vinegar is rarely 
 used, except in large doses, and even then it 
 Las very little power. 
 
 AciDUM Aeseniosum — Arsenic. 
 
 As some veterinarians still continue to use 
 this mineral as a tonic, we introduce it here. 
 In the metallic state it is of a bluish-white 
 colour, subject to tarnish, and to become first 
 yellowish, then black, by exposure to air. It is 
 brittle, and, when broken, exhibits a laminated 
 texture. Its specific gravity is 5'7G3. In close 
 vessels it sublimes entire at 356° Fahr., but 
 burns with a small flame, if respirable air be 
 present. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — As a tonic, of from ten to 
 twenty grains daily ; but it is not a safe medi- 
 cine. It is used also to cure ulcers. But there 
 are both better tonics and safer caustics to be 
 found. 
 
 AciDUM MuEiATicuM — Muriatic Acid — 
 Spirit of Salts. 
 
 "When equa. volumes of hydrogen and 
 chlorine gases are mixed and exposed to light, 
 they combine and produce a sour compound, 
 
 AciDUM NiTnicuM — Nitric Acid — Aqua 
 Fortis 
 
 The two principal constituent parts of our 
 atmosphere — oxygen and nitrogen gases — when 
 in certain proportions, are capable, under 
 particular circumstances, of combining che- 
 mically into one of the most powerful acids — 
 the nitric. If these gases be mixed in a proper 
 proportion in a glass tube about a line in 
 diameter, over mercury, and a series of electric 
 shocks be passed through them for some hours, 
 they will form nitric acid; or, if a solution of 
 potash be present with them, nitrate of potash 
 will be obtained. The constitution of this 
 acid may be further proved, analytically, by 
 driving it through a red-hot porcelain tube, as 
 thus it will be decomposed into oxygen and 
 nitrogen gases. Eor all practical purposes, 
 however, the nitric acid is obtained from nitrate 
 
 3i7 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AJTD 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 of potash, from which it is expelled by sulphu- 
 Iric acid. 
 
 Take Dried Nitrate of Potash . 2 lbs. 
 „ Sulphuric Acid (by weight) 2 „ 
 Mix them in a glass retort ; distil the Ditric 
 acid off by means of a sand bath, till a red 
 vapour arises ; then having added another 
 ounce of the dried nitrate of potash, continue 
 the distillation. When these are heated toge- 
 ther, a double decomposition takes place. The 
 dry sulphuric acid unites to the potash, and 
 forms sulphate of potash of what remains in 
 the retort; whilst the nitric acid disengaged, 
 unites with the water, rising in the state of 
 vapour: these become condensed in the re- 
 ceiver, and form liquid nitric acid. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Caustic and stimulant ; as 
 the former, it is applied alone ; as the latter, 
 in combination with tar. It destroys all 
 fungous excrescences by deadening them, and 
 making them slough off. 
 
 AciDUM Htdeocianicum — Priissic Acid. 
 
 JPriissic acid, in chemistry and the arts, is 
 one of the most important of the acids. It 
 was discovered by accident about the be- 
 ginning of the last century, by Diesbach, a 
 chemist of Berlin. This gentleman, wishing 
 to precipitate a decoction of cochineal with 
 an alkali, got some potash on which he had 
 distilled several times his animal oil ; and as 
 there was some sulphate of iron in the de- 
 coction, the liquor instantly exhibited a beau- 
 tiful blue in the place of a red precipitate. 
 Hence he saw the method of producing the 
 same substance at pleasure ; and it soon be- 
 came an object of commerce, and obtained 
 the name of Prussian blue, from the place 
 where it was discovered. This substance is 
 now formed, chiefly, during the decomposi- 
 tion of animal substances in high tempera- 
 tures. In a concentrated state it is a deadly 
 poison, and a few drops of it will kill a large 
 animal. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — A powerful sedative, and 
 admirable in ahaying the excitement of the 
 rervous system, "In doses of six drops," 
 says Mr. Touatt, "largely diluted, it abates 
 both pulmonary and gastric irritation. It 
 may be worth trying in the form of enema, in 
 cases of letanus. It may also be given by 
 the mouth in the same disease. The author of 
 348 
 
 this work was the first who applied the hydro- 
 cyanic acid, for the purpose of allaying irrita- 
 tion of the skin in dogs. It seldom fails of 
 producing the desired effect, and is similarly 
 effective in subduing itchiness and mange in 
 the horse." 
 
 AciDUM .SiTLPHURicuM — Sulpliuric Acid — 
 Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Sulphuric acid is generally procured by burn- 
 ing a mixture of sulphur and nitre in chambers 
 lined with lead. The sulphur burning in the 
 atmospheric air of the chamber, forms sulphu- 
 ric acid gas. The nitre gives rise to the nitric 
 oxide, which, with the oxygen of the air, pro- 
 duces nitrous acid gas. These two gases, 
 from the moisture present, form a white solid, 
 which is instantly decomposed in the water, 
 when the nitrous acid reverts to the state of 
 nitre oxide, having transferi-ed one additional 
 proportion of oxygen to the sulphureous acid, 
 forming sulphuric acid, which uniting with the 
 water, forms liquid sulphuric acid. It is a 
 liquid somewhat of an oily consistence, trans- 
 parent and colourless as water, without any 
 smell, and of a very strong acid taste. AVhen 
 applied to animal or vegetable substances, it 
 very soon destroys their texture. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Caustic and stimulative, 
 applied externally, but not very often used 
 alone, entering more into combinations. 
 
 Alumina et Potassje Super Sulphas — 
 Super Sulphate of Alum and Fotash. 
 
 This is a salt of alum. Potash and sulphu- 
 ric acid are found native in some places ; but 
 the greater quantity of the alum used in com- 
 merce is prepared from alum ores. By ex- 
 posing these to atmospheric air, the oxygen 
 unites to the sulphur of the sulphuret of iron 
 present, and becomes converted into sulphuric 
 acid, and then combining with the alumine, 
 the alum effloresces. This is subsequently 
 evaporated, and then set aside to crystallise. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Astringent ; this is only 
 used for the horse as an external application 
 in the formula. 
 
 AcoNiTi PoLiA — Leaf of Aconite, or Monk''s 
 Hood. 
 This is a perennial plant, cultivated in our 
 gardens, flowering in June, but found native 
 
ITEDICIXES.] 
 
 MODER-X VETEHINAIJY PRACTICE. 
 
 ME0ICIXE8. 
 
 in the inoiintainous parts of Gonnaiiy. It 
 should bo gathorod when tho llowora ap- 
 pf a r. 
 
 JItJi'cinal Uses.— r\ns, like ftU tho other 
 nnivotics used by tho luiinan subject, produces 
 no such elTect in tho horso. In doses of one and 
 n-half to two drachms, repeatedly given, it will 
 produce efforts to vomit, accompanied with 
 much general irritation. 
 
 Adei'S — Ilog^s Lard. 
 Medicinal Uses. — Emollient, and used for 
 the formation of ointment. 
 
 AjjCOUOTr-r-Jiecti/ted Spirits. 
 
 This spirit is sometimes given to revive a 
 horse that is sinking from extraordinary exer- 
 tion ; but it must, indeed, be an extraordinary 
 occasion when wo would recommend its use. 
 
 Aloes Caballina — Horse Aloes are Cape 
 
 Aloes. 
 
 Aloe Spicata — Spiked, or Socotrine Aloes. 
 
 Aloe Vulgaius Extractum — Common, or 
 
 Barhadoes Aloes. 
 
 The general nature of these three kinds of 
 aloes is nearly the same, the difierence being 
 only in the difterent proportions of the ex- 
 tracted gummy matter compared with the resin- 
 ous. The smell and taste reside principally 
 in the extracted matter as to their virtues, the 
 resin being nearly inert. 
 
 The leaves of the plant are cut off, ex- 
 pressed, and the juice evaporated in the sun 
 till of a fit consistence, which is then put into 
 packages. 
 
 True Socotrine aloes are very scarce. They 
 are brought to this country wrapped in skins, 
 from the island of Socotra. Such as are now 
 sold for Socotrine, is the produce of the spiked 
 aloe of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The term Caballina, applied to the Cape 
 aloes, is for the sake of distinction, although 
 it is believed that the same plant yields this, 
 and what is now sold as Socotrine, differing 
 only in quality. Cape aloes are imported in 
 chests of two to four hundred pounds' weight 
 each, enveloped in buffalo hides. The finest 
 Barbadoes are brought in gourds, or calabashes, 
 from the island of the same name, and contain 
 from twenty to fifty-six pounds each. An 
 inferior quality comes in casks. 
 
 J/idiri/ial Vsps. — Purgative and nltcrativo; 
 tho first in doses of four to eight drachma, 
 tho latter in doses of ono to three drachms. 
 Tho efiect of Capo aloes seems equal to any of 
 the others. 
 
 Ammonia Mxinw^— Muriate oj Ammunia, 
 Sal Ammoniac. 
 
 A saline concrete, formed by tho union of 
 muriatic acid with ammonia. It is obtained 
 from several sources. First, found native; 
 second, prepared from camels' dung ; third, 
 which is the principal, from soot, bones, ani- 
 mal matter, known to contain the volatile 
 alkali, as horn, &c. The process is as follows. 
 The animal matter is placed in an iron cylin- 
 drical still, to which is attached a leaden re- 
 ceiver, cooled by a refrigeratory, which is its 
 cover, and contains about four inches in depth 
 of water ; heat being a])plied, distillation is al- 
 lowed to go on. The oil which rises to the 
 surface of the distilled liquor being removed, to 
 the residue — which is impure alkaline solution 
 — is added sulphuric acid, and a sulphate of 
 ammonia is formed ; to this is added common 
 salt, when a double decomposition takes place, 
 muriate of ammonia, and sulphate of soda, be- 
 ing formed through chemical agency. These 
 being in solution, the last salt is crystallised, 
 and the first sublimes into cakes. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — liefrigerant, applied ex- 
 ternally, dissolved in vinegar, in infiammatory 
 swellings, when cold is the required object. It 
 is now used internally, but it hardly merits a 
 notice here. 
 
 [It may not be irrelevant to observe, that a 
 solution of any neutral salt in water, lowers the 
 temperature of it by robbing it of a portion of 
 its caloric, to liquefy the salt ; but the solution 
 will acquire a mean of temperature equal to 
 tho surrounding medium in which it is placed, 
 in the course of time, therefore it should bo 
 used as soon as made]. 
 
 A>'tiiem:is — Camomile. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — This is the mildest tonic 
 in veterinary practice. It is given in doses of 
 one or two drachms, to ascertain whether tho 
 febrile stage of the disease has passed away, 
 and to suggest the administration of gentian, 
 which is a more powerful tonic, and is fre- 
 quently given to the horse. 
 
 319 
 
■StilpJiate of 
 
 3j:edicines.] 
 
 AnTIMONII SuLPnUBETUM- 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Alterative and vermifuge ; 
 
 but of very little effect. Much used amongst 
 
 grooms, combined with sulphur and nitrate of 
 
 potash. Dose from half an ounce to one ounce. 
 
 AiifTiMONii Taetaeizatum — Tartarised Anti- 
 onony — Emetic Tartar. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Febrifuge in doses of half 
 a drachm to two drachms, generally in combi- 
 nation with nitre, &e. Large doses will not, in 
 the horse, produce nausea, even to the quantity 
 of an ounce. 
 
 AKCHUSiE Eadis — Alkanet Root. 
 
 The root of a perennial plant, growing in the 
 south of Europe. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Merely used for the sake 
 of its colouring matter, which it readily yields 
 to oils, fats, spirits, &c. ; but not to water. 
 
 Argenti Niteas — Nitrate of Silver — Lunar 
 Caustic. 
 
 Lunar caustic is the old name for nitrate of 
 silver, melted and cast into cylindrical pieces 
 about the size of small black-lead pencils, for 
 the use of surgeons. 
 
 Take Silver 1 oz. 
 
 „ Nitric Acid . . . . 1 11 „ 
 „ Distilled Water . . . 2 fl „ 
 Mix the nitric acid with the water, and dissolve 
 the silver with the mixture on a sand-bath ; 
 then gradually raise the heat until the nitrate 
 of silver becomes dry ; melt this in a crucible 
 over a slow fire until ebullition ceases; then 
 pour into moulds. 
 
 Decomposition. — Nitric acid is composed of 
 oxygen and azote ; and when the silver is dis- 
 solved, a portion of the acid is decomposed, its 
 azote escaping into the air with the oxygen, 
 which forms with it fumes of red nitrous acid 
 gas. The oxygen of the decomposed acid 
 unites with the silver to form into an oxide, 
 whilst the undccomposed acid dissolves, and 
 converts it into nitrate of silver. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Caustic. This appears to 
 have given place to less expensive preparations, 
 such as the nitric acid, and the sulphate of 
 copper. It is, liowever, much to be preferred 
 to the hot iron, or to any acid, for destroying 
 350 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [ilEDICIJfES. 
 
 the part in the horse, bitten by a mad dog. 
 Next to the butyr of antimony, it is the best 
 application for the removal of fungus ex- 
 crescences. 
 
 BoLiJS Armenia — Armenian Sole. 
 
 In mineralogy, bole is a mineral, found chiefly 
 in Italy, Silesia, and the isle of Lemnos. It is 
 generally of a dusky yellow or brown colour, 
 of an earthy texture, and acquires a polish 
 by friction. It has a greasy feel, and adheres 
 strongly to the tongue. On being put into 
 water it absorbs a little, and breaks into small 
 fragments with a crackling noise. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Slightly astringent and 
 absorbent. It is chiefly used for colouring 
 ointments and powders, and for lowering the 
 effect of other active remedies, as sulphate of 
 copper and alum, when used as astringent 
 powders, in case of grease, &c., &c. 
 
 Camphoeje — Camphor. 
 
 This concrete juice is extracted from the 
 wood of the laurus ca7nphora. Pure camphor 
 is white and pellucid, unctuous, of a bitterish 
 aromatic taste, and of a fragrant smell. It is 
 extremely volatile and combustible. 
 
 The roots of zedoary, thyme, rosemary, sage, 
 the linula Jiellenium, the anemone, the pasque 
 flower, or pulsa tilla, and other vegetables, give 
 camphor by distillation. It is observable, that 
 all these plants afford a much larger quantity 
 of camphor when the sap has been suffered to 
 pass to the concrete state by several months' 
 drying. Thyme and peppermint, slowly dried, 
 yield much camphor; but the roots and 
 branches of the camphor tree are its most 
 natural produce. 
 
 Camphor is not soluble in water in any per-* 
 eeptible degree, though it communicates its 
 smell to that fluid, and may be burned as it 
 floats on its surface. Alcohol, ethers, and oils, 
 dissolve it. 
 
 The addition of water to the spirituous or 
 acid solutions of camphor instantly separates it. 
 
 Camplior has long been a valuable article in 
 the materia medica, being one of the most effi- 
 cacious diaphoretics, and much esteemed for its 
 use in malignant fevers and epidemical diseases. 
 Camphoric acid is the result of the change 
 effected on camphor by repeatedly distilling 
 nitric acid from it. 
 
UEDICINES.] 
 
 MODEii^' VETElilXAIiV i'liACTlCE. 
 
 l,M£0I0IK£8. 
 
 It forms a variety of salts called camphor- 
 atcs. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Fi'brifiif,'^, internally ; 
 Btimuhuit, externally ; iu doses of ouo drachm to 
 two drachms, combined with nitro and tartarised 
 antimony. As an external aj)i)lication it is used 
 iu the euinpound soap liniment. Mixed with 
 opium, it is now used by jMr.W. Spooner iu cases 
 of locked-jaw. Tho doses are from one to two 
 drachms. Professor Morton considers it a 
 narcotic. Combined with oil of turpentine, it 
 is elfective iu relieving stilf joints after labour. 
 
 CAXTHAnis — Blistering Fly. 
 
 Cuntliaridcs, or blistering flies, in the Mate- 
 ria JIt'dica, are insects used to raise blisters, 
 and dill'er iu their size, shape, aud colour. 
 The largest are about an inch long. Some are 
 of a pure azure colour ; others of that of pure 
 gold ; aud others, again, have a mixture of gold 
 and azure colours, all brilliant aud extremely 
 beautiful. They are more common in hot 
 countries, though they are occasioually to be 
 met with iu all parts of Europe, at some 
 seasons of the year ; particularly among wheat 
 and on meadows, upon the leaves of the ash, 
 the poplar, the willow, &c. They abound in 
 Spain, Italy, and France, on several kinds of 
 trees. Those from Spain are obtained by 
 shaking the trees on which they are found, 
 and catching them in a cloth spread under- 
 neath. The}^ are then killed by the steam of 
 boiled vinegar, and dried by the sun or stove. 
 The active principle appears to reside in an 
 oil Avhich they contain. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Vesicant, applied in the 
 formulce tmguentum caniJiaridis infusium, &c. 
 Eeceutly the application of this liy has come 
 into more general use. Combined with vege- 
 table bitters, it is recommended as a stimu- 
 lating tonic in cases of debility. It has also 
 been applied to the curing of glanders. The 
 dose is from five to eight grains, given daily ; 
 but when diuresis supervenes, it must not be 
 used for a day or two. 
 
 Capsici Bacc-S — Capsicum Berries. 
 
 Capsicum, or Guinea pepper, is the fruit of 
 a berry. There are five species, the principal 
 ot which are — 1. Capsicum annum, the common 
 long-podded capsicum, which is cultivated iu 
 our gardens. Of this there is one variety 
 
 with red, and another with yellow fruit. 
 
 2. Capsicum baccatum, bird pi-ppur, rising with 
 a shrubby stalk, four or fivo feet liiyli ; tho 
 fruit grows at tho division of tho branches, 
 standing erect ; these are small, oval, and of a 
 bright red, and form what is called Cayenne 
 pepper. — 3. Capsicum grossum, the bill pepper. 
 Tho fruit of this ia red, and is tho only kind 
 fit for pickling. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Valuable as stimulants, 
 and highly to bo recommended iu cases of 
 cold. The dose is from a scruple to half a 
 drachm. 
 
 Caeui Semina — Caraway Seeds. 
 
 These alone, or in a state of combination 
 with ginger, are tho best stimulants used in 
 veterinary practice. 
 
 Catechu Exteactum — Extract of Catecnu — 
 Catechu. 
 
 Catechu is a brown astringent substance 
 formerly known by the name of Japan earth. 
 It is a dry extract, prepared from the wood of 
 a species of sensitive plant, the mimosa catechu. 
 It is imported from the East Indies. As a 
 medicine it has been recommended as a 
 powerful astringent, and a tincture of it is 
 used for this purpose; but its aqueous solu- 
 tion is less irritating. Made into troches, 
 with gum-arabic and sugar, it is an excellent; 
 preparation ; and in this way is said much to 
 assist the clearness of the voice, aud to be 
 remarkably serviceable in disorders of tho 
 throat. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Astringent. Dose from 
 two drachms to four drachms, in combination 
 with creta preparata. For wounds it is an 
 excellent application, and with aloes quickens 
 their healing wonderfully. 
 
 Ceeta Peepaeata — Prepared Chalk. 
 
 Chalk is a white, dry, calcareous earth. 
 Where it is found at all, it is the prepon- 
 derating substance, and may, therefore, be 
 considered as characterising a peculiar species 
 of mineral formation. It occurs in strata for 
 the most part nearly horizontal, alternating 
 with thin layers of flint nodules, and with the 
 same irregularly dispersed through its sub- 
 stance. It contains iu abundance the relics 
 of marine organised bodies, such as echiuites, 
 
 351 
 
MEDICIITES.] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 glossopetr(B, pectinites, &c., and also, not unfre- 
 quently, the bard parts of amphibious and land 
 animals, as the beads and vertebrae of croco- 
 diles, and the teeth of elephants. Its uses are 
 very extensive. The more compact kinds are 
 used as building stone, and are burnt to lime ; 
 nearly all the buildings in London being 
 cemented with chalk-mortar. It is also largely 
 employed in the polishing of metals and glass ; 
 in constructing moulds to cast metal in ; by 
 carpenters and others as a material to mark 
 with ; and by starch-makers and chemists to 
 dry precipitates on, for which it is peculiarly 
 qualified on account of the remarkable facility 
 with which it absorbs water. 
 
 Prepared chalk is made by washing common 
 chalk in water, and allowing the grosser parti- 
 cles, as sand, &c., to fall to the bottom ; whilst 
 the firm particles floating on the water, are 
 poured off with it into another vessel, and then 
 permitted to subside, and are afterwards made 
 into nobs, and dried. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Absorbent, anti-acid. It 
 is either given alone, or in combination with 
 kino, catechu, &c., in quantities of from four 
 ounces to six ounces in diarrhoea. To ulcers 
 that discharge a thin and ichorous matter it 
 is successfully applied. 
 
 Copaiba — Balsam Capivi. 
 
 Copaiha, or balsam of capivi, is a liquid resi- 
 nous juice which comes from the trunk of the 
 copaifera halsamum. It is distilled in water, 
 and yields a quantity of limpid essential oil. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; but, from its 
 expensivsuess, it is little used, as its proper- 
 ties are little difierent from those of other 
 diuretics. 
 
 Ceotoni Semina — Croton Seeds. 
 The Croton-nut has only recently been 
 introduced into veterinary practice, although, 
 as a very strong purgative, it has been used in 
 India from time immemorial. There are 
 many species of the plant which produce the 
 seeds, the principal of which are : — I. The tinc- 
 torium, which grows naturally in the south of 
 Trance, and from which is made the turnsole 
 used for colouring wines and jellies. This is 
 made of the juice lodged between the empale- 
 ment and the seeds; and if rubbed on cloths, 
 at tirst appears green, but soon changes to 
 
 352 
 
 a purple. If these cloths are put into water 
 they will dye it of a claret colour. The rags 
 thus dyed are brought to this country, and 
 sold under the name of turnsole. — 2. The 
 sevife/'um, or tallow tree, is about the height 
 of the cherry tree ; the leaves are heart-shaped, 
 and of a deep red colour. . The fruit is enclosed 
 in a cover like the chestnut ; and consists of 
 three white grains, each having a capsule, and 
 within that a stone. This stone is surrounded 
 with a white pulp, which is not the tallow ; 
 for that is expressed from the kernels, and the 
 Chinese make their candles of it. — 3. The 
 aromaticum, with heart-shaped serrated leaves, 
 and an arborescent stem. The bark of this 
 tree is the same with the cascarilla and eleu- 
 tlieria. It is a strong bitter, and has been 
 used in intermittent fevers in preference to 
 the Peruvian bark. — 4. The cascarilla de- 
 scribed by Dr. Wright, is the wild rosemary 
 shrub of Jamaica; but its bark has none of 
 the qualities with the preceding. — 5. The 
 Tigleiim ; one drop applied to the tongue acts 
 as a powerful cathartic. This is the one that 
 is used in horse-practice. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Cathartic, in doses, from 
 ten to thirty grains in a ball. It appears from 
 experiment from the meal, or rather cake, which 
 remains in the press after the expression of the 
 oil from the seeds, that the active principle 
 does not reside so much in the oil as in a 
 peculiar resin. Its effects are rather uncer- 
 tain. On account of the rapidity of its opera- 
 tive powder, it is given in staggers and locked- 
 jaw. Prom twenty to forty drops put on the 
 tongue of a horse produces purging ; but the 
 membrane of the mouth is often violently in- 
 flamed by it. 
 
 CuPEi SuBACETATis. ^RUGO — Sulacetate of 
 
 Copper — Verdigris. 
 
 Verdigris is principally made in the south 
 of Prance, by putting plates of copper among 
 the residuum of the grape, after the expression 
 of its juice. By frequently sprinkling them 
 with water, and allowing the grape-stalks to 
 ferment, a thick coating of verdigris is formed 
 on the surface of each plate, and is scraped off' 
 by means of a knife, then put into bags, and 
 exposed to the sun and air to dry. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Detergent and escariotic. 
 It has been administered internally, but it is 
 
SrEDICINIS.] 
 
 MODEKN VETERINAKY PllACTICE. 
 
 [medicikei. 
 
 a dangiTOus nunlicine. Externally it forms n 
 mild ciiustio. WIkmi boiled with vinegar and 
 honey, it makes the Egyptianm of the farriers, 
 which is good in ulcerated mouth, but not so 
 good as some other remedies. 
 
 Cupui SuLi'iiAs— ^«//>7/rt/e of Copper- 
 Blue Vitriol. 
 
 This is produced by the union of sulphuric 
 acid and copper. It is also })rocured by wash- 
 ing copper pyrites, and exposing them to the 
 action of air and moisture. AVhea required 
 for these purposes, it may be made in the 
 same manner as sulphate of zinc, by putting 
 pieces of copper into diluted sulphuric acid, 
 contained in a glass vessel, and when the effer- 
 vescence has ceased, filtering the solution 
 through paper, and boiling it down till a 
 pellicle appears ou the surface ; then setting 
 it aside that crystals may form, which are to 
 be dried in bibulous paper. 
 
 Decomposition. — Concentrated, it does not 
 act on the metals at the ordinary temperature 
 of tbe atmosphere. These require to be diluted 
 when action goes on rapidly ; the water is de- 
 composed, its oxygen unites to the copper, 
 and converts it into an oxide, which is dis- 
 solved by the sulphuric acid, and forms 
 sulphate of copper, whilst its hydrogen escapes 
 in the form of gas. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Tonic, internally ; stimu- 
 lant and escharotic externally, given in doses 
 of from one to two drachms, combined with 
 ginger, as a general tonic, in the form of balls ; 
 but when given, in cases of glanders and farcy, 
 in doses of from four to eight drachms, it is 
 advisable to make it into a draught, by dissolv- 
 ing it in about two pints of water, and adding 
 an ounce of linseed meal to the solution. Its 
 value in these diseases, however, is almost 
 entirely considered to have ceased. Exter- 
 nally, it is applied either in solution or in 
 powder. When applied in solution, it is in 
 the proportion of two drachms to a pint, when 
 it acts as a gentle stimulant. An ounce dis- 
 solved in the same quantity converts it into a 
 mild caustic. Eor canker in the foot, the blue 
 vitriol is a good application. 
 
 Digitalis Folia — Fox-Glove Leaf, or 
 Digitalis. 
 
 Of the digitalis, or fox-glove, there are 
 2 z 
 
 several species, five of which are herbaceous, 
 biennial, and perennial plants. Tlio herbaceous 
 species rise two or three feet high, crowned 
 with spikes of yellow, iron-coloured, or purplo 
 (lowers. The canariensis, or shrubby sort, 
 rises five or six feet high, having spear-shajjcd 
 rough leaves, the branches being terminated 
 with flowers growing in loose spikes. All the 
 species are easily raised by seeds. An oint- 
 ment made of the llowers of purple fox-glovo 
 and fresh butter, is commended by some sur- 
 geons for scrofulous ulcers. Taken inter- 
 nally, the plant is a purgative and emetic; 
 and is, therefore, only to be administered to 
 robust constitutions. An infusion of two 
 drachms of the leaf in a pint of water, given 
 in half-ounce doses, every two hours, till it 
 causes vomiting or purging, is recommended 
 in dropsy, particularly that of the breast. The 
 leaves are the part of the plant used medici- 
 nally, which should be gathered just as the 
 plant is in flower, and dried quickly in the shade; 
 or, what is still better, secluded entirely from 
 light. Let them bo powdered, and kept in 
 well-stopped bottles for use. . 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Sedative, given in doses of 
 from half a drachm to two drachms, in the form 
 of a ball. The effect of digitalis requires watch- 
 ing; although the over-dose will only lower the 
 vital energies of the patient in cases of intermit- 
 tent fever. In the form of tincture it is ex- 
 cellent for inflammation of the eyes ; and as a 
 sedative it is nearly equal to opium. An infu- 
 sion of it has, also, been found serviceable in 
 mange. 
 
 ExTEACTUM Belladonna — Extract of Deadly 
 Nightshade. 
 
 This is prepared by bruising the leaves of 
 the plant in a stone mortar, sprinkling a little 
 water on them, and then pressing out the juice 
 and evaporating. It must stand until it ac- 
 quires a thick consistency. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant. It is only 
 used as an application to the eye, to cure a 
 morbid contraction of the iris, or rather its 
 circular fibres, in quantities of from two to five 
 grains. 
 
 EupnoEBii GuMMi Eesini — Euphorlium. 
 The name of resin is used to denote solid 
 inflammable substances, of vegetable origm, 
 
 353 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 soluble in alcohol, usually affording much soot 
 by their combustion. They are likewise solu- 
 ble in oils, but not at all in water, and are 
 more or less acted on by the alkalies. All the 
 resins appear to be nothing more than volatile 
 oils, rendered concrete by their combination 
 with oxygen. Analysed by MM. Gay Lussac 
 and Thenard, resin was found to consist of 
 
 Carbon, . .75-944 
 
 Hydrogen . . 10-719 ) Water, 15-156. 
 
 Oxygen . . 13-373 j Hydrogen in excess, 8-9- 
 The resin of fir is known by the name of 
 rosin. Its properties are well known. Its 
 specific gravity is 1072. It melts readily; 
 burns with a yellow light, throwing ofi:' much 
 smoke. Eesin is insoluble in water, either hot 
 or cold, but very soluble in alcohol. 
 
 The plant which yields euphorbium is peren- 
 nial, succulent, and shrubby. It is obtained 
 by making incisions in the branches, from 
 which a lartious gum exudes, and concretes 
 into drops. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant. Eubefacient. 
 It is used externally, entering into the com- 
 pound unguentum cantharides. Internally it 
 is given as a diuretic, in doses of from five to 
 six drachms, made into a ball, with soft soap. 
 A preference, however, is given to the common 
 liquid turpentine. 
 
 Fekei Sulphas — Sulphate of Iron — Copperas. 
 
 Copperas is the green salt sulphate of iron ; 
 and the blue salt sulphate of copper is also 
 sometimes called copperas. 
 
 Take of Iron (by weight) 
 „ Sulphuric Acid . 
 „ "\A'ater . 
 
 8 oz. 
 8 „ 
 4 „ 
 
 Mix the sulphuric acid with the water, in a 
 glass retort, and to tliis add the iron in the 
 form of filings. When bubbles cease to escape, 
 filter the solution through paper, and evapo- 
 rate over a slow fire, so that, as it cools, crys- 
 tals may form. Having poured off" the super- 
 natant fluid, dry the crystals upon bibulous 
 paper. 
 
 Gentiana — Gentian. 
 Of this plant there are many species. The 
 most remarkable are the lutea, or common 
 gentian, the root of which is an excellent 
 stomachic bitter ; and the lesser centaury. 
 354 
 
 Decomposition. — Water consists of oxygen 
 and hydrogen, and a portion of it is decom- 
 posed by the action of the sulphuric acid and 
 iron. Its oxygen unites to iron, converting it 
 into an oxide of iron; before which the sul- 
 phuric acid will not act upon it, whilst its 
 hydrogen being set free, escapes in the form 
 of gas. The oxide of iron is then dissolved 
 by the sulphuric acid, and sulphate of iron is 
 formed. 
 
 Jiledicinal Uses. — Tonic ; combined with 
 ginger. — Carbonate of Iron is a mild tonic 
 given in doses of from two to four drachms. — 
 As a stomachic, and a tonic, gentian holds 
 the highest place in veterinary practice. 
 Four drachms of it, two of camomile, one 
 of ginger, and one of carbonate of iron, 
 make an admirable tonic ball. An applica- 
 tion of an infusion of gentian to putrid ulcers 
 is one of the best. 
 
 Gltcyeehiz^ Eadix — Zigfuoriee Boot. 
 
 The glycyrrliiza, or common liquorice sJirub, 
 has a long, thick, creeping root, striking several 
 feet deep into the ground. It is an annual, with 
 an upright, firm, herbaceous stalk, three or four 
 feet high, garnished with winged leaves, of four 
 or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by an odd 
 one ; and from the axillas, erect spikes of pale 
 blue flowers in July, are succeeded by short, 
 smooth pods. The root of this plant is the 
 useful part, being replete with a sweet, bal- 
 samic, pectoral juice, which is either extracted, 
 or the wood sold in substance. It is much 
 used in all compositions for coughs, and disor- 
 ders of the stomach ; but by far the greatest 
 quantity is used by brewers. The common 
 liquorice is cultivated in most countries of 
 Europe, for the sake of its root ; but in Spain 
 and Italy, and particularly in Sicily and Cala- 
 bria, it makes a considerable article of com- 
 merce with this country. Liquorice also 
 grows in great abundance in the Levant ; and 
 vast quantities of it are consumed there, in 
 making a decoction which is drunk cold in the 
 summer, in the manner of sherbet. 
 
 To prepare liquorice, the roots are boiled a 
 long time in water, till the fluid acquires a 
 deep yellow tincture ; and the water at length 
 evaporated till the remains assume consis- 
 tencv, when they are formed into sticks, which 
 are packed up with bay leaves, in the same 
 
MIDICINES.J 
 
 MODERN VETEKINAllY PllACTICE. 
 
 [medicikes. 
 
 orilcr as rccoivod in Eiigliuul. The boiling 
 requires tlio utmost care and precaution, as 
 the juico takes an unpleasant smell ami llavour, 
 if burnt in the least degree. "Wo introduce it 
 bere, not on account of any value it has in 
 veterinary practice, but because, when dried 
 and ground, it is used for adding to bulk, 
 rather than for any other purpose. 
 MtJiciiial Uses. — Demulcent. 
 
 Hydrakgyki'M — QuicAsihe) — Mercuri/. 
 
 Mercury is a metal, which, in our climate, 
 is always lluid, but in intense cold it becomes 
 solid, and then resembles silver in appearance, 
 and is malleable. It is sometimes found na- 
 tive, but much more frequently combined with 
 sulphur, when it is denominated cinnabar. It 
 is separated from the sulphur by distillation 
 with quicklime, or iron filings. It is obtained 
 abundantly in the Austrian territories, and in 
 South America, and has a great affinity for 
 other metals. One hundred pounds of the ore 
 give about one hundred and throe pounds of 
 quicksilver. 
 
 Mtdicinal Uses. — Only employed for making 
 mercurial preparations. 
 
 Htdeaegtri Oxtmubiatis — Oxymuriaie of 
 Mercury — Corrosive Siihlimate. 
 
 Take of Purified Mercury (by weight) 2 lb. 
 „ Sulphuric Acid . . . . 30 oz. 
 „ Dried Muriate of Soda . . 4 lb. 
 
 Boil the mercury with the sulphuric acid in 
 a glass vessel, until the sulphate of mercury 
 becomes dry. Hub this, when it is cold, with 
 the muriate of soda, in an earthen mortar ; 
 then sublime in a glass, the heat being gra- 
 dually raised. 
 
 Decomposition. — When sulphuric acid and 
 purified mercury are boiled together, a portion 
 of the acid is decomposed and separated into 
 sulphurous acid oxygen; the former being dis- 
 sipated in the gaseous state, the latter com- 
 bines with the mercury, and converts it into 
 peroxide ; and this uniting with the undecom- 
 posed acid, a super-sulphate of peroxide, or 
 bifer sulphate of mercury, is formed. To this 
 the salt is added, when another decomposition 
 takes place, as follows. 
 
 We consider salt as a compound of chlo- 
 rate and sodium. This, when heated with the 
 bifer sulphate of mercury, is decomposed by it ; 
 
 tho sodium is converted into Boda bv its com- 
 bination with the oxygen from tho mercury 
 which is dissolved by tho sulphuric acid, and 
 forms sulphate of soda; whilst tho chlorino 
 unites with tho mercury, and forma peroxido 
 or chloride of mercury. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Caustic, applied exter- 
 nally, either mixed with grease or in solution, 
 as in tho formula, li(]uor hydrargyri oxy- 
 muriatis. 
 
 Iodine. 
 Iodine has only recently been introduced 
 into veterinary practice, but it has now ob- 
 tained a high reputation. In the Manual of 
 Pharmacy, by Professor Morton, the different 
 combinations in which iodiue may be used 
 are described. Under the name of diniodide 
 of copper, he describes it as an admirable tonic, 
 if combined with vegteable tonics, and espe- 
 cially small doses of cantharides. This combi- 
 nation Professor Spooncr and Mr. Davis have 
 applied with decided success, to the alleviatioa 
 of farcy, glanders, and nasal gleet. 
 
 Hydeakgyei SuBMuniA — Siihmuriate of 
 Mercury — Calomel. 
 
 Take of Purified Mercury (by weight) 4 lb. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid oO oz. 
 
 Muriate of Soda 1-Wb. 
 
 INIuriate of Ammonia . . . . 8 oz. 
 
 Boil 21b. of the mercury with tho sulphurio 
 acid in a glass vessel, until tho mercury 
 formed is dry. AYhen this is cold, triturate it 
 with the other 21b. of mercury in an earthen 
 mortar ; then add the muriate of soda, and rub 
 them together, until globules are no longer 
 visible. Afterwards reduce the sublimed 
 matter to a very fine powder ; pass it through 
 a sieve, and mix it very carefully with the 
 muriate of ammonia, previously dissolved in a 
 gallon of boiling distilled water; set it by, that 
 the powder may subside. Pour off the solution, 
 and wash the powder frequently with boiling 
 distilled water, until solution of ammonia 
 drops, and throws down precipitate ; lastly, let 
 it be reduced to a very fine powder. 
 
 Decomposition. — It is the same as the pre- 
 ceding article, with only this difference ; that 
 one-half of the chlorine unites with the fresh 
 portion of mercury added, so that the per or 
 bi-chloride becomes converted into chloride, or 
 
 355 
 
MEDICINES,] 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 pro-chloride of mercury. The muriate of am- 
 monia appears to be added for the purpose of 
 dissolving any corrosive sublimate which may 
 be formed with the calomel. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Anthelmiatic, or vermi- 
 fuge and alterative ; for these it is given, in 
 doses of from one to two drachms, in the form 
 of a ball, at night, and a dose of aloes in the 
 morning. It is used in cases of surfeit, worms, 
 or mange ; also, sometimes, for chronic cough, 
 farcy, and jaundice. Taken alone, it is only 
 slightly purgative on the horse, and is given 
 in doses of from a scruple to a drachm. In 
 Girresting the violence of epidemic catarrh, 
 calomel has recently gained a high reputation. 
 
 Kino — Xi?io. 
 
 An extract, prepared from a non- descriptive 
 African tree. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Astringent, given in doses 
 of from two to four drachms, generally in com- 
 bination with chalk. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Lime is one of those earthy substances 
 which exist in every part of the known world, 
 and is found purest in limestone, marble, and 
 chalk. None of these substances are lime, but 
 are capable of becoming so by being burnt in a 
 white heat.' — It may be also obtained perfectly 
 pure by burning calcareous spars, and also by 
 burning some pure white marbles. It may be 
 procured also in a state of purity by dissolving 
 oyster-shells in muriatic acid. It has been 
 ascertained by Sir H. Davy to consist of oxy- 
 gen and a metallic basis, which he denominates 
 calcium. 
 
 LiNi Semina — Linseed. 
 
 The seed of the common flax, a well-known 
 annual plant, which flowers in July ; the seed 
 ripens in September. 
 
 Medici^ial Uses. — Demulcent, given in any 
 quantity. Two ounces of the seed, boiled in two 
 pints of water for a short time, will form an 
 excellent jelly-like-fluid, for the administration 
 of any of the sulpliates. In cases of sore throat 
 or catarrh, aff"ection3 of the bowels or the 
 urinary organs, an infusion of it is frequently 
 given instead of water. Tliin gruel, however, 
 is to be preferred. As a poultice the meal 
 answers almost for every purpose. 
 356 
 
 Mteehje — Myrrh. 
 
 Myrrh is a gum resin brought from the Le- 
 vant and East Indies, and used in medicine. It 
 is hard, dry, glossy, of a reddish-brown colour, 
 with an admixture of yellow; transparent or 
 opaque ; of a peculiarly strong smell, and a 
 bitter, somewhat biting taste. "With water it 
 forms a yellow opaque solution, and by distilla- 
 tion yields an essential oil. It is imported 
 into this country in chests. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant, applied exter- 
 nally, in the form of tincture. United to the 
 tincture of aloes it may be applied to wounds 
 as a stimulative and digestive agent. In- 
 wardly, however, it is of little use, although, 
 when combined with opium, it is sometimes 
 administered in cases of chronic cough. 
 
 NicoTiANA — Tobacco. 
 
 Of this narcotic there are several kinds. 
 English tobacco seldom grows to more than 
 three feet in height, having smooth alternate 
 leaves upon short foot-stalks ; flowers in small 
 loose bunches on the top of the stalks, of a yellow 
 colour, appearing in July ; which are succeeded 
 by roundish capsules, ripening in the autumn. 
 Sir Walter Ealeigh, on his return from Ame- 
 rica, is said to have first introduced the smoking 
 of tobacco into England. In a house in which 
 he lived, at Islington, his arms are said still 
 to be seen, with a tobacco plant on the top of 
 the shield. It is remarkable that tobacco has 
 prevailed over the original name, petiim, in all 
 the European languages, with very little vari- 
 ation, and even in Tartary and Japan. To- 
 bacco is derived from the island of Tobago. 
 Petum is the Brazilian name. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Limited ; but, in the hands 
 of a good practitioner, may be rendered service- 
 able in extreme cases of costiveness, or in dan- 
 gerous colic. Let it never be used internally 
 for the promotion of a fine coat, or as an exter- 
 nal application for mange. 
 
 Oleum OLiviE — Olive Oil. 
 
 The olive tree is a native of the South of 
 Europe, cultivated in great abundance in 
 France and Spain. It seldom becomes large; 
 but two or three stems frequently rise from the 
 same root, from twenty to thirty feet in height, 
 putting forth branches almost their whole 
 
MIDICIKES.] 
 
 MODERN VETEllIXAliY PUACTICE. 
 
 [UKUICIMKa. 
 
 length, oovoroil with a. groyish bark. The oil 
 ia produced from the ripo fruit wliieli is 
 gathered iu November.aiul iininodiately crushed 
 in a mill, tho stones of whicli aro kept so wide 
 as not to bruise the nut. The pulp is sub- 
 jected to the pressing bags, made of rushes; 
 and by means of gentle squeezing the best oil 
 flows first. A second oil is yielded by breaking 
 the mass, moistening it with warm water, and 
 turning it to the press. A third, and still in- 
 ferior sort, is obtained by boiling the residue, 
 or bv breaking, moistening, and fermenting it 
 in large cisterns, and again submitting it to 
 the full force of the press. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Aperient to an inconsider- 
 able extent in the horse. Emollient. It may 
 be given in the quantity of a pint. Over 
 castor oil it possesses no advantage. It enters 
 into the composition of liniments, &c. 
 
 OLEUii Picis Liquid.^— OiZ of Tar. 
 
 Take of Tai- .... 5 lbs. 
 „ Water 4 pints. 
 
 Distil from a retort with great care. "What 
 remains in the retort is pitch. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant and irritant. 
 This is only used as an external application, 
 either alone, or combined with olive oil, as in 
 the Linimentum Ficis Liquidce. 
 
 Oletjm SuLPnTJEATUii — Sulpliuratcd Oil. 
 
 Take of Washed Sulpliur . . 2 oz. 
 „ Olive Oil . . . .1 pint. 
 
 Heat the oil in a very large iron vessel, and 
 add the sulphur by degrees to it ; and keep 
 constantly stirring them with a spatula, till 
 they are combined. This is merely a solution 
 of sulphur and oil. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Used, in the language of 
 the laboratory, to kill the quicksilver in 
 making the Unguentum Hydrargyri Fortius. 
 
 OiErii TEItIBI^'TUINA — Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 Take of Common Turpentine . o lbs. 
 „ „ AVater . . . 4 oz. 
 
 Distil the oil from a copper alembic with 
 great care. "What remains in the retort is 
 resin. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; stimulant ; given 
 in doses of from two drachms to one ounce; 
 this acts as a diuretic ; but in doses of from 
 
 tho intestines in cases of gripes. Applied to 
 the ttkiii, it is a violent irritant ; but combined 
 with olive oil, it forms a useful embrocation. 
 
 Oi'iL'M — Opium. 
 
 The wliito poppy, of which this is the pro- 
 duce, is a native of Asia; but is sometimes 
 found growing wild in England. Tho market 
 is principally supplied with opium from 
 Turkey, though the poppy is cultivated iu 
 almost all states in Europe. To obtain opium, 
 the half-ripe capsules have all, after sunset, 
 longitudinal excisions made in them. Tho 
 night dews favour the exudation of tho juice, 
 which is collected, in the morning, by means of 
 a small iron scoop. It is then deposited in an 
 earthen pot, where the whole is worked by 
 the hand, in the sunshine, until it has acquired 
 a considerable degree of spissitude. It is 
 then formed into cakes, which are laid in 
 basins to be further dried. Then they are 
 covered with tobacco, or poppy leaves, and 
 packed in chests, in which state they are im- 
 ported to this country. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Producing but little effect 
 on the horse; none as a narcotic; like the 
 narcotic used by the human subject, generally 
 acting as an irritant. It is, however, a power- 
 ful astringent, sedative, and anti-spasmodic. 
 In the treatment of tetanus, or locked-jaw, it 
 is greatly relied on in veterinarian practice. It 
 should, however, at all times, be administered 
 with caution. In cases of ophthalmia it is 
 useful, applied externally. If, in instances 
 where the cantharides, or blue vitriol, have 
 been used to too great an extent, there is no 
 drug equal to opium for quieting the disorder 
 they may have occasioned. It is adminis- 
 tered in the form of a ball, in doses of one or 
 two drachms, according to circumstances; 
 other medicines arc generally combined with it. 
 
 Petroleum — Barhadoes Tar. 
 
 This variety of bitumen is collected from 
 the surface of water, which exudes from the 
 sides of hills, in which pits are sunk for its 
 reception, and skimmed every week. It is the 
 same as naphtha — now a well-known liquid m 
 this country. 
 
 Medicinal Uses.— St'inm\ant. It is applied 
 externally, but possesses no advantage over 
 
 four ounces to eight, it acts as a stimulant to 1 common tar 
 
 357 
 
MEDICIXES.] 
 
 THE HOESE. AFD 
 
 [medici>"es. 
 
 Pix NiGEA— JBZ«c/j FitcJi. 
 
 This is the residue in the retort after the 
 distillation of the oil from tar. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Slightly stimulant, and 
 adhesive; but seldom used. 
 
 Pix Liquida — Tar. 
 
 This is obtained by placing billets of the 
 Scotch fir in large stacks, which are closely 
 covered with turf, and to whicli fire is then ap- 
 plied. They are suffered to burn with a slow, 
 smothered flame ; during which time tar is 
 formed by the decomposition of the resinous 
 juice of the wood, which flows to the bottom, 
 and runs out at a small channel cut for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant applied exter- 
 nally, entering into the composition of Unguen- 
 tum Ficis Liquida. Melted with an equal 
 quantity of grease it makes the common stop- 
 ping of the farrier, and is extremely useful 
 for dressing bruised or wounded feet. Its 
 chief value, however, in veterinary practice 
 does not arise from its keeping out dirt and 
 water from the wounded part, but from its mol- 
 lifying influences on the horse itself, making 
 the part more elastic, yet softer, and less 
 likely to break away. It is the proper basis 
 of thrush ointment, and is also used as an 
 ingredient in the applications for mange. The 
 spirit of tar, combined with double the quan- 
 tity of fish oil, is one of the very best appli- 
 cations that can be made to hard and brittle 
 feet. Tar is sometimes given in doses of two 
 or three drachms, in cases of chronic cough. 
 
 Plumbi OxTDUii Semivitium — Semivitrijied 
 Oxide of Lead — Litharge. 
 
 Lead is a white metal of a considerably blue 
 tinge ; very soft and flexible ; not very tenacious. 
 Its sp. gr. is 11-35. It melts at 612 deg. 
 
 This oxide of lead is prepared by the action 
 of heat and air upon the metal. The lead is 
 placed upon a warm furnace in a hollow dish 
 made of ashes, and kept at a red heat with the 
 blast of a large pair of bellows directed on its 
 surface. An oxide soon appears, and is suc- 
 cessively formed by rakiug it, and exposing it 
 to a new surface. 
 
 All the oxides of lead are easily revived 
 with heat and carbon. Oxygen and lead com- 
 358 
 
 bine together in difierent proportions. If the 
 nitrate of lead be dissolved in a precipitation 
 produced by potash, the precipitate, when 
 dried, will become the yellow protoxide. If it 
 be somewhat vitrified, it constitutes litharge : 
 and combined with carbonic acid, it becomes 
 white lead, or ceruse. Lead, alloyed with an 
 equal weight of tin, ceases to be acted upon by 
 vinegar. Acetate and sub-acetate of lead have 
 a good eftecfc, as external applications, for in- 
 flamed surfaces, burns, scrofulous sores, and as 
 eye-washes. Lead, taken internallv. is very 
 injurious ; hence the diseases to whl,_ painters 
 are liable. Litharge, dissolved in wines, to 
 give them a sweet taste, is very mischievous. 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen will cause it to throw- 
 down a black precipitate. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — In making the \\c^ov plumhi 
 suj^eracetatis. Eor the deleterious effects pro- 
 duced upon animals in the neighbourhood of 
 lead works, active purgatives, followed by opium, 
 are the most efi'ective remedies 
 
 Plumbi Supeeacetatis — Superacetate of 
 Lead. 
 
 Take of Carbonate of Lead » 1 lb. 
 
 „ Acetic Acid . . . 1| gallon. 
 
 Boil the carbonate of lead with the acid until it 
 is saturated, then filter it through paper, and 
 evaporate it until a pellicle appears. Set it 
 aside to crystallise from off the super natant 
 born fluid, and dry the crystals on blotting- 
 paper. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Cooling, applied externally 
 in the form of solution, for inflammation of the 
 eyes. Goulard's ointiDent, however, is a better 
 preparation for external and superficial inflam* 
 mation. 
 
 PoTASSiE NiTEAS — Nitrate of Fotasli — Nitre, 
 
 Nitre is the common name of the nitrate of 
 potash. It is known by the name of saltpetre, 
 and is found ready formed in the East Indies, 
 in Spain, in the kingdom of Naples, and else- 
 where, in considerable quantities ; but nitrate 
 of lime is still more abundant. Far the 
 greater part of the nitrate made use of, is pro- 
 duced by a combination of circumstances 
 which tend to compose and condense nitric 
 acid. This acid appears to be produced in all 
 situations where animal matters are completely 
 decomposed through the action of air upon 
 
SflDICIXES.] 
 
 MODEKX VETElilXAKY i'liACTlCE. 
 
 [M£DICi>'B8. 
 
 substancfs witli which it can rfudlly combine. ] 
 Grouiuld Iroiiuciitly troddcu by c:iltli', ami 
 impregnated with their excrement, or the 
 walls of inhabited places where putrid animal 
 vapours abound, sucli as slaughter-houses, 
 drains, or the like, allbrd nitro by long ex- 
 posure to the air. Artilicial nitre-beds are 
 made bv au attention to the circumstances in 
 which this salt is produced by nature. The 
 crystals of nitre are usually of tlie forms of six- 
 sided flattened prisms, with dihedral summits. 
 Its taste is penetrating; but the cold produced 
 bv placing the salt to dissolve in the mouth, is 
 such as to predominate over the real taste at 
 first. Seven parts of water dissolve two of 
 nitre, at the temperature of sixty degrees ; but 
 boiling water dissolves its own weight. On 
 being exposed to a gentle heat, nitre fuses ; 
 and in this state, being poured into moulds, so 
 as to form little round cakes or balls, it is 
 called sal i-)runeUa, or crystal mineral. The 
 uses of nitre are various. Besides those 
 already indicated, it enters into the composi- 
 tion of fluxes, and is extensively employed in 
 metallurgy. It serves to promote the com- 
 bustion of sulphur in fabricating its acid ; it is 
 used in the art of dyeing ; it is added to com- 
 mon salt for preserving meat, to which it gives 
 a red hue ; it is an ingredient in some frigo- 
 rific mixtures, and it is prescribed in medicine 
 as cooling, febrifuge, and diuretic ; and some 
 have recommended it mixed with vinegar, 
 as a very powerful remedy for the sea scurvy. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Antiseptic, given in doses 
 of from one to two ounces ; externally in solu- 
 tion, one ounce in ten ounces of water as a 
 preventive of gangrene. The spirit of nitrous 
 ether is valuable in advanced stages of fever, 
 given in doses of three or four drachms. 
 
 Pteboeaepi Lignuai — Red Saunders Wood. 
 
 This tree is a native of the mountains of 
 India and Ceylon, the wood of which is 
 brought to England in billets, which are very 
 heavy, and sink in water. It is merely used 
 for its colouring matter, which it yields readily 
 to spirits. 
 
 QuEECUS CoETEX — OaJc BurJc. 
 
 This is prepared from the small branches in 
 spring, when it contains four times its astrin- 
 gent principles to what it does in winter. 
 
 IvKsiN.v. Fj.ava — Yellow licsiu. 
 
 The residue in tho retort, after the distilla- 
 tion of tho oil from tho common turpentine ; 
 but should the process, from tho distillation of 
 the turpentine, be carried oa without water, 
 what remains in tho retort will be amber- 
 coloured resin; but this is easily made yellow, 
 by adding, while it is fluid, a small quantity of 
 water, shaken together. 
 
 Mcdiciudl Uses. — Diuretic, in doses of from 
 four to eight drachms, combined with soap, in 
 the form of a ball, making the bolus according 
 to tlie directions of the college. 
 
 Sapo Castil — Castile Soap. 
 
 This soap is prepared, in Spain, and takes its 
 name from a city in that country. It is 
 formed by the combination of barilla with 
 olive oil ; to which is added a small quantity 
 of sulphate of iron, which gives it its marble 
 appearance. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Slightly diuretic; rarely 
 given alone ; chiefly in union with resin. 
 
 Sapo Mollis — Sofi Soap. 
 
 This is made in the same way as the above, 
 with the exception, that potash is used instead 
 of barilla or soda, and the colouring matter 
 left out. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — As the former ; in case of 
 gripes caused by the exhibition of sulphate 
 of copper, from two to four ounces, dissolved 
 in water, have been given with great suc- 
 cess. 
 
 SoDir CnLOEiDUM— C(9?;2?«o?2 Salt. 
 
 The preparation of that kind of salt which 
 is used for culinary and economical purposes 
 (muriate of soda), depends upon the well-known 
 fact, that the salt contained in the sea-water, 
 or brine springs, being a fixed body, will not 
 rise with the vapour of the water. All, there- 
 fore, that is wanted, is to expose any water, 
 containing salt, to evaporation. Tiie veteri- 
 narian employs common salt largely ; and when 
 sprinkled over hay, or in a mash, is liked by 
 sick horses, to which it sometimes proves emi- 
 nently beneficial. 
 
 3Iedicinal Z7sc5.— Aperient ; a solution of 
 half a drachm of salt in four ounces of water, 
 forms an excellent lotion for inflamed eyes. 
 
 359 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 THE HORSE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 SiNAPis — Mustard. 
 
 A genus of plants belonging to the class of 
 tetradynamia, and to the order of siliqiiosa ; 
 and in the natural system it is ranged under 
 the 39th order, siliquosce. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — This has been applied to 
 the throat, chest, and bowels, in cases of in- 
 flammation. It is done by rubbing, which, 
 exciting an outward irritation, allays the in- 
 flammation within. 
 
 Spieitus Eectificatus — Bedified Spirits of 
 Wine. 
 
 This may be obtained by distillation from 
 any vegetable substance, in which the vinous 
 fermentation is not completely over ; the first 
 result is ardent spirits, as brandy, rum, &c. 
 It is from redistillation that rectified spirits are 
 produced, which is very simple, being nothing 
 more than the repetition of the process of dis- 
 tillation, with the addition, if necessary, of 
 some alkali or lime, to destroy the empyrema 
 tic flavour, and absorb the water. Proof 
 spirits is made by mixing nearly equal parts of 
 water and rectified spirits. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant ; principally 
 used as a menstruum. 
 
 SuLPHTJE SuBLiMATUM — SulUmed Sulpliiir. 
 
 Sulphur is a well-known substance, sold in 
 the form of a powder, or in solid pieces, when 
 it is called brimstone. It is found in the 
 neighbourhood of volcanoes ; in the tract of 
 land between Naples and the ancient Baise, 
 called Solfa-terra, the smoking plains, the 
 remnant of a half-extinguished volcano, it is 
 found in great abundance. It is brought in 
 large quantities to this country from Mount 
 Etna, in Sicily ; but is to be obtained in greater 
 or smaller quantities near all volcanoes, of which 
 the number throughout the world is consider- 
 able. It is also often found in coal mines ; and, 
 indeed, the common coal in our fires more or less 
 contains this mineral. It often appears com- 
 bined with iron, copper, aud other metals, 
 when it is called pyrites. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — As a drug it forms the 
 basis of the most effectual application for 
 mange. AVhen combined witli nitre and an- 
 timony, it is an excellent alterative in cases of 
 surfeit, grease, hide-bound, mange, or out of 
 3G0 
 
 condition. In a cough or fever it is likewise a 
 useful ingredient. As an opening medicine, if; 
 is not so good as many other aperients. 
 
 TEEEBiNTHiNiE YuLQAEig — Co7nmon 
 Turpentine. 
 
 This is procured from Scotch fir, when the 
 tree is about forty years old, by stripping off 
 the outer bark to the extent of six inches, so 
 as to expose the inner smooth bark, near the 
 foot of the tree, making a wound with an in- 
 strument three inches square, and one inch, 
 deep. Erom this incision the resinous juice 
 soon begins to exude in transparent drops, 
 which fall into a hole previously dug to receive 
 them. Eresh incisions are continued to be 
 made till the month of September. A healthy 
 tree will yield from eleven to twelve pounds of 
 turpentine annually, for a century. It is 
 afterwards purified by filtration, through casks 
 with holes in the bottom. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; externally diges- 
 tive ; as a diuretic, given in doses of from one 
 drachm to eight drachms, in form of a ball; as a 
 digestive externally, it is used in the form of 
 imguentum. The oil of turpentine, as an anti- 
 spasmodic, for the removal of colic, has no 
 equal. With cantharides, used as a blister, it 
 is far inferior to the common ointment. 
 
 Tekebinthin^ Veneta — Venice Turpentine. 
 
 This is the product of the larch fir, obtained 
 in a similar manner to the foregoing ; but the 
 largest quantity of the Venice turpentine is 
 made by melting together the amber-coloured 
 resin and oil of turpentine. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Similar to the foregoing, 
 to which it gives place, possessing no advan- 
 tage over it. 
 
 Yeratei Eadix — White Hellebore Moot. 
 
 This plant is a native of the mountainous 
 parts of Greece, Italy, Switzerland, Russia,. 
 &c. The root is dug in autumn, and dried. 
 
 Cerum — Wax. 
 
 The upper surface of the leaves of many 
 trees is covered with a varnish, which may be 
 separated and obtained in a state of purity, and 
 which is found to possess all the properties of 
 beeswax ; hence it is justly inferred that wax 
 is a vegetable product, and that the bees ex- 
 
MIDICINE8.] 
 
 MODEKN VETEliiNAlii' i'KACTiCE. 
 
 [Mi:uiciKKa. 
 
 tract it unaltcrod from the k'uvoa of trees, nnd 
 other vegetable subslaiiees that contain it. 
 Several plants contain wax, in such abundance, 
 ns to niako it worth while to extract it from 
 them. 
 
 Mt'iUcinal Uscs.-ln charges, and some 
 plasters, tho yellow soap is used to make them 
 less brittle. In small doses (and with great 
 attention), from one scruplo to ono drachm, 
 frequently giving it, will produce a sedative 
 eflect : but if this clVect be not narrowly 
 watched, or if the dose bo increased from one 
 drachm, nausea will be produced, and violent 
 irritation. As it is a powerfuel diuretic cathar- 
 tic, it must be used with extreme caution. 
 Externally it is combined with oil. It may, 
 however, be used with advantage in allections 
 of the skin, either in the form of decoction 
 or ointment. We must repeat that, without 
 the utmost care, it is a dangerous drug. 
 
 The Black Ilellehore is used mostly as an 
 external application, and has a strong, stimu- 
 lating power. It has been resorted to with 
 success in fistulous affections of the poll and 
 withers. Professor Morton observes, " that 
 an ointment, formed of either the white or 
 black hellebore, in the proportion of one part 
 of the powder to eight parts of larch, will be 
 found exceedingly active for the dressing of 
 rowels and setons." 
 
 Zixci OxTDUii — Oxide of Zinc. 
 
 In chemistry and mineralogy, zinc was a 
 metal unknown to the ancients, though they 
 were acquainted with calamine, one of its ores, 
 and the eflect which this had iu converting 
 copper into brass. It is of a white colour, with 
 a shade of blue ; in a fresh fracture it is pos- 
 sessed of considerable lustre. It is hard, and 
 not easily cut with a knife. The specific 
 gravity is nearly 7'2. Its ores are calamine 
 and blende. — Calamine is an oxide, frequently 
 with a portion of carbonic acid ; blende is a 
 sulphuret, containing also some iron, and other 
 extraneous matters. 
 
 Zinc is melted by a moderate heat ; and the 
 fused mass, on cooling, forms regular crys- 
 tals. Though scarcely altered by exposure to 
 the air at a low temperature, yet it is rapidly 
 oxidised by one amounting to ignition. "When 
 kept in a degree of heat barely sufllcieut for 
 its fusion, it becomes covered with a grey 
 3 a 
 
 oxide. But when thrown into a crucible, or 
 deep earthen pot, heated to whitenesH, it Hud- 
 denly inflames, burns with a beautilul whito 
 flame, and a whito and light oxido hublimcs, 
 having a considerable resemblanco to carded 
 wool. 
 
 Medicinal Z'ses. — Tonic ; but in tho impure 
 state, under the name of Calamine Powder, 
 used as an ointment, known as "Turner's 
 Cerate," it is invaluable. Tiiis ointment has 
 been distinguished as "The llealing Oint- 
 ment," and is composed of five parts of lard 
 and one of resin, melted together. AT lieu 
 these begin to cool, two parts of the cala- 
 mine, reduced to an impalpable powder, are 
 stirred in. On cracked heels, and superficial 
 sores, calamine is sometimes advantageously 
 sprinkled. 
 
 ZiNCi Sulphas - 
 
 -Sulphate of Zinc— White 
 Vitriol. 
 
 Take of Zinc, in small pieces . • 4 oz. 
 ,, Sulphuric Acid (byweight) G „ 
 „ Distilled Water ... 4 pints. 
 
 Mix them in a glass vessel ; and the eflLcrves- 
 cence having ceased, filter the solution through 
 paper, then boil it till a pellicle appears. Set 
 it by, that crystals may form. 
 
 decomposition. — The same process acts here 
 as in the preparations of the sulphate of iron 
 and copper. The oxygen of the water unites 
 to the zinc, converting it into an oxide of zinc, 
 which is dissolved by the sulphuric acid form- 
 ing sulphate of zinc ; whilst the hydrogen of 
 the water assumes the elastic form, and escapes. 
 
 Medicinal fTscs.— Tonic internally; stimu- 
 lant externally. As a tonic, it is given in 
 doses from one drachm to half-an-ounce ; but 
 it is now rarely used at the College. It is 
 used externally to promote healthy granula- 
 tions ; and may be applied either in the form of 
 solution or ointment. 
 
 ZiNGiBEEis Eadii — Ginger Root. 
 This plant is a native of the East Indies, 
 but is now cultivated in the West Indies, to 
 very great advantage. Our finest quality 
 comes from Jamaica. The root is dug up after 
 the herbaceous part of the plant is withered 
 in January, and dried in the sun. There are 
 many sorts in the market, but they all possess 
 similar properties, dift'ering slightly in strength. 
 
 361 
 
MEDICINES.! 
 
 THE HOESE, AND 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 Medicinal Uses. — Carminative, in closes from 
 half-an-ounce to two ounces ; in the form of 
 ball it is the active ingredient in the formulae, 
 bolus cai'deavcs. As a stimulant it is good. 
 
 Equal parts of ginger and gentian, formed into 
 a mass, with treacle, constitute the cordial 
 mass of the best surgeons. 
 
 rist of Medicines referred to in the first division of this Work. — In all the following compounds, 
 No. I. must he regarded as exhibiting the mildest form ; No. II. as the next stronger ; No. 
 III. as still stronger ; and so on, rising in degrees of strengtJi, according to the numerals 
 Ig tohich theg are indicated. 
 
 TAR LINIMENT. 
 
 Barbadoes Tar . . . . 2 oz. 
 Spirits of Turpentine . . 2 „ 
 Opodeldoc 4 „ 
 
 They must be well mixed together, and the bottle 
 kept closely stopped. 
 
 LIQUID BLISTER 
 No. I. 
 Powdered Cantharides . 
 Vinegar 
 
 4 drachms. 
 4 oz. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Cantharides . , . . 1 oz. 
 
 Vinegar 3 „ 
 
 Spirits of Wine . . . 1 ,, 
 
 Tut into a bottle, and keep eight days before using. 
 Two table-spoonfuls should be rubbed on the 
 part affected night and morning. 
 
 SALINE DRAUGHT. 
 
 Glauber Salts . . . . 4 oz. 
 Linseed Meal . . . . 2 oz. 
 Hot Water 1 quart. 
 
 CORDIAL PECTORAL BALL. 
 
 Anise Seeds . . . . 1 oz. 
 Ginger. . . . 1 „ 
 
 Liquorice . . . , » 1 „ 
 Caraway Seeds . . 1 „ 
 
 Mix with treacle, and form into four balls, and give 
 one, when required, fasting. 
 
 IMERCURIAL ALTERATIVE BALL. 
 
 IJarbadoes Aloes . » . 4 drachms. 
 Calomel ..... 1 drachm. 
 Ginger ...... 1 „ 
 
 Form a ball with soft soap. 
 
 DOSE OF PHYSIC IN EPILEPSY. 
 No. L 
 Barbadoes Aloes . . . 1 oz. 
 Powdered Ginger ... 2 drachms. 
 
 3G3 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes ... 5 drachms. 
 
 Cape Aloes 5 „ 
 
 Ginger 2 „ 
 
 Mix with soft soap. 
 
 STIMULANTS IN SPASM. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron . . .12 drachms. 
 
 Cape Aloes 12 „ 
 
 Juniper Berries ^ . . . 6 „ 
 Myrrh ... ^ ... 6 „ 
 Mix with soft soap, and divide into eight ballis, 
 giving one every morning, fasting. 
 
 CORDIAL RESTORATIVE BALLS. 
 Powdered Gentian ... 6 drachms. 
 Anise Seeds .... 6 „ 
 
 Liquorice 6 „ 
 
 Antimony ..... 6 „ 
 
 Sulphur 6 ,, 
 
 Mix with treacle, and divide into four balls, giving 
 one each morning. 
 
 PURGING BALLS. 
 No. I. 
 Barbadoes Aloes ... 4 drachms. 
 Ginger 1 „ 
 
 No. n. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes ... 6 drachms. 
 
 Ginger 1 » 
 
 Form into a ball wiih soft soap. 
 
 MERCURIAL PURGING B.\LLS. 
 No. L 
 Barbadoes Aloes , , , 1 drachm. 
 Calomel . . • « * 1 » 
 
 Ginger 1 „ 
 
 Form into a ball with soft soap. 
 
 No. II. 
 To be given the last thing at night. 
 
 Calomel li drachm. 
 
 Linseed Meal .... 2 „ 
 Form into a ball with honey. 
 
jreDicnfES.] 
 
 MODERN \' E T E K 1 X A R V P J ; A C T 1 (" i:. 
 
 [mEUIC1N£8. 
 
 In the morning give o warm bmn masli, nncl at 
 
 I ighl o'clock in tliu evening give 
 
 Bnrbadocs Aloes . • ' araclur.s. 
 
 Gentian ...-•- »» 
 
 Mix with sol't soap. 
 
 ALTERATIVE MEDICINES. 
 No. I. 
 Antimony, powdered . . ^"^ oz. 
 
 Sulphur ^ " 
 
 Cream of Tartar . . . 2 „ 
 Divide into six powders, and cast one into the corn, 
 previously watered. 
 
 No. II. 
 Cape Aloes .... 8 drachms. 
 
 Sulphur 12 „ 
 
 Form into four balls with soft soap, and ;;ive one 
 every other day 
 
 BLISTERS. 
 No. I. 
 Cantharidos, powdered , . 2 drachms. 
 Hog's Lard 2 oz. 
 
 No. n. 
 Cantharides, powdered . . 4 drachms. 
 Hog's Lard , . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 No. IK. 
 Cantharides, powdered . . 6 drachms. 
 Mercurial Ointment . . 4 „ 
 
 Hog's Lard 1 oz. 
 
 Lay this lightly on the part affected, after having 
 removed all the hair. 
 
 LAXATIVE CLYSTER. 
 Thin Gruel .... 3 pints. 
 Common Salt .... 4 table spoonfuls. 
 Inject whilst warm. 
 
 DOSES OF PHYSIC IN INFLAMMATION OF 
 THE FEET. 
 
 Blue Pill 8 drachms. 
 
 Cape Aloes . • . . 8 „ 
 Kesin ...... 8 „ 
 
 Mix with linseed meal, and form with soft soap into 
 
 six balls. Give one every other morning. 
 
 No. XL 
 
 Calomel 2 drachms. 
 
 Barbadoes Aloes ... 6 „ 
 
 Gentian 3 „ 
 
 Form into a ball with honey. 
 
 DIGESTIVE OINTMENT. 
 No. L 
 Common Turpentine . . 2 oz. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . G „ 
 
 No. IL 
 Common Turpentine . . 1 oz. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 1- ., 
 
 No. III. 
 Common Turpentine . , oz. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 8 „ 
 
 FOOT OINTMENT. 
 Tartar Emetic .... I ilrachiu. 
 Hog's Lard .... 1 oz. 
 
 ALTERATIVE POWDERS. 
 
 Antimony 1 lb. 
 
 Sulphur 1 ■, 
 
 Cream of Tartar . . . 4 oz. 
 Separate into twelve parts, and give one every 
 night in the feed. 
 
 BLISTERING LINIMENT. 
 No. I. 
 01. Terebinth . . . . 3 oz. 
 01. OHvfc 3 „ 
 
 No. IL 
 
 Cantharides 
 01. Terebinth 
 
 1 oz. 
 4 „ 
 
 Apply three table-spoonfuls, after shaking up tho 
 medicine well. 
 
 COMMON DIGESTIVE OINTMENT. 
 Common Turpentine . . 4 oz. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 2 „ 
 Melt together over a slow fire. 
 
 HEALING OINTMENT. 
 
 Common Turpentine . . 2 oz. 
 Hog's Lard . . . . 2 „ - 
 Alum, powdered fine . . 3 „ 
 The lard and turpentine must be melted together; 
 
 the alum afterwards sprinkled in, and the whole 
 
 stirred till the mixture is cold. 
 
 H^.ALING LOTION. 
 Sulphate of Zinc . . . 8 oz. 
 Boiling Water .... 2 piuts. 
 
 DIURETIC BALLS 
 No. 1. 
 Powdered Resin . . . 3 oz. 
 Linseed Meal . . . . 1 „ 
 Divide into six balls, with soft soap/ 
 
 No. IL 
 Powdered Resin . • , 8 oz. 
 Nitre in Powder . . . 4 „ 
 Juniper Bt-rries . . . 4 „ 
 Mix with soft soap, and divide into twelve balls, 
 
 363 
 
SEMABKs.] THE nOESE, AND VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [eemaek3. 
 
 In concluding this portion of our subject, we 
 must observe, that the less a person has to do 
 with medicine, whether for himself or his horse, 
 the better; but there are occasions when it 
 will assist nature, alleviate pain, and clear the 
 way for a more speedy cure than might be 
 expected if nature were left entirely to her 
 awn operations. Physicking horses is very 
 common when they are taken up from grass, 
 and its administration is, generally, admitted 
 to be beneficial when they feed badly, and 
 appear heavy, and especially if the eyes and 
 mouth are of a yellowish colour. Proper 
 attention to the airing of the stable, to its 
 perfect cleanliness, and to feeding, exercise, 
 and training, is the great duty to be attended to 
 by those to whom the management of horses is 
 assigned. Open air exercise is, above all things, 
 
 essential to the well-being of every animal 
 endued with the powers of locomotion. To 
 the horse it is especially necessary ; for, if kept 
 in a stable without it, his degeneration becomes 
 extremely rapid. This is soon evidenced by 
 the decline of muscular power, and by the gen- 
 eration of disease in both the digestive and 
 respiratory organs ; by the growth of the 
 hoof; the elongation of the toe; the inflamma- 
 tion of the frog ; and, in short, by the whole 
 body becoming diseased. Exercise is, there- 
 fore, not only essential to his health, but to 
 his very existence. Let this, then, be regularly 
 attended to, in conjunction with cleanliness 
 and a proper regimen ; and it will be found that 
 medicine will not be required very often by 
 the noblest conquest which man has made over 
 the brute creation. 
 
DIVISION II. 
 
 THE DOG AND ITS VAEIETIES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OUIGI.V OF THE DOG. 
 
 "With something like a feeling of hesitation we 
 euter on the history of the clog, respecting 
 whose origin there are few naturalists agreeing 
 vrith one another, and most of them suggest- 
 ing different theories, having their rise in the 
 reasoning of conjecture or probability, and 
 little to support them beyond the specula- 
 tions of ingenuity. To no animal is man- 
 kind so largely indebted for affection, attach- 
 ment, and obedience, as to this. Among all the 
 various orders of the brute creation, none has 
 hitherto been found to identify itself so closely 
 with the interests of his master ; none has been 
 found so admirably subdued to his purposes ; 
 and none so well adapted to watch or protect 
 himself or his property in the hour of danger, 
 darkness, or destruction. In both the old and 
 the new worlds, there are many countries in 
 which, if he wore deprived of this faithful com- 
 panion and ally, he would resist his enemies 
 without success. His person would be inse- 
 cure ; his labour would frequently be vain ; and 
 his property would become a prey to the rav- 
 ages of other animals stronger and swifter than 
 himself. Whatever may be the amount of vigi- 
 lance with which the Supreme Being has gifted 
 him, there are many situations in which he 
 could not bo secure from rapacity on the one 
 hand, or speed on the other ; but in the dog he 
 possesses the most faithful of friends ; the most 
 constant, whether in adversity or prosperity, 
 and the only one that voluntarily lays all his 
 Citraordiuary qualities at his feet ; resigns 
 
 himself up to his direction ; obeys his voice 
 under all circumstances; conforms himself to 
 his movements, and identifies his own with the 
 habits of his master. 
 
 " It proclaims 
 Th' audacious felon ; foot by foot he marks 
 His winding way — while all the list'ning crowd 
 Applaud his reasonings — o'er the watery ford, 
 Dry sandy heaths, and stony barren hills ; 
 O'er beaten paths, with men and beasts disdain'd, 
 Unerring he pursues ; till at the cot 
 Arrived, and seizing by his gxiilty throat 
 The caitiff vile, redeems the captive prey ; 
 So exquisitely delicate his sense ! " 
 
 In the battle he is fierce ; in the chase he is 
 persevering; in the house he is watchful ; and 
 his patience is inexhaustible. In disposition 
 he is so friendly that he seems only to remem- 
 ber the benefits he receives. Blows be soon 
 forgets ; and, generally speaking, in place of 
 discovering resentment when he receives them, 
 he licks the hand by which they were adminis- 
 tered. It is no wonder that such an animal 
 has, from remotest antiquity, attracted the no- 
 tice, and received the countenance and favour 
 of man, whether enrobed in the splendour of 
 regal purple, or invested in the meanest and 
 most fragmentary garments imaginable ! 
 
 It was the opinion of Pallas that the dog is 
 a factitious anln\al, not descended from any 
 single original wild stock, but from a mixture of 
 nearly allied primitive species, whose hybrid 
 offsprings have possessed prolific powers ; and 
 he observes, that those domesticated animals, 
 
 3G5 
 
THE WOLF.] 
 
 THE DOG, AjS"D its VARIETIES; 
 
 [the wolf. 
 
 which either do not intermix with other spe- 
 cies, or which produce, with others, an unpro- 
 lific progeny, are very little changed, however 
 long and completely they may have been under 
 the dominion of man. When, indeed, we look 
 at the great differences in instincts, form, and 
 size which the domestic dog exhibits, we find 
 it difficult to believe, however they may inter- 
 breed, that they are all the lineal descendants 
 of one common origin. Tet this opinion is the 
 most generally entertained. Mr. Bell even 
 goes a step farther, and refers the domestic 
 dog to the wolf as its primeval parent ; whilst 
 others have referred it to the jackal 
 
 Let us, however, examine what are the pre- 
 vaihng characteristics of these animals, and see 
 how far resemblances exist between them and 
 the dog. 
 
 The wolf has a robust but gaunt frame, a 
 skulking or irresolute gait, ferocity mingled 
 with cunning and cowardice, and a wild yet 
 sinister expression of the physiognomy. Spread 
 throughout Europe and various parts of Asia, 
 it is more particularly in mountain and forest 
 districts that he prevails, where the population 
 is scanty, and collected into small towns or 
 villages, with a wide country around, destitute 
 of human dwellings. In the Pyrenees, the 
 Carpathian mountains, in Poland, Hungary, 
 some parts of Austria, Prance, Italy, and Spain; 
 in Xorway, Sweden, and Russia, the wolf is still 
 common ; as well as in western Asia, and the 
 border territories included in Europe. Por- 
 merly this animal was abundant in the British 
 Islands, and the plague and terror of their in- 
 habitants. Verstegan, in his Mestitution of 
 Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities, concerning 
 tlie Most Nolle and Renotvned English JS'ation, 
 1G05, observes that January was called Wolf- 
 monat by the Anglo-Saxons, " because people 
 were wont, in that month, to be more in danger 
 to be devoured of wolves than any season els 
 of the yeare ; for that through the extremity of 
 cold and snow, those ravenous creatures could 
 not find other beasts sufficient to feed upon." 
 The universal fear which the wolf, where nume- 
 rous, naturally inspired, was formerly height- 
 ened by superstition; and fiends or malio-- 
 nant spirits were imagined to have power to 
 assume the form and character of this dreaded 
 animal. Every child of five years old knows 
 the nursery story of Little Bed Riding Hood, 
 366 
 
 who was deceived by the ferocious wolf. Ly- 
 canthropos of the Greeks, the "Were-wolf of the 
 Anglo-Saxons, and the Loup-garou of the 
 Prench, had reference to some such preter- 
 natural monster, whose name was associate! 
 with all that is horrible and mysterious. Con- 
 spicuous then, and dreaded for its power and 
 rapacity, it can scarcely be wondered that tha 
 wolf should have had its name assumed, or 
 given to men of distinction, by our barbarous 
 but warlike forefathers, among whom such ap- 
 pellations as Ethelwolf, Eadwolf, Berthwolf, 
 and many more, were common. 
 
 Our Saxon ancestors, however, did not suffer 
 the wolf to ravage the country unmolested. 
 In the tenth century, under the reign of 
 Edgar, the work of exterminating this animal 
 began, and appears to have been carried on 
 with success down to the thirteenth century ; 
 when, during the reign of Edward I., all histo- 
 rical record, by way of royal edict, ceases in refer- 
 ence to continuing the work of w^olfiue extirpa- 
 tion. The last record of their existence in any 
 formidable numbers was in 1281. It is said 
 by Mr. Topham, in his notes to Somerville'a 
 Chase, that it was in the wolds of Yorkshire 
 where a price was last set upon a wolf's head. 
 In Scothand and Ireland the wolf remained for 
 a considerable period longer. In 1577, accord- 
 ing to Hollinshed, wolves were destructive to 
 the flocks in Scotland ; and in Ireland they were 
 exterminated only at the beginning of the last 
 century. 
 
 Prom the numerous allusions to the wolf in 
 the Scriptures, it is evident that it must have 
 been well-known formerly in Syria — and in- 
 deed also in Egypt, for we find it figured on 
 ancient sculptures, together with the hysena 
 and greyhound. At present, however, this 
 animal is seldom met with in Syria, although 
 it still exists in that region, but keeps itself 
 concealed. 
 
 So habitually cautious and suspicious is the 
 wolf, that it is difficult to take it in traps ; and 
 for the same reason, anything like the appear- 
 ance of artifice, deters it from an attack. It 
 has been supposed that it never carries its 
 tail raised. This, however, is not altogether 
 correct. A visit to the Zoological Gardens, 
 in the Regent's Park, London, will enable the 
 curious upon this point to satisfy themselves 
 that wolves do elevate their tails whilst gallop- 
 
THE WOLF. J FOIi MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAmr. [tue wolf. 
 
 ing roiiml the area in which thoy arc enclosed. 
 Dr. Kie-harilson states from observation, wlien 
 they gambol with each other, they elevate their 
 tails. 
 
 "When pursued, the wolf rushes along, with 
 his muzzle almost to the ground, his eyes 
 glowing like tire, the hair of his neck and 
 shoulders erect, and hia tail lowered and 
 drawn close; when out of danger, he .slackens 
 his pace, raises his head, sniffs about, and 
 whisks his tail around, as if exulting in his 
 escape ; but if brought to bay by hounds, he 
 defends himself to the last, and often kills and 
 maims some of his antagonists before he falls 
 overpowered by numbers. In hunting him, 
 the Kirghese Tartars employ a large hawk, 
 which lastens upon the animal's head, and tears 
 out its eyes. 
 
 The power of the wolf, especially in the 
 muscles of tho head, neck, and shoulders, is 
 immense ; and his bite is terribly severe, 
 generally cutting out the flesh with a snap. 
 Among themselves they fight often with great 
 desperation, the combat ending with tho death 
 of the weaker. It is said that wolves wounded 
 by the gunshot of hunters or travellers, are 
 torn in pieces and devoured by their fellows. 
 This is not characteristic of the dog. 
 
 The average height of the animal at the 
 shoulders is about two feet six inches. The 
 female rears her young in some cave or gloomy 
 recess, and produces from five to nine young 
 at a birth. These are born with the eyes 
 closed, as in the dog. In the defence of her 
 offspring the female is furious, and greatly to 
 be dreaded. The voice of the wolf is a pro- 
 longed howl, resounding dismally through the 
 titilly darkness of the night. Not so the dog's. 
 
 On the southern side of the Pyrenees there 
 exists a variety, perhaps, of the wolf, termed, 
 from its colour, the Black Wolf — the Loup noir 
 of Bufton. This animal is asserted to be more 
 ferocious than the ordinary grey wolf; but, 
 perhaps, without any foundation. 
 
 Desmarest says that the wolf is solitary and 
 nocturnal ; but that in winter it unites in 
 troops, which attack horses and men. The 
 sense of smell is very acute ; but its speed is 
 not A-ery great, and it wearies out its victim by 
 dint of untiring perseverance. AVhen in full 
 chase of its prey, it gallops along, pertina- 
 ciously following the track of the fugitive. 
 
 Lord Byron, in iiis poem of Mazrppa, vividly 
 depicts tho scene of a troop of wolves in pur- 
 suit of tlieir prey : — 
 
 " Wf rustlcil tlirouijli tlie loaves like wind, 
 Left shrubs, anil trees, and wolves behind ; 
 15y night I heard them on the traek, 
 1'iieir troop came hard upon our back, 
 ^\'ith their lon^ gallop, which can tire 
 The hound's deep hate and hunter's fire ; 
 Where'er we flew they followed on, 
 Nor left us with the morning sun. 
 Behind 1 saw them scarce a rood 
 At daybreak winding through the wood ; 
 And through the night had heard their feet 
 Their stealing rustling step repeat." 
 
 In almost every department of France in- 
 fested by the wolf, there is a society called 
 Socicte de Louveterie, the object of which is 
 to keep that animal down ; and premiums, 
 varying in amount according to the sex and 
 ago of the animals killed, are likewise paid. 
 The means hitherto employed, however, have 
 been inadequate to eft'ect the purpose. Al- 
 though we can adduce several instances of the 
 ferocity of certain species of dogs, there is 
 nothing of which we are aware on record, 
 which indicates a disposition at all approach- 
 ing the unrelenting native ferocity of the 
 wolf. 
 
 In the province of Posen, Prussia, in 1S14, 
 three grown persons and sixteen children were 
 devoured by wolves in the small circle of 
 Wongrowiec alone. "When Prussia regained 
 the province of Posen, in 1S15, no time was 
 lost by the government in getting rid of so 
 great a public nuisance ; and in that province, 
 within five years, from 1815 to 1819 inclusive, 
 4,618 dollars were paid by the government in 
 rewards for killing wolves. 
 
 In the parish of Briala, district of Eawa, 
 during the month of August, 1S37, four girls 
 were torn to pieces not far from their own 
 houses. This was in summer. 
 
 Mr. Lloyd, in his Field Sports in the Korth 
 of Europe, relates many events respecting these 
 animals. It would appear that they are less 
 dangerous to man than might bo expected, 
 though they sometimes, especially when com- 
 bined in troops, attack travellers with great 
 audacity. A gentleman attached to the 
 embassy of St. Petersburgh, narrated to him 
 the following circumstance : — " It happened 
 at no great distance from St. Petersburgh, 
 
 367 
 
THE ■WOLr.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [tUE tVOLF. 
 
 and only two years previously, that a peasant, 
 one day in his sledge, was pursued by eleven 
 of these ferocious animals. At this time 
 he was only about two miles from home, 
 towards which he urged his horse at the very 
 top of his speed. At the entrance of his re- 
 sidence was a gate, which happened to be 
 closed at the time ; but the horse dashed this 
 open, and thus himself and his master found 
 refuge in the court-yard. They were followed 
 however, by nine out of the eleven wolves ; 
 but very fortunately, at the very instant these 
 had entered the enclosure, the gate swung 
 back on its hinges, and thus they were caught 
 as in a trap. From being the most ferocious 
 animals, the nature of these beasts, now that 
 they found escape impossible, became com- 
 pletely changed : so far, indeed, from offering 
 molestation to any one, they slunk into holes 
 and corners, and allowed themselves to be 
 slaughtered almost without making resis- 
 tance." There is not a single characteristic 
 of the dog in this anecdote. Supposing that 
 eleven dogs, hounds, mastiffs, bulls, or terriers, 
 had pursued a man into his yard, and found 
 themselves thus suddenly enclosed, would they 
 have slunk into holes and corners, and ex- 
 hibited such symptoms of fear and cowardice ? 
 On the contrary, we think that every one of 
 them would have been more ardent than 
 another in seizing their prey, and making a 
 victim of the man who had given them such a 
 run. Further on we shall give an instance of 
 a pack of native wild dogs of India pursuing 
 Colonel Sykes ; but exhibiting no such traits 
 of fear, although deterred from an actual 
 attack by the report of fire-arms. The cowar- 
 dice of the wolf presents, in our opinion, a 
 perfect contrast to the courage of the dog. 
 
 It is said, that the mere act of striking a 
 light with flint and steel has often the effect 
 of intimidating a wolf; and that the rattling 
 of a chain not unfrequeutly answers the like 
 purpose. In the event of a person, when un- 
 armed, being attacked by these bloodthirsty 
 brutes, these things are worth knowing ; for, 
 although apparently trifliug in themselves, 
 they might be the means of saving his life. 
 
 In some parts of Scandinavia, when people 
 
 are travelling, during the winter-time, over 
 
 extended plains, lakes, &c., which are known 
 
 to be much frequented by wolves, it is the 
 
 368 
 
 custom to attach a long rope to the back of 
 the sledge. The serpentine motion that this 
 makes when the vehicle is proceeding, has, 
 it is said, the effect of deterring these animals 
 from making their attacks. 
 
 The common wolf of North America differs 
 in some respects from its European relative, 
 and is perhaps a distinct species. It wants 
 the gaunt appearance, the comparatively long 
 jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs, 
 slender loins, and narrow feet of the European 
 wolf. Its frame also is more compact, the fur 
 finer and thicker, the muzzle more obtuse, tho 
 head larger and rounder, and the forehead 
 broader and more arched. The limbs are 
 shorter, and the tail more fox-like and bushy. 
 
 Dr. Eichardson, in his Fauna Boreali- 
 Americana, enumerates several varieties of tliis 
 North American wolf, depending on colour — - 
 viz., the grey, the white, the pied, the dusky 
 or clouded, and the black. Black wolves 
 abound on the Missouri ; and, according to 
 the Indians, black and grey wolves occur in 
 the same litter. The dusky, or clouded wolf, 
 was regarded by Say as a distinct species, and 
 named by him Canis nuhiliis. 
 
 The American wolf agrees in its general 
 habits with the wolf of the European conti- 
 nent, though it appears to be less formidable as 
 far as man is concerned. Indeed, Captain 
 Lyons, in his observations on the wolves 
 of Melville Peninsula, states that both Englisli 
 and Esquimaux were accustomed to pass them 
 without any weapon, or even a stick ; " the 
 animals, however, exhibited no sym^ptoms of 
 fear, but rather a kind of tacit agreement not 
 to be the beginners of a quarrel, even though 
 they might have been certain of proving vic- 
 torious." 
 
 These wolves hunt in packs, and when 
 pressed for food, assume an astonishing de- 
 gree of boldness. , They will seize the Esqui- 
 maux dogs before their masters' faces, and 
 carry them off — although this species of dog 
 is brave in attacking the bear, but is terrified 
 at the wolf. They have been known not 
 only to steal provisions from under a man's 
 head in the night, but even to enter the 
 bivouac of a traveller, and carry off some of 
 his dogs, "During our residence at Cumber- 
 land House, in 1S20," says Dr, Eichardson, 
 " a wolf which had been prowling round the 
 
WOLF.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAIi.M. 
 
 [tue wolf. 
 
 fort, niul was wouiidfcl by a inuakpt-ball and 
 driven oil", ri-turiuHl aflfi- it bcoaine ihirk, wliilat 
 the blood was atill llowiiig from its wound, and 
 carried ofl' a doj; from nniongst lifty others, 
 that howk>d piteoualy, but liad not courage to 
 unite in an attack on their enemy." 
 
 The American wolf is extremely cunnin-;, 
 and. in attacking moose, or Wapiti deer, ani- 
 mals which exceed it in speed, it has recourse 
 to a 8iii':;ular stratagem. Several combine, 
 and arranij;e themselves in the form of a semi- 
 circle, and thus advance upon their prey, so as 
 either to hem it in or drive it over a precipice. 
 Captain Franklin often found the remains of 
 deer which had been thus dashed down steep 
 cliffs and devoured ; and he states that this is 
 a frequent expedient when the plains are 
 bounded by precipitous cliffs. "Whilst the 
 deer are quietly grazing, the wolves assemble 
 in great numbers, and, forming a crescent, 
 creep slowly towards the herd, so as not to 
 alarm them much at first ; but when they per- 
 ceive that they have fairly hemmed in the un- 
 suspecting creatures, and cut oiF their retreat 
 across the plain, they move more quickly, and 
 with hideous yells terrify their prey, and urge 
 them to flight by the only open way, which is 
 towards the precipice, appearing to know that 
 when the herd is once at full speed, it is easily 
 driven over the cliff, the rearmost urging on 
 those that are before. The wolves then de- 
 scend at leisure, and feed on the mangled car- 
 cases." 
 
 On one occasion a troop of wolves endea- 
 voured to put the same stratagem into prac- 
 tice against Dr. Kichardson. Having the first 
 watch, he " had gone to the summit of a hill, 
 and remained seated, contemplating the river 
 that washed the precipice under his feet, long 
 after dusk had hid distant objects from his 
 view. His thoughts were, perhaps, far distant 
 from the surrounding scenery, when he was 
 roused by an indistinct noise behind him ; and, 
 on looking round, perceived that nine white 
 wolves had ranged themselves in form of a 
 crescent, and were advancing apparently with 
 the intention of driving him into the river. 
 On his rising up they halted ; and when he 
 advanced, they made way for his passage down 
 to the tents." This may be taken as an indi- 
 cation of that kind of instinctive intelligence 
 which all wild animals, more or less, possess 
 3b 
 
 when actuated to presiivn ihemselvea from 
 danger, or to liunt for their prey. In the wolf, 
 it is, perhap.^, somewhat remarkable. 
 
 Very dillerent from the above rcapectful 
 conduct wliich these wolves showed to Dr. 
 Richardson, was that which a pack of them 
 ilisplayed to a poor Scandinavian soldier. 
 
 Wliilst this unfortunate man was crossing a 
 largo lake, called Stor-sjon, it then being the 
 depth of winter, he was attacked by a drove 
 of wolves. He was armed only with a sword; 
 but with this weapon he defended himself so 
 gallantly, that he not only killed or wounded 
 several of his assailants, but ho succeeded in 
 driving off the remainder. 
 
 Some sliort time afterwards, however, tho 
 same drove of wolves again beset him. He 
 was now unable to extricate himself from hfe 
 perilous situation in the same manner as 
 before; for, when he laid his hand upon his 
 sabre, and attempted to draw it, he found it 
 firmly frozen into the scabbard. This was in 
 consequence of his having neglected to wipe 
 the blood from the blade after the desperate 
 conflict in which he had been engaged. It is 
 almost needless to add, that as he was then 
 defenceless, tlio ferocious beasts quickly killed 
 and devoured him. 
 
 In the dreary realms that advance into the 
 Polar Sea — 
 
 " Where the wolf and Arctic fox 
 Prowl amidst the lonely rocks" — 
 
 Captain Franklin and his companions, during 
 their arduous journeys, were often obliged to 
 dispute their scanty food with the lean wolves, 
 that would scarcely retreat. On one occasion, 
 when they had captured a moose deer, and 
 had buried a part of the body, the wolves ab- 
 solutely dug it out from their very feet, and 
 devoured it while the weary men were sleep- 
 ing. On another occasion, when the travellers 
 had killed a deer, they saw, by the flashes of 
 the Aurora borealis, eight wolves, waiting 
 round for their share of the prey. Sometimes, 
 however, the wolves were their caterers, and 
 helped them to a welcome meal. When a 
 group of wolves and a flight of crows were 
 discovered, the travellers knew there was a 
 carcass to be divided, and they sometimes suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a share of the prey, if it 
 had been recently slaughtered. 
 
 Of the American wolves, we may notice tho 
 
 3G9 
 
THE WOLF.] 
 
 THE DOG-, AND ITS VAEIETIES: 
 
 [the wolf. 
 
 Prairie wolf, the Canis latrans of Say, which 
 inhabits the plains of the Missouri and Saskat- 
 chewan, as well as those of the Columbia. It 
 is smaller and fleeter than the common wolf; 
 associates in large troops, and dwells in bur- 
 rows on the plains, remote from the forests. 
 In Mexico is found a distinct species of wolf, 
 the Canis Mexicanus of Desmartes ; and a spe- 
 cies termed the red wolf, inhabits the Pam- 
 pas of La Plata. The Antarctic wolf is a 
 native of the Palkland Isles, and seems to be 
 an intermediate link between the wolves and 
 foxes. It feeds principally upon a species of 
 goose (anser leucopterus) ; goes in packs, which 
 wander about by day, but more commonly in 
 the evening, and burrow in holes. This spe- 
 cies is about fifteen inches in height at the 
 shoulder; the tail is short, and white at the 
 tip; the limbs are short, but the contour of 
 the head is wolf-like. It is termed by Pen- 
 nant the Antarctic fox. 
 
 Colonel Sjkes has described a wolf from 
 Dukhun, under the title of Canis pallipes, 
 which he states to be numerous in the open, 
 stony plains of that region, but not to be met 
 with in the woods of the Ghauts. 
 
 Mr. Hodgson notices the common European 
 wolf as occurring in the lower region of the 
 !N"epaul Mountains. 
 
 Wolves are said to be particularly partial to 
 dogs. This is noticed by Mr. Lloyd, in his 
 Field Sports in ilie North of Europe, where he 
 says, those animals usually picked up every 
 one that was at large in this part of the 
 country. Several were taken from both Ei- 
 sater and TJddeholm. Caresse was the draw- 
 ing-room pet at the latter mansion, and was as 
 fat and as sleek as a mole ; but, happening to 
 be star-gazing one evening, just outside the 
 door, a, famished wolf whipped her up in his 
 horrid jaws, and was instantly across the lake 
 with her. 
 
 The same writer gives us another instance 
 of the audacity of these animals. "It was 
 Christmas time, and there were fifteen or six- 
 teen sledges in company ; most of the horses 
 were provided with such bells as are used in 
 Scandinavia. In the middle of the cavalcade 
 was a sledge occupied by a lady ; at the back 
 of the vehicle, as is frequently the case, sat 
 the servant, who was driving ; whilst on a bear- 
 skin, which covered her feet, a favourite lap- 
 370 
 
 dog was reposing. In passing through a wood, 
 however, and in spite of the jingling of the 
 bells, &c., a large wolf suddenly sprang from a 
 thicket, when, seizing the poor dog, he leaped 
 over the sledge, and was out of sight in a thick 
 brake on the opposite side of the wood, in the 
 course of a few seconds." 
 
 Fierce as the wolf is, however, it can be 
 tamed, and even domesticated ; but it requires 
 to be taken very young ; and this is, perhaps, 
 one of the characteristics that brings this 
 fierce, yet cowardly animal into relationship 
 with the dog. M. F. Cuvier gives a very in- 
 teresting account of a tame wolf, which showed 
 all the affection that the most gentle dog could 
 evince towards its master. When full-grown^ 
 he was presented by his owner to the mena- 
 gerie at Paris. Por many weeks he was quite 
 disconsolate at the separation from his master, 
 who had been obliged to travel ; he would 
 scarcely take any food, and was indifferent to 
 his keepers. At length he became attached 
 to those about him, and he seemed to have 
 forgotten his old affections. His master re- 
 turned after an absence of eighteen months ; 
 the wolf heard his voice amidst the crowd in 
 the gardens of the menagei'ie, and, being set 
 at liberty, displayed the most violent joy. 
 Again was he separated from his friend ; and 
 again was his grief as extreme as on the first 
 occasion. After three years' absence, his mas- 
 ter once more returned. It was evening, and 
 the wolf's den was shut up from any external 
 observation ; yet the instant the man's voice 
 was heard, the faithful animal set up the most 
 anxious cries ; and the door of his cage being 
 open, he rushed towards his friend, leaped upon 
 his shoulders, licked his face, and threatened 
 to bite his keepers when they attempted to 
 separate them. When the man left him, he 
 fell sick, and refused all food; and from the 
 time of his recovei'y, which was long very 
 doubtful, it was always dangerous for a 
 stranger to approach him. He appeared as if 
 he scorned any new friendships. 
 
 In this anecdote we have certainly evinced 
 a strong resemblance to a similar sensibility 
 in the dog; and it forcibly recalls the animal 
 of Ulysses, so much celebrated in the Odyssey, 
 for its memory, attachment, and faithfulness. 
 The passage is well known, having been often 
 quoted. 
 
THE JACKAL. 
 
 FOit MOL'^'TAl.N, FIKLD, AND TAUM. [the jackal. 
 
 '* Near tt) the pntes, conferring' iis tlu-y Jn-w, 
 Arj;u«, the iU»(?, liis iimu-nt ini»>tir knew ! 
 And not umonseious of the voire iind treail, 
 Lifts to the sound his ears, and renrs his liead. 
 He k.iew his lord— he knew, and strove to meet ; 
 He strove in rain to crawl and kiss his feet ; 
 Yet. all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes, 
 Salu x: his master, and confess his joys. 
 
 « • * * * 
 
 The dop, whom fate thus pranted to behold 
 His lord, when twenty tedious years had roll'd, 
 Tiikes a last look, and havinj; seen him, dies — 
 So dos'd, for ever, fuitltlul Argus' eyes." 
 Otiier iustances of woll'-domestication are on 
 record ; and tliey are taught, ia the East, to go 
 through certain perforinancea in which we 
 have seen dogs engaged in this country. Tliis 
 is more partieuhirly the case in Persia, where, 
 it is said, they are exhibited as spectacles to 
 the people. There, when young, they are 
 taught to dance. Biiffon brought up several 
 wolves. During their first year, he tells us, 
 they were very docile, and even caressing ; 
 and, when well fed, would never disturb the 
 poultry nor the other animals ; but at the age 
 of eighteen months or two years, their natural 
 ferocity made its appearance, and they had to 
 be chained up. One of them, up to its 
 eighteenth or nineteenth month, lived peace- 
 ably and amicably with all things ; but when 
 he arrived at this age he made an attack upon 
 the fowls, and killed the whole in one niglit, 
 without eating one of them. This was evi- 
 dently not the instigation of hunger, but of a 
 wanton natural ferocity. Another, after break- 
 ing his chain, and killing a dog with which he 
 lived in great familiarity, made his escape. 
 
 Before entering upon the theories which 
 assign the wolf as the original of the dog, we 
 will briefly describe the characteristics of the 
 jackal, which has, also, had its advocates as 
 being the original type of the dog. Of the 
 animals known by this name, one species — 
 Canis Anthus — is a native of Senegal ; another, 
 the Cape jackal — Canis mesomelas — is a native 
 of the Cape of Good Hope ; and a third, the 
 common jackal — Canis aureus — is spread from 
 the north of Africa, through Syria, Persia, and 
 the greater part of India. Colonel Sykes 
 states it to be numerous in Dukhun, where it 
 is called Kholah by the Mahrattas. It is 
 somewhat larger than a fox, but its tail is 
 shorter in proportion, reaching only to the 
 hock ; its head is short, with a pointed muzzle ; 
 
 the general colour nbovo is grey, abruptly di- 
 vided from n paler tint Hpread over the under 
 Hurface, anil the tail ia blightly tipued with 
 black. 
 
 It is supposed to bo the Sliual of the Scrip- 
 tures ; ia the Chical of the Turks ; and ia tho 
 Sciagal, Sciugal, Schiachal, or Sliacal of tho 
 Persians. 
 
 Tlie jackal goes in troops, which lie concealed 
 in holes and burrows during the day, but come 
 forth at night to hunt for food. They give 
 chase to sheep or antelopes and other animals ; 
 like the wolf, stealing, fox-like, into fowl- 
 roosts, and attacking any living thing they aro 
 capable of overcoming. They do not, how- 
 ever, confine themselves to living prey. Car- 
 rion, and ofl'al, of every descri jtion, is accept- 
 able to them, and they devour it with the ut- 
 most greediness. Nor are roots and fruits less 
 sought after ; in the vineyard they make great 
 havoc, and their fondness for grapes is noto- 
 rious. The " shriek" of the jackal is terrific 
 Those travellers who have heard them, describe 
 the nocturnal yells of these animals as ex- 
 tremely piercing and dissonant ; now close, 
 now at a distance — troop answering troop from 
 different points — themselves unseen ; while 
 their fearful chorus breaks the stillness of the 
 hours of darkness. Their cries thus heard 
 amidst the ruins of cities of ancient date, might 
 seem " to listening Fancy's ear" like the wail 
 of legions of spirits over the departed glories of 
 other days. Mouldering ruins, fallen temples, 
 crumbling tombs, and craggy rocks, are the 
 abodes of the jackal. 
 
 Sly and suspicious in its disposition, the 
 jackal, when taken young, is nevertheless easily 
 tamed, and loses that unpleasant odour which 
 renders tb'e wild animal almost intolerable. 
 There is, we believe, in the Zoological Gardens, 
 a hybrid, between the jackal and the dog. 
 
 Having thus described and illustrated, by 
 anecdote, the disposition of the wolf, and de- 
 scribed the characteristics of the jackal, we aro 
 sufficiently prepared to show the arguments as- 
 signed bv^ various naturalists for the different 
 theories they have advanced in reference to the 
 original type of the dog. JMr. Bell is one of 
 the most eminent defenders of the wolf theory. 
 
 " In order," says he, " to come to any ra- 
 tional conclusion on this head, it will be ne- 
 cessary to ascertain to what tvpe the animal 
 
 371 
 
■WILD DOGS.j 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES; 
 
 [wild dogs. 
 
 approaclies most nearly, after having, for many 
 successive generations, existed in a wild state, 
 removed from the influence of domestication 
 and of association with mankind. Now, we 
 find that there are several different instances 
 of dogs in such a state of wildness as to have 
 lost that common character of domestication, 
 variety of colour and marking. Of these, two 
 very remarkable ones are the Dhale of India 
 and the Dingo of Australia. There is, besides, 
 a half-reclaimed race amongst the Indians of 
 North America, and another also partially 
 tamed in South America, which deserve atten- 
 tion ; and it is found that these races, in dif- 
 ferent degrees, and in a greater degree as they 
 are more wild, exhibit the lank and gaunt form, 
 the lengthened limbs, the long and slender 
 muzzle, and the great comparative strength 
 which characterise the wolf; and that the tail 
 of the Australian dog, which may be considered 
 as the most remote from a state of domestici;- 
 tion, assumes the slightly bushy form of that 
 animal. We have here, then, a considerable 
 approximation to a well-known animal of the 
 same genus, which, though doubtless descended 
 from domesticated ancestors, have gradually 
 .•isFumed the wild condition ; and it is worthy 
 of special remark, that the anatomy of the wolf, 
 and its osteology in particular, does not differ 
 from that of the dog in general, more than the 
 different kinds of dogs do from each other. 
 The cranium is absolutely similar, and so are 
 all, or nearly all the other essential parts ; and 
 to strengthen still further the probability of 
 their identity, the dog and wolf will readily 
 breed together, and their progeny is fertile. 
 The obliquity of the position of the eyes of the 
 wolf is one of the characters in which it differs 
 from the dog; and although it is very desir- 
 able not to rest too much upon the effects of 
 habit on structure, it is not perhaps straining 
 the point to attribute the forward direction of 
 the eyes in the dog, to the constant habit, for 
 many successive generations, of looking towards 
 its master, and obeying his voice." Mr. Bell 
 adds, as another corroborative circumstance, 
 the fact that the period of gestation in the dog 
 and the wolf is the same — sixty-three days; 
 while in the jackal it is fifty-nine days. 
 
 The opinion of so eminent and judicious 
 A naturalist is certainly entitled to great 
 weight ; but while it is admitted that Mr. Bell 
 372 
 
 has made a strong case, it must be observed 
 that he is defective in several of his points. 
 In the first place, it is assumed that all wild 
 dogs are the descendants of a domestic race ; 
 but though, respecting some few, this may be 
 true, yet it by no means follows that the 
 assertion applies to all. The Buansii, or wild 
 dog of Nepaul, described by Mr. Hodgson 
 under the title of Canis primcevus, may be 
 given as an example. This animal, which is 
 believed to be the origin of the domestic dog, 
 and not its descendant, ranges from the Sut- 
 lege to the Burhampootra; and seems to ex- 
 tend, with some immaterial differences, into 
 the Vindyia, the Ghauts, the Nilgiris, the 
 Casiah Hills, and the chain passing brokenly 
 from Mirzapore through south Bahar and 
 Orissa to the Coromandel coast. In the 
 zoological proceedings, it is stated, that of this 
 race, although so wild as rarely to be seen, 
 Mr. Hodgson has succeeded in obtaining many 
 individuals. He is consequently enabled to 
 describe not only the form and colours, but the 
 manners also, which he does in great detail. 
 Some of those he obtained produced young in 
 captivity, having been pregnant when taken. 
 The Buansu, he observes, preys by night as 
 well as by day, and hunts in packs of from six 
 to ten individuals, maintaining the chase 
 rather by its powers of smell than by the eye, 
 and generally overcoming its quarry by force 
 and perseverance. In hunting it barks like a 
 hound ; but its bark is peculiar, and equally 
 unlike that of the cultivated breeds of dogs, 
 and the strains of the jackal and the fox. 
 Adults in captivity made no approach towards 
 domestication ; but a young one, which Mr. 
 Hodgson obtained when it was not more than 
 a month old, became sensible to caresses, dis- 
 tinguished the dogs of its own kennel from 
 others, as well as its keepers from strangers ; 
 and, on the whole, its conduct manifested, to 
 the full, as much intelligence as any of his 
 sporting dogs of the same age. 
 
 AY. A. "Wooler, Esq., also gives an account 
 of a wild dog from the Mahablishwar Hills, in 
 the Presidency of Bombay, and called there 
 Dhale. The habits of this dog, in a state of 
 nature, are similar to those of the Buansu of 
 Nepaul, with which animal it is most probably 
 identical. Colonel Sykes proves that the wild 
 dog of the Dukhun, called by the Mahrattas 
 
\VII I) UOGS.J 
 
 rOli MOUNTAIN, Fli:i.D, AND i-'AUM. 
 
 [wild doos. 
 
 Kolsun, is the same aa too Hu'imsu of Nopaul ; 
 the ekulU and extiTiiui chanu-tiTS oxhibitinj? 
 precisely the snmo fortnation niul features. 
 That gentleman further observes, that this doj; 
 ditfers from every wild species hitlierto de- 
 scribed. Its head is compressed and elonn;ated ; 
 its nose not very sharp ; the eyes are oblique, 
 the pupils rouuii, the irides light brown. Tho 
 expression of the countenance is that of a 
 coarse, ill-natured Persian greyhound, without 
 anv resemblance to the jackal, tlie fox, or the 
 wolf; and, in consequence, essentially distinct 
 from the Cants Qtiao, or Sumatrettsis, of Gen- 
 eral llardwicke. The cars are long, erect, and 
 somewhat rounded at the top ; the limbs are 
 remarkably large and strong in relation to the 
 bulk of the animal, which is intermediate in 
 size between the wolf and jackal. It hunts in 
 packs ; and in the stomach of one killed was 
 found a portion of tlie Nylghau antelope. 
 
 Here, then, is a genuine wild dog, called in 
 the diflerent mountain districts it inhabits, 
 Budnsu, Dhale, and Kolsun, of a sandy-red, 
 or rufus colour, and destitute of the last small 
 molar of the lower jaw. Colonel Baber, in a 
 note subjoined to Colonel Syke's description 
 in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society, 
 states, that it was often seen by him on the 
 western coast, and in the Balaghat district, 
 where it is numerous. " As often," he adds, 
 *' as I have met with them, they have invari- 
 ably been in packs of from thirty to perhaps 
 sixty. They must be very formidable, as all 
 animals are very much afraid of them. Fre- 
 quently remains of hogs and deer have been 
 brought to me, which had been taken over- 
 night by these wild dogs. The natives assert 
 that they kill tigers and chetahs, and there is 
 no doubt of the fact. It is quite correct that 
 they are found in the Nilgiris, though only 
 in the western parts. I, myself, was followed, 
 while travelling between the Paitera river and 
 Naddibatt, a distance of eight or nine miles, by 
 a pack of them"; and had I not repeatedly 
 fired off my pistols, they would certainly have 
 carried away three or four terriers and Spanish 
 dogs that were following me at the time. Two 
 or three times I succeeded in getting young 
 ones ; but I did net keep them longer than 
 three or four weeks, they were so very wild, as 
 well as shy. It was only at night they would 
 eat, and then most voraciously." 
 
 The Ciiuis Quao of General llardwicke, id a 
 red woKijdi.lookiiig dog in the Kaiiighur HilU; 
 and tho Caiiis Siiinafrcnsis is a wild do" of tho 
 same general character, found in Sumatra, but 
 with ears less acutely pointed. 
 
 All accounts of wild dogs concur in stating 
 the fact, that their colour is always sandy- 
 yellow or red, a colour occasionally seen in 
 animals of the domestic breeds, such as in one 
 of the species of the Scotch terrier. That these 
 wild dogs are genuine, we think there cannot 
 be the slightest doubt ; and, if so, what be- 
 comes of the wolf theory of Mr. Bell ? Be- 
 sides, we cannot see, by what possible power 
 of inter-breeding, either a setter, or a spaniel, 
 or a " Maltese lion dog," could be produced 
 from a wolf. At the " National Dog Show," 
 held at Islington, in 1862, every species of 
 dog was exhibited, the whole comprising up- 
 wards of eight hundred specimens, and every 
 one showing some different character, which 
 made it distinct from another. Here the 
 huge boar-hound, down to the toy-terrier, of 
 2|- lbs. weight, was to be seen ; and is it 
 possible that the original of all these was a 
 hungry gaunt wolf, with the sanguinary 
 qualities of the tiger, and the ferocity of the 
 hya>na ? Tho same, or similar arguments 
 might possibly apply to the wild dogs of India ; 
 but inter-breeding from species of tho same 
 kind, is much more likely to produce variety, 
 in the lapse of ages, than inter- breeding from 
 species originally distinct, although bearing a 
 close resemblance to each other. We do not, 
 however, when we contend that these wild 
 dogs are genuine, pretend to assert that any of 
 them are the originals of any one of our 
 domestic breeds. All we wish is to prove 
 that there are genuine wild dogs ; which fact 
 being established, the necessity of looking to 
 the wolf as the origin of the dog falls to the 
 ground, for these wild dogs are not wolves. 
 
 In the next place, though the wolf and dog 
 will breed together, their progeny, if fertile, as 
 Buffon seems to prove, is sc in a low degree 
 only, the mixed race gradually failing, and 
 becoming extinct. It has also yet to be seen, 
 whether there exist a race of true wolves, the 
 descendants of dogs, which have returned to 
 their natural state, and reassumed their 
 original characters. If the wild dogs, described 
 above, and regarded as genuine, be really the 
 
 373 
 
THEOEIES.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [inEOEIES. 
 
 descendants of a domestic stock, even then, 
 seeing that they have resumed their oriizinal 
 characters — as evidenced by their uniformity 
 of size, figure, colour, and instincts — the argu- 
 ment that the wolf is tlie primeval type of the 
 dog is at once nullified ; for tliese rufus wild 
 dogs are distinct fi'om the wolf While thus 
 venturing to question the theory of Mr. Bell, 
 and other eminent naturalists, we are not pre- 
 pared to point out the origin or origins of the 
 domestic dog ; and we venture to say that the 
 subject will always remain a Gordian knot, 
 which science will never unravel. Buffon has 
 eloquently observed, that "those species 
 which man has greatly cultivated, whether 
 belonging to the animal or the vegetable 
 woiid, are, beyond all, those which are the 
 most altered ; and as the alteration is some- 
 times to such a degree, that we cannot recog- 
 nise in them anything of their primitive form 
 — such being the case with wheat, which has 
 no resemblance to the plant from which it is 
 supposed to have derived its origin — it is not 
 impossible, that among the numerous varieties 
 of the dog which we see in the present day, 
 there is not one which bears a resemblance to 
 the original type, or rather, to the first animal 
 of the species." 
 
 Mr. Eichardson, in his treatise on The Dog, 
 also positively denies the assumed identity of 
 structure between that animal and the wolf, set 
 forth by Mr. Bell. He says the intestines of the 
 wolf are considerably shorter than those of the 
 dog, evidently marking him as an animal ot 
 more strictly carnivorous habits. The orbits 
 are placed higher, and more forward in the 
 skull. The proportion between the bones ot 
 the hind legs differs ; so does the number of 
 toes. The structure of the teeth is different ; 
 these being in the wolf much larger, whilst the 
 molar teeth of tlie upper and lower jaw are 
 adapted to each other ; in the wolf, in a peculiar 
 ficmors-like manner, rendering them infinitely 
 more serviceable for breaking bpnes — a struc- 
 ture not found in the do<r. 
 
 " The wolf is not ' susceptible of the highest 
 degree of domestication, and capable of great 
 aflectioa for mankind, which has been abun- 
 dantly proved of the wolf.' When has it been 
 proved? I have seen many so-culled 'tame 
 wolves,' but never one that might be trusted ; 
 or that did not, when opportunity oH'ered. 
 374 
 
 return to bis fierce nature and wild habits. 
 The whelps, too, produced by these partially 
 domesticated wolves, are not in the smallest 
 degree influenced by the domestication of 
 their parents. The Eoyal Zoological Society 
 of Ireland had, some years ago, in their garden 
 in the Phoenix Park, a pair of very tame 
 wolves. These produced young, which became 
 tame likewise, and, in their turn, produced 
 cubs. The society very kindly presented me 
 with one of the last-mentioned cubs, which, 
 though only five weeks old when I took him 
 from his dam, was as fierce and violent in his 
 own little way as the most savage denizen of 
 the forest. I brought up this animal among 
 my dogs ; for them he conceived a considerable 
 degree of affection, or respect, perhaps ; for 
 suhmission was the most striking feature of 
 his conduct towards them ; and was, doubtless, 
 induced by the frequent and substantial casti- 
 gations he received. He never, it is true, 
 exactly dared to attack me in front, but he 
 once showed a disposition to do so when I 
 pulled him down by the tail as he was endea- 
 vouring to get over the garden wall. He, 
 however, on several occasions charged at me 
 from behind, when he thought my attention 
 was otherwise engaged. He once only suc- 
 ceeded in inflicting a severe bite ; and by this 
 time I had utterly despaired of making any- 
 thing of him : he was about eighteen months 
 old ; I sent him about his business. He sub- 
 sequently fell into the hands of a showman, 
 and assumed his proper character in the 
 caravan." These observations, while they mili- 
 tate against the theory of Mr. Bell, concur 
 with those of Buffon, in reference to the expe- 
 rieuce which that great naturalist obtained in 
 rearing his own wolves. He found them, like 
 Mr. Eichardson, well enough up to their 
 eighteenth month, but, after that period, the 
 innate savageness of their nature began to 
 discover itself, and there was little or no 
 safety in their presence. 
 
 "As to dogs," continues Mr. Eichardson, 
 " when accident drives them to subsist on their 
 own resources, thus rendering them wild, they 
 assume feral characters ; but as to their thus 
 acquiring, in the course of a few generations, 
 the habit and aspect, or the general similitude 
 of wolves, I conceive it to be an assertion only, 
 and one that has yet to be proved. Even such 
 
THEORIES.] 
 
 FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. 
 
 [rnEonras. 
 
 (loi^s as have boon thus ilrivon into tonil and 
 independeiit litV, will be found evor ready to 
 acknowledge the control of man, and may, 
 with comparatively little trouble, bo induced 
 to return to their allegiance to him. Nor will 
 the whelps of such re-domcslicatcd dogs bo 
 horn wild, as is the case with the cubs of the 
 tamest wolves. In the case of these dogs, 
 circumstances, and not natural instinct, have 
 driven them wild ; and these circumstances 
 ceasing to operate, domestication returns. 
 
 " How does it happen that the dog is to be 
 met with in every quarter of the globe to 
 which man has penetrated, while the true wolf 
 aas never yet been met with south of the 
 equator? Further, are not several distinct 
 species of wolf admitted to exist ? * Is there 
 not more than one distinct species of wolf 
 admitted by naturalists to exist in North 
 America alone ? It has not even been at- 
 tempted to be proved that these species are 
 identical ; their distinctness has been more 
 than tacitly admitted. Yet they resemble 
 each other far more closely than any wolf 
 does the dog. Has the dog, then, been 
 derived from each and all of these wolves ; or 
 has the original wolf, origin alike of wolf 
 and dog, been yet properly indicated ? Should 
 not this fact be duly ascertained prior to that 
 in question ? 
 
 " The wolf and the dog will not breed toge- 
 ther in a state of nature. In their native 
 forests they clearly will not, or the wild dog 
 would not still remain distinct from the wolf, 
 whose lair is in the immediate neighbourhood 
 of his own. Man's effort and skill, combined 
 with partial domestication, may, indeed, in- 
 duce a union between them ; but naturally 
 they shun each other, and mutually exhibit a 
 strong natural antipathy.f Nor will these 
 animals — the wolf and the dog — breed together, 
 unless one of them, at least, be thoroughly 
 domesticated. How else have all attempts to 
 produce a breed between the wolf and Austra- 
 lian dingo so signally failed ? " 
 
 The simple breeding together of animals, 
 and the fertility of their offspring, is not a 
 sufficient proof of identity of species. Mr. 
 Hodgson has shown that the cajpra iliaral — 
 
 * We have shown this in our previous pages. 
 t This we have also shown in our illustrative anec- 
 dotes. 
 
 the goat of Nepaul — and the domestic goat 
 will breed together. The hunchbacked zebu, 
 of India, will breed with our common cattle, 
 and the off>*pring is prolific. Pallas has stated 
 that, in various parts of Russia, the sheep and 
 the goat have bred together ; whilst Chinese 
 and European pigs, differing, according to 
 Mr. Eyton, in important osteological particu- 
 lars, will do so likewise. 
 
 In The Animal Kingdom, arranged after its 
 Organisation, by Baron Cuvier, the following 
 opinions, translated by Mr. Blyth, are given 
 by that distinguished naturalist upon this sub- 
 ject. Speaking of the dog, and his supposed 
 subjugation to the power and intelligence of 
 man, he says, — "Tiie domestic dog is the most 
 complete, the most singular, and most useful 
 conquest ever made by man, the whole species 
 having become his property. Each individual 
 is devoted to its particular master, assumes his 
 manners, knows and defends his property, and 
 remains attached to him until death ; and all 
 this, neither from constraint nor want, but 
 solely from gratitude and pure friendship. 
 The swiftness, strength, and scent of the dog 
 have rendered him a powerful ally to man 
 against other animals, and were even, perhaps, 
 necessary to the establishment of society." 
 
 In reference to the origin of the dog, Mr. 
 Blyth, in a note to his translation of the Baron's 
 Regne Animal, argues in favour of the wolf 
 theory. He says — " If the idea, which I con- 
 ceive there is every reason to entertain, 
 respecting the origin of the domestic dog be 
 well founded, it is clear that a recurrence to a 
 single wild type would be impossible. The 
 dog is apparently a blended race, derived prin- 
 cipally from the wolf, and partly from various 
 other allied species. In the museum of the 
 Zoological Society of London, there is a spe- 
 cimen of an Esquimaux dog (C. nulilus), which 
 resembles the large American wolf so closely, 
 that there can scarcely be any doubt of the 
 connection which subsists between them ; and 
 it is well known, of the American wolves in 
 particular, that if a young animal bo surprised 
 by a hunter, and suddenly menaced by his 
 voice and manner, it will crouch to him, and 
 implore his mercy in precisely the manner of 
 a spaniel ; so that only a little encouragement 
 and kindness is required to gain its permanent 
 attachment. Indeed many of them are killed 
 
 375 
 
THEOEIES.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [theories. 
 
 to obtain a proffered reward, by taking this 
 (assuredly unworthy) advantage of their natu- 
 ral submissiveness. That the wolf possesses 
 the mental qualities, and is capable of the same 
 strong attachment to man as the most faithful 
 dog, has been abundantly proved by the ob- 
 servations of M. E. Cuvier and others; and 
 the unremitting persecution to which it has 
 been necessarily subjected in Europe, for so 
 many years, will sufficiently account for the 
 savage and distrustful character which it ex- 
 hibits when unreclaimed; though even then 
 the germs of a better disposition are traceable 
 in the permanent attachment of the male and 
 female, and sociality of the young, till urgent 
 necessity, or the annual period of dominant 
 sexual excitement, subdues every milder pro- 
 pensity and acquired sentiment of friendship 
 jr disinterested affection. 
 
 " Instances occasionally happen of the dog 
 returning by choice to a state of wildness, 
 and assuming then, of necessity, the character 
 ascribed to the wolf. I have known this to 
 occur in a male pointer, and in a female grey- 
 hound : the latter was so fine a specimen of the 
 breed, that, on being entrapped, it was thought 
 desirable to obtain a litter from her, which was 
 accordingly effected; but, while her puppies 
 were very young, she managed to escape to 
 the woods, and never returned : three of her 
 progeny grew to be excellent hounds ; but two 
 others proved quite irreclaimable ; and escaping 
 from servitude, like their dam, were finally shot, 
 for their destructive poaching propensities." 
 
 In the Zoology of Dr. Carpenter, we find it 
 stated that " the common dog is a species of 
 the genus canis, belonging to the family canidce, 
 of the order carnivora, of the class mammalia, 
 and the division vertehmfa. Erom the informa- 
 tion conveyed to us by the term vertehrata, we 
 learn that it has an internal skeleton, with a 
 jointed back-bone and skull, containing the 
 spinal marrow and brain, the centres of the 
 nervous system ; and that it has five senses, 
 four extremities, and red blood. The know- 
 ledge that it is among the class mammalia, 
 implies that it is a warm-blooded animal, 
 breathing air, possessing a heart with four 
 cavities, a complete double circulation, pro- 
 duces its young alive, nourishes them after- 
 wards by suckling, and has the body, more or 
 less, covered with hairs. By referring it to 
 376 
 
 the order car)iivora, we know that it is in its 
 natural state a beast of prey, adapted by the 
 formation of its teeth, and the digestive appa- 
 ratus, to feed upon animal flesh ; and by the 
 structure of the extremities, to pursue and 
 attack the animals which serve as its prey. 
 As one of the family canidce, we know that it 
 resembles, in some respects, the wolves, foxes, 
 jackals, and hyaenas, as well as the cats, iu 
 being digitigrade (that is, in walking on the 
 ends of the toes), and that it differs from the 
 cat in not being so much adapted to destroy 
 its living prey, as to feed upon animals ali'eady 
 killed ; the mouth not being formed so exclu- 
 sively for cutting and tearing as is the cat's, 
 and in the claws being neither so long and 
 sharp, nor capable of being pushed forth or 
 withdrawn, as in the feline tribes. Again, the 
 dog differs from the fox and hyaena in certain 
 peculiarities in the form of the teeth ; but his 
 relationship to the wolf is so close, that many 
 naturalists have regarded them as sprung from 
 the same stock. Then, while the dog belongs 
 to a genus distinct from the hyaena and fox, it 
 is identical with the wolf and jackal in generic 
 character, and it may be that it does not even 
 constitute a species distinct from the wolf. 
 But, while some characters are constant in 
 each race, others may undergo great variation ; 
 so that, within the limits of one species, we 
 may have a large number of varieties, or breeds, 
 marked by difi'erences much greater than those 
 which, in other cases, are held to distinguish 
 species. This is especially the case in domestic 
 animals ; and in none is it shown more strongly 
 than in the dog. How different, for example, 
 are the greyhound, the mastiff, and the blood- 
 hound ! We should scarcely imagine that any 
 period of time, or external influence, could 
 ever convert one of them into the other. Yet 
 the zoologist feels no hesitation in affirming 
 that they had one common origin; since it is 
 found that their distinct forms are preserved 
 only so long as they are matched in breeding 
 with forms of the same kind. Hence there 
 is no difficulty in reconciling the diversities 
 actually existing among the various races of 
 dogs with the idea of one common origin, of 
 which they are modifications. When and how 
 the several breeds arose, is less easily deter- 
 mined." 
 
 Among so many conflicting statements, it is. 
 
TUKUUILS] 
 
 rOli MOUxNlAlX, I'"ii:LI), AMJ I'Alt.M 
 
 [tiieoriks. 
 
 perhaps, utterly impossible to determine the 
 true orii,Mii of the dog. Mr. JJi-ll, and otliers, 
 argue for the wolf theoi-)'. ^Mr. Hodgson 
 and others do the same for the primilivo wild 
 dog theory ; and Professor Kreisehner does 
 the same for the jackal theory. Ho says that 
 there is a kind of jackal in the Prankfort 
 jMnseum, exemplifying ail the types of the 
 ancient Egyptian dog. To this tlicory of the 
 jackal, however, we cannot, for a moment, lend 
 ourselves. To be sure, it is said that the 
 manners of this animal bear a very close 
 resemblance to those of the dog. When taken 
 young it soon becomes domesticated ; attaches 
 itself to mankind, wags its tail when pleased, 
 and distinguishes its master from other persons. 
 It likes to be fondled and patted with the hand ; 
 and, when called by name, will answer to it, 
 and leap on a chair. It drinks as the dog 
 does, by lapping, and it will eat readily from 
 the hand : it is even fond of playing with 
 dogs, and eats bread with eagerness. These 
 qualities induced Mr. Pennant to think, with 
 Professor Kreisehner, that the various races of 
 the dog were indebted to the jackal for their 
 origin. To this pleasing canine portrait, how- 
 ever, that of Bufi'on presents a very great con- 
 trast, lie says that the jackal is stupid and 
 voracious ; that it is very difficult to be tamed ; 
 and that he had one which was kept for nearly 
 a year, when neither food nor caresses could 
 mollify the fierceness of its disposition. Al- 
 though it had been taken young, and reared 
 with the utmost care, it would suffer no one 
 to touch it, and would bite at any one indis- 
 criminately. "When occasionally allowed a 
 little liberty, it amused itself by leaping on the 
 tables, and devouring everything suitable to its 
 palate. Its voracity, he says, was enormous. 
 If it could get notliing better, it would eat 
 the leatlier for harness, and boots or shoes. It 
 would eat the most putrid bodies, disinter the 
 dead, attend caravans, and follow armies, to 
 feast on the remains of the fallen or the slain. 
 Sucli a brute does not appear, to our miud, to 
 exhibit a single trait of the dog, to the extent 
 that would lead us to coincide with the theory 
 which would place the jackal as the original of 
 that generous animal; but, as the opinions of 
 eminent naturalists are so different from each 
 other, it is difficult to decide between them. 
 Another theory advanced is, that the 
 3c 
 
 shepherd's dog is the origuial typo; but it ia 
 thus combated by Mr. Jtichardsou : — 
 
 "Many naturalists, uiid tlieso natives of dif- 
 ferent countries, have advanced this theory, 
 and still they have all employed the one desig- 
 nation in indicating their favourite tyj)e -viz., 
 the shepherd's dog. I must here first take the 
 liberty of inquiring tvhat shepherd's docjf for 
 shepherds' dogs differ most materially ft-om each 
 other. Buffon stood up for the originalitv of 
 the matin, or shepherd's dog of his own 
 country. Later writers, copying more or lesB 
 from him, have adhered to the theory of the 
 sheep-dog origin, while they have forgottou 
 the diflerence which exists between their own 
 national sheep-dogs and those indicated by 
 Buflbn. Truly there exists but little simili- 
 tude between the tailless, woolly-looking ani- 
 mal, the sheep-dog of England, the fox-like 
 colley of Scotland, the gaunt and short-haired 
 cur of Ireland, the matin of Buffon, the noble, 
 stately, and powerful sheep-dog of the Pyre- 
 nees, the guardian of the flocks of the Abruzzi, 
 the gigantic mastifls, the herd-dogs of the 
 Himalaya mountains, and, in short, between 
 various other sorts of sheep-dog, used for tend- 
 ing flocks in as various portions of the known 
 world. Shall we assume the original type to 
 have been the sheep-dog or matin of France, 
 or the more graceful colley of Scotland } Are 
 we to believe that a brace of either of these 
 dogs were the progenitors of tlie entire canine 
 race ? Did the gigantic boar-dog, the noble 
 JS'ewfoun aland, the courageous and powerful 
 mastiff, the slender and rapid greyhound, the 
 stunted yet formidable bulldog, the diminutive 
 and sensitive Blenheim spaniel, and the still 
 more diminutive, and now almost extinct, lion- 
 dog of Malta — all arise from a brace of curs ? 
 If they did, to what now are we to attribute 
 the varieties at present existing ? We are 
 told to climate and breeding. As to breediufr, 
 how could it operate when there was but a 
 single pair to breed from ? How, if the varie- 
 ties of the dog proceeded but from one original 
 type, could development thus be produced, 
 extending beyond the limits of the faculties 
 and powers proper to that type ? Will change 
 of climate ever convert a greyhound into a 
 bulldog? AVill it truncate tiie muzzle, raise 
 the frontal bones, enlarge the frontal sinuses, 
 or effect a positive alteration of the posterior 
 
 377 
 
THEOEIES.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [anecdote. 
 
 branches of the lower maxillary bones ? Or 
 will change of climate, on the other hand, 
 operate to convert a bulldog into a greyhound, 
 produce a high and slender form, diminish 
 the frontal sinuses, deprive the animal of the 
 sense of smell, at least comparatively, together 
 •with courage and other moral qualities depend- 
 ing on organisation ? I say nothing : I 
 only ask my intelligent readers — do they be- 
 lieve this possible ? Thus far, a very eminent 
 naturalist, Colonel Hamilton Smith, goes with 
 me, hand in hand ; all that I have adduced he 
 admits ; but here we unfortunately part com- 
 pany. Colonel Smith seeks to account for 
 these difterences by calling in the intervention 
 of a supposed admixture of wolf, fox, or hyaena, 
 &c. He admits an originally-formed dog, and 
 one variety only ; and refers for the alterations 
 that have taken place in him to crossing with 
 these wild animals. Now I consider this 
 theory as even less tenable than that of the 
 wolfish or vulpine origin of the dog, as the 
 colonel is obliged to bring several races of 
 wild dogs to his aid ; and, may I venture to 
 inquire, where is their origin ? Besides this, 
 we have to refer to the decided antipathy 
 subsisting between these animals in a state of 
 nature, and thus effectually precluding inter- 
 mixture, unless through human intervention 
 and agency, which clearly was never exerted 
 in that condition for this purpose. 
 
 " It is," says Mr. Eichardson, '• in far remote 
 ages of ' Tlie Earth and Animated Nature' that 
 we have to seek for traces of the origin of this 
 sagacious and generous animal, which has en- 
 joyed the especial privilege and well-merited 
 honour of being, ^;ar excellence, the rniEND op 
 ilAN." — In this opinion we concur. "We further 
 believe — for it must resolve itself into a matter 
 only of belief where all reasoning is contradic- 
 tory, and therefore in a great measure nuga- 
 tory — tliat, however close his alUance may be 
 to the wolf or the jackal, neither of these ani- 
 mals are his original. He has, in our opinion, 
 an original of his own; and, however thick 
 may be the veil which shrouds this in obscurity, 
 liis intelligence being next to that of man, 
 stamps him as a creation as distinctly original 
 as that of the half-reasoning elephant. 
 
 So nearly akin is the intelligence of the do"- 
 to reason, that we are sometimes puzzled to 
 account for the actions which result from it. 
 378 
 
 " Lo ! the poor Indian, whose untutor'd mind 
 Sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind, 
 ****** 
 
 And thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 
 
 His FAITHFUL DOG shall bear him company." 
 
 The poets of difterent ages and of various 
 lands would seem to have delighted in commem- 
 orating the virtues of this favourite animal. 
 Of this we have already given an illustration 
 from the Homeric poems, and we will now give 
 one from the Virgilian Georgics : — 
 
 " Nor last forget thy faithful dogs ; but feed 
 
 With fattening whey the mastiff's gen'rous breed, 
 And Spartan race, who, for the fold's relief, 
 Will prosecute with cries the nightly thief; 
 Repulse tlie prowling wolf, and hold at bay 
 The mountain robbers rushing to the prey. 
 With cries of hounds thou may'st pursue the fear 
 Of flying hares, and chase the fallow deer; 
 Rouse from their desert dens the bristled rage 
 Of boars, and beamy stags in toils engage." 
 
 Walter Scott was also passionately attached 
 to dogs ; and, in some of the most graphic 
 and picturesque scenes in his beautiful novels, 
 several of these find a prominent place. Their 
 fidelity and sagacity, exemplified on many oc- 
 casions, were to him a source of great enjoy- 
 ment. In allusion to these qualities, as exhib- 
 ited by one^ in the case of a traveller who had 
 been dashed to pieces by falling from a preci- 
 pice of Helvellyn, he says — 
 
 " Nor yet quite deserted, though lonely extended, 
 For faithful in death, his meek favourite attended, 
 The much-loved remains of her master defended, 
 And chased the hill-fox and the raven away. 
 How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber ? 
 When the wind moved his garments, how oft didst 
 thou start ? 
 How many long days and long weeks didst thou 
 number. 
 Ere he faded before thee, the friend of thy heart ?" 
 
 The circumstances which suggested this 
 poem were detailed to a tourist by one of the 
 guides who conducts visitors to the summits of 
 Skiddaw and Helvellyn. The unfortunate man 
 who perished amidst these solitudes, was a resi- 
 dent of Manchester, who was periodically in 
 the habit of visiting the lakes, and who, confid- 
 ing in his knowledge of the country, had ven- 
 tured to cross one of the passes of Helvellyn, 
 late in a summer afternoon, in company only 
 with his faithful dog. Darkness, it is sup- 
 posed, came on before his expectation ; he wan- 
 dered from the track ; and ieli over the rocks 
 
HISTOEY.] 
 
 FOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. 
 
 [niBTonr. 
 
 into one of those deep recesses where huinaii 
 foot never treads. Tlio dog was found by the 
 Bide of his master's body, after many weeks' 
 fruitless searcli. The man who told the story 
 concluded wilii the pious exclamation of — 
 " God knows how the poor beast was su[)- 
 ported so loiii^." 
 
 "VV'ordsworlli has also written on this sub- 
 ject; but his poem is too long for quotation 
 liere; the following, however, are four of the 
 Blanzas most appropriate to our subject — • 
 
 ** A barking fouml the shepherd hears, 
 
 A cry as of a dog or fox ; 
 
 He halts and siarcbes with liis eyes 
 
 Among the scattered rocks: 
 And now at distance can discern 
 A stirring in a brake of fern ; 
 From which immediately leaps out 
 A dog, and yelping runs about. 
 
 " The dog is not of mountain breed ; 
 
 Its motions, too, are wild and shy ; 
 With something, as the shepherd thinks. 
 
 Unusual in its cry : 
 Nor is there any one in sight, 
 All round, in hollow or in height; 
 Nor shout nor whistle strikes his ear: 
 What is the creature doing here ? 
 
 " It was a cove, a huge recess, 
 
 That keeps till June December's snow» 
 A lofty precipice in front, 
 A siieut tarn below. 
 
 Far in the bonom of Ilclvellyn, 
 RiMiiotc from jmhlic roiid or dwelling 
 Pathway or cultivated laud, 
 From trace of human foot or hand. 
 
 " IJut hear a wonder now, for sake 
 
 Of which this mournful talc I tell I 
 
 A lasting monument of words 
 This wonder merits well. 
 
 The dog, which still was hovering nigh, 
 
 Uepeating the same timid cry, 
 
 This dog iuid been, through three months' space, 
 
 A dwilk T in that savage place." 
 
 As an appropriate close to this chapter, we 
 will give the epitaphs written by two of our 
 most celebrated poets, upon their favourite 
 dogs. " Maida," the first, was the deer-hound of 
 Sir AValter Scott, presented to him by Mac- 
 donald of Glengarry, and was a splendid ani- 
 mal. He lies buried at the gate of Abbota- 
 ford, of which he was long the guardian: — 
 
 " At thy master's gate here, Maida, 
 Lowly dost thou rest; 
 Light the low-relievo marble 
 Lie upon thy breast." 
 
 "Boatswain" was the favourite Newfound- 
 land of Lord Byron : — 
 
 " The poor dog ! in life the firmest friend, 
 The first to welcome, foremost to defend ; 
 Whose honest heart is still his master's own — 
 Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone." 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 HISTORY OF THE DOG. 
 
 The Canulce, or Canine family, includes the 
 Dog, the Wolf, the Jackal, the Fox, and the 
 Lycaon; in other words, all those animals 
 which LinujEua assigns to his genus Canis ; 
 and which, though agreeing in dentition, and 
 in the digitigrade structure of the feet, may, 
 nevertheless, with propriety, bo divided into 
 sub-generic groups. In all, the muzzle is 
 elongated ; the bony palate terminates in a 
 line with the hinder margin of the posterior 
 molars, in this respect differing from that of 
 other carnivora; and there are two true 
 
 molars on each side of the upper and lower 
 jaws. The genua Megnlotis, in the form of the 
 lower jaw, in the dentition, and in the pro- 
 longation of the bony palate, oilers an excep- 
 tion to the general rule. 
 
 6 „ . 1—1. 
 
 Dental formula :— Incisors, -^ ; Canines, j^j' 
 
 1—1 
 1- 
 
 The true molars below are small, the last being 
 even minute, as is the first false molar, and 
 ofteu dropping out early, 
 
 379 
 
 3—3 
 '4—4' 
 
 Molars, false '^—^, carnassidres ^— -^, true .■^— ^ = 42. 
 
HISTORY.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [flISTOET. 
 
 Eore feet, with five toes; hind feet, with 
 four toes, and sometimes a fifth on the tarsus ; 
 daws not retractile. 
 
 The following is the arrangement of the 
 groups into which the breeds of the domestic 
 doo-have been thought to resolve themselves : — 
 
 1. Dingo — semi-domestic.'' 
 
 2. Esquimaux dog? 
 
 3. Hare Indian's dog? 
 
 which is generally desired, how much light 
 would be thrown on our modern varieties ! We 
 know, indeed, that the Greeks and Romans hud 
 valuable dogs for hunting various wild animals ; 
 we also know that they paid great attention to 
 their training ; but, beyond this, we know 
 little. They had watch-dogs, hounds, a grey- 
 hound breed, and probably a breed of spaniels, 
 the Canis Tuscus, also described as Proles de 
 
 To what groups these respectively belong is sanguine Ihero, There is a dog represented 
 not verv clear; probably to the first or second , on a mosaic pavement at Pompeii, fastened by 
 
 Ears sharp, erect, or sub 
 erect; nose pointed 
 hair lonff. 
 
 of the following groups : — 
 
 Shepherd's do 
 Siberian, 
 i Pomeranian. 
 I Icelandish, &c. 
 C Terrier, rough and smooth. 
 Muzzle less acute; ears <^^^^^^:^^^ 
 
 sub-erect; hau- shorty Barbary dog. 
 o^- w"T- I Lurcher, &c. 
 
 r Great Danish dog. 
 Irish wolf-dog. 
 
 Ears moderate, narrow, 
 generally pendulous ; 
 muzzle produced. 
 
 Ears moderately large, 
 t; muzzh 
 derate ; hair Ion 
 
 Scotch greyhound, 
 
 deer-hound. 
 
 English ditto. 
 
 Italian ditto. 
 
 Persian ditto. 
 
 Albanian dog, &c. 
 
 f Spaniel. 
 
 , , Water-spaniel, 
 
 pendent; muzzle mo- < ^ , ' j 
 
 ■\ . , . , Kough water-dog. 
 
 L Setter, &c. 
 
 Ears moderately large f Italian wolf-dog. 
 
 and pendent; muzzle J Newfoundland-dog. 
 
 deep and strong ; hair 1 Labrador dog. 
 
 long or wiry. L Alpine dog, &c. 
 
 Pointer. 
 
 Beagle. 
 
 Harrier. 
 
 ■{ Fox-hound. 
 
 Old English hound. 
 
 Bloodhound. 
 
 . African hound, &c. 
 
 Cuban mastiff. 
 
 Mastiff. 
 
 Ears large and pendent; 
 muzzle long and deep ; 
 nose large; hair close. 
 
 Ears moderate, pen- 
 dent ; muzzle short ■< 
 and thick ; hair short. 
 
 Ba 
 
 Bulldog. 
 
 Corsican bulldog, &c. 
 L Pug-dog? 
 
 This, and every other attempt to arrange the 
 various breeds of dogs under difierent heads, 
 must necessarily be defective, from that want 
 of information which we are now doomed to 
 deplore regarding the races of antiquitj^. Were 
 we possessed of this knowledge to the extent 
 380 
 
 a chain, with the caution " Cave canem^'' "Be- 
 ware the dog," written at its feet. A represen- 
 tation of this is to be seen in some histories of 
 Eoman antiquities. The small sharp ears and 
 elongated muzzle give it a wild aspect : it 
 appears to be a strongly- made, vigorous animal ; 
 but if it represent the Dogue de forte race of 
 the Romans, it is not to be wondered at 
 their sending to Britain for our old indigenous 
 mastiff". 
 
 In the Scriptures there are abundant allu- 
 sions to the dog. Some of these are to be 
 found in Exodus xxii. 31 ; 1 Kings xxi. 19 and 
 23 ; 2 Kings ix. 35, and elsewhere. The pas- 
 sages of greatest force are : — ■" In the place 
 where the dogs licked the blood of Naboth, 
 shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine ;" and, 
 " The dogs shall cat Jezebel by the wall of 
 Jezreel." These recall the picture of a scene 
 painted in modern days by a poet, who had 
 travelled in Greece and Turkey, and whose 
 wonderful pen drew, with magical power, the 
 habits of the niasterless dogs that " wander up 
 and down for meat, and grudge if they be not 
 satisfied." The passage is in Byron's Siege of 
 Corinth : — 
 
 " He saw the lean dogs beneath the wall, 
 Hold o'er the dead their carnival ; 
 Gorging and growling o'er carcass and limb, 
 They were too busy to bark at him. 
 From a Tartar's skull they had stripp'd the flesh, 
 As ye peel the fig when the fruit is fresh ; 
 And their white tusks crunch'd o'er tlie whiter skull, 
 As it slipt through their jaws when their edge grew 
 
 dull, 
 As they lazily mumbled the bones of tlie dead, • 
 
 As they scarce could rise from the spot where they fed ; 
 So well had they broken a lingering fast 
 With those who had fallen for that night's repast." 
 
 In Egypt the dog was a favourite, and care- 
 fully bred, and, as the paintings of that people 
 prove, there were several breeds. It would 
 
niSTORY.] 
 
 PO-R AmUNTAIN. FIRLD, AND FAinr, 
 
 IIISTOTIT. 
 
 appear, iiuleod, that soino kiuJs wore rcpardi'd 
 with reliLjious veiienitioii, mul i'inl)ahiu'(l alti'i' 
 death. Miuiimica of tliem arc still iound. j 
 There would seoin to Imvo been in tiiia country | 
 of natural and artitlcial physical wonders, dilVer- j 
 ent kinds of doj^s. There nro ropresontations i 
 of hounds resembling our greyhound; of 
 pet-domestic dogs, with sharp ears, and curly j 
 tails ; of short-legged turnspits ; of watch-dogs ; ! 
 of hunting-dogs, and other descriptions of tho 
 canine race. Indeed, what, physically spealuiig, 
 were this people without, from the Pyramid of i 
 Cheops down to the smallest representations | 
 of humanity, in black marble statuary ? — from 
 innumerable colossal figures of kings that might 
 rival the proportions of Jupiter in our limited 
 conceptions, down to the minutest representa- 
 tion of the species — scarihaes — that human in- 
 genuity and tingers could fashion ? They had, 
 also, of '• live-stock," the crocodile, "the great 
 dragon of the river," the emblem of the Nile, 
 and the symbol of Egypt; they had the beau- 
 tiful ibis and the pelican, emblem of maternal 
 love ; in short, what had they not ? and, as 
 they represented these things in sculpture, so 
 did they represent their dogs, from which re- 
 presentations we are, at this day, enabled to 
 decide, in some measure, the nature of the 
 various breeds of the animals of which they 
 were possessed. The modern greyhound of 
 Arabia so closely resembles the delineations of 
 the ancient greyhound, that we cannot doubt 
 their affinity. The Egyptians, in the chase^ 
 used the bow and spear, and intercepted the 
 game as it fled before the hounds, discharging 
 their arrows whenever it came within range. 
 "When a fierce antelope, as the Lcucoryx, was 
 brought to bay, the hunter gallantly used his 
 spear, as the boar-hunter of the middle ages did 
 in Europe. On the level plains of Egypt the 
 chasseur often followed in his chariot, urging 
 his horses to the full speed, and endeavouring 
 to meet the game, or place himself in the direc- 
 tion the dogs were forcing it to take, with his 
 bow and arrows ready. It was, perhaps, the 
 partiality evinced by the Egyptians for the 
 dog, that led the Israelites to regard it with 
 abhorrence, as an unclean animal; in which 
 feeling they have been followed by the Mo- 
 hammedans. Be this as it may, Palestine " is 
 the country in which this animal has the long- 
 est been refused that entire domestication with 
 
 man which ho has enjoyed in most other land^; 
 in oilier words, the treatment of tho dog has 
 almost always, in Palestine, been such as it has 
 only in other countries been subject to, since 
 tho propagation of the Moslem faith. And 
 since the ideas concerning dogs have been much 
 tho eaino with tho ancient Jews and modern 
 Moslems, there is no doubt that the existiti"; 
 practices of tho latter, illustrate tho ancient 
 practices of the former. Atnong both, wo traro 
 the despised, but not maltreated dog of tho 
 streets ; and among both wo discover that, with 
 every predisposition to do without them, cer- 
 tain breeds of dogs have forced their services 
 upon man, from the indispensable nature of 
 their help in hunting and in guarding the 
 flocks." 
 
 The street dogs, called Pariah dogs in 
 India, have excited the attention of all travel- 
 lers in that country, as well as in Turkey, and 
 the whole of the Levant. They roam the 
 streets of towns, cities, and villages, owned by 
 no one ; but, for their services in clearing away 
 carrion and offal, are universally tolerated. Al- 
 lusions are made to them in the earliest records 
 of antiquity. Homer describes them in con- 
 junction with vultures, as feeding upon the 
 slain : — 
 
 " Whose limbs, unburied on the naked shore, 
 Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore." 
 
 These dogs herd together in troops, and 
 keep to their respective districts ; they display 
 all the qualities and propensities of their race, 
 and if they are tierce and ravenous, it is 
 because they are left to their own resources ; 
 since, to become at once domestic, they require 
 only to be owned and noticed. Colonel Sykes, 
 speaking of the Pariah dog of Dukhun, ob- 
 serves that it is there very numerous, and not 
 individual property, but breeds in the towns 
 and villages unmolested. He remarks that 
 the Turnspit dog, long-backed, with short 
 crooked legs, is frequently found among the 
 Pariahs. Tliere is also a petted minute variety 
 of the Pariah dog, usually of a white colour, 
 with long silky hair, corresponding to a com- 
 mon lap-dog of Europe, which is taught to 
 carry flambeaux and lanterns The last variety 
 noticed, is the dog with hair so short as to 
 appear nuked, like the Barbary or Egyptian 
 dog. It is known to Europeans by the iiamo 
 of the Polygar dog. Of the Domesticated 
 
 381 
 
niSTOET.][ 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS TARTETIES; 
 
 [akecdotes. 
 
 dogs, Colonel Sykes states, that the first in 
 size and strength is the Brinjaree dog, which 
 somewhat resembles the Persian greyhound, 
 but is much more powerful. 
 
 The properties of the dog, however, will be 
 treated of further on in this work ; meanwhile 
 we will here instance the general intelligence, 
 lidelity, and sagacity of this animal, by a few 
 illustrative anecdotes, which place liira in h:s 
 relationship with man in a striking point of 
 view. There are few who, from their own 
 experience, cannot bear testimony to the good 
 qualities of the dog ! It has been somewhere 
 ^aid, " that man is the god of the dog," for to 
 man he looks up with reverence and affection, 
 and the praise of his master is his richest 
 reward. Is this instinctive attachment to the 
 human species acquired, or is it an original 
 impulse implanted in its nature, by the All- 
 wise Creator, for man's benefit, so that in the 
 primitive condition of society he might have a 
 friend and assistant, all-important in the chase, 
 and in the extirpation of wild beasts, which, 
 eve he can settle in a land or found a colony, 
 he must drive to a distance or destroy ? 
 
 In reference to the domesticated races, we 
 iiave no animal so completely subservient to 
 all the purposes or the wants of man, in so far 
 as obedience, attachment, and alliance can be 
 rendered by an inferior to a superior. The 
 anecdotes which are recorded as illustrative of 
 these qualities, would form a canine library of 
 no mean pretensions. In Mr. Burchell's 
 Travels in Africa, we have the character of a 
 pack of dogs thus given: — 
 
 " Our pack of dogs consisted of five-and- 
 twenty of various sorts and sizes. This variety, 
 though not altogether intentional, as I was 
 obhged to take any that could be procured, 
 was of the greatest service in such an expe- 
 dition, as I observed that some gave notice of 
 danger in one way, and others in another. 
 Some were more disposed to watch against 
 men, and others against wild boasts ; some 
 discovered an enemy by their quickness of 
 hearing, others by that of scent; some for 
 speed in pursuing game ; 5?ome were useful 
 only ibr their vigilance and barking; and 
 others for their courage in holding fero- 
 cious animals at bay. So large a pack was 
 not, indeed, maintained without adding greatly 
 to our care and trouble, in supplying them 
 382 
 
 with meat and water, for it was sometimes 
 difficult to procure for them enough of the 
 latter ; but their services were invaluable, 
 often contributing to our safety, and always 
 to our ease, by their constant vigilance, as we 
 felt a confidence tliat no danger could approach 
 us at night without being announced by their 
 barking. IS'o circumstances could render the 
 value and fidelity of these animals so con- 
 spicuous and sensible as a journey through 
 regions which, abounding in wild beasts of 
 almost every class, gave continual opportuni- 
 ties of witnessing the strong contrast in their 
 habits, between the ferocious beasts of prey, 
 w^hich fly at the approach of man, and these 
 kind, but too often injured companions of the 
 human race. Many times, when we have 
 been travelling over the plains where those 
 have fled the moment we appeared in sight, 
 liave I turned my eyes towards my dogs to 
 admire their attachment, and have felt a grate- 
 ful affection towards them for preferring our 
 society to the liberty of other quadrupeds. 
 Olten, in the middle of the night, when all my 
 people have been fast asleep around the fire, 
 have I stood to contemplate these faithful 
 animals lying by their side, and have learnt 
 to esteem them for their social love of man- 
 kind. When wandering over pathless deserts, 
 oppressed with vexation and distress at the 
 conduct of my own men, I have turned to 
 these as my only friends, and felt how much 
 inferior to them was man when actuated only 
 by selfish views. 
 
 "The familiarity which subsists between 
 this animal and our own race, is so common to 
 almost every country of the globe, that any 
 remark upon it must seem superfluous ; but I 
 cannot avoid believing that it is the univer- 
 sality of the iact which prevents the greater 
 part of mankind from reflecting duly on the 
 subject. AVhile almost every other quadruped 
 fears man as its most formidable enemy, here 
 is one which regards him as its companion, 
 and follows him as its friend. We must not 
 mistake the nature of the case; it is not 
 because we tiain him to our use; and have 
 made choice of him in preference to other 
 animals, but because this particular species 
 feels a natural desire to be useful to man, and 
 from spontaneous impulse attaches itself to 
 him. Were it not so, we should see, in various 
 
ANECDOTES.] 
 
 i-oii :mountai:s, tield, Aisi) lAiiM. 
 
 ANKCUOTEB. 
 
 Cduutrios, an cqiml Iftiiiiliarity with various 
 oilier quadrupiHls, acconliiig to tlio liabiti?, tlio 
 taste, or the caprice of dillerent nations, liut 
 everywhere it is the dog only tliat takes delij,'ht 
 in associating witli us, in sharing our abode, 
 and is even jealous that our attention should 
 bo bestowed ou him alone; it is he who knows 
 ns personally, watches for us, and warus us of 
 ihmger. It is impossible for the naturalist, 
 when taking a survey of the whole auimal 
 creation, not to feel a conviction that this 
 friendship between two creatures so dillerent 
 from each other, must be the result of the laws 
 of nature; nor can the humane and feeling 
 mind avoid the belief, that kindness to those 
 animals, from which he derives coi'tinual and 
 •issential assistance, is part of his moral 
 duty." 
 
 These sentiments are those of a man who 
 was everywhere surrounded with danger, and 
 who was in the very best situation for ap- 
 preciating the nature and value of the dog. 
 He saw in him the most constant, vigilant, 
 and faithful of associates; his humanity ex- 
 panded as he reflected on his qualities, and he 
 could not help giving the preference to the 
 dog over his own species for faithfulness and 
 friendship. The passage in which this appears 
 is worth repeating and remembering by those 
 who mav look upon this generous animal with 
 an unfavourable or unfriendly eye. " When 
 ■wandering over pathless deserts, oppressed 
 with vexation and distress at the conduct of 
 
 country for restoring animation. The account 
 given by the peasants was, that one of tlioni, 
 returning liome from his labour, observed, at a 
 considerable distance, a largo dog in tlio water, 
 swiuuning, and dragging, and sometimes push- 
 ing something which he seemed to havi« great 
 dilllculty in supporting, but which he, at 
 length, succeeded in getting into a Btuall 
 creek on the opposite side to that on which 
 the men were. 
 
 When the animal had pulled what he had 
 hitherto su[>ported as far out of the water aa 
 he was able, the peasant discovered that it 
 was the body of a man. The dog having 
 shaken himself, began industriously to lick the 
 hands and face of his master, while the rustic 
 hastened across ; and, having obtained assis- 
 tance, the body was conveyed to a neighbour- 
 ing house, where the usual means of resuscita- 
 tion soon restored him to sense and recollec- 
 tion. Two very considerable bruises, with the 
 marks of teeth, appeared— one on the shoulder, 
 the other on the nape of the neck — whence it 
 was presumed that the fiiithful animal lirst 
 seized his master by the shoulder, and swam 
 with him in this manner for some time ; but 
 that his sagacity had prompted him to let go 
 his hold, and shift his grasp to the neck, by 
 which he had been enabled to support the 
 head out of the water. It was in the latter 
 position that the peasant observed the dog 
 making his way along the dike, wliicli, it ap- 
 peared, he had done for a distance of nearly a 
 
 my own men, I have turned to these as mrj own quarter of a mile. It is therefore probable 
 
 friends, and felt how much inferior to them 
 was man when actuated only by selfish views." 
 
 The Newfoundland dog has long been 
 famous for his sagacity and the humanity of 
 his performances. 
 
 A native of Germany, fond of travelling, 
 was pursuing his course through Ilolland, ac- 
 companied by a very large one of this species. 
 Walking one evening ou a high bank, which 
 formed one side of a dike, or canal, so com- 
 mon in that country, his foot slipped, and he 
 was precipitated into the water, and, being 
 unable to swim, he soon became senseless. 
 When he recovered his recollection, he found 
 himself in a cottage on the opposite side of 
 the dike to that from which he had fallen, 
 surrounded by peasants, who had been using 
 the means so generally practised in that 
 
 that this gentleman owed his life as much to 
 the sagacity as to the fidelity of his dog. 
 
 A large Newfoundland dog, belonging to 
 Glasgow, offers another instance to the many 
 on record of the extraordinary sagacity of 
 do^s. It seems, that being, like human juve- 
 niles, sometimes rather fond of fuu, he required 
 to receive occasional discipline, and for that 
 purpose a whip-shaft was kept bet-ide him, 
 which was at certain times applied to him. 
 He evidently did not like this article, and was 
 found occasionally with it in his teeth, moving 
 slily to the door with it. Being left at night 
 on the premises, he found the hated article, 
 and thrust the small end below the door, but 
 this he could not do with the thick part. A 
 few nights afterwards, the whip-shait was left 
 beside him, and was never seen again. He 
 
 3S3 
 
ANECDOTES,] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIE^ 
 
 [anecdotes. 
 
 liad put the small end below the door, and 
 some one bad pulled it out. Ou the dog 
 being asked where it was, he looked very 
 guilty, and slunk away with his tail between 
 liis legs. This same dog has his provisions 
 brought to him in a tin can. Taking a walk, he 
 saw a child carrying a vessel exceedingly like 
 his; when he quietly seized it by the handle, and 
 carried it to his quarters, the child holding on, 
 and screaming all the way. When shown his 
 own he seemed quite ashamed of his mistake, 
 and allowed the frightened child to go with the 
 tin he had mistaken for his own. This animal 
 is in the habit of begging money from his 
 biped acquaintance, with which he marches to 
 a baker's shop and buys bread, which he car- 
 ries home and eats when hungry. 
 
 It was but the other day that we read of an 
 anecdote strongly indicative of the fidelity of 
 an Irish dog towards his master, who, in the 
 city of Dublin, was overcome by the potent 
 beverage which, as it is a favourite liquor of 
 other parts of Ireland, so does it hold a high 
 place in the estimation of at least some of the 
 inhabitants of that city. A respectable- 
 looking man, belonging to the middle classes 
 of life, tottered down Donegal-street, appa- 
 rently oblivious to everything. A handsome 
 dog, of the caste known as spaniel, followed 
 at his heels, whining most mournfully, evidently 
 wishing him to retrace his steps, and dis- 
 j)laying a great deal more regard for the man 
 than he did for liimself. The man at last 
 tumbled down on the steps opposite the parish 
 church, his watch being thrown out of his 
 pocket by the fall. The dog, with an instinct 
 which, if inferior to the reason exhibited in 
 a higher order of beings, certainly exhibited 
 a mui-e exalted notion of affection than is 
 portrayed in many, lay down on his master's 
 breast, clutching the watch between his two 
 fore feet. A crowd gathered round the sense- 
 less man ; but the dog, considering himself his 
 protector, would let no one approach him. A 
 constable came up ; but the dumb animal, re- 
 cognising no person, would not let the police- 
 man go near hun, the dog guarding every poke 
 of the baton with his head. The barking of 
 the spaniel at last awakened the drunkard, who, 
 with much difficulty, got tl»e watch into his 
 pocket, and staggered ou, the faithful animal 
 barking and wagging his tail with delight. 
 384 
 
 There is, perhaps, a still more extraordinary 
 instance of sagacity ; and, as it is of a rare 
 description, it merits a place in these pages. 
 It is i'rom the Hecollectiojis of a Sjwr/sman, by 
 Lord W. Lennox. " A short time ago, a dog, 
 well known to the railway officials, from his 
 frequent travelling with his master, presented 
 himself at one of the stations on the Meet- 
 wood, Preston, and Longridge line. After 
 looking round for some length of time among 
 the passengers, and in the carriages, just as 
 the train was about to start he leaped into one 
 of the compartments of a carriage, and laid 
 himself down under the seat. Arriving at 
 Longridge, he made another survey of the 
 passengers, and, after waiting until the station 
 had been cleared, he went into the railway 
 station hotel, searched all the places on the 
 ground-floor, then went and made a tour of 
 inspection over the adjoining grounds ; but, 
 being apparently unsuccessful, trotted back to 
 the train, and took his old position just as it 
 moved off. On reaching the station from 
 which he had first started, he again looked 
 round as before, and took his departure. It 
 seems that he now proceeded to the general 
 railway station at Preston, and, after repeating 
 the looking-around performance, placed him- 
 self under one of the seats in a train which he 
 had singled out of many that are constantly 
 passing in and out, and, in due time, arrived 
 in Liverpool. He now visited a few places 
 where he had been before with his master, of 
 whom, as it afterwards appeared, he was in 
 search. Of his adventures in Liverpool little 
 is known; but he remained all night, and visited 
 Preston again early the next morning. Still, 
 not finding his missing master, he, for the 
 fourth time, " took the train" — this time, how- 
 ever, to Lancaster and Carlisle ; at which latter 
 place the sagacity and faithfulness of the ani- 
 mal, as well as the perseverance and tact he 
 displayed in prosecuting his search, were re- 
 warded by finding his master." 
 
 Of the spaniel races there are many recorded 
 instances of wonderful sagacity ; and to some of 
 them has been ascribed the possession of even 
 an organ of music. On a few of this family, fine 
 music has been known to produce an appa- 
 rently painful effect, causing them gradually tc 
 become restless, to moan piteously, and, finally, 
 to escape from its presence with every sign ot 
 
ANiiCUOTES.] 
 
 roil MOUNT A IX, FIELD, AND TAR.M. 
 
 [ANKCltOTKS. 
 
 BufforinsT and distress. Others have boon seen 
 to sit and listen to unisic with seeming dcli{»ht, 
 and oven to go every Sunday to ehurch, wiili 
 the obvious purpose of enjtiyiiig the sokMun 
 ami powerful strains of the organ. All these 
 displays, however, of niusieal tendencies on 
 the part of the canine race, are as nothing in 
 comparison with the following, whicli a (aerman 
 paper gave an account of some time bade. 
 
 Frederick S , a inuskMl amateur of Daruj- 
 
 stadt, in the grand duchy of llosse, possesses 
 a female spaniel, which has become a strange 
 source of terror to all the mediocre musicians 
 of the place and its vicinity. Having acquired 
 a competency by commercial industry, Mr. 
 
 S retired from business, and devoted liim- 
 
 eelf, heart and soul, to the daily and hourly 
 enjoyment of his favourite science. Every 
 member of his little household was by degrees 
 involved, more or less, in the same occupation, 
 and even the housemaid could, in time, take a 
 part in a chorus. One individual alone in tlie 
 family seemed to resist this musical entrance- 
 ment ; this was a small spaniel, the sole speci- 
 men of the canine race in the mansion. Mr. 
 
 S felt the impossibility of instilling the 
 
 theory of sounds into the head of Poodle, but 
 he firmly resolved to make the animal bear 
 some part or other in the general domestic 
 concert; and by perseverance, and the adoption 
 of ingenious means, he attained his object. 
 Every time that a false note escaped either 
 from instrument or voice — as often as any 
 blunder, of whatever kind, was committed by 
 the members of the musical family (/ind such 
 blunders were sometimes committed intention- 
 ally) — down came its master's cane on the 
 back of the unfortunate spaniel, till she 
 howled and growled again. By-aud-b}', simple 
 menaces with the stick were substituted for 
 blows ; and, at a still more advanced period of 
 this extraordinary training, a mere glance of 
 
 Mr. S '3 eye was sutUcient to make the 
 
 animal howl to admiration. In the end, she 
 became so thoroughly acquainted with, and 
 attentive to, false notes, and othrr musical 
 barbarisms, that the slightest mistake of the 
 kind was infallibly signalised by a yell from 
 her, forming the most expressive commentary 
 upon the misperformance. When extended 
 Jrials were made of the animal's acquirements, 
 they were never found to fail, and she became, 
 3d 
 
 what she still is, the most famous, impartial, 
 and conscientious critic in the duchy of llcsse. 
 But, as may be imagined, her musical a|)pre- 
 ciation is entirely negative: if you hing with 
 expression, and play with ability, she will re- 
 main cold and impassible. Although notliing 
 can be said in favour of the dog while in a 
 state of nature, still, after he has received aa 
 education from man, the whole world will bear 
 testimony to his iiiuiiense value. Volumes 
 would not sullice to contain instances of his 
 services to the human race. A man and his 
 dog may almost be considered as component 
 parts, each working for the other, whether in 
 heat or in cold, in tempests or in calms. The 
 blind confide in him ; the lame have his sup- 
 port ; the rich are proud of him ; and, too often, 
 the poor man has nothing but his dog to give 
 him consolation. 
 
 These instances of sagacity and intelligence, 
 as displayed in this animal, are, in numberless 
 instances, equalled by his courage. Mr. Lloyd, 
 in his Field Sports, says, that " for bear-shoot- 
 ing, a first-rate dog is invaluable ; but such are 
 rarely to be found ; indeed, with the exception 
 of Paijas, I never met with one at all deserving 
 of that character. That gallant hound, how- 
 ever, was, in his better days, everything I 
 could wish. In one instance I knew him to 
 worry a large bear for nearly eight successive 
 hours; and during a considerable part of this 
 time no person was with him. Sometimes he 
 was alongside the beast; at others, a little 
 ahead, and then hanging on his rear; and all 
 this while making the forest ring again with 
 his yells. Though he usually conducted his 
 attacks with caution, in consequence of the 
 mauling he received from a bear in his younger 
 days, his courage at times, during the chase I 
 speak of, got the better of his prudence; for, 
 on hearing my shots, he seldom resisted the 
 temptation of having a snap at the haunches 
 of his rugged antagonist. In this case, the 
 bear would swing himself round wild wonder- 
 ful agility, dash at the dog, and strike out with 
 his paws in much the same manner as a cat ; 
 but Paijas, being up to these mauoeuvres, 
 always took care to beat a timely retreat. 
 
 " By a dog thus incessantly harassing a 
 bear, the sportsman is enabled to make many 
 a short cut; his continual attacks, besides, 
 often bring the beast to a stand-still ; in which 
 
 385 
 
ANECDOTES.l 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES 
 
 [anecdotes. 
 
 case, one can generally approach within range 
 of him. On such occasions a good dog is an 
 immense safeguard to a person ; as, should he 
 unhappily fall into the jaws of the beast, his 
 faithful follower might be the means of saving 
 his life ; for the dog seldom hesitates to fix at 
 once upon the bear ; and, by so doing, he often 
 succeeds in drawing the attack from his master 
 to himself. 
 
 " High-couraged dogs are not unfrequeutly 
 killed by the bear during the chase ; for, if the 
 beast once gets them withia his grasp, he, in 
 most cases, quickly annihilates them. Several 
 iustances of the kind have come to my know- 
 ledge. 
 
 " It is said, that when the bear is pursued 
 by dogs, he, at times, becomes so much enraged, 
 that he takes hold of the nearest stick or stone 
 he can lay his paws upon, and casts it at them. 
 According to Mr. Nillsson, indeed, when the 
 bear is attacked by the hunter, and whilst 
 beating a retreat, he satisfies himself by throw- 
 ing these missiles at his adversary. It is re- 
 ported that bruin is a bad marksman; for, 
 instead of sending his weapon in the direction 
 of his opponent, he not unfrequeutly whizzes 
 ifc over his own head. As I never witnessed 
 an exploit of the kind on the part of a bear, I 
 am by no means inclined to vouch for the 
 truth of these stories." 
 
 In following the elk, the Northern chasseur 
 must have his dogs, which he often slips from 
 the couplings, and which not unfrequeutly 
 bring the old males to bay. In hunting this 
 animal, considerable art is necessary ; and the 
 eagerness and length of time with which they 
 pursue the game are astonishing. The dog 
 must always be allowed to start the elk ; for, 
 should the latter once get sight or scent of 
 the sportsman, he usually goes off at his best 
 pace. 
 
 The great inconvenience of slipping a dog 
 on these occasions is, that if he should be good 
 for anything, and the elk does not stand to 
 bay, lie will hardly ever desist from pursuing 
 the animal; and thus the sportsman may be 
 thrown out altogether. 
 
 To guard against a circumstance of this kind 
 happening, the Northern chasseurs — there 
 generally being two or more in company on 
 these occasions — are not unfrequeutly provided 
 with a second dog, which they retain in his 
 
 leash. When, therefore, they can no longer 
 hear the challenges of the dog that is loosed 
 in the distance, the other enables them to con- 
 tinue the pursuit. Sometimes, however, dogs 
 go off altogether from their masters. "I have 
 heard of instances of their pursuing the elk 
 such great distances, that they have been lost 
 to their owners for days and days together, 
 and have perhaps cast up at last in an al- 
 together different part of the country." 
 
 Of the determination and spirit of the dog, 
 even in pursuing and attacking the most fero- 
 cious animals, there are many examples on 
 record. Recently, a Erench journal chronicled 
 the following incidents in a wild boar hunt : — 
 The pack of hounds of M. Rattier de Verveines, 
 twenty-five in number, lately hunted a huge 
 wild boar in the forest near this town — Alengon 
 — but, after three hours' chase, could not bring 
 it to bay, though it stopped now and then to 
 attack the dogs. Twelve fresh hounds having 
 been set on, it at last stopped, and the dogs 
 attacked it with great determination. It, 
 however, ripped up several, and threw others 
 in the air. One of the keepers having arrived, 
 fired his carbine, but only broke one of the 
 fore feet of the animal. The chief keeper then 
 arrived, and fired two balls at its head, with- 
 out, however, producing any effect. He, how- 
 ever, re-loaded, and then lodged one ball in 
 the boar's muzzle, and the other behind his 
 ear. The last proved mortal, the animal fall- 
 ing dead. It was then found that two of the 
 dogs were dead, ten more mortally wounded, 
 and that several others were more or less in- 
 jured. The boar weighed about 3 cwt. 
 
 The terrier has long been famous for his 
 game and hunting propensities. Recently a 
 stone-cutter, engaged at the Bodelwyddan 
 church, near St. Asaph, was taking a walk in 
 some fields, accompanied by a dog, of the cross- 
 bred terrier breed. The dog was hunting along 
 a small rivulet, which ran at the bottom of a 
 field, when a large male otter made his appear- 
 ance, running along the course of the brook. 
 The man was frightened, never having seen 
 such an animal before ; but the dog immedi- 
 ately attacked him, when a battle ensued, the 
 otter dragging the dog to a small pool, about 
 three or four feet deep, evidently with the in- 
 tention of drowning him. The man prevented 
 this by laying hold of the dog, and dragged 
 
a:secdotk8.] 
 
 Foil MOUNTAIN, FIELU, AND FAUM. 
 
 [ankcdotkb. 
 
 tlicm both out fastened to2;etlier; when nc:nin, 
 on terra fuma, thev Ibuijht ili'spi'ratoly for half- 
 an-hoiir, niutunlly sopiinUing to ilniw brcnth ; 
 then the otter took advantage of this pause, and 
 made for the brook a£»ain. The dog, by this 
 time, was dreaiifully hiccrated — his noao and 
 lips cut througl), and otherwise bruised. The 
 man perceiving this, took up a hedge-stake, 
 and gave the otter a severe blow on tlie head. 
 Tho dog then went at liim again, the man oc- 
 casionallv assisting with his stick ; and between 
 them both the otter waa killed, after an hour'a 
 hard lighting. It was a formidable-looking 
 animal, and measured, from tho nose to the tail, 
 3ft. lOin. 
 
 It is to be regretted that an animal possessed 
 of such generous impulses, however, is some- 
 times found to act contrary to all expectation. 
 The following is an instance of this, and places 
 the mastiff, on this occasion, in a very unfa- 
 vourable point of view : — A lady, of some pro- 
 pertv, residing in the Rue des Vignes, at Vau- 
 girard, was possessed of a huge mastiff, which, 
 being verv sa>rage, had to be kept constantly 
 chained up, but which she prized because it; 
 had belonged to her late husband. One morn- 
 ing, according to custom, she took the animal 
 his food, but he seemed more indocile than 
 usual, and she gave him a beating. "Watching 
 an opportunity, he suddenly rushed on her, 
 threw her dowu^ dragged off the greater part 
 of her clothes, and bit her dreadfully in the 
 breast, arm, and one of the legs ; in fact, tear- 
 ing away fragments of the flesh. The lady's 
 cries attracted some of the neighbours to the 
 spot, and they rescued her. Although suffer- 
 ing dreadfully, and faint from loss of blood, she 
 requested tliem to strangle the animal. They 
 accordingly passed a cord round the dog's 
 neck, and removing his coUar, prepared to 
 effect the operation ; but he tugged so vio- 
 lently at the cord that he broke it, and rushed 
 towards the room into whicli the lady had been 
 conveyed. Tiie door was closed on him, and 
 he tried to force it open, but failed. On this, 
 barking furiously, he rushed towards the people, 
 "who remained in the court-yard; but they were 
 able to escape by the door, and to close it. 
 The commissary of police, who had been sent 
 for, now arrived, accompanied by some gen- 
 darmes, nw(\ he made them kill tlie animal. Med- 
 ical assistance having been obtained tor the 
 
 unfortunate lady, it was found that nho wos in 
 a fearful stato. Tho dog was, after »leuth, ex- 
 amined by a veterinary Hur;,'eoii, and he de- 
 clared that he wa.s neitlier mud iior labouring 
 under any maliuly. 11 (i lui'tiier declared that, 
 in his belief, the animal must havo had a sort 
 of instinctive hatred of his mistress, and must 
 have been driven to fury by her beating him. 
 
 jVIr. llichardson gives the following interest- 
 ing account of a Newfoundland dog, which be- 
 longed to a gentleman in Fifeshire, and which 
 was alike remarkable for its tractability and its 
 trustworthiness. At two other points, distant 
 about a mile from each other, and at the same 
 distance from this gentleman's mansion, there 
 were two other dogs, of great power, but of 
 less tractable breeds thau the Newt'ouiidland. 
 One of these was a large mastiff, kept as a 
 watch-dog, by a farmer; and the other a staunch 
 bulldog, that kept guard over the parish mill. 
 As each of these three was lord-ascendant of 
 all animals at his master's residence, they all 
 had a good deal of aristocratic pride and pug- 
 nacity ; so that two of them seldom met with- 
 out attempting to settle their respective digni- 
 ties by a wager of battle. 
 
 The Newfoundland was of some service in 
 other domestic arrangements, besides his guar- 
 dianship of the house; for every forenoon he 
 was sent to the baker's shop in the village, 
 about half a mile distant, with a towel contain- 
 ing money in the corner, and he returned with 
 the value of the money in bread. There were 
 many useless and not over-civil curs in the 
 village ; but, on ordinary occasions, the haughty 
 Newroundland treated this ignoble race in that 
 contemptuous style in which great dogs are 
 wont to treat little ones. When the dog re- 
 turned from the baker's shop he used to be 
 regularlv served with his dinner, and he went 
 peaceably on house-duty for the rest of the 
 day. 
 
 One dav, however, he returned with his coat 
 dirtied, and his ears scratched; havnig been 
 subjected to a combined attack of the curs, 
 whi e he had charge of his towel and bread, 
 and could not defend himself. Instead of wait- 
 ing for his dinner as usual, he laid down his 
 charge somewhat sulkily, and marched off; and, 
 upon looking after him, it was observed that 
 he was crossing the intervening huliow in a 
 strai-'ht line for the house of the farmer, or 
 
 387 
 
ANECDOTES.! 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [anecdotes. 
 
 rather on an embassy to the farmer's mastiff. 
 The farmer's people observed this unusual 
 visit ; and they were induced to notice it from 
 its being a meeting of peace between those 
 who had habitually been belligerents. After 
 some intercourse, of which no interpretation 
 could be given, the two set off together in the 
 direction of the mill ; and, having arrived there, 
 they, in brief space, engaged the miller's bull- 
 dog as an ally. 
 
 The straight road to the village where the 
 indignity had been offered to the Newfound- 
 land dog, passed immediately in front of that 
 dog's master's house; but there was a more 
 private and circuitous road by the back of the 
 mill. The three took this road, reached the 
 village, scoured it in great wrath, putting to 
 the tooth every cur they could get sight of; 
 and having taken their revenge, and washed 
 themselves in a ditch, they returned, each dog 
 to the abode of his master ; and when any two 
 of them happened to meet afterwards, they dis- 
 played the same pugnacity as they had done 
 previous to this joint expedition. 
 
 It would seem that in this case there was a 
 mere momentary concert for the accomplish- 
 ment of one object among three dogs differing 
 considerably in their habits ; and that when this 
 momentary purpose was accomplished, the 
 wonted animosity of the three returned, and 
 they fought as readily with each other as ever. 
 But it does not appear that all casual, or appa- 
 rently casual, interferences of dogs, for the 
 benefit of each other, pass off in this momen- 
 tary way ; for there is another well-authenti- 
 cated anecdote of two dogs, at Donagbadee, in 
 which the instinctive daring of the one on be- 
 half of the other, caused a friendship, and, as 
 it would seem, a kind of mourning for the 
 dead, after one of them had paid the debt of 
 nature. This happened while the government 
 harbour, or pier, for the packets at Donagba- 
 dee was in the course of building, and it oc- 
 curred in the sight of several witnesses. Tlie 
 one dog in this case also was a Newfoundland, 
 and the other was a mastiff. They were both 
 powerful dogs ; and, though each was good- 
 natured, when alone, they were very much in 
 the habit of lighting when they met. One 
 day they had a fierce and prolonged battle on 
 the pier, from the point of which they both fell 
 into the sea ; and, as the pier was long and 
 388 
 
 steep, they had no means of escape but by 
 swimming a considerable distance. Throwing 
 water upon fighting-dogs is an approved means 
 of putting an end to their hostilities ; and it is 
 natural to suppose that the same effect would 
 take place from two combatants of the same 
 species tumbling themselves into the sea. Ac- 
 cordingly, each began to make for the land aa 
 he best could. The Newfoundland, being an 
 excellent swimmer, very speedily gained the 
 pier, on which he stood shaking himself; but, 
 at the same time, watching the motions of his 
 former antagonist, which, being no swimmer, 
 was struggling exhausted in the water, and just 
 about to sink. In dashed the Newfoundland 
 dog, took the other gently by the collar, kept 
 his head above water, and brought him safely 
 on shore. There was a peculiar kind of recog- 
 nition between the two animals after this. 
 They never fought again ; they were always 
 together; and when the Newfoundland dog 
 was accidentally killed by the passage of a stone 
 waggon over him, the other languished, and 
 evidently lamented for a long time. 
 
 The care of the dog in directing the steps of 
 the blind, is highly deserving of notice. There 
 are few persons who have not seen some of 
 these unfortunate objects thus guided along 
 through the winding streets of a town or city, 
 to the spot where they are to supplicate charity 
 of passengers. In the evening the dog safely 
 conducts his master back, and receives, as the 
 reward of its services, that scanty pittance 
 which wretchedness can bestow. Mr. Eay, in 
 his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, informs us of a 
 blind beggar who was thus led through th6 
 streets of Eome by a middle-sized dog, which, 
 besides leading his master in such a manner 
 as to protect him from all danger, learned to 
 distinguish both the streets and houses where 
 he was accustomed to receive alms twice or 
 thrice a week. Whenever the animal came to 
 any one of these streets, with which he was 
 well acquainted, he would not leave it till a 
 call had been made at every house where his 
 master was usually successful in his petitions. 
 When the beggar began to ask alms, the dog 
 lay down to rest ; but the man was no sooner 
 served or refused, than the dog rose spon- 
 taneously, and without either order or sign, 
 proceeded to the other houses where the beg- 
 gar generally received some gratuity. "I 
 
AKECDOTES.J 
 
 FOR MOU^'TAIN, 1<1ELD, A.NU i'AUM. 
 
 [^ANECUOTES. 
 
 obsorvcd," says ho, " not wilhout pleaauro and | 
 surprisi«, that wlioii a lialtpt'iiny waa thrown 
 from a wiiulow, such were the sagacity and 
 the attention of this dog, that ho wont about 
 in quest of it, took it from the grouml with his 
 mouth, and put it into the blind n\an's hat. 
 Even when bread was thrown down, tlio ani- 
 mal would not taste it unless he received it 
 from the hand of his master." , 
 
 Dogs can be taught io go to market with 
 money, to repair to a known shop, and carry 
 borne provisions in eafety. Daniel speaks of 
 a person who lived at a turnpike-house about 
 a mile from Stratford-ou-Avou, who had a dog 
 trained to go to a neighbouring town for any ^ 
 articles of grocery that he wanted. A note 
 mentioning these was tied round his neck, 
 and in the same manner the articles were fas- 
 tened. In these errands the commodities were 
 always brought safe to his master. 
 
 Smellie, whom Lord Brougham compliments 
 in his admirable work on Instinct and Science, 
 tells us, in his Fliilosopliy of Natural History, 
 that a grocer in Edinburgh had a dog, wliich, 
 for some time, amused and astonished the 
 people in the neighbourhood. A man who 
 went through the streets ringing a bell and 
 selling penny pies, happened one day to treat 
 this dog with a pie. The next time he heard 
 the pieman's bell he ran to him with impetu- 
 osity, seized him by the coat, and would not 
 suffer him to pass. The pieman, who under- 
 stood what the animal wanted, showed him a 
 penny, and pointed to his master, who stood 
 at the street-door, and saw what was going on. 
 The dog immediately supplicated his master 
 by many humble gestures and looks. The 
 master put a penny into the dog's mouth, 
 which he instantly delivered to the pieman, 
 and received his pie. This traffic between the 
 pieman and the grocer's dog continued to be 
 daily practised for many mouths. 
 
 On the authority of Dibdin, we quote the fol- 
 lowing from his Observations in a Tour through 
 England. At a convent in France, twenty 
 paupers were served with a dinner at a certain 
 hour every day. A dog belonging to the con- 
 vent did not fail to be present at this regale, 
 to receive the odds and ends which were now 
 and then thrown down to him. Tlie guests, 
 however, were poor and hungry, and, of course, 
 not very wasteful : so that tlieir pensioner did 
 
 little more than scent the feast of which ho 
 would faiu have partaken. The portions wore 
 served by a person, at the ringing of a bell, 
 and delivered out by means of what, in reli- 
 gious houses, is called a tuur ; which is a ma- 
 chine like the section of a ea^k, tliat, by turn- 
 ing round upon a pivot, exhibits whatever is 
 placed on the concave side, without ditJcovering 
 the person who moves it. One day this dog, 
 who had only received a few scraps, waited till 
 the paupers were all gone, took the rope in his 
 moutli, and rang tlie bell. His stratagem suc- 
 ceeded. He repeated it the next day with the 
 same good fortune. At length the cook, find- 
 ing that twenty-one portions were given out 
 instead of twenty, was determined to discover 
 the trick : in doing whicli he had no great 
 difficulty ; for, lying perdu, and noticing the 
 paupers as they came in great regularity for 
 their different portions, and that there was no 
 intruder except the dog, he began to suspect 
 the real truth ; whicli he was confirmed, in 
 when he saw him wait with great deliberation 
 till the visitors were all gone, and then pull 
 the bell. The matter was related to the com- 
 munity ; and, to reward him for his ingenuity, 
 he was permitted to ring the bell every day for 
 his dinner, when a mess of broken victuals 
 was purposely served out to him. 
 
 In Vol. III. of the Annical Hegister, we 
 find it stated, that " while a man of the 
 name of Eichardson, a waterman, near Ham- 
 mersmitl), was sleeping in his vessel, she 
 broke from her moorings, and was carried by 
 the tide under a west-country barge. Fortu- 
 nately for the man, his dog happened to be 
 with him ; and the sagacious animal awakened 
 him by pawing his face, and pulling the collar 
 of his coat, at the instant the boat was filling 
 with water. He seized the opportunity, and 
 thus saved himself from otherwise inevitable 
 death." 
 
 About the end of the last century, a person 
 went to a bouse in Deptford, to take lodgings, 
 under pretence that he had just arrived from 
 the "West Indies. After having agreed on the 
 terms. he was to pay, he said he should send 
 his trunk that night, and come himself the 
 next day. About nine o'clock in the evening, 
 the trunk was brouglit by two porters, and 
 was carried into his bed-room. Just as the 
 family were going to bed, their little house- 
 
 3b9 
 
A"NECDOTES.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [buffon. 
 
 dog, deserting his usual station in tbe shop, 
 placed himself close to the chamber-door where 
 the chest was deposited, and kept up an inces- 
 sant barking. The moment the chamber-door 
 was opened, the dog flew to the chest, against 
 which it scratched and barked with redoubled 
 fury. They attempted to get the animal out 
 of the room, but in vain. Galling in some 
 neighbours, and making them eye-witnesses of 
 the circumstance, they began to move the 
 trunk about ; when they immediately dis- 
 covered that it contained something that was 
 alive. Suspicion becoming very strong, they 
 were induced to force it open ; when, to their 
 utter astonishment, they found in it their new 
 lodger, who had had himself thus conveyed 
 into the house with the intention of robbing it. 
 
 In the Life of James Sackington^ it is stated 
 that Mr. C. Hughes, a son of Thespis, had a wig 
 which generally hung on a peg in one of his 
 rooms. He one day lent the wig to a brother 
 player, and, some time after, called on him. Mr. 
 Hughes had his dog with him, and the man 
 happened to have the borrowed wig on his 
 head. Mr. Hughes stayed a little while with 
 his friend ; but, when he left him, the dog re- 
 mained behind ; for some time he stood, look- 
 ing full in the man's face ; then making a sud. 
 den spring, leaped on his shoulders, seized the 
 wig, and ran off with it as fast as he could ; 
 and, when he reached home, he endeavoured, 
 by jumping, to hang it up in its usual place. 
 The same dog was one afternoon passing 
 through a field in the environs of Dartmouth, 
 where a washerwoman had hung out her linen 
 to dry. He stopped, and surveyed one par- 
 ticular shirt with attention ; then seizing it, he 
 dragged it away through the dirt to his master, 
 whose shirt it proved to be. 
 
 Some nations are partial to the dog as food. 
 In some of the South Sea islands dogs are 
 fattened with vegetables, which the natives 
 Bavagely cram down their throats when they 
 will voluntarily eat no more. They become 
 exceedingly fat ; and are allowed, by Europeans 
 who have overcome their prejudices, to be very 
 palatable. They are killed by strangling ; 
 and the extravasated blood is preserved in 
 cocoa-nut shells, and baked for the table. The 
 negroes of the coast of Guinea are so partial 
 to these animals as food, that they frequently 
 give considerable prices for them : a larf'e 
 390 
 
 sheep for a dog was, at one time, a common 
 article of exchange. Even the ancients esteemed 
 a young and fat dog to be excellent eating. 
 Hippocrates ranks it with mutton or pork. 
 The Komans admired sucking whelps, esteem- 
 ing them a supper in which even the gods de- 
 lighted. 
 
 When Lieutenant Fremont was at Eorb 
 Lamarie, on the Platte — a station of the 
 American Eur Company — the Indians in the 
 neighbourhood gave him an invitation to a 
 feast of honour — a dog feast. " The women 
 and children," says the lieutenant, "were 
 sitting outside the lodge, and we took our seats 
 on buflalo robes spread around. The dog was 
 in a large pot over the fire, in the middle of 
 the lodge, and, immediately on our arrival, was 
 dished up in large wooden bowls, one of which 
 was handed to each. The flesh appeared very 
 glutinous, with something of tlie flavour and 
 appearance of mutton. Feeling something 
 move behind me, I looked round, and found 
 that I had taken my seat among a litter of fat 
 young puppies. Had I been nice in such 
 matters, the prejudices of civilisation might 
 have interfered with my tranquillity ; but, for- 
 tunately, I am not of delicate nerves, and con- 
 tinued quietly to empty my platter." 
 
 Bufibn has bequeathed us an excellent de- 
 scription of the dog, the substance of which is 
 here given. 
 
 " The dog," he says, "independently of the 
 beauty of his form, his vivacity, force, and 
 swiftness, is possessed of all those internal 
 qualifications that can conciliate the aflections 
 of man, and make the tyrant a protector. A 
 natural share of courage, an angry and fero- 
 cious disposition, renders the dog, in its savage 
 state, a formidable enemy to all other animals : 
 but these readily give way to very different 
 qualities in the domestic dog, whose only am- 
 bition seems to please : he is seen to como 
 crouching along, to lay his force, his courage, 
 and all his useful talents at the feet of his 
 master ; he waits his orders, to which he pays 
 implicit obedience; he consults his looks, and 
 a single glance is sufficient to put him in 
 motion ; he is more faithful even than the 
 most boasted among men ; he is constant in 
 his affections, friendly without interest, and 
 grateful for the slightest favours ; much more 
 mindful pf benefits received than injuries 
 
BVrFOX.] 
 
 rOlt :\I0UNTA1X, F1ELJ>. AM) takm. 
 
 [llUfFOy. 
 
 offered, ho 13 not driven off by unkindncss ; he 
 still continues humble, submi.^sive, nnd im- 
 ploring; liis only hope to bo siTviceabli', liia 
 only torror to displease; he licks the liaiul that 
 has been just lilted to strike him, and at last 
 disarms resentment by submissive perse- 
 verance. 
 
 " JMore docile than man, more obedient than 
 any other animal, he is not only instructed in 
 a short time, but he also conforms to the dis- 
 positions and the manners of those who com- 
 inand him. lie takes his tone from the house 
 he inhabits ; like the rest of the domestics, he 
 is disdainful among the proud, and churlish 
 among clowns. Always assiduous in serving 
 his master, and only a friend to his friends, he 
 is indifferent to all the rest, and declares him- 
 self openly against such as seem dependent 
 like himself. He knows a beggar by his 
 clothes, by his voice, or his gestures, and 
 forbids his approach. When at nii:;ht the 
 guard of the bouse is committed to his care, 
 he seems proud of the charge ; he continues a 
 watchful sentinel ; be goes his rounds, scents 
 strangers at a distance, and gives them warn- 
 ing of his being on duty. If they attempt to 
 break in upon his territories, he becomes more 
 fierce, flies at them, threatens, fights, and either 
 conquers alone, or alarms those who have most 
 interest in coming to his assistance. However, , 
 when he has conquered, he quickly reposes 
 upon the spoil, and abstains from what be has j 
 deterred others from abusing ; giving thus ! 
 at once a lesson of courage, temperance, and 
 fidelity. 
 
 " From hence we see of what importance 
 this animal is to us in a state of nature. Sup- 
 posing, for a moment, that this species had 
 not existed, how could man, without the assis- 
 tance of the dog, have been able to conquer, 
 tame, and reduce to servitude every other 
 animal ? How could he discover, trace, and 
 destroy those that were noxious to him ? In 
 order to be secure, and become master of all 
 animated nature, it was necessary for him to 
 begin by making a friend of part of them ; 
 to attach such of them to himself, by kindness 
 and caresses, as seemed fittest lor obedience 
 
 ' and active pursuit. Thus the first art employed 
 by man was in conciliating the favour of tho 
 dog ; and the fruits of this art was tho con- 
 quest and peaceable possession of tho earth. 
 
 "Tiio generality of animals have greater 
 agility, greater swiftness, and more formidablo 
 arms, from nature, than man ; their HciiHes, 
 antl particularly that of stnellmg, are far nioro 
 perfect : and having gained, therefore, a new 
 assistant, particularly one whose scent is ao 
 exquisite as that of the dog, was the gaining a 
 new sense, a new faculty, which before was 
 wanting. The machines and instruments 
 which we have imagined for perfecting the 
 rest of the senses, do not approach to that 
 already prepared by nature, by which we are 
 enabled to find out every animal though un- 
 seen, and thus destroy the noxious, and use 
 the serviceable. 
 
 " The dog, thus useful in itself, taken into a 
 participation of empire, exerts a degree of 
 superiority over all animals that require human 
 protection. The flock and the herd obey his 
 voice more readily even than that of the 
 shepherd or the herdsman ; he conducts them, 
 guards them, keeps them from capriciously 
 seeking danger ; and their enemies he considers 
 as his own. Nor is he less useful in the pur- 
 suit ; when the sound of the horn, or the voice 
 of the huntsman, calls him to the field, he 
 testifies his pleasure by every little art, and 
 pursues with perseverance those animals which, 
 when taken, be must not expect to divide. 
 The desire of hunting is, indeed, natural to 
 him, as well as to his master, since war and 
 the chase are the only employ of savages. All 
 animals that live upon flesh hunt by nature. 
 The lion and the tiger, whose force is so great 
 that they are sure to conquer, hunt alone, and 
 without art. The wolf, the fox, and the wild 
 dog, hunt in packs, assist each other, and 
 divide the spoil. But, when education has 
 perfected this talent in the domestic dog — 
 when he has been taught by man to repress 
 his ardour, to measure his motions, and not to 
 exhaust his force by too sudden an exertion of 
 it, he then hunts with method, and always with 
 success." 
 
 391 
 
THE DIJTGO.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES; 
 
 [the dingo. 
 
 CHAPTER ni. 
 
 VAKIETIES OF THE DOG — WILD AND HALF-WILD. 
 
 If we pass from dogs confessedly wild to 
 those which are half-wild, only semi-domesti- 
 cated, the Dingo, or Australian dog, is one of 
 the most remarkable and best known. Of the 
 orio-in of this dog, and of the circumstances 
 connected with its introduction into Austraha, 
 we are totally ignorant. "We know that wild 
 packs exist in the remoter districts, and are 
 the scourge of the country, preying on the 
 native kangaroo, and making havoc among the 
 flocks and herds of the European settlers. So 
 wolf-like are these dogs in general form — 
 though they are specifically distinct from the 
 wolf — that the first navigators who touched at 
 New Holland scarcely recognised them as 
 dogs. Dampier, in the account of his voyage 
 performed in 1699, states that his men saw 
 two or three beasts like hungry wolves ; and 
 the similarity is, to a certain degree, very 
 striking. The domestic breed — if domestic it 
 can be called — in all respects resembles those 
 which are completely emancipated. 
 
 THE DINGO. 
 
 The Dingo, called "Warragal by the natives, 
 is about as large as a harrier ; its body is firmly 
 built, its limbs muscular; its head is broad 
 between the ears, and its muzzle is acute ; the 
 neck is thick and powerful ; the ears are short, 
 pointed, and erect ; its tail, which is rather 
 long, is somewhat bushy and pendulous, or, at 
 most, raised only horizontally. The general 
 colour is sandy red ; the eyes are rather small 
 and oblique, which is one of the diagnostics of 
 a low degree of cultivation, and is never seen 
 in what are termed high-bred animals. 
 
 The agility and muscular powers of the 
 Dingo are extraordinary ; and its cunning and 
 ferocity are as much so. It never barksj but 
 howls loudly ; and is said never to discover a 
 feeling of pleasure by wagging the tail. The 
 natural habits of one which was brought to this 
 country in about the sixth week of its age, was 
 closely watched. On its being put into a room, 
 it immediately skulked into the darkest corner, 
 392 
 
 and there crouching, eyed those in its presence 
 
 with looks of great distrust and aversion : as 
 soon as left to itself, it commenced the most 
 melancholy howling, which ceased on any per- 
 son's entrance. This, for some days, was its 
 constant practice ; and, when placed in a ken- 
 nel, the greater part of the day was thus 
 passed. It grew up strong and healthy, and 
 gradually became reconciled to those from whom 
 it was accustomed to receive food, but was shy 
 towards others, retreating into its kennel at 
 their approach. It never barked, nor, like other 
 dogs, gave notice of the approach of strangers, 
 and therefore, as a guard, was perfectly use- 
 less. A great part of the day was spent in 
 howling, and that so loudly as to be heard at 
 the distance of more than half a mile. When 
 the moon rose brightly, it would sit and utter, 
 for hours, its wild lamentations, not a little to 
 the annoyance of the neighbourhood. With 
 all its shyness, it was, at the same time, savage, 
 but would never make an open attack. Several 
 times it snapped at persons who happened to 
 be walking within its reach, but only when 
 their backs were turned, and it immediately 
 retreated again into its kennel. So great was 
 its strength, that though encumbered by a 
 heavy chain, it leaped a wall of considerable 
 height, and was not secured without difficulty. 
 
 This animal is a great pest to the Australian 
 settler, and is remarkably tenacious of life. It 
 is also a very obstinate fighter. Instances are 
 related of its sustaining a combat with four or 
 five stout hounds, and ultimately getting away 
 from them. Very few dogs can kill a Dingo 
 single-handed. Like the wolf, it fights in 
 silence, and utters no cry of pain ; but, like 
 that grim felon, dies as hard as it has lived. 
 The following instances of its tenacity of life 
 are given by Mr. George Bennet, in his Wan- 
 derings in New South Wales : — 
 
 " One had been beaten so severely that it 
 was supposed all its bones were broken, and it 
 was left for dead. After the person had walked 
 some distance, upon accidentally looking back, 
 
THE DUOLB.] 
 
 FOK r^lOUNTATX, FIELD, AND FARM, [amebican doqs. 
 
 his surprise waa much rxcitoil by sci-iiii; tho 
 Dingo rise, shake himself, anil niareli into tlie 
 bush, evading all pursuit. One, supposed dead, 
 was brought into a hut, for tho purpose of un- 
 dergoing deoortieation : at the eomnienoement 
 of tho skinning process upon tlie face, the only 
 perceptible movement was a slight quivering of 
 the lips, whieh was regarded at the time as 
 merely muscular irritability. The man, after 
 skinuing a very small portion, left tho hut to 
 sharpen his knife, and, on returning, found the 
 animal sitting up, with the flayed integument 
 hanging over on one side of the face." 
 
 In New Zealand there has been found an 
 apparently feral dog, called by tho natives 
 " Kaearahe." Eegarding this animal there 
 is a tradition, which says, that he was given to 
 them some centuries ago by certain divinities 
 who visited their shores. In appearance, this 
 dog closely resembles the " Dingo," but he 
 seems to have been partially domesticated. 
 
 There is a small dog domesticated on the 
 banks of the Niger, very nearly resembling the 
 Dingo in form, but on a much more diminutive 
 and lighter scale, and with a longer muzzle in 
 proportion. Its general colour is reddish. 
 
 THE DHOLE.— CANIS PRIM^EVUS. 
 
 The Dhole is a native of India, over which 
 peninsula it extends in great numbers, and 
 bears different names in different parts. It 
 was originally described by Mr. Hodgson as 
 the Buausu. and by him given the title of 
 Canis primcevus — original, or primeval dog — 
 as, in his opinion, it was the origin of the 
 domestic dog. The locality of the dog to 
 which we have already alluded, was Nepaul, 
 the eastern and western limits of its range 
 being the Sutlej and the Burhampootra. 
 
 In 1831, Colonel Sykes described a wild 
 do^ from the Mahrattas, which he calls the 
 wild dog of the Deccan ; to which we have also 
 already alluded, and which would seem to be 
 identical with Mr. Hodgson's dog. 
 
 The Dhule, Buansii, or Kolsun — for these 
 names are synonymous — is about the size of a 
 small wolf, but is much more powerfully built; 
 its limbs, in particular, being remarkably large- 
 boned and muscular, in proportion to its size. 
 Its ears are large, and rounded at the tips ; 
 the muzzle moderately pointed ; the tail very 
 bushy ; and its colour a sandy red, or bull". 
 
 3£ 
 
 " In linbits, thcao dogs present ail tho 
 characteristics of ferocious beasts of prey. 
 They prowl by night and by day indiscrimi- 
 nately, and hunt in packs of from ten to sLxty. 
 While in pursuit they utter a peculiar yelp ; 
 and it is on scent, and not on sight, that they 
 mainly depend for success. Their speed, how- 
 ever, is considerable, and their savage courage 
 and endurance render them a terror to tho 
 most formidable rangers of the wilds. Bishop 
 lleber says of this dog — ' They are larger and 
 stronger than the fox, which in form and fur 
 they resemble. They hunt in packs, give 
 tongue like dogs, and possess an exquisite 
 scent. They make, of course, tremendous 
 havoc among the game in these raids; but the 
 mischief is said to be repaired by destroying 
 wild beasts.' The panther, the wild bull, the 
 tiger, the elephant, fall an easy prey before a 
 pack of dholes. On they sweep, coming upon 
 their game with the force of an avalanche, 
 and overwhelming their victim in a living 
 torrent. The hunted animal may, indeed, kill 
 many of his enemies, but he has little timo 
 afforded him for exertion or display of prowess ; 
 for the dead or wounded are hardly missed ere 
 others have rushed into their places. — Tho 
 wild dog of China has a great resemblance to 
 the Dhole ; but is usually less in size, and its 
 ears are smaller and more pointed ; its colour 
 ia that of a lively bay." 
 
 THE DEEB OF EGYPT. 
 The Deeb of Egypt chiefly inhabits 
 Abyssinia and Nubia, and is a very ancient 
 dog. Some naturalists have considered it as 
 the original type; but this of course is a 
 point which it is impossible to settle. It has 
 erect ears; semi-pendulous lips; muzzle 
 rather blunt at the point ; tail hairy and 
 short ; and its colour is that of a dirty white, 
 intermixed with black and buff; its height is 
 about eighteen inches. 
 
 SOUTH AMERIC.\N RACES. 
 Among the wild races of dogs, or rather of 
 doffs become wild, to which Buflbu alludes, are 
 those of South America and the West Indian 
 Islands, confessedly sprung from a European 
 stock, left or lost by tho early settlers in the 
 vast plains. These have given origin to an un- 
 reclaimed race. Azara states that these dogs aro 
 
 393 
 
AMEEiOAN DOGS.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [apeican dogs. 
 
 called Tagoua in Paraguay, where they are very 
 common, and dwell in caves. They formerly 
 abounded in Hajti, Cuba, and all the Carib- 
 bean islands ; but are now extirpated there. 
 Mr. Darwin alludes to wild dogs in Banda 
 Oriental as attacking sheep. According to 
 Oexmelin these dogs resemble the greyhound ; 
 but others more accurately describe them as 
 having the head flat and elongated, the muzzle 
 sharp, the body slender, and the general aspect 
 wild and savage. They are strong and active, 
 and hunt tlieir prey in packs. 
 
 It would appear, however, that the Euro- 
 peans, on their arrival, found native dogs both 
 in the Caribbean Islands and in Peru. " Those 
 belonging to the savages of the Antilles," says 
 Euffon, " had the head and ears very long, and 
 resembled a fox in appearance." He also 
 adds that the Indians of Peru had a large and 
 a smaller kind of dog, which they named Alco, 
 and that those of the Isthmus were ugly, with 
 rough, long hair, and erect ears. 
 
 "With respect to the Alco of Peru and 
 Mexico, nothing more is known about it than 
 what Dampier and Fernandez mention. The 
 latter describes two breeds — viz., the fat Alco, 
 or Michuacaneus, called by the natives 
 Ytzcuinte porzotli, and the broad-footed Alco, 
 or Techichi. Both were small, some of the 
 latter race not much exceeding a guinea-pig 
 in size. The head was small, the back arched, 
 the body thick, the ears peiiduloua, and the 
 tail short. An individual, probably of this race, 
 was bz'ought to this country from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Mexico, by Mr. Bullock ; it was 
 white, variegated with black and reddish- 
 yellow. This specimen was procured in the 
 mountains of Durango, where it bore the 
 name of Acolotte It died in a few days, and 
 its stufted skin formed part of a collection ex- 
 hibited in Piccadilly, being placed under a 
 glass with a huge bull-frog, which equalled it 
 in size. Dogs resembling the Alco were seen 
 as early as 1492, in several of the West 
 Indian Islands, by Columbus ; and were also 
 found in Martinique and Guadaloupe, in 1635, 
 by Erench navigators, who describe them as 
 resembling the little Turkish, or Barbary doo^s, 
 without hair; adding, that they were eaten by 
 the inhabitants. All trace of them is now lost. 
 
 The probability is that these Alco do"-s were 
 not indigenes to the soil, either in tho islands 
 804 
 
 or on the continent of Peru ; but were brought 
 by some of the tribes by whom South America 
 was populated. The breed might have been 
 introduced by that strange people (of Malay 
 descent ?) who founded the Peruvian and 
 Mexican empires. In the South Sea Islands, 
 dogs of a similar race exist, which are fed on 
 vegetable food, and eaten, as were the Alco 
 dogs in South America. 
 
 AFRICAN DOGS. 
 
 "Wild dogs exist in Congo, Guinea, and 
 other parts of Africa, hunting in packs, and 
 dwelling in caves or burrows. Clapperton met 
 with them in the country beyond Timbuctoo. 
 In the island of TenerifFe, a large wolfish 
 breed of dogs is domesticated, and valued for 
 the chase. 
 
 Major Denham used African hounds in 
 Africa for hunting the gazelle ; in the chase of 
 which, their exquisite scent and extraordinary 
 speed were displayed to great advantage. They 
 would frequently quit the line of scent for the 
 purpose of taking a direct, instead of a circui- 
 tous course — sportsmen call this cutting off a 
 double — and recover the scent again with 
 wonderful facility. These beautiful hounds 
 were brought to England, and consigned to 
 the Tower menagerie ; where, shut up in a 
 close den, they were doubtless miserable. In- 
 stead of exerting their energies in pursuit of 
 the antelope on the plains of Africa, here they 
 were prisoners, with no means of escape, and 
 with no room or opportunity for the exercise 
 of their powers and instincts. They were not, 
 however, of a wild breed; in symmetry and 
 action they were perfect models ; and in 
 temper were gentle, excepting that confine- 
 ment rendered the female irritable. 
 
 The Cape hunting-dog is a daring and fero- 
 cious animal ; and as the Dingo is in Australia, so 
 it is one of the pests of Southern Africa. It is a 
 complete dog, or canis, in the form of the skull 
 and the characters of the teeth ; it has, however, 
 as in the hyaenas, only four toes on the 
 anterior feet, and the same on the feet behind. 
 In figure it is tall, lightly built, but muscular 
 and well proportioned ; the limbs are long, 
 the ears large and erect, tlie jaws powerful, 
 and the teeth strong. Its aspect is wild and 
 fierce, and its disposition treacherous. The fur 
 »s close and of a sandy yellow, irregularly 
 
ESQUIMAUX D0Q3.] FOR MOUNTAIN. FIELD. AND FA RM. [EaQiriscA.rx doos. 
 
 clouded and blotched with black nnd a little ' nhould conunit an irrppnr.iblf injurv upon theae 
 white. The tail is somewhat bushy, and of poor people by destroying their lailhlul and 
 iiioderato length. Tlie colour is subji'ct to 
 variation. 
 
 Wild, fleet and savage, this species hunts in 
 
 powerful allies. 
 
 In botii tho Esquimaux dog and grey wolf, 
 the liir is deep and tiiick ; both have the sanio 
 packs mostly diMii!.iJ: the niglit, but I'requeutly ' erect ears, the same bn-adth of skull between 
 
 in the day; and so ileet is it that few animals 
 can out-distance its speed. It often commits 
 extensive ravages on the Hocks and herds of 
 the farmer, though it seldom attacks horned 
 cattle openly, but steals on them while asleep, 
 and bites oft' their tails, even at the root, with 
 one snap — a feat which the wide gape and vast 
 power of its jaws enables it to do with ease. 
 Mr. Burchell, on his return from Africa, 
 brought a living individual to England, which 
 retained during life all its native ferocity. 
 
 It is the general opinion of naturalists, that 
 this species is an intermediate link in the 
 chain of the carnivora, uniting the canine 
 group to the hyjenas. Indeed, in some points 
 of general aspect, and in the number of the 
 toes, the ai)proiimation of this dog to the 
 latter animals is so marked, that Mr. Burchell 
 regarded it as a hyaena ; and, as such, Temminck 
 described it, under the title of Tiyatna picta, 
 though he afterwards assigned it to the genus 
 canis. The name of hyajua-dog has also been 
 conferred upon it. 
 
 In size, the Cape bunting-dog (JVilde Son- 
 den of the Dutch colonists) is as large as a 
 pointer or hound, but higher on the limbs in 
 proportion to the bulk of the body. AVe 
 are not aware that any serious attempts have 
 been made to domesticate it. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX DOGS. 
 
 Dogs whicli. in their aspect and physiognomy, 
 retain a marked air of wildness, as indicated 
 by the sharpness of the muzzle, the erect or 
 semi-erect position of tlie ears, and the oblique 
 direction of the eye — giving an air of cunning 
 and distrust to the countenance — are found 
 in the Esquimaux race. In general aspect, 
 this dog — Canis fumiliaris, var. boreal is — so 
 closely resembles the wolf of its native regions, 
 that, when seen at a little distance, it is no! 
 easy to distinguish between them ; so much so, 
 indeed, is this the case, that Sir Edward Pai-ry's 
 party, during their second voyage, forbore to 
 fire upon a pack of thirteen wolves, which had 
 closely followed some Esquimaux, lest they 
 
 them, and the same, or nearly the same, sharp- 
 ness of muzzle. In addition, we may state 
 that, in its native wilds at least, tlie voice of this 
 dog is not a b;uk, but a long melancholy howl. 
 In the dog, however, the tail is more bushy 
 than in the wolf, and is carried in a graceful 
 curve over the back ; while in the wolf it hangs 
 down between tlie legs. It is further to be 
 remarked, that the antipathy of the Esquimaux 
 dog to the wolf is inveterate. He not only 
 regards the wolf as an enemy, but fears it; and 
 though he will attack the bear with undaunted 
 energy, he never, unless impelled by necessity, 
 ventures to assault the wolf. Often, indeed, 
 he falls a sacrifice to this beast of prey, and is 
 carried off even in sight of his owners. 
 
 To the Esquimaux their dogs are of the 
 greatest importance. It is to them that they 
 look for assistance in the chase of the seal, the 
 bear, and the reindeer; for carrying burdens, 
 and for drawing them on sledges over the 
 trackless snow of their dreary plains. In 
 summer, a single dog carries a weight of thirty 
 pounds in attending his master in the pursuit 
 of game ; and in winter, six or seven dogs, yoked 
 to a heavy sledge, with five or six persons, or 
 a load of eight or ten hundredweight, will per- 
 form a journey of forty or fifty miles a day. 
 On good roads they will travel this distance at 
 the rate of eight miles an iiour for several 
 hours together; but on untrodden snow, 
 twenty-five or thirty miles would be a fair 
 day's journey. The same number of dogs, well 
 fed, with a weight of only five or six hundred 
 pounds, that of the sledge included, are almost 
 uninanagable, and, on a smooth road, will go at 
 the rate of ten miles an hour. While thus 
 travelling, should they scent; a reindeer, even 
 a quarter of a mile distant, they gallop off" 
 furiously in the direction of the scent, and soon 
 bring the game within reach of the arrow of 
 the hunter. So acate, indeed, is their sense ot 
 smell, that they will discover a seal-hole by it 
 entirely, at a very great distance. 
 
 The average height of the Esquimaux dog is 
 one foot ten inches ; generally the colour is 
 
 395 
 
MACEENZiE DOG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [pomeeanian dog. 
 
 white, with something of a yellow tinge ; but 
 some are brindled, some black and white, and 
 some black. 
 
 THE MACKENZIE RIVER DOG. 
 
 If the Esquimaux dog resembles the grey 
 wolf of North America, equally does the Hare 
 Indian's or Mackenzie Eiver dog resemble the 
 fox. This dog {Canis familiaris, var. Ingopus) 
 is characterised by a narrow, elongated, and 
 pointed muzzle; by erect, sharp ears, and by 
 a bushy tail, not carried erect, but only 
 slightly curved upwards, and by the general 
 slenderness of the form. The hair is fine and 
 silky, thickening in winter, when it becomes 
 white, or nearly so; but in summer it is 
 marked by patches of greyish black or slate- 
 grev, intermingled with shades of brown. So 
 nearly does this dog resemble the arctic fox 
 of the regions where it is found, that they 
 have been considered merely as varieties of each 
 other, one being of the wild, the other of the 
 domesticated race. The Hare Indian's dog 
 is never known to bark in its native country ; 
 and the beautiful pair brought to England by 
 Sir John Erankliu and Dr. Eichardsou, never 
 acquired this canine language. One born in 
 the Zoological Gardens, however (the pair 
 in question having been presented to the 
 Society), readily learned it, and made his voice 
 sound as loudly as any European dog of his 
 size and age. 
 
 This variety is of great value to the natives 
 of the bleak and dreary realms where the 
 moose and the reindeer are objects of the chase. 
 Though it has not strength fitting it for pulling 
 down such game, yet its broad feet and light 
 make, enable it to run over the snow without 
 sinking, if the slightest crust be formed on it, 
 and thus easily to overtake the moose and the 
 reindeer, and keep them at bay until the hunters 
 come up. In the fox the pupil of the eye is ob- 
 long ; in the dog, circular ; but, independently of 
 this, it is, to say the least, highly improbable 
 that this intelligent dog is specifically identical 
 with the arctic fox. If, for the sake of argu- 
 ment, however, we grant that it is, as some 
 contend, and also that the Esquimaux dog is 
 identical with the wolf, other dogs also being 
 reclaimed wolves, we are involved in a dilemma ; 
 for we must then admit that thy wolf and fox 
 
 will breed together, and produce a fertile ofi"- 
 spring, which those who contend for the wolfish 
 origin of the dog by no means will allow to be 
 possible. 
 
 THE POMERANIAN, OR WOLF-DOG. 
 
 The Pomeranian, or wolf-dog {chien-loup), 
 and the Siberian dog, the Lapland dog, and 
 the Iceland dog, of Buffou, appear to be 
 closely related to the E.squimaux dog. BuiFon 
 regards them as varieties of the shepherd's 
 dog, which he considers to be that which, of 
 all, is nearest the primitive type, since, as he 
 observes, in all inhabited countries, whether 
 men be partially savage or civilised, dogs re- 
 sembling this more than any other are spread ; 
 and he attributes its preservation to its utility, 
 and its being abandoned to the peasantry 
 charged with the care of flocks. If, however, 
 great cerebral development and intelligence 
 are to be received as tests of cultivation, we 
 should be inclined to regard the shepherd's dog 
 as one of the most remote from the original 
 wild type, sharp and pointed as are its nose 
 and ears. The forehead of the Pomeranian 
 dog rises ; the top of the head is arched and 
 broad between the ears, and the hair is long, 
 and sometimes matted. This dog is of middle 
 size, but light, active, and strong. 
 
 Mr. Touatt, in his treatise on The Dog, says, 
 the Pomeranian, or " wolf-dog, is no longer a 
 native of Britain, because his services are not 
 required there ; but he is useful, in various 
 parts of the continent, in the protection of the 
 sheep from the attacks of the wolf. A pair of 
 these dogs was brought to the Zoological 
 Society of London, in 1S33, and there long 
 remained an ornament to the gardens. They 
 appeared to possess a considerable degree of 
 strength, but to be too gentle to contend with 
 so powerful and ferocious an animal as the 
 wolf They were mostly covered with white 
 or grey, or, occasionally, black hair, short on 
 the head, ears, and feet, but long and silky on 
 the body and tail. The forehead is elevated, 
 and the muzzle lengthened, and clothed with 
 short hair. The attachment of this dog to his 
 master and the flock is very great ; and he has 
 not lost a particle of his sagacity; but, where 
 wolves are common, is still used as a sheep- 
 do-." 
 
 306 
 
DOMESTIC Doo.] T li MOUNTAIN, FIELJ), AND FARM, [bo^tch collet. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DOMESTIC DOO. — PASTORAL UOGS AND TERRIERS. 
 
 "Domestication," says Mr, Blaiuc, "proves 
 a powerful agent in promoting various changes 
 from the original form, characters, and liabits 
 of quadrupeds. By its agency they are en- 
 larged to monstrosities, or diminished to pig- 
 mies ; it even operates ia the increase or 
 decrease of the organs themselves. A breed 
 of tailless cats and curtailed dogs has been 
 perpetuated. The horns of cattle, essential as 
 they are to the animals in their wild state, are 
 dispensed with when the animals themselves 
 are taken under the protection of man ; and 
 polled breeds of oxen and sheep are now com- 
 mon among us. We have an instance of the 
 former in the Galloway bull. Neither need 
 we wonder at these changes, great as they are, 
 when we consider how numerous and how^ 
 potent are the agents which the artiiice and 
 experience of man enable him to employ. In- 
 deed, man himself, thougli apparently a free 
 agent, is no longer the same being that he was 
 when he lived in a pure state of nature. His 
 external characters are much changed; while 
 internally he is subjected to morbid alterations 
 unknown to savages. Neither is it to be won- 
 dered at that the controlling power of man 
 should be so influential, extending as it does ' 
 over every important circumstance connected 
 with the beasts around him. Man regulates j 
 at his pleasure the quantity and quality of their 
 food ; he also governs all their motions, and 
 restrains their exercise to close confinement, 
 or increases it to great and continued exertions. 
 Even the temperature they reside in is raised 
 or lowered at the will of the owner ; and still 
 jurther and more important restraint is put 
 on them by regulating their sexual intercourse, 
 wiiich insures the perpetuation of almost any 
 desired form, by allowing the propagation 
 only between such individuals as approach the 
 nearest tliereto. In other instances, an acci- 
 dental variation which may have occurred, or 
 i singular deformity, has been seized on and 
 propagated by future similar selections, until 
 it became permanent, and tlieu it constitutes 
 
 a breed. To something of this kind wo owe 
 the wry-logged terriers ; and it is probable, 
 also, tliat a crooked mastilf ofl'ered the founda- 
 tion for the bulldog." 
 
 THE SCOTCH COLLEY. 
 
 One of the theories to which we have alluded 
 is that of ascribing the original dog to the 
 pastoral or shepherd's breed, known in Scot- 
 land, and the north of England, as the Colley. 
 However this may be, this species is certainly 
 one of the most sagacious of all descriptions of 
 dogs. Anecdotes, well authenticated, of his 
 performances, would of themselves make a 
 bulky volume. In the structure of the feet of 
 this species of dog, there is a peculiarity which 
 has attracted the observation of the naturalist. 
 Mr. llichardson describes it as consisting of a 
 greater or smaller number of supplemental 
 toes or appendages, called " dew-claws," and 
 situated at the hinder part of the foot. Tlie 
 pointer, the spaniel, and all dogs which prey 
 upon ground game, without running it down 
 in the chase, are possessed of these appendages, 
 which evince, in a striking manner, the ad- 
 mirable care which Nature takes to adapt 
 every animal to the duties which it has to 
 perform. " They are soft and pendent," says 
 i Mr. Eichardson, "but do not act by means of 
 muscles, like the toes properly so called, but 
 are a sort of fringe to the back part of the- 
 foot. In walking on hard surfaces they are of 
 no use ; and as they are liable to be torn and 
 lacerated in beating among bushes, and thus 
 to cripple the animals — for wounds in the feet 
 of dogs are more injurious to them than in any 
 other part of their Vodies — they are cut oft' in 
 sporting dogs wheii very young; but in shep- 
 herds' dogs, and in pastoral dogs generally, 
 they are allowed to remain; and in the hill 
 pastures especially, which are interspersed with 
 bogs, and places between the hummocks of 
 yrasd which consist of soft and sludgy peat, 
 these dew-claws, by spreading out to their whole 
 length by a little pressure, greatly extend the 
 
 397 
 
BEW-CIiAWS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AN"© ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [the oollet. 
 
 surface of the foot, and thus enable it to bear 
 up the animal in situations where it otherwise 
 would sink, iu the same manner as people fur- 
 nished with snow shoes can walk over snowy 
 surfaces, iu which, if they had not these means 
 of protection, they would sink kuee-deep. This 
 peculiarity is found wanting in all the coursing 
 dogs, and in all those which, in a state of 
 nature, find their prey upon the firm ground." 
 When we think of the sportsman walking 
 over, and the dew-clawed dog running over, 
 such bogs as are above alluded to, what reflec- 
 tions does the mind conjure up ! Who can 
 guess the secrets of the peat bog ? Who can 
 divine all that is buried beneath that sable 
 and partially heath-covered surface ? Far, far 
 down in its depths, and even beneath the thin 
 soil of the moor, lies hidden many a secret of 
 bygone days. Below the grim, ghastly surface, 
 the waters, and the black remnants of count- 
 less plants, lie the sad memorials of ages 
 unknown to tlie history of man. Huge trees 
 stand uprigiit, and their gigantic roots rest 
 upon the crowns of still older forest giants ! 
 In the inverted oaks of Murten Moor, in Swit- 
 zerland, many see the famous oak woods that 
 Charlemagne caused to be cut down, now more 
 than a thousand years ago. Tor centuries the 
 moors have concealed, in their silent bosoms, 
 the gigantic works of ancient Rome. Ear in 
 the deep, lie buried in stone, hatchets and flint 
 arrow-heads of Frisians and Cheruski, by the 
 side of the copper kettle and the iron helmet 
 of the Soman soldier. The skeletons of ante- 
 diluvian animals rest there peaceably by the 
 corpses of ancient races with sandals on their 
 feet, and skins of animals around their naked 
 bodies. Hundreds of brave English horsemen, 
 ■who sought an honourable death in the battle 
 of Sol way, were swallowed up, horse and man, 
 by the insatiable moor. In years bygone, a 
 Danish King Harold, called the Blue Tooth, 
 allured with foul treachery a fair princess of 
 Norway, Gunhildo, to Jutland. She came, 
 and she vanished from the memory of man. 
 History had forgotten her, tradition had even 
 began to fade; but the peat bog opened its 
 long-closed lips, and accused, late, but loud, the 
 bloody king, of this wicked deed. The poor 
 princess was found far below the peat, stran"-led 
 and tied to a post, where her merciless foe had 
 buried her, as he thought, for ever, in the abyss, 
 398 
 
 THE COLLEY, OR SHEPHERD'S DOG. 
 
 Of the sagacity and faithfulness of the shep- 
 herd's dog many interesting narratives are 
 current. It knows its master's flocks ; it will 
 single out a sheep under his direction, keep it 
 separate, or disengage it again from the rest of 
 the flock, should it regain or mingle with thera ; 
 it will keep two flocks apart, and, should they 
 become mixed, it will re-divide them. It will 
 watch and defend them from strange dogs or 
 foxes, and will drive them to any place required. 
 It is, in fact, the shepherd's friend and assistant; 
 it watches every look and every sign, is quick 
 in apprehension, prompt in obedience, and 
 pleased with its master's praise : and well does 
 he who tends his flocks on the wide pasture- 
 lands or mountain districts of our island, 
 appreciate the services and fidelity of his at- 
 tached ally. 
 
 Mr. Hogg, known by his poetical soubriquet 
 of the "Ettrick Shepherd," has given us many 
 anecdotes of the sagacity of this dog ; and we 
 ourselves, in the hill districts of Scotland, have 
 seen many of them exhibit a degree of intelli- 
 gence almost human. 
 
 He stands about twenty-one inches in height 
 at the shoulder; is very gracefully shaped; 
 ears half erect; muzzle pointed; coat long, but 
 fine and silky; tail and hams fringed with 
 hair; colour usually black and tan, or sandy 
 yellow ; but there are many black and white. 
 
 In England the species is larger^ but, we 
 think, scarcely so active, and certainly by no 
 means so graceful, being destitute of tail. 
 This apparent defect in the structure of the 
 animal is not natural ; but is the effect of what 
 is termed "stringing," an operation performed 
 when the animal is young, and which consists 
 of pulling out the bone of the tail with the 
 teeth. This causes the fleshy portion of the 
 appendage to contract, until it becomes appa- 
 rently nothing more than a mere tuft of hair. 
 It is said that dogs thus denuded endure more 
 fatigue than wheu in possession of their tails. 
 
 Both in Scotland and England the breed of 
 the sheep-dogs is preserved with the greatest at- 
 tention to purity. The Arab has scarcely greater 
 afiection for iiis horse than the Scottish shep- 
 herd has for his dog. As the one is the con- 
 stant companion of the wanderer in the desert, 
 so is the other the constant companion of the 
 
T£U&I£B9.] 
 
 FOR I\r O U N r A I N, F 1 E L 1 ), A .\ I) F A K M. 
 
 [lEUUIXttS. 
 
 flock- watcher of the mountains. In the points 
 of size and strength, however, the Scotch and 
 English breeds are much inferior to those of 
 Bonie other countries. In the Alps and tiie 
 Pyrenees, for example, the breeds are much 
 larger and stronger; whilst, in the neigliboiir- 
 hood of the Caucasian range, there is an equally 
 large and powerful variety. 
 
 Tiio " Colley" of France boars a strong 
 resemblance to the English breed in form and 
 size. His disposition is, also, similar ; and he 
 possesses all the attributes of the other, lie 
 likewise, in his puppyism, is denuded of that 
 graceful appendage — the tail — a practice which 
 we cannot help stigmatising as inhuman, and 
 by no means counterbalanced by the additional 
 benefits supposed to be derived from it by 
 their masters. 
 
 Nearly allied to the " Colley" is the dog of 
 the drover, somewhat larger, but equally saga- 
 cious. He would seem to be the produce of a 
 cross with the lurcher. Ho has great courage 
 and strength, and will attack the fiercest bul- 
 lock, and hold him, if commanded so to do by 
 his master. 
 
 The cur is a mongrel sprung from the Colley. 
 He is a tantalising, barking, apparently spi- 
 rited, but cowardly animal. He is the biter of 
 the horses' heels, but the vigilant watch-dog 
 of the humble dwelling of the cottager. His 
 voice is always heard the moment an invader 
 of the precincts of that tenement appears. 
 The tail of the cur is mostly cut short ; but 
 Bewick says that many are whelped with short 
 tails, which seem as if they had been cut, and 
 these are called, in the North, "self-tailed dogs." 
 Though this writer thinks the cur-dog to be a 
 true or permanent breed, it seems to us that 
 it is a cross between the shepherd's dog and 
 Bome other race, perhaps the terrier. 
 
 TERRIERS. 
 
 Supposing the shepherd's dog to be the repre- 
 sentative of a small section of the domestic 
 canine race, the next to which we may turn is 
 that of the terriers. These are a very hardy 
 race, full of courage and spirit, and Avill face 
 anything, without the slightest indication of 
 fear. They are a small breed of dogs, but have 
 an amazing degree of strength, a sharp bite, 
 and have, to a great extent, the power of 
 "holding on" to whatever they get within the 
 
 grasp of their teeth. The property for which 
 they are nio»t diatingui«hed is for hunting uu 
 such animals as burrow undi-r ground, presaiu" 
 them from their earths, and then attacking 
 them with the utmost fierceness and determi- 
 nation. Wo have seen some Scotch terriers 
 fight untd they were lacerated in the most 
 dreadful mannor; and even then they would 
 not give up the contest, however unequal, 
 and had to bo lifted and taken away. They 
 will even face a badger with the most reso- 
 lute spirit. All wild animals they will attack 
 indiscriminately, although, properly speaking. 
 they are what are called vermin dogs, llats, 
 mice, weasels, polecats, and badgers, they will 
 fall upon on the instant ; hence their value in 
 the country, where the stock of the farmer is 
 so frequently a prey to some of these maraud- 
 ing animals. To the rat they are a most deter- 
 mined foe ; and well that it is so, for the great 
 fecundity of these noxious animals is one of 
 the circumstances which renders them so for- 
 midable in their destructive propensities. "Go," 
 says a writer, " into a barn or granary, where 
 hundreds are living, and you shall not see one ; 
 go to a rick that may be one living mass within, 
 and there shall not be one visible ; or dive into 
 a cellar that may be perfectly infested with 
 them, rats you shall not see ; no, not so much 
 as a tip of a tail, unless it be that of a stray 
 one ' popping across for a more safe retreat.' 
 As men seldom see them, they seldom think of 
 them. But this I say," continues the writer, 
 " that if rats could, by any means, bo made to 
 live on the surface of the earth, instead of in 
 holes and corners, and feed and run about the 
 streets and fields in open day, like dogs and 
 sheep, the whole nation would bo horror- 
 stricken ; and ultimately there would not be a 
 man, woman, or child able to brandish a stick, 
 but would have a dog, stick, or gun for their 
 destruction, wherever they met with them. 
 These midnight marauders and common ene- 
 mies of mankind, devour the food, to the star- 
 vation of our fellow-creatures," The writer 
 does not altogether ignore the argument of the 
 friends of the rat — that these vermin destroy 
 in the sewers much matter that would other- 
 wise give out poisonous gases. Sewer rats, ho 
 admits, are not the very worst of the race ; but 
 even they should be slain wherever they may 
 be caught. But the rats of the cellar, the 
 
 390 
 
SCOTCH TEEEiEB.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [skye teeetee. 
 
 warehouse, the barn, the rick-yard, the granary, 
 and the corn-field, are the grand destroyers 
 against which war by the terrier, the trap, and 
 the ferret should be proclaimed. 
 
 Whilst the terrier is one of the best of rat- 
 killers, he is also a good house-dog, sufficiently 
 vigilant, and at all times ready to attack any 
 one who, at an improper season, dares to dis- 
 turb the quiet of the household. Mr. Eichard- 
 son tells us that he knows a gentleman who 
 had a very fine Scotch terrier, which not only 
 cleared a large farm, and also the farm-yard, of 
 all vermin, but acted as cattle-dog or sheep- 
 dog, as occasion required. He used success- 
 fully to repel the inroads of a very powerful 
 and fierce boar, which was wont to come in a 
 furious and formidable manner ; so much so, 
 indeed, that he often threw the labourers in the 
 field into the greatest alarm ; but if Trap hap- 
 pened to get notice of the invasion, the boar, 
 though very large (much in the shape of a wild 
 boar, and of that brindled colour which indi- 
 cates the nearest approach to that formidable 
 animal), paid severely for his temerity. The 
 dog, which had been trained to keep animals 
 in their right places, but to kill nothing ex- 
 cept game and vermin, made no direct attack 
 on the life of the boar. He laid hold of him 
 by the ear ; and that hold he kept till the boar, 
 though much stronger and far heavier than 
 the dog, was so completely subdued, that Trap 
 could lead him by the ear to his own place of 
 abode. The dog had seldom occasion to take 
 him half-way ; but he used to watch his mo- 
 tions ; and if the boar oftered to return, the 
 dog instantly went to meet him, and so pun- 
 ished his other ear, that there was no need 
 for a second warning, at least during the next 
 week. 
 
 One of the principal uses of the terrier, as 
 a hunting dog, is to accompany the foxhounds ; 
 and, in cases where all the earths are not care- 
 fully stopped he is indispensable, because his 
 assistance is necessary in unearthing Eeyuard. 
 
 THE SCOTCH TERRIER. 
 Of this, breed there are three varieties ; one 
 of a sandy-red colour, standing about eighteen 
 inches high, very strong, with short stout legs ; 
 he has a large head in proportion to his body ; 
 a somewhat pointed muzzle, and an acute 
 Bcent; his ears are small, and his bite very 
 400 
 
 sharp. This variety is very common, and may 
 frequently be seen quietly sitting at the door- 
 steps of many of the houses in the more quiet 
 and respectable localities of London. They 
 abound in Scotland, and are generally known 
 as the " Highland Terrier." The hair is hard 
 and wiry, frequently closely or thickly matted ; 
 and when intermixed, or marked with white 
 or any other colour, it is a certain sign of im- 
 purity. The best are such as are of a rufus, 
 sandy, or black colour. They are extremely 
 attached to their masters, and we think are 
 very tenacious in memory. AVe, many years 
 ago, possessed an impure specimen, which 
 nevertheless was an excellent little dog; he 
 either wandered or was stolen from us, in a 
 place near Doune, in Stirlingshire ; and several 
 months afterwards we were told that such a 
 dog was at a miller's, about twenty miles from 
 where we were at that time. Neither the dis- 
 tance nor the uncertainty of its being our dog 
 deterred us from setting out on foot (there 
 were no conveyances in those days up to the 
 hills) to ascertain the fact. Accordingly, we 
 arrived at the miller's, and elevating our voice, 
 heard " Piucher" reply from a small sort of 
 granary, where he had been carefully detained. 
 We soon had him at liberty ; and we shall 
 never forget the joy which he exhibited at our 
 meeting. We walked immediately back ; and, 
 at the end of our journey, did not feel in the 
 least tii'ed, so happy were we at the recovery 
 of our faithful and attached little dog. 
 
 The other two varieties are those of the 
 Pepper and Mustard kind, celebrated by Sir 
 Walter Scott in Guy JSLannering , and the 
 variety which prevails in the Western Islands 
 of Scotland. The first is low, long-backed, and 
 short-legged ; with wiry and curly hair, and 
 a pretty long muzzle. The second is about 
 the same size as the sandy-red coloured one, 
 but with the hair much longer, and having 
 a more flowing appearance. 
 Besides these there is the 
 
 SKYE TERRIER. 
 
 This valuable little dog takes its name from 
 one of the Hebrides, or western islands, where 
 it is found in the greatest perfection. It is 
 longer in the body and lower in the legs than 
 the Highland dog ; covered with long, silky, and 
 silvery-looking hair, and has its breasts and 
 
TERlUEltS ] 
 
 rOK 3U)UNTA1X, 111: LI), AM) KAK.M. 
 
 [iJiUUlEliS. 
 
 legs of a light or palish tan colour. It is con- 
 sidered the second variety of the Scotch terrier, 
 and is famous for the destruction of vermin, 
 lu Blackwood's Afa>/n:ine, a real Skye terrier 
 is thus described : — " A mouth, the roof whereof 
 is dark as midnight ; his glittering eyes are 
 black as jot ; his ears sliort ; his legs none of 
 the longest ; but his body is. His tail is a 
 triumph, wlien fairly spread out ; and as for 
 the strength with whicli it is attached to Ins 
 body, you may hold him up by the aforesaid 
 tail as long as you can — with ono hand. Then 
 his hair is pepper-and-salt in hue, long and 
 curly, and — if I may so speak (though no one 
 but myself and the family will know exactly 
 what I mean by it) — with a kind of silken 
 wiriness." 
 
 THE ENGLISH TERRIER. 
 
 This dog is commonly of a black and tan 
 colour ; and tliose of this tint are the best ; but 
 they are sometimes white. If black and tan, 
 they should not present a speck of white ; and 
 if white, they should be entirely of that colour. 
 
 In conflict, the English terrier is as resolute 
 as the Scotch ; but he is less capable of support- 
 ing cold, and is not so fond of the water. 
 AVhat was the primitive stock of this breed we 
 cannot say; but we should be inclined to con- 
 cur in the opinion of Mr. Eichardson, that his 
 original is to be found in the rough, or Scotch 
 breed. AYe are the more inclined to this opin- 
 ion, as we have seen a pair of beautiful Skye 
 terriers, with careful feeding and nursing, 
 gradually become smoother and shorter in the 
 hair, until they seemed likely to lose their ori- 
 ginal character altogether. Mr. Richardson 
 says, that a small, well-marked English terrier, 
 under seven pounds' weight, will, if as good as 
 be looks, fetch from five to ten guineas. The 
 celebrated dog " Billy," who killed the hundred 
 rats in less than five minutes, was a white Eng- 
 lish terrier, with a dark patch on the side of his 
 head. 
 
 We have already alluded to the wonderful 
 fecundity of rats, of which, according to the 
 writer already quoted, Mr. Shaw's little dog, 
 "Tiny," under six pounds' weight, destroyed 
 Uco thousand Jive hundred and twenty-Jlve pairs ; 
 which, had they been permitted to live, would, 
 he says, within a given time, have produced 
 one thousand six hundred and thirty-three mil-' 
 3f 
 
 lions, one hundred and ninefy thousand two hun- 
 dred living rata ! Hats destroyed by Messrs. 
 Shaw and Sabin in two years, amounting to 
 scvcnlffn thousand pairs, would, had they beea 
 ponnitted to live, have produced, at the caji- 
 culation of this writer, and in the same time, 
 no less than ten thousand nine hundred and 
 ninely-five millions, seven hundred and thirty- 
 six thousand! "Now," contiuues the writer, 
 " let us calculate the amount of human food 
 that they would destroy. lu the first place, 
 my informants tell me that six rats will con- 
 sume, day by day, as much food as a man ; 
 secondly, that the thing has been tested, and 
 that the estimate given was, that eight rata 
 would consume more than an ordinary man. 
 Now I — to place the thing beyond the small- 
 est shadow of a doubt — will set down ten rats 
 to eat as much as a man, not a child; nor will 
 I say anything about what rats waste. And 
 what shall we find to be the alarming result ? 
 Why, that the first pair of rats, with their 
 three years' progeny, would consume, in the 
 night, more food than sixty-four thousand six 
 hundred and eighty men the year round, leaving 
 eight rats to spare ! And the rats destroyed 
 by the little wonder, ' Tiny,' had they been 
 permitted to live, would, at the same calcula- 
 tion, with their three years' progeny, have con- 
 sumed as much food as one hundred and sixty- 
 three millions, three hundred and nineteen thou- 
 sand and twenty men : above two-thirds of the 
 population of Europe !" 
 
 Verily, if this be the case, it is a happy ar- 
 rangement in the great scheme of Providence, 
 that some animals that have a more than usual 
 fecundity, have been created to destroy each 
 other when they become too numerous, and 
 that terriers have been so constituted to assist 
 in the destruction of rats ! 
 
 THE TURNSPIT TERRIER. 
 
 This dog is a small, long-backed, cross-made 
 thing, with the fore legs bent, first inwards 
 and then outwards, presenting several wind- 
 ings, but rather of the crooked than the flow- 
 ing kind, which Hogarth characterised as the 
 line of beauty. He is a mongrel, and his 
 name sufliciently denotes the meanness of the 
 occupation in which he was formerly engaged. 
 This was to turn a wheel, on which depended 
 the spit which roasted the meat ia tiie kitchen. 
 
 401 
 
TEEEIEBS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [tereiebs. 
 
 In this occupation, however servile, he had 
 certainly a chance of coming in for a share of 
 the " good things" of this world ; and if his 
 master were not of the barbarous school, the 
 turnspit of old may have passed his time toler- 
 ably comfortable. The appliances of modern 
 art have long ago abolished his employment. 
 His occupation, like that of Othello's, has 
 vanished, and he himself is fast passing from 
 the face of the earth, and will, no doubt, 
 ere long become extinct. 
 
 THE HARLEQUIN TERRIER. 
 
 This beautiful little article is, in form, the 
 perfect model of the English terrier. He is of 
 a slate colour, like the Skye, with a little tan 
 about the legs and muzzle. This, though not 
 always, is frequently the case, and he possesses 
 all the higher attributes of his species in the 
 most marked degree. Why he has been called 
 after that extremely active gentleman, who, in 
 a parti-coloured dress of very tight fit and 
 variety of hue, figures on the stage in a Christ- 
 mas pantomime, we are not quite certain. 
 Perhaps it has arisen from the various patches 
 with which he himself is sometimes marked, 
 and which, in the opinion of many, greatly 
 add to his beauty. The origin of this little 
 dog has not been satisfactorily traced, but he 
 is now a recognised variety. 
 
 "In former times," says Mr. Eichardson, to 
 whom we have already been so much indebted, 
 " a brace of terriers used to accompany every 
 pack of foxhounds, for the sake of unkennel- 
 ling reynard, in the event of his taking to 
 earth. This attendance has long been discon- 
 tinued, as being no longer necessary, the fox 
 being now run into too rapidly to admit of his 
 giving the gallant terriers this trouble. Some 
 recent writers do not appear aware of this cir- 
 cumstance, but gravely furnish us with long 
 extracts from Daniel, &c., relative to this now 
 obsolete practice." 
 
 THE RUSSIAN TERRIER. 
 This is a fine large specimen of his kind, 
 and is in great demand in Scotland, on account 
 of the valuable qualities of which he is found 
 to be possessed, lie will take the water like 
 a spaniel, will tackle a wolf, and has all the 
 vigilance of the most active and most keen 
 of the Scotch breed. He stands high, beinc' 
 402 "" 
 
 upwards of two feet at the shoulder; and, 
 although he might, by some, be supposed to be 
 a mastiff from his form, he does not belong to 
 that breed, although he bears, in some points, 
 a striking resemblance to it. He stands 
 straight and well up ; looks formidable, and 
 presents a front of great courage. 
 
 The colour is usually black and tan ; but 
 many are of a sort of rufus, or reddish-brown. 
 About twenty years ago two of these dogs were 
 to be seen in the Scottish metropolis, equal in 
 size to many a mastifi". In Germany they are 
 known by the name of " bear-searchers." 
 
 THE SOUTH AMERICAN TERRIER 
 Bears a strong resemblance to the Russian, 
 and is remarkable for its power of destroying 
 reptiles — escaping the bite of the serpent with 
 a certainty which surprises, when we consider 
 the power of that reptile tc? twist, turn, or coil 
 itself in almost every direction, and round 
 anything of ordinary dimensions. Its spring 
 is so rapid and sure, that it will seize the ser- 
 pent by the back in an instant, and imme- 
 diately crush its vertebrae to fragments. It is 
 rarely to be seen in this country ; but we 
 have noticed it as belonging to the terrier 
 species. 
 
 THE MEXICAN PRAIRIE DOG 
 Is amongst the most diminutive of the canine 
 family. It is said to burrow in its native 
 prairies in the manner that rabbits do in this 
 country. Of this, however, we are not aware 
 of any well-authenticated fact, although we 
 remember having read, in the book of some ob- 
 scure Mexican traveller, that such was the case. 
 As he is not likely ever to become acclimatised 
 in this, or be of much use in his own country, 
 it is of little consequence to the general world 
 what may be the nature of his habits ; although, 
 to the professed naturalist, as well as to those 
 who are curious in matters of natural history, 
 no doubt, a complete knowledge of these would 
 be highly interesting. 
 
 THE MALTESE TERRIER. 
 
 The Maltese islands lie about forty-five miles 
 from tlie southern shore of Sicily, and 150 to 
 the east of the African coast, in the neiglibour- 
 hood of Cape Bonn. They are nearly due north 
 from Tripoli, on the coast of Africa, and are 
 
BTJLL-TEHRiKR.] F li MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [the LrncnEQ. 
 
 composed of a "[roup of three — INfrtltn, Gozo, 
 and Coiiiino — of whieli tlio lirst is by far tlio 
 largest. From the ru\st of these ishmda the 
 Maltese terrier takes its name; and although 
 it has, by some uaturalists, been classetl with 
 the spaniels, its habit of vermin-killing has in- 
 duced others to class it with the terriers. It 
 is very diminutive, and is usually black, though 
 sometimes white ; but, in whatever colour ho 
 appears, he should be of but one "all over." 
 
 This little animal was well known to the 
 ancients, as he figures upon many lloman re- 
 mains. He is now, however, nearly extinct ; 
 and the celebrated animal-painter, Landseer, 
 has immortalised him in one of his paintings, 
 as " The Last of his Eace." 
 
 THE BULL-TERRIER 
 Is a cross between terrier and bulldog, vary- 
 ing in aspect according to the sort of terrier 
 
 to which lio owes descent. As his name im- 
 j)lies, ho is a mongrel, but is, nevertholeas, a 
 lively courageous dog, well adapted for all 
 kinds of mischievous sport, and ailbrding fewer 
 unpleasant associations than the bulldog, 
 while ho is hardier than the terrier. 
 
 THE LURCHER. 
 The lurcher appears to be a mixed breed 
 between the rough terrier or shepherd's dog 
 and the greyhound, and is therefore a mongrel 
 dog. Bewick informs us that it is shorter 
 than the latter, with stronger limbs, and is 
 covered with a rough coat of hair, commonly 
 of a pale yellow colour. The scent of this dog 
 being remarkably fine, he is often employed in 
 killing hares and rabbits in the night. He 
 steals silently and cautiously upon them while 
 they are feeding, and then suddenly darts for- 
 ward and seizes them. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HOUNDS. 
 
 To introduce to and acclimatise various birds, 
 animals, and lislies in Australia and New 
 Zealand from this country, has, for some years, 
 been the object of several colonists, ambitious 
 of having the forests, fields, and rivers of their 
 adopted homes, stored with such living re- 
 membrancers of the land they have left, as 
 may preserve it for ever in their recollections. 
 To a large extent, we believe, success has at- 
 tended tlieir eftbrts ; and, we think, that some- 
 thing in the same way might be attempted for 
 this country, seeing that there is much living 
 beauty scattered over the globe that might, 
 with little expense and trouble, be here natu- 
 ralised. . Certainly nature has distributed 
 over the surface of the earth the races 
 best fitted for each climate. And nowhere 
 can a race arrive at such perfection and beauty 
 as in its first home. Nevertheless, there are 
 numerous races for which other climates be- 
 sides their own are adapted. And in nothing 
 
 have the ingenuity and energy of man been so 
 magnificently displayed as in the introduction 
 of new races. The art of acclimatisation is 
 unquestionably capable of immense develop- 
 ment. An association has been instituted in 
 London, expressly for the purpose of improving 
 the art to its utmost possibilities. In refer- 
 ence to man, the most extraordinary example 
 of acclimatisation which modern times has 
 produced, is the growth, by millions, of negroes 
 in America and the West Indies. America 
 and the West Indies are not well adapted to 
 the European constitution ; but the large, and 
 always enlarging infusion of the negro blood 
 will, doubtless, ultimately (if it has not already) 
 produce the exact race the best suited for the 
 climate. In America the results would be 
 helped by saving from extinction the native 
 American race. So far, however, as America 
 is concerned, a new element is destined to 
 come into play. The intercourse between 
 
 403 
 
ACCLIMATISATION.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [acclimatisation. 
 
 America and the eastern coast of Asia is 
 rapidly extending. Already an emigration 
 from China to America has begun. Through 
 Enssian and English influences the centre of 
 Asia is moved, and the current will flow to 
 the very heart of America. The central and 
 Eastern Asiatic races are by no means comely ; 
 but they are strong — as strong in their way as 
 the English race. In Australia, however, 
 there is likely to be a still greater mingling of 
 races than in America. Australia will receive 
 hosts from Europe, hosts from Eastern and 
 Central Asia, and hosts also from Southern 
 Asia and Southern Africa. 
 
 Wherever the English race has penetrated, 
 it has not failed to be the prevailing one ; but it 
 ought not anywhere to be the exclusive race. 
 In India a large leaven of English blood is 
 demanded. On the southern slopes of the 
 Himalayas, and in other mountain ranges of 
 India, colonies of Scottish Highlanders might 
 be planted with immense advantage. But, 
 besides, all English soldiers going to India 
 should, when their term of service expires, 
 settle there. This would have a manifold 
 benefit. It would lessen the military expendi- 
 ture ; it would strengthen the English empire 
 in India ; and it would rapidly propagate the 
 English language, and diffuse English civilisa- 
 tion. There is already no race equal to the 
 English ; but might it not dt home be nobly 
 transfigured, and tiius be further moulded for 
 ita mighty achievements abroad ? The 
 English, properly so called, have sinew, solid- 
 ity, indomitable endurance; but they are 
 deficient in rapidity of movement, and in ima- 
 gination. Blend with them the finest Asiatic 
 races, and the defect is overcome. This we 
 have already physically shown in our treatment 
 of the English race-horse. 
 
 A beautiful experiment in acclimatisation 
 would be to send to New Zealand the Cir- 
 cassians, who, by successive defeats, have been 
 driven from their homes. The Circassians are 
 universally admitted to be a singularly gifted, 
 comely, and heroic race. In New Zealand 
 they would find mountains as grand as those 
 of the Caucasus, and no ferocious Eussians to 
 hunt them down. 
 
 But, wliilst men can, almost anywhere be 
 acelimatisfd, we are not so certain that this 
 cou.id be tlie case with such birds or beasts as 
 404 
 
 miist always be more or less under the power 
 of climatic influence. It is not our purpose 
 here to consider this question at large ; but, in 
 reference to the dog, we believe that even he, 
 universal as is his distribution over the face of 
 the earth, and hardy as is his nature, could 
 not have his race perpetuated, if shifted from 
 one climate to another. The dog of the 
 tropics would not continue his race long in 
 the higher latitudes of the temperate zone ; 
 nor would even the English dog long survive 
 the rigours of an arctic region. Of this we 
 have an example : — Mr. Lloyd, in his Swedish 
 travels, was going to hunt the boar on the 16th 
 of January, when the quicksilver was twenty- 
 five degrees below zero ; and though he was 
 habited in his usual clothes, with the exception 
 of an additional waistcoat, he experienced 
 little inconvenience, as he kept himself warm 
 with walking. Erom not sufficiently covering 
 his ears, however, he got them slightly frost- 
 bitten. AVhat, however, was the case with 
 Paijas, his only dog ? He was an extreme 
 suflerer. "This," he says, " was partly owing to 
 his hair having become thin and ragged, iu 
 consequence of his advanced age. None of 
 the native dogs, indeed, even in their full 
 vigour, are altogether proof against the 
 vreather, if it be unusually severe. Their feet 
 seem to be the most affected ; for I have many 
 a time seen them hold up their legs from the 
 snow, and cry out most piteously. This being 
 the case with animals whom Nature has pro- 
 vided with extremely warm jackets, it may be 
 imagined how little able some of our thin- 
 coated English dogs would be to face the 
 rigours of a Northern winter. 
 
 " I saw this exemplified in two instances : — 
 One was an English bloodhound, which Mr. 
 Otway Cave, then member for Leicester, was 
 so kind as to present to me ; the other was a 
 bulldog that I procured from home. Both of 
 these dogs would, doubtless, have answered 
 my purpose exceedingly well ; but they could 
 not exist in the forest, if the quicksilver 
 happened to be a few degrees below zero. On 
 one occasion, indeed, the bulldog became so 
 benumbed with the cold, that his limbs abso- 
 lutely stiffened ; when, to save his life, I was 
 obliged to cause one of my people, after putting 
 him into a bag, to carry him a distance of some 
 ten miles, to a habitable part of the country. 
 
WOLF-l^OO.] 
 
 F u -M o u N r A I X, F 1 1: r, d, and i • \ i ; m . 
 
 WOI.F-DOa. 
 
 " As it was not full daylight when we reached 
 
 the vicitiity of tlu' ring, wo lialted, ami got up 
 a good tire. This the poor dog sooiiuhI most 
 thorouglily to enjoy ; to ourselves, likewise, it 
 was far from uiicomfortahlo. Here we took some 
 rorroslimeat, w hii-h we neodi'd, as we had break- 
 lasted very slenderly prior to leaving Xas." 
 
 Other instances of the impossibility of 
 acclimatising animals in such temperatures as 
 are widi'ly dilleront from those to which their 
 nature is congenial, might be adduced ; but it 
 is unnecessary here. 
 
 Till': IKISII WOM'-DOG. 
 As in several other sciences, tliose who pur- 
 sue the study of natural history, do not, in all 
 points, agree in their opinions. Whilst the 
 classification of the difterent varieties of species 
 was founded by the great Cuvier upon tlieir 
 osteological structure, and crancological de- 
 velopment ; other naturalists, either from a 
 natural desire of novelty, or from the equally 
 natural wish to be original, and to show to the 
 world that they have opinions of their own, 
 have adopted other indications to decide what 
 ought to be the standard of, or guide to 
 canine classification. Colonel Smith seems to 
 tliink that colour is the most proper guide to 
 be adopted ; whilst Mr. Martin thinks the 
 ear, considered in relation to its size and form, 
 is the best mark by which the variety may be 
 determined. For us to enter upon the con- 
 sideration of a subject of this kind, would only 
 be to perplex what has already been said upon 
 it, with, perhaps, novel ideas ; but with such 
 an amount of success as would give to our- 
 selves little satisfaction, and, perhaps, less to 
 our readers. All that we will say is, that we 
 think Colonel Smith's theory is not likely to 
 be adopted by the scientific naturalist; and 
 that ]Mr. Martin's is somethin": like iudjiiiiof of 
 the character of a man's mind by the form 
 and dimensions of his auricular organ. Cu- 
 vier's system is the least likely to lead to error, 
 and, therefore, the more likely to be the most 
 uuivcrsally adopted. In reference to this sys- 
 tem, in so far as the dog is concerned — and it is 
 to no further extent that we refer— Mr. Rich- 
 ardson has given his assent, considering that 
 the arrangement of the Frenchman has made 
 all the varieties of the domestic dog easily to 
 be divided into three classes. 
 
 In tr.itii- .if tho Irish wolf-dog, Mr. 
 Richardson has separated it from botii tho 
 Iligliland deer-hound ami tho Scottish grey- 
 hound ; but this he has done from no convic- 
 tion of its being right, but simply in deference 
 to general opinion, which, ho considers, in- 
 correct, as " these three dogs, tliough originally 
 identical, are now, unquestionably, distinct in 
 many particulars." We sliall treat them indis- 
 criminately, as the distinctions between them, 
 originally, would seem to have been very little. 
 
 "Silius describes a large and powerful grey- 
 hound as having been imported into Ireland 
 by the Belgae; thus identifying tho Irish wolf- 
 dog with the celebrated Belgic dog of anti- 
 quity, which we read of in so many places, as 
 having been brought to Rome for the combats 
 of the amphitheatre." 
 
 Hollinshed says of the Irish—" They are not 
 without wolves, and greyhounds to hunt them, 
 bigger of bone and limb than a colt." Cam- 
 pion also speaks of him as a "greyhound of 
 great bone and limb." Evelyn, describing the 
 savage sports of the bear-garden, says — " The 
 bulldogs did exceedingly well ; but the Irish 
 toolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyliound, 
 a stately creature, and did beat a cruel mas- 
 tiftV Here we have au actual comparison of 
 powers, which marks the dog to have been a 
 greyhound, and quite distinct from a mastiff. 
 
 In the second edition of Smith's History of 
 Waterford, the Irish wolf-dog is described as 
 much taller than a mastiff, and as being of the 
 greyliound form, unequalled in size and 
 strength. Mr. Smith writes — " Roderick, 
 King of Connaught, was obliged to furnish 
 hawks and greyhounds to Henry II." 
 
 In the Antiquities of Ireland, by Sir James 
 "Ware, the wolf-dog is prominently spoken of : — 
 " I must here take notice," he says, " of those 
 hounds, which, from their hunting of wolves, 
 are commonly called wolf-dogs, being creatures 
 of great strength and size, and of a fine shape,, 
 I cannot but think that these are tho dogs 
 which Symraachus mentions in au epistle to 
 his brother Flavianus. 'I thank you,' says 
 he, 'for tho present you made me of somo 
 Canes Scotici, which were shown at tho Circen- 
 siau games, to the great astonishment of the 
 people, who could not judge it possible to 
 bring them to Rome otherwise than in iron 
 cages.' I am sensible Mr. Burton (Itinerary 
 
 ■1U.5 
 
WOLF-DOG. 1 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES: 
 
 of Anton., 220), treadinf^ the footsteps of 
 Justus Lipsius {JEpist. adHchj. Cent., i., p. 44), 
 makes no scruple to say, that the dogs in- 
 tended by Symmachus were British mastiffs. 
 But, with submission to great names, how 
 could the British mastiff get the appellation 
 of Scoticiis in the time of Symmachus ? For 
 he was consul of Eome in the latter end 
 of the 4th century; at which time, and for 
 some time before, and for many centuries after, 
 Ireland was well known by the name of Scotia, 
 as I have shown before (Chap. I.) Besides, 
 the English mastiff was no way comparable to 
 the Irish wolf-dog in size or elegant shape ; 
 nor would it make an astonish'mg figure in the 
 spectacles exhibited in the circus. On the 
 other hand, the Irish wolf-dog has been 
 thought a valuable present to the greatest 
 monarch, and is sought after, and is sent 
 abroad to all quarters of the world ; and this 
 has been one cause why that noble creature 
 has grown so scarce among us, as another is 
 the neglect of the species since the extinction 
 of wolves in Ireland ; and even of what re- 
 main, the size seems to have dwindled from its 
 ancient stateliness. 
 
 " When Sir Thomas Eowe was ambassador 
 at the court of the Great Mogul, in the year 
 1615, that emperor desired him to send for 
 some Irish greyhounds, as the most welcome 
 present he could make him ; which being done, 
 the Mogul showed the greatest respect to Sir 
 Thomas, and presented him with his picture, 
 and several things of value. 
 
 " We see, in the public records, an earlier 
 instance of the desire foreigners have had for 
 hawks and wolf-dogs of Irish growth. In a 
 privy seal from King Henry VIII. to the lord 
 deputy and council of Ireland, wherein his 
 majesty takes notice, ' that at the instant suit 
 of the Duke of Alberkyrke of Spain (of the 
 privy council to He^y VIII.), on the behalf 
 of the Marquis of Desarrya and his son, that 
 it might please his majesty to grant to the 
 said marquis and his son, and the lont^er liver 
 of them, yearly out of Ireland, two goshawks 
 and four greyhound. ; and forasmuch as the 
 said duke hath done the king acceptable ser- 
 vice in his wars, and that the king is informed 
 that the said marquis beareth to him especial 
 good- will, he therefore grants the said suit 
 and commands that the deputy for the time 
 40G 
 
 [WOLF-Doa. 
 
 being shall take order for the delivery of the 
 said liawks and greyhounds, unto the order of 
 the said marquis and his son, and the lono-er 
 liver of them yearly ; and that the treasurer 
 shall take the charges of buying the said hawks 
 and hounds.' 
 
 " It is true that British hounds and leagles 
 were in reputation among the Eomans, for 
 their speed and quick scent. Thus Nemesiau, 
 in his Gunegetics : — 
 
 ** ' Divisa Britannia mittit 
 
 Veloces, nostrique orbis veintibus aptos.' 
 " ' Great Britain sends swift hounds, 
 Fittest to hunt upon our grounds.' 
 
 And Appian calls the British hound crKvkul 
 lyj'tvT-qloQ, a dog that scents the track of the 
 game. But this character does not hit the 
 Irish wolf-dog, which is not remarkable for 
 any great sagacity in hunting by the nose. 
 
 " Ulysses Aldrovandus, and Gesner, have 
 given descriptions of the Canis Scoticus, and 
 two prints of them very little different from 
 the common hunting-hound. ' They are,' 
 says Gesner, ' something larger than the 
 common hunting-hound, of a brown or sandy 
 spotted colour, quick of smelling, and are 
 employed on the borders between England 
 and Scotland to follow thieves. They are 
 called sleut-hounds.' In the Regiam Ilajesta- 
 tem of Scotland, is this passage : — ' NuUus per- 
 turbet aut impediat Canem trassantem aut, 
 homines trassautes cum ipso ad sequendum 
 latrones, aut ad capiendum latrones :' — (No- 
 body shall give any disturbance or hindrance to 
 tracing-dogs, or men employed with them to 
 trace or apprehend thieves or malefactors). 
 This character no way agrees with the Irish 
 wolf-dog ; and the reader must observe, that 
 when Gesner and Aldrovandus wrote, in the 
 IGth century, modern Scotland was well known 
 by the name of Scotia, which it was not in the 
 4th century, when Symmachus wrote the 
 aforesaid epistle ; and therefore the Canis 
 Scoticus, described by Aldrovandus and Gesnei', 
 were dogs of different species." 
 
 Buffon regards the Erench Matin and the 
 great Danish dog as the main stocks of the 
 greyhound race ; but this is not clear. In 
 Scotland and Ireland, there existed, in very 
 ancient times, a noble breed of greyhounds 
 used for the chase of the wolf and the deer, 
 and which appears to be the pure source of 
 
iroLF-DOO.] rOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAE.AI. [wolf-doo. 
 
 our present breed. It 13 quite aa probable 
 that the niAtiu is a moilillcatioa of the ancient 
 ;;revhound of Europe, represented by the Irish 
 £;reyhouiul or woU'-doij, as that it is tlio source 
 of tliat Hiio brood. Few, we believe, of the old 
 Irish greyhound exist. lu Scotland the old 
 deer-hound may still bo met with ; and though 
 it exceeds the common greyhound in size and 
 strength, it is said to be below its ancient 
 standard. With the extirpation of the wolf, 
 the necessity of keeping up the race to the 
 highest perfection ceased. Tho hair is wiry, 
 the chest is remarkable for volume, and the 
 limbs are long and muscular. A similar breed 
 existed, and still continues to exist, in Albania, 
 and was celebrated by the ancients for its 
 prowess. In England, the greyhound was 
 larger and stronger formerly than at present, 
 and employed in chasing the stag. Queen 
 Elizabeth was gratified one day, after dinner, 
 by seeing from a turret, sixteen deer pulled 
 down by greyhounds upon the lawn at Cow- 
 di'ey Park, in Sussex. 
 
 In Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the 
 East, a breed of greyhounds has existed from 
 time immemorial. These dogs strongly re- 
 semble light coursing dogs, represented in 
 Egyptian paintings, and are probably de- 
 scended from them. Of the same type are the 
 semi-wild, unowned street-dogs of Egypt, Syria, 
 and South-western Asia. From the antiquity 
 of the greyhound breed, we might be induced 
 to suppose, that in it is to be seen the nearest 
 approach to the primitive source, or one of the 
 primitive sources of the reclaimed race ; and, 
 perhaps, the Arabian greyhound, or the lurcher- 
 like street-dogs of Egypt, retain some charac- 
 ters in common with the primitive stock. 
 Care and attention have elevated the British 
 greyhound far above the ancient Egyptian 
 coursing dog, or that of Arabia, of which the 
 form of the head is wolfish, the tail frinced 
 with long hair, and the ears, as seen in the 
 paintings of the ancient Egyptians, erect and 
 very acute. The Turkman watch- dog, for 
 guarding sheep, is described as a large, rugged, 
 tierce animal, equalling the wolf in stature, 
 shaped like the Irish greyhound, and with 
 equally powerful jaws. The ears are erect; 
 the tail rather hairy ; the general colour deep 
 yellowish red. This race is of great antiquity, 
 and doubtless still retains much of its pristine 
 
 aspect, which is so wolf-like, that, according to 
 Colonel Hamilton Smith, *' a friend being pre- 
 sent in Asia ]\linor at a wolf-hunt, allowed 
 one (a wolf) to pass out of a brake, bocauuo 
 he mistook him for ono of the Turkman dogs." 
 
 In the Highland, or Celtic poems of Osbiau, 
 professedly translated by INIacpherson, wo find 
 tho ancient Irish wolf-dog, or tho Scottish 
 deer-hound, tlie subject of several traditions. 
 "Bran" was tho favourite dog of Fingal, tho 
 famous hero. _ In Mr. Scrope's volume on 
 " Deer-stalking," we find the following : — 
 
 " Fingal agreed to hunt in tho forest of 
 Sledale, in company with t!io Sutherland chief 
 his contemporary, for the purpose of trying 
 the comparative merits of their dogs. Fingal 
 brought his celebrated dog Bran to Suther- 
 land, in order to compete with an equally 
 famous dog belonging to the Sutherland chief, 
 and tho only one in the country supposed to 
 be any match for him. The approaching con- 
 test between these fine animals created great 
 interest. White-breasted Bran was superior 
 to the whole of Fingal's other dogs, even to 
 the ' surly strength of Luath ;' but the Suther- 
 land dog, known by the full-sounding name of 
 Phorp, was incomparably the best and most 
 powerful dog that ever eyed a deer in his 
 master's forests. 
 
 " When Fingal arrived in the forest with 
 his retinue and dogs, he was saluted with a 
 welcome that may be translated thus : — 
 
 " ' With your nine great dogs, 
 
 With your nine smaller game-starting dogs, 
 
 With your nine spears, 
 
 Unwieldy v.eapons ! 
 
 And with your nine grey, sharp-edged swords, 
 
 Famous were you iii the foremost fight.' 
 
 " The Sutherland chief also made a con- 
 spicuous figure, with his followers, and his 
 dogs, and weapons for the chase. Of the two 
 rival dogs. Bran and Phorp, the following de- 
 scriptions have still survived amongst some of 
 tiie oldest people in Sutherland. Bran is 
 thus represented : — 
 
 " ' The hind leg like a hook or hent bow ; 
 
 Tiie breast like that of a garron ; 
 
 The ear like a leaf.' 
 
 " Such would Fingal, the chief of heroes, 
 select from amongst the youth of his hunting- 
 dogs. Phorp was black iu colour, and bis 
 points are thus described : — 
 
 407 
 
■WOLF-DOG.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [st. bernaed do&. 
 
 «• ' Two yellow feet, such as Bran had ; 
 Tjco black eyes, 
 And a white breast ; 
 A back nariow and fair, 
 As required for hunting ; 
 And two erect ears of a daik-brown red.' 
 "Towards the close of the day, after some 
 severe runs, which, however, still left the com- 
 parative merits of the two dogs a subject of 
 hot dispute, Bran and Phorp were brought 
 front to front, to prove their courage; and 
 they were no sooner untied than they sprang 
 at each other, and fought desperately. Phorp 
 Beemed about to overcome Bran, when his 
 master, the Sutherland chief, unwilling that 
 either of them should be killed, called out, 
 ' Let each of us take away his dog.' Fingal 
 objected to this; whereupon the Sutherland 
 chief said, with a taunt, that ' it was now evi- 
 dent that the Inngalians did not possess a dog 
 that could match with Phorp.' 
 
 "Angered and mortified, Fingal immedi- 
 ately extended his ' venomous paw,' as it is 
 called (for the tradition represents him as pos- 
 sessing supernatural power), and with one 
 liand he seized Phorp by the neck, and with 
 the other, which was a charmed and destruc- 
 tive one, he tore out the brave animal's heart. 
 This adventure occurred at a place near the 
 March, between the parishes of Clyne and 
 Kildonan, still called 'Leek na Con' (the 
 Stone of the Dog^) ; there having been placed 
 a large stone on the spot where they fought. 
 The ground over which Fingal and the Suther- 
 land chief hunted that day is called 'Dirri- 
 leck-Con.' Bran suffered so severely in the 
 fight, that he died in Glen Loth before leaving 
 the forest, and was buried there. A huge cairn 
 was heaped over him, which still remains, and 
 is known by the name of ' Cairn Bran.' " 
 
 Thus, whilst the ancient Highland chiefs 
 piled a cairn, or heap of small stones, on the 
 graves of their favourite dogs, modern ad- 
 mirers erect to them monuments, and engrave 
 upon them epitaphs, which celebrate their 
 virtues. 
 
 The original greyhound was a long-haired 
 dog ; and the modern smooth-coated and thin 
 animal, now known by that name, is compara- 
 tively of recent date. Of this we have suffi- 
 cient evidence in the ancient monuments of 
 Egypt, where, as well as in Persia and India, 
 rough greyhounds of great size and power still 
 408 
 
 exist. A dog of the same kind has been de- 
 scribed by H. Smith, as well known in Arabia ; 
 and a gigantic rough greyhound was found by 
 Dr. Clarke, on the confines of Circassia, and 
 by him described as identical with our old Irish 
 greyhound. 
 
 THE NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR, AND ST. 
 BERNARD DOGS. 
 
 'We are inclined to consider the Italian wolf- 
 dog, used in the Abruzzi by the shepherds to 
 defend their flocks, the Newfoundland and 
 Labrador dog, and the Alpine dog, as the re- 
 presentatives of a distinct group ; the latter 
 dog, indeed, approximates to the mastiff. We 
 have seen several noble specimens of the Al- 
 pine, or St. Bernard breed : their size is equal 
 to that of the largest mastiff; the muzzle is 
 deep ; the ears are pendulous ; the fur is rather 
 long and wiry ; the eye is full and very expres- 
 sive ; and the form of the body and limbs indi- 
 cates great strength. Their sense of smell is 
 very acute, and aids them in the work of 
 mercy to which the worthy monks of the con- 
 vent of the Great St. Bernard have applied 
 them. To the honour of those excellent men 
 be it spoken, that while others have trained 
 the dog to the combat, to the chase of the run- 
 away slave, and to the pursuit of game, they 
 have availed themselves of the power, intelli- 
 gence, and courage of the animal, to rescue 
 the unhappy traveller from the horrors of 
 death amidst the snows of the mountains. 
 
 One of these noble dogs was decorated with 
 a medal, in commemoration of his having 
 saved the lives of twenty-two persons, who, 
 but for his sagacity, must have perished. He 
 was lost in 1816, in an attempt to convey a 
 poor traveller to his anxious family. The man 
 was a Piedmontese courier, who arrived at St. 
 Bernard in a very stormy season, labouring to 
 make his way to the little village of St. Pierre, 
 in the valley beneath the mountain, where his 
 wife and children dwelt. It was in vain that 
 the monks attempted to check his resolution 
 to reach his family. They at last gave him 
 two guides, each of whom was accompanied by 
 a dog, of which one was the remarkable crea- 
 ture whose services had been so valuable to 
 mankind. Descending from the convent, they 
 were in an instant overwhelmed by two ava- 
 lanches; and the same common destruction 
 
Avoi.F-ii r.NTiNo.J !• R 31 O U N P A 1 X, l" I H 1. 1), A N D J- A K 31'. 
 
 LWdl.r-llL'NTINO. 
 
 nwaiti'd tlio rainily of the poor courici-, who 
 were toiliriLj up tlio iiiouutaiii to obtain some 
 iiewsof tlieir expecteil tVieiul : tlieyall perished. 
 A story is told of one of tliese dogs, wlio having 
 found ft child unhurt, whose mother had been 
 destroyed by an avalanche, induced tlio boy to 
 mount upon his bade, and thus carried him to 
 the gate of tlie convent, Tiio incident forms 
 the subject of a French print. 
 
 The wolf-dog of the Abrnzzi is pure white, 
 somewhat more lightly formed than tlie New- 
 foundland dog, but strong and muscuhir, and 
 the hair is long and flowing. 
 
 What our ancestors sullered from tlie ravages 
 of wolves, may readily be inferred from the va- 
 rious plans which are, at the present day, 
 adopted in other countries infested by them for 
 their rapid destruction. 
 
 Mr. Greiff, one of the oldest and best sports- 
 men in Sweden, dwelt in Stockholm, and took 
 a very prominent part on the occasion of the 
 p-olitical convulsions which agitated that coun- 
 try between 1S20 — '30. It was he who seized 
 the person of the king Gustavus, in which act 
 the monarch slightly wounded him with a sword 
 which he tlieu held in his hand. Mr. Greiff, 
 however, being a man of herculean strength, 
 wrested this weapon from tlie hand of his sov- 
 ereign, and took him up in liis arms, as he 
 would have done a child, and conveyed him to 
 a place of security. By thus periling his life, 
 Mr. Greiff was, perhaps, a principal means of 
 bringing about a bloodless revolution. This 
 gentleman gives us a somewhat minute account 
 of the plans adopted by his countrymen for 
 the destruction of vi-olves in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Swedish capital. "We take the 
 account from jNIr. Lloyd, whose bear and wolf- 
 hunting exploits furnished him with the 
 materials for a very interestijig couple of 
 volumes : — ■ 
 
 A spot covered with a tolerably thick wood 
 of large trees, especially spruce, where the 
 ground is undulating, and which contains fens 
 and mosses, and of such great extent, that 
 the pathway does not pass over fields or plains 
 which prevent the tracing of the animals, after 
 a fall of snow or sleet, is the suitable place for 
 entrapping wolves. Tlie wood must be left 
 quiet from passengers, or woodsmen, during 
 tiie time of hunting — or, in other words, the 
 tiinter season; and should be situated near 
 3 G 
 
 the centre of tlie parish whoso peasants are to 
 for.-n tlie skall, or trap. A cottage aliould be 
 near the phice, that the under-huntsmen may 
 find quarters, and have opportunity to call up 
 ' in haste the men employed to fasten on tho 
 I Jngttyg, or hunting-cloth, by which tlie daily 
 watch of a whole division of tho country, for 
 this purpose, will be avoided. 
 I The hewing down of trees, for the purpose 
 of forming the skall-plat, or [ilaco of lure, 
 should take place in tiie montli of August or 
 September, when the assistance of the autho- 
 rities must be required. If the wood is not of 
 the thickest and heaviest kind, the skall-plats 
 should be ready in two to three days, with 
 thirty to forty labourers per day. 
 
 When the skall-plat is ready, it must be 
 kept undisturbed by the woodsmen, and from 
 all noise. 
 
 In the month of October, when the peasants 
 begin to kill their worn-out horses, the head- 
 ranger gives them intimation that they shall, 
 in conformity with orders from authority, 
 transport them to the hunting or lure-place, 
 and give the necessary commands for their 
 skinning ; and also that a huntsman is to be at 
 hand to direct that the carrion should be laid 
 in tho proper place. 
 
 As soon as the ground is frozen, the hunting- 
 cloth is brought out, which must be smoothed 
 well down, and beaten with fir branches, so 
 that all shall be prepared against the first 
 falling snow ; for the hunts which can be formed 
 by the traces on the first snow, or before 
 Christmas, are the surest. 
 
 Two huntsmen are then ordered to keep 
 watcli at the skall-plat, the day on which tho 
 snow has fallen ; and they should go round it 
 three times a day, morning and evening, and 
 once during the night with a lantern of tin, so 
 constructed, that it only throws light from the 
 bottom ; the marks of the animals going in 
 and out are carefully noted each time, and 
 written down in a journal, and whether thej 
 follow each other in numbers, or go singly. 
 
 An experienced huntsman will soon discover 
 at what time the animals visit the carrion ; the 
 8th, 11th, and 14th days are usually the period?, 
 after they have once eaten of it. It happens 
 that wolves, early in winter, get into the skall- 
 plat, and lie there several days, without their 
 traces being discovered ; and, on such occasions, 
 
 400 
 
woLF-nuNTiKG.] THE DOGT, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [deee-houni>. 
 
 it is necessary to drive them gently out again, 
 in order to ascertain their number. 
 
 Each time of going round the area, every 
 track is to be swept out with a long broom ; 
 and if the huntsman at any time have occasion 
 to step out of the pathway, the marks should 
 be immediately obliterated. Birds of prey, 
 such as ravens and crows, must not be fright- 
 ened away, because they entice the wild 
 beasts by their cries, and give them confi- 
 dence. 
 
 The huntsmen then examine each his side 
 of the skall-plat : should it be found, when 
 they meet, that traces of such animals as have 
 entered are sufficiently numerous to fasten up 
 the hunting-cloths, the men, for that purpose, 
 are called out immediately; and the fasten- 
 ing should be executed with all possible ex- 
 pedition, and the whole finished within two 
 fiours. 
 
 The fastening ought to commence either at 
 the top or at the bottom of the skall- plats, 
 where two rolls of cloth should be lying ready. 
 One man unloosens the roll — the other carries 
 the pole on which it is wound. They advance 
 along the line, unwinding as they go. The 
 roll should be wound round the pole, so that 
 it unwinds correctly and easily. A third man 
 fastens the cloth round the end of each stake. 
 "When the hunting-cloth is fastened up, the men 
 who have ,been so employed return each along 
 his allotted distance, and rectifies what he finds 
 amiss. The pieces of cloth ought to hang 
 three feet from the ground. The huntsmen 
 then reconnoitre the skall-plat, to ascertain 
 whether the animals have escaped during the 
 fastening. If that be the case, the hunting- 
 cloths are immediately takeu down, wound up, 
 and laid in their places. 
 
 When it is found that the animals are en- 
 closed, messengers are immediately dispatched, 
 to apprise the people of the time of assembling 
 for the hunt, and of the number required, 
 according to the size of the- skall-plat, reckon- 
 ing eight, and, at the utmost, ten, huntiug- 
 paces between each person. 
 
 I'rom the moment it is ascertained that the 
 animals are enclosed, and until the hunt takes 
 place, the utmost silence is to be observed at 
 and about the skall-plat. 
 
 When the people are assembled, and the 
 numbers communicated to the head-ranger, 
 410 
 
 they advance silently to the skall-plat, and are 
 formed in two divisions, either at the top or at 
 the bottom. A huntsman goes before each 
 division, and a huntsman after. They place 
 each peasant in his proper situation, and in- 
 form him what he is to attend to ; namely — to 
 stand on the outside of the hunting-cloths ; to 
 remain silent, and not to go from his post ; but, 
 if the animals show themselves, he is to shake 
 and strike against the cloths with his hunt- 
 iug-staflf or spear. 
 
 The Skalfogdar, or subordinate officers of 
 the hunt, are chosen from trusty people, who 
 are acquainted with the locality ; soldiers are 
 preferable. These, together wnth the super- 
 fluous huntsmen, are distributed among the 
 body which is to advance, and should, for the 
 preservation of better order, be distinguished 
 by some badge. 
 
 Should there be any of the royal family 
 present, the head-ranger himself advances in 
 the centre ; otherwise, a trusty huntsman, who 
 should preserve a steady pace in his advance. 
 
 The driving division ought to advance slowly, 
 because too much haste brings the people sooner 
 into disorder. The movement ought to be 
 efi'ected without shots or cries ; only they are 
 to strike the trees with their huuting-poles, 
 and examine carefully if any animal has hidden 
 himself, or lies dead. 
 
 When the people have advanced to the 
 farthest point, the wild animals which have 
 been shot are conveyed to the king's skreen. 
 
 No other than good marksmen are allowed 
 to carry a gun. 
 
 Such is the importance of the arrange- 
 ments made, even at this day, in Scandinavia, 
 for the slaying of the wolf. 
 
 THE HIGHLAND DEER-HOUND. 
 
 The Higldand deer-hound has the general 
 appearance of a high-bred greyhound, espe- 
 cially in all the points on which speed and 
 power depend ; but he is built more coarsely, 
 and altogether on a larger and grander scale. 
 The shoulder is also more elevated ; the neck 
 thicker ; the head and muzzle coarser ; and the 
 bone more massive. He stands from tvventy- 
 eiglit to thirty inches in height at the shoulder ; 
 his coat is rough, and the liair strong; colour 
 usually sandy yellow, iron grey, or white. All 
 colours should have the muzzle and tips of the 
 
»rKK-H0UND.] FOR MOUNTAIN, PIELD, AND FAEM. [ueeii-houxd. 
 
 cars black. A tuft, or pencil of dark hair on 
 till' tip of" tho oar, ia a proof of lii^li blood. 
 
 This is a very powerfu! dog, equally staunch 
 and laitlifiil ; and when the Scottish nioun- 
 tnina swarineil with stag3 and roes, it was held 
 in high estiinati.>n, as being capable of follow- 
 ing the deer over surfaces too rough and 
 latiguing for tho ordinary hounds of the low 
 I'ouutry. " The general aspect of the Highland 
 luiuud," says Mr. Eichardson, " is command- 
 ing and ilerce. His head is long, and muzzle 
 rather sharp ; his ears pendulous, but not 
 long ; his eyes large, keen, and penetrating, 
 half-concealed among the long, stiff, and 
 bristly hair with which his face is covered ; 
 his body is very strong and muscular, deep- 
 chested, tapering towards the loins ; and his 
 back slightly arched. His hind quarters are 
 furnished with large prominent muscles ; and 
 his legs are long, strong-boned, and straight — 
 a combination of qualities which gives him 
 that speed and long duration in the chase 
 for which he is so eminently distinguished. 
 His hair is wiry and shaggy, of a reddish sand 
 colour, mixed with white ; his tail is rough, 
 which he carries somewhat in the manner of a 
 stag hound, but not quite so erect. This is 
 tiie dog formerly used by the Highland chief- 
 tains of Scotland in their grand hunting par- 
 ties ; and is, in all probability, the same noble 
 dog used in the time of Ossian. The Scottish 
 Highland greyhound will either hunt in packs 
 or singly." 
 
 The following description of deer-coursing, 
 written by Mr. Scrope, presents us with a 
 faithful picture of the mode of using the 
 hounds adapted for that purpose in the High- 
 lands : — 
 
 " No time was to De lost ; the whole party 
 immediately moved forward in silent and 
 breathless expectation, with the dogs in front, 
 straining in the slips; and on our reaching the 
 top of the hillock, we got a full view of the 
 noble stag, which, having heard our footsteps, 
 had sprung to his legs, and was staring us full 
 in the face, at the distance of about sixty 
 yards. I 
 
 " The dogs were slipped ; a general halloo 
 burst from the whole party, and the stag, | 
 wheeling round, set off" at full speed, with 
 'Buskar' and 'Bran' straining after him. 
 
 " The brown ligure of the deer, with his 
 
 noblo antlers laid back, contrasted with tho 
 liglit colour of tho dogs, stretching ahjiig tho 
 dark heath, presented ono of tho moat exciting 
 scenes that it is possible to imagine. 
 
 "Tho deer's first attempt was to gain some 
 rising ground to tho left of tho spot wliere wo 
 stood, ami rather behind us; but, bt.'ing closely 
 pursued by tho dogs, ho soon found that his 
 only safety was in speed ; and as a deer does 
 not run well up hill, nor like u roe, straight 
 down hill, on the dogs approaching him, ho 
 turned, and almost retraced his steps, taking, 
 however, a steeper line of descent than tho 
 I one by which he ascended. Here the chase 
 became more interesting ; the dogs pressed 
 him hard, and the deer, getting confused, 
 found himself suddenly on the brink of a 
 small precipice, of about fourteen feet in 
 height, from the bottom of which there sloped 
 a rugged mass of stones. He paused for a 
 moment, as if afraid to take the leap ; but the 
 dogs were so close that he had no alternative. 
 
 " At this time the party were not above 150 
 yards distant, and most anxiously awaited the 
 result, fearing, from the ruggedness of the 
 ground below, that the deer would not sur- 
 vive the leap. They were, however, soon re- 
 lieved from their anxiety ; for though he took 
 the leap, he did so more cunningly than gal- 
 lantly, dropping himself in the most singular 
 manner, so that his hind legs first reached the 
 broken rocks below ; nor were the dogs long 
 in following him. ' Buskar' sprang first, and, 
 extraordinary to relate, did not lose his legs; 
 ' Bran' followed, and, on reaching the ground, 
 performed a complete summersault ; he soon, 
 however, recovered his legs, and the chase was 
 continued in an oblique direction down the side 
 of a most rugged and rocky brae, the deer ap- 
 parently more fresh and nimble than ever, 
 jumping through the rocks like a goat, and tho 
 dogs well up, though occasionally receiving the 
 most fearful falls. 
 
 " Prom the high position in which we were 
 placed, the chase was visible for nearly half a 
 mile; but some rising ground intercepting 
 our view, we made with all speed for a higher 
 point. On reaching it we could perceive that; 
 the dogs, having got upon smooth ground, 
 had gained on the deer, which was still going 
 at speed, and were now close up with him. 
 ' Bran' was then leading, and in a i'evr secouda 
 
 411 
 
DEER-nOUKD.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [deee-hound. 
 
 wa3 at his heels, and immediately seized his 
 hock with such violence of grasp, as seemed, in 
 a great measure, to paralyse the limb, for the 
 deer's speed was immediately checked. 
 
 " ' Buskar' was not far behind ; for soon after- 
 wards passing ' Bran,' he seized the deer by the 
 neck. Notwithstanding the weight of the two 
 dogs, which were hanging to him, having the 
 assistance of the slope of the ground, he con- 
 tinued dragging them along at a most extraor- 
 dinary rate, in defiance of their utmost exer- 
 tions to detain him, and succeeded more than 
 once in kicking ' Bran' off. But he became 
 at length exhausted; the dogs succeeded in 
 pulling him down, and, though he made seve- 
 ral attempts to rise, he never completely re- 
 gained his legs. On coming up we found him 
 perfectly dead." 
 
 The Highland chiefs of former days were 
 wont to hunt the stag with all the pomp and 
 magnificence of Eastern sovereigns. Under the 
 plea of a deer-hunt, they would sometimes as- 
 semble four or five thousand of their clan, os- 
 tensibly for the purpose of driving the deer 
 into their toils, but, in reality, for very diff'erent 
 purposes. Walter Scott, if our memory serves 
 us, alludes to this circumstance in his Waverley. 
 When the government found out the secret of 
 these " gatherings," they were suppressed by 
 an act oi" parliament. 
 
 The elegant appearance of the stag has al- 
 ways procured for it great admiration ; and 
 although he is a native of many parts of Europe, 
 he is supposed to have been originally intro- 
 duced to this country from Erance. 
 
 By way of contrast to the animated prose 
 description of Mr. Scrope, we present our 
 readers with another, equally animated, al- 
 though in the " poetical vein." 
 
 The stag, too, singled from the herd, where long 
 He rang'd, the branching monarch of the shades, 
 Before the tempest drives. At first, in speed 
 lie, sprightly, puts his faith ; and, rous'd by fear, 
 Gives all his swift aerial soul to flight. 
 Against the breeze he darts, that way the more 
 To leave the lessening murderous cry beliind. 
 Deception short ! though fleeter than the winds 
 Blown o'er the keen-air'd mountains by the north, 
 He bursts the thickets, glances through the glades, 
 And plunges deep into the wildest wood. 
 If slow, yet sure adhesive to the track. 
 Hot streaming, up beliind him come again 
 Th' inhuman route, and from tlie shady depth 
 Expel him, circling through his ev'ry shift. 
 412 
 
 He sweeps the forest oft ; and sobbing sees 
 
 The glades, mild opening to the golden day ; 
 
 Where, in kind contest, with his butting friends 
 
 He wont to struggle, or his loves enjoy. 
 
 Oft in the full-descending flood he tries 
 
 To lose the scent, and lave his burning sides ; 
 
 Oft seeks the herd : the watchful herd, alarm'd, 
 
 With selfish care avoid a brother's woe. 
 
 What shall he do ? His once so vivid nerves, 
 
 So full of buoyant spirit, now no more 
 
 Inspire the course ; but fainting, breathless toil, 
 
 Sick, seizes on his heart ; he stands at bay ; 
 
 And puts his last weak refuge in despair. 
 
 The big round tears run down his dappled face ; 
 
 He groans in anguish ; while the growling pack, 
 
 Blood-happy, liang at his fair-jutting chest, 
 
 And mark his beauteous chequer'd sides with gore 
 
 It must be acknowledged that there is some- 
 thing exceedingly exciting in the hunting of 
 the larger kinds of animals, whether on horse- 
 back or foot, with dog or gun. Princes of 
 every age and country have been remarkable 
 for their love of the chase ; and one who, 
 within these few years, has obtained no little 
 celebrity in the eyes of the political world of 
 Europe, is a devoted lover of the chase. Victor 
 Emmanuel, of Italy, is one of the most enthu- 
 siastic hunters of the day. He has hunting 
 quarters in the vicinity of the Alps — those 
 stupendous mountain ranges which realise to 
 the imagination all that Byron has written of 
 "mountain majesty." When he sets out for 
 these quarters, as a body-guard round the 
 royal cavalcade, there walk about forty or fifty 
 of the hardiest mountaineers of these districts, 
 armed with rusty fowling-pieces, and destined 
 to beat the bush, and drive the game to the 
 sportsmen. The king is habited in a broad- 
 brimmed wideawake, and a grey hunting-suit 
 of coarse woollen cloth, all of one colour, 
 agreeably to fashion. He looks a kind of 
 bluft' Henry VIII. of England, equally stout, 
 darkly sunburnt, with a deep, almost livid, red, 
 round and behind the ears, bristling with 
 moustaches, stretching from the lips all across 
 the face — not a man to be loved or valued by 
 those who do not look below the surface. The 
 tents destined for himself and his party he has 
 pitched about an hour's walk up a valley, deep 
 in a glen shut in by bare rocks — a whole craggy 
 wilderness, the refuge of chamois and bouque- 
 tins. With the exception of the character of 
 the game, tliis is thoroughly Scotch. 
 
 Eor a long time this heroic sovereign seemed 
 
BOAE-nuNTiNO.] FOE MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [iioauuuminu. 
 
 to tliiuk that tlie only occupation fit for ft kiiifj I niomitaiii goat; ho had pressed closer and 
 was war and the chaso ; thougli ho never was closer ; ho had driven liigher and higher up; 
 unmindful of the uohlo saying of one of his he had knocked it up, blown all the wind out 
 ancestors, that "ft sovereign's greatest prerog- j of its panting body, and had, at last, brought it 
 ativo was to give and to forgive." During back triumphant, tlio prize of tliat untamed 
 his father's lifetime, in pt>aceful days, the then strength which has scarcely ft match anvwherc. 
 Duke of Savoy was only a forester. Men saw ' Feats like tiieso wo might expect to see in 
 but little of him, unless they chose to meet ' this island, performed by some daring Highland 
 him in the woods of Pollenzo or llacconigi, chief, in the days of George 11.; but, alas! 
 with a double-barrelled gun on his shoulders, money-hunting and mongrelism have made us 
 and so plainly attired, that a good peasant of I degenerate. 
 
 the neighbourhood once mistook him for a I Turning from the hunting of the " buck and 
 gamekeeper, and ollered him a three-franc the roe," the chamois and the boiique/ins, to 
 bribe to shoot him a fox which laid waste his I that of the wild boar, a yet wilder enthusiasm 
 poultry-yard ; when the king humoured the is displayed. 
 
 goodmau,aud,ef:ectingtheobject,acceptedand I Among the exercises that contribute most 
 pocketed the money. After Charles Albert's ' towards forming good military riders, arc the 
 death, when Victor had to play king in the j hunts organised in Nortiicra Africa, by tho 
 camp, in the council-chamber, and parliament, ! French Algerian authorities, for the destruction 
 
 his favourite field amusements were greatly 
 curtailed. But the gun and the rifle were 
 never set aside ; and in the hot summer he had 
 his holiday, when ho would pitch his tent near 
 *■ Our Lady of the Snow," on the top of Val 
 d'Orco; or in some even more inaccessible 
 savage spot in Val d'Aosta, and thence run 
 and race, and climb and creep on all-fours, on 
 the brink of precipices, staking his royal life 
 against the carcass of a stambccco. Stara- 
 becco-stalking on the Alps lasts naturally but 
 
 of dangerous animals. AVherever French 
 troops are, they require to be actively em- 
 ployed. Accordingly, they are sent to Algeria, 
 as to a school of adversity, to become inured 
 to toil and hardships ; and when not employed 
 in suppressing any disturbances that may arise 
 among the Arab tribes, or in opening up new 
 routes, or in constructing forts and earth- 
 works, the chase afl'ords an opportunity for tho 
 exertion and excitement so necessary for the 
 due maintenance of tho soldier's health and 
 
 a short season ; yet business shortened it more j vigour. During a spring excursion, made hv 
 and more with the subsequent aggrandisement | the 1st regiment of the Chasseurs d'AJriquc, 
 
 of the state, and the deepening of political 
 complications. His hunting habits are very 
 austere. He robs himself of sleep, rises regu- 
 larly at midnight, calls up the whole house- 
 hold, visits the stables, sees to horses, hounds, 
 and guns; and, after assuring himself that all 
 is right, and all in readiness, he snatches a few 
 hours more rest ; then up he is again at earliest 
 daybreak; the horn is wound, the hunt is up, 
 and away he rides as fast as the nimblest 
 mountain nag can carry him, and then takes 
 to his legs, and the I'ace is between him and 
 the swiftest quadrupeds, over crags and along 
 gullies common men shudder only to look at. 
 Once upon a time, it is related that he came 
 back to Turin in great glee, telling his friends 
 he had given chase to a houquetin for two 
 whole days ; had parted con)pany with his 
 aides-de-camp, his guides, his huntsmen, every 
 man in his suite. He had followed the coy 
 
 a wild boar-hunt was got up at almost everv 
 halt. A. scene from a hunt which took place 
 at Bordj-Bou'ira, exhibits, in a forcible manner, 
 the excitement which animates all parties en- 
 gaged in it. 
 
 On arriving at the bivouac of Bordj-Bou'ira, 
 the neighbouring ravines were pointed out to 
 the colonel of the regiment, who commanded 
 the column, as the resort of boars and other 
 wild beasts. By his orders, a gi'ande chasse 
 was immediately organised, and promised more 
 than the ordinary amount of excitement, as 
 the natives had announced the news of a lion 
 having been recently seen in the neighbour- 
 hood. The hunting-ground comprised a 
 number of parallel ravines, somewhat deep, 
 descending from the spur of the Jurjura, the 
 ridges of the different passes inclining gradu- 
 ally towards the plain of the Hamza. All tlie 
 country about here is either wooded or covered 
 
 413 
 
HOAE-HU^'TIjS'G.] 
 
 THE DOG, AiS-D ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [fox-hukting. 
 
 with formidable thickets. There are but very 
 few regular paths, and those only practicable 
 for the surefooted Arab horses. 
 
 At the appointed hour, the native chiefs 
 brought to the " meet" at least three hundred 
 scouts, a certain number of whom were on 
 horseback, and provided with firearms; the 
 remainder on foot, and merely armed with 
 motrags, or thick sticks, xlll these Arabs were 
 placed upon the same line, in the plain oppo- 
 site the mountain, the shooters being dis- 
 tributed along the ridges, and wherever there 
 was a chance of seeing a wild boar pass. This 
 picturesque arrangement greatly assists the 
 imagination in drawing for itself a beautiful 
 scene. On a preconcerted signal being given, 
 the scouts advanced, beating up the thickets 
 of juniper and jujube trees, and uttering loud 
 and almost deafening cries, so as to drive out 
 the animals from their cover in the ravines. 
 A troop of wild boars soon took flight in the 
 direction of the mountain. Some of these 
 were promptly killed by the armed scouts at 
 their different posts — but immediately after- 
 wards the scene changed. The Arab mounted 
 scouts, as well as the Erench troopers, ani- 
 mated by the sight of the monstrous animals, 
 and by the sounds of the firearms, hastened to 
 the pursuit of the boars that had succeeded in 
 forcing the lines of the tireurs ; and then began 
 one of those headlong races, of which it is 
 difficult to say whether we most admire the 
 skill and boldness of the riders, or the energy, 
 grace, and suppleness of their Arab horses, 
 which, going at the top of their speed, clear 
 every obstacle with a surety of foot that is 
 never deceived, even on the steepest and most 
 rugged paths. 
 
 The remainder of the fugitive herd was 
 speedily encompassed by all the huntsmen, 
 both Erench and Arab being carried away and 
 electrified, as it were, by mutual excitement. 
 Gun-shots and pistol-shots were fired off on 
 every side, so that there was a certain amount 
 of danger in being present at such a m^lee ; 
 for whenever an Arab smells powder he be- 
 comes intoxicated, and fires away indiscrimi- 
 nately, to the right or to the left, not at all 
 heeding who may bo near— a characteristic, we 
 may observe, that gives us no very higli idea of 
 their sporting qualifications. 
 
 The band having been thus destroyed with- 
 414 
 
 out accident to the " assistants," the trumpets 
 sounded the recall. The number of victims 
 was fourteen full-grown boars, and six young 
 ones. They were all brought to the place of 
 rendezvous, and put upon mules, to be taken in 
 triumph into the camp. The cliasseurs, with 
 their colonel at the head of the column, formed 
 the escort ; the march was enlivened by re- 
 peated flourishes of trumpets ; and, at the en- 
 trance of the bivouacking-ground, a feu-de-joie 
 was discharged in the air in front ot those who 
 had remained behind, but who had come out to 
 meet '• the return from the hunt." Not the 
 least brilliant part of the scenes composing the 
 general action here, must liave been the great 
 variety of the costumes, and the gaiety of the 
 Arabian horsemen, wheeling about on their 
 splendid steeds, under the rays of an African 
 sun. The wild boars were afterwards arranged 
 in order on the ground, and each sportsman 
 sought to recognise the animal which he sup- 
 posed had fallen from the effect of his weapon. 
 
 In the evening, the bivouac of the 1st regi- 
 ment of clmsseurs was particularly gay. The 
 men, arranged as in small tribes, took their 
 seats around the large kettles that gave forth 
 an appetite-creating odour ; and, as they par- 
 took of the savoury slices of boar-flesh, they 
 related to each other tlie " moving events" of 
 the day. Some openly expressed regret at not 
 having encountered the lion; but it may 
 readily be supposed that the majority inwardly 
 rejoiced at having avoided him. 
 
 Changing the scene, and returning to our 
 own island, we pause for a moment to dwell 
 upon the principal hunting national sport of 
 England — fox-hunting. This sport presents 
 us with very different features from such as 
 we have just related; but it is, nevertheless, 
 equally exciting. There are, perhaps, now 
 more hunting, more " meets," and more nu- 
 merous fields here than there were at any 
 former period. Ladies, too, enliven the sport 
 by their presence ; and here we may observe, 
 that the riding-habit of these "fair creatures" 
 was first introduced in the reign of Charles II. ; 
 but, even in the days of Queen Anne, was 
 viewed with some degree of animadversion. 
 This is proved by the following satirical re- 
 marks of Addison :—" Among the several 
 female extravagancies I have already taken 
 notice of, there is one which still keeps its 
 
K 
 
Fox.uuNTiNQ.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, ANT) FAEM. [Fox-uuatnra. 
 
 ground — I moan that of ladies who dress 
 themselves in a hat and feather, n riding-coat, 
 and a periwit,', or at least tio up tlieir hair in a 
 bag or ribbon, in imitation of the smart part 
 of the opposite sex." And he thus more par- 
 ticularly favours us with a description of one 
 of these anomalous personages : — " His hair, 
 well curled and powdered, hung to a con- 
 siderable length on his shoulders, and was tied, 
 as if bv the hand of his mistress, with a scarlet 
 ribbon, which played like a streamer behind 
 liim ; he had a coat and waistcoat of blue 
 candet, trimmed and embroidered with silver ; 
 a cravat of the finest lace ; and wore, in a smart 
 cock, a little beaver hat, edged with silver, and 
 made more sprightly by a feather. * * * 
 As I was pitying the luxury of this young 
 person, who appeared to me to have been only 
 educated as an object of sight, I perceived, on 
 my nearer approach, and as I turned my eye 
 downward, a part of the equipage I had not 
 observed before, which was a petticoat of the 
 same as the coat and waistcoat." 
 
 The modern huutswoman is not quite so gaily 
 attired; but if she were, she, no doubt, would 
 be in the fashion. Be this as it may, however, 
 the sport of fox-hunting is not now, as it was 
 in former times, restricted to any particular 
 class of men. Although the old Epping Hunt, 
 of venerable antiquity, in virtue of the right 
 of free warren, confirmed to the citizens of 
 Loudon by Henry III., in 1226, has lost its 
 former 'prestige, the lord mayor, aldermen, and 
 corporation no longer proceeding to the hunt 
 in "solemn guise," many wealthy citizens, by 
 the aid of the railways, take their turn with 
 the hounds at the various "meets," within a 
 ie^ hours' distance from town, perhaps once 
 or twice a week, and return to look in at their 
 ofRcea and counting-houses just before the 
 close of business. 
 
 Of course there i:^ now, as, indeed, there 
 always was, a great disparity in the character 
 of the fields, and the ceremonial observed in 
 them. At " provincial" meets the costume is 
 very ad libitum — the farmer, the horsedealer, 
 the barrister, the little country attorney, often 
 turniug out in mufti; whilst the M.P., the 
 city merchant, and the leading men of the 
 county, appear in the legitimate scarlet. Lei- 
 cestershire is the hunting county ;?ar excellence; 
 and Melton Mowbray, the bead-quarters. 
 
 This was, till lately, a prettily situated, inaigni- 
 (icant town; but it is now quickly becoming a 
 sort of metropolis for our fox-hunting aristoc- 
 racy. "The uninitiated readiT," says Nimrod, 
 " would, perhaps, be surpriat-d by an enumera- 
 tion of the persons of rank, wealtli, and 
 fashion, who, during several months of every 
 year, resign the comforts and elegancies of 
 their family mansion, for a small house in soma 
 town or village of Leicestershire — to any, but 
 the eye of a sportsman, nearly the ugliest 
 county in England." The same authority gives 
 us tlie following coup-iVceil of the legitimate 
 Meltonian, which contrasts widely with the 
 miscellaneous lot in a " provincial" hunt ; and 
 as strangely with the bunting gentry of the 
 time of George II., as wo have seen repre- 
 sented in a picture of Mr. Taylor, the artist. 
 " The style of your Meltonian fox-hunter has 
 long distinguished him above his brethren of 
 what he calls the 2^>'ovincial chase. AV^hen 
 turned out of the hands of his valet, he pre- 
 sents the very beau-ideal of his caste. Tbo 
 exact fit of his coat, the superlatively well- 
 cleaned leather breeches, and the generally 
 apparent high breeding of the man, can seldom 
 be matched elsewhere ; and the most cautious 
 sceptic would generally satisfy himself on this 
 fact at a single inspection." 
 
 One more passage from this entertaining 
 writer and thoroughgoing sportsman, drawing 
 the line between the fox- hunter of the eigh- 
 teenth and the nineteenth centuries respec- 
 tively : — " Compared with the luxurious ease 
 with which the modern sportsman is conveyed 
 to the field — either lolling in his chaise and 
 four, or galloping along at the rate of twenty 
 miles an hour on a hundred-guinea hack — the 
 situation of his predecessor was all but dis- 
 tressing. In proportion to the distance be 
 had to ride by starlight, were his hours of rest 
 broken in upon ; and, exclusive of the time 
 which that operation might consume, another 
 serious matter was to be provided for. This 
 was the filling bis hair with powder and 
 pomatum until it could hold no more, and 
 forming it into a well-turned knot, or club, as 
 it was called by bis valet, which was commonly 
 a good hour's work. The protecting mud- 
 boot, the cantering hack, the second horn in 
 the field, were luxuries unknown to him ; and 
 his well-soiled buskins and brown-topped 
 
 415 
 
rOX-HUNTINa.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES; 
 
 [rox-Hu:^TixG. 
 
 boots would have cut an indifferent figure in 
 the presence of a modern connoisseur bj a 
 Leicestershire cover-side. Notwithstanding 
 all this, however, we are inclined strongly to 
 suspect, that out of a given number of gentle- 
 men taking the field with hounds, the propor- 
 tion of really scientific sportsmen may have 
 been in favour of the olden times." 
 
 Another still more important change 
 efiected in modern hunting, however, is in the 
 character of the horses. They are now higher 
 bred than before, and much faster ; but on 
 this subject we have sufiiciently spoken in 
 the first division of this work. 
 
 Eegarding the costume of the sportsmen in 
 the days of George II., it may be observed 
 that the gentlemen wore the heavy, square-cut, 
 buckram-supported coat, which was generally 
 common in society ; the triangular hat ; the 
 powdered and pomatumed head, and the pig- 
 tail appendage. The large three-cornered 
 cocked hat, called a kevenhuller, was imported 
 from Germany, and is a speciality of the times 
 of the first two Georges. It is thus described 
 by a writer of the time : — " It is shaped like 
 an equilateral triangle, placed with the most 
 mathematical precision on the head, somewhat 
 elevated behind, and sloping in an unvarying 
 angle downwards to the eyes, surrounded by a 
 long, stiff", formal feather, rising from a large 
 .'osette of black ribbon on the dexter side." 
 
 The sight of such an apparition in a Leices- 
 tershire " meet" now-a-days, might be expected 
 not only to astonish the riders, but even frighten 
 the horses from their propriety. 
 
 To most English sportsmen Wales is quite 
 unknown as a fox-hunting country ; yet there 
 are several packs kept in Pembrokeshire and 
 the two adjoining counties. Eirst, let us re- 
 mark as to the country, that the enclosures 
 are usually small, the fences consisting of 
 turf walls, from six to eight feet in height; 
 but, though rather formidable in appearance, 
 they are a very safe kind of fence, and a horse 
 accustomed to them jumps on and off" with 
 great ease. There are also a good many loose 
 stone walls, and occasionally timber. 
 
 A writer in The Fidel, who has evidently 
 been present at some of the " meets" in Wales, 
 
 begs us to accompany him on a fine morniuo- 
 
 say February, as there is always better sport 
 
 in Wales after Christmas than before to the 
 
 41G 
 
 " Twmstron Catty Arms," a favourite meet of 
 the hounds, where we shall probably find half- 
 a-dozen pinks, one or two black coats, and a 
 rough-looking farmer, mounted on a rougher 
 pony, without any saddle, waiting for the 
 hounds. Until their arrival he requests us to 
 take a look at the horses and their riders ; and 
 we see in the former, well bred, short-lego-ed 
 ones, fit to go in most countries ; and, in the 
 latter, true-bred English sportsmen. The 
 hounds now come up ; they bear the unmis- 
 takable look of fox-hounds, but are somewhat 
 shorter on the leg, and a little more harrier- 
 like about their muzzles and sterns than the 
 generality of English packs. After the usual 
 greetings, the master moves off" towards " Pen- 
 bryn Gorse ;" and, on our arriving at the 
 cover-side, instead of a flat furze brake, we 
 find a deep dingle, with a natural growth of 
 furze on either side, with little crags of rock 
 jutting out here and there. The knowing 
 ones quietly cross over to the side on which 
 the fox is likely to break, and the master 
 waves the hounds into the cover, which sud- 
 denly becomes quite alive. Presently a 
 whimper is heard, and then a hound opens. 
 " Have at him Goblin !" cries the master, and 
 a burst of merry music answers the cheer. 
 Pug just shows his nose outside the cover, but 
 is headed back ; then dismal fears of a " chop" 
 begin to prevail ; they are, however, soon dis- 
 pelled ; as, after running round the cover, he 
 breaks away at the upper end : the master 
 sounds a few notes on his horn, and the 
 hounds settle down on the line. " He is 
 away for the rocks," observes a quiet-looking 
 man in black, at the same time charging a big 
 bank ; and away we go merrily for nearly four 
 miles, when we find ourselves on the edge of a 
 steep dingle, across which the hounds are 
 streaming. " The Field" here divides ; the 
 wiser half follow a gentleman on a bay, who 
 seems to be riding straight away from the 
 hounds. However, he makes a sudden turn, 
 scrambles down the side of the dingle by a 
 narrow path, and reaches the summit on the 
 other side, just as the hounds, which have 
 come to a slight check, hit off" the scent again. 
 We then go on for about another mile, jump 
 a big bank, with stiffish wattling at the top, 
 and are then upon the open mountain. But 
 our dangers are not yet over, as we suddenly 
 
yox-uLNTiNo.] rOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AInD FAEM. [iox-uunmng. 
 
 see the foremost horso disappear up to his narrow place was Orat tried, and all four lioraeB 
 i,MrtIis in II treacheroua poat-boi^. On wo go, 'pot over, but not without a Hcrainblo on laud- 
 loaviiiii; our unfortunato Iriond to extricate ing. Tho umpire decided that (jribs(ju liad 
 himself as ho best can, and pick our way | won with all four, bein;,' £oO eacli iiursc. The 
 carelully among the boulders, which become j wide place (Mr. Campbell's "yawner") was 
 rather too plentiful to allow easy galloping, then attempted with a grey horse — as noble u 
 We now see "The Kocks"— a huge volcanic looking animal as ever gazed through bridle, 
 pile, heaped into fantastic shapes — looming in 
 the distance, and Keynard is perceived a little 
 way ahead, gallantly struggling to reach his 
 city of refuge. 
 
 The chase now becomes vcrv exciting ; the 
 
 With a mass of people facing him on the other 
 side of tho river, ho gallantly charged it, but 
 fell on the edge of tho water, thereby losing 
 the first £50. Had the hounds been iu full 
 cry, and notiiing to face him, periiajis he would 
 
 hounds are coursing the fox; but he is within have accom[)lislied tho feat. It was, however, 
 two hundred yards of the rocks ; and, if he |a great task to undertake, oq the part of the 
 
 can but struggle on for a few seconds more, 
 will be safe. However, he is doomed; 
 '• Crafty" rolls him over ; the rest of the pack 
 rush in ; and so dies the poor fox. Only three 
 horsemen are in at the death ; but, by the 
 time the animal is broken up, the friends wc 
 left iu the dingle arrive ; and, after a little 
 chaffing, we turu our horses' heads homewards, 
 and agree that forty-five minutes in AVales is 
 uot bad sport after all. 
 
 In i'ox-hunting there are frequently taken, 
 by man and horse, leaps which, in moments of 
 less excitement, would literally appal them. 
 On one occasion, Mr. Alex. Campbell, of Mon- 
 zies, when hunting with Mr. Baker's hounds, 
 cleared, on one of his favourite horses ("De- 
 ceiver"), the river Leam, being nine yards and 
 six inches across. Not one of the " field" at- 
 tempted this daring "fly;" but Mr. Haigh tried 
 it in a much narrower place, and succeeded in 
 
 nags, in cold blood. The two next horses were 
 not put to it. The fourth, however, was sent 
 at it in gallant style, but unfortunately jumped 
 into the middle of tho water. They were all 
 ridden by one man, who appeared to weigh 
 about 9st. ; and, considering that he received a 
 ducking on each occasion, he rode with great 
 spirit and determination. He did not, however, 
 appear to handle his horses as a first-rate artist 
 — he seemed " at sea" on one or two occasions 
 with his hands ; but a finer seat on horseback 
 could hardly be seen. The match, therefore, 
 ended thus : — Mr. Gibson's horses won over the 
 narrow place, and lost over the wide part: 
 and Mr. Campbell's feat still remains unsur- 
 passed. 
 
 The patronage which the chase receives ia 
 England is universal. The peer and the 
 plough-boy alike participate in its exhilarating 
 scenes ; and even the senator, who sways the 
 
 landing himself and horse on the right side, destinies of the kingdom, may occasionally be 
 Mr. Cambbell's remarkable leap caused not a found in the field. The late Lord Palmerston 
 little commotion in the hunting world ; and a was a great friend to the sport, and not un- 
 
 gentleman, named Gibson, backed five of his 
 horses for £50 each to clear both places of 
 the Leam — viz., at the spot whicli was taken by 
 Mr. Campbell, and that taken by Mr. Haigh. 
 These horses, however, were then announced 
 for sale at Tattersali's ; and the match had 
 to be made conditionally, that if *.hey were 
 not sold above the reserve price, the match 
 should stand good ; and if sold, to be no match. 
 As only one of them was sold, the event stood 
 good with four of the horses ; and, after a con- 
 siderable amount of " beating about the bush,' 
 
 frequently, even when premier, might be I'ound 
 joining one of the "meets" in Hampshire, 
 although he had passed the threescore and 
 ten assigned as the period of man's allotted 
 existence in this sublunary world. It is uot 
 many years ago, since, at Farley church, he 
 met the Hursley houndt which were thrown 
 into Parnell AVood. In l^ts than five miuutes 
 a hound challenged (which summons the 
 huntsman said could not bo a mistake). Im- 
 mediately a view-halloo was given ; one ring 
 round the cover, and away they went at a 
 
 it came ofi'near Granborough— Mr. Martin, of slapping pace over the open, through Mitchel- 
 
 llugby, being the acceptor of the challenge, marsh, nearly down to the "Dog and Crook." 
 
 Captain Heury Lowndes was umpire. The There he turned to the left, the (joiny hounds 
 3h 417 
 
rOX-nUNTING.J 
 
 THE DOa, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [fox-hunting. 
 
 forcing him back over Eldon farm, and then 
 over the open to Compton House, where the 
 fox ran to ground in view, after a good hour 
 and ten minutes — ^in fact very few were up, the 
 pace being so good, and the country very 
 heavy. A great many of the field here left, 
 being quite satisfied with the above runs ; but 
 not so with all ; for a fox liad stole sway, but 
 Mitchelmarsh Summers got on his line, and 
 was up to him at Parnell, where the first fox 
 was found. He immediately broke by Ashley 
 Hangers, through Ashley Wood, and then took 
 the open over "Westley farm, leaving Sparsholt 
 on the right, to Norwood, and then again over 
 the open nearly to "Winchester. He then 
 went over the railroad to Abbots Worthy, and 
 took the side of the rail to Hook -pit farm ; 
 then again over the railroad, and recrossed it 
 about a mile up, making his point for Pile's 
 farm ; then through the Baeley covers to Stech- 
 ing Wood, and from there into Lord Ashbur- 
 ton's large covers at the Grrange. It was now 
 half-past four o'clock, and the horses belonging 
 to the huntsman and whipper-in dead-beaten — 
 as was every horse that lived with the hounds — 
 so it was thought prudent to whip ofi". This 
 concluded a capital day's sport : the last run, 
 from point to point, could not be less than 
 iburteen miles, and the ground run over from 
 twenty to twenty-five miles ; time, two hours 
 thirty-five minutes. This is supposed to have 
 been one of the best runs seen in Hampshire ; 
 .vnd the first man in England, while we write, 
 commenced the day with the hounds ; but 
 whether he was as staunch to the end of 
 the chase as he is to the end of a debate 
 in the House, the Sporting Chronicle does 
 not say. 
 
 Whilst this indomitable spirit of fox-hunt- 
 ing pervades, more especially, the aristocratic 
 and provincial population of England, it is not 
 less prevalent amongst certain classes of the 
 Scotch. The Linlithgo and Stirlingshire fox- 
 hounds have long enjoyed a high celebrity. 
 One of the most brilliant runs which ever took 
 place in that country occurred when the pack 
 was under the management of the Honourable 
 James Sandilands. The "meet" was an- 
 nounced for Stonebyres. This place, well 
 known to the admirers of natural scenery for 
 its romantic waterfall, and to sportsmen as a 
 sure find for the " gallant varmint," attracted 
 418 
 
 on that day a goodly number, not only of the 
 regular attendants on the hounds, but also of 
 the well-mounted members of a neighbouring 
 hunt. 
 
 The morning rose bright, sunny, and dry, 
 no rain having fallen for some time — so much 
 so, that some of those learned in the art " of 
 venerie" even doubted the possibility of sport; 
 but here was a fresh instance that Dame 
 Nature cannot be reduced to scientific rules, 
 for this conjecture was happily frustrated. 
 The hounds having been thrown into the 
 cover, whimpers were heard ; but practised 
 hunters doubted their correctness, roe-deer 
 being on foot in the cover, and being subse- 
 quently viewed, and many passed round to 
 the south-east part of the Stonebyres' planta- 
 tion. A farmer suggested a trial of a fine 
 piece of gorse, lying on the side of the hill. 
 The hounds no sooner entered this, than the 
 well-known challenge resounded, and reynard 
 was viewed leaving the gorse at a thundering 
 pace. Onward he went across the Blackhill, 
 making his point in a westerly direction, over 
 a strongly fenced country. The start had 
 been so sudden and unexpected, that many of 
 the field did not get well away with him ; the 
 first fence, a good rattling stone wall, on boggy 
 ground on both sides, making several reputed 
 good horses bolt and refuse. Now came the 
 tug of war — now came the chapter of acci- 
 dents. Some of the "good men and true," 
 going at racing pace, down hill, over ploughed 
 ground, were thrown, horse and man, head over 
 heels. But the pace was too good to inquire 
 after their fate. Horses were seen flying 
 without riders, and with difiiculty caught, the 
 gallant huntsman himself not escaping the 
 chapter of accidents. ^ The scent was burning ; 
 an almost impracticable fence was ridden at by 
 him ; both horse and rider kissed their mother 
 earth : but up and away — the huntsman is of 
 too good stuff" to be beaten, though his pluck 
 was severely tried this memorable day, having 
 had three falls. The splendid fox now changed 
 his point, and, crossing the banks of the 
 romantic Nethau water, took a southerly line, 
 and skirting the grounds of Auchtifardlo, 
 towards Mansfield and Netherhouse, on towards 
 Lc^mahago. He then tried back down to the 
 water ; but finding that dangerous, back he 
 went towards the south. He now crossed the 
 
rox-iir>-TiNo.] rOit MO U:s TAi.N, TiLLD, A^D TAii-M. [iox-uumu.so. 
 
 ro:ul, and was Ihon viewodbyaman doad bont, cieiitly pricked by tliorns, briars, and Rorse, 
 and just iiKma"t'd to roacli his pi)iiit — a drain | cret-p out for a lew Bcconds buforu him, than — 
 at the foot of the Held, close to tho viUai^o of 'Angola and niinislera of graco defend u« I' — 
 Le8tnaha"o. Up caiuo tho huntsman, who , tho young horso pricks up his t-ars, Blares 
 rode biilliantlv i» sp'te of tho chapter of acoi- , intently at him, hulils liia brealli, and, with a 
 dents- and afterwards up came some of the; heart beating so hard that it may be not only 
 "good men and true," their nags looking j heard but felt by tliy rider, ho breaks out into 
 
 awfully beaten and pumped out. Tho scent 
 had been burning ; the pace had been killing ; 
 and tho time was half-au-hour of as brilliant a 
 thing as had ever been seen in tho Carnwath 
 countrv. It would bo invidious to particu- 
 larise who most distinguished himself iu this 
 remarkably fast and brilliant run. Let 
 his laurels rest with him; but gallantry de- 
 mands that a tribute be paid to tho bold 
 riding of a lady well known with these hounds. 
 AVhile the lucky sportsmen, who had managed 
 to come up in the meantime, were taking ad- 
 vantage of the close vicinity of Lesmahago, to 
 procure refreshment for exhausted nature, the 
 gallant pack were endeavouring to dislodge 
 revnard from his temporary retreat in the 
 drain, which having succeeded iu doing, he 
 bolted, and, after holding out for ten minutes, 
 he was run into and killed in the streets of 
 Lesmahago, among some children at play ; thus 
 aflbrding the most satisfactory of all ends, iu a 
 sportsman's eyes, to a fine run. The distance 
 traversed during the run was not less than 
 between eight and nine miles, which, con- 
 sidering the time taken, was about the fastest 
 feat that can be done with hounds. 
 
 In this exciting sport it is truly beautiful to 
 see the spirit and eagerness manifested by the 
 
 a perspiration, which, on the a[)])earanco of a 
 i'ew more hounds, turns into a foam as white 
 as soapsuds. On an old hound — by a single 
 deep tone, instantaneously certified by a sharp, 
 shrill, resolute voice of the huntsman — an- 
 nouncing to creation that the one little animal, 
 which so many bigger ones have been so good 
 as to visit, is ' at home,' the young horse paws 
 the ground; if restrained, evinces a sliglit dis- 
 position to rear; until, by the time the whole 
 pack — encouraged by the cheery cry, ' Have at 
 him' — in full chorus have struck up their band 
 of music, he appears to have become almost 
 ungovernable, and is evidently outrageously 
 anxious to do — he knows not what ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, when a sudden shriek, scream, or, 
 as the Irish term it, ' screech,' rather than a 
 holloa, from the opposite side of the covert 
 briefly announces, as by a telegram, the 
 joyous little word ' away,' suiting his action to 
 it, ' away' the young horse often bolts with his 
 rider, just as likely 'away' from the houuds as 
 with them. If he follows them, infuriated by 
 ardour, which neither he nor his rider has 
 power to control, he looks at nothing, thinks 
 of nothing, until, at full speed, coming to, say, 
 a stifl:" fence, he disdains to rise at, a lesson is 
 oltered to him which, however, he is a great 
 
 young horse when he first feels, as it were by , deal too much excited to learn by heart ; and 
 instinct, the nature of the duty he is about to I so, before his rider has had time enough to 
 
 be engaged in. In The Horse and his Eider, 
 by Sir Francis Head, Bart., wo have this 
 subject graphically narrated. " AV'hen a young 
 horse," he says, "that has never seen a hound. 
 
 uncoil himself Irom his roll, the 'young 'un,' 
 without a thought or disposition to wait for 
 the old gentleman, leaves him on tho ground 
 to think about the hounds ; while, with dangling 
 
 is ridden up, for the first time in his life, not stirrups, reins hanging loose on his neck, and 
 
 to a meet, at which the whole pack are to be 
 seen, but merely to the side of a covert, which, 
 hidden from view, they are drawing, it might 
 reasonably be conceived that, under such cir- 
 cumstances, he could not have an idea of the 
 past, present, or future proceedings — we mean 
 where they had come from, what they were 
 doing, or what tliey were going to do. How- 
 ever, no sooner does a hound, from laziness, or 
 possibly from feeling that he has been suffi- 
 
 outstretehed neck and tail, he is once again 
 ' up and at 'em.' " 
 
 The animal which excites this interest, and 
 calls forth all the energies of both the English 
 sportsman and his horse, is the common fox, the 
 representative of the sub-genus Vulpes, charac- 
 terised by a linear pupil, and along bushy tail, 
 and too well known to need a minute descrip- 
 tion. This w ily animal is common in our island, 
 and iu most parts of Europe, extending into 
 
 410 
 
FOX-HUNTING. 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS A^AEIETIES; 
 
 [fox-hunting. 
 
 Northern Asia, and is everywhere celebrated 
 for its cunning and rapacity. As liis linear 
 pupil intimates, the fox is crepuscular, or noc- 
 turnal in his habits, but is occasionally seen 
 abroad during the day. In general, however, 
 it is as the dusk of the evening advances that 
 he steals from his burrow, with noiseless steps, 
 to prowl about for prey. His senses of smell 
 and hearing are extremely acute, and he listens, 
 and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound, 
 appreciatiog every odour. His eyes gleam as 
 he creeps along in a crouching attitude, intent 
 upon theft. His movements are all stealthy. 
 He surprises the rabbit gambolling near its 
 burrow ; the hare in her form ; the poultry on 
 the perch. He slaughters all he can, reserving 
 the overplus for a future exigency, and for that 
 purpose buries it in the earth. In times of 
 scarcity, field-mice, frogs, weasels, and even 
 insects, are devoured. On the continent the 
 fox visits the vineyards, being as partial to the 
 ripe grapes as the jackal is. 
 
 He is solitary in his habits, and dwells 
 alone in a burrow, which he has either made 
 or usurped, and which is generally in some 
 secluded situation, not readily to be discovered, 
 and in the neighbourhood of a rabbit-warren, 
 preserves of game, or farms. The female 
 breeds in April, and on her, alone, devolves the 
 entire care of the cubs. She produces three 
 or four at a birth, in a deep burrow, where she 
 has prepai"ed a bed of dried leaves, grass, and 
 moss. The young are very playful, and remain 
 about four months with their parent, who is 
 watchful and resolute to the extreme in their 
 defence. Even when taken at an early age, 
 the fox is not easily tamed, never loses his 
 innate suspiciousness, and never becomes truly 
 domestic. Adults are ferocious when placed 
 in confinement, and soon die. Though slightly 
 made, the fox is very vigorous, and bites with 
 great severity. His powers of endurance and 
 speed have, in this country, recommended him 
 to all lovers of the chase, for whose gratification 
 the breed is preserved, where possible. He 
 has been known to run before the hounds fifty 
 miles at a stretch. AVheu hard pressed, he 
 neither loses his courage nor self-possession, 
 and puts in practice every expedient which 
 cunning -dictates to bafile the hounds, or con- 
 ceal him from their search ; and, if all fail he 
 dies, defending himself to the last, without 
 420 
 
 uttering a cry. His voice is a sort of yelp, 
 which, however, is only occasionally exerted, 
 and never when in quest of prey. It is said by 
 Bewick, and we have often heard it affirmed, 
 that the fox breeds with the dog. "We have 
 also seen sharp-nosed dogs, called fox-dogs, 
 and were at the same time assured that they 
 were a cross between the two animals ; but it 
 has always so happened that the assertion 
 could not be substantiated. 
 
 He who has no larger acquaintance with 
 the oft-decried fox than from having seen him 
 steal away from the covert side, amidst the 
 "whoop" of the huntsman, and the bustle of 
 the "break," or, panting for breath, and be- 
 smeared with mud, has beheld him running for 
 life, can have little idea of the beauty of his 
 person in his natural haunts. There, sleek as 
 a kitten, and almost as playful, he really looks 
 a very handsome animal ; and, on a still sum- 
 mer's night, when the moon shines brightlr, 
 it is delightful to witness his graceful form 
 and nimble motions. He will enter a field, 
 perhaps — but very cautiously — occasionally 
 stopping to see if anything is at hand ; and, if 
 not fully satisfied that all is safe, he rears him- 
 self upon his hind legs (like a dog in the act 
 of begging), and, erecting his ears, waits for a 
 few seconds, mute as a mouse, eager to catch 
 the echo of the slightest sound. Assured that 
 all is safe, his operations commence. Back- 
 wards and forwards over the field he paces ; 
 beats over the surface as carefully as a pointer 
 his shooting-ground, and occasionally captures 
 a mouse, or a beetle, to reward him for his 
 patient search. Wherever low willows, oziers, 
 gorse, and thick-bottomed furze abound, the 
 fox is almost sure to be met with. It is gene- 
 rally supposed, and we think upon good 
 grounds, that there are in this country three 
 kinds, which, for the sake of distinction, may be 
 called the Greyhound Vox, the Common Eox, 
 and the Little Eed Eox. Most persons who 
 have hunted with fox-hounds cannot have failed 
 to notice the great difference which exists be- 
 tween diftereut individuals, as regards their 
 form, colour, speed, and manners ; and there 
 are very few who would not, at a first glance, 
 pronounce them distinct species. Naturalists, 
 however, who have examined them scientifi- 
 cally, regard them as mere varieties ; but those 
 varieties are so well marked that they appear 
 
rox-uD»TiKO.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [rox-uusTiso. 
 
 worth doscribini;. Tho tliroo luiuls wliieh 
 exist in Dorb} sliiro are : — 
 
 Tho Common Fox, nlreiuly described. 
 
 Tho Greyhound Fox, tho form of 
 resembles that of a greyliound dog. 
 is larger in size, longer on tlio leg^^, more 
 slender in shape, and of swifter speed than the 
 
 whieh 
 He 
 
 seereto themselves in tho holes and crevices. AVo 
 reniiMubt'r a braeo once climbing a tree nearly 
 twenty feet high, whic!i grew in a slanting 
 direction, and hiding themst'lves amongst the 
 branches whilst the hounds were beating the 
 brushwood beneath. Tho bitch dis{)lay8 cot)- 
 siderable allVetion for her young, and, even if 
 
 common fox, generally giving faster and more ' hard pressed by hounds, reluctantly leaves tho 
 endurin-'' chases. One of these animals has cover where they are situated. In 1842, tho 
 been known to run for four hours before the Marquis of Hastings' hounds were drawing 
 hounds; and he usually leaves tho cover in Staunton Springs, near Calke, Derbyshire, and 
 dashin'» stvle. In colour he resembles the found a fox, which, for more than an hour, 
 common fox, but has almost invariably some defied all effort to make her break. Several 
 frisly or silverv hairs in his coat. His head is covers having been drawn blank, the huntsman 
 lar^o and sharp-looking, rather broad across! was anxious to get her away, but failed; so, 
 
 supposing she was a bitch that had cubs, the 
 hounds were whipped oft'. This proved to be 
 
 length. These foxes are occasionally met with 
 on Charnwood Forest. 
 
 Tiie Little Eed Fox is the third, and is an 
 animal of much smaller size than the common 
 fox. His form is short, compact, and thick, 
 and the colour of his coat red — hence the name. 
 He seems to prefer the oldest covers and woods, 
 and is supposed by many people to be indige- 
 nous to Britain, or the one from which the 
 other kinds are descended. When leaving 
 cover he does cot gallop off boldly before the 
 lioundsjbut endeavours to steal away cautiously, 
 and frequently affords the best sport, and 
 most protracted runs. For so small an animal 
 his endurance is very considerable, frequently 
 knocking up the best-bred hounds and horses. 
 A Berkshire friend observes : — " I was once 
 with the Craven hounds, and viewed a small 
 red fox away from a piece of gorse, which gave 
 us a run of sixteen miles from point to point, 
 without a check, threading woods of five hun- 
 dred acres, when, at last, she was run into by 
 
 the cheeks ; ears broad and large ; nose thin and 
 
 pointed ; and the jet black hairs growing from 
 
 the upper lip are some of them three inches in correct; for some pedestrians, who had been 
 
 following the hounds, stumbled upon the lair 
 by accident, and brought the cubs to show tho 
 hunters. They were afterwards taken back, 
 and reared in the wood. Her breeding- 
 place was at the bottom of a thick honey- 
 suckle bush, through which luxuriant herbage 
 had crept, and afforded excellent conceal- 
 ment. A hole, about three feet in circum- 
 ference, and three inches in depth, was scooped 
 out of the ground ; and round the edges of 
 it, dead oak and beech-leaves were ranged. 
 The young were seven in number, shaggy and 
 grotesque-looking objects, four of which had 
 their brushes tipped witli white hair. 
 
 In the summer of 1812, a bitch fox reared a 
 litter of cubs in the middle of a wheat field, in 
 the parish of Melbourne, Derbyshire. The 
 crop was in full ear when they were discovered, 
 and, being thick and higli, aflorded them ex- 
 cellent shelter. The spot occupied by the 
 family was on the top of a piece of dry land, 
 and the stems of corn were trodden down and 
 
 being caught in a wire. There were only six • padded close to the earth for many yards. The 
 up at the death, out of sixty or seventy at the parents provided a most bountiful table ; for, 
 
 meet: aud when the second whip went into the 
 wood for the fox, I remarked to Mr. Villebois 
 * that the fcx we found was a remarkably small 
 one, and red ;' and, on being brought out, she 
 proved to be the same." This animal is found 
 in some parts of Nottinghamshire, Derbysliire, 
 Leicestershire, and Berkshire. 
 
 ;cattered around them, lay no less than two 
 leverets, a young bantam cock, a partridge, the 
 wings of a pheasant, besides the remains of 
 fowls, and a vast profusion of feathers and 
 bones. The novelty of the scene tempted the 
 curious to visit the spot ; and the dam led her 
 family away, not quitting the field, however, 
 
 "When the covers in the vicinity of parks but concealing them amongst the thickest parts 
 have been drawn several times, foxes betake of the crop; and, although eventually reared, 
 themselves to hollow trees, and endeavour to ; they were rarely seen afterwards. 
 
 421 
 
rOX-HUNTIKG.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES; 
 
 [the TALBOT. 
 
 "When a bitch has small cubs, aud she be- 
 comes aware that her nest is discovered, she 
 takes them up one by one in her mouth, as a 
 cat does her kittens, and removes them to a 
 more secure place. The bark of the fox is 
 most frequently heard in January and Feb- 
 ruary ; some individuals bark precisely like a 
 terrier giving mouth at game. The food of 
 this animal consists principally of beetles, rep- 
 tiles, small birds, and rabbits ; he will also take 
 partridges, pheasants, fowls, ducks, geese, and 
 even swans. A person who had spent much 
 time in the woods, once told us that, perceiving 
 a fox near a covert side, he stole very cautiously 
 up to him, and found that he was playing with 
 a field-mouse which he had just caught. The 
 same person, once hearing a very unusual noise 
 in the woods, went to ascertain the cause, when 
 he found it to proceed from two foxes, who 
 were quarrelling over a pheasant. One of the 
 animals had captured a prize, of which it was 
 evident the other intended to rob him. 
 
 "We could fill a large amount of space with 
 anecdotes of the ditferent traits of character 
 exhibited by the fox ; but a few must suffice. 
 
 A Berkshire gentleman had winged a phea- 
 sant, of which his spaniels went in pursuit: 
 he saw it running on the ground ; but the 
 pheasant had not gone far before a fine fox 
 caught and ran off with it in his mouth across 
 the open field, and, although the sportsman 
 rated him hard, aud the spaniels followed in 
 pursuit, the thief got clear ofi" with his prize. 
 A similar event again occurred in the same 
 copse, and the fox mentioned was undoubtedly 
 the same animal whose audacity was exhibited 
 on the previous occasion. It was evident that 
 the animal was quickly on the alert whenever 
 he heard the report of a gun in the covert, which 
 he frequented, for a long time, unmolested. 
 
 In 1849, the Hull Packet contained an 
 account of a singular occurrence which took 
 place at Owthorne, near Patrington, in Holder- 
 ness. "A fine male fox made his appearance 
 amongst a ilock of lambs belonging to a 
 widow of that place, and became so much 
 attached to one of the lambs that he could not 
 be driven away. The most extraordinary part 
 of the aflair was, that the lamb also declined to 
 ^e parted from its strange companion, and the 
 pair were seen daily, seldom very far from each 
 Other." 
 
 422 
 
 Mr. Charles S. Oraves relates the following 
 anecdote : — " A curious circumstance occurred 
 at Ingleby many years ago. The hounds were 
 beating the wood opposite the house, when 
 ray grandmother heard a great sioem'tng 
 amongst her cats in the entrance-hall, and, 
 on ffoius: to see what was the matter, found a 
 fox seated in the hall ; on seeing her he ran 
 along the hall, and down the steps into the 
 cellar, and took his place behind the beer-barrel, 
 where he was secured. No hounds had been 
 anywhere near the house, nor had he been run 
 at all." Foxes are particularly fond of cheese ; 
 and fish have been found near their "earths." 
 
 Having ventured to digress thus far from 
 our subject, we will return to another descrip- 
 tion of our hounds. 
 
 Formerly two noble varieties of the hound 
 were common in England, which are now 
 seldom seen. "We allude to the old English 
 hound and the bloodhound. 
 
 Of the old English hound, which is described 
 by Whittaker, iu his History of Manchester, 
 as the original breed of our island, some years 
 since, there was to be seen a fiae specimen in 
 Lancashire. It was tall and robust, with a 
 chest of extraordinary depth and breadth, with 
 pendulous lips, and deeply set eyes ; the ears 
 were large and long, and hung very low ; tlie 
 nose was broad, and the nostrils large and 
 moist. The voice was deep, full, aud sonorous. 
 The general colour was black, passing into tan, 
 or sandy red, about the muzzle and along the 
 inside of the limbs. Shakespeare's description 
 of the hounds of Theseus, in the Midsummer 
 NigMs Dream, is true to the letter as referring 
 to this breed, with which he was, no doubt, 
 well acquainted : — 
 
 " My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind, 
 So flew'd, so sanded ; and their heads are hung 
 With ears that sweep away the morning dew ; 
 Crook-knee'd and dew-lapped like Thessalian bulls ; 
 Slow in pursuit, but match'd in mouth like bells, 
 Each under each." 
 
 THE TALBOT. 
 
 Besides the old English, or Southern hound, 
 was the old English stag-hound, or Talbot, 
 a powerful dog, but of lighter form, and more 
 fleet than the former. From this breed has 
 descended the still lighter and swifter fox- 
 hound of the present day. The Talbot was 
 
BLOODHOUND.] VOV. MOUXTAIX, FT-RLD, AND FAlOr. [bloodhound. 
 
 formerly known as St. Hubert's breod, and 
 was, perliaps tlio oldest of our slow hounds. 
 
 THE HLOODllOUND. 
 Atnon^ the hounds of the " olden time" 
 was the Bloodhound, so celebrated for its ex- 
 quisite scent, and unwearied jiorseveranco ; 
 qualities which were taken advantui^e of, by j 
 training it, not only to tho chase of cranio, but 
 to tho pursuit of man. A true bloodhound 
 (and tlie pure blood is rare) stands about 
 ei£»ht-and-twenty inches in height, and is mus- 
 cular, compact, and strong. The forehead is 
 broad, and the face narrow towards tiie imizzlo ; 
 the nostrils are wide, and well developed ; the 
 ears are large, pendulous, and broad at the 
 base ; the aspect is serene and sagacious ; the 
 tail is long, with an upward curve when in 
 pursuit, at which time the hound opens with a 
 voice deep and sonorous, that may be heard 
 down the wind for a very long distance. 
 
 The colour of the true breed is stated to be 
 almost invariably a reddish tan, darkening 
 gradually towards the upper parts, till it be- 
 comes mixed with the black on the back ; the 
 lower parts, limbs, and tail being of a lighter 
 shade, and the muzzle tawny. Pennant adds, 
 " a black spot over each eye ;" but some blood- 
 hounds, which were said to have been of 
 the original blood, had not these marks. Some 
 — but such instances were not common — had 
 a little white about them, such as a star in the 
 face, &c. The better opinion is, that the origi- 
 nal stock was a mixture of the deep-mouthed 
 Southern hound, and the powerful old English 
 stag-hound. 
 
 Our ancestors soon discovered the infallibility 
 of the bloodhound in tracing any animal, living 
 or dead, to its resting-place. To train it, the 
 young dog, accompanied by a staunch old 
 hound, was led to the spot whence a deer, or 
 other animal, had been taken on for a mile or 
 two. The hounds were then laid on and en- 
 couraged, and, after hunting this " drag" suc- 
 cessfully, were rewarded with a portion of the 
 venison which composed it. The next step 
 was to take the young dog, with his seasoned 
 tutor, to a spot whence a man, whose shoes had 
 been rubbed with the blood of a deer, bad 
 started on a circuit of two or three miles. 
 During his progress, the man was instructed 
 to renew the blood from time to time, to keep 
 
 tho Hcont well alive. His circuit was gradually 
 enlarged at each succeeding lesson ; and the 
 young hound, thus entered and trained, became, 
 at last, fully eiiuul to hunt by itself, either Jbr 
 tho jjurpose of woodcraft, war, or " following 
 gear," as tho pursuit after the property plun- 
 dered in a border foray was termed. . 
 
 Laid on the track of a marauder, it kept up 
 a steady, jjersevering chase, and was not baflled 
 without dilliculty. Sir Walter Scott, in his 
 graphic description of the " stark moss- 
 trooper," Sir AVilliara of Deloraine, "good at 
 need," gives, as a proof of his merit, that he 
 " By wily turns and desperate bounds 
 Had baflled Percy's best bloodhounds." 
 
 And the same accomplished knight, his stern 
 nature touched by sorrow at the sight of Sir 
 E-ichard Musgrave slain, thus eulogises his 
 dead enemy : — 
 
 " Yet rest thee God ! for well I know 
 I ne'er shall find a nobler foe. 
 In all the northern countries here, 
 Whose word is snaffle, spur, and spear, 
 Thou wert the best to follow gear. 
 'Twas pleasure, as we look'd behind, 
 To see how thou the chase couldst wind, 
 Cheer the dark bloodhound on his way, 
 And with the bugle rouse the fray, 
 I'd give the lands of Deloraine, 
 Dark Musgrave were alive again." 
 
 Sir Walter Scott states that the breed of 
 bloodhounds was kept up by the Buccicuch 
 family on their border estates till within the 
 eighteenth century. In former ages, these 
 dogs, or, as the Scotch called them, " Sleuth- 
 hounds," were kept in great numbers on the 
 borders ; and fugitive kings, as well as moss- 
 troopers, were obliged to study how to evade 
 them. Eobert Bruce was repeatedly tracked 
 by them, and, on one occasion, only escaped by 
 wading for a considerable distance up a broolc, 
 and climbing a tree which overhung the water. 
 " Rycht to the burn thai passyt ware. 
 
 But the sleuth-hound made slanting there, 
 
 And wavcryt lang time ta and fra, 
 
 That he na certain gait couth ga ; 
 
 Till at the last John of Lorn, 
 
 Perscuvit the Hund the sleuth had borne." 
 T/ie Bruce, Book VIII. 
 "A sure way of stopping the dog," says Sir 
 Walter Scott, in a note to the Lay of the 
 Last Minstrel, " was to spill blood upon the 
 track, which destroyed the discriminating fine- 
 ness of the scent. A captive was sometimes 
 
 423 
 
BLOODHOUND.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [beagle. 
 
 Racrificed on such occasions. Henry the 
 Minstrel tells a romantic story of AVallace, 
 founded on this circumstance. The hero's 
 little band had been joined by an Irishman, 
 named Eawdou, or Eadzean, a dark, savage, 
 and suspicious character. After a sharp skir- 
 mish at Black- Erne Side, Wallace was forced 
 to retreat, with only sixteen followers. The 
 English pursued with a border bloodhound. 
 In the retreat, Fawdon, tired, or affecting to 
 be so, would go no farther. Wallace, having 
 in vain argued with him, in hasty anger 
 struck off his head, and continued the retreat. 
 When the English came up, their hound stayed 
 upon the dead body." 
 
 Mr. Boyle, in his Treatise on Air, informs 
 us, that a person of quality, in order to ascertain 
 whether a young bloodhound had been well 
 trained, caused one of his servants to walk to 
 a town four miles off, and then to a market- 
 town three miles from thence. The dog, with- 
 out seeing the man he was to pursue, followed 
 him by the scent to the above-mentioned places, 
 notwithstanding the multitude of market peo- 
 ple that went along the same road, and of 
 travellers that had occasion to cross it; and 
 when he came to the chief market-town, he 
 passed through the streets without taking any 
 notice of the people there. He ceased not 
 till he had gone to the house where the man 
 he sought rested himself, and where he found 
 him, iu an upper room, to the wonder of those 
 who had accompanied him in his pursuit. 
 
 In 1803, the " Thrapstone Association" — a 
 society formed in Northamptonshire for the 
 suppression of felony — procured and trained a 
 bloodhound, for the detection of sheep-stealers. 
 In order to prove the utility of the dog, a man 
 was dispatched from a spot where a great con- 
 course of people were assembled, about ten 
 o'clock, A.M., and an hour afterwards the 
 hound was laid on the scent. After a chase 
 of an hour and a-half, the hound found the 
 man secreted in a tree, many miles from the 
 place of starting. 
 
 The Cuban bloodhound, as it is termed, is a 
 dog of Spanish descent, sagacious and savage, 
 and which was employed by the Spaniards with 
 atrocious barbarity in their conquest of Ame- 
 rica; and, more recently (1795), in Jamaica, 
 agaiust the Maroons, who luid revolted, and 
 were waging a bloody and successful war 
 424 
 
 against the government forces, but which the 
 very terror these dogs inspired, at once hap- 
 pily brought to a close. 
 
 The dogs used in Cuba in the pursuit of 
 murderers and felons, have a fine scent and great 
 power. Their colour is tan, with black about 
 the muzzle; the ears are comparatively small; 
 the muzzle is shorter and more pointed than 
 in the ordinary hound, and they are shorter on 
 the limbs. In some prints they resemble the 
 mastiff or ban-dog, especially in the form of 
 the head, which approaches that of the bull- 
 dog : indeed, by many, and with reason, they 
 are regarded more as a variety of the mastiff 
 than the hound ; and, for ourselves, we hesitate 
 not to regard them as such. They make ex- 
 cellent watch- dogs, and attack both the bull 
 and the bear with determined resolution. 
 Their height at the shoulder ia about two feet. 
 
 BEAGLE, HARRIER, AND FOX-HOUND. 
 
 Several varieties of hounds now exist in our 
 island ; and of these, the Beagle, the Harrier, 
 and the Eox-hound are fiimiliar to all our 
 readers. No country equals England in the 
 swiftness, spirit, and endurance of its hounds ; 
 and in no country is so much attention paid 
 to the difierent breeds, especially the harrier 
 and fox-hound. The beagle was formerly a 
 trreat favourite, but is now little used. It is 
 of small stature, but of exquisite scent, and its 
 tones, when heard in full cry, are musical. It 
 has not, however, the strength or fleetness of 
 the harrier, and still less of the fox-hound, 
 and hence it does not engage the attention of 
 the sportsmen of the modern school, who, un- 
 like Sir Eoger de Coverley, are impetuous in 
 the field, preferring a hard run to a tame and 
 quiet pursuit. The beagle was only employed 
 in hunting the hare, as is the harrier; but the 
 fox-liound is trained both for the deer and the 
 fox. The strength and powers of scent of the 
 fox-hound are very great, and many astonishing 
 instances of the energy and endurance of these 
 animals are on record. 
 
 The cost of keeping a pack of harriers, or 
 beagles, varies according to modes and means ; 
 also according to the nature of the country in 
 which they are maintained. In Irehmd, for 
 example, all things being equal, a pack would 
 be kept at a cheaper rate than a similar pack 
 might be expected to be in England. This, 
 
H\KKIK£S.] 
 
 POR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAKiL 
 
 [nAuuiEns. 
 
 however, is not always the caao ; and a groat | course, nuicli of tlioso would depend on tho 
 disparity appears in tho dillerent sums ex- 
 pended by ditlerent individuals in tlio keeping 
 of thfir harriers or beagles. For example, wo 
 have heard of tiio owner of twelve couples of 
 good working harriers, keeping them at a com- 
 paratively inconsiderable outlay His plan was , 
 this :— lie laboured to encourage a hunting spi- 
 rit in his ueiglibourliood, and to get his hounds 
 kept at tho dillerent villages or farm-houses. 
 lie employed a good pedestrian huntsman at 2s. 
 a. dav, for two days in the week, to collect and 
 hunt ihe hounds, and divided the hares killed 
 between themselves and tlie different farmers 
 whose grounds he hunted over; and then, at 
 the close of the season, gave to themselves and 
 the watchers and gamekeepers a good jollifica- 
 tion, in the shape of a hunt-supper ; and, occa- 
 sionally, after a good run, quenched the thirst 
 of the parishioners by a gallon or two of ale. 
 This plan he found to cement their good feel- 
 ing towards the hunt, and to have a great ten- 
 deucv to preserve the hares, wliilst the hounds 
 were always kept strong in scent, wind, and 
 limb ; and, as he kept a horse and strong pony, 
 he made those useful, both for hunting, hack- 
 ing, and harness, and could, even then, pop in 
 an occasional day, by having an extra gallop 
 with an adjoining pack of fox-hounds ; and if 
 he found that he was putting too hard upon 
 horse-flesh, he could then spare them, and go 
 after his harriers an occasional day on foot. 
 If a man can do without the parade of hunts- 
 men, whips, and all the concomitant ei ceteras, 
 he would not only find it a very great saving 
 of expense, but add materially to his sport, 
 the annual expenditure of which would not 
 cost him more than £50. In carrying out 
 tliis plan of economy, hounds should not exceed 
 eighteen inches ; and they should be encou- 
 raged in a morning scent, and to do their own. 
 work without being interfered witli. By this 
 means hounds are encouraged to self-perseve- 
 rance, and to stick close to each other. A 
 small kennel, to rear puppies, should be got, 
 till they are fit to be billeted abroad ; and tliey 
 should be bred from faultless hounds, with 
 good-toned voices 
 
 The econon^y of this mode of keeping a pack 
 of harriers is certainly very great, and, we 
 have no doubt, both much sport and much 
 eatisfaction could be derived from it; but, of 
 
 3i 
 
 stale of the purse, and tho pliysical constitutioa 
 and mental organism of liim wliu would follow 
 it. In Ireland, a [)ack of harriers may bo kept 
 at much less expense than in England, even 
 though there is in that country an additional 
 degree of parade exhibited in accompanying tho 
 pack. A gentleman sportsman, in replying to a 
 query on this subject, thus describes his modo 
 of maintaining his [)ack : — 
 
 "Tiio query is, the probable expense of 
 keeping from twelve to fourteen couple of har- 
 riers, to hunt two or three days a week. 
 In endeavouring to answer this question, I 
 must assume that tiie querist is living in Ire- 
 land, as I know nothing of the prices of the 
 vai'ious necessaries in either England or Scot- 
 land. To come at facts, however, fourteen 
 couple of hunting-hounds will consume very 
 nearly half a ton of oatmeal in a month, which, 
 at the average of prices in this country (15*. 
 per cwt.), would amount to £90 per annum 
 for meal ; then comes carrion, from 2*. GJ. to 
 5s. a carcass, for a year's consumption, of 
 which it would be impossible for rae to state 
 any fixed sum, the supply being so precarious ; 
 but, for my own part, I always take as many 
 as I can get, feeling, as I do, how much it 
 lightens the meal bill, and adds to the con- 
 dition of the pack. Straw is the next item, 
 and from £10 to £15 might safely be put 
 down as not too much for this. Now for ser- 
 vants' wages. I pay my whipper 7*. a week, 
 with board, lodging, and clothes, for which 
 consideration he grooms one of his own horses 
 entirely, and keeps an eye to the other ; feeds 
 and exercises the hounds, and is responsible ia 
 the same way as a kennel huntsman for the 
 general management of the hounds: indoors, 
 under him, there is a boiler (as we call him), 
 at 5*. per week, who, as his name implies, 
 bolls the mess, cleans the kennel, &c., etc. ; he, 
 again, has the assistance of another boy every 
 morning, to wash out the kennels — which, if 
 well done, is rather a troublesome business. 
 I do not consider a kennel could be kept 
 decently with less help ; and, of course, if tho 
 proprietor does not act as huntsman himself, 
 he must expect his wages bill to be higher; 
 and I doubt not some English readers will 
 smile at what we consider very fair wages, and 
 lor which we get our work right well done. I 
 
 •125 
 
HAEEIEBS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [hareiers. 
 
 have now, I believe, only omraitted one item, 
 and one in which the less is spent the better 
 — viz., drugs. Sulphur is always requisite, 
 and the supply should never be allowed to run 
 short ; and in the summer season, the ingre- 
 dients requisite for dressing the pack must, of 
 course, be procured — along with any other re- 
 quisites, which the sum of £10 ought amply to 
 provide. Puel— as the price and convenience 
 of obtaining this differ so materially, that in 
 some places it forms an expensive item, while 
 in others it is always ready to hand — I must 
 leave your inquirer to judge for himself what 
 addition it would form to his expenditure, 
 merely informing him that there is no getting 
 on without it. In my own case, using, as I 
 do, logs of wood which I have not to buy, I 
 consider from £8 to £10 covers the cutting 
 and carriage. Now for the summary of the 
 expense: meal, £90; carrion, £5 (I state a 
 low sum for this, as I consider if a full supply 
 of it is obtained the meal bill will be propor- 
 tionately reduced^ ; straw, £15 ; physic or 
 drugs, £10; fuel, £10; wages of whip and 
 boiler, £31 4*. ; a man for one quarter of a 
 day throughout the year, £4 lis. dd., at the 
 rate of Is. per diem. To this should be added 
 the board, lodging, and clothing of the whip, 
 with the lodging of the boiler. 
 
 " By this it will be seen that the keep of four- 
 teen couple of harriers stands me in the sum 
 of £165 155. 3f/. in the year. I may, perhaps, 
 be a little high in putting down half a cwt. 
 per month of meal ; but, if I am, it will be 
 found that there are many little sundries that 
 will fully balance my tax. In conclusion, I 
 must add that, save in the meal bill, little 
 difference would be felt between the keep of 
 fourteen couple and twenty couple; whereas I 
 firmly believe no fourteen couple of hounds (I 
 speak of this country) could hunt three days 
 a week through a season. I now come to a 
 very important part of the question, viz., the 
 expense of getting up a pack of hounds — a 
 subject upon which I can speak from experi- 
 ence, as I smarted pretty considerably during 
 my apprenticeship. I will merely state the 
 filets as they appear in the kennel-ledger, as 
 follows:— £3, £30, £18, £5, £11, £60 105., 
 in all a sum of £127 10s., for which considera- 
 tion I got 34J- couple of hounds ; to which sum 
 I should make a very large addition for car- 
 426 
 
 riage, as I got them from all parts of England ; 
 11|- couple I was made a present of; making, 
 in all, 46 couple. Since what I call the pur- 
 chasing era has passed, I have reared 32 couple 
 of puppies ; and now I can take into the field 
 as fair and evenly-matched a pack as ever 
 frightened the life out of the boldest reynard 
 that ever skirred a country." 
 
 So much for Ireland ; and with one more 
 example of, and a few comments on harrier- 
 keeping in England, we will close this part of 
 our subject. A practical sporting gentleman, 
 writing on the same theme, gives, from his own 
 personal experience, the expense necessary to 
 carry on a hunting establishment of from 
 twelve to fourteen couples, to go out two or 
 three times a week, and also the expense of 
 building kennels, &e. "Having kept a pack 
 of hounds, consisting of twelve or fourteen 
 couples," he says, "and having built kennels 
 for them, I know pretty well the £ s. d. items 
 connected with such an establishment. In the 
 first place, hounds cannot work more than 
 three times a week. Hounds require bunting 
 twice a week to keep them steady and in good 
 condition ; but more than this it is unreason- 
 able to expect from them. To hunt twice a 
 week will entail the expense of four horses — 
 two for the huntsman, and two for his whip. 
 These, with good management and ordinary 
 luck, will see him through a season ; but, in 
 case of accident, I should recommend him to 
 commence the season with five horses, which 
 will render him completely master of his work. 
 Nothing, in my opinion, is so great a drawback 
 to sport as to be under-horsed ; and it must 
 ever be borne in mind that hunting harriers is 
 far more trying to horses than hunting fox- 
 hounds ; and no man can make the best of his 
 day's sport who does not ride close with his 
 pack in all their turnings. The expense of 
 horse-keeping will amount to something like 
 £45 a horse per annum. This item will, con- 
 sequently, be £225. The keeping of thirteen 
 couple of harriers will cost, in oatmeal and 
 flesh, something like £100 per annum ; a boy, 
 to boil flesh and attend to the pack, at 7s. per 
 week, £18 per annum ; taxes for horses and 
 hounds, something like £27; and sundrieSj 
 which are at all times heavy when horses and 
 hounds are kept, £25 — thus making the yearly 
 expense something like £395. Your kennel, 
 
HAnRTEBS.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIX, FIELD, AND FARM. 
 
 [11AERIBB8. 
 
 witlj a sniiiU boilinR-houso attacliod, may be 
 built, with nocvsjiary coiiveiiitMict', for about 
 £70. And lioro I woulil nialco 11 roinark. Lot 
 the keinicl ami vanl bo plaeoil on \vi;li-clnilneil 
 p«ound, and the lloor laid ou at least twelve 
 iuches of chalk, or stono of sonio sort, as 
 uothini» brings about kennel lameness so 
 much as damp lloors ; and, if once amoiic: your 
 bounds, the trouble is incalculable, as it hangs 
 about like a plai,Mie. In conclusion, I strongly 
 recommend the purchasing of a pack that have 
 been accustomed to work together, oven if the 
 Grst outlav seem large. I recommend this, as 
 I am fullv convinced that no plan is so unsatis- 
 factory, and, in the long run, so expensive, as 
 getting draughts from different lots. It en- 
 tails on you the faults of every pack you pro- 
 cure them from ; and you will bo years before 
 vou have anything like a useful lot." 
 
 These estimates, especially the last, are, in 
 the opinions of some, too high, for it is said 
 dogs do not require palaces. Perfectly dry 
 and well-aired barns, byres, or outhouses, and 
 plenty of sweet straw, are all the requisites for 
 amateur packs. Twenty couple of small bea- 
 gles, to a man who has the ordinary number 
 of servants about him, will cost but a trifle, 
 if he can aflbrd at all to have the luxury 
 of a small sporting establishment. Extrava- 
 gance, display, and want of care and know- 
 ledge to be economical, and overdoing things, 
 are the great causes of things remaining un- 
 done, and why we have not half the sport 
 which, with economy, we might have. Like 
 the frog in the table, we swell ourselves out 
 till we burst; hence most of our failures, and 
 the constant annual abandonment of mansions 
 and manors, horses and hounds, dogs, guns, 
 and field sports, and, often, of our country and 
 home. ^No one would find fault with well- 
 spent liberality ; but it is the tomfooleries and 
 need-nots that are at the root of the mischief, 
 and not liberality and just expenses. Besides, 
 how true it is that extreme selfishness and 
 extreme prodigality often meet in the same 
 person. Where money ought to be judiciously 
 and liberally expended, how irequeuUy is it 
 withheld. Underpaid keepers ; no food allowed 
 for pheasants in the winter ; no proper quantity 
 of traps ; no watchers in the egg and breeding 
 season, and at other important times; no proper 
 allowances or food for dogs, or of powder, siiot. 
 
 Sic. ; shepherds and farm-lnbourer« looked upon 
 as rascals — ungenerous and »uspicioua eHpio- 
 nago exercised over them ; no litllo douceurs 
 of money, tea, or clothing to thoin and their 
 wives and families; in fact, we miglit enume- 
 rate a whole catalogue of petty omissions which 
 are made by men who pretend to havo money 
 and to sport, and of wliich they oiiglit to bo 
 ashamed. Whore is the tenant-farmer's remu- 
 neration and compliments of the season? 
 Too often in the river Lethe. You may havo 
 palaces for stables and kennols, expensive shoot- 
 ing-boxes, a useless staff of idle and ineflicient 
 servants, and great general personal expendi- 
 ture, and the sport — the hobby — which should 
 be the first consideration, becomes the last. 
 
 But back to the beagles, which we will assume 
 you have, and tiiat you have already dry hous- 
 ing convenience for them, and an active and in- 
 telligent man (partially employed on other 
 things, because the beagles will not fill up his 
 time), who can ride or run well, and has a good 
 notion of hunting — you need not go to any 
 expense on those heads, except a gratuity at 
 Christmas of £5 in addition to his wages ; 
 and your dog-keep will cost you fourpence a 
 week each. Then there will be straw, travel- 
 ling expenses if you leave home, gratuities, dog- 
 tax, &c., in addition ; but we feel satisfied 
 that we could, if close at home, keep and hunt 
 a pack of small beagles for a mere trifle. By 
 the way, larch and red-deal sawdust, well dried, 
 and used as beds for dogs, is an efluctual remedy 
 against fleas and ticks. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most extraordinary 
 instances of cheap dog-keeping is furnished in 
 the case of a Mr. Osbaldeston ; and although 
 it was not harriers he kept, but fox-hounds, it 
 may be that some humble, but enthusiastic 
 lover of sport may take a hint from it, and 
 become a keeper of dogs, even in the centre of 
 the great metropolis. " With half-a-dozen of 
 children," says the Sporting Anecdotes, "as 
 many couples of hounds, and two hunters, this 
 ]\[r. Osbaldeston, clerk to an attorney, kept 
 himself, family, and these dogs and horses, upon 
 a salary of £00 per annum. Tiiis, also, was 
 efl'ected in London, without running into debt, 
 and with always a good coat on his back. To 
 explain this seeming impossibility, it should 
 be observed that, after the expiration of the 
 ofiice hours, ]\Ir. Osbaldeston acted as an 
 
 427 
 
HAEEIEES.] 
 
 THE DOG-, A]S"D ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [haeriees. 
 
 accountant for the butchers at Clare Market, 
 who paid him in ofFal, the choicest morsels of 
 which he selected for himself and family, and 
 with the rest he fed his hounds, which were 
 kept in the garret. His horses were lodged 
 iu the cellar, and fed on grains from a neigh- 
 bouring brewhouse, and on damaged corn, 
 with which he was supplied by a corn-chandler, 
 whose books he kept iu order once or twice a 
 week. In the season he hunted, and, by giviug 
 a hare, now and then, to the farmers over 
 whose grounds he sported, he secured their 
 good -will and permission; and several gentle- 
 men, struck with the extraordinary economical 
 mode of his hunting arrangements, which were 
 generally known, likewise winked at his going 
 over their manors. This Nimrodian was the 
 younger son of a gentleman of good family, 
 but small fortune, in the north of England, 
 and having, imprudently, married one of his 
 father's servants, was turned out of doors, with 
 no other fortune than a southern hound, big 
 with pup, whose offspring, from that time, 
 became a source of amusement to himself." 
 
 The animal mostly hunted by harriers is 
 the common hare, which is found throughout 
 Europe, and, indeed, in most of the northern 
 parts of the world. Being destitute of weapons 
 of defence, it is endowed by Providence in a 
 high degree with the sentiment of fear. Its 
 timidity is known to every one : it is attentive 
 to every alarm, and is, therefore, furnished 
 with ears very long and tubular, which catch 
 the remotest sounds. The eyes are so pro- 
 minent as to enable the animal to see both 
 before and behind. 
 
 The hare feeds in the evenings, and sleeps 
 ia its form during the day ; and, as it gene- 
 rally lies on the ground, its feet are protected, 
 both above and below, with a thick covering of 
 fur. In a moonliglit evening many of the spe- 
 cies may frequently be seen sporting together, 
 leaping about and pursuing each other; but 
 the least noise alarms them, and they then 
 scamper ofi", each in a different direction. Their 
 pace is a kind of gallop, or quick succession of 
 leaps ; and they are extremely swift, particu- 
 larly in ascending high grounds, to which, 
 when pursued, they generally have recourse : 
 here their large and strong hind legs are of 
 singular use to them. In northern regions, 
 where, on the descent of the winter's snows, 
 428 
 
 they would (were their summer fur to remain) 
 be rendered particularly conspicuous to animals 
 of prey, they change their yellow-grey dress in 
 the autumn, for one perfectly white ; and are 
 thus enabled, in a great measure, to elude 
 their enemies. 
 
 In more temperate regions, they choose, in 
 winter, a form exposed to the south, to obtain 
 all the possible warmth of that season ; and in 
 summer, when they are desirous of shunning 
 the hot rays of the sun, they change this for 
 one with a northernly aspect: but in both 
 cases they have the instinct of generally fixing 
 upon a place where the immediately sur- 
 rounding objects are nearly the colour of their 
 own bodies. 
 
 In one hare that a gentleman watched, as 
 soon as the dogs were heard, though at the 
 distance of nearly a mile, she rose from her 
 form, swam across a rivulet, then lay down 
 among the bushes on the other side, and by 
 this means evaded the scent of the hounds. 
 When a hare has been chased for a considerable 
 length of time, she will sometimes push another 
 from its seat, and lie down there herself. 
 AVhen hard pressed, she will mingle with a 
 flock of sheep, run up an old wall, and conceal 
 herself among the grass on the top of it, or 
 cross a river several times at small distances. 
 She never runs in a line directly forward ; but 
 constantly doubles about, which frequently 
 throws the dogs out of the scent : and she 
 generally goes against the wind. It is ex- 
 tremely remarkable that hares, however fre- 
 quently pursued by the dogs, seldom leave the 
 place where they were brought forth, or that 
 in which they usually sit ; and it is a very 
 common thing to find them, after a long and 
 severe chase, in the same place the day fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 The females have less strength and agility 
 than the males : they are, consequently, more 
 timid ; and never suffer the dogs to approach 
 them so near, before they rise, as the males. 
 They are likewise said to practise more arts, 
 and to double more frequently. 
 
 This animal is gentle, and susceptible even 
 of education. He does not often, however, 
 though he exhibits some degree of attachment 
 to his master, become altogether domestic: 
 for, even when taken very young, brought up 
 in the house, and accustomed to kindness and 
 
HABE-HUNTiNO.] FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAlOr. [uabe-iiuntiko. 
 
 attention, no sooner has ho arrived at a certain 
 aijo, than \\o generally seizes tlie first opportu- 
 nity of ri'ooverini^ his liberty, and Hying to the 
 fields. 
 
 AVhile Dr. Town.^on was at Goltiiigen, lie 
 
 the Druids, and by the Britons of the early 
 centuries. It is now, tliough very black, dry, 
 and devoid of fat, much esteiMned bv the 
 Europeans, on account of its peculiar flavour. 
 iMr. Greill", in his work on Sweden, makes 
 
 hail a young hare brought to him, which ho , some pertinent remarks relative to the chase, 
 took so ujuch pains with as to render it more and the natural history of the hare in ihat 
 
 familiar than tliese animals commonly are. In 
 the evenings, it soon became so frolicsome, as 
 
 country : — 
 
 " The hare hunt, with the harriers so called, 
 
 to run and jump about his sofa and bed : soii-.e- ' or the common hounds," he says, " is one of 
 times in its play it would leap upon him, and tiie pleasantest sports; but, if you do not wish 
 pat him with its lore feet; or, while he was to be deprived of this sport in course of time, 
 
 reading, even knock the book out of his hand 
 But whenever a stranger entered the room, 
 the little creature always exhibited considerable 
 alarm. 
 
 Mr. Borlase saw a hare that was so familiar 
 as to feed from the hand, lie under a chair in 
 a common sitting-room, and appear in every 
 other respect as easy and comfortable in its 
 
 you ought not to prosecute it at all seasons ot 
 the year. It is true that the female brings 
 forth young three times, from March to June 
 inclusive, and has seven to eight young each 
 time ; but the mother's indifference for her 
 young, and the many kind of persecutions 
 they are subject to, are the cause lliat few 
 grow up, Tlie female never places the younf» 
 
 situation as a lap-dog. It now and then went ones in one place, but one here, another tliere, 
 out into the garden ; but, after regaling itself, and perhaps visits them only two or three 
 always returned to the house as its proper i times, and perhaps never. I have, however, 
 
 habitation. Its usual companions were a grey 
 hound and a spaniel ; both so fond of hare- 
 huutiug, that they often went out togethei", 
 without any person accompanying them. With 
 these two dogs this tame hare spent its even- 
 ings : they always slept on the same hearth, 
 and, very frequently, it would rest itself upon 
 them. 
 
 Hares are very much infested with fleas. 
 Linnaeus tells us, that cloth made of their fur 
 will attract these insects, and preserve the 
 wearer himself from their troublesome attacks. 
 It is much hunted in almost every country. 
 
 " Poor is the triumph o'er the timid hare ! 
 Yet vain her best jjrecaution : though she sits 
 Conceal'd with folded ears ; unsleeping eyes. 
 By nature rais'd to take th' horizon in ; 
 And head conceal'd betwixt her hairy feet, 
 In act to spring away. The scented dew 
 Betrays her early labyrinth ; and deep 
 In scatter'd, sullen openings, far behind, 
 With ev'ry breeze, she hears the coming storm: 
 But nearer, and more frequent, as it loads 
 The sighing gale, she springs amaz'd, and all 
 The savage soul of game is up at once." 
 
 In India the hare is hunted for sport; not 
 only with dogs, but with hawks, and some 
 species of the cat tribe. The flesh was re- 
 garded by Moses as unclean ; and, though in 
 esteem among the 3iomans, was forbidden by 
 
 found three under the same bush ; but, as it 
 was during a hunt, it is possible that the par- 
 turition was hastened by the chase. Besides 
 man, who shoots and catches, the hare's ene- 
 mies are the wolf, fox, dog, cat, eagle, eagle- 
 owl, hare-owl, and hawks of difl'erent sorts. 
 In wet and rainy weather, midges and insects 
 fasten themselves about the eyes of the younf 
 hare, and inflame them so, tliat worms are 
 bred, and entirely consume them. In the bare 
 winter, or, in other words, if the ground be 
 not covered with snow, his white skin betrays 
 him. From March to August the hunting of 
 the hare should be continued with moderation ; 
 it is likewise necessary, for the breaking-iu of 
 the hounds, to let them hunt by the scent. A 
 prudent and old sportsman never shoots the 
 female at that period ; and if a fevr males are 
 shot, it does no harm. The female is generallv 
 larger, carries herself high when she runs, and 
 makes small bounds; the male is little, runs 
 low, and makes wide bounds. 
 
 " It is asserted that old male hares kill the 
 young ones; but, I believe, the case is the 
 same with this as with other animals -that 
 when any of them get a good station, the 
 strongest drive the weakest from it. lu the 
 spring, it is easiest for the dogs to get them 
 up ; and, as the males ramble both night and 
 
 429 
 
HAEE-HUNTiNG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [haee-htinting. 
 
 day, one can often find four or five with one 
 female. The old hares are called ramblers, in 
 the spring, when they stroll about to greut 
 distances to seek for the females. If the dogs 
 run after one to a great distance, and the place 
 of finding is left quiet, it is certain that the 
 others will return to the same place. About 
 Midsummer is the most difficult time to get 
 them up, when the juniper-bush is in bloom, 
 and all flowers throw out such a strong scent : 
 the hare, also, does not require to go far for 
 food. I have often seen, by the dew in the 
 fields, and in the wood, that he has not moved 
 ten steps round about ; when he has hit upon 
 buckbean (wattwappling), or any other pala- 
 table food. In autumn and winter, the hare sits 
 close ; but in October and November the dogs 
 can easily enough get him up. It helps, as 
 they say, to get the hare on foot, by shouts, 
 shots, and rattles. One may very well use 
 five or six, or even a greater number of dogs. 
 
 " "When they can be tracked on the snow, 
 only one dog should be used, as several de- 
 stroy, for each other, the track of the hare 
 when she springs off"; they are also an im- 
 pediment to the sportsman while he is rint^ino-, 
 by frightening the hare from her seat. In 
 autumn, the hare frequents the open country, 
 and grounds covered with small juniper 
 bushes ; and when the snow falls, it sits some- 
 times in the snow-drifts, and in the furrows of 
 corn-fields. When it is hard weather, it will 
 sit two or three nights without going from its 
 seat. During a thaw, it sits often on stones, 
 and in open places ; but in severe cold, in 
 thickets and bushes. If the country for 
 tracking will permit, that is to say, if it 
 be sufficiently open, it is more convenient, 
 to ride about and search for its track along 
 the fence of corn-fields, as it goes in and 
 out; for, to follow all the windings and 
 turnings which it makes in the course of the 
 night, is both fatiguing and consumes time. 
 As long as you find the track of the hare to 
 be so that the back feet immediately follow 
 each other, it is a proof that it has no in- 
 clination to rest; but wlien it begins to go 
 backwards and forwards in the same track, 
 and makes one or two leaps, and sets all 
 its four feet together almost in one point, 
 it is certain that you liave it very near, and 
 the time has arrived not to follow the track 
 430 
 
 more, but to ring it immediately. If it has 
 gone farther than the first ring, you must 
 make a new one. Whilst performing this ope- 
 ration, the sportsman should not halt, as then 
 the hare rises easily from its seat. When it 
 is ascertained that it has sprung up, the doo- 
 is immediately to be let loose. The hare is 
 caught with snares in fences, or, with the 
 usual gins, in woods and hedges. Eoasted, it 
 — especially a young hare — makes a good dish 
 at table." 
 
 In speaking of the hare, in another part of 
 his work, Mr. GreifF says — " At a hunt, when 
 a female hare was shot, seven young ones, all 
 alive, were cast to tlie dogs ; a bitch which 
 had lately pupped, took one of the young ones, 
 laid it in a bush, and licked and dried it ; 
 and we sportsmen had a difficulty to get it from 
 her, as she constantly licked and caressed it, 
 as if she wanted to give it suck. It was 
 carried liorae, and fed with milk. Eight days 
 afterwards it was killed, by an unlucky acci- 
 dent, to the great mortification of all the hunt- 
 ing party." 
 
 In the chronological history of Great Bri- 
 tain, hare-hunting takes precedence of fox- 
 hunting. " Hare- hunting," says a writer in 
 the Encyclo. Brit., " claims precedence of fox- 
 hunting in the sporting chronology of Great 
 Britain, and, we believe, of all other countries, 
 inasmuch as a hare has always been esteemed 
 excellent eating ; and a fox the rankest of car- 
 rion. We gather from Xenophon that it was 
 practised before his day, and he wrote fully 
 upon it above three centuries before Christ ; 
 both hounds and nets being then used in the 
 pursuit. Neither can we marvel at hare-hunt- 
 ing being the favourite diversion in all nations 
 given to sporting, where the use of the horse 
 in the field had not become common. But 
 we will go a point fiirther than this, and assert, 
 that how inferior soever may be the estima- 
 tion in which hunting the hare is held in 
 comparison with hunting the fox, no animal of 
 the chase affords so much hunting as she 
 does." In this we concur; and Mr. Beckford 
 agrees with us, for he says, that "the hare, 
 when properly hunted in a good country, will 
 show more hunting, to those fond of seeing 
 hounds hunt, than any other animal." In an 
 Essay on Hunting, by the County Squire, he 
 says — " The chase after the fox or stag is 
 
HABH-uiTNTrwo.] FOB MOlTlfTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [haue-humtimo. 
 
 violent, and little more than ritliuj?, or ruiuiin<» ; 
 but tho haro displays tho very art of Imntiri-^ 
 - -she atlorda a ploaHuro worthy of a philosopher 
 
 a curiosity that may justly raise the ailiuira- 
 
 tion of tl»e wisest statesman, physician, or 
 divine. I, therefore, hope for pardon from my 
 more sprii^-htly hrethren, if I give my vote for 
 the innoeent liare above all other game." 
 
 The haro is a very prolific animal, and, wero 
 it otherwise, the race would soon become ex- 
 tinct, from the numerous enemies by which it 
 is sought and assailed. The average duration 
 of the hare's life is about seven years. It is 
 pursued by dogs and foxes with mortal and 
 unrelenting autipatliy. Weasels, wild cats, 
 and wolves, seize and devour it whenever it is 
 within their reach; and eagles, hawks, and 
 other birds of prey are also destructive enemies; 
 but the most formidable of all is man. If 
 taken young, it may be tamed and domesti- 
 cated. It has occasionally been suckled and 
 nursed by a cat. 
 
 Mr. Beckford, an excellent sportsman, 
 makes many valuable remarks upon the 
 harrier and the hare, and thinks that it is a 
 fault in the former to run too fast. Scope 
 should be given for all the little tricks of the 
 hare, nor should she be killed foully. She 
 will make a good defence when fiercely hunted ; 
 and, as far as her own safety is concerned, 
 the hare has more cunning tiian tho fox, and 
 makes use of shifts to save her life far beyond 
 all the artifices of the other. The County 
 Squire, another good authority upon this sub- 
 ject, says, in reference to hare-hunting : — " I 
 would advise a young huntsman, when the 
 scent is well, always to keep himself far be- 
 hind. At such a time, especially, if it be 
 against the wind, it is impossible for the hare 
 to hold forward, nor has she any mode of 
 escaping, but to stop short, and, when all are 
 past, to steal immediately back. This is often 
 the occasion of an irrecoverable fault in the 
 midst of the warmest sport ; and is tlie best 
 trick the hare has for her life in scenting 
 weather. If the huntsman, therefore, is not 
 too forward, he will have the advantage of 
 seeing her manceuvre, and of assisting his 
 hounds at this critical moment. Upon sight 
 of the hare, avoid, above all things, the vile 
 practice of hallooing hounds off a scent to lay 
 them on after a view. It not ocly spoils the 
 
 dogs, by accustoming them at every fault to 
 listen fur and expect the halloo, but it iu foul 
 sporting ; equally unfair, and to be condemned, 
 to HullVr the pricks of tho hare's footing to be 
 souglit for when she runs the foil ; for, alLhuugli 
 it is admitted that, by such pricking and dis- 
 covering her steps, no haro can escape, yet ib 
 is an unfnanly mode of assisting hounds, which 
 no huntsman, wlio is a sporlBman, will bo 
 guilty of hinjself, or condescend to make use of 
 when done by others. The huntsman should 
 never be noisy when a hare is first started ; 
 let him ' not only chock his own forwardness, 
 but that, likewise, of tho inexperienced sports- 
 man. Hounds are apt enough, in the first heat 
 of their mettle, to overshoot their game, and 
 hours of sad sport have happened from driving 
 them too fast. Too many people think a chief 
 part of hunting consists in hallooing loud and 
 riding hard ; but they are mistaken, and must 
 not be offended should the huntsman swear 
 at such practices. No tongue can be allowed 
 but his, nor, at this particular time, ought any 
 one to be more forward. The chief considera- 
 tions for the huntsman, when the hounds are at 
 fault, are, how long the hare has been on foot, 
 and how far the hounds make it good ; if she 
 has not been long, and hard pressed, he must 
 expeditiously try a wide circle, and so persist 
 in contracting his circles, until he returns to 
 the place where the dogs threw up. Should 
 the hare have been driven hard, or be nearly 
 dead run, the huntsman need only try a small 
 compass, and that slowdy and cautiously, for she 
 will only leap oflf a few rods and squat, until one 
 or other of the dogs jumps upon her. A hunts- 
 man should be careful of talking too loud to 
 hounds, and in a key which, instead of cheer- 
 ing, confounds them." 
 
 In reference to the huntsman, tho same 
 authority says — " Give me a fellow of ever- 
 lasting patience and good temper, who does not 
 consider hunting merely as his business, but 
 who naturally loves it ; one with a clear mode- 
 rate voice, that speaks to an old hound when at 
 fault, frequently and with quickness, and 
 entices him in a tone that enforces courage, 
 and induces him to stoop perpetually to re- 
 cover the scent. It is by no means the hunts- 
 man's business, by pricking the hare, to hit her 
 ofi"; in the first place, it is unfair ; and, secondly, 
 while he is poring with his eyes upon the 
 
 4.3.1 
 
HABE-HUNTiNG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [english pointee. 
 
 ground, not one in twenty of the hounds will 
 have his nose to it. If there is a long default, 
 the huntsman should attend to the tender- 
 nosed dog, which, perhaps, he disregarded in 
 the morning as a babbler, and whom he pro- 
 nounced worthy of a halter for opening at 
 nothing ; his superior excellence of scenting 
 may now show itself to have merited a different 
 judgment, and may encourage some stancher 
 hound to stoop, which he would not other- 
 wise do." 
 
 Mr. Beckford, in a great measure, coincides 
 with these remarks, and jocularly observes — 
 " Were it customary to attend to the breed of 
 huntsmen, as well as to that of hounds, the 
 family of the silent gentleman, mentioned by 
 the Spectator, would furnish an excellent cross ; 
 and that a female of his lineage, married to a 
 knowing huntsman, would probably produce a 
 perfect hare hunter." 
 
 It is said, that a hare generally describes a 
 circle in her flight, either larger or smaller, in 
 accordance with her strength; and that the 
 female does not make so large a detour as the 
 male hare. Either sex, however, when, having 
 been hunted, and yet escaped, whether by 
 having made large or small circles, will follow 
 nearly the same track again when pursued ; 
 much, however, will depend on her general 
 habits, and whether the country be open or 
 enclosed. In inclosures, and where there is 
 much cover, the dodges of the hare form a 
 complete puzzle to the hounds. Besides run- 
 ning the foil, she frequently makes doubles, 
 which is going forward to tread the same steps 
 back again, purposely to confuse her pursuers ; 
 and the same style in which the first double is 
 made, she generally continues to follow, whether 
 long or short. 
 
 We will not prolong this part of our sub- 
 ject, but conclude it by giving Mr. Beckford's 
 opinion on the harrier pack individually and 
 collectively. "The number of hounds," he 
 says, " should not exceed twenty couple in the 
 field, from the difficulty ol getting a greater 
 number to run well together ; and a pack of 
 harriers (as well as fox-hounds) are incom- 
 plete if they do not. A hound that runs too 
 fast for the rest ought not to be kept. Some 
 huntsmen load them with heavy collars, or tie 
 a long strap round their necks ; a better way 
 would be to part with them ; whether they "o 
 432 
 
 too slow or too fast, they ought equally to be 
 drafted. The hounds most likely to show 
 sport, are between the large ' slow-hunting 
 harrier and the little fox- beagle; the former 
 are dull, heavy, and too slow ; the latter are 
 lively, light, and too fleet ; the first sort have 
 the best noses, and will kill their game at last, 
 if the day be long enough ; the other, on the 
 contrary, dash and are all alive, but every cold 
 blast affects them ; and in a deep and wet 
 country, it is not impossible that some of them 
 may be drowned." He further observes^ — - 
 " that with great trouble, and by breeding, for 
 many years, a vast number of hounds, he has 
 succeeded in his endeavour of getting a cross 
 of both kinds, with great bone and strength, 
 into as small a compass as possible ; that they 
 were handsome, ran well together, had all the 
 spirit that could be wished, and would hunt 
 the coldest scent. In conclusion, harriers to 
 be good, must be kept to their proper game." 
 
 THE ENGLISH POINTER. 
 
 This dog is produced by a cross between the 
 fox-hound and the Spanish pointer, a large, 
 big-boned hound, high in his legs, with a deep 
 jowl, and very heavy ears. This dog is now 
 seldom seen ; like the Talbot, the source, as we 
 presume, of the light, active, but vigorous fox- 
 hound, the old Spanish pointer has merged 
 into the intelligent, vigorous dog, so much 
 prized by the sportsman for its excellent quali- 
 fications. In some breeds of pointers there 
 is, we believe, a cross of the fox-houud, which 
 improves their strength and energy. 
 
 The intelligence of the pointer, and the 
 occupation in which he is so much engaged, 
 has rendered him capable of judging between 
 the qualities of a good and a bad shot. Capt. 
 Brown relates the following anecdote on this 
 subject : — " A gentleman having requested the 
 loan of a pointer dog from a friend, was in- 
 formed by him that the dog would behave very 
 well so long as he could kill his bii'ds ; but if 
 he fi'equently missed them, the dog would run 
 home and leave him. The pointer was ac- 
 cordingly sent, and the following day was 
 fixed for trial ; but, unfortunately, his new 
 master happened to be a remarkably bad shot. 
 Bird after bird rose and was fired at, but still 
 pursued its flight untouched, till, at last, the 
 dog became careless, and often missed his 
 
iNOLisn POINTER.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [enolish pointer. 
 
 game. Aa if seoiuingly willinj:;, however, to 
 give one chauco more, ho inatle ii dead stop at 
 ft teru bush, with his nose pointed downward, 
 his fore foot bent, and the tail strait^ht and 
 steady. In this position he remained lirm till 
 the sportsujan was close to him, with both 
 barrels cocked ; then, moving steadily forward 
 for a few paces, ho at last stood still near a 
 bunch of heather, the tail expressing tlie 
 anxiety ho felt, by moving regularly backwards 
 and forwards. At last, out sprung a fine old 
 blackcock. Bang, bang, went both barrels — 
 but the bird escaped unhurt. The patience of 
 the dog was now quite exhausted, and, instead 
 of dropping to the charge, he turned boldly 
 round, placed his tail between his legs, gave 
 one howl, long and loud, and set off as fust as 
 be could to his own home." 
 
 These dogs have been known to go out 
 hunting by themselves, and if they found, to 
 return for their master, and, by gestures, in- 
 duce him to take bis gun, and follow them to 
 the spot. This peculiarity, however, is not 
 confined to them. 
 
 As Eeynard kills his own mutton, as the 
 phrase is, and supplies his own larder with 
 rabbits, seldom destroying game, or visiting 
 distant hen-roosts when there is an abundant 
 number of bunnies close at hand, and followins: 
 his own impulses without let or hindrance ; it 
 may possibly be excused if a pack of hounds, 
 carrying out the idiosyncrasy principle, should 
 get up a run to themselves, without either the 
 voice of the huntsman to cheer them onwards, 
 or the thoug of the whips to keep tliem well 
 together. A case of this description took 
 place with the Essex Union hounds. Tired of 
 the inaction of the kennel at Danbury, and 
 anxious for the exercise of their good qualities 
 as a famous pack, they managed to burst from 
 their bounds, and commenced a chase upon their 
 own account. They collected in a compact 
 body, and, under the guidance of the leader of 
 the pack, they drew the cover in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of tbe common ; and, having 
 speedily found a fox, they went off in full cry, 
 and proved that they were adepts at their 
 work. An alarm was given ; and it was not 
 till the huntsman and wliips had had a chase 
 of three-quarters of an hour, that the truant 
 pack were drawn off the scent, and brought 
 safely back to the captivity of the kennel. 
 3 K 
 
 All those animals are very superior in the 
 scent : but, according to tho lines of Tickell, 
 they must yield in this particular to the 
 Talbot, or bloodhound. 
 
 " O'er all till' blooilhound boa.sts superior skill 
 To scent, to view, to turn, and boldly kill ; 
 His fullows' vain alarms n-jecta with scorn. 
 True to the master's voice, and learned horn. 
 Ilis nostrils oft, if ancient fame sing true, 
 Trace the sly felon through the tainted dew; 
 Once snuffd, he follows with unalter'd aim, 
 Nor odours lure him from the chosen game ; 
 Deep-mouth'd he thunders, and influmed he views, 
 Springs on relentless, and to death pursues." 
 
 Before tho beginning of the present century 
 pointers were known in Great Britain, and are 
 now abundantly spread over these islands. 
 They have also been transported to our colo- 
 nial possessions, where it is to be hoped tho 
 breed may be perpetuated, although wo fear 
 that the want of hunting opportunity will 
 cause them to degenerate. AV"e have records 
 of some of the species having exhibited traits 
 of excellence of tho very highest order. " The 
 celebrated pointer dog Dash," says Mr. Blaine, 
 "so admirably portrayed by Gilpin, was the 
 produce of a Spanish pointer and a fox-hound; 
 and the blending of the high scenting powers 
 of the Spanish pointer, and the dash, speed, 
 and courage of the fox-hound, produced one of 
 tho best pointers that ever crossed a field, or 
 ranged a moor, either as regarded speed, en- 
 durance, and such scenting powers as carried 
 him, at once, up to the birds, with little quar- 
 tering of the ground. He was equally good at 
 backing, which he did in a style that gained 
 him great admiration. It is recorded that he 
 was sold by his master. Colonel Thornton, to 
 Sir Richard Symons, for IGO pounds' worth of 
 Champagne and Burgundy, a hogshead of 
 claret, a valuable gun, and a pointer. The bar- 
 gain was also made with a stipulation, that if 
 any accident happened to him, he was to be 
 returned to Colonel Thornton for fifty guineas. 
 It appears that Dash did break his leg, which 
 unfitted him for any purpose but that of 
 breeding from, and likewise that the sporting 
 colonel gladly received \xm\ back again for the 
 stipulated sum." 
 
 It is impossible for any one to estimate the 
 qualities of dogs who has not witnessed their 
 development, correctly, or even sufliciently. 
 Dr. Shaw tells us that the French academi- 
 
 433 
 
ENGLISH POiNTEE.] THE DOG, A]S"D ITS VAEIETIES; [english pointee. 
 
 cians speak of a dog of Germany, which, in 
 a manner, is perfectly intelligible, and would 
 call for tea, coffee, chocolate, &c. The person 
 who evidenced the qualities of this dog, and 
 who communicated an account of them to 
 the Eoyal Academy of France, was no less 
 than the distinguished Leibnitz — one not 
 likely to form a hasty opinion, or coolly report 
 an untruth. The dog, however, had been 
 educated to his mode of speech. A little boy, 
 the s'on of a peasant, imagined that he per- 
 ceived in the voice of the dog the rudimental 
 resemblance to certain words, and, therefore, 
 took it into his head to teach him to speak. 
 With this object in view he set to work, and 
 spared neither time, labour, nor patience upon 
 his canine scholar, who was about three years 
 old when his education in the German lan- 
 guage commenced ; and he soon made such 
 progress, that he could articulate, with some 
 degree of distinctness, no fewer than thirty 
 words. It appears, however, that he was 
 somewhat of a truant, and was negligent in 
 the exertion of his extraordinary talents — a 
 circumstance very common, even in men of 
 conscious ability. He was averse to his being 
 pressed into the service of literature ; so that 
 it was necessary that the word should be first 
 pronounced to him each time, which he, as it 
 •were, echoed from his preceptor. Leibnitz, 
 however, attests that he himself heard him 
 speak ; and the French academicians add, that 
 unless they had received the testimony of so 
 great a man as Leibnitz, they should scarcely 
 have dared to report the circumstance. This 
 extraordinary dog was a native of Zeitz, in 
 Misnia, in Saxony. Had this dog been a 
 native of Japan instead of Germany, to what 
 a degree of consideration would he not have 
 risen ! The islands of that empire form the 
 earthly paradise of dogs. There they have 
 every encouragement to live happily, and enjoy 
 a perfect immunity from many of the punish- 
 ments to which they are doomed by the less 
 Jiumane, yet more civilised Europeans. The 
 reason for this exemption arose out of a sin- 
 gular superstition. A.n emperor, who reigned 
 at the close of the last century, chanced to be 
 born under the sign of the Dog, one of the 
 twelve celestial signs of Japan ; and on this 
 account the emperor decreed that all dogs 
 should be deemed sacred. They, accordingly, 
 434 
 
 have no masters, but lie and prowl about the 
 streets as they list, to the extreme annoyance 
 of many of the passers-by, and especially to 
 those who are not possessed of very strong, 
 affectionate, canine tendencies. If a pack of 
 these dogs take it into their sagacious heads 
 to attack a person, he must, on no account, 
 beat or kill them, but suffer himself to be 
 bitten, or, perhaps, like Actaeon, devoured. 
 To kill one of them is death by the law, no 
 matter what may have been the ferocity of the 
 brute. In every town there are guardians of 
 these dogs, and they alone are empowered to 
 punish their charges. Every street must 
 maintain a certain number of these animals, 
 or, at least, provide them with victuals. Huts, 
 or dog hospitals, are erected in different parts 
 of the towns ; and to these, in cases of sickness, 
 the patients must be carefully conveyed by 
 the inhabitants. The dogs that die must be 
 carried up to the tops of the hills and the 
 mountains, the usual places of burial for the 
 human species, and there be respectfully in- 
 terred. Had the speaking dog of Germany 
 chanced to have been born in such a comuiu- 
 nity, it is impossible to say what honours 
 might have been conferred upon him. An 
 emperor raised his horse to the dignity of the 
 Eoman magistracy; the Emperor of Japan 
 might, at least, have made the dog a professor 
 of languages. 
 
 The dog is not the only animal that can be 
 trained to point. "We have heard of other 
 species matchless even in this particular. jMr. 
 Daniel, in his Bural Sports, records the case 
 of a female pig, the property of jNIr. Toomer, 
 gamekeeper to Sir Henry Mildmay, that was 
 as perfect a pointer as ever took the field. Mr. 
 Blaine substantiates the account of Mr. Daniel, 
 by the evidence of an eye-witness of the facts 
 recorded. "It was certainly," he says, "a 
 mere matter of accident that occasioned the 
 development of the peculiar scenting powers 
 of this extraordinary animal. The aptitude of 
 swine, generally, in finding certain palatable 
 roots under ground was well known to Toomer ; 
 nor was it unlikely, by what followed, that he 
 might have entertained an opinion, that almost 
 any keen-scenting animal could be taught both 
 to wind game, and to stand on the point to- 
 wards it; and that he was, therefore, led to 
 allow a female pig to accompany his young 
 
EN'OLisu pointee] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. 
 
 [POINTSKS. 
 
 pointers, in thoir break iiiLj lessons, to the Held. 
 Bo that as it may, it turned out, to the sur- 
 prise and stratification of the intelligent keeper, 
 that within a fortnight from her first entrt^e, 
 she would hunt and point partridges or rab- 
 bits ; and her training being much forwarded 
 bv the abundance of both, which were near 
 the keeper's lodge, she daily improved, and, in 
 a few weeks, would retrieve birds that had run 
 as well as the best pointer ; nay, her nose was 
 superior to any pointer they ever possessed, 
 and no two men in England had better. They 
 bunted her principally on the moors and heaths. 
 Slut has stood partridges, black-game, phea- 
 sants, snipes, and rabbits in the same way, but 
 was never known to point a hare. She was 
 seldom taken by choice more than a mile or 
 two from the lodge, but as frequently joined 
 them when out with their pointers, and con- 
 tinued with them several hours. She has 
 sometimes stood a jack-snipe, when all the 
 pointers have passed by it. She would back 
 the dogs wlien they pointed, but the dogs re- 
 fused to back her until spoken to — Toomer's 
 dogs being all trained to make a general halt 
 when the word was given, whetlier any dog 
 pointed or not ; so that she has been frequently 
 standing in the midst of a field of pointers. 
 In consequence of the dogs being not much 
 inclined to hunt when she was with them — for 
 they dropped their sterns and showed symp- 
 toms of jealousy — she did not very often ac- 
 company them, except for the novelty; or 
 when she accidentally joined them in the 
 forest. Her pace was mostly a trot ; she was 
 seldom known to gallop, except when called to 
 go out shooting ; she would then come home 
 off the forest at full stretch — for she was never 
 shut up, except to prevent her being out of 
 the sound of the call or whistle when a party 
 of gentlemen had appointed to see her out the 
 next day, and which call she obeyed as readily 
 as a dog — and be as much elated as a dog upon 
 being shown the gun. She always expressed 
 great pleasure when game, either dead or alive, 
 was placed before her. She has frequently 
 stood a single partridge at forty yards' distance 
 — her nose in a direct line to the bird. After 
 standing some considerable time, she would 
 drop like a setter, still keeping her nose in 
 an exact line, and would continue in that posi- 
 tion until the game moved ; if it took winf^, 
 
 she would come up to the place, and put l»cr 
 nose down two or threo times; but if a bird 
 ran off, she would get up and go to the place, 
 and draw slowly after it ; and whoa the bird 
 stopped she would stand it as before : nor was 
 her love of hunting ennlined to partridges 
 only ; but she has stood black-game, pheasants, 
 snipes, ami rabbits, and has been seen to do it 
 to all these varieties in one day." 
 
 This, in some respects, may beat the powers 
 even of the educated dog ; but it is a rare, and, 
 it must be acknowledged, an extraordinary in- 
 stance of development in the porcine race. 
 
 THE SPANISH POINTER. 
 
 This dog is apparently one of very ancient 
 extraction ; but Mr. Richardson thinks he is 
 not of Spanish origin — at least not remotely 
 so ; for the primitive breed is traceable to the 
 East. The old Spanish pointer is, when per- 
 fectly thorough-bred, remarkable from having 
 a cleft nose, similar to the Russian variety. The 
 animal is altogether too heavy for the ardour 
 of British sportsmen ; and, with the old Talbot, 
 or Manchester hound, has gradually passed 
 out of notice. He has been displaced from 
 the estimation in which he was held, by a 
 lighter, more active, and energetic dog, more 
 suitable to the tastes of the British sportsman ; 
 viz., the English pointer. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN POINTER. 
 This dog is covered with coarse, wiry hair, 
 like the Russian terrier. He is somewhat less 
 in stature than the ordinary pointer, and is 
 lower in the shoulder. His nose cleft — hence 
 he is frequently called the " double-nosed 
 pointer." He is very staunch, and is held in 
 deservedly high estimation. Jlis temper, 
 however, is said to be unbending, and he, 
 therefore, requires the most careful training. 
 AVhen thoroughly broken in, and rendered 
 perfectly subservient to the will of his master, 
 ho is esteemed a valuable dog, and brings a 
 high price. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE POINTER. 
 
 This animal is not so heavy as the Spanish 
 pointer ; and is not to be depended on, from 
 his irritable disposition. He is very unsteady, 
 and is favoured with a spreading tail. "We 
 introduce him here simply on account of hia 
 
 435 
 
POINTERS. 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [SPAKIELS. 
 
 bad qualities, that no person may have any- 
 thing to do with him. 
 
 THE FREiN'CH POINTER 
 "Wants the staunchness of our Englisli dog. 
 He is less objectionable than the variety just 
 described, but still not the thing. . 
 
 This dog has more to commend him than 
 the Italian" but he has not the steadiness of 
 the English breed. We do not kuow why this 
 should be ; but it strikes us that these canine 
 creatures of the Portuguese and Erench peo- 
 ple participate in some degree of the idiosyn- 
 crasies of the natures to which they themselves 
 belong. 
 
 THE ITALIAN POINTER. 
 This is a perfect miniature variety of a very 
 highly-bred English pointer, seldom exceeding 
 one foot in height. Mr. Eichardson says, he 
 saw one, about twelve years ago, in possession 
 of Stewart Monteith, Esq., of Closeburn, 
 Dumfriesshire ; and another, about the same 
 time, in possession of Mr. Mather, an artist, 
 resident in Edinburgh. These little dogs had 
 exquisite noses, and would set game as 
 staunchly as any other pointer, but were, of 
 course, too small for field use 
 
 THE DALMATIAN, OR CARRIAGE DOG. 
 
 This animal greatly resembles the pointer ; 
 but is not remarkable for either its sagacity or 
 power of scent, Notwithstanding these de- 
 fects, he has been broken to the gun, and 
 proved himself quite capable of holding his 
 ground witb other pointers. As he is not 
 regularly trained to the field, whatever draw- 
 backs he may have in hunting, may have 
 sprung from that circumstance. 
 
 The sagacity of dogs of every variety of 
 breed is universally acknowledged, and there 
 are, every day, instances of its exemplification 
 being witnessed throughout the civilised world. 
 One of the most extraordinary displays of the 
 possession of this quality transpired not long 
 
 ago. Messrs. , tobacconists, closed their 
 
 shop one evening, leaving their favourite New- 
 foundland inside. On opening the store on 
 the following morning, tho floor in the back 
 room was found to be on fire, and the dog was 
 labouring with his fore feet and mouth, tryiu" 
 to subdue it. A pail of water, which stood in 
 436 
 
 the room, had been poured down the hole. 
 The faithful animal had so successfully com- 
 bated the fire as to prevent its spreading be- 
 yond a spot two or three feet square. How 
 long the noble fellow had stood sentinel and 
 fought down the advancing flames can only be 
 conjectured ; it must have been several hours. 
 His feet, legs, and mouth were badly burned, 
 and he was seriously injured internally by in- 
 haling the hot air. He refused his food, and 
 was apparently in much pain. He is worth his 
 weight in gold, and may safely be pronounced 
 the noblest of his race. 
 
 SPANIELS. 
 The Spaniel is a very ancient dog, the breed 
 of which has, in various countries, received 
 the utmost attention. In the Levant there 
 seems to be several breeds ; and even history 
 has given the spaniel celebrity for its fidelity, 
 and the aflectionate disposition of which it is 
 possessed. The chief order of Denmark, now 
 called the Order of the Elephant, was insti- 
 tuted to commemorate the faithfulness of a 
 spaniel, which adhered to the sovereign when 
 his subjects deserted him. The motto to this 
 order still exists, and it is simple, brief, and 
 expressive — " "Wildbrat was faithful." Mr. 
 Daniel, in his Sural S/Jorts, speaks of the 
 amiability of a spaniel that belonged to the 
 gamekeeper of the Rev. Mr. Corsellis. " The 
 gamekeeper of Mr. Corsellis," he says, " had 
 reared a spaniel, which was bis constant 
 attendant, both by day and night ; wherever 
 old Daniel, the keeper, appeared, Dasb was 
 close beside him ; and the dog was of infinite 
 use in his nocturnal excursions. The game, 
 at that season, he never regarded, although, 
 in the day-time, no spaniel would find it 
 in better style, or in greater quantity ; 
 but at night, if a strange loot had en- 
 tered any of the coverts, Dash, by a signifi- 
 cant whine, informed his /master that the 
 enemy was abroad ; and many poachers have 
 been detected and caught from this singular 
 intelligence. After many years' friendly con- 
 nection, old Daniel was seized with a disease 
 which terminated in consumption and his 
 death. "Whilst the slow, but fatal progress of 
 his disorder allowed him to crawl about. Dash, 
 as usual, followed his footsteps ; and when 
 nature was still further exhausted, and he 
 
8PANIBLS ] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAlxX, FIELD, AND FAKM. 
 
 [the SETTEa. 
 
 took to his bed, at tlie loot of it uiiwcuiily 
 atteuilecl the laiiliful animal; and when ho 
 died, the dog would not quit the body, but 
 lay upon the bed by its side. It was with 
 diflifu'ty he was tempted to cat any food ; 
 and although, after the burial, he was taken 
 to the hall, aud caressed with all the temler- 
 ness which so fond an attachment naturally 
 called forth, he took every opportunity to 
 steal back to the room in the cottajxe where 
 his old master breathed his last. Here ho 
 would remain for hours ; from thence ho daily 
 visited his grave ; and, at the end of fourteen 
 davs, notwithstanding every kindness and 
 attention shown him, he died literally broken- 
 hearted." To this anecdote we may append 
 the Danish motto, only altering the name, and 
 sav, "Dash was faithful." 
 
 " As the shepherd's dog," says ^Mr. Elchard- 
 son, " is the taithful friend of those in the 
 humbler walks of life, so are the spaniels to 
 'chiefs and ladies bright' — to the gentler 
 sex, par excellence, and to those high in 
 ' honour and in place.' Examples of the good 
 qualities of these dogs are everywhere noto- 
 rious. As the shepherd's dog represents the 
 utile, so may these represent the dulce. The 
 former, the rough aud honest comrade of the 
 rough and honest peasant — the latter, the 
 associate of luxurious courtiers and of power- 
 ful princes ; but still, though moving amidst 
 tinsel and falsehood, n'^ver losing the primi- 
 tive honesty and purity of intention which 
 characterise his disposition." 
 
 The following we take from a communica- 
 tion made to a respectable paper; — "I had a 
 spaniel dog that was particularly attached to 
 me. She seemed quite conscious when I was 
 about to leave home for a lengthened absence, 
 and would whine and look exceedingly miser- 
 able on such occasions ; though she would 
 suffer me to depart without any exhibition of 
 especial regret when I was only going to the 
 neighbouring towns for a day or two. I was 
 informed, on credible authority, that when I 
 was in London, or any other distant place, 
 and wrote home, this dog would select my 
 letter from a number of others, and, if 
 she could possibly obtain it, would run 
 away with it in her mouth to some secure 
 hiding-place, and cry over it ; and, perhaps, 
 if she had found words, would have exclaimed, 
 
 like Hero, wlieu perusing an ej)istle from 
 Leander : — 
 
 ** ' With wlint delight I rend your letter o'er; 
 
 Your iircsence only could have pivin me more.' ** 
 
 How far credulity may be given to thi« 
 instance of s.'igacity, we must leave it to the 
 reader's own judgment to decide. 
 
 THE SETTER, OR LAND SP.VNIEL. 
 
 This spaniel was first broken ia to set 
 partridges and other feathered game, as an 
 assistant to the net, by Dudley, Duke of 
 Northumberland, in 1335 ; and Mr. Daniel, in 
 his jRural Sports, gives a copy of a document, 
 dated 1(JS5, in which a yeoman binds himself, 
 for ten shillings, to teach a spaniel to set 
 partridges and pheasants. That the setter 
 and the old original land spaniel are identical, 
 there can be no doubt. 
 
 " There are several varieties of setter. Tho 
 ordinary old English setter, with rather a 
 square head and heavy chops, looking as if he 
 had a dash of Spanish pointer in him : colour 
 usually liver-and-white. The Irish setter, 
 narrower in the head, finer in the muzzle ; 
 usually of a yellowish-red colour, perhaps the 
 fastest of all setters. This is a dog in very 
 high esteem ; no trace of the pointer is seen 
 in him. These are the genuine, unmixed de- 
 scendants of the original land spaniel ; and so 
 highly valued are they, that a hundred guineas 
 is by no means an unusual price for a single 
 dog. There was a celebrated breed of these 
 dogs — now, I believe, extinct — kept by that 
 ancient and noble Irish family, the O'Connors 
 of Offaly : those belonging to the late Maurice 
 O'Connor were highly renowned, and the 
 breed is described by his grandson as yet 
 remaining." 
 
 Of the sagacity of every variety of spaniel, 
 we have almost innumerable instances, which, 
 to those who are unacquainted with the mental 
 manifestations of dogs, sometimes appear so 
 extraordinary, that it makes credulity pause 
 before it can admit them into the repository 
 of its facts. On one occasion, some gentle- 
 men were shooting in the woods belonging to 
 Mrs. Stackpoole and Miss "W'asey, of Prior's 
 Court, when one of the party (Mr. J. "W'eru- 
 ham Pocock, of Chievely) discovered that he 
 had lost his watch and chain. He recollected 
 having them safely in his pocket about an 
 
 437 
 
THE SETTEE.] 
 
 THE DOG-, AXD ITS ^AEIETIES; 
 
 [the setter. 
 
 hour before, but bad since been through a 
 considerable portion of high cover. Fortu- 
 nately, however, Mr. Pocock had a retriever 
 dog with him, which he sent into the wood to 
 find the missing valuables ; hardly, however, 
 supposing that he would really do so ; but, 
 upon following the animal some distance into 
 the high wood, the dog was found to have 
 taken his station at the stem of a small tree, 
 into which he was anxiously looking up, and 
 endeavouring to jump. Mr. Pocock's gratifi- 
 cation and surprise may be imagined, when he 
 saw his watch and chain suspended in the 
 tree by the bough which had drawn them from 
 his pocket. 
 
 The nature of the setter was generally well 
 understood two centuries and a-half ago. 
 Gervase Markham, in his work On the Art of 
 Fowling, says — " I know that in divers places 
 in this kingdom the setting dogs are to be 
 taught (so that men of ability may have them 
 at their pleasure) ; yet, likewise, I know they 
 are sold at such great rates and prices, that no 
 industrious man whatsoever (which either loves 
 the sport, or would be partaker of the benefit) 
 but will be glad to learn how to make a dog 
 himself, and so both save his purse and make 
 his pleasure and profit both more sure and 
 more delicate ; for this I must assure all men 
 that buy their dogs from mercenary teachers, 
 that evermore those salesmen do reserve in 
 their own bosoms some one secret or another, 
 for the want of knowledge whereof the pur- 
 chaser quickly finds his dog imperfect, and so 
 is forced upon every disorder or alteration of 
 keeping to send the dog back to his first master 
 anew to be reformed, which, drawing on you a 
 new price, makes the dog's certain price with- 
 out end, and without valuation. This fault to 
 redress, and to make every man the true master 
 of his own work, I will show you here, in a 
 brief and compendious manner, all the mys- 
 teries and secrets which lie hid in this laborious 
 business. The first thing, therefore, you must 
 learn in this art, is to make a true selection of 
 your dog which you intend to apply to this 
 purpose of setting ; and, in this selection, you 
 shall observe, that although any dog which is 
 perfect, and of good scent, and naturally ad- 
 dicted to the hunting of feathers — as whether 
 it be the land spaniel, water spaniel, or else 
 the mongrels between either or both of these 
 433 
 
 kinds, or the mongrels of either of these 
 kinds, either with the shallow-flewed hound, 
 the tumbler, the lurcher, or indeed the small 
 bastard mastiff — may be brought to this per- 
 fection in setting (as I have seen by daily 
 experience, both in this and in other nations) ; 
 yet is there none so excellent, indeed, as the 
 true-bred land spaniel, being of a nimble and 
 good size, ratlier small than gross, and of 
 courageous and fiery metal, evermore loving 
 and desiring toil, when toil seems most irk- 
 some and weary, which, although you cannot 
 know in a whelp so young, as it is intended he 
 must be when you first begin to train him to 
 this purpose, yet you may have a strong spe- 
 culation therein if you choose him from a right 
 litter or breed, wherein, by succession, you 
 have known that the whole generation have 
 been endowed with all these qualities, as, 
 namely, that he is a strong, lusty, and nimble 
 ranger, both of active foot, wanton tail, and 
 busy nostril ; that his toil is without weariness, 
 his search without changeableness, and yet that 
 no delight nor desire transport him beyond 
 fear or obedience ; for it is the perfectest cha- 
 racter of the most perfect spaniel ever to be 
 fearful and loving to him that is his master 
 and keeper. I confess I have seen excellent 
 rare setting dogs made in the Low Countries, 
 which have been of a bastard tumbler's kind ; 
 and, indeed, I have found in them (if I may so 
 term it) a greater wisdom (which, indeed, is 
 but a greater fear) than in our land spaniels ; 
 but, comparing the whole work together, that 
 is, the labour of ranging, the scent in finding, 
 and the act of setting, they have been much 
 inferior to our dogs, and not able to make 
 their ways in the sharp thickets and trouble- 
 some covers, nor stand up with them in the 
 large and spacious campaigns. To speak then, 
 in a word, touching the best choice of this 
 setting dog, let him be as near as you can the 
 best bred spaniel that you can procure; and 
 though some have been curious in observing 
 their colours, as giving pre-eminence to the 
 motley, the liver-head, or the white or black 
 spotted; yet, questionless, it is but a vain 
 curiosity, for no colour is amiss for this pur- 
 pose, provided the natural qualities be perfect, 
 and answerable for the work to which end you 
 intend them." 
 
 IS'otwithstanding all the precautions taken 
 
tHESETTEn.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, A\D FARM. [tue setter. 
 
 in trainings the setter, tliore are some of tlioni, 
 when taken into the fii-ld, alVeoteil witli what is 
 called "gun-shy." A gentleman, whilst shoot- 
 ing with ft iriend, on the Cluno Moors, in 
 I^Ioravshire, observed that one very handsome 
 setter was invariably left behind ; and, upon 
 askin'' the reason, was informed that ho was 
 " f^un-shv," and " ran home ;" but that " icifhouf 
 lilt' gun, no dog could boat him on the hills." 
 lie was too good-looking to be tlirown away, 
 though bis owner had but slight hope, after 
 running home, that any good could bo done. 
 However, he tried, and the plan adopted was the 
 following : — He coupled him to a retriever (:i 
 stronger dog than the setter), and took them 
 on the hill; at first, the "gun-shy" setter 
 wanted to bolt, but the retriever was too fond 
 of the sport to allow it, when a sort of " pull 
 devil, pull tailor" performance commenced, 
 always ending in favour of the retriever. 
 This went on for three successive days, each 
 day the gun-shyness wearing off; and, on the 
 fourth morning, no symptoms of it were 
 risible. This dog was shot over for several 
 months, and came at last to be pronounced 
 by far the best dog in his kennel, which is 
 by no means the worst in the North. Let a 
 dog see what you are firing at, and not blaze 
 over him in a kennel or yard. 
 
 Another sportsman, who had much experi- 
 ence of gun-shy in setters, found the only suc- 
 cessful means of curing them was, by taking 
 them out with some hunting terrier or dog, 
 where game was abundant (whether winged 
 game, or quadrupeds, was immaterial), and 
 allowing them to run riot as they pleased for 
 several days ; then, while at a distance, and 
 the dogs alone, to fire an occasional shot, 
 never allowing them to see a whip, or even 
 speak angrily to them, until their ardour be- 
 came excessive. Then, for a dog, he would 
 shoot a hare or rabbit, and give him the en- 
 trails ; and should this have proved unsuccess- 
 ful in removing his terror, he would break him 
 off the way, by tying up one of his fore legs 
 with a pair of couples, close under his neck, 
 and then take up amongst the guns, and check 
 him with a check-line (a long line annexed to 
 a collar put round his neck, by which he may 
 be held to a set), at which time the gun would 
 be continually used, and no harsh severity 
 whatever. 
 
 A spurtsmaii, writing to The Field, Havs — 
 " I have now a setter bitch— the best, I may 
 any, 1 ever saw out — which was, at one time, 
 under the inlluenco of this fever (gun-shy). 
 I had almost despaired of removing liiis alarm, 
 when it occurred to me, as I wished to propa- 
 gate the stock of an old dog setter, I would 
 try what 'warding' would do. The effect 
 was wonderful. On the 1st of .September, I 
 think it was, my keeper took her out after her 
 lovo affair, and shot two-and-a-half brace of 
 birds over her ; she never bolted, nor has she 
 evinced any feeling or symptom of fear at a 
 gun, or the report of one ; and is now, and lias 
 been since that time, one of the best dogs I 
 ever shot to. I should recommend this plan 
 of putting the dog to a bitch. If this does not 
 succeed, he cannot do better than follow a 
 work on dogs, written by Colonel Hutchinson, 
 which work, I observe, other correspondents 
 have recommended. Patience and kindness 
 must cure the evil ; squibbing off, occasionally, 
 (leaving the dog) may accustom him to the 
 report of a gun — increasing the load by de- 
 grees, and patting the dog, and giving him a 
 piece of biscuit, cake, &c., after each discharge. 
 Taking him out, also, with an old dog may do 
 wonders, as a dog will more readily learn oi 
 his own species than from any other means. 
 I have known the above remedy of ' warding' 
 succeed in many instances." 
 
 Setters have been known to be affected with 
 gun-shy up to eighteen months old, and after 
 that turned out very well. These have not 
 been actually gun-shy, but would not work off. 
 If the dog runs away when the gun is fired off, 
 some think they never get over it. 
 
 Mr. Richardson says — " The setter is by 
 some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and 
 where water is to be got at occasionally, during 
 a day's shooting, there can be no doubt of h.is 
 superiority. He cannot, however, work with- 
 out a drink as long as the pointer can, although, 
 if he can obtain a sufiicient supply, he can 
 work still longer than that dog. In disposi- 
 tion, the setter is more affectionate, and more 
 attached to his master individually, than the 
 pointer is. He requires more training than 
 the latter dog ; but that training must be of a 
 very mild and gentle description, lest the dog 
 be hJinJced, or spirit-broken. The setter will 
 always work best in cold and wet weather. 
 
 439 
 
THE SETTEE.] 
 
 THE DOG-, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [the settee. 
 
 The pointer cannot, from his short hair, which 
 makes liim very susceptible of cold ; but will 
 stand out a day's shooting much better than 
 the setter in very warm weather. However, 
 the setter is decidedly the best dog for general 
 use." 
 
 The black setter is a rare specimen, and is 
 both staunch to his work, and beautiful. The 
 Scotch setter stands high on his legs, but is 
 difficult to break, from the quarrelsomeness of 
 bis disposition. He is usually of a black and 
 tan colour. 
 
 Of the affectionate disposition of the setter, 
 we have numerous illustrative anecdotes. Mr. 
 Sherras Bell, F.E.S., F.L.S., in his History of 
 British Quadrupeds, thus discourses upon the 
 qualities of one of this kind of dog : — " By far 
 the most interesting and, if I may so employ 
 the term, amicable animal I have ever known, 
 was a bitch of this kind, formerly belonging to 
 my father, which he had from a puppy, and 
 which, although never regularly broke, was 
 the best dog in the field he ever possessed. 
 The very expression of poor Juno's counte- 
 nance was full of sensibility and affection. 
 She appeared to be always on the watch to 
 evince her love and gratitude to those who 
 were kind to her ; and the instinct of attach- 
 ment was, in her, so powerful, that it showed 
 itself in her conduct to other animals, as well 
 as to her human friends. A kitten, which 
 had lately been taken from its mother, was 
 sent to us, and, on Juno's approach, showed 
 the usual horror of the cat towards dogs. But 
 Juno seemed determined to conquer- the an- 
 tipathy ; and, by the most winning and perse- 
 vering kindness and forbearance — advancing 
 or receding, as she found the waywardness of 
 her new friend's temper required — she com- 
 pletely attached the kitten to her ; and, as she 
 had lately lost her puppies, and still had some 
 milk left, I have often seen them lying together 
 before the fire, the kitten sucking her kind 
 fostermother, who was licking and caressing 
 her as her offspring. She would also play 
 with great gentleness with some rabbits of 
 mine, and would entice them to familiarity by 
 the kindness of her manner ; and so fond was 
 she of caressing the young of the dog species, 
 that when a spaniel bitch of my father had 
 puppies, of which all, excepting one, were 
 destroyed, Juno would take every opportunitv 
 *440 
 
 to steal the remaining one from its mother's 
 nest, and carry it to her home, where she 
 would lick and fondle it with the greatest ten- 
 derness. Poor Pussy, the mother, also a good- 
 tempered creature, as soon as she had dis- 
 covered the theft, hastened, of course, to briuo- 
 back her little one, which was again to be 
 stolen on the first favourable opportunity ; 
 until, at length, the two bitches killed the 
 poor puppy between them, as they were en- 
 deavouring each to pull it from the other ; all 
 this with the most perfect mutual good under- 
 standing. Juno lived to a good old age, an 
 unspoiled pet, after her master had shot to her 
 fourteen seasons." 
 
 A curious question arising out of the game 
 laws — Can a farmer be unlawfully on his own 
 farm ? — was argued some time ago in the 
 Higli Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh. It 
 was an advocation and suspension of a judg- 
 ment of the sheriff-substitute of Dumfries, 
 whereby Mr. Smith, tenant of the farm of 
 Broadleydyke, Lochmaben, was sentenced to 
 a month's imprisonment with hard labour, for 
 being guilty of night poaching on his own 
 farm, under 9 G-eo. IV. c. 69. By this statute 
 it is enacted, that if any person shall, by night, 
 unlawfully take or destroy any game or rabbits 
 in any land, whether open or enclosed, or 
 shall, by night, unlawfully enter or be on any 
 land, open or enclosed, with a gun, net, engine, 
 or other instrument, for the purpose of taking 
 or destroying game, such oftender may be ap- 
 prehended, &c. Oa the 12th of December, 
 the com plainer was served with a criminal 
 libel, cliarging him with having been on his 
 farm by night for the purpose of taking or 
 destroying game, and guilty therefore of the 
 above statutory oftence. The case was tried 
 before Sheriff' Trotter, on the 20th of Decem- 
 ber ; and his lordship having found him guilty 
 of being upon the lands for the purpose of 
 taking or destroying game, pronounced the 
 sentence of which the present was a suspen- 
 sion. The grounds on which the conviction 
 was sought to be quashed were — First, that 
 the complaint was irrelevant, and ought to 
 have been dismissed ; because, while the 
 statute drew a distinction between destroying 
 game or rabbits, and being unlawfully on the 
 lands by night for the purpose, the major of 
 the libel embraced them both as one offence — 
 
WATEU SPANIEL.] FOR MOUNTATX, FTTlLr*. AND FARM, [wateb spaniel. 
 
 a circumstance which was fatal to tho iiuiict- 
 ineut in the ease of Mr. Cornet (1S25) ; fur- , 
 ther, the species facti did not amount to either 
 of tlie crimes specified in the statute. In tlie 
 second place, tlie act did not apply at all to the 
 coinplainer's case, because it was his own farm, 
 and he could never be unlawfully there under 
 anv circumstances. In the third place, it was 
 maintained tliat the terms of the conviction 
 were bad, and inapplicable to the statute, inas- 
 much as the qualiiications, "with any gun, 
 net, or other instrument," were omitted. The 
 judges were unanimous in holding that, from the 
 terms of the conviction, it must be set aside; 
 but thev were divided in opinion as to whether 
 « farmer could be unlawfully on his own farm 
 in the sense of the act. Lords Deas and 
 Cowan were of opinion that he could not. 
 Lords Handyside and Ardmillan that he could. 
 The Lord Justice Clerk gave his casting vote 
 in favour of the latter view, and the sentence 
 was suspended with expenses. 
 
 Tims it would seem doubtful whether a man 
 has a right to be on his ov:n farm with a gun 
 in his hand. 
 
 THE WATER SPANIEL. 
 
 This is a sturdy dog, with crisped hair, and 
 
 of variable stature, according to the sporting 
 
 duties he has to be engaged in. Those of this 
 
 species that have to be employed on the banks 
 
 of rivers, moors, or lakes, should be small, but 
 
 strong and spirited. Old Gervase Markham 
 
 says — " The water-dog is a creature of such 
 
 general use, and so frequently in use here in 
 
 England, that it is needless to make any large 
 
 description of him ; the rather, since not any 
 
 amongst us is so simple that be cannot say 
 
 where he sees him. This is a water-dog, or a 
 
 dog bred for the water ; yet, because in this (as 
 
 in other creatures) there are other characters 
 
 and forms which pretend more excellency, and 
 
 figure a greater height of virtue than others 
 
 do, I will here describe, as near as I can, the 
 
 best proportions of a perfect water-dog. First, 
 
 for the colour of the best water-dog, albeit 
 
 some (which are curious in all things) will 
 
 ascribe more excellence to one colour than to 
 
 another, as the black to be the best and hardiest, 
 
 the liver-hued swiftest in swimming, and the 
 
 pied or spotted dog, quickest at scent ; yet, in 
 
 truth, it is not so, for all colours are alike, and 
 
 3 L 
 
 so dti:;s of any of the former colours may be 
 excellent good dogs, and may be excellent good 
 curs, according to their llrst hardening and 
 training; for instruction is the licjuor where- 
 with they are seasoned, and if they be well 
 handled at llrst they will never smell of that 
 discretion ; and if they be ill handled they will 
 ever stink of that folly ; for nature is a true 
 mistress, and bestows her gifts freely, and it is 
 only nature which abuseth them." lie next 
 proceeds to the clipping or shearing of this 
 animal. "Now, for the cutting or shearing 
 him," ho continues, "from the navel down- 
 ward or backward ; it is two ways well to be 
 allowed of, that is, for summer hunting, or for 
 wager ; because these water-dogs naturally are 
 ever most laden with hair on the hinder parts, 
 nature, as it were, labouring to defend that 
 part most which is continually to be employed 
 in the most extremity ; and because the hinder 
 parts are ever deeper in the water than the 
 fore parts, therefore nature hath given them 
 armour of hair to defend the wet and coldness ; 
 yet this defence in the summer time, by the 
 violence of the heat of the sun, and the great- 
 ness of the dog's labour, is very noisome and 
 troublesome, and not only maketh him sooner 
 to faint and give over his sport, but also makes 
 him, by his overheating, more subject to take 
 the mange. And so, likewise, in matter of 
 wager, it is a very heavy burthen to the dog, 
 and makes him to swim less nimbly and slow, 
 besides the former offences before rectified; 
 but for the cutting or shaving of a dog, all 
 quite over even from the foot to the nostril, 
 that I utterly dislike; for it not only takes 
 from him the general benefits which nature 
 hath lent him, but also brings such a tender- 
 ness and chilliness over all his body, that the 
 water in the end will grow irksome under him." 
 
 AVe have modernised the spelling of the 
 above, in order that the quaintness of Markham 
 may the more generally be appreciated, and 
 his sense the more easily comprehended. 
 
 Markham's instructions, relative to training 
 the water-dog, are excellent, and more or less 
 applicable to all dogs. 
 
 " Now for the manner of training or bringing 
 up of his water-dog: it is to be understood 
 that you cannot begin too early with him ; that 
 is to say, even when you first wean him, and 
 teach him to lap, for even then you shall begin 
 
 441 
 
WATEE SPANIEL.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [watee spaxiel. 
 
 to teach him to couch and lie close, not daring 
 to stir or move from that posture in which 
 you put him without your especial license, 
 cherishing him ever when he doth your will, and 
 correcting him when he doth the contrary; 
 and always observing this maxim in the first 
 teaching of him, that you never let your dog 
 eat or taste any meat, but when he doth some- 
 thing to deserve it, that custom may make it, 
 Unown food is a thing which cometh not by 
 chance, or the bounty of your hand, but for 
 reward or merit when he doth your command- 
 ments ; and this will not only make him willing 
 to learn, but kept to remember and retain 
 what he learueth, and diligently to perform 
 your pleasure without stick or amazement ; the 
 characters of your commands being so deeply 
 imprinted in his knowledge ; and to this end, 
 you must have no more teachers, no more 
 feeders, cherishers, or correctors, but one — for 
 multiplicity breeds confusion — and to teach 
 divers ways is to teach no way well; also 
 you must be very constant to the words or 
 directions by which you teach, choosing such 
 as are the most significant for your purpose, 
 and fittest for the action you would have the 
 dog do, and by no means alter the word which 
 you first use. When, therefore, you have 
 made your whelp understand these several 
 aounds or words, and that he will couch and lie 
 down at your feet, how you please, when you 
 please, and as long as you please, and that 
 with a single word or a look only ; you shall 
 then proceed and teach him to lead in a line 
 and collar, following you at your heels in 
 decent and comely order, neither treading 
 upon vour heels, nor going before or side by 
 you, which shows too much haste ; nor hanging 
 back, or straining your line, by the means of 
 too much sloth, but following in decent and 
 orderly manner, without offence either to the 
 dog or his leader ; and this kind of leading is 
 to make the whelp familiar with you that he 
 may love and acknowledge you, and no man 
 else. AVheu this general obedience is taught 
 (which is done b}" observation of his going, and 
 moving him by sights or sports, which may 
 tempt him to stray beyond his bounds, and 
 then to correct his oflenees, and to cherish and 
 reward his obedience), you shall then teach 
 him to fetch and carry anything you shall throw 
 forth of your baud." 
 U2 
 
 The water spaniel is greatly improved in 
 point of beauty by intermixture with the laud 
 spaniel. The small-sized water spaniel is, by 
 some, considered the best to hunt with, as they 
 make excellent retrievers, and are exceedingly 
 active and expert at their work. Some, how- 
 ever, prefer middle-sized dogs, perhaps from 
 the conception that they are a little stronger ; 
 but what they have in strength, the probability 
 is that they lose in activity. It is from this 
 supposition that some have even gone so far as 
 to cross the spaniel with the Newfoundland; 
 but, we believe, the preference, by many 
 eminent sportsmen, is generally given to the 
 smaller-sized animal. The water spaniel is 
 the most faithful and affectionate of all dogs. 
 In these qualities he may be said even to sur- 
 pass, certainly to rival, Arrian'a description of 
 the hound, Horme, which was "most gentle, and 
 kindly affectionate." " Never before," says 
 Arrian, " had any dog such regard for myself 
 and friend, and fellow sportsman, Megillus ; 
 for, when not actually engaged in coursing, he 
 is never away from one or the other of us ; 
 but while I am at home, he remains within by 
 my side, accompanies me on going abroad, 
 follows me to the gymnasium, and, while I am 
 taking exercise, sits down by me. On my re- 
 turn, he runs before me, often looking back to 
 see whether I had turned anywhere out of the 
 road ; and, as soon as he catches sight of me, 
 showing symptoms of joy, and again trotting 
 on before me. If I am going out on any 
 government business, he remains with my 
 friend, and does exactly the same towards 
 him ; he is the constant companion of which- 
 ever may be sick ; and if he has not seen 
 either of us for only a short time, he jumps 
 up repeatedly by way of salutation, and barks, 
 with joy, as a greeting to us. At meals, he 
 pats us first with one foot, and then with the 
 other, to put us in mind that he is to have his 
 share of food. He has, also, many tones of 
 speech, more than I ever knew in any other 
 dog ; pointing out, in his own language, what- 
 ever he wants. Having been beaten, when a 
 puppy, with a whip, if any one, even to this 
 dav, does but mention a whip, he will come up 
 to the speaker, cowering and begging, applying 
 his mouth to the man's, as if to kiss him, and, 
 jumping up, will hang on his neck, and not let 
 him go until he has appeased his angry threats. 
 
WATER SPANIEL 1 FOPv MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAR^L [retiiieveb. 
 
 Now, really, I tlo not think that I should bo 
 nshnnied to write even the naino of this dog, that 
 it may bo left to posterity that Xonophon, 
 the Athenian, had a greyliound, enlli'd llonni'', 
 of the greatest speed and intelligence, and 
 altogether supremely excellent." 
 
 Flattering as this description is, wo cannot 
 thinlc it over-drawn, for we, ourselves, have 
 beeu possessed of dogs of dill'erent breeds, 
 which have testiiied the utmost allection, not 
 only to ourselves personally, but to all th- 
 meuibers of the household, except the servants, 
 whom some of them have marked out for a 
 smaller proportion of their favour. AV'e have 
 already alluded to the motto, " Wildbrat was i 
 faithful," as belonging to the principal order ' 
 iu Denmark; and there is another instance ofi 
 faithfulness in tlie spaniel, also connected with 
 history, and which places the sagacity of this ! 
 beautiful species of dog in a most favourable , 
 point of view. The circumstance is noticed | 
 by Mr. Blaine, in whose language we will 
 here give it ; but the aucedote is given by Mr. 
 Daniel : — 
 
 " Lodebrook, of the blood-royal of Denmark, 
 and father to Humber and Ilubba, being iu a 
 boat with his ox and his dog, was, by an un- 
 expected storm, driven on the coast of Nor- 
 folk ; where, being discovered, and suspected 
 as a spy, he was brought to Edmund, at that 
 time king of the East Angles. Making him- 
 self known, he was treated with great hospi- 
 tality by the monarch, and particularly so on 
 account of his dexterous skill in hawking and 
 hunting. The king's falconer grew jealous of 
 this attention, and, lest it should lessen his 
 merit ia his royal master's opinion, and so 
 deprive him of his place, had the treachery to 
 waylay Lodebrook, and murder him, and con- 
 ceal the body amongst some bushes. He was 
 presently missed at court, and the king mani- 
 fested great impatience to know what was be- 
 come of him, when his dog, who had staid in 
 the woods by the corpse of his master, till 
 famine forced him thence, came and fawned on 
 the king, and enticed him to follow him. The 
 body was found, and, by a chain of evidence, 
 the murderer was discovered : as a just punish- 
 ment, he was placed alone in Lodebrook's 
 boat, and committed to the mercy of the sea, 
 which bore him to the very sliore the prince 
 had quitted. The boat was recognised ; and \ 
 
 tho assassin, to avoid tho torture, falsely con- 
 fessed that Lodebrook had bei-ii put to death 
 by the order of Edmund, which account so ej- 
 asperated the Danes, that, to revenge his mur- 
 der, they invaded Euglaud." 
 
 Tlio water spaniel is of considerable anti- 
 quity. He is sculptured on many Roman n-- 
 mains; and Colonel Smith thinks him idiiiti- 
 cal with the Cunis Tuscus lauded by Ne- 
 mesian. 
 
 THE RETRIEVER. 
 
 This is a useful dog, but of uncertain paren- 
 tage. He has been called an indefinite dog. 
 He is required to act many parts — to make u 
 tolerable pointer, a better setter, and a handy 
 hunter, in thick covers after wounded garni*. 
 To bo perfect in his calling, be sl'.ould, on the 
 very glance of your eye, spring among tangled 
 woods and bi'iars, or rush into the water, pick 
 up, and bring out a dead or wounded bird. 
 He is necessarily an animal of great canine 
 attainments, full of intelligence of the highes*''- 
 order ; remarkably quick in bis appreheusioi , 
 adventurous, and swift of foot. This kind of 
 dog is a necessary appendage to a regular 
 shooting establishment. It is astouisliinfr how 
 sagacious ho becomes by proper training, and 
 how much his labours facilitate the acquisition 
 of a good day's sport. The great error to 
 guard against, is the haste and impatienco 
 which are embodied in his nature. 
 
 Speaking of the desire which every thorough 
 sportsman has to have every species of dog 
 adapted to the peculiar kind of game to bo 
 hunted, Mr. Blaiue says that he knew such a 
 one, who, when ranging his pointers in advance, 
 was always followed by a retriever of very rare 
 qualities. His pointers, also, did their duty 
 to admiration ; and when they cauie to a steady 
 point, bang from each barrel followed, and two 
 birds usually fell ; the pointers remained on 
 the spot, motionless witnesses. A move of the 
 sportsman's hand, and the "awav" to the re- 
 triever, sent him off like lightning, and he 
 returned with both birds. The ability of this 
 dog was such, that when two birds fell, he 
 would hold one by tlie neck, and the other by 
 the wing, near to the body ; by which device 
 neither bird would be injured, nor himself en- 
 cumbered. In pheasant-shooting, likewise, the 
 excellent discipline of this dog, and his extra- 
 
EETEIETEB.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [eetrietee. 
 
 ordinary tact, were the delight of all who saw 
 his performances. Training is everything. It 
 operates on the canine as it does on the human 
 species. Ifc gives them knowledge, under- 
 standing, and intelligence. In these expres- 
 sions we hope to be considered as not exalt- 
 ing the dog to an equality with the man. 
 We employ them because we know of none 
 better to convey our meaning. To a certain 
 extent, the dog is possessed of all the qualities 
 they express. Who will gainsay that he has 
 not knowledge, understanding, and intelli- 
 gence ? 
 
 "To see," says Mr. Apperley, speaking of 
 the feeding of a kennel of hounds — " to see 
 sixty couple of hounds, all as hungry as tigers, 
 standing aloof in the yard (as is the practice 
 in some kennels), and without even hearing, 
 much less feeling the whip, not daring to move 
 until the order is given them to do so ! And 
 what is the order given ? AVhy, at the words, 
 ' Come over, bitclies,' or, * Come over, dogs,' 
 every hound of each individual sex comes for- 
 ward, as the S^x it belongs to may be called 
 for, leaving those of the other sex in their 
 places. Then the act of drawing them to the 
 feeding-troughs is an exceedingly interesting 
 sight. Often, with the door wide open, and 
 the savoury meat in their view, the huntsman 
 has no use for his whip, having nothing to do 
 but to call each hound by his name, vrhich, of 
 course, he readily answers to. The expression 
 of countenance, too, at this time, is well worthy 
 of notice; and that of earnest solicitation, of 
 entreaty, we might almost say of importunity, 
 cannot be more forcibly displayed than in the 
 face of a hungry hound awaiting his turn to 
 be drawn. He appears absolutely to watch 
 the lips of the huntsman, anticipating his own 
 name." Here the qualities to which we have 
 alluded are exemplified in a marked degree. 
 
 The retriever is sometimes a cross between 
 a Newfoundland and a pointer ; and, indeed, 
 Newfoundland dogs, themselves, act as re- 
 trievers. The general tractability and docility 
 of these dogs render them easily to be taught 
 to do almost anything but speak. Some have 
 shot woodcocks to them. In reference to 
 retrievers being trained by children, opinions 
 differ. " Six years since a gentleman bought 
 a retriever, that liad been trained by children 
 to fetch or bring stones from the bottom 
 444 
 
 of a river, until his teeth had been broken 
 with the practice, and he proved altogether 
 worthless as a sporting dog. It is now up- 
 wards of six times six years since I com- 
 mitted the very same blunder, and my dog 
 seems to have been even worse than his, for I 
 never could get hinv to take the slightest 
 notice either of gun or game ; and so lively a 
 recollection have I entertained of the circum- 
 stance ever since, that I never dreamed after- 
 wards of buying a dog until I had tried him at 
 the actual work for which I wanted him. His 
 dog was trained by children ; so was mine ; 
 and with my dog, at least, the children had 
 done their part to admiration. The dog knew 
 his lesson perfectly : the spike-collar could not 
 have done it better, if it had been applied at 
 twelve months old, to make him dive for 
 stones, and fetch them up from the bottom of 
 a river. The mistake, in both cases, was in 
 keeping the dogs at child's play too long and 
 too exclusively to admit of their being turned 
 into sporting dogs afterwards; or, rather, I 
 should not have bought a dog for a retriever 
 that had done nothing but fetch stones for 
 children until his teetli were broken. 
 
 " I have now in my house a little animal, a 
 cross between a Blenheim spaniel and a foreign 
 nondescript. He belongs to my children, and 
 they have taught him tricks enough to qualify 
 him for an exhibition ; his teeth are all gone 
 with gnawing sticks and fetching stones, and 
 he is as fond of these things now as he waa 
 six years ago as a puppy ; but, notwithstand- 
 ing all this, a better little dog never hunted a 
 rabbit out of a furze-brake, or a water-hen 
 out of a bed of rushes ; and, whether he is 
 standing in a corner, or performing any 
 other of his numerous antics, the click of my 
 gun-lock will send him screaming to the house- 
 door." 
 
 Training is everything, we repeat ; although a 
 spaniel or retriever should range close on flat 
 ground, he ought always to enter and remain 
 in cover, however far from it a shooter may 
 think proper to station himself. Nothing can 
 be more annoying than an animal scampering 
 on dry leaves in and out of a wood, effectually 
 preventing our hearing a cock rise, and all kinds 
 of game from approaching us. Neither should 
 he be allowed to quit a wood to hunt the banks 
 of a brook for water-hens. A pointer that has 
 
nETIJlETEu] 
 
 POR MOU^'TAIN, FIELD, AND FARSI. 
 
 [B£Tni£y£It, 
 
 been used as a snipo douj tlio nrt'oeilii)j» winter, 
 w ill bring a man iluwn from iho top of a grouse- 
 bill, in August, to the well-known bog, for a 
 worthless suipe ; and a spaniel will n\ako for 
 anything iu the shape of water, to potter on 
 the stale scent ol' water-hens, and soon acijuire 
 the vile habit of hunting btraightforward, 
 without tack or traverse. 
 
 "AVhlle making my annual collection of 
 brown feathers, during the late frost," says a 
 follower of the angle, " I was reminded, more 
 than once, of the device which has often enabled 
 lue, vrheu fonder of wild-fowl than at present, 
 to recover a mallard lying on the edge of 
 dangerous ice, without risking the loss of a 
 valuable retriever. Teu-to-one other men 
 have had recourse to the same Jlcelle ; but, as 
 it may be new to some, I will mention it. 
 Having nearly lost a valuable retriever, and 
 risking my own life to save his, I bethought 
 myself of an old salmon-rod, to which I at- 
 tached a suflG.ciency of whipcord, with four large 
 hooks tied, back to back, at the end of it. Tlie j 
 rod was an old stiff travelling jack-of-all- | 
 trades, in five pieces, portable, and fit for ser- 
 vice at once. My attendant carried this, of 
 course, and, when required, mounted it while 
 I was loading. Very little practice enabled 
 me to hook a duck within five-and-twenty 
 yards. "When feathers were scarce, and I was 
 particularly anxious to secure a drake, if be- 
 yond the reach of my line, I attached a cord to 
 the retriever's collar before sending hira into 
 dangerous ice. 
 
 " AVhen ascending a river I kept about half 
 a gun-shot from the bank, my nian following 
 rather more than a gun-shot iu the rear, and 
 close to the river. When ducks had been 
 marked down, I approached at right angles to 
 the direction of the stream, making allow- 
 ances for the birds swimming up, which they 
 generally do after alighting. 
 
 "I think I have observed, that when a duck 
 rises wild, and, after making several circles in 
 the air, settles near the place from which he 
 rose, there is reason to expect others near 
 bim — very often a single bird of the other sex. 
 In this case, both birds will occasionally be 
 very close, if no noise be made when the 
 single bird rose. At all events, a duck that ' 
 drops in a hedge, or other thick cover, at 
 Borne distance from a pond or river, will gene- 
 
 rally lot you get near enough to be picked up, 
 or recovered by the retriever." 
 
 The value of a retriever is Bometiinea 
 very considerable. " At the Kingston assizes, 
 an action (Clegg v. llobbler) was tried 
 to recover tlio value of a dog shot by de- 
 fendant. Tho dog was a retriever i)up[)y, 
 three months old, and very well bred, [it- 
 stayed away from home, and nothing was 
 heard of him for several days, when be was 
 brought homo dead. The dog had gone into 
 a field belonging to tho defendant, where 
 there were some sheep ; and, while he was 
 chasiug them about, defendant came with a 
 gun, and at once shot him dead.— Baron 
 Aldersou inquired of the plaintiff what kind of 
 retriever the dog was.— The plaintiff replied, 
 that he really was unable to tell how he was 
 bred. All he knew was, that he was a re- 
 triever, and that his father was a very valuable 
 animal. — Baron Alderson said, that all sorts 
 of dogs might be trained as retrievers; and 
 he had even heard of a pig being a retriever. 
 — Mr. James : Yes, my lord, for truffles ! — 
 The learned judge said he should like to 
 hear something more respecting the breed 
 of the dog. — Mr. James : My lord, the father 
 of the dog is here, and he shall be pro- 
 duced presently, — Witnesses were examined 
 to prove that the dog was shot by the de- 
 fendant, and the deceased's father was then 
 placed on the counsel's table. lie was a fine 
 handsome animal, and it was stated that his 
 sporting qualities were first-rate. He ap- 
 peared very much dissatisfied with his novel 
 position among so many wigs. — Mr. Brooks, 
 on behalf of the defendant, said, that at tho 
 time in question, the sheep that were in the 
 field were fat, and ready for the butcher. 
 They had been worried by a dog two or three 
 nights before ; and, on this night, he supposed 
 it was the same dog ; and, on his going into 
 the field, he found him chasing the sheep 
 about, and shot him. — Baron Alderson said, 
 that lie had acted iUegallij. Even if ilie dog had 
 icorned (he sheej), a person teas not justified in 
 destroying him until he had tried to get him 
 away by fair means. Ultimately, on the 
 learned judge's suggestion, it was decided 
 that defendant should pay all plaintiff"s costs 
 out of pocket, and a certain sum as the 
 nominal value of the dog." 
 
 445 
 
REMARKS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [remarks. 
 
 Thug, it is illegal to slioot a dog upon your 
 O'.vn property, even although he is in the act 
 of chasing and frightening your sheep, until 
 you have tried to make him desist, or to drive 
 him from the field by fair means. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON SHOOTING DOGS, 
 
 After the sportsman has secured his sport- 
 ing quarters, the next consideration is his 
 dogs. AVhat kind shall he take ? If he has 
 them, good and well ; if not, the sooner he 
 procures them, and gets to know them, the 
 better. Dogs are not put into condition for 
 work in a week, nor yet in a month ; and a 
 man really fond of sport, will, himself, take 
 the greatest interest in the exercising of his 
 dogs, so as to prepare them both in wind and 
 in foot for this, the hardest of all work for 
 tliem ; and if men would themselves take their 
 dogs out for their daily walks along the road, 
 they would feel the benefit of it in August, by 
 their own feet being in better order for walk- 
 ing, and by their dogs knowing them well, and 
 beating for their master, instead of ibr the 
 keeper. Colonel Hawker tells us to use " well- 
 tried and staunch dogs;" and others say, that 
 " dogs for grouse-shooting ought to be first-rate 
 in every respect — the highest bred, and best 
 disciplined;" though the colonel prefers set- 
 ters, and advises, when practicable, a mixture of 
 pointers and setters. lu Daniel's Rural Sports, 
 in Lascelles' Familiar Letters on Sporting — in 
 fact, in every book on the subject, but in none 
 more succinctly and better treated than in 
 Blaine, we find the same thing — "To have 
 good sport, you must have good dogs." What 
 can be more disappointing, or annoying, than 
 to find, on arriving at the moor, that when you 
 want to be killing game, you have to be dog- 
 breaking ? — that the dogs either won't range 
 at all, or else run up more birds than they 
 point — and that when you do get a shot, you 
 have to shout until you are hoarse to make 
 them " down charge," putting up two or three 
 birds under your feet ; and, having loaded, put 
 yourself into a fever of perspiration with 
 thrashing them for "running in," and snap- 
 ping the bird you have killed, spoiling your 
 grouse, your temper, and your shooting for the 
 rest of the day. This may seem an unusual 
 case ; but any one who shoots chiefly on sub- 
 scription moors, will bear us out, that more 
 41G 
 
 than half the men one meets witli, are provided 
 with a team of dogs not one iota better than 
 we have described. Where, then, is a man to 
 procure good dogs? is the natural question. 
 Let him go to a really respectable breaker, or 
 keeper; have a good trial, and give a good 
 price. Some parts of the year are certainly 
 not favourable to see dogs well tried, especially 
 vfhen birds are sitting, and have very little 
 scent; and if it is necessary to see whether a 
 dog is " free from hare," it is difficult to find 
 one without going into corn cr mowing grass. 
 The dog's general style, working to hand and 
 obedience, howevei-, can be judged of, as also 
 his condition, and the hardness of his feet ; 
 and if he has been shot over for one or more 
 seasons, so much the better. But, to any one 
 who wishes to shoot in comfort, we would say, 
 avoid what is called " a promising young dog, 
 just out of the breaker's hands, and ready for 
 work," unless you can have a really good trial, 
 and see powder burnt over him. No one 
 ought to take less than two brace of dogs to 
 the moors, so as to be able to change them at 
 noon, and keeping the best for the afternoon 
 shooting. It is true good setters will go all 
 day, and some every day in the week ; and 
 though we believe some pointers are capable 
 of almost the same exertion, we have never 
 met with them ; still, it is hard upon the 
 animal, however courageous, to tax his strength 
 beyond certain limits, and is, besides, a com- 
 fort to oneself to let out a fresh brace after 
 luncheon. By the way, some men have their 
 spare dogs led along with them, which is a 
 great mistake, as, with the excitement of 
 watching their master shoot, and the pulling 
 against the man who leads them, they are 
 never resting. We knew one wlio liked his 
 dogs to begin the season, though not over fat, 
 with plenty of flesh on their ribs. He thought 
 they worked better for it, and very soon got 
 to their hard-condition trim, and doing their 
 work better than dogs that are kept thin 
 by poor diet; for if dogs nre properly fed 
 before going to the moors, no one can have 
 them in spare working condition with common 
 road exercise, unless he give them fifteen or 
 twenty miles a day after a horse, like grey- 
 hounds. He fed his dogs pretty much the 
 same all the year round, with the exception 
 of substituting "greaves" for flesh in hot 
 
BEMAIIES.] 
 
 I'Oli MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAllM. 
 
 [UBEEDIKO. 
 
 weat!it»r; good boiled ontiiK'al, flesh (or 
 greaves), with potatoes boiled iti the soup, 
 and occasiouallj cabbage sliced into it, and 
 plenty of salt, which he thoiiglit tho best food 
 for dogs at all times. A\'lu'ii at tho moors, 
 and ono has not tho same convenienco for 
 cooking, ho usetl barley-Hour instead of oat- 
 meal (as it only requires scalding), with 
 «« nrreavos" and salt, and milk, if ho could 
 get it. 
 
 The miserable accommodation for dogs that 
 cue generally meets with on subscription 
 luoors is well known, and mostly consists of 
 some wretched baru or outhouse, with the 
 roof half off, no door, and the door as wet as 
 a snipe-ground. In this case, the comfort of 
 having your own servant will, in itself, repay 
 the expense of taking him down with you, 
 instead of trusting to some man whom you 
 may hire as bag-carrier, &c., at four or five 
 shillings a day, and who, having no interest in 
 your dogs, neither feeds nor takes care of 
 them as he ought. Tour own man will, with 
 a few boards, &c., make the best of the place 
 in which they have to live. He will also pre- 
 pare their food properly before you go out in 
 the morning, so that they may be fed imme- 
 diately on your return, instead of being left 
 for an hour or so, during which they have 
 curled themselves up to sleep, and are too stiff 
 and tired to leave their benches to eat. He 
 will also let them out for a i'ow minutes the 
 first thing in the morning, whilst he is clean- 
 mg out their kennel; putting in a little fresh 
 etraw, if required, and filling their troughs 
 witii fresh water, &c. All dogs' feet should 
 be dipped in strong salt and water imme- 
 diately on coming off tiie moors ; and a couple 
 of minutes with the "dandy-brush" will, if 
 tiiey come in wet, cause them to dry in half 
 the time that they otherwise would. Do"s, iu 
 hunting, are sometimes bitten by vipers. 
 Tiiese reptiles, the only venomous of the three 
 British varieties of the snake, abound on some 
 moors ; and, unless the bite is promptly 
 treated, a valuable dog's lite may be lost. 
 Sweet oil, the fat of vipers, train oil and tar, 
 and numerous other remedies, are advised ; 
 but the common " burdock" is an excellent j 
 Kpeoific. This was told us by an old poacher ; ' 
 and, thougli we constantly used to lose dogs, 
 sheep, and even cows, notwithstanding all our 
 
 care, before wu know of this reinodv, wo never 
 lost another anitnal afterwards. Tlio mode of 
 using it is to slico or scrape a largo handful of 
 tho root, and pour upon it about two quarts of 
 boiling water ; when this infusion is cooi, 
 foment the bitten part with it many times 
 a day, and pour about half a wine-glass of it 
 down the dog's throat three or four times a 
 day. We never knew this to fail, and tho dog 
 is fit for work in a couple of days. This sub- 
 ject, however, will bo treated more at largo 
 when we come to speak of the diseases and 
 accidents to which dogs aro subject. 
 
 BREEDING, BREAKIiNG, AND TRAINING 
 SPANIELS, SETTERS, AND POINTERS. 
 
 There has been much written on this subject ; 
 and dog-breaking, at the present day, is pretty 
 much the same as it was in the time of Ger- 
 vase IMarkhara. The art of breeding, however, 
 has occupied the attention of many able sports- 
 men. In a state of nature, the sexual appe- 
 tency of a bitch occurs only once a year; but, 
 in a state of domestication, it occurs oftener, 
 within six, eight, or nine months. This arises 
 from the difference of food upon which the ani- 
 mal is fed, and the consequently changed con- 
 dition of its habits and constitution. In breed- 
 ing dogs, the in-and-in system has had both its 
 advocates and its opponents. One interested 
 in this subject says, that there have been va- 
 rious animals of the finest qualities bred from 
 parents very nearly related to each other ; and 
 this is perfectly true : if we have a male and 
 female full brother and sister, and both of very 
 fine quality, the chances are that we shall have 
 a fine progeny. " I had a very fine greyhound 
 from this method; at the same time, one of 
 the whelps was quite an idiot, and I was forced 
 to destroy it when about two months old. 
 My personal experience, with regard to the 
 lower animals, is not very extensive; but, 
 being naturally fond of the study of natural 
 history, I have taken every opportunity of 
 gaining information ; and I find among fanners 
 a constant habit of introducing a male from 
 some other family. Gamekeepers pursue the 
 same plan with regard to dogs ; they call it 
 introducing fresh blood : they generally adhere 
 to the same kind, but not always: tho best 
 greyhounds have a cross with the bulldog; 
 aud, I believe, though I speak with diffidence, 
 
 4i7 
 
eei:eding.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [beeeding. 
 
 that the best race-horses are all cross-bred— 
 that is to say, they are the cross produce of 
 various kinds, such as the Barb, the Arab, the 
 English and Spanish horses,* the latter an un- 
 doubted cross-breed in itself, from horses in- 
 troduced into Spain by the Moors ; and, how- 
 ever good many of the pure or thorough-bred 
 }iorses— such as Barbs and Arabs— may be, 
 yet they are no match, as regards speed, with 
 the cross-breeds of our own country. They 
 may have more endurance in the country 
 where they are bred, because, being bred there, 
 they are more suited to the climate and nature 
 of the ground; and this is the case with every 
 thorough-bred animal whatsoever ; if you alter 
 the circumstances, you alter the animal to suit 
 them. The Skye terrier in England, after two 
 or three generations, is not the Skye terrier of 
 the Isle of Skye; its habits and form alter 
 greatly. I used often to speculate and wonder 
 why it should have such short and powerful 
 legs and long body ; but one day, while watch- 
 ing some puppies of pure breed at play, I saw 
 the mystery explained. There was a mound 
 of earth, standing at an angle of about 70° 
 the surface of which being loosened by frost, 
 rolled down at the slightest touch ; the puppies, 
 with their short strong legs and elongated 
 bodies, climbed up this with little difficulty, 
 and, having got to the top, turned round, and, 
 thrusting their fore feet forward, slipped down 
 on their bellies, kicking themselves along with 
 their hind feet. This operation, which they 
 repeated over and over again, seemed to afibrd 
 them infinite gratification, and the surface of 
 the hillock became grooved by their breasts 
 beiug ploughed repeatedly down it. Here was 
 a wonderful instance of the form of the animal 
 beiug adapted to the locality. The Isle of 
 Skye has a singularly rocky and uneven sur- 
 fiice, and these short-legged and long-backed 
 animals are admirably suited to it. These dogs 
 have a very thick skin, clothed with a large 
 quantity of long hair, both calculated to pro- 
 tect them against falls. 
 
 " It should be observed, that the system of 
 breeding-in, in both wild and domestic animals, 
 is not by any means a haphazard affair, as it 
 certainly is with the human race. "With do- 
 mestic animals we always select the finest ; 
 
 * This we have already shown in our division on the 
 horse. 
 
 448 
 
 and animals in a state of nature, make that 
 selection for themselves, by the constant war 
 carried on by the strong against the weak. 
 In spite of all the care that can be taken, 
 however, farmers find it absolutely necessary 
 to introduce males from other families among 
 their flocks and herds. This is a fact which 
 I think cannot be disputed ; it is one which 
 is acknowledged and acted upon by every 
 breeder of stock. Good horses, good cattle, 
 sheep, and dogs, have undoubtedly been pro- 
 duced by close breeding ; but it does not seem 
 to last many generations." 
 
 Another says — " I think most breeders, 
 either of cattle, horses, or dogs, will agree as 
 regards the expediency of introducing fresh 
 blood into their stock. I believe the produce 
 of animals closely related is finer ; but I pre- 
 sume that is from deterioration in strength 
 and bodily power. AVhen I write 'finer,' I 
 mean smaller bone, and altogether more deli- 
 cate. It is the custom amongst many cattle- 
 breeders to change the stock bull every three 
 years at least ; and this plan is highly satis- 
 factory. Perhaps it has already been remarked 
 that, a mare having had a mule foal, and then 
 afterwards a foal bred from a horse, there is a 
 wonderful similarity in some point to the mule 
 — that is, of a ' mulish' character, often in the 
 head. I was much struck with an instance of 
 this some time ago. Sows and bitches strain 
 back in the same way." 
 
 Upon this subject Mr. Blaine has his opinion, 
 which he has mixed up with the opinions of 
 other breeders, in a passage somewhat lengthy, 
 but, nevertheless, so valuable, that we cannot 
 resist the temptation of extracting it. " Mr. 
 Bakewell professed always to breed animals in 
 general from near relationship, and how suc- 
 cessful he was in his system is well known. 
 Mr. Meynell also bred most of his celebrated 
 hounds in-and-in., _ But on this matter Sir 
 John Sebright, in liis pamphlet on the Art oj 
 Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals, 
 observes—' On speaking to Mr. Bakewell on 
 that subject, I found that he did not attach 
 the same meaning that I do to the term in- 
 and-in. He said that he frequently bred from 
 the father and daughter, and the mother and 
 son. This is not what I consider as breeding 
 in-and-in ; for the daughter is only half of the 
 same blood as the father, and will probably 
 
BREEPnfO.] 
 
 POPv :\rorxTATX, field, and fakm. 
 
 [nilKEDIN'O. 
 
 partake, in a great dec^roe, of the prD^i rlu's of 
 the mother.' 'I liavo tried,' says the sport- 
 in'^ baronet, ' many experiments by breeding 
 in-and-in npon dogs, fowls, and pigeons ; tlio 
 do"3 beeame, from strong spaniels, weak and 
 diminutive lap-dogs ; the fowls became long in 
 the legs, small in the body, and bad breeders.' 
 Sir William Clayton, in bis Treatise on Grey- 
 hounds, is also, in some degree, nnfavouniblo 
 to breeding akin. lie says — ' If continued 
 for some litters, a manifest inferiority of size, 
 and a deficiency of bone will soon be visible, 
 as well as a want of courage and bottom, 
 tliough the beauty of the form, with the excep- 
 tion of the size, may not be diminished.' 
 Mr. Beckford is also averse to consanguineous 
 breeding among dogs. ' A very famous sports- 
 man,' he says, 'has told me, that ho fre- 
 quently breeds from brothers and sisters. As I 
 should be very unwilling to urge anything in 
 opposition to such authority, you bad better 
 trv it ; if it succeeds in hounds, it is more, I 
 believe, than it usually does in other animals.' 
 It is remarkable that the ancients, although 
 they advocated the system of in-and-in breed- 
 ing among all other domestic animals, yet 
 were averse to it in the dog. In the Geopo- 
 nier, 1, xii. c. i., we are cautioned against 
 breeding between individuals of the same 
 litter. Conrad Gesner, on this subject, ob- 
 serves, * that the very best dogs are bred each 
 in their own line, or from parents of a similar 
 kind ; but an extreme care in huntsmen for 
 improvement, has led them so to mingle dif- 
 ferent breeds as to make the varieties almost 
 innumerable.' " 
 
 " Like begets like," is a truism ; and in no 
 instance is it more just, nor in any more im- 
 portant than in dog-breeding; consequently, 
 it is not easy to be too careful that the quali- 
 ties and form of both parents be as perfect as 
 possible. As no bitch is without some defect, 
 so it should be remembered, in selecting a 
 mate for her, that the dog should not only be 
 entirely without that particular defect, but 
 even superabundantly furnished contrariwise. 
 If the strain borders on the light and leggy, 
 do not perpetuate the defect, but choose a dog 
 not coarse, but strong and well trussed. If 
 the bitch incline to be Jlcto (tender), lix on a 
 dog for her that is singularly hardy. The 
 qualities also must be attended to in breeding, 
 3 M 
 
 for they run as imicli in the blood aa the form 
 does. If the bitch, though excpiisite in figure, 
 be yet wanting in metal, give her u mate with as 
 much dash and determination of the right kind 
 as j)083ible. If, on the contrary, though wolU 
 noseii, she is given to skirting, to run riot, to 
 babble, or to any other hurtful propensities, 
 cross it with super-excellence, in the opposite 
 quality in the dog selected for her. Skirting 
 particularly by removing the breed, by letting 
 the skirter be mated with a thorough line hunt- 
 ing hound. It is by judicious crossing that tho 
 pack is rendered complete. Let masters of 
 hounds be very careful, likewise, in entrusting 
 their favourite bitches to the care of the atten- 
 dants of other kennels. There is infinite risk 
 and chance of deception in this, because, 
 where the stallion, be it foi-hound, grey- 
 hound, or pointer, is of great celebrity, tho 
 probability is, that such dog is already fully 
 engaged, in wbich case another dog may bo 
 fraudulently substituted, and the bitch served 
 by one that, instead of mending the breed, 
 may increase its defects. On this subject 
 Colonel Cook well observes — " It is the custom 
 to send bitcbes to the fashionable stallions of 
 the day ; for instance, as formerly, to the late 
 Mr. Meynell's ' Gusman ;' Lord Fitzwilliam's 
 'Hardwick;' Lord Yarborough's 'Kanter;' 
 Mr. Ward's ' Charon ;' the Duke of Eutland's 
 ' Topper ;' the Duke of Beaufort's ' Justice ;' 
 the Duke of Grafton's 'Eegeut;' Lord Lons- 
 dale's 'Euler;' Mr. Smith's 'Champion;' 
 Mr. Munster's * Collier ;' Lord Myddleton's 
 'Vaulter;' &c. : but, as it generally happens 
 that your brood bitches go to heat much about 
 the same time, it is therefore not very probable 
 that one stallion hound can ward many bitches, 
 besides those of the owner ; nor is it reason- 
 able to expect, in the height of the season, 
 that the dog-hounds can be left at home to 
 ward bitches from other kennels. I would 
 suggest, in order to be more certain of your 
 breed, that you send your bitch to a well-bred 
 dog, brother, if possible, to the stallion hound ; 
 and, to prevent any mistake, order your ser- 
 vants to see the bitch warded." 
 
 We have remarked, in reference to the 
 horse, that, as a general rule, " like produces 
 like ;" and we think the same will be found to 
 hold good in reference to the dog. Mr. Beck- 
 ford advises us to consider the size, shape, 
 
 449 
 
bkeasing.j 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 ^BEEAKINa. 
 
 colour, constitution, and natural disposition of 
 the dog intended to be bred from, as well as 
 the fineness of his nose, his stoutness, and 
 mode of hunting. *' On no account," he says, 
 *' breed fiom one that is not stout, that is not 
 tender-nosed, or that is a skirter." Similar 
 instructions to tliese are set forth by Somer- 
 ville, in the following lines : — 
 
 " Observe with care his shape, sort, colour, size ; 
 Nor will sagacious huntsmen less regard 
 His inward habits ; the vain babbler shun, 
 Ever loquacious, ever in the wrong ; 
 His foolish offspring shall offend thy ears 
 With false alarms, and loud impertinence. 
 Nor less the shifting cur avoid, that breaks 
 Illusive from the pack ; to the next hedge 
 Devious he strays ; there every means he tries ; 
 If haply then he cross the steaming scent, 
 Away he flies vain-glorious, and exults 
 As if the pack supreme, and in his speed 
 And strength unrivall'd, Lo ! cast far behind, 
 His vex'd associates pant, and lab'ring strain 
 To climb the steep ascent. Soon as they reach 
 Th' insulting boaster, his false courage fails ; 
 Behind he lags, doom'd to the fatal noose, 
 His master's hate, and scorn of all the field ; 
 What can from such be hop'd but a base brood 
 Of coward curs, a frantic, vagrant race." 
 
 In breaking dogs to make retrievers, systems 
 differ in different countries. Following one 
 who has had much experience of various sys- 
 tems, we find that the one practised by the 
 Freucb differs from that practised in England, 
 equally in its process and results — it is that of 
 force, the spiked collar being universally used ; 
 and, although this expedient is certainly a 
 severe one, yet it is affirmed that it produces 
 a result which the suaviter in onodo fails to 
 effect, except to a certain extent, in the case of 
 the Newfoundland and water spaniel. As the 
 fortiter in re, or compulsory system of the 
 spiked collar, is barsh, and the punisbment 
 inflicted severe, it must be remarked, that the 
 experienced breakers of Erance find it inexpe- 
 dient to commence with any young dog till he 
 is ten or twelve months old, the severity of 
 the training having the effect of cowing and 
 intimidating dogs of a younger age. The 
 breakers would, also, seem to be averse to any 
 previous instruction being imparted to puppies, 
 cither by children or other means, as that 
 always renders their operations with the spiked 
 collar more diflicult. It was on one occasion 
 mentioned to a dog-breaker of note, that a dog 
 was about to be sent to him to be taught, and 
 450 
 
 that it had already received some instructions 
 by gentle means, and that he would fetch and 
 carry tolerably. His reply was — " Tant pis. 
 J" aural plus de peine avec ce chien la; il sera 
 plus entdte, et plus difficile H dresser." This 
 circumstance is alluded to, because an opinion 
 is by no means uncommon, that dogs should 
 be taught to fetch and carry as soon as tliey 
 are able to run about ; and some have even 
 recommended children as their best instructors ; 
 and, judging from the successful results in 
 one or two cases, have expressed themselves 
 strongly in favour of this method, intimating 
 it to be the right one, and that universally 
 practised in Erance. "With every deference to 
 such sportsmen, it may safely be thought that 
 they are making a rule of the exception, and, 
 at the same time, confounding two things 
 which are totally dissimilar, as the compulsory 
 system differs " tutto cielo" from the mild and 
 gentle one, both in its process and in its 
 results. It is readily admitted that you cannot 
 begin too early to teach dogs to be docile and 
 obedient, and to impart preliminary instruction 
 to them, when it is intended to teach them 
 to fetch their game by gentle means; but it 
 cannot be conceded that children are the best 
 instructors, because experience has frequently 
 shown that they are the very worst if a dog is 
 expected to carry anything beyond a ball, a 
 stick, or a stone, and to be used for sporting 
 purposes — simply because dogs, taught by 
 children, are generally in the habit of playing 
 with whatever they fetch and carry, and rarely 
 or ever pick it up at once, or immediately 
 return with it when they have picked it up. 
 On the contrary, they mostly drop it several 
 times, and, after finally securing it, commence 
 a series of gambols before they return, infinitely 
 to the delight and satisfaction of themselves 
 and the children with whom they are playing. 
 The consequence of this is, when a dog so 
 taught is taken into the field, be is almost 
 certain to mouth his game, drop it, and pick it 
 up again several times, leaving the ground 
 covered with feathers ; and, perhaps, when he 
 finally seizes the bird, he will stand wagging 
 his tail, looking his master in the face with 
 infinite satisfaction to himself, as be bas been 
 in the habit of doing with bis instructor,?, 
 which, doubtless, pleases the children, and 
 excites their benevolent attachmeut ; but it is, 
 
MM©E^E5?© HIOlUMBil 
 
 TigiTf, MrjSLgS TEIBL-S'. 
 
BREAKIKQ J 
 
 VOK :\IOUXTATX, FIELD, AXD FAinr. 
 
 [UUEAKINO, 
 
 nevertheless, very vexatious and annoying* to 
 
 the sportsman. ]\rany iloi^n of this iloscription 
 have been taken to the fu'ltl ; aiul, in a pre- 
 ceding pajje, we have adduced an instance in 
 the field ; but they never can be depended on, 
 except, poriinps, Nowroundhmdors, or water 
 spaniels, as these two races of dogs are easily 
 broken to bring tlieir game either on hind or 
 from the water, their instinct inducing them 
 strongly in that direction, althougii it may bo 
 doubted whether they are ever so perfectly 
 taught by gentle, as by compulsory means. 
 Dogs taught to fetch their game by gentle 
 means have been pronounced uncertain in their 
 obedience ; on some days taking the water 
 unhesitatingly, and bringing perfectly ; and, on 
 others, no earthly power being able to induce 
 them either to take water or to fetch their 
 game. This generally occurs whenever any- 
 thing has arisen to ruffle their tempers. In- 
 deed, we have heard of a Xewfoundland, a 
 first-rate retriever, who had been taught by 
 gentle means, and who, when sulky from being 
 scolded or thrashed, would not stir one inch ; 
 whereas we have never known a dog refuse to 
 go and fetch his game either on land or from 
 the water, whatever his breed might be, who 
 had been thoroughly taught with the spiked 
 cellar by a competent instructor. 
 
 Although this " uncertainty" and " sulki- 
 nesa" may have, in some instances, exhibited 
 themselves, we are far from believing such 
 exhibition to be either general or conclusive 
 that severe measures are the best for breaking 
 or training a dog. "We have seen the effects 
 of gentleness upon the horse ; and we have no 
 doubt that gentleness used towards the dog is 
 by far the most potent and effective educator. 
 In proof of this, the following account of a 
 canine performance, which took place in 
 London some years ago, will be found exceed- 
 ingly interesting. It was published in the 
 Lancet. 
 
 " Two fine dogs, of the Spanish breed, were 
 introduced by M. Leonard, with the customary 
 French lyoJitesse — the largest, by the name of 
 M. Philax ; the other, as M. Brae (or Spot). 
 The former had been in training three, the 
 latter, two years. They were in vigorous 
 health; and, having bowed very gracefully, 
 seated themselves on the hearth-rug, side by 
 side. M. Leonard then gave a lively descrip- 
 
 tion of tho means ho had employed to develop 
 the ceri'bral system in these animalrt; how, from 
 having been fond of tho chase, and ninbitious 
 of possessing tho best-trained dogH, ho had 
 employed tho usual course of training— how 
 tho conviction had been impressed on his 
 mind, that by gentle usage, and struJi/ per- 
 severance in inducing tho animal to repeat, 
 again and again, what was required, not only 
 would tho dog be capal)lo of perrorniing that 
 specific act, but that part of tho brain, which 
 was brought into activity by tlio mental effort, 
 would become more largely developed ; and 
 hence a permanent increase of mental power 
 bo obtained. Tliis reasoning is in accordance 
 with the known laws of the physiology of the 
 nervous system, and is fraught with the most 
 important results. Wo may refer the reader, 
 interested in the subject, to the masterly little 
 work of Doctor Verity, Change Produced in tlie 
 JVervous System hy Civilisation. After this 
 introduction, M. Leonard spoke to his dogs in 
 Frencli, in his usual tone, and ordered one of 
 them to walk, the other to lie down, to run, to 
 gallop, halt, crouch, &c., which they performed 
 as promptly and correctly as the most docile 
 children. Then he directed them to go 
 through the usual exercise of the manege, 
 which they accomplished as well as the best 
 trained ponies at Astley's. He next placed 
 six cards of different colours on the floor, and, 
 sitting with his back to the dogs, directed one 
 to pick up the blue card, and the other the 
 white, &c., varying his orders rapidly, and 
 speaking in such a manner, that it was im- 
 possible tho dogs could have executed his com- 
 mands if they had not a perfect knowledge of 
 the words. For instance, M. Leonard said, 
 ' Philax, take the red card and give it to Brae ; 
 and Brae, take the white card, and give it to 
 Philax.' The dogs instantly did this, and 
 exchanged cards with each other. He then 
 said, ' Philax, put your card on the green, and 
 Brae, put yours on the blue ;' and this was 
 instantly performed Pieces of bread and 
 meat were placed on the floor, with figured 
 cards, and a variety of directions were given to 
 the dogs, 80 as to put their intelligence and 
 obedience to a severe test. They brought tho 
 meat, bread, or cards, as commanded ; but did 
 not attempt to eat or touch unless ordered. 
 Philax was then ordered to bring a piece of 
 
 451 
 
BEEAKING.] 
 
 THE DOG, AA'D ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [beeaking. 
 
 meat, and give it to Brae ; and then Brae was 
 told to give it back to Philax, who was to 
 return it to its place, PLiilax was next told 
 he miglit bring a piece of bread, and eat it; 
 but, beforo he had time to swallow it, his 
 master forbade him, and directed him to show 
 that he had not disobeyed, and the dog in- 
 stantly protruded the crust between his lips. 
 
 " While many of these feats were being per- 
 formed, M, Leonard snapped a whip violently, 
 to prove that the animals were so completely 
 under discipline that they would not heed any 
 interruption. 
 
 " After many other performances, M. Leo- 
 nard invited a gentleman to play a game of 
 dominos with one of them. The younger and 
 slighter dog then seated himself on a chair at 
 the table, and the writer and M. Leonard 
 seated themselves opposite. Six dominos were 
 placed on their edges, in the usual manner, 
 before the dog, and a like number before the 
 writer. The dog having a double number, 
 took one up in his mouth, and put it in the 
 middle of the table ; the writer played a cor- 
 responding piece on o^e side ; the dog imme- 
 diately placed another correctly, and so on, 
 until all the pieces were engaged. Other six 
 dominos were then given, to each, and the 
 writer intentionally played a wrong number. 
 The dog looked surprised, stared very earnestly 
 at the writer, growled, and finally barked 
 angrily. Einding that no notice was taken of 
 bis remonstrances, he pushed away the wrong 
 domino with his nose, and took up a suitable 
 one from his own pieces, and played it in its 
 stead. The writer then played correctly ; the 
 dog followed, and won the game. Not the 
 slightest intimation could have been given by 
 M. Leonard to the dog; this mode of play 
 must have been entirely the result of his own 
 observation and j udgment. It should be added 
 that the performances were strictly private. 
 The owner of the dogs was a gentleman of 
 independent fortune, and the instruction of 
 bis dogs had been taken up merely as a curious 
 and amusing investigation." 
 
 Mr. Richardson adduces the following:— 
 " Some years ago, a Spaniard, named Germondi, 
 exhibited a company of performing dogs in the 
 different towns of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 In Dublin, where he made some stay, he occu- 
 pied, with his company, the large buildino- at 
 452 '^ 
 
 the corner of D'Olier Street, which is now the 
 handsome shop of Messrs. Kinahan. The 
 performanies of these dogs were extremely 
 curious. They danced, waltzed, and pirouetted. 
 One, in the costume and character of a lady, 
 sat down to a spinning-wheel, which he kept 
 in motion for a considerable time. 
 
 " The company was divided into two groups ; 
 one half appearing iu dresses of a red colour, 
 and the other being attired iu blue. The 
 blues occupied the model of a fortress, which 
 the red troop attacked, drawing up their 
 artillery in front, and opening a heavy fire 
 upon the enemy, which the blues returned 
 with their cannon from the fortress. The 
 reds were, however, at length, victorious ; the 
 fortress tottered, and the reds dashed across 
 the defences. Suddenly the works blew up 
 with a tremendous crash, and several dogs, on 
 both sides, lay motionless as they fell, ap- 
 parently severely maimed, if not entirely dead. 
 "When the eifects of the explosion had died 
 away, the proprietor advanced, and pulled 
 the performers about as dead dogs, to the no 
 small horror and amazement of the spectators ; 
 but immediately, on the dropping of the curtain, 
 the apparently wounded, or dead dogs sprang 
 to their feet, and resumed their proper places. 
 
 " The next scene introduced one of the dogs 
 as a captive between two of his comrades, all 
 attired in military costume. The captive, being 
 condemned as a deserter, was sentenced to be 
 shot, and the sentence was carried forthwith 
 into execution by his canine comrades. On 
 being fired at he fell, struggled convulsively for 
 a few seconds, then apparently died ; in this 
 state he was dragged about the stage; his 
 comrades then placed him in a barrow, and 
 wheeled him away. He subsequently appeared 
 placed in a bier drawn by dogs, with likewise 
 a canine driver, who flourished a whip over his 
 companions, and, with a procession of the whole 
 company, attired as soldiers, moved slowly to 
 the solemn dead march, deposited their com- 
 rade in the grave, and thus concluded their 
 performance. , These dogs were of various 
 descriptions — pugs, poodles, mongrels. 
 
 " There was an interlude of young puppies, 
 who tumbled head-over-heels in various divert- 
 ing attitudes ; after which he introduced a fine 
 specimen of bulldog, which the exhibitor 
 called his fire king. This dog was trained to 
 
IinEAKIXO.] 
 
 roK :\U)UM'AK\, I'll". LI), AND FARM. 
 
 [tuainino. 
 
 exhibit in tho midst of a brilliant display of 
 lireworks, and nothing could exceed the cou- 
 rn'^e ho preserved when wholly surrounded by 
 flumes, or the resolution ho manifested not to 
 quit his position until tho iire was entirely 
 extinguished. All this was tho result of 
 gentleness. 
 
 "' Many a s^ooA 
 And useful (luality, nnil virtue too; 
 Fiilelity that neither bribe nor throat 
 Can move nor warp; and i^ratitude for small 
 And trivial favours, lasting as the life, 
 And glistening even iu the dying eye.' " 
 "We must now, however, return to the spiked 
 collar. Tho impression produced by tliis in- 
 strument is never eflaced ; so much so, that a 
 Biuooth-haired, high-bred pointer will not re- 
 fuse to go into a river in the coldest and 
 severest weather iu winter, although he will, 
 perhaps, shiver on the bank at the very sight 
 of it, before plunging in. AVe have beard of 
 dogs of this description, which had been 
 thoroughly broken by compulsory means, and 
 they never refused to go into the water, 
 although they might sometimes hesitato in 
 frosty weather; but the instant the magic 
 words ''Collier deforce'" were uttered, tlicy 
 plunged in with all the alacrity imaginable. 
 Such dogs, however, ought not, as a rule, to be 
 taken out on such occasions. ^ It may be 
 further questionable whether pointers ought 
 to be taught to retrieve ; and as a rule it is 
 perhaps wrong ; but, in a country where snipes 
 are abundant, and are the principal objects of 
 the sportsman's pursuit, it is, we think, advis- 
 able that all his dogs should be taught to fetch 
 and carry, in case of accident to the regular 
 retriever ; because it will occur every day that 
 some few snipes will fall in places not easily, 
 and sometimes not safely, accessible to the 
 sportsman ; and all sportsmen know how vex- 
 atious it is to lose a bird after he has been 
 kiUed, and how tantalising it is to see him lying 
 almost within reach, and yet be obliged to 
 leave him. This will occur even in grousing, 
 in the case of a towering bird falling into a 
 fresh-water loch ; and where there is no re- 
 triever the bird must be left and lost. This, 
 however, is a rare occurrence ; but in snipe- 
 shooting, in most marshes, it will happen often 
 to the sportsman, if he has not a retriever with 
 him : in fact, no sportsman of any experience 
 will either go out snipe or duck-shooting with- 
 
 out being accompanied by a first-rato retriever ; 
 and even then ho must make u|) hi>i mind to 
 lose Bomo few birds, if ho is shooting in tho 
 immediate vicinity of tho sea, as both widgeons 
 and ducks will occasionally fly aoino diMlanco 
 when they are wounded, and drop dead ; and, 
 if they happen to fall in a strong outwanl 
 current, they aro soon carried beyond tho 
 power of any retriever. Indeed, sometimes 
 blackcocks, which have towered after being 
 shot, and lallen out a good distance at sea, liavo 
 been lost ; and woodcocks also (as these birds 
 tower sometimes) arc apt to be lost in tlie ab- 
 sence of retrievers. 
 
 Leaving this incidental digression, we 
 now return to tho system of training. 
 The two great advantages arising from tho 
 compulsory system, when it has been carried 
 thoroughly into ellect by a first-rate hand, 
 consists, in the first place, in the complete 
 obedience and thorough docility exhibited 
 on all occasions on tho part of the dog, as he 
 never refuses to search for and bring his game 
 when ordered to do so, either on land or from 
 the water, irrespectively of the weather ; and, 
 in the next place, which is an important feature 
 characterising this system, he invariably picks 
 up his game at once, without mouthing it, and 
 returns to his master immediately. The re- 
 verse of this, it is said, is the case with dogs 
 taught by gentle means — even with the spaniel 
 and ^Newfoundland ; and some very good ones, 
 excellent in every respect, with the one excep- 
 tion of not returning directly and promptly 
 with the game they had in their mouths to 
 their master, have been known. 
 
 AVith regard to dogs instructed by children 
 to fetch and carry, a writer says, he had the 
 ill-luck to be the purchaser of one through 
 the instrumentality of a friend ; and the result 
 is so much to the purpose, that he relates some 
 of the circumstances connected with the pur- 
 chase, possession, and trial of the said dog. 
 Having taken up quarters for a little snipe 
 and duck-shooting, in a favourite locality, he 
 found himself much in want of a good re- 
 triever, and applied to u friend resident in 
 London, giving him carte blanche as to price. 
 The friend shortly replied, stating that he had 
 purchased a first-rate retriever for £10— a 
 beautiful Newfoundland, warranted to retrieve 
 perfectly on land and from the water. He 
 
 4.3:5 
 
TEAIKING, 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS TAEIETIES; 
 
 t^TEAINING, 
 
 observed that, althoagli the dog's teeth were 
 somewhat damaged, he was perfectly young 
 and fresh, the teeth having been injured in 
 consequence of his recent instructors — the 
 children of the family from whom he was pro- 
 cured — having given him considerable practice 
 in fetching up stones from the bottom of a 
 river which passed through their garden, 
 Broken teeth in a retriever were, of course, 
 not objectionable. When the dog arrived, 
 the purchaser was certainly very much pleased 
 with his appearance, as he was as handsome a 
 jS"ewfoundland as he had ever seen, and fancied 
 he would answer the purpose exactly ; which 
 favourable opinion of him was confirmed after 
 the two or three first days' duck-shooting, as 
 he brought all his birds perfectly; but it so 
 happened, that every duck killed fell on the 
 near side of the river; and on going out on 
 the fourth day, some ducks were killed, which 
 fell on the opposite side, nearer to the farther 
 bank, when, greatly to the sportsman's as- 
 tonishment and annoyance, the retriever, after 
 taking the water in his usual gallant style, 
 and possessing himself of his bird, swam out 
 on the other side of the river, where, after 
 depositing his bird, he commenced rolling 
 himself on the grass, and, after having well 
 shaken himself and performed a variety of 
 gambols, returned very quietly, leaving his 
 bird behind him, as doubtless he had been in 
 the habit of doing with the stones thrown 
 into the river by the children, whenever 
 accident or caprice induced him to go out on 
 the reverse side. He tried his utmost to 
 persuade him to go back and fetch his bird, 
 but without success, the bad habit acquired 
 from the children being inveterate ; as, on 
 every occasion of a bird falling near the oppo- 
 site bank, he acted in a similar manner. As a 
 temporary remedy, during the short time he 
 retained possession of this dog, he made his 
 game-carrier take a long cord with him, which 
 he fastened to the dog's collar whenever any 
 bird fell into the river at a distance, so that 
 his attempt to go out on the further side 
 was not only checked, but he was conveyed 
 safely to the proper shore. This plan was 
 pursued for some time, thinking it might, 
 perhaps, break him of his bad habit ; but this 
 was not the case, as, on relinquishing the 
 cord by way of experiment, he immediately 
 45i 
 
 committed his first oifence; and, finding him 
 incorrigible, he was presented to a family, 
 where he afforded the greatest sutirifaction, 
 being a safe playfellow for the children by day, 
 and a faithful and vigilant guardian by night. 
 
 Dogs taught by children generally acquire a 
 variety of bad habits, which totally unfit them 
 for sporting purposes. "We have no doubt, 
 however, that there are exceptions, and that 
 some few sportsmen may possess dogs so in- 
 structed, which are perfect ; but these neither 
 establish a rule, nor militate against the one 
 on which we insist. Dogs generally are so 
 docile, that we are predisposed to believe any- 
 thing which may be related of any one par- 
 ticular dog ; but still, when animals are to be 
 trained for specific purposes, it appears to us 
 to be judicious to adopt that system which has 
 been pursued with unqualified success by those 
 who have devoted all their time and attention 
 to it, purely as a matter of business ; as it 
 must be recollected that dogs, like human 
 beings, vary much in temper and disposition. It 
 is, therefore, presumable that those who break 
 the largest number of them are more likely to 
 discover the best mode of proceeding with, and 
 treating them, than those whose practice and 
 experience have been confined to a few, and 
 those, perhaps, of one particular breed. A 
 French dog-breaker will undertake to break, 
 and will succeed thoroughly with, any breed 
 or race of dog, provided he be about twelve 
 months old. It therefore appears to us that it 
 must be conceded to them that their system is 
 a good one. " We speak advisedly on this 
 point," says a writer, " as we have seen 
 various cross-breeds of dogs, which had been 
 taught by French breakers, bringing their 
 game perfectly ; and, on one occasion, on our 
 questioning one of these heroes of the collier 
 de force on this particular point, his reply 
 was — ' NHmporte quelle race; aussit6t que 
 je mets man collier il faut cela marclie, 
 sacr-r-r-r-r-r^ nam de chien.^ ' AYe have shot 
 to several pointers and setters broken by the 
 same man, all of which brought their game 
 perfectly, never disturbing a single feather, 
 and always returning the instant they picked 
 up their birds. This latter result is produced 
 by giving the spiked collar a sharp jerk in the 
 first instance, the moment the dog under 
 instruction picks up whatever is thrown out 
 
TRAixixa.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAinf. [ 
 
 THAlNlNa. 
 
 for him to fetch, in tho event of liis not 
 returning with it ininu'iliately, oiiiilting thia 
 iutliction when ho returns j)roiiH)tly, so that tho 
 fear of receiving this punishment produces an 
 alacrity which is never ubaudoued, and which 
 is 80 agrecablo to tho sportsman. AVhen 
 setters have undergono tho ordeal of tho 
 collier deforce, they give tho sportsman com- 
 paratively littlo trouble when ho wishes to 
 instruct them to back and stand. Having 
 been mado docile and obedient, more than 
 half tho difficulty is overcome." 
 
 As some of our readers may not bo awaro 
 as to what sort of an instrument the collier de 
 force is, we may explain that, in France, it may 
 generally bo obtained at the shops of tho gun- 
 luakers and saddlers. It is composed of thick 
 but pliable leather, stout nails of about three 
 quarters of an inch in length, and two semir 
 circular pieces of iron. " The collar may be 
 two inches in breadth ; length, about three 
 inches shorter than the circumference of the 
 dog's neck, for whose use it is intended ; hav- 
 ing at each end the semi-circular piece of 
 iron firmly secured by the broad end of it ; 
 its strength being that of an ordinary buckle 
 of a dog's collar, and being an inch and a- 
 half in length ; so that the eitreme ends, when 
 drawn tightly by one of the cords, will meet. 
 As there must be two cords, one to lead the 
 ^^o ^J> t^^Q other to inflict punishment — the 
 former will be fastened to both rings ; the 
 latter only to one, but passing through the 
 other ; so that, when it is pulled, the collar 
 is of necessity contracted, and the nails forced 
 into the dog's neck. The two pieces of leather 
 of which the collar is formed, are of similar 
 Bize and shape, the under one being rather 
 tiie thinner of the two. It is through this 
 that tho nails are introduced, the flat heads 
 lying compactly between the two, and kept 
 steadily and firmly in their position by strong 
 sewing. The cord used is generally from 
 twenty to thirty yards in length." 
 
 "U'ith the above implement, the dog under 
 instruction is forced gradually to do whatever 
 his instructor requires of him. Several objects 
 are thrown out to be fetched and carried — 
 sometimes, a piece of wood, of about nine 
 inches in length, in the shape of a rollinf^ 
 pin, with two small pegs passed through at 
 each end, so as to facilitate the dog's picking it 
 
 up ; at other times, either a stufled bird or aa 
 olcl haro skin, tied up in a buiullo; but tho 
 piece of wood is generally mado use of in the 
 lirst instance. The first dilUculty is to make 
 tho dog pick up whatever is thrown down ; 
 when this, as it were, premier pas, is accom- 
 plished, tho Bubseijuent instruction is easily, 
 although only gradually imparted, as con- 
 tinuous daily lessons must bo persevered in 
 for tho space of a month, before the dog will 
 bo thoroughly taught to fetch and carry on 
 land, without tho risk of disappointment ; and 
 after this is accomplished, as we have already 
 intimated, the second course of education, 
 which consists in forcing him to take water 
 without flinching, and bringing his game in- 
 stantly from it, will occasion quite as much 
 trouble as has been previously incurred, and 
 occupy about the aamo length of time; a 
 shallow piece of water being selected for the 
 necessary manoeuvres, and during the summer 
 months — this season being most suitable, as 
 the obstinacy and resistance of the pupil will 
 frequently necessitate the entrance of the 
 instructor into the water. " As we have ire- 
 quently witnessed dogs under this species of 
 instruction," says the anonymous writer to 
 whom we are indebted for the information 
 contained in this part of our subject, " we are 
 well aware of all the difHculty and trouble 
 involved in it ; but when it is once thoroughly 
 carried out, the sportsman W'^l have the satis- 
 faction of possessing a dog on whom he can 
 invariably depend, without the slightest fear 
 of disappointment ; and we do not believe 
 that this can often be said of dogs that have 
 been taught by gentle means." 
 
 We will now direct our remarks to tho 
 various methods of breaking and trainins 
 pointers and setters to stand, back, down 
 charge, and conduct themselves properly in 
 the field and on the hill ; aiid if we have 
 spoken highly of tho French system of break- 
 ing retrievers, wo cannot say much in behalf 
 of their method of training pointers and set- 
 ters, as it is radically bad — repudiating the 
 very first principle of tho strict adherence to 
 which the success of all subsequent sound in- 
 struction :wust depend ; namely, that of down 
 charge and dropping to hand ; as these are not 
 only not taught in France, but universally dis- 
 couraged, inasmuch as every dog is expected 
 
TEAINING.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [teaining-. 
 
 to run in immediately after a shot is fired, pick 
 up and bring whatever game is killed ; and in 
 the case of a hare being shot at and wounded, 
 to chase and do his best to catch the hare; 
 and, if he is absent half an hour, provided he 
 returns with the hare, his master is highly 
 delighted, and considers him a first-rate dog. 
 We have seea. some hundred pointers and 
 setters — at least what are called so — and never 
 saw one that either went down to charge, or 
 that did not invariably chase. As all dogs are 
 naturally disposed to chase, the highest bred 
 ones as well as mongrels, it is not to be won- 
 dered at that when they meet with constant 
 encouragement they should accomplish this 
 feat to perfection. 
 
 There are various methods of breaking 
 pointers and setters, recommended by different 
 sportsmen and gamekeepers ; and although 
 there is some difierence of opinion as to which 
 are most advisable to be employed, there is 
 none as to what the results ought to be. A 
 good dog is expected to go down to charge, 
 drop to hand, stand, back, carry his head high, 
 range well, and quarter his ground in the most 
 advantageous manner. 
 
 The natural requisites in pointers and setters 
 are good breeding, perfect symmetry, and fine 
 nose. The two latter qualities are generally 
 consequent on the first, as it is rare to find a 
 well-bred dog that is not well made and has a 
 good nose. Admitting this position to be 
 correct, attention to breeding becomes im- 
 portant ; and, supposing a sportsman to have a 
 first-rate female, either setter or pointer, we 
 should recommend him to spare no trouble or 
 expense in procuring or sending to the best 
 dog he can find ; and if he selects a dog that is 
 unexceptionable in every respect, there will be 
 little liability to disappointment. Differing 
 from opinions given by some excellent sports- 
 men, we should say that it is best not to breed 
 constantly in-and-in with dogs used in the sense 
 of breeding from dogs nearly related one to 
 another, as we have good reason to believe that 
 the produce of such connections would be 
 physically degenerate, and most probably defi- 
 cient in sagacity. We cannot explain the 
 physiological reasons for this result, as these, 
 like many other operations of nature, we fancy 
 are beyond our intellectual range; but we 
 think we may safely affirm that the law of 
 456 
 
 nature is universal in this respect, and there- 
 fore should not be disregarded. Herdsmen, 
 farmers, shepherds, gardeners, and breeders of 
 horses and cattle, are all well alive to the fact 
 that breeding in-and-in produces degeneracy : 
 it is discernible in plants and seeds as well as 
 in animals — in potatoes and wheat as well as 
 in sheep. No good farmer will sow two years 
 consecutively wheat in the same soil that pro- 
 duced it; and intelligent gardeners seek for 
 change of seed. Shepherds, also, who have the 
 care of large flocks of sheep, make changes 
 every two years, too obvious to be more than 
 hinted at, and find these necessary to avoid 
 degeneracy. We refrain from going further 
 into the particulars of this law of change, com- 
 pliance with which is majiifestly universally 
 required by nature for the maintenance and 
 advancement of our general interests, inas- 
 much as the subject, in all its various bearings, 
 however interesting and important, is not likely 
 to be settled by us. In support of these views, 
 some very valuable information has been ad- 
 vanced on the subject of breeding fowls, not 
 for the purpose of exhibition, but for the more 
 important object of utility, where it is stated 
 that, by following the law of change (i. e. 
 crossing), heavier, finer, and more marketable 
 fowls are produced ; and it should be remem- 
 bered " that the exhibition of birds is only a 
 secondary consideration when compared with 
 their commercial utility." 
 
 In proceeding with the method of training 
 and breaking pointers, and setters, we will 
 assume, for argument's sake, that a young dog 
 is well bred, of good shape and make, and 
 about twelve months old, and just brought 
 home from his walk to be taught everything 
 which a pointer and setter ought to learn. 
 The first thing to be done is to make him 
 thoroughly docile and obedient, to know his 
 name, to come immediately when called, to 
 drop to hand, and not to move till he is allowed 
 to do so. To produce these results, some use 
 a collar with a cord ; some the spiked collar 
 with the cord also; and others exert moral 
 influence aided by the whip. The merit and 
 success of each plan will depend much upon a 
 dog's temper, as there is much difference in 
 this respect ; so that what would produce suc- 
 cess with one dog would entirely fail with 
 another. The breaker must, therefore, be 
 
TRAINING BETTER3] FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAllM. [and pointerb. 
 
 cuiilod, in a cjrcat inoasuro, by circumstancoa. 
 If a dog be ofmiKl temper ami naturally docile, 
 neither collar nor cord will bo required, and 
 be may bo made to go down without bavin<:: 
 recourse to severe means ; in which caso it will 
 be merely necessary to place him at a particular 
 spot, and keep him down with the hand, pro- 
 nouncing audibly at the same time the words 
 *' Down, down !" giving a stroke or two with 
 the whip, in the event of his evincing a dis- 
 position to move; and, when ho ia thus far 
 obedient, his instructor must retire from him, 
 like a courtier after kissing hands, keepmg his 
 evo upon him till he reaches a distance of forty 
 or fifty yards, holding one hand up, and not 
 permitting him to move till bo either calls, 
 whistles, or makes a movement with his arm. 
 In the event of his moving before he is ordered, 
 he must bo taken back to the precise spot 
 where he was first placed, and made to lie 
 down ; and this lesson must be repeated till it 
 fullv succeeds — by which we mean, until the 
 dog goes down at all times the instant the 
 words "Down, down!" are pronounced, the 
 baud being invariably simultaneously held up. 
 The object of this is, that the dog may ulti- 
 mately go down and back at all times on his 
 seeing the hand raised, without its being 
 necessary to call to him, as speaking would be 
 disadvantageous when birds are wild ; it being 
 expedient, when having a brace of dogs at 
 -^ork, to make one dog stop instantly by a 
 silent signal when his companion may have 
 suddenly made a point unperceived. 
 
 "When the above means are found insufficient, 
 the collar with a cord may be used ; and some 
 think the spiked collar will prove more efiectual 
 than the plain one, with a cord of about five 
 yards in length, the end of which can either 
 be held by a boy, or fastened to a stake. When 
 this first lesson is imparted, the efficacy of this 
 plan will soon be perceived, if the dog is at all 
 unruly or obstinate, by his gradual and pro- 
 gressive obedience. In the first instance he 
 may resist; but when he discovers that he 
 can neither escape nor avoid punishment if he 
 disobeys, he will yield to his instructor, and 
 go down when required. The greater the 
 difficulty, the more certain and implicit will 
 be the obedience, when the former is once 
 thoroughly vanquished. Should the dog rise 
 without permission, or move, he must be forced 
 3n 
 
 back to the precise wpot, and umdo to go down, 
 receiving at the same time several slmrp jorka 
 with the cord, and the eamo method of inatruc- 
 tion adopted as wo have just suggcated. This 
 mode of infiicting punishment ia preferable to 
 the use of the whip, as following immediately 
 any act of disobedience ; it ia more intelligible 
 to the dog, and makes a more lasting impres- 
 sion, consequently is more effective. 
 
 AV'hen this lesson has been thoroughly and 
 completely inculcated, so that the dog ia under 
 perfect command, and will go down instantly 
 ho is called to, or on the hand being raised, 
 then he ought to be taken out and taught to 
 range his ground. The day should bo fine 
 and suitable ; a slight breeze would be all in 
 the dog's favour; more than that would bo 
 prejudicial. In the first instance, it will be 
 better to go whore game is thin ; and, when ho 
 is somewhat fatigued, to where it is more 
 abundant, especially if he has evinced symptoms 
 of progress. It must be expected that he will 
 chase in the first instance; but if the collar 
 and cord be on him, as they should be, these 
 will check him considerably ; but, oa each 
 occasion of his committing any ofi'ence, by 
 either running in or chasing, he must ha 
 caught and spoken to sharply, and receive a 
 few smart jerks with the cord — "Down, 
 down !" being several times simultaneously 
 repeated.' A steady old dog, taken out with 
 the young one, will afford considerable facility 
 in imparting instruction, particularly if thej 
 are acquainted with each other, as the young 
 dog will naturally look to the old one, watch 
 his movements, and go to him when he makes 
 a point. On these occasions, the breaker must 
 get up as promptly as he can, in order that ho 
 may exercise all his influence in encouraging 
 his pupil if he is doing right, and in re- 
 straining and punishing him if be is disobe- 
 dient. The chances are in favour of a dog's 
 runnino' in the two or three first times, 
 although he should make a short temporary 
 point, in which case he must, on each occa- 
 sion, bo caught, spoken to sharply, and receive 
 punishment ; and, should he continue to run 
 in without showing any visible signs of 
 amendment, then it will be advisable to take a 
 boy out to hold the cord, so that he may 
 receive prompt and immediate punishment, if 
 1 he attempts to dash forward, either on his 
 
 457 
 
TEAiNx^G sEiTEKs] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [and pointees. 
 
 seeing the old dog point, or on bis perceiving 
 birds rise, or on their falling if a gun be used. 
 Three days' perseverance in this system have 
 been known to succeed in making a dog 
 perfectly staunch in backing, as well as point- 
 ing. It is advisable, especially if dogs are 
 very high couraged, to let them have a little 
 liberty, and not to be too severe for one or 
 two days, and to allow the wire edge to be 
 somewhat taken off, before stringent measures 
 are had recourse to ; the highest couraged 
 dogs are generally the wildest at starting, 
 but, when once broken, prove the best and 
 staunchest. After one good point has been 
 made, and a disposition evinced to yield to 
 sound discipline, the progress is rapid; then 
 no single fault must be overlooked, however 
 trifling, and every care and attention is de- 
 manded of the breaker. 
 
 An indispensable requisite to all good dog- 
 training is, to begin early. There is likewise 
 another valuable ingredient in the art, namely, 
 that the words of encouragement or reproof 
 be always uniformly adhered to. The follow- 
 ing is a kind of catalogue of phrases, or dic- 
 tionary words usually connected with the 
 subject. The word Steady ! ought to be used 
 when all dogs enter a field, especially young 
 ones. TaTce heed! implies the same thing. 
 "When a dog is seen very busy and active with 
 his nose and tail, feathering as he hunts, then 
 the word To-ho ! in a mild, but sufficiently 
 marked and loud tone for the animal's hearing 
 should be used, to cheer as well as to inspire 
 caution. Down! or Doion Charge! is a com- 
 mand to the dogs to crouch, or drop the birds. 
 Bach ! brings the dogs back again to your 
 feet. 8eeh out! sends them off again in 
 quest of game ; but a wave of the hand is 
 considered much better where it is expected 
 birds are near. Hie on •' gives a spur to the 
 timid dog to leave your feet; audi Seek out! 
 orders him to hunt. Go seek! should be im- 
 pressed on a dog's memoiy as a command to 
 look out for something considered as lost, or 
 wanting ; and the term is distinguished from 
 geek out, by dogs that are properly trained. 
 Hold lip ! is used to prevent the dropping of 
 the nose to the earth to catch the scent, 
 which, although the odorous particles may not 
 tave disappeared from the spot the birds stood 
 on, are chiefly floating in the air ; conse- 
 458 
 
 quently, by holding up his head down wind, 
 he comes in contact with the scent of the 
 birds almost immediately. The puzzle peg is 
 used as a last resource when Hold up ! is not 
 attended to. 
 
 Ware •' is a word of caution ; and Ware 
 Hare ! is to check the animal from running 
 after the hare, when partridges, grouse, or 
 pheasants are at hand. It is a good device to 
 accustom a dog to atttend to signs as well as 
 words ; for a wave of the hand will often do 
 more execution than loud shouting. 
 
 The pairing season is a good time to break 
 young dogs, as birds lie well ; and this is an 
 important point, and not to be disregarded. 
 It would not only be detrimental to make the 
 attempt with wild birds, but, in all probability, 
 end in complete failure, and give the breaker 
 considerable additional trouble on a future 
 occasion. If a dog is not intended for the 
 moors, and only for the marsh and field, then 
 snipes are excellent birds to introduce to his 
 notice, especially the Jack snipe, as he lies 
 remarkably close, and a few of these shot on 
 the ground, before the dog's nose, make him 
 remarkably staunch. 
 
 "When dogs are commenced to be taught to 
 range, give them the wind as much as possible, 
 but never persevere long in one direction ; 
 but, on the contrary, change your course con- 
 stantly, alternately right and left, so as to in- 
 duce your dog to watch your movements, 
 without its being necessary to speak to him, 
 by which means, if you are successful, he will 
 subsequently beat his ground exactly as you 
 desire, being influenced by your movements, 
 whicli is a great advantage. 
 
 AYhen a dog is beginning to learn his busi- 
 ness and becoming steady, it is not a bad 
 plan to go at right angles to the wind, as, in 
 the event of his picking up a bird or two, and 
 being merely scolded and made ashamed, he 
 will be more careful and carry his head better 
 when he goes partially down wind ; and, more- 
 over, when he points, will give you an oppor- 
 tunity of heading him, whereby you can put 
 his patience and staunchness to the test, and 
 will, at the same time, cure him of "blinking," 
 if he has ever shown any disposition to do so, 
 which means leaving a point after it has been 
 made, and coming back to the gun — not a com- 
 mon fault, but one which sometimes occurs. 
 
oBEAKiyo D009.] FOR MOUNTAIX, FIELD, AND FAUM. 
 
 [Si'ANIKLS. 
 
 The very best of dogs will sometimes put 
 up a bird ; therefore n doi^ must not be con- 
 demned on Ills first trial if he eouunit a fault, 
 but be rather judged by liia general conduct. 
 In grouse-shooting sportsmen like to givo 
 their dosjs the wind as much as possible ; but 
 when birds are wild there is sometimes an 
 advantage in going down wind witli one old 
 steady cunning dog, who will " sink" the wind, 
 and get beyond running birds and head them, 
 in whicli ease even wild old euuning cocks, on 
 liuding themselves between two enemies, will 
 allow the sportsman to get within shot. We 
 are aware that this is not the regular mode of 
 proceeding ; but it is one of the many expe- 
 dients which may be resorted to when birds 
 are wild at the end of the season. 
 
 Setters and pointers may be either broken 
 in the shooting season, or out of it, with, or 
 without the gun ; if without the gun in the 
 pairing season, the breaker must take with him 
 a horse-pistol, which lie can discharge on the 
 rising of birds, in order to accustom the young 
 dog to the sound of the report, and also to 
 make him down charge. The shooting season 
 we think is the best time to complete the 
 education of a dog, provided the sportsman is 
 disposed to take the trouble on himself, and 
 has patience to pay the requisite attention ; a 
 few shots may be lost at starting, but the pro- 
 gress of the dog is rapid, if he is well tired 
 down each day, and plenty of game found and 
 killed to him. At the commencement much 
 work and little game is best for a young dog ; 
 but when he begins to behave well, he requires 
 the encouragement of more game, but without 
 diminution of work. There is little difficulty, 
 ■we apprehend, in breaking a well-bred dog, 
 provided the proper preliminary measures 
 which we have suggested be strictly attended 
 to. "Well-bred pointer, and setter puppies, 
 have frequently been seen to back and stand 
 instinctively ; and most sportsmen who have 
 resided much in the country, we have no 
 doubt, have constantly witnessed young dogs 
 in a farmyard pointing all sorts of poultry. 
 
 Belore concluding these remarks, we must 
 notice one fault occasionally to be found in 
 puppies, which must be counteracted — it is 
 that of carrying their heads low, and endea- 
 vouring to make out scent as a spaniel would 
 do. The remedy for this is an implement 
 
 called a puzzle, made of iron, fastened in such 
 a manner that the dog is obliged to carry his 
 head higii. Tiie above fault is rarelv found in 
 high-bred dogs ; they almost invariably carry 
 their heads well — an advantage which the ex- 
 perienced sportsnum ap[)reciate8 ; Iiis logs are 
 saved, and he procures good sport, where 
 second-rate dogs would have completely failed. 
 Tho other dogs, more especially of tho 
 spaniel kind, are the Cocker, the Springer, 
 the JJlenheim Spaniel, and tlie King Charles' 
 Spaniel. They are all, more or less, adapted 
 for the field. 
 
 TIIE COCKER. 
 This dog is like a small land-spaniel, but 
 with a shorter muzzle, a more rounded head, 
 and longer ears. He is a lively little animal, 
 and is used to spring woodcocks and pheasants 
 in copses and thickets, where larger dogs can- 
 not enter. He is very hardy, and never seems 
 to tire at his work. He may, therefore, bo 
 hunted for days together; but he is difficult 
 to keep under command, and he gives tongue 
 loudly. 
 
 THE SPRTNGER 
 Is only a larger-sized cocker, heavier in make, 
 and neither so active, nor so lively as the 
 other. 
 
 THE BLENHEIM SPANIEL. 
 "Blenheim Palace, near AVoodstock, Ox- 
 fordshire," Bays Mr. Kichardson, " was for- 
 merly the estate of King Ethelred, and since 
 that of Henry II., as also the birthplace of 
 several princes of the royal line of England ; 
 subsequently the prison of Queen Elizabeth, 
 during a portion of Queen Mary's reign ; and 
 afterwards granted by Queen Anne to John 
 Duke of Marlborough, with the present 
 palace, for his great victory over the French 
 and Bavarians, at the village of Blenheim, in 
 Suabia, a.d. 1704. In this superb mansion 
 has been preserved, for the last century and a 
 half, the small red-and-white spaniel, or com- 
 forter, the "Pyrame" of Buffou — the Blen- 
 heim spaniel of the present day. Except for 
 their beauty and attachment, they are of but 
 little use, although some of the breeds bring 
 a long price. From their restlessness, and 
 proneness to give tongue on the least alarm, 
 
 459 
 
SPANIELS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [BLENHEIM SPANIELS. 
 
 tliey make excellent watch-doga inside a 
 house." 
 
 THE KING CHARLES SPANIEL. 
 
 This breed is distinguished by the shortness 
 of the muzzle — the round and bullet-like shape 
 of the head — the prominence of his eye — the 
 length of his ears — and his colour, which must 
 be black and tan. The Suffolk Sportsman 
 says — "the cocking or gun-spaniel of true 
 perfect breed is of one general or whole colour ; 
 either black, or black and tan, commonly called 
 King Charles's breed, or red in different 
 shades, paler and deeper;" and concluding 
 with "legs short and breeches behind." This 
 diminutive animal was the favourite of King 
 Charles II., who had some of this kind con- 
 stantly with him in his walks, and who was 
 more partial to his dogs than to his duties as 
 the sovereign of a great people. The breed is 
 preserved in the family of the Duke of Norfolk, 
 at Arundel Castle, where they are fondled and 
 petted, we believe, in such a manner, as to lift 
 them to the dignified position of being re- 
 garded as members of the family. James II., 
 of unfortunate memory, was, also, extremely 
 partial to these dogs, hence they have received 
 the title of " the royal race," and are now 
 generally regarded as such. 
 
 In Loudon, where these dogs are bred with 
 great care, and to the highest degree of per- 
 fection, the Blenheim is frequently crossed 
 with the Charles, so that the variety of colour 
 on which the difference of nomenclature 
 depends often appears in the same litter ; the 
 black and tan being denominated " King 
 Charles," and the red and white " Blenheim." 
 
 Several "spaniel clubs" have been formed, 
 with a view to promote the careful breeding of 
 these dogs ; and of some of these His late 
 Eoyal Highness the Prince Consort was patron, 
 both her majesty and the prince beiug enthu- 
 siastic admirers of them. His Eoyal Highness 
 had, at no sparing outlay, erected a superb 
 kennel for them at Windsor. 
 
 The members of the spaniel clubs subscribe 
 a small sum each, and, with the amount con- 
 tributed, a handsome collar of silver,^ with gold 
 entablature, is purchased ; a particular day is 
 then named, and judges are appointed, when 
 each member brings to the club-room a dog of 
 bis own rearing, and that dog adjudged to 
 460 
 
 possess the greatest number of good points 
 attains the collar as a prize. 
 
 King Charles and Blenheim spaniels have 
 been known, in London, to fetch the price of 
 from 150 to 200 guineas! 
 
 The affection of these dogs for their owners 
 is extreme ; and their general intelligence is 
 such, that they would seem almost to partici- 
 pate in the pleasures of a quiet drawing-room 
 conversation, when carried on by those who 
 are attached to them. They are capable of 
 serving in the field, but their continual yafiing 
 is very apt to mar the sport. They, however, 
 like other dogs of the species, could undergo 
 the process of training, and be made of con- 
 siderable use in some kinds of hunting. In 
 England, however, they live for other pur- 
 poses — for admiration and a couch in the lap 
 of a lady, where we will leave them to make 
 the following extract from Mr. Blaine : — 
 
 " The old Marquis of Granby was the owner 
 of a very celebrated breed (of Spaniels) ; and, 
 in later times, the Duke of Marlborough, and 
 his descendants, have been famed for what was 
 known as the Blenheim breed ; and the late 
 Lady Charles Spencer, with whom we were on 
 terms of intimacy, kept numbers of them, and 
 was so devoted to their welfare, that, we 
 believe, she never wore a pin in any part of 
 her dress, fearing that it might be accidentally 
 the means of wounding one of these favourites. 
 They were, one and all, red and white, zealous 
 hunters in the field, but required much trouble 
 to break. A still more notorious variety, waa 
 the black and tan spaniel of King Charles, 
 which continued to be cultivated with such 
 jealous care, by the late Duke of Norfolk, that 
 no interest could obtain one without a strict 
 injunction from the owner, and almost a 
 solemn promise from the receiver, that he or 
 she would not breed from it in the direct line. 
 The late Duchess of York, who honoured us 
 with much condescending notice, by sending 
 for us frequently to Oatlands, either to consult 
 us on the ailments of the poor around her, or 
 on her brute favourites, of which, it is well 
 known, she had a varied assemblage, aflbrded 
 us a striking proof of what we have stated. 
 On one occasion, when we were accompanying 
 her royal highness to her menagerie, with 
 almost a kennel of canine favourites behind 
 her, after drawing our attention to a jet black 
 
NEWFOUNDLANDS.] F OK 31 O U N T A 1 X, riELi), AM) FAUM. [.NtWlOCNDLJLSDS. 
 
 pui; pup she h:ul just receivi'd from Germany, 
 alio rcmarkfil, thai .s'.iu was j^oin;; to sliow ino 
 what she consideivil a present of nmcli f^poater 
 rarity, which was a truo spaniel of king 
 Charles's breed, sent to lier by tho Duko of 
 Norfolk. *lJut,' she observed, 'would you 
 believe he could be so ungallant as to write 
 word, that be must have a positive promise, 
 not from mvself, but from the Duke of York, 
 that I should not breed from it in a direct 
 line?' It would almost seem that the word of 
 ladies of high rank was not in equal estima- 
 tion with that of the gentlemen of the same 
 rank, at least that Norfolk's duke did not 
 think it so; for it happened, a very little time 
 after, when professionally waiting on the 
 Princess Sophia of Gloucester, her royal high- 
 ness, also, showed us a very fine young spaniel 
 of the Norfolk breed, which she, likewise, ob- 
 served was only presented by tho duke on an 
 understanding guaranteed, not by herself, but 
 by her brother, the Duke of Gloucester, that 
 it should not be bred from in the Charles's 
 line. "Whatever view v.e take of these restric- 
 tive attempts," adds Mr. Blaine, " we may, 
 however, be assured that Nature will frustrate 
 them ; for not only is the Norfolk breed, but 
 the Blenheim also, sufficiently common at the 
 present time ; and they ought to be, for both 
 are great ornaments to the race, and make 
 very many springers. "VVe think it our duty, 
 likewise, to observe, that however some ladies 
 might not think themselves strictly bound by 
 an agreement on such a subject, we feel as- 
 sured that neither of those we have noticed on 
 this occasion would have done other than 
 strictly abide by the compact ; and we are 
 confident that those who were much better 
 acquainted with them than we could possibly 
 be, would bear us out in our assertion." 
 
 THE NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 The Labrador and Newfoundland dogs are 
 often confounded together. The Labrador doer 
 exceeds the Newfoundland animal in point of 
 size, and is often of extraordinary dimensions. I 
 A fine specimen, measured some time since, 
 gave the following particulars : — Total length, 
 including the tail, six feet three inches ; 
 height at shoulder, two feet six inches ; length 
 of head from occiput to point of nose, eleven 
 inches ; circumference of chest, three feet one , 
 
 I inch. In Labrador, theao powerful and in- 
 telligent dogs aro used for drawing sledges, 
 and aro of great service to tho settlers. 
 
 Nowfouudhmd dogs aro of less stature, but 
 more compactly built, and aro muscular and 
 sagacious. Tiieso animals aro also used for 
 drawing sledges, and littlo carriages laden 
 with wood, fish, and other commodities, and 
 aro very valuable in their native country. 
 Both the Labrador and Newfoundland breeds 
 aro admirable water-dogs, and make excellent 
 retrievers. Their fidelity and attachment to 
 their masters are well known, and all aro 
 fimiiliar with instances in which human beings, 
 about to perish in the water, have owed their 
 life to the courage and exertions of these de- 
 voted creatures. Mr. Blaine classes tho New- 
 foundland dog with the spaniels — a classifica- 
 tion from which Mr. Eichardson dissents, lie 
 makes a distinct group of tho Newfoundlands, 
 which he denominates a wolf-group. 
 
 "I am compelled," he says, "thus arbitrarily 
 to give, perhaps, an undeserved name to tho 
 present group ; but it is the only one by 
 means of which I can accurately indicate the 
 family of dogs to which I refer. The indi- 
 viduals of which this group is composed, all 
 bear a greater or less resemblance to the wolf, 
 in erect, or semi-erect ears, in long and shaggy 
 coats, and bushy tails. Tho Newfoundland 
 dog is fully entitled to be placed at the head 
 of the group ; from his being better known 
 than the others, from his greater beauty, his 
 sagacity, his nobility of nature and disposi- 
 tion, his utility to mankind, and the high 
 degree of estimation in which he is held in 
 every part of the world where ho is known. 
 Those who have grouped these dogs with the 
 spaniels, are in error, for they possess none of 
 the characteristics of that group. 
 
 "The true breed of Newfoundland," he 
 continues, "is a dog of moderate stature, 
 seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven 
 inches in height; long-bodied, broad-chested, 
 a shaggy coat, a poiuted wolfish muzzle, ears 
 small, and inclined to the semi-erect ; colour 
 usually black, with a shade of brown through 
 it, and occasionally some white. There is 
 another breed of dog peculiar to Newfound- 
 land ; short-coated, and sharp-nosed — an ex- 
 cellent water-dog, by some mistak"'i for the 
 true Newfoundland breed. 
 
 4G1 
 
NEWFOTJNDLAKDS.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [origin. 
 
 " The large dogs usually known as Newfound- 
 lands in this country, are evidently the result 
 of a cross with the mastiff. They are a fine, 
 showy animal ; but less sagacious, less active, 
 and more apt to display irregularity of temper 
 than the original breed ; they often attain the 
 height of thirty inches. These large dogs are 
 rapidly becoming the peculiar breed of New- 
 foundland; and dogs of this sort are gladly 
 imported there, whereas our Newfoundland 
 friends have now little or nothing but curs to 
 
 offer in return. 
 
 * # » * 
 
 " The origin of this dog is questionable ; 
 but I am disposed to trace him to a large 
 European variety, still in use among the Nor- 
 wegians, for the chase of the bear and wolf. 
 It is now well known that the original dis- 
 covery of Newfoundland is to be attributed to 
 the Norwegians, who, before the year 1,000, 
 sailed from Greenland on a voyage of dis- 
 covery, and that the same people discovered 
 North America some time between the tenth 
 and eleventh centuries." 
 
 Mr. Blaine says, "that although this dog 
 was, without doubt, first introduced to general 
 notice from Newfoundland, there is reason to 
 suppose that it was originally derived from 
 the large dogs of Spain, introduced by the 
 early discoverers of the American continent, 
 which, intermixing with the native breeds, 
 produced an increase of size and power in the 
 future races. These would be encouraged by 
 the natives, because the use they made of 
 them as beasts of draught were thereby better 
 fulfilled. Such, we have reason to believe, was 
 the first improvement made in the native dogs 
 of those countries, which, as far as a factitious 
 breed can continue its like, seemed, but in 
 limited numbers, to have remained a standard 
 among them until E .glish importations had 
 drained almost all of them. Another variety 
 forms the smaller, smooth aquatic dog of New- 
 foundland. When the English settled there, 
 they, without doubt, carried some of the 
 largest and most powerful of the water spaniel 
 breed, to assist them in the hunting and the 
 shooting of wild fowl; and there is little 
 reason to doubt, that an intermixture with 
 these also assisted in perfecting a breed, 
 whence our admired specimens of the large 
 Newfoundland dog arose; the breeding of 
 4G2 
 
 which, however, was never carried to any great 
 extent in that country. The rigours of tha 
 climate, and the difficulty of procuring food 
 for it during some seasons of the year, were 
 unfavourable to both the production of num- 
 bers, and the full development of the frame. 
 The splendid animal we now see has been 
 greatly increased in size, since its residence 
 among us. We have cultivated it so as to 
 make it now an Euglish breed ; while in New- 
 foundland it is at present so nearly extinct, 
 that a writer, in a new series of the Sporting 
 Magazine, states that he could not find a 
 single dog of the kind at St. John's. If this 
 be so, it is a mistake when naturalists assert 
 that the dog we possess is the same with that 
 which is employed ' in their native districts in 
 place of the horse.' " 
 
 Of all the species of the canine race there 
 is none exhibits so much dignity, such a 
 nobility of nature as the Newfoundland. He 
 is majesty itself, and seems to be conscious of 
 the power and appearance of which he is 
 possessed; whilst he rarely descends to the 
 level of other dogs in combating in the streets. 
 This does not arise from cowardice, but from 
 the excellence of his disposition, and the high 
 intelligence with which he is endowed. As an 
 aquatic dog, he is second only to the water- 
 spaniel ; his feet being webbed, and that 
 element seeming to him as natural as the 
 terra Jlrma upon which he walks. Some time 
 ago, ten of these animals were imported into 
 Paris, for the purpose of watching the banks ot 
 the Seine. They were overlooked by regular 
 trainers, whose duty it was to teach them to 
 draw from the river figures stuffed, so as to 
 have a close resemblance to those of children 
 and full grown persons. Commodious kennels 
 were erected for them on the bridges, and they 
 were not long before they became adepts at 
 plunging into the water, and rescuing from 
 the grave many unfortunate drowning indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 The sagacity of the Newfoundland is almost 
 human ; and the variety of his accomplish- 
 ments are such as to place him at the very 
 head of all the canine races. In the various 
 capacities of watch-dog, companion, water-dog, 
 pointer, and retriever, he has been successful ; 
 whilst the pliability of his temper, and the 
 docility of his nature, renders him capable of 
 
NEWF0USDLAMJ3.] iUli -MULMTAl^', FIELD, ASD i'AltM. [n£wfoundlaj.'db. 
 
 being tauc;ht anything almost, but to read and 
 speak. J I is courago is groat; and, as tho 
 sate-guard of a iiousehold, tliero is much more 
 dependence to bo phiced upon him than upon 
 the niastifl'. Ou tho authority of tho Boston 
 Traveller, we give tlie following example of the 
 sagacity of this kind of dog, in performing 
 some of tho duties of civilised life : — 
 
 Our neighbour of the Evening Gazette has re- 
 cently referred to a sagacious dog of the New- 
 foundland brood, owned by ^Ir. JJawes, of this 
 city, who comes regularly to the Traveller 
 counting room, every afternoon, and putting 
 his paws upon the counter, receives his mas- 
 ter's paper, and is oli' to his store. This same 
 dog has other ways of his own, which are often 
 amusing, though occasionally a little trouble- 
 some. Like his biped associates in this world 
 of bustle and hurry, he requires to be waited 
 on with the least possible delay ; and if he is 
 not attended to, he is quite likely to help him- 
 self, often making reprisals on us for our inat- 
 tention, by taken from the pile of papers a 
 mouthful, perhaps half a dozen. He seems 
 to have very imperfect ideas of the distinction 
 between ineum and tuu7n — as much so as any 
 person on 'Change. If, therefore, on coming 
 to our counter, he finds it bare of papers, he 
 casts an imploring look around the room, and 
 if a luckless boy loiters with a paper in his 
 hand, to watch the movements of the sagacious 
 animal, the dog will seize the coveted paper, 
 and be ofi' before the astonished boy has time 
 to rescue his stolen property. "We are often 
 reminded by the movements of this intelligent 
 quadruped of the favourite saying of a certain 
 queer old fellow : — " There is a great deal of 
 human nature in beasts." 
 
 There are innumerable anecdotes illustra- 
 tive of the intelligence of the Newfoundland, 
 which, when full grown, and of pure breed, 
 should measure upwards of six feet from the 
 point of the nose to the tip of the tail. This 
 may seem an extraordinary length ; but the 
 beautiful proportions of this animal, with the 
 general upward curve, or bend of the tail, has 
 an apparent effect in lessening this measure. 
 Over the shoulders, from one fore foot to the 
 other, the measurement is upwards of five feet 
 and a half; round the head, and across the 
 ears, about two feet ; the length of the head, 
 about fourteen inches ; and the upper part of 
 
 tho leg, about ten inches. This is tho mea- 
 sure of an animal whon full grown and in his 
 prime. Jlis body is covered witli long curly 
 hair ; his legs are also well-clutlied ; and hig 
 tail, likewise, is abundantly covered. 
 
 According to Mr. Kichardson, tho New- 
 foundland is of com[)aratively recent introduc- 
 tion to this country. " From tho great share 
 of emulation which nature has given him," 
 says that gentleman, " to bo surpassed, or 
 overcome, would occasion groat pain. On 
 every emergency ho is active, the friend of all, 
 and is naturally without the least disposition 
 to quarrel with other animals. He seldom, or 
 ever oilers offence , but will not receive an in- 
 sult or injury with impunity. Such is tho 
 capacity of his understanding, that he can bo 
 taught almost anything that man can incul- 
 cate, of which his own strength and frame are 
 capable. His sagacity can only be exceeded 
 by his energies, and ho perseveres with un- 
 abated ardour in whatever manner he is em- 
 ployed. "While he has a hope of success, he 
 will never slacken in his efforts to attain it. 
 The amazing pliability of his temper peculiarly 
 fits him for man's use ; and he never shrinks 
 from any service which may be required of 
 him, but undertakes it with an ardour propor- 
 tional to the difficulty of its execution. He 
 takes a singular pride in being employed, and 
 will carry a bundle, stick, or basket, in his 
 mouth, for miles, and to deprive him of either 
 of these is more than a stranger could, with 
 safety, accomplish. Sagacity, and a peculiarly 
 faithful attachment to the human species, 
 are characteristics inseparable from this dog, 
 and hence he is ever on the alert to ward off" 
 impending danger from his master, and to 
 free him from every peril to which he may be 
 exposed. From the astonishing degree of 
 courage with which he is endowed, he is ever 
 ready to resent an insult, or to defend his 
 friend, even at the hazard of his own life. In- 
 clined habitually to industrious employment, 
 such dogs are as useful to the settlers of the 
 coast, from which they are brought, as our 
 galloways and ponies are to us. It is easy to 
 accustom them to daily labour. From three 
 to five of them are harnessed to a sledge, or 
 otlier vehicle, containing a load of wood, or 
 lumber, amounting to twenty or thirty stones, 
 which they will draw very steadily for miles, 
 
 4G3 
 
XABEADOE DOG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [i-abeadoe spakiel. 
 
 with ease, and will do this without the aid of 
 a driver, when acquainted with the road ; and 
 having delivered their burden, they return 
 home to their masters, and receive, as a re- 
 ward for their labour, their accustomed food, 
 which generally consists of dried fish, of which 
 they are said to be extremely fond." 
 
 THE LABRADOR DOG. 
 
 This is an animal considerably larger than 
 the Newfoundland, with a shorter muzzle, a 
 more pendulous upper lip, a coarser coat, and 
 altogether exhibiting marks of greater athletic 
 power than are presented in the form of the 
 Newfoundland. He stands from twenty-eight 
 to thirty inches high. 
 
 The following are the measurements of a 
 dog of this breed, given in KnigMs Weehli; 
 Volume : — " Total length, including the tail, 
 six feet three inches ; height at the shoulder, 
 two feet six inches ; length of head, from 
 occiput to point of nose, eleven inches ; cir- 
 cumference of chest, three feet one inch. In 
 Labrador, these large dogs are used in draw- 
 ing sledges, loaded with wood, and are of great 
 service to the settlers." 
 
 A fine specimen of this dog belonged to 
 Lady Bellew, of Barmeath. It stood about 
 twenty-nine inches high at the shoulder. 
 This animal, although used for purposes of 
 draught in his native country, might be applied 
 to hunting purposes, as his scent is very keen. 
 
 THE LABRADOR SPANIEL. 
 
 In point of size, this dog stands between 
 the Newfoundland and the land-spaniel. It 
 is remarkable for its aquatic predilections, and, 
 as a diver, is unrivalled. In reference to this 
 animal, Mr. Eichardson gives the following 
 anecdote, on the authority of Saunders's News- 
 Letter, a Dublin newspaper, where it appeared 
 on the 1st of September, 1846. If true, it 
 places the sagacity and disposition of this kind 
 of dog, in a very favourable light : — ■ 
 
 " JBeeler, the Dog of the Police. — During a 
 recent investigation relative to the manner in 
 which the policeman came by his death at 
 Kingstown, a little active and inquisitive dog, 
 of the Labrador breed, was seen, from time to 
 time, during each day, running in and out of 
 the room, as if he took a personal interest in 
 the inquiry. The dog was admired, and a 
 464i 
 
 gentleman in the police establishment was 
 asked to whom it belonged. ' Oh,' said he, 
 ' don't you know him ? we thought every one 
 knew Peeler, the dog of the police.' The 
 gentleman then proceeded to give the inter- 
 rogator the history of this singular dog. It 
 appeared from the story, that, a few years ago, 
 poor little Peeler tempted the canine appetite 
 of a Mount St. Bernard, or Newfoundland 
 dog, and was in peril of being swallowed up 
 by him for a luncheon, when a policeman 
 interposed, and, with a blow of his baton, 
 levelled the assailant, and rescued the assailed. 
 Prom that time Peeler has united his fortunes 
 with those of the police ; wherever they go, he 
 follows ; whether pacing with measured tread 
 the tedious ' beat,' or engaged in the energetic 
 duty of arresting a disturber of the public 
 peace. He is a self-constituted general super- 
 intendent of the police, visiting station after 
 station, and, after he has made his observation 
 in one district, wending his way to the next. 
 He is frequently seen to enter a third-class 
 carriage at the Kingstown Eailway, get out at 
 Black Eock, visit the police station there, con- 
 tinue his tour of inspection to Booterstown, 
 reach there in time for the train as before, 
 and go on to Dublin to take a peep at the 
 ' metropolitans ;' and having satisfied himself 
 that ' all is right,' return by an early evening 
 train to Kingstown. He sometimes takes a 
 dislike to an individual, and shuns him as 
 anxiously as he wags his tail at the approach, 
 and frisks about the feet of another, for whom 
 he has a regard. There is one man in the 
 force for whom he has this antipathy ; and, a 
 day or two ago, seeing him in ' the train,' he 
 left the carriage, and waited for the next, pre- 
 ferring a delay of half an hour to such com- 
 pany ; and when the bell rang, with the eager- 
 ness with which protracted joy is sought, he 
 ran to his accustomed seat in ' the third class.' 
 His partiality for the police is extraordinary ; 
 wherever he sees a man in the garb of a con- 
 stable, he expresses his pleasure by walking 
 near him, rubbing against, and dancing about 
 him. Nor does he forget him in death ; for 
 he was at his post at the funeral of Daly, the 
 policeman who was killed in Kingstown. He 
 is able to recognise a few in plain clothes ; 
 but they must have been old friends of his. 
 Wherever he goes, he gets a crust, a piece oi 
 
roMERASiANDOoOrOR MOUNTAIN, rii:!.l), ANT) I' A IIM. rnsQviMAUX »oo. 
 
 meat, a pat on tlio iieatl, or n rub down upon 
 Ilia glossy back by the liaiid of :i polioeujan ; 
 and ho is as well Unowu amongst tia' body as 
 any ono in it. Wo liavo hoard of tho dog of 
 Montargis, the soldier's dog, tho blind bcg- 
 Ljar's dog, and tho dog of tiio moidts of St. 
 Bernard, and been delighti-d by stories of 
 their iidellty and sagacity ; but uono aro more 
 interesting tliau * Peeler, tho dog of tho 
 police,' ' whose heart, enlarged with gratitude 
 to one, grows bountiful to all.' " 
 
 THE CALABRIAN OR PYRENEAN WOLF-DOG. 
 
 This is the shepherd's dog of tlio Abruzzo, 
 standing about twenty-nine or thirty inches 
 high at tho shoulder. He is usually of a white 
 colour, with one or two patches of bulf or tan 
 on the head or sides; the ears are not hairy, 
 and are half erect ; the tail is bushy, and is 
 carried, in a curl, close over the back ; the nose 
 is pointed, and the general aspect of the head 
 wolfish. They fijl the position of tho Scotch 
 colley, or that of the English sheep-dog, to the 
 Spanish and Italian shepherds, but are rather 
 jiuardians than herders of the flocks. Their 
 great value is to protect the sheep from tho 
 attacks of wolves and other ferocious animals. 
 
 THE POMERANIAN DOG. 
 
 This is a small dog, and usually of a white 
 colour. It is not twenty inches high at the 
 shoulder; its ears are perfectly erect, like 
 those of a fox, with an unfringcd tail, bushed 
 all round like tliat of the fox. It is often 
 called the "Ibx-dog," from its resemblance to 
 that animal. 
 
 There is a small Chinese variety of dog, so 
 closely resembling the Pomeranian (except in 
 colour, being usually yellow or black), that they 
 cannot be distinguished from one another. 
 
 "These are the dogs used as food by the 
 natives. There are regular dog-butchers in 
 most of the Chinese towns ; and dog's flesh, 
 especially roasted, is held in high esteem. It 
 is not long since, that not only was ' roasted 
 dog' regarded as the very quintessence of good 
 living, but that, like ' living turtle' among us, 
 its promised appearance at the board was 
 regularly announced as an attraction to the 
 invited guests." 
 
 3o 
 
 Tin: IIMIK-I.SDIAN DOG. 
 This dog was lirst described by Dr. Hiehard- 
 son, anil found by hint on tho Mackenzie 
 river. It is of small size, and slenderly made, 
 with broad, erect ears, sharp at tho tips; tho 
 tail is pendent, with a slight curve upwards, 
 near tho tip. Ono which Dr. Kiclmrdsen had 
 was killeil and eaten by ono of his Indian 
 guides, who stated that he mistook it for a fox. 
 Tiio feet of this animal are large, spread, and 
 abundantly covered with fur, in cousequenco 
 of which ho can run upon tho snow with 
 rapidity and ease, without sinking. In their 
 native country, these dogs never bark ; in con- 
 fiuemeut they do. 
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX DOG. 
 This dog is as large as the Xewfoundlancl, 
 with long, coarse hair, and his tail curling 
 over the back. Its ears are pointed and erect, 
 and, in his general appearance, bears a strong 
 resemblance to the wolf. He has a consider- 
 able share of intelligence and good temper. 
 In his native country he is harnessed to tho 
 sledge, and generally performs the work of a 
 draught animal. He is capable of undergoing 
 great iatigue, and is both active and swift. 
 
 Besides this last dog of the north, there is 
 the Siberian dog, a powerful animal; the 
 Kamtschatka dog ; the Iceland dog; the Green- 
 land dog ; and the Lapland dog ; of which last, 
 Mr. Clarke, in his work on Scandinavia, has 
 given a description. He says — " "We had a 
 j valuable companion in a dog, belonging to one 
 of the boatmen. It was of the true Lapland 
 breed, and in all respects similar to a wolf, 
 I excepting the tail, which was bushy and curled, 
 ' like those of the Pomeranian race. This dog, 
 ' swimming after the boat, if his master merely 
 waved his hand, would cross the lake as often 
 as he pleased, carrying half his body and the 
 whole of his head and tail out of the water. 
 I "Wherever he landed he scoured all the long 
 I grass by the side of the lake, in search of wild 
 ' fowl, and came back to us, bringing wild ducks 
 ' in his mouth to tho boat; and then, having 
 delivered his prey to his master, he would 
 instantly set off again in search of more." 
 
 These animals are also employed in a simib.- 
 capacity to that in which our Drover's dog ia 
 employed. They herd the reindeer. A gentle- 
 
 465 
 
ESQuiMArx Doa.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [wATER-DOa, 
 
 man who yisited a Lap encampment, thus 
 writes : — 
 
 " While I sojourned on the Island of Tromso, 
 learning that on the neighbouring mainland 
 some Laplanders were encamped, I resolved 
 to pay them a visit. Procuring a boat, I rowed 
 over to the opposite shore, where I met with a 
 Nordlander, who informed rae that the Lap 
 encampment might be found somewhere toward 
 the extremity of Tromsdal — a magnificent 
 ravine commencing at no great distance from 
 the shore, and running directly inland. He 
 stated that the Laps had a noble herd of reiyis 
 (the name universally given to reindeer), about 
 eight hundred in number, and that, when the 
 wind blew from a certain quarter, the whole 
 herd would occasionally wander close to his 
 house, but a rein-Jiund (reindeer-dog) was kept 
 by him to drive them back. * * * # * 
 " Onward we went, driving the herd, in which 
 I gleefully helped, the three little dogs at times 
 barking and fetching up stragglers. The Laps 
 occasionally gave a short cry or urging shout 
 to the reins, and I burst forth with my full- 
 lunged English hallo, to the evident amuse- 
 ment of my companions. The scene was most 
 exciting. The brilliant sunlight, the green 
 grass, the spai-kling, murmuring Elv, the pic- 
 turesque glen, the figures of the Laps, the 
 moving herd of reins — the novelty of the whole 
 was indescribably delightful. I found the reins 
 did not make such a ' clicking' noise as most 
 travellers have asserted. Here were hundreds 
 of reins striking their hoofs together,- and yet 
 the noise was certainly anything but loud from 
 their cloven feet and horny fetlocks, and would 
 hardly have been noticeable had I not par- 
 ticularly listened for it. But another thing, of 
 which I had never read any notice, struck rae 
 much — the loud, snorting noise emitted by the 
 deer at every step. Uupoetical as my fancy 
 may seem, it reminded me most strongly of the 
 grunting of swine, but was certainly not so 
 coarse a noise, and, at the same time, partook 
 much of the nature of a snort. The cause of 
 the noise is this : when the deer are heated, 
 they do not throw off their heat in sweat— 
 their skin is too thick for thatj but, like the 
 dog, they emit the heat through the mouth. 
 The size of some of the reins astonished me. 
 In many instances they were as large as Shet- 
 land ponies, and some had most magnificent 
 
 branching antlers of a very remarkable size. 
 This is the only animal of the deer genus 
 which invariably has a horizontal branch from 
 the main antlers, projecting in a line over each 
 eye. These antlers are covered with a short 
 grey hair. Some of the herd in question had 
 broken pieces off their antlers, which hung 
 down, bleeding, by the skin. The does also 
 have antlers, but very small, and generally 
 straight, which, when skinned and dried, can 
 be distinguished from those of the male by 
 their whiteness. All the herd were casting 
 their winter hair, and consequently their coats 
 looked rather ragged and parti-coloured — the 
 new colour being generally a dark, and the old 
 a light grey. In some cases, however, the deer 
 are white ; and, in winter, all are more or less 
 of a light colour. There were many pretty 
 young does running among the herd." 
 
 THE GREAT ROUGH WATER-DOG. 
 
 This dog has a long and curled coat ; a large 
 and round head ; well covered ears ; somewhat 
 short legs ; and is generally of a black, black- 
 and-white, . or brown colour. His sagacity is 
 considerable, and he has sufiicient courage to 
 attempt anything when backed by his master. 
 The water is his element. Here he delights 
 to move in ; and when swimming, he seems 
 rather to float, and make his way without 
 either motion or exertion of the limbs. He is 
 capable of being made a good retriever, but his 
 training would require to be conducted with 
 great care, as he is apt to mangle his bird, 
 from the severity with which he uses his teeth. 
 
 The water-dog is a very difierent animal 
 from either the Grermau or French poodle, and 
 has an originality of his own. Eegardiug this 
 dog, Mr. Eichardson gives the following anec- 
 dote : — " I recollect a singularly large dog of 
 this breed, about ten years ago, in possession 
 of Mr. Grierson, of North Hanover-street, 
 Edinburgh, near the foot of the Mound, 
 which was possessed of unusual intelligence. 
 Amongst other eccentricities, this dog followed 
 the profession of mendicancy, and regularly 
 solicited the charity of the passers-by. On 
 receiving a halfpenny, his habit was, if hungry, 
 to proceed at once to the shop of Mr. Nelson, 
 at the corner of Eose-street, and purchase a 
 biscuit; but it sometimes happened that he 
 put by his halfpence until the calls of appetite 
 
TiiK I'oor. i.i:.] 
 
 FOll MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. 
 
 [MASTirra. 
 
 rr>tiirnecl ; 2iiul lie would <:jo to his repository, 
 lake the luont'v to the baltor's, and make hia 
 purchase. A servant of Mr. Griorson's acci- 
 diMit.iliy caiiio upon this sai^acious and pro- 
 vidi'ut animal's hoardini^-plac-o on one occasion, 
 where were Ibuiul about iivepence-hairpenny 
 in halfpence. The do<>f chanced to enter at the 
 moment of the discovery, and with a «»rowl of 
 displeasure ho rushed to the spot, and snatchinfr 
 up his wealth, proceeded at lull speed to the 
 shop, and dashed the money on the counter, 
 barking vehemently at the same time, probably 
 deeming it safer to turn it into broad at once 
 than risk being robbed by keeping it." 
 
 THE POODLE 
 
 Has a coat of wool rather than of hair, and 
 bears a strong resemblance to the great water- 
 dog, of the habits of which he partakes, in 
 reference to his partiality for the element from 
 which the other derives his distinction. This 
 animal is as remarkable for his sagacity as 
 many more of the race to which he belongs. 
 He is extremely useful to persons engaged in 
 the pursuit of water-fowl. He swims well, is 
 very hardy, and is an excellent retriever. The 
 French poodle may be referred to the spaniels. 
 He appears to be very nearly allied to tlie rough 
 water-dog figured by Bewick ; the " grand 
 barbet" of Buffon, of which there is a smaller 
 variety, termed " le petit larbet." 
 
 In a paper, entitled " Sketches of Burschen 
 
 Life," published in The Dublin Univej'sify 
 
 JIaf/azine, appears the following ludicrous 
 
 aiecdote of a poodle and a short-sighted pro- 
 
 ossor: — 
 
 " There was a story, when we were in Heidel- 
 berg, going about, of a certain student who had 
 
 a remarkably fine white poodle ; the intelligence 
 and sagacity of the animal were uncommon; 
 and, aa he used daily to accompany his masiter 
 to the lecture-room of a professor, who was not 
 very remarkable for the distiactness of his 
 vision, he would regularly take his seat upon 
 the bench beside his master, and peer into his 
 book, as if he understood every word of it. 
 
 *' One wet morning, the lecture-room, never 
 at any time remarkable ibr its fulness, was 
 deserted, save by the student who owned the 
 poodle. The dog, however, had somehow hap- 
 pened to remain at home. 
 
 "'Gentlemen,' said the short-sighted pro- 
 fessor, as he commenced his lecture, 'I am 
 sorry to notice that the very attentive student 
 in the white coat, whose industrv I have not 
 failed to observe, is, contrary to his usual 
 custom, absent to-day !' " 
 
 THE LITTLE BARBET. 
 This is nothing more than a smaller variety 
 of the poodle, the head being covered with 
 straight and silky hair — the rest of the body 
 having a curly and woolly coat. 
 
 THE SILKY BOG— CHIEN DB SOIE. 
 
 Like a very small poodle, but covered with 
 a long and silky coat. It is a great favoiirile 
 with the French females. 
 
 THE LION DOG 
 Has a mane like a lion, the rest of the body 
 being covered with short hair. It is supposed 
 to have sprung from a cross between the small 
 barbet and naked Turk. It is of no use as a 
 dog, but interesting as a variety of the species 
 to which he belou<r3. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 AL\STIFF3 
 
 "We now enter upon a group of dogs dis- 
 tinguished by the shortness of the muzzle and 
 the breadth of the head ; this latter character 
 
 resulting, not from a corresponding develop- 
 ment of the brain, but from the magnitude of 
 the temporal muscles, which are attached to a 
 
 467 
 
BEiTisH MASTiFj?.] THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIBTIES; [cubak mastii-f. 
 
 bony ridge passing down the median line of the 
 skull. The expression of the eves is lowering 
 and ferocious ; the jaws are very strong ; the 
 lips pendulous ; the general form is thick-set 
 and robust ; and the limbs are muscular. 
 
 This group comprehends the mastiff, the 
 bulldog, and their allies. In sagacity and in- 
 telligence these dogs are not to be compared 
 to the Newfoundland, the spaniel, or the 
 shepherd's dog. They surpass all, however, in 
 determined courage and prowess in combat, 
 
 THE BRITISH MASTIFF. 
 
 This is the dogue of Bufibu, who considers it 
 an offset from the bulldog ; but this opinion, in 
 the judgment of Mr. Blaine, is erroneous. In 
 early times the English mastiff was celebrated 
 for his strength and resolution, characteristics 
 which did not fail to attract the attention of 
 the Romans when this island formed a part of 
 their widely- s[read empire. To a people in 
 whom a partiality for scenes of bloodshed and 
 slaughter, and in whom the sanguinary games 
 of the amphitheatre was a ruling passion, dogs 
 so fitted to gratify their taste were peculiarly 
 acceptable ; ai:d accordingly we find that they 
 were bred and reared by officers specially ap- 
 pointed, who selected such as were distin- 
 guished for combative qualities, and sent them 
 to Eome for the service of the amphitheatres, 
 where they were matched in fight with various 
 beasts of prey. Dr. Caius, a naturalist of the 
 time of Elizabeth, states that three were 
 reckoned a match for a bca-, and four for a 
 lion. 
 
 Though the mastiff has by no means the 
 keen sense of smell which the hound possesses, 
 he seems to be either an offset from that branch, 
 or a cognate branch from the same root. Tlie 
 mastifi", however, has a finer scent than persons 
 are generally aware of, and his hearing is very 
 acute. A dog of tliis breed, chained to his 
 kennel, and never suffered to wander about the 
 pi'cmises, nor treated as a friend and companion, 
 aflbrds but a poor example of what the animal 
 really is. Confinement spoils his temper, and 
 cramps the development of his better qualities. 
 
 The mastiff has a very wide geographical 
 distribution ; and wherever he is found he pre- 
 sents nearly a similarity of outline in his 
 make, and evinces the same qualities whether 
 in Sweden, the Alps, Poland, Spain, Italy, 
 468 
 
 or the Levant. As he approaches warmer 
 climates, however, his strength degenerates. 
 He becomes more slender, and rather resembles 
 the old Spanish pointer than the fall-bodied 
 European animal. This dog is considered by 
 Grotius as one of the indirjenal of Britain ; but 
 in this he has not been satisfactorily corrobo- 
 rated. 
 
 Mr. Eichardson attributes his origin to a 
 mixture of the bulldog of ancient Britain with 
 the old Talbot hound, and gives us the following 
 characteristic anecdotes: — 
 
 " The disposition of the mastiff is character- 
 ised by courage, generosity, and forbearance: 
 even the midnight marauder will be held by 
 him uninjured until human aid arrives, provided 
 he refrain from struggle or resistance. The 
 attacks of puny antagonists are despised ; but 
 if they become intolerable, the noble mastiff" is 
 satisfied with showing his contempt, or inflict- 
 ing chastisement of rather a humiliating than 
 a painful nature. The story of the mastiff 
 which, when greatly annoyed by the incessant 
 barking of a little cur, took him by the back 
 of the neck, and dropped him over a quay wall 
 into the river, is well known ; but I recollect 
 an instance of this nature, when the mastiff, 
 standing for a moment contemplating the 
 straggles of his late tormentor, and perceiving 
 that the current was likely to carry him away, 
 actually sprang into the water, and rescued 
 him from his dangerous position." 
 
 Henry VII. ordered a mastiff to be hanged^ 
 because he had siii(/Ii/ coped lo'ith and overcome 
 a lion ! And in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 
 when Lord Buckhurst was ambassador at the 
 court of Charles IX., a mastiff" is said, 
 alone and unassisted, to have successively en- 
 gaged a bear, a leopard, and a lion, and pulled 
 them all down. Stow relates an engagement 
 which took place, in the reign of James I., be- 
 tween three mastiffs and a lion. One of the 
 dogs being put into the den, was soon disabled 
 by the lion, which took him by the head and 
 neck, and dragged him about. Another dog 
 was next let loose, which shared tiie same fat : 
 but the third, on being put in, immediate y 
 seized the lion, and subdued him. 
 
 THE CUBAN MASTIFF. 
 AVe have said that the mastiff is allied to 
 the hound: the Cuban mastiff, is, indeed, often 
 
CUBAN Mvsxn-p.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAXl^i. [tjuet doo. 
 
 termed a blooilhouiul. TIio pcMitliilous car, not 
 8(1 l:irf;e in tlio ninstilV as in tho liound ; tlio 
 thick haiiLjiii!^ lipn, tlio broad moist iioso, 
 brinillo niarkinj^a, atid tlio j^'cnoral lii^'uiv, atlost 
 the allinity. Tlic niastill" is hirj;i'r and Htronj^cr 
 than the hound, and useless for llio chase ; this 
 latter cireuinstance, however, is no proof of 
 diversity of origin. It must bo reuieinbered 
 tliat partieular instincts and qualities aro ac- 
 quireii, and that tho excellences of tho hound 
 are the result of long-continued and judicious 
 culture. We do not say that tho niaslilf can 
 be converted into tho hound, but merely that 
 two branches from the same root may bo so 
 cultured as to assume, to a given point, diverse 
 characteristics. This auima4 is by no means 
 to be confounded with the Cuban bloodhound. 
 lie is quite a different dog. 2s'or is the Cuban 
 bloodhound and the British bloodhound the 
 same, although Sommerville seems to have 
 thought them identical. 
 •' Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail 
 Flourish'd in air, low-bending, plies around 
 His busy uose, the steaming vapour snuffs 
 Inquisitive, nor leaves one turf untried 
 Till conscious of the recent stains, his heart 
 Beats quick ; his snuffing nose, his active tail, 
 Attests his joy ; then, with deep-opening uioutb. 
 That makes the welkin tremble, he proclaims 
 Th' audacious felon ; foot by foot he marks 
 His winding ways, while all the listening crowd 
 Applaud his reas'nings. O'er the wat'ry {ord^ 
 Dry, sandy heaths, and stony barren hills ; 
 O'er beaten paths, with men and beasts disdained, 
 Unerring he pursues, till at the cot 
 Arriv'd, and seizing by his guilty throat 
 The cailift'vile, redeems the captive prey." 
 
 "The Spanish or Cuban mastiff," Mr. Eich- 
 ardson says, " is a very powerfully-built dog, 
 and is supposed to be a breed between 
 the masliti and the pointer, lie stands from 
 twenty-six to twenty-eight inches high, with 
 extraordinary development of bone and muscle. 
 His head is of prodigious size, even apparently 
 too large in proportion to his body : hig 
 eyes are placed very I'ar apart ; his upper lip 
 pendulous, but not so much so as iu the 
 British mastitY; the ear is small, and not per- 
 fectly pendulous, being erect ac the root, but 
 the tip falling over; colour usually tawny or 
 light rufus ; the under jaw is also undershot : 
 and I do not think I can give my readers a 
 better idea of the dog, than by describing hiin 
 a.s a gigantic bulldog, occupying precisely tho 
 
 Hame position with regard to tho prodigious 
 mastiff of the Alps, which our own British 
 bulldog does iu reference to tho English 
 mastiir." Tliis animal is a dog of great 
 courage; in Spain he is used in tho combats 
 of tho amphitheatre, and is commonly known 
 on tho continent as tho " Spanisii bulldog." 
 Colonel 11. Smith conceives this race to have 
 been identical with tho broad-mouthed dogs 
 for which Biitaiu was celebrated during the 
 llomau era. 
 
 THE DOG OF TIBET, 
 
 The huge Tibet watch -dog belongs to the 
 present group. This dog {Canis fainiliaris, 
 var. Mulosus Thibetanus) is kept by the na- 
 tives of the Tibet range of hills as a guardian 
 of their flocks and their villages. It is very 
 fierce, and its bark is loud and terriOc. The 
 colour is generally black. 
 
 Ilis head is largo and broad. Jlis iips arc 
 very full and pendulous ; and the skin, from the 
 eyebrows, forms a fold towards the outer edge 
 of the eyes, ending in the jowl ; the neck is 
 remarkably full, and the chest is furnished with 
 a dcidap. This species was originally noticed 
 by Marco Polo, who described them as being 
 " as large as asses," a description contradicted 
 by some subsequent travellers, but since amply 
 confirmed. 
 
 The probable cause of these varying accounts 
 is, that the Tibet mastiff rapidly degenerates 
 if removed to a milder climate; and several 
 inferior, thougb similar breeds, exist in dif- 
 ferent portions of the liinialayau chain of 
 mountains. Colonel Smith refers to this dog as 
 the typical mastiff — tho Canis Urcanus de- 
 scribed by Oppian. 
 
 THE DOG OF ST. BERXAUD, OR ALPINE 
 MASTIFF. 
 
 This dog is placed under the spaniel group 
 by Mr. Biaine, and Mr. Ivichardaon classes it 
 with the mastiffs. AVe have adhered to the 
 arrangement of the latter. 
 
 Colonel Smith classes it with the wolf-dog 
 group. He, however, says that more than ono 
 description of dog is trained by the monks of 
 the Great St. Bernard, with the view of rescuing 
 the unfortunate from the horrors of death 
 amid the dreary depths of Alpine snows. One 
 Bort he describes as having a long coat, with 
 
 409 
 
ALPINE MASTirP.] THE B O Gr, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [BULLDOa. 
 
 the appearence of the ]S"ewfoundland ; and the 
 other as having a short one, and bearing a re- 
 semblance to the great Dane, both iu the cha- 
 racter of its hair and the colour. 
 
 E-eferring to the origin of the pious act ^f the 
 monks of St. Bernard, in having dogs trained 
 to the humane purpose of saving human life, 
 Mr. Eichardson says, that " the dog originally 
 trained to this service was a large and powerlul 
 mastiff, short-coated, deep-jowled, of a yellovr 
 colour, with a long, fine tail. L'Ami, who was 
 brought, in 1829, from the convent on the 
 Great St. Bernard, was of this description. 
 He was exhibited in both London and Liver- 
 pool to many thousands of people, at the charge 
 of one shilling admission. I was favoured by 
 Mr Clark, of Holborn, with a full account of 
 the true doga of St. Bernard, obtained by him 
 from the very best authorities. A good many 
 years ago, a pestilence made its appearance 
 amongst the dogs of the convent, and all were 
 destroyed save o]ie single specimen. Under 
 these circumstances, the monks had no alter- 
 native but to cross the breed, which they did , 
 with the Spanish or Pyrenean wolf-dog — the | 
 most likely cross to which they could have re- 
 sorted ; hence arose the race of dogs ordinarily : 
 known as St. Bernards. Some of the true j 
 race have now been restored ; but they are 
 very scarce, and are not to be possessed under 
 enormous prices ; in fact, not to be had from 
 the convent at all ; Mr. Clark being acquainted 
 with a nobleman who offered one hundred 
 guineas for a brace of puppies, without suc- 
 cess. Hence the mistakes arising from spurious 
 dogs, supposed to be original, merely because 
 they came from the mountain. 
 *' * * * 
 
 In Dublin these dogs used to be common. 
 They were introduced by a Preuchman, named 
 Casserane, in Ormond Market. He had a male 
 and female, and their whelps were eagerly 
 purchased at five guineas each, as soon as 
 weaned. "W. Plood, Esq., of Stillorgan, pos- 
 sessed a noble specimen ; and there was, also, 
 a beautiful specimen, named ' Donna,' in the 
 possession of John Eichardson, Esq., of New- 
 ineton Terrace, Eathmiues. Donna was 
 celebrated as a water-dog. She was gentle, 
 but very wild and playful, and her tremendous 
 size rendered her romping caresses anything 
 but ao-reeable. Mr. Eichardson went, on one 
 ° 470 
 
 occasion, to bathe, accompanied by Donna, 
 who watched the progress of unrobing with 
 much apparent curiosity. No sooner had her 
 master plunged into the water, however, than 
 she sprang after him, and, doubtless uneasy 
 for his safety, seized him by the shoulder, and 
 dragged him, in spite of all his resistance — 
 and he is both a powerful man and a capital 
 
 swimmer — with more zeal than gentleness, to 
 land ; nor could he ever enter the water in 
 Donna's presence." 
 
 THE BRITISH BULLDOG. 
 Of all the dogs of this group, none sur- 
 pass in obstinacy or ferocity the bulldog. 
 This animal is smaller than the mastiff, but 
 more cdmpactly formed ; the chest is broad 
 and deep ; the loins narrow ; the tail slender 
 and arched up ; the limbs short and robust ; 
 the head is broad and thick ; the muzzle short 
 and deep ; the jaws strong, the lower jaw often 
 advancing, so that the inferior incisor teeth 
 overshoot the upper ; the ears are short and 
 semi-erect ; the nostrils distended ; the eyes 
 scowling ; and the whole expression calculated 
 to inspire terror. This dog is distinguished 
 by tenacity of tooth, and indomitable resolu- 
 ' tion. In all his habits and propensities he is 
 essentially gladiatorial : he is a fighting dog, 
 i and nothing else. His intelligence is very 
 I limited ; and though dogs of this breed are at- 
 tached to their masters, they exhibit iu the 
 ■ demonstration of their feelings, unless when 
 incited to combat, a perfect contrast to the 
 Newfoundland dog or spaniel. These latter 
 delight to accompany their master in his 
 walks, and scour the fields and lanes in the 
 exuberance of delight ; the bulldog skulks at 
 his master's heels, and regards, with a sus- 
 picious glance, everything and everybody that 
 passes by ; nor, indeed, is it safe to approach 
 the animal, for he often attacks without the 
 slightest provocation. A cross between the 
 bulldog and the terrier is celebrated for spirit 
 and determination. 
 
 " The British bulldog," says Mr. Eichard- 
 son, " is, when a good dog, perhaps one of the 
 most courageous animals in existence. I am 
 obliged to qualify my meed of praise, however, 
 as I have myself seen bulldogs, not merely of 
 very doubtful courage, but absolutely cowards. 
 I attribute this moral degeneracy to the prac- 
 
BULLDOG. \ 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAH^I. 
 
 [dan.soo. 
 
 tice of too close, or in-tnid-in brL't'diuj; — a 
 praelifo certain to prtjiulict' llic iniMital quali- 
 ticuiions, eveu though external or physical 
 eonlbrniation reniaiu apparently the saino." 
 
 The buIldo<» needs littli> description : he 
 usually stands twenty inches in lieiLjIit — if 
 smaller, ho is so much tho nioro highly 
 esteemed — his head is largo and round ; his 
 eves small, and far apart ; ears small, and 
 partly erect ; muzzle short, truncated, and 
 turned upwards ; under j:i\v projecting beyond 
 the upper, displaying tho lower incisor teeth ; 
 colour usually brindled, but white is the fancy 
 C'I'Hir; party colours, as black-and-white, &c., 
 are to be coudenmcd ; his tail must bo tine as 
 a rush. 
 
 The bulldog is not wholly destitute of good 
 qualities, as some writers have represented 
 hnn to be. Besides his courage, he possesses 
 strong attachment to his master. Mr. Jesse 
 relates an anecdote of a bulldog which, hav- 
 ing been accustomed to be his master's travel- 
 ling companion in bis carriage for several 
 years, on his place being allotted to a new 
 favourite, refused to eat, sickened, pined, and 
 died. 
 
 THE PUG-DOG. 
 
 It has been usual to consider the pug-dog 
 as a degenerate variety of the bulldog, but 
 the correctness of this theory has been doubted. 
 It has, indeed, somewhat the aspect of the 
 bulldog, on a miniature scale ; but the simi- 
 larity is more superficial than real. The pug 
 is a little round-headed, short-nosed dog, with 
 a preternatural abbreviation of the muzzle, 
 and with a tightly-twisted tail. Like the 
 Gillaroo trout, it is a specimen of hereditary 
 malformation. ISot so the bulldog, in which 
 the bones of the skull and the temporal mus- 
 cles are finely developed, and in which the 
 muzzle and head are in perfect harmony. 
 
 The pug-dog is snarling and ill-tempered, 
 but cowardly, and by no means remarkable for 
 intelligence. Formerly it was in great esteem 
 as a pet, but is now little valued, and not 
 ofcen kept. 
 
 THE BAN-DOG. 
 
 The Ban-dog is a term applied to any of 
 the fierce animals of which we have just been 
 treating, and which are, in ordinary cases, kept 
 
 chained or Hecured in kennels. B.'wick, how- 
 ever, applies it to a dog, of which ho gives aa 
 excellent figure, and which, ho states, ditlera 
 from tho mastiff in being lii^htcr, moro active 
 and vigilant, but not so powerful or so largo; 
 his muzzle, besides, is not so heavy, and ho 
 possesses, in aonio degree, the scent of the 
 hound. His hair is described as being rather 
 rough, and generally of a yellowish grey, 
 streaked with shades of black or brown. lie is 
 ferocious and full of energy. Bewick says 
 that this dog is seldom to be seen at the 
 present day. Varieties, however, of the mastift' 
 have been noticed, agreeing so closely with 
 Bewick's figure and description, as to convince 
 some that both of them were taken from 
 nature. 
 
 In taking a review of tho various breeds of 
 the domestic dog, it must bo observed, that 
 they are endowed respectively with qualifica- 
 tions or habits certainly not innate, but the 
 result of education, at least originally ; which 
 education, continued through a series of gene- 
 rations, has produced permanent effects. For 
 example, no dog in a state of nature would 
 point with his nose at a partridge, and then 
 stand like a statue, motionless ; for he would 
 gain nothing by such a proceeding. Man, 
 however, has availed himself of the docility 
 and delicacy of scent peculiar to a certain, 
 breed, and has taught the dog his lesson ; and 
 the lesson thus learned has become second 
 nature. A young pointer takes to its work 
 as if by intuition, and scarcely requires disci- 
 pline. Hence, therefore, must we conclude 
 that education not only produces impressions 
 on the sensorium, but transmissible impres- 
 sions, whence arise the predispositions of 
 certain races. Education, in fact, modifies 
 organisation : not that it makes a dog other- 
 wise than a dog, but it supersedes, to a certain 
 point, instinct, or makes acquired propensities 
 instinctive, hereditary, and, therefore, charac- 
 teristics of the race. The effect of this change 
 of nature is not to render the dog more inde- 
 pendent, nor to give it any advantage over its 
 fellows, but to rivet more firmly the links of 
 its subjection to man. 
 
 It is not to the pointer alone that these 
 observations apply. All our domestic dogs 
 have their own acquired propeusities, which, 
 becoming second nature, make them, iu one 
 
 471 
 
DISEASES.J 
 
 THE DOa, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 ^DISEASES. 
 
 way or another, valuable servants. No one, 
 we presume, will suppose that the instiuctive 
 propensities implanted by nature in the shep- 
 herd's Colley, could make it, not a destroyer, 
 but a preserver of sheep. On the contrary, this 
 dog, like every other, is carnivorous, and nature 
 intends it to destroy and devour. But educa- 
 tion has supplanted instinct, to a certain point, 
 and implanted a disposition which has become 
 an hereditary characteristic, and hence a 
 Colley of the true breed takes to its duties 
 
 naturally. But a shepherd's dog could not, 
 delicate as its sense of smell is, be brought to 
 take the place of the pointer in the field, even 
 though it were subjected to training from the 
 earliest age ; nor, on the other hand, could a 
 pointer be substituted with equal advantage 
 for a shepherd's dog, ds the assistant of the 
 drover. Each is civilised, but in a difterent 
 style ; and education has impressed upon each 
 a different bent of mind, and a different class 
 of propensities. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE DOG. 
 
 The diseases to which dogs are subject are 
 numerous, and their treatment various. In 
 the highly artificial state in wliich they are 
 forced to exist, in order to serve the purposes 
 of man, they require the utmost attention, 
 especially such as are kept to assist in the 
 sports of the field and the forest. These, like 
 the race-horse and the hunter, require what is 
 technically called " conditioning" before they 
 are fit for use. Colonel Cook observes, that 
 he lost three of his best dogs, wholly by 
 inattention to their state in this particular, 
 which caused him afterwards to pay double 
 attention to that most material point — condi- 
 tion. " A dog, to be in condition, should be 
 neither too fat nor too thin. His ribs should be 
 visible, and the flanks moderately hollow; 
 but the loins must be well filled up in 
 a dog in perfect condition. AVhen dogs 
 exhibit general fulness and too much flesh," 
 observes Colonel Cook, " commence by physic 
 and a regular course of exercise, which should 
 be mild at first, but increased until it is 
 severe. Avoid too great a privation of food, 
 otherwise the conditioning process will be 
 retarded." As a general rule, hounds, grey- 
 hounds, pointers, setters, spaniels, and all 
 sporting dogs, require to be put into a proper 
 state for their work. They must be co}i- 
 dilioned, by either lightening their bodies of 
 472 
 
 flesh, or hardening that flesh to such a degree 
 as to give firmness to its whole texture. 
 
 The physic necessary for this purpose is 
 variously formed. " Julap," says Mr. Blaine, 
 " is a favourite purge with some sportsmen ; 
 but it is uncertain in its action. Gamboge is 
 very drastic. The submuriate of mercury 
 (calomel) is likewise very irregular in its 
 action on dogs. "We have known eight grains 
 fail to open the bowels of even a small one ; 
 while, on the contrary, we have, ourselves, seen 
 a pointer totally poisoned by ten grains. It 
 forms, however, a useful auxiliary to purga- 
 tives in doses of three or four grains ; and, as 
 it not unfrequently acts upon the stomach, so 
 it may be used with advantage as an emetic in 
 some cases, particularly in conjunction with 
 tartarised antimony (tartar emetic). When, 
 therefore, a purgative is brought up again in 
 which calomel was a component part, it may 
 be suspected to arise from this source ; and if 
 it be necessary to repeat the purge, the mer- 
 cury should be omitted. Epsom salts are 
 used in some kennels; but they are bulky; 
 and if attempted to be given in the food, are 
 often refused. Syrup of buckthorn has long 
 been a favourite purge with dog-fanciers. 
 Mr. Beckford recommends it, but mixes with 
 it sulphur and antimony, in the proportions of 
 two pounds of sulphur, one pound of crude 
 
DISEASES.] 
 
 VOR I\lOUNTAixN, riELD, AND rAll-M. 
 
 [UAOIES. 
 
 antimony, and a pint and a-lialf of syrup of 
 hiiclvtlioru, wliicli aiiswois lor thirty couple of 
 hounds. Aloes, in our opinion, form the best 
 Ljoueral purge for doys ; and hueh arc tho 
 jieeuliarities of their bowels, thut while a niau 
 
 ledge of this fact may bo tlio means of Baving 
 the life of many a poor animal. 
 
 " One of the earliest hymploms of rabies iu 
 a dog," says !Mr. liiehardaou, " is restlessness. 
 He is constantly turning round and round 
 
 can take, with impunity, us nujch ealomel as, before ho will lie down; his countcnanco 
 would kill two large dogs, a moderate-sized] becomes anxious; his eyes bloodshot; ho 
 
 dog will take a quantity of aloes sullieient to 
 destroy two stout men. Tho smallest dog can 
 
 fancies that ho sees objects around hint which 
 havo no real existence, and he snaps at tho 
 
 take fifteen or twenty grains; half a drachm I empty air; his fondness for his master in- 
 is seldom too much; but tho smaller dose had creases, and with it his propen.siLy to lick tho 
 
 better be tried first. ^Medium-sized dogs 
 usually require a dracbm ; and some large 
 do'^3 have taken more than two drachms. We 
 have ourselves given three to a strong New- 
 foundland dog without extreme catharsis ; but, 
 as before observed, dogs differ much iu their 
 difl'erent habits, and it is, therefore, the most 
 prudent plan to begin with a dose too small, 
 than too large. Hundreds of dogs are, 
 every year, destroyed by temerity in this 
 particular." 
 
 The alterative medicines for dogs are butter- 
 milk and whey, which are good for cutaneous 
 aflectious. The nitrate of potash (nitre), iu 
 aoses of from four to ten grains, for heat of 
 the blood or redness of the skin. Cream of 
 tartar may also be given in large doses in the 
 same cases. As dogs are easily salivated, all 
 
 hands and face — a filthy practice at any time, 
 and ono most dangerous ; for the virus gene- 
 rated under the influence of rabies is deposited 
 on the surface, and acts as if tho person had 
 been inoculated by it. Children should never 
 be sufiered to indulge dogs in this filthy habit. 
 In a state of confirmed rabies, the appetite 
 becomes depraved; his natural food is ne- 
 glected, and, at the same time, every sort of 
 filthy trash is greedily devoured. Eating his 
 own excrement is an early symptom, and so 
 sure a one, that the moment a dog is seen 
 doing so, he should be destroyed, or, at all 
 events, carefully confined. 
 
 " Eubbiug the paws against the sides of the 
 mouth. If this be done to remove a hone, 
 the mouth will remain open; but when it 
 takes place as the precursor of rabies, the jaws 
 
 the preparations of mercury should be very | close after the rubbiug ceases, 
 cautiously given. Sulphur affects dogs but " Soon follows an insatiable iliirst ; so insati- 
 slightly. ' Where, however, there aa-e diseases able that the poor animal often plunges his 
 of the skin, it may be given in combination whole muzzle into the water ; and here you 
 
 with a moderate quantity of cream of tartar. 
 
 Emetics have been questioned as good reme- 
 dies in dog diseases. The best, in cases of dis- 
 
 may observe spume left upon the surface. 
 Soon the dog falls, or staggers, and sometimes, 
 but not invariably, becomes delirious. Death 
 
 temper, is tartarised antimony, which may be speedily ensues uuder these symptoms, 
 given in milk or soup, or as a ball, rolled The origin of this terrific disease is, by the 
 up in a piece of meat or butter. The quan- most experienced veterinarians, assigned to 
 tity must be proportioned to the size and | inoculation ; but the first animal that indi- 
 strength of the dog; from one grain, as the cated its symptoms must have generated it 
 smallest, to five as the largest dose. As a' spontaneously. It was long supposed that 
 cleansing emetic, calomel, of from four to six heat w as a prolific cause ; but this has been 
 
 or eight graius, is good. 
 
 RABIES, OR CANINE MADNESS. 
 
 proved not to bo the case. The disease ia 
 hardly kuowu on the continent of South Ame- 
 rica: it is entirely unknown iu Egypt ; and 
 Hydrophobia — a term expressing fear of Syria has never been visited by it. Neither is 
 
 xcaier — is, when used to mark this malady iu 
 the dog, quite incorrect ; for a dog labour- 
 ing under rabies will drink water, not only 
 willingly, but greedily, to the very last. "Where 
 rabies exists, dogs never have ft Is. A kuow- 
 3p 
 
 extreme cold fiivourable to its generation, for it 
 has never made its appearance in Greenland. 
 M. Audry, a French writer on this subject, 
 says, that January, the coldest, and August, the 
 hottest mouth, furnish the fewest instances 
 
 473 
 
BABIES.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 "[babies. 
 
 of rabies. The quality and quantity of food 
 has been assigned as a cause ; but in dogs 
 which, by chance, have been placed in situa- 
 tions where it was impossible for them to ob- 
 tain food, though on the precincts of actual 
 starvation, the disease has never yet been dis- 
 covered. Experiments innumerable have been 
 made to discover the real origin of this disease, 
 which, in various years, has proved itself to 
 be nothing less than a scourge in diiferent 
 European countries. Spain, Grermany, France, 
 and England have all been visited by its 
 ravages; and there is, perhaps, no pain, no 
 disaster, no disease, so terrifying to the human 
 mind, as that which is supposed to succeed the 
 bite of a rabid dog. Amongst other experi- 
 ments, made with the view of tracing the 
 origin of canine madness, one performed at 
 the veterinary school of Alport is, perhaps, 
 the most striking : — Three dogs were chained 
 and placed in such a situation that the heat of 
 the sun might fall, with all its power, upon 
 them. To one nothing was given but water; 
 to another nothing but salted meat ; and to 
 another neither food nor drink was allowed. 
 The whole three died ; but not one of them ex- 
 hibited the slightest symptoms of rabies ; 
 which we take to be a strong argument in 
 favour of its being generated only by inocula- 
 tion. Eepletion has never caused it ; feeding 
 on putrid meat does not cause it ; nor does 
 the want of water. Its real origin, therefore, 
 must be supposed a kind of puzzle, which all 
 experience has yet been unable to solve to 
 the entire satisfaction of those who have 
 been the most active in experimenting upon it. 
 Considering the fearful consequences which 
 frequently result to those who have had the 
 misfortune to be bitten by rabid dogs, the 
 symptoms of the disease cannot be too clearly 
 explained, or too widely disseminated. Both 
 Mr. Youatt and Mr. Blaine have given much 
 attention to chis subject ; and both had much 
 experience in its treatment, in the canine as well 
 as in the human species. It is a common belief 
 that dogs have a horror of water when aftected 
 by the disease ; but this is by no means the 
 case. "A mad dog," says John Hunter, " can 
 swallow solids and liquids through the whole 
 disease." "A rabid dog," says Dr. Hamilton, 
 " never avoids water, and laps whatever liquid 
 food is set before him, long after the poison 
 47(t 
 
 can be communicated by his bite ;" and Mr. 
 Meynell says, " that mad dogs will even lap it 
 the day before they die from the effects of the 
 disease." The most eminent veterinarians 
 concur in these opinions — a circumstance which 
 we hope will have the effect of completely 
 eradicating from the minds of all those who 
 peruse this book, the baleful prejudice that 
 dogs, when labouring under an affection of 
 rabies, will not drink water. Of the danger of 
 entertaining a prejudice of this kind, Mr. Blaine 
 produces a striking example. An eminent phy- 
 sician having been consulted on the propriety of 
 employing some prophylactic means, in conse- 
 quence of three persons of the family of a 
 well-known horse-dealer having been bitten 
 by a dog under disease, satisfied himself with 
 inquiring whether the animal could drink while 
 under the complaint ? Being informed that 
 he did so, freely, throughout the whole of its 
 duration, he unhesitatingly declared that no 
 precautionary means whatever were necessary, 
 and that he would, therefore, suggest none. 
 Fortunately, the bitten parts of each of these 
 persons were, notwithstanding, excised at the 
 suggestion of Mr. Blaine, and the result proved 
 the correctness of his judgment in the per- 
 forming of such an operation ; as a horse and 
 dog, both known to have been bitten by the dog 
 alluded to, died rabid in three weeks afterwards. 
 We have given the symptoms of rabies, as 
 described by Mr. Eichardson ; and we will now 
 give those, as described by Mr. Blaine, whose 
 extensive practice and experience of this dis- 
 ease, place him in the very "highest position as 
 a safe guide and autliority . Before closing this 
 subject, we would entreat all our readers who 
 keep a dog or dogs, whether as domestic pets, 
 watchers, coursers, hunters, or for any other 
 purpose not implied by these terms, to have, 
 at all times, a vigilant eye upon the condition 
 of their animals. "The symptoms of madness 
 are very variable ; but, as the early ones are 
 not very active, they are apt to be overlooked 
 in sporting dogs ; and it is only in such as are 
 kept immediately about our persons, and within 
 doors, that they show themselves. In these 
 cases of close domestication, the approach may 
 be observed by some slight alteration of manner 
 and habit. In some its approaches are marked 
 by unusual dullness; in others by increased 
 vivacity, accompanied with restlessness or 
 
RABIES.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND ITAHH. 
 
 [babies. 
 
 oarncst nttontion to slifjlit noises and ininuto 
 (i!)jocts. In 0!ie iustatieo wo foretold the ap- 
 proach of tho disease by the uncommon attach- 
 ment of a puppy to a kitten, vhiel\ ho was 
 I'ontinually liduiip^, as well na the cold nose of 
 mother pug that was witii him. Deane, Earl 
 Fitzwilliam's huntsman, has observed that, 
 among hounds, he regarded the smelling and 
 lidiiiig of the penis and fundament of another 
 dog, as ft most suspicious sym])tom. It is a 
 curious circumstance that sexual excitement is 
 fre(]uently an early symptom in all the subjects 
 of rabies ; in dogs it is common ; it has been 
 remarked in the human species also. Sheep 
 and pigs becoming rabid, are usually observed 
 to show the disease first by riding their fellows. 
 Lapping their own urine is a very common pre- 
 cursor to more active symptoms in the rabid dog. 
 The eyes, eveu in the early stage of the dis- 
 ease, are often singularly bright, sparkling, and 
 red ; occasionally a slight tendency to distorted 
 vision, or squinting, is apparent ; and such 
 alterations in the usual appearance of the 
 eyes, are generally followed by mischievous 
 propensities iu the animal. Nevertheless, in 
 some less frequent cases, the eyes are even 
 less bright than natural, and a slight; discharge 
 of mucus, and sometimes of real pus or matter, 
 escapes from their inner corners, and now and 
 then flows fi-om the nose also, which has fre- 
 quently occasioned madness to be mistaken for 
 distemper. But we would impress on the reader, 
 that a moderate attention only to the manner 
 of the dog and to the morbid symptoms here 
 liid down, will enable any one readily to dis- 
 tinguish between these diseases, provided the 
 observer does not allow himself to be swayed 
 by prejudice or foolish counsel. In some in- 
 stances, an early rabid symptom is a continual 
 licking, scratching, and sometimes even biting 
 of some part of the dog's own body ; and this 
 very part is often proved to be that by which 
 the infection was received ; and we believe, if 
 a true history of every attack could be ob- 
 tained, this would turn out to be the case in 
 nine out of ten cases. Costiveness is very 
 common; and vomiting also, although much 
 less so, does occasionally occur ; but ineffec- 
 tual efforts to vomit are by no means unusual. 
 The appetite is not always affected, in either 
 early or continued rabies ; on the contrary, 
 food ia not only eaten, but digested also, 
 
 during the first Ktagts; atid Momo will eat 
 almost to the last ; but with such Bubjecta tlie 
 food is seldom digested. That no disinclina- 
 tion to liquid exists, will bo readily acknow- 
 ledged by all who observe tlin dineaso with 
 common attention ; from the first to the last, 
 no aversion to water is observed. Wo state 
 this as a general fact ; ono or two insLauces in 
 as many thousands may occur of constitu- 
 tional idiosyncrasy, where liquids are refused; 
 and of the many hundred rabid dogs we have 
 seen, not one has shown any disliko to water. 
 Li the early stages, liquids of all kinds arc 
 taken as usual, and some conlinuo to take 
 them throughout the complaint; nor can 
 we press too strongly on tho recollections of 
 persons engaged about dogs, that no manifest 
 dread of water is either a pathognomonic, or 
 at all a usual symptom iu mad dogs. Neither 
 does an active spasm attend the efforts to 
 swallow water ; and however the paralysis of 
 the parts may render the attempt ineffectual, 
 tlie sight and contact occasion no pain what- 
 ever ; but, on the contrary, the desire for 
 drink is urgent, and unceasing attempts to 
 take it, mark a majority of rabid cases ; it is 
 true that paralysis of the parts prevents deg- 
 lutition in some, while others drink freely 
 throughout the disease ; but certainly there is 
 not one iu a thousaud that does not seek 
 water." 
 
 As this is a most important subject, we 
 think it cannot be too fully treated ; accord- 
 ingly we have collected as many opinions as 
 we have been able u])on its different modes of 
 treatment, as well as the different character- 
 istics of the disease. — When a dog is affected 
 with rabies, the symptoms are, in the first 
 place, restlessness, turning rouud before ho 
 will lie down, blood-shot eyes, an anxious 
 countenance, and a continual snapping at 
 fancied objects. All these, in most cases, ex- 
 hibit themselves some days before he gets very 
 bad. A dog in a tit is generally taken sud- 
 denly, and merely knocks about and froths at 
 the mouth. It is the opinion of most country 
 people, that a dog affected with rabies is afraid 
 of water; and if they see a dog drink, or go 
 near water, they conclude he is not mad, no 
 matter what they may have seen before ; but 
 we have seen a mad dog that followed a man 
 through a stream, and when he got into it he 
 
 475 
 
BABIES. 1 
 
 THE DOG, AXD ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [rabies. 
 
 stopped to drink, and tried to find the inaii 
 acrain when he irot over. As a matter of 
 course, it will be asked, how do we know the 
 dog was really mad. And it would have been 
 well if it had never been proved, as it cost the 
 life of one fellow-creature, besides a great 
 number of sheep, dogs, and some beasts. 
 That the dog was mad, therefore, there could 
 not be the smallest doubt, and yet he had no 
 dread of water whatever. 
 
 The symptoms of rabies, however, deviate 
 greatly in accordance with the different tem- 
 peraments of dogs. Such as are subject to 
 fits will be at one moment scouring the fields 
 in apparently excellent condition, but all at 
 once will make a dead stop, gaze intently and 
 wildly at some fancied object, then suddenly 
 fall into convulsions, from which (if a little 
 water is dashed in the face) they will soon 
 recover, and be as well next day as if nothing 
 had happened. 
 
 With a rabid dog, however, it is quite differ- 
 ent. There are always premonitory symptoms, 
 the most prominent of which are a depraved 
 appetite, the animal ravenously devouring 
 its own, as well as human excrement, sticks, 
 cinders, mud, and all kinds of filth, which, in 
 a healthy state, it would avoid. In some 
 breeds of spaniels, however, there have been 
 exhibited exceptions to this rule. 
 
 The next important symptom, and one 
 which may, perhaps, be considered as the 
 most demonstrative, is an insatiable thirst, and 
 an eager craving after its own and other dogs' 
 urine, searching in every corner, and, wherever 
 one dog has wetted, greedily licking it up. 
 This disgusting act is never found in the 
 healthy animal. 
 
 We think this symptom so decided a proof 
 of rabies, that we should at once have the 
 animal destroyed, however valuable it might be. 
 
 For a disease so terrible, no efforts should 
 be spared to find out the means of either pre- 
 venting or counteracting its effects. In ac- 
 complisliing tliis, even the labours of science 
 have, in a great measure, been unavailing ; for 
 a curative agent has, we believe, not yet been 
 discovered. 
 
 The following singular account of the dis- 
 covery of a supposed antidote, however, ap- 
 peared some years ago in several continental 
 newspapers, as an extract from the Berlin 
 476 
 
 State Gazette. We give it as it appears in 
 the small work of Mr. Eichardson : — 
 
 In the year 1813, when Maraschetti, an 
 operator in the Moscow hospital, was visit- 
 ing the Ukraine, fifteen persons applied to 
 him for relief on the •same day, all having 
 been bitten by a rabid dog. Whilst the 
 surgeon was preparing such remedies as sug- 
 gested themselves, a deputation of several old 
 men waited upon him, with the request that 
 he would permit a peasant, who had for some 
 time enjoyed considerable reputation for his 
 success in treating cases of hydrophobia, to 
 take these patients under his care. The fame 
 of this peasant, and his skill, were known to 
 M. Maraschetti, and he acceded to the request 
 of the deputation on certain conditions: in 
 the first place, that he himself should be pre- 
 sent, and made cognizant of the mode of treat- 
 ment employed ; secondly, that proof should 
 be given him of the dog that had injured the 
 sufferers being really rabid — and then that he, 
 the surgeon, should select one of the patients 
 to be treated by himself according to the ordi- 
 nary course adopted by the medical profession. 
 This might, at a hasty view, be deemed an 
 improper tampering with human life on the 
 part of the Eussian surgeon ; but, when the 
 admitted hopelessness of all remedies is recol- 
 lected, the reader will refrain from animadver- 
 sion. M. Maraschetti selected, as his own 
 patient, a little girl of six years old ; the other 
 condition was duly complied with: no doubt 
 could exist of the genuine rabies of the dog, 
 which perished shortly afterwards in extreme 
 agony. 
 
 The peasant gave to his fourteen patients a 
 decoction of the tops and blossoms of the 
 broom plant {Flor. Genistce lutece tinctoricc), 
 in the quantities of about a pound and a-half 
 daily ; and twice a day he examined beneath 
 their tongues, where, he stated, small knots, 
 containing the virus, would form. Several of 
 these knots did eventually appear, and, as 
 soon as they did so, they were carefully opened 
 and cauterised witli a red-hot wire ; after which 
 the patients were made to rinse their mouths, 
 and gargle with the decoction. The result 
 was, that all the patients— two of whom only, 
 and these the last bitten, did not show the 
 knots — were dismissed, cured, at the expiration 
 of six weeks, during which time they had con- 
 
KABIES.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAKri. 
 
 UADIES. 
 
 tiiuicd to drink tlio decoction. Tho poor little 
 ;;irl, who had been treated nccordiiii^ to tho 
 .isual medical forimila, was attacked with 
 hvdrophobic symptoius on tho seventh day, 
 and died within eii;lit houra altiT tho accession 
 . f the first paroxysm. 31. Maraschotti saw, 
 three years afterwards, tho other fourteen 
 persons all living, and iu good health. 
 
 In ISIS, five years aller tho above occur- 
 rences, !^^. !Maraschetti had another oppor- 
 tunity aflbrded him, in Podolia, of testing tho 
 value of this important remedy, in the treat- 
 ment of tweuty-six persons, all of whom had 
 been bitten by rabid dogs. Of these persons, 
 nine were men, f^leveu were women, and six 
 were children. He used tlic decoction of 
 broom, as before ; and a carel'nl examination of 
 their tongues gave the following results : — 
 Vive men, all the women, and three of the 
 children, exhibited the Jcnois — those most 
 severely bitten on the third day, others on the 
 Ifih, seventh, and ninth ; and one woman, 
 A ho had been bitten only superficially on the 
 leg, not until the twenty-first day. The re- 
 maining seven showed no Icnots, but all con- 
 tinued to drink tho decoction ; and in six 
 weeks all the patients hud recovered. 
 
 From these cases, M. Maraschetti was led 
 to the opinion, that the rabid virus, after re- 
 maining a short time in the wound, becomes 
 absorbed, and, for a certain time, resides be- 
 ..eath the tongue, at the orifices of the sub- 
 ..laxillary glands, where it develops itself in 
 he small knots observed by him. The aver- 
 age time for the appearance of these knots 
 would appear to be from the third to the ninth 
 ■'ay after the bite — 'uat if not opened within 
 I wcnty-four hours after the first formation, the 
 virus is reabsorbed into the system, and the 
 patient is lost beyond all hope of cure. On 
 these accounts, Maraschetti recommended that 
 the patient should be at once examined be- 
 neath the tongue, which examination should 
 be continued for six weeks, during which 
 period they should take one pound and a-half 
 of the decoction of broom daily, or a drachm 
 of the powder four times a day. If, during 
 this time, no Icnots appear, there is nothing to 
 be apprehended ; but if they do appear, they 
 should be freely opened and cauterised, using 
 the gargle afterwards, as already described. 
 Since the above statement appeared in the 
 
 Berlin State Gazette, an oinciul report was 
 niado to tho Prussian govcrniiK'nt, and j)ub- 
 lished in a subsecpient nuiuhcr of that paper, 
 representing that knots, similar to those de- 
 scribed by M. Maraschetti, had been formed 
 beneath tho tongue of a rabid do<j, iix West- 
 phalia. It is possible that tho above account 
 may be i'amiliar to most, if not all, medical 
 readers, and that many of them may regard it 
 as* resulting from either imposture or error; 
 but, as one and all of them admit that they 
 cannot cure this dreadful disease, surely any 
 suggestion is worth acting u[)on, if a melan- 
 choly opportunity should occur. 
 
 Instances of rabid dogs are numerous. One 
 much attached to its owners, on one occasion 
 returned home, covered with dirt, and hid 
 itself in a blanket, and would not obey the 
 commands of those it had hitherto been ready 
 to serve by all the means in its power. Mr. 
 Touatt, the veterinary surgeon, was sent for, 
 and when he arrived he found the animal lying 
 in the lap of its mistress, no doubt receiving 
 all those endearments which such animals are 
 so apt to draw from all those who are attached 
 to them ; but it kept continually changing its 
 position, and starting at the least noise. Mr. 
 Youatt pronounced it rabid. The dog had 
 been licking the hands of its owner, and jMr. 
 Touatt urged a surgeon to be immediately sent 
 for. This was done, and the proprietors of 
 the animal were saved. 
 
 The habit of allowing favourite dogs to 
 lick not only the hands, but the face, as some 
 do, is not only abominable in itself, but in 
 the last degree dangerous, for there are com- 
 paratively few out of the multitudes who keep 
 dogs, that have the slightest idea of the 
 symptoms of rabies, even when they have 
 made their appearance. A lady's spaniel was 
 rarely out of her sight, and yet it became 
 rabid. She did not know of its having been 
 bitten by any other animal, and her servant 
 denied all knowledge of its having been so ; 
 but tho dog died ; and, iu a few weeks after- 
 wards, the man was taken ill. He now made 
 a confession that the spaniel bad, on one 
 occasion, been attacked and rolled in the mud 
 by another dog, and that be had put it 
 through a process of ablution before he per- 
 mitted it to be seen by its mistress. The 
 dog which bad behaved so unceremoniouslv to 
 
 477 
 
BABIES.] 
 
 THE DOG-, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [rabies. 
 
 this pet spaniel, was mad, and some of the 
 saliva which had fallen from its mouth, had 
 remained on the coat of the spaniel, and by 
 which the man had been inoculated. 
 
 Eabies, or hydrophobia, a few years ago 
 exhibited itself to such a serious extent in 
 Stainborough Park, near Barnsley, as to excite 
 the alarm of the inhabitants of that locality, 
 and to attract the attention of medical men. 
 The disease first began to show itself on a 
 small scale, immediately after a mad dog was 
 said to have been roaming about the locality. 
 Nearly one hundred deer in a short time 
 fell victims to its effects. While in a state 
 of disease, these otherwise innocent and play- 
 ful animals foamed at the mouth, worried each 
 other like dogs, and tore off each other's hair 
 and flesh ; and when placed in a state of con- 
 finement, bit at whatever came within their 
 reach. Attention was drawn to the matter 
 through a child belonging to one of the work- 
 men on the estate having been bitten. This 
 caused an alarm, which led to a medical gen- 
 tleman (Mr. M. T. Sadler, of Barnsley) being 
 called in. He issued a timely caution to the 
 inhabitants, calling upon all to be on their 
 guard, to protect themselves and their families 
 from the infliction of so terrible a malady. 
 
 As canine madness suddenly changes the 
 dog into an object of terror and a scourge, of 
 course everything that may be esteemed a 
 remedy for it should be tried. Among others 
 already suggested, the "Berlin Drink" holds a 
 prominent place. It was, and we believe still 
 is, in the possession of a woman residing near 
 Tunbridge. The recipe of it, it is said, is a 
 secret, which has been handed down in the 
 family from generation to generation ; and its 
 efficacy, in the counties around, is so well 
 known and esteemed, that it has, at all times, 
 proved a lucrative legacy to the family. 
 
 Among the numerous instances in which it 
 is said to have been successful, we will adduce 
 one which may excite some surprise. 
 
 The proprietor of a large puck of beagles 
 had his kennel broken into by a rabid dog, 
 and twenty of tlie pack bitten. He luid known 
 many cases successiuUy treated by the *' Berlin 
 Drink," and he determined to try its eftect 
 upon every one of his dogs that had been 
 bitten. His brother, who had been brought 
 up to the medical profession, laughed at the 
 478 
 
 idea, maintained that nothing could save them 
 if once the virus had entered the system, and 
 proposed the total destruction of the whole 
 pack. The other, however, opposed his ex- 
 perience to all the arguments of science. They 
 therefore came to an arrangement which satis- 
 fied both parties. It was agreed that sixteen 
 of the infected hounds should have a dose of 
 the "Berlin Drink," and that the other four 
 should take their chance. 
 
 The consequence was that, in less than six 
 weeks, every one of the four died raging mad, 
 and not one of the sixteen ever showed a 
 symptom of the disease. As this fact has 
 been pretty well authenticated, a more con- 
 vincing proof of its power as an antidote to 
 the virus could hardly be given. In colour 
 and consistence the " Berlin Drink" resembles 
 milk ; and if administered to an animal not 
 inoculated with the poison of rabies, it has no 
 more effect than a cup of milk would have. 
 If, on the contrary, the poison has entered 
 the blood, the eflect of the antidote is very 
 different: it seems to course through every 
 vein like fire, to rack every nerve, and to 
 convulse the system from head to foot. Human 
 patients affirm the agony to be intense ; and it 
 is painful to witness its effect upon a dog. 
 But the struggle is very short; and though, 
 of course, the shock and excitement leave the 
 patient a little weak and depressed, we are 
 told that its administration has never been 
 followed by any fatal result. 
 
 Besides the "Berlin Drink," there is another, 
 called the "Hertfordshire Drink," or Webb's 
 remedy. To this Mr. Blaine alludes in his 
 Bural Sports. " The tree bo^," he says, " is 
 one of the oldest reputed preventives made use 
 of. Mention appears to be made of it in the 
 writings of Hippocrates ; Galen and Celsus 
 likewise speak of it. It has continued to bo 
 used from their time to the present, and it 
 forms the active principle in the remedy com- 
 mon in several counties, but in none more 
 than in Hertfordshire, where it is known, as 
 we stated, under the name of ' Webb's drink,' 
 r-am the family name of the persons who 
 prepare it. The rue which enters into it, in 
 equal proportions, we have little dependence 
 on. The buxus, or box, has long been known 
 in India also ; it is still used there as a pre- 
 ventive of rabies; but it is, we believe, the 
 
BABIES.] 
 
 rOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAR^ [uumu madmebs. 
 
 dwarf box that is tlioro uspcl, and is usimlly 
 unitt'il with a tlt'cootion of thu hora of tho 
 rhinoceroa. As from our own oxperiLMice, and 
 tl>e testimony of others, wo are inclined to placo 
 Boine di'pendeneo on tlio prevent ivo properties 
 of tl>e tree box, we shall iiitroduco the original 
 formula of ' Webb's Drink,' as gained by 
 ourselves from one of the family di8[)enser8 of 
 it, whose oath was taken as to its being tho 
 <»enuino recipe : — ' Take of the fresli leaves of 
 the tree box, two ounces ; of tho fresh leaves 
 of rue, two ounces ; of sage, lialf an ounce ; 
 chop these finely, and after boiling them in a 
 pint of water to half a pint, strain and press 
 out the liquor ; beat them in a mortar, or 
 otherwise bruise them thoroughly, and boil 
 them again in a pint of new milk, until the 
 quantity decreases to half a pint, which press 
 out as before. After this, mix both tho boiled 
 liquors, which will make three doses for a 
 human subject. Double this quantity will 
 form three doses for a horse or cow; two- 
 thirds of it is sufficient for a large dog, calf, 
 sheep, or hog ; half the quantity is required 
 for a middle-sized dog; and one-third for a 
 smaller one. These three doses are said to be 
 sufficient, and one of them is directed to be 
 given every morning fasting. Both human 
 and brute subjects are treated in the same 
 manner, according to the proportions speci- 
 fied.' " 
 
 Upon this specific IMr. Blaine places a con- 
 siderable, but not a full reliance. lie says, 
 however, that whenever a very useful or a 
 favourite dog was in question, he should make 
 a trial of it ; at the same time he would watch 
 the animal with the utmost attention. 
 
 The opinions of experienced sportsmen upon 
 rabies and its modes of treatment by practised 
 veterinarians, are well worthy of an extensive 
 diflusion amongst the people. Mr. Youatt, who 
 had even more experience in the treatment of 
 this disease than Mr, Blaiue, remarks — " The 
 veterinary surgeon, when operating on tho 
 horse, cattle, or the dog, frequently has re- 
 course to the actual cautery. I could, per- 
 haps, excuse this practice, although I would 
 not adopt it in superficial wounds ; but I do 
 not know the instrument that could be safely 
 used iu deeper ones. If it were sufiicieutly 
 small to adapt itself to the tortuous course of 
 email wounds, it would be cooled and inert 
 
 before it could have destroyed tho deepest 
 portions of tbo wound." He statca a cuso in 
 which several horses had been bitten, and, on 
 lunar caustic being applied to one, it waa 
 saved ; the hot iron to tho others, which wore 
 lost: Jiientioniug other eases in which caustic 
 was ellioacious, and tho cautery perfectly use- 
 less. Liquid and otiier applications of a soft 
 or semi-fiuid mass, have a tendency to aggra- 
 vate tho disease, by re-inoculating the injured 
 parts ; while, by the eilects of lunar caustic, it 
 being dry, hard, and insoluble, this danger ia 
 avoided. 
 
 M. Guerin-Mcnevillc, some time ago,brought 
 before the French Academy of Sciences a 
 means of curing hydrophobia, which, he stated, 
 is practised iu liussia with success. A little 
 insect, the golden cetonides, found in con- 
 siderable quantities on rose-trees, is proved, 
 when pounded to a powder, and administered 
 internally, to produce a profound sleep, which 
 sometimes lasts for thirty-six hours, and which 
 has the efiect, in many cases, of completely 
 nullifying the hydrophobic affection. A dis- 
 tinguished entomologist of Eussia, M. Mots- 
 chouski, has tried several experiments with 
 this insect, and in most cases with success. 
 
 Whatever virtue there may be in these 
 specifics, we fear it will be a long time before 
 they receive a very extensive application; 
 therefore it is to the cautery or to the knife 
 that recourse must be had to prevent danger, 
 or, perhaps, death, resulting from the bite of a 
 rabid animal. Mr. Blaine says, that three 
 times his life had been endangered by the 
 bites of mad dogs, and three times he had to 
 sufier cauterisation, excision, and some mental 
 agitation, as, doubtless, every one must suffisr 
 who has had the misfortune to be subjected to 
 such an evil. What his experience sug- 
 gested him to do to himself, we would recom- 
 mend to be done to others, in the absence 
 of other curative means, which may be leas 
 severe, and, we may add, probably less eflfective. 
 
 AVe have hitherto treated of this malady in 
 its most acute form. We will now briefly 
 consider its other state, which appears in what 
 is called 
 
 DUMB MADNESS. 
 
 This kind of rabies is so called from the 
 animal affected by it exhibiting an absolute 
 
 479 
 
DUMB MADNESS.] 
 
 THE DOG-, AXD ITS VAEIETIES; 
 
 [CANKEK. 
 
 duinbness, wbicli arises from the swelling in 
 the pharynx being so great as to deny to the 
 dog the power of barking. The symptoms of 
 this complaint are, a dull, stupid look, accom- 
 panied with wstiveness, and a constant rub- 
 bing of the jaws with the paws, as if he would 
 dislodge a bone that had stuck in his throat. 
 The disease causes death between the third 
 and seventh days ; generally on the fourth or 
 fifth. A common symptom, and not alto- 
 gether confined to this species of madness, but 
 also to be found in the acute disease, is an 
 inclination to pick up straw, hay, litter, and 
 other materials, to make a bed with it, but 
 more frequently to tear it to pieces. " It is 
 likewise very common to observe dogs scratch 
 the litter under them with their fore feet, not 
 as when making their beds, but evidently to 
 press the straw or litter to the belly." 
 There is also exhibited a disposition to pick 
 up substances which, when the dog is in 
 health, are wholly averse to his nature. He 
 gnaws the boards upon which he may be 
 lying ; is irritable, mischievous, and treacherous. 
 This is, however, mostly before the disease has 
 attained to that strength of character by 
 which it is sometimes marked. When it has 
 arrived at its height, neither irritation nor 
 delirium are very apparent ; on the contrary, 
 there is displayed a peacefulness of disposition, 
 which does not arise from the inability to bite, 
 but from the really disinclination to do so. 
 The jaws begin to lessen ; increased paralysis 
 takes place ; and, like a drunken man, without 
 consciousness, the animal begins to stagger 
 about, until he tumbles, only to struggle to 
 his legs again. He now seats himself on 
 his rump, looks melancholy in the extreme, 
 and in this position expires without an appa- 
 rent pang. 
 
 There are other diseases to which the dog is 
 subject, and which are not unfrequeutly con- 
 founded with madness. These it is important 
 to know. " Thousands of valuable dogs," says 
 Mr. Blaine, "have been destroyed as mad, 
 which have laboured under other affections, 
 as distemper, colic, epilepsy, &c. And also 
 thousands of owners of dogs and others have 
 been needlessly rendered miserable by having 
 been bitten by dogs innocent of any rabid 
 affection. On the other hand, it is even more 
 important that the real criterion of rabies be 
 480 
 
 set forth, that due precaution may be taken 
 when necessary. Epileptic fits, whether occa- 
 sional, or the consequence of distemper, are 
 often mistaken for rabies ; but it should be 
 remembered, that there is no rabid symptom, 
 whatever that at all resembles a fit, whether 
 in the irritable or in the dumb variety; we 
 use these terms as being significant, although 
 by no means scientific. An epileptic fit is 
 sudden ; it completely bewilders the dog, and, 
 after a determinate period, leaves him per- 
 fectly sensible, and not at all irritable, but 
 exactly as he was before : in rabies there is no 
 sudden fit, no loss of recollection, no tumbling 
 about wildly in convulsions ; neither is there 
 any marked bark in the natural irritability 
 attendant on madness. If a dog in an epilep- 
 tic fit should be so convulsed as to attempt to 
 bite, it is evidently done without design ; its 
 attack is spasmodic, and pain may make him 
 seize anything, and it is quite as likely to be 
 himself as any person or thing besides. The 
 irritability and mischievous attempts of the 
 rabid dog have always method with them, and 
 they evidently result from the mental purpose 
 to do evil ; he usually manifests a disposition 
 to rove ; the distempered dog never does so. 
 A puppy in distemper, particularly if he have 
 worms, may pick up stones, or eat coals ; or 
 he may, in a trifling degree, pick up other 
 unusual matters as food; yet no dog but a 
 rabid one will take in hay, or wood, coals, or 
 rags, or will distend his stomach almost to 
 bursting. Lastly, the mistakes likely to occur 
 between rabies and other diseases, are, in some 
 degree, attributable to erroneous pictures 
 drawn by authors of such diseases. Thus, Dr. 
 Jeuuer's account of the distemper, instead of 
 deserving the praise his great name has 
 drawn down upon it, is entirely calculated to 
 mislead ; indeed, it might be supposed, by his 
 readers, that he was purposely describing 
 rabies, and not distemper. AVe could produce 
 many similar instances in other authors, as 
 Dr. Tarry, &c." 
 
 CANKER IN THE EAR. 
 This is a disease very common in all water- 
 dogs, such as poodles, spaniels, and Newfound- 
 lands, arising from the quantity of hair they 
 usually have about their ears, retaining the 
 moisture within their cavities, and causing aQ 
 
CA>'5^n.] rOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAini. [ 
 
 WODMS. 
 
 atllux of huraoura towards tbetn. The earliest 
 Bvmptoms show* tlieinsolvos by tlio animal 
 shaking its head, holding it to one sidi', and 
 violently scratching the ear. Immediately on 
 these signs being perceived, a curative process 
 should be entered upon ; and what this is to be, 
 and how proceeded with, must greatly depend 
 upon the habit of the dog. If the animal is 
 fat, bis system must be reduced by purgatives 
 and abstinence ; bo must have plenty of air, 
 and plenty of exercise, that the fluids of the 
 body may be diverted into another channel. 
 If his skin is infected with mangy irruptions, 
 causing him to itch, be must bave a vegetable 
 diet, accompanied with cleansing, alterative, 
 aud purging medicines. IMr. Eicbardson re- 
 commends the ears to be well washed with 
 warm water and soap, and then syringed out 
 with a solution of sugar of lead, in the pro- 
 portion of about a teaspoonful of the lead to 
 one pint of distilled water. If distilled water 
 cannot be procured, use rain water. Besides 
 this, the washing should bo repeated twice or 
 thrice daily, aud the bowels of the dog kept 
 open by a daily laxative ; if these remedies 
 fail, a setou must be run through the back of 
 the neck, and strong doses of aloes given every 
 second day. 
 
 Mixing of burnt alum with a little sweet 
 oil, would, perhaps, be better than with water, 
 in a case of canker, on account of the wax 
 and the greasy nature of the inside of the 
 ear, which throws of? water. Cancer in the 
 human frame has hitherto been found incura- 
 ble when it cannot be got at ; and when it can, 
 cure has been considered very doubtful. Un- 
 less the roots are destroyed, the cancer will 
 grow again, as is most frequently the case 
 after cutting. I 
 
 AVe have understood that canker in the ear 
 has frequently been cured in little spaniels by ' 
 the application of a solution of alum and 
 water. It should be just warmed, so as to 
 t;ike off the chill ; and a few drops poured into ! 
 the ear, and worked about in it for a few 
 minutes. The complaint generally shows itself 
 by a white discharge of matter, which can be ' 
 seen on examination far down in the ear. j 
 
 AVe have also heard of a dog of six years old 
 
 being cured by having put into his ear a piece 
 
 of mercurial ointment, about the size of a 
 
 horse-bean. Should the cure not be effected 
 
 3q 
 
 in tbo first instance, another Lean ebould 
 follow it shortly. 
 
 Mr. Blaine recommends, for external applica- 
 tione, first, the use of a wash, composed of 
 half a drachm of sugar of lead, dissolved in four 
 ounces of rose or rainwater. "AHiuall tea- 
 spoonful may be introduced, previous! v warmed 
 to a blood-heat, to prevent surprise, night and 
 morning, rubbing the root of the ear at the 
 same time, to promote the entrance of the 
 wash into the cavities. In more obstinate 
 eases, it is prudent to add fifteen or twenty 
 grains of vitriolised zinc (white vitriol) to the 
 wash ; or rather make two distinct articles, and 
 alternate the use of each, which will prevent 
 the chemical decomposition of these medicinal 
 agents, as the suspending menstruum ; and, 
 likewise, instead of water, use a decoction of 
 oak bark, which will greatly promote the end 
 desired. Now and then acetate of copper (ver- 
 digris), mixed with oil, has proved beneficial, 
 when introduced in the same manner. In 
 others, calomel and oil have produced amend- 
 ment, when applied in the same way. We 
 have, also, seen a weak injection of corrosive 
 sublimate succeed, when every other applica- 
 tion has failed. A very mild injection of 
 nitrate of silver, as one grain to two 
 ounces of water, has benefited others ; for in 
 this, as in mange, aud indeed in all skin affec- 
 tions, no one remedy is a universal panacea ; 
 happily, however, there are few cases but will 
 submit to a patient trial of various means." 
 
 Canker on the outside of the flap of the ear, 
 and abscess of the inner surface of the ear-flap, 
 frequently afflict the smooth-eared dogs. For 
 the former, an ointment, composed of equal 
 parts of nitrate of quicksilver and calomine 
 ceruse, is recommended. It should be applied 
 once a day, and care taken, by making use of 
 a sort of head-dress, not to have the ear in- 
 jured by the dog shaking his head. If the 
 canker prove obstinate, however, excision must 
 be resorted to. For the latter, the tumour 
 ought to be opened its whole length, and a 
 pledget of lint introduced, to present too hastv 
 a reunion of the edges of the ear; or a setou 
 should be inserted, and allowed to remain in it 
 for eight or len days. 
 
 WORMS. 
 
 To the accumulation of worms in the intes- 
 
 481 
 
WORMS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VAlilETIES; 
 
 [the TELLOWa. 
 
 tines dogs are very subject. They are of three 
 kinds : — Ascarides, or small thread-like worms, 
 not more than half an inch, in length. The 
 seat of these is principally in the rectum ; and 
 hence the common symptoms of their presence 
 is the doGf drajrgino: his fundament along the 
 ground. Puppies are frequently afflicted with 
 them. The teres, but of a white colour, and 
 having the form and appearance of an earth- 
 worm. The tcenia, or tape-worm, several 
 inches in length, and flat for nearly its whole 
 extent. 
 
 Another description of worm, peculiar to very 
 young puppies, and generated in their intes- 
 tines in great quantities, is known to dog 
 breeders. It is described as being from two 
 to four inches in length, of a dirty-white 
 colour, round, and pointed at both extremities. 
 Sometimes this kind of vermes collect in balls 
 or masses, to the number of a dozen or more 
 in each mass. "When puppies have them they 
 usually fall away in flesh, until they actually 
 reach the extreme of emaciation ; when fits 
 supervene, and death soon carries them off. 
 The deaths are attributed to distemper; but 
 worms are the true cause, and these of the 
 description here described. 
 
 Erom the circumstance of bounds some- 
 times vomiting worms similar to earth-worms, 
 it has been supposed that these have their seat 
 in the windpipe. If this be the case, it has 
 been recommended that they should have 
 thirty drops of spirits of turpentine, suspended 
 in a little castor-oil, every other day, for about 
 a week ; or they might be allowed to inhale 
 chlorine gas for about half-an-hour, but not to 
 have more gas in the kennel than a man can, 
 without much annoyance, bear himself. 
 
 About a teaspoonful of ground glass mixed 
 in lard has also been recommended for fox- 
 hound puppies afflicted with this malady. 
 They take it without trouble when fasting; 
 and in about twelve hours, some Glauber's 
 salts, in milk, after being dissolved in hot 
 water, should be given to them. This they 
 will lap up readily. 
 
 Mr. Eichardson found the following mode 
 of treatment efficacious, and, as he had great 
 experience in rearing puppies, his advice is 
 exceedingly valuable : — " Give, say on Monday, 
 A small pill formed of Venice turpentine and 
 flour, from the size of a very minute pea to 
 482 
 
 that of a small marble, according to the size 
 and age of the pup. The former will suffice 
 for Blenheim or Iving Charles' pups, Italian 
 greyhounds, &c. ; the latter for bloodhounds, 
 Newfoundlands, mastiffs, &c. On Tuesday, 
 give a small dose of castor-oil ; a teaspoonful 
 to the smaller, a tablespoonful to the larger 
 breeds: in neither case, however, quite full. 
 On Wednesday, give notliing ; on Thursday, 
 give the turpentine as before ; on Friday, the 
 oil ; on Saturday, nothing ; and so on. 
 
 " Keep your puppies' beds dry, clean, and 
 sweet. Do not feed them too often, or on food 
 of too nutritious a quality. Puppies should 
 not be fed oftener than three times a day. 
 The morning and evening meals may be given 
 at 9 A.M. and 7 p.m., and should consist 
 of vegetables — potatoes, oatmeal, &c. — well 
 boiled, and given with milk. At two, you 
 may give meat with the mess, but not too 
 abundantly. Between the meals give a drink 
 of buttermilk, or milk and water." 
 
 The general symptoms of the presence of 
 all or any of these worms are : — Ecetid breath, 
 staring coat, voracity, or total loss of appetite ; 
 violent purging, or obstinate constipation, witli 
 great emaciation, sometimes fits. Venice tur- 
 pentine is a good remedy, and is effective in 
 slight cases. Aloes are useful for dislodging 
 worms from the rectum, as they pass down 
 the intestines, almost unchanged; but pow- 
 dered glass is the safest and most efficacious. 
 Give it in pills formed with butter and ginger, 
 and covered with soft paper. 
 
 THE YELLOWS, 
 
 This is the disease which Mr, Eichardson 
 treats under the head of Jaundice, and to 
 which young dogs are very subject. It is 
 often the precursor of distemper, and arises 
 from an alFectiou of the liver. Its symptoms 
 are a general dullness, a disinclination for 
 food, a yellowness in the whites of the eyes, as 
 also over the surface of the skin ; a dry and 
 parched mouth ; a general emaciation aud 
 debility, accompanied with vomiting greenish 
 matter ; loss of consciousness, often succeeded 
 by death. 
 
 If taken in time it may be cured ; but it 
 makes its approaches so imperceptibly, tliat it 
 has frequently fastened in the animal several 
 weeks before it has been observed ; and, in 
 
DISTEMPER.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIKLl), A XI) FA KM, 
 
 [distempee. 
 
 Buch cases, death is the inevitable result. 
 "When perceived iu tinu', Epsom salts, with 
 uuioilago of gum-arabic, or very wi-ll boiled 
 "i-ucl, aro recommended. Should the disease 
 have only just appeared, common salt will 
 answer the purpoiJO in the absence of the 
 other articles. Calomel and colocynth, in the 
 form of a pill, and iu small doses, administered 
 at night, and succeeded in the morning by 
 some opening medicine, will usually effect a 
 cure ; but, if there bo much fever, bleeding 
 must be resorted to. AVhen the appetite re- 
 turns, only small quantities of light food should 
 be allowed. 
 
 As a tonic alterative, jNIr. Blaine recom- 
 mends the following: — Mercurial pill, one 
 drachm ; aloes, two drachms ; gum myrrh, 
 gum benjamin, balsam of Peru, of each one 
 drachm and a-half; make into a mass, and 
 divide into ten, fifteen, or twenty balls, accord- 
 ing to size, age, strength, &c., of the dog: 
 give one every evening, and, in a bad case, 
 every morning also. Avoid bringing on 
 active salivation, and active purging likewise, 
 after the first purging dose recommended. 
 
 DISTEMPER. 
 
 This is the most fatal disorder, after rabies, 
 to which the canine race is liable ,• and, we be- 
 lieve, it originated in France, where it is 
 known by the name of La ChaJadie. It is 
 little more than a century since it was known 
 in this country, and since that time it has 
 played havoc among some of our best breeds 
 of dogs. Some French authorities ascribe its 
 origin to England ; but others, better informed, 
 and more candid in their sentiments, acknow- 
 ledge that it originated in France. It is, 
 however, of little consequence to us now where 
 it was first known ; of far more value would be 
 the knowledge how to prevent it from affect- 
 ing our dogs, how to check it, and how to cure 
 it. Almost every dog, at some period of bis 
 life, is affected by it ; and when it appears in 
 an old one, there is little chance or hope of 
 his recovery. The more excellent the breed, 
 it would appear, the more susceptible is it of 
 the disease. Animals of the inferior order 
 have it often very slight, and the Colley of 
 Scotland gets over it without any medicines 
 whatever in a few days. Dr. Darwin describes 
 it as a debilitating catarrh ; but, as he mis- 
 
 took the character of the disease, or rather 
 
 ! limited the seat of its operations, the rationale 
 of his prescriptions was wholly unequal t<» 
 compete with it. Dr. Jenner's description 
 was worse. ITo was a great man, or rather, 
 perhaps, a man with a great name; but ho 
 erred cgrcgiout^ly in reference to the dog-dis- 
 temper. Mr. Youatt says, that his description 
 of it was no more like the true disease than 
 himself was like unto Hercules. " I have," 
 jMr. Vouatt continues, "again and again, put 
 the power of his boasted preventive (vaccina- 
 tion, as in small-pox) to the test, and I can 
 sa}', without the slightest hesitation, that it is 
 altogether without effect. I know many 
 gentlemen who have placed implicit faith in 
 the power of vaccination, and their whole 
 kennels have been submitted to the operation ; 
 the season has been favourable, and the disease 
 either has not appeared, or has assumed the 
 mildest type, and I have got into sad disgrace ; 
 but many years have not passed, before the 
 distemper has broken out, and carried off tho 
 majority of those who were supposed to bo 
 exempted from its attack." 
 
 The symptoms of distemper are usually loss 
 of appetite, fever, weakness of the eyes, dul- 
 ness, a discharge from the nose, discharge 
 from both the eyes and the nose, a short husky 
 cough, emaciation, a foetid smell; sometimes 
 fits. Dogs iu a fit are sometimes mistaken 
 for mad ; but it should be remembered that 
 fits are oiever an accompaniment of rabies. 
 
 The distemper is a disease of tho mucous 
 surfaces, and usually has its commencement in 
 nasal catarrh. If it is detected iu the first 
 stage, bleeding copiously will do good. Give 
 an emetic, and follow it up by a gentle purga- 
 tive ; if — as is generally tho case when the 
 above treatment does not eftect a cure — inflam- 
 mation of the lungs supervenes, more blood 
 must bo taken, and more aperient medicine, 
 with occasional emetics, given. If the animal 
 become weak, and is apparently sinking, mild 
 tonics, as gentian or quinine, must be admin- 
 istered ; and if he will not eat, some strong 
 beef jelly should be forced down his throat. 
 A seton in the back of the neck is often useful, 
 but should not be used indiscriminately. To 
 save all this trouble, however, the best thing 
 to do is to place the dog iu the hands of a 
 veterinary surgeon. 
 
 4S3 
 
■DISTEMPJCB.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES; 
 
 [disxe^jpee. 
 
 The causes of distemper are, generally, cold ; 
 suddenly throwing a domesticated dog into the 
 water, or not properly drying his coat after 
 being washed. They are, however, various, and, 
 to a considerable extent, inscrutable ; for any de- 
 rangement of the system may bring it on. It is 
 remarked in the Encyclopcedia ofBural Sports, 
 that the eifects of distemper in different breeds 
 of dogs used in rural pursuits, or those which 
 live mostly in the open air, are comparatively 
 slight ; but, wherever man has interfered, and 
 forced an artificial breed by educating them to 
 artificial purposes, or closely confining them, 
 in such, the disease acts with great severity. 
 Hence it is so fatal to high-bred hounds, 
 pointers, setters, and spaniels ; and to terriers 
 and greyhounds, as breeds even more artificial 
 than the others, it is usually more so. Mr. 
 Youatt observes, that few dogs imported into 
 this country, as exotics, do well in it. In proof 
 of this, it is known that the larger number of 
 the northern dogs, brought here by Captain 
 Parry, were swept away by it within twelve 
 months. Some breeds have an hereditary pre- 
 disposition to be afiaicted in a far greater de- 
 gree than others of the same kind. Litter 
 after litter of some sporting strains, will hardly 
 yield more than one or two survivors ; and, in 
 such cases, we would advise the breeder to cross 
 the race. In crowded cities the disease is both 
 severe and fatal. In London, those that are 
 attacked by it have little chance of recovery 
 compared to those that are attacked in the 
 country, where the air is so much more pure, 
 and where the lungs are less likely to suffer 
 by it. 
 
 As in all diseases in which there is difficulty, 
 in treating for distemper, various modes have 
 been adopted. Some think it best, on its first 
 appearance, to give their dogs emetics and 
 purgatives. They begin by keeping the dogs 
 warm, and then administering James's powders 
 and hot baths, if necessary. 
 
 It docs not do to place a dog in an out- 
 liouse, and to content yourself with looking at 
 him, with your hands behind you, and saying 
 "poor fellow" to him two or three times a day. 
 
 A gentleman of the old school, gave to his 
 puppies, Scotch pills and James's powders. 
 The animals were then kept in an out-house, 
 made as warm and comfortable as a lady's 
 parlour; and success generally resulted from 
 48i 
 
 this treatment. A great matter in this disease 
 is promptitude of action. This same gentleinaa 
 lost a most promising greyhound puppy, entirely 
 through dilatoriness. The dog was out iu the 
 yard; and although the owner was told of his con- 
 dition by one experienced in canine diseases, he 
 did not take proper measures to check it. He 
 was going out for a walk with his wife, in- 
 tending "to see him when he came back ;" and 
 a few days afterwards the dog was dead. 
 Knowing how soon some people tire of animals 
 when any sickness or trouble comes, this does 
 not surprise us ; and the conduct of this gentle- 
 man is by no means exceptional, for there are 
 hundreds like him. To such, however, the life 
 of no valuable dog should be intrusted. 
 
 Eor the cure of distemper, one table-spoon- 
 ful of castor-oil and a piece of garlic bruised, 
 and given every day, has been found extremely 
 effective. It has been repeatedly tried, at the 
 same time keeping up the dog, or not allowing 
 him to get low. "We have known a dog per- 
 fectly paralysed from the distemper; but by 
 giving the above for ten days or a fortnight 
 together, and then, when it seemed, in some 
 degree, to have lost its effect, Benbow's Altera- 
 tive Mixture, for a few days, afterwards return- 
 ing to the castor-oil and garlic, completely re- 
 stored him. 
 
 Every sportsman has his own specific for 
 this disease ; and the following will be found, 
 we think, as excellent as any : — 12 grains of 
 tartar emetic ; 6 do. of opium ; 4 do. Peruvian 
 bark; 2 do. nitre; 2 do. camphor. To be 
 mixed up into nine balls, and two to be given 
 every other day to a full-grown dog ; one to a 
 puppy. 
 
 Tonic on heginning to Hecover. — 24i grains 
 of quinine ; i ounce of gentian powder; | do. 
 of bark in powder; 1\ do. of lemon-juice, or 8 
 drops of sulphuric acid. To be made into eight 
 bails, and one to be given every other day. 
 
 Valuable as these opinions and recipes may 
 be, however, we must make room for some apt 
 remarks by another, in reference to the " infal- 
 lible remedies" which have been supposed to 
 have been discovered for this disease, as well 
 as for a portion of the rationale of his own treat- 
 ment of it. 
 
 "The treatment of distemper,'* says this 
 experienced veterinarian, "must necessarily 
 vary considerably, according to the nature of 
 
distempeh.] 
 
 FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [distempee. 
 
 the attack, as well as tuo ago, constitution, 
 aud locality of tho object of it. It is soine- 
 what singular, tliat while tho very best practi- 
 tioners so often fail in their treatment of tho 
 complaint, wo seldom have met with a sports- 
 man, or breeder of dogs, who, according to his 
 own account, could not readily euro it, ' being 
 in possession <3f what he ilattered himself 
 was an intalliblo remedy.' AV'o once thought 
 a remedy of our own discovery almost so ; 
 but though it remains a valuable one, it is 
 far from iufalllblo ; aud wo suspect most of 
 these are much further from deserving such 
 a character than that wo allude to. It 
 happens, however, with these fancied infallible 
 remedies for distemper among gentlemen, that 
 under the exhibition of some supposed cura- 
 tive, they have met with two or three successful 
 cases, which would, perhaps, have done well 
 without anything ; such medicament has been 
 afterwards considered as the grand specific. 
 But continued experience leads us to a con- 
 clusion that, although many different remedies 
 are useful, according as one or other form of 
 the disease prevails, yet tliat there is not, and 
 we believe cannot be, a universal specific for 
 this Protean disorder. As most cases of dis- 
 temper commence by cough, or slight running 
 from the nose and eyes, with loss of flesh, 
 appetite, and spirits, an emetic is the first 
 remedy, as it clears the stomach aud bowels, 
 and sympathetically lessens the inflammatory 
 action going on. Should the pulse, the state 
 of breathing, or a harassing cough, indicate 
 any great determination to the lungs, take 
 from three to five or six ounces of blood 
 away, according to the size, age, &c. ; par- 
 ticularly if the dog be fat and moderately 
 strong. If bleeding is omitted, substitute 
 a mild purge, if the bowels are not already 
 relaxed. Emetics are useful as prepara- 
 tory medicines in distemper ; indeed very 
 useful. Strong dogs may take from two to four 
 grains of tartar emetic ; or otherwise from four 
 to six or seven grains of calomel. Sometimes 
 one, and sometimes the other of these reme- 
 dies is to be preferred. When there is any 
 disposition to purging, already observed, give 
 the tartar emetic only, from one graiu to four, 
 as a maximum ; or the vomit may be made of 
 equal parts of calomel and tartarised antimony, 
 from one grain to three grains of each ; or even 
 
 four grains of each may not bo too much for a 
 full-grown dog of tho largest breeds ; and far- 
 ther, this latter vomit has tho advantage of 
 proving a laxative also. Tho purging aud 
 emetic articles used on theso occasions by 
 sportsmen, as Turpith mineral and crude anti- 
 mony, are, from their drastic qualities, objec- 
 tionable ; and they can only be admissible for 
 very strong dogs, not yet at all debilitated by 
 tho complaint ; indeed, it is only in such cases 
 tliat theso violent remedies may bo risked. Of 
 this kind are large doses of salt, which occa- 
 sionally do good when no looseness of bowels 
 has already como on. The early insertion of 
 a seton should depend on circumstances : if an 
 impatience of light present itself, aud the pupils 
 look red within, the cough being hard, dry, and 
 frequent, insert one; but if, on the contrary, 
 the discharge from the eyes and nose is become 
 purulent aud profuse, and particularly if tho 
 dog be losing flesh daily, by no means do so. 
 While the dog is fat, should his inflammatory 
 symptoms run high, two or three moderata 
 purges are proper ; but when distemper is at 
 its height, always avoid them. Costiveness, 
 however, must bo combated; but do it by 
 laxatives only in these cases : as already ob- 
 served in other cases, a brisk purgative is 
 admissible and liighly proper; for unloading 
 the bowels, like unloading the stomach, will 
 tend greatly to lessen irritation, and reduce 
 tbe inflammatory action of the heart and ar- 
 teries ; but, at the same time that, under these 
 views, they are valuable agents, we must not 
 lose sight of the diarrhoea, which is so fatal a 
 symptom of the disease, and which too free a 
 use of them might tend to bring on. Theso 
 primary depleting means having been carried 
 into effect, proceed with the following febri- 
 fuge : — Antimonial powder, two, three, or four 
 grains ; nitrate of potash (nitre), five, ten, or fif- 
 teen grains ; powdered ipecacuanha, two, three, 
 or four grains ; powdered myrrli, four, six, or 
 eight grains. Make into a ball with a minor, 
 medium, or major quantities, according to the 
 size and age of the dog, and give two or threo 
 times a day, as the symptoms are more or less 
 urgent, diminishing the quantities if tbey 
 occasion sickness. When the cough is very 
 distressing, by which pneumonic symptoms 
 may bo apprehended, add to each dose of 
 these from half a grain to a grain of digitalis 
 
 485 
 
DISTEMPEE.J 
 
 THE DOG, AXD ITS VAEIETIES 
 
 [distemper. 
 
 (fox-glore). Should nothing new in the 
 symptoms occur, and j^our patient remain 
 strong, every third or fourth day repeat the 
 emetic, and keep the bowels open ; but now, 
 more than ever, avoid active purgation." 
 
 The natural medicine of the dog is an 
 emetic, he being easily excited to vomit. 
 Whenever anything ails him, he himself runs 
 to the dog-grass, eats it, vomits, unloads his 
 stomach, and is at once well. In distemper, 
 therefore, a vomit is the first thing to be 
 given, no matter what form the disease may 
 have assumed. If nothing else is at hand, 
 Mr. Touatt concurs with Mr. Blaine in re- 
 commending common salt ; but the best form 
 of an emetic consists of a combination of equal 
 parts of tartar emetic and calomel. From 
 half a grain to a grain and a-half of each will 
 constitute tbe dose. "When calomel is given 
 m too strong doses, it acts with great severity 
 on the dog. The following is a case reported 
 in the second volume of the Veterinarian, 
 vFhen that medicine has been too freely ad- 
 ministered : — 
 
 " August SOth, 1828. — A spaniel, six months 
 old, has been ailing a fortnight, and three 
 doses of calomel have been given by the 
 owner. He has violent purging, witb tenes- 
 mus and blood. Half an ounce of castor- oil 
 administered. 
 
 " August olsf. — Astringents morning, noon, 
 and night. 
 
 " September Qth. — The astringents have little 
 efl'ect, or if the purging is restrained one day, 
 it returns with increased violence on the fol- 
 lowing day. Getting rapidly thin. Begins to 
 husk. Astringents continued. 
 
 " September lOi!/?.— The purging is, at length, 
 overcome ; but the huskiness has rapidly in- 
 creased, accompanied by laborious and hurried 
 respirations. Bleed to the extent of three 
 ounces. 
 
 " September lltTi. — The breathing relieved ; 
 but he obstinately refuses to eat, and is forced 
 several times in the day with arrow-root or 
 strong soup. 
 
 " September \%th. — He had become much 
 thinner and weaker, and died in the evening. 
 No appearance of inflammation on the thoracic 
 viscera, nor in any part of the alimentary 
 canal. The intestines contracted through 
 their whole extent." 
 48(> 
 
 For this scourge of dogs there is unhappily 
 no specific that can act remedially in all cases. 
 It assumes such a variety of forms, that it 
 bafiles the skill of the most eminent veterinary 
 practitioners. " A disease attacking so many 
 organs," says Mr. Touatt, "and presenting 
 so many and such difierent symptoms, must 
 require a mode of treatment varying with the 
 organ attacked, and the symptom prevailing. 
 The faith in these boasted specifics is princi- 
 pally founded on two circumstances — atmos- 
 pheric influence, and peculiarity of breed. 
 There are some seasons when we can scarcely 
 serve a dog ; there are others when we must 
 almost wilfully destroy him to put him out of 
 sight. There are some breeds in which, gene- 
 ration after generation, five out of six die of 
 distemper ; while there are others in which 
 not one out of a dozen dies. "When the season 
 is favourable, and the animal, by hereditary 
 influence, is not supposed to assume the viru- 
 lent type of the disease, these two important 
 agents are overlooked, and the immunity from 
 any fatal result is attributed to medicine. 
 The circumstances most conducive to success, 
 will be the recollection that it is a disease of 
 the mucous surfaces, and that we must not 
 carry the depressing and lowering system too 
 far. Keeping this in view, we must accom- 
 modate ourselves to the symptoms as they 
 arise." 
 
 Palsy, more or less complete, is occasionally 
 the termination of the distemper in dogs ; and 
 when accompanied by chorea, the case is gene- 
 rally beyond the reach of curative means. 
 
 In the Transactions of the Medico-Chirurgi- 
 cal Society, we are informed that this disease 
 is not communicable to man. Neither the 
 efiluvia arising from the diseased dog, nor his 
 bite, have proved in any instance infectious ; 
 but as the disease has often been confounded 
 with canine madness, it is to be wished that 
 it was more generally understood; for those 
 who are bitten by a distempered dog, are 
 sometimes thrown into a state of such terror, 
 that actual symptoms of hydrophobia have 
 arisen from the mere workings of the imagina- 
 tion. An instance of this occurred in a gen- 
 tleman who received a severe bite from a dog, 
 and who afterwards fancied the animal was 
 ' mad. He felt a horror at the sight of liquids, 
 and, on attempting to swallow them, was 
 
MA>'GE.] 
 
 FOK .MOL'XIAIN, l-IELK, \ M) FAKM. 
 
 MANliE. 
 
 actually convulsed. So uncontrollable were his ' days, during which time ho must be kopt dry 
 prepossessions, that the celi'bratfd John llun- and warm, and tod sparingly; let it bo washed 
 tor, to whom wo arc indebted for tlio fact, oil" ou tho fourth day with soft-soap and warm 
 conceived he would have died, had not tho dog water, in which soino common washing sodo 
 which inilicted tho wound been foinid, atid has been dissolved; give clean straw, plenty 
 
 broui^ht into his room in perfect health. Tlii;* 
 Boon restored his mind to a state of tranquil- 
 litv. Tho sight of water no longer afUicted 
 biui, and ho quickly recovered. 
 
 MANGE 
 
 Is of three kinds— common mange, the red 
 mauge, and the scabby mange. 
 
 So early as the twelfth century, insects were 
 found to burrow under the skin of tho human 
 being ; and in the seventeenth century engrav- 
 ings of them were executed and produced. Simi- 
 rar insects infest the lower animals. Placed on 
 the skin of a healthy individual, they give rise 
 >) a disease having all the characteristics of 
 scabies. If taken from mangy dogs, horses, or 
 
 of exorcise, and cooling diet, and tho dog will 
 speedily get well. 
 
 " "When a dog is very bad, tho s-kin or soles 
 of the feet, and sometimes tlie claws, will como 
 off, in which cases I would recommend steeping 
 them in a decoction of strong oak bark and 
 alum. It can bo best done by tying the feet 
 up in thick cloths, kept wet with the above 
 mixture. 
 
 " Puppies arc very liable to display a mangy- 
 looking coat, at tho ago of from two to four 
 months. The hair falls off iu spots, and the skin 
 becomes itchy, dry, and scaly. This is not 
 genuine mange ; but, if neglected, is apt to run 
 into it. At this early stage it is easily cured by 
 washing with soft-soap and water, and change 
 of bedding; giving also a little sulphur in the 
 
 sheep, and placed on healthy individuals of 
 
 the same species, these will at once receive the food daily, and in very minute quantities. This 
 
 affection. It has been, in many cases, proved appears to me to be only an effort of nature to 
 
 that scabies in man has been produced by 
 contact with the lower animals. The disease 
 of mange, Mr. Youatt considers, to some ex- 
 tent, to be hereditary : a mangy dog is likely 
 to produce mangy puppies ; and the offspring 
 of a mangy bitch will sooner or later show the 
 disease. 
 
 Common mange is well known, and will, with 
 attention to cleanliness, accompanied with slight 
 daily alterative doses of sulphur and nitre, 
 soon be cured; but if neglected it is apt to 
 run into scabby mange, when the skin becomes 
 blotched, the dog emaciated, the belly swollen, 
 and death frequently terminates the sufferings 
 of the miserable animal. In cases of this kind 
 Mr. Eichardson recommends an aperient for 
 a day or two ; then, for a week, the alteratives 
 named above ; next, well washing with soft-soap 
 and water; and then rubbing him over with 
 tho following prescription : — 
 
 Train Oil . « . . 1 pint. 
 TurpentinG , .^ , . 1 ounce. 
 Naphtha . . , . . 1 „ 
 Oil of Tar ....!„ 
 
 Soot 1 » 
 
 And — Sulphm", in powder, sufficient to make the 
 stuff of a proper consistence. 
 
 "This is to remain on the dog for three 
 
 throw off the old or puppy coat of hair, and 
 assume the new one. 
 
 " Change of feeding is serviceable in the 
 treatment of mange; but it is a mistake to 
 suppose that the change must be to a reduced 
 regimen. In many cases, mange is only the 
 offspring of filth and hunger; and in these 
 cases the change must be to clean bedding and 
 generous diet. The change of food, however, 
 should not be sudden; otherwise, not only 
 may the existing disorder be aggravated, but 
 other and less manageable affections may bo 
 superinduced." 
 
 "When all things else fail, Mr. Youatt recom- 
 mends a slight infusion of tobacco, cautiously 
 used. If mercury is applied externally, care 
 must be taken to prevent the dog from licking 
 it, as diarrha^a, produced by mercury, often 
 proves fatal. !JIuch patience is necessary in 
 curing this disease. Mr. Blaine had u fa- 
 vourite setter which was affected with a violent 
 mauge for five years. "What misery must 
 this poor animal have suffered during a period 
 probably extending to nearly half of his life. 
 He was ordered to bo dressed every day, or 
 every second day, before the disease was com- 
 pletely conquered. By this treatment, how- 
 ever, he finally recovered. 
 
 4S7 
 
COSTIVEXESS.] 
 
 THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 For the treatment of mauge, Mr. Blaiue 
 reeomnieuds tlie ioliovi'mg Jvrmulce. 
 
 No. I. 
 Powdered Sulphur, yeUow or bhick 
 Muriate of Ammonia, powdered . 
 Aloes powdered . , , . 
 Venice Turpentine . ^ . . 
 Lard, cl ther fattv matter . 
 Mix. 
 
 No. II. 
 Sulphate of Zinc (white vitriol) . 
 Tobacco in powder .... 
 Sulphur in powder , . . . 
 Aloes in powder .... 
 Soft soap 
 
 4 ounces. 
 
 1. 
 
 1 drachm. 
 i ounce. 
 
 1 drachm. 
 h ounce. 
 
 2 drachms. 
 6 ounces. 
 
 No. III. 
 
 Lime-water ...... 4: ounces. 
 
 Decoction of Stavesacre . , . . 2 „ 
 
 Decoction of White Hellebore . . 2 „ 
 Oxymuriate of Quicksilver (corrosive 
 
 sublimate) 5 grains. 
 
 Dissolve the corrosive sublimate iu the 
 decoctions, which should be of a moderate 
 strength ; when dissolved, add two drachms of 
 powdered aloes, to render the mixture nauseous, 
 and prevent its being licked off by tlie dog — 
 a circumstance which ought to be very care- 
 fully guarded against. 
 
 COSTIVENESS. 
 
 Change the diet; give gruel and slops; 
 and let the dog have full liberty ; boiled liver 
 will be found useful. If these measures 
 fail, give small doses of castor-oil. No dog 
 should be allowed to be costive longer than 
 two days, as it ma}^ arrive at indigestion, 
 generate worms, impart a foetid smell to the 
 breath, and blacken the teeth. The best 
 means of preventing this disease is giving a 
 sufficiency of exercise. This, perhaps, cannot 
 he done with watch-dogs, which have to be kept 
 almost continually ou the chain in yards and 
 public works ; but, where it can be done, it 
 should never be neglected. In cases where it 
 is requisite to administer medicine, an aloetic 
 ball may be given, or Epsom salts. Should 
 these fail in producing the desired effect upon 
 the animal, the castor-oil mixture, with spirit 
 of buckthorn, and white poppies, should be 
 administered ; and recourse may be had to the 
 clyster-pipe. Exercise, however, is the grand 
 preventative. 
 48S 
 
 DIARRH(E.\ 
 
 This disease is frequently met with in dogs 
 that are habitually petted ; and it is very often 
 the consequence of improper food, or over- 
 feeding. When it shows itself, wait for a day 
 or two, till you see if the discharge will cease, 
 and a cure take place, without the necessity of 
 giving medicine. Should this not happen, give 
 castor-oil, with a few drops of laudanum. 
 
 There are many other diseases to which the 
 dog is subject ; but as these have been already 
 treated in scientific veterinary works especially 
 devoted to them, we refrain from introducing 
 them here, but refer the reader to Mr. 
 Blaine's Canine Fathologij, and the treatise of 
 Mr. Touatt, on The Dog. In these works, 
 every disease, so far as great experience has 
 been able to determine its character, has been 
 treated with judgment and skill ; whilst ability, 
 coupled with a desire to state nothing but 
 what will bear the test of a trial, appears in 
 every page. 
 
 MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF 
 DISEASE IN DOGS. 
 
 Dogs affected by disease should be handled 
 with great gentleness ; kept perfectly clean, 
 and furnished with a warm bed. The medi- 
 cines used in their cases are very numerous, 
 and, as a general rule, should only be adminis- 
 tered under the direction of a surgeon. They 
 are given in the form of a pill, or bolus, or in 
 a liquid state, most easily, by two persons- 
 one sitting, and holding the dog between his 
 knees, while the other forces the mouth open 
 by pressure on the lips of the upper jaw, and 
 administers the medicine. 
 
 Alcohol. — Used in tinctures, but never administered 
 iu a pure state. 
 
 Alum. — A powerful astringent : ten to fifteen grains 
 may be given in obstinate cases of diarrhoea. It is some- 
 times used in the form of a clyster. 
 
 Antimony in the form of James's powders, used to 
 produce gentle perspiration. 
 
 Alteratives are intended to produce a slow change 
 in the system without interfering with other arrange- 
 ments. Five parts sublimate of sulphur, one of nitre, 
 one of linseed meal, and two of palm oil is a useful alte- 
 rative. 
 
 BAKBAnoES Aloes.— An excellent aperient, consists 
 of eight parts of powdered aloes, one part antimonial 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 von MOINTAIN, 11 KM), AM) P A lOf. 
 
 [mkdicines. 
 
 ()owdcr, one part ginger, four parts palm oil — well beat np 
 togetlur, and uiadu into bulls of about half a dnichm. 
 Mr. Uluine says the 8mnllc.>it dog in.iy take from tiftecn 
 to twenty ^^rains, aduiiuistcrt'd in hiilf-diachm bulls every 
 four or live hours. 
 
 Ulisters. — .\n infusion of two oum'cs of cantharides 
 in a pint of oil of turpentine, kept on for several days, 
 is a gentle blister, maintaining suiliLifnt irritation and 
 intlumnuition, without blistering the skin, to remuve 
 ct rt.iin eauses of lameness. 
 
 Calomel. — A dangerous medicine, but useful in small 
 doses in eases of liver eompiaint, and, combined with 
 aloes, in doses never exceeding three grains, in cases of 
 virulent mange. 
 
 Castor Oil {oleum ricini) possesses the best pro- 
 perties of the fixed vegetable oils. Three parts of the 
 oil, two of syrup of buckthorn, and one of syrup of 
 poppies, form a useful medicine where a narcotic stimu- 
 lant is requisite. 
 
 Catechu. — Extract of the acacia tree (acacia cate- 
 chu), and possesses a powerful astringent property. 
 ^lixed with opium, chalk, and powdered gum, it stops 
 diarrhoea. As a tincture, it assists the healing principle 
 in hounds. 
 
 Chalk {creia prcparata) is useful in combination 
 with ginger. Catechu and opium in all cases of purging, 
 particularly in the purging of distemper. 
 
 Chloride of Lime should be sprinkled, from time to 
 time, in the kennel or dog-house, for purposes of cleanli- 
 ness. It is useful for washing ill-conditioned wounds. 
 
 Clysters. — Applied when the nature and progress of 
 disease renders necessary a quick evacuation of the con- 
 tents of the bowels. It usually consists of warm water, 
 rendered more stimulating, when necessary, by adding 
 salts, oil, or aloes ; for killing worms in the rectum, or 
 larger intestines, using oils ; for diarrhoea, using astrin- 
 gents ; for nourishment, using gruel. 
 
 Digitalis. — Dried leaves of the fox-glove, which yield 
 their virtues both to water and to alcohol. It is a power- 
 ful sedative narcotic, and is useful in all inflammatory 
 and febrile complaints. 
 
 Ei'SOM Salts. — A mild and effective aperient for most 
 
 animals ; but, for the dog, the castor. oil mixture is pre. 
 fcruble. 
 
 Ge.stian. — The root of rjentiana lutea in valuable oa 
 a tonic, febrifuge, and stomachic. It has little or no 
 smell, but is bitter to the taste. 
 
 GiNGKR is considered an aromatic, nnd is Ipss heating 
 to the system than might be expected from its pungent 
 taste. It is antisj)asm()dic and carminative, li is also 
 useful for dogs as a cordial and tonic. 
 
 Hog's Lard. — The basis of ull ointments used in dog 
 medicines, being free from every stimulating property. 
 
 Iodine. — A new medicine, found, however, to be very 
 universally dilFuscd throughout the vegetable and mineral 
 kingdoms : it is rapidly suaerseding the cantharides and 
 turpentine blister. 
 
 Lu.var Caustic (nitrate of silver). — Recommended 
 by Mr. Youatt as superseding all other caustics, and pre- 
 ferable, in cases of rabies, to the knife. It is also recom- 
 mended, by the same authority, in cases of opuleseme of 
 the cornea, and where there is fungoid matter tiirown out 
 on the cornea. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash. — A mild and cooling diuretic, 
 given in doses of eight to ten grains. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver is applied for the same purpose. 
 
 Nitric Acid destroys warts and excrescences, by 
 being dropped on the part, and bandaged. Nitrate of 
 silver, however, is a surer application. 
 
 Palm Oil. — An excellent emollient when unadul- 
 terated, being milder than common lard. 
 
 Peruvian Bark is an excellent tonic in distemper, 
 combined with iodide of iron. 
 
 Prussic Acid allays the irritation of the skin in dogs ; 
 it requires care, and may be fatal when the tkin is 
 abrascd. 
 
 Sulphur. — An excellent alterative, and, combined 
 with antimony and nitre, particularly useful in mange, 
 surfeit, grease, and for dogs out of condition. 
 
 Turpentine. — An excellent diuretic and antispas- 
 modic. It is also a most efl'ective sweating blister, and 
 highly recommended in strains. 
 
 Vinegar. — Useful for sprains, bruises, and fcr.ic: 
 tatious. 
 
 3r 
 
 480 
 
DIVISION III. 
 
 SHOOTING, BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 rEELIMINARY REMARKS : THE GUN. 
 
 To be " a good shot" is an enviable distinction 
 in the eyes of many; and, perhaps, at no period 
 of England's history was the art of handling 
 the gun so much practised, so popularly es- 
 teemed as a kind of essentiality to the accom- 
 plishments of a country gentleman, as at the 
 present time. Even the busy merchant in 
 the city occasionally forgets the cares of his 
 ledger, to have a day's shooting; whilst 
 our tens of thousands of riflemen are daily 
 practicing an art which, whilst it has for its 
 grand object the defence of our shores from 
 foreign invasion, is, at the same time^ incul- 
 cating a desire for field sports, far beyond 
 what might be imagined by those who see 
 nothing more in a rifleman but a civilian 
 dressed in strangely coloured regimentals, and 
 trained only to shoot at a target. 
 
 As one of the most captivating of British 
 field sports, shooting has long held a promi- 
 nent place ; and we, ourselves, almost as far 
 back as we can remember, have a lively remi- 
 niscence of a bachelor uncle of ours, who had 
 long been in the West Indies, and who had 
 passed the threescore-and-ten as the allotted 
 period of man's life — taking us to the fields witli 
 him to practise partridge shooting, when it 
 was with the greatest difiiculty that he, himself, 
 could see a covey twelve yards before him. 
 We know of no sport that has so much to 
 recommend it. Every one, however, has his 
 hobby. Some delight in the quiet and solitary 
 pleasures of the angle ; some in hawking, which, 
 by the way, is a noble kind of exercise ; and 
 some in the more violent sport of horse-racing. 
 There is noLie of these, however, equal to the 
 sport of the " dog and gun." Each, no doubt, 
 has its individual charms to those who are so 
 constituted as to make it an enjoyment : but 
 the universality of " shooting" — of its practice 
 in every country and clime — from the estima- 
 400 
 
 tion in which it is held, and which, no doubt, 
 in a great measure, arises from the open-air 
 exercise which it causes, amid scenes exempted 
 from the restrictions incident to artificial 
 life, and redolent of all the charms of nature, 
 whether belonging to the field or the forest, the 
 moor or the mountain, has rendered this sport 
 more general than any other. It is not all, 
 however, that are allowed to enjoy even this 
 sport as regards game. The law has stepped in 
 to prevent this ; and Byron has sarcastically 
 noticed the fact in some of his lines. 
 
 " The corn is cut, the manor full of game, 
 
 The pointer ranges, and the sportsman beats, 
 
 In russet jacket — lynx-like is his aim, 
 
 Full-grown his bag, and wonderful his feats. 
 
 Ah ! nut-brown partridges ! ah i brilliant pheasants ! 
 
 And ah ! ye poachers ! — 'tis no sport for peasants !" 
 
 The lines alluded to certainly indicate the 
 cause which has produced a direful chapter in 
 the annals of British crime. But if game were 
 not in some way protected, nobody but the 
 farmer and the peasant would have anything 
 living to shoot at. Some of these are con- 
 stantly located where game is; consequently 
 they would have all the sport to themselves ; 
 and the gentleman returning to his own es- 
 tates in the country, after a residence in the 
 city, or tour on the continent, would have 
 nothing left for his own sport. The tables 
 of his labourers and tenantry would be covered 
 with game, whilst he would have none, except 
 what he was forced to purchase with the hard 
 cash from his own treasury. ' 
 
 THE GUN AND THE FOWLING-PIECE. 
 
 The origin of the word " gun" has not been 
 determined with accuracy. In the Encyelo- 
 pceclia Britannica, we find it observed that 
 some derive it from the French word onangon, 
 
.1.' ■'Ssl'iSJ'..* '= ■'* 
 
 !- -^^-ci^frtf::^ 
 
 >K 
 
 
 vn 
 
 tg--_'"*«ii: 
 
 "*K. ^^7"s*^- 
 
 • ' -A 
 
 iife^_.i3iiliiiliiiiarf)iiaiSii«:JiB^ 
 
THE 11 UN. J 
 
 SIIOOTIXCJ, V.Y FIELD, WOOD, AND W.\T1:K. [the gux. 
 
 which wns a warliico instrument used before 
 
 the invention of the gun now made use of, and 
 (.uiploved in dis'-har^ing arrows, and other 
 inissileg, before the manufacture of gunpowder, 
 C)ther3 derive it from yy/*. an engine employed 
 lor similar purpoi;ed. JSclilon says, the word 
 ^un was in use in England, for an engine to 
 oast a thing from a man, long before there was 
 any gunpowder found out. 
 
 The hii.td-gun, or goune, as formerly spelt, 
 seems to have been the rudimental shape of 
 our present fowling and military pieces. It is 
 said to have been invented by one Billius, a 
 nobleman of Milan, and was nothing more 
 than an iron tube affixed to a club, or stick, 
 with a hollow, without a cover near the breech, 
 or base, to receive the priming powder. In 
 the reign of Henry VI., a small priming pan 
 was invented and attached ; but still the 
 weapon was of the rudest description, and 
 scarcely worth the name of being an instru- 
 ment well suited for either attack or defence. 
 The stocTccd-gun was the next step in its 
 improvement. The barrel was placed in a 
 wooden stock, or frame, which was at first 
 straight, but which was subsequently altered 
 to a curve, for the purpose of enabling the 
 marksmen to take better aim, and to obviate, 
 to some extent, the severity of the recoil, 
 which was an inherent defect in the straight 
 stock. The match-loch and tcheel-lock guns 
 followed in the order of change. The first 
 was used with a lighted match, brought into 
 contact with the priming by means of a spring- 
 trigger. The second was made in the days of 
 Elizabeth ; but, though introduced into the 
 arena of war, it was still a very defective 
 weapon, and was not at all well adapted for \ 
 heightening the pleasures of the sports of the 
 field. This gun was fired by means of fric- 
 tion, through the means of a wheel, which 
 passed rapidly over the edge of a piece of 
 flint. It was but a heavy, clumsy, and un- 
 handy affair. It was succeeded by the flint- 
 lock, which was long retained in use, and under- 
 went various modifications down to modern 
 times. The more recent improvement is the 
 pcrcussion-loch, which is now in high favour. 
 
 There are few practical arts which have 
 advanced so rapidly as the one which is marked 
 by the making, or the manufacturing of guns. 
 "Judging of the perfecting of the art by the 
 
 expense of the article," Bays the Eneyclopadin 
 of littral Sports, " wo might be led to concludo 
 that gun-nmking had reached the acme of per. 
 fection. It has been no uncommon thing to 
 pay fifty, sixty, or seventy guineas for a best 
 London-mado gun. The continent has even 
 gone beyond us in this respect ; for we are told, 
 that when Napoleon I. was in the plenitudo 
 of his grandeur, ho established a gun manu- 
 factory at Versailles ; and, wo are informed, 
 that pistols were there made at 10,000 livres, or 
 £100 sterling, each; and guns at 50,000 livres, 
 or £2,000 sterling. Of these, the first consul 
 often made presents to foreign princes, to 
 general officers, and other favourites. The 
 Marquis of Ivockingham is also said to have 
 given to Colonel Thomson a fowling-pieco 
 which cost £400; and that Messrs. lloberC 
 and John "Wheeler, gun-makers, of Birming- 
 luim, presented George IV. with a gun of the 
 most exquisite workmanship, which cost three 
 hundred guineas. 
 
 The barrel of a gun is of the first considera- 
 tion, both as regards its construction and the 
 manner in which it is kept in order. Iron is 
 the principal component part in its manufac- 
 ture, and the kind of iron is of the last moment. 
 The best description of this metal is that which 
 possesses the highest degree of tenacity and 
 ductility. Swedish iron is allowed to possess 
 these qualifications or properties in an eminent 
 degree, and is, therefore, almost universally 
 employed in the manufacture of gun-barrels of 
 any considerable value. It must be observed, 
 however, that this article, like many others, is 
 ofteu made for sale, and not for safety ; and 
 that spurious and cheap pieces are made from 
 kinds of iron that render them dangerous and 
 worthless. When iron is mixed with certain 
 mineral substances, it becomes unfit for safe 
 gun-barrel making; but as every sportsman is 
 not possessed of the scientific attainments of 
 an expert chemist, nor has the pretensions to 
 understand the art of gun-making, people are 
 necessarily left, in a great measure, to chance, 
 for the sort of instrument so necessary ibr 
 their sport, as well as for their personal safety. 
 The most prudent plan to adopt is, to deal 
 with gunsmiths of acknowledged skill and 
 reputation, and who make a point of issuing 
 from their shops only such instruments as will 
 prove both safe and effective. 
 
 491 
 
THE GUN.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the gun. 
 
 "Without aiming, however, at a scientific 
 knowledge of iron or of gun-making, a sports- 
 man should, nevertheless, be acquainted with a 
 few plain principles respecting the quality of the 
 materials of which his instrument is made, as 
 well as of its adaptability to the purposes for 
 which it is designed. Spanish gun-barrels 
 have long been highly prized, and generally 
 very justly. They are made of a species of 
 iron remarkably well hammered, and which 
 has received the technical name of scraps, 
 being chiefly composed of the old nails taken 
 from the shoes of horses, mules, and asses, 
 used as beasts of burden in Spain. The Da- 
 mascus barrels were once more highly esteemed 
 than they are now. They were made of highly- 
 tempered iron and steel, hammered with 
 extraordinary labour, and polished to the 
 highest perfection. There are several kinds of 
 iron which are now generally used for fowling- 
 pieces ; such as loire-tivist iron, Wisivould' s 
 iron, charcoal iron, stuh-twist iron, twopenny, 
 and threepenny sJcelp iron, and sham-dam sJcelp. 
 Among all these varieties, the stub-twist is con- 
 sidered the best ; but it is high-priced, and, 
 like most other things of value, liable to con- 
 siderable adulteration. When it can be ob- 
 tained pure, most gun-makers are inclined to 
 give it a decided prefereuca, both for shooting 
 purposes and safety. 
 
 A military treatise, written upwards of 240 
 years ago, gives us what may be considered, even 
 in these advanced times, good advice as to the 
 choice of a gun. We will modernise the 
 spelling for the benefit of all our readers. 
 
 "He that loveth the safety of his own per- 
 son, and delighteth in the goodness and beauty 
 of a piece, let him always make choice of one 
 that is double-breeched; and, if it be possible, 
 a Milan piece, for they be of tough and perfect 
 temper, light, square, and big of breech, and 
 very strong where the powder doth lie, and 
 where the violent force of the fire doth con- 
 sist, and, notwithstanding, thin at the end. 
 Our English pieces approach very nigh unto 
 them in goodness and beauty (their heaviness 
 only excepted), so that they be made on pur- 
 pose, and not one of those common sale pieces 
 with round barrels, whereunto a beaten soldier 
 will have great respect, and rather choose to 
 pay double money for a good piece, than to 
 spare his purse and endanger himself." 
 4D2 
 
 The following is the test of Mr. Greener for 
 discovering difierent gun-metal from the real 
 stub-twist iron : — " Eequire the gun-maker to 
 stain the barrel under examination with the 
 smoTce-hrown (a staining composition, of which 
 he gives an account in his book), and he will 
 not be able to accomplish it if the barrel be 
 not genuine; whereas nothing is easier, if it 
 be really made of stubs twisted. The matter 
 may be thus explained-, hydrogen gas acts 
 only on iron ; steel resists its action ; so that, 
 when a barrel is properly finished, the steel 
 remains quite bright, while the iron has become 
 a beautiful jet-black, which will be easily recog- 
 nised by attention to the appearance." 
 
 Testing gun-barrels is such an important 
 matter to all who have to use them, either for 
 amusement or war, that the legislature has 
 been obliged to step in, for the purpose of 
 endeavouring to save individuals from serious 
 injuries, and often from death itself. It is not 
 always from a defect of the metal of which a 
 fowling-piece is made, that danger arises, but 
 often from some defect in the workmanship, 
 whence danger, and often serious consequences 
 result. For a long time this country sufi'ered 
 severely from the want of proper attention to 
 this subject; but the gun-makers themselves 
 took the matter up, and established a proof- 
 house, by which barrels could be tested. In 
 1813, this trade was incorporated by act of 
 parliament ; and by the powers granted to it, 
 it was made penal to sell any gun without its 
 being first proved at one of the proof-houses, 
 established by the company in London and 
 Birmingham. These enactments, however, were 
 evaded ; and such numbers of spurious instru- 
 ments were thrown into the market, that the 
 legislature had again to come to the rescue, 
 and pass, in 1815, another more stringent 
 enactment. "It was enacted that no barrel 
 should be received by any person to rib, stock, 
 or finish, that had not been duly proved, under 
 a penalty of £20.'' It was also enacted that 
 all barrels should be immediately dispatched, 
 by the maker, to the proof-house beiore the 
 same shall be sold, or transmitted for sale to 
 any person whatever. A penalty of d620 ia 
 attached to the breach of this clause ; and it 
 further visits, with the like penalty, any one 
 receiving such barrel to make up. The act 
 also imposed the same penalty upon the forger 
 
THE 
 
 OUN.l 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, .VXD W'ATKK. 
 
 [the ouk. 
 
 of iIh< prool-iiiark of tlio Loadou company, or 
 that of the Birmiii^liain company. 
 
 Tlio inoilo of uiakiiip: gun-barrt'ls is thus 
 described in the article ou " sliooting," iu tho 
 Encyclopctdia Britannica ; and although it may 
 appear somewhat foreign to our subject, still, wo 
 think there are many who would wish to know 
 something of this operation. " Having lixcd, 
 in the first place, on the size of the gun, and 
 ascertained, as near as may bo, tho width of 
 the bore, and the length and tliickness of the 
 barrel, the next thing the forger does is to ' 
 take a portion of the metal of which he is to 
 make the barrel, and to form it into the shape \ 
 of a thin, flexible bar, something like a cooper's ! 
 hoop ; this bar or hoop must not be all of [ 
 the same thickness ; but that part of it which 1 
 is to be towards, and is to form the muzzle of j 
 the piece, must be thinner than that which is 
 intended to form the breech. An instrument, 
 called a mandril, is then chosen, according to 
 the size of the intended bore of the gun. Tho 
 flexible bar or hoop is then heated, so as to 
 make it ply easily, and is turned round the 
 mandril, much in the same way as a riband of 
 leather is turned round the handle of a whip. 
 The edges of the hoop of iron, however, are 
 made to overlap one another a little, so that, 
 \rhen welded, all their joinings may be com- 
 pact and solid, and no slackness appear where 
 the lips of the bar or hoop toucla one another. 
 "When the metal has acquired its proper heat 
 and the weldings are properly executed, tho 
 places where the bars overlapped each other are 
 quite imperceptible ; and the barrel appears as 
 though it had been made out of one piece, and 
 finished at one beat." The mode of making 
 the twisted barrel does not materially differ 
 from this description. 
 
 The use of the double-barrelled gun, in sport- 
 ing, has greatly increased within the present 
 century ; and the instrument itself has under- I 
 gone numerous important alterations and im- i 
 provements. AVhen first brought out, one barrel j 
 lay over the other, each having a separate pan, | 
 hammer, and hammer-spring. The barrels were I 
 consequently made to turn round at the part j 
 where their breeches were fixed to the stock ; ' 
 and it was so contrived that, when one barrel 
 was fired off", the other was brought into its 
 place by the simple pressure of a* spring by 
 the right hand, while, with the left, the barrels j 
 
 were turned on their common centre. Thi* 
 kind of gun was always esteemed an ex- 
 tremely clumsy and heavy inBtrumeut ; and 
 the locks were commonly so exceedingly 
 complex, that it soon suggested further im- 
 provements in tho make of this sort of gun. 
 Accordingly, tho next step in advance was an 
 instrument that did not allow tho barrels to 
 turn round upon an axis; but, on tho con- 
 trary, they were fixed one over tho other, 
 and each had a separate lock and trigger, 
 which, for the under barrel, was, consequently, 
 placed lower than tho other. Still, although 
 pieces of this construction possessed a great 
 advantage over those made on tho revolving 
 principle, in the quickness of their firing, yet 
 they were subject to one inconvenience, from 
 which the others were exempt, and which 
 arose from the situation of the under barrel ; 
 for that being fired under the same line of 
 aim with the upper one, did necessarily shoot 
 low. 
 
 The more modern plan, of placing the 
 barrels in juxtaposition, or side by side with 
 each other, is a great improvement ; but 
 there are still many things connected with 
 guns of this description, which require con- 
 sideration, with a view to readiness of use, 
 and facility of movement. It has often been 
 a matter of serious complaint, that each 
 barrel is liable to be filed away too much at 
 the breech, and likewise at the muzzle, in 
 order to bring these two parts of the barrels 
 as near together as possible. This renders 
 the instrument unsafe. There are, also, im- 
 portant questions connected with the use ot 
 the double-barrelled gun, as to the way in 
 which a true aim is to be obtained by it. 
 These questions have, at various times, given 
 rise to long discussions, both in sporting 
 journals and sporting books, and very con- 
 trary opinions and suggestions have been 
 arrived at. Still, there has been much light 
 thrown on the general question, and decided 
 improvements made within the last few years. 
 In a past volume of the Sporting Magazine, it 
 is asked — " What is the best method of 
 making double-barrelled guns, so that a cor- 
 rect aim may be taken from the centre of the 
 barrels?" To which the following reply is 
 given : — " If the barrels were placed parallel to 
 each other, it would be but a small objection 
 
 493 
 
ELEVATIOjS'.J 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 Feletated eib. 
 
 liaving the sight between them ; but as guns 
 are commonly made, the thickness between 
 the bores of each, at the breech, is three-six- 
 teenths of an inch, and at the muzzle one- 
 sixteenth. Therefore, if the length of a 
 pair of barrels was two feet six inches, 
 which is the ordinary length, and the sight 
 taken from the centre, and a ball was 
 projected from one of them, it would make 
 one-eighth of an inch declination from its true 
 course in every two feet six inches it had to 
 travel, which would make, in forty yards, a 
 declination of six incites. From this cause, 
 the right-hand barrel always shoots to the left, 
 and vice versa. Now, to remedy this, suppose 
 the thickness between the two barrels to be 
 at the breech three-sixteenths of an inch, then 
 let the space at the muzzle be the same ; and 
 where the barrels are thus laid together, and 
 the sight placed between them, the ball would 
 only make a declination of half an inch (the 
 bore being five-eighths of an inch), being the 
 distance between the centre of the barrel-bore 
 and the exterior of the barrel's surface." The 
 method by which this error is attempted to be 
 rectified, by filing away so much of the breech- 
 surface as shall bring the calibers of the barrels 
 into a more rectilinear direction, is considered 
 nothing more than remedying one defect by 
 creating another. The great object should be 
 to efi'ect the junction of the gun-barrels, in 
 such a manner as to bring the centres of the 
 calibres of the muzzles, and the centres of the 
 calibres of the breeches, if not exactly equidis- 
 tant, at least much more so than is commonly 
 effected ; the approximation being in general 
 in the direct ratio to the length of the barrels. 
 The late Colonel Hawker treats this subject 
 with some degree of indifference ; and Mr. 
 BL-vine dissents from the line of argument 
 pursued by Mr. Greener regarding it. " Much 
 as we admire Mr. Greener's usual line of 
 argument," says Mr. Blaine, " we regret that 
 on this subject we disagree with him, also, 
 when he says—' To make them (the barrels) 
 uniform (i. e., lessen the convergence we com- 
 plain of), it requires that they be reduced, or 
 flattened, to allow the thick or heavy end to join 
 closer.' If this be not incurring a risk, we do 
 not know what is ; and we do hope that no re- 
 spectable gun-maker will rectify his con vergeucy 
 in the barrels towards each other by any other 
 494 
 
 means than firmly setting the centres of the 
 muzzles rectilinearly with those of the breeches, 
 by the agency of an intervening substance, as 
 hard soldering in the centre, mettle-ribbing it 
 above and below ; and then, and then only, 
 the silver sight will not be a guide to error." 
 
 ELEVATION AND ELEVATED RIB. 
 
 What should be the elevation and the ele- 
 vated rih of a gun, involve nice and abstruse 
 questions as to the precise movements of bodies 
 thrown out of projectiles generally. The line 
 which a charge of shot takes when fired from a 
 double gun, is called, in gunnery, the line of im- 
 pulse. "Whether it be rectilinear or curvilinear 
 is still a point of dispute. But one thing is 
 certain, that the shot is under the influence of 
 the ordinary and the universal law of gravita- 
 tion, which acts upon it so as to bring it 
 within the universal law of having a tendency 
 to fall to the ground. The distance to which 
 its flight may be prolonged, depends on the 
 excellence and make of the gun, the materials 
 with which it may be loaded, and the various 
 minute matters which constitute the tact, aim, 
 &c., of the person using the instrument. A 
 curvilinear direction of the shot is assumed, as 
 a fact, by gun-makers ; and their grand object 
 is, to bring the shot to the mark aimed at by 
 the use of mechanical means— such as straight 
 stock, or an artificial elevation of the muzzle of 
 the piece, in proportion to the length of the 
 barrel. All these points certainly appertain 
 more to the express business of the gunsmith ; 
 yet the sportsman should know something of 
 them, as they bear directly upon practical re- 
 sults necessary to his own safety. 
 
 On the Elevated Bib, Colonel Hawker and 
 Mr. Greener have written at some length. 
 Their opinions are entitled to great weight, 
 and they maintain that different lengths of 
 barrel require a corresponding height of the 
 rib ; and that a greater height is required by a 
 person accustomed to use a crooked stock, and 
 vice versa. Both writers, likewise, maintain 
 that the elevation of the rib commonly met 
 with is not sufficient. The usual elevations 
 do not deliver the shot, even at forty yards, 
 with a usual charge of powder ; and where the 
 shot is of more than average size, there must 
 be a great defalcation in the result. Mr. 
 Greener says, that the experiment he has 
 
CAiinnE.] 
 
 V.Y I'll: 1. 1). AVOOD. AND W'ATKK. 
 
 Fda-uiiels. 
 
 made, shows that, in heavy charges of shot, t ho 
 
 droop is fully ttrclvr inches in forty yards ; but 
 that with loss charges of shot, tho line of llii^lit 
 will be more dircvt. 
 
 The great advautago of tho double-barrelled 
 CUM over the single one is now generally ad- 
 mitted bv all PoortsmiMi ; but there are still 
 8ome shooters to be found who prefer tho latter. 
 This preference, however, depends, in almost 
 all cases, upon some accidental circumstance, 
 or individual fancy. The quantity of game to 
 be obtained, especially in the earlier parts of 
 the shooting season, is much more with a 
 double than with a single gun. The weight is 
 generally greater in the former than in the 
 latter; buc habit and custom soon bring the 
 matter to an equality on this point. 
 
 On the calibre, or bore, the length and 
 weight of barrels, their killing range, their 
 recoil, the regularity of their eflect, their force, 
 their liability to burst, much might be written ; 
 for on all these several subjects there have 
 been, and still are, considerable differences of 
 opinion. It is unnecessary for us here to 
 cuter into full details regarding them. They 
 are of more interest to the scientific maker 
 than to the sportsman, whose experience soon 
 teaches him as to what sort of weapon he finds 
 to be the best to enhance his pleasure or 
 amusement. 
 
 CALIBRE. OR BORE. 
 It is recommended by a high authority that 
 fint-fjuns should not be bored cyliudrically 
 through, but that a little contraction, just 
 where the shot first moves, should be pre- 
 served. This suggestion has, for many years, 
 been pretty generally attended to by gun- 
 smiths. It is of importance that every pur- 
 ciiaser of a fowling-piece should ascertain, by 
 the gauge, the exact diameter of each portion 
 of the bore of the piece, that he may adapt 
 his wadding accordingly. The proper wadding 
 for such kind of relieved barrels is that which 
 has some considerable degree of firmness, with 
 a certain portion of elasticity. Beckworth's 
 wadding is of this kind. There are, however, 
 many barrels now made which are bored 
 cyliudrically throughout ; and it is nftirmed, by 
 competent authorities, that such pieces shoot 
 remarkablv well. 
 
 TERCUSSION HARRELS. 
 These are commonly mado heavier and 
 stronger than tho barrels of tho fliut-gun. It 
 is now the practice to bore such barrels with a 
 littlo relief forward, which, Colonel Ilawker 
 maintains, " has tho cftect of making tlio gun 
 tthoot as close as it can do, compatible with 
 tho quickness and strength required." Tho 
 increased weight of the percussion-barrel ha.s, 
 however, been objected to by others, whoso 
 opinion upon this subject is entitled to much 
 weight. 
 
 LENGTH AND ^VEIGIIT OF BARRELS. 
 
 There has been a great innovation upon tho 
 length of gun-barrels. It was long considered 
 to be an indisputable maxim, that the longer 
 tho barrel, and the smaller the bore, the farther 
 a gun would kill. Now, however, the barrel is 
 considerably shortened, and with good results. 
 Here again, however, some sportsmen think an 
 error has been made in running into the oppo- 
 site extreme, and making them too short. Mr. 
 Eobius, who seems to have paid great attention 
 to this matter, says, " that the sportsmen may 
 please themselves whether the length of their 
 barrels be from ticenty-cigltt to forty inches ; 
 but that if they either go above or below these 
 dimensions, they will find that the range of tlic 
 shot will begin to fail them." We would 
 say, that at present, the general opinion is in 
 favour of moderate length of barrel. Such 
 fowling-pieces are decidedly better adapted fur 
 general purposes, more portable, and are freer 
 from many inconveniences attendant upon very 
 long guns. The OaJcleigli Shooting Code gives 
 the following judgment on the matter : — " The 
 fowliug-picce to be recommended for general 
 use is a double-barrelled detonator, weighing 
 about eight pounds; the barrels thirty or 
 thirty-two inches in length, sixteen gauge, and 
 made of twisted stubs. It is not sportsmanlike 
 to use double barrels of a greater calibre ; nor 
 are longer barrels convenient, on account ot 
 their weight, although additional length, not 
 carried to an extreme, or a larger calibre, may 
 l)robably render them more eftective, in so far 
 as they will sustain a heavier charge. Single 
 barrels, for general use, may be thirty-four 
 inches long and fourteen gauge." The same 
 authority says, that "the barrels of tho 
 
 495 
 
EANUE. 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [gtjn-bareels. 
 
 grousing gun should be thirty-two inches long, 
 and sixteen gauge ; a single barrel for grouse- 
 shooting should be thirty-six inches long, and 
 fourteen or fifteen gauge. If selected for 
 partridge-shooting only, the barrels should be 
 thirty inches long, and sixteen gauge; or a 
 single barrel thirty-four inches, and fourteen 
 or fifteen gauge. If selected for cover-shooting 
 only, the barrels should be only twenty-eight 
 inches, by sixteen gauge; or single barrels 
 thirty-two inches, and fifteen gauge." 
 
 EXTENT OF RANGE. 
 On this subject there is much variety of 
 opinion ; and that, too, amongst sportsmen of 
 great experience, and thoroughly practical in 
 the knowledge they possess. It is, therefore, 
 impossible for us to decide a problem so much 
 involved in difficulty. Two points should be 
 obtained by all guns — ^to keep the shot from 
 being scattered, and to give them the greatest 
 amount of force or 'pTO]iuhion. These are the 
 ends desired; but the means best calculated 
 to obtain these, have given rise to numerous 
 and conflicting theories and expedients. Some 
 think that the muzzle of the gun should be a 
 little widened ; some advise the mixing of oil 
 and water with the shot ; and some place all 
 their faith in well-regulated charges of powder. 
 There are advantages attending all these 
 anethods, but not to the extent which their 
 respective advocates maintain. The distance 
 of range that most fowling-pieces will carry, 
 on ordinary occasions, is forty yards. This 
 is considered a fair average shot. Some, 
 of course, will kill considerably further, and 
 some not so far. Mr. Daniel, in his Rural 
 Sports, observes, that " there are few things in 
 which persons have more faith than in the ex- 
 cellence of their own gun; the distance at 
 which it kills, and the closeness with which 
 it throws the shot, are inconceivable. Striking 
 a card, with ten or twenty grains of sliot, at 
 sixty yards, is nothing uncommon ; and the 
 merits of the shooter and his gun bid defiance 
 to rivalship. It is no easy matter to change 
 the opinions of such persons respecting their 
 guns ; but when a gun is said to be sure at 
 threescore or fourscore yards, the measure may 
 be safely asserted to be of the proprietor's own 
 making. The circumstance of knocking down 
 a partridge at eighty yards may happen ; but 
 49G 
 
 very few barrels of those that are generally 
 used for the shooting of birds on wino', will 
 throw shot compact enough to be certain of 
 killing at fifty yards; one or two grains of 
 shot are not sufiicient so to strike a bird as to 
 bring it to the ground ; for when stript of its 
 feathers, a partridge is a much smaller object 
 than it appears to be, and possesses many parts 
 not vital. Those who expect light barrels, of 
 three feet or three feet six inches, to throw 
 shot close enough to insure a small object at 
 fifty or sixty yards, will be exceedingly mis- 
 taken." 
 
 From general observation, it will be found 
 that from twenty-five to thirty yards is about 
 the average distance at which nine out of ten 
 of all birds are killed. Many are wounded 
 nay, even killed dead, at forty, fifty, and even 
 sixty ; but it is clear that these are but soli- 
 tary cases, and are chiefly the efiects of mere 
 chance, or random shots. 
 
 THE RECOIL OF A GUN. 
 
 All guns have a greater or less recoil, pro- 
 ceeding from the mechanical principle, that all 
 force begets force. Inequalities of their bore, 
 contractions at their breeches, the too great 
 quantities of powder or shot used, dampness 
 and confined air, &c., &c., are the commonly 
 prevailing causes of guns recoiling unplea- 
 santly. Even the material and peculiar con™ 
 struction of the weapon lend their aid to pro- 
 duce the same efiect. 
 
 BURSTING OF GUN-BARRELS. 
 "We sometimes hear of the bursting of bar- 
 rels which have been made by the first manu- 
 facturers in the kingdom. These accidents 
 often depend upon causes hidden from obser- 
 vation, and, consequentlj'", little known. They 
 are, however, sometimes lamentable in their 
 consequences, and demand the constant atten- 
 tion of the sportsman to be upon his guard 
 ajrainst the occurrence. The selfsame causes 
 which produce great recoils in a gun, may 
 make it burst. The recoil and the bursting 
 differ only in degree and intensity, Ovex-load- 
 ing a piece ; immersing its muzzle uuder water, 
 and firing it off"; leaving a ramrod in the barrel, 
 and firing it oft' with it, and many other acts 
 may produce this effect. There is no recipe to 
 be given that will supersede attention and care 
 
Bu^ECU-LOADEHS.] BY TIKLD, WOOD, AND WATKIt. [the neeulk-oun. 
 
 to the various matters which are fully stated 
 to the spDrtsiuaa iu moat works Bpocially do- 
 voted to the guu. 
 
 THE LOCK. 
 
 The manufiioturo of this part of tho fowling- 
 piece has boL'ii carried to great perfection iu 
 England, especially wiUiin tho last thirty 
 years; notwithstanding that tho first spring- 
 locks were made at Nuremburg, in Germany, 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 The inventor, and general manufacturer of 
 them, is said to have realised an independent 
 fortune from tho success with which his inven- 
 tion was received. By degrees, he succeeded 
 in making many alterations and improvements 
 on his first model; and his son, who carried on 
 the business for nearly half a century after 
 his death, introduced still more decided im- 
 provements in its construction. 
 
 The Flint-lock must now be spoken of as 
 an instrument of the past, as, except in the 
 most primitive districts of countries, it is 
 scarcely to be found. The invention of the 
 Fercussion-lock has completely supplanted its 
 use. It is, perhaps, a somewhat curious fact 
 in the history of a sporting and a military 
 weapon, that this one was the invention of a 
 reverend gentleman, of the name of Forsyth. 
 His patent expired in 1821, since which it has 
 been very much improved. 
 
 BREECH-LOADERS. 
 
 Until recently most guns were loaded 
 from the muzzle, whereas now they are loaded 
 at the breech. Of the different applications 
 of scientific skill to the manufacture of this 
 weapon, the following may be viewed as the 
 principal. 
 
 1. Those in which a cartridge, with the 
 powder and ball enclosed in some thin envelope, 
 is pushed into the chamber of the barrel from 
 behind, which is then closed, and the powder 
 is exploded by a stream of gas from a cap per- 
 forating the walls of its case. 2. Those in 
 which a thicker case of paper and metal, or 
 metal alone, containing within it some sub- 
 stance explosive on percussion or friction, is 
 filled with powder and ball, and pushed into 
 ihe chamber from behind. This is then closed, 
 and the explosion eff'ected by a needle or pin 
 being driven into the case, which is then 
 3 a 
 
 withdrawn, leaving tho chamber clear of ull 
 wads and other reuiuants of tho discharge, 
 except tho fouling of the barrel caused by the 
 residuum from tho explosion of tho powder. 
 3. Those in which tin; b.-irrcl is divided in 
 front of tho charge, which is placed in the 
 hindmost portion of it, in tho saino order as if 
 tho loading was from tho muzzle; after which 
 tho chamber is replaced. Here, if powder and 
 ball arc carefully inserted, good shtjoting cau 
 bo effected ; but then the loading is quite as 
 slow as in the muzzle-loader ; while, if a car- 
 tridge is used, some parts of the envelope aro 
 left behind, and miss-fires, accidental explo- 
 sions in loading, and bad shooting, are the 
 frequent result. 
 
 Perfect, however, as these instruments may 
 bo considered in a scientific point of view, 
 recent events in the war between Austria on 
 the one side, and Prussia and Italy on the 
 other, have effectually proved that, on the con- 
 tinent at least, there is another, possessed of 
 certain properties, which, when used with 
 skill, may be said to have already overturned 
 all previous theories respecting the arbitra- 
 ment of arms in the battle-field. "\Ve allude 
 to the Prussian Needle-gun. The effect of 
 this weapon, in deciding the late conflict 
 between those powers, might, when judged by 
 statistics, be considered as almost miraculous. 
 In the summer of 18G6, Prussia, long in a 
 state of high military preparation, waged war 
 with Austria, and, in a very brief period of 
 time, succeeded in establishing her supremacy 
 in Germany. In tho conflict Austria is esti- 
 mated to have lost 120,0U0 men in prisoners, 
 wounded, and killed— 90,000 against Prussia, 
 and 30,000 against Italy. The Prussian loss, 
 during the war of 1S6G, was officially reported 
 at 19,875 men, exclusive of those who died of 
 their wounds and from disease ; tlie number 
 killed iu battle being under 4,000. Tho mili- 
 tary and newspaper correspondents who 
 visited the fatal field of Sadowa, were unani- 
 mous in declaring the vast excess of killed 
 and wounded on the side of Austria. At the 
 final exchange of prisoners, in August, there 
 were released, by Prussia, 523 Austrian ofilcers, 
 and 35,03U rank and file, exclusive of about 
 13,000 Austrian prisoners in the hospitals, 
 and not fit for removal. Austria gave up to 
 Prussia seven Prussian ofiicers, and 450 non- 
 497 
 
THE GUN-STOCK.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [parts of a gun. 
 
 commissioned oflBcers and men ; about 120 
 prisoners, from their wounds, unfit to be re- 
 moved, remained in Austria. These returns, 
 which are, no doubt, approximately correct, 
 speak volumes as to the science and art of 
 war. They have been everywhere understood ; 
 and the military monarchies throughout 
 Europe are reorganising their armies, and 
 arming them with the needle-gun, or some 
 equally or more effective weapon. Prussia, as 
 the leader of 40,000,000 of Germans, having a 
 seaboard on. the Baltic, is a very different 
 power from the Prussia of even ten years 
 back. "What the probable effect may be in 
 Europe it is not necessary now to consider. 
 Still, there can be no doubt that it will be 
 (if it is not now the time) very necessary for 
 every European state to adopt the best 
 means which may be in its power to place 
 itself in an attitude of defence. The rapidity 
 with which scientific skill, in the art of war, 
 is daily developing itself, proves this advice 
 not to be mistimed ; we therefore offer it 
 from a consideration of its usefulness, as 
 well as from the hope that it may rather 
 prevent than promote the destruction of our 
 species. 
 
 THE GUN-STOCK. 
 
 This is an important part of the fowling- 
 piece. In fixing upon the length, bend, 
 and cutting of the stock, there has been 
 much nicety laid down for the guidance os 
 gun-makers. Colonel Hawker maintains, that 
 the framing of a stock of a gun should vary 
 with the precise make of the man who has to 
 use it. It should be fitted to the shooter, 
 who should have his measure for its several 
 parts as formally entered into the gunsmith's 
 books as a man has in a tailor's for a suit of 
 clothes. Some manufacturers have a machine, 
 or stoclc gauge, by which they measure the out- 
 lines of their customers as regards their length 
 of arm, neck, &c., so as to furnish each man 
 with a gun-stock that will agree with his pecu- 
 liar bodily conformation. This has something 
 like common sense to recommend it. It has 
 been justly observed, that there is full as much 
 gkill required to fit a man with a gun-stock, in 
 agrcem.eut with his make, as there is to fit a 
 dandy with a complete suit of clothes. 
 
 Besides the parts which we have described^ 
 498 
 
 there are others belonging to a gun, of which 
 it is necessary for the sportsman to have some 
 knowledge. It is not essential, however, to 
 describe them with the same degree of ful- 
 ness which we have given to the preceding 
 portions. 
 
 OTHER PARTS OF A GUN. 
 
 Bolts. — Irons which enter the loops or eyes of 
 the barrel to fasten it to the stock. 
 
 Bridle. — A polished piece of steel -which caps the 
 tumbler, and is secured by two screws. It likewise 
 receives the scear-screw. 
 
 Butt of Stock. — The shouldered extremity of the 
 stock. 
 
 Cap. — It covers the ramrod screw-cap, and is also 
 used for the tip of the stock. 
 
 Casting off. — The outward inclination given to 
 the butt-end of the gun being intended to incline 
 the line of aim inwards. 
 
 Chain or Sivivel. — A small catch suspended from 
 the neck of the tumbler, to receive the extremity 
 of the mainspring. 
 
 Chamber. — The central cavity within the breech, 
 to receive the powder. The ante-chamher is the 
 small one which connects these with the touch- 
 hole. 
 
 Coch. — In the flint-gun it holds in its jaws the 
 flint ; in the percussion-gun it is equally a cock, 
 but there it is more frequently called the striker. 
 
 Cock-screw. — The screw that brings the jaws of 
 the cock together. 
 
 Cup. — The cavity seen at the top of many of the 
 improved breechings. 
 
 Escutcheons. — Ornamental pieces of silver to 
 prevent the bolts from defacing the stock when the 
 turnscrew and pincers are applied. Escutcheons 
 are likewise used on other parts to receive initials, 
 crests, shields, &c. 
 
 False Breech. — This receives the hutt or nose of 
 the breech when the barrel is fastened into the 
 stock. 
 
 Elevated Breech or Bib. — This is a top piece much 
 elevated, first used by Mr. Joseph Manton. 
 
 Fence. — The part between the cock and the pan 
 which receives the solid stock. 
 
 Guard. — The bow which defends the trigger. 
 
 Hammer-spring. — That on which the hammer 
 moves. 
 
 Hammer-hridle. — The part in which the tail of 
 the hammer works. 
 
 Heel-plate. — The plate with which the heel of the 
 stock is tipped. 
 
 Jaws. — The lips of the cock which holds the flint. 
 
 Lock-plate. — This supports the piincipal works of 
 the lock. 
 
 Main-spring. — The spring by which the tumbler 
 is worked with the cock. 
 
 Nipple or Pivot. — The small iron pillar that 
 receives the copper cap of tlie detonator. 
 
 Pipes. — Tubes to receive the ramrod. 
 
 Bib.— A central piece of iron wiiich unites the 
 barrels and receives the ramrod. 
 
 Scroll-guard.— An extension of the guard which 
 receives the right-hand in fi.\ing the gun. 
 
CLEAN8IN0.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD AND WATEK. 
 
 [CLEAJJSINO. 
 
 Scear. — That wliicli catches the tunihlcr for half 
 or whoU'-cock, ami bt-ini; pushed up by the Irijj^'er. 
 
 Sceai-:<prini/.- — Tlic spriiij; wliicli hi»Uls tlie (.ctar 
 in the notclies of the tuiuhler at either half or 
 w hole-cock. 
 
 iSidf-iutil. — A screw whicli fastens on the lock. 
 
 Si(/ht. — A jjutch of metal, usually of silver, 
 placed near the gun-barrel, to direct the aim. 
 
 Sprini/.crcnnp. — A useful instrument, to assist 
 botli in taking to pieces and putting together the 
 parts of the lock. 
 
 Titil. — The neck, shoulder, or arch of the hammer. 
 
 Ti)p-])ii'ce. — Tliis opjioses the rib which unites 
 the lower arches of the barrel. When it is very 
 prominent behind, it is called the elevated rib. 
 
 IViijijer-pUite. — The trigger works in it. 
 
 IViijl/er-spriiu/s. — Are small springs found in 
 some "highly-finished locks, and are intended to 
 keep the triggers close to the screw. 
 
 Tumbler. — Tiie movable centre-piece of a lock 
 which falls with, and is subservient to, the cock. 
 
 Tumbler-screw. — This fastens on the cock. 
 
 F(?H^/jo/e.— Sometimes there are two or three 
 vent-holes, which are intended to let out the gas in 
 a detonator, and thus to lessen the recoil. 
 
 Worm. — The screw at the end of the ramrod. 
 
 Every sportsman should look to his own gun, 
 as it is he who is to use it, and as it is to him 
 that an accident is most likely to happen, 
 should it not be in proper order for shooting. 
 There are few who have had an extensive 
 acquaintance with guns, -who are not aware of 
 the carelessness and negligence of many ser- 
 vants in getting a gun into proper order, even 
 for their master's use. 
 
 All fowling-guns require to be taken com- 
 pletely to pieces at stated times, to be tho- 
 roughly examined, and every part of them put 
 into such a state as to render them fit for use 
 .it any moment. Twice a year is considered 
 not too often to look into their every crevice, 
 taking most especial care to overlook nothing 
 — not even the smallest screw or spring. To 
 do tliis work well, the sportsman should 
 supply himself with a bench, vice, turnscrews 
 of various dimensions, from an eighth to half 
 an inch ; the latter size being required for the 
 cork-screw, breech-screws, and for raising the 
 bolts which bind the barrel to the stock. The 
 spriug-cramp is a necessary article in this 
 matter of overhauling the entire fabric of a 
 fowling-piece. When a sportsman does not 
 reside in the immediate vicinity of an expe- 
 rienced gunsmith, he ought to have by him 
 duplicates of all the necessary parts of his 
 instrument, that he may be able to supply him- 
 self, on all contingencies, with what may be 
 requisite to keep it in working order. 
 
 CLIiANSl.NG OF GUNS. 
 
 The following instructionH, altered from tlio 
 
 Encycloptcdia of liural Sports, arc well worth 
 
 remembering: — 
 
 In taking off the main-sprimj, let the lock he 
 placed on full.cock ; then cramp the main-spring; 
 when this is efftcted, let down the cock, and the 
 main-spring will fall oil'. When the lock has again 
 to be litted in, let the cock be left down ; then 
 hook the end of the main-spring on the swivel or 
 chain ; move it up, and place it intu a position on 
 the lock-plate. Wtien this is done, unscrew the 
 cramp, and the lock is once more fit for use. 
 When tlie hammer has to be taken off, first shut it 
 down carefully; cramp the spring until, by sh iking 
 the lock, tlic iiammer is heard to rattle. Stop|)irig 
 here, take out the screw behind, and the hammer 
 will fall off. The replacing of it only requires 
 the putting it in its former situation, turning 
 the screw, and setting the spring at liberty. If it 
 be requisite to take the hammer-spring out, tho 
 hammer must first be released, and the main- 
 spring likewise, in order to get at the screw be- 
 hind. The hammer-spring must then be cramped, 
 till it is taken out and put on again to receive the 
 hammer. 
 
 To take to pieces all the small springs of the 
 lock, requires considerable care. The several 
 screws must be kept distinct; and any little mis- 
 take in this matter may produce serious results. 
 When the main-spring is taken off, unscrew and 
 take out the scear, by half cocking the lock. 
 Clasp the fore part of the lock firmly ; at the same 
 time press the thumb against the back part of the 
 cock, directing it forward; while the scear, and 
 scear-spring, being now pressed together by the 
 fore-finger and thumb, will readily enable the 
 operator to take out the scear-screw. When this 
 is done, undo the two screws, take off the bridle, 
 and then unscrew and take out the scear-spring. 
 The cock must next be unscrewed, which will 
 readily separate from the tumbler, if it be gently 
 shaken or tapped. Take out the tumbler, and tho 
 lock is separated into its component ])arts. 
 
 When it has to be reconstructed, ])ut the tumbler 
 in its place, and screw on the cock ; do the same 
 thing with the scear-spring, and set on the bridle 
 with the two upper screws. Put in the scear; but 
 in order to open a clear passage for the screw of 
 the scear, see that you again, as before, press the 
 fore-finger and thumb on the scear and scear-spring, 
 and likewise that you again push tlie cock forward 
 as when in the act of taking off the scear. Unless 
 there be a pressure of this kind, it is not easy to 
 ])lace the hole of the scear opposite the hole of the 
 bridle ; and without this is effected the scear-screw 
 will not enter. Great trouble often ensues from 
 want of attention to this and other trilling points. 
 After this, the cock must be let down to admit of 
 ])uttiiig on the main-spring; and then the process 
 is finished. 
 
 In a detonating gun there is not near the same 
 amount of troul)le in dismembering the fowlini;- 
 piece. The pivot, or nipple, should be now and 
 then removed, and carefully examined, that the 
 
 499 
 
CLEAKSIN&.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [POWDEE. 
 
 first approaches of corrosion may be taken off before 
 any injury is inflicted. When a gun is purchased, 
 it ought to be provided with spare pivots, all 
 mathematically adjusted to the barrel. It is like- 
 •wise a good practice to put a little olive-oil, with a 
 camel's-hair pencil, on the pivot nail, or centre of 
 the tumbler, on which almost all the works of both 
 flint and percussion-guns move. The same may be 
 applied, with advantage, to the lock-plate under 
 the works. In flint-guns, a little oil under the 
 hammer is likewise useful, Mr. Lankester, in his 
 printed directions given to gentlemen who buy 
 percussion guns, off'ers the following directions : — 
 " Always clean those parts of the barrels and locks 
 that the detonating powder acts upon, Avith a wet 
 rag ; then rub them dry, and leave them in oil to 
 prevent rust. The pegs should not be taken out too 
 often. Before you take out the barrels, bring the 
 locks to half-cock. The locks do not require to be 
 taken off" every time the gun is used ; once a fort- 
 night is quite sufficient. Put a little fine oil to the 
 parts where there is friction ; but if the gun has 
 been used on a wet day, the locks should be taken 
 off" to be cleaned, and oiled immediately." When, 
 by accident or neglect, a lock becomes completely 
 rusty, both within and without, it ought to be 
 plunged into warm water, and well scrubbed with 
 a hard brush, fine sand, emery powder, or levigated 
 glass. The rust will, by this means, be efi'ectually 
 removed, and will not injure the gun, providing it 
 is but a recent accumulation of rust ; but if it is of 
 long standing, it may have eaten into the core of 
 the metal, and produced vital injury. 
 
 Most men have peculiar methods of their own 
 for keeping their fowling-pieces clean ; and though 
 all employ the leading, or primary elements of 
 cleanliness, yet they differ as to their precise appli- 
 cation. On a point so apparently simple, it is 
 astonishing to find so many opposite plans, and 
 many of them enforced with a dogmatism and 
 obstinacy far beyond what one would imagine the 
 importance of the subject warrants. The following, 
 among many other methods, is chosen, because it 
 has been found always to answer the desired end : — 
 Provide some boiling water and an empty pail ; 
 detach the barrel from the stock, and with a clear- 
 ing-rod furnished with tow, begin to pour the hot 
 water down each barrel. Scour it well with the 
 clearing-rod, and discharge the barrel of the foul 
 water. Pour hot water into it a second time, and 
 wipe out the barrels with fresh tow, until they are 
 completely dry, both without and within. Should 
 there be any moisture lurking within the screw- 
 joints of the breech and touch-hole, it is a good 
 plan to let down an iron plug, of red-heat, which, 
 being moved up and down the barrel or barrels for 
 half a minute, will effectually absorb every particle 
 of moisture or damp. All this should be done with 
 the sportman's own hand; and not, if it can be 
 avoided, left to another person to do. There is an 
 old maxim which applies to gun-preserving very 
 forcibly : — " What a man wishes to have well done, 
 he should do himself." 
 
 Mr. Lankester's directions run thus : — 
 
 Place the breech ends of the barrels in a bucket 
 in which there is cold water, about three inches 
 500 
 
 deep ; then, after wetting the sponge, cloth, or tow, 
 introduce the rod into the barrels, and work it 
 well ; next apply the wire-brush attached to th«; 
 clearing-rod with some clean hot water, which will 
 take out all the lead in the operation. 'Ji'his should 
 be invariably attended to, as it is well known that 
 washing only will not remove the lead. Wipe the 
 rod and the outside of the barrels dry, and set the 
 latter upright, muzzle downwards, for two minutes, 
 to drain, after which rub them out perfectly dry. 
 Wipe the barrels out clean, then pass an oiled rag 
 down the inside, and rub over the outside; leave 
 them a little oily, which will prevent rust. The 
 use of cloth is preferred, as not subjecting gentle- 
 men to the serious accidents that have happened 
 from leaving tow in the chamber. But, brass being 
 in its nature softer than iron, allows of the brush 
 being used without the possibility of injury to the 
 barrels. 
 
 How often a gun should be cleaned must depend 
 upon many circumstances, as there is a wonderful 
 difference of guns in accumulating dirt. This arises, 
 perhaps, from their different degrees of internal 
 finish. Then, again, some kinds are foul with 
 powder more than others ; and small shot fouls them 
 more readily than large. Waddings, too, have an 
 effect; some kinds keeping the gun comparatively 
 clean much longer than other kinds. It is com- 
 monly maintained by practical shooters, that a 
 barrel should be cleaned after the firing of twenty 
 shots. But there can be no invariable rule laid 
 down for this. A man who is careful, who under- 
 stands what a gun is, and who knows the pecu- 
 liarities of the one he is in the habit of daily using, 
 cannot err very far from the right path in this 
 matter. It is always safe to be over-anxious 
 rather than otherwise on a point of such great im- 
 jjortance. 
 
 To remove rust from the inside of the barrel, 
 some sportsmen recommend an ashen rod, turned a 
 few inches longer than the barrel, and so nearly of 
 the size of the bore, as to allow of the following 
 process : — Let one end of the rod be cut lengthwise, 
 so as to make a slit of six inches long, into which 
 slit enter as much of fine emery paper as will com- 
 pletely fill up the bore of the barrel, taking care, ii? 
 folding the paper tightly round the wood, that the 
 emery surface is outward. Force it into the barrel 
 by screwing it downwards from the top to the 
 bottom ; and repeat the process until the barrel is 
 as clean and as polished as when ifc left the maker's 
 hands. No sand or coarse stuff of any kind should 
 be used. 
 
 It is of great moment that every sportsman, 
 when he comes home, or goes into any house what, 
 ever, should keep a watchful eye on his fowling- 
 piece. He ought always to displace the cap, and 
 throw out the priming. But even this does not 
 always secure an immunity from fatal accidents. _ A 
 few stray grains of powder may still be productive 
 of an explosion. It is therefore a wise plan, when 
 a shooter arrives at a door, to remove the cap, if a 
 percussion-gun ; or if flint, throw out the priming, 
 let down the spring of the lock, draw the ramrod, 
 and dropping down the barrel, put the gun away 
 into a closet, or otherwise suspend it out of ordi- 
 nary reach. Too much care cannot be exercised in 
 a matter of this kind. How often have we heard 
 
rOWDEIt."! 
 
 BY FIl'LD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [I'OWDEB. 
 
 of familien having been thrown into tho utmost 
 BtBto of uricf by a son or n diuiijliler bcinp unin- 
 tentionally shot in a nionu-nt of j)hiyfulness, by 
 «ome other minor niemlu'r of the family. How 
 often have we read of accidents of this kind, and 
 gynipathised with the livinjj as they minirned over 
 tlie sudden deprivation wiiiih hud fallen upon them. 
 "NViien we rellect on these sad calamities, it makes 
 us entreat of every sportsman or shooter, never to 
 carry a loaded ^'un into the house, but to fire it off 
 in the air, even before he has arrived at the close 
 neighbourhood of liis own dwellini,'. Mr. Hlaine 
 objects to this, partly on the score of economy — 
 an objection which appears to us alike mean and 
 frivolous. 
 
 POWDER AND SHOT. 
 
 There is no discovery wbicli efioctcd a 
 greater revolution in the art of war than that 
 of gunpowder ; for when taken in connection 
 with the weapon by wliicli it is used, it may be 
 considered as the most effective decider of con- 
 flicts that possibly could bo invented. Both 
 on the battle plain, and in the sporting field, it 
 has taken the place of the more simple con- 
 struction of the bow and arrow, which, how- 
 ever annoying to an enemy in the hands of 
 a practised archer, or however deadly in those 
 of an Indian sportsman, bears no comparison, 
 in the certainty of its effects, to the modern 
 gun, loaded with powder and ball, or shot. 
 The origin of this explosive substance has 
 given rise to long discussions, and great diver- 
 sity of opinion, among philosophers and anti- 
 quaries. Some have given it a very ancient 
 date, while others carry its discovery down to 
 comparatively recent times. Grose quotes a 
 passage from Grey's Gunnery, published in 
 1731 ; in which it is said that, " In the life of 
 ApoUonius Tyantcus, written by Philostratus, 
 about 1,500 years ago, there is the following 
 passage concerning tho people of India, called 
 Oxydraca): 'These wise men dwelt between 
 the rivers Ilyphasis and Ganges. Their 
 country Alexander the Great never entered; 
 deterred, not by fear of the inhabitants, but, 
 as I suppose, by religious considerations ; for, 
 had he passed the Hyphasis, he might doubt- 
 less have made himself master of tho country 
 all around them ; but their cities he could 
 never have taken, though he had led a thousand 
 men as brave as Achilles, or three thousand 
 such as Ajax, to the assault ; for they came 
 not into the field to fight those who attack 
 them; but these holy men, beloved by the 
 
 gods, overthrow thoir enomies with tempests 
 and thunderboltH, hurled ujion thom from 
 above.' " In Norton's dinner (KiOt), it it) 
 said — "That tho invention and use, as well of 
 ordnance as gunpowder, was, in tho ei(jhty- 
 fiftli year of our Lord, made known and prac- 
 tised in the great and ingenious kingdmn of 
 China; and that in tho niaritimo proviiici;s 
 thereof there yet remain certain pieces of 
 ordnance, both of iron and brass, with tho 
 memory of their years of founding engraved 
 upon them, and the arms of King Vitney, 
 who, ho saith, was the inventor." In tho 
 works of lloger Bacon, written at Oxford, iu 
 1270, the ingredients which constitute gun- 
 powder are expressly named, with the clia- 
 racteristics which mark it when it is ex- 
 ploded. 
 
 On the other side of the question it is main- 
 tained, that the merit of the invention belongs 
 to Barthold Schwartz, a German monk. It 
 is aflfirmed, that he mixed together nitre, 
 sulphur, and charcoal, for some medicinal 
 purpose, and a spark falling accidentally upon 
 the mixture, it exploded. The reader will find 
 the subject discussed at considerable length in 
 the works of Friar Bacon, Polydore Virgil, 
 Baptista Porta, Spondanus, Bishop AVatson, 
 and others. 
 
 It is well Known that gunpowder consists of 
 a mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, 
 in such proportions as to render it capable of 
 explosion on the slightest application of fire. 
 It has, however, a great tendency to absorb 
 moisture ; and should the nitre bo adulterated 
 with salt, as it sometimes is, this tendency is 
 immensely increased. An experiment made 
 before the Eoyal Society proved this. A 
 quantity of gunpowder was taken out of a 
 barrel, and dried with a heat equal to that in 
 which water boils. A piece of ordnance was 
 charged with a certain weight of this dried 
 powder, and the distance to which it threw 
 a ball was marked. Tho same piece was 
 charged with an equal weight of the same 
 kind of powder, taken out of the same barrel, 
 but not dried, and it threw an equal ball only 
 to one half the distance. This effect of mois- 
 ture is so sensible, that some officers have 
 affirmed, that they have seen masses of gun- 
 powder, which were good in the morning, but 
 which became (as supposed by attracting the 
 
 501 
 
POWDER.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 LPOWDEE. 
 
 humidity of the atmosphere) good for nothing 
 in the evening. This recalls to mind the 
 remark of Cromwell, when about to engage 
 with the cavaliers — "Praise the Lord, but 
 keep your powder dry." He seems to have 
 been aware of the absorption of moisture 
 inherent in the material he was about to use 
 with considerable effect against his enemies. 
 
 The chemical properties of gunpowder are 
 thus decribed by the celebrat'^d Dr. Ure : — 
 " This explosive substance consists of an inti- 
 mate mixture, in determined proportions, of 
 saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur ; and is better 
 in proportion (everything else being equal) to 
 the quality of these ingredients. The nitre, in 
 particular, should be perfectly refined by suc- 
 cessive crystallisations, and finally freed from 
 adhered water, by proper drying, or by fusion 
 in iron pots at a regulated heat. Nothing can 
 surpass, in these respects, the nitre prepared 
 in the government powder-mills at Waltham 
 Abbey. It is tested by adding to its solution, 
 in distilled water, nitrate of silver, with which 
 it occasions no perceptible opalescence. The 
 sulphur ought, also, to be of the finest quality, 
 and purified by skimming, or even sublimation, 
 if at all necessary. The charcoal should be 
 newly made ; it should burn without leaving 
 any sensible residuum ; be dry, sonorous, light, 
 and easily pulverised. The charcoal for gun- 
 powder is made either of alder, willow, or dog- 
 wood, the latter being preferred, which is cut 
 into lengths, and ignited in iron cylinders, the 
 wood before charring being carefully stripped 
 of its bark. The three ingredients being thus 
 prepared, are ready for manufacturing into 
 gunpowder. They are first separately ground 
 to a fine powder, which is passed through 
 proper sieves or bolting machines; secondly, 
 they are mixed together in certain proportions, 
 but which do not seem to be definitely deter- 
 mined, for they differ in different establish- 
 ments of great respectability, as is shown in the 
 following table : — 
 
 Nitre. Charcoal. Sulphur. 
 
 Royal Mills at Waltham Abbey 75 15 10 
 
 French for War .... 75 125 12-5 
 
 Do. for Sportsmen . . . 78 12 10 
 
 Do. for Mining ... 65 15 20 
 
 Chaptal's Proportions . - 77 14 9 
 
 Chinese do. . . • 75-4 14-4 9-9 
 
 Mr. Napier's .... 80 15 5 
 
 Thirdly, the composition is then sent to the 
 502 
 
 gunpowder-mill, which consists of two edge- 
 stones of a calcareous nature, turning by mean's 
 of a shaft on a bedstone of the same nature, 
 which gives no sparks, as sandstones would ba 
 apt to do. On this bedstone the composition 
 is spread, and moistened with as small a quantity 
 of water as will, in conjunction with the weight 
 of the revolving stones, bring it into a proper 
 body of calce, but not of paste. AVheu the 
 cake has been thoroughly incorporated, it is 
 sent to the corning-house, where a separate 
 mill is employed to form the cake into grains 
 of corn. Fourthly : here it is first pressed into 
 a hard firm mass, then broken into small lumps ; 
 after which the graining is executed by placing 
 these lumps in sieves, on each of which is laid, 
 a disc of lignum vitce. The sieves are made of 
 parchment skins perforated with numerou&- 
 round holes. Several such sieves are fixed in a. 
 frame, which, by proper machinery, has such a. 
 motion given to it as to make the lignum vitce 
 runner in each sieve move round with consider- 
 able velocity, so as to break the lumps of the 
 cake, and force the substance through the 
 sieves, forming grains of several sizes. The 
 granular particles are afterwards separated 
 from the finer dust by proper sieves and reels. 
 Fifthly : the corned powder is next hardened, 
 and the rougher edges taken off by being re- 
 volved in a close reel or cask, turning rapidly 
 on its axis. This vessel somewhat resembles 
 a barrel churn ; it should be only half full at 
 each operation, and has frequently square bars 
 inside, parallel to its axis, to aid the polish by 
 the attrition. Sixthly : the gunpowder is now 
 dried, which is done generally by a steam heat, 
 or by transmitting a body of air, slightly heated 
 in another chamber over canvas shelves, 
 covered with the damp gunpowder." 
 
 AVe have taken this extract from the Chemical 
 Dictionary, where, in an article on gunpowder, 
 the reader will find much interesting informa- 
 tion on the rationale of the action of gun- 
 powder, in regard to both its detonating and 
 combustible powers. 
 
 As to the relative size of the grains of powder 
 to be used in sporting amusements, there is a 
 considerable diversity of opinion ; some affirm- 
 ing one size to be the best, and some another. 
 This question cannot be definitely settled 
 without taking into account the nature of our 
 guns, the purposes for which they are made, 
 
row DEB.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WAIKK. 
 
 [powder. 
 
 t!io kind of game to bo shot, and many other 
 circumstances, all, nioro or less, calculated to 
 luodilV the jud!»ment, and to causo it to pre- 
 ponderato fither to the ouo side or tho other. 
 I^lr. Greener inaiiitaius that, if wo obtain 
 powder of lino grain, and powder composed of 
 tlie same ingredients, large-grained, tho latter 
 will be stronger than the former. He tells us 
 he has made many exi^eriments both by ride 
 and musket, and the coarser grain always pre- 
 dominated over the smaller. These results 
 have been denied by other respectable sporting 
 authorities. Colonel Hawker says, the best 
 powder for copper-cap guns is iho fine cylinder 
 of Curtis and Hervey, the large-grained powder 
 being liable to miss fire. But the same au- 
 thority qualifies his opinion by afterwards 
 stating — " I have invariably observed that small- 
 grained powder fails to answer in large guns ; 
 particularly on salt water, and in damp weather. 
 It always shoots weak beyond fifty or sixty 
 yards, and is very liable to hang fire. If a 
 punt-gun is loaded with fine powder, and 
 brought in at night, the chances are that it 
 •would hang fire in the morning. But with 
 coarse cannon powder, I have known a gun 
 that has been loaded for a f -tnight go oft" as 
 well as possible, by merely being probed, and 
 fresh primed." 
 
 How far the grazing of powder is advanta- 
 geous, is likewise a disputed question. Many 
 sportsmen aflirm, that they fail to detect any 
 tiifierence between the glazed and the un- 
 glazed kinds. Colonel Hawker prefers the 
 UDglazed; but he assigns no reason for this 
 preference: the whole question probably re- 
 solves itself into a mere matter of fancy or 
 taste. 
 
 On the ratio of force with which difierent 
 kinds of powder act on resisting bodies, much 
 curious and valuable information has been 
 communicated to the world of late years. 
 The substance of such information we shall 
 attempt to condense into as brief a space as is 
 compatible with clearness. 
 
 As Mr. Babbage, in his Economij of Maclii- 
 nerg, favours us with remarks pertinent to this 
 subject, we are glad to give tho reader the 
 benefit of them, as his work is not likely 
 to be widely difi'used amongst those who follow 
 the gun as an amusement. 
 
 A gun loaded with ball, docs not kick so 
 
 severely aa one loaded with shot ; and among 
 tho dillV-rent aorta of shot, that which ia the 
 smallest, causes tho groateat recoil against 
 tho shoulder. A gun loaded with u tpiautity 
 of sand, etpial in weight to a charge ol Knij)e- 
 shot, is said to kick still more. If, in loading, 
 a space be left between the wadding and the 
 charge, tho gun either recoils violently or 
 bursts. If tho muzzle of a gun has acci- 
 dentally been stuck into tho ground, ho as to 
 bo stopped up wiLli clay, or even with snow, 
 or if it be fired with its muzzle plunged into 
 water, it will, in all probability, burst. The 
 cause of these apparently contradictory results 
 is, that every force requires time to produce 
 its efiects ; and if the time requisite for tho 
 elastic vapour within to force out the sides 
 of tho barrel, is less than that in which tho 
 condensation of the air, near the wadding, is 
 conveyed in sufficient force to drive the im- 
 pediment from tho muzzle, then the barrel 
 must burst. It occasionally happens that 
 these two forces are so equally balanced, that 
 tho barrel only swells, the obstacle giving 
 way before the piece actually bursLs. This 
 explanation will appear more obvious if we 
 trace, step by step, the circumbtunces which 
 arise on discharging a gun loaded with pow- 
 der, confined by a cylindrical piece of wadding, 
 and having its muzzle filled with clay, or 
 some other substance, ofiering a moderate 
 degree of resistance. In such a case, the first 
 efiect of the explosion is to produce an enor- 
 mous pressure on everything confining it, and 
 to advance the wadding through a very small 
 space. Here let us consider it as at rest 
 for a moment, and examine its condition. 
 The portion of air in immediate contact with 
 the wadding is condensed ; and if the wadding 
 were to remain at rest, the air, throughout 
 the tube, would soon acquire a uniform density. 
 But this would require a small interval of 
 time, for the condensation next the wadding 
 would travel with the velocity of sound to the 
 other end, from whence, being reflected back, a 
 series of waves would be generated, which, aided 
 by the friction of the tube, would ultimately 
 destroy the motion. But, until the first wave 
 reaches the impediment at the muzzle, the air 
 can exert no pressure against it. Now, if the 
 velocity communicated to the wadding is very 
 much greater than that of sound, the conden- 
 
 503 
 
POWDEB.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [pOWDEB. 
 
 sation of the air, immediately in advance of it, 
 may be very great before the resistance trans- 
 mitted to the muzzle is at all considerable ; in 
 which case the mutual repulsion of the particles 
 of the air so compressed will offer an absolute 
 barrier to the advance of the wadding. If this 
 explanation be correct, additional recoil, when 
 a gun is loaded with small shot or sand, may 
 arise, in some measure, from the condensation 
 of the air contained between their particles, 
 but chiefly from the velocity communicated 
 by the explosion to those particles of the sub- 
 stances in immediate contact with the powder, 
 being greater than that with which a wave can 
 be transmitted through them. It otherwise 
 affords a reason for the success usually attend- 
 ing the blasting of rocks. That the destruction 
 of the gun-barrel does not arise from the 
 property possessed by fluids, and in some 
 measure also by sand and small shot, of press- 
 ing equally in all directions, and thus exciting 
 a force against a large portion of the interior 
 surface, seems to be proved by a circumstance 
 mentioned by La Vaillant and other travellers 
 — that for the purpose of takiug birds without 
 injuring their plumage, they filled the barrel 
 of their fowling-pieces with water, instead of 
 loading them with a charge of shot. The same 
 reasoning explains a curious phenomenon which 
 occurs in firing a still more powerfully explosive 
 substance. If we put a small quantity of ful- 
 minating silver upon the face of an anvil, and 
 strike it slightly with a hammer, it explodes ; 
 but, instead of breaking either the hammer or 
 the anvil, it is found that that part of the face 
 of each in contact with the fulminating silver 
 is damaged. In this case, the velocity com- 
 municated by the elastic matter disengaged 
 may be greater than the velocity of a wave 
 traversing steel; so that the particles at the 
 surface are driven, by the explosion, so near to 
 those next adjacent, that when the compelled 
 force is removed, the repulsion of the particles 
 within the mass, drives back those nearer the 
 surface with such force, that they pass beyond 
 the limits of attraction, and are separated 
 in the shape of powder. The success of the 
 experiment of firing a tallow candle through a 
 deal board would bo explained in the same 
 manner, by supposing the velocity of a wave 
 propagated through deal, to be greater than 
 that of a wave passing through tallow. 
 504i 
 
 Experiments to try the strength of their 
 powder have often been made by sportsmen ; 
 but the excellence of powder is generally de- 
 termined by the quality of the nitre of which 
 it is partly composed. This ingredient, as 
 already observed, having a strong tendency 
 to absorb moisture, requires that it should be 
 kept in its purest state for the manufacture 
 of powder. When mixed with salt its quality 
 is greatly deteriorated ; and, in all good pow- 
 der, it is well known that its expansive force 
 is in proportion to the velocity with which the 
 communication flies through the whole mass. 
 It is this principle which renders it so well 
 adapted to sporting purposes. No bird or 
 quadruped can fly or run with such rapidity as 
 to get beyond the quickness of its action, pro- 
 vided either be within range. It is this quick- 
 ness of ignition which gives, in the field, such 
 an advantage to powder over every other sub- 
 stance. 
 
 The method of testing the quality of pow- 
 der, instituted and pursued by the Board of 
 Ordnance, is as follows : — The triers first take 
 out of the several barrels of gunpowder a 
 measure-full, of about the size of a thimble, 
 which is spread upon a sheet of fine writing- 
 paper, and then fired. If the inflammation be 
 very rapid, the smoke rises perpendicularly; and 
 if the paper be neither burned nor spotted, it 
 is then judged to be good powder. Then two 
 drachms of the same powder are exactly 
 weighed and put into an epreuvette, which, if 
 it raise a weight of twenty-four pounds to the 
 height of three inches and a-half, is received 
 into the government magazine as proved. 
 
 This powder-trier just mentioned, called an 
 epreuvette, may be seen in many gunsmiths* 
 shops. It does not, however, test the power 
 of the explosive substance with very great 
 nicety, but it is, nevertheless, a useful instru- 
 ment ; and it furnishes the sportsman with a 
 general idea on the subject, which enables him, 
 in many cases, to detect a bad and impure com- 
 modity. 
 
 Percussion gunpowders have effected great 
 changes in sporting art, and the science of 
 projectiles generally. Detonating substances 
 are but of modern date. 
 
 The discovery oi fulminating mercury, which 
 forms the percussion powder now in use, is 
 attributed to Mr. Howard ; the full particulars 
 
SIZES OF BIIOT.'j 
 
 T^> V F I i: L 1). W O O I), AND AV A T !•: K. 
 
 [sizes of snoT. 
 
 of which are detailed in the Philosopliical 
 Transactions. It is thus manufactured, as 
 pivoii by Dr. Uro :— A hundred grains of 
 luorcurv arc to bo dissolved by heat in an 
 ounce and a-half, by measure, of nitric acid. 
 This solution being poured cold into two 
 ounces, by measure, of alcohol in a glass 
 vessel, heat is to be applied till ellervescence 
 is excited. A white vapour undulates on the 
 eurface, and a powder is gradually precipitated, 
 which is to be immediately collected on a 
 filter, well washed, and cautiously dried with 
 a very moderate heat. The powder detonates 
 loudly by gentle heat, or slight friction. The 
 fulminating mercury should be moistened with 
 about thirty per cent, of water, then tritu- 
 rated iu a mortar, and afterwards mixed with 
 the sixth part of its weight of gunpowder, 
 ^Matches, caps, &c., made in this manner, resist 
 damp, and do not corrode the instrument 
 which contains the powder. It has been often 
 ascertained, by experiment, that they have 
 frequently ignited after having been immersed 
 in water several hours. This is the method 
 which is adopted in the manufacture of per- 
 cussion-caps. The recipe for making them, in 
 Paris, is thus given by the BuUetin dcs Sciences 
 Militaires : — " Having triturated ten parts of 
 fulminating mercury on a marble slab with 
 water, by means of a wooden muller, add six 
 parts of gunpowder, and grind the two to- 
 gether." Dr. Ure observes, that some of the 
 best match-powders made in Prance do not, 
 altogether, weigh more than two-thirds of a 
 grain. 
 
 THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND SIZES OF 
 SHOT. 
 
 In reference to this part of our subject, 
 there is some degree of confusion, on account 
 of the sizes and numbers not coinciding in all 
 the manufactories where shot is made. Tiiis 
 circumstance tends to mislead sportsmen, and 
 very often to give rise to false theories upon 
 the force and resistance of projectile instru- 
 ments generally. An ounce of No. 7 shot 
 taken from the manufactory of Messrs. AValker 
 and Parker, contains 341 pellets ; and the 
 same weight from Mr. Eeaumont's, 398. Add 
 to tliis, that in some places the usual numbers 
 are reversed. The following is a list of the 
 «hot in Messrs. Walker's firm, with letterings, 
 3t 
 
 number marks, and the number of pellets in 
 
 an ounce : — 
 
 A.V 
 
 . . . 40 
 
 4 . „ 
 
 . 177 
 
 A 
 
 . bi) 
 
 •> . 
 
 . 21S 
 
 m\ 
 
 . OS 
 
 f. . . 
 
 . 2H0 
 
 n 
 
 . 70 
 
 7 . . 
 
 . 341 
 
 1 
 
 . . . 82 
 
 8 . . 
 
 . COO 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 112 
 
 9 . . 
 
 . 9St 
 
 3 
 
 . . . 135 
 
 10 . . 
 
 . 1,720 
 
 Mould, drop, or awan-shot, are of large size, 
 and commonly used for wild-fowl shooting. 
 They are lettered, and the pellets numbered 
 as follows : — 
 
 
 Number of relicts to 1 ob. 
 
 Lr, . . 
 
 . . . . 5i 
 
 MG . . 
 
 (hardly) 9 
 
 SG . . 
 
 . . . . 11 
 
 SSG . . 
 
 . . . . 15 
 
 SSSG . . 
 
 . . . . 17 
 
 As to what is the best kind of shot to be 
 used for sporting purposes there are different 
 opinions. Colonel Hawker maintains that, 
 for ordinary purposes of game shooting, No. 7 
 is the best kind that can be used. It lies 
 closer and more compact to the barrel, he says 
 with reason, than any other. Other sportsmen, 
 again, think the Nos. 3 and 4 are to be pre- 
 ferred to any other sizes for common every-day 
 work in the prime of the shooting season. 
 Captain Williamson pleads for No. 9, and 
 General Hanger for No. 2. Another great 
 authority informs us, that in the first montli 
 of partridge shooting, shot No. 5 should be 
 used, because, at this time, the birds spring at 
 hand, and we seldom fire at more than the 
 distance of forty yards. If a shooter takes a 
 fair aim, he can scarcely fail to do some mis- 
 chief by such a circle or disc of shots. Hare^. 
 likewise, at this period, sit closer, and beiuj, 
 but thinly covered with fur, may easily be 
 killed with this size at thirty or thirty-five 
 paces. In snipe and quail shooting this shot 
 is most to be preferred. When October ad- 
 vances, the birds are stronger on the wing, and 
 then No. 3 will be found more suitable. This 
 shot, it is maintained, possesses a proper me- 
 dium between that which is too large and that 
 which is too small, and will kill a partridge at 
 fifty yards with certainty. It is adapted for 
 all kinds of game. It is contended that distant 
 Abjecta may be killed with large shot; but this 
 consideration cannot bear upon the question 
 
 505 
 
CAPS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [WADDING. 
 
 which involves the destructiou of a number of 
 birds within a comparatively short range, and 
 where the shots are numerous. Having given 
 these statements, we shall leave it to the reader's 
 own experience to decide which is best. To 
 go on alluding to the various and conflicting 
 opinions on the subject, would only perplex 
 instead of enlighten his judgment on the point 
 of dispute. 
 
 Mixed SJiof is used by some who have spoken 
 highly of it. But here we have controversion 
 again. Some sportsmen have even ridiculed 
 the idea of such a thing in no measured lan- 
 guage; but Mr. Daniel informs us that his 
 uncle, " who was allowed to be one of the best 
 marksmen of his time, after minute trials and 
 mature experience, preferred it to every other 
 kind." "Gamekeepers," he continues, "fre- 
 quently use it ; and many persons in this class 
 are in the habit of trying and knowing what 
 shot will do most execution ; and are men who 
 generally draw their reflections and remarks 
 from actual and successful experiment. It is 
 true they do not write a treatise upon the sub- 
 ject ; yet, from killing game and animals at all 
 times, are, at least, as likely to form a just de- 
 cision as gentlemen who, for the most part, 
 only use their guns three months at the com- 
 mencement of the season. The numbers of 
 shot proper to mix together, for general use, 
 are 4, 5, 6, and 7." There is also a difference 
 of opinion regarding the patent sJiot cartridges 
 of Ely ; and as it is impossible to reconcile 
 opinions so at variance with each other, we 
 will let the subject rest. 
 
 CAPS AND CAP-CHARGERS. 
 
 Copper Caps and Cap-Chargers are now 
 almost in universal use. In the purchase of 
 copper caps it is prudent to make a trial of one 
 or two taken promiscuously from the mass, to 
 prevent disappointment. All foreign caps 
 should be purchased with care; some are 
 excellent; others wretchedly bad, and even 
 dangerous. All should be cupped to the exact 
 gauge of the diameter of the nipple. If they 
 are too small they will not explode ; and, if too 
 large, the cap of the second nipple will be apt 
 to fly off" when the other is fired. 
 
 Mr. Greener treats of iron percussion-caps, 
 in the Neio Sportinfj Magaziiie (No. G5). He 
 recommends them on the ground of the ten- 
 500 
 
 dency of the copper to become injured, when 
 exposed to damp, to such a degree as to be 
 converted into a paste incapable of ignition. 
 He maintains that when powder is flashed, 
 or exploded around the nipple of a gun, 
 the residue left, attracts moisture instanta- 
 neously. To remedy this, the use of iron 
 caps is enforced. " They are much easier to 
 explode ; they detach no broken particles to 
 wound the shooter, nor even expand so much 
 as to stick in the head of the striker. They 
 do not stain the hands, and they might be 
 made cheaper." 
 
 Cap-chargers are of French invention. There 
 are several varieties of them ; some long, and 
 some round ; but, we believe, the latter stand 
 highest in public estimation. 
 
 WADDING. 
 
 Gun-waddings have a considerable influence 
 on the sports of the shooter. However good 
 a gun may be, and however excellent all its 
 principal appendages — powder, shot, &c. — still 
 they may all be rendered nugatory if the pro- 
 per wadding be not used. But we find in all 
 questions relative to shooting, that in propor- 
 tion to their real intrinsic importance, so like- 
 wise is there doubt and uncertainty in settling 
 them. Some recommend card wadding, some 
 liat wadding, and some pasteboard. But, what- 
 ever material is chosen for this purpose, it 
 should be strictly regulated according to the 
 bore of the barrel. "Wadding punches are 
 often made for distinct barrels, when more 
 guns than one are used. The range and de- 
 livery of the shot are greatly influenced by 
 the wadding. The common opinions on the 
 matter are, that all waddings should be quite 
 close to the barrel, but not rammed too hard. 
 The material should be rather soft than other- 
 wise, and yielding to a certain extent, but still 
 of sufficient consistency to carry the shot in 
 a body to a certain distance from the muzzle 
 of the piece. Eor if the wadding is rammed 
 too close, or is of a hard and rigid nature, 
 such as stiff" brown paper, the piece will recoil, 
 and the shot will spread ; if, on the contrary, 
 the wadding is not sufliciently close, and is 
 composed of a slight and too pliant material, 
 such as wool or cotton, it will not have 
 enough of consistency to carry shot, and the 
 discharge will lose its proper force. Besides, 
 
TIIL- UlfLE.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATKK. 
 
 [the BIl'LE. 
 
 a certain portion of tlio shot, which ia more ] 
 immediately in contact with the wadding, will 
 bo incited by the explosion of the powder. Mr. 
 Greener savs, "that a substantial waddin?, 
 between the powder and the shot, ia equal 
 to a considerable artificial friction in improving 
 tiie strength with which the powder expels the 
 shot. It answers the purpose of completely 
 preventing the explosive matter becoming 
 mixed with the shot ; and the powder is con- 
 iiiied the same as it would be were there a ball 
 in the barrel that fitted tight. Thus the 
 whole force is properly exerted." 
 
 WaUiers metaUic gun-icaddings have a con- 
 :iiderable reputation, partly from the fact of 
 tlieir metallic edges preventing the surface of 
 the barrel from becoming leaded. Other 
 waddings are likewise recommended, as Joyce's, 
 Wilkinson's, and Beckwith's. The principal 
 object is to keep the whole charge in the gun 
 as compact as possible, that it may act least 
 offensively on the gun, and most effectively 
 on the object aimed at. 
 
 THE RIFLE. 
 
 Up to this point we have said nothing 
 about the Bijle-gun, which is used in deer- 
 stalking, and rook-shootiug. The barrels in 
 all rifles are much stronger and heavier than 
 those of the ordinary fowling-pieces. The 
 bore has long been manufactured with in- 
 dentations within, which form spiral grooves 
 throughout the entire extent. The principle 
 on which all rifles are made, and the object 
 thev aim at accomplishing, is to impart to the 
 ball a rotary or spinning motion round its axis, 
 as it passes out through the barrel. The old 
 mode of manufacturing pieces of this kind 
 failed to accomplish this purpose to any great 
 extent ; but modern art has eflected a con- 
 siderable change for the better. The barrel of 
 a rifle is now cut with only two opposite 
 grooves ; and the ball being framed with a 
 projected belt or zone round its equator, of the 
 same form as the grooves, it enters so readily 
 into these hollows, that little or no force is 
 required to press it down upon the powder. 
 The general result has been, tliat guns of this 
 character carry either ball or large shot much 
 further, and with a vastly increased impetus, 
 than can be done by the common flint or 
 percussion fowliug-projectiles. The locks for 
 
 rifles have, likewise, undergone a great change, 
 and many iin[)ortant alterations and improve- 
 ments have been cfiected in their Btructuro 
 and mechanism. By reversing the position cf 
 the main-spring, the general conipactneHS and 
 strenirth of the works have been increased, 
 and rendered more powerful, durable, and 
 easy of repair. The ignition of the powder is 
 so certain, that a misfire is rare in good rifles. 
 Tiiey are getting daily into more general use 
 in sporting circles, not only in this country, 
 but on the continent, and in the United States 
 of America. 
 
 In bringing our observations and descriptions 
 of the gun to a close, we may observe, that every 
 reader of sporting works on this instrument, 
 must have remarked the very conflicting 
 opinions respecting its uses, and the nature 
 and character of its prominent attributes. 
 These opinions are so contradictory, and are 
 frequently set forth with so much confidence 
 and dogmatism, that the impression is forced 
 upon us, that the true theory of projectiles is 
 not yet perfectly understood. Much, how- 
 ever, is now being done to master the subject; 
 and we have no doubt, that opinions more 
 generally correct, and easier to be reconciled 
 with each other, will, at no distant day, per- 
 vade the minds of all intelligent sportsmen 
 throughout the country. 
 
 "We find in almost all the more elaborate 
 treatises on the gun, a loose and inconsequen- 
 tial mode of reasoning adopted. Facts are 
 mingled with theories, and theories with facts ; 
 and there is no regularly concatenated chain 
 of reasoning on the subject. The systematic 
 writers on the fowling-piece seem, in many 
 cases, to have set out in their inquiries with 
 some preconceived theory, to support which 
 they either mould facts already ascertained, or 
 mould the theory to the party, and thus en- 
 deavour to establish much that is not tenable, 
 or worthy to be established. The mere mer- 
 cantile enterprises connected with sporting, 
 I have tended, in many cases, to prevent too fiae 
 current of inquiry into the ofiices of the gun. 
 A gun-maker invents something which he con- 
 ceives of importance, and takes out a patent 
 at a considerable expense. He is naturally 
 desirous of having his invention made known, 
 and he accordingly does all he can to have it 
 puffed,or recommended throughout the coua*:ry- 
 
 507 
 
THE MOOKS.J 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the mooes. 
 
 Sportsmen are generally greedy listeners to 
 all novelties. The invention is found, when 
 tested by a pretty general use, not to realise 
 all the advantages anticipated from it. It is 
 then taken out to nurse, and to be bolstered 
 up with a mass of theoretical speculation, 
 which appears on the surface very profound, 
 but which is, in fact, nothing but a series of 
 ill-digested notions, and gratuitous assump- 
 tions. Readers are bandied about from one 
 theory to another, till they are lost in obscu- 
 rity and chaos. 
 
 As every gun is an instrument 'per se, and 
 has a character of its own, the person that 
 may be accustomed to it feels quite strange 
 when a new piece is placed in his hands. "VVe 
 have read somewhere of a sportsman being 
 often amused with the conversation of game- 
 keepers, and others, about their respective 
 fowling-pieces. They talk of them as if they 
 
 had life and volition. They say, "I know 
 that gun well ; she'll do very well in one way, 
 but she's obstinate in another. Slie's a curi- 
 ous-tempered piece. I have known her on a 
 particular day take the sulks, and no good 
 could be done with her; at other times she 
 killed all before her." The fact is, that the 
 gun is an embodiment of very important and 
 hidden principles of mechanics and chemistry. 
 "We see the effect of it ; but the causes are 
 often, and, indeed, in nine cases out of ten, 
 wrapped in impenetrable mystery. Daily ex- 
 perience is the only means of obtaining a 
 perfect knowledge of the capabilities of this 
 instrument, because its powers are so easily 
 modilied by causes which escape ordinary ob- 
 servation. This is the reason why practical 
 men gain such a stock of useful information 
 on the use of fowling-pieces, though they are 
 seldom able to impart that knowledge to others. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 MOCKS AND OTHER SHOOTINGS; NECESSARY COURTESIES; SELF-HUNTING DOGS; A SUMMARY; ENGLISH 
 
 MANORS ; HINTS TO YOUNG SPORTSMEN. 
 
 As many desire information on the subject 
 of hiring moors and other shootings, and, at 
 the same time, seek for a knowledge of the 
 best method of getting up a head of game, 
 and of preserving and protecting the same, 
 this seems to be the most suitable place to 
 supply these, from such sources as we have 
 been able to bring within our reach. We 
 believe it is admitted, by all practical sports- 
 men, that the months of March and April are 
 the best for the purpose of ascertaining the 
 stock of game on all grounds, and especially 
 on tlid moors ; and offering, at the same time, 
 the most favourable opportunity for trapping 
 and destroying vermin of all sorts, and of 
 extending other necessary protection to game, 
 without which the best prospects of sport may 
 be neutralised. In the first place, we will 
 confine our remarks to the Scottish moors, re- 
 serving the subject of manors, and the pre- 
 508 
 
 servation of game in England, for after con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Why, it may be asked, are the months just 
 alluded to the most favourable for securing 
 shootings in Scotland? The question is 
 readily answered. It is because an accurate 
 estimate may be obtained of the stock of 
 grouse equally on the Highland and on the 
 Lowland moors — the packs (or, more correctly 
 speaking, the surviving portions of them) 
 which had migrated during the severe weather 
 of winter, from the high ground to the distant 
 lowland moors, having returned to their native 
 hills to breed ; and the low grounds retaining 
 only those birds which actually belong to 
 them, and which alone can be relied on to 
 remain and breed on such ground. This must 
 always be borne in mind relatively to lowland 
 moors ; for, if an estimate were sometimes 
 formed of them from the amount of grouse 
 
THE MOOUS.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATKJi. 
 
 [THE MOOUS. 
 
 fouiul iu the months of November, December, 
 and January, great disappointment would be 
 the result in the month of August. AVe are 
 aware that there are lowland moors which are 
 ahnost without grouse in tlie months of 
 August and September, but are abundantly 
 supplied from distant high ground as soon as 
 the severe weather sets in in NovenibLM-, and 
 sometimes as early as the end of October ; 
 but, should the winter be mild and free from 
 storms, the migration is very limited. "We 
 mention this fact by way of caution to those 
 who, in any subsequent years, may be about 
 to rent a lowland inoor, not to go over the 
 same till the severe and winterly weather be 
 passed, as grouse which have migrated from 
 the high ground rarely return till the end of 
 February. In some excepted seasons, when 
 the severity of winter is protracted, they have 
 been known to remain till JMarch, simul- 
 taneously moving oif on the first change of 
 weather. 
 
 In March or April, no grouse will be found on 
 either high or low ground, but such as belong 
 to each respectively, and these may be relied on 
 as the stock of the ground ; and, as they will 
 be in pairs, an additional reason for delay, till 
 this season, is suggested in the facility which 
 is aftbrded by this circumstance, of arriving at 
 a tolerably fair estimate of the amount of 
 birds on the ground, and of the prospects of 
 sport for the ensuing season, through the 
 medium of an intelligent keeper and a good 
 brace of dogs. 
 
 The best moors are unquestionably those of 
 Perthshire, Aberdeenshire, and Inverness-shire ; 
 and if the sportsman will take a lease of five or 
 seven years, which he will find most conducive 
 to bis interests, be will adopt the surest means 
 of having six years of first-rate sport; even 
 admitting, for argument's sake, that the stock 
 of grouse has been so reduced by previous 
 bard shooting or other adverse circumstances, 
 as to make the entire or partial sacrifice of the 
 first year expedient as a foundation for future 
 eport. This necessity may sometimes arise, 
 and should not be disregarded, as a neglect 
 of it might be attended with subsequent 
 disappointment. The sportsman will, there- 
 fore, do well, if he will permit us to off"er 
 a suggestion, to be influenced by the report 
 of a competent keeper as to the state of 
 
 the ground, and be guided by his advice 
 
 thereon. 
 
 In the counties just named, the moors are 
 so good and so favourable to grouse, that one 
 year's forbearance, with judicious management, 
 admitting the stock to have been reduced bv 
 too hard shooting or disease, suQlces to restore 
 them to first-rate condition ; for, in addition 
 to the increase of the stock on the ground, 
 many packs driven from adjoining moors, find- 
 ing that they are not molested, will remain, and 
 reinforce the native stock : in fact, the efiect 
 of one year's jubilee on a really good moor, 
 surrounded by equally good ground, is wonder- 
 ful; the efiect, to be believed, must be wit- 
 nessed. But these favourable results depend 
 upon one important condition; which is, that 
 the head-keeper is a first-rate man in his par- 
 ticular department, and is allowed a competent 
 stafi" of subordinates, and all other requisite 
 accessories. If there are a number of old 
 cock grouse, these should be killed ofi", as they 
 do infinite mischief in the breeding season ; 
 but an experienced keeper will be alive to this 
 necessity, and will act accordingly. 
 
 As a proof of the excellency of some of the 
 moors in the shires alluded to, we may 
 instance the sport obtained by three gen- 
 tlemen in one season, on the Carr-bridge 
 shootings, which comprise thirty thousand 
 acres. They are in Inverness-shire, and were 
 vieited a few years ago by Sir H. "Wilmott, 
 Mr. Bass, and Mr. S. AV. Hurtell. They 
 killed, during the season, 6,700 grouse, 211 
 black game, 400 hares, 136 partridges, 5 roe, 
 52 snipe, 26 teal, 12 woodcocks, and 12 
 plover : total, 7,554 head. 
 
 On another estate, in the valley of Find- 
 horn, in the same shire, two guns, with a brace 
 of dogs each, killed, from the 13th of August 
 to the 10th of September, shooting on alter- 
 nate days, or sixteen days in all, 1,035 
 grouse, 144 hares, 2 black game, 10 par- 
 tridges, 1 wild duck, 1 woodcock, and 1 rabbit; 
 total, 1,194. This estate comprises only 4,000 
 acres. 
 
 There may bo moors as good in other coun- 
 ties as those which are found in Perthshire, 
 Aberdeenshire, and Inverness-shire ; but, as a 
 rule, the sportsman will not incur any liability 
 of disappointment if he hires a moor in any 
 one of the three named counties, provided he 
 
 509 
 
COTJKTESIES.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [self-hunting dogs. 
 
 has a good lease ; and tliis cannot be said 
 of every other county in Scotland, as the 
 complaints of sportsmen but too frequently 
 testify. 
 
 NECESSARY COURTESIES. 
 Presuming that most sportsmen tuill make 
 a partial sacrifice of their first year's sport, 
 should the necessity arise, the next considera- 
 tion will be — what is the best policy to be 
 pursued in commencing and carrying on the 
 management of the moor ? Are there any 
 parties whose good offices will he of service, 
 and whom it will be advisable to conciliate } 
 Unquestionably. The tenants and shepherds, 
 as they can be either the best of friends, or 
 the worst of enemies (game generally being 
 more or less in the power of the former, and 
 all nests at the mercy of the latter), must be 
 conciliated and made friends of; and a head- 
 keeper, who understands his business, will im- 
 mediately endeavour to cultivate an amicable 
 alliance with both parties, but especially with 
 the latter; and this he will easily accomplish 
 with a little tact, and through the persuasive 
 medium of a little tea and tobacco, judiciously 
 moistened, at opportune intervals, with some 
 whisky — tea for the wives, and tobacco for the 
 husbands. The head-keeper, being generally 
 a diplomatist in Jiis way, will, of course, com- 
 mence with the wives ; tea, in this instance, 
 being wonderfully efiective. ' Its operation is 
 similar to that of a well-set bracelet in the 
 higher departments of life, opportunely intro- 
 duced and judiciously applied, extending its 
 influence, through the same medium, to the 
 person whose services are required. A few 
 pounds placed at the disposal of the keeper, 
 will enable him to carry this policy completely 
 into effect, and are well applied; and when 
 the shooting party are on the ground, no 
 favourable opportunity should be lost of culti- 
 vating the friendship of the shepherds and 
 tenants by a kind word, e7i passant, accompa- 
 nied by a glass of whisky. Those who neglect 
 little opportunities of cultivating the good- 
 will of i'armers and tenants, neglect their own 
 interest as sportsmen, and are but poor diplo- 
 matists in dealing with northern Highlanders, 
 who are extremely sensible of any little act of 
 kindness, and are not unmindful of what they 
 consider as a slight, or discourtesy, and are 
 510 
 
 true to their motto. Let those who visit the 
 Highlands remember this. "We would not, 
 however, prescribe the use of whisky to the 
 sportsmen themselves. They carry a dangerous 
 weapon, and have to use it with steadiness 
 and effect. We recommend it, however, as a 
 powerful instrument for securing the good 
 offices of others, as every man who calls on 
 you, whether he be farmer, shepherd, or herds- 
 man, expects a "glass ;" and if he does not get 
 his " glass," he is disappointed, and he men- 
 tions the circumstance. In fact, the payment 
 of this little tribute is universally expected — 
 it is the custom of the country. No marked 
 event, or ceremony, ever takes place without 
 the introduction of whisky ; whether it be 
 either a marriage, birth, a christening, or a 
 funeral, it is the Alpha and the Omega, the 
 beginning and the end. It is administered 
 before and after a funeral ; and so general is 
 its use, that we have never seen any Scotchman 
 refuse it, whatever his position in life may be. 
 All Highlanders contend that it is wholesome 
 and necessary, although some few exclaim 
 against the abuse of it ; but as it is the only 
 stimulant, with the exception of tobacco, 
 which is in use, it is not surprising that re- 
 course should be had to it in a land oi such 
 frequent mist and rain. 
 
 SELF-HUNTING DOGS. 
 
 Moors, which have been somewhat neglected, 
 are sometimes overrun with self-hunting dogs. 
 These marauders, coming from a distance, 
 equally in search of game and dead sheep, 
 should be unceremoniously dispatched by trap- 
 ping and with the gun, as they do infinite 
 damage in the breeding season ; but this busi- 
 ness a Scotch head-keeper thoroughly under- 
 stands. Parms and cottages are sometimes 
 overstocked with dogs given to self-hunting. 
 These should also be disposed of; but this re- 
 quires tact, and must be done quietly and 
 judiciously. The shepherds' dogs must never 
 be molested; moreovei", *ihere will rarely be 
 any necessity to interfere with them when the 
 shepherds are the allies of the keepers, as, in 
 that case, they will always be kept in at heel, 
 except when they are performing their neces- 
 sary duties in keeping the sheep within 
 particular limits, or driving them to fresh 
 ground. 
 

JUMMAUV."! 
 
 BV I'll: 1. 1), wool), AM) WAT Kit. 
 
 [bummabt. 
 
 If shophcrds are negatively of importance in 
 abataiuiiii,' from cither poaching or destroying 
 game, they can also bo actively serviceable in 
 givitig iut'ormation as to tho incursion of any 
 enemy, cither in tho ehapo of vermin or 
 poacher. From being constantly on the 
 pnund, no moving objects can loi.g eacape 
 their observation. 
 
 A SUMM.\RY. 
 
 A summary of tho preceding suggestions, as 
 to hiring and protecting moors, addressed to 
 the sportsman, may be the means of fixing 
 them more firmly iu tho minds of our 
 readers : — 
 
 1. If you are desirous of having grouse 
 shooting in perfection, take your moor in 
 Perthshire, Inverness-shire, Aberdeenshire, or 
 Caithness. 
 
 2. Should your object be mixed sport, com- 
 bining with variety of game, winter shooting 
 and fishing, the parts of these counties which 
 adjoin the sea-coast will answer your purpose 
 best, as these districts, besides grouse, black 
 game, and partridge, frequently aflbrd good 
 wild-fowl and cock shooting, together with 
 trout and salmon fishing, and, very frequently, 
 first-rate aea-loch fishing. 
 
 3. Although Perthshire, Aberdeensliire, and 
 Inverness-shire, throughout the greater part of 
 their extent, furnish as much variety of first- 
 rate sport, of every kind, as any counties in 
 Scotland, in addition to the very best grouse 
 shooting ; still there are some few of the very 
 best inland moors on which there is no winter 
 shooting — in fact, little game beyond grouse, 
 there being no covers ; and, on some few 
 moors, little or no fishing. This fact is men- 
 tioned for tho guidance of the sportsman 
 who may require additional sport to grouse 
 eihooting. 
 
 4. Secure your shootings by a lease for five 
 or seven years. 
 
 5. Before signing your lease, if you do not 
 know the moor, and are not satisfied as to its 
 immediate condition, send a competent person 
 over it with a brace of good dogs ; you will 
 then ascertain what stock of grouse is on the 
 ground, and make your terms accordingly 
 relative to the first year ; as, iu the event of 
 total forbearance being necessary, or the 
 number to be killed being limited, in con- 
 
 sequence of the reduced stock on tho ground, 
 some allowance nuiat bu made in consideration 
 of that circumstance. 
 
 G. Immediately on obtaining poaaesBioii of 
 your moor, locate a first-rato hoad-lu-cpcr 
 thereon, with authority to provide himself 
 with a competent staff, tho strength of which 
 will depend upon the extent of the ground. 
 
 7. Engage your moor, if possible, early in 
 .^[arch, and not later than about tiie middle of 
 April ; because the trapping of vermin ought 
 to bo commenced, at latest, in March (as it 
 cannot be delayed without damage to the 
 stock of game on tho ground) ; and, grouse 
 being iu pairs, a tolerably accurate estimate 
 may be formed of the quantity likely to breed 
 on the ground, and of your prospects of sport 
 for the ensuing season. 
 
 8. If the moor you have in view be a Low- 
 land one, do not examine or engage it before 
 March, because a quantity of grouse might be 
 found thereon prior to that period, not be- 
 longing to the ground, only waiting for a 
 change of weather to return to the high 
 ground from which they had migrated in tlie 
 early part of the winter, and thus deceive 
 your calculations, and disappoint your expecta- 
 tions of sport for August, should they be based 
 on the number of grouse found in January or 
 February. 
 
 9. The head-keeper should be a Scotchman, 
 an Englishman being comparatively useless, 
 Gallic being the language generally spoken in 
 the Highlands ; and, moreover, an English 
 keeper has little influence with tenants, shep- 
 herds, and under-keepers. The head-keeper 
 should thoroughly understand his business in 
 all its branches; and, with intelligence, ac- 
 tivity, and zeal, should combine honesty, 
 sobriety, and courage. All these qualities are 
 required for a thorough discharge of tho duties 
 incident to his position. 
 
 10. His duty, in the first instance, will bo 
 to go over every part of his ground, and 
 make himself thoroughly acquainted with tlie 
 marches — i.e., boundaries ; and, if possible, ob- 
 tain information respecting the adjoining moors 
 and the tenants thereon, in order to regulate tho 
 beating of the ground when the season com- 
 mences ; as, of course, every precaution would 
 be taken not to drive the birds oiT your own 
 "round on to a moor where " hard shooting" 
 
 511 
 
THE MANOKS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the manors. 
 
 has been constantly pursued ; being less par- 
 ticular as to a deer forest. 
 
 11. His next duty will be to ascertain, to 
 the best of his ability, the number of grouse 
 on his ground, the probable prospects of sport, 
 and the number of brace which ought to be 
 killed. 
 
 12. To cultivate a friendly alliance with the 
 tenants and shepherds, and obtain from them 
 all useful and local information. 
 
 13. To commence trapping and destroying 
 all ground and flying vermin. 
 
 14. To counteract and prevent poaching. 
 
 15. To give thorough and complete instruc- 
 tions to the under-keepers, assigning to each 
 of them his particular beat and separate 
 duties, which he will personally ascertain that 
 they attend to, by being up and on his ground 
 frequently before daylight, so as to anticipate 
 and watch their movements. If a head-keeper 
 has not zeal and activity, as well as consider- 
 able intelligence, he is altogether unfit to take 
 the charge of a large moor ; but Scotch head- 
 keepers are generally superior men, and 
 thoroughly competent, in every respect, to 
 fulfil the numerous duties which devolve upon 
 them. 
 
 16. In the month of March, previous to the 
 burning of the heather, the head-keeper will go 
 over the ground with the diflerent shepherds, 
 and arrange with them as to the portions of 
 heather which ought to be burned. If the 
 shepherds are friendly, they will not exceed 
 the limits agreed on ; but, as it frequently 
 happens, on a large moor there are small 
 tenant-farmers, who look after their sheep and 
 cattle themselves. These individuals must be 
 attended to, as they are i-ather diflicult to con- 
 trol, and will always burn to excess if not pre- 
 vented. The keeper and his staff", on these 
 particular occasions, must exert more than 
 usual vigilance. No heather can be legally 
 burned after the 10th ot April, the penalty for 
 each offence being £5. 
 
 THE MANORS. 
 Quitting Scotland, we now come to Eng- 
 land, wliere it is much more expensive, 
 and more difficult to preserve game. This 
 •prises from there being a far greater num- 
 ber of poachers ; and from pheasants being 
 generally the principal feature in a large 
 512 
 
 preserve, in which feeding and watching are 
 requisite at almost all seasons of the year. 
 Hares and rabbits, also, occasion an expense, 
 inasmuch as they do considerable damage ; con- 
 sequently compensation is frequently required 
 by the farmer ; and they also require protec- 
 tion from the poacher. "We are not aware 
 that partridges do any damage. The advan- 
 tages of grouse are, that they require no 
 food beyond that which the mountain pro- 
 duces ; and, moreover, three or four men will, 
 in Scotland, take care of thirty thousand acres 
 of land; whereas in Englanr^ some half-dozen 
 keepers will not, at all times, suffice to protect 
 five thousand acres of land. 
 
 Partridges, pheasants, and hares, being the 
 principal object of a sportsman's solicitude on 
 a manor in England, let us inquire what means 
 can be most effectually adopted for their pro- 
 tection. Partridges are easily protected, it 
 being only necessary, immediately after the 
 harvest, to have all the fields, in which they 
 are likely to jug, staked with strong black- 
 thorn, driven well and firmly into the ground, 
 sufficiently close to prevent the use or a 
 net; as it is by dragging a net over the 
 surface of the land that whole coveys of 
 partridges are taken when they are jugging ; 
 so that a country is soon cleared if this 
 wholesale description of poaching is not coun- 
 teracted. 
 
 In Suff'olk and Norfolk, some manors of four 
 or five thousand acres will permit of two thou- 
 sand brace of partridges being killed in a 
 season ; in fact, on some of the most favourite 
 soils for them, the only difficulty is to shoot 
 them sufficiently close to ensure a favourable 
 breeding season, so numerous are they, and so 
 difficult to be reduced by fair shooting. As a 
 rule, where abundance of grain is grown there 
 will be plenty of partridges. There are, how- 
 ever, exceptions ; as there are large districts 
 in which the finest crops of wheat are pro- 
 duced, where partridges are not numerous. 
 The reason is obvious ; the soil which produces 
 wheat only not being so favourable to par- 
 tridges as that which produces rye and barley. 
 In fact, such a soil as that which pervades the 
 greater parts of Suftblk, Norfolk, Cambridge- 
 shire, and Huntingdonshire, is best for par- 
 tridges ; and, we believe, there are more of 
 these birds, as well as of other game, in thesa 
 
TllK M.VNOliS.J 
 
 ii Y F i E L 1), W O U 1), A N 1 ) W A T E li. 
 
 [the MANOUa. 
 
 jiivourite districts than in nny counties of 
 England. On theso soils the wnter never 
 lod'^es; and in dry, hot woiither, thcro are 
 never any crarks or opening--^, wliich are fre- 
 quently seen in stiff soils in hot weather, into 
 which both young partridges and plieasanta 
 fall, without being able to extricate themselves, 
 and are, consequently, victimised ; and wet 
 weather is equally prejudicial to young birds 
 on the Btift' clay soils. On a really good and 
 favourable soil, any amount of partridges may 
 be fot up, which the land will bear, in one or 
 two seasons, by a little forbearance, if the 
 stock be reduced ; but any deficiency is rarely 
 the case in cither Suffolk or Norfolk, if the 
 land is fully cultivated. In the case of partial 
 uep'lect in this respect, or in the event of a 
 farm being accidentally left fallow one season, 
 the same amount of birds cannot be expected, 
 as partridges will always go where they can 
 find most food ; and, although they can live on 
 grass, they will always leave pasture lands if 
 arable land be contiguous. 
 
 It is conjectured by some, that partridges 
 which are found in grouse districts eat heather. 
 This, on the other hand, is supposed to be a 
 mistake, as birds have frequently been killed, 
 during the winter months, on the mountain- 
 tops, and, on opening their crops, nothing 
 found in them but grass, and that, on several 
 occasions, of a very coarse description, having 
 the appearance of water-grass. These birds, 
 however, arc of very fine flavour. 
 
 It is a good plan, and one which is 
 frequently adopted in Suffolk and Norfolk 
 with success, to introduce drills of buck-wheat 
 here and there between the turnips, where the 
 fields of these are large. This is advantageous 
 to both partridges and pheasants, as these 
 birds are particularly fond of this grain — it 
 attracts and keeps them together. 
 
 In v'^'-y open countries, where there are 
 neither covers nor plantations, small patches 
 of furze and broom should be sown, here and 
 there, on all odd corners of land. These will 
 be found wonderfully protective of partridges 
 in the cold stormy weather of winter, and, 
 moreover, will bo secure breeding-places. 
 Partridges generally breed by the hedge-side, 
 or on grassy banks, and not unfrequently by 
 the road-side. AV^here there are walls, if there 
 13 a little rough grass and brambles at the 
 3 u 
 
 bottom of them, these are also very favourite 
 spots, although close by a footpath. Where 
 the country is very open, and there is :i 
 scarcity of sheller, they make their ncats ia 
 grass and clover ; and here they are in great 
 danger, as both grasses and clover are gene- 
 rally cut before the hatching ia over. Conse- 
 quently many nests are destroyed, notwith- 
 standing the uttnost carefulness of the mowers, 
 as partridges sit so closely immediately before 
 hatching, that thero have been instances of 
 tlieir heads having been cut off by the scythe. 
 AVhen the nest is discovered in time, a small 
 quantity of clover left round it will suffice to 
 prevent its desertion. These birds sit twenty- 
 one or twenty-two days. 
 
 In the spring of the year, when partridges 
 first begin to lay their eggs, the utmost vigi- 
 lance is demanded on the part of the keepers, 
 owing to the practice of stealing eggs, en- 
 couraged by poulterers, who carry on a largo 
 trade by the sale of them, partridges' and 
 pheasants' eggs always being obtainable at the 
 London markets, and from most London poul- 
 terers; and as long as gentlemen will con- 
 tinue to countenance this traffic, by buying 
 eggs for the purpose of stocking their grounds, 
 they must expect to be mutually pillaged. 
 We could here introduce many letters upon 
 this subject, but it would be unnecessarily 
 filling our pages. Partridges will always make 
 a second nest when the first is destroyed ; but 
 the number of eggs will be considerably re- 
 duced, and the coveys so late, that the young 
 birds will not be ready for the sportsman by 
 the 1st of September. Whenever a small 
 covey of backward birds is found, it may bo 
 inferred, to a certainty, that the first nest was 
 either robbed or destroyed ; six or eight birds 
 is generally the amount of a second covey. In 
 an early covey, as many as twenty young birds 
 have been found ; but this is unusual; and, 
 although as many as sixteen and eighteen 
 eggs in the nest is a common circumstance, 
 still fourteen young birds, on the Ist of Sep- 
 tember, may reasonably be considered a good 
 covey. We cannot advise any sportsman to 
 buy partridge-eggs for the purpose of stocking 
 his ground, because we consider the practice 
 wrong in principle, and one which is sure to 
 meet with retributive punishment ; and, more- 
 over, on good soils, where partridges can bo 
 
 513 
 
THE MANORS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the manoes. 
 
 got up, the object is easily accomplished by a 
 little forbearance combined with protection, 
 •without this extraneous aid. In the case of 
 nests being found in dangerous positions, it 
 is a very good plan to take the eggs and 
 place them under a hen ; and it might, perhaps, 
 answer to take the eggs from iome of the 
 nests on the distant part of the ground, pro- 
 vided this be done at the early part of the 
 season, as, in this case, there would be a second 
 nest. It must be recollected, however, that 
 these home-bred birds, even if success attended 
 tlieir rearing, are indiflferent breeders for the 
 rfist year. The experiment has been tried, 
 and many of their nests found, but they 
 seldom, if ever, contain more than fourteen 
 eggs, twelve being the average. There is, 
 however, one great advantage, that they will 
 all breed near home; and, after the first season, 
 the young birds will, in all probability, stock 
 the more distant ground. When partridges 
 are plentiful, it will always be advisable, at the 
 end of the season, to have the extra old cock 
 birds killed off, as there are always many more 
 cocks than hens ; and if the former supernume- 
 raries be left, they will do infinite damage, by 
 destroying many nests, and disturbing the hen 
 birds whilst they are sitting. A good shot 
 will easily pick the cock birds out on the 
 rising of a covey, as the horse-shoe mark on 
 the breast is very visible. This should be 
 done in February and March. 
 
 In reference to the subject of stocking 
 manors, some recommend the turning out of 
 red-legged partridges, whilst others recom- 
 mend their destruction ; and, considering 
 the many disadvantages attending the pre- 
 sence of these birds, it is a matter of sur- 
 prise that they should have met with any 
 encouragement from practical sportsmen, as 
 we are not aware that they possess any one 
 single redeemiug feature to counterbalance 
 their numerous bad qualities, with the excep- 
 tion of their appearance, which is decidedly in 
 their favour, as they are, unquestionably, a 
 handsome bird. They are constantly to be 
 met with in both Suifolk and Norfolk, 
 where, by many, they are considered as a 
 great nuisance. But it may be as well to 
 enumerate the objections which are made to 
 them. 
 
 In the first place they are very pugnacious, 
 514 
 
 and, from being a larger and more powerful 
 bird than the grey partridge, they easily drive 
 these off their beat ; consequently, if they 
 were encouraged to any extent, a considerable 
 diminution in the stock of the ordinary par- 
 tridge would be the result. In the next place, 
 they invariably spoil sport, as they are ever on 
 the move, either flying or running, conse- 
 quently disturbing the other birds when dis- 
 posed to lie and give sport ; and, moreover, do 
 not compensate by giving you a shot at 
 themselves, as it is very rare that you can get 
 a chance at them, except in the case of a sur- 
 prise in the corner of a plantation, or cover, 
 or thick piece of turnips, at the end of which 
 a strong fence may prevent them from running 
 further, as they never cease running when 
 once in motion, except their course is ob- 
 structed by some impassable obstacle. Wo 
 have frequently marked them down in turnips 
 and furze, and been disappointed in getting a 
 shot, finding, by the time we had reached the 
 spot where we had seen them drop, they had 
 already emerged, and were running as fast as 
 their legs could carry them, at the distance of 
 some hundred yards or more. In fact, it is an 
 endless and hopeless aflfair to follow red-legged 
 partridges in an open country, however well 
 it may be supplied with turnips. We have 
 frequently made the experiment, and can, there- 
 fore, speak with some degree of certainty on 
 this point ; and, moreover, in the pursuit of 
 these birds, you not only fruitlessly exhaust 
 your patience, but spoil your dogs, as they will 
 sometimes run a mile before them, at least, if 
 the dog's patience will last so long; but it some- 
 times ends in his having a run too. In fact, 
 these birds will ruin the best dogs, and are 
 only fit to be Hunted by spaniels. The bird is 
 certainly a fine bird on the wing, and affords 
 a good shot when you can get it; but the 
 last, and by no means the least, consideration 
 is, that when you have shot him he is not 
 worth eating— at least we think so ; but far be 
 it from us to dictate, or prescribe, in matters 
 of taste. However, we have never met with 
 any Englishman who diff'ered with us on this 
 point. Their flavour is flat and insipid— in 
 fact, disagreeable. We are aware that this 
 bird is highly esteemed in France ; but as he 
 is rarely eaten au naturel, but generally ac- 
 commodated with a copious supply of truflles, 
 
TUK MANOH8.] 
 
 in I'l i:i-l), WOOD, A.N 1) WA IKK. 
 
 [tiii: ma no II 8. 
 
 onhanced by some sauce piquanie, hia natural 
 insipidity is dissjuised ; ami tht-n, as INIonsieur 
 e'lievct obsiTvcs, of sonio of his fuvouriti' 
 comestibles, il se loissc manner. We have 
 seen him brought to table on many occasions 
 dressed au naturel, and witlidrawn without 
 di>cussioii. 11 o may, perhaps, liavo been 
 lasted, but no further honour was paid him. 
 
 Kej^ardiiip: the pheasant, we must remark 
 that lie is well worthy of all the care and pro- 
 tection whieli can possibly be extended to him. 
 He is unlike the partridge in one respect, not 
 being attached to any particular spot of ground, 
 although he will remain in any suitable cover 
 when he can find sufficient food, and is free 
 from molestation ; but if he cannot find food, 
 and the soil does not produce it, and it is not 
 .supplied to him, he will take to his legs, and 
 search for it for miles till he finds it, and re- 
 main in his new quarters so long as he is un- 
 disturbed. AVhero partridges have once bred 
 they will breed for years, and very near the 
 same spot ; hence the policy of never killing 
 any covey entirely down. This is not the case 
 with pheasants, as the hens will remain to breed 
 in any cover to which they may have been 
 driven at the end of the season, provided it bo 
 a suitable one, and there be food ; hence the 
 necessity of always providing sufficient food as 
 an inducement to them to remain. But even 
 this will be ineffectual unless the covers be 
 kept perfectly quiet, as pheasants will not re- 
 main where they are constantly disturbed. Tlie 
 slightest movement in a cover sets them in 
 motion, running at their best pace, and not 
 stopping until they reach some thick place, 
 where they can conceal themselves. If the 
 cover is large, it may be occasionally disturbed 
 without much risk ; but if it is small, and thin 
 at bottom, they will run clean through it, and, 
 perhaps, continue their course for miles. The 
 best cover to keep pheasants in, is one of furze 
 and broom, as they can conceal themselves in 
 it ; and, if it be spacious, even a dog has some 
 difficulty in dislodging them. In an open 
 country where there are no natural covers, 
 this artificial cover of furze and broom will bo 
 found to be of the greatest advantage. It can 
 easily be got up in a few years ; and a few 
 rabbits turned into it, will be useful in making 
 runs through all the thick parts of it. It is 
 also undeniable for hares ; and, moreover, 
 
 game of all sorts is easily protecteil in it, as a 
 poacher can only operate in and about such a 
 cover by daylight ; and therefore must bo seen 
 approacliing, if a good look-out bo kept. A 
 suwdl cover of this description, of about six 
 acres, adjoining a keeper's cottage, has been 
 known to hold several hundred pheasants. It 
 was surrounded by corn and turnip fields, and 
 some few jjlantations running up to it, into 
 which the pheasants strayed by day, returning 
 always at feeding-time, or in the event of their 
 being disturbed. 
 
 If there be water handy, it will bo a groat 
 advantage, as pheasants cannot do well with- 
 out it. It must, therefore, in the event of 
 there being neither spring nor pond near, bo 
 supplied by artificial means — tanks, sunk in dif- 
 ferent places, which the keeper will take care to 
 fill regularly, will answer the purpose. Pheasants 
 require, more or less, feeding nearly all the 
 year round ; less in summer than in winter, and 
 but very slightly after the harvest. A little 
 food, however, occasionally at all seasons, keeps 
 them together, and prevents them from prowl- 
 ra.". Barley, oats, white peas, buckwheat, and 
 boiled potatoes, comprise what they are most 
 partial to. Of buckwheat they are especially 
 fond, a few acres of which will attract them, 
 and partridges also, from very long distances ; 
 consequently, this being known, its use in both 
 Suffolk and Norfolk is almost universal, not 
 only on the general principle of preserving, but 
 on that also of self-defence. 
 
 The advantages of the furze and broom 
 covers, consists in their affording protection to 
 the pheasant by night as well as by day, as, 
 pheasants frequently jug in them, so that they 
 are out of the poacher's reach. But as, in this 
 case, they will be accessible to ground vermin, 
 the keeper must be very particular and vigi- 
 lant in this department of his business : the 
 weasel, stoat, polecat, and common cat, would 
 do infinite mischief in a preserve of this de- 
 scription. As the presence of these depredators, 
 however, is easily ascertained, and as they are 
 trapped without difficulty, the keeper must 
 have neglected his duty if more than an occa- 
 sional visitor is ever seen ; but he must always 
 be expected, as vermin are sure to be plentiiul 
 where game abounds. In all preserves it is a 
 good plan to have a few rabbits, as they ire- 
 quently save the lives of pheasants when any 
 
 r 1 .-: 
 
DKESS. 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [deess. 
 
 hingling is attempted, by either being caught 
 instead of the pheasants, or by knocking the 
 wires, or springes down, as both are used. 
 When pheasants are merely wanted for the 
 market, in the game season, wires are used, as 
 they are more easily set, and more efficient 
 than springes ; but in the spring of the year, 
 when it is wished to take pheasants alive, to 
 be sold to those sportsmen who wish to stock 
 their preserves, springes are used with a knot 
 in them, so that the noose cannot be drawn 
 tightly when the pheasant runs his head and 
 neck into them, by which means they are 
 caught alive. This species of poaching, like 
 the egg-stealing, would, in all probability, 
 cease to exist, if sportsmen would refrain 
 from purchasing live pheasants. Advertisers 
 of live pheasants for sale, sometimes put forth, 
 in their advertisements, that the pheasants 
 which they offer have been reared by them- 
 selves, from eggs laid by birds in their own 
 possession ; but if there be one instance of 
 this sort, it is an exception, even if the birds 
 which laid the eggs were not originally 
 poached; and, moreover, this may only be a 
 blind to more extensive transactions of an 
 illegitimate character ; but, as we have before 
 intimated, its discontinuance rests with the 
 sportsman. A combined resolution amongst 
 sportsmen, not only to discourage the traffic 
 in pheasants' and partridges' eggs, and in 
 live pheasants, but also a determination to 
 prosecute all offenders in this respect, would 
 be productive of immense advantage, not only 
 to sportsmen but to the community at large, as 
 the stock of game is seriously injured by this 
 yearly illegitimate practice. That the trade 
 to which we allude is carried on, and pretty 
 extensively, may be ascertained by any one 
 who will give himself the trouble to make 
 inquiry. The vendors are, of course, aware of 
 their liability, and may not, perhaps, give infor- 
 mation to every one requiring it, as we believe 
 some caution is exercised in these transactions. 
 Having thus discussed the manner of pro- 
 ceeding in reference to the Moors and the 
 Manors, we will now give a few 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG SPORTSMEN. 
 
 There are numbers of shooting t>portsmeu 
 who, from want of observation, or a " Mentor," 
 to guide or direct them, plod on in their own 
 516 
 
 invariable way, and suffer no end of incon- 
 veniences, when a few hints would entirely 
 change the nature of things to their advanta^-c^ 
 To such, and especially to the younger and 
 less experienced, we crave permission to address 
 ourselves. Our hints will be only to "little 
 things;" but in little things lies the secret of 
 enjoying greater. First, as to dress. 
 
 The Cap. — "We will begin with the head, 
 and end with the feet. The cap ought to be 
 as small as possible, for reasons we shall shortly 
 explain. The kind, of all others, to be preferred, 
 is exactly the size and make of a heavy dragoon 
 officer's forage cap, but with the peak a trifle 
 longer, and not lying quite so flat on the fore- 
 head. Wide-awakes are all very well, but you 
 must, in the least wind, be always either 
 snatching at them with your hand, or be keep- 
 ing your head bent down on your chest, with 
 the muscles of the forehead so contracted as 
 to induce headache with many people. The 
 cap should be small for another reason, and 
 that is the liberty, especially in a wild country, 
 of having to exert your energies in creeping 
 after wild birds, such as carrion crows, hawks, 
 &c., which may be detected in situations 
 where they may be got at, and when a small 
 cap may be carried in one of the pockets. 
 
 The Coat and Tbousees. — Grouse-shoot- 
 ing is the only game-shooting in the three 
 kingdoms that really requires attention to the 
 colour of your dress. We should recommend, 
 therefore, a good "heath mixture" coat and 
 waiscoat, and the cap of the same colour. The 
 trousers should be of stout material, of much 
 the same colour as the other parts of the dress, 
 and, for real service and comfort, be made 
 as follows : — Procure, at a respectable currier's, 
 two seal skins, and have the trouser legs 
 covered with them in the form of a Napoleon 
 boot — viz., coming well up in front of the thigh, 
 and being hollowed out down the thigh behind, 
 till you get two inches above the calf of the 
 leg. With these trousers you can go through 
 any cover, such as gorse, &c., with impunity; 
 and, in case of having to drop on a knee in 
 damp ground, no water will penetrate. An 
 old pair of trousers will do to be covered with 
 the skins, so that they nre stout and not 
 decayed ; and, when worn out, the skins (which 
 will last six or seven years) can be sewn on to 
 another old pair. The seal skins cost about 
 
PRESS.] 
 
 BY riKLD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [hU0T-1!A<J. 
 
 (V«. GJ. a-pioco, and tho softest and thinnest 
 ^;lOuld bo chosen. Tho trousers must be cut 
 (.fV about tlu-ee inches beK)\v the kiieo before 
 the skins nro sewn on. After coming in from 
 a dav's shootinsr, ii» ^vet turnips or lieavy 
 ground, a i'ew scrubs with a stable besom and 
 water, just as you eland, sets them all right 
 ;igain, without tho trouble of dryiiij; and 
 brushiui; that shooting trousers usually re- 
 tiiiire. The comparative invisibility of the 
 .shooting-dress named above has been proved, 
 from having grouse come Hying right on to 
 the sportsmen, when sitting at lunch in the 
 heath, and more especially on hilly moors. 
 
 Boots a>'d Stockinqs. — Tho only sort of 
 boots worth having are good strong country- 
 made lace-up ones, with sis holes laced, then six 
 hooks, and after that two more holes. Have 
 good nails in them, and let the toes be tipped 
 with steel plates on the sole, and project at 
 least three-quarters of an inch in a slanting 
 direction downwards. This will defend the 
 upper leathers at the toe from being cut by 
 the strong shanks of the heath. In regard to 
 snipe boots, the following plan has been found 
 by far the best to be pursued : — Have the lace 
 boots made sufficiently large to wear with a 
 pair of Macintosh's waterproof fishing stock- 
 ings, over common woollen socks. Walk to 
 the snipe ground, carrying tlie waterproof stock- 
 ings (which fold up into about the size of your 
 hand) in your pocket. Then take off the lace 
 boots, and put the waterproofs on, and the boots 
 over them. The stockings reach right up the 
 leg. "When tired of shooting, rinse both boots 
 and stockings in the nearest water-hole, and 
 dry out the boots with a handkerchief, which 
 is done in a minute ; and then turn the stock- 
 ings inside out, and carry them home in your 
 pocket, and tiius save the trouble of wearing 
 them. You will not perceive the damp of your 
 boots through your woollen socks. Tou will 
 find the inside of the fishing stockings get 
 quite cold and damp after they have been oft' 
 some time ; but that is not a sign that they let 
 water in, but merely that the perspiration 
 generated by walking has condensed. Let the 
 stockings be well dried a good way off the fire, 
 and they will last a long while — about six 
 years. The original price of them is IGs., and 
 tJie cost of new footing, 8^. 
 
 The Cloak. — The next thing to recom- 
 
 mend is a sniall waterproof cloak, and tho 
 solid comfort of this must bo felt to bo appro- 
 ciated. Although naming a cloak, then* in n« 
 need for considering us as composed of ifithiT 
 sugar or salt. In every situation of life corn- 
 fort is everything. AVo therefore recommend 
 a cloak, one of the beautiful light ones, made 
 of black waterproof, that you can buy for about 
 twenty shillings, and which will go into a Hmall 
 case. This case, if made with a couplo of 
 buckles, is fastened into the gun-sling, and is 
 quite out of tho way. The gun-sling we mean 
 is the sort previously sold by Dean and .A.dams, 
 and may be truly called a real blessing to 
 sportsmen. It is no cockney or foreign ap- 
 paratus, but a first-rate invention ; and, fur 
 riding or walking home a long way, is in- 
 valuable. The gun sticks close to you, and 
 you hardly know you carry one, and it will not 
 move a hair's breadth if you run, stoop down, 
 &c. "We name a cloak, for a coat is detesta- 
 ble, and wets both yourself and your gun, in- 
 stead of keeping you dry. "With a cloak, you 
 only need to turn it " rear rank in front " if the 
 rain comes in your face, and you may laugh at 
 a storm, for the trousers we before named will 
 keep you dry above tho knee. 
 
 The SnoT-BA& and Powdee-flask. — 
 For the convenience of carrying the shot- 
 bag and powder-flask, we offer the following 
 suggestions : — Have a thin leather strap sewn 
 tight round the shot-bag, where the charge 
 screws in. Another strap should be sewn to 
 the one named, and continued endways round 
 the bag through the D at the end of it, till it 
 joins the other side of the strap round tho 
 collar, where it must again be sewn to tliat 
 strap, and be continued loose for two inches ; 
 and at the loose end there must be a D. 
 "When held by the last-named D, the shot-bag 
 will hang charger uppermost. Then have a 
 strap to go round the waist, with a short bit 
 of leather, three inches long, sewn on at right 
 angles. This bit of leather should come on 
 the right hip-bone when tho strap is buckled 
 round the waist. "Wo can only say, that any 
 one who will try this plan of carrying a shot- 
 bag, will never return to tho old plan of carry- 
 ing it round the shoulder. The short hanging 
 strap must have a steel swivel to it, to hook 
 into the D of the shot-bag. 
 
 The powder-flask should bo carried in the 
 
 .317 
 
TELESCOPES.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [SHOOTT>G SYSTEMS. 
 
 right-hand large pocket below the waist, and 
 the wadding also ; because you save one move- 
 ment in loading, by taking a wadding out when 
 you put your band into that pocket to return 
 the powder-flasks. Speaking of powder-flasks, 
 we have seen a very simple contrivance for a 
 drinking-cup, by having it made of German 
 silver, or plated, and fitting on to the lower 
 part of the flask. This is the invention, we 
 believe, of a well-known and very excellent 
 sportsman, living in Derbyshire. 
 
 Telescopes. — There is another article form- 
 ing the outfit of a shooter ; and though the last, 
 it is not the least important part of a field 
 equipment. This is a pocket telescope. Two 
 are sometimes carried, of the following descrip- 
 tions: — One about fifteen inches long when 
 drawn out, and three-and-a-half when closed ; 
 and with it you may, on a tolerably clear day, 
 tell the hour by any church clock at three 
 miles' distance; audit will, consequently, enable 
 you to identify the person of any one you may 
 see poaching at a distance ; and it is, of course, 
 equally available on the thousand-and-one occa- 
 sions when its use may be required in an open 
 
 country. The price of these glasses, in leather 
 case complete, is about 11. 16s. The othei* 
 glass is about three inches when drawn out, 
 and two inches closed. It has only one slide. 
 The power of tliis small telescope is extraor- 
 dinary, and would not be conceived by most 
 persons till tried. The handiest way to have 
 it is to draw it out, in the first instance, to the 
 right focus, ranging to about a mile, and tlien 
 cut a piece of card that fits round the moving 
 slide, keeping it from pushing in, and have the 
 card stitched with thread so as not to come off. 
 Tou can carry it thus in a clean pocket on the 
 right-hand side of your shooting-waistcoat, and 
 you are ready to mark birds when they get up, 
 without the loss of a second of time. The re- 
 lative uses of the two glasses will be obvious 
 to any man who has shot much in an open 
 country. The price of the small one is 
 12s. 6^. 
 
 Having thus equipped the young sports- 
 man, and treated of the Moors and the Manors, 
 we will, in our next chapter, treat of Shootiag, 
 in connection with the modes of handling the 
 Gun and the Dog. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SHOOTING.— the ONE-EYED AND THE TWO-EYED SYSTEMS ; USING THE GUN ; LOADING ; PRECAUTIONS. 
 
 The theory of shooting involves a complete 
 knowledge of the most advantageous manner of 
 directing the gun when placed to the shoulder, 
 relatively to the game intended to be killed ; 
 and as birds present themselves in various 
 ways — flying away from us in a straight 
 undeviating line at one time ; at another 
 time descending ; sometimes crossing before us 
 either to the right or to the left, or coming 
 directly over our heads — there must be fixed 
 rules for the management of the gun, the accu- 
 rate knowledge of which may be considered as 
 part of the theory of shooting. These rules 
 must be adhered to or deviated from according 
 to circumstances, as the judgment of the sports- 
 man, matured by experience, may suggest at the 
 moment. Por instance, firing at a bird pro- 
 518 
 
 ceeding in a direct straight line, neither rising 
 nor descending, provided the distance do not 
 exceed thirty-five or forty yards, it will sufiice 
 to cover it ; that is to say, to have the elevated 
 rib of the barrel in a straight line with the bird, 
 so that no daylight be visible to the eye between 
 the siglit of the gun and the lower part of the 
 bird, in which case the bird will be hit by the 
 centre of the charge. If the bird, however, be 
 ascending, the gun should be directed slightly 
 above it, and, if descending, below it ; and in 
 all cross-shots, and those coming over the head, 
 the gun ought to be directed one or two feet, 
 and sometimes even more, before the bird — the 
 degrees of distance being regulated by the sup- 
 posed pace of the flight of the bird at the time. 
 But why shoot so far before a bird with a quick- 
 
BHOOTING SYSTKMB.] ''V FIELD, WOOD, AND UAIHIi. [SUOOTINO BYSTEMB. 
 
 Bbooting detonator? Because it is found by 
 cxpcricuco tliat, notwithstanding tho force and 
 quickness with which tlio shot is propelled by 
 the best of guna, if tho gun be directed at right 
 nns^lcd at a crossing bird which is at the ilia- 
 tauco of thirty-tive yards, tho charge will arrive 
 too late. The bird has, during tho transit of 
 the charge, advanced about two feet through 
 tho atmosphere, although, doubtless, a minute 
 portion of time is lost between tho pulling of 
 tho trigger and the discharge, as well as be- 
 tween tho deterniiuation to pull and the actual 
 pulling. At all events, from these combined 
 causes of delay, the bird obtains an advance of 
 from one to three feet, the judicious anticipa- 
 tion of which by the sportsman is requisite to 
 •access. 
 
 A further consideration presents itself as 
 involved in the theory of shooting; and this is 
 in the gravitation of the charge towards the 
 earth. As this tendency, however, is remedied 
 in all good guns by the proper setting of the 
 barrels, the sportsman is under no necessity of 
 making any calculations in regard to it, at least 
 within the distance of forty yards, as all guns, 
 turned out by first-rate makers, are so well put 
 together, that what is termed a point-blank 
 aim may be taken at that distance. This 
 point-blank aim means, that the, centre of the 
 charge will hit the object to which the gun is 
 directed, if a correct aim be taken, the rib 
 being elevated iu proportion to the length of 
 the barrels and the strength of their shooting, 
 so that the direction of the l./cter, in point of 
 fact, at a distance of forty yards, is from eight 
 to twelve inches above the line of sight, whereby 
 the gravitation of the charge is remedied. 
 
 As the rib is not parallel with the calibre, 
 and as the breech end of the barrels must bo 
 sunk into tlie stock, more or less, according to 
 the thickness or elevation of the rib, it is evi- 
 dent that the elevation of the barrels will be 
 increased in proportion to the elevation of the 
 rib; but it is hardly necessary to enlarge upon 
 60 clear and obvious a mathematical truth — as 
 the French say, " cela saute aux yeux." "We 
 will, therefore, only make the following short 
 remark, whicli will obviate all misapprehension : 
 A one straight line be drawn from the rib, and 
 another from the centre of the calibre, to the 
 distance of forty yards, they will be found to be 
 from about eight to twelve inches apart, pro- 
 
 vided the elevation of tho rib and tho Bettinjj 
 
 of tho barrels bo cornet. 
 
 If all guuB wero of similar strength in their 
 shooting, tho preciso degree of elevation might 
 bo ascertained to a mathematical nicety, and 
 tho gun- maker would have a fixed rule for 
 his guide, irrespective of trials; but this not 
 being tho case, proofs must be resorted to, and 
 the rib elevated accordingly. Not that this 
 is always tho case, as guns badly set are not 
 unfrequently to be met with, and to which 
 tho elevation is insufficient, consequently occa- 
 sioning much disappointment at all long dis- 
 tances, by wounding and breaking the legs of 
 birds, instead of killing thcni ; and although tho 
 sportsman is oftcner in fault than the gun, yet, 
 we believe that there are some instances in which 
 the fault is in the gun. In addition to the pro- 
 per setting of the barrels, and the correct eleva- 
 tion of the rib, the balance of the gun and tho 
 peculiar make of the stock, from the locks to 
 the point or tip, merit the attention of the 
 sportsman, especially in a heavy gun. Heavy 
 guns, with the point of the stock bent too 
 much downwards, are apt to deceive the best 
 of shots in quick shooting, and, with moderate 
 shots, create frequent disappointment, espe- 
 cially at the end of a long day's shooting, after 
 much hard fagging. We think the gnu ought 
 to balance evenly, when placed on the palm of 
 the hand, immediately past the end of the 
 locks. 
 
 Much has been said on the superior advan- 
 tages of the use of two eyes over one : in fact, 
 some of the advocates of the two-eyed system 
 have spoken very disparagingly, and, as we 
 cannot help thinking, with unbecoming 
 severity, of those who support the one-eyed 
 plan— tho latter being represented as slow- 
 coaches, their practice behind the times, obso- 
 lete, &c. But is this tho fact ?— is it tim ? 
 We think not ; and, if we may be permitted lo 
 judge from observation and experience, we 
 should say tho one-eyed men, ccvteris parihi(s, 
 are quite as competcut to " fill the bag" as 
 their opponents, eimply because we believe 
 each system to have its relative advantages and 
 disadvantages, presuming each party to have 
 guns of similar make and construction, of like 
 setting as to the barrels, and of equal elevation 
 of the rib. But, if guns are badly set, and 
 with insufficient elevation, then it must bo 
 
 519 
 
SHOOTING SYSTEMS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [SHOOTINa SYSTEMS. 
 
 readily admitted that tbe two-eyed man will 
 have a most decided advantage in helping 
 himself to that which the gun-maker has 
 denied him. But, with guns constructed and 
 put together on modern improved principles — 
 with proper setting, sufficient elevation, and 
 peculiar fitness for the use of one eye — it 
 strikes us that the two-eyed man has not all 
 that superiority over his opponent of which he 
 boasts ; for, if the one-eyed man occasionally 
 shoots under a rising bird, the two-eyed man 
 must sometimes shoot clean over a bird which 
 is rapidly descending, if he shoots in a wild, 
 hilly, and mountainous country. In a flat 
 level country, we are sensible that this latter 
 Qase would rarely occur; consequently, there 
 the two-eyed man would have the advantage. 
 Havirc: shot many years over an uneven and 
 mountainous country, where there were as 
 many shots one way as the other, and being in 
 the habit of using sometimes one-eye and 
 sometimes both, we must admit having occa- 
 sionally shot over birds quickly descending 
 when using both eyes, and sometimes having 
 shot under rising birds when only availing our- 
 selves of one eye. Here we allude to snap- 
 shots presenting themselves unexpectedly, in 
 the taking of which the most experienced may 
 occasionally be surprised, and reverse the prin- 
 ciples on which they generally act. If, there- 
 fore, we may be allowed to judge equally from 
 ex}) "lence and from observation, we should 
 conclude that neither system is perfect, each 
 being liable to occasional failure ; and, if both 
 parties will dismiss amour propre, and be can- 
 did, we think they will arrive at the same con- 
 clusion. The use of both eyes, unquestionably, 
 gives extra elevation — in fact, almost indefi- 
 nitely so, according to the judgment of the 
 sportsman. But is this necessary, and is it 
 always an advantage ? "We think not ; for, if 
 a gun be properly put together, we cannot see 
 that this extra elevation is required, except 
 for a small proportion of rising shots at long 
 distances ; and we believe that the difficulty 
 presented even by these, will be readily over- 
 come by the one-eyed man of experience, who 
 possesses nerve and presence of mind. If the 
 two-eyed system be as superior to the one-eyed 
 one as its advocates insist that it is, whv re- 
 quire any assistance from the gun-maker in the 
 setting of the barrels — why have any elevated 
 520 
 
 rib ? — as it is evident all this is superfluous 
 and unnecessary for the carrying out of the 
 two-eyed principle. •■ For, if we judge rightly 
 of it from the statements of its most strenuous 
 advocates, they despise the steady old plan of 
 looking along, or in the direction of the ele- 
 vated rib, in line with the sight, holding their 
 heads above the barrels, and taking their own 
 elevation and line of sight — exercising their 
 own judgment on the spur of the occasion ; so 
 that in this speculative system, much practice 
 and experience are requisite, in order to ac> 
 quire the habit of accuracy and precision. 
 From this, we think, it may be fairly inferred, 
 without illiberality towards the two-eyed men, 
 that their system is not infallible ; that they 
 sometimes err, and, consequently, that their 
 practice has not that decided superiority over 
 the one-eyed system which it is presumed to 
 have ; as the latter, as far as it goes, is not 
 liable to mistalce, and is easily carried out — ■ 
 the precise extent of elevation being already 
 determined and arranged by the gun-maker 
 on unerring principles. The hand will, to a 
 very great extent, iollow and obey the eye. 
 We are therefore convinced, that in snap-shots, 
 even at such large birds as blackcocks, when 
 they slip off the high top of a mountain, in- 
 stantly gliding down below, the two-eyed man 
 would, if he were inexperienced in that sort of 
 shooting, shoot over many more birds than he 
 would ever Jiit. This result, we think, must 
 strike every one, even if experience were not 
 referred to for its confirmation : but let any 
 one, who doubts it, test the point by experi- 
 ment — bring up his gun quickly to the shoulder, 
 with both eyes directed to a particular object, 
 and he will find, on immediately closing one 
 eye, that the point of the gun is above the object 
 aimed at ; and if that object be a blackcock 
 slipping from a high mountain-top, and rapidly 
 descending, he will not only miss his mark, but 
 the charge will be at least three feet over the 
 bird. The one-eyed man would, in tliis par- 
 ticular shot, have the advantage ; because, if a 
 similar experiment be tried with one eye — to 
 that which we have just suggested as a partial 
 test to the two-eyed system — and the gun be 
 brou'^ht up quickly to the shoulder, it will be 
 found that the point of the gun will be under 
 the object aimed at, and never over it, which, 
 in snap-shots at rapidly descending birds, will 
 
MAKl.Nli TUIAI,] 
 
 r. V ruiLD. WDiH), AN 1) w \ti:k. 
 
 [jtAKIMi TniA.L. 
 
 be an advantage which tl>o ono-oycd man will 
 unquestionably have over his opponent. This 
 occasion will frequently arise in shooting in 
 the Highlautl.-^, at all sorts of game, but par- 
 tioularlv at black game, whose flight is peculiar. 
 These birds rarely ascend, even when found on 
 the open heather, or in corn-tields ; and not one 
 in twenty rises vertically, but emerges from the 
 heather, corn, or bushes obliquely, and immedi- 
 ately takes a horizontal direction, except when 
 it leaves a high mountain-top — in which case, 
 in the first instance, it descends, subsequently 
 preserving its horizontal course ; and when 
 disturbed in cover, always escaping through 
 the first openings which present themselves, 
 emerging horizontally, and never rising verti- 
 cally, except its horizontal flight be ob- 
 structed. Having shot hundreds of these 
 birds, and seen thousands of them ou wing at 
 diflerent times, we can speak with some de- 
 gree of certainty on this point ; and if we 
 allude to the peculiarity of their flight, it is 
 merely as illustrative of the position which we 
 have assumed, that all the advantages are not 
 ou the side of the two-eyed men. Black game 
 are remarkably easy birds to shoot, when a fair 
 chance can be got at them ; but they con- 
 stantly rise near, without aflbrding the op- 
 portunity cf a good shot, especially in cover; 
 and this is very intelligible, when their pecu- 
 liar mode of flight, we have just explained, is 
 considered. 
 
 THE GUN AND THE TARGET. 
 OThe examination or trial of a foivJing -piece 
 is one of those duties so essential, even to the 
 safety of the sportsman, that he must by no 
 means neglect it. Nor must he neglect to 
 make a thorough trial of the instrument which 
 be intends to use, under every change of wea- 
 ther, before he ventures upon the moor or the 
 manor to seek for his sport. In the manufac- 
 ture of guns there is as much deception as 
 there is in the manufacture of any other ar- 
 ticles of commerce; therefore, it behoves the 
 gun-purchaser to bring all his skill and judg- 
 ment to bear upon the general make of the 
 instrument he desires to purchase, before he 
 has taken it into the field with him. " It is 
 /lot altogether true," says the Oakleigh Shoot- 
 ing Code, " that the best guns are made by the 
 most celebrated makers ; but the reason why 
 3x 
 
 a gun made by ono of these makera is to bo 
 preferred by a person not thoroughly conver- 
 sant with the arcana of the trade, is the prob- 
 able certainty of his obtaining a good one ; 
 for a first-rate maker will not hazard his repu- 
 tation by turning out an inditlV-rcnt one. Tho 
 unwillingness, however, to give a first-rater's 
 price, induces the shooter to look out for a 
 second-hand piece; and the eagerness with 
 which second-hand pieces are sought for, has 
 led to a species of deception to entrap tho un- 
 wary. Tho following remarks on second-hand 
 fowling-pieces, are by a gun-maker — ' Eight 
 out of ten of the guns sold as second-hand aro 
 new guns, made up purj)0sely to suit the public 
 taste, or predilection for second-hand guns by 
 a good maker.' And really one might suppose 
 that none but mere novices could be imposed on 
 by them, for they generally bear the names of 
 makers, many of whom were dead before tho 
 invention of the copper cap ; such as Henry 
 North, "W. Mortimer, Feuton, Hewson, &c. ; 
 but all these are warranted genuine. 
 
 "In making trial of the gun, care should bo 
 taken that it is what we will venture to call a 
 thoroughly agreeable piece ; that it is easy and 
 pleasant to handle ; that it fits the shoulder 
 well ; and that it is altogether an instrument 
 that pleases the eye. There is more in this hist 
 observation than many would think; for, if the 
 eye is not pleased with the appearance of the 
 piece, good shooting is apt to be marred by it. 
 After the examination, let the breeching be 
 taken out ; and remember that the screw, 
 both male and female, be examined carefully ; 
 that the male ribs and tho female indentations 
 fit so closely together as to harbour no wet ; 
 but that, when screwed up, they make a solid 
 mass. This is often little attended to ; but, if 
 the amateur will take out the breeches of some 
 of the cheap guns, he will be convinced, by the 
 ill-fitting of these important parts together, 
 of the liability of such guns to corrode, and 
 eventually to burst. AVe therefore say, buy no 
 gun that shows any marks of disunion between 
 the breech-screw and the barrel ; also, look 
 down it agaiust the glare of a large candle, 
 and if any flaw appears, let it be care- 
 fully examined with callipers. The breech or 
 breeches being replaced, proceed to an equally 
 close examination of every other part ot tuo 
 barrel. Next examine the stock and its mouut- 
 
 521 
 
THE TAEGET.l 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [tue target. 
 
 ings ; and, being satisfied of their soundness, 
 strengtli of parts, and general unity of action 
 tliroughout, the next step is to try the shooting 
 of the gun yourself. Gun-makers will them- 
 sches try a gun before you, and many of them 
 will do it fairly ; but others have various modes 
 of giving unfair advantages to the gun, and 
 taking them also tliemselves. In the range, 
 for instance, there are methods of slightly 
 balling the shot, so as to make them exhibit a 
 most tempting garnish. If you are on the prem- 
 ises of the gun-maker, unless he can show a 
 space of fifty yards in length, how can you 
 form an opinion of what may be the killing 
 extent of the range of this, or indeed of any 
 gun you may try there ? And even if you are 
 satisfied the piece will carry its shot so far with 
 a fair elevation only, do not fail to mark the 
 depth of indentation the shot make on the wall 
 or target. AVithout this proof of the strength 
 of the delivery of its charge, the shot may ball 
 among the feathers of the game when you 
 come to use it, but not enter the vitals or break 
 a wing. Let a good-sized trimmer be set afloat, 
 and blaze away at that, having some observant 
 person with you to mark the effects of the shot. 
 Suow on the ground afibrds a good indication 
 of the range and garnish of a gun, as well as 
 of its elevation, if you actually measure the 
 distance." 
 
 The Taeget. — An iron target will be found 
 sufficiently efficient for trying tlie range, gar- 
 nish, and force of the shot upon. Chalk it 
 well over, and renew the chalking after each 
 firing. A large linen sheet, or several large 
 sheets of white paper pasted together, should 
 be placed under the target to catch the shot ; 
 the figure of which, by being more or less 
 indented, will show the greater or less force 
 with which they were propelled against the 
 • iron. The surface of the paper laid down should 
 be considerable, or the rebound of the shot 
 will carry them beyond its limits. The trials 
 should also be varied by using different pro- 
 portions of powder and shot, not only as 
 regards their own relative proportion towards 
 each other, but likewise as they relate to the 
 qun. Daily trials should also be made under 
 every variety of circumstance; as the modes 
 of loading the gun, of holding it, its state of 
 being clean or foul ; and under every atmo- 
 spheric condition. 
 522 
 
 Por the target, milled-board will form au 
 excellent substitute, where iron cannot be 
 had ; and each sheet should be suspended by 
 tenter-liooks against a wall ; or, what is still 
 better, to a square or boarding raised on a 
 pole. " The dimensions of the square (or it 
 may be a circle if the trier pleases) will rest 
 with the sportsman ; we should recommend 
 one about a foot and a-half, marked off iu 
 squares, and the same crosswise, if a circle be 
 employed. The paper, when it is used, should 
 also, like a draft-board, be squared around 
 by chalked lines, drawn an inch and a-half or 
 two inches apart. At proper distances, on the 
 outer circumferences of the target or wall to 
 be shot against, tenter-hooks should be placed 
 to secure the brown paper. Measure off the 
 ground to certain distances, commencing at 
 fifteen yards, and increase each trial by five, 
 until it arrives to fifty yards, with as many 
 more as tlie trier pleases. As soon as a shot 
 has been made, note the range, the charge 
 used, the number of shot which have entered 
 each sq^imre, and the depth to which they have 
 penetrated. Chalk over each indentation, and 
 repeat the experiment at another distance." 
 
 The Encyclojpcedia of Hural Sports recom- 
 mends the squares or circles within the circles 
 of the target to be marked in such a manner 
 as to represent the dimensions of the various 
 kinds of game usually shot at. Thus, the first 
 square may be two inches, which will take iu 
 the snipe ; as that of two-and-a-half may be 
 considered appropriate to the dimensions of 
 the quail ; of tliree-aud-a-half to the woodcock 
 and young partridges. Older birds would 
 spread their limits to four inches; the grouse to 
 four-and-a-half; and the pheasant, if a hen, to 
 five ; and a full-grown cock would hardly escape 
 any shot that struck within the limits of the 
 square of five-and-a-half. Of course, the tips 
 of the wings of the birds here mentioned 
 might meet with a shot that extended beyond 
 the limits appropriated to it. We only give 
 some clue to a knowledge of what may bo 
 expected from the garnish of a gun as dis- 
 played on the trial. AVe have not yet ob- 
 served, that when much accuracy is required 
 in the trials, particularly if made by an un- 
 steady hand, a " rest" will be a great assis- 
 tance in gaining a just indication of the shoot- 
 ing of the piece. It is not unlikely that scmA 
 
lOADINO. 
 
 BV J'lELl), WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [loauiso. 
 
 may call tliia wire-drawing ; wo arc, however, 
 
 certain tlu'y will not belong to the body of 
 retloctiiig or cxporienced sportsmen ; tlioy will 
 know bettor how to appreciate rule, method, 
 and illustration. 
 
 LoADixo. — Success in shooting greatly de- 
 pends upon the art of loading properly. Tiio 
 lirst thing to be done is to squib up the gun 
 several times in order to dry it, and give a 
 httlo warmth to the barrel, before putting in 
 the load with which you are to begin your 
 dsy's sport. Tour gnu is here supposed to be 
 of the percussion make. Having squibbed 
 suflieiently, drawn up the cock, and removed 
 the broken cap, hold the gun in an upright 
 position, and pour in the charge, striking the 
 butt-cud of the piece against the ground, to 
 carry down such grains of powder as may be 
 lodged agaiast the sides of the barrel, and also 
 to settle it completely in its place. Now pass 
 down the powder-wadding until it reaches the 
 powder, on which it ought to be very lightly 
 pressed, not rammed. Next pour in the shot, 
 and give a shake or two to settle them evenly 
 and solidly in their bed. Place over them a 
 wadding of sufficient substance and elasticity 
 to preserve the shot in their posiiion ; for 
 which purpose give a pressure to the wad, 
 taking care, however, not to ram it hard. It 
 is usual, however, to give the first charge a 
 little more pressure than the charges that are 
 to succeed it. When the powder is wadded, 
 it will be well to observe whether it makes its 
 way into the nipple by the pressure of the 
 confined air, made in passing down the wad. 
 It does not always follow, that if the powder 
 is not seen in the pivot, it will not explode ; it 
 is, nevertheless, more satisfactory to see it 
 there; and when this is not tlie case, we 
 should give the breech a slight tap or two, to 
 introduce it further up the touch-hole. The 
 circumstance of the powder not being seen at 
 the touch-hole, is more likely to happen with 
 the perforated, or serrated waddings, made to 
 let out the confined air, than with those that are 
 entire. The last act of gun-loading is that of 
 putting on a fresh cap, and letting the cock 
 down very gently to fasten it on the nipple. 
 
 In charging the fiint-gun, it is also prudent 
 to fc^quib it first, and then to introduce the 
 powder and shot into the barrel. Sufficient 
 priming should be put into the pan, but not in 
 
 such quantity as to allow tho pnn-cowr to 
 crush it. If a double gun bo employed, it wilj 
 bo optional with tho sportHumn to load but'w 
 barrels alike, or to give, aa many do, a bchuo- 
 what heavier charge to tho second barrel, be it 
 right or left, that ho usually fires on tho 
 longest shots. If tho quantities of powder 
 used are the same in both barrehs, the size of 
 the shot may, for the second barrel, be a littlo 
 larger. i\Iany shooters increase tho quantity 
 of shot for tho charge of tho second barrel ; 
 but this can only be expedient when tho 
 weight of tho powder is somewhat increased 
 also ; and even then, by many, its propriety 
 has frequently been questioned. It is always 
 more or less dangerous to alter those exact 
 proportions between tho powder and shot 
 which experience has pointed out as buing 
 precisely suitable to the piece. When a guu 
 has been discharged, the barrel should bo 
 loaded while it is still warm ; for, when allowed 
 to cool, the moisture begins to settle on its 
 inner surface, and this catches some of the 
 finer particles of the powder-charge, and 
 either decomposes them there, or prevents 
 their falling to the oortora. In either case tho 
 detention diminishes the projectile force which 
 is to act on the shot. 
 
 What are found to be the just proportions 
 of powder and shot most suitable to his piece, 
 the sportsman should make it his anxious 
 study to discover. A considerable amount of 
 practice will be necessary for this; but it must 
 be done, if he wish to attain to the character 
 of being " a good shot." In experimenting for 
 this, he must make use of difterent kinds of 
 powder and shot — in short, adopt every 
 method and material that may suggest them- 
 selves to accomplish the end he has in view. 
 To achieve all this, requires not only nice ob- 
 servation, but a just mode of reasoning, and 
 the establishment of general rules, and tho 
 marking of their occasional exceptions ; all of 
 which mental habits are by no means very 
 common amor.g the ordinary run of sportsmen. 
 Hence it is that we find the actual practice of 
 shooting so loose and unscientific; and when 
 a man does succeed in practically acquiring 
 the art in the highest degree, he seldom has 
 the power of correctly communicating his 
 knowledge to others, or of marking, with suffi- 
 cient clearness, the various steps by wiiich he 
 
 523 
 
LOADING,] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [loading. 
 
 has attained a mastery amongst his craft. 
 Between just theories, and accurate practice, 
 there is always a wide gap ; and it happens, 
 now and then, that the one is made to throw 
 light on the other. 
 
 Many trials must be made with every fowl- 
 ing-piece before it can be fully ascertained 
 ■what are the proportions of powder and shot 
 that will suit it best, and produce the most 
 pleasant and most effective method of using 
 it. AVhen, however, something like a general 
 idea on the point is obtained, a series of what 
 may be called small experiments should be 
 made, in the way of variations in the quantity 
 of loading, that the truth of the general 
 opinions formed may be tested. A detonating 
 piece requires a little less powder than a flint- 
 gun; but the exact diflerence of proportion 
 between them is not a matter that can be 
 subjected to any general rule ; from a fourth 
 to a fifth less is often adopted. Colonel 
 Hawker says — " To load a single gun of six, or 
 double gun of seven, eight, or nine pounds' 
 weight, take a steel charger, which holds pre- 
 cisely an ounce and a-half of shot; fill it 
 brimful of powder, from which first prime, and 
 then put the remainder into the barrel ; to 
 this add the same measure bumperful of shot, 
 and then regulate the tops of your flasks and 
 belts accordingly." This, however, is the pre- 
 scription for a flint-gun, of which the colonel is 
 the segis. The same authority says, that for a 
 gun of twelve pounds these proportions may 
 be doubled ; for one of eighteen, trebled ; and 
 for one of twenty-four, quadrupled. Although 
 these proportions for powder be correct, yet 
 the experience of shooters shows that a certain 
 diminution of the quantity of shot should be 
 made for each kind of gun now mentioned. 
 The commonly received regulations are the 
 following : — The sixth part of an ounce of 
 powder for a single percussion-gun, and the 
 seventh for a double. The weight of shot for 
 an ordinary piece of this kind may be one ounce 
 and three-quarters ; a much heavier gun will 
 bear one ounce and seven-eighths. For a 
 double gun an ounce and three-eighths may be 
 used for the left barrel, and for the other an 
 ounce and five-eighths. Many sportsmen load 
 the left barrel with less shot than the right, 
 which has to be fired at a greater distance than 
 the first. A young sportsman, commencing to 
 524 
 
 make experiments on the gun he is about to 
 use in the field, should begin with small quan- 
 tities of powder and shot, notice the effect* 
 produced by an increase, and endeavour to 
 ascertain, with the most scrupulous care and 
 nicety, the exact proportions which are best 
 calculated for the make and calibre of his 
 piece. All written rules only serve as general 
 landmarks or finger-posts to direct the way to 
 set out on the journey, but cannot supply the 
 place of well-regulated experiments and accu- 
 rate observations. It may be remarked, as a 
 leading maxim in game-shooting, that heavy 
 loading does not facilitate the sportsman's 
 success. If too much shot be put into a gun, 
 the expansive force by which the charge is 
 thrown out will be disregarded, and, in conse- 
 quence, both its range and propulsive power 
 will be diminished ; if, on the other hand, too 
 much powder be used, it may be ejected, or at 
 least disturbed, before it acts on the mass of 
 shot. Such are the results of experience. 
 
 In loading a double-barrelled gun, the ram- 
 rod should not be put down one barrel whilst 
 the other is being loaded ; because, if a stray 
 grain of shot gets down, it may be so fixed by 
 the ramrod in the barrel, as not to be got out 
 without difficulty ; and it may even injure the 
 internal coating of the barrel. After the fired 
 barrel has been re-charged, the piece should be 
 slightly shaken, so that it may be ascertained 
 whether the shot in the right-hand barrel has- 
 been removed. If there is heard any vibra- 
 tion of the shot against the sides of the barrel, 
 then the charge must be more firmly rammed 
 down. The slightest vibration will detect the 
 loosened shot. 
 
 Mr. Greener, a gentleman of great expe- 
 rience of the gun, says, in reference to the 
 proper charge — " Suppose you begin with two 
 drachms, and vary the charge one-eighth of a 
 drachm each shot up to three-and-a-half 
 drachms, or, as may be required, according to 
 the length and bore of the gun, and, for pre- 
 cision, taking three sliots for each charge, at a 
 sufficient number of sheets of paper; which- 
 ever you find strongest, with the least quan- 
 tity of powder, that is the best charge, as very 
 likely the two additions of powder will shoot 
 equally strong, and yet not stronger, because 
 more of it remains uuburnt. Therefore the- 
 least quantity that shoots equally strong is tho- 
 
1,0 A 
 
 PINO.] 
 
 B i' 1" 1 1 : L 1), \v o u D, A .\ 1) w A r !•: r. 
 
 [I'K.Vt TISINQ. 
 
 proper chuiji^e, which having once ascertained, 
 uever chant^o tor any other person's phin. lu 
 respect to tlio proportion of shot, all guns, 
 according to tlicir boro and length, will shoot 
 a certain weight and a certain size of »liot 
 best. A great deal of shot in a small bore, lies 
 too far up tlio barrel, and creates an unneces- 
 Biirv friction ; and tho shot, by the coinpres- 
 biou at tho nionu'nt of expulsion, becomes 
 all shapes — a circumstance which considerably 
 aflccts and modifies its flight. If too great a 
 weight, the powder has not power to drive it 
 with the speed and force required to be efllca- 
 cious, because the weight is too great iu pro- 
 portion. Those who reason from mathemati- 
 cal calculation will object to this doctrine. 
 They say, the greater the weight the greater 
 the effect, ^o doubt it is so, if thrown with 
 a proportionate force ; but that cannot be ob- 
 tained with a small gun. "We must adapt the 
 weight of projectile force to the power we are 
 in possession of; and from experiments, accu- 
 rately made and recorded, we find that a four- 
 teen gauge, two-feet-eight barrel, should never 
 be loaded with above an ounce and a-half of 
 ehot (No. G will suit best), and tho utmost 
 powder she will burn. A fifteen gauge will 
 not require more than one ounce and a quar- 
 ter ; and no doubt No. 7 would be thrown by 
 her quite as stro ug as No. 6 by the fourteen- 
 gauge gun, and do as much execution at forty 
 yards with less recoil ; and, setting aside all 
 other reasons, we should prefer a fifteen-gauge 
 gun, if both be of a length, as we should find 
 as much execution at the same distance as 
 with the other." 
 
 As we have already observed, however, ex- 
 perience is the best teacher. That, and that 
 alone, is the only true and safe director in the 
 use of the gun. 
 
 To shoot a bird when on the wing is a feat 
 requiring great practice, and one which it is 
 sometimes very difficult to accomplish. Some- 
 times men are, themselves, not always in proper 
 trim for shooting. "We remember being out 
 on one occasion, on the borders of Perthshire, 
 for a whole day, with a good shot, and, although 
 birds were not plenty, they were not scarce ; 
 yet we only killed a couple of brace. On other 
 occasions the same shot was often most deadly. 
 But there are all manner of grades of ex- 
 cellence in shooting ; some will feel a degree 
 
 of self-complacency if thoy hit ouo bird in ten ; 
 while others will only miss ono out of aa 
 equal number. A good deal of tho proficiency 
 in shooting birds on tho wing may bo referred 
 to bodily temperament ; some persons aro so 
 nervously constituted, and so hurried in their 
 movements, that they never attain to tho de- 
 gree of coolness and self-possession requisite 
 for a good and steady marksman. A nervous 
 anxiety shakes their system too violently, and 
 they fire without obtaining any decided aim 
 whatever. Tho real foundation of the art of 
 shooting flying will be found to be in the sym- 
 pathy which exists between the eye and t!ie 
 hand, the sight and the touch, and the power 
 of so combining, as it were, the sections of the 
 two senses, that, in their united action, they 
 seem to be the efi'ect of one. The art of mea- 
 suring distances, and directing objects to a 
 definite mark, are learned by degrees ; and so 
 readily is this effected, that very often the best 
 shots are totally unconscious of the internal 
 process which is continually going on in their 
 understandings, when in pursuit of their game. 
 Some sportsmen shoot with one eye shut, 
 others with both open. There is no rule on 
 this matter; it is entirely resolvable into early 
 training and habit iu shooting flying. The 
 great desideratum iu all failures is a want of 
 coolness ; still, many writers say that coolness 
 may exist in excess, and that many birds are 
 lost from the fingers being too slow in their 
 movements after the game is on the wing. 
 
 It is good to go through the entire manual 
 training of shooting. To obtain a mastery iu 
 this fine art, it is best to begin at the 
 beginning. When we commence to be taught 
 the art of writing, we begin with strokes, and 
 go on progressing, until we have, with practice, 
 completely mastered the art of the caligraphist. 
 So, with learning to shoot, we should com- 
 mence in such a manner as will gradually lead 
 us to the attainment of the end in the highest 
 possible degree. With this point in view, tho 
 following plan has been recommended : — Let 
 the handling and the shouldering of the gun 
 be expertly acquired, in its unloaded state, 
 taking care to look at the heiglit, length of 
 arm, and the inclination of the shoulder of the 
 pupil. This handling of the fowling-piece 
 should be practised for an hour or two for some 
 days, until complete familiarity with all the 
 
 525 
 
PEACTISING.j 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [fiuixg. 
 
 required movements is obtained. Expertuess 
 in rising or depressing the gun to every kind 
 of level, and taking aim at various objects, 
 should be acquired. Holding the gun firm to 
 the shoulder is a great essential ; for anything 
 like looseness and unsteadiness in this par- 
 ticular is entirely incompatible witli the art of 
 shootinjr flvins:. The left hand should also be 
 placed close, or nearly close, to the trigger — 
 an act which, in a great measure, secures any 
 injury from the bursting of the piece. This 
 precautionary rule is, however, neglected by a 
 vast number of able and expert shooters, who 
 h;ive perfect confidence in their guns ; and 
 who maintain, that by placing the hand a little 
 forward, it prevents the piece from being point- 
 heavy, which is apt to cause an unpleasant 
 feeling. 
 
 After this initiation has been fairly passed 
 tlirough, the fields should be entered for the 
 purpose of practising at living objects, lairing at 
 martens aiid swallows has been recommended; 
 but others do not think this to be the best 
 means of acquiring the power of good fly- 
 ing shooting. The movements of these birds 
 are altogether difl^erent from those which dis- 
 tinguish game of all kinds. Sparrows having 
 been entrapped, and pieces of paper put round 
 their neck, and then let oft", make very good 
 marks. Learu the art of keeping both eyes 
 open. This is, with some, an extremely diffi- 
 cult matter to attain, as young lads are often 
 from infancy accustomed to take aim only with 
 one eye — the right one. These early habits 
 are sometimes so powerful, that it is almost 
 liopeless to expect their relinquishment in after 
 life. " If the young shooter begins to shoot 
 with both eyes open," says Colonel Hawker, 
 " he will save himself the trouble of learning 
 to shoot so afterwards. An aim thus from 
 the right shoulder, comes to the same point as 
 one taken with the left eye shut, and it is the 
 most ready method of shooting quicJcy Celerity 
 of motion should be learned ; but the happy 
 medium between snap-shot and dead-shot 
 should be considered the principal point, and 
 sedulously studied. 
 
 A steady and decisive jQode of walking and 
 standing is another point requiring great at- 
 tention in the shooter. An indecisive gait, and 
 ever\ thing indicating the slightest degree of 
 hurry or trepidation, are inimical to successful 
 526 
 
 sport. It is said that a firm placing of the 
 limbs greatly assists the arms in readily and 
 gracefully elevating and presenting the fowl- 
 ing-piece. In the regular ranks of the 
 soldiery, we never witness anything like trepi- 
 dation. There, every movement is performed 
 with the utmost coolness and precision ; and 
 the same should be observed by the sportsman 
 in the field. The gun should be carried with 
 the barrel upwards, and sloped towards the 
 left arm, the lock being clasped by the hand 
 of that side, the fingers embracing tlie stock, 
 which allows the arm, tliough supporting the 
 gun, to do it with readiness and ease, and to 
 be placed with facility within the grasp of the 
 hand previous to the designed elevation. The 
 points are, " to carry the gun with the cock 
 inwards, and down, and the side of the stock 
 imbedded against the inside of your left arm, 
 taking an easy position, considerably below the 
 chest." 
 
 " In the acts of cocking," says the clever 
 author of the Kunoposdia, " let your fore-finger 
 quit the front of the trigger, and, extending 
 itself sloping forward through the guard, only 
 feel the side of it with a gentle pressure. 
 Your body, by this action of throwing out the 
 butt, combined with the step-out of the left 
 leg in taking form, will be brought with its 
 weight principally upon that limb ; a position 
 assumed as more immediately called for, when 
 the flight is nearly in a line from you, or to 
 the left, which will comprise four out of five 
 of all your shots." Again, when the word 
 Present ■' is used audibly or mentally, let tho 
 barrel, at the moment, inclined over the left 
 shoulder, be swept in a circle forwards with a 
 smart motion, the fore-finger of the right hand 
 (sloping, as we have before placed it through 
 the guard, and clear of the front of the trigger) 
 being, as it were, the centre of motion upon 
 which the gun turns during the sweep ; by 
 which action the butt should be raised nearly 
 to its full height, and then brought back with 
 something of a thump into its place within the 
 slioulder, whilst, at the same time, an increas- 
 ing grasp with the left hand, which till now 
 has kept its hold rather loosely, combines with 
 that of tlie right hand upon the gripe of the 
 stock, to keep it firmly there. The direction 
 of the barrel to the mark, or what may be 
 termed the line of level, to be taken, in the first 
 
n 
 
 itijrcj.] 
 
 IJV FIHLI), WOOD, AM) W A T H R. 
 
 [riiu.va 
 
 instance, a little below that which, ns already 
 dniwn by tlie eye to the object, wo may dis- 
 tin"uisli by tho imino of the linfi of s'njht. 
 The latter should bo lirir rfiul immovable ; to 
 which a preciao udjusLii'vnt of the line of level 
 must tiiially bo made by an easy llexure of tho 
 upper part of tho body altogether, but without 
 any looscniiig or twisting of tho butt from its 
 firm hold within tho shoulder ; ami on tho in- 
 staut that you get these two lines in contact, 
 or, in other words, at the moment that you 
 bring the muzzle of your gun from your lirst 
 level below, bear direct upon tho object. 
 
 In all these directions, examples, or illustra- 
 tions of them, should be given by the expe- 
 rienced shooter, when the eye of tho pupil 
 would far more readily embrace their scope, 
 and the understanding comprehend their appli- 
 cation much easier than by any other mode of 
 tuition. Hence, if the tyro can be taken to the 
 field in company with a tried hand, or, in other 
 words, a practical sportsman, he will much 
 sooner attain a mastery over his gun, than he 
 will be able to do if he pursues his sport 
 entirely alone, and depending for success only 
 on the necessarily tardy progress of his own 
 experience.. However acute may be his un- 
 assisted perceptions, his progress will still be 
 comparatively slow ; therefore, he sliould en- 
 deavour to court the experience of another, 
 who is an adept in his art, and who, generally 
 speaking, will afford him all the assistance 
 that lies in his power. There is this charac- 
 teristic of sportsmen — that they are rarely 
 niggardly in giving instruction in tlie use of 
 the arm in which they take such delight them- 
 selves. Their opinions, too, no matter how 
 widely they may differ, are always more or 
 less valuable. They are so much added to the 
 general stock of experience, and afford to the 
 tyro the greater variety to choose from. His 
 own practice must confirm him in the use of 
 the one or the other ; and, no doubt, he will 
 act upon the one which, in his judgment, 
 appears the best. In giving his directions to 
 the tyro, Colonel Hawker thus writes, in 
 reference to the movements of the gun : — 
 
 " Before an object crossing — full high for a 
 oird rising up, or flying away very low, and 
 between the ears of liares and rabbits running 
 straight away ; all this, of course, in propor- 
 tion to the distance ; and if we consider the 
 
 velocity with which a bird flies, we shall rarely 
 err by firing at tho crosHing bird, when 
 at furty yards, at least five or six inches 
 before it. A a tho barrels of double guns 
 usually shoot a little inwards at long dis- 
 tances, there is, so far, a preference in fav.mr 
 of tho right barrel for an object crossing to tho 
 left, and vice versa,; so that, if we were beating 
 along tho sides of a hedge, it would bo beat to 
 keep the barrel next to it in a state of pre- 
 paration. Till the pupil is fully master of all 
 this, he will find great assistance from the 
 sight, which he should have precisely on tlie 
 intended point when he fires ; he will thus, by 
 degrees, attain the art of killing game in good 
 stylo, which is done by fixing his eyes on tho 
 object, and firing tho moment he has brought up 
 the gun. He may then, ultimately, acquire the 
 knack of killing snap-shots, and bring down a 
 November bird the moment he tops the 
 stubble, or a rabbit popping in a furze-brake, 
 with more certainty than he once used to shoot 
 a young grouse in August^ or a partridge in 
 September." 
 
 To young sportsmen, the Ecv. B. Sy- 
 monds says — " When a bird gets up he is 
 certain he cannot kill it (we must premise 
 that his gun is uncharged), therefore he can 
 wait until lie gets the bird at the end of 
 his gun. He must never draw unless posi- 
 tive of seeing the bird in that very point of 
 situation. Let it go ; every fresh spring of 
 the bird will make the sportsman more com- 
 posed ; and, as tho tremor wears off, he will 
 grow more uniform in his manner of getting 
 to it, till, at last, he will cover it almost to a 
 certainty, or very near the same distance. 
 Let him accustom himself not to take his gun 
 from his arm till the bird is on the wing, and 
 never to vary his eye from tho very one he 
 first fixed upon. Three words should be men- 
 tally used, with a pause between, before he 
 puts his piece to his shoulder; this will keep 
 him, as it were, in awe of himself; and as 
 there is no charm in any particular combina- 
 tion of letters at this time. Hold! Hall! 
 Kow ! may serve as well as any. A day thus 
 spent, he may put some powder in the pan, 
 and flash away in that manner ; the next, pur- 
 suing the former direction, till he can stare 
 with steadiness, and pull with a wink. Tho 
 day following, load with powder only ; and he 
 
 027 
 
FIEINQ.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [precat:tions. 
 
 should continue this lesson two or three days, 
 more or less, till he is as calm as if the leather 
 was still in the chaps. Now the grand and last 
 trial— complete loading. If he feels any 
 flutter or anxiety on his advance to the point, 
 let him draw his shot at once ; nay, powder 
 also, before he goes up to his dog, and repeat 
 this, toties quoties, till he has whipped himself 
 into good temper, and disappointed himself 
 into the accomplishment of his wishes. In 
 cross-shooting, if a bird goes to the left, step 
 forward with the right foot ; and the contrary, 
 if to the right hand. This removes at once 
 the complaint often made, of not killing one 
 way so well as the other. Shoot at the head 
 iu every direction, if possible ; and there can- 
 'jiot be any necessity for greater allowance. 
 In elevation, let the front of the guard be a 
 stop for the gripe of the left hand ; in which 
 situation, if the barrel should burst, it will not 
 be so liable to be injured ; and the thumb 
 being erect, an avenue is artificially made by 
 means of its corresponding with the cock nail, 
 tliat gives great direction to the eye. The 
 moment that the eye, in conjunction with the 
 muzzle of the gun, bears upon the object 
 aimed at, fire ; for when the eye bears too 
 long on the object, the sight becomes weak- 
 ened, whilst the object itself is extending the 
 distance between itself and the shooter." 
 
 One of the standing topics of discussion 
 among sportsmen, is the average distance of a 
 fair shot. Much has been said and written 
 upon this question ; and, like all questions 
 upon which much is both said and Wiritten, it 
 has become as hazy in some minds as a Scotch 
 atmosphere in the month of November. Forty 
 yards is, however, pretty generally allowed to 
 be a fair average shot; but there are m.any 
 who kill at almost double that distance. The 
 subject, however, is not susceptible of any de- 
 termined solution. Most sportsmen know, 
 with tolerable accuracy, what can, and what 
 cannot be done by their fowling-pieces. 
 
 A code of laws for the government of par- 
 ties shooting in company, has been framed, in 
 order to determine what is right and what is 
 wrong practice in the field. In this code, all 
 birds that cross, are to be considered as be- 
 /Ongiug to the gunner to whose side their 
 heads are pomted, unless a previous under- 
 standing was come to, that either party may 
 528 
 
 take an after-shot at a tailing bird. When 
 single birds rise and go away fair for either 
 party, it may be proper to have it previously 
 understood that such should be taken alter- 
 nately by each shooter. 
 
 Precautionary oiservations are commonly 
 appended to all formal treatises on the gun. 
 These are frequently of great value; yet they are 
 often disregarded ; and to the volume of acci- 
 dents which have already talcen place, through 
 carelessness, an additional sheet is every season 
 appended. Even this, however, is far from 
 being a complete record of all that happens, 
 whilst some of them are of the most painful 
 description. The habit should be formed to 
 attend to certain minute matters ; when this 
 is acquired, it becomes second nature, and 
 affords a firm confidence in the mind of the 
 sportsman himself, as well as in that of his 
 friend. 
 
 In reference to the mode of carrying a gun, 
 Mr. Daniel is especially particular. He says, 
 " Always hold the gun with the left hand, 
 close to the guard, and not forward upon the 
 barrel, but strongly grasp it near the entrance 
 of the ramrod, which has been very frequently 
 strenuously recommended. All the requisite 
 steadiness in taking aim, and even of motion, 
 in traversing the flight of a bird, can be ob- 
 tained by thus holding the heaviest pieces; 
 and, in case of a barrel's bursting, the cer- 
 tainty of having a hand or arm shattered, by 
 grasping the barrel, is reduced to a certainty 
 of escaping some of the eff'ects of such an 
 accident, by placing the hand close to the 
 guard beneath it. "With double guns a danger 
 arises, from the shooter, after fii-ing but one 
 barrel, often setting the butt of the gun upou 
 the ground. A sense of self-preservation will 
 soon render it habitual not to do this ; and a 
 man who is so absent, or eager, as to disregard 
 this precaution, had better confine himself to 
 carrying a cane, instead of a gun." 
 
 The following remarks are worthy of the 
 sportsman's attention: — 
 
 1st. If you or your dog should at any time get a 
 severe blow, instantly foment the wounded part for 
 at least half-an-hour with warm water, as hot as can 
 be borne, and you will thereby greatly reduce your 
 sufferings, and also the time you will be kept from 
 your sport. . , 
 
 2nd. If you burn yourself m shootmg, wrap the 
 part affected immediately in cotton, the application 
 
yaEOAUTioxs.] 
 
 BY IIKLI), WOOD, AM) WATHR. 
 
 [l'UECAUTI05S. 
 
 of which, like magic, in ameliorating the effects of a 
 
 burn. 
 
 3ril. K you sliouUl take colil, antl tho infl:imma- 
 torv process becomes rapii'., batlio your feel in wnnn 
 water, as hot ns you can bear it; if a little suit or 
 bran, or both, be atUleil. so much the better. Get 
 into a warm bed. and take some whey, or whatever 
 can be j:ot to promole perspiration. 
 
 4th. Never fast too lonj;. and avoid anything ap- 
 proAchini: to excessive fiiti<,'ue. 
 
 5th. Ntvcr },'o out with a stomacli quite empty, to 
 wail for },Mtne of any kind, particularly in the morn- 
 ing. Should you wish to rise early, before any of 
 ihe household are up, you can have a little crust of 
 bread or a biscuit, w ith a glass of milk, left for you 
 the night before. This may be taken with a little 
 sugar, nutmeg, ginger, and the yolk of an e^g. 
 Tnese items are superior to what is called tiie 
 "Doctor" (rum and milk), because you then dis- 
 •)ense with taking sjiirit in the morning— a habit 
 that should always be avoided, except you are sport- 
 ing in a country where ague is prevalent. In this 
 case a little spirit is advantageous. 
 
 6th. Never sit down with wet feet, nor with wet 
 clothes on any part of your body. If a change 
 cannot be procured, keep walking about; or, what 
 is better, go to bed, till some dry clothes can be 
 procured ; or. if you want to start again, after tak- 
 ing refreshment, 'first wet your feet with spirit or 
 essence of mustard, and then be as quick as possible 
 in taking your refreshments. Many take the spirit 
 internally,' instead of applying it to the feet; but this 
 is invariably bad. Nothing produces chilly and damp 
 kind of feelings readier than spirit taken internally 
 under such circumstances. To keep the frame warm, 
 dry, and comfortable, is the surest plan of increas- 
 ing your sporting pleasures, and of rendering them 
 really conducive to health. 
 
 If all sportsmen were aware of the care which 
 some artists take of not introducing a false hue 
 or shade into their drawings and paintings; 
 or if they saw the care with which good authors 
 criticise their writings, and substitute one word 
 for another, they would surely be much more 
 careful in a matter of infinitely more conse- 
 quence to themselves. In other words, they 
 would be extremely anxious in looking after all 
 that relates to the use of the gun. "When a 
 keeper of the Earl of Chesterfield was prepar- 
 ing for the field, in January, 1TS9, and stoop- 
 ing to buckle on his spur, as be sat with his 
 gun resting on his knee, and the muzzle close 
 to his cheek, it seemed improbable that a part 
 of the lock should break at that particular point 
 of time; but his instantaneous death was the 
 terrible efi;ectof liis not having guarded against 
 what was possible. The muzzle of the gun 
 pointing obliquely upwards, and between the 
 left elbow and left cheek, if the piece fires ever 
 3t 
 
 80 often by accident, can never do harm ; and, 
 from this position, it njay bu pre.sentod witli 
 more ease, expedition, and correctnoaa, thau 
 from any other. Beware of the niuzzlo of tho 
 gun being kept hanging downwards: wlien so 
 carried, tho shot is apt to force its way from tho 
 powder, especially in clean barrels. If it hap- 
 pens that a space of sixteen or eighteen inches 
 is thus obtained, and tho gun fired with its 
 point at all inclined downwards, it is ten to ono 
 but tiie barrel bursts. There are other peri- 
 lous consequences besides tho disruption of 
 the barrel ; for men, horses, and dogs, are in 
 perpetual danger of being shot wlien a gun is 
 carried in the before-mentioned pendent man- 
 ner. In sliooting with a stranger, who, per- 
 haps, keeps his gun cocked, and the muzzle 
 usually pointed to the left, plead for the riglit- 
 hand station, and urge that you cannot hit a 
 bird flying to the left. "With a game-keeper, 
 take the right hand without ceremony. In 
 getting over a fence, endeavour to go last, not- 
 withstanding tho usual assurance of, " My dear 
 sir, I am always remarkably careful ;" and, if 
 a person beats bushes with a cocked gun, get 
 out of liis company as a shooter, with all pos- 
 sible expedition. Eecollect, both in the house 
 and in the field, always to consider a gun as 
 loaded, and never suffer it to be pointed, for a 
 moment, towards any human being. 
 
 Before entering upon tho amusement of 
 shooting, we will explain some of the terms 
 used by sportsmen, and with which fowlers 
 only are supposed to be acquainted. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal plirases : — A sege of 
 herons and bitterns; a herd of swans, of 
 cranes, and of curlews; a depping of shel- 
 drakes ; a covert of coots ; a spring of teals ; a 
 gagqle of geese ; a sord, or side, of mallards ; 
 a iadelynge of ducks ; a levy of quails ; ti 
 muster of peacocks ; a nije, or nide of pheasants; 
 a covey of partridges ; a tvnlk of snipes ; a con- 
 gregation of plovers ; a luilding of rooks ; a/«// 
 of woodcocks ; a Irood of hens ; a murmuration 
 of starlings , a JUght of swallows ; a host of 
 sparrows ; a charm of goldfinches ; and a watch 
 of nightingales. 
 
 Having now initiated tho young sportsman 
 into all that is necessary for the successful 
 pursuit of his art, we will, in our next chapter, 
 enter into the mysteries of Grouse Shooting. 
 
 529 
 
WHAT QEOITSE AEE.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [■WOOD GE0U3B. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GEOTJSE SHOOTING. — WHAT GROUSE AEE ; WOOD GKOrSE, OR CAPERCALLIE ; BLACK GROUSE; RED 
 GROUSE; PTARMIGAN; LOCALITIES OF GROUSE. 
 
 Having now treated of all that we deem the 
 most essential matters to be attended to as 
 the preliminaries to the actual sport of shoot- 
 ing, and having given such instructions as 
 cannot fail to be serviceable to those who are 
 desirous of entering the field as sportsmen, 
 and of becoming what are usually called 
 **good shots," we will now enter upon the 
 actual practice of shooting itself ; introducing 
 the reader to the different sorts of game which 
 have the magnetic power of attracting the 
 lover of the gun from the mansion to the 
 moor, where, under the influence of fair or 
 foul weather, he is still an enthusiast in the 
 pursuit of his sport. In the sense in which 
 we have just used the word game, of course the 
 reader will understand that we mean it to be 
 applied only to such animals as are usually con- 
 sidered so in this country ; or, in other words, 
 to such birds and beasts as come under the 
 protection of the game-laws. Such animals as 
 lions, tigers, and elephants, may be accounted 
 game in the eyes of the Indian sportsmen ; 
 but as these monsters of the woods and wilds 
 of the tropics have neither home nor habita- 
 tion in the moors and manors of Scotland and 
 England, we shall have no occasion to make 
 any observations on the best manner of shoot- 
 ing them. Our province lies within tlie boun- 
 daries of our own island; and it is to its 
 feathered and furred wild inhabitants that our 
 remarks will be confined. 
 
 WHAT GROUSE ARE. 
 Sir William Jardine informs us, in his 
 Naturalises Library, vol. iv., that, "by the 
 word Grouse, we, in general language, are apt 
 to associate our ideas with the common moor- 
 fowl. But, in the technical terms of ornitholoerv 
 the generic name, Grouse and Tetrao, is re- 
 stricted to those bearing the form of the Euro- 
 pean wood grouse, dusky grouse of America, 
 &c. They are the largest birds of the family ; 
 of a very round and powerful form, and fre- 
 530 
 
 quent healthy forests in preference to the 
 wild and open moor; perch and often roost 
 upon trees, where young shoots and tender 
 bark supply them with food ; and although the 
 legs are plumed with short feathers, the toes 
 are naked. The tail is composed of broad 
 feathers, and is proportionably long and 
 rounded. They are mostly polygamous, and 
 the females and young differ considerably from 
 the males ; the plumage of the former being 
 shades of brown and tawny, with black bars 
 and markings ; the colours of the latter dis- 
 tributed in broad masses of black, glossy 
 green, or steel-blue, and deep brown. They 
 inhabit North America and Europe; those of 
 the latter country extending into Northern 
 Asia." 
 
 THE WOOD GROUSE, OR CAPERCALLIE. 
 
 The looocl grouse (Capercallie, cock-of-the- 
 wood, or giant grouse) is polygamous, and, when 
 incubation begins, the male selects a situation 
 remarkable for its couspicuousness ; and here 
 he commences his call which attracts the 
 females, and which he accompanies by throw- 
 ing himself into various attitudes. This call 
 is described as resembling the word jjeller, 
 peller, peller, which is answered by the females 
 croaking somewhat like ravens, and rapidly 
 assembling from all parts of the surrounding 
 woods. When this gathering has become 
 sufficiently numerous, the male descends from 
 his eminence, introduces himself, and joins 
 the company. His gallantry, however, soon 
 ceases, and his loves do not seem to partake 
 of that romantic or inextinguishable nature 
 which we have known to be exhibited in the 
 history of higher races. When his females 
 commence incubation, be abandons them, 
 and skulks among the brushwood, where he 
 renews his plumage, and leaves his wives to 
 hatch, and rear their progeny as tliey best can. 
 He stands at the head of feathered game in 
 these islands, but he is very seldom to be 
 
WOOD oaorsE.] 
 
 HV FIKLI), WOOD, A.N D WATKK. 
 
 [ULACK UUOL'8£. 
 
 met with. From authentic accounts, it ap- 
 pears ho onco abounilt'il in the foroats of both 
 Sootland and Ireland. Bewick describes him 
 thus : — " 1I»3 is as Iar;:;o as a turkey, and is 
 about two feet nine inciies in Icnj^tli, and 
 wei^'hs from twelve to fifteen pounds. Tho 
 bill is very strong, convex, and of a horny 
 colour; over each eye there is a naked skin of 
 a bri|»ht red colour; the eyes are hazel, the 
 nostrils are small, aiul almost hid under a 
 covering of short featliers, which extend under 
 the throat, and are there much longer than tho 
 rest, and of a black colour; the head and neck 
 are elegantly marked with small transverse 
 lines of black and grey, as are also the back 
 and wings, but more irregularly ; the breast is 
 black, richly glossed with green on the upper 
 part, and mixed with a few white feathers on 
 the belly and thighs ; the sides are marked 
 like the neck ; the tail consists of eighteen 
 feathers, which are black ; those on the sides 
 are marked with a few white spots ; the legs are 
 very stout, and covered with brown feathers ; 
 the toes are furnished on each side with a 
 strong pectinated membrane. The female is 
 considerably less than the male, and differs 
 greatly in her colours : the throat is red ; the 
 transverse bars on tlie head, neck, and back, 
 are red and black ; the breast is of a pale 
 orange colour; belly barred with orange and 
 black ; the top of each feather is white ; the 
 back and wings are mottled with reddish 
 brown and black ; the scapulars tipped witli 
 white ; the tail is of a deep rust colour, barred 
 with black, and tipped with white." 
 
 The pairing season of these birds commences 
 about the spring, the sexes having assembled 
 together in packs, during the winter, of fifty or 
 a hundred in number. When the pairing has 
 been effected, the female makes a rude kind of 
 nest ; she lays from eight to sixteen eggs. The 
 young, like farm-yard fowls, are active, and can 
 run along as soon as they leave the shell ; and 
 it is even said that they have frequently been 
 seen looking afler their living, with part of that 
 appendage hanging to them. 
 
 These birds are now rare in this country ; 
 but, in some parts of the continent, particularly 
 in Sweden, they form an important item in 
 the game-list. They are commonly, in this 
 country, flushed from the ground in autumn, 
 when they are feeding on a species of berry, 
 
 I of which they are pnssionatoly fond. Their 
 (ligiits are but very short; and if there are any 
 trees in tho way they usually alight upon tho 
 branches. In tho forest, capereuliies do nut 
 always present an easy mark; for, di|»piiig dowu 
 from the pines nearly to the ground, uu fre- 
 quently is tho case, they are often almost out of 
 distance before an aim can be properly taken. 
 No. 1 or 2 shot may answer wry well, at 
 short range, to kill the hens; but, for tho 
 cocks, the sportsman should bo provided with 
 iimeh larger. Towards the commencement, 
 and during the continuance of the winter, tho 
 capercallies aro generally in packs; these, 
 which arc usually composed wholly of cocks 
 (the hens keeping apart), do not separate until 
 the approach of spring. These packs, which 
 are said to comprise fifty or a hundred birds, 
 usually keep to the sides of the numerous 
 lakes and morasses, with which the northern 
 forests abound ; and to stalk the same in the 
 winter-time with a good rifle, is no ignoble 
 amusement. 
 
 There have been various attempts made to 
 re-introduce these birds into Great Britain. 
 The late Mr. Fowell Buxton, and the Earl of 
 Breadalbaue, spared neither money nor care 
 to have them reared in this country. But the 
 success attendant on their anxiety has not 
 been great. 
 
 THE BLACK GROUSE. 
 
 The Block Grouse (Tefrao Tetrix, Linn.) is 
 a noble-looking bird, and is commonly desig- 
 nated the Blackcock, and the female the Grey- 
 licn. According to Mr. Daniel, the male bird 
 is from one foot ten inches to two feet in 
 length ; but some specimens have exceeded 
 this by three inches. Tiie breadth is about 
 two feet nine inches. The ordinary weight is 
 nearly four pounds ; but some stray birds in 
 the moors of Cumberland, have gone beyond 
 this by half a pound and more. The bill is of a 
 dusky blaek ; the eyes dark blue, below each of 
 which there is a spot of a dingy white colour, 
 and, above the larger, one of a bright scarlet. 
 The plumage of the whole bird is very im- 
 posing. It is of a shining bluish black, and 
 very glossy over the neck and rump. The 
 coverts of the wings are of a sort of dull 
 brown ; the greater are white, which runs along 
 to the ridge of the wings, forming a spot of 
 
 531 
 
BLACK GROUSE. J 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [black GmOTJSE. 
 
 that colour upon the shoulder when the wing 
 is closed. The quills are brown ; the lower 
 parts and tips of the secondary ones are white, 
 and make a bar of white across the wing. 
 There is likewise a spot of white upon the 
 bastard wing. The legs and thighs are tole- 
 rably thickly covered with dark brown feathers, 
 mottled with white. The toes are toothed on 
 the edges, like those of the capercallie. The 
 tail is much forked, and consists of sixteen 
 black feathers ; the end of the outer feather, 
 which curves outwardly, seems as if separated 
 or cut off. The feathers under the tail, and 
 the inner covers of the wings, are of a pure 
 white. The female bird is considerably less 
 than the male ; having a length only of one 
 foot six inches, and a breadth of two feet six 
 inches. Its weight averages about two pounds. 
 Like the male bird it has a dusk}^ mark beneath 
 the eye. The head and neck are marked alter- 
 nately with bars or stripes of dull red and 
 black ; and the breast has a dusky white and 
 black appearance. The coverts of the wings, 
 the back, and the tail, are of the same colour 
 as the neck, with the exception of the red 
 being of a deeper hue. The inner webs of the' 
 quill feathers are spotted with black and white. 
 The inner coverts of the wings are white, and 
 there is a white spot on the shoulder of both 
 the male and female birds. In the latter, the 
 tail is slightly forked, and it consists of 
 eighteen feathers richly variegated with red 
 and black. Under the tail the feathers are 
 white, marked with a few bars of black and 
 orange. The nest on the ground is of the 
 most simple and artless kind. The female 
 lays from six to eight eggs, which are of a dull 
 yellowish-white colour, marked with a number 
 of very small ferruginous specks, and, towards 
 the smaller end, with some blotches of the 
 same hue. They are hatched late in the 
 summer. The young males quit their mother 
 in the beginning of the winter, and keep in 
 flocks of seven or eight until spring. During 
 that period they frequent the woods. In their 
 first feather they resemble their mother, and 
 do not acquire their full plumage till near the 
 end of autumn, when it gradually changes, 
 and assumes that bluish-black colour which it 
 afterwards retains. 
 
 The black grouse, like other members of the 
 family, are polygamous ; and in January, 
 532 
 
 Febrixary, and March, the plumage of the male 
 bird assumes a rich glossy steel blue, which, 
 with his majestic form, imparts to him a very 
 imposing appearance. At the beginning of 
 spring, when the severity of winter has passed, 
 the males, after feeding, may be seen congre- 
 gated together on some turf-furze, sheep-fold, 
 or rude paling, pluming their wings, and prac- 
 tising various devices to attract the notice of 
 the female. "Here," says Sir William Jar- 
 dine, " after, perhaps, many battles have been 
 fouglit, and rivals vanquished, the noble, full- 
 dressed blackcock takes his stand, commenc- 
 ing at first dawn ; and where the game is 
 abundant, the hills, on every side, repeat the 
 murmuring call, almost before the utterers can 
 be distinguished. The cocks strut around the 
 spot selected, trailing their wings, inflating 
 the throat and neck, raising and expanding 
 their tails, and pufiing up the plumage of 
 those parts, and the now brilliant wattle above 
 the eyes, displaying the beautifully contrast- 
 ing white under-covers, and imitating, as it 
 were, the attitudes of the little turkey-cock. 
 He is soon heard by the females, who crowd 
 round their lord and master." After incuba- 
 tion is fairly commenced, this fighting among 
 the males is at an end. When the young are 
 hatched, the mother guides them to some high 
 situation where there is plenty of shelter from, 
 long grass and luxuriant herbage, and where 
 an abundance of food can readily be obtained. 
 This consists, in summer, of the seeds of the 
 cranberry, crowberry, and blackberry, &c.; and 
 in the winter, of fir shoots, and the catkins of 
 hazel and birch, which impart to their flesh a 
 peculiar flavour, well known to epicures. 
 
 The black grouse are to be found in many 
 districts of England — on Leith Hill, Ashdowu 
 in St. Leonard's, and in the New and the 
 Bere forests. They likewise abound on the 
 estates of the Marquis of Auglesea, at Beau 
 Dessert, Staffordshire, Barnstable, Devonshire ; 
 and in many of the moor districts of Northum- 
 berland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, 
 and Yorkshire. 
 
 The shooting of the black grouse does not 
 commence till the Ist of September ; and they 
 are esteemed as royal game. They are generally 
 considered as shy birds ; but those who are 
 acquainted with their haunts, find no great 
 difficulty in reaching them. They are partial 
 
nED OROrSE.] 
 
 r>Y yiELH, WOOD, AND WATKK. 
 
 [red grouse. 
 
 to long ling and roughish cop30-wood. Under 
 the bank of a deep ravine, particularly in mid- 
 day, and if tliero bo a cold wind blowing, they 
 w ill bo readily found. The young aro compara- 
 tivelv tamo till they have moulted; and the 
 eporUnian has often almost to hick them out 
 from among low thick brushwood. After they 
 have donned their new coat of feathers, they 
 seem to increase in wisdom and cunning ; and 
 frequently bid delianco to the art of the shooter. 
 
 Black grouse require full-sized shot; and a 
 single is often preferred to a double-barrelled 
 gun. According to the strict laws of sporting, 
 it is not held good to kill the hen bird. 
 
 In Kussia these birds are numerous, and 
 they are captured by the use of decoys. Huts, 
 full of loopholes, like little forts, are built pur- 
 posely in the woods. Decoy birds are placed 
 at a short distance from these spots. These 
 are mere artificial imitations, made of black 
 cloth. As the grouse assemble, the shooters 
 fire through the openings ; and if they succeed 
 in keeping themselves out of sight, the birds 
 are not frightened by the mere report of the 
 gun. In this way large numbers are killed. 
 During the winter season, in Siberia, the in- 
 habitauts capture them in the following man- 
 ner: — A certain number of poles are laid hori- 
 zoutally on forked sticks, in the open forests 
 of birch ; small branches of corn are fixed to 
 them by way of a lure ; and, at a short dis- 
 tance, certain tall baskets, of a conical shape, 
 are placed with the broadest part uppermost : 
 just within the mouth of the basket a small 
 wheel is put, through which passes an axis so 
 nicely fixed as to admit it to play very readily, 
 and, on the least touch, either on one side or 
 the other, to drop down and again recover its 
 position. The birds are soon attracted by the 
 corn on the horizontal poles ; and, after alight- 
 ing upon thera, and feeding, they ily to the 
 baskets, and attempt to settle on their tops, 
 when the wheel drops sideways, and they fall 
 headlong into the snare. 
 
 THE RED GROUSE, 
 The lied Grouse {Tctras Scoiicus, Linn.) 
 has the same noble bearing characteristic of his 
 other congeners, and is, in the northern parts 
 of Great Britain, the bird that gives the most 
 shooting of the Grouse family. Its length is 
 about fifteen inches, and it weighs about nine- 
 
 teen ounces. The bill is black, the eyes hazel, 
 
 and the nostrils shaded with small red ami 
 black feathers. At tho base of the lower bill 
 there is a white spot on each side. The throat 
 is red, and each eyo is arched witii a largo 
 naked spot. Tho body is beautifully mottled 
 with red and black feathers, and has a tortoise- 
 shell appearance. Tlie breast and belly aro of 
 a purple hue, and crossed with small dusky 
 lines. Tho tail consists of sixteen feathers, of 
 equal lengths ; and tho four middlemost aro 
 barred with red, and tho others are black. Tho 
 quills aro of a dusky colour, and the legs aro 
 clothed with soft white feathers down to the 
 very claws, which aro of a strong texture, and 
 of a light-brown colour. Tho female is a little 
 less than the male. The naked skin abovo 
 each eye is not so conspicuous, and the colours 
 of its plumage, in general, are much lighter 
 than those of the male. 
 
 This species of grouse pair in the spring, 
 and lay from five to ten eggs, and occasionally, 
 but not often, twelve. Sometimes these aro 
 found on the bare ground, and sometimes on a 
 rude kind of nest, composed of a little heather 
 and moss. This is generally placed iu a some- 
 what sheltered and secluded situation. Both 
 male and female birds attend to the young, 
 and guard them with all the vigilance of which 
 they are possessed, against their numerous 
 enemies, in the shape of vermin, and birds of 
 prey. The young, or poulis, follow the mother 
 the entire summer, in tho same manner as 
 partridges do ; nor is the male bird neglectful iu 
 watching over the welfare of the brood, although 
 he generally keeps alone, and remains somo 
 distance from them. The practice of burning 
 the ling is often very destructive to eggs of 
 the grouse ; and thousands are annually de- 
 stroyed in this way. 
 
 The habits of red grouse are not of so wild 
 a nature as are those of others of the same 
 family. Birds of this kind have occasionally 
 been entirely tamed. A gentleman in Ireland 
 had, for several seasons, two brace of birds, so 
 domesticated, that he used to take them into 
 his parlour, where they played with his setter 
 dogs. They are often found descending from 
 the moors, and locating in the vicinity of corn- 
 fields, and sheltering themselves among the 
 stubble, both of barley and oats. In severe 
 winters, when pressed for food, they will leave 
 
 533 
 
EED GEOUSE.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [bed GEOUSE. 
 
 the hills and visit the cultivated grounds, and 
 •will even, sometimes, be found perched on the 
 tops of the labourers' dwellings. 
 
 A bird of this kind ought to be a favourite 
 with maulvind — a favourite, we mean, apart 
 from any gastronomical pleasures its flesh may 
 afibrd. In hunting him, " the light air of the 
 early morning," says Sir William Jardine, 
 " and the free, open, almost unbounded pros- 
 pect, exhilarate the spirits ; while the boldness 
 of the game upon discovery, erectly uttering 
 his cry of warning to his brood — his vigorous, 
 lengthened flight, so as to create doubts of his 
 being again seen — carry with them a continua- 
 tion of excitement long after it ia satiated 
 with following the skulking black game, or 
 the more rural one of waking-up partridges. 
 But, independent of this claim upon the 
 sportsman, it has another. The red grouse is 
 exclusively confined to the British Islands, and 
 has never been found in any part of the 
 continent; and it would be much regretted, 
 if unlimited persecution, or want of preserva- 
 tion, should, in after years, exterminate the 
 bird so exclusively natural." 
 
 The shooting of red grouse has been largely 
 handled by different writers ; and many minute 
 particulars, as well as contrary opinions, have 
 been laid before the public on the subject. 
 
 Mr. Daniel informs us, that in shooting red 
 grouse, the old English spaniel or setter is 
 better adapted to follow the gun than the 
 smooth pointer. The former has a better 
 nose, and bis feet are defended by long hair 
 from the chafing efiects of the ling, which, in 
 dry weather, cuts like wire. Setters, also, 
 have the advantage of being generally of 
 higher metal than pointers, and exhibit more 
 zeal, and more untiring courage. They re- 
 quire, however, a plentiful supply of water; 
 and this is sometimes a great drawback to 
 their use during the very hot months of August 
 and September. Some gentlemen well skilled 
 in grouse-shooting, take the pointer in pref- 
 erence to any other kind of dog; so that, 
 perhaps, upon the whole, there may be a fair 
 balance of advantages accorded to each kind. 
 
 Red grouse difter in numbers and in size, 
 according to the season. Wet, cold, un- 
 genial weather, not only retards the pairing of 
 the birds, but is likewise extremely prejudicial 
 to the hatching of the broods, which, in fine 
 531 
 
 sunny days, take great delight in revelling 
 in the luxury of a pure atmosphere. When 
 they emerge from the shell, they assume, 
 among sportsmen, the name of cheepers ; and 
 when they advance to a more stately size, 
 they are called poults. They are to be found 
 on their feeding-grounds, both morning and 
 evening ; but when disturbed, seek out some 
 favourite spot of shelter, chiefly in those sec- 
 tions of the moors which abound with long 
 ling and roughish brushwood. 
 
 The time of the year has considerable in- 
 fluence on the habits and movements of the 
 grouse. Frosty weather is favourable for their 
 capture, as they then seem very torpid and 
 lifeless. Wet and windy weather is not 
 favourable to the shooter. At such times the 
 birds leave the high grounds, and seek out 
 sheltered spots in some comparatively dry aud 
 secluded localities. Eed grouse generally be- 
 come very wild in the months of November 
 and December ; althougli, when the season is 
 favoui'able, some good days' sport may still be 
 obtained. The lower and sheltered grounds 
 are then the best places to find them ; for the 
 advancing season daily cuts off their resources 
 in food, and they are driven to seek provender 
 in lower and more cultivated grounds. 
 
 In rising, grouse almost take a perpen- 
 dicular direction, and then fly in a straight 
 line, at an elevation of ten or twelve yards. 
 The exact moment to fire, is when they are just 
 about to change from the perpendicular to 
 the rectilinear direction. There is a sort of 
 pause in their flight, which is favourable to 
 the sportsman, when he can avail himself of 
 this movement. But this requii'es a quick 
 eye, and a good deal of practice. When red 
 grouse begin to associate in large num- 
 bers, as they invariably do about the end of 
 October, or the first or second week in 
 November, they are approached with consider- 
 able difiiculty ; for they post sentinel birds 
 to keep a look out, and it is a mere chance 
 if you can get within a hundred and fifty 
 yards of them. When the weather, however, 
 becomes, and continues long cold, this wild- 
 ness is considerably abated, aud they often 
 show themselves as tame as barn-door fowls. 
 
 Colonel Hawker directs that, " for shooting 
 grouse, select a fine sunshiny day, from about 
 eight till five in August and September, aud 
 
BED onorsE.] 
 
 B i F 1 !•: LI). WOO I), A X 1) W A T M Iv'. 
 
 ITAItMliiAN. 
 
 from eleven to three nt the later periods of 
 the season, as they are thou oxtrcmely wild, 
 and will only lie toU-rably during the lew 
 hours which are favoured by a warm sun. 
 I'nloss the weather is very line, you will see 
 t.iom runniii;;, and f^ftting up live hundred 
 v:\rda before you. In this case, let one person 
 take an immense circle, so as to head them; 
 while the other remains behind to press them 
 forward wlion he is ready; and, above all 
 things, you should, for killing tliem at this 
 time° use either No. 1, 2, or 3 shot, in the 
 largest single gun you can possibly manage ; 
 or, what is better, a good stout double gun, 
 with Ely's cartridges. Grouse take a harder 
 blow than partridges, and do not lly quite so 
 regular and steady." 
 
 Should a sportsman be solitarily engaged in 
 shooting red grouse, ho ought not to travel 
 far, but hunt the ground well. This not only 
 saves much fatigue, but often leads to success. 
 Birds do not generally take very extended 
 flights ; and if the ground should be irregular 
 or undulatory, they will commonly be found 
 on the sides of some bill, or knoll, or where 
 the liug is long and strong. They are always 
 variable, even when there is no apparent cause 
 to the sportsman's comprehension for their 
 being so. Their movements depend upon 
 circumstances which are hidden from our 
 scrutiny, and which we have not generally the 
 power to discover. There is always a chance 
 of meeting with birds where the berries of the 
 ling are plentiful, particularly if these locali- 
 ties be visited at a proper time of the day. 
 Noontide is not a very favourable period ; but 
 when the mists bang long on the mountain's 
 brow, it is the only time a shooter has to practise 
 his art. Then he should be up and doing. He 
 should range the country in the spirit of one 
 who is not only bent on making his sport a 
 pleasure, but a source of health, heightened by 
 the enjoyment of the beautiful and the grand 
 in Nature, wherever she unfolds those attri- 
 butes before him. It should always bo re- 
 membered that the mere amusement of shoot- 
 ing is by no means all that is to be obtained 
 Irora a judicious handling of the dog and gun. 
 Tiie field and the forest, the mountain and 
 tl;e glen, have each its appropriate points of 
 attraction. One has its beautiful kine to gaze 
 on ; another its melodious birds to delight the 
 
 ear; another its majestic form towering up to 
 the sky ; whilst another allords u channel to a 
 stream of " sweet waters," that ia rolling itself 
 to some distant loch. These are somo of the 
 objects to bo enjoyed whilst engaged in Hhoot- 
 ing, with which they should be connected in 
 the mind of every sportsman. 
 
 Till': rTARMIG.VN. 
 The Flarmigan, or WItitc Grouse (Tetrao 
 Lagopus, Linn.), is found in almost every part 
 of Europe, the northern portions of Asia and 
 America, and, some writers say, even in Africa. 
 According to Sir William Jardine, it ia spread 
 over most of the Alpine districts of Europe; 
 and is sought for with great perseverance, as, 
 to the inhabitants of these inhospitable re- 
 gions, it is an actual necessary of life. This 
 bird is nearly of the same size as the red 
 grouse. Its bill is black, and its summer 
 plumage is a pale brown, or ash colour, and 
 the upper parts of the body are mottled with 
 a number of small dusky spots and bars. On 
 the head and neck these bars are broader, and 
 more intermingled with white ; as are, like- 
 wise, the wings, with the exception of the 
 shafts of the quills, which are black. In the 
 winter season this plumage is changed into 
 pure white, except that, in the male, there is a 
 black line between the bill and the eye. The 
 tail consists of sixteen feathers, the two middle 
 ones being ash-coloured in summer, and white 
 in winter ; the two next, slightly marked with 
 white near the ends, and the rest are wholly 
 black. The upper tail coverts are tolerably 
 IcKig, and almost cover the tail entire. Its 
 habitat is found to be on high and lofty 
 grounds, and it can bear the most intense 
 cold. It even lives and thrives amid the 
 snows of Greenland. In Britain it is chiefly 
 found in the Highlands of Scotland, in the 
 Hebrides and Orkney islands, and, occasionally, 
 in the more elevated localities of Cumberland 
 and "Wales. Bufl'on tells us, that it sedu- 
 lously avoids heat, and loves the biting frosts 
 on the tops of the highest mountains; and 
 when the snow melts on the sides of the hills, 
 it constantly ascends to loftier regions, till it 
 gains the summits on which it forms holes, 
 and burrows in the snow. These birds pair at 
 the same period as the ordinary grouse. The 
 female lays eight or ten eggs, which are white, 
 
 535 
 
PTAEMIOAK.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [gkouse localities. 
 
 spotted with brown. There is no form of nest 
 prepared; they are laid on the bare ground. 
 In winter the birds congregate in flocks ; and 
 they are so little accustomed to the devices of 
 the fowler, that they suffer themselves to be 
 easily taken either with the snare or the gun. 
 They feed on the wild and rough produce of 
 the hills, which imparts a bitter taste to their 
 flesh, though it is not by any means unpalata- 
 ble. It is of a dark colour, and, in taste, re- 
 sembles that of the hare. 
 
 This kind of grouse has attracted the atten- 
 tion of sporting writers, on account of the 
 singularity of its character and habits ; and 
 many valuable reflections on the general har- 
 monies of nature have been made on the sub- 
 ject. It is contended that its plumage is ad- 
 mirably and singularly adapted to the general 
 appearance of the grounds it frequents. The 
 brown patches of heath, on the rocky declivities 
 of the mountains, are so assimilated to the 
 broken and blended tints of the summer plu- 
 mage of the bird, that it is very favourable for 
 the purpose of concealment. When the whole 
 country is covered with snow, and presents one 
 extended mass of dazzling white, the dress of 
 the bird is again suited to this change of 
 nature, and greatly assists in its preservation. 
 The plumage is now not only white, but very 
 thick and downy; and even the legs are thickly 
 clothed with feathers resembling hairs, which 
 secure the limbs to the very toes. 
 
 As we have already intimated, the ptarmigan 
 family are to be met with in all the elevated 
 and Alpine regions of Europe, and in North 
 America. 
 
 " The }ialac8s of Nature, whose vast walls 
 Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, 
 And tluoned Eternity in icy halls 
 Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls 
 The avalanche — the thunderbolt of snow ! 
 All that expands the spirit, yet appals, 
 Gather round these summits, as to show 
 How earth may pierce to heaven, yet leave vain man 
 below." 
 
 In Greenland they are taken by nooses, 
 hung to a long line drawn by two men, who 
 drop them over their necks. They eat them 
 with train oil, or lard ; and tlicir skins are 
 "■onverted into shirts to wear next the skin. 
 The Laplanders take them by forming a hed^e 
 with the boughs of birch trees, leaving small 
 53G 
 
 openings at certain intervals, and hanging on 
 each a snare. The birds being tempted to 
 come and feed on the buds of catkins of the 
 birch tree, pass through the openings and are 
 caught. In North America, in the territories 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company, and in the 
 neighbouring countries, there are immense 
 numbers of ptarmigan taken every season. 
 And here it is curious and instructive to notice, 
 that as the frost becomes intense, the feathers 
 of the bird, with the exception of those of the 
 wings and tail, become double — a downy one 
 shoots out from the base of each, which pro- 
 vision seems admirably fitted to protect the 
 bird from the piercing effects of the long-con- 
 tinued cold. In the months of October and 
 November, flocks of two and three hundred 
 assemble, and take up their residence among 
 the willows, the tops of which they greedily 
 devour. Hence they are often called the 
 loillow partridge. We are told by travellers, 
 tliat their flesh is much esteemed at Hudson's 
 Bay, and in many provinces of North America. 
 Nets, twenty feet square, and supported on 
 poles, are used for their capture ; and they are 
 so numerous, that ten tliousand have been 
 taken from November to April. In the locality 
 of Hudson's Bay, they must, at one period, 
 have been extremely abundant. Sir Thomas 
 Button relates, that in the winter of 1612, he 
 took eighteen hundred dozen of these and 
 other fowl. This capture may surprise us ; 
 but the success and appetite of M. Jerome, 
 and his companions, surprise us still more, 
 when it is known that there were taken and 
 eaten, in one winter, between himself and 
 seventy-nine others, 90,000 grouse, and 25,000 
 rabbits, being about 1,125 grouse, and 312 rab- 
 bits per man. 
 
 GROUSE LOCALITIES. 
 Even from the general conversation of sports- 
 men in London, it may be known that grouse- 
 shooting, of which they are so passionately 
 fond, has its locality principally in the north. 
 Being off to the moors, is synonymous to being 
 off to Scotland; for it is there, among the 
 hills, that the grouse is to be found ; and, after 
 the 12th of August, the gun may be heard 
 reporting its presence with a rapidity that 
 proves the fatal work in which it is engaged. 
 In former days, there used to be found con- 
 
GKOi-sE LOCALITIES.] BV TIKLU, WOOD, AM) WATEII. [fiiiousE locvutieb. 
 
 fiiderable quantities of black grouse in tbo New 
 Foreat of irampshiro, in 80ino pnrts of Devon- 
 shire, Stallordshiro, and Uerbyshiro ; but it is 
 uow quostionablo if there bo any, cither of 
 this spooiod of tho grouso family, or of tho rod 
 grouse, in these parts of England. Tho nioora 
 of Yorkshire are, to tho London sportsman, 
 the nearest spots whcro any portion of grouso 
 can readily be obtained; and even there, for, 
 several years, there has been a diminution of 
 their numbers progressively going on. The 
 increase of manufacturing and mining opera- 
 tions in this section of tho kingdom, has been 
 the principal cause of this ; and, as these are 
 further extended, tho birds will retreat still 
 further northward, until they finally locate 
 themselves amid the solitary wildernesses of 
 Scotland. 
 
 Tho cheap and rapid mode of travelling by 
 railway has, however, thrown open to the Eng- 
 lish shooter, considerable tracts of moorland that 
 were scarcely accessible before ; he can traverse 
 the country from London to the distant High- 
 lands of Scotland in a day, and can find moors 
 and game to his heart's content. There are, 
 however, wide ranges of grousing country nearer 
 home. The moors of Westmoreland, Cumber- 
 land, and Northumberland, are very extensive ; 
 and there are great numbers of grouse upon 
 them, of all kinds. There are, in Westmore- 
 land, shooting districts of immense extent; but 
 the country is so wild, bleak, and mountainous, 
 that a guide is necessary for strangers, and a 
 pocket compass is indispensable. The Cum- 
 berland moors are likewise extensive, and pretty 
 well supplied with grouse; but here, too, the 
 country is exceedingly wild and rugged. In 
 tho neighbourhood of Hexham, in Northum- 
 berland, and in the moors belonging to the 
 Duke of Nortlmmberland, at Keilder Castle, 
 grouse were wont to be plentiful, and the 
 range of country is a very interesting one in 
 point of scenery. England, Ireland, and 
 Wales, however, must yield to Scotland as 
 grousing countries. 
 
 This comparatively Alpine land can now, by 
 railway and steamboat, be threaded in all its 
 localities, at a very small cost of time and 
 money. The sportsman can transport himself, 
 m a few hours, from one spot to another, a 
 couple of hundred miles apart; and this gives 
 him a great command of the whole country. 
 3 z 
 
 If one spot docs not como up to his oxpccta- 
 
 tioiis, he can removt* luinsclf and I'stablinhinent 
 to another, an advaiitago wliieh tho gruusO" 
 shooters of former times did not pottaoss. 
 Then, a removal to any great distuueo on- 
 grossed nearly half of tho shooting season, and 
 was attended witli great expense. 
 
 To expatiate upon tho noblw scenery which 
 a Highland shooting excursion presents, is 
 superlluous, as tho localities most remarkable 
 for this have often been described by tourists, 
 anglers, <fec. ; but still, to an intelligent and 
 imaginative grouse-shooter, these mountaia 
 peaks and passes must be ever new and full of 
 interest. In many places, the sportsman will 
 find guides indispensable, especially if he 
 wander among the more northern heights, 
 such as those of Bcii-na-huird, Cairngorum^ 
 and Ben-macdui, which lift their snowy sum- 
 mits to an elevation of nearly four thousand 
 feet above the level of tho ocean. An expe- 
 dition with the gun to any of these parts is 
 quite an adventure, and must be performed on 
 foot; and as there are few cottages to be 
 found amongst them, the sportsman must not 
 forget to supply himself amply with provisions, 
 as the sharpness of the air whets the appetite, 
 and hunger is a bad companion upon the soli- 
 tary sides of a measureless mountain. Every- 
 thing here is upon a scale of singularly wild 
 and rugged magnificence. The mountain tor- 
 i^-eiitg — some of which are almost one continued 
 waterfall— foam and dash over ledges of rock, 
 and peculiarly afi"ect the mind of the spectator 
 by their grandeur and turbulence. The higher 
 glens are likewise surrounded and hemmed in 
 by rocks and precipices, clothed with tho 
 birch aud heather, and so far removed from 
 human ken, and human sympathy, that they 
 are seldom visited, save by the red deer and 
 the eagle. Here shooting is both a fiitiguing 
 and dangerous amusement ; for if the sports- 
 man be a complete novice to such scenes, the 
 chances are that he will tumble over some 
 pointed and half-hidden elevation, and, may- 
 hap, break both his head and his fowling- 
 piece. AV'heu less elevated localities are fre- 
 quented, the shooter will find a small Highland 
 pony of some service. Though attended with 
 care and trouble, it will transport him more 
 easily over a larger tract of country ; but 
 where a man is in robust health, and has youth 
 
 537 
 
GEOTTSE LOCALITIES.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [BEEAKIXa DOGS = 
 
 on his side, there is nothing like footing it, as 
 it keeps him independent in his movements 
 and rambles, improves his health, and exalts 
 his spirits, and enables him to enjoy his sport 
 with an intensity unknown to the pampered 
 body of the luxurious lounger. 
 
 "We have already observed, that England, 
 Ireland, and Wales must yield the palm to 
 Scotland as a grousing country ; but there are 
 in "Wales considerable ranges of grousing 
 grounds ; and the Black mountains, which divide 
 the counties of Hereford and Brecknock, have 
 some good sporting localities. The country is 
 like the Highlands, wild and rugged, and the 
 sportsman will find some of the higher eleva- 
 tions laborious to reach. The only method, in 
 many cases, is to follow the rough paths of the 
 mountain torrents, which, being dry, afibrd a 
 kind of winding way to the highest grounds. 
 The picturesque beauty of the country is 
 beyond all description and praise, and must be 
 seen to be duly appreciated. 
 
 In Ireland there are some tolerable hills, 
 but they are far behind Scotland, and even 
 some parts of Wales. In the counties of 
 Cork, Limerick, and Tipperary, in the vicinity 
 of the Galty mountains, there are both black 
 and red grouse, with a fair sprinkling of other 
 kinds of game. There is likewise a fair por- 
 tion of grouse in the Kerry, Wicklow, Clog- 
 heen, and Negagh mountains. The moor bird 
 shooting is not quite so fatiguing in the Eme- 
 rald Isle as it is in Scotland ; but the general 
 accommodation is superior in the latter coun- 
 try to that of the former. Ireland is, by some, 
 highly extolled for grouse shooting ; while 
 others speak very indifferently of its supplies 
 of this kind of game : but the truth will be 
 found to be, that in some well-preserved locali- 
 ties there is an abundance ; while in others, 
 which are equally prolific, there is a remarkable 
 Bcarcity, arising chiefly from poaching, and 
 indirect means taken to destroy them. In 
 travelling through this country, it has been 
 remarked that, wherever there is a numerous 
 and poor peasantry, game of all kinds is 
 scarce. It can easily be imagined how pre- 
 cious to a half-starved Irishman will a well- 
 stocked preserve of grouse be ; and how diffi- 
 cult it must prove for him to keep his hands 
 olf them, as a nice relish to his meal of 
 potatoes. 
 538 
 
 The following remarks of Mr. Laseelles, on 
 the subject of breaking dogs to the moors, 
 and other points, are really so practically valu- 
 able, that, notwithstanding their length, we 
 cannot resist the temptation to quote them: 
 
 " An English atmosphere," he observes, " is 
 generally much more favourable to this diver- 
 sion than a Highland one, as, from the innu- 
 merable lochs, and the immediate vicinity of the 
 ocean, the mountains are so concealed in the 
 vapours arising from them, as, at all times, to 
 render a day's sport extremely precarious. A 
 very little will soon cause a grouse to be- 
 come wild and uuassailable ; and the chance of 
 pursuing him to any advantage is very uncer- 
 tain, until, perhaps, in the middle of the day, 
 when the sun may establish a temporary influ- 
 ence. His habits are exceedingly regular, al- 
 ways taking his food and water at particular 
 times ; the latter at noon : he will then retire 
 to the sunny side of some bank, and, beneath 
 the cover of high heath, bask in all the de- 
 light of imagined security. If a good shot 
 suddenly come upon a brood in this situation, 
 he may, very frequently, annihilate the whole ; 
 for they will immediately separate in difterent 
 directions, and each bird will get up singly, so 
 that he has nothing to do but restrain the ar- 
 dour of his dogs, and in some measure, also, 
 that of himself. The impetuosity with which 
 many sportsmen, and young ones in particular, 
 travel over their ground, is one great reason 
 why they meet with so little game. They no 
 sooner find a brood, and gain one shot, than 
 they give up any idea of further pursuit, 
 without even marking the progress of their 
 flight, or that of an individual, which may, per- 
 haps, be induced to shorten or vary his, from 
 the infliction of a wound. Erom the circum- 
 stance of heath presenting so continued and 
 smooth a surface, and the little variation in 
 every object upon it, it is more difficult to 
 mark down a grouse with certainty than a par- 
 tridge; but, by following the course of hiiu 
 carefully with your eye, and afterwards trying 
 in that direction, you will seldom fail of gain- 
 ing his retreat. It should be a maxim with 
 all sportsmen, never to leave a yard of ground 
 untried which is likely to harbour a bird ; by this 
 means you will sooner learn the nature of game 
 of all descriptions, teacli your dogs a better 
 system of duty, and give yourself a very 
 
BHEAKiNO DOGS.] BY' F 1 K L D, WOOD, AM) WATKK. [hueakino uoos. 
 
 decided advnntftgo indeed, over every other per- 
 son who pursues a diflVrent method. Aeeordiiiij; 
 also to the number of dogs you hunt, at tlio sanio 
 time will bo your clianeo of sport ; where you 
 possess sueh a latitudeof range, a greater scope 
 is open to your exertions; and, as tho fatigue 
 of moor-shooting is much more severe than 
 that of any other anuisement, you should en- 
 deavour, by every means, to reduce its eirects. 
 Two brace of got)d steady dogs arc, iu my 
 opinion, the number best calculated for this 
 purpose ; and they will work as long as any 
 gentleman ought to continue out. The plan 
 whicli many sportsmen adopt, is to shoot with 
 one brace of pointers till tho time of dinner, 
 and then take a brace of fresh ones for a couple 
 of hours in the afternoon, working the four al- 
 ternately, morning and evening. The method 
 suits very well with such a system ; but there 
 are few men who feel inclined to renew their 
 endeavours after a cool and comfortable repast ; 
 and a good fire then becomes a luxury, which 
 we are seldom willing to make so immediate 
 and voluntary a resignation of. Provided every 
 dog be tolerably steady, you can scarcely, in 
 reason, trust too many together ; but, where 
 there is a want of discipline, or where it is 
 totally disregarded, it would be absolute folly 
 to use more thav one. The opinion which is 
 held by many, of tho advantage attending a 
 dog's running up to his game, appears to 
 me a strange subversion of every principle of 
 profit or satisfaction ; it totally ruins that cool 
 and even conduct which should characterise a 
 good shot, and excites a contention generally 
 terminating in mutual discontent. The danger, 
 also, is, in many respects, not the least objec- 
 tionable feature ; for, in the anxiety of the 
 moment, you may forget to mark the second 
 barrel ; and, should you stumble, whicli is by 
 no means an improbability, its contents may 
 be lodged in the first object that unfortunately 
 intervenes. I have known an instance, also, 
 where, in the struggle for possession, the 
 thumb of the sportsman had nearly been sacri- 
 ficed to the consequence of disappointment in 
 bis dog. 
 
 " There is yet another objection to this mode 
 of breaking, which is, perhaps, still more serious; 
 and that is, tho alarm that is given not only to 
 a single bird, but frequently to a whole brood 
 or covey, which instantly take wing, and de- 
 
 prive you of tho chanco of rotardinfj tlieir 
 ilight. I had a dog oneu Hunt mu which had 
 been broken acconling to this system ; and as 
 there is eomethiiig ratlier e.\trnordinary in the 
 nmdo T pursued to teach him better maniiers, [ 
 will relate it: — lie Imd been shot oviT two 
 seasons ; was handsome and well-bred, with one 
 of the finest nosi-s I ever knew, aiul as fleet a« 
 a fox-hound. Tho morning when I first had 
 him, which was in Septetiiber, I took him out 
 alone, and had the good fortune (for it was a very 
 scarce county for game) to find a covey almost 
 immediately ; ho pointed a moment, and then 
 ran in ; but the birds separated ; and the first I 
 afterwards shot at fell within thirty yards ou 
 the opposite side of a wall. I was, perhaps, 
 long iu getting over ; and when I did, Beau 
 had not only swallowed the bird, but the 
 feathers also. To begin a new system of dis- 
 cipline would, I thought, then be premature, 
 as we were scarcely acquainted, and I had the 
 rest of the birds all marked down. I got five 
 more single shots, and killed four, luckily in 
 ground where we were upon more equal terms ; 
 the fifth, which went away wounded, he followed 
 with all the impetuosity of unrestricted desire, 
 and actually took a gate flying, and gave tongue 
 like a spaniel ; iu truth,! never in my life saw 
 more determined lewdness. At that moment 
 I was very much in want of a pointer, or I 
 should not, most likely, have taken the pains 
 with him I did. For the remainder of the 
 month, and the whole of October, I took him 
 out, at least, five days in every week, with one 
 single steady old bitch that would do anything 
 I bade her ; he never was, in the least degree 
 tired or distressed ; no country was too dry 
 for hira, nor any covert too strong; and he 
 gave such decided proofs of natural excellence, 
 that I used every endeavour to restore its 
 lustre. I began with severe measures, for he 
 was grown too old iu iniquity to hope any 
 success from mild treatment. I tried excessive 
 flogging for a fortnight, but that had no effect 
 whatever ; in addition to this, I made use of a 
 long trash, which a boy laid hold of whenever 
 I fired, and who not only checked his im- 
 petuosity, but corrected him well at the same 
 time, for displaying it. So long as he was 
 under this immediate restraint he was more 
 cautious of olTending; but from the instant 
 it ceased, he resumed his former habits. I 
 
 539 
 
BREAKING DOGS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [packing- GAjIE. 
 
 next tried a very sharp spiked collar with cord 
 attached to it ; and to have him at all times 
 within reach, I loaded him with shot, by hang- 
 ing about two pounds round his neck, so that 
 he might be said to be in a constant state of 
 exertion. Finding, however, that all this was 
 mere trifling, and that after reducing the 
 length of the cord to about two yards, and 
 fastening the end to the middle of a good 
 strong hazel — which had the effect, at any ex- 
 traordinary or improper exertion, of pulling 
 him completely over — I had not the most 
 distant prospects of remuneration, I was at 
 the point of yielding to necessity, when a 
 circumstance happened, which gave me an op- 
 portunity, once more, of trying how far this in- 
 subordinate spirit might be reduced. The old 
 bitch began to show symptoms of approaching 
 desire ; and, during the period of their amour, I 
 allowed him a perpetual and unlimited inter- 
 course with her, keeping him, at the same time, 
 low in flesh, and taking them both out together 
 as usual. In the course of a couple of days, I 
 found so decided a change for the better, that 
 I persevered more diligently in the plan of re- 
 striction ; "which, at the end of a fortnight, 
 so completely succeeded, as to leave me in 
 possession of an animal which, of his kind, 
 was the very best I ever saw. The produce, 
 also, of that litter was invaluable, and required 
 less breaking than any dogs I ever was master 
 of." 
 
 As sportsmen often make presents of game, 
 540 
 
 it is very necessary to know how they should 
 be preserved and packed, so as to keep them 
 agreeable and sweet until they arrive at theii 
 destination. Mr. Thornhill says — " If you wish 
 to send your game to any distance, never draw 
 it, particularly a grouse ; that is, do not follow 
 the usual directions of taking out the entrails. 
 The best mode is, not to pack them until they 
 are perfectly dry First of all, procure blad- 
 ders, and put a brace or more in one, if the 
 bladder will contain them ; tie the bladder 
 tight round the neck, and seal it with sealing- 
 wax, to prevent the air from getting in ; and, 
 in that state, if they are put into boxes, they 
 will keep for three weeks, if required." The 
 compiler tried this experiment last year, and 
 found that it answered better than any mode 
 he had ever before made use of. He sent a 
 gentleman some game from Cumberland to 
 London, packed as described ; and the gentle- 
 man not being at home, it lay in the box till 
 his return, which was fifteen days after its 
 arrival ; and this gentleman assured him that 
 he was surprised to find, on eating it, that it 
 was as good as if killed only the day before, 
 and was perfectly sweet, although the dis- 
 tance it went was nearly three hundred miles. 
 Colonel Hawker says—" To send grouse any 
 distance, put pepper to the parts where 
 tliey have been shot, as well as into their 
 mouths ; then pack them, carefully separated 
 from each other, and kept as air-tight as pos- 
 ^ sible in boxes of hops." 
 
THK i'ahtridqe.] by riELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the i-artiudoe. 
 
 ('iia]'ti:k v. 
 
 Tin: I'.VKTllIDGK. 
 
 TiiK pnrtridgo of Crltnin (Tttrao I'crdix, 
 Limi.) is of two kinds; the one is the grey, or 
 common partridge ; and the other is sometimes 
 termed the French partridge. Bewick tlius 
 describes the common partridge : — " It is 
 about thirteen inches in length. Bill liglit- 
 browu, eyes hazel ; the general colour of its 
 plumage is brown and ash, beautifully mixed 
 with black. Each feather is streaked down 
 the middle with bufl', and the sides of the head 
 are tawny. Under each ej'e is a small saffron- 
 coloured spot, which has a granulated appear- 
 ance ; and between the eye and the ear there is 
 a naked portion of skin, of a bright scarlet, which 
 is not very conspicuous except in old birds. 
 There is a crescent on the breast, of a deep 
 chestnut ; and the tail is short and drooping ; 
 the legs are a greenish white, and furnished 
 with a small knob behind. The female has no 
 crescent on her breast, and her plumage, in 
 general, is not so distinctive and bright as that 
 of the male. The moult takes place once 
 a year." It was long a received opinion among 
 sportsmen as well as naturalists, that the 
 female partridge has none of the bay feathers 
 on the breast, like the male. This, however, 
 on dissection, was proved to be a mistake ; for 
 Mr. i\Iontague, happening to kill nine birds in 
 one day, with a very slight variation as to 
 the bay mark on the breast, was led to open 
 them all, and found that live of them were 
 females. On carefully examining the plumage, 
 he found that the males could only be known 
 by the superior brightness of colour about the 
 head ; which alone, after the first or second 
 year, seems to be the mark of didLinction. 
 Partridges are chiefly found in temperate 
 climates, the extremes of heat and cold beins: 
 equally unfavourable to them. The female 
 lays from fourteen to eighteen or twenty eggs, 
 making her nest of dry leaves and grass, upon 
 the ground. The young birds run as soon as 
 hatched, frequently encumbered with a part of 
 the shell attached to them. The affection of 
 
 the partridgo for her young is peculiarly 
 strong and lively ; slie is also greatly assisted 
 in the care of rearing them by her mate ; they 
 lead them in common; call them togetlier; 
 gather for them their suitable food, and as- 
 sist in i)rocuring it by scratching the ground. 
 I They frequently sit close to each other, 
 , covering their offspring like the common hen. 
 In this situation they are not easily flushed : 
 j the sportsman who is attentive to the preserva- 
 I tion of his game, will carefully avoid giving any 
 j disturbance to a scene so truly interesting; 
 but should the pointer come too near, or run 
 in upon them, there are few who are ignorant 
 of the confusion tliat follows. The male first 
 gives the signal of alarm by a peculiar cry of 
 distress, throwing himself, at the same time, 
 more immediately in the way of danger, 
 in order to mislead the enemy : he flies, or 
 rather runs along the ground, hanging his 
 wings, and exhibiting every symptom of de- 
 bility, in order to decoy the dog, in the too 
 eager expectation of an easy prey, to a dis- 
 tance from the covey. The female flies off in 
 a contrary direction, and to a greater distance ; 
 but returns soon after by secret paths ; and she 
 then commonly finds her scattered brood 
 closely squatted among the grass, when she 
 collects them with haste, and leads them from 
 the danger, before the dog has had time to re- 
 turn from the pursuit. 
 
 The partridge subsists chiefly upon grain, 
 along with small seeds from other plants. 
 Her nest is made on the ground in grass fields, 
 among standing corn, in clover, in furze, and 
 sometimes even at the top of a ditch. The 
 eggs are generally laid in the month of May; 
 and, from this time to the latter end of June, 
 the process of nidification takes place. In all 
 the stages of this natural process, the male 
 bird takes a certain share. AVheu the brood 
 is hatched, he manifests the greatest solici- 
 tude, and leads them abroad in search of ants' 
 eggs, and larvaj among insects, llis call is iu 
 
 541 
 
PABTEIDGES.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [PAETEIDttE SHOOTING. 
 
 a sharper key than that of the female. Natu- 
 ralists have noticed that the two birds have 
 various notes or cries, as if to distinguish their 
 several states or conditions, as to safety, food, 
 or danger. When they settle down in the 
 evening, their juclcing is well known. Mr. 
 Lascelles tells us that he has often watched 
 their movements, and listened to their cries 
 for hours ; and always observed the male bird 
 even more solicitous, in appearance at least, 
 than the female, for the provision and protec- 
 tion of the brood. This care, however, is left 
 to the female as soon as the birds are able to 
 fly. Even then her watchfulness continues, 
 and, indeed, seems increased. She is never 
 far from them, but searches for food for them, 
 and takes them abroad to their scratching- 
 ground ; and when they seem tired, she gathers 
 them all around her with great care. When 
 they are about their full size, or within a third 
 of her own bulk, they are left, in a great mea- 
 sure, to shift for themselves. 
 
 PARTRIDGE SHOOTING. 
 
 There is no sport in which the gun is em- 
 ployed as the instrument of amusement, so 
 fully and so universally practised as the shoot- 
 ing of partridges. It is more homely and 
 domestic than moor shooting; and can be 
 enjoyed by those whose strength and age 
 render them less capable of pursuing sports 
 requiring greater physical exertion. The suc- 
 cessful prosecution of it must, necessarily, vary 
 with the numerous circumstances under which 
 it is enjoyed. If a sportsman has a limited 
 estate with which he is well acquainted ; if he 
 has himself taken great care of his coveys of 
 birds ; knows their haunts, their times of feed- 
 ing, and resting ; if his enclosures are small, 
 and well fitted for the birds taking short 
 flights ; if these, and many more minute and 
 favourable matters fall to his lot, his sport may, 
 ceteris paribus, be reasonably expected to be 
 much superior to what a mere stranger to the 
 locality would find. There are scarcely any 
 two shooting grounds, or any two sportsmen, 
 that can fairly be put on a par with each 
 other, in all their diversified characters ; there- 
 fore it is that so many varied accounts are 
 found of the sport, and so many different ad- 
 ventures encountered in its prosecution. Every 
 shooter has a history or tale of his own to tell ; 
 5i2 
 
 he has joys and sorrows with which strangers 
 do not interfere ; and he lives and moves in a 
 little world of his own creating. 
 
 Distinguished sportsmen inform us, that the 
 footing of partridges, though a very requisite 
 qualification in pointers, is one of the last 
 things that should be expected from them, as 
 they are not to be relied on until they fully 
 comprehend from the sportsman that they are 
 not to catch the bird ; and that they are only 
 required to point out where it is. It is well 
 known that partridges will generally lie closer 
 and better to dogs that toind them, than to 
 such as track them. The reason assigned for 
 this is, that when they are winded, the dogs 
 do not go straightforward towards them, but 
 follow the scent left by their devious course. 
 AVhen birds see dogs tracking their footsteps 
 down the wind, they will fly ofi", for their scent 
 cannot be caught by the dog till he is near 
 them. Another matter is of some importance 
 in commencing partridge shooting in Septem- 
 ber; and that is, that dogs brought imme- 
 diately from the moors, and put upon the 
 hunting of the partridge, are in many instances, 
 for some days, unfit for their duty, till they are 
 again hroken-in to their new task. The hunt- 
 ino- of grouse in the moors is altogether a 
 difterent operation from the work to be done 
 in the fields in September. A dog that is 
 really well trained will soon find himself at 
 home in both occupations ; but when this is not 
 the case, there will always be more or less of dis- 
 appointment experienced from the sudden tran- 
 sition from two such opposite conditions of life. 
 It has been recommended, that to be early 
 in the field is necessary for any one who desires 
 to secure a good day's sport at partridge 
 shooting; but here Colonel Hawker steps in 
 and says, " that he never saw much execution 
 done before breakfast." To this it has been 
 replied — " True ; but without putting ourselves 
 to the expense of sending two or three sturdy 
 fellows to warn ofi" intruders, if the birds have 
 escaped being killed by that time, they are 
 certainly dispersed abroad ; and the advantage 
 of our knowing their feeding and basking 
 grounds is nullified." However this may be, 
 we believe it is a general opinion amongst the 
 experienced that the colonel is correct. If it 
 were possible to take anything like an accurate 
 census of the success of sportsmen in partridge 
 
PAUTniDQEs.] BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND WATER, [paetuidoe bhootino 
 
 Bbooting during the niontha of September and 
 October, we think it would ^onernlly be found 
 that the most productive iiours range from 
 eleven till three in the afternoon. Of course 
 general rules of this kind cannot be laid down 
 but with many reservations : wo believe, how- 
 ever, the result of a test of this kind would estab- 
 lish the truth of the point without any doubt. 
 There are other advantages, however, to be 
 realised by the early-rising sportsman, uncon- 
 nected with the capture of game. The habit 
 induces good health, and tends very much to 
 strengthen and preserve it. It has an excellent 
 and sustaining effect on the animal spirits ; and 
 these are by uo means of slight consideration. 
 After the month of October, and from this to 
 the end of the partridge season, we should not 
 insist on being earlier iu the field than about 
 mid-dav ; as, after this period, the weather be- 
 comes lowering in the fore part of the day. 
 
 Both the weather and the season liave a 
 great influence over the birds, as well as the 
 state they themselves have been in, relative to 
 quietness, from previous fowling excursions. 
 The flights they take vary with the nature of 
 the country in which they are bred. "Where 
 the enclosures are small, and the general aspect 
 of the country undulating, short flights are 
 taken ; but, where the fields are large, and the 
 landscape open and level, the birds will often 
 take a mile or two at one flight. 
 
 As a general rule, it might be asserted 
 that a prudent sportsman will not injure his 
 diversion by following tbe birds every day in 
 the same track. Relative to the shooting of 
 partridges in windy weather, too, there is great 
 difference of opinion. The weight of argu- 
 ment, however, seems in favour of those 
 who maintain that this kind of weather is not, 
 upon the whole, favourable to sport. Indeed, 
 when it is boisterous, it can only be favourable 
 under one view, and that is on account of birds 
 not so readily hearing the approach of tlie 
 sportsman. It may likewise be observed, that 
 in a high wind they seem bewildered, and will 
 often lie so close as to afford good sport ; but 
 then it is again found by experience, that for 
 one windy day, when they will lie like stones, 
 they will, other ten days, be as wild as hawks, 
 particularly if there be showers of rain with the 
 wind. In the latter case they generally betake 
 themselves to the woods and to furze ; aud cole- 
 
 seed is said then to entice them. In Ireland, 
 partridges, in a high wind, uniforudy make for 
 the potato fieldH, In weather of this kind, the 
 uportsmau sliould always take tlie windward 
 side of his beat, otherwise ho will run a chanco 
 of driving them ofl' his ground, and into tho 
 hands of other parties who may be abroad on 
 tho same mission as himself. 
 
 In tho practice of mid-day shooting, it may 
 be laid down as a common rule, that, in ordi- 
 narily fine weather, tho birds leave their feed- 
 ing localities about ten o'clock in the month of 
 September, and eleven in October ; but after 
 this period, their movements become less regu- 
 lar, BO that no calculation relative to their 
 movement can be depended on. This has been 
 attributed to tho variable weather to which a 
 Scotch climate is subject, and to which all things 
 living in wood or wilderness must be subser- 
 vient. When there is a rapid succession of 
 rain, sleet, snow, wind, aud sunshine, wo 
 have a variety of disturbing causes operating 
 on both the sportsman and the birds ; there- 
 fore any universal rules must, in such cases, 
 prove almost entirely useless. The stubbles 
 may be tried in mid-day, sometimes with ad- 
 vantage, for the birds do not always leave them 
 for basking grounds. These stubbles are tho 
 principal feeding localities ; and as the day ad- 
 vances, birds are almost sure to be found at one 
 time or another. When birds of prey appear, 
 coveys will often disperse, which is favourable 
 to the sportsman. One bird will perhaps take 
 shelter near a clod of earth ; another will run 
 behind a tuft of grass or a low piece of copse ; 
 and a furze-bush may shelte.- another. Some- 
 times, in the latter end of the season, the par- 
 tridge will be in foul lands— such as are left in a 
 rough state before the agricultural operations 
 of spring commence. 
 
 Among partridges, there are always moro 
 cocks than hens ; and this often tends to check 
 tho breed considerably. The hens are so tor- 
 mented by the numbers of males, that they 
 drop one egg in one place, and another in a 
 different spot. It is said, the best mode to 
 destroy the superabundance of males is, during 
 the first three weeks of the season, to net the 
 covey, and destroy all the old cocks, leaving 
 as many young hens, and even one less ; for 
 it is certainly better that the old hen should 
 1 look for the cock, than a number of cocks run 
 
 5 13 
 
PARTRIDGES.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [partridge SlIOOTI^'Q. 
 
 after one hen. It should be recollected, that 
 where old birds are left, they will, at the pair- 
 ing season, drive off the young ones, and pre- 
 vent their breeding; for, let any sportsman 
 declare if ever one find a brace of partridges 
 in the shooting season that have not bred 
 (and are termed by sportsmen a gelt pair), 
 whether he has not found a covey near the 
 same place — a circumstance which can only 
 be accounted for by the old birds driving the 
 young ones from the ground, and preventing 
 their breeding there. It is, therefore, a wrong 
 notion that some birds should not be killed 
 every year ; and those gentlemen who have 
 manors, will find, that by not allowing some to 
 \)Q killed, in a short time their grounds will 
 oe entirely destitute of game. The late Earl 
 of Kingston had a great quantity of grouse on 
 his mountains in Ireland before they were 
 preserved ; but he thought that, by leaving 
 them quiet for a couple of seasons, he should 
 have had a much greater abundance ; he 
 therefore did not allow a shot to be fired 
 on those mountains for two seasons ; and, it is 
 well known, they were carefully preserved dur- 
 ing the whole time. On collecting, however, 
 a large party the third season, and going out 
 to grouse, many of the gentlemen who had 
 been in the habit of shooting there prior to its 
 being preserved, were surprised to find so great 
 a scarcity. The reason of this was, that the 
 older birds had driven the young ones off, and 
 all the mountains adjoining his lordship's pre- 
 serves, were swarming with game, although 
 they had not been preserved. 
 
 Tlie principle of domesticity is not very 
 strong in the partridge. Those birds which 
 have been reared under a common hen, soon 
 manifest their disUke to restraint; gradually 
 become wild, and eventually fly off altogether 
 to enjoy their native freedom. We have heard 
 of one being reared by a clergyman, which be- 
 came so tame that it would come to the parlour 
 window to receive its breakfiist, and would, also, 
 occasionally enter the house. It was not, 
 however, completely domesticated. 
 
 It is generally said, that hrohen coveys yield 
 the lest sport ; and that, while the young birds 
 have the old ones with them, they are " up to 
 every move on the board;" but when deprived 
 of tlieir natural leaders and protectors, they 
 seem lost, and have no settled idea of safety. 
 544. 
 
 This is the fortunate time for sportsmen to 
 make play upon them, and press the dogs to 
 their duty in tracing them from one spot to 
 another. 
 
 As the season advances, the size of the shot 
 to be used for partridge shooting should be 
 enlarged. For the first fortnight, Nos. 5 and 
 6 are recommended ; after this, Nos. -1 and 5. 
 In October, No. 3 will be found the most 
 eligible. 
 
 RED-LEGGED OR GUERNSEY PARTRIDGE. 
 This is the Tetrao Bufus of Linnaeus, and 
 is often called the French partridge. It is 
 larger than the grey, and the bill and irides 
 are red. The forehead is grey brown ; the 
 hind head is rufous brown ; the chin and throat 
 white, encircled with black ; and there is 
 likewise a band of white over each eye to the 
 hind head. The fore part of the neck and 
 sides of it are cinereous, with two spots of 
 black on each feather, and the hind part of 
 the neck is rufous brown. The back, winsfs, 
 and rump are of a greyish brown; the breast, 
 pale ash colour. The belly, sides, and thighs, 
 are rufous ; the sides marked with lunular 
 streaks of white, black, and orange. The 
 quills are grey brown, witli the outer edges 
 yellowish. The tail is composed of sixteen 
 feathers ; the four middle ones are rufous on 
 both sides. The legs are red, and the male 
 only, has the blunt knob or spur behind. Mr. 
 Daniel says, that it is a common pastime in. 
 the Isle of Cyprus to use these birds as we 
 do game-cocks, for the amusement of the 
 people. This partridge is abundant in most 
 parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; in many 
 parts of Italy and France; and also in the 
 islands of Madeira, Jersey, and Guernsey. 
 
 Surprising stories are told of their numbers 
 in some countries. In the Isle of Nauaio, they 
 are so common as to amount to a positive 
 nuisance. The inhabitants make a rule to 
 collect as many eggs as possible every year, in 
 order to lessen the breed, which, in some 
 seasons, have been so numerous as to have 
 eaten up the entire produce of the harvest 
 crops. These eggs, which are taken by thou- 
 sands, are prepared with different sauces, and 
 supply the people for a considerable time. 
 Tournefort says that partridges are so tame in 
 the Isle of Scio, that they are driven to seek 
 
PAnxuiDOKs.] BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [i-autuidoe snooriNo. 
 
 their food iti the iields, liko 80 niaoy sheep, 
 uud tliat oaoli family entrusts its partridi,'03 to 
 Jho common koopi'r, who brings tliem back in 
 the evening ; and he calls them together with 
 a whistle, even in the daytime. Another 
 account states that, in tlio country around 
 Trebizond, a man was seen leading above four 
 thousand partridges; lie marched on the ground, 
 while the birds followed him in the air, until 
 bo reached a certain camp, three days' journey 
 from Trebizond ; when he slept, the birds 
 alighted to repose around him, and ho could 
 take as many of their number as ho pleased. 
 AVe are told that, in Proveu9e, iu Erance, 
 persons have acquired the art of assembling 
 numerous flocks of partridges, which obey the 
 voices of their conductors with wonderful do- 
 cility. "Willoughby mentions, that a mau in 
 Sussex had, by great skill and attention, made 
 a covey of partridges so tame, that, for a 
 wager, he drove them before him, from that 
 
 agreeable for thu table aa our owu native 
 
 partridge; nor do they afford sport eijual to 
 that aflbrilcd by the other. 
 
 " September comes to chcir tlie fowler's licart, 
 And riiise liis anxious liojjes ; duy after day 
 He marks tlie fruitful country cliange around, 
 With eager eye. First, from the f.rtile meads, 
 Divested of tluir widely waving load, 
 The pregnant liay-riek rises. Gentle swains, 
 If chance should lead you to the chosen spot, 
 Where the shy jnirtridge forms her simple nest. 
 The embryo ollsjiring spare ; and wlien your scythe 
 Levels the grassy valleys, should your foot 
 Approach the helpless brood, step back with eare, 
 Nor our fond Lopes destroy." 
 
 We will close this chapter with an extraordi- 
 nary account of the enemies of game, captured a 
 few years ago on estates of tho Marquis of 
 Ailsa. It is taken from the columns of the 
 Inverness Courier : — 
 
 Tho Marquis of xVilsa has, for some years, 
 encouraged ins gamekeepers iu the destruction 
 
 county to London, although they were free, of vermin, by paying so much per head for 
 
 those brought iu. Every keeper and assistant- 
 keeper has a record of all the vermin killed 
 by him ; and receives payment every three 
 mouths accordingly, besides the regular and 
 liberal wages to which they are entitled for 
 their services. All kinds of vermin were thus 
 brought low — even to the jackdaw and common 
 rat, which, we are informed, caused great de- 
 struction to the eggs of pheasants and par- 
 tridges. The rat has become very common 
 there, and is found to burrow in rabbits' holes 
 to such an extent, that, in ferreting rabbits, it 
 sometimes happens that a rat and a rabbit are 
 shot right and left. Whole broods of young 
 plieasants and partridges have been found dead, 
 and partly eaten, near rats' holes, and some- 
 times even young hares and rabbits. The owl, 
 generally supposed to be harmless, has been shot 
 with young game in its talons ; and hedgehogs 
 have been found with large accumulations of 
 egg-shells in their burrows, or in the long 
 grass where they coil themselves up, and have 
 always been taken in traps baited with rabbits, 
 hares, or wood-pigeons. Adders are included 
 among the vermin to be destroyed on tho 
 marquis's property, but we believe they do not 
 injure game. In four years and a-half, tho 
 sum paid on the estate of Culzean and Craig- 
 lure moors, in Ayrshire, for vermin destroyed 
 by the keepers, amounted to £231 15,y. lOd. 
 
 545 
 
 had their wings fully grown, and in right 
 feather. 
 
 The red partridge takes up its habitat in 
 mount:iii;ou3 regions, well covered with wood. 
 Its flesh is tender and white, and, by many gas- 
 tronomes, is considered of a richer flavour than 
 the flesh of the grey partridge. The Erencli 
 make it into pies, which are highly esteemed. 
 From the common partridge it difl'ers in its 
 habits, from being found in flocks ; while the 
 other species are only known in coveys ; and 
 the red bird perches likewise on trees, which 
 the ordinary bird never does. 
 
 " So far back as the time of Charles II.," says 
 ilr. Blaine, " several pairs of these red-legged 
 partridges were turned out about AVindsor, to 
 obtain a stock ; but they are supposed to have 
 mostly perished, although some of them, or 
 their descendants, were seen for a few years 
 afterwards. The late Duke of Northumber- 
 land preserved many, in the hope of their 
 increasing upon his manors ; but tlie late Earl 
 of Eochfort, and the Marquis of Hertford, were 
 at the most expense and trouble to establish 
 them in this country. Both of these noblemen 
 had not only numbers of the birds sent over 
 from France, but, also, at a proper age : by this 
 means there are now plenty of the red birds 
 upon tlie latter nobleman's eatate, near Orford 
 in Suff'olk." These birds, however, are not so 
 4 A 
 
THE PUEASANT.] 
 
 SHOOTINO. 
 
 [the PH1;AS\^"T. 
 
 CHAPTER Vl. 
 
 THE PHEASANT. 
 
 Theee are two sporting varieties of the pbea- I 
 sant — the pJiasimms colchicus, Linn.; and 
 the pJiasianus torquatics, of Temmiuck. They 
 interbreed, however ; and from this circumstance 
 it has been supposed, by naturalists, that the 
 difference between them arises more from acci- 
 dental causes than from any law determined by 
 the will of nature. 
 
 Bewick describes the common pheasant as 
 being two feet eleven inches in length. The 
 bill is of a pale horn colour, and the nostrils 
 are hidden under an arched covering. The 
 eyes are yellow, and surrounded by a space, in 
 appearance like scarlet cloth, finely spotted 
 with black. Under each eye there is a small 
 ])atch of short feathers, of a dark glossy purple ; 
 the upper sections of the head and neck are of 
 a deep purple, inclining to glossy green and 
 blue. The lower parts of the neck and breast 
 are of a reddish chestnut, with black indented 
 edges ; and the sides and lower portion of the 
 breast are of the same hue, with rather large 
 tips of black on each feather, which, in various 
 lights, vary to a glossy purple. The belly and 
 vent are dusky ; the back and scapulars beauti- 
 fully variegated with black and white, or cream 
 colour speckled with black, and mixed with 
 deep orange on all the feathers, edged with 
 black. On the lower parts of the back is a 
 mixture of green ; the quills are dusky, freckled 
 with white. The wing-coverts are brown, 
 glossed with green, and edged with white ; 
 the rump is a pale reddish brown, and the two 
 middle feathers of the tail are about twenty 
 inches long; the shortest on each side less 
 than five, and are of a reddish brown, marked 
 with tranverse bars of black. The legs are 
 dusky, with a short blunt spur on each ; but in 
 some old birds, the spurs are sharp as needles, 
 and between the toes there is a strong mem- 
 brane. The female is a good deal less, and is 
 not gifted with that variety and brilliancy of 
 plumage which characterises the male. Her 
 general colours are light and dark brown, mixed 
 \yith blaclv ; the breaat and belly are beauti- 
 546 
 
 fully freckled with small black spots on a light 
 ground ; the tail is short, and barred, some- 
 what resembling that of the male, but not so 
 strikingly interesting ; the space around and 
 about the eye is covered with feathers. The 
 common pheasant is generally found in low 
 and woody localities, on the borders of plains, 
 on which they delight to gambol and sport ; 
 during the night they roost on the branches 
 of trees. They are distinguished by a great 
 shyness, and do not associate much together, 
 except during the months of March and April, 
 when the male is in quest of the female ; they 
 are then easily known by the noise which they 
 make in crowing and clapping their wings, and 
 which may be heard at a considerable distance. 
 The hens make their nests on the ground, like 
 the partridge, and lay from twelve to fifteen 
 olive-coloured eggs, which are smaller than 
 those of the domestic hen. The young run 
 after the mother as soon as freed from the 
 shell. During the breeding season, it has 
 been often ascertained that the cock pheasant 
 will intermix with the common hen, and pro- 
 duce a hybrid breed. 
 
 Sir William Jardine, in his Naturalisfs Li- 
 hrarif, tells us, that it is now generally admitted 
 that the pheasant was originally introduced 
 into Europe from the banks of the Phasis (now 
 the Eioni), a river in Colchis, in Asia Minor. 
 The Greeks, in the ascent of the stream, were 
 attracted by their beauty; and the bird being 
 so easily domesticated, a valuable addition to 
 the luxury of themselves and Romans was soon 
 secured, and rapidly extended itself over the 
 southern countries of Europe, They appeared 
 at the expensive and superabundant repasts of 
 the ancients ; and, for a time, bore the palm 
 for novelty ; and lieliogabalus, in his ostenta- 
 tious displays, is said to have fed the lions of 
 his menagerie with them. The pheasant may 
 be said to have been originally restricted to 
 the Asiatic continent, extending over the 
 greater part of it, and reaching to China, and 
 the confines of Tartary. 
 
TiiK iHKASAjfT.'J BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the pueasaot. 
 
 In Siberia, the pheasant is alaoabundaiit; and, 
 though not originally bcloiigini; to the Anu'ri- 
 can continent, has been iiitroiluoed to it. Tliey 
 are, however, not very well adajjted for moving 
 from place to place, on account of the short- 
 ness of their wings. From this cause, wo 
 are informed tliat they are kept in complete im- 
 prisonment in the Isolo ]\radre, in the L:igo 
 Maggiore, at Turin, as they are not able to 
 make their ilight over the lake. When they 
 make the attempt they generally perish. It is 
 stated by Sonnini, and other travellers, that 
 the pheasants of some of the northern islands 
 of the Archipelago, and which come thither 
 from the woods of Thessalia, are larger and 
 handsomer than those of other countries ; and 
 that it is a great source of amusement among 
 the Turks, to let birds of prey, which they 
 carry in their hands, fly at them. When the 
 pheasant takes its flight, the bird of prey, 
 which they let loose, hovers above it, and com- 
 pels it to perch on some tree. The former then 
 places itself on another branch, over the head of 
 the pheasant, and keeps it in such terror, that it 
 sufi'ers itself to be approached, and taken alive. 
 This fact, it is remarked by Sonnini, sufficiently 
 develops the mystery of fascination. 
 
 As a bird for the table, the pheasant is ex- 
 tremely salutary. When ancient physicians 
 made comparisons as to the wholesomcuess of 
 any viands, the pheasant was always chosen as 
 the standard of excellence. The hens are the 
 most juicy, and, in every way, preferable to the 
 cocks ; still the true sportsman will never kill a 
 hen if he can help it. They are sweetest roasted ; 
 and the best mode of dressing a cock is to stuff" 
 him with the lean of the inside of a loin of beef 
 cut into pieces, the size of dice, and well sea- 
 soned. The gravy issuing from the beef grad- 
 ually diffuses itself over the flesh, and renders 
 it less dry and hard than it is when destitute 
 of this supply. 
 
 Exclusive of the common pheasant, there are 
 six other varieties ; namely, the gold, the silver, 
 the ring-necks, the white, the pied, and the 
 Bohemian. 
 
 That the ring-necked pheasant and the com- 
 mon pheasant interbreed has been denied, or at 
 least doubted, by several naturalists of note. 
 The ring pheasant, it is said, is a native of 
 China, where the common species are very 
 abundant ; but there is nothing to establish 
 
 the fact that it interbreeds with the common 
 pheasant. The eggs of tho ringed bird are of 
 a pale-bluish colour, and marked with smaV 
 spots of a deeper tint ; whih^ those of the com- 
 mon pheasant are of an olivo white, and aro 
 destitute of any spots. In a wild state tho 
 ringed species aro uniforndy less in size than 
 tho common bird, both in length of body and 
 in tail. Tho head of the former is of a w hitiaU 
 fawn colour, tinted with bluish green; and 
 above each eye there aro two wiiite lines, which 
 constitute a sort of eyebrow. Tho marking in 
 the back of the ringed kind is different and 
 smaller; and the rump feathers display tho 
 same peculiar tints which the mixture of fawn 
 and greenish blue exhibits. But the most 
 distinctive mark of difference is, that tho white 
 ring is broadest upon the sides of tho neck — a 
 circumstance which cannot be overlooked in 
 considering this question of identity. The 
 female of the ringed pheasant is likewise less 
 than the female of the common kind, both in 
 size and in length of tail. The entire question, 
 however, of distinction, is not by any means 
 satisfactorily settled. Sir William Jardiue 
 5ay3— "The pheasant sometimes also crosses 
 w ith the domestic fowl. M. Temminck mentions 
 this as requiring great attention to accomplish ; 
 but, where poultry are kept upon the borders 
 of a wood abounding with pheasant:?, it occa- 
 sionally happens, and would do so more fre- 
 quently if favourable opportunities occurred. 
 A specimen in my own possession, exhibiting 
 all the mixed characters, was procured in a 
 wild state. M. Temminck also records a soli- 
 tary instance of a mule between the female 
 pheasant and male golden bird, which exhibited 
 a curious but splendid mixture; all his endea- 
 vours, however, to procure a second specimen 
 were ineffectual. The common pheasant also 
 breeds freely with the ringed bird, and the 
 offspring is productive. This has been con- 
 sidered by many as a proof that these two 
 birds were identical ; but, in the whole of this 
 order, and its corresponding one among quad- 
 rupeds, this law has a much more extended 
 modification, and can scarcely be taken as a 
 criterion, except in very opposite instances." 
 
 The rearing and preserving of pheasants 
 forms an interesting branch of sporting science. 
 The bird being naturally strongly averse to 
 domestication, it is subjected to many casual- 
 
 n \7 
 
T5E PHEASANT.] 
 
 SHOOTING-, 
 
 [the pheasant. 
 
 ties whicli lessen its numbers, and which 
 greatly prevent its numerical increase. Could 
 they be housed, and headed, and secured at 
 night like our common farm poultry, they 
 would *' multiply and replenish the earth ;" 
 but it has been found, over and over again, that 
 the young birds which may have been hatched 
 under a hen, although they apparently might 
 assume many of the habits of tameness and 
 domesticity which are characteristic of com- 
 mon poultry, yet, if any one approach them 
 unawares, they fly off to the nearest cover in 
 a sbate of complete wiklness. Mr. Watertou, 
 of "Walton Hall, whose studies, in the various 
 species of animal nature, have been extensive, 
 says, " that, notwithstanding the proximity of 
 the pheasant to the nature of the barn-door 
 fowl, still it has that within it which bafile.-i 
 every attempt, on our part, to render its do- 
 mestication complete. What I allude to is, a 
 most singular innate timidity, which never 
 fails to show itself on the sudden and abrupt 
 appearance of an object. I spent some months 
 in trying to overcome this timorous propen- 
 sity in the pheasant ; but I failed completely 
 in the attempt. The young birds, which had 
 been hatched under a domestic hen, soon be- 
 came very tamo, and would even receive food 
 from the hand when it was cautiously offered 
 to them. They would fly up to the window, 
 and would feed in company with the common 
 poultry; but, if anybody approached them 
 unawares, off they went to the nearest cover 
 with surprising velocity. They remained in it 
 till all was quiet, and then returned with their 
 usual confidence. Two of them lost their 
 lives in the water by the unexpected appear- 
 ance of a pointer, while the barn-door fowls 
 seemed scarcely to notice the appearance. 
 The rest took finally to the woods at the com- 
 mencement of the breeding season." For 
 more extended information on this subject, 
 consult Loudon's Magazine of Natural History ; 
 Mowbray's Treatise on Breeding and Rearing 
 Domestic Poitltrg ; and the Rural Sj^orts of 
 Mr. Daniel. 
 
 Pheasants have, in many instances, been 
 collected in considerable numbers; and 
 under the name of hatteaux, have served 
 for gala days of sport to the nobility and 
 gentry. These exhibitions were painful, and 
 totally opposed in principle to the real spirit 
 548 
 
 of English sports. We never could comprehend 
 a man's feelings in making a great slaughter of 
 game under such circumstances. Sport it cer- 
 tainly is not. To enjoy and obtain this, there 
 must be a given portion of uncertainty and 
 trouble connected with its prosecution. If a 
 man could kill all the game of an extensive 
 and well-stocked preserve in an hour, there 
 would be no sport in the case, in the true sense 
 of the word. It would be one of the dullest 
 and most uninteresting acts of his life ; but 
 where he has to seek, and to find, and to ramble 
 for miles through a thickly- wooded or moorish 
 country, there is pleasurable excitement pro- 
 duced ; and this is the sustaining principle of 
 pure sport, and the true source of all the 
 enjoyments which the pursuit of wild animals 
 can confer on man. It is to wander about ; 
 a constant prey to the alternations of hope and 
 fear ; the disappointments met with on the 
 eve of realised advantages, that constitute the 
 current of exhilarating feeling and lively senti- 
 ment, which we connect with the healthy and 
 natural indulgence in field sports generally. 
 It is a bad spirit for a real sportsman to cherish, 
 to be always craving for great success, and to 
 be perpetually out of humour both with himself 
 and every one about him, if he does not get 
 his bag sooner and better filled than his neigh- 
 bours and competitoi's. There is an exclusive 
 and selfish bitterness lying at the root of all 
 such trains of thought, and the habits they 
 engender ; and the best receipt for eradicating 
 this pernicious principle is, to look lightly and 
 carelessly on the sport, and to make it a means, 
 and not an end. 
 
 Indeed, we know from experience, as well as 
 from what is daily passing around us, that it is 
 impossible to keep large collections of phea- 
 sants from depredations. The slightest noise 
 disturbs them in the night-time, and induces 
 them to crow ; and this discovers the places in 
 which they are congregated, when they become 
 the easy prey of the poacher. " When once 
 they are frightened from their roost," ob- 
 serves Mr. Waterton, " they never perch again 
 during the remainder of the night, but take 
 refuge among the grass, and underneath the 
 hedges, where they fall an easy prey to the 
 fox, the cat, and the stoat. A poacher armed 
 with a gun, finds a cloudy night fully as good 
 for slaughter as one on which the moon shines ; 
 
PHEASANTS.] 
 
 BY FIKLD, A\'C)OD, AND WATER, [piieabant buootiko. 
 
 and if larch trees grow in the wood, to theso 
 he resorts, knowing?, by oxporionce, tlint tho 
 plicasant j^rofers tliia kiiul of trco to any 
 otlior." Aiulthon^ 
 
 — " What avails his plossy, varying dyes, 
 His jnirplM crest, ami scarlet circlM eyes, 
 The vivid i;reen his shiiiiiiij jilumes unfolil, 
 His paiiUeJ wings, and breast that tlamcs with gold !" 
 
 Phcnsanta are eubjoct to considerablo 
 cliani^cs ; one of which is, tliat in certain case?, 
 and in certain years, tho female bird assumes 
 the appearance of the male. This curious fact 
 iiuluccd Dr. John Hunter to niako a scries 
 of experiments, with a view of ascertaining 
 whether there was in reality any transfer of 
 (render accompanied by this change of plumage 
 and outward appearance. But ho found no 
 organic change whatever in the generative 
 organs. The diseases to which the pheasant is 
 subject are but little understood. It is said 
 that they die oft" suddenly about the time they arc 
 being denuded of their crest and tail feathers, 
 without any apparent illnecs, having an abun- 
 dance of food, of which ants and their eggs 
 form a part. Good air, exercise, and even 
 choice grass plots, will not arrest the ravages 
 of the complaint. It has been recommended, 
 bv way of cure, tliat, as in Asiatic countries, of 
 which the bird is a native, it lives very much 
 on aromatic plants, all remedial measures 
 should take this circumstance into considera- 
 tion. Spices and stimulants are recommended, 
 with nutritious diet, chopped eggs, and shred 
 beef. Pepper pods, and other aromatics, are 
 likewise used, in small quantities. In spite, 
 h.owever, of all care, great mortality sometimes 
 prevails among tho pheasants of particular 
 localities. 
 
 PHEASANT SHOOTING. 
 
 On the 1st of October — which is an inter- 
 esting day to aristocratic sportsmen, with their 
 well-trained dogs — pheasant shooting begins ; 
 and there are a variety of opinions among 
 sportsmen as to the ease with which this spe- 
 cies of bird may be shot ; some averring that it 
 is difficult to bring it down ; whilst others 
 hold that there is no difficulty whatever. 
 Much, however, depends upon the tempera- 
 ment or nervous system of the shooter, his 
 experience, and his practice. 
 
 The noise which a pheasant makes when it 
 
 takes wing — tho whirr with whirli it rushes 
 through tho leaves, sends a inuuieiitury thrill 
 through tho framo of soino moii, (juito huIIi- 
 cient to shako tiicir Hteadinesa of aim, and 
 send their shot nowhere, after it has been 
 ejected from tlio muzzlo of tho gun. Steadi- 
 ness is tho great matter in exploits of this 
 kind ; it determines tho relative portion of 
 skill which a man throws into such pursuits. 
 
 Tho spaniel is much recommended for phea- 
 sant shooting; and Mr. Daniel considered any 
 otlier kind of dog out of place when this 
 sort of gamo was tho object of pursuit. 
 "Spaniels," says this authority, "for phea- 
 sant or cock shooting cannot be too strong, 
 too short upon tho legs, or have too much 
 courage; the thickness of tho coverts will 
 oppose, and, sometimes, almost overpower 
 even this combination of form and spirit. 
 * * * Should the woods be very extensive 
 when spaniels are steady from hares, they 
 cannot well bo too numerous ; but if given to 
 hunt hares, they disturb the pheasants. Upon 
 no account accept or keep a spaniel — it is 
 needless to tell a sportsman not to Ireed from 
 such— which has any taint of tho hound in his 
 pedigree, although for generations back ; they 
 will be sure to hunt bare in preference to 
 winged game ; and the stock may be crossed 
 everlastingly, may attain beauty, strength, 
 symmetry, yet this latent spark of the harrier 
 will never be extinguished." Some shooters 
 use beagles in pheasant shooting with good 
 effect ; and even terriers arc employed in sorao 
 districts. But much depends on locality. In 
 thick hedge-rows, young woods, furze planta- 
 tions, and entangled underwood of any kind. 
 such dogs as the beaglo and terrier may bo 
 better suited for pheasant sporting than tho 
 spaniel; but where the grounds are com- 
 paratively open, the latter are to be pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 For pheasant shooting tho sportsman should 
 be early in the field, and he should scour tho 
 stubbles of wheat, barley, and bean fields well. 
 In very bright days, the woods should be care- 
 fully explored, for the birds often betake them- 
 selves to them in such weather. Cover beat- 
 ing is very essential, and the grounds should 
 bo thoroughly tried both with the dogs and 
 the beaters. A nye of pheasants are often 
 found huddled together within a very small 
 
 549 
 
PHEASANTS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [pheasant shooting. 
 
 compass. Every section and crevice of a cover 
 should be run over, as birds are frequently 
 found when the sportsman is not expecting 
 them. AVe have already remarked, that no 
 sportsman -will kill a hen pheasant if he can 
 help it. As she is the rearer of the stock, she 
 ought to be most carefully preserved. 
 
 " But when the hen, to thy discerning view, 
 Her sable pinions spreads, of duskier hue, 
 The attendant keeper's prudent warning hear, 
 And spare the offspring of the future year ; 
 Else should the fine, which custom laid of old, 
 Avenge her slaughter by the forfeit, gold." 
 
 The veteran Daniel is very particular in 
 reference to the proper training of the dogs to 
 pheasant shooting, as they are very apt to dis- 
 turb the game, if not completely reduced and 
 brought to a knowledge of their duties. " They 
 disturb the pheasants," he says, " who first fly 
 up, and perch upon the lower boughs ; and the 
 ground of the covert is in vain traversed, and 
 beat for birds that are already some yards above 
 it ; in short, a spaniel that follows a hare fur- 
 ther than whilst in view, is never worth keep- 
 ing. Other circumstances to be minded are, 
 that when a spaniel is once put into covert, he 
 is never to quit it to range in the fields, which 
 some slippery ones will do, whilst their owners 
 are beating within it. "When a spaniel owns a 
 haunt, and quests freely, there should be no dis- 
 appointment ; whenever the notes are doubled, 
 their master should be certain there is game, 
 and accordingly press forward. Much depends 
 upon the practice which spaniels have ; the 
 constant use, and the killing of game to them, 
 are as essential to the steadiness of a high- 
 mettled spaniel as to a high-bred fox-hound : 
 neither can be worked too hard, if kept well in 
 blood." The writer then goes on to state, that 
 one of the chief conditions of obtaining this 
 desirable end is, that the dogs be of pure 
 breed. There must be no crossing, no con- 
 tamination of the hound in their blood, as we 
 have already observed, or they will be ill- 
 adapted for the duties they are expected to 
 perform. As an instance of an evil of this kind, 
 he gives the following: — "A stronger in- 
 stance," says he, " could not well be exhibited 
 than in the spaniels whichbelonged to Lord Wal- 
 tham and Mr. Iloare. A road only parted the 
 seats of these two gentlemen, and their game- 
 keepers frequently shot in the woods together ; 
 550 
 
 their dogs were equally handsome ; but those of 
 the former would drive hares the whole day 
 through, and consequently sprung everything 
 that accidentally lay in their course ; whilst 
 those of the latter no more ran hares than they 
 did sheep ; they would indeed find hares, but 
 follow no further than they saw them. They 
 were always in their places, twisting round 
 every stub with that agility, and possessed of 
 such fineness of nose, that neither woodcock 
 nor pheasant could escape their search. Lord 
 Waltham's spaniel bitches had originally a 
 cross of the beagle ; and although this was 
 tried to be remedied by resorting to the best 
 dogs, the tendency to liare could never be sub- 
 dued." 
 
 A similar case occurred in the north of Eng- 
 land, among the dogs of the late Ealph Lamb- 
 ton, Esq. He had some favourite spaniel 
 bitches that had originally a cross with a blood- 
 hound; and this corruption was continually 
 manifesting itself in the conduct of his shoot- 
 ing dogs, whenever sheep or domestic animals 
 of any kind thwarted their movements. That 
 old and excellent sportsman used jocularly to 
 observe, that they would retain their taint, as 
 mankind are doomed to bear the weight of 
 their original transgression, till the end of their 
 existence. 
 
 Whether it be the particular nature of the 
 ground on which pheasants locate themselves, 
 or whether there be anything peculiar in their 
 scent, we cannot determine ; but, even the 
 best dogs are often in fault whilst engaged in 
 pheasant shooting. Without attempting any- 
 thing like a solution of this singularity, we 
 give the fact for the benefit of the reader. 
 
 The season of the year has a great influence 
 upon the success of pheasant shooting, and 
 there is a considerable difierence between the 
 character of October and January birds. At 
 the fall of the leaf the birds are scarcer, and a 
 vast deal more cunning, taking the alarm at 
 the slightest noise made, by the approach of 
 the sportsman. In the opinion of many ex- 
 perienced pheasant shooters, December ought 
 to close the season ; for it is contended that, 
 if prolonged later, the birds will fly ofl' and 
 mate with other birds, and will not be likely to 
 remain, if the noise made by the reports of the 
 gun be long continued in every direction 
 around them. 
 
BATTEAUX.l 
 
 liV i'lKLl), WUOJ), AM) WATKi:, 
 
 [INDIAN IJAXl ui:. 
 
 We have already alluded to battue sJiooting, 
 Tfhicli was formorly common in all parts of 
 Europe, as well as in Great Ikitaiii ; and 
 must again eliaracteriso it as a murderous pro- 
 ceedin<;, which lills us with horror, ratlier 
 than admiration, on account of the indiscrim- 
 inate slaughter perpetrated upon tlu! game 
 races on sucli occasions. In most books on 
 shooting, relative to the most distinguished of 
 these gatherings among the nobility and gentry, 
 they are minutely detailed; but they are of 
 little or no interest now to the real sportsman. 
 
 In Sweden there is somctliiiig of the battue 
 shooting prevalent ; but it dillors, in some 
 essential particulars, from what was, and, 
 in some instances, still is, followed in 
 franco and Germany. Indeed, all over the 
 continent there are innumerable traces of 
 this kind of sporting with the gun; but not 
 of the kind which can add much to a 
 true sportsman's knowledge, or his love for 
 his favourite amusement. In every kind of 
 sports, there should, at least, be some portion of 
 reason and sentiment thrown into them, or 
 they will soon excite disgust, rather than plea- 
 sure, in the breasts of all who have any pre- 
 tensions to humanity, or are even a little re- 
 moved above the brutal biped, who is guided 
 in his pleasures neither by the laws of reason 
 nor the sentiments of humanity. 
 
 In India, even, they have their hatteaux ; and 
 as long as these are confined to the destruction 
 of Buch animals as are destructive to man, 
 they are excusable, and may, by many, be con- 
 sidered even laudable. Mr. Johnson, in his 
 Indian Field Sports, gives us a description of 
 the manner in which one of these celebrations 
 is conducted. " The day before the hunt, or 
 driving commenced, several hundred people 
 were sent to the farthest extremity of the 
 reserved cover, where they fixed on a proper 
 
 place, and set the nets, which extended al^out 
 a mile, not in continuation, but at intervulti. 
 They required four or five elephants, and 
 twenty or thirty bullocks to carry tht-n:. 
 E;ich net was about forty feet long, and seven 
 feet high ; the cords being of the size of a 
 man's little finger, lightly twisted, with meshes 
 about eight inches square, made without any 
 knot whatever, simply by twisting the cords into 
 one another, by which they were rendered 
 more elastic, less visible to the animal, and not 
 so cumbersome and heav}' as if made with 
 knots. Sometimes three or four knots were 
 placed in succession, touching, or overlapping 
 one another ; but more frequently they were 
 intercepted by jungle, which was made almost 
 impenetrable, by stakes driven down in the 
 midst of it, and thorns twisted between them." 
 Such are the preparations for an Indian 
 hattue, which is attended by men, women, 
 and children, all armed with some kind of in- 
 strument, either of offence or terror. The 
 children and the women, no doubt, carry the 
 instruments of terror, which are such as will 
 make the loudest noise, in order to frighten 
 the horned beasts from the jungle into the 
 nets laid to entrap them. The slaughter, on 
 these occasions, is sometimes immense ; but, 
 as it is generally perpetrated upon the most 
 ferocious and dangerous animals, it excites 
 emotions of a very different kind from those 
 that arise in witnessing the ignoble slaughter 
 of beautiful and unoffending birds. In the 
 destruction of the former, the inhabitants of a 
 village or town, secure with greater certainty 
 the safety of themselves and their property. 
 In the destruction of the latter, it deprives 
 the forest of one of the most beautiful of the 
 ornithological species, and retrenches the 
 pleasures of the naturalist, as well as those of 
 the true and considerate sportsman. 
 
 551 
 
TILE QUAIL. j 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the quail. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 THE QUAIL. 
 
 The Quail (Tefrao Coturnix, Linn.) is de- 
 scribed as being fully seven inches long. The 
 bill is dusky; the irides hazel, and, in old 
 males, yellow; the crown of the head is black, 
 transversely marked with rufous brown ; and 
 down the middle is a yellowish-white line. 
 Above the eye, in a backward direction, is 
 another line of the same colour ; and on the 
 chin and throat is a black mark, which has a 
 turn upwards towards the ears. The remaining 
 parts are white, and the hind portion ot the 
 neck is black. The scapulars and tail-coverts 
 are of a rufous-brown tint, and the middle of 
 each feather is streaked with yellowish white, 
 surrounded more or less with black. The 
 sides are of the same colour, but not having 
 quite so much of the white streaks. The breast 
 is light ferruginous brown ; shafts white ; belly 
 paler. The wing-coverts are pale rufous brown, 
 streaked like the back, but more minutely dis- 
 tributed. The quills are dusky ; the outer webs 
 more or less mottled with yellowish white. 
 The tail is dusky, tipped with white, and con- 
 sists of twelve short feathers hidden by the 
 coverts. The hen bird is distinguished by 
 having little or no black on the chin or throat, 
 and by a dusky mark passing from the ears 
 downwards. Some black spots are likewise 
 seen on the chest, and the coverts of the wings 
 are barred with yellowish-white streaks. 
 
 The quail is very widely distributed, being 
 known almost throughout the world, with the 
 exception, it is said, of America, where it has 
 not hitherto been discovered. In the countries 
 of the European continent it is very numer- 
 ous ; much more so than in England, Wales, 
 and Scotland. It is often met with in Ireland 
 in large numbers. 
 
 This bird has been called the dwarf partridge, 
 from its great resemblance in figure, colour, 
 and habits, to the true bird of that name. 
 •'Those birds," says Mr. Daniel, "resemble 
 i!ach other by being both pulverulent, having 
 short wings and tail, and running very swiftly ; 
 they feed, copulate, build their nests, and raise 
 552 
 
 their young nearly in the same way. Both are 
 salacious, inordinately lustful, and the males 
 quarrelsome ; but numerous as are the Doiut's 
 of resemblance, they are more than balanced 
 by a number of disparities, which render quails 
 a distinct species ; for, omitting the peculiar 
 incident of their migration, quails are uni- 
 versally smaller ; they have not the bare space 
 between the eyes, nor the figure of the horse- 
 shoe impressed on the breast of the males, as 
 in the partridge ; the quail's eggs are smaller, 
 and of an entirely different colour; their notes 
 are unlike : the flesh of the quail is also ot a 
 different flavour, and more loaded with fat ; 
 the period of their life is shorter, for the quail 
 does not live more than five years. They are 
 less cunning than the partridge, and much 
 more easily ensnared, especially when young; 
 their dispositions are not so gentle, and it is 
 extremely rare to see them tamed. Quails 
 seldom form themselves into coveys, except 
 when their wants unite the feeble family to 
 their mother, or some powerful cause urges, 
 at once, the whole species to assemble and 
 traverse together the extent of the ocean, 
 holding their course to the same distant land : 
 but this forced association does not subsist 
 after they have alighted, and find in their 
 adopted country that they can live at will. 
 The appetite of love is the only tie, and even 
 this is momentary : so soon as passion has spent 
 its force, the male abandons his mate to the 
 labour of raising the family. The young quails 
 are hardly full-grown when they separate ; or, 
 if kept together, they fight obstinately; and 
 their quarrels are terminated only by their 
 mutual destruction." 
 
 The quail is migratory in its habits ; and 
 though many attempts have been made to 
 naturalise it in this country, the instinctive 
 desire to migrate, has hitherto frustrated all 
 such attempts. This bird has engaged the 
 attention of the naturalist and the sportsman 
 from the earliest times. Pliny says — " Quails 
 alight in such numbers on ships (and which is 
 
THE QUAir..] 
 
 LY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [tue quail. 
 
 always in the night), by their sottlinij on the I 
 niasts, sails, &c., as to bear down barks and i 
 yinall vessels, and finally sink them; and, on 
 that account, tho sailors have a great dread of 
 thetn, when they approach near to land." In 
 the autumn, large flocks of them cross tho 
 Mediterranean from Italy to Africa, taking in 
 their route, both in departing and returning, 
 the various islands of tho Archipelago as their 
 resting-places. They are often in such pro- 
 digious numbers as absolutely to cover the 
 entire face of the country. In Alexandria 
 they are so common, that they can be readily 
 bought for a farthing each Many of the 
 crews of merchant vessels have been so much 
 •onfiued to feeding on its flesh, that it 
 has been the cause of certain diseases break- 
 ing out among them, and complaints have 
 formerly been made on the subject to 
 the British consul at Alexandria. These 
 birds assemble in autumn on the northern 
 shores, to emigrate southward ; and it has 
 often been remarked, that they delay their 
 departure until the north wind rises, when, 
 towards sunset, the entire body take wing, and 
 display such swiftness as to traverse one hun- 
 dred and fifty miles by break of day. In Italy, 
 Sicily, and most of the Greek islands, tliey 
 arrive at a stated season in immense numbers, 
 and with singular punctuality, not diflfering, in 
 the average of years, above a day or two at 
 the utmost. One hundred thousand have been 
 known to be taken m a day. They are run 
 after during the night, and great numbers 
 perish in the chase In Sicily, there is quite a 
 sensation produced when they arrive. Ci'owds, 
 of all ages and ranks of life, are assembled to 
 witness the sight. The number of boats is 
 likewise astonishing ; and their passengers all 
 carry guns and pistols, to have a shot at the 
 feathered strangers. Ortygia was named from 
 them ; and so abundant were they on the island 
 of Capri, at the entrance of the Gulf of jS'aplcs, 
 that they constituted the chief source of reve- 
 nue of the bishops of the place. There were 
 a hundred and sixty thousand captured in 
 one season. In China, and in many of the 
 'slands in the Eastern Archipelago, they are 
 also extremely plentiful. 
 
 "With respect to these birds having an in- 
 stmctive knowledge of the precise time for 
 emigration, we have a very singular fact in 
 4 V. 
 
 sorao young quails, which, having been bred ia 
 cages from the earliest period of their lives, 
 had never enjoyed, and, therefore, could not 
 feel, tho loss of liberty. For four successivo 
 years they were observed to be restless, and to 
 flutter with unusual agitations regularly iu 
 September and April; and this uneasiness 
 lasted thirty days at each time. It constantly 
 began about an hour before sunset. Tho 
 birds passed the whole night iu these fruitless 
 struggles, and always, on the following day, 
 appeared dejected and stupid. 
 
 It is observed in tho Rural Sports, that they 
 are birds of passage, some entirely quitting 
 our island ; others shifting their quarters, as it 
 is said, from tho neighbouring inland counties, 
 into the hundreds of Essex, in October, where 
 they continue all the winter. If frost or snow 
 drive them out of the stubble-fields and 
 marshes, they retreat to the sea-side, shelter 
 themselves among the weeds, and live upon 
 what they can pick up from the algce, &c., 
 between high and low water-mark. Their 
 appearance in Essex coincides with that of 
 their leaving the inland counties ; and this 
 same observation has been made in Hamp- 
 shire. The quail, like the partridge, makes no 
 nest, except a few dry leaves or stalks scraped 
 together may be so called ; and sometimes a 
 mere hollow in the bare ground suffices: in 
 this the female lays six or seven eggs, of a 
 whitish colour, marked with irregular rust- 
 coloured spots. Mr. Holland, of Conway, 
 once found a nest with twelve eggs, eleven of 
 which were hatched ; and Mr. Daniel saw a 
 bevy of nine young ones. 
 
 In combative qualities the quail holds dis- 
 tinguished eminence. He fights long, and dies 
 hard. The Greeks and Eomans cultivated the 
 pugnacity of this bird to a great extent ; and 
 the conqueror in a regular pitched battle was 
 highly prized. Indeed, in such estimation was 
 he held, that Augustus put a prefect of Egypt 
 to death for having brougiit a conqueror to the 
 table to be eaten — a singular act of imperial 
 justice, that estimated the life of a man as of 
 no more value than that of a bird. During 
 the middle ages, quail-fighting was common; 
 and Henry III., kitig of Castile, devoted much 
 of his time to tiie catching of quails for tho 
 purpose of matching them in fights. His 
 subjects usually hunted them morning and 
 
 553 
 
THE QUAIL.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [quail SHOOTINa. 
 
 evening, and had regular combats with them at 
 places adapted for the purpose. Scaliger in- 
 forms us, that the Italians have costly gardens 
 purposely laid out to hunt them, by means of 
 quail-pipes, with which they pursue the birds 
 as a great amusement. 
 
 In some countries the quail is said to be 
 more prolific than in others. In Italy and 
 Prance, from fifteen to twenty is a common 
 produce ; but, in hotter climates, twenty-five 
 and thirty are sometimes found in one nest. 
 This large number of eggs accounts, in some 
 degree, for the numbers of the birds. Some 
 sportsmen maintain that they hatch twice a 
 year ; but this does not appear to be satisfac- 
 torily proved. This subject is touched upon in 
 a communication inserted in the Neio Sporting 
 Magazine, vol. v. ; wherein it is said — " This 
 place (the Isle of Thanet) was formerly so 
 famous for them (quails), either from its 
 vicinity to the Erench shore, or the quantity 
 of grain which is cultivated, that people come 
 from great distances for the express purpose of 
 quail shooting ; of late years, however, their 
 numbers have considerably decreased ; but still 
 the sportsmen, in the beginning of September, 
 may commonly kill from two to three brace a 
 day. Along the banks of the Thames, below 
 Purfleet, several farmers and sportsmen have 
 assured us, that, about the beginning of No- 
 vember, a time at which the departure of the 
 main body has taken place, a small number of 
 quails make their appearance, and continue 
 during the wintei*, always at a short distance 
 from the river's edge ; these are evidently 
 the young birds of the second bevy, who, for 
 some reason, seek that particular situation 
 after the migration of the rest of their species." 
 
 Pespecting the abundance of these birds in 
 the East, we find it related in a work, entitled 
 Letters from, the Campagne Felice, that, during 
 the time when the Capitani Bey blockaded 
 the harbour of Alexandria, one of his Greek 
 seamen caught two or three that had perched 
 on the rigging of the ship. They were pre- 
 sented to the capitani ; and he was so pleased 
 with them, that he oftered a piastre for every 
 one that should be brought him. The price 
 "vas a great temptation; and, in a few days, 
 
 the sailors found means to cover the rigging 
 with flocks of quails. Every one caught, was, 
 as a matter of course, brought to the capitani, 
 who, to escape impending ruin, was forced to 
 stand out to sea, or break the promise he had 
 made to the captors of the birds. He pre- 
 ferred the former alternative. 
 
 Quail shooting is, in this country, principally 
 confined to the counties of Essex, K.eut, Cam- 
 bridge, Sufi"olk, and Norfolk ; and the bevies 
 seldom exceed ten in number, and are gene- 
 rally under that figure. They are to be found 
 in the evenings, feeding in corn-fields ; and 
 sometimes they lie remarkably still, and may be 
 readily approached. At other times, however, 
 they are as wild as possible. A steady dog is 
 indispensable ; but it must be remarked, by 
 way of caution, that most dogs are apt to be 
 spoiled for some time after they have been em- 
 ployed in tracing these birds. Common par- 
 tridge shot is recommended; but some quail 
 shooters prefer No. 7. 
 
 These birds usually sleep during the day, 
 concealed in the tallest grass, lying on their 
 sides, with their legs extended, in the same 
 spot, even for hours together. So very indo- 
 lent are they, that a dog will sometimes abso- 
 lutely run upon them before they are flushed ; 
 and when they are forced to take wing, they 
 seldom fly far. They are easily drawn within 
 reach of a net, by a call imitating their cry, 
 which is not unlike the words loliit, ivliif, loliit : 
 this is done with an instrument called a quail- 
 pipe. 
 
 Great numbers of these birds are imported 
 from Prance, for the table ; all oi which are 
 males. They are conveyed in large square 
 boxes, divided into five or six compartments, 
 one above another, just high enough to admit 
 of their standing upright. Each of these boxes 
 contains about a hundred. "Were the birds 
 allowed a greater height, they would soon kill 
 themselves ; and, even with this precaution, 
 the feathers on the top af the head are gen- 
 erally beaten ofl. These boxes have wire on the 
 fore part, and each partition is furnished with 
 a small trough for food. Quails may be for- 
 warded in this manner, without difliculty, to 
 great distances. 
 
 654 
 
THE wooficocK.] BY FIELD. WOOD, AND WATKR. [tmk woodcock. 
 
 CIIAriKIi VllI 
 Tirr, WOODCOCK, 
 
 "W^'oODCOCK shooting liasi been callod tlio 
 " Fox-hunting of shooting" — a phrase at once 
 doscrii)tivo of its character and dignity. 
 
 Tlio Woodcock (Scolopax liiis/icoJa, Linn.) 
 is placed by naturalists at the head of the 
 snipe genus. It is thus described by Bewick 
 and others : — " Its length is about fourteen 
 inches ; twenty-six in breadth ; and its weight 
 about twelve ounces, though sometimes it is 
 found to the extent of fourteen. The shape of 
 the head is considered somewhat curious, 
 being more obtusely triangular than round ; 
 and the eyes are placed very forward, near the 
 top of the ears, and nearly in a line with the 
 corners of the mouth. The upper mandible, 
 which measures about three inches, is furrowed 
 nearly its entire length ; and at the tip it pro- 
 jects beyond, and hangs over the under one, 
 ending in a kind of knob, which, resembling 
 those of others of the same genus, is suscep- 
 tible of the finest feeling, and calculated by that 
 means for aiding, perhaps, by an acute sense 
 of smell, to find the small worms in the soft 
 and moist grounds, from whence it extracts 
 them with its sharp-pointed tongue. By 
 means of its bill, it likewise turns over and 
 tosses about the fallen leaves, in search of in- 
 sects which take shelter underneath. By the 
 entire conformation of the bird, and particu- 
 larly for the structure of its head, we have an 
 opportunity of displaying some of the wonder- 
 ful contrivances which Nature has instituted 
 for the sustenance and preservation of her 
 various orders of animated beings. From the 
 extreme sensibility of the mouth of the wood- 
 cock, some structural peculiarities are required 
 to gain a given end or object — the capture of 
 insects deeply embedded in either mud, earth, 
 or decayed wood." 
 
 The woodcock, it has been said, is naturally 
 of a shy and retiring disposition, rarely taking 
 vring by day, unless disturbed ; but just as twi- 
 light begins, it quits the woods, and, nearly at 
 the same instant, wanders over the meadows in 
 search of wet and splashy places, and moist 
 
 grounds, in quest of food. As the day dawna 
 it retires to its hiding-place. Thus, when most 
 other birds are recruiting exhausted naturo 
 by sleep, the woodcock is roaming through tlie 
 dark, directed by an exquisite sense of feeling, 
 which it experiences by means of its long 
 and singularly-constructed bill. The eye is 
 not called into use ; and, like the mole, it 
 may be said to feed beneath the surface ; and 
 by the sensibility of the instrument, which is 
 thrust into the soft earth, not a worm, however 
 small, can escape that is within its reach. 
 
 The eyes of the woodcock are of largo 
 dimensions in proportion to its general bulk of 
 body ; and, like those of some other nocturnal 
 birds, have the capacity of collecting the faint 
 rays of light, in the darkened vales and seques- 
 tered woodlands, during its nocturnal excur- 
 sions. Thus, likewise, it is enabled to avoid 
 coming in contact with trees and other ob- 
 stacles, which are continually offering im- 
 pediment to its flight. The nerves on the bills, 
 like those of the duck tribe, are very numer- 
 ous, and have a highly sensible power in dis- 
 criminating between objects by the sense of 
 touch. A woodcock, in a menagerie, has dis- 
 covered and drawn forth every worm iu the 
 ground, which was dug up to enable it to 
 bore with its bill ; and worms put into a large 
 garden-pot, covered with earth, live or sL 
 inches deep, wholly disappear before the fero- 
 city of the woodcock by the next morning. 
 The enormous quantity of worms which wood- 
 cocks devour is scarcely credible ; indeed, it 
 would be the constant labour of one person to 
 collect such food in suflicient quantity for two 
 or three of these birds. The dilBculty of col- 
 lecting a sufficiency of such precarious aliments, 
 has led the interested to try if bread and milk 
 would not be a good substitute ; and it has 
 been found that, by placing clean-washed 
 worms into the mess, the bird soon acquires 
 the taste for its new food, and would even- 
 tually eat a basin of bread and milk in twenty- 
 four hours, besides the worms it could obtain. 
 
 5uD 
 
THE WOODCOCK.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the "WOODCOCK. 
 
 The digestive powers of the woodcock are re- 
 markably vigorous, and work with great rapid- 
 ity. On anatomical examination there is very 
 little found in its stomach and intestines, save 
 a few fibres of a vegetable texture, mixed with 
 some sand, small stones, and gravel. 
 
 Of the British species of woodcock there are 
 three varieties. "In the first," says Dr. La- 
 tham, " the head is of a pale red, body white, 
 and the wings brown ; the second is of a dun, 
 or rather cream colour; and the third of a pure 
 white. Dr. Hesham, in his Catalogue of Cum- 
 lerland A7iimals, mentions having met with 
 one, the general colour of which was a fine 
 pale ash, with frequent bars of a very delicate 
 rufous ; tail brown, tipped with white ; and 
 the bill and legs a flesh colour." In addition 
 to these, some other varieties are taken no- 
 tice of by Marmaduke Tuustall, Esq., of "Wy- 
 clifF, in his interleaved books of Ornithology. 
 Mr. Daniel seems likewise to be aware of such 
 a difference; for he observes that there are 
 different sizes of woodcocks. Those found in 
 the first part of the season are of the largest 
 size, fly heavily, and their heads appear to be 
 muffled, especially the under parts, with short 
 feathers. The most numerous tribe, which ar- 
 rive in November and December, are rather 
 smaller, their heads less, the feathers smoother. 
 and the bills shorter. Woodcocks that arrive 
 in this country about Candlemas, are likewise 
 small, and diff'er in their manner of flying ; are 
 quicker of wing, take pretty long flights, and 
 are well known to be very difficult to shoot, on 
 account of their not rising above the spray, 
 like the larger muffled woodcocks, but make 
 their way for some distance, as it were, among 
 the boughs. Mr. Baillon also notices two 
 kinds of woodcocks. " The largest arrive first, 
 and may be distinguished from the others by 
 the colour of their legs, which are of a greyish 
 tint, inclining to rose colour. The smaller 
 kind have a coating similar to that of the com- 
 mon woodcock, but their legs are blue. Varie- 
 gated plumage, and other anomalies, now and 
 then occur among these birds: thus, a pure 
 white one has been seen ; and we can only 
 wonder that still greater variations do not 
 frequently take place ; for although most sport- 
 ing works, in their account of the woodcock, 
 usually confine his foreign residence to the north 
 of Europe, yet it should be known that he is 
 556 
 
 likewise found in all the climates, both hot and 
 cold, in the old continent, as well as in North 
 and South America. It is, however, a curious 
 fact, that he is everywhere an emigrating bird. 
 His migrations in some countries appear, how- 
 ever, to be confined to a journey from the 
 plains to the mountains, and vice versd. In 
 Europe he is located during the summer on the 
 Alps, Pyrenees, and other lofty mountains, 
 from whence he migrates to the regions below, 
 and probably some reach us. His universality 
 thus established, we need not be surprised that 
 he sliould thus spoi^t into varieties, seeing that 
 every locality, according to its proximity or re- 
 moteness from what may be considered as his 
 attracting spot for domestication for the time, 
 has its influence over the size, colour, and even 
 the aptitudes of the bird." 
 
 The sex of the woodcock has been considered 
 as entirely unmarked by any external signs ; 
 but internally it can be readily detected. Mr. 
 Pennant thinks, from the examination of the 
 bird's feathers, which in the Jien present a 
 narrow stripe of white along the lower part of 
 the exterior veil of the feather, would be suffi- 
 cient to do away with all doubt upon the ques- 
 tion as to which is the cock and which is the 
 hen. In the male bird, the same feather, at 
 the same part, is beautifully and regularly 
 spotted with black and reddish white. Many 
 sportsmen maintain that there is another cri- 
 terion — namely, the greater size of the female 
 bird; but this is not invariably to be de- 
 pended on. 
 
 The female woodcock makes a very careless 
 nest, consisting of some dried leaves and 
 fibres, on the bare ground, and very often 
 chooses the root or stump of a decayed tree 
 for the locality. She commonly lays four or 
 five eggs, a shade larger than those of pigeons, 
 and of a rusty green colour, blotched and 
 marked with dusky ill-defined spots. The 
 young quit the nest as soon as they are freed 
 from the shell ; but the parent bird continues 
 to attend them until they can provide for 
 themselves. Buffon informs us that the 
 mother will sometimes take a weak bird under 
 its throat, and carry it more than a thousand 
 paces. 
 
 The flesh of this bird is, by gastronomes, 
 held in high estimation ; and it is eagerly 
 sought after by many sportsmen. In cooking 
 
Til K WOODCOCK.] LY FIELD, WOOD, AiSlJ WATER. [xiii: woodcock. 
 
 it, the entrails nre not drawn, but roasted 
 within the bird, wlicnt'o they drop out with 
 the gravy, upon slices of toasted bread, ami 
 are relished as a delicious kind of sauce. The 
 Italians and Trench have caeh particular 
 modes of preparing this bird for tlio table, 
 which they do in such excellent stylo as to 
 leave an impression ou the palate of the eater 
 for some time after. 
 
 The woodcock is migratory in its habits, and 
 "cnerally arrives in the south of England 
 during the month of October. It does not 
 come in large flocks, but in ones or twos, till 
 about the month of December. They are, very 
 probably, much influenced in their movements 
 by the wind, which, if it blow from a conti- 
 nental quarter, is more likely to aid their flight 
 than when it comes from the opposite direc- 
 tion. The birds have a singular instinct of 
 landing only in the night, or in dark misty 
 weather ; for they are never seen to arrive by 
 dav, but are frequently found next morning in 
 anv ditch which could afford them shelter, 
 particularly after the great fatigue they must 
 have undergone in bufleting the adverse winds 
 which they must frequently have to encounter 
 in their aerial voyages. They do not remain 
 on the shores to take their rest longer than a 
 day, but proceed inland to the very same haunts 
 which they occupied during the preceding 
 season. In stormy weather they retire to the 
 moors and mountains ; but as soon as the frost 
 sets in, and the snow begins to fall, they re- 
 turn to lower and more congenial situations, 
 where they meet with boggy grounds and 
 springs, and little oozing moss-fringed rills 
 which are rarely frozen, and seek the shelter 
 of the close bushes of holly, furze, and brakes 
 in the glens, or dells which are covered with 
 underwood. There they remain concealed 
 during the day, and remove to difl'erent haunts, 
 and feed only in the night. Prom the begin- 
 ning to the end of March, or sometimes to the 
 middle of April, they gradually approach the 
 coasts, and avail themselves of the first fair 
 wind to return to their native woods. Should 
 the weather be unfavourable to their migrating, 
 they will delay their departure, when their 
 numbers increase by degrees, and when tliey 
 are more easily found and destroyed by their 
 numerous enemies. 
 
 Other accounts sav that thev leave the north 
 
 with tlio first frost, and travel slowly Bouth- 
 warils till they come to their accustomed winter 
 quarters. They do not usually make a quick 
 voyage, but fly from wood to wood, reposing 
 and feeding on their journey ; selecting such 
 woody haunts as are in the vicinity of moist 
 and marshy springs. They conceal themselves 
 under thick bushes by day, and fly abroad to 
 feed in the dusk of the evening. A laurel or 
 holly-bush forms a favourite place for their 
 repose. The thick and glossy leaves of thc-'O 
 trees prevent the radiation of heat from tho 
 soil, and they are less afiected by the refrige- 
 rating influence of a clear sky, so that they 
 aflbrd a warm and comfortable retreat for tho 
 woodcock. These birds usually take to tho 
 north on the first approach of spring, and their 
 flights are generally longer, and their rests 
 fewer at this season than in autumn. In tho 
 latter they are driven from tho north to t!ie 
 south by the want of food, and they stop 
 wherever they can find it. In the spring there 
 is the influence of another powerful instinct 
 added to this — tho sexual feeling. They 
 migrate in pairs, and pass as speedily as pos- 
 sible to the place where they are likely to find 
 food, and where they can rear their young with 
 the i)robability of being unmolested, of which 
 the old birds have already had the experience of 
 former years. Scarcely any woodcocks winter 
 in any part of Germany. In France there aro 
 a few found, particularly in the southern de- 
 partments ; and in Kormandy and Brittany. 
 The woods of England, especially of the west 
 and south, contain always a certain number of 
 these birds ; but there are far more in the moist 
 soil and warmer climate of Ireland. lu the 
 woods of southern Italy and Greece, near 
 marshes, they are still more abundant; and 
 they are generally difl'used over the Greek 
 islands, Asia Minor, and Northern Africa. 
 
 "Woodcocks have been known to settle upon 
 a vessel at sea. Mr. Travers, of Cornwall, 
 records an instance of this, when at such a dis- 
 tance from land as to make it rare for birds to 
 be seen. AVhen first discerned, it was high 
 in the air, hovering above the ship, but grad- 
 ually descended; and, after making several 
 circuits round the vessel, at length alighted ou 
 the deck. Its exhaustion was so great, that 
 it allowed itself to be takeu up by the hand. 
 
 In their flight, woodcocks, like other birds, 
 
 1)3/ 
 
THE "WOODCOCK.! 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the woodcock. 
 
 are attracted by a glare of light ; and many- 
 instances have occurred, at the Cromer and 
 Eddjstone lighthouses, of their falling victims 
 when dashing against the windows of these 
 structures. At the lighthouse upon the Hill 
 of Howth, the man who attended it on one 
 occasion, was surprised by a violent stroke 
 against the windows, which broke a pane of 
 plate-glass, more than three-eighths of an 
 inch thick. On examining the balcony which 
 surrounds the light, he found a woodcock, 
 which had flown against the window with such 
 violence as to break his bill, head, breast-bone, 
 and both wings. The man had often found 
 birds which had killed themselves by flying 
 against the glass, but had never before known 
 of a pane to be injured. 
 
 "Woodcocks have been seen at their first 
 arrival, in considerable numbers, on the coast 
 of Sussex, in the church-yard, and even in the 
 streets of Kye ; but during the night, the 
 usual time of their flying, they have betaken 
 themselves to less dangerous and more natural 
 quarters. At their first visit for the season to 
 the coast, they are commonly poor in con- 
 dition, weakened and wasted through great ex- 
 ertion, and, likewise, sometimes scurfy, though 
 not so much so as before their return in the 
 spring. The taste of the flesh has also become 
 quite metamorphosed. On their arrival, this 
 is usually marked by insipidity of flavour ; 
 but when they have been a short time feeding 
 in the country, it greatly improves, both in 
 point of richness and delicacy. If a woodcock 
 is shot just before its departure, it bleeds 
 plentifully ; whereas, at the beginning of winter, 
 it yields hardly any blood at all. From this 
 circumstance it would seem, that in those 
 countries where they have their summer resi- 
 dence, they live on a difierent kind of food to 
 what they find here. Probably the luxuriant 
 and succulent aliment which they meet with 
 among ua, prepares them for breeding in those 
 countries to which they retire with the com- 
 panions of their choice. 
 
 The time when the woodcock appears and 
 disappears in Sweden, agrees exactly with the 
 periods of their arrival in, and departure from, 
 our own island. Their autumnal and vernal 
 appearance on the coast of Suffolk have been 
 accurately noticed. They come over sparingly 
 in the first week of October, the greater num- 
 558 
 
 bers not arriving till November and December, 
 and always after sunset. It is the wind, and 
 not the moon, which determines the time of 
 their arrival ; and it is probable that this should 
 be the case, as they come hither in quest of 
 food, which fails them in the places they leave. 
 If the wind has been favourable for their flight, 
 and if they remain at all on the coast where 
 they alight, it is but for a very short time ; but 
 if they have been forced to struggle with an 
 adverse gale, they rest a day or two to recover 
 their strength. In such cases they have been 
 known to be so much exhausted, that they have 
 been taken up in South wold streets, nearly dead. 
 They do not come in flocks, but separately, and 
 disperse like so many feathered skirmishers 
 making their way through the fields of air. 
 
 Prance, Germany, and Italy are treated 
 in the same manner as we are, w^heu the 
 proper season arrives. They visit Burgundy in 
 the latter end of October, but continue there 
 only four or five weeks ; it being a dry country, 
 obey are forced from it, for want of sustenance, 
 by the first frost. In the winter they are 
 found in great abundance as far south as 
 Smyrna and Aleppo. During the same season 
 they appear in vast quantities in Barbary, 
 where the Africans call them the " ass of the 
 partridge." It has been asserted that some 
 have been seen as far south as Egypt, which is 
 the remotest migration to which they can be 
 traced on that part of the African coast of the 
 Mediterranean ; on the other side of Asia they 
 are common in Japan. The woodcocks that re- 
 sort to the countries of the Levant, probably 
 come from the deserts of Siberia, or Tartary, 
 or the old mountains of Armenia. In the 
 neighbourhood of Athens, woodcocks abound, 
 descending, after snow on the mountains, into 
 the plains, and suddenly retiring if the 
 weather continues severe. They enter the 
 gardens of the town in great distress, rather 
 than cross the sea, and are sometimes caught 
 with the hand. 
 
 It is now fully ascertained that they occa- 
 sionally breed in this country, and even as far 
 north as the Orkney Islands ; but it is main- 
 tained that these birds are not nearly so plen- 
 tiful as they were half a century ago, amongst 
 us. Perhaps this may really be the case; 
 but the fact has been doubted. It is the com- 
 mon failing of some minds to exaggerate the 
 
TJIK WOUUCOClC.j 
 
 BV FIELD, WOOD AND WATEll. 
 
 [tIIK 'WOODCOCK. 
 
 It 
 
 past at tlie expense of the present. It is 
 tluToforo safe to be somewhat iiiorecluloua in 
 ttiia matter, in order not to attacli 80 mucli 
 credit to these statements as some writers do. 
 There is a greater number of sportsmen now 
 than formerly, at least in the shootinc; art ; 
 and this may aecount for fewer woodcoeks 
 being killed by any single person. The 
 pport, wo believe, is more generally diffused, 
 but not seriously, if at all, diminished from for- 
 mer times. 
 
 In regard to the kind of dogs which should 
 bo used by tho woodcock shooter, spaniels are 
 the best. Pointers and setters are taken by 
 some ; but they are considered inferior to the 
 spaniel where the woods are extensive and 
 chickly set uith underwood, brambles, and 
 thorns. The spaniel should, however, be well 
 trained, and should be taught both to hunt 
 close or wide, as circumstances require. Both 
 beaters and markers are requisite in extensive 
 woods. The employment of beating and mark- 
 ing necessitates a regularly digested plan of 
 operations, and a minute regard to instructions 
 previously agreed upon among the parties. 
 Those engaged in it must take their stations 
 at a given spot, and pay attention to each 
 other's signs and movements, otherwise they 
 will be working at cross purposes, and prove 
 worse than useless. Many beaters take sticks 
 to beat the bushes and underwood ; while the 
 markers take up their position on some ele- 
 vated piece of ground, or even some tree, that 
 they may the better see the birds, and mark ac- 
 curately where they drop, in order to be able to 
 give correct instructions to the sportsman. 
 
 Larore numbers of woodcocks are taken by 
 means of nets and traps, and find their way to 
 the London markets, where they generally 
 bring tolerably high prices. It is said that, in 
 the neighbourhood of Torrington, in Devon- 
 shire, these birds are so numerous throughout 
 the season, that they have been killed to the 
 value of nearly two thousand pounds in one 
 year. Catching them by nets and springes is 
 common in the hilly counties of Cumberland, 
 Westmoreland, and Durham. The same prac- 
 tices are in operation in "Wales to a great ex- 
 tent. Mr. Dobson, in his Kunopcedia, says — 
 *' The poacher's dog in Wales is an ugly, raw- 
 boned, cross-made derivation from tho light 
 setter, degraded through half-a-dozen genera- 
 
 tions of bastardy, with a view of biiiig made 
 into pointers. Than this, it is not po-^siblo to 
 conceive more unpromising material.^; and if 
 such bo tho effects produclblo upon this 
 stock, it is fair to conclude what u similar 
 disciplino is capable of doing with superior 
 natures. i3y hunger and hard work, of both of 
 which they have plenty, they aro brought down 
 to obedience; and their draw upon a cock iti 
 a wood, under tho dread of their master's arm, 
 with the power of which they soon become ac- 
 quainted, is wrought into a full stop." 
 
 Formerly there was a regular system of 
 shooting and entrapping woodcocks pursued in 
 Scotland, for the Edinburgh and Glasgow mar- 
 kets. In some localities of that country the 
 birds are very common, and there is a varied 
 abundance of food for their support, particu- 
 larly on the western side of the island, where 
 tho winter season is comparatively mild and 
 open, and tho springs and boggy grounds are 
 not so liable to be frozen. In a letter written 
 by Sir AValter Scott, to a friend, he says—" I 
 have been out for two or three days endeav- 
 ouring to obtain a shot or two at a woodcock, 
 but I have not been successful ; the fact is, 
 these birds are now taken off wholesale by a 
 band of men who do nothing else for the season 
 but kill them, and they find a ready and proii- 
 table market for them in all our large and 
 populous Scottish cities and towns. I was 
 lately informed, by one poulterer of Edinburgh, 
 that he had paid one man nearly a hundred 
 pounds last season for woodcocks, which ho 
 had chiefly shot in the western parts of Argyl- 
 shire and Inverness-shire. This seems prodigi- 
 ous." It is likewise stated, in the work from 
 which this letter is taken {Annals of Sporting, 
 Edinburgh), that formal applications had been 
 made to the magistracy of several districts 
 in Scotland, to endeavour to put a stop to this 
 wholesale destruction and tralllc. 
 t Ireland is highly praised for its woodcock 
 sportiug. Colonel liawker says, " that a real 
 good sportsman feels more gratified by flush- 
 ing and killing a woodcock, or even a few snipes, 
 than bags-full of game that have been reared 
 on his own or his neighbour's estate. Lo- 
 calities of cock shooting aro widely distributed 
 over the British dominions. Ireland, through- 
 out, is unquestionably the very best spot for a 
 zealot in cock and snipe shooting ; the nature 
 
 559 
 
THE SNIPE.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the snipe. 
 
 of the ground, inclined as it is to bog and 
 marsh, suits the one and the other of these 
 birds." On the same subject, the Colonel 
 remarks — "If a sportsman is fond of cock 
 shooting, it will repay him well for his trouble 
 to take a trip to Ireland ; it is not material 
 what part to recommend, as it is impossible 
 almost to go to a bad place for sport. As to 
 asking leave, it is needless ; as the only cause 
 of jealousy that can subsist between the visitor 
 
 and the owner of the ground, will be, for not 
 acquainting him of his coming, in order that he 
 might have had it in his power to receive him 
 in the usual hospitable manner, by providing' 
 beaters to show him sport, giving him the best 
 of fare, a good bottle of claret, a sincere and 
 hearty welcome ; assuring his guest, the longer 
 he stays and honours him with his company, 
 the more welcome he is, and the happier he will 
 make him." 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE SNIPE. 
 
 Snipe shooting can be enjoyed in almost all 
 parts of the kingdom ; but we do not think 
 that it is a sport calculated to be so attractive 
 to the generality of shooters as the pursuit of 
 the game of the mountains and the moors. 
 To many, however, it affords a sufficiency of 
 excitement ; whilst it always secures them as 
 much exercise as will add to their health, and 
 helps to render them cheerful companions 
 whilst sitting at the fireside of their homes. 
 
 There are three different kinds of snipes 
 known to the British sportsman. 
 
 The Great Snipe {Scohpax Major, Linn.) is 
 a comparatively rare bird; the upper portion 
 of its plumage nearly resembling that of the 
 common snipe. The breast, sides, belly, and 
 vent, are white, spotted, barred, and undu- 
 lated with black. Its weight is about eight 
 ounces ; and length sixteen inches. The bill 
 is like the shape of the woodcock's, and about 
 four inches long. The crown of the head is 
 black, and divided down the centre by a pale 
 stripe ; and over and beneath each eye there is 
 another of tlie same colour. The upper parts of 
 the body resemble those of the common snipe; 
 the feathers on the neck, breast, and sides, are 
 edged with a dusky white, and those of the 
 belly spotted with the colour. The middle, 
 however, is quite plain. The quills are dusky, 
 and the tail reddish ; the two middle feathers 
 of which are plain, and tha others barred with 
 560 
 
 black. The legs are black. This bird is not 
 common in England ; but is sometimes found 
 in the counties of Lancaster and Kent. Some 
 designate them the solitarij snipe, from always 
 being found alone. In Germany and Siberia 
 it appears ; and Latham tells us that he saw 
 one among a quantity of birds sent from 
 Cayenne. Snipes are seen throughout the 
 Old Continent, from the Arctic regions to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, wliere they are common. 
 They are also found in the islands of Ceylon 
 and Japan. In America they are almost 
 universally distributed. 
 
 The Common Snipe (^Scolojpax Gallinago, 
 Linn.), or the Heather Snipe, is described as 
 about four ounces in weight, and nearly twelve 
 inches in length. The bill is three inches 
 long, and of a dusky colour; and, in some 
 individual cases, the base is light, flattish, and 
 rough at the ends ; the irides dusky. The 
 crown of the head is black, with a longi- 
 tudinal light rufous line down the middle ; and 
 another line passes from the base of the upper 
 mandible, of the same colour, on each side 
 over the eyes. Between the bill and the eye 
 there is a dusky line. The throat is white ; 
 and the cheeks, neck, and upper breast are 
 mottled with black and light-coloured patches. 
 The back and scapulars are black, barred with 
 brown, and striped with yellowish buff- 
 coloured longitudinal lines. The quills are 
 
TUE SNIPE.] 
 
 BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND WvVTEK. 
 
 [the 85IPE. 
 
 black; the first edged with white, and the 
 soc'ondaries arc tip{>*'il with tho baiue. Thoso 
 iH'xt to tlio body aiv, with tlieir covorta, 
 striatt'd and barred with an iron-grey colonr. 
 Tho K)\vor breast and bt-Uy are whito ; uppor 
 tail-foverts brown, barred with bhick. Tlio 
 tail consists of fourteen black feathers, barred 
 and spotted with dull orange red towards the 
 i-nil, and with a narrow bar of black near the 
 tip, where it is of a pale rufous colour. The 
 legs vary ; in some they are dusky, or lead- 
 coloured, and in others black. 
 
 The Jack Snipe (Scolopax GalUnula, Linn.) 
 This species is described, in the Ornithological 
 Dictionary, as nearly half the size of the com- 
 mon snipe, and weighs about two ounces. Its 
 length is about two inches and a-half. The 
 bill is nearly two inches long, of a lead colour, 
 black at the point, and the upper mandible of 
 a light colour, and the irides black. The 
 crown of the head is black, and slightly edged 
 with rusty brown, bordered on each side with 
 a yellowish streak, beneath which is a dusky 
 one ; and close above the eye is another streak 
 of a light colour. From the bill to tho eye is 
 a dusky stroke. The black is varied with 
 ferruginous brown, and dusky. The back, 
 rump, and scapulars are of a fine, glossy, 
 changeable green and purple ; the exterior 
 webs of the latter, deep buff colour, forming 
 the two conspicuous lines from the shoulder 
 to the tail. The quills are dusky, and so like- 
 wise are the wing-coverts, bordered with 
 brown. The lower breast, and all beneath, is 
 white. The tail is cuneiform, consisting of 
 twelve pointed dusky feathers, dashed more or 
 less with an iron-grey. The legs are of a 
 greenish hue. The jack snipe comes later in 
 the season than the common snipe; and no 
 instances are known of its ever having re- 
 mained in this country during the breeding 
 reason. It is very common in most countries 
 of Europe, as well as in the various states of 
 !North America. 
 
 "We have already said that snipes are found 
 in tolerable abundance in all the old countries 
 of Europe, in Africa, Asia, and the islands of 
 the Eastern Archipelago. In the American 
 continent they are very numerous, especially in 
 the states of North and South Carolina. In 
 Egypt, they frequent the rice-fields or planta- 
 tiona in such swarms, that it is no uncommon 
 4 c 
 
 circumstanco for a man to shoot a baskotful in 
 11 day. It is said, however, that tho sport 
 hero is fatiguing, from thu light earth of the 
 rico-grounda being so deeply mixed with water, 
 that tho shooter sinks, at every step ho takes, 
 often above tho knees. Snipes arrive in Lower 
 ICgypt at tho beginning of November, and 
 pass tho entire winter there. 
 
 " The snipe is hardly ever found 
 
 In woods ; he's fond of open ground. 
 
 The ru.shy pond, tlie (|uict brook, 
 
 l?ut cliiefly to the marshes look ; 
 
 Tlie ])lashy heath and boggy moor 
 
 Yield freciueiitly an ample store; 
 
 Stick to them well when this the case is, 
 
 They very quickly change their places ; 
 
 To-day the sportsman can pursue 
 
 The numerous game //// all is blue. 
 
 To-morrow he goes out again, 
 
 But mayn't a single shot obtain ; 
 
 Affected by the wind and weather, 
 
 They often flock away together ; 
 
 Sometimes they to the hills repair, 
 
 Rising in wliisps all wildly there ; 
 
 Vain the pursuit, but if a gale 
 
 Should quickly from the east prevail, 
 
 Or even from the boisterous north, 
 
 Again you ought to sally forth." 
 
 These lines, though scarcely poetical, are 
 valuable, on account of the truthfulness of 
 their directions. They are taken from Re- 
 marks on Shooting, by Mr. Watt. 
 
 The snipe begins to pipe in the first week 
 of April. Many breed in this country. Their 
 nests are composed of dried grass and plants, 
 now and then intermixed with feathers. They 
 lay four or five eggs — sometimes six are found 
 — of a dirty olive-colour, marked irregularly 
 with dusky spots. The young have an in- 
 formed, shapeless appearance. It has been 
 well ascertained that the mother never deserts 
 them until their bills have become long, and 
 of sufiicient firmness to enable them to seek 
 and procure food for themselves. When dis- 
 turbed much in the breeding season, tho 
 parents soar very high, and the male bird will 
 keep on the wing for an hour together, mount- 
 ing like a lark, and uttering a shrill and 
 piping noise. It then descends with great 
 velocity, and makes a bleating sound, resem- 
 bling that of a goat, which is repeated alter- 
 nately round the spot which the female occu- 
 pies, especially if she is then hatching her 
 eggs. This sound, in the days of superstition, 
 was called the cainpana ccclestis. 
 
 5GI 
 
SMPE SnOOTING.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [snipe shooting. 
 
 Snipes of all kinds feed mostly on worms 
 and insects, which abound in moist grounds 
 and marshy localities. Snails have occasion- 
 ally been found whole or undigested in their 
 stomachs. Their flesh is fat and savoury; 
 and they are cooked in the same manner as 
 ■woodcocks, without extracting the entrails. 
 
 From observations made by a gentleman in 
 Norfolk, and furnished by Mr. Daniel, it ap- 
 pears that the common snipe arrives in the 
 vicinity of Norwich in the early part of Sep- 
 tember, and stops for a day or two, or perhaps 
 only for a few hours. They often come in 
 large flocks, and lie very light on the ground. 
 At the end of October the greatest numbers 
 make their appearance; but as soon as the 
 cold weather commences, they almost entirely 
 disappear, and return no more until March, 
 previous to their final departure. During the 
 frost, the spring ditches are, when free from 
 ice, carefully examined ; but, excepting on two 
 or three early days of frost, very few birds 
 are found. The forwardness or backward- 
 ness of spring seems invariably to regulate 
 their movements, which induced this gentle- 
 man to remark the coincidence of the time 
 of the flowering of wild plants, and that of 
 the reappearance of the snipes. In Feb- 
 ruary, a few punctually arrived; but on 
 frost setting in, they departed again. The 
 marshes were searched, but not a snipe could 
 be seen. In March they again visited the 
 moist grounds and springs, in considerable 
 numbers, in company with a large flock of 
 lapwings ; but in a few days they left for other 
 countries. The next spring being a very early 
 one, many made their appearance in the first 
 week of March. They came in flocks, but in 
 a fortnight they had all gone away. It would 
 appear from this, that the weather has a great 
 deal of influence in determining the movements 
 of the snipe which has a very powerful and 
 an unerring instinct. 
 
 SNIPE SHOOTING. 
 Snipe sliootinf) is considered by Mr. Thorn- 
 liill to be no bad test of a man's love of gen- 
 uine sport, if he feel a strong partiality for 
 this kind of shooting. He observes — " Snipe 
 shooting is a sport the best calculated (grous- 
 ing excepted) to try the keenness of the 
 sportsman, to ascertain hia bottom, and if he 
 562 
 
 can stand labour, water, mire, swamps, and 
 bogs. He should be possessed of a strong 
 constitution, not liable to take cold, and have 
 all the fortitude, as well as exertion, of a water- 
 spaniel ; he should be habitually inured to 
 wet, dirt, and difficulty, and not be deterred 
 by cold or severe weather." Mr. Daniel 
 says — " Snipe shooting, when the birds are 
 plentiful, is an excellent diversion: they are 
 said to puzzle the marksman by the irregular 
 twistings of their flight when first sprung; but 
 this difliculty is soon surmounted if the birds 
 are suffered to reach to a certain distance, 
 when their flight becomes steady, and easy to 
 traverse with the gun. There is no reason to 
 be apprehensive of their getting out of the 
 range of the shot, as they will fall to the 
 ground if struck but slightly with the smallest 
 grain. Snipes, like woodcocks, and many other 
 wild birds, always fly against the wind ; there- 
 fore, by keeping the wind at his back, the 
 sportsman has this advantage of the bird when 
 it rises — that it presents a fairer mark. These 
 birds are scarcely good till November, when 
 they get very fat. In hard, frosty, and more 
 particularly in snowy weather, snipes resort in 
 numbers to warm springs, where the rills con- 
 tinue open, and run with a gentle stream ; 
 these, on account of their long bills, are then 
 the only places where they can hunt for food. 
 Snipes will generally lie well to a pointer ; and 
 some dogs have a singular knack of finding 
 and standing to them." 
 
 Regarding the difliculty of shooting snipes, 
 some alfirm that it is very great, whilst others 
 affirm quite the contrary. To be cool and col- 
 lected is a great point gained ; for where there is 
 hurry and trepidation, the chances are greatly 
 against the shooter. The motion of the bird 
 is irregular, and is supposed to arise from the 
 nature of its visual organs, being so con- 
 structed as to see things in daylight very in- 
 distinctly and obscurely ; and this is supposed 
 to be the cause of that unsteadiness of flight 
 so embarrassing to the sportsman. It must 
 be remembered, that in snipe, as well as in 
 woodcock shooting, there is what is called a 
 Jcnach to be obtained; a rapidity of action, 
 and promptness of aim, which practice, joined 
 to a particular temperament of body and mind, 
 alone secure. It is remarked by Mr. Blaine, 
 that it has been said, " in some writings, 
 
SNTPE snooTiNo.] BV FIHLI), WOOD, AND WATER. [snipe snooTnro. 
 
 that tlio snipo ia tlio hardest to hit of nil birds; 
 
 wlioroas, in others, it is siiid to bo aiiythinp; 
 but diUloult to bring down a snipi*. Jn our 
 opinion, however, there are tsvo methods of 
 hitting him with moderate eertainty: the 
 ono ia by snap-sliooling, wliich i3 a habit 
 gained bv some, but not to bo critieally de- 
 scribed by any, except we regard it as a con- 
 sentaneous action of eye and hand at the samo 
 moment. The other certain mode of snipo 
 shooting is to put the gun into the hand of the 
 cool and deliberate marksman, wlio, nothing 
 ilurried, waits his opportunity, and the moment 
 the bird settles into its course, arrests that 
 course by a shot." Tiie OnMcigh Code aflirms, 
 that " the shooter will bring down a snipe 
 with much less difficulty at fi'om fifteen to 
 twenty paces, than at any other distance. 
 The aim is thus taken just before the bird 
 begins to malie its cross-ili^hts, but before it 
 has attained its full speed. The irregularity 
 of its flight is of little consequence during the 
 first and second twisting, before the bird is 
 safely on tlic wing, since its flight is then com- 
 paratively tardy. But let the snipe fly ten 
 yards from whence it sprang — let it be, for 
 instance, twenty-five paces distant from the 
 gun — it is then at the top of its speed, and in 
 the very midst of its sidelong, elliptical gyra- 
 tions, and more than a match for the majority 
 of shooters." 
 
 "Whether dogs should be employed in snipe 
 shooting is another point of dispute; but 
 where there are many men there must be 
 many minds ; and if these were to agree in all 
 things, they would soon become rusty and 
 useless. Accordingly, some maintain that dogs 
 are useless in snipe shooting ; whilst others 
 consider them as highly necessary. " AVho 
 shall decide vphen doctors disagree ?" Mr. 
 Blaine tells us, that he shot snipes in England, 
 Ireland, and Scotland, and never did so with- 
 out a dog, if he could get one. In Ireland, 
 snipe shooters not only have dogs, but beaters 
 and markers in addition. 
 
 We believe that snipes were, in this country, 
 much more abundant than they now are. 
 Mr. Daniel tells us, that snipes, in the Cam- 
 bridgeshire fens, were, at one period, most abun- 
 dant ; those brought to Cuiubridge market, 
 which at that time were all shot birds, sold at 
 threepence to fivepence each. One season 
 
 ho killed, ill three moniingfl, thirty-threo 
 
 eouplo of snipes; and from having known hia 
 father's men catch tliein by drawing with a 
 net in the night-time, ho mentioned to a 
 person near Milton Wm, hia surprise tliat this 
 mode of taking tiiein had not been resorted to. 
 Tlio fenman incpiiri'd what sort of net was to 
 bo used, and was told a lark-net would answer 
 the purpose of a trial. This the fenman soon 
 borrowed, and, the first night of his making 
 tho experiment, caught as many snipes as a 
 small iiamper could contain. Tho practice 
 soon became general ; and tho netted were so 
 much better than tho shot birds, that tho 
 latter could scarcely find a purcliaser in tho 
 market. The price at Cambridge afterwards 
 increased to a shilling, and sometimes to 
 eighteen-pence a-picce. The Duke of Marl- 
 borough's gamekeeper, on ono occasion, killed 
 twenty-two snipes at one shot. 
 
 A French sporting writer says, that, in the 
 year 1793, there were such immense flocks of 
 snipes settled along the south-eastern coast of 
 France, that they were taken in cart-loads. 
 They were so weak and feeble, tiiat the pea- 
 sants used to knock them down with their 
 hands or their hats. As this occurred when 
 the revolutionary frenzy was at its height, the 
 country people thougiit the presence of these 
 birds, in such multitudes, was a miracle ; and 
 very few, in consequence of this notion, were 
 eaten. 
 
 The localities for good snipe shooting are, in 
 England, Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and 
 Northamptonshire; and the Essex marshes 
 have been long known and celebrated for this 
 sport. The birds are likewise to be found in 
 Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, and West- 
 moreland. In Scotland they are, on the whole, 
 more numerous than in England. In the 
 former country whisps of thirty and forty are 
 not uncommon in the boggy and marshy lands, 
 near the lochs and rivers which there abound. 
 Ireland, however, carries ofi"the pahn in point of 
 abundance. There it is no uncommon achieve- 
 ment to kill forty or fifty brace of these birds 
 in a few hours. They are to be met with in 
 every section of the country. In North and 
 South AVales there is likewise good sport. 
 Twenty brace have been killed among tho 
 mountain bogs there in four hours ; and this, 
 too, in comparatively unfavourable weather. 
 
 nn3 
 
THE BUSTAED.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the bustabd. 
 
 We can scarcely move in any direction in 
 South "Wales, without meeting with vast num- 
 bers of these birds ; but they must be sought 
 after and followed in very odd places ; and we 
 must never scruple to plunge up to the middle 
 to gain our object. This sport is undoubtedly 
 a very exciting one, but it must be purchased 
 at a certain cost of bodily labour, privation, 
 and discomfort; and only those individuals 
 possessing sound and vigorous constitutions, 
 should follow it. 
 
 The time of the arrival and departure of 
 migrating birds, has been thus noted by Mr. 
 
 Markwright, whose observations extended over 
 a period of twenty-six years: — 
 
 First seen. Last seen. 
 
 Woodcock October 26 April 1 
 
 Snipe November 20 ^larch 20 
 
 Jack-snipe December 26 March 16 
 
 Landrail September 1 October 20 
 
 Quail August 20 — — 
 
 Red-wing November 20 INIarch 18 
 
 Field-fare November 21 April 19 
 
 Roy ston crow ... December 22 March 16 
 
 Swallow April 18 October 31 
 
 Swift May 9 September 3 
 
 Cuckoo May 7 July 10 
 
 Wheat-ear May 4 September 26 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE BUSTARD. 
 
 The greater bustard (the Otis Tarda of Lin- 
 ngBus) is one of the largest of British game- 
 birds ; but it is now rarely met with. It is 
 about four feet long, and from twenty-five to 
 thirty pounds weight; its bill is strong, and 
 rather convex ; its eyes are red, and its head 
 and neck are ash-coloured. On each side of 
 the lower bill is a tuft of feathers, from five to 
 nine inches long, the back of which is barred 
 transversely with black and rust colour; the 
 large quill feathers are brown, and the belly 
 white. There are twenty feathers in the tail, 
 those of the middle being of a rust colour, 
 barred with deep black, and those on each side 
 white. The legs are long and naked beyond 
 the knees, and are of a dusky colour. The bird 
 has no hind toe ; its nails are short, strong, and 
 of considerable convexity, both above and be- 
 low, and the bottom of the foot is furnished 
 with a callous prominence, which serves the 
 purpose of a heel. The female bird is smaller 
 in size than the male. The crown of the head 
 of the former is of a deep orange, crossed with 
 transverse black lines ; the rest of the head is 
 brown. The lower part of the fore-side of the 
 neck is ash-coloured, and she is destitute of 
 the tuft on each side of the head ; in other re- 
 spects her plumage resembles that of the male, 
 with the exception that the colours of the back 
 561 
 
 and wings are less vivid and glossy. The male 
 is furnished with a kind of pouch, capable of 
 containing nearly seven pints of water, the en- 
 trance to which is immediately under the 
 tongue. It is supposed that the bird fills this 
 to supply its wants in those dry and thirsty 
 plains which it inhabits. Some naturalists 
 say that the male supplies the female with a 
 portion of the liquid when she is sitting on her 
 Qil"^. In Morocco, where the hawk is em- 
 ployed to capture the bustard, he makes use of 
 his pouclful of water as a means of defence ; 
 for, whenever the hawk is coming upon him, he 
 spirts it out upon his foe, and thus endeavours 
 to escape the consequences of his capture. The 
 female bustard makes no kind of nest, but sim- 
 ply scratches a hole in some dry field, and drops 
 two eggs upon the ground, as large as those of 
 a goose, and of a pale olive brown, dotted irre- 
 gularly with a number of small dark spots, re- 
 sembling the brown colour of the plumage. 
 She sits thirty days, and watches them with 
 great jealousy ; and it is said, if any one han- 
 dles them in her absence, she immediately 
 abandons them. 
 
 Bustards feed on corn and vegetables of 
 various kinds; they likewise devour great 
 quantities of earthworms. Like the ostrich, 
 they even swallow small pebbles, and bits of 
 
rsy-BiEDs.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [fen-bibds. 
 
 metal. BuiVoa relates a sonunvliat straii^o 
 storv of one that waa opened before the lioval 
 Acaileniicians of Frauce; in the stomach of 
 which there wero ninefi/ douhloons, all worn 
 and polished by the attrition of the coats of the 
 stomach. 
 
 Shooting the bustard was once a very fa- 
 vourite sport with the gentlemen of England. 
 Then, however, they were more plentiful. In 
 autumn they appeared in tho largest num- 
 bers. Sometimes as many as fifty or more 
 would be seen together near the Downs in 
 Wiltshire. In Scotland the bird is supposed to 
 be quite extinct. In former days, all sorts of con- 
 trivances were invented to gain upon the wary 
 bird ; carts and coaches, in which gunners were 
 concealed, was a favourite plan ; and Mark- 
 ham tells us, that in his time (nearly two cen- 
 turies and a-half ago), the stalking-horse was 
 the surest mode of capture. It was a great 
 achievement to get a shot at the bird, and 
 a still greater to kill him. It was not an un- 
 common thing for even greyhounds to course 
 the bustard — as it displays always a great re- 
 luctance to take wing, and is often success- 
 fully overtaken by the dogs, and secured. 
 
 About thirty years ago, two fine male birds 
 were shot in Northumberland, which weighed 
 nearly twenty-five pounds each. Salisbury 
 Plain has long been noted for them ; but we 
 believe, at the present hour, they are but 
 seldom seen, even in this favoured locality. 
 There have been a few stray birds taken in 
 the high grounds in Wales, within the last 
 ten years. They are very common in Eussia, 
 Germany, and Tartary. 
 
 The Little Bustard (^Otis Tetrax, Linnaeus). 
 
 This is a smaller species of tho bird, being 
 sixteen inches in length, and thirty-five in 
 breadth, with outstretched wings. Its weight 
 is about twenty-five ounces. Bewick says — 
 " It is very uncommon in this country ; wo 
 have only seen two, both of them females. ]t 
 is, however, common in France, wiicro it is 
 taken in nets, like the ])artridge ; but it is not 
 an easy prey, being a very shy and cunning 
 bird ; if disturbed, it Hies two or three hundred 
 paces, not far from tho ground, and then runs 
 away much faster than any one can follow on 
 foot. The female lays in June, to the number 
 of three or four eggs, of a glossy green ; and, 
 as soon as the young are hatched, she leads 
 them about as the hen does her chickens, and 
 they are able to fly about the middle of 
 August." 
 
 In India the bustard is a favourite table 
 bird; but even thousands of gastronomes in 
 this country, if it were brought to table, would 
 be at a loss to know what it was. Colonel 
 Montague tells us that, in ISOi, one was shot 
 and taken to Plymouth market, where a pub- 
 lican purchased it for one shilling — what would 
 have fetched two or three guineas where its 
 value was known. This rare wanderer was, 
 however, so entirely unknown, that it was re- 
 jected at the second table as improper food, in 
 consequence of the pectoral muscle difiering in 
 colour from the other parts of the breast — a 
 circumstance not unusual in birds of the grouse 
 kind. Some country gentlemen supping at the 
 inn the following evening, and hearing of the 
 circumstance, desired that they might be in- 
 troduced to the princely bird, and, at their 
 repast, partook of it cold. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 FEN-BIRD3. 
 
 The term "fen-birds" embraces a numerous 
 class, all breeding in the fens — which, by the 
 way, are fast disappearing before the march of 
 
 progress — but roving into different localities, 
 especially during the first part of tho year. 
 They consist of wild ducks, geese, gargerries, 
 
 565 
 
TUE bittee:?^.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [THE BITTEEN. 
 
 or summer teal, pochards, shovellers, teals, 
 pewits, gulls, terns, herons, bitterns, coots, 
 water-hens, water- rails, ruffs and reeves, knobs, 
 redshanks, lapwings, and many others. This 
 enumeration is sufficiently full to indicate the 
 varied character of the feathered population of 
 the fena. 
 
 THE BITTERN. 
 
 This bird is the Ardea Stellaris of Linnseus, 
 and bears a strong resemblance to the heron 
 family, only it is smaller, and has a different 
 plumage. The feathers on the top of its head 
 are black ; and those on the hind part of the 
 head, neck, and breast, are long and loose. 
 The general colour of the bird is a dull, pale 
 yellow, but variegated with spots and bars of 
 black. The greater covert and quill feathers 
 are ferruginous, and regularly barred with 
 black. The tail is short, and the legs of a pale- 
 green hue ; the toes and claws are very long and 
 slender, and the middle claw is serrated on 
 the inner edge. The female is somewhat less 
 than the male, with a plumage less bright, the 
 feathers on the neck not being so long and 
 flowing. Its bill is considerably shorter than 
 the bill of the heron, and likewise weaker. 
 She makes her nest in April, among rushes 
 and sedges, and is, in all respects, a regular 
 visitor of the fen districts. She lays from 
 four to ^vs. eggs, which are of a pale greenish 
 ash colour, and sits twenty-five days. AVhen 
 they are hatched, the young have the appear- 
 ance of being all legs and neck, and never ven- 
 ture from the neat until about twenty days 
 after they are hatched, during which time they 
 are carefully watched and fed by the old birds. 
 Their common food are slugs, small fish, and 
 frogs. In February and March, the male bit- 
 terns make a deep hollow noise, morning and 
 evening, which ceases after the breeding season 
 commences. This is called the booming of the 
 bittern, and has been often noticed both by 
 poets and naturalists. It is observed, in the 
 Ornitliological Dictionary, that " those who 
 have walked, on a summer's evening, by the 
 sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must re- 
 member a variety of notes from different water- 
 fowl, the loud scream of the wild goose, the 
 croaking of the mallard, the whining of the 
 lapwing, and the tremulous neighings of the 
 jack-snipe. But of all these sounds there is 
 566 
 
 none so dismally hollow as the looming of the 
 bittern. It is impossible for words to give 
 those who have not heard this eveniuo- call, 
 an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like 
 the interrupted bellowing of a bull, but hol- 
 lower and louder, and is heard at the distance 
 of a mile, as if issuing from some formidable be- 
 ing that resided at the bottom of the waters. 
 This is the bittern, whose windpipe is fitted 
 to produce the sound for which it is remark- 
 able — the lower part of it, dividing into the 
 lungs, being supplied with a thin loose mem- 
 brane, that can be filled with a large body 
 of air, and exploded at pleasure. These bel- 
 lowing explosions are chiefly heard from the 
 beginning of the spring to the end of autumn^ 
 and are the usual calls during the pairing sea- 
 son. From the loudness and solemnity of the 
 note, many have been led to suppose that the 
 bird made use of some external instrument to 
 produce it, and that so small a body could 
 never eject such a volume of tone. The com- 
 mon people are of opinion that it thrusts its 
 bill into a reed, which serves as a pipe for 
 swelling the note above its natural pitch ; while 
 others imagine that the bittern puts its head 
 under water, and then, by blowing violently, 
 produces its boomings. The fact is, that the 
 bird is sufficiently provided by nature for this 
 call, and it is often heard where there are 
 neither reeds nor water to assist its sonorous 
 invitations. It hides in the sedges by day, 
 and begins its call in the evening, booming six 
 or eight times; and then, discontinuing for 
 eisht or ten minutes, it renews the same sound. 
 In Scotland, the sound of the bittern is so very 
 common, that every child is familiar with it, 
 though the birds, from being shy, are not often 
 seen. The poet Thomson seems to have had a 
 very erroneous opinion of the manner in which 
 the bird produces this noise, when he says — 
 
 " So that scarce 
 The bittern knows his time, with bill engulfed, 
 To shake the sounding marsh.' 
 
 On the contrary, we have repeatedly remarked 
 that the bittern usually booms while flying 
 high in the air. Its lofty spiral flight is, indeed, 
 a matter of common remark — 
 
 " Swift as the bittern soars on spiral wing.' 
 
 A line which, we may remark, is not very orni- 
 thological, inasmuch as neither the bittern nor 
 
THE HEEOK.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [tub heeon. 
 
 any other kind of bird has Bpiral winj^s. 
 Southey, however, seems to have been well 
 acquainted with the boom of the bittern — 
 
 -" At evening, o'er the swampy plain, 
 
 The bittern's boom came far." 
 The shooting of the bittern scarcely merits 
 the uameof sport, as their numbers are limited, 
 and thev are seldom sought for as especial ob- 
 jects of game. They arc easily brought to the 
 <^rouud. They rise heavily on the wing, and 
 move forward with a slow and deliberate mo- 
 tion, and are, therefore, a good mark for the 
 fowler. Sometimes, however, they will rise 
 rapidly, with a spiral motion ; and when this 
 is the case they are not so readily shot. A 
 double gun is of advantage in seeking for this 
 shv bird. When -wounded it fights hard ; and 
 when driven to extremity, will attack a man 
 with vigour, striking his legs with its bill, and 
 even in some cases aiming a blow at his head. 
 This bird was once held in high esteem at the 
 tables of the great, and is still highly prized by 
 the real sportsman. 
 
 THE HERON. 
 This noble-looking bird is the Ardea Major 
 of Liuujeus ; and has been described by Buffon 
 as " a picture of wretchedness, anxiety, and 
 indigence, condemned to struggle perpetually 
 •with misery and want, and sickened by the 
 restless cravings of a famished appetite." 
 How suck a description could have fallen from 
 the pen of the great French naturalist we are 
 at a loss to divine ; as, throughout the whole 
 scheme of creation, there is no animal, in a 
 natural state, doomed to a life of perpetual 
 wretchedness. The bird is just as happy as 
 any other bird ; and it follows its instinctive 
 habits with the same unerring regularity as do 
 the members of every other tribe of the 
 feathered creation. It is seen to stand for 
 hours fixed like a stake to a given spot — no 
 evidence of life in it — waiting patiently for 
 the moment to arrive when the trout or the 
 minnow shall come within the range of its long 
 cranked neck. Its movements are among the 
 wonders of this class of fen-birds ; and if 
 patience is a virtue, then the heron is abun- 
 dantly endowed with it. 
 
 The beron has a wonderful capacity of 
 stomach. It may be said literally to swallow 
 no end of fish. Some young birds have been 
 
 known to consume fifty small roach in a day. 
 These birds make their iicmIs of pieces of stick, 
 lined with wool and feathers ; and the female 
 lays five or six eggs, of a pale green colour. 
 During incubation, the male bird passes much 
 of his time perched by the side of tlio female. 
 They abandon their nests during the winter 
 season, except in the month of February, 
 when they return to them, and put them into 
 a state of repair. 
 
 In the sport of hawking, the heron, in 
 ancient times, was a frequent victim ; but it 
 had a means of defending itself which may not 
 be known to the generality of our readers. A 
 note in the Booke of St. Allan's, says — " The 
 heron, or heronsew, is a fowl that liveth about 
 waters, and yet she doth so abhorre raine and 
 tempests, that she seekcth to avoid them by 
 flying on high. She hath her neste in very 
 loftie trees, and showeth, as it were, a natural 
 hatred against the goss-hawk, and other kinds 
 of hawks ; and so, likewise, doth the hawk seek 
 her destruction continually. When they fight 
 above in the aire, they labour both especially 
 for this one thing, that the one might ascend 
 and be above the other. Now, if the hawk 
 getteth the upper place, he overthrowetb and 
 vanquisheth the heron with a marvellous 
 earnest fliglit ; but if the heron get above the 
 hawk, then with his dung he defileth the 
 hawk, and so destroyeth him, for bis dung is a 
 poison to the hawk, rotting and putrefying bis 
 feathers." 
 
 The heron seldom weighs more than three 
 or four pounds, notwithstanding it measures 
 about three feet in length ; and the breadth of 
 its wings, from tip to tip, is above five feet. The 
 bill is full six inches long, straight, pointed, 
 strong, and serrated ; and the upper mandible 
 is of a yellowish horn colour, dark towards the 
 ridge, whilst the under one is yellow. A bare 
 skin is extended from the beak towards the 
 eye, the irides of which are yellow, which im- 
 parts to them a fierce and penetrating look. 
 The brow and crown of the head are white ; 
 the eyes bordered by black lines, which stretch 
 to the nape of the neck, where they join a 
 long, flowing, pendent crest of the same 
 colour. The upper part of the neck, in some 
 birds, is white ; in others pale ash colour ; 
 and the fore part, lower down, is spotted with 
 a double row of black feathers ; those falling 
 
 -507 
 
THE HEEON.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the HEEOir. 
 
 over the breast beiug long, loose, and un- 
 ■webbed. The shoulder and scapular feathers 
 are likewise of the same kind of texture, of a 
 grey colour, generally streaked with white, 
 and spread over its down-clothed back. The 
 ridge of the wing is white, the coverts and 
 secondaries lead-coloured, and the bastard 
 wings and quills are of a bluish black, as are 
 also the long soft feathers which take their 
 rise on the sides under the wings. These fall 
 down, meet their tips, and hide all the under 
 parts ; the latter, next the skin, being covered 
 with a thick, matted, dirty-white down, except 
 about the belly and vent, which are almost 
 bare. The tail is short, and consists of twelve 
 feathers of a brownish-red colour. The legs 
 are a dirty green, long, bare above the knees, 
 and the middle claw is jagged on the inner 
 edge. 
 
 The female differs from the male in not 
 possessing the long flowing crest, or the long 
 feathers which adorn the breast of the male. 
 The entire plumage of the female is com- 
 paratively subdued and uninteresting. 
 
 Shooting the heron may generally be re- 
 ferred more to chance than any settled plan of 
 sporting with the gun. The extreme shyness 
 of the bird renders it difi&cult to be got at ; 
 and it is commonly only by accident that the 
 sportsman falls upon it and secures it. "When 
 not fatally wounded at first, it will turn upon 
 both the shooter and his dog, if he has one ; 
 and, with its hard-pointed bill, it can inflict a 
 sharp wound, , One that was shot in the 
 north of England, dropped a trout of ten 
 inches out of its mouth. On the dog ap- 
 proaching it, he was struck upon the forehead 
 by the bird's bill, and a wound more than half 
 an inch deep was inflicted. Such occurrences 
 are far from being rare in the shooting annals 
 of this curious specimen of the fen-birds. 
 
 In England, herons were, for centuries, con- 
 sidered royal game, and protected as such by 
 the law. Whoever destroyed their eggs was 
 liable to a penalty of twenty shillings for each 
 ofience. AVhen heron-hawking was a favourite 
 diversion among the nobility and gentry, the 
 bird was considered a rich dainty at their 
 tables. The heron has been partially tamed. 
 Sir John Sebright knew of a full-grown one 
 taken in a decoy, and brought to J. D. 
 Downes, Esq., at Old Guntou Hall. At first, 
 56S 
 
 it was crammed with food, and at length be- 
 came so tame as to follow him on the wino- to 
 the distance of some miles, to come into the 
 house when called, and to take food from the 
 hand. 
 
 THE GREAT WHITE HERON. 
 
 The Ardea Alba of Linnaeus is seldom found 
 in Great Britain. It is about the same size as 
 the common heron, but stands higher, being 
 longer in the legs. It is devoid of crest, and its 
 plumage is entirely white; its bill is yellow, 
 and its legs black. It is found in considerable 
 numbers in the Russian dominions, and in most 
 of the countries contiguous to the Caspian and 
 Black Seas, and the lakes of Tartary. It is 
 met with in the United States of America from 
 June to October, and is often shot in these 
 parts. 
 
 THE NIGHT HERON 
 
 Is only about twenty inches in length. The 
 bill is nearly four inches long, slightly arched, 
 strong, black, and inclining to yellow at its 
 base. The skin from the beak round the eye 
 is bare, of a greenish hue, and its irides are 
 yellow. A white line is extended from the 
 beak, and over each eye a black patch, glossed 
 with green, covers the crown of the head and 
 nape of the neck, from which three long and 
 narrow white feathers, tipped with brown, hang 
 loose and waving. The hinder part of the 
 neck, coverts of the wings, sides, and tail, are 
 ash-coloured, and the throat is white. The 
 fore part of the neck, breast, and belly, are of 
 a yellowish white, approaching to buff; the 
 back is black, and the legs a greenish yellow. 
 The female bird is nearly of the same dimen- 
 sions; but she differs considerably in her 
 plumage from the male. The former is less 
 bright, distinct, and vividly portrayed ; neither 
 has she the delicate plumes which flow from 
 the head of the male. It is unnecessary here 
 to describe the " Stork" and the " Crane ;" for, 
 although they are birds similar to the heron, 
 they are now rarely met with in this country. 
 This bird frequents the sea-shores, rivers, 
 and inland lakes and marshes, and lives upon 
 crickets, slugs, frogs, reptiles, and fish. During 
 the day it lies concealed, and does not roam 
 abroad until the approach of nightfall. It is 
 known by its rough, harsh, discordant cry, 
 
BUFF AND UEKVK.J 
 
 BY FIKLP, WOOD, AND AVATKK. [uufk and kekve. 
 
 which is by some compared to tlio noiso made 
 bv rt person trying to vomit. Tho fomalo 
 builds her nest on rocky clifls, and lays three 
 or lour white eL;gs. Both inalo ami female are 
 vorv dillicult to shoot, on account of their 
 Oitreme wariness. 
 
 THE RUFF AND KEEVE. 
 Tho Hit f 13 the Tringa PwyMaw of Linnrous, 
 and is the name given to the male ; whilst the 
 lieeve designates the female of this species of 
 fen-bird. The length of the rufF is about 
 twelve inches, and its weight ranges between 
 six and eight ounces. The bill is about an 
 iuch long, and is tipped with blaclc, but reddish 
 at the base. The distinctive mark which sepa- 
 rates the male from the female is a singularly 
 wide-spreading, variegated tuft of feathers, 
 which, in the breeding season, grows out of 
 his neck. This tuft, a portion of which stands 
 up like ears behind each eye, is in some 
 black, in others black and yellow, and, in rare 
 cases, white, russet, or barred with glossy 
 violet, black and white. The entire face of 
 the bird is covered with reddish tubercles, or 
 pimples; the wing-coverts are brownish ash- 
 colour; the upper parts and the breast are 
 generally marked with transverse bars, and the 
 scapulars with roundish shaped, glossy black 
 spots, on a rusty-coloured ground. The quills 
 are dusky ; the belly, vent, and tail-coverts are 
 white. The tail is brown, and the four middle 
 feathers in it barred with black. The legs are 
 of a yellowish hue. The male does not acquire 
 the ornament of his neck till the second season, 
 and, before that time, is not easily distinguished 
 from the female, except by being larger. After 
 moulting, at the end of June, he loses his ruff 
 and the red tubercles on the face ; and, from 
 that time, until the spring of the year, his 
 plumage again resembles that of his mate. 
 This singular tuft in the male bird, it has been 
 remarked, is not a warlike ornament, but only 
 a kind of defensive armour, fitted, by the 
 length, stiffness, and closeness of the feathers, 
 to palliate the blows of an assailant. 
 
 The reeve is smaller than tho ruff, and has 
 no collar round the neck. She is brown in the 
 upper parts, and the middle of each feather is 
 dusky, and the larger quills are of tho same 
 hue. The secondaries are of rufous brown, and 
 the legs are yellowish. She lays four eggs in 
 
 4 D 
 
 the grasa, the ground-colour of which is white, 
 with iron-coloured spots. Aiuoiig sport.sinen 
 it is a rule, understood, not to t:iko tho reeves, 
 but to spare them for breeding purposes. 
 When the reeves arrive, tho ruff takes to what 
 is called hiUing ; which is selecting a suitable 
 place for pursuing his loves, and which is gene- 
 rally some elevated locality. Each ruff is said 
 to take possession of some small mound, or part 
 of a hill, which he wears (juite bare by hilling^ 
 or breeding upon it. 
 
 An erroneous opinion prevails very gen- 
 erally, that ruffs, when in confinement, must 
 be fed in tho dark, lest the admission of light 
 should set them to fighting. Tho fact is, that 
 every bird, even when kept in a room, takes 
 its stand, as it would in the open air ; and if 
 another invades its circle, a battle ensues. A 
 whole room full of them may be set into fierce 
 contest by compelling them to shift their sta- 
 tions: but, after the disturber has quitted the 
 place, they have been observed to resume their 
 circles, and become again pacific. In confine- 
 ment, their quarrels originate in the circum- 
 stance of the pan containing their food not 
 being sufficiently large to admit the whole 
 party to feed without touching each other. 
 AVhen tho food has been divided into SETcral 
 pans, the birds have remained perfectly quiet. 
 
 These birds migrate in the winter, and are 
 then supposed to associate with others of the 
 fen-bird species, among which they are no 
 longer recognised as the ruff" and the reeve. 
 In the spring, when they return, they take up 
 their residence in tho fenny districts, where 
 they were bred, when they, as a matter of 
 course, become the objects of the fowler's 
 sport. 
 
 About Michaelmas is the time for taking 
 these birds ; but as few old males are caught, 
 an opinion has been formed that they migrate 
 before tho females and young. Is it not, 
 however, more probable that the few which are 
 left after the spring fowling, like other polyg- 
 amous birds, keep separate from the female 
 and her brood till the return of spring ? That 
 some old ruffs are occasionally taken in the 
 autumnal fowling is, perhaps, true ; but others 
 declare that none are taken at this season. 
 It must, however, bo recollected, that, in the 
 autumn, the characteristic long feathers have 
 been discharged, and, consequently, young and 
 
 5G0 
 
THE KNOT.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the bed shank. 
 
 old males have equally their plain dress ; and 
 this circumstance may tend to give rise to the 
 contrary judgments on the matter. It does 
 not appear to be the opinion of fowlers that 
 the males take longer than one season to 
 arrive at maturity ; because the ruffs taken in 
 the spring, being without the long feathers, 
 which constitute the principal distinction 
 between them and the reeves, are compara- 
 tively few to those possessing the ruff; the 
 opinion, therefore, that these ruffless males are 
 birds of a very late brood of the preceding 
 season, is sufficiently reasonable. , 
 
 The shooting of the ruff and reeve is prin- 
 cipally restricted to the fens of Lincolnsl)ire 
 and Cambridgeshire, and to the Isle of Ely, 
 and the East Eiding of Yorkshire. There are 
 likewise a few to be found in the fenny dis- 
 tricts in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, in 
 Somersetshire; but these having been con- 
 siderably drained of late years, the birds are 
 now scarcer. In the marshy lands between 
 Boston and Spilsby, they may yet be met with 
 di considerable numbers. 
 
 THE KNOT. 
 
 This is the Tringa Canutus of Linnseus, and 
 has a claim upon our notice independent of its 
 being a fen-bird. This claim arises from the 
 derivation of its name. It seems that the 
 Danish king, Canute, was very partial to the 
 flesh of this bird — a circumstance that caused 
 it very often to be served up to him. It 
 therefore came to be known as the bird of 
 Canute, which was pronounced by his subjects 
 Tcnute, which, in the course of time, for brevity, 
 and greater facility in the pronunciation, was 
 corrupted to knot. It measures about nine 
 inches, and has a tail of a dusky brown colour, 
 of rather more than an inch long. The extent 
 of its wings is about fifteen inches ; and its 
 weight is about two ounces eight drachms. 
 The bill is one inch and three-eighths long, 
 black at the tip and dusky, fading into orange 
 towards the base. The tongue is nearly of 
 the same length, and is sharp and horny at 
 the point. The sides of the head, neck, and 
 breast are cinereous, edged with ash-coloured 
 grey : and the chin is white, with a stroke of 
 the same colour passing over each eye. All 
 the upper parts of the plumage are darkish 
 brown, but deeper and glossier on the ci'own 
 570 
 
 of the head, back, and scapulars; and each 
 feather is edged with ash or grey. The under 
 parts are a cream-coloured white, streaked or 
 spotted with brown on the sides and vent. 
 The great coverts of the wings are tipped with 
 white, which form a bar across them when 
 extended. The legs are of a yellowish hue, 
 and do not measure more than two inches and 
 an eighth, from the middle of the toe to the 
 knee. The thighs are feathered nearly to the 
 knee ; and the toes are divided without any 
 connecting membrane. 
 
 When the sportsman follows these birds 
 with the gun, they generally run very fast; 
 and it always requires considerable labour and 
 time before he can make them rise within a 
 fair range. Their flight is quick and unsteady. 
 When severe frost sets in, they betake them- 
 selves to the sea-shore, where they are more 
 readily brought down than upon the fenny 
 marshes. In Lincolnshire, they are, in large 
 numbers, decoyed into nets, by carved wooden 
 ligures painted to represent themselves, and 
 placed within the nets, much in the same man- 
 ner as the ruff is taken. The knot is likewise 
 fattened for sale, and esteemed by many equal to 
 the ruff in delicacy of flavour. The best season 
 for its capture is from August to November. 
 
 THE RED SHANK. 
 
 This bird is also called the Pool Snipe, and 
 is the Scolopax Calidris of Linnasus. It is a 
 favourite with many sportsmen, as it affords 
 them a good deal of amusement at certain 
 periods of the year. Its length is twelve 
 inches, its breadth twenty-one, and its weight 
 about five ounces and a-half. The bill, from 
 the tip to the corners of the mouth, is nearly 
 two inches long, blackish at the point, and red 
 towards the base. The feathers on the top of 
 the head are dark brown, edged with a pale 
 rufous hue. Over each eye there is a whitish 
 line, from the corners of which, dark brown 
 spots extend to the beak. The irides are hazel. 
 The back part of the neck is obscurely spotted 
 with dark brown, on a rusty ash-coloured 
 ground. The throat and fore part are more 
 distinctly marked, or streaked with spots of the 
 same colour. The breast and belly are white, 
 tinged with an ash colour ; the spots are thinly 
 distributed, and are shaped something like 
 the heads of arrows or darts. The general 
 
THE GODAVIt] 
 
 Bv I'M'ij), WOOD, A\i) \\'.\'ri:ij. 
 
 [the oodwit. 
 
 appearance of the upper parts of the plumn«»e is 
 glossy olive-brown ; ami tlioso on tlii' HliouMorH, 
 Bcapular:^, aiul tertiaU are transveryt-ly marked 
 with the same coloured waved bars, on a pale 
 rusty ground. Tlio bastard wing and principal 
 quills are dark brown ; and tlie inner webs of 
 the latter are deeply edged with white, treekled 
 with brown; and some of tlioso quills next the 
 secondaries are beautifully marked, near their 
 tips, with narrow browu lines, exactly pointed, 
 and shaped to the form of each featlier. Sev- 
 eral of the secondaries are barred in the same 
 manner, and some are white. The back is 
 white; the tail-feathers and coverts are ele- 
 gantly marked with alternate bars of dusky 
 grey and white. The middle ones are slightly 
 tinged with russet. The legs are red, and mea- 
 sure, from the end of the toes to the upper 
 bare part of the thigh, four inches and a-half. 
 This bird is solitary in its habits, being 
 usually found alone, or in pairs only. Its 
 habitation is among the fens, or in wet or 
 marshy lands, where it rears its young. It 
 lays ibur eggs, of a whitish hue, tinged with 
 olive, and fi'ccklcd with irregular spots of black, 
 chiefly on the broad end of the egg. When 
 disturbed, it wheels round its nest in the air, 
 and utters a cry similar to the lapwing. It is 
 not very easily shot, on account of the spiral 
 motion it makes, and the rapidity of its flight; 
 but it gives excellent sport to a joung shooter. 
 
 THE GODWIT. 
 
 This is the Scolopax ^noce])ala of Lin- 
 nreus, of which there are several varieties : its 
 difierence of plumage is to be regarded as 
 a mark sufficiently strong to determine 
 this. Its length, from the extreme end of 
 the bill to the tip of the tail, is twelve 
 inches, and to the end of the toes, nearly 
 fifteen. Its breadth is twenty-one inches and a 
 quarter, and its weiglit is five ounces and two 
 draclims. The bill is slenderly formed, mea- 
 suring two inches and a-half from the corners 
 of the mouth to the tip, and is, for half its 
 length nearest to the base, of a reddish hue, 
 and the other part black. The irides are 
 hazel. Tlie head, breast, neck, and belly, have 
 spotted streaks, mottled and barred with dingv 
 ash-brown and dull white, whicii become darker 
 towards the hinder part of the neck. The 
 tliroat is white ; and lines of the same colour 
 
 pass from the upper sides of the beak over each 
 eye, from tlio cornerH of which two brown ones 
 extend to the nostrils. The shoulderH, scapu- 
 lars, lesser coverts, and tail, are of a glossy 
 olive-brown. The feathers on all these parts 
 are indenti-d on the edges, in a greater or less 
 degree, with triangular-shaped white spots. 
 The back is white, and the rump barred witli 
 waved lines of ash-coloured brown and dingv 
 white. The feathers about the vent are marked 
 in a similar manner, but they have a larger 
 proportion of white. The tail and coverts are 
 likewise barred with narrow waved lines, of . 
 dull ash-colour; and, in some epecimeug, arc 
 nearly black and white. Five of the principal 
 quills are dark brown, tinged with olive; the 
 shaft of the first quill is white ; the next six 
 are, in tho male, rather deeply tinged with 
 white, and slightly spotted, barred with brown. 
 The secondaries, as far as uncovered, when tho 
 wings are extended, are of the samo snowy 
 whiteness as the back. The feathers which 
 cover the upper part of the thighs, and those 
 near then], are bluisli, with a reddish or vi- 
 nous hue. Tho legs are of a deep orange red, 
 and measure, from the end of the middle toe- 
 nail to the upper part of the thigh, five inches 
 and a-half. Colonel Montague says there i:^ 
 a larger kind of godwit than this, weighing 
 twelve ounces, and measuring about eighteen 
 inches in length. 
 
 This bird was known formerly ns a perma- 
 nent resident amongst us, resorting to tho 
 fens from the moors, where they were taken 
 by means of a stale or stufled bird, after tlio 
 manner of the ruff and reeve. Towards the 
 winter the godwit may be seen at the mouths 
 of many of our large rivers, and it is then a 
 very popular object of pursuit to water-fowl 
 shooters. At Hudson's Bay, it packs in such 
 numbers, that there have been fifty and sixty 
 of them killed at one shot. 
 
 There is another variety of the above. This 
 has the greater covert of its wings so deeply 
 margined with light grey-brown as to appear 
 almost all white at a distance, and the sides of 
 the body have a few long streaks of brown. 
 The bird is met with in various parts of Eu- 
 rope, Asia, and America ; and in Great Britain, 
 in the spring and summer, it takes up its resi- 
 dence in the fenny districts and marshy grounds, 
 where it feeds upon small worms and insects. 
 
 571 
 
THE LANDRAIL.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the landrail. 
 
 During these seasons it only removes from one 
 boggy locality to another ; but when severer 
 frosts set in, it betakes itself to the salt-marshes 
 and sea-shores. The flesh of the godwit is 
 highly esteemed by epicures, and sells at a high 
 price. 
 
 THE WHEAT-EAR. 
 
 This small bird is known in the Linnoean 
 System as the Motacilla (Enanthe, and is 
 often shot on Brighton Downs : it is taken 
 in some neighbouring localities in great num- 
 bers. This is accomplished by means of two 
 turfs placed on edge, at each end of which 
 a small horse-hair noose is fixed to a stick, 
 which the bird, either in search of food 
 or to evade a storm of rain, attempts to get 
 under, and is caught. Colonel Montague 
 gays — " In confinement they are almost con- 
 tinually in song, and sing by night as well as 
 day ; they have a very pleasant, variable, and 
 agreeable song, difi'erent from all other birds : 
 sometimes it is very loud ; and they continue 
 it a great length of time, not continually break- 
 ing off like a robin-redbreast and some other 
 birds ; but their winter song is best and most 
 varied." In allusion to the migratory habits of 
 this bird, Miss Charlotte Smith has written 
 Bome beautiful lines ; but we have room only 
 for one stanza, which is sufficient to indicate 
 the happy spirit in which they were com- 
 posed: — 
 
 " From that deep-sheltered solitude 
 Where, in some quarry, wild and rude, 
 Your feathered mother reared her brood, 
 
 Why, pilgrim, did you brave 
 The upland winds, so bleak and keen, 
 To seek these hills, whose slopes between, 
 Wide stretched in grey expanse, is seen 
 
 The ocean's toiling wave?" 
 
 THE LANDRAIL. 
 
 The landrail is also called the corncrake, 
 and is the Ealhis Crex of Linnseus. Bewick 
 describes it as rather more than nine inches 
 long, and its general bulk of body as consider- 
 ably compressed. The bill is light-brown, and 
 the eyes hazel. Most of the feathers on the 
 upper part of tlie plumage are of a dark-brown 
 hue, edged with pale rust ; both winged 
 coverts and quills are of a deep chestnut 
 colour. Tho fore part of the neck and breast 
 are pale and ash, and a streak of the same 
 572 
 
 colour extends over each eye, from the bill to 
 the side of the neck. The belly is a yellowish 
 white, and the thighs, sides, and vent, are 
 marked with faint rusty-coloured bars. The 
 legs are a pale flesh-red. 
 
 The landrail is migratory in its habits, and 
 makes its appearance in this island about 
 April. Corncrakes, says Mr. Daniel, " are 
 plentiful in these realms, and in Ireland par- 
 ticularly so, where it is probable they pass the 
 winter. They are in the greatest plenty in 
 the Isle of Anglesea, where they appear about 
 the third week in April, supposed to come 
 there from Ireland. At their first arrival it 
 is common to shoot seven or eight in a morn- 
 ing. They abound in the county of Caith- 
 ness, in Scotland, and are found in most of 
 the Hebrides and the Orkneys. Few places 
 in England are destitute of them in summer ; 
 but they are nowhere what may be called 
 common. It is observed, that wherever quails 
 are in plenty the crake abounds. On their 
 first appearance in England, they are so lean 
 as to weigh less than six ounces ; but, before 
 their departure, have been known to exceed 
 eight, and are very fat. Their flesh is con- 
 sidered excellent." 
 
 The cry of the landrail is well known, aud 
 when once heard, cannot be readily forgotten. 
 It shelters among the long grass, and is rarely 
 seen, for it invariably hides among the thickest 
 parts of the herbage, aud runs so quickly, that 
 it is, in nine cases out of ten, impossible to 
 overtake it. "When hard pressed by a dog, it 
 will sometimes instantaneously stop aud squat 
 down, by which device the dog runs past, and 
 loses the trace of it. It seldom springs but 
 when driven to extremity, and generally flies 
 with its legs hanging down, but never to any 
 great distance. When it alights, it begins to 
 run with surprising speed; aud before the 
 fowler gains the spot, is far out of his reach. 
 
 The nest of the bird is formed of dry grass, 
 a few soft leaves, and a little moss mixed up 
 with the whole. It is commonly imbedded in 
 some hollow part of the surface of the ground, 
 but occasionally is met with on high and even 
 places. The female lays ten or twelve eggs, of 
 a dull white colour ; and the young, as soon as 
 they escape from the shell, are capable of run- 
 ning with wonderful swiftness. 
 
 The landrail departs from England before 
 
THE PLOVEK.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [the LAPWnTG. 
 
 the winter, and repairs to other countries in 
 search of its food, which principally consists 
 of slugs, of which it destroys a prodigious 
 quantity. It likewise devours worms and 
 insects, as well as seeds of various kinds. IMr. 
 Pennant thinks that most of the birds which 
 leave us in spring, to spend the summer else- 
 where, have been traced to Lapland — a country 
 of lakes, rivers, swamps, and alps, covered with 
 thick and gloomy forests, that aflbrd shelter 
 during summer to the fowls which, in winter, 
 disperse over the greater part of Europe. In 
 these arctic regions, in consequence of the 
 thickness of the woods, the ground remains 
 soft and penetrable to the woodcocks, and 
 other slender-billed fowl. Some, on the other 
 hand, think that they take the opposite direc- 
 tion, and in place of flying to Lapland, make 
 icing to Africa. The cause of the migration 
 of birds is ascribed, by Pennant, to the de- 
 ficiency of food at certain seasons, or the want 
 of a secure asylum from the persecutions of 
 man during the time of courtship, incubation, 
 and nutrition. 
 
 It is difficult sometimes to get a shot at 
 this bird, from the peculiarity of its habits. 
 
 PLOVERS, 
 
 The Great Plover is the CJiaradrius (Edic- 
 nemiis of Linnaeus ; bat by some writers it is 
 called the stone curlew, and Norfolk plover, 
 and considered a diminutive type of the bus- 
 tard. It is about sixteen inches long, with a 
 bill of moderate length ; eyes and eyelids of a 
 pale yellow hue, with a pale streak above and 
 below, which forms a very characteristic mark. 
 The upper parts of the body are tawny brown, 
 and, on each feather, there is a dark streak 
 down the centre. The fore part of the neck 
 and breast are nearly of the same colour, but 
 much paler. The belly, thighs, and vent are 
 of a pale yellowish white, and the quills are 
 black. The tail is short and rounded, and a 
 dark band crosses the middle of each feather. 
 The tips are black, and the rest white : the 
 legs are yellow, and naked above the knees, 
 which are very thick, as if swollen ; and its 
 claws are black. 
 
 This bird is very frequently found in Nor- 
 folk; and Mr. AVhite observes, that the dis- 
 trict of Selborne, in Hampshire, is one of its 
 favourite spots. In the north of England it 
 
 is little known. It frequents dry and stony 
 places, by the sides of sloping banks, and 
 makes no nest. The female lays two or three 
 eggs on the bare ground, sheltered by a stono, 
 or in some small hole formed in the sand. 
 These are of a dirty-white colour, marked with 
 deep-rod spots, mixed with slight strc'aks. 
 Although this bird has great power of wing, 
 and ilics with great strength, it is seldom seen 
 during the day, unless surprised, when it 
 springs to some distance, and commonly makes 
 its escape before the sportsman gets within 
 gun-shot. It runs along the ground nearly as 
 swiftly as a dog. After running some time, it 
 suddenly stops, holding its head and body still, 
 and, on hearing the least noise, squats close to 
 the ground. In the evening it comes out in 
 quest of food, and may then be heard at a great 
 distance. Its cry is singularly hoarse, and has 
 been compared to the turning of a rusty handle. 
 Its food consists chiefly of worms. It is said 
 to bo tender and savoury eating when young ; 
 but, when aged, to be hard, dry, and black. 
 In White's History of Selborne, it is stated 
 that the young run immediately from the nest 
 almost as soon as they escape from the shell, 
 and that the female leads them to some stony 
 field, where they bask among the stones, to 
 which they bear so close a resemblance, in 
 point of colour, as not easily to be discovered. 
 
 The Great Plover is migratory in its habits, 
 and arrives in this country in April. It 
 remains with us all the spring and summer, 
 and, at the commencement of autumn, prepares 
 to take leave by getting together in flocks. It 
 is supposed that these plovers retire to Spain, 
 and frequent the sheep-walks with which that 
 country abounds. 
 
 Like the Landrail, it is difficult to obtain a 
 shot at it, from the celerity with which it runs 
 over the ground. 
 
 THE LAPWING, OR PEWIT. 
 
 This is the Fringilla Venellus of Linnmus, 
 and is a common bird among sportsmen. It 
 falls in his way in every direction, where there 
 is poor, barren, and moist land. Its weight 
 is about eight ounces. The plumage, taken 
 altogether, is beautiful, and the male and 
 female greatly resemble each other ; the latter, 
 however, being rather the smaller of the two. 
 It is a well-known bird, chiefly by its singular 
 
 573 
 
THE lAPWISG.J 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [golden ploveb. 
 
 cries when flying, and its motions are full of 
 variety. The female lays four eggs, of a dirty- 
 olive colour, spotted with black, which she 
 deposits in some small indentation in the 
 ground, having previously made a rude nest of 
 a little dry grass and heather. The young 
 brood, as soon as they leave the shell, are 
 capable of using their lim-bs, and the parent 
 bird displays a great deal of tenderness and 
 solicitude over them. 
 
 The Lapwing is found in most parts of 
 Europe, as far northward as Iceland ; and, in 
 the winter, it is met with in Persia and Egypt. 
 Its chief food is worms ; and sometimes flocks 
 of this bird may be seen covering low marshy 
 grounds in search of these, which they draw 
 with great dexterity from their holes. When 
 the bird meets with one of those little clusters 
 of pellets, or rolls of earth, that are thrown 
 out by the perforations of worms, it first gently 
 removes the mould from the mouth of the hole, 
 then strikes the ground at tlie side with its 
 foot, and steadily and attentively waits the 
 issue : the reptile, alarmed by the shock, 
 emerges from its retreat, and is instantly 
 seized. In the evening the birds pursue a 
 different plan. They run along the grass, and 
 feel under their feet the worms, which now 
 come forth, invited by the coolness of the air. 
 Thus they obtain a plentiful meal ; and after- 
 wards wash their bill and feet in the small 
 pools or rivulets. 
 
 "I have seen this bird," says Dr. Latham, 
 "approach a worm-cast, turn it aside, and, 
 after making two or three turns about, by way 
 of giving motion to the ground, the worm came 
 out, and the watchful bird, seizing hold of it, 
 drew it forth." 
 
 The Lapwing remains in England the whole 
 year. The parent exhibits the greatest attach- 
 ment to her young; and the arts she employs 
 to allure boys and dogs from the place where 
 these are running, are extremely amusing. 
 She does not wait the arrival of her enemies 
 at the nest, but boldly pushes out to meet 
 them ; when, as near as she dare venture, she 
 rises from the ground with a loud screaming 
 voice, as if just flushed from hatching, though 
 probably, at the same time, not within a hun- 
 dred yards of her nest. She now flies, and 
 makes a great clamour, and appears extremely 
 disturbed ; whining and screaming round the 
 574! 
 
 invaders, striking at them with her wings, and 
 sometimes fluttering as if she was wounded. 
 To complete the deception, she becomes still 
 more clamorous as she retires from the nest. 
 If very near, she appears altogether uncon- 
 cerned ; and her cries cease in proportion as 
 her fears are augmented. When approached 
 by dogs, she flies heavily, at a little distance 
 before them, as if maimed ; still vociferous, and 
 still bold, but never oflering to move towards 
 the quarter where her young are stationed. 
 The dogs pursue, in expectation, every moment, 
 of seizing the parent, and,' by this means, 
 actually lose the young ; for the cunning bird, 
 having, by her stratagems, drawn them oft' to 
 a proper distance, exerts her powers, and leaves 
 her astonished pursuers to gaze at the rapidity 
 of her flight. 
 
 There are few readers acquainted in any 
 degree with the country, who will not recollect 
 how justly the following lines describe the 
 manners of this bird : — 
 
 " Hence, around the head 
 
 Of wand'ring swains, the white-wing'd plover wheels 
 Her sounding flight ; and then directly on, 
 In long excursion, skims the level lawn. 
 To tempt him from her nest." 
 
 At certain seasons these birds search the 
 dry heather of the downs for insects and grubs ; 
 and, not long after, they are found feeding on 
 shell-fish in the moist and swampy ditches. 
 They are fine eating, and their eggs bear a 
 high price in the market. 
 
 To shoot them with certainty requires con- 
 siderable practice ; but, on the whole, when on 
 the wing, their mode of flight is forourable to 
 the shot telling upon them in vital quarters. 
 No. 4 shot is generally recommended for this 
 bird. 
 
 THE GOLDEN PLOVER. 
 
 This is the Charadrius Fluvialis of Linnasus, 
 and is described as being about seven or eight 
 ounces in weight, and its length about ten 
 inches and a- half. The bill is a httle more 
 than one inch in length, dusky in its hue. 
 The irides are hazel. The general plumage 
 above is dusky, spotted with greenish yellow, 
 brighter on the back and scapulars, and palest 
 on the wing-coverts. The sides, head, and 
 neck of the body are lighter-coloured ; and the 
 middle of the belly and vent are white. The 
 
THE ouRY PLOVER.] J5 T I-IKLD, WOOD, Ay^U W'ATEIl. 
 
 [the Moon-nBK. 
 
 .juills are dusky, slightly margined at the tip 
 with groy. The tail is alsu tliisky, spotted with 
 vellow, and of a white hue. The legs are blaek. 
 
 The golden plover is very common in this 
 country, and is pretty generally distributed 
 over Europe. In America it is very numerous, 
 Vom Hudson's Eay as far as Carolina, migrating 
 from one locality to another, in accordance 
 with the seasons that produce its food. The 
 male and female are very nearly alike in size 
 and plumage. In young birds the yellow spots 
 are not very strongly marked, as the plumage, 
 during the time of their growth, inclines more 
 to a grey hue. 
 
 These plovers were formerly taken in great 
 numbers by means of a stalking-horse. AV'hen 
 fired at, they fly over yon, darting down for 
 the moment, and separating in every direc- 
 tion ; so that by taking a random shot with 
 the first barrel, you may often bring them 
 down to get a fair shot with the second. 
 
 THE GREY PLOVER. 
 This is the Tringa Squatarola of LinnsDUS, 
 lud is about eleven or twelve inches long, and 
 varying from twenty-four to twenty-five broad. 
 Its general weight is about seven ounces. The 
 bill is black : the head, back, and wing-coverts 
 are of a dull dusky brown, edged with greenish 
 nsh-colour, and some with white. The cheeks 
 aid throat are white, and marked with oblong 
 aisky spots. The belly, sides, and rump arc 
 white, the sides being marked with a few scat- 
 tered dusky spots. The outer web of the 
 quills is black ; and the lower parts of the 
 inner webs of the first four are white. The 
 feathers of the tail are marked with alternate 
 bars of black and white. The legs are of a dull 
 green hue, and the hind toe is small. 
 
 This bird is not very common in Great Bri- 
 tain, but is occasionally met with in large 
 flocks on the sea-coast. Its flesh is esteemed 
 a great delicacy. In cold and frosty weather, 
 grey plovers seek their food on lands near 
 the sea-shore ; and when the sky is clear they 
 frequent ploughed fields, especially if sown with 
 grain. After feeding they make for some water, 
 in which they wasb their beaks and feet, and 
 seem to take great delight in so doing. In the 
 night they run up and down, feeding on worms, 
 which they devour in large numbers. The 
 bird is very common in Ireland, where it is 
 
 found in immense numbers. Being a shy bird, 
 
 it is difllcult to got near enough to shoot it. 
 
 THE WATKll-llAlI.. 
 
 Thia is the Jiiillus Aquaticus of LinnaeuB, 
 and ia a curious specimen of tho fen-bird. 
 It resembles the landrail in general appear.inco 
 and iiguro, but is quite distinct in habits and 
 instincts. Tho water-rail ia one day couched 
 in the long grass of a iiigh district, and in tho 
 next is squatted on, or flying about, tlic marshy 
 and boggy grounds. When hunted closely it 
 may bo readily 8])rung, and makes a passable 
 shot. Colonel Montague thus writes of it : — 
 " It seldom takes wing, but dives on the 
 least alarm, and will remain under water, 
 amongst the reeds or other aquatic plants, 
 with only its bill above, for respiration. Ita 
 nest is formed, like tho rest of tho grebes, 
 of a prodigious quantity of flags, or other 
 water-plants, but is generally fastened to the 
 reeds, or flags, in order to prevent its being 
 carried away by tho current. Temminck 
 gives a similar statement. The eggs are 
 five or six in number, of a dirty -white ; 
 the shape oblong, and less than those of the 
 pigeon. These are generally covered with 
 weeds, so that when the bird quits her nest 
 suddenly, they are not exposed to view. In 
 large rivers, these birds are frequently de- 
 voured by pike and trout while they are diving 
 in pursuit of small fish. We once took from 
 the stomach of the last, a water-rail weighing 
 fifteen ounces, the trout only weighing four 
 pounds. After the breeding season, the bird 
 is frequently found in some of our inlets of the 
 sea, where it is said to feed on shrimps." 
 
 THE GALLINULE, OR MOOR-HEN. 
 
 This is the Forlica Cliloropics of Linnaeup, 
 and in many of its habits, it is very like the 
 water-rail. It is not met with in any great 
 numbers ; but its species are scattered, here 
 and there, over almost every country. AVe be- 
 lieve it is not positively ascertained whether 
 they are migratory ; but it is well known that 
 they change their place according to the seasons 
 of the year; frequenting elevated tracts in 
 summer, and more sheltered parts in winter. 
 It is very common in Britain ; and sportsmen 
 fall in with it mostly on the borders of rivers 
 and ponds, where willows and sedges grow. 
 
THE COOT.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [geeateb coot. 
 
 Mr. Daniel says — " It is like the water-rail ; it 
 conceals itself during the day ; and in the 
 evening it runs and skulks by the margin of the 
 waters, among the roots of the bushes, oziers, 
 and long loose herbage which overhang the 
 banks, in quest of its food, which consists of 
 insects, worms, aquatic plants, and seeds. It will 
 likewise pick up corn from the neighbouring 
 stubbles, and is at all times very good eating ; 
 but from September to December the flesh is 
 extremely delicious." 
 
 The nest of the female moor-hen is composed 
 of reeds and rushes woven closely together, 
 and is placed in some corner or chink by the 
 side of water, or upon the stump of an old 
 root. She lays seven eggs, which are about 
 two inches in length, of a yellowish-white hue, 
 marked with a goodly number of irregular 
 spots, of a reddish colour. Some writers 
 afiirm, that during incubation, she never leaves 
 the nest without covering the eggs with 
 leaves. She has two, and sometimes three, 
 hatchings during the summer ; and the young 
 take to the water very soon after they leave 
 the shell. 
 
 The length of the bird is about fourteen 
 inches ; the breadth twenty-two ; and the 
 weight from twelve to fifteen ounces. The 
 bill is red, with a greenish-yellow tip, and 
 about an inch long. The head is small and 
 black, with the exception of there being a 
 white spot under each eye. The irides are 
 red. The colour of the plumage is sooty 
 black, tinged with shining olive-green. The 
 outer edge of the wing, outside feathers of the 
 tail, and under-tail coverts, are of a dull or 
 dingy white. The colour of the legs is of a 
 pale yellow, often shading off to a dark green. 
 The toes are very long ; sides broad ; and these 
 are furnished with membranous edgings, 
 which enable the moor-hen to swim, and run 
 rapidly over the surface of slimy mud. Its 
 feathers are thickly set, and bedded in down. 
 
 This bird is difficult to shoot in the water, 
 as it dives the moment it sees the flash of the 
 gun. The best method of killicg it is to aim 
 a little below it in the water. This plan is 
 often successful. 
 
 THE COOT. 
 
 This is the Fulica Atra of Linnseus, and is 
 well known throughout England, as it per- 
 57G 
 
 manently resides here. Its usual weight is 
 about twenty-eight ounces; and it is fifteen 
 inches in length. The bill is of a greenish- 
 white hue, and about an inch and a quarter 
 long. The irides are red. The upper portion 
 of the plumage is black, except the outer 
 edges of the wings, and a spot under each eye, 
 which are white. The under parts of the 
 body are of a hoary dark ash or lead colour ; 
 and the skin is protected with a coat of thick 
 down, coated with feathers closely bedded 
 together. The thighs are placed far behind, 
 and are strong, fleshy, and yellow above the 
 knees. 
 
 The common coot has, in many of its cha- 
 racteristics, so striking a resemblance to the 
 water-rail and moor-hen, that many writers 
 have considered them as belonging to the 
 same species. Others, however, think it a 
 distinct genus, chiefly on account of its being 
 fin-footed, and from its great attachment to 
 water, whith it seldom leaves. AVith this bird 
 naturalists commence to arrange the general 
 tribe of swimmers, and place it among those 
 that mostly depend on the watery element for 
 their subsistence. It swims and dives with as 
 much ease as almost any other of the aquatic 
 tribes ; and, like those which seldom venture 
 on land, it is a bad traveller, and may be said 
 not to walk, but to splash and waddle be- 
 tween one water and another, with a laboured, 
 ill-balanced, and awkward gait. 
 
 THE GREATER COOT. 
 
 This bird is of a larger size than the last, 
 and differing little in colour or plumage, ex- 
 cept in being a shade darker. It is found in 
 Lancashire and in Scotland. In many sections 
 of the European continent it is abundant. 
 There is a curious anecdote told of a bald coot, 
 that built her nest in Sir William Middleton's 
 lake, at Belsay Castle, in the county of Nor- 
 thumberland. The rushes amongst which its 
 fragile home was constructed, having been 
 loosened by a high wind, the nest was forced 
 from its moorijigs, but floated upon the sur- 
 face of the water, in every direction. Not- 
 withstanding this unexpected event, the female 
 continued to sit, and brought forth her young 
 upon her movable habitation. 
 
 For the sake of the culinary department of 
 the household, we give the following recipe for 
 
THE CL'UI.EW.l 
 
 r.V Fll-LU, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [the cdelew. 
 
 cookinjif theso birds, na it is from ii liigb 
 authoritv. At'tor pickiiiLj tlu'in, take olF tlio 
 black down, by uieaiis of powcK rod black rosin 
 and boiling water, and tlion let tlieiu soak all 
 iiiijlit in cold spring-water. Tliia process 
 makes them look as delicate as a chicken, and 
 becoino tolerably tender and juicy. Unless 
 this he done, the skin, in roasting, will be oily, 
 and have a strong fishy taste and sincU ; and 
 when taken oft' it will become dry, and good 
 for nothing. But, perhaps, the best method is 
 to skin them at once ; and after soaking them 
 twenty-four hours in cold si)ring-water, re- 
 peatedly changed, they can be made into a 
 pudding or pie, or into soup. By these means, 
 the skin is got rid of, without losing the juice 
 of the flesh ; and their lishy taste is, in a great 
 degree, drawn ofl" by the steam. 
 
 The coot is difficult to be flushed, conse- 
 quently a fair flying shot at it is not always 
 to be obtained. Its suspicious habitc keep it 
 from frequently showing itself, and dogs are 
 seldom able to make much impression upon it 
 in rousing it from its lurking-places. They are 
 sometimes pursued in Prance by two shooters — 
 one on each side of a narrow and sedgy stream — 
 when, with the addition of a couple of indus- 
 trious dogs, execution is occasionally done, 
 and a i'evr brace bagged in the course of a day. 
 It is, however, only in some favourite locality 
 that success can be realised even in that 
 country, where the birds are more numerous 
 than they are with us. It is not often that 
 these birds are regularly sought after by 
 sportsmen in England ; the shooting of them 
 being rather a chance aff"air than a purposely 
 80ught-for sport. 
 
 In many of the sedgy and sluggish rivers 
 that lie along the south-eastern portion of the 
 coast of France, coots are very numerous ; but 
 the inhabitants in rural districts consider them 
 as birds of evil omen ; and whenever they see 
 one fly out from its hiding-place, they cross 
 themselves, and consider the circumstance as 
 portentous of some unhappy event. This may, 
 perhaps, be susceptible of some degree of ex- 
 planation, when tlie shy and retiring habits of 
 the bird are taken into account. 
 
 THE CURLEW. 
 
 The ScoJopax Aquata, of LinnsDUS, is a sliy 
 bird, and requires some manoeuvring to get 
 4 £ 
 
 within range of him. iU' measurea about two 
 feet in length, and, from the tip of u«ch wing, 
 averages about three feet. The bill is full 
 seven inches long, and curved, with a houjo- 
 what tender and bliitit point. The upper 
 mandible is of a blackish hue, gradually 
 shaded oft' to a brown towards the base ; 
 and the under one is flesh-coloured. Tho 
 head, neck, and upper part of the back, and 
 wing-covcrts, are of a pale brown ; and tho 
 middle of each feather is black, fringed and 
 deeply indented with pale rust, or light grey. 
 Tiie breast, belly, and lower portion of tlio 
 beak, are of a dull white, sparsely spotted 
 with black ; and tho two former with oblong 
 strokes of tho same colour, mathematically 
 set. The quills are black, and the inner webs 
 are crossed, or spotted with white. The tail 
 is barred with black, on a white ground tinged 
 with red. The legs are bare a little above the 
 knee, and of a bluish hue ; whilst the toes arc 
 thick and strong, and flat on the under side. 
 
 These birds vary considerably, not only in 
 point of size, but in regard to the colours of 
 their plumage. Their weight ranges from 
 twenty-four to upwards of thirty ounces. In 
 some, the white portions of the plumage are 
 much more distinct and clearly defined than in 
 others, which are more uniformly grey, and 
 tinged with palo brown. The female has a 
 great resemblance to the male, and makes her 
 nest upon the ground, in a dry tuft of rushes 
 or grass, or of such withered materials as are 
 found near the spot. She lays four eggs, of a 
 greenish hue, with brown spots irregularly 
 distributed over them. 
 
 The food of these birds consists of worms, 
 insects, and flies, which they pick out of tho 
 soft mossy ground, by the pools or water in 
 such parts of the country as they frequent. 
 In winter they seek the sea-shores, where they 
 appear in great numbers, picking up worms, 
 marine insects, and other fishy materials, on 
 the beach, and among the loose rocks and 
 pools left by the retiring tide. The flesh of 
 the curlew has been characterised by some as 
 very good, and of a fine flavour ; while others 
 have unceremoniously condemned it. Tiio 
 truth is, when it lives in the moors, and feeds 
 on insects, and such faro as it can gather in 
 the boggy ground, it is excellent eating ; 
 but after it has been a short time by the 
 
 577 
 
SEA-FOWL.] 
 
 SPIGOTING, 
 
 [sEA-rOWL. 
 
 sea-coast, and obliged to put up 'with such 
 diet as it can find there, its flesh becomes 
 strong and unsavoury. In former times, the 
 curlew enjoyed a high reputation, as the old 
 proverb tells us : — 
 
 " A curlew, be she white, or be she black, 
 She carries twelvepence on her back." 
 
 "We have already observed that this bird is 
 shy and suspicious, and very difficult to be 
 approached with the gun and dog. The only 
 chance is to steal a march upon it, by getting 
 round some hill, or elevated piece of ground. 
 To bring it down requires rather heavy shot ; 
 such as No. 3 and No. 2. 
 
 In some districts of Ireland, and in the 
 boggy moor-grounds in all the counties of 
 Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, Westmore- 
 land, and Northumberland, the curlew is found 
 in considerable numbers ; but as it tries to de- 
 ceive the sportsman as the plover does, the 
 unwary are often cheated out of their antici- 
 pated sport by it. The only way of getting 
 near it, as we have said, is to take the ad- 
 vantage of some cover — a hill, a wall, a bush, 
 or something of the kind : but even with all 
 or any of these screens or aids, it is often sur- 
 prising to witness with what keenness of sight 
 it will espy an enemy, and how rapidly it 
 will wheel round and get out of the reach of 
 his weapon. What we now state has reference 
 to the birds in the moors and spongy grounds, 
 where, during the summer months, they have 
 
 taken up their habitat for greater safety during 
 the process of incubation. They are more 
 easily approached when they frequent the sea- 
 shore in winter. When they are pursued in 
 the moors, dogs are useless ; nay, worse than 
 useless, as they disturb the birds long before 
 the sportsman himself makes any impression 
 upon them. In curlew shooting by the sea- 
 side, dogs are entirely unnecessary. 
 
 Punt-shooting for this bird by the sea-vside 
 is sometimes followed, and has its share of ex- 
 citement. It is pursued in autumn, when 
 the birds assemble in large numbers, and 
 roost in some favourite localities, not far dis- 
 tant from each other. These spots require to 
 be well known by the shooters previous to 
 their operations. When they are approached 
 by means of a punt or boat, it should be done 
 in fine frosty weather, and just after or before 
 daybreak. The party should conceal them- 
 selves by stooping or lying down in the punt, 
 and then, when within range, a raking fire 
 from each gunner should be made. Some- 
 times a good bag of birds is obtained in this 
 way. 
 
 Besides the curlew proper, there is a species 
 called the little czcrlew, which afibrds some 
 sport. It is found in considerable numbers on 
 the Essex coast, and in some parts of South 
 Wales. Colonel Hawker says, Langston 
 Harbour, in the Poole district, and Eomney 
 Marsh, yield them in abundance ; and, there- 
 fore, afford good sport. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SEA-FOWL SHOOTING. 
 
 Sea-fowl shooting is attended with little 
 profit to the sportsman beyond what it adds 
 to his health, in the air and exercise which it 
 calls him forth to enjoy. As there are many, 
 however, who take great delight in its pursuit, 
 who love to hear the report of their ibwling- 
 pieces awakening the echoes of the crags and 
 cliffs that rear their rugged forms as guardians 
 «^78 
 
 of the land, against the inroads of the waters 
 of the great deep, we have deemed it worthy 
 of introduction into these pages. It has not 
 much to recommend it in the way of supply- 
 ing the table with something ^oof/; but it has 
 associated with it much that is grand and sub- 
 lime. There is the sea, upon which time, that 
 touches everything else, makes no impression, 
 
THE 8T0UMY I'ETUEL.] BY FllCI-D, \\'()()1), AND WATlili. [tIII; UULL FAMILY. 
 
 nml which has been aptly considered as an 
 emblem of ot(M"nity. Tlioro are, also, the 
 golilen yands of the pearly beach, which flitter 
 in the rays of the sun, or glance in the beams 
 of the moon, as the ocean rolls its melodies 
 over their surface; and there are the giant 
 rocks, wliich, for thousands of years, have 
 frowned defiance to the sea, and wliich, may- 
 hap, for thousands more, will present their grim 
 fronts to the tempest, whilst sheltering the gull 
 and the guillemot. These are all impressive ob- 
 jects ; and, in sea-fowl shooting, are to be taken 
 into the account, when estimating the amount 
 of pleasure which this pursuit may afford. 
 
 THE STORMY PETREL. 
 
 The ProceUaria Pellagica of Linnreus, is 
 about the size of the common swallow, and 
 the smallest web-footed bird known. AVhen 
 crossing tlie Atlantic, we ourselves can well 
 remember the ominous prognostications which 
 a flock of these birds would often draw from 
 the mariners, when the clouds were gathering 
 in darkening masses over us, and portending 
 storms collectiug their strength, as it were, 
 with no other object than to doom our ship, 
 and ours alone, to destruction. They are 
 heard generally at night, and are recognised by 
 their shrill and piercing cry. The following 
 description is taken from Loudon's Magazine 
 of Natural History : — " As the stormy petrel 
 is scarcely ever seen near the land, except in 
 verv boisterous weather, one of the natives of 
 tiie island of St. Hilda, for a trifling remunera- 
 tion, agreed to traverse the face of a huge 
 rock, and fetch me some petrels out of its 
 fissures. Accordingly, accoutred with a rope 
 of hemp and hog's bristles coiled over his 
 shoulders, he proceeded to the cliff. Having 
 made one end fast by means of a stake, he 
 threw the coil over the face of the rock, and 
 gradually lowered himself down, but with the 
 utmost caution and circumspection, carefully 
 pressing his foot hard upon the narrow ridges 
 before he at all loosened his firm grasp of the 
 ropo, which he never altogether abandoned. 
 I had previously thrown myself upon my 
 chest, to enable me to have a better view of 
 him by looking over the cliff; and certaiulv, 
 to see the dexterity and bravery with which 
 he threw himself from one aperture to another, 
 was truly grand. The trembling surface of the 
 
 Atlantic was foaming many hundreds of feet 
 beneath, and dashing its curling, cream-like 
 surge against the dark baao of the clilf, in 
 sheets of the moat beautiful white; while the 
 heron and black-backed gulls, alternately 
 sweeping past him, so as to be almost within 
 reach of his arm, throw a wildness into the 
 scene by the discordant scream of the former, 
 and the laughing, oft-repeated bark of tho 
 latter. This, however, he ap[)eared entirely 
 to disregard ; and, continuing his search, re- 
 turned, in about half-an-hour, with seven or 
 eight of the stormy petrels, tied up in an old 
 stocking, and a pair of tho Manx pufBns, 
 together with their eggs. The birds, he told 
 me, he had no difficulty in capturing. The 
 eggs of the stormy petrel are surprisingly 
 large, considering the diminutive size of tho 
 bird — being as large as those of the thrush. 
 Tlie female lays two eggs, of a dirty or dingv 
 white, encircled at the larger end by a ring of 
 fine rust-coloured freckles. The birds merely 
 collect a few pieces of dried grass, with a 
 feather or two, barely sufficient to prevent the 
 eggs from rolling or moving on the rock." 
 The rope alluded to in this passage is of great 
 value to the St. Kildan. Indeed, he could 
 not pursue his vocation ■without it ; con- 
 sequently, it often makes the first article in 
 the testament of a father. Of the manner in 
 which it is used, Mr. Macauley gives the fol- 
 lowing instance, of which he was an eye- 
 witness: — "One of them fixed himself to a 
 craggy shelf; his companion descended about 
 sixty feet below, and having directed himself 
 away from the face of a most frightful rock 
 hanging over the sea, began to play his gam- 
 bols, lie swung merrily, and laughed very 
 heartily ; and, after some time, having afforded 
 all the entertainment he could, he returned in 
 triumph, full of his own merit, with a largo 
 string of birds about his neck, and a number 
 of eggs in his bosom. AVhen a fowler is 
 under the necessity of descending the rocks, 
 without any assistance from his fellows, he 
 drives a post sloping into the earth, and, bv 
 fastening the rope to it, lets himself down 
 thereby, without the help of any person what- 
 ever." 
 
 TIIE GULL FAMILY. 
 It is maintained by some sportsmen that 
 there are eleven species belonging to this 
 
 579 
 
THE GULL.j 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [SWAK FAMILY. 
 
 family ; but Colonel Hawker extends them to 
 thirteen. They have all a striking resemblance 
 to each other; and their principal characteris- 
 tics are a compressed bill, elongated and 
 pointed, with the upper mandible turned to- 
 wards the end, and the lower, underneath, form- 
 ing a salient angle. Their nostrils, placed to- 
 wards the middle of the bill, are long, narrow, 
 and bored through. Their tail is full ; the legs 
 rather long, and the thumb short. All the gull 
 tribes are more or less objects of the gunner's 
 sport, and the shooting of them is often at- 
 tended with considerable excitement and plea- 
 sure. These birds generally congregate in vast 
 flocks in those parts of the coast that are high, 
 abrupt, and little frequented by either boats or 
 land travellers ; where, in fact, the rugged na- 
 ture of the cliffs, and the air of solitude and 
 desolation around, seem to secure to them 
 comparative safety and retirement. To a man 
 susceptible of the wild and grand in scenery, 
 and with a fowling-piece in his hand, we 
 know of no more attractive pursuit than a 
 ramble along the headlands of the coast, in 
 quest |of these birds. Everything around is 
 vast and imposing. The ocean casts a solemn 
 shade over the most volatile mind, and lifts 
 the thoughts to objects of contemplation, that 
 strikingly impress it with the majesty of the 
 Supreme Power. In such sporting rambles 
 amono' the feathered tribes in this section of 
 Nature's vast domains, the sportsman scans 
 the singular economy that prevails in the con- 
 gregated families that are here bred and nou- 
 rished by her paternal hand. He scrambles 
 from one cliff to another, sometimes with 
 fear and trepidation ; while he often recog- 
 nises birds of which he knew little or nothing 
 before ; and, perchance casts his eye on the 
 nest of the eagle, whose marauding flights 
 are marked in every direction with blood and 
 rapine. 
 
 " High from the summit of a craggy clifF, 
 
 Hung o'er the deep, such as, amazing, frowns 
 On utmost Kilda's shore, whose lonely race 
 Resign the setting sun to Indian worlds, 
 The royal eagle draws his vigorous young. 
 Strong pounced, and ardent with paternal fire, 
 Now fit to raise a kingdom of their own, 
 He drives them from the fort, the towering seat, 
 For ages, of his empire ; which in peace 
 "Unstained he holds, while many a league to sea 
 He wings his course, and preys in distant isles." 
 
 580 
 
 These birds abound in far greater numbers 
 in the northern parts of Britain than in the 
 southern. In the Fern Islands, off" the coast of 
 Northumberland, and all around the northern 
 and western parts of Scotland, they are to be 
 found extremely numerous, especially in rocky 
 localities. In the Orkney and Hebrides Islands, 
 they afford plenty of good sport ; for we con- 
 ceive that most sportsmen, who have had op- 
 portunities of enjoying this species of shooting, 
 must have remarked, that the farther north 
 they went, and the more unfrequented the 
 parts into which they travelled, the less shy 
 the birds became, and the richer the harvest 
 that awaited them. 
 
 The weather has a great influence over this 
 sport. All the different kinds of sea-fowl are 
 more approachable in stormy than in calm 
 weather ; only the former is not so pleasant to 
 the sportsman himself. But there is no get- 
 ting all matters to square evenly in sporting 
 practices. The fair must be blended with the 
 foul, even to impart a relish to sport. 
 
 THE SWAN FAMILY. 
 
 The A7ias of Liuna3US have long held a dis- 
 tinguished place in the eyes of sportsmen. 
 The ancients consecrated them to Apollo and 
 the Muses. Callimachus, in his hymn upon 
 the island of Delos, celebrates them : — 
 
 "When from Pactolus' golden banks, 
 Apollo's tuneful songsters, snowy swans. 
 Steering their flight seven times their circling course, 
 M'heel round the island, carolling meantime 
 Soft melody, the favourites of the nine. 
 Thus ushering to birth with dulcet sounds 
 The god of harmony, and hence seven strings 
 Hereafter to his golden lyre he gave ; 
 For ere the eighth soft concert was begun 
 He sprung to birth." 
 
 These birds are considered at the head of the 
 web-footed tribes ; and to shoot them is, amoug 
 sportsmen, esteemed a great achievement. 
 The Iwofers, or wild swans, are very easily 
 killed, if the fire be directed towards the head, 
 or under the wing ; but they are almost shot- 
 proof in other parts of their body. The flight 
 of the swan is very rapid. Hearne says—" Not- 
 withstanding their size, these birds are so ex- 
 tremely swift on the wing when in full featlier, 
 as to make them more difficult to shoot than 
 almost any others, it being frequently neces- 
 sary to take sight, say twelve feet before their 
 
THE swAV FAMILY.] BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the swan family. 
 
 bills. This, however, is only when they are 
 (Ivin-; before the wiiul ia a brisk f^alo, at 
 which time they seUloin Ily nt a loss rato than 
 a huiuired miles an hour: but when flyinj:; 
 nci-Kss the wind, or against it, they aro not 
 able to make any great progress." 
 
 The swan is live feet long, above seven broad, 
 and weii^lis from thirteen to sixteen pounds. 
 The bill lias a length of threo inches, and is of 
 a yellowish hue from the base to tho middle, 
 ami thence to tho tip, black. The bare space 
 from the bill over tho eyo and eyelids is 
 yellow; and the entire plumage, in adult birds, 
 is of a pure white. They are clothed, next to 
 tho skin, with a thick fine down. Tho legs 
 are black. 
 
 This species usually congregate together — 
 keening in groups or families, except at the 
 pairing season, and when the severe frosts set 
 in. In winter they assemble in prodigious 
 numbers, near great rivers and lakes, situated 
 in thinly inhabited countries in the northern 
 parts of Europe, Asia, and America. AVhen 
 the weather becomes very severe, they take 
 their flight very high in the air, and divide 
 their number in quest of a more genial tem- 
 perature. In such hard winters they are some- 
 times met with in various sections of Great 
 Britain, and in other more southern countries 
 of Europe. The rule as to their migrations 
 has been observed in America. They do not, 
 however, remain longer than towards the ap- 
 proach of spring, when they retire northward 
 to the arctic regions, to breed. In these move- 
 ments to and fro, a few straggling birds stop 
 short, and perform the offices of incubation by 
 the way ; for it has been ascertained that they 
 breed in the Hebrides, the Orkney, Slietland, 
 and other solitary isles. The great body of 
 them, however, go far north, and arc to be 
 met with in the large rivers and lakes near 
 Hudson's Bay, and those of Kamtschatka, 
 Lapland, and Iceland. They arc said to return 
 to the latter place, in flocks of about a hundred 
 at a time, in the spring, and also to pour in 
 upon that island from the north, in nearly the 
 same manner, on their way southward in the 
 autumn. 
 
 Martin says, that in the month of October, 
 swans arrive in great numbers at Lingey, one 
 of the AVesteru Isles, and continue tiiere till 
 March, when they return northward to breed. 
 
 A few continue in ^Mainland, one of the Ork- 
 neys, anil breed in tho little ishmda of the 
 fresh-water lochs; but tho principal part of 
 them retire on tho ap[)roach of spring. They 
 aro called tho Countryman's Almanack; for 
 their quitting tho isle is said to presage good 
 weather; and their arrival, tho reverse. 
 
 In Iceland, these birds are an object of 
 chase. In the month of August, they lose 
 their feathers to such a degree as not to be 
 able to fly. Tho natives, at that season, resort, 
 in great numbers, to the places whero they 
 most abound ; and arc accompanied with dogs, 
 and active and strong horses, trained to tho 
 sport, and capable of passing nimbly over tho 
 boggy soil and marches. The swans will run 
 as fast ao a tolerably fleet horse. The greater 
 number aro taken by the dogs, which are taught 
 to seize them by the neck — a mode of attack 
 that causes tho birds to lose the'r balance, 
 and become an easy prey. 
 
 This species has several distinctions from that 
 called by us the Tame Swan: but the most 
 remarkable one is tho strange form of tho 
 windpipe, which falls into the chest, then turns 
 back like a trumpet, and afterwards makes a 
 second bend to join the lungs. By this curious 
 construction, the bird is enabled to utter a 
 loud and shrill note. The other swan, on tho 
 contrary, is the most silent of all the feathered 
 tribes. It can do nothing more than hiss, 
 which it does on receiving any provocation. 
 The vocal swan emits its loud notes only 
 when flying, or calling: its sound is, tvhoogh, 
 lolioogli, very loud and slirill, but not dis- 
 agreeable when heard high in the air, and 
 modulated by the winds. The Icelanders 
 compare it to the notes of the violin. As they 
 hear it at the end of their long and gloomy 
 winter, when the return of the swans announces 
 also the return of summer, every note must 
 be melodious which presages a speedy thaw, 
 and a release from their tedious confinement. 
 
 It was from this species alone that tlio 
 ancients derived their fable of the swan's 
 being endowed with the powers of melody. 
 Embracing the Pythagorean doctrine, they 
 made the body of this bird the mansion of tho 
 souls of departed poets ; and then attributed 
 to the birds the same faculty of harmony which 
 they had thus possessed in a pre-existent 
 state. The common people, not distinguishing 
 
 5SL 
 
THE MUTE SWAN.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the mute swan. 
 
 between sweetness of numbers and melody of 
 voice, imagined that to be real which was only 
 intended figuratively. Our own Shakspeare is 
 called the" Swan of Avon." The Mute or Tame 
 Swan never frequents the Padus ; " and I am 
 almost equally certain" says Mr. Pennant, "that 
 it never was seen on the Cayster, in Lydia ; each 
 of these streams being celebrated by the poets 
 for the great resort of swans. The Padus was 
 styled Oloriferus, from the numbers of these 
 birds which frequented its waters ; and there 
 are few of the poets, either Greek or Latin, 
 who do not make them its inhabitants." 
 
 THE SWAN GOOSE. 
 
 This is the Anas Cynoides of Linnaeus, and 
 la another interesting species of the web- 
 footed family. In point of size, it stands 
 between that of the common duck and the 
 swan ; whilst its length is fully a yard. It is 
 known from the goose by its stately carriage, 
 and by its having a large knob at the root of 
 the upper mandible, and a skin almost bare of 
 feathers, hanging down under the throat. A 
 white line extends from the corners of the 
 mouth over the front of the brow. The hue of j 
 the bill is orange, and the irides of a reddish 
 brown. A dark brown or black stripe runs 
 down the hinder part of the neck, from the 
 head to the back. The fore part of the neck 
 and the breast are yellowish brown ; and the 
 back, and all the upper parts, brownish grey, 
 fringed with a light colour. The legs are 
 orange. 
 
 Some writers maintain that these birds were 
 originally natives of Guinea, in Africa. They 
 are now, however, very common everywhere, 
 being widely and numerously dispersed, both 
 in a wild and domestic state. They are found 
 in great numbers about Baikal, an eastern 
 section of Siberia, and likewise in Kamtschatka; 
 and are kept in a state of domestication in 
 most of the Euasian provinces. 
 
 THE MUTE SWAN. 
 The plumage of the Anas Cygnus Mansuetus 
 of Linn^us, is of a snowy whiteness, and the 
 bird itself is much larger than the wild swan ; 
 often weighing twenty-five pounds, and mea- 
 suring three feet and a-half in length. The 
 female makes her nest among the rouo-h her- 
 bage, near the water's edge, and lays from six 
 582 
 
 to eight large white eggs. She sits for the 
 space of six weeks — some say eight — before 
 they are hatched. Tlie young do not acquire 
 their full plumage till the second year. 
 
 Swans, from the earliest period of our 
 history, have been protected on the river 
 Thames as roj^al property ; and it continues, at 
 this day, to be accounted felony to steal their 
 eggs. By this means their increase is secured ; 
 whilst they prove highly ornamental to the 
 river scenery. In the reign of Edward IV., 
 the estimation in which they were held was 
 such, that no one who possessed a freehold of 
 less than the clear yearly value of five marks, 
 was permitted even to keep them. In those 
 times hardly a piece of water was left unoccu- 
 pied by these birds, as well on account of the 
 pleasure they gave to the eye of their lordly 
 owners, as that which they afforded when they 
 graced the sumptuous boards at the splendid 
 feasts of that period. The manners of those 
 days, however, have passed away, and swans 
 are not now so common as they were formerly^ 
 being by most people considered a coarse kind 
 of food, and consequently held in little estima- 
 tion ; but cygnets (young swans) are still fat- 
 tened for the table, and are sold for a guinea 
 each, and even more. Hence we may infer 
 that they are better food than is generally 
 imagined. 
 
 This swan is a bird beautifully formed. lu 
 it we see no broken or harsh lines, no con- 
 strained or abrupt motions, but the roundest 
 contour and the easiest transitions imaginable. 
 The eye wauders over every part with pleasure, 
 and each portion takes new grace with new 
 postures. 
 
 " The swan, with arched neck 
 Between her white wings manthng, proudly rows 
 Her state with oary feet." 
 
 It exhibits, however, but an inelegant appear- 
 ance on land. 
 
 The swan will swim faster tlian a man can. 
 walk. It is very strong, and at times ex- 
 tremely fierce ; it has not unfrequently been 
 known to throw down and trample upon 
 youths of fifteen or sixteen years of age ; and 
 an old swan, we are told, is able to break the 
 leg of a man with a single stroke of its wing. 
 A female, while in the act of sitting, observed 
 a fox swimming towards her from the opposite 
 shore: she instantly darted into the water; 
 
WILD OKESIE.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND AVATEK. [the Siberian oooii. 
 
 nnd, Iiavinc: Iv(*pt liim at bay for a considoraMo 
 time with lior \viii>j;H, at last suctvodi'd in 
 drowninp: liim ; after which, in the sipjht of 
 several persona, slio returned in triumph. 
 This circumatanco took phico at IVnay, in 
 'Ruekin;j;haniahire. 
 
 Swans are very lonc;-lived, soniotimcs arriv- 
 inc; at the age of one hundred years. 
 
 WILD GKKSE, 
 Six different species of wild geeso aro said 
 to visit the British shores iu winter. The 
 grey-lag is one, and is the original of our com- 
 mon domestic goose. Its flocks aro well-known 
 to all country people, I'rom tho circumstance 
 of their always flying in a particular figure — 
 that of a w edge. They are diflicult to approach 
 in regular hunting form, being shy and wary 
 to a proverb. When they arrive in winter, 
 they frequent the sea-coast, and little rivulets 
 and creeks, feeding on marine and other 
 grasses, and display a great partiality to green 
 wheat. Tlie only mode of getting within range 
 of them is by ambush, or advancing upon 
 them under cover of some kind. Colonel 
 Hawker recommends, that we "ascertain, 
 in the watery meads, what part they have used 
 (which we shall be able to see by their dung 
 and feathers) ; and then we should wait for 
 them, at dusk, in some ambush that commands 
 the fresh places adjoining. Contrive, if possi- 
 ble, to get the line of a dyke or drain, so as to 
 take their company in the flank." Mr. Daniel 
 likewise says — " Their flight is always (except 
 in thick fogs) very elevated ; their motion is 
 smooth, accompanied with little rustling, and 
 the play of the wings seems never to exceed 
 two or three inches ; the regularity with which 
 they are marshalled, implies a sort of intelli- 
 gence superior to that of other birds, which 
 migrate in disorderly bodies. The arrange- 
 ment observed by the geese, is at once calcu- 
 lated to preserve tho ranks entire, to break the 
 resistance of the air, and to lessen the exertion 
 of the squadron. They form two oblique lines, 
 like the letter V; or, if their number be small, 
 only one line. Generally they amount to forty 
 or fifty, and each keeps its rank with admirable 
 exactness. The chief, which occupies the point 
 ot the angle, and first cleaves the air, retires, 
 when fatigued, to the rear, and the rest by 
 turns assume the station of the van. Pliny 
 
 describes tho wonderful harmony that prevails 
 in these iliL,'litH, and remarks that, unlike tho 
 cranes and tho storks, which journey in tlio 
 obscurity of the night, the geeso aro seen 
 pursuing their route in broad day." 
 
 The wild gooso generally weiglia about ton 
 pouiuis ; and is two feet nine inclies long, and 
 iivo broad. The bill is thick at the base, tapers 
 towards tho tip, and is of a dullish-red hue, 
 with tho nail white. The head and neck are 
 brown, tinged with dull yellow, and, from tho 
 separation of tho feathers, the latter appears 
 striped downwards. The upper part of tho 
 plumage is of a deep brown, mixed with ash- 
 grey. Each feather is lighter on tho edges, 
 and the lesser coverts are tipped with white. 
 Tho shafts of the leading quills aro white; 
 the webs grey, and the tips black. TIio secon- 
 daries are black, tinged with white. Tho 
 breast and belly are crossed and clouded with 
 dusky and ash colours on a whitish ground ; 
 the tail and vent are of a snowy whiteness. 
 The middle feathers of the tail are dusky, 
 tipped with white ; those adjoining, more deeply 
 tipped ; and the exterior ones are nearly all 
 white. The legs are pale red. 
 
 During any succession of frosty days, espe- 
 cially if accompanied with a snow-storm, there 
 are few places, on the British coast, which will 
 not aflbrd more or less wild goose shooting. If 
 going on the water, or into the marshes, after 
 these birds, does not suit the convenience or 
 choice of the sportsman, by visiting the brooks 
 and small rivers that are only partially frozen, 
 and following their course, be may be almost 
 certain of meeting with some of these birds. 
 There are many localities in the moor districts 
 of the north of England where they are found 
 in winter, even when it has not been either 
 very cold or stormy. 
 
 THE SIBERIAN GOOSE. 
 
 The Anser EuJicoUis of Linnccus, also called 
 the Laughing Gooso, is white fronted. It 
 is seldom seen in Britain. Colonel Hawker 
 tells us, that it was unknown hero till the frost 
 of 1S30, when there were eighty of them 
 alighted in a field near the village of Wilford, 
 where, he says, they were beset by a swarm of 
 gunners, and attacked, but only with very 
 moderate success. The colonel himself suc- 
 ceeded, however, on the following day, in 
 
 583 
 
THE COEMORAKT.l 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the cormorant. 
 
 bringing down twenty. They are described as 
 very hard to kill. 
 
 THE CORMORANT. 
 
 The three varieties of the PeJicamis Corho, 
 known to sportsmen, are the crested, the black, 
 and the cole-goose. The common cormorant 
 weighs from four to seven pounds ; and the size 
 varies from about three feet to four feet six 
 inches in breadth. The bill, to the corners of the 
 mouth, measures four inches, and its ridge two- 
 and-three-quarters. It is of a dark horny 
 consistency, and the tip, or nail, of the upper 
 bill is considerably hooked and sharpened. 
 From the base of this it is furrowed on each 
 side, nearly to the top, without any visible ap- 
 pearance of nostrils. The lower bill is com- 
 pressed, and covered, about the gape of the 
 mouth, with a naked yellowish skin, extending 
 under the chin and throat, where it hangs 
 loose, and forms a kind of pouch, which, to- 
 gether with the springing blade on each side 
 forming its rim. is capable of great expansion, 
 and by it the bird is enabled to swallow prey 
 apparently too large to be admitted into its 
 throat. The skiu about the eye is naked, and 
 of the same colour as the pouch. The eyes, 
 which have a remarkably wild stare, are placed 
 near the bill. The crown of the head and neck 
 are black ; and on the hinder part of the former 
 the feathers appear elongated, and form a sort 
 of loose crest. In some species the throat is 
 white, with a kind of stripe passing from it, 
 upwards, behind each eye. In others the 
 cheeks and throat are mixed with brown and 
 white ; while, in other species, the head and 
 neck are streaked with scratches of the latter 
 colour. The middle of the belly is white, with 
 a patch of the same colour over each thigh. All 
 the under parts, however, together with the 
 back and rump, are commonly of a glossy blue- 
 black, with green shades. The shoulders, scapu- 
 lars, and wing-coverts, are of a bronze-brown 
 bue, tinged and glossed with green ; and each 
 feather ia bordered with shiuiug bluish-black. 
 The secondary quills are nearly of the same 
 colour. The coverts and primaries are dusky. 
 The tail consists of fourteen stiff feathers, which 
 look as if they were discoloured by being dipped 
 in mud or dirty water. The legs are thick, 
 and black, aud about two inches and a-half 
 long. 
 
 584 
 
 The cormorant is a native of almost every 
 climate. It abounds in large numbers in 
 Greenland and Nova Zambia, and parts adja- 
 cent ; and the natives have a curious method 
 of taking them, by means of lures or decoys. 
 They make use of the jugular pouch of the bird 
 for a bladder to float their fishiug-darts, after 
 they are thrown ; whilst their skins, which are 
 tough and leathery, are used for garments, and 
 their flesh for food. It is said, however, that 
 the eggs of the bird arc too foetid even to be 
 eaten by Greenlanders. 
 
 These birds usually assemble in flocks, on 
 the summits and inaccessible parts of the 
 rocks which overhang or are surrounded by 
 the sea, upon which the female makes her nest 
 of the withered sea-tang, weeds, sticks, and 
 grasses, which are cast on shore by the waves. 
 She lays four or five greenish-white eggs, of 
 the size of those of a goose, but of a longer 
 shape. Many writers and naturalists assert 
 that, in some parts of the world, these birds 
 build their nests on trees, like the rook 
 aud the heron; others, again, forming their 
 opinions from the singular conformation of 
 the feet and the serrated claws, ascribe pro- 
 perties to them which they do not possess, 
 and maintain that they bold their prey in one 
 foot, w^hile, with the other, they push forward 
 to the shore, or carry it thither in the same 
 manner on the wing. This is, however, fancy, 
 unsupported by any evidence of fact. The 
 truth is, the feet of these birds are not adapted 
 for any such purposes. They are, like those 
 of all the expert diving tribes, placed far be- 
 hind; and while, by their position and the 
 powerful stroke from their broad webs, the 
 birds are able to pursue aud overtake their 
 prey, the hooked sharp-edged beak is the only 
 instrument they have fitted both to catch and 
 secure it, and there is no need to use the 
 awkward expedient of removing it afterwards 
 to the foot. 
 
 At sea, or in the inland lakes, cormorants 
 prove themselves great gluttons. From the 
 loftiest heights they drop down upon the 
 object of pursuit, dive after it with the rapidity 
 of a dart, and, with an almost unerring cer- 
 tainty, seize it. They then emerge with the 
 fish across the bill, and, with a twirl, throw it 
 up into the air, and dexterously catch it as it 
 descends head foremost, and swallow it whole. 
 
THE 
 
 conMonANT.I BY rii:Ll), WOOD, AND WATER. [tui. wild duck. 
 
 "While at rest on shore, these birds sit, more 
 or less, in an erect posture, and are propped 
 up by the still' leathers of the tail, hi places 
 where thoy have not been diaturbeil by fire- 
 arms, thev have been known, however wary at 
 other times, to sit and receive repeated shots, 
 without olVeriug to move out of tho daiij:;er. 
 At other times and places, while thoy sit in a 
 dosing and stupefied state, from the eflects of 
 one of their customary surfeits, tliey may 
 easilv be taken, by throwing nets over them, 
 or by putting ft noose round their necks, 
 which they endeavour to avoid no further than 
 bv slipping the head from side to side as long 
 as they can. 
 
 Whatever may be tho wild disposition of 
 these birds, we have authentic accounts that 
 certain species of tiiem were formerly tamed, 
 and rendered subservient to the purposes of 
 man, both in this and other countries. Among 
 the Chinese, they have frequently been trained 
 to fish, and fishermen have kept many of them 
 for that purpose, and by their skill have 
 gained a good livelihood. A ring placed 
 round the neck prevents the bird from swal- 
 lowing what it catches; whilst its natural 
 appetite, joined to the will of its master, in- 
 duces it instantly to dive at the word of 
 command ; but, unable to gorge the fish it 
 has taken, it returns to the keeper, who 
 secures it himself. Sometimes, if the fish be 
 large, and dllEcult to manage, two will act in 
 concert — one bird taking it by the head, and 
 the other by the tail. "Willoughby informs 
 us, that in England, when these birds are 
 brought to the rivers, their hoods are taken 
 ofi", and then a leather thong is tied round 
 the lower part of their necks, that they may 
 not swallow the fish they take. The birds 
 are then thrown into the water, when they 
 immediately dive ; and, for a time, with re- 
 markable swiftness, pursue the fish with great 
 ardour. When they have caught any, they 
 rise to the surface, and pressing them lightly 
 with their bills, swallow them, each to the 
 extent of five or six ; then the keepers call 
 them to the fist, to which they readily fly, and 
 little by little, one after the other, vomit up 
 all their finny captures, which appear some- 
 times a little bruised with the nip the bird 
 has given them with its hooked bill. When 
 the fishermen have done, they set the birds on 
 4 F 
 
 some higli place, and then loose the string 
 from their necki*, which leavea tho passage 
 free of air to tho stomach ; and, by way of 
 encouragement, part of the prey ia given back 
 again to eacii bird. Whitlock tolls us, like- 
 wise, that ho had several cormorants manned 
 like hawks, wliich would como to hand. ILo 
 took great pleasure in them ; and relates, 
 tliat the best he had was one presented to him 
 by Mr. AVood, master of tho cormorants to 
 Charles I. 
 
 Dr. lleysham relates, that, on a certain oc- 
 casion, one of these birds perched upon tho 
 castle at Carlisle, and soon afterwards re- 
 moved to the cathedral, where it was shot at 
 upwards of twenty times, without eflect. At 
 length, a person got upon the cathedral, fired 
 at, and killed it. In another instance, a flock 
 of fifteen or twenty perched, at the dusk of 
 evening, on a tree, on the banks of the river 
 Esk, near Netherby, the seat of the late Sir 
 James Graham. A person who saw them settle, 
 fired at random at them, in the dark, six or 
 seven times, without either killing or even 
 frightening any of them away. Surprised at 
 this, he came again at daylight, and succeeded 
 in killing one, when the rest took to flight. 
 
 Colonel Hawker says, that cormorants may 
 be seen in the evening, pursuing a regular 
 course towards the clift", on the sea-coast, where 
 they roost, and that, in their flight, they are 
 often mistaken for Brent geese, and shot at by 
 the inexperienced. They are likewise sought 
 after by adventurous persons, who are able to 
 reach the middle of the rocky heights. In at- 
 tempting to .'shoot them in such positions, 
 much caution is requisite in secreting the 
 sportsman from observation. So keen-sighted 
 are these birds, and so jealous of any object 
 that bears even the semblance of a weapon, 
 that they immediately take the alarm at the 
 slightest appearance of an enemy, and thus 
 elude the devices of the best sportsman. 
 Shooting them is considered an excellent ex- 
 ercise for young gunners. 
 
 THE WILD DUCK. 
 
 Tlie Anas Bochas of Linnasus is the parent 
 of our domestic duck, and, in point of size, is 
 a little less. The wild mallard, or drake bird, 
 has a length of about twenty-three inches, and 
 a breadth of about thirty-five. It usually 
 
 5S5 
 
THE "WILD DUCK.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the wild duck. 
 
 weighs from thirty-six to forty ounces. The 
 bill is of a yellowish hue ; not very flat ; about 
 an inch broad, and two-and-a-half long, from 
 the corners of the mouth to the tip of the nail. 
 The head and upper half of the neck are of a 
 glossy, deep, variable green, terminated in the 
 middle of the neck by a white collar, with 
 which it is nearly encircled. The lower por- 
 tions of the neck, breast, and shoulders, are of 
 a deep vinous chestnut, and the covering scap- 
 ular feathers are of a kind of silvery white, 
 while those underneath are rufous. Both are 
 prettily crossed with waved threads of brown. 
 The wing-coverts are ash ; the quills brown ; 
 and between these intervenes what is called 
 the heauty-spot in the duck tribe, which crosses 
 the closed wiug in a transverse, oblique direc- 
 tion ; it is of a rich glossy purple, with violet 
 or green reflections, and. fringed by a double 
 >treak of white and black. The belly is of a 
 pale grey, delicately pencilled, and crossed with 
 numberless narrow- waved dusky lines, which, 
 on the sides and long feathers that reach over 
 the thighs, are more distinctly marked. The 
 upper and under tail-coverts, the lower part of 
 the back, and the rump, are black ; the latter 
 are glossed with green. The four middle tail- 
 feathers are likewise black, with purple reflec- 
 tions, and, like those of the domestic drake, are 
 stifily curled upwards ; the rest are sharp- 
 pointed, and shaded off to the exterior sides, 
 from a brown to a dull white. The legs, toes, 
 and webs are red. 
 
 The plumage of the female, which is called a 
 flapper, possesses few or none of the beauties of 
 the male, except the spot on his wings. All 
 the other parts are plain brown, marked with 
 black. She makes her nest, lays from ten to 
 sixteen greenish-white eggs, and rears her 
 young generally in the most sequestered mosses 
 or bogs, away from the haunts of man, and 
 hidden from his sight among the reeds and 
 rushes. To her unfledged family (and they 
 are nearly three months old before they can 
 fly) she acts the part of a fond and dutiful 
 parent, carrying or leading them from one pool 
 to another, as her fears and inclinations direct 
 lier ; and she is known, in this country, to use 
 the same wily stratagems to mislead the sports- 
 man and his dog, as those already noticed re- 
 specting the partridge. 
 
 Like most of the duck tribes, the mallards, 
 586 
 
 in vast numbers, leave the north at the end of 
 autumn, and, flying southward, arrive in Great 
 Britain in the beginning of winter, and spread 
 themselves over all the lakes and marshy 
 wastes. They pair in the spring, when the 
 greater part of them again return to the north, 
 to breed during the summer months of com- 
 paratively warm weather and long days. A 
 few straggling birds remain every season with 
 us, and breed. 
 
 It is not at all times that wild duck shoot- 
 ing can be pursued with success. These birds 
 being very shy, considerable art must be 
 employed in endeavouring to bring the 
 shot within range of them. They have fixed 
 times of feeding and visiting certain localities ; 
 and the only way for the sportsman to make 
 sure of them, is to watch their movements, 
 and conceal himself from observation. He 
 may thus often intercept their flight when 
 congregated in considerable numbers, and 
 bring down several at a shot. They are some- 
 times very easily killed, and sometimes not. 
 All depends upon the part of the body which 
 the pellets have struck. Regular wild duck 
 shooters are often very successful in moonlight 
 nights. The birds are then less shy and 
 suspicious. 
 
 Wild ducks frequent the marshy places of 
 many parts of this kingdom ; but nowhere in 
 greater plenty than in Lincolnshire, where 
 prodigious numbers were wont annually to be 
 taken in the decoys. In only ten decoys in 
 the neighbourhood of Wainfleet, as many as 
 thirty-one thousand two hundred have been 
 caught in one season. 
 
 To those who may not know what a decoy 
 is, we may say that it is a pond generally situ- 
 ated in a marsh, so as to be surrounded with 
 wood or reeds, and, if possible, with both, to 
 prevent the birds which frequent it from being 
 disturbed. In this pond the birds sleep dur- 
 ing the day ; and as soon as the evening sets 
 in, the decoy rises (as it is termed), and the 
 wild fowl feed during the night. If the even- 
 ing is still, the noise of their wings during 
 flight is heard at a great distance, and is a 
 pleasing though somewhat melancholy sound. 
 The decoy-ducks (which are either bred in 
 the pond-yard, or in the marshes adjacent, 
 and which, although they fly abroad, regularly 
 return for food to the pond, and mix with the 
 
THE WILD DUCK.] ?> V FIELD, WOOD, AND W'ATl'K. [tiik wild dlck. 
 
 tame ones tliat never quit tljo pond) are fed 
 with hemp-seed, o:\ta, and bufk-wheat. In 
 catching the wild birds, hemp-seed ia thrown 
 over tl»e isoreena to allure them forward into 
 the pipes, of which there are several, leading 
 up a narrow ditch, that closes at last with a 
 funnel-ntt. Over these pipes, which grow 
 narrower from the first entrance, there is a 
 coutiuued nrch of netting, suspended oa hoops. 
 It isnecossary to liavo a. pipe for almost every 
 wind that can blow, as ou that circumstance 
 it depends which pipe the fowl will take to. 
 The decoy-man likewise always keeps to the 
 leeward of the wild fowl ; and burns, in his 
 mouth or hand, a piece of Butch turf, that his 
 own smell, if he have any, may not reach them ; 
 for, if they once discover by their scent that 
 a man is near, tliey all instantly take flight. 
 Along each pipe are placed reed screens, at cer- 
 tain intervals, to prevent him from being seen 
 till he thinks proper to show himself, or the 
 birds have passed up the pipe, to which they are 
 led by the trained ducks, which know the de- 
 coy-man's whistle, or are enticed by the hemp- 
 seed. A dog, which is taught to play backwards 
 and forwards between the screens, at the direc- 
 tion of his master, is sometimes used. The 
 fowl, roused by this new object, advance to- 
 wards it, while the dog is playing still nearer 
 to the entrance oi ihe pipes. At last the de- 
 coy-man appears from behind the screens, and 
 the wild fowl, not daring to pass by him, and 
 unable to fly off" on account of the net covering 
 the hoops, press forward to the end of the 
 funnel-net, which terminates upon the land, 
 where a person is stationed ready to take 
 them. The trained birds return past the 
 decoy-man into the pond again, till a repeti- 
 tion of their services is required. Tlie general 
 season for catching is from the latter end of 
 October till February. 
 
 It was formerh' customary to have, in the 
 fens, an annual driving of the young ducks, 
 before they took wing. Numbers of people 
 assembled, who beat a vast tract, and Ibrced 
 the birds into a net placed at the spot where 
 the sport was to terminate. By this practice 
 — which, however, has been abolished — as 
 many as a hundred and seventy-four dozen 
 have been known to be taken in one day. 
 
 "Wild ducks do not always build their nests 
 close to the water, but often at considerable dis- 
 
 tance from it ; in which case the female will 
 take the young in her beak, or betweou the 
 legs, to the water. They havo been knowa 
 sometimes to lay their eggs iu a high tree, ia 
 a deserted maLi;pie's or crow's nest ; and an iu- 
 stanco has likewise been recorded of one being 
 found at Etchinghani, in Sussex, sitting upoa 
 nine eggs, in an oak, at the height of twenty- 
 five feet from the ground. The eggs were 
 supported by some small twigs laid crossways. 
 
 We are informed, that at Bold, in Lanca- 
 shire, there were formerly great numbers of 
 wild ducks, during the summer-time, ia the 
 ponds and moat near the hall. These, it is 
 said, used regularly to be fed. A man beat 
 with a stone on a hollow wooden vessel, and 
 immediately the ducks would come round him. 
 He scattered corn among them, which they 
 gathered with as mucli quietness aud fami- 
 liarity as might bo expected from tame ducks. 
 As soon as they had finished their repast, they 
 returned to their accustomed haunts. 
 
 Prodigious numbers of these birds arc taken 
 by decoys, ia Picardy, iu Frauce. It is cus- 
 tomary there, to wait for the flock's passing 
 over certain kaown places ; when the sports- 
 man, having a wicker cage, containing a quan- 
 tity of tame birds, lets cut one at a time, which 
 enticing the passengers within gun- shot, five 
 or six are often killed at once by an expert 
 marksman. They are also, now and then, taken 
 by hooks baited with raw meat, which the 
 birds swallow while swimming on the water. 
 
 Other methods of catching ducks and geese 
 are peculiar to certain nations. One of these, 
 from its singularity, seems worth mentioning. 
 A person wades into the water up to the chin; 
 and, having his head covered with an empty 
 calabash, or gourd, approaclies the place where 
 are the ducks ; which, not regarding an objecc 
 of this kind, suffer him freely to mix with 
 them. He then has only to pull them by 
 the legs under the water, one after another, 
 and fix them to his belt, till he is satisfied ; 
 returning as unsuspected by the remainder as 
 when he first went among them. This curious 
 method is frequently practised on the river 
 Ganges, the earthen vessels of the Hindoos 
 being used instead of calabashes. These 
 vessels are what the Hindoos boil their rice ia. 
 After having been once used, these vessels 
 are looked upon as defiled, aad are thrown 
 
 587 
 
THE WILD DUCK.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the pochaed. 
 
 into tbe river as useless. The duek-takers 
 find them convenient for their purpose, as the 
 ducks, from seeing them constantly floating 
 down the stream, esteem them as objects not 
 to be regarded. 
 
 The Chinese make great use of ducks, but pre- 
 fer tame to wild ones. It is said that the greater 
 number of the ducks in China are hatched 
 by artificial means. The eggs, being laid in 
 boxes of sand, are placed on a brick hearth, to 
 which is given a proper heat during the time 
 required for hatching. The ducklings are fed 
 with craw-fish and crabs, boiled and cut small, 
 and afterwards mixed with boiled rice ; and, in 
 about a fortnight, they are able to shift for 
 themselves. The Chinese then provide them 
 an old step-mother, who leads them where they 
 are to find provender ; being first put on board 
 a sa7npane* or boat, which is destined for their 
 habitation; and from which the whole flock, 
 often to the amount of three or four hundred, 
 go out to feed, and return at command. This 
 method is used nine months out of the twelve ; 
 for in the colder months it does not succeed, 
 and is so far from a novelty, that it may be 
 everywhere seen; but more especially about 
 the time of cutting the rice, and gleaning tlie 
 crop, when the masters of the duck-sampanes 
 row up and down the river, according to the 
 opportunity of procuring food, which is found 
 in plenty, at the tide of ebb, on the rice plan- 
 tations, as they are overflowed at high water. 
 It is curious to observe how the ducks obey 
 their masters ; for some thousands, belonging 
 to difierent boats, will feed at large on the 
 same spot, and, on a signal given, will follow 
 their leader to their respective sampanes, 
 without a single stranger being found among 
 them. This is still more extraordinary, if we 
 consider the number of inhabited sampanes 
 on the Tigris, which have been supposed to be 
 not less than 40,000, moored in rows, close to 
 each other, with, here and there, a narrow pas- 
 sage left for boats to sail up and down the 
 river. The Tigris, at Canton, is somewhat 
 wider than the Thames at London ; and the 
 whole river is there covered in this manner 
 for upwards of a mile. 
 
 * Sampanes is a common name for boats: the in- 
 habited ones contain each a separate family, of which 
 they are the only dwelling ; and many of the Chinese 
 pass almost their whole lives in this manner on the water. 
 588 
 
 In Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, Martin 
 Mere ; in Lancashire, in North and South 
 Wales, in Scotland, in the Fern Islands, off 
 Bambro' Castle, and in Northumberland, there 
 are countless thousands of these birds to be met 
 with in the winter season. By a recent act of 
 parliament, no wild fowl, either young or old, 
 can be legally killed from the last day of 
 March to the 1st of October. 
 
 THE POCHARD, OR DUN-BIRD. 
 Of the Anas Ferina of Linnjeus, Mr. Daniel 
 gives us the best account : — " It is about the 
 size of a widgeon, and weighs one pound twelve 
 ounces. Its length is nineteen inches ; breadth 
 two feet and a-half ; the bill is broader than 
 the widgeon's, of a deep lead colour, with a 
 black tip ; irides orange ; the head and neck 
 orange chestnut, with a small triangular spot 
 of white under the centre of the lower man- 
 dible ; the lower parts of the neck and breast, 
 and upper part of the back, dusky black; 
 scapulars and wing-coverts, nearest the body, 
 of a grey white, elegantly marked with narrow 
 lines of black ; the exterior wing-coverts and 
 quills dusky brown; secondary quill-feathers 
 regularly edged with a stripe of white; the 
 belly ash-coloured and brown ; vent-feathers 
 and coverts of tail black ; the tail consists of 
 twelve short feathers, of a deep grey ; the legs 
 lead-coloured. The female has the head of a 
 pale reddish brown; the breast is rather of 
 a deeper colour; wing-coverts and belly 
 cinereous ; and the back marked like that o£ 
 the male. These birds are eagerly bought by 
 the London poulterers under the name of dun- 
 birds, as they are deemed excellent eating. 
 The greater part of what appear in the markets 
 are caught in decoys; but the construction 
 and mode of working are perfectly distinct 
 from that wherein the other wild fowl are 
 taken. A decoy for dun-birds is called a flight- 
 pond, and has nets fastened to tall stout poles, 
 twenty-eight or thirty feet long ; at the bottom 
 of each pole is fixed a box, filled with heavy 
 stones, sufiicient to elevate the poles and nets 
 the instant an iron pin is withdrawn, which 
 retains the nets and poles flat upon the reeds, 
 small willow boughs, or furze. In the inside of 
 the nets are small pens, made of reeds, about 
 three feet high, for the reception of the birds 
 that strike against the nets and fall down ; and 
 
THE pocn.vnD.J 
 
 BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND AVATEK. 
 
 [the widgeox. 
 
 such is tho form and shortness of the wing of 
 pochards, that they cannot ascend again from 
 tlieso littlo inclosurc3 if tlicy would ; besides, 
 tho numbers wliich aro usually knocked into 
 those pens, preclude all chance of escajio from 
 tliom by the wing. A decoy-man will some- 
 times allow the haunt of dun-birds to be so 
 freat, that the whole surface of tho pond will 
 be covered with them previous to his attempting 
 to take one. Upon such occasions he bespeaks 
 nil the assistance he can get, to complete the 
 slaughter by breaking their necks. AVhen all 
 is ready, the dun-birds aro roused from the 
 pond ; and as all wild fowl rise against the 
 wind, the poles in that quarter are unpinned, 
 and fly up with the nets at the instant the dun- 
 birds begin to leave the surface of the water, 
 so as to meet them in their first ascent ; and 
 they are thus beat down by hundreds. At 
 the pond of Mr. Baxton, at Goldhanger in 
 Essex, as many pochards have been taken at 
 one drop as filled a waggon, so full as to require 
 four stout horses to carry them away ; and the 
 lower birds in the pens have been known to be 
 killed and pressed entirely flat, from tho num- 
 bers of their companions heaped up above them 
 by the fatal stoppage of the poles and nets. 
 The few attempts made to domesticate the 
 pochard have been hitherto unsuccessful. They 
 do tolerably well where there is plenty of water, 
 but cannot bear walking about on bard, pebbly 
 grounds." 
 
 The pochard leaves the northern regions at 
 the commencement of winter, and directs its 
 course southward. It is said that it frequents 
 Egypt, also the entire section of the Holy 
 Land ; and is very numerous in some of the 
 lakes and marshy districts in America, espe- 
 cially in Carolina and Louisiana. In France 
 it makes its appearance about the month of 
 October, in large flocks ; and about the same 
 period it may be found in all the low and fenny 
 districts of Grreat Britain. 
 
 In shooting this bird, especially in a severe 
 snow-storm, accompanied with a hard frost, it is 
 found not to be so difficult to bring to the ground 
 with tolerably sized shot as some other wild 
 fowl ; it is, however, always a matter of difficulty 
 to get within range of it, for it is very shy, and 
 remarkably quick in recognising an enemy, 
 when it immediately takes wing to some safe 
 retreat. 
 
 THE WIDGEON. 
 
 This well-known bird is the Anas Fenelope 
 of Liimajus, and has a length of about twenty 
 inches, a breadth of from two to three feet, 
 and a weight of about twenty-two ounces. 
 The bill is an incli and a-half long, and narrow, 
 with its outer edges serrated. The upper 
 mandible is of a dark leaden hue, tipped with 
 black. The crown of the head is very high and 
 narrow, and is of a cream colour, with a small 
 spot of yellowish white under each eye. The 
 rest of the head, tho neck, and the breast, aro 
 of a bright rufous chestnut, faintly freckled on 
 the head with black spots, and darkest on the 
 chin and throat, and tinged with a vinous 
 colour. A baud, composed of beautifully waved 
 or indented narrow ash-brown and white lines, 
 separates the breast and neck. Tho scapulars 
 and back are marked with similar feathers, 
 as are also the sides of the body under the 
 wings, even as low as the tliighs. These, how- 
 ever, are paler. The belly, to the vent, is white, 
 and the ridge of the wing and adjoining coverts 
 arc of a dusky ash-colour, approaching to 
 brown. The great coverts are brown, fringed 
 with white, and tipped with black, which forms 
 a border to the changeable green beauty-spots 
 of the wings, which are likewise bordered on 
 the under side by the deep velvet black tips of 
 the secondary quills. The exterior webs of 
 the adjoining quills are white ; and those next 
 the back, which are very long, are of a deep 
 brown, fringed with yellowish white. Tho 
 greater quills are brown ; the vent and upper 
 tail-coverts are black. 
 
 During the night, whilst widgeons are 
 taking their course through the air, they may 
 be distinguished from other wild fowl by the 
 peculiar whistling note they use. They have 
 been domesticated, and are generally much 
 admired on account of their liveliness and 
 beauty. 
 
 On the approach of frosty weather, they 
 leave the desolate regions of tho north, and 
 direct their course to the south, breaking into 
 detached and diverging lines, and spreading 
 themselves along the shores, and over the 
 morasses and lakes of different countries. 
 Large numbers of them are found in the East, 
 particularly in Egypt, and in the islauds of 
 the Mediterranean. They remain in these 
 
 589 
 
THE WIDGEON.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the teal. 
 
 parts during the winter, at the end of wliich 
 the old birds pair ; and the whole flock, in full 
 plumage, take their departure northward 
 about the end of March. AVhile the widgeon 
 remains in Britain, it frequents the same 
 places, and feeds in the same mode as the 
 mallard, and is often taken in the decoys, 
 along with different species of the duck tribe. 
 
 There are a great number of birds called 
 divers; and among the number are the scoter, 
 scaup, golden-eye, and morillon. Colonel 
 Hawker says there are seven kinds of these 
 divers to be found in Great Britain, exclusively 
 of other sis, which are separately classed as 
 the genus Mergus. Mr. Daniel observes, that 
 " they vary much both in plumage and size ; 
 some weighing two pounds and a-half, and 
 others a pound less, and are caught in the de- 
 coys with the ducks. In hard weather, they 
 frequent the shores and tide rivers in great 
 plenty, and are almost always, at that season, 
 fat and in good condition. They do not fly in 
 such large flocks as many of the duck species, 
 but usually close to the surface of the water, 
 and bear very hard blows from the shot with- 
 out dropping, unless struck upon the head or 
 wing. The scoter is seen in prodigious num- 
 bers, from November to March, on the French 
 coasts, especially if the wind be to the nortli, or 
 north-west. The day seems to be spent by these 
 birds between diving and flying to small dis- 
 tances over the water, which they do so low as 
 often to dip their legs in it. They swallow 
 their food whole, and soon digest the shells, 
 which are found crumbled to powder among 
 their excrements. They have been kept tame 
 for some time, and will feed on soaked bread. 
 The flesh tastes fishy in the extreme ; and, 
 from this cause, is allowed by the Eoman 
 Catholics to be eaten on fast days and in 
 Lent ; and, indeed, to say the truth, must be a 
 sufficient mortification." 
 
 However amusing the shooting of these 
 birds may be, it is not attended with much 
 profit, as they are very difficult to hit. They 
 are wonderfully quick in diving; for the 
 moment the gun is pointed, down they go. 
 In stormy weather— that is, with the wind 
 from the north-east, cold and frosty — a sports- 
 man on the east coast of Britain, may now and 
 then waylay these birds on their flights, and 
 succeed in bagging a few brace ; but even to do 
 590 
 
 this, great exertion, patience, and the concur- 
 rence of favourable circumstances, are required. 
 
 THE TEAL. 
 
 The Anas Crecea of Linnaeus is a great fa- 
 vourite with many sportsmen, and is consid- 
 ered both a beautiful and handsome bird. It 
 is about twelve ounces in weight, fifteen inches 
 in length, and twenty-four in breadth. The 
 bill is dark, tipped with white. The irides ai*e 
 pale ; and a glossy bottle-green patch, fringed 
 on the upper side with pale brown, and be- 
 neath with cream-coloured white, covers each 
 eye, and extends to the nape of the neck. The 
 rest of the head, and the upper part of the 
 neck, are of a deep reddish chestnut, darkest 
 on the forehead, and freckled on the chin and 
 about the eyes with cream-coloured spots. 
 The hinder part of the neck, the shoulders, 
 part of the scapulars, sides under the wings, 
 and lower belly towards the vent, are pen- 
 cilled with black, ash-brown, and white trav- 
 ersed waved lines. The breast is of a pale brown 
 or reddish yellow, and each feather is tipped 
 with a roundish heart-shaped black spot, having 
 a resemblance to the markings of the Indian 
 shell. The belly is a cream-coloured white. 
 The quills, lesser and greater coverts, are 
 brown, and the last are deeply tipped with 
 white, which form a bar across the wings. The 
 first six of the secondary quills are of a fine 
 velvet black ; while those next to them, towards 
 the scapulars, are resplendent glossy green ; and 
 both are tipped with white, forming the divided 
 black and green bar, or heauty-spot of the wings. 
 
 The tail consists of fourteen feathers, of a 
 whitish brown colour, with pale edges ; and the 
 legs and feet are of a dingy lead. The female, 
 which is less than the male, has its head and 
 neck prettily freckled with brown and white. 
 She has not the green patch between the eyes, 
 but a brown streak supplies its place, and ex- 
 tends to the nape of the neck. The crown of 
 the head is dark brown. The upper mandible 
 yellow on the edges, olive green on the sides, 
 and olive brown on the ridge. The nail is 
 black, and the under bill yellow. The breast 
 and belly are of a glossy yellowish white, irreg- 
 ularly spotted with brown. The upper plu- 
 mage is dark brown, each feather being bor- 
 dered with rusty brown, and fringed with grey. 
 The wings are like those of the male bird. 
 
THE TEAL.] 
 
 BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. 
 
 [the TIAL. 
 
 In most parts of Great Britain, during 
 winter, teal are coniniou ; but it is not very well 
 ascertained whether they remain throughout 
 the year to breed, as they do in France. The 
 female makes a large nest, composed of soft 
 dried grasses, lined with feathers, concealed in 
 a hole among the roots of weeds and bulrushes, 
 near the edge of the water ; and some natural- 
 ists have asserted, that the nests, in several 
 instances, have been found entirely to lloat on 
 the surface of the water, so as to rise and fall 
 with it. The eggs are of the size of those of a 
 piceon, and amount to six or seven in number. 
 Thev are of a dull white colour, freckled with 
 small brownish spots. Their numbers vary. 
 Some have been known to lay twelve eggs. 
 Buffon says, that numbers of young teal are 
 seen in pools, feeding on cresses, wild chervil, 
 &c.; and, unquestionably, as they grow up, they 
 feed, like other ducks, on the various seeds, 
 grasses, and water-plants, as well as on the 
 smaller living things with which all stagnant 
 waters are so abundantly stored. The bird 
 is highly extolled for the excellence of its 
 flavour. 
 
 Teal are seldom found in large numbers; 
 scarcely ever more than ten or twenty are 
 seen together, and this only in stormy weather, 
 and in certain favourite localities near the 
 coast, or by the edges of a sheet of water, 
 where they are fringed with long grass, or 
 brushwood. They are comparatively solitary 
 birds, confining themselves chiefly to families ; 
 and it is only in this way that they are inter- 
 esting to the sportsman. A man may range a 
 considerable section of marshy country, and 
 not see more than a pair or two at a time. In 
 all the moor and boggy districts, in the north 
 of England, they are to be met with ; but never 
 in great numbers- 
 There is a large portion of wild- fowl shooting 
 pursued as a matter of business and traflTic, and, 
 consequently, with a view to filling the cofier 
 rather than furnishing sport. This is chiefly 
 confined to the low districts of the coast, where 
 birds of the duck kind, especially, congregate in 
 immense flocks at certain seasons of the year. 
 Many persons gain a good livelihood by this 
 kind of shooting as it is followed on the Hamp- 
 shire coast, and the Isle of "Wight. The coast 
 between these localities consists, at ebb tide, 
 of vast muddy flats, covered with green sea- j hail 
 
 w eed ; and affords the fowler an opportunity of 
 practising arts perhaps not elsewhere resorted 
 to. Fowling and fisliiiig are, indeed, on thia 
 coast, commonly the employments of the same 
 person. Ho who in summer, with hia lino or 
 net, plies tlie shores wlien they are overflowed 
 by the tide, in winter witli his gun, as evening 
 draws on, runs up in his boat among the littlo 
 creeks, which the tide leaves in tho midlands, 
 and lies in patient expectation of his prey. 
 Sea-fowl usually feed by night, when, in all 
 their multitudes, they come down to graze on 
 the savannahs of the shore. As the sonorous 
 cloud advances (for their noise resembles a 
 pack of hounds in the air in full cry), the 
 attentive fowler listens which way they bend 
 their course : perhaps he has the mortification 
 to hear them alight at too great a distance for 
 his gun (though of the longest barrel) to 
 reach them; and if he cannot edge his boat 
 round some creek, which it is not always in 
 his power to do, he despairs of success that 
 night ; perhaps, however, he is more fortunate, 
 and has the satisfaction to hear the airy noiso 
 approach nearer, till at length the host settle 
 on some plain upon the edge of wliich hia 
 boat is moored. He now, as silently as pos- 
 sible, primes both his pieces anew (for he is 
 generally doubly armed), and listens with all 
 his attention. It is so dark, he can take no 
 aim ; for, if he could discern the birds, they 
 would also seo him, and, being extremely 
 timorous, would seek some other pasture. 
 Though they march with noiso, they feed in 
 silence; some indistinct noises, however, if the 
 night be still, issue from so vast a concourse. 
 He directs his piece, therefore, towards the 
 sound, fires at a venture, and instantly catch- 
 ing up his other gun, discharges it where he 
 supposes the flock to rise on the wing. His 
 gains, for the night, are now decided, and he 
 has only to gather his harvest. He imme- 
 diately puts on his mud-pattens (flat, square 
 pieces of board, which the fowler ties to his 
 feet that ho may not sink in the ooze), ignorant 
 yet of his success, and goes groping about in 
 the dark in quest of his booty, picking up 
 sometimes many, and perhaps not one; so 
 hardly does the poor fowler earn five shillings, 
 exposed in an open boat, during a solitary 
 winter night, to the weather as it comes — rain, 
 hail, or snow, on a bleak coast — a league 
 
 591 
 
LAKE SHOOTINa.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [lake SHOOTINa. 
 
 •probably from the beacb, and often liable, with- 
 out great care, to be fixed in the mud, where he 
 would become an inevitable prey to the return- 
 ing tide. We have heard of a poor fellow who 
 never took a dog with him in these expeditions, 
 because no dog could bear the cold which he 
 was obliged to suffer. The tide often throws, 
 next day, on different parts of the shore, many 
 of the birds which he had killed on the pre- 
 vious night, but could not find them. 
 
 This is the account given by Mr. Gepin, of 
 this kind of sport ; but, since his time, the 
 mode of pursuit has been greatly improved. 
 
 The danger, Mr. Daniel tells us, of fowlers 
 attacking the wild fowl in small boats, arises 
 from the circumstance, that when there hap- 
 pens to be ice in the river, they get encircled 
 by it, and can only hope to extricate them- 
 selves by following the current, wherever it 
 may take them. It not unfrequently happens 
 that the men are detained two or three tides, 
 before they can work their way out of the icy 
 entanglement. They also suffer much, in such 
 cases, from cold and privation. 
 
 On and in the vicinity of the Fern Islands? 
 near to Berwick-upon-Tweed, wild fowl con- 
 gregate, and breed in surprising numbers. It 
 is impossible, in walking on the ground, to 
 step upon a single square foot of space with- 
 out crushing eggs beneath your feet. In the 
 winter season, when there is a storm from the 
 east or north-east, with a heavy sea breaking 
 on the shore, the wild fowl may be shot, even 
 on the mainland, in considerable quantities, 
 by artfully concealing oneself along the beach. 
 Storms have sometimes so bewildering an effect, 
 even on these hardy birds, that they seem 
 quite stupid, and will sometimes come within 
 twenty yards of the gun, in daylight. 
 
 LAKE AND POND SHOOTING. 
 
 This sport can only be followed in certain 
 parts of the kingdom, as, where there are neither 
 lakes nor ponds, it cannot be pursued. In 
 the fenny districts of Lincolnshire and Cam- 
 bridgeshire, however, where the various kind 
 of wild ducks breed among the reeds and long 
 grass in the boggy grounds, this sport is to be 
 obtained. Here the young are hatched, and, 
 in the month of August, receive the name of 
 flappers ; and the shooting of them then com- 
 mences, and is found to be excellent sport. 
 592 
 
 This kind of shooting is altogether difierent 
 from that which is practised on the coast, 
 where the birds only come to feed at particular 
 seasons, and where they never breed. These 
 fens, meres, or broads, are sometimes amazingly 
 stocked with birds of all kinds ; and great 
 numbers are shot, or taken in traps and nets 
 for the London market. 
 
 For Hampshire coast-punt shooting, a gun 
 of Jifty ijounds' weight is that which is found 
 to be the most suitable. The old heavy pieces 
 of seventy and eighty pounds, rendered the 
 punt immovable when fouled on grass and 
 winkles, which are shells strewed over the 
 oozes in countless myriads. The sportsman, 
 in such a puut, rows with his back to the gun, 
 until he sees the fowl, when he turns on his 
 face, and works himself along with a kind of 
 prong, weighted to catch the ground. When 
 the water is too deep for the pushing-pole 
 readily to reach the ground, two paddles are 
 made use of to help the fowler forward. 
 Having given these general instructions, the 
 reader is referred to the work of Colonel 
 Hawker for further information. There he 
 will find all that relates to mud-pattens, mud- 
 boards, and to several modifications of the 
 launching-punt, the launching-sledge, the 
 Sussex mud-boat, and the Poole canoe — all de- 
 vices and instruments made to facilitate the 
 capture of the wild fowl in the creeks and 
 oozes of this part of the British coast. 
 
 There are other matters connected with this 
 sport sufficiently important to demand a shght 
 notice, amongst which is the dress of the wild- 
 fowl sportsman. Respecting this, Mr. Daniel 
 says — " To be properly equipped for this sport 
 in severe weather, it is essentially requisite to 
 be well clothed. Flannel shirt, drawers, and 
 additional exterior and warm garments, will 
 not be found unpleasant to those who face the 
 cold winds upon the marshes, or sit fixed in a 
 punt alongside the oozes; thick yarn stock- 
 ings, and, over them, what are termed wads by 
 the fisherman (knit woollen stockings that 
 come up to the middle ; and, however inele- 
 gant in their appearance, prove very solid com- 
 forts to the wearer) ; and over these double 
 defenders of the legs, a pair of waterproof boots 
 will also be found indispensable. A cap must 
 be worn, made of skin, instead of a hat ; as the 
 wild fowl will not approach near the latter." 
 
wiLU-rowL suooTiNO.] BY I-'IKLD, WOOD, ASD WATER. [rLiuux-BUuofixo. 
 
 "Wild-fowl shooting being a severe and much- 
 exposed ainusoment, ought not to bo engaged 
 in by young men of a consumptive habit. In- 
 deed, we have heard of many u man possessed of 
 V hat is called an iron constitution, sinking under 
 long-continued exposure to night air, want of 
 Bleep, with, perhaps, a ti)o great indulgence in 
 tippling, to ktiep the cold out. The best means 
 for this is to go out to the sca-shoro in a frosty 
 night, pretty well soaked with warm tea ; it will 
 enable the sportsman to stand longer unin- 
 jured by cold and dam[> tlian anything he can 
 take. AVe have found this to bo true from 
 personal experience, as well as from the testi- 
 mony of others. 
 
 "Wild-fowl shooting can be obtained in al- 
 most every section of the coast of Great Bri- 
 tain and Ireland, and in most of the moun- 
 tainous and moorish districts of both islands. 
 North and South "U^ales present some fine 
 lakes for this kind of shooting; and so like- 
 n-ise do all the lligliland localities of Scotland. 
 The whole coast of this part of Britain ofiers 
 a large field for this sport ; and to one who 
 wishes to enter zealously into it, we would re- 
 commend him to take a tour round the western 
 isles, by the north cape, returning by the east- 
 ern side of the island. In such an excursion 
 he will find sport enough to satisfy the most 
 ravenous appetite. 
 
 In India, wild-fowl shooting is zealously fol- 
 lowed, both by British residents and natives. 
 " The English," says Mr. Pennant, " send out 
 their servants as well as Indians to shoot these 
 wild fowl on their passage. It is in vain to 
 follow them ; they therefore form a row of huts 
 made of boughs, at musket-shot distance from 
 each other, and place them in a line across the 
 parts of the west marshes of the country where 
 the fowl are expected to pass. Each stand is I 
 occupied by a single person ; these, on the j 
 approach of the birds, mimic their cacJcle so 
 well, that they will answer, wheel, and come 
 near the hovel. The sportsman keeps mo- 
 tionless, and on his knees, with his gun cocked, 
 and never fires till he has seen the eyes of the 
 wild fowl. He fires as they are going from 
 him ; then picks up another gun that lies by 
 bim, and discharges that. The fowl killed he 
 sets up on sticks, as if alive, to decoy others ; 
 he also makes artificial birds for the same pur- 
 pose. In a good day (tor they fly in very un- 
 4 a 
 
 certain and unequal numbers), a single Indiaa 
 will kill two hundred. Notwithstanding every 
 kind of wild fowl has a dilfcront call, ytt the 
 Indians arc admirablo in thuir imitation of 
 every one." 
 
 There ia a kind of shooting called jH^ht- 
 shooting, which ia thus spoken of by i\Ir. lilaino. 
 — " The uninitiated in this sport," he says, 
 " without other company than one friend or 
 his servant, may commeuco with this shooting 
 by following these instructions : — By either a 
 punt or canoe, provided you can pitch on a 
 retired spot, not followed up either by tho 
 fishermen or the rabble of tho neighbourhood. 
 In a canoe, either by rowing or pushing your- 
 selves along between tho banks of a creek, 
 being well screened from observation, your 
 chance of success is in tho proportion of your 
 prudence in keeping yourselves completely 
 concealed, and in the dexterity of your manip- 
 ulations, when the fowl begin to arrive in 
 small tribes towards nightfall. Being provided 
 each with a handy duck gun, wait their arrival 
 patiently. Now, as Colonel llawker most de- 
 scriptively expresses it, you will probably soon 
 hear tho whistle of the approaching widgeon, 
 the stormy rush of the dun-birds, tho plaintive 
 notes of the plover, and the shrill sound of tho 
 approach of the wild ducks. It will ofier you 
 more chance of success should the weather bo 
 somewhat boisterous, and still more, if the 
 birds are forced to fly against the wind, which 
 not only makes them fly low, but pretty closely 
 together also. Be particularly careful that 
 nothing you have on can make a glare ; be as 
 still as death, yet watchful as life can mako 
 you; and as the birds, in the flight up tho 
 creek, lower themselves, shoot well forwards — 
 say one or two feet, before their heads, accord- 
 ing to the rate at which they fly. If you can 
 find or even make any screen, one may leave 
 the boat, and wait the flight of a tribe coming 
 on the marsh to feed ; the other may wait his 
 own chance with patience in the boat. This 
 shooting may also bo attempted, and often 
 successfully, when alone, and likewise without 
 a boat, provided you have tho means of con- 
 cealing yourself, whicli will, in all probability, 
 happen, by taking advantage of some of tho 
 deep indentations made by storms, currents, 
 or under the banks of a brook. "Wait patiently 
 in such a situation, and you will be almost 
 
 593 
 
BOOK SHOOTING.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [book shooting. 
 
 certain of success, particularly about the dusk 
 of the evening ; and, if you are as great a 
 zealot as we have been at the sport, try the 
 
 grey of the morning, which we have commonly 
 found the best time, because the best employed 
 for this purpose." 
 
 CHAPTER XIII, 
 
 TiOOK SHOOTING. 
 
 EoOK shooting is excellent sport, and is followed 
 Jn the month of May. The rook is about the 
 size of the carrion crow, and is very like it, 
 except in its glossy plumage. The base of the 
 bill and nostrils, as far as the eyes, is covered 
 with a white skin, which constitutes one of the 
 points of difference between it and the common 
 carrion crow. It is gregarious, and collects in 
 vast multitudes at morning and evening, to 
 repair and return to its feeding and resting- 
 place. During the breeding-time rooks live 
 together in large societies, and build their nests 
 on trees close to each other, and, not unfre- 
 quently, even in the heart of populous cities, 
 says Mr. Hone, in his Every-Day Booh. 
 
 Besides insects, rooks feed on different kinds 
 of grain, and cause some inconvenience to the 
 farmer ; but to whatever extent this may be, it 
 seems greatly repaid by the good they do to 
 him, in extirpating the maggots of some of the 
 most destructive of the beetle tribe. In 
 Suffolk, and in some parts of Norfolk, the 
 farmers find it beneficial to encourage the 
 breed of rooks, as the only means of freeing 
 their ground from the grub which produces 
 the cock-chafer, which, in this state, destroys 
 the roots of corn and grass to such a degree, 
 that there are some pieces of pasture-land 
 where you might turn up the turf with your 
 foot. 
 
 These birds are sometimes seen in flocks so 
 great as to darken the air in their flight. 
 They build their nests on high trees, close to 
 each other ; generally selecting a large clump 
 of the tallest for this purpose. When once 
 settled, they, every year, frequent the same 
 2jlace. They are, however, bad neighbours to 
 each other ; for they are continually fighting 
 59i 
 
 and pulling to pieces each other's nests. 
 These proceedings seem unfavourable to their 
 living in such close community : and yet, if a 
 pair offer to build on a separate tree, the 
 nest is plundered and demolished at once. 
 Some unhappy couples are not permitted to 
 finish their nests until the rest have all com- 
 pleted their buildings ; for, as soon as they get 
 a few sticks together, a party comes and de- 
 molishes the whole. It generally happens 
 that one of the pair is stationed to keep guard, 
 while the other goes abroad for materials. 
 From their conduct in these particulars, our 
 cant-word rooJcing, for cheating, originated. 
 
 As soon as the rooks have finished their 
 nests, and before they lay, the cocks begin to 
 feed the hens, who receive their bounty with a 
 fondling tremulous voice, fluttering wings, and 
 all the little blandishments that are expressed 
 by the young while in a helpless state. This 
 gallant deportment of the males is continued 
 throughout the whole season of incubation. 
 
 There seems to exist a wonderful antipathy 
 between these birds and the raven. It is said, 
 that as soon as a raven builds her nest in a 
 tree adjoining a rookery, all the rooks immedi- 
 ately forsake the spot. At a rookery at 
 Broomham, near Hastings, upon a raven 
 building her nest in one of the trees, all the 
 rooks forsook tlie spot; they, however, returned 
 to their haunts in the autumn, and built their 
 nests there the succeeding year. It is not 
 di£B.cult to account for this antipathy. The 
 raven will scarcely suffer any bird whatever to 
 come within a quarter of a mile of its own 
 nest, being very fierce in defending it. Be- 
 sides, it seizes the young rooks from their 
 nests, to feed its own young. 
 
THE PIOEOX.] 
 
 EV: FIELD, WOOD, AND WATEK. 
 
 [the pigeon. 
 
 Rooks begin to build in INIarch ; and, nfter 
 the breeding season is over, lorsako tlieir nest- 
 ing trees, and, lor some time, roost elaewliero ; 
 but thev liavo always been observed to return 
 in August. In October, they repair their 
 nests. When the first brood of rooks are sulli- 
 ciently fledged, they all leave their nest-trees 
 ill the day-time, and resort to some distant 
 place in search of food : but return regularly 
 every evening, in vast flights, to their domi- 
 ciles ; where, after flying round several times 
 with much noise and clamour, till they are all 
 assembled together, they take up their abode 
 for the night. 
 
 In parts of Hampshire, adjacent to the New 
 Forest, after the rook has reared its progeny, 
 and has carried off such of them as have 
 escaped the arts of men and boys, it retires 
 every evening, at a late hour, during the 
 autumn and winter months, to the closest 
 coverts of the forest, having spent the day in 
 the open fields and enclosures in quest of food. 
 Its late retreat to the forest is characteristic 
 of the near approach of night. 
 
 " Retiring from the downs, where all day long 
 They pick their scanty fare, a black'ning train 
 Of loitering rooks thick urge their weary flight, 
 And seek the shelter of the grove." 
 
 But although the forest may be called its 
 
 winter habitation, it generally, every day, viaits 
 its nursery ; preserving the idea of a family, 
 which it begins to raako provision for very 
 early in the spring. 
 
 Dr. Darwin has remarkeii, that a conscious- 
 ness of danger from umnluud is much moro 
 apparent in rooks than in most other birds. 
 Any one who has in the least attended to 
 them, will see that they evidently distinguish 
 that the danger is greater when a man is armed 
 with a gun, than when he has no weapon in 
 his hands. In the spring of the year, if a 
 person happen to walk under a rookery with 
 a gun in his hand, these inhabitants of tho 
 trees rise on their wings, and call to tho 
 unfledged young to shrink into their nests 
 from tho sight of the enemy. Tho country- 
 people, observing this circumstance so uni- 
 formly to occur, assort that rooks can smell 
 gunpowder. 
 
 In England these birds remain during the 
 whole year; but both in France and Silesia 
 they migrate. It is said that there are no 
 rooks in the island of Jersey, although they 
 frequently fly over from Britain into France. 
 The young birds, when skinned and made 
 into pies, are much esteemed by some persons ; 
 they are, however, very coarse meat, and far 
 from being universally relished. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE PIGEON. 
 
 Pigeons form a tribe which are considered 
 to be the connecting link between the passe- 
 rine birds and the poultry. They are much 
 dispersed over the world, some of the species 
 being found even in the arctic regions. Their 
 principal food is grain : they drink much — not, 
 however, at intervals, like other birds, but by a 
 continued draught, like quadrupeds. During 
 the breeding-time they associate in pairs, and 
 pay court to each other with their bills. The 
 female lays two eggs, and the young which are 
 produced, arc, for the most part, a male and a 
 
 female. They usually breed more than once 
 in the year ; and the parent birds divide tho 
 labour of incubation by sitting alternately oa 
 the eggs. 
 
 Both tho male and female assist in feeding 
 their young. This, in most of the species with 
 which we are acquainted, is done by means of 
 a substance in appearance not unlike curd, and 
 analogous to milk in quadrupeds, that is se- 
 creted in their crop. During incubation, tho 
 coats of the crop are gradually enlarged and 
 thickened, like what happous to the udders of 
 
 595 
 
THE STOCK-DO YE.] 
 
 SHOOTINa, 
 
 [the stock-doyb. 
 
 female quadrupeds during the time of uterine 
 gestation. On comparing the state of the crop 
 when the bird is not sitting, with its appear- 
 ance on these occasions, the diiference is found 
 to be very remarkable. In tlie first case it is 
 thin and membranous; but when the young 
 are about to be hatched, it becomes thicker, 
 and takes a glandular appearance, having its 
 internal surface very irregular. Whatever may 
 be the consistence of this substance wlien just 
 secreted, it probably very soon coagulates into 
 a granulated white curd ; and in this form it 
 is always found in the crop. If an old pigeon 
 be killed just when the young ones are hatch- 
 ing, the crop will be found as above described, 
 having in its cavity pieces of white curd mixed 
 with the common food of the bird, such as 
 barley, peas, &c. The young pigeons are fed 
 for a little while with this substance only; 
 about the third day some of the common food 
 is to be found along with it. As the pigeon 
 grows older, the proportion of common food is 
 increased; so that by the time it is seven, 
 eight, or nine days old, the secretion of the 
 curd ceases in the old ones, and of course no 
 more is found in the crop of the young. It is 
 a curious fact, that the parent pigeon has, at 
 first, power to throw up this curd without auy 
 mixture of common food ; although afterwards 
 both are thrown up in the proportion required 
 fox the young.* 
 
 THE STOCK-DOVE. 
 
 This is the Columla ^nas of Linnaeus ; and, 
 from being the parent stock whence all the 
 varieties of the domestic pigeon are derived, is 
 often called the stock- dove. It is still found in 
 many parts of our island in a wild state ; form- 
 ing its nest in holes of rocks, and old towers, 
 and in the hollows of trees; but never, like 
 the ring-dove, on the boughs. 
 
 There is considerable uncertainty about the 
 identity of this bird. Bewick calls it the wild 
 pigeon; and Colonel Montague the rock-dove, 
 or rockier; and he says that ornithologists 
 seem to differ concerniug the rock and the 
 stock-pigeon, though it appears almost impos- 
 sible to conceive them a distinct species. 
 Bewick says, that the stock-dove, rock-pigeon, 
 
 * What is here termed curd, is not literally such, but 
 is so called from its much resembling that substance in 
 appearance. 
 
 596 
 
 and wood-pigeon, with some small differences^ 
 may be included under the same denomina- 
 tion. The wood-pigeon ought to be taken 
 entirely out of this class, because it is well 
 known never to produce any sexual inter- 
 course with the domestic pigeon, though every 
 effort has been tried w-hich ingenuity could 
 suggest. The stock-dove is very generally dif- 
 fused throughout all the countries in Europe. 
 It is said to be migratory ; but this is not well 
 ascertained. The nest of the female is very 
 loosely and rudely put together ; so much so, 
 that the eggs can be distinctly seen from the 
 under part of the nest. She lays two white 
 eggs. These birds live on wild fruits, herbs, 
 and on all kinds of grain. They are very 
 partial to peas, and are themselves delicate 
 eating, except when they have been for some 
 time feeding on turnips ; they then acquire a 
 strong and rancid flavour. In habit they are 
 shy, but are somewhat more easily killed with 
 shot than the common wood-pigeon. "When 
 they assemble in large flocks, they set scouts 
 to watch ; but, by a little care, and keeping 
 perfectly still, if possible, the sportsman may 
 succeed in getting at them. Some writers say 
 they are more common in the southern coun- 
 ties of England than in the northern. They 
 are likewise numerous in some districts of 
 "Wales. In some of the continental states, 
 particularly in Hungary, Bohemia, and Servia, 
 they appear in great flocks, at certain seasons 
 of the year, and are shot in large numbers by 
 the sportsmen and peasants of these countries. 
 Multitudes of wild pigeons visit us in the 
 winter, from their more northerly summer 
 retreats; appearing about November, and 
 again retiring (except a few that breed with 
 us) in the spring. AVhile the beech woods 
 were suffered to cover large tracts of ground, 
 these birds used to haunt them in myriadfi, 
 frequently extending above a mile in length, as 
 they went out in the morning to feed. lu a 
 state of domestication, these pigeons are ren- 
 dered of very material service. They fre- 
 quently breed eight or nine times in a year ; 
 and though only two eggs are laid at a time, 
 their increase is so rapid and prodigious, that, 
 at the expiration of four years, the produce 
 and descendants of a single pair may amount 
 to the immense number of nearly fifteen 
 , thousand. 
 
TIIK UINQ-DOVE.] 
 
 r>v fii:m). wood and water. 
 
 [the UlXa-DOVB. 
 
 The usual way of enticing pij^eona to remain 
 at a required spot, is to iihice what is culled a 
 salt-cat near them. This is composed of loam, 
 old rubbish, and salt, and will so elVoctually 
 answer the purpose as to decoy even those bo- 
 lou'^ing to other places ; it is on tliis account 
 held illegal. There are a great many varieties 
 of the domestic pigeon ; and of these the 
 carriers are the most justly celebrated. They 
 obtain their name from the circumstance of 
 their conveying letters and small packets from 
 one place to another. It is through attach- 
 ment to their native place, and particularly to 
 the spot where they have brought up their 
 young, that they are thus rendered useful to 
 mankind. The bird is conveyed from its home 
 to the place whence the information is intended 
 to be sent, and the letter is tied under its wing, 
 when it is let loose. From the instant of its libe- 
 ration, its flight is directed through the clouds, 
 at an amazing height, to its home. By an in- 
 stinct altogether inconceivable, it darts onward 
 in a straight line to the very spot whence 
 it was taken ; but how it can direct its flight 
 so exactly, will probably for ever remain un- 
 known to us. The carrier-pigeon is easily 
 distinguished from the other varieties, by a 
 broad circle of naked white skin round the 
 eyes, and by its dark-blue or blackish colour. 
 
 THE RING-DOVE. 
 
 This is the largest of all the British pigeons, 
 generally weigliing about twenty ounces ; and 
 may at once be distinguished by its size from 
 all the rest. It builds on the branches of 
 trees, generally preferring those of the pine ; 
 the nest is large and open, formed principally 
 of dried sticks ; and the eggs, which may be 
 frequently seen through the bottom of the 
 nest, are larger than those of the domestic 
 pigeon. Attempts have frequently been made 
 to domesticate this bird, by hatching its eggs 
 in dove-houses under the common pigeon ; but 
 as soon as the young ones were able to fly, 
 they always escaped to their' proper haunts. 
 
 Some writers think the wood-pigeon (for it 
 often goes by this name) has considerably de- 
 creased within late years ; but this is, at least, 
 doubtful. When Mr. White, of Selborne, 
 wrote his admirable History, we believe the 
 birds were pretty numerous ; and our belief is 
 that they are as numerous now (if not more so) 
 
 ns at any previous period. It is injpossiblo 
 to travel in any direction in Great Britain 
 and not seo vast flocks of them, at least on 
 those tracts of country which abound with 
 a fair portion of wood, and am in a state of 
 tolerable cultivation. Mr. White Hays, on 
 this point, that " ho had often killed near 
 twenty in a day ; and that on some occasions, 
 with a long fowling-piece, he has even shot 
 seven or eight at a time ou the wing, as they 
 camo wheeling over his head ; and that there 
 were often, among them, little parties of small 
 blue doves, which are called rockiers." 
 
 In shooting the wild pigeon, it requires 
 rather a heavy blow to knock it down. Its 
 feathers are close, and resist shot like those of 
 water-fowl. AVhen these birds collect in con- 
 siderable numbers about turnip-fields in winter, 
 they invariably set pickets to watch over a 
 surprise. These sit on two or three of the 
 highest trees in the neighbourhood ; and when 
 they give the alarm, the entire body imme- 
 diately take flight. AVe have been often 
 struck, and sometimes a little mortified into 
 the bargain, to see how adroitly and cleverly 
 these sentinels perform their duty. Tet in 
 spite of their instinctive and systematic vigi- 
 lance, the sportsman may often succeed in 
 getting within range of the flock, and do con- 
 siderable execution, by having a reliable gun, 
 and using rather large-sized shot. In the 
 months of July and August, this bird visits 
 old pasture-fields, and feeds rather keenly 
 on the seeds of a species of grass which is 
 then abundant. AVe give this hint to the 
 sportsman that he may profit by it, if it suit 
 his inclination. 
 
 About the beginning of winter, ring-dovo3 
 assemble in great flocks, and leave oft' cooing. 
 The multitude thus collected during that 
 season, is so disproportioned to those which 
 continue here the whole year, as to render it 
 certain that by far the greater part of them 
 quit the country in the spring. It is most 
 probable that these pass into Sweden and the 
 adjoining countries, to breed ; and return thus 
 far southwards in autumn, from being unable 
 to sustain the rigours of that climate in the 
 wniter months. They again begin to coo in 
 March ; soon after whicli, those that are lefc 
 among us, commence their preparations lor 
 breeding. 
 
 597 
 
TTJKTLB-DOTE.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [tuetle-dove. 
 
 THE PASSENGER PIGEON 
 Is about the size of the common pigeon, and 
 its bill is black. Eound the eyes there is a 
 crimson miirk ; and the head, throat, and upper 
 part of the body are ash- coloured. The sides 
 of the neck are of a glossy, variable purple. 
 The fore part of the neck and breast are 
 finaceous ; and the under parts are the same, 
 but paler. The tail is tolerably long. The 
 legs are red, and the claws black. The passen- 
 ger pigeons visit the different parts of North 
 America, in enormous flocks. We ourselves 
 have seen them there in countless thousands. 
 In the southern proviuees their numbers depend 
 greatly on tlie mildness or severity of the 
 season ; for, in very mild vreather, few or none 
 of them are to be seen. Actuated by necessity, 
 they change their situations in search of acorns, 
 mast, and berries, which the warmer provinces 
 yield in vast abundance. When they alight, 
 the ground is quickly cleared of all esculent 
 fruits, to the great injury of the hog, and 
 other mast-eating animals. After having de- 
 voured everything that has fallen on the sur- 
 face, they form themselves into a great per- 
 pendicular column, and fly round the boughs 
 of trees, from top to bottom, beating down the 
 acorns with their wings ; and then they alight, 
 in succession, on the earth, and again begin 
 to eat. 
 
 THE TURTLE-DOVE. 
 
 This is the Columia Tutur of Linngeus, and 
 is famed, from the earliest times, for its plain- 
 tive and tender note. The length of this bird 
 is nearly twelve inches. The bill is brown ; 
 the eyes yellow, and surrounded with a crim- 
 son circle ; whilst the top of the head is ash 
 colour, mixed with olive. On each side of the 
 neck there is a spot of black feathers, tipped 
 with white. The back is an ash colour, with 
 each feather fringed with a reddish brown ; and 
 the wing- coverts and scapulars are likewise of 
 a reddish hue, slightly spotted with black. The 
 quill-feathers are dusky, with pale edges. The 
 fore part of the neck and breast is of a liglit- 
 purplish red ; and the belly, thighs, and vent 
 are white. The two middle feathers of the tail 
 are brown ; the others dusky, and tipped with 
 white. The two outermost are also edged with 
 the same, and the legs are of a reddish hue. 
 59S 
 
 In addressing his note, the male turtle-dove 
 makes use of a variety of winning attitudes, 
 cooing at the same time in the most gentle and 
 soothing strains. This has given rise to his 
 emblematical representation of connubial at- 
 tachment and happiness. These birds arrive 
 in this country late in the spring, and depart 
 about the latter end of August. They fre- 
 quent the thickest and best-sheltered localities 
 of woods dnd plantations, where they build 
 their nests on the highest parts of the loftiest 
 trees. The female lays two eggs, and, in our 
 island, has only one brood ; but in warmer cli- 
 mates she is supposed to breed several times 
 in the course of the year. Turtle-doves are 
 pretty common in Kent, where they are some- 
 times seen in flocks of from twenty to thirty, 
 frequenting the pea-fields, where, it is said, they 
 do great damage. Their stay seldom exceeds 
 four or five months, during which time they 
 pair, build their nests, and rear their young, 
 until they are strong enough to follow them in 
 their retreat. 
 
 A variety of the common turtle has been de- 
 scribed by the name of the " spotted-necked 
 turtle-dove." The difference consists in the 
 whole side of the neck being black ; and instead 
 of those feathers being tipped with white, there 
 is a round spot of white on each, very near the 
 end. Dr. Latham says this bird was shot in 
 Buckinghamshire, and that he observed one of 
 these amongst some birds that came from the 
 last expedition to the South Seas ; but as it 
 was in a parcel wherein were some which be- 
 longed to the Cape of Good Hope, it is possible 
 that this single bird might come from that 
 place. The bastard produce of the common 
 turtle with the turtle of the aviary, has been 
 proved by frequent experiments to be barren, 
 although the two species whence it origi- 
 nates appear to be closely allied, and a mixed 
 breed is easily produced. 
 
 Pigeon-shooting is, in this country, both a 
 sporting and a gambling amusement. We 
 have already observed that the varieties of the 
 pigeon family are very numerous, and natural- 
 ists and ornithological writers have differed 
 considerably on the subject of their classifica- 
 tion. Linuteus places them among sparrows, 
 upon the ground that both species pair in tho 
 season of love ; both work jointly in forming 
 the nest, and take their turns in sitting on 
 
riGEON-snooTiN'o.] r>V IMHLD, WOOD, AND WATER. [i'iui:oN-BttEEDiNo. 
 
 the eggs. La Vaillant clasBilies thorn under 
 tliree aections : Ist, colombes, ramiers, and 
 tourterelles ; 2ml, cohimbars ; 3rd, colombi-gal- 
 
 lines. 
 
 IMGKON-MATCll SHOOTING. 
 
 "When pigeon-match shooting iirat com- 
 menced in England, it is diflGcult to say. It 
 is noticed at length, and as an established 
 sport, in the Sporii/iff Maf/,i:i>u; before the close 
 of the last century. The account given of it 
 there, shows tliat the sport, as it was then fol- 
 lowed, was pretty much the same as it is at 
 the present day. Pigeons require to bo bred 
 for shooting- matches ; and, for this purpose, a 
 commodious place to rear and protect them is 
 necessary. This, of course, will be varied ac- 
 cording to the circumstances and position of 
 the pigeon-breeder. But whatever be the size 
 or shape of the dove-cote, it must have two 
 holes or rooms for the birds to nest in. With- 
 out this arrangement there will bo constant 
 confusion, and the eggs will get broken con- 
 tinually. A dove-cote, entirely isolated, will 
 prove more secure than any other, as vermin 
 will then find it difficult, and in some cases 
 impossible, to shelter themselves in it. When 
 pigeons are kept in a room, and have to lay 
 their eggs on the floor, they are liable to be 
 destroyed by rats. 
 
 Every dove-cote should, if possible, have a 
 south-west aspect; and if a room be fixed 
 upon for that purpose, a hole may be made in 
 the roof of the building for the passage of the 
 burds, and a platform constructed at the en- 
 trance for the pigeons to alight upon, and with 
 some defence against cats, which will often 
 destroy a whole dove-cote in a single night. 
 If cats can be reared to be familiar with 
 pigeons, then they may become guardians 
 instead of destroyers of them, and prevent 
 the cote from being invaded by rats or mice. 
 This platform should be painted white, which 
 is a favourite colour with the birds, and it 
 is likewise conspicuous as a mark to enable 
 them to find their way home. The boxes 
 irhould also be coloured, and renewed when- 
 ever necessary ; for which purpose lime and 
 water will be sufficient. 
 
 Cleanliness is of great importance in a dove- 
 cote, to prevent the birds from becoming in- 
 tested with vermin, and also to keep them 
 otherwise healthy. All dove-cotes should. 
 
 therefore, be cleaned at leaot once a week, 
 and the pigeons ought to bo kept well supplied 
 with water to drink. When coniined in a 
 room, thoy should bo allowed a wido pan of 
 water; and this should often be renewed, as a 
 bath, which cools, refreshes, and assists them 
 to keep their bodies clear of vermin. In at- 
 tending to pigeons, care should be taken that 
 they do not light, as, when this occurs, both 
 tho eggs and young aro endangered. 
 
 The common barrel dove-cote is very com- 
 mon, and, no doubt, found very suitable for a 
 pigeon-house. It is to be seen in almost every 
 situation where pigeons are kept. 
 
 PIGEON-BREEDING. 
 
 In pairing pigeons for breeding, a con- 
 siderable degree of caro is necessary. It may 
 be done according to the fancy of the keepers, 
 for the purpose of varying the colours, or with 
 any other view. Old pigeons are difiicult to 
 retain securely, as they are apt to fly away on 
 every opportunity of gaining their freedom. 
 It is better to have what are called squakers, or 
 such as have not yet flown : these, being con- 
 fined, well fed, and gradually accustomed to 
 the surrounding scenery before they have ac- 
 quired suflicient strength of wing to fly from 
 their cotes, will, in a short time, become per- 
 fectly domesticated. 
 
 In a room or loft appropriated to the rear- 
 ing of pigeons, the shelves should be placed 
 sufliciently high to secure them against the at- 
 tacks of vermin. It is recommended that the 
 usual breadth of the shelves should be about 
 twenty inches, with the allowance of eighteen 
 between shelf and shelf, which will be quite 
 enough not to incommode the tallest birds. 
 Partitions between the shelves should be fixed 
 at the distance of about three feet, making a 
 blind, by a board nailed against the front of 
 each partition, where there will be two nests 
 in the space of every three feet ; so that the 
 pigeons will sit in privacy, and not be liable 
 to be disturbed. Or, a partition may be fised 
 between each nest ; which will prevent the 
 young from running to the hen, sitting over 
 fresh eggs, and perhaps occasion her to cool 
 and addle them ; for, when the young are about 
 a fortnight or three weeks old, a good hen will 
 leave them to the care of the cock, and lay 
 again. 
 
 599 
 
SMALL BIEDS.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [small BIEDS. 
 
 The food and water given to pigeons should 
 be so disposed as not to allow them to soil 
 themselves in any way. Earthen pans may 
 be used for this ; but there are neat meat- 
 boxes and water-bottles made for the pur- 
 pose ; which are excellent things, and preserve 
 great cleanliness in feeding. The meat-box is 
 formed in the shape of a hopper, covered at the 
 top to preserve the grain from dirt, which de- 
 scends into a square hollow box. Some fence 
 this off with rails or holes on each side, to keep 
 the grain from being scattered over ; others 
 again leave it quite open, that the young birds 
 may the more readily get at their food. The 
 water-bottle is made of glass, with a long 
 neck, holding from one to five gallons ; it is 
 shaped like an egg, so that the pigeons may 
 not alight upon aud soil it. It is placed upon 
 
 a stand, or three-footed stool, made hollow above 
 to receive the belly of the bottle, and let the 
 mouth into a small pan beneath. The water 
 gradually descends out of the mouth of the 
 bottle as the pigeons drink, and is thus kept 
 sweet and clean. It always stops when the 
 surface reaches the mouth of the bottle. 
 
 Pigeon-match shooting is still practised in 
 many parts of England, and in the metropolis 
 and suburban localities. The terms of these 
 matches vary. Sometimes they are arranged 
 for single, sometimes for double guns ; occa- 
 sionally for one weight of shot, and sometimes 
 for another. "Within the last few years, how- 
 ever, these matches have been on the decline, 
 and are not now considered so fashionable as 
 they were some years ago ; more especially in 
 the vicinity of the metropolis. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 SMALL BIRDS. 
 
 Of late years there has, both in England and 
 Erance, been considerable speculation among 
 naturalists and farmers, in reference to the 
 wanton destruction of small birds, which, by 
 some, are supposed to do great damage to the 
 crops of the agriculturist, robbing him of much 
 of his grain, and thereby greatly reducing the 
 value of his crops. On the other hand, it is 
 argued that these birds are rather the guardians 
 than the thieves of granivorous property; that, 
 if they do take a little grain, it is as nothing, 
 ■when compared with the quantity that they 
 save by devouring innumerable insects, which, 
 without their activity and voracity, would 
 soon overspread the land AVhichever of these 
 opinions may be right, we will not stay to 
 inquire; but, if admiration, as well as incli- 
 nation, bo permitted to have any weight in 
 the matter, we should cry, " Spare the little 
 birds !" There is, however, much wantonness 
 and thoughtlessness exhibited, now-a-days, in 
 the destruction of many of the "beauties of 
 Nature," whether belonging to active or still- 
 600 
 
 life. "We would not in any degree discourage 
 any fair use of God's creatures, either in the 
 way of investigation or even sport ; but a habit 
 greatly prevails of useless destruction, whenever 
 either rare beast, bird, or plant is met with in 
 our rambles. "Who that has wandered over 
 the wilds of Snowdonia, has not mourned over 
 the disappearance of many a rare plant, which 
 might well have rewarded the toils of climbing, 
 had it been left for the examination of him who 
 loves to see Nature's rarest productions flou- 
 rishing in their native wildness ! Tet, the 
 hand of the spoiler must root it up, and selfishly 
 appropriate, perhaps, the last specimen. If 
 a rare bird appears in any locality, number- 
 less guns are at once levelled at it; when 
 surely a moment's reflection would check such 
 selfishness, and induce us to think that the 
 more rare the bird or plant, the more we should 
 be careful not to destroy it. Had a different 
 and more rational spirit prevailed, we might 
 still have had a sight of the bustard on Salisbury 
 Plain, and the bittern in the marshes of Wales j 
 
8MA1L BIRDS.] 
 
 BY I'll: LI), WOOD, AM) WATKK. 
 
 [Xlli: BTADLiyO. 
 
 but these noblo and beautiful works of Nature 
 are now sought for in vain. Next to this 
 ignorant nnschiof is tho wanton destruction of 
 bannlesa and useful birds. The wretcheil and 
 wicked habit of almost all cliildreu scekinj,' 
 after and taking birds'-neats, with no other 
 object than mere wilful destruction, is, we 
 believe, condueivo to many a wicked pro- 
 pensity in after-life. It is in itself not only a 
 cruel, but a purloining act, and tends as much 
 to blunt the natural sensibilities as it does 
 to degrade the moral sentiments. Not to 
 follow up this moral strain too deeply, wo 
 would notice one or two birds which, wo think, 
 are often destroyed more in a spirit of wanton- 
 ness than of sport. Those arc the lapwing, 
 peewit, or common plover, which is, perhaps, 
 one of the most elegant inhabitants of the air . 
 the white owl, and the starling. The first, in 
 its elegant llight, with plaintive pipe, gamboling, 
 and wheeling, and dipping over and around its 
 mate, must have delighted every real lover 
 of rural rambling. One would have supposed 
 that the thousands of slugs that it lives upon, 
 would have made it a peculiar pet of the 
 farmer ; and its vigilance of giving the alarm, 
 if either weasel, crow, magpie, dog, or poacher 
 cross its resting-place, ought to make it sacred 
 to the gamekeeper; and yet how constantly 
 is it destroyed through sheer thoughtlessness! 
 So, likewise, the beautiful white owl, that 
 best of mousers, how rare has it become ! Its 
 usefulness is without a drawback, and yet 
 how wilfully is it persecuted ! We know of 
 hardly any sight so beautiful as to see this 
 spirit of the early night, silently glide along 
 the dim hedge-row, and then, light as the foam 
 of the wave, perch upon the picturesque stump 
 of some old tree. And so the starling, that 
 endless mocker and imitator, that croaks and 
 whistles, and screams and warbles in mockery 
 of all its feathered songsters. Whether we 
 see this bird among the countless myriads of 
 his winter companions, winging his wonderful 
 flight, without confusion, in that cloud of birds 
 which darkens the wintry sky, or, at other times, 
 when faithful to his native roof, separating 
 himself and mate from that companionship, to 
 chatter and flutter on the old-accustomed 
 chimney or parapet ; if we consider the count- 
 less worms and insects, their only food, which 
 these never-tiring searchers must consume, no 
 4 H 
 
 reflective mind would over think of raising a 
 gun against them. This samo strain of senti- 
 ment might, wo think, most uscftliy be carried 
 out in reference to all the tribes of harmless 
 birds. Let each man have his pet, and do hij 
 best to encourage its preservation. 
 
 If there ia to be an exterminating war car- 
 ried on against these little creatures, what is 
 to become of the " music of our groves," and 
 the multitude of poetical associations witli 
 which our small birds are linked in every mind ? 
 Our ornithological works will bo read, by future 
 generations, with the samo sort of interest that 
 wc read of animals that lived before the flood ; 
 that had an existence, but that, long ago, be- 
 came extinct, and aro now only to be met witli 
 in a fossil state, imbedded in strata, or buried 
 in long-concealed caverns. 
 
 THE COMMON STARLING. 
 
 Handsome in appearance, social in disposi- 
 tion, lively in manners, and harmless in its 
 habits, the Sturniis vulgaris, or starling, is ono 
 of the best known and least molested birds 
 which inhabit our green fields, lawns, parks, 
 and pleasure grounds. It loves society, and, 
 consequently, at almost all periods of the year, 
 considerable flocks are met with, which range, 
 feed, and roost together. 
 
 Starlings commence nest-building early in 
 the year, occasionally during the third week in 
 February, but more usually in March or April. 
 They select a hole for a nest in an old weather- 
 worn tree, a church-steeple, or tho roof of a 
 house ; and having fixed upon one, they main- 
 tain possession of it with remarkable persever- 
 ance. A pair once fixing upon a hole beneath 
 the rafter of a cottage, were found very trouble- 
 some, and the cock-bird was shot : tho hen 
 found another mate. Next time the hen was 
 shot : the cock-bird paired again. Afterwards 
 both were shot; another pair came and built. 
 The hole was then plugged up with straw : 
 they pulled it out piecemeal : it was next plas- 
 tered over with mortar; they made a hole 
 through it. They were afterwards allowed to 
 tenant tho spot, because it was so difficult to 
 efl'ect their ejection. 
 
 Starlings are particularly fond of parks which 
 abound with ancient and venerable trees. Aa 
 the nesting season comes in, these old domains 
 present a busy and bustling aspect; for tho 
 
 GOl 
 
THE STABLING.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [the bedwing. 
 
 birds have nests in the cavities of the oaks, and 
 are continually winging their way to and from 
 them. The nest consists of a mass of stick, 
 bents, shreds of cotton and feathers, and con- 
 tains eggs about the end of April. It is occa- 
 sionally composed of clean white straw ; and, 
 when this is the case, the eggs, which are of a 
 delicate transparent blue, contrast very pleas- 
 ingly with the light colour of the straw. Some 
 eggs are dotted over with a few well-defined 
 black spots, like those of the song-thrush. The 
 young are hatched about the third week 
 in May, and are principally fed with worms, 
 both male and female assisting in the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 About September, the birds whicli have been 
 reared in a particular district, collect in flocks, 
 which, being augmented in number from other 
 districts, grow gradually larger, until they con- 
 sist sometimes of thousands ; and when the 
 whole body settles in a pasture, the ground 
 (owing to the sable plumage of the birds) seems 
 overspread with a wide, spacious pall. When 
 adrighted, they all generally rise in a body, and, 
 after wheeling through the air for some time, 
 alight upon the top of a broad oak or elm tree, 
 which seems nearly bowed down with the weight 
 of its burden : when in such a situation, it is 
 anything but pleasant to listen to their chatter- 
 ing voices. If attacked by hawks or other 
 predatory birds, the flock rises on the wing, 
 closes in, very compactly together, and presents 
 a mass which, being constantly in motion, is 
 not easily to be broken by their swift-winged 
 enemies. 
 
 A naturalist writes — " On the 2nd of Octo- 
 ber, 1844, I noticed the most amazing flock of 
 birds which it was ever my lot to witness — they 
 were starlings. At a distance they resembled 
 some gigantic mass of cloud slowly traversing 
 the heavens, occasionally changing its form, and 
 breaking into smaller masses. It was evening, 
 and the birds had probably collected to roost 
 for the night in a large wood, over the top of 
 which they were enjoying the few moments 
 before retiring to rest. The ease and elegance 
 of their flight, as they wheeled to and fro— the 
 firm and compact manner with which they kept 
 together when moving in a mass — the peculiar 
 facility with which the main army was broken 
 into numberless smaller ones, and yet instan- 
 taneously united again, was perfectly astonish- 
 602 
 
 ing, and excelled anything which I ever wit- 
 nessed amongst the feathered tribes." 
 
 At particular seasons of the year, starlings 
 frequently visit dove-cotes ; and many people 
 imagine that they do so to take the eggs and 
 young pigeons. This idea, however, is errone- 
 ous. At Walton Hall, in Yorkshire, these 
 birds were allowed to haunt the pigeon-cote 
 for years, yet they were never seen to molest 
 either the eggs or the young. The seasons 
 in which they frequent dove-cotes, are spring 
 and winter. At the former, their object, in re- 
 pairing thither, is to build their nests in the 
 pigeon-holes ; at the latter, it is to roost, more 
 especially in the cold nights. In districts 
 where woods and trees are scarce, this is a fre- 
 quent occurrence. Near East Ilsley, in Berk- 
 shire, as many as twelve dozen have been 
 caught in a single evening, whilst roosting in a 
 dove-cote. 
 
 THE REDWING. 
 
 The Turdus Iliacus of Linugeus is about 
 five ounces in weight, and eight inches in 
 length, with a dark-brown bill, deep hazel 
 eyes, and the plumage, in general, similar to 
 tliat of the thrush. A white streak runs over 
 the eye, which distinguishes it from that bird. 
 The belly is not quite so much spotted ; and 
 the sides of the body, and the general mass of 
 feathers under the wings, are tinged with a 
 lively red, which constitutes its peculiar cha- 
 racteristic, and which confers upon it its name. 
 These birds arrive in this country a little 
 earlier than the fieldfares, with which they 
 fraternise, frequent the same localities, live 
 upon the same kind of food, and to which 
 they are very similar in their leading features. 
 The redwing leaves in the spring, therefore its 
 song is not known to us; but travellers tell 
 us it is very harmonious and sweet. The 
 female builds her nest in low bushes or hedges, 
 and lays six eggs of a greenish-blue colour, 
 dotted with small black spots. 
 
 The Eomans held the flesh of the redwing 
 in the highest estimation ; and they kept thou- 
 sands of them together in aviaries, and fed 
 tliem with a species of paste, chiefly composed 
 of bruised figs and flour, and on various other 
 kmds of food. These receptacles were so con- 
 structed as to admit very little light; and 
 every object which could remind the birds of 
 
TIIK FIELDFAHE.] 
 
 HV F I KLl), WOOD AM) W \T1' li. 
 
 [the Tnuusn. 
 
 tbeir former liberty, was sedulously kept out of 
 Bi'»ht, such as fields, woods, birds, or wli:it- 
 ever niitjht disturb or break in upon their 
 meinorie:*, or impair thi'ir improvement. Under 
 this troatiiuMit, tlio riMlwini^ fattiMied to a j^rcut 
 extent, sold tor a good price, and held a higii 
 place at the tables of this luxurious people. 
 
 Bewick tells us tliat a redwing was taken 
 up, November 7th, 1785, at six o'clock in the 
 morning, whieii, on its approach to land, had 
 flown ai'ainst the lighthouse at Tynemouth, 
 and was so stunned, that it fell to the ground, 
 and died soon after. The light, it is conjec- 
 tured, had attracted its attention. Tho same 
 writer observes, that when redwings appear on 
 the eastern coast, they as commonly announce 
 the approach of the woodcock, as does the 
 arrival of the wryneck that of the cuckoo in 
 the south. The best time for shooting this 
 bird is in hard frosty weather ; it is then more 
 bold in keeping to its feeding-grounds, and is 
 in greater numbers. Tho sportsman should, 
 however, conceal himself as much as possible, 
 as these birds set scouts to watch the approach 
 of danger; and, on this account, it requires 
 considerable art to get within range of them. 
 
 THE FIELDFARE. 
 
 This 13 the Turdus Filarus of LinnsBUS, and 
 is a very pretty bird. It is about ten inches 
 long. The bill is yellow, and each corner of 
 the mouth is furnished with a few black and 
 bristly hairs. The eye is light brown, and the 
 head and back part of the neck are of a light 
 ashen hue ; the former spotted with black. 
 The coverts of the wings are of a deep hoary 
 brown, the rump ash-coloured, and the throat 
 and breast yellow, with regular spots of black. 
 Tlie belly and thighs are of a yellowish brown, 
 and, in the young birds, more decidedly yellow. 
 
 There are some varieties of fieldfares which 
 display a somewhat different plumage ; but the 
 differences are not very important. They are 
 mostly confined to the comparative faintness of 
 the black spots on the breast, or the greater 
 predominance of white in various sections of 
 the body. 
 
 This bird is migratory, and arrives in this 
 country commonly in the first week in October; 
 subject, however, to some variation on account 
 of the weatlier. The character of the coming 
 winter is supposed to be prognosticated by 
 
 their appearance. If thoy nrrivo early, it is 
 said that wo shall have a hard season ; if late, 
 a mild one. They generally arrive in larj^o 
 flocks, and disappear about tho latter end of 
 February, or tho beginning of March, and re- 
 tire to Russia, Sweden, Norway, and as far as 
 Siberia and Kamtschatka. Bufl'on tells us, 
 they do not arrive in Franco till December, 
 when they assemble in flocks of two and threo 
 thousand. Their food ia haws and other ber- 
 ries, with worms, snails, and slugs. 
 
 Tho fieldfare being a shy bird, is difficult of 
 approach with a gun. When they are in any 
 considerable numbers, they appoint regular 
 scouts to give the alarm of danger. They can, 
 therefore, seldom bo shot, except by stratagem ; 
 but they are easily killed, their feathers being 
 loose, and their frames delicate. 
 
 Bewick says that fieldfares seem of a more 
 social disposition than the throstle or the mis- 
 sels. They are sometimes seen singly; but, in 
 general, form very numerous flocks, and fly in 
 a body ; and though thoy often spread them- 
 selves over the fields in search of food, they 
 seldom lose sight of each other, but, when 
 alarmed, fly off, and collect together upon the 
 same tree. 
 
 THE THRUSH, OR THROSTLE. 
 
 This bird is often, in country districts, an 
 object of the sportsman's attention, more espe- 
 cially ff he be a young one. It is the Turdus 
 Mucins of Linnscus, and is larger than the red- 
 wing, but less than the missel-thrush, to which, 
 in other respects, it bears a great resemblance, 
 both in form and colour. A small notch is 
 found at its bill, which is characteristic of all 
 the thrush species. The throat is white, and 
 the spots on the breast are very regularly 
 formed, and of a conical shape. The inside 
 of the wings and the mouth are yellow ; so like- 
 wise are the legs. The claws are strong and 
 black. 
 
 The throstle is distinguished by its clear and 
 harmonious notes, and is one of the principal 
 songsters of the groves, taking the lead among 
 the feathered tribes ; which ought to preserve 
 it from wanton destruction. 
 
 It is not properly migratory; but, in this 
 country, is more numerous iu particular places 
 at some part of the year than at others ; and 
 this circumstance has given rise to the idea 
 
 GO.J 
 
THE LAEE.] 
 
 SHOOTIXG,, 
 
 [the lark. 
 
 that it goes, to a certain extent, from one 
 country to another. The female builds her 
 nest generally in bushes — the hazel, the thorn, 
 and sometimes on the branches of trees. It 
 is composed of dried grass, cemented together 
 by clayey matter. Buffon maintains that these 
 birds are migratory in France, and appear, in 
 the southern section of the kingdom, about the 
 end of September, and before either the red- 
 wing or fieldfare are seen. The female has 
 not such a brilliant plumage as the male — the 
 colours and spots being more blended and 
 faint in the former than in the latter. 
 
 THE MISSEL THRUSH. 
 
 This bird is about eleven inches long, and 
 is the Turdiis Viscivorus of Linnseus. The 
 bill is of a dusky hue, and the base of it yellow. 
 The eyes are hazel. The head, back, and lesser 
 coverts of the wings are of a deep olive colour, 
 and the latter tipped with white, which, in 
 some instances, is much more brilliant than in 
 others. The lower portion of the back or rump 
 is tinged with yellow ; and the cheeks are of a 
 yellowish white, spotted with brown; and so 
 likewise are the belly and breast. The quills 
 are brown, fringed with pale edges, and the 
 tail-feathers are the same, the three outermost 
 being tipped with white. The legs are yellow, 
 and the claws are black. 
 
 The female builds her nest in bushes or low 
 trees, and lays four or five eggs, of a greenish 
 colour, irregularly marked with red spots. 
 The nest is made of moss, leaves, and small 
 fibres of twigs, and lined with dry grass. The 
 bird commences early in the year to sing, even 
 when the weather is stormy and ungeuial ; and 
 this circumstance has induced country people, 
 in many districts in England, to call it the 
 storm-cocJc. It feeds on various kinds of berries, 
 particularly those of the misletoe. It like- 
 wise feeds on caterpillars, and different kinds of 
 insects, on which it chiefly rears its young. 
 It is a native of almost every country in 
 Europe, and, in some sections of the continent, 
 is said to be migratory. It remains in England 
 the entire year, and has frequently two broods 
 in the season. 
 
 THE LARK. 
 
 Tills is the Alauda Arvenis of Linnoeus, and 
 is so common in this country, that it hardly 
 requires a description hero. 
 604 
 
 " The daisied lea he loves, where turfs of grass 
 Luxuriant crown the ridge ; there, with his mate, 
 He founds his lowly house of withered herbs 
 And coarsest spcar-grass ; next, the inner work 
 With finer and still finer fibres lays, 
 Rounding it curious with his speckled breast." 
 
 This "herald of the morn," often made an 
 object of sport by the thoughtless tyro, builds 
 its nest upon the ground, where it is ex- 
 posed to the depredations of many of the 
 smaller animals of prey, as the weasel and the 
 stoat. Mr. Mudie says — "The lark selects 
 her ground with care, avoiding clayey places, 
 unless she can find two clods so placed as that 
 no part of a nest between them would be 
 below the surface. In more friable soils she 
 scrapes till she has not only formed a little 
 cavity, but loosened the bottom of it to some 
 depth. Over this the first layers are placed 
 very loosely, so that if any rain should get in 
 at the top, it may sink to the bottom, and 
 there be absorbed by the soil. The edges of 
 the nest are also raised a little above the 
 surface ; have a slope outwards, and are, as it 
 were, thatched. The position in which the 
 bird sits is a further security ; and as the head 
 is always turned to the weather, the feathers 
 of the breast and throat completely prevent 
 the rain from entering the nest at the side ; 
 while the wings and tail act as pent-houses in 
 the other parts ; and, if the weather be violent, 
 and the rain fall at a small angle with the 
 horizon, the fore part of the bird, upon which the 
 plumage is thickest, receives the whole of it." 
 
 "What is called the twirling for larks, is fol- 
 lowed as an amusement in France, and is thus 
 described: — These birds are attracted to a 
 given spot, in considerable numbers, by a sin- 
 gular contrivance called a mirror. This is a 
 small mahogany machine, shaped like a chapeau- 
 hras, and highly polished ; or else it is made 
 up of common wood, inlaid with small bits of 
 looking-glass, so as to reflect, upw^ards, the rays 
 of the sun. It is fixed on the top of a thin 
 iron rod, on an upright spindle, dropped 
 through an iron hoop or ring, attached to a 
 piece of wood to drive into the ground. By 
 pulling a string fastened to the spindle, the 
 mirror twirls round, and the reflected light 
 unaccountably attracts the larks, which hover 
 over it, and become a mark for the sportsman. 
 There is often what the French call capital 
 
THE LABK.] 
 
 BY FIHL1\ WOOn. AM) WATEK. 
 
 [tuk L.VUK. 
 
 BDort in this way. Sometimes six dozen of 
 tlu'so birds are sliot beforo bivakl'ast : Homo- 
 timcs the sportsman sits on tlio ground, and 
 pulls the twirler himself, and sometimes a boy 
 or servant is employed to do it. Ladies often 
 participate in tlie amusement on a cold, dry 
 morning, not by shooting, but by watching tlie 
 sport. Occasionally there are ten or a dozen 
 parties out together, firing at a distance 
 of five or six hundred yards ; and by this device 
 the larks arc kept constantly ou tho wing. 
 The most favourable mornings are, wlieu there 
 is a gentle light frost, with little or no wind, 
 and the sky clear. When cloudy the birds 
 will not appear. To a bystander it would 
 almost suggest the thought, that the larks 
 themselves enjoyed their own destruction ; for 
 the fascination of the twirler is so strong, as 
 to rob them of tho usual fruits of experience. 
 After being fired at several times, they return 
 to the twirler, and form again into groups 
 above it — some of them even flying down, and 
 sitting upon the ground, within a yard or two 
 of the astonishing instrument, looking at it 
 this way and that way, and all ways together, 
 as if nothing had happened. In some parts of 
 Germany, larks are taken in great quantities; 
 and we are informed by Dr. Latham, that tlie 
 duty paid at Leipsic for these birds, amounts 
 to twelve thousand crowns ^er annum, at two- 
 pence-halfpenny for every sixty larks. 
 
 In this country, some lark shooters, in winter 
 — when there is a certain portion of snow on 
 the ground, with hard frost — sweep a part of 
 the snow from the surface, and strew it with 
 a little chaffer grain. This area need not be 
 more than twenty yards square. The birds 
 will eagerly frequent it ; and, by means of a 
 natural hedge embankment, or an artificial 
 screen, numbers of them are taken. 
 
 Speaking for ourselves, however, in this 
 matter, we regret the destruction of every bird 
 of song. Amongst all the enjoyments of this 
 world, not the least is the music of birds, 
 which, when combined with the elegance of 
 
 their forms, tho loveliness of their plumage, 
 and tho liveliness of their actions, are cajjablo 
 of affording pK'aauro to every ear or eye. As 
 a study in natural history, that of birds is by 
 far tho most beautiful and interesting; yet 
 how comparatively few are those who are 
 acquainted with the h.abitudes of even those 
 that are most common amongst us! It would 
 really appear that many think that birds wero 
 created only to be shot, and for no other pur- 
 pose whatever. "In natural history," says 
 -Mudio, "and more especially in tlie natural 
 liistory of birds, which, from the fieetness of 
 their aerial motions, carry the mind more 
 readily and directly over the general map of 
 the earth than any other class of the earth's 
 productions, this inversion of tho order of 
 nature — this substitution of tho end for the 
 beginning — is peculiarly hurtful, and must be 
 the cause why people, even well informed, 
 otherwise, know so very little about the nature 
 and habits of those species which are before 
 their eyes every day, and which appear to come 
 for the express purpose of being observed and 
 studied. Take, as a familiar instance, the 
 common redbreast, and ask your next neigh- 
 bour when and where it builds its nest ? — what 
 are the number and colour of its eggs ? — how 
 long the incubation lasts ? — how the young are 
 fed, and on what ? — and the chances are many 
 to one that you do not get direct answers; 
 and, if you do, they are the second-hand 
 answers of someone who has written a descrip- 
 tion of the bird, which, if original at all, has 
 most probably been obtained from observa- 
 tions made in a climate differing from yours, 
 and, therefore, is not quite so accurate as the 
 description of your redbreast. Carry your 
 interrogations a little further. Ask what is 
 the geographical distribution of the bird? — 
 what are its uses in the general economy of 
 nature ? — and you will find the answers still 
 more diflicult to be obtained, and more unsatis- 
 factory where you can obtain them." This is 
 at least the case with those who dwell in cities. 
 
 eo5 
 
EAEHIT3.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [babbits. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 BABBITS. 
 
 Theee are four kinds of rabbits known among 
 dealers and fanciers. They are called loar- 
 ■reners, parkers, hedfjeliogs, an d sioeethearts. The 
 warreners are widely distributed, and are to be 
 found in almost every section of the British 
 coast, where there are sand-banks, or mounds 
 of any kind. Though all of one species, they 
 vary considerably in size ; those in the English 
 warrens being greatly superior to those found 
 in Scotland, both in bulk and flavour. The 
 warren rabbits of the Irish coast are very much 
 like those of Scotland ; though, on the whole, 
 a shade larger in bulk. The richest and finest 
 are located in the warrens along the eastern 
 coast of England, extending from Lincolnshire 
 to Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is a curious fact, 
 but, nevertheless, one well ascertained, that all 
 the rabbits on the warrens in the west side of 
 the island, are of a comparatively diminutive 
 size, and, in many places, have a strong fishy 
 taste. 
 
 Those who rent warrens with a view to com- 
 mercial objects, seldom or ever allow shooting 
 upon them. The reason is, that when a rabbit 
 is wounded it will make for some hole or bur- 
 row ; and it is known to regular shooters of 
 them in such places, that so strong and power- 
 ful is this desire to get back to their holes, 
 that, in the very struggles of death, rabbits will 
 often succeed in getting into a sand-burrow. 
 l^ow, we are informed by warreners, that if a 
 wounded or dying rabbit get into a burrow, 
 none of the living ones will ever pass it. They 
 will die in their holes first ; so that a single 
 wounded or dead animal will cause the death 
 of perhaps a score of its own kind in tlie 
 same locality. This, as a matter of course, 
 becomes a serious loss to the proprietor of a 
 warren. As much as a couple of guineas have 
 been offered for two or three shots in a warren, 
 and refused, solely upon this ground. 
 
 The obstinacy of the rabbit is curious ; and 
 
 it is equally, if not more singular, in reference 
 
 to the ferret. This little animal is often used 
 
 by sportsmen to make the rabbits spring out 
 
 606 
 
 of their holes ; they are also very extensively 
 used by warreners to make them spring, and 
 fall into small poke-nets, as they are called, 
 placed at the mouths of the holes. These fer- 
 rets are sometimes long in coming forth from 
 the warren-holes ; when the warreners have to 
 dig for them, and will perhaps find them lying, 
 though muzzled, beside a dead rabbit, whose 
 very brains have been scratched out, or its 
 back-bone laid bare, rather than budge an inch 
 for the ferret. This is a circumstance of daily 
 occurrence in all the great rabbit warrens that 
 lie on the eastern side of the island in the north 
 of England. Nothing injures the productive 
 remuneration of a regular warren so much as 
 shooting over it, even though it be but for a 
 week or two in a season. 
 
 The parJcer and the fieigeliog rabbits are 
 very much alike. They both frequent planta- 
 tions, and high inland rocky ground, and are 
 nearly of the same length and weight as the 
 general run of Scotch and Irish rabbits. In 
 many parts of England, and even in Scotland, 
 it has, of late years, been a custom among gen- 
 tlemen of landed estates, who are much at- 
 tached to fox-hunting, to introduce these 
 parker and hedgehog rabbits into certain 
 localities of their grounds, with a view of sup- 
 porting the foxes. But we believe that, in 
 numerous cases, the rabbits are found to 
 breed in such prodigious numbers, that they 
 become a regular nuisance, and very difficult 
 indeed to root out again. Besides, the practice 
 has given rise to serious disputes and bick- 
 erings among farmers and their landlords, 
 about the destruction of the crops of grain by 
 the rabbits in such places. A person of con- 
 siderable experience, writing on the wild 
 rabbit, says — " It would be no easy matter to 
 say what weight a wild rabbit would attain if 
 taken and fed like any of those prize animals, 
 such as sheep, cattle, &c. ; for in the case of 
 sheep, the difference of feeding, against the 
 natural food which the animal seeks for itself, 
 is almost incredible, at least to tliose who have 
 
DEEE-STALKINO.l 15 V 1' \\]\A), AV O ( ) I), A N 1) WAT Eli. 
 
 [DE£U-BTJLLKliSG. 
 
 not seen the ellects, or paid auy attoution to 
 the matter. But 1 am atVaiJ 1 aiu getting out 
 of my way. 1 had a good opportunity, ouo 
 season, of seeing the eizo, and trying the 
 weiglit of rabhits, as I havo becu iu at tho 
 di'ath of veiy tew short of 500; and I must 
 say, I never have killed any above 5 lbs., most 
 of them being from 3i Iba. to 4 lbs. ; iu fact, I 
 uo not remember of more than ouo being above 
 •i] lbs., and very few of the latter weight ; but 1 
 did not weigh them all — only the very largo 
 ones attracted my curiosity ; aud it is rather 
 singular that the largest rabbits were always 
 killed by means of the ferret, aud, iu many 
 cases, lay in tlic hole till killed by this blood- 
 thirsty enemy. Jiut I once witnessed a rabbit 
 that was shot on a neighbouring estate, 
 which weighed over G lbs. This was assuredly 
 the common grey rabbit, in all but the cars 
 and head, which were somewhat larger than 
 the common, being nearly as large as those 
 of a hare; but, at the same time, the head 
 seemed to be quite in proportion to the 
 body. The ears, however, were something 
 the shape of the long-eared, domestic rabbit, 
 but differed from it in being erect, in place 
 of hanging down. The flesh of it was dressed, 
 aud was found to be that of the rabbit, thereby 
 settling the notion that it was a cross with 
 tlie hare. It has been stuffed as a curiosity ; 
 was shot in a high country ; was quite wild ; 
 and is the greatest weight I have known a 
 wild rabbit to attain." 
 
 "With respect to the shooting of these animals 
 in such localities, every degree of caution is 
 requisite. It is indispensable that they should 
 be approached in a straight line, even to obtain 
 a glance at them ; and this must be done by 
 stealth. If you have a dog, he must be kept 
 
 close to your heels. Stoop down, and prevent 
 the animal from seeing you, if you cau. Tliis, 
 and such like stratagems, are tiio only nioaua 
 to get u shot at this kind of rabbit. 
 
 " IVIoro (lifTicult than hares to liit, 
 They fri(|uently appear to flit 
 Like thudows |)ust one — good, indieJ, 
 Is then tiic aim that bids them bleed. 
 If you would see them nicely stoppid 
 In the thick wood, you must adojit 
 Snap-shooting, for you'll seldom there 
 Have time to take them full and fair ; 
 E'en lost to view, advance your gun 
 Quickly to where you t/unk they run : 
 Regard not grass, nor bru.sh, nor briar; 
 Through each and all that instant fire. 
 Bang ! it's well — you saw him not. 
 And yet you've killed him on the spot." 
 
 In taking our leave of tho rabbit, we may 
 briefly allude to Iiare shooting, though this 
 animal is more an object of the chase than oi 
 the gun. Yet, tliroughout the shooting season, 
 there are a vast number of hares shot. Few 
 sportsmen allow her to make her escape, when 
 a chance offers. Some fowlers are remarkably 
 clever at finding- and shooting hares ; and, with 
 some, it becomes quite a passion, to the entire 
 exclusion of every other kind of sporting. We 
 have often seen au individual in a stubble-field, 
 on a fine evening, crawling upon his knees, and 
 sometimes on bis side or his belly ; and, with- 
 out any dog, gaining upon poor puss so slowly 
 but surely, that her death became certain 
 This shooter would never, however, fire at a 
 hare in her seat in a hedge, or cover of any 
 kind. She is not difficult to kill, and her mode 
 of running is more favourable to the sportsman 
 than the bouncing and stottiug movements o; 
 the rabbit, which are apt to mar the youa? 
 sportsman's aim. 
 
 CPIAFTER XVIL 
 
 DEEn-STALKING. 
 
 DeePl-stalkikg 13 comparatively a modern 
 sport, and is confined principally to the higher 
 classes of English sportsmen. The deer, it is J human family 
 
 well known, has been an interesting object o( 
 the chase from the earliest records of the 
 Stag-hunting is treated of by 
 G07 
 
DEEE-STALKING.] 
 
 SHOOTING, 
 
 [dEEE- STALKING. 
 
 Xenophon ; and it forms a conspicuous item 
 in Anglo-Saxon history. During the middle 
 ages, we find that it was pursued in most of 
 the countries of Europe. As practised in 
 those parts of the Highlands of Scotland, and 
 in other mountainous countries, deer-stalking 
 is by no means a drawing-room amusement. 
 It keeps the powers of both mind and body 
 upon the full stretch, and takes us into scenes of 
 the most magnificent and sublime description. 
 In the Fennyless Filgrim, of Taylor, the 
 water-poet, who flourished about a couple of 
 centuries ago, we find the following description 
 of deer-stalking as it was pursued at that time : 
 — " I thank my good Lord Erskine ; be com- 
 manded that I should always be lodged in his 
 lodging, the kitchen being always on the side 
 of a bank, many kettles and pots boiling, and 
 many spits turning and winding, with great 
 variety of cheer, as pigeons, bens, capons, 
 chickens, partridge, moorcocks, heathcocks, 
 capercallies, and ptarmigans; good ale, sack, 
 white and claret, and most potent ag^iia viice. 
 All these birds, &c., and more, we had con- 
 tinually in superfluous abundance, caught by 
 our falconers, fowlers, fishers, and brought by 
 my Lord Marr's tenants and purveyors to 
 victual our camp, which consisted of fourteen 
 or fifteen hundred men and horses. The 
 manner of hunting is this : five or six hundred 
 men do rise early in the morning, and they do 
 disperse themselves divers ways, and seven, 
 eight, or ten miles' compasa, they do bring or 
 chase in the deer in many herds (two, three, 
 or four hundred in a herd), to such or such a 
 place, as the noblemen shall appoint them ; 
 then, when the day is come, the lords and 
 gentlemen of their companies do ride and go 
 to the said places, sometimes wading up to 
 the middle through burns and rivers ; and then 
 they, being come to the place, do lie down on 
 the ground till their foresaid scouts, which are 
 called the tinckell, do bring down the deer; 
 but as the proverb says of a bad cook, so these 
 tinckell men do lick their own fingers; for 
 besides their bows and arrows, which they 
 carry with them, we can hear now and then 
 an arquebuss or musket-shot go off", which 
 they do seldom discharge in vain ; then, after 
 we had stayed three hours, or thereabouts, we 
 might perceive the deer appear on the hills 
 round about ; which, being followed close, are 
 COS 
 
 chased down into the valley where we lay ; 
 then, all the valley on each side being waylaid 
 with a hundred couple of strong Irish grey- 
 hounds, they are let loose, as occasion serves, 
 upon the herd of deer, that with dogs, guns 
 arrows, darts, in the space of two hours, four- 
 score fat deer were slain." 
 
 At the great hunting gatherings which took 
 place in Scotland, under the auspices of the chief 
 nobility, during the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries, fire-arms were occasionally used to 
 kill the red deer. These hunting forai/s were 
 conducted upon a most gigantic scale of mag- 
 nificence, and were attended by many thousands 
 of the clansmen, who encompassed extensive 
 tracts of country, and drove the game to where 
 their respective chiefs were located. In an en- 
 tertainment of this kind given by the Earl of 
 Athol to James V., the queen, his mother, the 
 pope's ambassador, and many hundreds of the 
 most distinguished ladies and gentlemen of the 
 court, there was a kind of palace constructed, of 
 green timber, interwoven with boughs, provided 
 with turrets, and moated completely round. 
 The hunting continued three days ; and we are 
 told that many of the animals were shot with 
 the gun, through the apertures of the rough 
 building ; and that even some of the ladies were 
 bold enough to fire ofi'some of those field-pieces, 
 which were then of considerable size. 
 
 The natural shyness or wariness of the deer, 
 suggests many devices to overreach them. 
 Almost every sportsman has some general 
 method of his own to get fairly within range of 
 them, some of which have been immortalised by 
 Sir E. Landseer upon the canvas. The sports- 
 man must always approach them up-wind, to 
 prevent his being scented, for they possess the 
 faculty of smell in high perfection. Sometimes 
 a circuit of several miles has to be taken before 
 they can be approached so as to give a fair 
 chance of sport. Weather, as in every other 
 sport, has much to do with success in deer- 
 stalking. When this is of such a kind as to 
 oblige the deer to frequent the well-heads, or 
 pools of water, and more especially if these be 
 in a locality where there is any portion of 
 brushwood or shelter for the gunner, then his 
 chances of success are considerably increased. 
 If otherwise, the labour, of course, is con- 
 siderably more severe, and the chances of good 
 sport less likely to be so plentiful. 
 
liEKn-STALKIKO] 
 
 ]{V Kli:i-1), WOOD, AND WAl'I'K. 
 
 [uKEK-SrALKlKO. 
 
 In order the more certainly to brinj^ down 
 tlie deer, the eportsiimn always, if poaaible, 
 tnkes Ilia iiiin behind tlie shoulder of the 
 ;it\imal ; and if ellVetive in this direction, death 
 fullowa instantly. When, however, the deer 
 is only wounded, it is then left to itself by the 
 lierd, when the deer-hounds are set to work 
 to follow and capture it. These animals dis- 
 pl:iv singular sagacity and earnestness in 
 hunting the stricUen captive: they will con- 
 line their hunting solely to the wounded deer; 
 and w'ncn they have overtaken him, cither 
 seize, or hold him at bay till the sportsmen 
 arrive, when another shot, in some vital 
 quarter, puts an end to the scene. The dogs 
 are rewarded by the blood of the noble 
 quarry. 
 
 Shooting the roebuck iu tlie Highlands of 
 Scotland, is held to be a most animating sport. 
 This animal is considerably smaller than the 
 red-deer; and dogs of the barrier breed arc 
 used to drive it into certain favourable locali- 
 ties, where the deadly rifle does great execution. 
 Shooting it, and all the sporting incidents and 
 circumstances attending this, are much of the 
 same description as those mentioned in ref- 
 erence to the red-dccr: but it is impossible to 
 describe the irresistible pleasure which the 
 pursuit of such a noble quarry gives to the 
 tliorough-bred highlander. Day after day be 
 will range the bare hills, and traverse the 
 haunts of these animals, or sit, with Job-like 
 patience, enveloped in his plaid, behind a grey 
 rock, which, whilst it conceals him, enables 
 him to command an extensive view of the 
 country spread out before bira. Should he 
 then be fortunate enough to get a sight of a 
 stag, he will think nothing of creeping for 
 miles, like a worm, on his belly, in order to get 
 within shot of him without being discovered. 
 Time and the weather are to the highlander of 
 no consequence. Wet, cold, and hunger he 
 will willingly bear to circumvent his prey ; and 
 if he is successful in this, how does he rejoice ! 
 but if not, he will renew his ellbrts until his 
 perseverance and toil are rewarded with suc- 
 cess. "When a deer is killed, an operation 
 called "breaking" takes place, and which con- 
 sists of cutting the throat and disembowelling 
 it. "Whilst this is going on, the highlander 
 frequently apostrophises the dead animal in 
 Gaelic. He calls him every evil name he can 
 4i 
 
 think of at first, for perhaps having frequently 
 escaped his deadly aim, and for having often 
 led him many a weary juurney over hill and 
 dale before he liad at last succumbed. After 
 this, ho may chango his note, and pronounce 
 him the " bonniest," or most beautiful bi-a.st 
 that it was ever his lot to behold. Whilst 
 upon this strain, the very perfection of gratili- 
 cation and delight irradiates every feature ot 
 his usually hard and rugged countenance. 
 
 hi bidding adieu to this portion of our 
 work, we must be permitted to 8.iy a few 
 words upon natural history, and the greai 
 additional enjoyment its study must give to 
 the sportsman who associates it with his 
 pursuits. In itself it is delightful ; and animals 
 are so diversified in form, so curious in struc- 
 ture, and 80 interesting in their habits and 
 manners, that they furnish a wide range for 
 observation to every inquiring mind. They 
 are, moreover, so liberally distributed over tho ^ 
 earth's surface, that, let the naturalist wander 
 where be will, he is almost sure to meet with 
 one species or other of the object of his pur- 
 suit. The daisied meadow has its lark ; the 
 wood its nightingale; the heath-clad hill its 
 red-deer or its roebuck ; the stream its gray- 
 ling or its trout; the rocky dell its ouzel, 
 flitting from bush to busl), or crag to crag. 
 Nay, even the ocean-wave has its inhabitants 
 its alg£B, or its birds, as tho snow-capped 
 mountain has its ptarmigan. "What life, 
 what interest, what spirit do these various 
 beings infuse into the elements which they 
 people! The field may look beautiful, clad iu 
 its spring-tide robe, with tho sun glancing 
 brightly upon its thousand flowers; but if the 
 thrush plays its flute from a neighbouring 
 tree, or the lark rains dow;n music from a 
 summer cloud, how greatly are its charms 
 enhanced by their dulcet notes! Enchanting 
 may seem the river, as it winds gracefully 
 through some pastoral vale, an evening sun 
 perchance turning to gold the liquid silver 
 of its currents ; but, should the osprey pounce 
 down upon its waves, or the otter move 
 stealthily along its margin in search of prey, 
 what interest, what animation do they give to 
 the lovely scene ! 
 
 One is almost led to believe that the love of 
 nature is inherent iu the heart of man. It is 
 visible in earliest life, when children evince a 
 
 . GO'.) 
 
■DEEK- STALKING.] 
 
 SHOOTING. 
 
 [deee-stalkiko. 
 
 desire to ramble amidst pleasant fields, to 
 gambol on banks of daisies, to cull buttercups, 
 or to weave, for their hair, coronets of green 
 rushes. In the breasts of many, this love 
 "grows with the growth, and strengthens with 
 the strength ;" in some, it is well nigh ex- 
 tinguished ; in others, it peeps out in a 
 diminished form. In difierent ranks, it is 
 exhibited under different aspects. What in- 
 duced the elder "Wortleys "to build a lone 
 lodge on "Wharncliffe ?" "Was it their love of 
 solitude or retirement? Not exactly. We 
 are told, " that they might resort unto it to 
 hear the wild bucks bell." And what induces 
 the magnates of modern times to pitch their 
 tents periodically in the Highlands ? Osten- 
 sibly to shoot the grouse, leister the salmon, 
 or stalk the red-deer. la this their only 
 motive ? Do they not exhibit a partiality 
 for field sport because it brings them more 
 immediately into contact with nature ? They 
 derive pleasure from hearing the whirr and 
 cry of moorland fowls, from noting the habits 
 of animals, or from observing the heath-covered 
 hills under their ever-varying character of 
 light and shade. And what pleasure do sports- 
 men take in detailing their experiences of these 
 things, or describing the instinct and sagacity 
 which their dogs have exhibited under various 
 circumstances! Certainly such men are 
 naturalists. The love of nature discloses itself 
 610 
 
 perhaps more modestly in other ranks of life. 
 Is it not manifested at the village parsonage, 
 with its embowering creepers mantling the 
 walls, and the carefully trained shrubs which 
 decorate the garden ? Does the six days' 
 pent-up mechanic take up his Sunday stroll 
 merely to inhale the fresh air, or to exercise 
 his limbs ? The songs of skyward birds, and 
 the incense of delicate flowers, must, we think, 
 give a zest to his walk. The same principle is 
 visible in the tradesman, who loves his villa, 
 with its grassy slopes and beds of flowers ; in 
 the husbandman, who has a longing to till 
 fields and tend cattle, or to employ himself in 
 those never-ending processes of agriculture, 
 which are the natural employment of man. 
 Nay, the love of nature exists even in the 
 hearts of crowded cities. The intercourse of 
 man with man, the strife of trade with trade, 
 may have subdued, but not destroyed it. The 
 rose, the lily, the mignonette, exhibited in the 
 windows of the rich, and the half-starved, 
 smoke-dried wretch of a geranium in the 
 windows of the poor, alike attest that, although 
 their possessors are cut off by barricades of 
 brick and stone, from intercourse with nature 
 in her woods and fields, their love for her is 
 not entirely extinguished. May it increase, 
 and with it all those enjoyments which gene- 
 rally follow in the train of innocent and 
 edifying pursuits ! 
 
DIVISION IV 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WILD AND TAME CATTLE OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 THE URUS AND THE AUROCHS OF THE 
 
 ANCIENTS. 
 
 It requires no great amount of discernment to 
 perceive how much man is indebted to the 
 Iierds of the field, for 6uppl3'iu£r him with 
 those necessaries of life by which his comfort 
 is increased, and his happiness enlarged. The 
 01, in many parts of the globe, takes the place 
 of the horse, in assisting hiui to cultivate the 
 6oil ; and the cow supplies him with the most 
 nutritious of all beverages. Milk, cream, 
 cheese, and butter, enter largely into his 
 dietary, and form a species of food and drink 
 at once nourishing and agreeable. _ ilven after 
 death these useful animals are made subser- 
 vient to his wants. Portions of their cooked 
 carcasses become converted into the "roast 
 beef of old England;" and their hides furnish 
 the material for shoes ; their horns are made 
 into combs, and other articles of ornamenta- 
 tion ; while their hoofs supply him with glue, 
 and various gelatinous substances ; their bones 
 are fashioned into knife- handles, and applied 
 to numerous other purposes; whilst their 
 refuse, in the shape of dust, is restored to the 
 earth whence they came, to help to multiply 
 its productive power, and increase its vegeta- 
 tion, by which other animals may be raised, 
 and their species perpetuated. Such is the 
 important part which these patient animals 
 perform in the grand scheme of creation ! 
 How much, then, does man owe to them for 
 the many comforts, and even luxuries, they 
 are the means of bringing within his reach ! 
 In natural history, these animals are desig- 
 nated as the genus Bos (oxen), and their clia- 
 racters are defined, as both sexes haviug horns ; 
 but they have neither suborbital sinus, inter- 
 digital foasoo, nor inguinal pores. The teats 
 
 in the females are four. The animals of this 
 genus are, with some few exceptions, the 
 largest and most massive of the hollow-horned 
 Euminanta. Their limbs are low and strong ; 
 their bodies heavy, with wide haunches, and 
 thick, and often elevated shoulders ; their heads 
 are large ; and tho progressive increase of their 
 horns is marked by annuli at tho base. They 
 sheathe a hollow or cancellous bony core, 
 continued from the sides of a bold frontal 
 ridge. Tlie forehead, or chaffron, is expanded ; 
 the muzzle, except in the sub-genus OviLos, is 
 broad, naked, and moist; tho neck is thick, 
 deep, compressed laterally, carried horizontally, 
 and furnished with a pendent dewlap. The 
 spinous processes of the anterior dorsal ver- 
 tebrae, at the withers, are very long and stout. 
 All the Ox group are gregarious in their 
 habits ; and no quarter of the globe is destitute 
 of its indigenous species, existing in a state of 
 freedom, tenanting the deep glades of the 
 forest, or roaming over hills or plains. The 
 genus may be subdivided into the following 
 minor groups, or sub-genera: — Bos, Auoa, 
 Bubalus, Bison, and Ovibos; descriptions of 
 which we will give in their proper places, as 
 they rise before us, in this division. 
 
 Tlie Ox (Bos Taurus) is now only known 
 as a domesticated animal, widely diti'used over 
 almost every region of the globe, and every- 
 where contributing, by its services and pro- 
 ducts, to the well-being of man. Although 
 referred to as a domestic animal in the earliest 
 ages, by the author of the Mosaic record, im- 
 penetrable darkness hangs over its primeval 
 history ; nor is its wild origin known, or 
 wliether that origin is in existence. Tempera- 
 ture, soil, food, a thousand circumstances, ope- 
 rating through the revolutions of years, have 
 
 611 
 
WILD OXEN.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [wild oxen. 
 
 combined to effect a series of modifications in 
 the ox. Every country possesses its peculiar 
 races ; and these races, by their intermixture, 
 are perpetually producing others ; so that it is 
 impossible to say to what extent these changes 
 may be carried, and bow far the original type 
 may have already become modified. Certain 
 it is, that we are acquainted witli no animal 
 in a state of original independence, to wliich 
 the primitive type of the ox can be referred. 
 It is true, however, that within the period of 
 authentic history, certain wild oxen existed in 
 Europe ; but it is not to Europe that we 
 must look as the cradle of the domestic ox ; 
 nor, indeed, are the accounts left us of tliese 
 oxen reconcilable with any of them having been 
 specifically identical with our domestic race, 
 which, when we look at the Zebu breed, seems 
 to claim more than one source. One of these 
 wild animals was termed by the ancients TJrus 
 (laiis cornihus), and another. Bison (jubatus, or 
 villosusj. We Lave also an animal described 
 under the name of Bonasus — the BuvacaoQ, 
 or BovaaoQ, of Aristotle. 
 
 The Urus, which existed in the Hercynian 
 forest, is thus described by Csesar: — "These 
 uri are little inferior to elephants in size, but 
 are bulls in their nature, colour, and figure. 
 Great is their strength, and great their swift- 
 ness ; nor do they spare man or beast when 
 they have caught sight of either. These, when 
 trapped in pitfalls, the hunters unsparingly 
 kill. The youths, exercising themselves by 
 this sort of bunting, are hardened by the toil ; 
 and those among them who have killed most, 
 bringing with them the horns as testimonials, 
 acquire great praise. But these uri cannot be 
 habituated to man, or made tractable, not even 
 when young. The great size of the horns, as 
 well as the form and quality of them, differs 
 much from the horns of our oxen. These, 
 when carefully selected, the people ring round 
 the edge with silver, and use to drink with at 
 their ample feasts." Perhaps the wild bulls, 
 witli horns of extraordinary size, which He- 
 rodotus assures us inhabited Macedonia, 
 were uri. 
 
 The Bison (jubatus of Pliny). — This species, 
 regarded by Cuvier and most naturalists as 
 identical with the Bonasus of Aristotle, is con- 
 sidered, and perhaps with reason, as referable 
 to the Aurochs or Zubr (JBos urus of modern 
 612 
 
 naturalists, not Urus of Cajsar), still existing 
 in the wild forests of Lithuania. In Europe 
 and Siberia, the fossil crania of aurochs are 
 not uncommon ; and these skulls, though they 
 scarcely differ in anything from the Lithuanian 
 animal, Cuvier inclines to think may be of a 
 different, though closely-allied species. He 
 gives the figures of a skull in the Paris museum, 
 so like, as he observes, to the living aurochs, 
 that the most practised eye can scarcely dis- 
 tinguish it; and also so fresh, that he is in 
 doubt whether it be really a fossil relic, or, on 
 the contrary, recent, owing its fossil appear- 
 ance to having been much weathered. Mr. 
 Lyell states, that the bones of the aurocli or 
 bison have been found in the ISTorth Cliff, in 
 the county of York, in a lacustrine formation, 
 in which all the laud and fresh-water shells, 
 thirteen in number, can be identified with 
 species and varieties now existing in that 
 county. The Urus of Csesar and the ancients 
 was characterised by the immensity of its 
 horns, and its vast stature; in the former of 
 which it differs materially from the ancient 
 full-maned bison, or Lithuanian auroch. This 
 urus no longer, as it would appear, exists ; but 
 fossil skulls, of a species far exceeding the 
 largest domestic ox in magnitude, with the 
 core of massive horns, are abundant in the 
 superficial strata of Europe. This species is 
 termed, by Cuvier, Bos primigenius ; and he 
 carefully distinguishes the skull from that of 
 the fossil auroch. In a specimen found at 
 Melksham, and described by Mr. "Woods, the 
 cores of the horns measured, at their widest 
 expansion, upwards of four feet. AYe may 
 easily conceive what must have been the ex- 
 pansion of the horns themselves: the skull, 
 destitute of the lower jaw, and not perfect 
 otherwise, weighed sixty-three pounds. Larger 
 specimens, however, have been discovered. 
 
 This extinct species Cuvier regards as the 
 type of the domestic ox ; in which opinion Mr. 
 Bell and most naturalists coincide, at the same 
 time that they consider the " celebrated white, 
 wild oxen of Craven, of Chillingham Park, and 
 Scotland, as specifically the same with the 
 common ox. Contrary to this, however, Colonel 
 Hamilton Smith and Mr. Swaiuson regard the 
 white ox of Chillingham Park (Bos Scoticus 
 of some authors) as distinct from the common 
 ox. The former regards the Chillingham ox 
 
THE ruus.] 
 
 C ATT r. K A X 1) Til !•: I K V A I^ I K TIES. [i-atuiauciial acjks. 
 
 aB a white variety of the fossil Bpecies Bos 
 primifffiiius ; whilo Mr. Swaiiison bclievos it to 
 be the descemlaiit of u smiiller spi'cies belonp;- 
 ing to the same genus as the Bos primigmius, 
 or anoioiit urus, of wliit-h "the skiilKs exhibit 
 the type of a form essentially dillereut from 
 that of tho domestic ox." 
 
 " All these skulls," he eontinucs, " are nearly 
 one-third larger than those of the Bos Taurus ; 
 they are square from the orbits to the oceipital 
 crest, and somewhat hollow at tho forehead. 
 Tire horus, placed at the side of tho above 
 crest, show a peeuliar rise from their roots up- 
 wards ; then bending outwards, and then for- 
 wards and inwards. No domestic races show 
 this turn; but numerous specimens of inferior 
 edzes, found fossil in the Cornish mines, have 
 this shape; and the wild bull of Scotland, the 
 ouly example of this type now known to exist, 
 retains it. Tho domestic oxen, on the con- 
 trary, of whatsoever country or breed they may 
 be, have the square concave forehead, with the 
 horns rising: from the ends of the frontal ridije 
 * * * * It appears, then, that the ancient 
 urus, or wild bull, was a perfectly wild, savage, 
 and uutameable animal : not only does every 
 account handed down from remote antiquity 
 assure us of this, but it is even verified by the 
 only living example of this form we possess — 
 the Bos Scoticiis, still preserved in one or two 
 of the northern parks. Although domesti- 
 cated so far as to live within such precincts 
 without absolute unprovoked violence to its 
 keepers, it retains essentially all the savage 
 characters ascribed to the more powerful spe- 
 cies mentioned by the ancients." As to the 
 specific identity of the white oxen of Chilling- 
 ham with our ordinary breed, some have no 
 doubt on the subject. In size, form, and aspect 
 they resemble the finer breeds of black cattle ; 
 and the query is, not — Are they distinct ? but — 
 Are they the descendants of a wild breed, or, on 
 the contrary, the descendants of domesticated 
 individuals, which have .-esumed their wild 
 character, " from having ceased to feel, through 
 many generations, the efiects of human domi- 
 nation ?" The latter is suspected. "With 
 regard to Cuvier's Bos primigenius, granting 
 it to be the urus of Caesar, it is not so easy to 
 determine whether it was the wild type of the 
 domestic ox. Its vast size, and the extra- 
 ordinary magnitude of the horns, to say nothing 
 
 of its ferocity, and tho probability that it ia to 
 Central Asia, rather than to tho wild forests of 
 Central Eurojje, that we ou;,'ht to look for tho 
 type of tho domestic raeo (or race.s ?), uro BufH- 
 cient to beget a doubt. 
 
 The term urus is evidently identical with the 
 terms aurr, ur, aueroeh.s, ure-ox, tho root also 
 of the word taurus ; and we agree witli Mr. 
 Woods, in the belief that the aurochs, or urc- 
 ox, of the ancient Germans, was the urus of 
 Ciesar ; but that the word, on tho extinction of 
 that animal, became transferred to the bison of 
 the ancients, now known as the aurochs ; and 
 also under names derived from a different root, 
 as zubr (Lithuanian), zimbr (Moldavian), bison, 
 vison, wisont, and wisant; whence bonasus, 
 monasus, &c. 
 
 Besides the Bos primigenius, the following 
 fossil species of ox have been named : — Bos 
 trechocerus (Hermann von Neyer), subapen- 
 uine^beds; Bos (Bison) priscus (Bonjanus), 
 BuJJIe fossile de Sibcrie (Cuv.), Bos latifrons 
 (Marian), Broadheaded fossil Bison and Bison 
 fossilis, " diluvium" of Europe and I^orth Ame- 
 rica, bone-caves and bone breccias ; Bos (Bi- 
 sou) ? lomlifrons (Harlan), Big-bone-lick, 
 North America ; Bos Fallasii (Dekay), Bos 
 moscluitus fossilis? Bos canalicuhilus (Fischer)? 
 Siberia and North America , Bos vclaunus 
 (Robert), Cussac, Haute Loire. 
 
 Abundant remains of tho ox were found by 
 Captain Cautley in the Sewalik Mountains, at 
 the southern foot of the Himalayas, between 
 the Sutlej and the Ganges, partly lying on the 
 slopes among the ruins of fallen cliffs, and 
 partly in situ in tho sandstone, in company 
 with the bones of the mastodon, elephant, rliino- 
 ceros, hippopotamus, hog, horse (comparatively 
 scarce), elk, deer, several varieties ; carnivora, 
 canine and feline (comparatively scarce) ; cro- 
 codile, gavial, emys, trionyx, and fishes. There 
 were also portions of undescribed mammalia. 
 
 CATTLE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGES. 
 To Asia and its border-lands let us turn our 
 attention — regions in which the ox, from tho 
 earliest epoch, has been in a state of domesti- 
 cation, and where this animal, with sheep and 
 goats, constituted the riches of patriarchs, and 
 chiefs, or princes, who. deemed it not beneath 
 them to take an active interest in the manage- 
 ment of their flocks and herds. In that age of 
 
 613 
 
PATEiAEOHAL AGES.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [patriarchal ages. 
 
 patriarchal simplicity, such scenes as we have 
 seen delineated by the pencil of Berghem were 
 not imaginary; and the pastoral poetry of 
 classical antiquity has not only rendered them 
 familiar, but thrown an air of grace, and even 
 dignity over them. 
 
 In the fourth chapter of the Book of Genesis 
 (ver. 20) we read of Jabal, that " he was the 
 father of such as dwelt in tents, aud of such 
 as have cattle." In the thirteenth chapter of 
 the same book, cattle are enumerated as form- 
 ing part of the riches of Abraham, and also of 
 Lot ; and in the previous chapter we read, that 
 oxen were presented hy the Pharaoh of Egypt, 
 together with sheep, asses, and camels, to 
 Abram, during his sojourn in that land. In 
 the eighteenth chapter, veal, or the flesh of the 
 calf, and butter and milk, are mentioned as 
 articles of food. Subsequently, abundant men- 
 tion is made of all these domestic animals ; 
 while, at the same time, we glean that a wild 
 race of oxen long continued to exist in Syria 
 and the adjacent regions. Eor instance, in the 
 Mosaic injunctions regarding animals to be 
 used as food (Deut. xiv. 5), the wild ox is ex- 
 pressly noticed ; and Isaiah alludes also to the 
 wild bull, " as a wild bull in a net." Hence it 
 would appear, that though a domestic breed, 
 established at a period antecedent to historical 
 record, tlie Scripture outline excepted, formed 
 part of the wealth of man m the primeval ages 
 of his history, that a wild race still tenanted 
 their aboriginal pasture-lands. Wild oxen are 
 exhibited in the Egyptian sculptures, and they 
 are frequently represented as objects of the chase. 
 They were sometimes hunted with dogs, the 
 huntsmen bearing bows and arrows; and some- 
 times they were caught with the noose or lasso. 
 
 The utility of the ox was highly appreciated 
 in remote ages, insomuch, that it became an 
 emblematic object of worship among most 
 of the nations of antiquity. The traditions 
 of every Celtic nation place the cow on the list 
 of the earliest of animals, and represent it as 
 a kind of divinity. Among the Egyptians, the 
 god Apis was worshipped in the form of a bull ; 
 and Herodotus describes the ceremonies per- 
 formed at the choosing of this bovine deity, to 
 whose honour other bulls, chosen by the priests, 
 were sacrificed. The goddess Isis was repre- 
 sented, by the same people, by the figure of a 
 woman with the horns of a cow, as the Grecians 
 614 
 
 represented lo ; and the sacrificial offering was 
 a bullock. The cow was never sacrificed, being 
 sacred to Isis. The veneration of the cow was 
 equally prevalent in Lybia. The people of that 
 country, says Herodotus, from Egypt to the 
 Lake Tritonis, are breeders of cattle, eat flesh, 
 and drink milk, but abstain from the flesh of 
 cows, as do also the Egyptians ; and they will not 
 keep swine. Nay, among the" women of Syrene, 
 to strike a cow is accounted a crime, because 
 they celebrate the feasts and festivals of the 
 Egyptian Isis. Neither will the Barcsean 
 women taste the flesh of a hog or of a cow. 
 
 In India, where, in many points, the practice 
 and worship of the ancient nations were the 
 same as those of the Egyptians, the ox was 
 held sacred, and still is so by the Brahmins. 
 One of the causes of the Sepoy rebellion of 
 1857, is ascribed to some imaginary greased 
 cartridges having been served out to the native 
 soldiery. The religious writings of India say 
 that the cow was the first animal created by 
 the three gods, who were directed by the 
 supreme lord to furnish the earth with animated 
 beings. In the sculptures of the cave-temples 
 of Ellora, the sacred bull is represented with 
 great truth and spirit. In the Transactions of 
 the Moyal Asiatic Society, vol. ii., page 560, 
 Colonel Tod says — " In Hindu mythology, the 
 bull Nanda is at once the guardian of one of 
 the two gates of heaven, of Iswaro or Bal-Siva, 
 and his steed. The astronomic allusion thus 
 blended with mythology is evident — viz., the 
 entrance of the sun into the sign Taurus, the 
 equinoctial festival of remote antiquity, and 
 regarded as a jubilee by the Indo-Scythic 
 nations hemming the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean to the Indian Ocean." "We need not 
 say how the idolatry of the Egyptians aflfected 
 the Israelites, and mingled itself with the re- 
 ligious ceremonies of other nations, whose 
 worship required the ox as a sacrifice to 
 imaginary deities. 
 
 The estimation in which the ox was held, 
 and which led to its consecration, did not 
 arise from the circumstance alone of the cow 
 yielding milk, or from the value of the flesh 
 of the animal as food, but from its services in 
 agricultural labour. It was employed as a 
 beast of burden, for the cart, for the plough, 
 and for treading out the grain from the ear. 
 The Mosaic ritual lays down several rules 
 
PATHiARCHAL Aozs."] CATTLE, AND TFTEIK VARIETIES. [tuk zkhl- huked. 
 
 respecting the treatment of the ox : one forbids 
 
 the yokini^ together of tho aas ami tho ox in 
 the snmo plougli, perhaps from the inetiuality 
 of their size and strength, which would render 
 the draught irregular, and oppress both animals. 
 Another injunction is, " Tiiou slialt not muz- 
 zle the ox when he treadoth out tho corn." 
 The iirst idea suggested by this passage is, 
 that the operation of threshing was ellected 
 siniplv by tiie feet of the cattle passing over 
 the sheaves ; and such, indeed, was tho case in 
 the times of patriarchal simplicity. Afterwards, 
 as other passages show, rollers and wheels of 
 wood, and threshing instruments with teeth, 
 were used. These were drawn over the 
 sheaves by oxen, and greatly facilitated the 
 process. With respect to the primitive mode 
 of threshing by means of the feet of oxen, 
 there is express allusion made to it by 
 Homer, leading us to the belief that the 
 practice was common in his country at the 
 period in which he flourished : — 
 
 " As with autumnal harvests covered o'er, 
 And thick bestrewn, lies Ceres' sacred floor, 
 Where round and round, with never- wearied pain, 
 The trampling steers breakout tL' unnumber'd grain." 
 
 The ancient Arabs, Egyptians, and Romans, 
 as well as the ancient Greeks, threshed their 
 corn in this manner. Virgil, in the first 
 book of bis G-eorgics, describes the manner in 
 which the threshing-floor is to be laid down, 
 showing that nothing like our modern mode of 
 threshing could have been practised. In Syria, 
 Egypt, and !N'ubia, at the present day, the 
 grain is, as formerly, either trodden out by 
 the feet of oxen or mules, or partly trodden 
 out, and partly crushed out, by means of a 
 roller, or other machine, which the oxen drag 
 after them, and which, more or less, destroys 
 the straw, and even injures the grain. There 
 were two modes of threshing; viz., by the drag, 
 and by the sledge upon rollers, which are still 
 practised in Egypt, Syria, and "Western Asia. 
 
 In these remote ages, and in these countries^ 
 oxen were used for drawing the plough, as 
 they are in Egypt at the present day. This 
 implement, however, was of very simple con- 
 struction, as it still continues to be in the 
 East, and is rather formed for superficially 
 turning up a light soil, than for maluug deep 
 furrows in heavy land. It appears that the 
 ploughjuan, to work it efl'ectively, was under 
 
 the neceasity of guiding it with great caro, 
 betiding over it, and lo.-iding it, as much an pos- 
 sible, with his own weight, otherwise tho share 
 would only glide tho surface, without making a 
 furrow ; and tho slightest inattention, or cessa- 
 lion of his labour, would be followed bv tho 
 dragging out of the share from tho earth, or by 
 irregularity in the depth and direction of the 
 furrow ; hence tho expression of Pliny, " arafor, 
 nisi incurvus prtevaricatur.'* 
 
 TUB ZEBU RREED. 
 
 Tho Zebu breed of oxen claims a few ob- 
 servations. V^hether this breed be derived, 
 as some contend, from a distinct origin from 
 that of tho ordinary ox, it is not easy to 
 determine; let it suffice that it presents 
 marked peculiarities which clearly characterise 
 it. Narrow, high withers, surmounted by a 
 large fatty hump ; an arched back rising at the 
 haunches, and suddenly falling to the tail ; 
 slender limbs ; a large pendulous dewlap falling 
 in folds ; long pendent ears, and a peculiarly 
 mild expression of the eye, are the characters 
 which define the zebu race — a race varying in 
 size from that of our largest cattle to that of 
 a young calf. This breed is spread over India, 
 China, and the Indian Islands. It is also 
 found in Madagascar, and on tho eastern 
 coast of Africa, in the interior regions, and 
 parts of the western coast, and is used for the 
 ordinary purposes of draught and burden. 
 India appears to be its parent country ; and 
 we may readily believe that, in remote ages, 
 when an extensive commerce existed between 
 that country and Egypt, it was introduced 
 into the land of the Pharaohs. In Upper 
 Egypt, Abyssinia, and Ethiopia, it is now 
 almost exclusively prevalent; but in Lower 
 Egypt, as wo learn from Burckhardt, the zebu, 
 or humped race, is unknown. In the ancient 
 Egyptian representations of animals, both the 
 humped race, and the ordinary ox, with long 
 horns, are clearly depicted. It is the zebu ox 
 which is sculptured in the cave-temples of 
 EUora, and the seven pagodas, as they are 
 commonly called, at Mahdinaiaipur, on the 
 Coromandel coast. These are proofs of the 
 extreme antiquity of this breed, and of its 
 distinctness, at a remote era, from the ordinary 
 ox. 
 
 Bufibn observes, that the ox without a dorsal 
 
 G15 
 
ZEBU BEEED.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [zebu breed. 
 
 hump, which he erroneously terms the Auroch 
 race, occupies the cold and temperate zones, 
 and is thinly distributed towards the regions 
 of the south. The contrary, however, is the 
 fact. The ox with the hump, which he terras 
 also erroneously the Bison race, exclusively 
 occupies all the southern regions — namely, 
 the entire continent of the Indian empire, the 
 islands of the Eastern and Southern seas, and 
 the whole of Africa, from Mount Atlas to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, includiug Madagascar, 
 and the island of St. Juan, on the channel of 
 Mosambique. "With respect to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, it is certain that the zebu race 
 does not prevail there, at least in the present 
 day ; but F. Leguat, in the narration of his Voi/- 
 ages, says, that " the oxen are of three sorts at 
 the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and 
 very active. Some have a hump on the back ; 
 others have the horns long and pendent ; w'hile 
 others have them turned up, and well shaped, 
 as in English cattle." 
 
 With respect to the ox represented on the 
 Greek and Eoman sculptures — which is not of 
 the true zebu race — it must be confessed that, 
 in many points, and more particularly in the 
 pendulous, folded dewlap, it resembled the 
 zebu, and may probably have been the ulti- 
 mate product of a mixture of the zebu race, 
 introduced at an early date from India, with 
 the ordinary cattle of Greece and Italy. Tbis, 
 however, is a mere supposition. In the Greek 
 sculptures the ox is represented without 
 any hump, but the withers are high, and the 
 crupper rounded. "To the classical anti- 
 quary," says a talented writer, "we beg to 
 suggest that the dewlap of the Brahmin bull 
 offers an object of much attention and interest, 
 by reason of its sharp and decided outline, and 
 perpendicular creases or folds, wonderfully 
 verifying the correctness of those Greek sculp- 
 tures on bronze and marble, in medals and 
 statuary, in which we see representations of 
 Victory sacrificing a bull, of the oxen of Ceres, 
 &c. These representations will no longer be 
 considered out of drawing by those who may 
 have an opportunity of examining the sacred 
 bull of India, nor exaggerated in their fore 
 quarters ; although critics of the last century, 
 less fortunate iu tbis respect than the visitors 
 of the Zoological Society's gardens, have deter- 
 mined them, without hesitation,to be altogether 
 G16 
 
 incorrect." Several beautiful specimens of the 
 zebu ox, both of the large-sized variety, and 
 also of the dwarf caste, are iu the Zoological 
 Gardens. They are remarkable for their 
 docility and quiet temj^r. 
 
 Mr. Touatt informs us, that a beautiful zebu 
 bull and cow, of the Nagore breed, were, on 
 one occasion, exhibited at the Christmas Cattle- 
 show ; and adds, that they were bred by Lieu- 
 teuant- colonel Skinner, on his farm at Dauah, 
 near Pokah, on the borders of the Bichaneer 
 desert, a hundred miles to the westward of 
 Delhi. Tliey were of the finest breed of Indian 
 cattle, used by the higher orders to draw their 
 state carriages, and much valued for size, 
 speed, and endurance. The specimens in ques- 
 tion " arrived at Calcutta, a distance of 1,400 
 miles, when under six months old. They were 
 sent as a present to Mr, AVood, who was then 
 residing at Calcutta, and by whom they were 
 forwarded to Mr. Perkins. Colonel Skinner 
 had a large stock of them ; and six or seven 
 beasts were always kept saddled, to carry the 
 military despatches. They remained saddled 
 three or four hours ; and, if not wanted in that 
 time, fresh ones were brought out to relieve 
 their companions. They would travel, with a 
 soldier on their back, fifteen or sixteen hours 
 in the day, at the rate of six miles an hour. 
 The action of the Nagore cattle is particularly 
 fine — nothing like the English cattle, with the 
 sideway circular action of their hind legs. They 
 bring their hind legs under them in as straight 
 a line as the horse. They are very active, and 
 can clear a five-barred gate with the greatest 
 ease. Mr. Perkins had a calf which leaped 
 over an iron fence higher than any five-barred 
 gate, and the bull frequently jumped over the 
 same fence in order to get at the water ; and 
 when he had drunk his fill, leaped back again. 
 * * * Mr. Perkins observes, that the chief 
 advantage of these Brahmin bulls would pro- 
 bably consist in their speed and strength, in 
 both of which they surpass any of our breeds." 
 
 Of the extensive use and consequent value 
 of the Brahmin or large zebu breed, in their 
 native climate, we can scarcely form an ade- 
 quate idea. In some parts of India the dwarf 
 races are unknown, and the large is bred ex- 
 clusively. According to an observation of 
 Colonel Sykes, in the Froceedings of the 
 Zoological Society, the Brinjarees, a singularly 
 
Tin: ZKUU UKKKP.] (' A T'l' I. K. A N 1 ) I' 1 1 H 1 K V A 1{ 1 111' 1 i:S. [tui: zr.nu bbeed. 
 
 t'lTatic people, possess vast herds, iind breed the 
 JJrahmin cattle on an extensive scale ; " and an 
 army rarel}' moves in the iiolci without 15,000 
 or 20,000 bullocks to carry its grain. Dwarf 
 cattle are not met in Dukhiin." The bufValo, 
 however, divides the palm of usefulness witli 
 the zebu in the agricultural labours of Imlia, 
 and is preferred for many purposes, on account 
 of his more robust con^itntion. In the Ma- 
 wals, or hilly tracts among the Ghauts, this 
 animal supersedes the zebu. " In those tracts," 
 says Colonel Sykes, " much rice is planted ; and 
 the male buftalo, from his superior hardihood, 
 is much better suited to resist the ellects of 
 the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of 
 rice, than the bullock. The female is also in- 
 finitely more valuable than the cow, from the 
 verj- much greater quantity of milk she yields." 
 In point of beauty and docility, there is no 
 comparison between the heavy savage buffalo 
 and the " Sacred bull of Bramah." Nor is the 
 former ever devoted to Bal-Siva as a meri- 
 torious offering. On tlie contrary, it is common 
 to meet with Brahmin bulls thus devoted, 
 which wander at their pleasure, exempt from 
 the servitude of the yoke, and which are re- 
 garded as endowed with a sacred character. 
 The beautiful form and sleek appearance of 
 these fortunate creatures, particularly engaged 
 the notice of Bishop Heber. The first which 
 the bishop met, in his journey, was grazing in a 
 green paddy-field, and was branded on the 
 haunches with the emblem of Siva. He crossed 
 their path, and found them both tame and fear- 
 less ; and seeing some grass in one of the 
 European's hands, they coolly walked up and 
 smelt it. These privileged bulls are turned 
 out, when calves, on certain solemn occasions, 
 by wealthy Hindoos, as acceptable offerings to 
 the divinity Siva. To strike, or in any way to 
 injure or molest one of thcin, is held as a mortal 
 sin. " They feed," he observes, " where they 
 choose, and devout persons take great delight 
 in pampering them. They are exceeding pests 
 in the villages near Calcutta; breaking into 
 gardens, thrusting their noses into the stalls 
 of fruiterers' and pastry-cooks' shops, and 
 helping themselves without ceremony. Like 
 other petted animals, they are sometimes mis- 
 chievous ; and are said to resent, with a push 
 of their horns, any delay in gratifying their 
 appetites or wishes." 
 
 4 K 
 
 Between tliis absurd reverence for conse- 
 crated bulls, and the ordinary tn-ntmont of the 
 working ox, tiii-re is a vast distinction ; tho 
 hitter is iiarslily, and often severt'ly treated. 
 The cow, however, has more forbearance exer- 
 cised towards her than, from the treatment of 
 tho ox, might be expected. Bishop Jlcber, 
 speaking of the mode of treading out the corn 
 still practised in India, relates the following: — 
 " One of the Hindu farmers was threshing 
 out a small kind of millet by driving oxen over 
 it, round and round in a circle. They were 
 just leaving off work as I came up ; and a hind 
 we^ bringing a largo bundle of green Indian 
 corn, weeded from tho thick crop, for their 
 provender. I observed, however, that tlie ani- 
 mals, during their previous employment, were 
 not muzzled, according to the Scriptural rule; 
 at the same time, they were kept so constantly 
 moving, that a few mouthfuls were all they 
 could get. While I was examining this heap 
 of grain, and asking the old man some ques- 
 tions, his cows came for the evening ; and I 
 pleased him exceedingly, when tho cowman 
 ran forward to beat them from my path, by 
 forbidding him to strike thera. * Good ! good 1' 
 he said, with an air of much satisfaction ; ' one 
 must not beat cows.' It seems to me that the 
 tender mercies of tho Hindus towards animals, 
 are exhausted on cows and Brahmin bulls only ; 
 for oxen they have no pity — they are treated 
 with much severity." That the ox should be 
 severely treated or employed in hard work by 
 the Brahmins, seems a sort of contradiction to 
 the principles by which these people profess to 
 be guided; but such inconsistencies are too 
 common to be surprising. Thevenot, who de- 
 scribes the zebu oxen of India as excellent 
 both for the saddle and draft, adds, that some 
 gallop as fast as a good horse ; and goes on to 
 state that they are equally used for the plough, 
 and for coaches and chariots. Tiiey are har- 
 nessed by means of a long yoke at the end of 
 the pole, which is placed on the neck of the two 
 oxen, and the driver holds in his hand the cord 
 which is attached to a small double cord passed 
 through the gristle of the nose, instead of a bife 
 in the mouth, as in the case of the horse. 
 
 It would appear that white oxen are highly 
 esteemed in India, as they have also been in 
 other parts of the world. Olearius notices the 
 procession of an Indian prince, who was drawn 
 
 C17 
 
PEESiAN OXEN.] CATTLE, AND THETE YAEIETIES. 
 
 [the gatal. 
 
 in a carriage by two white oxen, whicli had the 
 neck short, and a hurnp between the shoulders, 
 but which were as lively and active as horses. 
 Bishop Heber observes, that the Thakoors, the 
 nobility of the Eajpoots, generally travel in 
 covered waggons drawn by white oxen, the 
 horns of which they gild. Tavernier observes — 
 *' The two oxen which were harnessed to my 
 carriage cost me nearly sis hundred rupees. 
 The reader need not be astonished at this 
 price ; for these are oxen of great strength, and 
 can travel journeys of twelve to fifteen leagues 
 1, day for sixty days, and always on the trot. 
 When they have done half their day's work, 
 they have two or three balls, the size of a 
 penny loaf, of wheaten flour kneaded with 
 butter and coarse sugar ; and, in the evening, 
 their ordinary fare consists of chick-peas bruised 
 and steeped half-an-hour in water." Of the 
 docility, activity, and services of the zebu ox 
 jn India, much more need not be said. Nume- 
 rous travellers, both in the past and present 
 century, have borne the same testimony, and 
 record observations bearing upon the same 
 
 point. 
 
 PERSIAN OXEN. 
 
 Eeceding westward from India to Persia, we 
 gradually lose the zebu race, or at least find it 
 intermingled with thatof another type. Cbardin 
 observes, that the oxen of Persia are like ours, 
 excepting towards the frontiers of India, where 
 they have the hunch on the back. Throughout 
 the whole country, the ox is seldom eaten as 
 food ; it is only reared as a beast of burden or 
 for tillage. Such as are used for burdens are 
 shod with iron, in consequence of the stony 
 mountains over which they have to travel. 
 The shoeing of oxen, where the country is 
 rugged and the roads hard or stony, is also 
 practised in India, as Thevenot relates, but is 
 nofe a general custom. The shoes are light, 
 and two are placed on each foot, as the cloven 
 character of the hoof necessarily requires, so 
 that the natural freedom of each part is not 
 impeded. In Persia, the bull is often made to 
 fight with the lion, and sometimes comes off 
 victorious, though dreadfully lacerated. 
 
 Thus much respecting the distinction between 
 the zebu race of cattle and the ordinary breeds 
 of Europe, and their apparently natural dis- 
 tribution. Whichever race or breed we contem- 
 plate, we shall find it adapted to the service and 
 618 
 
 necessities of man, its value being in proportion. 
 It will readily be admitted, however, that the 
 interest which attaches to the ox does not 
 arise from its intelligence, but from its absolute 
 utility. The pleasure which the mind ex- 
 periences when we gaze on peaceful herds, 
 feeding in tranquil security, is of a complex 
 origin — the result of an association of ideas, 
 more or less remotely connected with the 
 presence of these creatures ; which, from time 
 immemorial, have formed the wealth of man, 
 and which have, therefore, engaged alike the 
 attention of the statesman, the poet, and the 
 philosopher. 
 
 THE GAYAL. 
 
 (Bos GaviBus). Gavaya, Sansc. ; Gavai, or 
 Gayal, Hind. ; Gobaygoru, Beng. ; Gaujangali, 
 Pers. ; Methana, Mountaineers (Cucis, &c.), 
 east of Silhet; Shial, Mountaineers (Cucis), 
 east of Chatgaon ; J'hongnua, Mugs ; Niinee, 
 Burmas ; Gauvera, Ceylon. 
 
 India presents ns with several species of 
 wild oxen, independent of such as belong to 
 the buffalo tribe, some of which are domestica- 
 ted in certain districts, beyond which they are 
 not dispersed; and such is the Gayal. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Macrae, the gayal is found 
 wild in the range of mountains which form 
 the eastern boundary of the provinces of Arra- 
 can, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and 
 Silhet. The Cucis, or Lunetas, a people in- 
 habiting the hills immediately to the eastward 
 of Chatgaon, have herds of them in a domesti- 
 cated state. The animal is called Gabay in 
 the Hindu Sastra ; but, as it would appear, is 
 little known beyond the limits of its native 
 mountains, except to the inhabitants of the 
 provinces above mentioned. We learn from 
 the same author, that the gayal is of a dull 
 heavy appearance, but that its form, like that 
 of the wild buffalo, indicates great strength 
 and activity. Its disposition is gentle; and, 
 in a wild state, on its native hills, it is not 
 considered dangerous, never waiting the ap- 
 proach of man, much less standing and sus- 
 taining his attack. The Cucis hunt the wild 
 animals for the sake of their flesh. The gajal 
 is a tenant of the forest, and prefers the 
 tender shoots and leaves of shrubs to grass. 
 It never wallows in the mud like the buffalo. 
 In a state of domestication among the Ciicis, 
 it does not undergo any labour ; nor is the 
 
THE UVALL.] 
 
 C A 1^ T r. E, A N D 'J' 1 1 1 : IK \ .\ \l\ KT I E S. 
 
 [tIIK UVAl-L. 
 
 milk of the fenialo (wliich, though small in 
 quantity, is extremely rieli) lield in any recjuest; 
 the animals are bred and reared solely lor tiio 
 sake of their ilesh and hides, of which latter 
 the CiK'is miike stroni; shields. Tlieso domes- 
 ticated herds roam, at large, in their forests 
 during the day, and return home to their 
 villages in the evening, being taught to do 
 this very early, by being fed, when young, 
 every night with salt, which, to these animals, 
 is extremely palatable. Though the Ci'iois 
 slaughter the domestic gayal, the Hindus, in 
 the province of Chatgaon, will not kill this 
 animal (tlieir gabay), which they hold in equal 
 veneration witii the cow; but they hunt and 
 kill another gayi'd (as I'gayal, or Seloi), as they 
 do the wild buflalo. The cry of the gayal is a 
 kind of lowing; shriller, but not so loud as that 
 of the European ox, without any resemblance 
 to the grunt of the buifalo. In size and shape 
 it resembles the English bull ; has short horns, 
 which are distant at their bases, and rise in a 
 gentle curve upwards and outwards, their trans- 
 verse section near the base being ovate. The 
 forehead is broad, and crowned with a tutt 
 of lighter-coloured, long-curled hair; the dew- 
 lap is deep and peuucut ; there is no mane 
 or hump as in the zebu, but the withers rise 
 to a considerable elevation. The tail is short ; 
 the body covered with a tolerable coat of 
 straight dark-brown hair; on the belly it is 
 lighter coloured ; and the legs and face are 
 sometimes white. Erom various experiments, 
 it is proved that the domestic gayal will breed 
 with the ordinary zebu cattle of India; but 
 whether the otlVpriug will interbreed with each 
 other is yet to be ascertained. 
 
 THE GYALL. 
 (^Bos frontalis, Lambert). In the seventh 
 volume of the Linnceaii Transactions, will be 
 found the figure and description of a Gyall, 
 which died in London, in 1842, by A. B. 
 Lambert, Esq., who quotes the following 
 letter from George Harris, Esq., who was well 
 acquainted with the domestic gyall in its native 
 country. Keferring to a communication from 
 Mr. Lambert, be writes — "I have before me 
 your note, with the drawing, which appears to 
 me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned 
 to have in my possession. Some parts of the 
 drawing seem to be rather too much enlarged, 
 
 as the base of the horns and the rising between 
 tlie fore shoulders. The animal I described to 
 you, and which 1 have kept and reared these 
 last seven years, and know by the name of tho 
 gyall, is a native of tho hills to tho uorlh-eaat 
 and east of tho Conipany's province of Chitta- 
 gong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills 
 which se|)arates it from the country of Arracan. 
 Tho male gyall is like our bull in sliapo and 
 appearance, but I conceive wot tpiito so tall, 
 and of a blackisli-brown colour; the horns 
 short, but thick and strong towards the base, 
 round which, and across tho frons (ciiailVon), 
 tho hair is bushy, and of a dirty-white colour. 
 The chest and forehead are broad and thick. 
 He is naturally very bold, and will defend 
 himself agains'j any of the beasts of prey. The 
 female dilfers little in ajipearance : her horns 
 are not quite so large, and her make is some- 
 what more slender; she is very quiet, and used 
 for all the purposes of the dairy, as also (I 
 have been informed by the natives) for tilling 
 the ground, and is more tractable than the 
 builalo. Tho milk which these cows give has 
 a peculiar richness in it, arising, I should con- 
 ceive, from their mode of feeding, which is 
 always on the young shoots and branches of 
 trees, in preference to grass. I constantly 
 made it a practice to allow them to range 
 abroad amongst the hills and jungles at Chitta- 
 gong during the day to browse, a keeper 
 attending to prevent their straying so far as 
 to endanger losing them. They do not thrive 
 in any part of Bengal so well as in the afore- 
 mentioned province, and in the adjoining one, 
 Tipper;ih, where, I believe, the animal is also 
 to be found. I have heard of one instance of 
 a female gyall breeding with a common bull." 
 
 Lesson, and the author of the article Ox, 
 in the Fenny Cijdupccdia, seem to regiird the 
 gayal and the gyall as distinct : from the de- 
 scriptions, however, which are given, it is quite 
 evident that they relate to one and the same 
 species, as Eischer, in his Synopsis Mamma- 
 Hum, considers them to be. Tiie Uiie fron- 
 talis, therefore, must be retained by right of 
 priority over yavccus. 
 
 Duvaucel, who hunted this animal at the 
 foot of tbe Silliet Mountains, describes it as 
 very wild, but easily domesticated. He says, 
 that until he had opportunities of seeing it in a 
 natural state, he entertained the opinion that 
 
 GJL9 
 
THE GOUE."! 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAKIETIES. 
 
 [the gotjb. 
 
 it did not differ essentially from our domestic 
 ox, liis impression having been received from 
 an inspection of specimens living tame in the 
 menagerie at Barrackpore. Subsequently, he 
 regarded it as distinct. 
 
 THE GOUR. 
 According to Captain Eogers, the Bos gour 
 is found in several of the mountaiu districts of 
 Central India, but chiefly in Myu Pat, or Mine 
 Paut, a high insulated mountain, with a tabular 
 summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South 
 Bahar. " This table-laud is about thirty-sis 
 miles in length, by twenty-four or twenty-five 
 miles in breadth, and rises above the neigh- 
 bouring plains, probably, two thousand feet. 
 The sides of the mountain slope with consid- 
 erable steepness, and are furrowed by streams 
 that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks 
 of which are the favourite haunts of gours. On 
 being disturbed, they retreat into the thick 
 jungles of saul-trees, which cover the sides of 
 the whole range. The south-east side of the 
 mountain presents an extensive mural preci- 
 pice, from twenty to forty feet high. The 
 rugged slopes, at its foot, are covered by im- 
 penetrable green jungle, and abound with 
 dens formed of fallen blocks of rocks, the suit- 
 able retreat of tigers, bears, and hysenas. The 
 western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is 
 parched, and the forest seems withered by ex- 
 cess of heat. The summit of the mountaiu 
 presents a mixture of opens, lawns, and woods. 
 There were once twenty-five villages ou Myn 
 Pat, but these have been long deserted on 
 account of the number and ferocity of the 
 beasts of prey. On this mountain, however, 
 the gour maintains bis seat. The Indians 
 assert that even the tiger has no chance in 
 combat with a full-grown gour, though he may 
 occasionally succeed in carrying off an unpro- 
 tected calf. The wild buffalo abounds in the 
 plains below tlie mountains; bub ho so much 
 dreads the gour, according to the natives, that 
 he rarely attempts to invade his haunts, and 
 the hunting-party only met three or four urnas 
 (arnees) ou the mountain. The forests which 
 shield the gour, abound, however, with hog- 
 deer (Sambur-dcer), saumers, and porcupines." 
 In these wild and romantic retreats, Capt. 
 Eogers and his party hunted the gour, which, 
 when wounded, turns round upon its adversary, 
 620 
 
 ready to do battle. A short bellow, imitated 
 by the syllables ugli-ugli, was the only cry 
 which the animal was heard to utter, and that 
 not until it had been struck by the bullet. 
 The gour is gregarious, herding together in 
 parties varying from ten to twenty ; browsing 
 on the leaves and shoots of tender trees and 
 shrubs, and also grazing on the banks of the 
 streams. In cold weather the saul-forests are 
 their places of concealment, and the heats 
 bring them out to feed on the green lawns and 
 valleys. They do not, it seems, wallow iu 
 swamp and mire like the buffalo. If the natives 
 are to be credited, this animal will not brook 
 captivity; and, even when captured at an early 
 age, the mountain-calf droops and dies. The 
 period of gestation is stated to be twelve 
 months; the females produce their young in 
 August. The native name of the bull-calf, for 
 the first year, is Pnrorah; of the cow-calf, 
 Pareeah. The full-grown CQW is termed 
 Gourin. 
 
 The gour attains to a very large size. Dr. 
 Traill gives the dimensions of one not fully 
 grown, which measured, from the nose to the 
 end of the tail, nearly twelve feet, and stood 
 nearly six feet high at the withers. The limbs 
 are vigorous, clean-made, and more deer-like 
 than bovine. The back is strongly arched ; and, 
 when the animal stands still, the line from the 
 nose to the base of the tail, along the spine, 
 presents a nearly uniform curve. This appear- 
 ance is partly owing to the curved form of the 
 chaffron, and, still more, to a remarkable ridge 
 of no great thickness, which rises six or seven 
 inches above the general line of the back, from 
 the last of the cervical to the middle of the 
 dorsal vertebra?, where it graduUy declines and 
 becomes lost. This elevation is very con- 
 spicuous in gours of all ages, although they 
 may be loaded with fat, and has no resemblance 
 to the hunch found on the withers of the zebu 
 breed. There is not a trace of the dewlap, 
 which is well marked in the gayal. The hair 
 of the skin generally is short and sleek, having 
 somewhat the oily appearance of a fresh seal- 
 skin. The colour is deep brownish black, 
 almost approaching to bluish black. Between 
 the horns is a tuft of curling, dirty-white hair; 
 and over each hoof is a ring of the same 
 colour. The animal, altogether, has a striking 
 appearance. 
 
TllJu YAK.] 
 
 CATTLi:, AND Till: IK VARIETIES. 
 
 iTilE TAK. 
 
 THE YAK OF TART.VRY. 
 
 We may here brieily notieo n species of the 
 bovine nice, the Yale ot'Tartary {JJos grunnies), 
 too reinarlvable to bo altogether oiuitleil in our 
 sketch of the ox tribe. Whether the yak 
 belongs to the restricted genus Bos is very 
 iloiibtful. In some points ib certainly is re- 
 lati'J to tlie musk ox {Ovibos), at least if wo 
 are to judge from the skins, more or less im- 
 perfect, which wo have had opportunities of 
 examining. The following is the description 
 of a skin wanting the liorns and limbs, iu the 
 Zoological Museum : — The nostrils are narrow, 
 converging below, with a small uudc space be- 
 tween them, and a thia naked border round 
 them, so that there is no true broad naked muz- 
 zle, as in the common ox. The ears are small and 
 pointed, and the forehead is covered with black, 
 curling locks ; but its degree of convexity can- 
 not be accurately determined, owing to the 
 absence of the skull. The back is clothed with 
 smooth hair, of a deep chocolate brown, a white 
 stripe occupying the ridge of the withers, and 
 another the centre of the croup. iTrom the 
 shoulders, sides, and under surface of the body, 
 and also from the inside of the thighs, hangs a 
 pendent mane of long hair, falling in huge 
 masses, so as to cover the limbs, and almost 
 touch the ground. This mane is grizzled 
 black, except a central line along the belly, of 
 pure white. The tail is tufted with a huge 
 mass of glossy white and rather coarse hairs, , 
 from eighteen to twenty inches in length. In 
 size, the animal could not have exceeded the 
 small Scotch breed of cattle. On the authority 
 of Gmeliu and Turner, the horns are round, i 
 small, pointed, and bent in a semicircle for- 
 wards. The withers are elevated, and the ! 
 colour is said to vary. We have known an 
 instance in which the tail was black. 
 
 The yak is a native of the mountains ofi 
 Tibet, and, when wild, is said to be savage and 
 dangerous. It is, however, reclaimed, and a 
 domestic breed is kept by the natives of the 
 range tenanted by the animal in its wild con- 
 dition. It is, perhaps, the Pocphagus described 
 by ^Elian. From an early period, its tail was 
 used as a standard by the Mongols and Tartars, 
 being one of the distinguished insignia of 
 superior officers. In India these tails are 
 mounted on ivory or silver handles, and, under 
 
 the name of chowries, ore used to brush oway 
 tho Hies. Eli'phanls of state are taught to 
 carry a splendidly mounted chuwrie in their 
 ' proboscis, and wave it backwards and forwards. 
 Of the habits of the yak, in a slate of free- 
 dom, little or nothing is known. Aa regards 
 the domestic yak. Turner, in iiis Account of 
 an Einhassy to C/a';m, alter giving a description 
 of it, observes, that " tlieso cattle, thougli not 
 large-boned, seem, from tho profuse quantity 
 of hair with which they are provided, to be of 
 great bulk. They have a downcast, heavy look, 
 and ap[)ear, what indeed they are, sullen and 
 suspicious, discovering much impatience at tho 
 near approach of strangers. They do not low 
 loud, like the cattle of England, any more than 
 those of Hindostau, but make a low grunting 
 noise, scarcely audible ; and this but seldom, 
 when under some impression of uneasiness. 
 These cattle are pastured in the coldest parts 
 of Tibet, upon the short herbage peculiar to 
 the mountains and bleak plains. The chain of 
 mountains, situated between the latitudes 27^ 
 and 2b°, which divides Tibet from Bootan, and 
 the summits of which are mostly clothed with 
 snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity 
 the southern glens ailbrd them food and shelter 
 during the severity of the winter. Iu milder 
 seasons the northern aspect is more congenial 
 to their nature, and admits a wider range. 
 They are a very valuable property to the tribes 
 of itinerant Tartars called Duckba, who live in 
 tents, and tend them from place to place, and to 
 whom they afford an easy mode of conveyance, 
 a good covering, and wholesome subsistence. 
 They are never employed iu agriculture, but 
 are extremely useful as animals of burden, for 
 they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a 
 great weight. Tents and ropes are manu- 
 factured of their hair; and, amongst tho 
 humbler class of herdsmen, I have seen caps 
 and jackets made of their skins. The best 
 requital with vihich the care of their keepers 
 is at length rewarded, for scl'cting them ^ood 
 pastures, is iu the abundant quantity of rich 
 milk which they yield, and in the butter pro- 
 duced from it, w^hich is most excellent. It is 
 the custom of tho Tartars to preserve this iu 
 skins or bladders, and, the air being thus 
 excluded from it, it will keep iu this cold 
 climate throughout the year; so that, after 
 some time tending their herds, when a suflicieafc 
 
 021 
 
THE AKOA.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [the buffalo. 
 
 store is accumulated, it remains only to load 
 their cattle, aud drive them to a proper market 
 with their own produce, which constitutes, to 
 the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material 
 article of commerce." 
 
 THE ANOA. 
 Genus Anoa.—TM^ rare animal has been 
 considered by some naturalists as belonging to 
 the antelopes ; and, by others, to the Ox tribe. 
 The uncertainty here arises from the circum- 
 stance, that though the animal has been noticed 
 for many years, only a few fragments of 
 skulls and horns have hitherto been brought 
 to Europe. The horns are erect, perfectly 
 straight, and in the plane of the forehead. 
 They are about the same length as the head 
 that is, about nine or ten inches ; strongly de- 
 pressed or flattened in front; of nearly the 
 same breadth till within three inches of the 
 extremities, whence they are rather attenuated 
 to the tips, which are bluntly pointed, and irre- 
 gularly wrinkled, or rather crumbled, through 
 out the greater part of their length. The 
 bead is long and narrow, terminating in a 
 broad muzzle. 
 
 Mr. Pennant is the first naturalist who has 
 mentioned the anoa, but he has given no 
 account of its characters, and merely relates, 
 that it is about the size of a m-iddling sheep , 
 is wild and fierce, and resides in large herds 
 among the rocky mountains of the islaud of 
 Celebes. He considers it as a small species 
 of wild buffalo, and adds, that it is captured 
 only with great difficulty ; and is so fierce in 
 confinement, that some of them, belonging to 
 Governor Loten, in one night, ripped up the 
 bellies of fourteen stags which were kept 
 in the same paddock with them. The next 
 author who mentions the anoa, from original 
 documents or personal observation, is Colonel 
 Hamilton Smith, who, in the fourth volume of 
 Griffith's translation of the Regne Animal, 
 describes the head and horns, and considers 
 the animal as a species of antelope. Colonel 
 Smith's fragment was brought from Celebes 
 by the late Dr. Clarke Abel, who obtained it 
 on his return from China, in the suite of Lord 
 Amherst ; but, since that period, various other 
 heads have been brought to Europe, some of 
 which are deposited in the British Museum, 
 and in the rooms of the Zoological Society. 
 622 
 
 THE ARNEE, OR URNA. 
 
 Genus huhalus. — This is the Bos ami of 
 Shaw and other naturalists ; and is, by some, 
 regarded as nothing more than the wild ordi- 
 nary buffalo. It may, however, be found to 
 be a distinct species, if a judgment were to be 
 formed by the characters of the horns, which 
 are not uncommon in museums, though no 
 specimen of the animal itself exists in Europe. 
 It tenants the high lands of Hiudostan ; and is 
 known in Bengal, and the neighbouring pro- 
 vinces, by the name of Arna. It is described 
 as a large and formidable beast, conspicuous 
 for strength, courage, and ferocity. The horns 
 are remarkable for their enormous size, often 
 measuring from four to six feet in length. 
 They rise upwards, first inclining outwards 
 aud backwards, and then, arching gradually 
 towards each other, as they proceed to the 
 points, form together a bold crescent. They 
 are compressed on their anterior and posterior 
 surfaces, and rough, with numerous tranverse 
 furrows and ridges. The chaffron is narrow 
 and convex. 
 
 THE COMMON BUFFALO. 
 
 The Bos huhalus (Buffalo) has long been 
 domesticated in India, where its services, as 
 a beast of draught and burden, render it ex- 
 tremely valuable. From India it has spread 
 into Egypt, Greece, Italy, and Spain. In its 
 form and general aspect, it differs materially 
 from the ox, being a heavier and more clumsy, 
 as well as a more powerful animal. Though 
 lower in stature than the bull, it is more mas- 
 sive in the body, which is supported on short, 
 thick, solid limbs. The hide is coarse aud 
 dense, covered rather sparingly with black 
 wiry hair. The head is large, and carried with 
 the muzzle projecting. The forehead is convex, 
 aud the muzzle wide. The horng are com- 
 pressed, and lie back, turning up laterally, aud 
 often attaining to a great size ; but the direc- 
 tion seldom allows the points to be used for 
 "oring. The ears are large and pendulous, 
 and the dewlap is small. The eyes are wild, 
 savage, and malicious in expression ; whilst the 
 tail is long and slender. 
 
 In its native regions, the buffalo is a for- 
 midable animal, and capable of contending with 
 the tiger, which is often foiled in the deadly 
 
coMiioK BUFFALO.] CATTLH, AND TIIHIK VAKIETIES. [common BUFPiLLO. 
 
 strife. "When excited, it rushes desperntely 
 on its foe, strikea liim down with tho horns 
 or forohfud, kneola upon him, cru3hu»«:;-in his 
 ohfst, and thon trampk's on tho lifeless body, 
 
 s if to satiate its viiulietivo fury. Its natural 
 leinper, indeed, renders it dilUcult to tame, 
 and dillicult to manage; while its prodigious 
 strength and adaptation for ecrtaiu localities, 
 render it a valuable acquisition. The hot 
 uiorass, teeming with pestilence, is tho genial 
 abode of this animal; and its delight is to 
 wallow in the stagnant water, where it will 
 luxuriate for hours during the heat of the day, 
 with its black muzzle just elevated above the 
 surface. Its flesh is hard and unsavoury ; but 
 the milk of tlie buftalo-cow is of peculiar rich- 
 ness ; and, in the East, a considerable quantity 
 of butter is procured from it. The hide is 
 greatly esteemed for its solidity and toughness. 
 Colonel Sykes states that the long-horned 
 variety of the buffalo is bred in great numbers 
 in the Mawals, or hilly tracts along the Ghauts. 
 In those tracts much rice is planted ; and the 
 male buffalo, from his superior hardihood, is 
 much better suited to resist the effects of the 
 heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the 
 crops, than the bullock. The female is also 
 infinitely more valuable than the common cow, 
 from the very much greater quantity of milk 
 she yields. 
 
 Dillon states that the buffalo at MaLibar is 
 larger than the ox, with white eyes, fiat horns, 
 often two feet long, and thick and short legs. 
 " It is an ugly animal, almost destitute of hair ; 
 goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens. 
 Herds may be seen, as of common cows ; and 
 they afford milk, which serves to make butter 
 and cheese; their flesh is good, though less 
 delicate than that of the ox : the animal swims 
 perfectly well, and traverses the broadest 
 rivers. Besides the tame ones, there are 
 wild buffiiloes, which are extremely dangerous, 
 tearing men to pieces, or crushing tliem with 
 a single blow of the head. They are less to be 
 dreaded in the woods than elsewhere, because 
 their horns often catch in the branches, and 
 give time to the persons pursued to escape by 
 flight. The skin of these animals serves for 
 an infinity of purposes; and even cruses are 
 made of them for holding water or liquors : the 
 animals on the coast of Malabar are almost all 
 
 wild, and strangers are not prevented from 
 
 hunting thoin for thoir flesh." In Coylon, an 
 in IVralabar, tho buffalo exists both in a wild 
 and domesticated state ; and tho tamo herds 
 are not unfrecpiently joined by wild iiulividualH, 
 which the inliabilants sometimes entrap, and 
 at other times shoot. It would apjjcar that 
 the animal is more common in Bombay than 
 in Bengal. At Boitpoor, Bishop lluber was 
 shown a white buffalo, probably an albino, 
 whicli was pointed out by the Indians as a rare 
 curiosity. From India tho buffalo is diHtrib- 
 utcd throughout Siam, Cochin-Chiua, Malacca, 
 and the adjacent islands, as Sumatra, Java, 
 Borneo, &c., together with the Philippines. 
 It is also common in China, where it is used in 
 the various labours of agriculture. In Africa 
 it 13 abundant along the Nile, and in other 
 districts, existing in a wild or emancipated 
 state, as well as in a state of domestication. 
 In Abyssinia, more particularly in tho forests 
 of Eas cl Fil, the buflalo is very common. Its 
 skin is chiefly employed in that country for 
 the making of shields, in which considerable 
 art is displayed. In the middle ages the 
 bufi;\lo was introduced into Spain and Italy, 
 where, in course of time, tho animal became 
 naturalised; and, in some districts, may be 
 regarded as in a state of nature. 
 
 In the worst parts of the pestilential tract, 
 known as the Maremma in Italy, the savage 
 bufililo may be seen, roaming at will, under the 
 care of wild keepers (buflalari), whose lives 
 are passed in this dangerous employment. 
 Wherever large herds of buffaloes occur, it may 
 be taken as the sure index of malaria. In the 
 wild provinces of the Calabrias, where most of 
 the plains and valleys are always partially 
 swamped by the Laino, the Chratis, the Amato, 
 and numerous other rivers and torrents, they 
 are ver}' common. They range, almost the 
 only occupants, over the plains of Pajstum, 
 and the still wilder and more extensive flats of 
 Apulia. The Pontiue Marshes offer them a 
 favourite retreat ; and in the pestilential Ma- 
 remma, both of Komo and Tuscany, scarcely 
 any other animals, except wild boars, are ever 
 seen. In Northern Italy, where there is infi- 
 nitely less malaria than in the south, they occur 
 in greater numbers, as there the causes of that 
 pest exist, and there its effects are often felt, 
 in the inundated rice-grounds of Lombardy, 
 in the marshes formed by the overflowing 
 
 02;J 
 
COMMON BUFFALO.] CATTLE, ATs'D THEIE VARIETIES. 
 
 [cape buffalo. 
 
 of the Po, the Tanaro, the Ticino, or of 
 some other rivers or lakes. In every part of 
 Italy, but especially in the south, buffaloes are 
 used as beasts of burden, and their strength 
 and perseverance render them available in 
 many emergencies when oxen or horses would 
 fail. In some of the marshy plains of Calabria, 
 communication would be almost impracticable 
 were it not for the buffalo. There are not 
 only morasses, swamps, and bogs in every 
 direction, but rivers, suddenly swollen to tor- 
 rents in rainy weather, and unprovided with 
 bridges of any sort, frequently occur. Here 
 horses, mules, or oxen are useless ; but a pair 
 of good buffaloes, working chest-deep in the 
 mud, will, slowly indeed, but surely, drag a large 
 carro, with its goods or passengers, through 
 them. Yoked to a high cart, with wheels of 
 prodigious diameter, they will fearlessly take 
 to the swollen torrent, and, provided the water 
 does not entirely cover them, drag it safely to 
 the opposite bank. On the great plain of 
 Apulia the buffalo is the ordinary beast of 
 draught ; and, at the annual fair, held at Foggia 
 at the end of May, immense droves of almost 
 wild buffaloes are brought to the town for sale. 
 Fearful accidents occasionally happen, enraged 
 animals breaking from the dense mass in spite 
 of all the exertions of the buffalari, and rushing 
 upon some object of their vengeance, whom 
 they strike down and trample to death. It is 
 dangerous to over-work or irritate the buffalo ; 
 and instances are known in which, when re- 
 leased by the brutal driver from the cart, they 
 have turned iustanLly upon him, and killed him 
 before any assistance could be rendered. 
 
 The buffalo, as well as the bull, is baited 
 in the amphitheatres of Italy. One kind of 
 sport with the buffalo is called La Botta. A 
 large tube, made of wicker-work or other 
 flexible materials, well wadded without and 
 within, and open at both ends — looking, in 
 short, like a cask or butt (whence its name) 
 — with the ends stove in, is rolled across the 
 arena. Presently a man creeps into this botta, 
 and then, lifting it up on end, rises on his feet 
 and begins to move, with his head peeping 
 above the cask towards the buffiilo ; which, at 
 first, stares, bewildered at the sight, and then 
 runs and upsets the novel object. In this 
 game the man must be careful, when the charge 
 is made, to draw in his head and legs, and keep 
 G21. 
 
 himself entirely covered, like a tortoise in its 
 shell. The buffalo, seeing that the botta no 
 longer moves, kicks it, butts at it for a while, 
 causing it to roll along, aiid then leaves it; but 
 presently the cask is again raised on end, and 
 moved by the man towards the beast. This 
 trick could not be played with the Toro Vac- 
 cine, the sharp and strong horns of which, be- 
 ing better placed for attack than the buffalo's, 
 would pierce the cask through and through. 
 The attack of the buffalo in the arena is more 
 dangerous than that of the bull ; and, in his 
 rage, when he has missed his tormentor, he 
 often strikes the wall furiously with his head 
 and horns, making fragments of stone fly in all 
 directions, apparently without suffering any 
 injury from the violence of the shock. 
 
 THE CAPE BUFFALO. 
 
 This ferocious animal {Bos Caffer) is a native 
 of Southern Africa, associating generally in 
 troops, and frequenting the watered glens and 
 ravines among the hills. Like the common buf- 
 falo, it delights to wallow in pools or swamps, 
 where it sometimes passes the greater part of 
 the day. Its temper is depicted in its lower- 
 ing eye, and the malevolent expression of the 
 countenance, to which the position of the horns 
 overshadowing its fiery optics, not a little con- 
 tributes. These weapons form at their base a 
 solid rugged mass, covering the forehead, from 
 which they bend downwards, and somewhat 
 outwards, gradually diminishing to the points, 
 which suddenly take an upward curve. The 
 distance between the points of the horns is 
 frequently five feet ; but the rugose,' massive 
 base of each is in contact, forming an impene- 
 trable helmet. Their colour is black. The ears 
 are a foot in length, pendent, and, in a great 
 measure, defended by the horns ; yet it is ob- 
 served that they are always torn and jagged, 
 either from the wounds received in their com- 
 bats with each other, or from the laceration of 
 thorns and spines, the animals continually 
 forcing their way through the dense thickets. 
 Though not taller than an ordinary ox, the 
 Cape buftalo is a far stouter, heavier, and more 
 powerful beast. Its limbs are short and thick ; 
 its body bulky, and its head ponderous. The 
 hide is thick and tough, and sparingly covered 
 with harsh blackish hairs ; those on the under 
 lip, and about the corners of the mouth, being 
 
AUitocns.] 
 
 CATTLi:, AM) TUKlii VAiaETlI-S. 
 
 [auhociis. 
 
 elongated, so as to form n scanty beard. Con- 
 sideriii":: the massive proportious of iIiIh fieico 
 tenant of the wilua of Soutliern Africa, it pos- 
 sesses no inconsiderable share of Heetness ; and 
 when pursued by the hunter, it tears through 
 the thicket and up the niountain-siJo witli 
 surprising impetuosity. 2\ot unfre(juently, 
 however, it returns to the attack ; so tliat it is 
 not to bo encountered without the utmost 
 caution, and the means of escape at hand. 
 Many are the fatal accidents, and tlio narrow 
 escapes from death, recorded by the various 
 travellers who have penetrated the country of 
 the Cape bulValo. The bellowing of the aui- 
 nial, when wounded — his fury, as he tears up 
 the earth with his horns, and his efforts to re- 
 venge himself upon his foes, before he sinks 
 expiring, are described as terrific. 
 
 It is the general opinion of the natives of 
 South Africa, that though the lion frequently 
 attacks the buffalo, bo cannot overcome it by 
 dint of strength, but has recourse to stratagem, 
 lying in ambush near some stream where the 
 beast comes to drink. They say that the lion 
 springs upon its back, drives his tremendous 
 claws into the nape of the neck, and the sides 
 of his victim, tearing and mangling the buffalo 
 till it falls and dies. At other times, they 
 affirm that the iiou darts suddenly upon the 
 buffalo, fastens on its chest and neck, lacerating 
 and squeezing the mouth and nose with his 
 fore paws, till, half suffocated, and exhausted 
 by vain efforts and loss of blood from deep 
 wounds, it expires. The lion, however, does 
 not always make these attacks with impunity, 
 for his carcass is sometimes found gored and 
 trampled, evidently by buffaloes, the herd 
 having come to the rescue of their companion. 
 An allied species, the Jjos Ferjasus of H. Smith, 
 is found iu Western Africa. 
 
 THE AUROCHS, OR ZUBR. 
 The genus Bison, Bison JEuropaus (Bos 
 urus of Gmelin), is a noble species, existing 
 in the great forest of Bialowicza (pronounced 
 Bealawezha in Poland), in Lithuania, where 
 it is protected by stringent laws. In propor- 
 tions, the auroch is robust, and its withers 
 are massive and elevated. The largest males 
 stand about six feet high at the shoulders. 
 The hair is of two sorts : one is solt, woolly, 
 and short, covering the whole trunk and limbs ; 
 4 L 
 
 i thei other is long and rough, covering the 
 upper part and sides of tiie head, the neeic, 
 I and shoulder.-*, where it forms a inane ; under 
 I the lower jaw, and along the throat lu tlio 
 ' chest, it is lengthened into a sort of beard, lu 
 I old bulls tlio mano is often a foot in length, 
 and is tiuckest in November. Tiie eyes aro 
 I small, but fierce and sparkling when the aniiiml 
 I is irritated. The tongue, lips, and palate aro 
 : blue. The tail, which is short, is furni.shed 
 I with a tuft of stiff hairs at its extremity. Aa 
 j odour, described as between that of musk and 
 violets, is exhaled from the skin ; especiallv 
 from that part of the skin covering the con- 
 vexity of the forehead. It is stronger in tlio 
 male than the leinale, and may be perceived at 
 the distance of a hundred yards from the herd. 
 The flesh of this animal is highly esteemed ; but, 
 when roasted, is said to have a bluish tinge. 
 Its voice is a deep, short grunt, which can bo 
 heard at a considerable distance. 
 
 Thickets, near the swampy banks of rivers, 
 are the favourite resorts of the aurochs ; but 
 in summer, and during the warmer portion of 
 autumn, according to Dr. Weissenborn, the 
 herds select sandy spots. In winter, they 
 keep quiet by day iu the thickest part of the 
 fir-wood, only browsing by night, and finding 
 sustenance iu the bark of young trees. la 
 spring, they visit spots where the herbaceous 
 plants they relish begin to sprout. They are 
 fond of tree licheus. "The strength," says 
 Dr. Weissenborn, " of the zubr is enormous, 
 and trees of live or six inches in diameter 
 cannot withstand the thrusts of old bulls. It 
 is neither afraid of the wolf nor bear, and 
 assails its enemies both with its horns and 
 hoofs. Au old zubr is a match for four wolves. 
 Packs of the latter animal, however, some- 
 times hunt down even old bulls when alone ; 
 but a herd of zubrs has nothing to fear from 
 any rapacious animal. Notwithstanding the 
 great bulk of its body, it can ruu very swiftly. 
 In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its 
 head, which it carries very low. It has, how- 
 ever, but little bottom, and seldom runs larther 
 than one or two English miles. It swims 
 with great agility, and is very fond of bathing. 
 In its habits it is exceedingly shy, and avoid^^ 
 the sight of man. It can only be approached 
 from the leeward, as its sense of smell is ex- 
 tremely acute. But when accidentally and 
 
 (;i2.3 
 
THE BISON.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES. 
 
 lMusk ox. 
 
 suddenly fallen in witb, it will passionately 
 assail the intruder. In such fits of passion, the 
 animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly; lashes 
 its sides with its tail ; and its reddened and 
 sparkling eyes project from their sockets, and 
 roll furiously. Such is its innate wildness, that 
 none of the species has ever been completely 
 tamed. When taken young, it becomes, it is 
 true, accustomed to its keepers ; but the ap- 
 proach of other persons renders it furious ; 
 and even its keepers must be careful always to 
 wear the same sort of dress, when going near 
 it. Its great antipathy to the Bos Taurus, 
 which it either avoids or kills, would render 
 its domestication, if it were practicable, but 
 little desirable. The experiments made with a 
 view of obtaining a mixed breed from the 
 zubr and JBos Taiirus, have all failed, and are 
 now strictly prohibitedo" 
 
 THE AMERICAN BISON. 
 
 The Bison Americainis, or American Bison, 
 was formerly more extensively diflused than at 
 present; still it exists in vast numbers in 
 Louisiana, roaming over the prairies, which 
 are watered by the Arkansas, Platte, Missouri, 
 and upper branches of the Saskatchewan and 
 Peace rivers. Like its congener, the auroch, 
 the American bison is of powerful frame, and 
 exceeds, in bulk, the ordinary race of cattle ; 
 its height at the fore quarters being upwards 
 of six feet, and its weight froui twelve to fifteen 
 hundredweight, and sometimes much more. 
 The head is huge, ponderous, and carried low ; 
 the withers are massive and elevated ; the eyes 
 are small, and their expression is ferocious; 
 and the horns are small and black. The neck, 
 withers, and chest are covered with a profusion 
 of long shaggy hair, contributing to render the 
 appearance of the animal wild and terrific. 
 The hind quarters are clothed with shorter 
 wool. The general colour is umber brown, 
 acquiring a rusty tint in winter. Endowed 
 with the sense of smell in great perfection, 
 wary, and fierce, the bison associates in large 
 herds, conducted by one or two old bulls, 
 whose motions the rest appear to follow ; but 
 herds of bulls also live separately. Their food 
 consists of grass and rrnk herbage ; to obtain 
 which, in winter, they scrape away the snow 
 •with their feet. On the approach of an enemy, 
 the herd immediately takes to flight; but if 
 026 
 
 one be wounded, the life of the hunter is placed 
 in great jeopardy ; for, turning in a moment, 
 it rushes on its assailant with headlono- im- 
 petuosity, and with determined resolution. 
 Several fatal instances might be cited in which 
 the hunter has perished from want of caution 
 in attacking this formidable beast, and many 
 hairbreadth escapes are on record. In de- 
 fending itself from a dog, the bison strikes vio- 
 lently with its fore feet, and easily keeps its 
 annoying foe at bay. Its flesh is accounted 
 excellent ; the tongue and hump, or flesh on 
 the top of the withers, being especial delica- 
 cies. The chase of the bison is, therefore, as- 
 siduously pursued, both by natives and Euro- 
 peans. It swims well ; and during the heats 
 of summer, vast herds make their way to shady 
 rivulets, streams, and pools, in which they de- 
 light to plunge and bathe. Herds of twenty 
 thousand, crossing rivers upwards of a mile in 
 breadth, have been seen, as Lewis and Clarke 
 inform us ; or darkening the plains on their 
 passage to fresh feeding-grounds. 
 
 Salt-springs, or saline morasses, or salt-lakes, 
 are great attractions to this animal, and, at all 
 seasons, are visited by numerous herds. These, 
 however, are incessantly thinned by the hun- 
 ters ; and the time is probably not far distant, 
 when the American bison will be as rare and 
 as limited in its extent of range as the aurochs 
 of Lithuania. At certain seasons of the year, 
 the bulls engage in terrible conflicts, and rush 
 furiously upon man, or any other animal which 
 ventures near them. With the exception of 
 man, the most formidable enemy against which 
 the bison has to contend, is tlie huge grisly 
 bear; and before this dreaded monster the 
 strongest bull goes down. The bison will 
 breed with the ordinary race of domestic cattle, 
 against which the auroch displays the greatest 
 antipathy; though, in one respect, the latter 
 approaches nearer to the common ox than does 
 the bison. We allude to the number of ribs, 
 which are thirteen in the ox on each side, four- 
 teen in the aurochs, and fifteen in the bison. 
 
 THE MUSK OX. 
 Genus Ovibus — the Ovihos Iloscliatus. The 
 characters of the genus Ovibos, as exhibited 
 by the only known species, are defined by the 
 horns being expanded at their base, forming a 
 helmet-like mass, covering the forehead, where 
 
MUSK OX.] 
 
 CATTLF, AND Tin- Hi VATIIETIES. [DniTisii am no cattle. 
 
 their edges are in contact with each other. 
 From this mass thoy enuTgo, rouiul aiul tapi>r- 
 ing, first biMiding down bctwooii the eye and 
 ear, and then sweeping suddenly upwards. 
 Tlie ears and tail are sliort ; the eyes mode- 
 rate ; the nostrils oblong, and inclined to each 
 other from above downwards. There is no 
 true naked muzzle ; but a very narrow nude 
 line surrounds each nostril, the rest being 
 coveri'il wilh hair. There is no furrow in the 
 upper lip. 
 
 The musk ox is a native of the high lati- 
 tudes of North America, ranging from the 
 sixty-first to the seveuty-fitlh degree of lati- 
 tude. In size it scarcely equals the smallest 
 of the Highland breed of cattle; but appears 
 larger than it really is, from the profusion of 
 long, matted, woolly hair with which it is 
 covered, and which hangs on each side almost 
 to the ground, nearly concealing the limbs to 
 the pasterns. The tail is entirely hidden. 
 Beneath the lower jaw, throat, and chest, the 
 hair flows full, long, and raane-like. The gene- 
 ral colour is dull, grizzled umber brown, darker 
 on the sides and under surface. On the centre 
 of the back is a brownish-white mark or saddle. 
 The districts inhabited by the musk ox, says 
 Dr. Eichardson, are the proper lands of the 
 Esquimaux; and their name for it is Oomiug- 
 mak. It frequents wild and rocky situations, 
 mostly destitute of wood : feeding on grass 
 during one season of the year, and on licliens 
 during the other. AVhen fat, its flesh is 
 tolerable ; but, at certain times, both that of 
 the bulls and cows smell strongly of musk. 
 Though the limbs of the musk ox are short, 
 they are very vigorous, and the animal is fleet 
 and active. Dr. Eichardson mentions one pur- 
 sued on the banks of the Coppermine, which 
 scaled a lofty sand-clifF, so steep, that the 
 party were obliged to descend to their hands 
 and knees, in order to crawl up the acclivity. 
 
 In September, these animals assemble in 
 herds, and are then much harassed by the 
 hunters. The sport, however, is not free from 
 danger, for the bulls are very irascible, and, 
 when wounded, will dart furiously upon tiie 
 hunter, who requires both practice and pre- 
 sence of mind in order to esca[)e. If, how- 
 ever, the hunters remain concealed when 
 they fire upon a herd of musk oxen, the pour 
 animals mistake the noise for thunder, and 
 
 I forming themselves into a Rroup, crowd nearer 
 
 and nearer together as tlu-ir companions full 
 around them ; but should they di!*cover their 
 j enemies by sight, or by their senso of smell, 
 which is very acute, the whole lu-rd ni'ek for 
 safety by instant flit;ht. Their wool in very 
 fine ; and some stockings which were mado 
 ^ from it in France, are said to have been equal 
 [ to those mado from silk. If it could be ob- 
 tained in sufllcient quantity, it might donhtlesj 
 be employed advantageously aa an aniclu for 
 manufacture. 
 
 BRITISH WILD CATTLE 
 
 The wild cattle of this country are kept in 
 their native purity in the park of Lord Tanker- 
 ville, at Chillingham, in Northumberland. A 
 few are also kept in Scotland, in a park of 
 the Duke of Hamilton's, at Chatelherault, ia 
 Lanarkshire ; but the latter have a less certain 
 pedigree. The former nobleman, in a commu- 
 nication to the Society of Arts, gives a very 
 interesting account of their characteristics and 
 habits, and assigns them the palm of being the 
 aboriginal cattle of the island. That the 
 original breed in this country, or at least sorao 
 early breed of cattle, have been very largo in 
 size, is evident from the fossil bones found ia 
 bogs ; yet a smaller kind has been discovered 
 in Cornwall, with a species of horn more re- 
 sembling the cattle of the Duke of Hamilton. 
 Fitzstepheu, who flourished in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, alludes to the wild bull of the woods aa 
 having its haunts in the large forests near 
 London. Guy, Earl of "\Yarwick, whose con- 
 test with the Wild Dun Cow is commemorated 
 by the animal's skull being still preserved ia 
 Warwick Castle, doubtless had an encounter 
 with a monstrous animal of the wild breed. 
 lloUiushed also speaks of Bruce being, in tho 
 fourteenth century, nearly killed by a bull ia 
 the forest of Caledon ; and from his attendant 
 having rescued him, the well-known name 
 of " Tunibull " originated. So recently as tho 
 sixteenth century, it seems, these wild cattle 
 were common in the Callender or Calder 
 woods. Conrad Gesner describes them, ia 
 the quaint legend-language of tlie day, as 
 "white oxen, maned abi)ut the neck like a 
 lion. * * * * This beast is so hateful and 
 feartul of m:inkiud, tliat it will not feed of that 
 grasse, or those hearbes whereof he suvoureth 
 
 G27 
 
iTALiATf CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [ it alt a-t cattle. 
 
 a man hatli touched — no, not for many days 
 together ; and if, by art or policy, they happen 
 to be taken alive, they will die witli very sudden 
 grief. If they meet a man, presently they 
 make force at him, fearing neither dogs, spears, 
 nor other weapons." 
 
 CATTLE OF THE MAREMMA. 
 
 We have already alluded to the Marerama 
 of Italy ; to viliich we must return, to notice 
 an uncouth, savage, wild breed of cattle, which 
 inhabit its marshes. This piece of country 
 consists of a flat strip, except in a few places 
 where hills intervene, extending from the 
 mountains of Grenoa to the extremity of Cala- 
 bri:i, a length of about seven hundred miles. 
 Its breadth is from the base of the lower range 
 of the Apennine chain to the shore of the 
 Mediterranean. This sweep of country is pes- 
 tilential in the extreme iti summer ; and though 
 it yields the most luxuriant harvests, is only 
 partially cultivated, the greater portion being 
 left for pasture. Here, besides the cattle used 
 as beasts of burden, or draught, and employed 
 in the work of the farms, large herds roam 
 unmolested under the care of keepers, which, 
 together with the buffalo-keepers, before al- 
 luded to, and forest- rangers, are the only sta- 
 tionary population in the wild Maremma. The 
 former, as wild and savage as the animals un- 
 der their charge, are always mounted on fleet 
 Lorses, and armed with a long lance, which 
 they use in driving the cattle, and in defending 
 themselves against the fierce bulls, which, as 
 well as the buffjiloes, are extremely dangerous. 
 These men are often criminals, who have fled 
 from justice into the Marem ma, where they are 
 obliged to sojourn, and where they are often 
 employed by the proprietors of the farms and 
 cattle, as rangers or drivers. Those who are 
 not fugitives adopt their occupation from 
 choice, which, dangerous and laborious as it is, 
 is one of independence and freedom. They are 
 tlie analogues of the Arab of the desert, or the 
 Gauchos of the Pampas. Besides being paid 
 for their services, they rear cattle of their own. 
 In the summer months they retire to the shady 
 forests along the sea-shore, where the air is 
 not so unwholesome as in the open plains. 
 The cattle are collected at various times, and 
 driven by these men, called Vaccari, to the 
 fairs hold in the towns, for sale. 
 628 
 
 Both the bull and the buffalo are baited in 
 Italy by men and dogs, for the entertainment 
 of the Roman people, who seem to be as fond 
 of such scenes as were their great predecessors. 
 The scene of the sport, which is called La 
 Giostra, is, like many other buildings in Eome, 
 a curious compound of tlie modern and the 
 ancient. The Amfiteatro Correa, as the place 
 is designated, is situated in a massive cluster 
 of buildings raised upon the site, and partly 
 with the materials, of the mausoleum of the 
 Emperor Augustus, in the Campus Martins. 
 Tlae walls of this amphitheatre, and the seats, 
 are all of modern structure. Tlie arena occu- 
 ]-)ies the platform of the ancient mausoleum, 
 which, in otiier times, was cultivated with 
 flowers and rare shrubs ; while the pyramid, 
 that bore the statue of Octavius, rose in the 
 midst. The vaults beneath, which once held 
 the ashes of the Cte^ars, are now iu part used 
 as dens for the wild cattle that are brought 
 in from the Campagna, and other places, to be 
 baited. Twice every week, during the summer, 
 do these exhibitions take place ; commencing 
 at five in the evening, and lastiug till dusk. 
 The men who are to encounter the bulls and 
 buffaloes are called Giostratori. They are 
 dressed in white, with a red sash round the 
 waist. Each bears a short staff, with a red 
 pennon at the end of it ; and they muster in the 
 arena, make their bows to the assembled spec- 
 tators, and wait the onset of the might}- ani- 
 mal. Among them are generally two or tlu-ee 
 of great reputation for skill ; these are usually 
 vaccari (herdsmen), or bufialeri (bufi^alo-keep- 
 ers) — men brought up from their childhood 
 among the cattle they respectively manage, 
 and familiarised with their habits. The Gios- 
 tratori, from Viterbo, have the reputation of 
 excelling all others; and hence the term It 
 Viterlese (the Viterbonian) is used metony- 
 mically to designate any celebrated bull-fighter. 
 In the centre of the arena is a strong post 
 firmly fixed, by dodging round which a man 
 may, for a considerable time, evade the assaults 
 of a bull or buffalo. At a given sigiuvl, the 
 door of a den is opened, and the bull rushes 
 forth, wildly gazing around him, till, observing 
 the Giostratori, with their scarlet sashes and 
 pennons, he singles out one, and roariug and 
 lashing his tail, drives furiously towards him. 
 The man nimbly avoids the charge; others 
 
SPAN IS 11 CATTLE.] C A T T L K, AND TIIEIli VAiMETIES. [spanisii catile. 
 
 come to the rescue, tlra\vinj» off the bull's at- 
 tt'iitiun from liiin, and invitiii<^ its attack ; till 
 the cnragod animal, distractod by the number, 
 quicIuiosH, and inanu'uvros of his antagonists, 
 and wearied with vain ell'orts, ceases the pur- 
 suit. Tlie den is tlicu thrown open, and ho 
 generally retires of his own accord, as if glad 
 
 brutes, and the danger to man and horse. 
 Such sport frequently takes place in the great 
 forest of Alemtejo, whero an eye-wiltiess of 
 one thus describes it:— "I iiad received," he 
 s.'iys, " intimation that the village of Alcoxete, 
 on the Tagus, was to be the scene of a bull- 
 light, and that tlio villagers, for many miles, 
 
 to escape. When the bull, as is sometimes | were invited to join in tiie hunt, whielj was to 
 the ease, perseveringly follows a man, and lake place the following day. I acconlingly 
 jiresses him hard, he catches hold of one of i crossed the river in the company of about 
 the iron rings, placed at certain distances twenty persons, each being provided with t. 
 
 round the wall enclosing the arena ; and, by a 
 rapid movement, springs to the top, which, 
 like a terrace, runs round the foot of the 
 lower scats of the amphitheatre. The height 
 of this parapet is six or seven feet ; and it 
 requires great agility, strength, and presence 
 of mind, as well as precision, to avoid being 
 junncd to the wall in the act of taking the 
 leap. Such accidents sometimes happen ; but 
 when the Giostratori see one of their number 
 thus endangered, they use every means to 
 divert the bull's attention. The bull (and 
 al.-5o the buffalo) is, on some occasions, baited 
 with fierce dogs of the Corsican breed, re- 
 sembling our bull-dog, and distinguished by 
 the same " tenacity of tooth" and indomitable 
 courage. These dogs usually pin the bull by 
 the nose or lip ; but are very frequently tossed 
 in the air, or ripped up by the sharp horns of 
 the maddened animal. At these exhibitions, 
 strange to say, females are among the specta- 
 tors, and not less interested than the rougher 
 sex. Some of the bulls procured in the Cam- 
 ])agna of Eome are very noble and spirited 
 animals, of fine figure and great strength. 
 
 CATTLE OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 In Spain and Portugal, where extensive wilds 
 and forest lands afford ample pasturage, large 
 herds of oxen, born in freedom, wander un- 
 controlled and untroubled, excepting by man, 
 from -whom they flee with precipitation, till 
 roused to fury by his assaults, when they at- 
 tack in turn, and bear upon him with resistless 
 impetuosity. It is from these herds that the 
 Spaniards and Portuguese select the fiercest 
 and boldest for the revolting contests of the 
 arena; while others are tamed, and brokeu-in 
 for the ordinary purposes of husbandry. It is 
 easy to imagine the excitement produced by 
 the chase and capture of a herd of these fierce 
 
 long pole, having a small spike fixed in one 
 end, and mounted as inclination or abditv 
 suited. AVhon we arrived at t!ie opposite 
 bank, a little before daybreak, we found about 
 250 or 300 persons assembled, some mounted 
 on different sorts of quadrupeds— from the 
 noble Andalusiau horse to the humble donkey ; 
 and many were on foot. All were armed in a 
 similar manner to ourselves. Wc divided into 
 two parties — one stretching in a long Hue to 
 the right, the other to the left. AVe had not 
 advanced far, in this manner, when wo fell-ia 
 with a herd of cattle, having twelve bulls with 
 it; which no sooner descried us, than they 
 bounded off with the speed of lightning. Tiie 
 sport had now begun. We put our horses to 
 the utmost speed, threading our way among 
 the tall pine-trees as well as we could, and 
 endeavouring by wild cries to drive the bulls 
 towards the other party. At length, after about 
 an hour's chase, some half-dozen of us, who 
 were better mounted than the rest, came up 
 with them, and commenced the attack with 
 our long poles. The manner was this :— One 
 person, riding at full speed, gave the bull nearest 
 him a sharp prick with the goad, which it no 
 sooner felt, than it turned upon its assailant 
 and gave chase ; another horseman then coming 
 up, attacked it on tlie other side, when, leaving 
 the first assailant, it turned upon the second; 
 he, in like maimer, was rescued by a third, 
 and so on. The atteutiou of the infuriated 
 animal was thus so distracted as to prevent his 
 escape, and give time for the other hunters to 
 come up. The bulls were thus at length sepa- 
 rated from the herd; and a sufficient number 
 of persons having arrived to form a circle 
 round them, we commenced operations for the 
 purpose of driving them towards the town. 
 All the skill of the riders was now necessary, 
 and all the activity possessed by both man and 
 
 629 
 
SPANISH CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [eussiax cattle. 
 
 horse, to keep clear from the pointed horns 
 vfhich -were presented against bira, as well as 
 to prevent the herd from breaking through the 
 livino- net with which it was surrounded. This 
 was, perhaps, the most difficult part, and was 
 attained by keeping each bull separately en- 
 gaged, and thus preventing united action; for 
 what line was sufficient to resist the simul- 
 taneous rush of these powerful animals ? The 
 continued exertion had knocked up many of 
 the horses which had started in the morning, 
 and the circle became smaller and smaller as 
 the day advanced ; several persons, indeed, 
 had been carried ofl', severely wounded by the 
 horns and feet of the bulls. Eedoubling our 
 efforts, however, we at length, about four 
 o'clock in the afternoon, succeeded in driving 
 them into an inclosure, where a number of 
 oxen (all at one time wild) were quietly graz- 
 ing. Here they were kept till required for the 
 next day's sport." These bulls were baited in 
 the square of Alcoxete, converted into a tem- 
 porary arena; and afterwards reduced to a 
 complete state of servitude. Tiie picadores, 
 or men who encountered them, were on foot, 
 and only armed with short darts, and displayed 
 the most surprising courage and address; and 
 when at last they were to be thrown, a man, 
 leaping between the horns, there supported 
 himself till the cords were lashed round the 
 animal's limbs. 
 
 Tlie bull-fights, as conducted in the amphi- 
 theatres of Spain and Portugal — the lingering 
 relics of those contests in which Home so 
 much delighted, and which prevailed more or 
 less throughout the Soman empire — have been 
 often described. These sanguinary spectacles 
 are the delight of the Spanish people, and are 
 not only tolerated, but encouraged by the 
 higher classes of both sexes, who find a morbid 
 gratification in the toruients which the bull 
 endures from the lance of the cavalier, or the 
 horse from the horns of the bull. The most 
 graphic and spirited description of this " un- 
 gentle sport," is that by Lord Byron, in Ghilde 
 HarolcVs Pilgrimage, canto i. ; attached to 
 which there is a note by Sir J. C. liobhouse, 
 which further describes the scene : — " The 
 magistrate presides ; and after the horsemen 
 and picadores have fought the bull, the mata- 
 dore steps forward and bovv3 to him for per- 
 mission to kill the animal. If the bull has 
 GoO 
 
 done his duty by killing two or three hor&es, 
 or a man (which last is rare), the people inter- 
 fere with shouts, the ladies wave their hand- 
 kerchiefs, and the animal is saved. The 
 wounds and death of the horses are accom- 
 panied with the loudest acclamations, and 
 many gestures of delight, especially from the 
 female portion of the audience, including those 
 of the gentlest blood." Of the effects of such 
 exhibitions on the character of the people, 
 nothing need be said ; whatever atrocities may 
 be committed by men, "nurtured in blood 
 betimes," canuot surprise us. 
 
 CATTLE OF RUSSIA. 
 Within the Arctic Circle the ox gives place 
 to the reindeer; but in Iceland, cattle are 
 reared in great numbers, and are valuable. 
 In size and appearance, excepting that they 
 are seldom horned, they resemble the breeds 
 of the Scottish islands. It would appear that 
 the Icelandish farm^ers conduct the breeding 
 of their stock on no principles ; consequently, 
 there is great room for improvement: never- 
 theless, tlie cattle, on the whole, are handsome, 
 and the cows yield a considerable quantity of 
 milk. In Norway and Sweden, cattle are 
 numerous, and also in llussia. Erom this 
 last country, the main exports to England 
 consist of tallow and hides. In that extensive 
 empire vast numbers are reared, principally in 
 the southern provinces ; and the markets of 
 St. Petersburg, and other towns, are supplied 
 with cattle sent from distant parts of the 
 country. The herdsmen live in a state of 
 barbaric simplicity, and are nomadic in their 
 habits. They travel with their herds to Moscow, 
 St. Petersburg, and other places, which depend 
 more upon them for a supply than upon the 
 farmers of the adjacent districts. The follow- 
 ing passage, iu Johnston's llussia, conveys a 
 just idea of the Eussian cattle-keeper and 
 his herd:— "Along the road," he says, "we 
 passed one or two large droves of horned 
 cattle proceeding to St. Petersburg. We 
 learned that they were brought from the prov- 
 inces south of Moscow. These cattle are all 
 of a whitish colour, well made, and of about 
 seven hundredweight. Their journey to St. 
 Petersburg occupies three months ; they travel 
 from eight to sixteen miles through the night, 
 and are allowed to pasture and rest, during the 
 
MOLUAViAX C.VTTI.K.1 CATTLE, AND TIIElll VAPvTETIES. [swiss cattle. 
 
 rain, or suow mako the miittor worse, so that 
 a jwasago can only bo achieved by preafc 
 patience, labour, and resolution. A bullock- 
 caravan of Moldavia, wending its weary way 
 over tlio vast pliiins of tliat province, while 
 lighter vehicles, drawn by awift horsca, aro Boea 
 in the distance, i'urnishesan interesting picture 
 for tho artist of rural life. It ia by these 
 caravans that the trade and commcrco of Mol- 
 davia aro carried on, and tho town supplied 
 with <?i";iin- 
 
 day, on the sides of the road. The herds are 
 attended by one or two men, who convey their 
 cooking utensils, baggage, etc., in a waggon 
 drawn by two oxen ; and while their numerous 
 herds re[)O80 undisturbed under tho shade of 
 the delicate birch, they stretch themselves on 
 the ground, and pass their time in a true 
 Scythian state. Hero aro also seen a few 
 sheep, but of an inferior breed, covered with 
 hair somewhat like that of a goat. This 
 country is not favourable for the pasture of 
 sb-jep, owing to tho coarseness of tho grass, 
 and the abundance of wood. Littlo or no 
 attention seems to be paid to tho rearing of 
 any other animal besides tho horse. To him 
 alone the lluss devotes his whole attention, 
 and from him he derives his livelihood." 
 
 CATTLE OF :\IOLDAYIA AND WALLACHIA. 
 In Moldavia and Wallachia cattle are abun- 
 dant ; in the former district, indeed, the people 
 continue, in a great measure, their ancient 
 nomadic habits, making use of the services of 
 the ox as a beast of draught or burden. United 
 in immense caravans, they roam over a vast 
 extent of territory, transporting, in tall vehi- 
 cles of singular construction, various articles 
 of produce, provisions, and other things, to the 
 towns scattered at long distances about the 
 wide plains of Moldavia. Day by day they 
 move cheerfully on, to the slow and measured 
 sound of the footsteps of their oxen, and are 
 often an entire month without seeing a single 
 human habitation. At the approach of even- 
 ing the caravan halts : the numerous waggons 
 are disposed in the form of a square, and the 
 oxen are turned out to graze at large, under 
 the watchful care of intrepid dogs which ac- 
 company the caravan. In the middle of the 
 square a fire is now lighted, at which the con- 
 ductor prepares his simple repast, and after- 
 wards disposes himself to sleep, sheltered by a 
 warm and heavy coverlid, which completely en- 
 wraps him. These indefatigable walkers are 
 no less excellent riders. They possess a fine 
 race of horses, which are employed for drawing 
 lighter vehicles ; while the heavier waggons are 
 drawn by the slow oxen. There are no high 
 roads in Moldavia ; the plain is open, and each 
 traveller chooses his own track ; and it is often 
 mth difficulty that the oxen can drag their 
 way through heavy ground. Storms of wind. 
 
 CATTLE OF SWITZERLAND. 
 In Switzerland there is an exeelleut breed 
 of cattle ; and in no country arc those animals 
 more carefully attended to, or held in greater 
 esteem for their utility, as far as the dairy is 
 concerned. Travellers have frequently noticed 
 their docility and intelligence, which they 
 have, at the same time, not a little exaggerated. 
 It is customary to hang bells round tho necks 
 of the cattle, sheep, and goats, in order that, 
 if they stray among the hills and mountains, 
 the herdsmen may be directed by the sound in 
 his pursuit of them, the slightest tinkle being 
 heard at a great distance in those lofty and 
 quiet regions. The cows selected to bear tho 
 bell become accustomed to it from habit, and 
 often, we doubt not, betray signs of uneasiness 
 when deprived of it ; but the account given by 
 some writers, respecting their feelings, borders 
 on the ludicrous. " The cow, whose superior 
 beauty, sagacity, or good conduct seems to 
 entitle her to be the leader of the herd, is 
 always, on gala days, distinguished by the 
 largest and finest-toned bell, and the bravest 
 ornamental collar, and so down through all 
 the gradations of good, to the small appendage 
 that marks the indifferently good or clever 
 animal, and the total absence of ornament and 
 distinction which points out the self-willed or 
 vicious. If any cow has been guilty of stray- 
 in", of unseemly behaviour, breach of dis- 
 cipline, or any vicious trick, the displeasure of 
 the Vacher is not testified by blows, but by 
 the temporary deprivation of her bell ; and this 
 seldom fails to reduce her to order, and pre- 
 vent a repetition of the ofience. It is only 
 necessary to see the cow on a gala day, with 
 her badge of distinction strapped round her 
 neck, and then to see her deprived of it for 
 some reason or other, to be convinced that 
 
AS itiCAir CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [afrtcan cattle. 
 
 this is true. She is now gay, good-humoured 
 and frolicsome; then sulky and gloomy." 
 
 The pastoral economy of Switzerland, which 
 is common to Savoy and other Alpine countries, 
 and the annual progress of the shepherds and 
 cowherds, with their flocks and cattle to and 
 from the mouutains, are interesting. The 
 richer proprietors and breeders in the Alps, 
 possess tracks of pasturages, and sometimes 
 houses, at different heights. In winter they 
 live at the foot of the mountain, in some 
 sheltered valley; but this they quit in tlie 
 spring, and ascend gradually, as the heat 
 brings out vegetation on the higher lands. 
 In autumn they descend, by the same grada- 
 tions, to the valley. Those who are less rich 
 have a resource in certain common pastures, to 
 which they send a number of cows propor- 
 tionate to tht-ir means of keeping them during 
 the winter. Eight days after the cows have 
 been driven up to these common pastures, all 
 their owners assemble, and the quantity of 
 milk each cow produces, is accurately weighed. 
 This operation of weighing is repeated one 
 day in the middle of summer, and again at 
 the end of the season. The milk of all the 
 cows has, in the meanwhile, been put together, 
 and made into butter and cheese ; and this 
 common product is divided into shares, ac- 
 cording to the quantity of milk each owner's 
 cows yielded on the days of trial. In some 
 parts, and more particularly in the retired 
 parts of the forest cantons, the peasants make 
 use of the Alp-horn for the purpose of col- 
 lecting their herds. This primitive instrument 
 is a tube of wood about five feet in length, 
 of very simple construction. It produces a 
 deep, mellow, and prolonged note, resounding 
 to a great distance, floating over the upland 
 pastures, and echoing from crag to crag, and 
 from rock to rock. On hearing the well-known 
 summons, which is regularly given at sunset, 
 the cattle bestir themselves, and wend their 
 way to the chalet, where the peasants are 
 waiting their arrival. The deep note of the 
 Alp-hurn, heard among the mountains, and 
 multiplied by echoes till the last tone dies 
 away, produces a pleasing impression on the 
 traveller, which he long remembers. 
 
 CATTLE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 
 The ox, in South Alrica, is used as a beast 
 U;J2 
 
 of burthen and draught ; and his services are 
 of the utmost importance. Waggons drawn 
 by oxen, often cruelly overtasked, are the 
 ordinary travelling vehicles of this part of 
 Africa, and are admirably adapted for the 
 country, which is rugged and mountainous, 
 and generally destitute of any other roads 
 than the rude tracks originally struck across 
 the wilderness by the first European adven- 
 turers. Each waggon, provided with a canvas 
 tilt, to protect the traveller from sun and rain, 
 is drawn by a team of six, eight, or even twelve 
 oxen, fastened with wooden frames to a strong 
 central trace, or trek-tow, formed of twisted 
 thongs of bullock's hide. The driver, who 
 sits in front, has a whip of enormous length, 
 which he often uses with unsparing severity. 
 Formerly, if the account given by Barrow is 
 to be credited, the treatment exercised by the 
 Dutch- African boors to their oxen was brutal 
 in the extreme. The Dutch boors, moreover, 
 made use of very large and clumsy waggons, 
 and delighted in transporting tremendous loads 
 at a time. It was a common sight to see six, 
 eight, ten, or even a dozen pair of oxen yoked 
 to an enormous vehicle; but even this number 
 was inadequate to such burthens as they liad 
 to draw, and the resistance of such roads. 
 The most disgraceful cruelties were used to 
 force these poor creatures on their way. Their 
 drivers cut them with knives ; and when, worn 
 out, they laid themselves down, and refused to 
 rise, it was a common practice to light fires 
 under their sides, and so force them to go. 
 One of these brutal boors, whose knife had 
 been often employed on the flesh of his cattle, 
 boasted that he could start his team at full 
 gallop by merely whetting that knife on the 
 side of his waggon. Once, as he was exhibiting 
 this experiment, the waggon was overturned, 
 and one of the company — " unfortunately not 
 the proprietor," says Mr. Barrow — "had his 
 leg broken." 
 
 AVhen the Dutch took possession of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, they found the Hottentots 
 a pastoral people, possessed of flocks and herds. 
 The oxen were of large size, with horns that 
 swept forwards and upwards to a great length ; 
 and they were not only trained for riding, but 
 even as guardians of the flocks and cattle, and 
 as instruments of destruction in battle. The 
 Hottentots, says Kolben — who visited them 
 
AiurcAX OATTi.K.l CAITLE. AND THEIR VARIETIES. [african cattle. 
 
 wliili- tlii>y yet ri-lained liu-ir iiaiiie and iiule- 
 pi'iidonco as a nation — " have oxen wldeh they 
 use with success in battle. Tht-y call them 
 JVike-leys. Every army is provided with a 
 ]ar>;e troop of these war oxen, which permit 
 themselves to bo governed without trouble, 
 and which their leader lets looso at the ap- 
 pointed moment. The instant they aro set 
 free, thev throw themselves with impetuosity 
 on the opposing arniy ; strike with their horns, 
 kick with their heels, overthrow, rip up, and 
 trample beneath their feet, with fri^h.tful 
 feroL'ity, all that opposes thera. They plunge 
 with fury into the midst of the rauks, and 
 tluis prepare for their masters an easy victory. 
 The manner iu which these oxen are trained 
 and disciplined, certainly does great honour to 
 the talent of these people." 
 
 Le Vaillant, when iu South Africa, says that 
 he saw some of these oxen, which were then 
 only used by certain tribes of Hottentots; but 
 he gives the same account of their mode of 
 fighting as Kolben, who, also, describes the 
 bake-leys as guardians of their flocks. " When 
 out in the pasture-grounds, at the least sign 
 of their conductors, they will hasten to bring 
 back the cattle which are straying at a dis- 
 tance, and keep them herded together. They 
 rush on strangers with fury, whence they are 
 of great service against the Boschmen, or 
 robbers, who may attempt to plunder tlie 
 flocks. Each kraal has, at least, half-a-dozen 
 of these bake-leys, which are chosen from 
 among the most spirited oxen. Ou the death 
 of one, or when one, in consequence of old age, 
 becomes unserviceable — in which case its owner 
 kills it — another ox is selected from the herd 
 to succeed it. The choice is referred to one 
 of the old men of the kraal, who is thought to 
 be most capable of discerning that which will 
 most easily receive instruction. Thev asso- 
 ciate this noviciate ox with one of long expe- 
 rience, and he is taught to follow his com- 
 panion, either by beating or some other method. 
 During the night they are tied together by the 
 horns ; and they are, also, thus kept tied 
 during the greater part of the day, until the 
 learner has become a good guardian of the 
 flock. These guardians know all the inhabi- 
 tants of the kraal — men, women, and children ; 
 and testify the same respect towards them that 
 a dog displays towards all those that live iu 
 4m 
 
 the hou.se of hin master. Thero is, therefore, 
 no inhabitant of tho kraal who may not with 
 safety a|)i)roach the flocks. The buke-leya ne\ er 
 do them the least injury ; but if a stranger, and 
 particularly a European, should ofler to take 
 the same liberty, without being accompanied 
 by some Hottentot, ho would bo in great 
 danger from these guardians of the flock, which 
 usually feed round it, and which would como 
 upon him full gallop. Then, unless ho be 
 within hearing of the shepherds, or have fire- 
 arms or good legs, or uidess a tree be near in 
 which to climb, he is sure to be killed. lb 
 would be useless for him to have recourse to 
 sticks or stones ; a bake-ley has no fear of such 
 feeble weapons." Sparrman was one of the 
 last South African travellers who found the 
 Hottentots in their original state of pastoral 
 freedom. He mentions a woman, who was 
 possessed of sixty milch-cows; and, on the 
 cattle of the kraal being brought home from 
 pasture, the evening w"as enlivened by singing 
 and dancing. 
 
 The CafTres, Corannas, and other tribes, have 
 oxen in abundance, which are employed as 
 beasts of burden. The Corannas are a nomade 
 race, frequently removing with their flocks and 
 herds to fresh pasture-land, and transporting 
 their mats, tents, and utensils strapped on the 
 back of oxen, which also carry themselves and 
 their wives and children : — 
 
 " Fast by his wild resounding river 
 Tlie Jistless Coian lingers ever j 
 Still drives his heifers forth to feed, 
 Sooth'd by the gorrah's humming reed; 
 A rover still, unchcck'd, will range, 
 As humour calls or seasons change ; 
 His tent of mats and leathern gear 
 All packed upon the patient steer." 
 
 Eurcbell, another South African traveller, de- 
 scribes the saddle-oxen as generally broken for 
 riding w hen not more than a year old. The first 
 ceremony is that of piercing the nose to receive 
 the bridle ; for which purpose they are thrown 
 on their back, and a slit is made through the 
 septum, or cartilage between the nostrils, large 
 enough to admit a finger. In this hole is 
 thrust a strong stick stripped of its bark, and 
 having, at one end, a forked branch to prevent 
 its passing through. To each end of it is 
 fastened a thong of hide, of a length sufficient 
 to reach round tiie neck, a:id form the reins; 
 
 033 
 
AFRICAN CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIE VAEIETIES. Tameiiican cattle. 
 
 and a sheep-skin, with the wool on, placed 
 across the back, together with another, folded 
 up, and bound on with a rein long enough to 
 pass several times round the body, constitutes 
 the saddle. To this is sometimes added a 
 pair of stirrups, consisting only of a thong, 
 with a loop at each end, slung across the saddle. 
 Prequently the loops are distended by a piece 
 of wood, to form an easier rest for the foot. 
 While the animal's nose is still sore, it is 
 mounted and put in training, and, in a week or 
 two, is generally rendered sufficiently obedient 
 to its rider. The facility and adroitness with 
 which the Hottentots manage the ox, have 
 often excited admiration. It is made to walk, 
 trot, or gallop at the will of its master ; and, 
 being longer-legged, and rather more lightly 
 made than the ox in England, travels with 
 greater ease and expedition, walking three or 
 four miles in an hour, trotting five, and gallop- 
 ing, on an emergency, seven or eight. 
 
 In some parts of Central Africa the ox is 
 employed in like manner. Major Denham 
 gives an account of its use in the central 
 countries which he visited: — "The beasts of 
 burden," he observes, " are the bullock and the 
 ass. A very fine breed of the latter are found 
 in the Maudara valleys. Strangers, and chiefs 
 in the service of the sheikh, or sultan, alone 
 possess camels. The bullock is the bearer of 
 all the grain and other articles to and from 
 the markets. A small saddle, of plaited rushes, 
 is laid on him, when sacks, made of goat-skins, 
 and filled with corn, are lashed on bis broad 
 and able back. A leathern thong is passed 
 through the cartilage of his nose, and serves as 
 a bridle; while, on the top of the load, is 
 mounted the owner, his wife, or his slave. 
 Sometimes the daugliter or wife of a rich 
 Shouaa will be mounted on her particular bul- 
 lock, and precede the loaded animals, ex- 
 travagantly adorned with amber, silver rings, 
 coral, and all sorts of finery ; her hair stream- 
 ing with fat ; a black rim of kohal, at least an 
 inch wide, round each of her eyes ; and, I may 
 say, arrayed for conquest at the crowded 
 market. Carpet and robes are then spread on 
 her clumsy palfrey ; she siUjamhe de ca,jamle 
 de la, and guides her animal by the nose. Not- 
 >7rithstanding the peaceableness of his nature, 
 her vanity still enables her to torture him into 
 something like caperiugs and curvetings." 
 634 
 
 CATTLE OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 The ox was one of the first of the domestic 
 animals carried over to America by the early 
 Spanish settlers; and there it has multiplied 
 and spread, and indeed, in some degree, recov- 
 ered its original independence. Herds of wild 
 oxen roam the Pampas, where they are hunted 
 and slain for their hides, which form an impor- 
 tant article of commerce. These wild herds 
 are, in some districts, exceedingly numerous, 
 difiering in no respect from their domestic 
 relatives, and rendered tame without much 
 difficulty. According to Azara, " Captain John 
 de Salazar, born in the city of Pomar in Aragon, 
 transported, from Andalusia, seven cows and a 
 bull to the coast of Brazil ; thence he conducted 
 them overland to the river Parana, at the place 
 opposite to where it receives the river Mondai. 
 He there constructed a raft; placed the cattle 
 on it, and gave them in charge to a certain 
 Gaete, whilst he, himself, went by land to 
 Paraguay. Gaete descended the Parana, to its 
 union with the river of Paraguay, and, steering 
 up this, he safely arrived at the city of As- 
 sumption in 154!G. He spent many months in 
 this voyage; and as he had only one cow given 
 him for payment, the saying has hence arisen, 
 in allusion to the great value of anything — ' It 
 is dearer than Gaete's cow.' The second 
 founders of Buenos Ayres took, in 1580, some 
 cows from Paraguay, which multiplied in the 
 neighbourhood ; and, from want of due care, 
 many of them became wild, and bent their 
 course towards K.io Negro. The Indians of 
 the Cordillera of Chili became acquainted with 
 these animals, which had already attained 
 their boundaries ; and they commenced to carry 
 from them herds of tamed cattle to Chili, where 
 the presidents of this settlement purchased 
 them from these Indians. Those Indians, who 
 could not live in their country without some 
 resource, established themselves in the plains 
 wliich were occupied by these cattle, and some 
 even mixed with the Pampas' Indians. In the 
 meantime, the Indians, who were unsubdued, 
 destroyed the cattle to the south of Buenos 
 Ayres' The Spaniards of those parts, however, 
 did not neglect to take a portion, which they 
 conducted to Cordova and Mendoza ; whilst the 
 Spaniards of Buenos Ayres made up entire 
 cargoes of the hides of bulls and cows ; for, at 
 
AMERICAN CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND TITETR VARIETIES. [island cvttle. 
 
 that tiiiu>, tl»e animal itself was not considered 
 of value, its skiti boiii<» all that was souijht 
 after. Tiie result of all tl»ia was, that, towards 
 tiio niidille of the century, wild caLLlo no lonjjer 
 existed iu the Pampas; ntid the unsubdued 
 Indians saw themselves under the necessity ol 
 stealiiii; the domestic animals, or of makiii'^' 
 incursions into the estancias of tho Pauipas. 
 This was the commencement and cause of the 
 bloody war which tho Spaniards had with the 
 Indians. The herds of these revolted or wild 
 cattle, which are also called oreillards in the 
 plains of jNIonte Video, do not pass to the north 
 of the southern establishments of the Guaranis' 
 Missions. The following is the account which 
 I have collected of their origin : — Tho city 
 authorities of Buenos Ayres, iu tho name ot' 
 certain of its inhabitants, as is proved by its 
 archives, made, at the commencement of the 
 century, contracts, on the one part, with the 
 English, for the acquisitiun of Negroes ; and, on 
 the other part, with certain Spaniards, who 
 were thus authorised to procure the hides of 
 the animals on the plains situate to the north 
 of the Kio de la Plata, on payment to the city 
 of a certain tax, of which the sum total was 
 shared between these Spanish inhabitants, who, 
 from this circumstance,were called Actionnaires. 
 The primitive source of this right, or this pro- 
 ceeding, is not known ; but certain it is that all 
 the inhabitants did not participate iu it, and 
 that its produce was the exclusive share of 
 these Actionnaires, who were the descendants 
 of the earliest of the original settlers. Such is 
 the origin of the horned cattle of these coun- 
 tries, where they prodigiously multiplied. 
 About eight hundred thousand ox- hides are 
 annually exported from Buenos Ayres and 
 Monte Video to Europe." Mr. Darwin states, 
 " that, from the latter place, the annual expor- 
 tation is three hundred thousand ; and the home 
 consumption, from waste, very considerable. In 
 order to obtain these hides, some horsemen 
 join together, and arrange themselves in two 
 ranks which form an angle. They then press 
 on the two sides a small number of cattle ; and 
 one of the horsemen, who goes last in the angle, 
 hamstrings the animals with a knife, in the 
 shape of a crescent or half-moon, fastened at 
 the end of a staff. While this goes on, the 
 horsemen continue to ride forwards ; and when 
 they have thus secured, a sullicieut number of 
 
 animals, they retrace their steps; and tho 
 person who hamstrung thoin gives each beast 
 thus maimed a liuishing stroke with a sharp 
 spear, and the horsemen dismount to strip the 
 carcass, sometimes of tho fat and suet, bufc 
 always of tho skin : this they do with such 
 dexterity, that some men, without assi-stance, 
 will strip twenty-six cattle at a day's work. 
 When a single head of cattle is to bo killed for 
 the sake of its flesh, a horseman throws a lasso 
 over its horns or neck, and another does tho 
 same over one of its feet; then straining in 
 opposite directions, they prevent it from 
 struggling free, and so strangle it. Admirable 
 is the dexterity with which, when tho animals 
 pass as they rush forwards, the lasso is thrown, 
 so that, directed backwards under its feet, tho 
 animal, at the pleasure of the horseman, is en- 
 tangled either by one foot or by two together." 
 It is a singular feature in the history of tho 
 New "World, that so many of our domestic 
 animals there imported, should have returned 
 to their primitive independence : the ox, the 
 horse, the hog, the ass, the rabbit, the cat, and 
 the dog, have thus estranged themselves from 
 the control of man. Iudividualshave,at different 
 times, escaped from confinement, or been ne- 
 glected : a vast region lay before them, present- 
 ing abundance of food ; they multiplied, and 
 their ofispring in turn ; and tlius, within a brief 
 period, have the plains of the 'New World been 
 peopled by alien races of animals, which claim 
 Asia or Europe as their starting-point. 
 
 CATTLE IN THE ISLANDS OF THE SOUTH 
 PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 America is not the only portion of tho 
 globe to which, by the agency of man, in 
 modern times, the ox has been introduced. 
 We allude to Australia, New Zealand, and 
 the groups of islands which sprinkle tho 
 Pacific Ocean. " AVith the appearance of Van- 
 couver," says Otho von Ivotzebue, speaking 
 of the Sandwich Islands, "arose the fortunate 
 star of these islands. Among the innumerable 
 benefits he conferred upon them, they are in- 
 debted to him for the possession of sheep and 
 cattle. Tameamea (the native king) declared 
 these animals under a tabu for ten years, 
 which allowed time for so large an increase, 
 that they now run wild in the forests." Of 
 the benefits resulting from the introduction of 
 
 (Jo 5 
 
■WHITE CATTLE,] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES. 
 
 [wniTE CATTLE. 
 
 the ox into a country naturally destitute of it, 
 nothing need be said; but the gift of cattle 
 to a people who, though yet uncivilised, are 
 still capable of appreciating their value, is to 
 commence a revolution in their state and con- 
 dition, immeasurably for the better: for the 
 possession of property is one of the bonds of 
 society ; and the desire of acquiring it, the 
 great stimulus to industry. With the intro- 
 duction of the ox, the condition of the people 
 
 of these islands has necessarily been improved. 
 Not only has cattle been reared for home con- 
 sumption, but for supplying the ships that 
 navigate these seas (whalers, &c.), other valua- 
 bles being given in exchange. Hence has the 
 rearing of cattle been generally undertaken. 
 This, of course, involves care and attention, 
 and a state of peace : but agriculture and com- 
 merce follow, and prepare the way for the arts 
 of civilised life. 
 
 CHArTER II. 
 
 ErJTISn BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 THE WILD WHITE CATTLE OF CHILLING- 
 HAM PARK. 
 
 (Bos Taurus, var. Scoticus). Having merely 
 alluded to this beautiful breed of cattle, we will 
 here resume the subject, and lay before the 
 reader a few interesting details respecting its 
 history. 
 
 Mr. Touatt, in his admirable work on cattle, 
 in the Libra?'!/ of Use/id Knoioledge, clearly 
 expresses his belief in the identity of this wild 
 breed with our domestic races : and adds, that 
 the slightest observation will convince us, that 
 the cattle in Devon, Sussex, Wales, and Scot- 
 land, are essentially the same breed changed 
 by soil and climate, yet little changed by the 
 intermeddling of man. " Every one who has 
 had opportunities of comparing the Devon 
 cattle with the wild breed of Chatelherault 
 Park, or Chillingham Castle, has been struck 
 with the great resemblance in many points, 
 notwithstanding the difference in colour." In 
 anotlier place, the same writer says — " To the 
 Principality we naturally look for some trace 
 of the native breed of cattle, for the Welsh 
 were never entirely subdued by any of the 
 early invaders. The Eomans possessed merely 
 a portion of the country ; the Saxons scarcely 
 penetrated into AVales, or not beyond the 
 county of Monmouth. The Welsh lono- re- 
 sisted the superior power of the English under 
 the Norman king; and it was not till late in 
 G3t> 
 
 the thirteenth century that the Principality 
 was annexed to the crown of England. We 
 therefore expect to find more decided speci- 
 mens of the native productions of our own 
 islands ; nor are we altogether disappointed. 
 Howell Dha, or Howell the Good, describes 
 some of the cattle in the tenth century as 
 being white, with red ears, resembling the 
 wild cattle of Chillingham Castle. An early 
 record speaks of a hundred white cows, with 
 red ears, being demanded as a compensation for 
 certain oftences against the princes both of 
 North and South Wales. If the cattle were 
 of a dark or black colour, a hundred and fifty 
 were to be presented. When the Cambrian 
 princes did homage to the king of England, 
 tlie same number of cattle, and of the same 
 description, were rendered in acknowledgment 
 of sovereignty. Speed tells us, that Maud de 
 Breos, in order to appease King John, whom 
 her husband had offended, sent to his queen a 
 present, from Brecknockshire, of four hundred 
 cows and a bull, all white, with red ears. 
 Whether this was the usual colour of the 
 ancient breed of Welsh and British cattle, or 
 a rare variety esteemed on account of its 
 beauty, and chiefly preserved in the parks of 
 the nobles, we are unable to determine. The 
 latter is the most probable supposition; and 
 the same records that describe the white cattle 
 with red ears, speak also of the dark or black 
 
WHITE WILD CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND Til HI If VAKIETIES. [white wild cattle. 
 
 coloured breed which now exists, and whicli is 
 general throughout tho Principality." As a 
 further point, in favour of the probability of 
 the white wild cattle being specilically the 
 same as our domestic races, wo select tlio 
 following quotation from the work before re- 
 ferred to: — "Tho colours of tho improved 
 short-horns are red or white, or a niixturo of 
 the two, combining in endless variety, and pro- 
 ducing, very frequently, a most brilliant ellect. 
 Tho white, it is very probable, they obtained I 
 from an early cross with the wild breed ; and 
 whenever this colour shows itself, it is ac- 
 companied, more or less, with a red tinge on 
 the extremit}' of the car — a distinctive charac- 
 ter also of the wild cattle." 
 
 Are, then, tlie wild cattle of Chatclhcranlt 
 Park, Lanarkshire, or Chilliugham Park, Lime- 
 hall, Clieshire, and other places, the de- 
 scendants, as Mr. Touatfc seems to infer, of 
 tliese white cattle of ancient race, so valued in 
 early times? or are they descendants of the 
 wild breed which, at an early period, tenanted 
 the great forests of our island ; and which, as 
 the forests became cleared, and the land culti- 
 vated, were gradually thinned, till, at length, 
 their remnant found, in the chase or park of 
 the nobleman, that safety which, as old deni- 
 zens of the soil, they might well claim ; and 
 but for which, the breed would long since have 
 been utterly extirpated ? Again, was the 
 wild breed which roamed the Caledonian forest, 
 and the gveat forest north of London, so late 
 as the latter part of the twelfth century, and 
 mentioned by Pitzstephen, identical with the 
 white Cambrian breed ? These arc questions 
 more easily abked than solved. One thing is 
 certain — the wild cattle of Chillingham will 
 breed with the domestic race ; but the progeny 
 has never been preserved, the calves having 
 been always killed at an early age, from a 
 pardonable desire to keep this ancient race iu 
 all its purity. We firmly believe, however, 
 that the cross breed would be as fertile as any 
 of our domestic varieties. 
 
 The author of the article "Bos," in the BrUish 
 CyclopceJia, is of opinion that the white cattle 
 in question are domesticated oxen which have 
 run wild ; and, moreover, that they are not 
 descended from an aboriginal stock, but that 
 the race was originally imported by the eccle- 
 siastics from Italy, where herds of wild cattle, 
 
 much res(>mbling them, still exist. In Ihip, aa 
 in all other theories, autheiiticated facts, as our 
 basis, are wanting. Tho Chillingham wild 
 cattle are invariably of a creamy-whito colour, 
 with a black muzzle; tho whole of the in.sido 
 of tho ears, and the tip externally, are red ; 
 the horns aro white, with black tips; very Hue, 
 and bent upwards. Some of tho bulla havo 
 a thin upright mane, an inch and a-half, or 
 two inches long. Tho weight of tho oxl-u h 
 from thirty-five to forty-fivo stone the four 
 quarters (fourteen pounds to the stone) ; that 
 of the cows, from twenty-five to thirty- five 
 stone. Tho beef is finely marbled, and of 
 excellent llavour. These cattle are fleet and 
 active. " At the first appearance of any per- 
 son they set off at full gallop ; and, at the 
 distance of about two hundred yards, make a 
 wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing 
 their heads in a menacing manner ; on a sud- 
 den they make a full stop, at the distance of 
 forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the 
 object of their surprise ; but, upon the least 
 motion being made, they all again turn round 
 and fly off with equal speed, but not to the 
 same distance, forming a shorter circle ; and, 
 again returning with a bolder and more threat- 
 ening aspect than before, they approach much 
 nearer — probably within thirty yards — when 
 they again make another stand, and then fly 
 off. This they do several times, shortening 
 their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, 
 till they come within such a short distance, 
 that most people think it proper to leave 
 them, not choosing to provoke them furllier." 
 The females hide their calves for a week or 
 ten days, after birth, in some sequestered situa- 
 tion, and visit them two or three times a day. 
 If any person approach the calves, they crouch 
 close, like a hare iu form, and endeavour to 
 hide themselves; but, when roused, exhibit 
 great fury, pawing, bellowing, and butting at 
 the intruder. The females arc resolute in the 
 defence of their young, and attack persons 
 discovered near their lair with impetuous 
 ferocity. I^ormerly the bunting of these ani- 
 mals was conducted with great parade, many 
 scores assembling on horseback, and hundreds 
 on foot, to witness tho sport ; but, from the 
 number of accidents that happened, and, 
 perhaps, from the disturbance created among 
 the game, this practice has been long discon- 
 
 g;37 
 
ENGLISH CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VAEIETIES. [leicestee beeed. 
 
 tinued. The keeper now uses a rifle, and 
 steals upon the animal selected, until withia 
 range, and drops it at a single shot. 
 
 ENGLISH DOMESTIC CATTLE. 
 {Bos Taurus). To describe the form, con- 
 tour, and colour of the domestic ox is super- 
 fluous ; and it is generally known that, within 
 the precincts of our fertile island, aflbrding 
 unequalled pasturage, the animal has ramified 
 into many breeds, which it has been the care 
 of the farmer to improve and modify to his 
 own advantage. Excepting in a i'ew districts, 
 the ox is not employed in our country as a 
 beast of draught, or for the labour of the 
 plough, as it was, in ancient times, on the con- 
 tinent, and still is in many countries. On the 
 contrary, it is for its flesh on the one hand, 
 and for the milk of the cow on the other, 
 that this animal is so valuable. Indeed, every- 
 where the true importance of the ox is in 
 itself, and not its labour; though, in many 
 parts of the world, it is used both as a beast 
 of burden and draught. Eestricting our pre- 
 sent observations to British cattle, we may 
 observe, that there are two parties immediately, 
 and, we may say, professionally, interested in 
 the culture of cattle— the grazier and the dairy 
 farmer; and both require difi'erent, and, to a 
 certain degree, incompatible excellences. "With 
 the grazier, roundness of form, a moderate 
 smallness of bone, depth of chest, and an 
 aptitude to acquire external fat upon a small 
 consumption of food, are among the points of 
 excellence aimed at and expected. On the 
 contrary, the supply of a large quantity of rich 
 milk, is the desideratum of the dairy farmer; 
 and it very seldom happens that the qualities 
 prized by the one party, are combined with those 
 required by the other. Both, therefore, attend 
 io their exclusive interests, agreeing only in 
 the care bestowed upon the animal subservient 
 to their respective purposes. To note every 
 variety, and enter into minutiae — the part 
 rather of the farmer than the naturalist — is far 
 from being our object; a sketch, however, 
 of some of the principal breeds will not be 
 uninteresting, and must necessarily find a con- 
 siderable space in a work of this kind. 
 
 OLD BREEDS. 
 Among the older breeds was a long-horned 
 638 
 
 race, now greatly modified, of which Lan- 
 cashire and the "West Eiding of Yorkshire 
 might be considered as the central district; 
 whence it extended — not to the exclusion of 
 other races — through the midland counties, 
 and even into Ireland. This breed was termed 
 the Craven, from a district of that name in 
 Yorkshire, bordering upon Lancashire, where 
 it is said to have originally appeared. It wag 
 large, coarse-boned, and apt to be long in the 
 body, which, besides, was destitute of round- 
 ness. The milk, if not abundant in quantity, 
 was extremely rich, and suited the purpose of 
 the dairy farmer. The horns were of enormous 
 length ; sometimes they projected horizontally 
 on each side of the head ; generally, however, 
 they swept downwards, with an inward flexure, 
 often reaching below the level of the muzzle, 
 or even meeting before it, so as to interfere 
 with the facility of grazing. Indeed, the points 
 often press against the sides of the muzzle, 
 rendering it necessary to shorten tliem. In 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, various 
 agriculturists commenced a series of attempts 
 towards the improvement of this old breed, 
 which resulted in the establishment of the 
 Dishley, or new Leicester long-horn. To the 
 grazier the improvem.ent was most immediately 
 beneficial, but the dairyman preferred the old 
 stock. In process of time, however, the new 
 breed extended, improving the cattle of the 
 middle and northern counties, and especially 
 of Ireland. In its turn, however, this breed 
 has almost everywhere yielded to a middle or 
 short-horned race ; and even in Leicestershire, 
 the stronghold of the Dishley breed, few are 
 now to be seen. In Cheshire also — which, till 
 recently, retained a long-horned breed, derived 
 chiefly from the old Lancashire and new 
 Dishley stocks — the Durham or short. horned 
 race has made decided inroads, but with doubt- 
 ful advantage as respects the quality of the 
 cheese for which that county is celebrated. 
 
 THE LEICESTERSHIRE BREED. 
 The old long-horned breed of this county 
 was endeavoured to be improved by Mr. Bake- 
 well, who here prosecuted his experin^ents ; 
 and, although he was successful in removing 
 the coarseness which characterised these ani- 
 mals, and increased their fattening capabilities, 
 he failed in either improving or establishing 
 
KKUKV UUKEU.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THE Hi VA K I I'/ri i:s. [doubet diikrd. 
 
 their dairy qualities. The breed, therefore, 
 upon which ho extM-clHod his tiileiit, in held in 
 little estimation by those whoso object id to 
 obtiiin large quantities of milk, and who prefer 
 the bigger and coarser animals, the milk-pro- 
 duce of which is both large and good, leaving 
 the others as best adapted for the purposes of 
 the grazier, in Leicestershire, cheese is the 
 grand object of the dairyman. Consequently, 
 abundant milk-yielding cows are the most 
 prolitablo for him ; and some of these will give 
 about 400 pouuds of cheese, and as many 
 gallons of milk in the year, after allowing the 
 seven weeks, during which the cow is supposed 
 to be dry. In some of the districtsof this county, 
 cows are kept for six, seven, or even eight 
 years, if they continue to produce largely. 
 Cheese being the grand stoclv-in-trado of the 
 Leicestershire farmer, it is much more profitable 
 to him to maintain a plentifully-producing cow, 
 than to get a few poimds, more or less, by her 
 when she is disposed of. The grass of Leices- 
 tershire being extremely rich, the farmer, on a 
 large scale, is enabled to fatten his cattle when 
 be pleases, and to sell such as he might dispose 
 of for the dairy. As old cows, therefore, are 
 not expected to be very good grazers, be does 
 Eot look for wonders from them ; and, should 
 be succeed in putting a moderate degree of fat 
 upon their bones, be is contented with a lower 
 price per stone for their beef than would be 
 takeu for better animals. The cows will only 
 make what is called cow-beef — suitable only 
 for the coarse palates of a ship's crew, or for 
 "provisioning the navy." 
 
 THE KERRY BREED. 
 
 This is a hardy breed, and celebrated in 
 Ireland as the cottier's dairy cow. Her cha- 
 racters are — fine head and legs, flat shoulders, 
 breast and quarters, small tail, and skinny 
 udder. She is a famous milker, and has a 
 timid, gentle look, indicative of great patience, 
 which is further shown by the meekness of her 
 deportment. Like the poorer classes of the 
 countrymen to whom she belongs, she is ex- 
 tremely hardy, and will live where other kinds 
 of cattle would starve. Her yield of milk is not 
 only abundant, but rich, and it is produced from 
 the hardest and coarsest sorts of cattle- food. 
 On account of the excellent quality of both her 
 milk and butter, she is an invaluable possession. 
 
 THE ciii:siiiRi: uueed. 
 
 This breed is becoming rapidly extinct. The 
 old breed of Cherthire was a long-horned 
 variety ; but the dairy system, introduced into 
 tiio vicinity of largo towns by the growth of 
 their populations, has brought the short-horn 
 cow of Yorkshire into competition with uJbae 
 native breeds. The qiiantily, rather than tho 
 quality, of tho milk tliey jjroduee, has been with 
 them the great object of consideration ; conse- 
 quently, tho character of tho Cheshire cheese 
 has been deteriorated in the markets. Another 
 reason why the short- horned cattle have risen 
 higher in estimation in this county tlian in 
 others, is the care which is taken to prevent 
 their exposure to atmospheric changes, and also 
 to the enriching of exhausted grass-lands by 
 manuring them with bone-dust. This sort of 
 manure so improves these lands as to give 
 great advantage to an animal requiring a good 
 quality, as well as a fair quantity, of provender, 
 both of which are requisite for the short-horns. 
 Mr. Palin, in his Prize Essay on tJic Farming 
 of Chesliire, observes — "Doubts, I believe, 
 exist in the minds of some intelligent farmers, 
 whether any improvement has been efiecfced in 
 the milking properties of dairy cows, as regards 
 quality, by the introduction of tho improved 
 short-borns amongst them. That the latter 
 breed is much disposed to fatten, is admitted; 
 but this class of cattle docs not stand very high 
 in public estimation as milkers. It may, there- 
 fore, be reasonably supposed that there are 
 good grounds for thinking that it is very pos- 
 sible to introduce too much of the improved 
 short-horn blood into the dairy stocks, and 
 that great caution should be taken in crossing. 
 However this may be, I am of opinion that an 
 improvement may be effected by the introduc- 
 tion of the blood to a certain extent; care 
 being always taken to select male animals 
 intended to be reared from the best milkers." 
 
 THE DORSETSHIRE BREED. 
 It is to be expected that, in most dairy dis- 
 tricts, a large milk-producing animal will take 
 precedence of one which may have a more 
 beautiful form, or be a better taker-on of fat. 
 This is the case in Dorsetshire ; and hence, an 
 ill-formed, and somewhat coarse breed of cattle 
 prevails throughout the county. They belong 
 
 G3'J 
 
DEVON BUEED.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [deyott breed. 
 
 to the long-horned breed ; are chiefly of a rufous 
 colour; large size, with flat cliests and buttocks. 
 Crosses with the Hereford, Devon, and Ayr- 
 shire breeds, have been endeavoured to be 
 obtained from them, but without success. One 
 Alderney, however, has been introduced to a 
 dairy, for every ten or twelve of the native 
 breed ; and this has been found greatly to 
 increase the quantity of cream, as well as to 
 improve the quality of the butter. 
 
 Crosses, or breeds more or less distinct, 
 prevail in every dairy district of this county ; 
 but it is unnecessary to specify them here, as 
 it would only be merely a repetition of the same 
 tiling over and over again. There are other 
 breeds, however, of a more specific character 
 which merit our attention. 
 
 THE SHROPSHIRE BREED. 
 
 Among the long-horned race must be 
 reckoned the old Shropshire breed — a large- 
 boned and hardy race, well fitted to serve the 
 dairy. Ifc would appear that this breed is 
 seldom to be seen pure, having been crossed 
 with advantage by the short-horned Holder- 
 ness. In Staffordshire, the old long-horned 
 breed has been, in most parts, superseded by 
 short-horned cattle. It still, however, main- 
 tains its ground in the north of that county, 
 more particularly along the banks of the Trent 
 and the Dove, close to the borders of Derby- 
 shire. Between the long-horned and the 
 short-horned races of our cattle, intervenes a 
 race termed " middle-horns," represented by 
 the North Devonshire, Somersetshire, Here- 
 fordshire, Gloucestershire; and Sussex cattle. 
 
 THE DEVONSHIRE BREED. 
 This breed is of great antiquity, and has 
 been long celebrated for beauty. Like most 
 of our other breeds, it has become improved 
 during the last fifty or sixty years, and has, 
 perhaps, now attained to its perfection. The 
 head of the Devon ox is small, but broad across 
 the forehead, and narrow at the muzzle; the 
 horns curve gracefully upwards; the chest is 
 deep, and the back straight. The cow is small, 
 compared with tho bull. Thus, then, physio- 
 logically speaking, the breed is well formed, 
 and it is of very long standing. In disposition 
 the whole race is docile and tractable, gentle 
 and patient ; whUst they are very hardy, con- 
 640 
 
 sidering the mild and humid nature of tlie 
 climate in which they subsist. They are not, 
 however, very famous for their milk-producing 
 qualities ; nor, if early fat is the grazier's object, 
 are they very extraordinary feeders. Still 
 they will feed, and attain to a considerable 
 size. At some periods of their growth they 
 produce a class of beef of ftiir quality. Eed, 
 and nothing but red, is a sine qua non in a 
 Devonshire ox. He has a moderately straight 
 top, and a somewhat thin skin, covered with 
 curly hair. The rump is narrower than that 
 of the short-horns, and the crop lighter and 
 flatter; but the brisket is large and full, the 
 legs fine, the shoulder slanting, and the neck 
 long and thin. He is what would be denomi- 
 nated, in the short-horn districts, a " shelly" 
 animal, and cannot be pronounced a good 
 grazer. As a draught animal, however, he 
 stands very high. The cow is not a good 
 milker. A short-horn breeder speaks veiy 
 prejudicially of this breed. He thus describes 
 the cattle at a fair in Devonshire : — " "With the 
 exception of one animal, I did not see a level 
 carcass ; but a want of beef in the roasting 
 parts ; low and poor loins, coa.'se shoulders, 
 bad twist (thighs), and a general want of indi- 
 cations of inside proof." Of the beef, when 
 killed, he says — "The meatwas actuallyrunning 
 about the stall, being nothing more than a 
 mixture of flabby masses, deficient of fineness 
 of texture and quality." Mr. Parkinson, in 
 his invaluable and practical Treatise on Live 
 Stock, mentions that a thin hide in the Devous 
 is not quite a recommendation. He gives the 
 weight of some specimens of six-year-old 
 cattle, which weighed some fifty-seven stone, 
 two pounds ; but the cows much less. He 
 says of them — " On the whole, they must be 
 allowed to be good cattle for their soils, and 
 particularly where oxen are worked at the 
 plough. When slaughtered, they are a sort 
 of beef that suits the consumption of many 
 customers." Some have supposed that the 
 Devonshire was the original breed of this island 
 — a supposition which others have pronounced 
 simply absurd. 
 
 The system of ploughing with oxen is ver} 
 generally practised in Devonshire ; and, where 
 the land is not too heav}--, no teams of oxen 
 are superior, if equal, to them in this kind of 
 work. It is, however, to the grazier, that 
 
UEHEFOuo BRF.F.D.] CATTLE, AND TIlEIll VAUIETIES. [qloucesteii ukeed. 
 
 this breed is more otipeoially valimble, for they 
 will fatten, as wo havo said, and supply an 
 excellent quality of flesh. Some fanners havo 
 found the North Devons to yield even a lar^o 
 produce of inillc, so that, in this particular, 
 much may depend on choice of pastura>^e. 
 In Somcrsetshiro the Devon breed prevails; 
 or at least the original breed has been greatly 
 crossed by the Devon, of which it presents 
 most of the excellences. The Somersetshire 
 cattle are alike valuable for "the pail, the 
 plough, and grazing." The tract of country 
 between Bridgewater and Cross, produces 
 cheese of well-known excellence ; the best 
 Cheddar cheese is made either in that tract 
 or the marshes round Glastonbury. 
 
 THE HEREFORD BREED. 
 
 Tlie Hereford improved breed, with white 
 faces, is valuable as fattening rapidly, and that 
 on ini'erior food. The flesh is fine-grained, 
 and highly prized iu the market; but the 
 cows yield a very scanty portion of milk. In 
 Gloucestershire the Herefords are preferred 
 for the teams, and by graziers for fattening ; 
 but the old Gloucester breed for milk. This 
 old breed is of mixed origin, consisting of a 
 race of Welsh descent, supposed to have been 
 crossed by various other breeds ; and among 
 them the Alderney. The rich Vale of Berkeley 
 produces the finest Gloucester cheese. The 
 present breed is a middle-horned race, to the 
 improvement of which much attention has 
 been devoted. The success of short-horned 
 breeders bas caused a healthy emulation; and 
 the difterence between the Hereford cattle 
 now exhibited, and those shown several years 
 back, not only indicates judgment and skill in 
 the breeds, but leads to the conclusion that 
 the breed, in itself, has considerable fattening 
 capabilities. The old Hereford was a deep- 
 brown animal, sometimes with a yellow cast, 
 free from white. An improved breed, how- 
 ever, now occupies the county, iu which the 
 prevailing colour is a dark red, with a white 
 face, white belly, and not unfrequently a white 
 back. The skin is less mellow and thicker 
 than that of the short-horn ; whilst the hair 
 has neither the mossy softness, nor the grace- 
 ful curl of the latter. The eye is full and 
 lively ; the chest deep and broad ; the loins 
 also broad ; and the hips well expanded ; a 
 
 4 2f 
 
 level, broad rump, a round barrel, and full 
 crop; full and deep flank, well ribbed home; 
 small bones, with clean and perpendicular 
 thighs. Tho belly is almont parallel with tao 
 back, and tho head is small. Colour and 
 symmetry are perhaps the predominant qualui- 
 catior.s which secure tho high favour of tho 
 breeder of this race. 
 
 Whilst possessing all these excellences, how- 
 ever, tho Hereford breed is destitute of thoso 
 qualities which tend to produce early maturity 
 and speedy fattening. It takes on flesh of a 
 soft and mottled description on the best parts; 
 gets full in tho sirloin, rump, and crop; but 
 it shows its beef all outside; and requires 
 much more time to develop its proportions thr.u 
 the short-horned race. In milking qualities 
 the cow is even behind the short-horn ; and 
 she must, in general, be threc-and-a-hulf to 
 four years old before she can be fattened wiili 
 anything like decided success. Tho breed re- 
 quires a rich pastui'e ; and its average weight, 
 when fiit, does not exceed fifty-five to sixty- 
 five stones. Herefordshire being more abroed- 
 ing than a feeding county, the cattle are reared 
 there, and sold off at three years old, and 
 transported to the fatter lauds of Leicoster- 
 shire for the purpose of being grazed. I\Iany 
 of them are also sent into xsorthamptonshire, 
 and other rich grass districts. But, with all 
 their good qualities, it must be admitted that 
 they require from ten to twelve months more 
 to feed than the more favoured short-horn. 
 
 Much controversy has been carried on as xo 
 the merits of tlie two breeds — the short-horu 
 and the Hereford. It must be admitted, how- 
 ever, that, while the short-horn has penetrated 
 into the heart of Scotland and the south of 
 England, and into the counties of Gloucester 
 and Norfolk, the Hereford keeps its ground. 
 A valuable breed of middle-horned cattle ex- 
 tends through South Wales ; and of this the 
 Glamorganshire variety is highly celebrated. 
 The oxen are readily fattened, and the cows 
 yield a fair quantity of milk. 
 
 THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE BREED. 
 This is more a mixture of the long-horn and 
 middle-horn than any distinctive race — the old 
 Gloucester cow being nearly extinct. The 
 various crosses to which dairy cattle have been 
 subjected, have obliterated all traces of the 
 
 Gil 
 
DURHAM BREED.] CATTLE, AXD THEIE VAEIETIES. [DriinA:,r brekb. 
 
 original race ; but early crosses with the long- 
 horned breed have, to a considerable extent, 
 prevailed. The Devons have also been used as 
 a cross to render them more easy to fatten ; and 
 the Durham short-horns have also occasionally 
 been tried ; but the poverty of keep, allowed by 
 the Gloucestershire dairymen to their cattle, 
 has greatly tended to deteriorate the breed. 
 The same fate has, in general, attended at- 
 tempts to cross vfith the Herefords. Of the 
 successful crosses adopted in this country, there 
 '.\ras one made with an ordinary Gloucester 
 bull and an Alderney cow. This obtained 
 richneas in the milk ; when a Durham bull was 
 selectei to increase the tendency to flesh and 
 ;to size, and to improve the form generally. 
 This gives a stock one-half Durham, while the 
 other half is constituted of one part Gloucester 
 and one-half Alderney. The average yield of 
 an ordinary Gloucester cow may be reckoned 
 at five hundred gallons of milk, yielding about 
 twenty-four stones of single Gloucester cheese ; 
 the remainder of the milk being used in the 
 family, and for fattening calves, or pig-feeding, 
 vyhicli ia largely practised in all dairy districts. 
 
 THE SUSSEX BREED. 
 
 The breed of cattle in Sussex closely resem- 
 bles that of Devonshire. According to judges, 
 it is intermediate between the Devon and 
 Hereford ; " having the activity of the first, the 
 strength of the second, and the propensity to 
 fatten, a}id the beautiful fine-grained flesh of 
 both." Its colour is deep chestnut-red, or 
 blood-bay ; and a deviation from these colours 
 indicates a cross. In the "Weald of Sussex, 
 oxen of this valuable stock are generally used 
 for team-work; and so great is their strength 
 and quickness, that many teams have been 
 known to travel, with heavy loads, fifteen miles 
 a day, for several successive weeks, without 
 distress. The Sussex cow, like the Devon and 
 the Hereford, is very inferior in size to the 
 bull ; and though the milk yielded is good, it 
 is of indifierent quantity. 
 
 THE DURHAM, OR SHORT-HORN BREED. 
 The most extensively diffused breed of cattle 
 in our island, and by far the most valuable, is 
 that termed, by way of distinction, the Short- 
 Lorned. Of this breed England may justly be 
 proud, as it unites, as far as possible, every 
 642 
 
 good quality. The form is admirable; iho 
 oxen fiitten quickly, and often attain to an 
 enormous weight, and the cows are excellent 
 as milkers. It would appear that Durham, 
 and some parts of Yorkshire, had long pos- 
 sessed a breed of short-horned cattle of large 
 size, and celebrated for the quantity of milk 
 yielded by the cows ; but this breed, not only 
 in figure, but in aptitude to fatten, and in the 
 quality of the flesh, required great improve- 
 ment — other races far excelling it in these 
 points, so important to the grazier This 
 stock still lingers, and is certainly valuable to 
 the dairy farmer, who might, however, substi- 
 tute the improved breed for it with advantage. 
 It is about ninety years since the improved 
 stock of this old, but really fine, breed began 
 to be established on the banks of the Tees, 
 owing to the judgment and care of the intelli- 
 gent breeders of that district. It difiers from 
 the old short-horns in possessing a well-de- 
 veloped figure, and a more than ordinary 
 aptitude to acquire fat. The first step of im- 
 provement, resulting from the practical know- 
 ledge of Mr. MlUbank, and other coadjutors, 
 opened the way for the successful exertions 
 of subsequent spirited breeders, who, by pur- 
 suing a judicious plan in crossing, have brought 
 the breed to the highest pitch of perfection. 
 Among these crosses, it is supposed that tlie 
 white wild breed has contributed a share ; aud 
 to this circumstance is attributed the preva- 
 lence of white as a characteristic of the stock. 
 In speaking of this breed, Mr. Milburn says, 
 that these animals are supposed by some to be 
 traced to Holderness ; and, according to others, 
 to have been imported from Holstein. From 
 continental Europe they certainly appear to 
 have sprung ; and, being successively improved 
 by a variety of breeders, they have ended in 
 that distinct race of animals, extraordinary, 
 beyond all others, for their astonishing pro- 
 pensities to feed. Others, again, refer their 
 origin to a native race of cattle called the 
 Teeswater, because they have, from time im- 
 memorial, inhabited the valley which the Tees 
 has formed by its washings-down of the moun- 
 tain limestone rocks in which it has its origin. 
 These, it is said, being crossed by the Holder- 
 ness importations, gradually became a now race. 
 The late Mr. Bates traces the short-horns to a 
 breed in the possession of the Aslabys, of 
 
DiKiTAM BEEED.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [duhiiam bukeu. 
 
 fcJtudley ; and the Rov. H. Berry, to an improve- 
 lueni in the East RiJinjj; of Yorkshire, by the 
 iniportatiou of a breeil Iroiu llolhind by Sir 
 "W. St. Qaiiitiu, of Sciiinpstoii. Of these 
 orij^inula of the sliort-horns, liowevor, it is 
 hardly necessary to say more than this — that 
 a breed, from distant as^es, inliabiled the vaUey 
 of the Tees, wliich, trained and educated to 
 feed, for a vast succession of generations, on 
 its fertile deposits, acquired the habit of speedy 
 fat-fornuiig. In tliese valleys, where hay alone 
 will feed the largest ox, the production of fat 
 would be so I'ar au object, that breeders would 
 always seleei; the best and easiest feeding- 
 animals ; and thus the character of the district, 
 through a number of centuries, might easily 
 lay the groundwork of that improvement which 
 the JMillbanks, the Greys, the Booths, the 
 Coates, and, above all, the CoUings, effected. 
 The description of the qualities of the modern 
 short-horn is thus given by jMr. Dickson, an 
 established authority. After referring to the 
 general symmetry of the frame, and its delicate 
 colour, either deep-red, cream-coloured, white, 
 or delicate roan — the latter, by-the-by, the 
 jBOst fashionable, and, indeed, prevailing colour 
 — be speaks of it as possessing "the mellowest 
 touch, supported on small clean limbs, show- 
 ing, like those of the greyhound and the race- 
 horse, the union of strength with fineness, 
 and ornamented with a small, lengthy, tapering 
 head, neatly set on a broad, firm, deep neck ; 
 furnished with a small muzzle, wide nostrils, 
 prominent, mildly beaming eyes; thin, large, 
 veiny ears, set near the crown of the head, 
 and protected in front with semicircularly-bent, 
 white, or brownisii-coloured, short, smooth, 
 pointed horns. All these several parts combine 
 to form a symmetrical harmony, which has 
 never been surpassed, in beauty and sweetness, 
 by any other species of the domesticated ox." 
 Keeping in mind what has been stated to be 
 the perfection of a fat animal, the same autho- 
 rity, speaking of the short-horn, says — " We 
 have a straight level back from behind the 
 horns to the top of the tail, full buttocks, and 
 a projecting brisket; we have, in short, the 
 rectangular form : we have also tiie level line 
 across the hook-bones (hip), and the level top 
 ot t!ie shoulder across the ox, and perpendicular 
 lines down the hind and fore leirs on both sides; 
 ■^hese constituting the square form when the ox 
 
 ia viewed before and behind ; and we have 
 straight parallel lines from tlio sides of the 
 aluiulders, along the outmost parts of the ribs, 
 and the sides of the hind quarters; and we 
 have also these lines, connected at their ends bv 
 others of shorter and equal length, across tli<! 
 end of the rump and the top of the shoulder; 
 thus constituting the rectangular form of the 
 ox when viewed from above down the back." 
 The weight which many of these animals attain 
 is surprising; whilst the prices which some of 
 them have fetched, and still fetch, is equallv 
 astonishiug. The Durham ox, a son of Charles 
 Ceiling's Eavourite, weighed 187 stones 21bs. 
 The Yorkshire ox, bred by Mr, Dunhill, of 
 Newton, near Doucaster, weighed, when killed, 
 261- stones ISlbs. These are weights of 14.1bs. 
 to the stone, and include the wonderful capa- 
 bilities to make iiit and flesh possessed by this 
 extraordinary race of animals. Though there 
 is not, perhaps, another instance on record of 
 any bull selling for so much money as Charles 
 Ceiling's Comet, which sold for 1,000 guineas 
 (which must be acknowledged to bo a great 
 price), yet £500, £G00, and as much as 
 £S0O, are still given for a first-rate short-horn 
 bull. It is not, hov.ever, in rapid fattening- 
 qualities alone that this species excels; for it 
 is unquosiiouably the most remarkable fo:- 
 attaining to an early maturity. The short- 
 horns begin to develop their fat-forming power3 
 even when calves. These powers seem to grov7 
 with their growth; and when only a 3-ear old, 
 they have all the appearance of full-grown cows. 
 This makes them early ready for the market ; 
 consequently their feeders, instead of keeping 
 them to three, four, or five years of age, fatten 
 and sell them off at from two to two-and-a-half 
 years. They can thus turn off one-half more, 
 at least, of beef from their farms or their stalls 
 than could possibly be produced with any other 
 breed. Thus they have quick returns, and large 
 amounts of beef for the food-consumer. To 
 accomplish this, however, care and good shelter 
 are requisite. Tiie cow needs nursing, and 
 nourishing diet when young: but she repays 
 all ; for she is a cow when another is a calf. 
 The ox is fat when the other is growing. She 
 will purchase a horse before a Devon will buy 
 a saddle. Hence, the short-horn stands the 
 very first on the list of fat-producing breeds. 
 Among the most successful of improvers of 
 
 013 
 
DUEHAvJ BEEED.I CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [TOBKsniEE cow. 
 
 this breed was Mr. C. CoUiug, just spoken of; 
 who bred the celebrated Durham ox, the pro- 
 duce of one of the ordinary short-horned cows, 
 and a bull termed Eavourite, of noble figure. 
 At five years old, says the excellent author of 
 the work on cattle, " the Durham ox was sold 
 to Mr. Eulmer, of Harmley, near Bedale, for 
 public exhibition, at the price of £140, He 
 was at that time computed to weigh 168 stones 
 of l-ilbs. ; his live weight being 216 stones : 
 this extraordinary weight did not arise from 
 bis superior size, but from the excessive ripe- 
 ness of all his points." The Durham ox, in a 
 short time, passed into the possession of Mi'. 
 J, Day, who travelled with him through the 
 principal parts of England and Scotland, till at 
 Oxford he discolated bis hip-bone, when he 
 was obliged to be slaughtered ; and, notwith- 
 standing he must have lost considerably during 
 eight weeks of illness, bis carcass weighed — the 
 four quarters, 165 stones 12lbd. ; tallow, 11 
 stones 2lbs. ; and hide, 10 stones 21bs. Among 
 the most remarkable of Mr. Colliug's experi- 
 ments in breeding, was that of a cross between 
 the improved short-horns and a polled Galloway 
 cow, which, being interbred with tbe pure 
 short-horned stock, gave origin to a breed 
 called the Alloy— o. term, at first, given by way 
 of disparagement, but continued afterwards 
 when the excellences of tbe breed were acknow- 
 ledged. Some idea of its value may be formed 
 from the fact, that at a sale of Mr. Coliing's 
 cattle, forty-eight animals (cows, bulls, year- 
 old bull-calves, and heifer-calves) realised 
 £7,115 175. Of tlie Alloy breed, was the stock, 
 or part of the stock, of the late Eev. H. Berry. 
 The figure of the cows was excellent in every 
 respect, and their milking quality is stated to 
 have been by no meaus of inferior degree. 
 
 AmoDgr the most celebrated of the short- 
 horned stocks of the present day, that in the 
 possession of the late Lord Althorp, was one 
 of the most distinguished. It was originally 
 derived from the stock of Mr. Iv. Colling, and 
 no pains were spared in bringing it to the 
 highest excellence. X. celebrated bull, be- 
 longing to this nobleman, and which is known 
 under the cognomen of Eirby, was regarded as 
 a model of the breed. Ic is a peculiarity in 
 this short-horned race, that the cows are ex- 
 cellent as milkers ; and, moreover, that when 
 dried, they fatten rapidly. The oxen, as it is 
 644 
 
 acknowledged, are fit for the butcher at the 
 age of two years ; but this tendency to acquire 
 fat renders them indolent workers, and more 
 unfitted for the team than other breeds — a 
 circumstance of little consequence, as cattle 
 which are profitable to the breeder at two 
 years old, and are as ready for the butcher at 
 this age as those of any other breed at three, 
 or even four, ought never to be submitted to 
 the yoke. The bulls, indeed, being extremely 
 docile, may be employed with advantage in 
 many operations going on in every farm — a 
 plan the more advisable as they are apt to 
 acquire too much fat, which moderate labour 
 would tend to diminish. 
 
 It must not be supposed that every breed 
 of short-horned cattle is endowed with the 
 qualities characteristic of the improved stock, 
 which render it so valuable. There is, for 
 example, a breed of short-horned cattle in 
 Lincolnshire, with which the Smithfield market 
 was wont to be abundantly supplied ; but the 
 cattle of this stock are by no means first-rate 
 animals. The head is not finely modelled ; 
 the bone is comparatively large; the limbs 
 high, and the hips wide. In many instances, 
 the stock has been improved by admixture 
 with more highly bred animals, and rendered 
 valuable ; but the flesh is not fine-grained. On 
 tlie whole, these cattle are better adapted for 
 the dairy farmer than the grazier, as the cows 
 yield a fair quantity of milk. 
 
 THE YORKSHIRE CO^Y. 
 
 This is a short-horned milk-producing breed, 
 of great size, yielding milk in large quantities, 
 and having a considerable aptitude to fatten. 
 On this account it is cbosen by the dairymen 
 of populous towns and cities, especially those 
 of Loudon, for the supply of milk for a given 
 period. Eattened on the refuse of the distillers, 
 and such waste materials as large towns usually 
 furnish, it doubly remunerates whatever care 
 and attention the dairyman may bestow upon 
 it. When fiit, the Yorkshire cow will weigh 
 from sixty to eighty stones. Her characters 
 are thus given by Mr. Milburn :— " Her head 
 is fine, and somewhat small ; there is a serene 
 placidity of eye, which shows a mild and gentle 
 disposition, tending alike to produce fat and 
 milk. The horns are small and white ; the 
 muzzle without black spots ; the breast deep 
 
TORKsiuuE cow.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIK VAlilETIES. [alukunev diiked. 
 
 and prominent, but that and the shoulders thin ; 
 the neck somewhat narrow, but full below the 
 shoulders, and without any loose skin; the 
 barrel soniewliat round; the belly capacious ; 
 milk-vein larj^e ; back perfectly straight ; rump 
 wide, and llat as a table ; tail small, and m'^ 
 on so that there is almost a straight lino from 
 the tail to the head. The prevallinrj colour is 
 roan, or red and white; and sometimes white, 
 with the tips of the ears red. The thighs are 
 thin; but the legs are straight and rather 
 short. The udder is very large and muscular, 
 projecting forwards, well fdlcd-up behind, and 
 so broad as to give the cow the appearance of 
 a waddle in her walking." Indeed, her qualities 
 are not inappropriately described in some 
 doggerel lines often quoted ; and two of the 
 verses we shall venture to give, as most aptly 
 descriptive of the Yorkshire cow : — 
 
 " She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump, 
 A straight and flat back without ever a hump 
 She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes ; 
 She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs. 
 
 " She's light in her neck, and small in her tail; 
 She's wide in her breast, and good at the pail ; 
 She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin ; 
 She's a grazier's without, and a b\itcher's within." 
 
 Tiie quantity of milk given by these cows by 
 far exceeds that of any others, though less, 
 perhaps, than that of some others i?i j^i'oportion 
 to size. Mr. Milburn says that he has had 
 instances where as much as thirty quarts per 
 day, in summer, have been given. The dis- 
 tended udder has so swollen before calving — 
 "wedged" is the local and technical term — 
 that one was obliged to be milked several days 
 before she calved; and, after calving, had to be 
 milked three times a day, for fear of the conse- 
 quences of an over-distended udder. Moreover, 
 she gave a large quantity of butter as well as 
 milk ; and soon after calving she has given 
 fifteen pounds per week. When the Yorkshire 
 cow is purchased for the London dairies, it is 
 generally after she has had her third calf, wlien 
 the milk changes its character, and becomes 
 less infused with butyraceous qualities. This 
 arises from her no longer having tlie run of her 
 rich native pastures to graze upon. The object 
 of the London dairyman, and those of other 
 large towns, is not to improve the quality, but 
 to increase the quantity, of the milk ; and 
 hence the animals are fed with brewers' grains, 
 
 boiled linseed, &c., &c. ; and the out-door exer- 
 cise is restricted, so that their powers of secre* 
 tion all converge to the production of milk 
 alone. Considering all these thin;:;w, and taking 
 into account the carcass value? of tlie cow after 
 slie has yielded her copious supplies of milk, it 
 is not too much to aOlrm that there is no breed 
 of the vaccine race so nrofitable as the York- 
 shire cow. 
 
 THE ALDERNEY BREED. 
 
 Among the short-horned race must be enu- 
 merated that singular breed of catllo called 
 Alderneys, which has gained, and deserves, a 
 degree of celebrity from the peculiar richness 
 of the milk afforded by the cows. These cattle 
 were originally from Normandy and the islands 
 on the French coast, from one of which 
 (Alderney) they take their name. They are 
 small in size, awkwardly shaped, with a peculiar 
 bend in the back, and, in every point, more or 
 less defective. The milk yielded is not great 
 in quantity, but abounds with butter ; and it is 
 from its richness that these animals are fa- 
 vourites. Improbable as it might seem, from 
 the appearance of the Alderney, its aptitude to 
 fatten is remarkable. Even the cows, when 
 dried, soon gain flesh, and will attain to con- 
 siderable weight. It is chiefly in pleasure- 
 grounds, and the paddocks attached to the 
 houses of persons not engaged in forming for 
 profit, that cows of this breed are to be scqu. 
 In Hampshire alone the Alderney breed is 
 general, constituting the stock of the farmer. 
 It would appear that it is more suited to tho 
 pasturage of that county than other vaccina 
 animals which require richer grazing grounds, 
 consume a large quantity of food, and return a 
 disproportionate supply of milk. 
 
 The qualities of the Alderney breed being 
 exclusively milk-producing, it cannot be ex- 
 pected that they will be remarkable for any 
 great beauty of form. Indeed, until within 
 the last thirty years, a more ill-formed animal 
 could hardly bo conceived. Its characters 
 were large cheeks, thin, hollow neck, flat sides, 
 hollow back, thin hams, long between hip and 
 ribs, drooping rump, high shoulders, crooked 
 legs, and tapering chest. Such were its 
 characters ; but, as amongst mankind, there is 
 many a good head under an old hat, and many 
 a white skin under a poor garb ; so in the 
 
 G45 
 
ALDERNET BREED.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [ktloe breed. 
 
 ungainly form of the Alderney, there lurked 
 qualities of excellence of the highest degree. 
 
 " The produce of these small animals, botli 
 in milk and butter," says Mr. Milburn, "is 
 very great, and may be taken, in fair speci- 
 mens, at twenty quarts of milk daily, and ten 
 pounds of butter in the week, during the 
 months of April, Maj^, June, July, and Au- 
 gust. Instances are recorded of cows giving 
 twenty-six quarts of milk in the twenty-four 
 hours, and yielding as much as fourteen pounds 
 of butter per week ! Erom this it is clear 
 that the cream is of a very rich quality ; the 
 milk itself being superior to much of the 
 town-made cream, and the cream almost re- 
 sembling cream-cheese. It is considered too 
 rich by many persons for making cheese; but 
 instances are recorded of successful cheese- 
 making from this milk. M. Le Eeuvre, of La 
 Hogue, succeeded in making cheese of a very 
 superior quality from this fine milk; equal, 
 indeed, to double Gloucester. Fourteen quarts 
 of milk being capable of producing a pound of 
 butter, the same quantity would give a pound 
 and a-half of cheese ; and the whey, or drain- 
 ings, of twenty pounds of this cheese, would 
 produce four pounds of butter, somewhat in- 
 ferior for toast, but quite adequate for the 
 making of pastry. Compared with the milk 
 of any other cows celebrated for dairy pur- 
 poses, that of the Alderney is very superior. 
 An experiment was made, iu the months of 
 May, June, July, and August, between eight 
 Alderney and eight Kerry cows. In the first 
 month, the Alderneys gave 25 per cent, of 
 cream, against 10 per cent, of Kerrys; in 
 June, 20 per cent, against 10 ; in July, 23 per 
 cent, against 10 ; and in August, 16 per cent, 
 against 13 ; giving an average of about 100 
 per cent, more cream than the Kerrys — a race 
 of cows rather celebrated for dairy qualities. 
 But this was not all. Three pints of cream 
 from the Alderneys produced lib. 8|oz. of 
 butter; from the Kerrys, lib. 4|-oz. This, 
 too, was taken in the month of August, when 
 it will be seen the milk of tlie Alderneys was 
 falling oft'. The experiment was made by Mr. 
 'White, on the farm of the Hon. K. Clive, 
 of Oakley Park, and deserves every credit, as 
 it seems to have been carefully made." These 
 facts sufficiently establish the great value of 
 fcho Alderneys. 
 61.G 
 
 SCOTTISH KYLOE BREED. 
 
 With respect to other breeds of wliich we 
 have as yet said nothing, we may observe, that 
 in the Highlands of Scotland, a race of small 
 black cattle prevails, of which large herds are 
 driven southwards, and depastured iu the 
 grazing-lands of England. Of these, numbers 
 are brought to the London market. Many 
 varieties of the race exist. Among them we 
 may particularise the Kyloes of the Western 
 Islands and the Hebrides — -small, but hardy 
 and well-formed cattle, thriving on coarse fare, 
 and producing fine-grained and high-flavoured 
 meat. The different islands of the Hebrides 
 contain, says Mr. Touatt, "about one hundred 
 and fifty thousand of these cattle, of which it 
 is calculated that one-fifth are annually sent 
 to the mainland, principally through Jura, or 
 across the ferry of the Isle of Skye. If these 
 average about £5 per head, the amount will 
 be £150,000, or more than the rental of the 
 whole island, which Mr. Macdonald calculated 
 at £106,720, but which now produces a greater 
 sum. Cattle, therefore, constitute the staple 
 commodity of the Hebrides. Some thousands 
 are annually exported from the island of Islay 
 alone." 
 
 The cattle of this breed are so called from 
 the f\ict of their having crossed the Kyles, or 
 ferries, with which the Highlands of Scotland 
 abound. They formed the models which Bake- 
 well had in view when endeavouring to im- 
 prove the Leicestershire breed; and had he 
 been better acquainted with them in the early 
 stages, they might have taken their part in 
 the crossings which were made with the view 
 of improving the Dishley herd. They may be 
 esteemed the finest breed of the largest middle- 
 horned race, being possessed of long rumps, 
 loins, and crops, with but a moderate amount 
 of offal. As length in these parts is generally 
 connected or associated with thinness of chest, 
 buttocks, and neck, it is not unlikely that 
 improvements in this direction would enable 
 the dairyman to obtain a rich milk-secreting 
 animal, with considerable aptitude to fatten 
 and form flesh on the most valuable parts, 
 when she passed from his hands into those of 
 the grazier. 
 
 The Kyloe cow is of a wild disposition, 
 which is, in a great degree, counterbalanced bj 
 
nioTTLAXD SCOT.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [iiuini-AND bcot. 
 
 her hardihood, as sho can resist an atmosphere 
 beneath tlio storms of which a delicate low- 
 hiiul animal would siioi'uinb. Her liviiicf, too, 
 is extremely hard. It consists of the patches 
 of short grass which she gathers amoii'j; the 
 heath, moss, and even sometimes sea-weed. In 
 winter, when even this sort of provender is 
 scarce, Kyloes are sometimes assisted with a 
 few oatmeal balls, which, if they have any reflec- 
 tive instincts, they must consider as a sort of 
 providential dispensation. From such kind of 
 feeding much produce is not to be expected; 
 consequently, the supplies of both butter and 
 cheese are miserably small — thirty-two pounds 
 of the former, per annum, is tho produce of 
 one llebridean cow. Of the latter, from 
 ninety to one hundred pounds is the average 
 yield, and this is finely flavoured with aromatic 
 herbs, peculiarly agreeable to the palates of 
 many individuals. 
 
 ARGYLESIIIRE CATTLE. 
 
 In the north of Argyleshire, tho cattle are 
 larger than those of the Hebrides, and are 
 bred to the full size which tho pasturage will 
 admit, and the good qualities of the animal 
 bear, without deterioration. It is in this dis- 
 trict that the most perfect Highland cattle 
 are to be frequently seen. The animals are 
 compactly built, short, and rather strong in 
 the shank ; straight in the back ; with a fine 
 muzzle ; and small sharp horns. As they 
 wander over a wild country, they are them- 
 selves wild, and often fierce, and their eye 
 expresses energy and spirit. It is solely for 
 their flesh that herds of them are reared. 
 "Every effort," says Mr. Touatt, "to qualify 
 them for the dairy, will not only lessen their 
 hardiness of constitution and propensity to 
 fatten, but will fail in rendering them valuable 
 for the purpose at which the farmer foolishlv 
 aims." 
 
 THE HIGHLAND SCOT. 
 
 'Ihe Highland Scot belongs to a long-horned 
 breed, and stands next to the Hereford as a 
 fattening animal ; and where both the Hereford 
 and the short-horned races would die from 
 absolute starvation, it will clothe its loins with 
 flesh, and look as comfortable as if it were the 
 finest-fed quadruped in the land. Like all 
 mountain races, the Highland Scot delights in 
 Ircedom. To browse on tho side or the summit 
 
 of tho hill is, to him, like "a joy for ever;" 
 whilst his eminently -gregarious hnhits force him 
 into tho bovine sociuty of his neighbourj ; so 
 that, if ho has any cares, he lightens their 
 weight by tho pleasuresof association. Although 
 ho is extremely hardy, his size is rather small 
 than largo; and his usual colour is a light dun 
 or a jet-black, rarely with white on any part of 
 the body. His horns aro long, and have aa 
 upward and outward turn. Ilis skin is covered 
 with a sort of fleece rather than hair, being 
 long and soft, with a strong inclination to curl. 
 lie takes on his beef principally on the back, 
 which is therefore straight, while his body has 
 a considerable degree of rotundity. It is not 
 the least of his peculiarities that ho obtains, 
 from tho surface of tho sterile mountain, as 
 much grass as ho can fatten upon; or, at all 
 events, preserves himself in good living con- 
 dition. If he is indulged and tended with some 
 little care, he increases in fat very rapidly, and 
 repays his breeder by the excellence of his beef. 
 Under such circumstances, the Highland Scot 
 will weigh from forty-eight to fifty stones, and 
 some have even attained to the weight of 
 seventy. There are special exceptions, how- 
 ever, to this rule. The Duke of Northumber- 
 land had a very promising Argyleshire " stoc," 
 or bullock, which he kept as long as he could, 
 to see what he would weigh. He was five and 
 a-half years old, and weighed, exclusive of 
 v)fral, 100 stones 4 lbs. Though, perhaps, one 
 of the heaviest of the breed ever slaughtered, 
 he was neither the fattest nor the most inac- 
 tive, but seemed in that state to display all the 
 activity possessed by his race whilst wandering 
 over their native hills. 
 
 The rearing of this animal was by no moans 
 remarkable for its extravagance. In the first 
 winter he was turned out to a poor pasture, 
 and had a little bad hay, till summer returned, 
 when ho had again poor land pasture. Tiie 
 next winter he was turned again to the same 
 kind of pasture, which was, however, varied 
 with a few turnips. During the following 
 summer he had average pasture, and the same 
 pasture in winter, with ainore liberal allowance 
 of turnips. The third summer he was tolerably 
 well grazed; and in the fourth winter ho had 
 as many turnips as he could eat in the sheltered 
 straw fold. In the summer in which he was 
 fatted, he had all the indulgence of a feeding 
 
 G17 
 
GALLOWAYS.] 
 
 CATTLE, AA^D THEIR VAEIETIES. 
 
 [ayrshiees. 
 
 animal' — viz., cut clover, mangel-wurzel, hay, 
 bean-meal, turnips, and a little oil-cake, for 
 vphicli he had no relish whatever. Mr. Quarl 
 says of this animal, that his " fat was distributed 
 in an uncommonly equable manner, of a colour 
 resembling the finest grass butter, and as firm 
 as wax; the Iyer (muscle) was in ample pro- 
 portion, bright in colour, of fine texture, and 
 beautifully marbled by admixture of his excel- 
 lent fat." 
 
 THE ABERDEENSHIRE BREED. 
 
 The Aberdeenshire" Doddies," as this breed 
 are called, are a polled, or hornless I'ace ; and 
 being bad, or, at least, very indifferent milkers, 
 they are usually passed over to the grazier, and 
 highly fattened in their native county. They 
 are also purchased by the Norfolk and Lei- 
 cestershire grazier for the purpose of high 
 feeding, and attain the weight of eighty, and 
 even one hundred stones, when five or six 
 years old. Like all the hardy Scotch cattle, 
 they form their flesh on the back. Their 
 colour is generally black, bat sometimes red 
 the head is fine ; the eye full and clear ; the 
 breast deep ; and the back not quite straight, 
 being somewhat depressed at the loin, and 
 inclining to be narrow. 
 
 THE GALLOWAY BREED. 
 
 In the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, together 
 with part of Ayrshire and Dumfries, forming 
 tlie old province of Gralloway, a beautiful polled 
 or hornless breed of cattle exists, highly 
 esteemed for many excellences. In figure they 
 are admirable, excepting that the neck of the 
 bull is almost too thick ; but the chest is deep, 
 tlie limbs clean and short, the back straight, 
 and the body round. Black is the prevailing 
 colour. These cattle exceed the Argyle breed 
 in size. Tiiey fatten well and quickly, and 
 their flesh is excellent. "Eevv cattle sell so 
 high in the London market ; and it is no 
 uncommon thing to see one of these little 
 bullocks outsell a coarse Lincolnshire bullock, 
 although the latter is heavier by several 
 stones." The Galloway cattle are remarkable 
 for gentleness; and robust and milscular as 
 the bulls are, one of mischievous habits and 
 bad temper is seldom met with. la the Cij- 
 clopcEcUa of Ac/riculture, edited by IMr. Morton, 
 we fiud it stated that the Galloway is some- 
 648 
 
 times called a Kyloe without horns, from the 
 great resemblance which these animals bear 
 to each other. The Galloways, however, have 
 already had to yield to the short-horns in 
 those parts of their native district where 
 the turnip husbandry can bo prosecuted to 
 advantage; while the Ayrshires have justly 
 supplanted them for the dairy ; but, in those 
 parts where the rearing of grazing-cattle is 
 found the more suitable practice, they still 
 reign unrivalled, and should be carefully pre- 
 served as a distinct breed. 
 
 THE AYRSHIRE BREED. 
 
 This valuable breed of middle-horned cattle 
 exceeds, perhaps, any breed of dairy-fed cows 
 in the kingdom ; but they are small in size, 
 and unsymmetrical in their forms. Their 
 milk is extremely rich, though somewhat oily 
 in its nature. They fatten more rapidly than 
 many other races of cattle ; for, when the buty- 
 raceous deposit is stopped by drying, the system 
 soon accustoms itself to secrete fat, which they 
 acquire on a pasture inferior to that required 
 by more tender animals. They are, however, 
 in small estimation with the grazier, although, 
 when the cow is coupled with a short-horn 
 bull, a valuable grazing animal is produced. 
 Many farmers in the west of Scotland practise 
 this successfully on a large scale. 
 
 There is no description of the race equal 
 to that given by Mr. Alton, whose work on 
 Dairy Husbandry so far exceeds any other, 
 that it is generally quoted, even at the present 
 day : — " Head small, but rather long and narrow 
 at the muzzle ; the eye small, but smart and 
 lively ; the horns small, clear, crooked, and, at 
 their roots, placed at a considerable distance 
 from each other ; neck long and slender, taper- 
 ing towards the head, with no loose skin below ; 
 shoulders thin ; fore quarters light ; hind quar- 
 ters large; back straight, broad behind; the 
 joints rather loose and open; carcass deep, 
 and pelvis capacious, and wide over the hips, 
 with round fleshy buttocks; tail long and 
 small ; legs small and short, with firm joints ; 
 udder capacious, broad, and square, stretching 
 forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor 
 loose; the milk-veins large and prominent; 
 teats short, all pointing outwards, and at a 
 considerable distance from each other; skin 
 thin and soft; hair soft and woolly. Tlie 
 
ATUSUIUES.] 
 
 C A TT L E, AM) T 1 1 i: I n V A Til ETI E3. 
 
 [ayrsiiibes. 
 
 hefttl, bones, boms, and all parts of least value, 
 small; and the <::^eneral li-^uro compact and 
 well proportioned." Sueli is Mr. Aiton's 
 description ; but, with the exception of thick- 
 ness of buttock, it will bo ina[)prc)priate to the 
 present Ayrshire cow. There are two otlier 
 characteristics which seem so thorous^hly be- 
 longing to this breed, that they ought not to 
 be passed over. The one is the black muzzle, 
 and the other tlio yellow red, which seems 
 to bo the natural colour of the race— arraiii^ed, 
 not in considerable quantities, but in blots or 
 patches. Tims the animals generally present 
 a sort of checked aspect of golden yellow, red, 
 and white. 
 
 The milk and butter yielded by the Ayrshire 
 cow are very considerable. Indeed, to develop 
 her milking qualities the greatest pains have 
 been taken in her native county. An Ayrshire 
 cow will give from GOO to SOO gallons of milk 
 in the course of the year ; and live gallons per 
 dav is by no means uncommon for three months 
 after calving. This, however, falls short of 
 Colonel Fullarton's estimate, in his AijricuUiire 
 of Ayrshire, where, it is affirmed that, though 
 the Ayrshire cow will not, when fat, weigh more 
 than twenty to forty English stones, " it is not 
 uncommon for these small cows to give from 
 twenty-four to thirty-four English quarts of 
 milk daily during the summer months, while 
 some of them will give as much as forty quarts." 
 It is found that three gallons and a-half of 
 such milk will yield a pound and a-half of 
 butter ; so that as much as 260 pounds of 
 butter will be produced by an Ayrshire cow ; 
 and it is no uncommon thing to have eight or 
 nine pounds given by one of these cows for 
 some weeks after calving. About twenty-six 
 gallons of milk will aflbrd fourteen pounds of 
 cheese ; or a good cow will vield thirty-five 
 stones of cheese per annum. 
 
 A question has been raised, as to whether 
 the rich districts of Ayrshire ought to be 
 occupied by this breed of cattle, as they are 
 supposed to be better adapted to the means of 
 the cotter than those of the grazier. To this 
 it has been replied, "that while the cold rains, 
 so prevalent in that county, would render it 
 problematical whether the short-horns would 
 be sufficiently hardy, it is also certain that the 
 second-rate pasturage of much of the grains 
 land is more suitable for the dairy cow, possess- 
 •1 o 
 
 ing tho hardit\C89 of the Ayrshire breed, thaa 
 calculated for fattening tho Ichs enduring 
 «hort-horii." Wlmlover attempted improve- 
 ments which have been mado in tho Ayrahiro 
 breed, they have not succeeded in cuhanciiiq; 
 their milking qualities. To breed what would 
 sell in England, and what would feed as steers, 
 has been an object pretty generally pursued ; 
 and, as the larger breed of Ayrshire cattle are 
 more profitable for the market than the smaller, 
 which are more suitable for tho dairy, the 
 former have been more encouraged. 
 
 The dilllculties which present themselves, in 
 endeavouring to settle the origin of the dif- 
 ferent species of our domestic animals, are very 
 great. It is hardly possible to believe that 
 the long-horned Craven cow and the polled 
 Angus, the gentle, quiet short-horn, and the 
 wild and ferocious breed of Chilliughaui, can 
 be of the same origin. The question is, how- 
 ever, one of great latitude, and takes by far 
 too wide a range to be here discussed ; but 
 there does not seem any reasonable doubt for 
 the fact, that, within certain limits, circum- 
 stances alone will have a great tendency to 
 chaup'o the conformations and characteristics 
 
 O 
 
 of a species. Thus, in cold countries, white 
 predominates over other colours ; and wool or 
 fur is the species of covering with which na- 
 ture clothes the animals. In hotter climates, 
 brown is most prevalent, and hair takes the 
 place of the wool and the fur. In tropical 
 ' countries, the dun hue obtains, and down 
 spreads itself over tlie bodies of the brute 
 creation. " So easy is the adaptation of or- 
 ganised beings to the state in which they 
 are placed," observes a writer on this subject, 
 " and so vast is the expansibility of nature, that 
 she can extend, or shorten, or increase, or 
 diminish conformation, so as to render it 
 suitable to the wants, the happiness, and the 
 existence of the animal. Thus, though the 
 hones of the bison and the Galloway may pre- 
 sent but small distinction, yet the diflorence 
 of skin, of mane, and of muscle, would make 
 an oi'dinary observer startle at the idea of 
 their having a common origin. The skull of a 
 wolf and that of a wild dog of New Holland, 
 are all but identical ; and it is possible that 
 the influence of pasture may lengthen or 
 shorten the horns — that by breeding froai 
 lonji or short-horned, or from hornless animals, 
 
 GIO 
 
ATESHIEES-j 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [fbeiich breeds. 
 
 the variety may be perpetuated, till they lose, 
 in the course of ages, many of their original 
 characteristics. It is impossible, for instance, 
 in Essex, to grow the ox to the same size, 
 other things being equal, as in the county of 
 Durham; nor on the Ayrshire hills can he be 
 produced in the same form or stature as in the 
 Devonshire valleys. The Highland Scot is 
 suited to the cold climate of the exposed and 
 stormy nortli, and the short-horn to the sunny 
 lowland pastures ; and who shall say that the 
 God of nature has not impressed on these 
 treated beings the capability of adapting them- 
 selves to his plastic handiwork, of developing 
 their tendency to follow the peculiarities of 
 the situation in which they are placed? 
 An elephant can never degenerate into a 
 mouse — a cat never improve into a tiger — but 
 a wild dun cow of "Warwick may be the pro- 
 genitor alike of the thin, spare, feeble-looking 
 Alderney, and the flesh-mountain ox of 
 Durham." 
 
 On the same subject, Dr. Prichard re- 
 marks: — "In all our stocks of domesticated 
 animals, we see profuse and infinite variety ; 
 and, in the races of wild animals, from which 
 they originally descended, we find a uniform 
 colour and figure, for the most part, to prevail. 
 Domestication is to animals what cultivation 
 is to vegetables ; and the former probably difiers 
 from the natural state of the one class of 
 beings, in the same circumstances which dis- 
 tinguish the latter from the natural condition 
 of the other class. The uTv^t apparent of these 
 is the abundant supply ol the peculiar stimuli 
 of each kind. Animals in a wild state procure 
 a simple and unvaried food in precarious and 
 deficient quantities, and are exposed to the 
 inclemencies of the seasons. Their young are 
 produced in similar circumstances to the state 
 of seedliugg, which spring uncultivated in a 
 poor soil; but, in the improved state, all the 
 stimuli of varied food, of warmth, &c., are 
 aflforded in abundance; and the consequence 
 QoO 
 
 is, a luxuriant growth and evolution of varieties, 
 and the exliibition of all the perfections to 
 which each species is capable of being brought 
 in a domesticated state." 
 
 We will close this chapter with a few brief 
 remarks on some of the original breeds of 
 France. 
 
 FRENCH BREEDS. 
 
 N'ormanclij. — The colour of these animals is 
 various. They are rather coarse in bone, but 
 nevertheless are good-looking beasts, and have 
 the reputation of giving an abundance of milk 
 of excellent quality. They early arrive at 
 maturity, and are, on the whole, the most 
 useful and improvable animal of pure breed 
 which the French possess. They are not unlike 
 our Buckinghamshire breed in appearance, but 
 smaller and finer. The Memish. — In colour a 
 rich brown, mostly with white faces, veiy good 
 and clean-looking; but flat-sided, and stand 
 rather too high on the leg. The Charolaise. — 
 This is one of the breeds most prized in France 
 for meat. They are very neat white beasts, 
 kind and cheerful-looking, and good handlers. 
 They are not unlike the Devons in everything 
 but colour. The Gascony is an animal of good 
 size, but coarse, and of either a black or grey 
 colour. The Garonnaise or Aguenaise. — Good 
 in size, and in excellent condition ; but heavy 
 and coarse about the head, hollow in the back, 
 and wifh very drooping hind quarters. The 
 colour IS a light fawn. The Bazaidaise are 
 very good-looking, but also fail in the hind 
 quarters. Mouse-coloured. The Limoit sine. — 
 Not unlike the Garonnaise breed both in colour 
 and appearance, but smaller. The Salers, 
 d'Aubrac, Ai[»e7'gne, and Jilezenc, are not worth 
 much notice : the Salers are the best. Nor are 
 the Fctrtlieraise, another fawn-coloured beast, 
 much better. The Brittany is small, but very 
 neat, hardy, and useful. The colour is black 
 and white. — Such are considered some of the 
 most prominent of the pure French breeds. 
 
AOKICULTUUE.] 
 
 CATTLi:, AND TJIEIR VA!:i!:riES. [AGnicrLxruB. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 AGRICULTUKAI, ASSOCIATIONS; TIIK riUNCIPI.i:>5 OF CATTLE-HUEEDING ; FAT-ACCmU'LATINO BnP.EDS; 
 
 MII.K-YII-I.DING liUKEDS. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ASSOCLVTlONb. 
 Ojte of the best moilos of advnncin;* the in- 
 terests of the fanner, is by that kind of ngri- 
 cultural association which has sprung up 
 amongst us, and which has already been the 
 means of efl'ecting great iinprovements in those 
 countries where it has been spiritedly adopted. 
 lu England, almost every county has uow its 
 agricultural society, consisting mostly of prac- 
 tical men, who meet for the purpose of dis- 
 cussing those points that are more immediately 
 interesting to tliemselves ; and, indeed, no 
 branch of occupation requires so much of this 
 combination, or is literally more dependent 
 on it for its advancement. Taking into con- 
 sideration the ordinary operations by which 
 farming is conducted — its rotations and shifts — 
 how few are the opportunities which present 
 themselves for any one, in the course of bis 
 life, to avail himself even of his own experience. 
 Experiments generally are costly, and the 
 results often too uncertain to be pursued by 
 one who has to live by the produce of his 
 acres. Hence it becomes of vital imiiortance 
 that he should derive knowledge for his own 
 working, as it may be presented to him, tlirough 
 the experience of others. In this country, 
 seed-time and harvest occur but once in the 
 annual revolution of tlie earth in its orbit; 
 and, should the husbandman fail in an ex- 
 periment (unlike the manufacturer, who can 
 immediately and incessantly repeat his trials 
 until success rewards his exertions), he cannot 
 retrace his steps, or begin again, as the re- 
 volving year requires a different crop. The 
 exigencies of a general system of rotation 
 demand another course. The soil will not 
 yield its increa:se without alternation ; and he 
 is, therefore, compelled to wait an appointed 
 time before he can take advantage of the ex- 
 perience which ban enabled him to ascertain 
 the cause of his previous failure. Science, it 
 is true, has largely I'evealed tlie vast resources 
 of the soil, and has modified the general laws 
 of cropping; but the theory of to-day must be 
 
 established by the practice of anounr liay; 
 and the success or failure requires the whole- 
 some filtration of discussion, before any fact 
 can be satisfactorily established. 
 
 "We owe it to the enlightened agriculturists 
 of Scotland, that such associations now exist. 
 During the last century, a small body of 
 Scotch landowners formed themselves into a 
 " Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of 
 Agriculture ;" and to this humble beginning' 
 may be traced all the associations that havo 
 since sprung up, not only in Great Britain, 
 but throughout the countries of Europe, and 
 ! on the continent of America, until, at length, 
 I the importance of the subject has compelled 
 ' a recognition on the part of various govern- 
 ments. In France and Belgium there aro 
 separate ministerial departments, under whoso 
 care and surveillance progress is made in all 
 that belongs to agriculture ; and the inter- 
 national exhibition which took place at 
 Paris, has been productive of very important 
 results, in radiating, throughout the empirea 
 and kingdoms of the European continent, the 
 experience that was collected at that Agricul- 
 tural Congress. Our own cxhihitious have also 
 done much; and if we cast a glance across 
 the Atlantic, we find that in Canada there 
 are provincial associations, botli in the Upper 
 and tlie Lower province. At Toronto, in Up- 
 per Canada, a central agricultural and horti- 
 cultural society was organised some years ago. 
 There are also a hiircau and boards of agricul- 
 ture; and a provision was made for imparting 
 "a knowledge of the science and art of agri- 
 culture" in the various schools, and even in tho 
 colleges and universities. Tnese have already 
 been, no doubt, instrumental in placing this 
 great colony foremost among the ranks of agri- 
 cultural countries. Both in Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick there are associations ; and, 
 in one of the reports of the latter, we find it 
 f<tated, that "our fanners are now convinced, 
 by experience, that they (the West Highland 
 cattle) are the best adapted to our climata 
 
 051 
 
AGEICULTUKE.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [cattle-beeeding. 
 
 and pasture, crossing advantageously with our 
 best niilchers, producing profitable dairy cows, 
 and superior working oxen, that are unequalled 
 for wading through deep snow^ In the United 
 States such associations are also numerous. 
 
 The annual Sraithfield Show in the me- 
 tropolis is interesting, not only to those imme- 
 diately engaged in agricultural pursuits, but to 
 every one who reflects upon the importance of 
 the ox in a commercial sense, independently of 
 every other consideration. Here are to be seen 
 the results of exertions, principally carried on 
 during the last ninety years, to unite and 
 bring to perfection the most desirable points in 
 the various breeds of domestic animals which 
 were once peculiar to different parts of Great 
 Eritain, but are now spread, in their improved 
 form, over every part of the country. In con- 
 nection with them are to be seen agricultural 
 implements and machinery of the latest and 
 most improved construction ; roots and plants 
 adapted to our climate, but which are as yet 
 comparatively unknown ; specimens of artificial 
 manures, and of the soils of districts diflering 
 from each other in their geological formation. 
 In spite of all the advances which agriculture 
 has made during the present century, how 
 slowly do improvements extend beyond the 
 intelligent circle in which they are first adopted: 
 but it is one of the great advantages of cattle 
 exhibitions to spread them more rapidly and 
 widely, by drawing the agriculturist from the 
 secluded scenes in which he carries on his 
 occupations, and bringing them before him in 
 the manner best calculated to demonstrate their 
 utility. A prize ox or sheep is fatter than the 
 ordinary market requires ; and hence it is often 
 supposed that the stimulus of prizes for briiiging 
 nn animal into a state of unnecessary fatness 
 is altogether a work of supererogation. But 
 the power of reaching an excessive size is 
 E-imply a test. A piece of artillery is tried by 
 a charge greater than is ever required in ordi- 
 nary practice ; and an ox is fattened for 
 exhibition beyond a useful marketable condi- 
 tion, simply to show the capacity of the breed 
 for acquiring, at the least expense of food, and 
 at the earliest age, such a condition as the 
 public demaud really renders necessary. 
 
 If we look at the farmer of a former period, 
 located generally in some isolated spot — his 
 very vocation keeping him, as it were, apart 
 652 
 
 and separate irom others — his only opportu- 
 nity of meeting with his fellow-agriculturists 
 being, probably, confined to the weekly market 
 at the county town — the means of travelling 
 being limited, and communication, even by 
 letter, restricted by the expensiveuess of trans- 
 mission — there was nothing left for him but to 
 continue in the practices handed down to him. 
 The very situation made him cling to old recol- 
 lections ; and hence, no doubt, has, in part, 
 arisen the character imputed to him, of a dis- 
 like to innovation, and an obstinate adherence 
 to the routine of a bygone age, even possibly 
 when his judgment had been awakened by the 
 progress he saw around him. But what a 
 change is now presented ! His means of com- 
 munication have been expanded ; the power of 
 steam has opened up a speedier as well as a 
 cheaper mode of transit ; the researches of the 
 chemist have brought about a change in agri- 
 cultural operations ; and, to keep up with the 
 spirit of the age, he is, in a manner, compelled 
 to unite with his fellows, in order that he may 
 learn, and not be left behind in the race. 
 Earmers' clubs are, in the most obscure dis- 
 tricts, springing up. The principle of associa- 
 tion has been established ; and it is the farmer's 
 own fault if he does not take advantage of 
 what our French neighbours call "the situa- 
 tion." Every subject connected with agricul- 
 ture is brought under discussion. The tiller 
 of the soil begins to find that he holds an im- 
 portant position in the country : and he now 
 opens his eyes to the fact, that his occupation 
 is a science, and that he must, of necessity, 
 raise himself to the height of his calling. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF CATTLE-BREEDING. 
 
 '• One of the most wonderful instances of 
 man's supremacy over creation," observes Mr. 
 Miiburn, "is the influence he is able to exer- 
 cise in directing vital processes. Here his 
 power is perfectly talismanic. Within certain 
 limits, he has the power of asserting his 
 dominion so far as to make stern nature obey, 
 and do his bidding. If he wants size or hardi- 
 hood, activity or gentleness, milk or fat — nay, 
 even wool, or mutton, or beef — he can so 
 arrange the elements with which Divine Provi- 
 dence hath blessed him, as to bend, and mould, 
 and adapt them to his will, until he has pro- 
 duced the kind and class of animal he requires. 
 
CATTLE-BIlEEDIKO.l CATrLl', AND TllKlli V A IvI i: 11 i:.S. [CATTLE-DnEEDINQ. 
 
 This power arises more from individual skill 
 than from science. Whatever i)hy8ioK),i,Me:il 
 principles arc involved, they are beat discovered 
 by the facts known to the breeder, and teach 
 liini little in the niaiiac^einent of his business. 
 The perseverance and skill, tiie powers of ob- 
 servation and discrimination possessed by some 
 breeders, have doubtless been the cause of their 
 success, and led to England's becoming pro- 
 eminent for food-producing animals ; for in no 
 otiier part of the known world can it be said 
 that there is anything like such specimens to 
 be found, either for producing flesh, milk, 
 butter, or cheese. To watch pliysiological ten- 
 dencies, and avail themselves of all discoveries, 
 was the practice of breeders long anterior to 
 scientific research. Emulating the skill of the 
 wily progenitor of the Jewish race, and intelli- 
 gentlv perceiving what was required. Colling 
 and Bakewell attempted, and attained, the art 
 of producing cattle and sheep ' riug-straked, 
 spotted, and speckled,' at pleasure. Seeing, 
 also, the necessity of economising food, they set 
 about cultivating those animals which came to 
 maturity early, and thus produced a much 
 larger quantity of animal food from the same 
 amount of vegetation. Knowing that fat was 
 an element favoured in a northern clime, they 
 endeavoured to obtain animals with a tendency 
 to secrete it in large quantities. In order to 
 do this, they observed the qualities indicative 
 of these tendencies ; and, knowing that it is 
 true in physiology, as in mathematics, that like 
 produces like, they selected and bred from 
 animals possessing them, until they stamped 
 their qualities permanently and invariably on 
 their produce. With these they managed to 
 combine their usual concomitants, symmetry 
 and beauty. Hence the origin of our flocks of 
 Leicester sheep, and our herds of short-horn 
 cattle, so intimately interwoven, even in their 
 mortality, with the proud national boast of the 
 ' Eoast Beef of Old England.' " 
 
 In all animals there are certain distinctions 
 or differences, which, in some individuals, are so 
 strikingly marked as to lift them far above 
 their congeners in particular excellences. Sup- 
 posing, therefore, that two of these, a male and 
 female, were chosen for breeding jiurposes ; it is 
 very likely that the breeder would expect their 
 ofispriug to inherit the greater number, if not 
 all, of those remarkable qualities for which 
 
 their progenitors were dintinguished. This, 
 however, would j)robal)iy not bo the caso, and 
 the breeder would sulfcr great disappoint- 
 ment. It is from a knowledge of tluH fact, 
 that many a breeder has resigned the hope of 
 obtaining a good breed, and has ceased to per- 
 severe in his object. But he ought to remem- 
 ber that the principles of bn-eding are now 
 pretty well ascertained, and require only 
 patience and perseverance to carry them out 
 to a success. Although tlie animals ho had 
 selected might have apparently been perfect in 
 themselves, yet one of them, the cow, no 
 doubt was an accidental product of excellence, 
 and not the offspring of a reputable ancestry. 
 Iler progen}', therefore, exhibited the charac- 
 ters of her parents rather than those of her- 
 self. This is the reason why she did not pro- 
 duce her own form and likeness ; but tha 
 bi'eeder should have continued to select the 
 best that he was able to nrocure ; he should 
 have persevered in his path, and, sooner or 
 later, he would have had his pains rewarded by 
 obtaining a breed which would have fulfilled 
 the expectations with which be set out on his 
 breeding experiments. It ought always to be 
 borne in mind, that the obtaiument of a breed 
 of stock is not the labour of a month or a 
 year, but of a lifetime. If it be the object of 
 a breeder to produce a herd of cattle or a 
 flock of sheep with some peculiar tendency, he, 
 himself, may never so far accomplish it as to 
 reap any real advantage from it, but his sons 
 may, provided he has pursued his plans judi- 
 ciously. Even in two or three generations, 
 there is no certainty that the tendency which, 
 he wished to impart would be established. 
 " There are not only limits, therefore, to the 
 mathematical axiom that like produces like, 
 modified by vital powers with which the 
 breeder has to deal, but we think there is a 
 principle deeper still — one little noticed by 
 writers on breeding stock, yet one which all 
 our great breeders knew and practised — viz., 
 that some one animal has much more power of 
 transmitting his qualities tiian others." The 
 remarkable results of the Ceilings in caLtle- 
 breeding, were really due either to the skill 
 they had in seeking their transmissive power, 
 or to the accident of obtaining, by chance, an 
 animal (their bull Ilubback) who possessed it 
 in a remarkable degree. Tnu?, in brjcding 
 
 G53 
 
CATTLE-BEEEDiNG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES, [cattle-bkeedino. 
 
 animals wiiich have a great resemblance to 
 each other, though the first geueratiou may 
 not satisfy the expectations of the experimen- 
 talist, yet a tendency will be given to the 
 breed to progress in the proper direction; and 
 by pursuing a careful system of selection, lead- 
 ing to the desired tendency, favourable results 
 may be expected within the compass of a few- 
 generations. 
 
 The existing breeds of Great Britain present 
 us with sufficient variety to enable us to pro- 
 duce any qualities required; whilst there are, 
 comparatively speaking, very few obstacles in 
 the way of making a selection. Skill, how- 
 ever, is necessary to preserve one variety of 
 animals at the top of the tree, especially when 
 the many excellent sorts to breed from are 
 now so numerous. The original improvers 
 had, perhaps, less difficulty than those of a more 
 recent day in maintaining their position. It 
 is true they had to work without rules or ex- 
 perience; but, like Adam and Eve, when they 
 were driven from Paradise, they had the world 
 before them, and they had fewer competitors. 
 The race they improved was such, that every 
 step they took was palpable and definite. 
 There were fewer combinations of blood neces- 
 sary, and, consequently, less risk of failure. 
 The chief eff'ort now, however, is directed to 
 overcome a defect; and this is to be done by 
 selecting a bull that is perfect in that part 
 that is imperfect in the cow. On the first oft- 
 spring of these there may be little or no visible 
 improvement made; but if the same plan be 
 continued, an impression will, by-and-by, be 
 made, and the herd gradually assume a higher 
 state of perfection. There will, however, still 
 be variations. All the herd will not be alike; 
 nor can this be expected ; for even the fancy, 
 or imagination — if we may be allowed the ex- 
 pression — of cows has an effect upon the colour 
 and conformation of the calves they produce. 
 One trial after another, however, must be 
 made; and, although the process may be long, 
 still, by paying great attention to the animals 
 selected to breed from — by tveeding them, as it 
 is called — ultimate success may be expected as 
 a certain retiult. Here, however, a question, 
 ■which has frcqiiently been agitated, forces 
 itself upon the mind ; and which is — " IIovv tar 
 is this objfct to be accomplished by adopting 
 a male, or making a change ic this feumle 
 654 
 
 animals?" Mr. IMilburn says, the "universal 
 consent of all classes of breeders is given 
 to the value of the male: in selecting a stal- 
 lion, the greatest care is tal^en ; whilst there 
 is little or no attention paid to the qualities of 
 the mare that is sent to him. The flock- 
 master will give from twenty to fifty pounds 
 for the use of a ram, who would grudge to 
 give five for a ewe : but it is, it must be con- 
 fessed, somewhat difterent in cattle. The 
 dairyman is very careful in selecting his cows. 
 They are watched, as heifers, for the develop- 
 ment of their good qualities, and are preserved, 
 either for their succession to a maternal race of 
 milkers, or because they are promising in them- 
 selves : but the bull to which they are sent is 
 too. often a matter of convenience rather than 
 selection. They know he is a bull ; and that 
 is enough. The too-usual mode is, to try the 
 heifer by her first calf. If she promises well 
 as a milker, she is kept for a cow ; if not, she 
 is consigned as a 'drape' to the grazier, for 
 the butcher. Seasoning from analogy, the 
 mother would be naturally considered as more 
 influencing the animal than the sire. The 
 influence of the mother is long and continuous. 
 Her blood flows through its veins ; it partakes 
 of her habits and sympathies; but still the 
 vital force of the male animal is pre-eminent. 
 Much as the mother may influence the consti- 
 tution, the sire possesses a far greater sway 
 over the conformation, the qualities, and the 
 appearance. If, therefore, the object of the 
 breeder is to perpetuate and impress the good 
 qualities, and to remove the defects of his 
 breed, he will be careful in the selection of 
 both the sire and the dam of his breeding 
 animals. A single failure — a single year's 
 neglect — may stamp qualities on his race which 
 it may take years to eradicate ; for even to 
 keep a breeding-stock in a high state of excel- 
 lence, is by no means so easy a task as may be 
 ima"-ined.'' In connection with this part of 
 our subject, the question of breeding in-and-in 
 has also been much agitated, some taking one 
 side, and some taking anotiier. The celebrated 
 Bakewell bred entirely from his own stock; 
 but it is affirmed, by those who opposed his 
 system, that his stock became comparatively 
 diminutive and feeble, and that his plan was a 
 failure. He, however, only put in practice 
 one of the first axioms of breeding — namely, 
 
CATTLE-BRKEDrN'o.] CATTLE, AND THE IK A'AKIETIES. [cattle-bheedino. 
 
 to select ihe best you can Jiud. He was nc- 
 quziinted with no stock so exi-elleut, in liis esti- 
 nialion, as his own. ConseiiutMitly, ho bred 
 from them because they were unequalled any- 
 wliere else. Jle brotitjlit his animals to r;reat 
 perfection ; imparted delicacy, uniformity, and 
 permanency to his flock and to his herd ; 
 reared finer animals ; and, if they woro not so 
 large as some others, they were less coarse, 
 and produced much more palatable meat. All 
 this ho did ; but, like many other experimen- 
 talists, he may have pursued his system to a 
 point of refiaemcut too far for the pains to bo 
 rewarded by an adequate degree of profit. 
 
 Breeding in-and-in, in the human subject, is 
 said to produce various physical and mental 
 disorders, and in every way to have a deterio- 
 rating eflect upon the genus homo. To an 
 exemplification of this, we ourselves have been 
 a witness. At the foot of a mountain, near to 
 the banks of the Gaerlock, running in from the 
 river Clyde, in Scotland, there lived, in a few 
 scattered huts, about from one hundred and 
 fifty to two hundred Highlanders, who had 
 bred in-and-in, it was supjiosed, for nearly a 
 couple of centuries, and many of them were 
 sdly, and some of them quite idiotic. They 
 liad been ordered again and again off" the estate, 
 which had fallen into the hands of a new pro- 
 prietor, but would take no notice ; and had, at 
 last, we believe, to be burned out. They then 
 took their departure to a solitary glen among 
 the mountains, where they pitched their camp, 
 raised their bothies, and settled down to con- 
 tinue to perpetuate the idiotcy which their 
 habit of intcr-breeding had introduced amongst 
 them. If a family afllicted with mania, scrofula, i 
 or consumption, intermarries with another 
 family similarly afllicted, it is to be expected 
 that the virulence of either of these will be 
 increased, and that an early extinction of the 
 race may be anticipated, provided the ofiVpring 
 do not ally themselves with a better, or a 
 stronger and more healthy breed. The reason 
 of this is, that the parents took the very plan 
 to perpetuate, or render permanent, the evils 
 with which they themselves were afflicted. 
 Mr. Bates' raaxim was, "Breed in-and-in from 
 a bad stock, and you commit ruin and devas- 
 tation." 
 
 In considering this part of our subject, the 
 arguments of Mr. Milburn go to favour the 
 
 system of breeding in-and-in. " The objectors 
 to consanguineous breeding," ho Bayn, "and its 
 deteriorating and enfeebling charactcjr, seem to 
 forget that, in the case of the wild cattlo at 
 Chillingham Park [to which wo have alreiuly 
 ailuded], no cross has been inaiie fcjr an im- 
 memorial number of centuries; and thus, 
 unchanged and unchangeable, they remain, 
 without deterioration, without feebleness — a 
 standing objection to the indiscriminate con- 
 demnation of the system of breeding from tho 
 same stock. Tho answer, that these animals 
 do not show any improved points, is an argu- 
 ment in favour of this system of breeding. The 
 fact that they never liad them, and possibly 
 never will have the chance, so long as the breed 
 is kept pure and unalloyed, is quite decisive in 
 its iavour. Like all other wild animals, a 
 natural law prevents the feeble male I'rom 
 exercising any unfavourable tendency. . The 
 herd have a king, and, during the rutting season, 
 fierce and almost deadly battles take place 
 amongst the bulls for the favour of the females. 
 The hardiest, strongest, and most enduring 
 male is the victor, and he becomes the parent 
 of the future herd. This may, and is likely to 
 continue for some years ; because, when once 
 admitted a victor, a great change must take 
 place before the contest will be renewed. No 
 sooner, however, does the male animal become 
 feeble, than another season renews the strife. 
 The once proud patriarch is vanquished, and 
 the youthful victor, full of vigour and virility, 
 is, in turn, the paramour of the herd. Now, if 
 we admit the influence of the male animal to 
 be the greatest, we have here the most perfect 
 adaptation for the weeding of the herd, and the 
 best constitutioned bull is tho parent of the 
 whole race for two or three years of production. 
 It is not wonderful, then, that they have no 
 points, no superiority, no distinctiveness of 
 breeding. There is no selection of adaptation, 
 of symmetry — even of semblance ; but there is 
 strength of constitution in the male — tlie 
 quality, above all others, best calculated for 
 securing strength of constitution, hardness, and 
 size in the oftspring. Assuming that this 
 tyrant strength in the patriarch of the herd 
 will continue for three successive years — a feat 
 extremely probable — there is a degree of con- 
 sanguinity which few breeders will attempt. It 
 may be said of Mr. Bates' herd, now that he is 
 
 Gc55 
 
CATTLE-BBEEDING.] CxiTTLE, AND THEIK YAEIETIES. [cattle-breeding. 
 
 dead, that their quality was unsurpassed, and 
 that the heifers were frequently bulled by their 
 own grandfather, or the cow by her grandson ; 
 and this was no more irregular than the wild 
 habits of the whole herd at Chillingham, where 
 the daughter, if not the grand- daughter, must 
 breed with the grandsire or the sire." Mr. 
 Colling, already alluded to, bred his animals in 
 very close affinity. Mr. Mason, of Chilton, 
 second only to Mr. Colling, was an in-and-in 
 breeder ; and every agriculturist is now aware 
 of the success which crowned the persevering 
 efforts of these gentlemen. The system of 
 crossing is that which is quite opposite to con- 
 sanguineous breeding ; and when two animals 
 entu-ely distinct, breed with each other, an 
 independent variety is the result, and this is 
 called either a mule or a hybrid, "Where the 
 zoological distinction between animals takes 
 place beyond a given range, Nature steps in, 
 and suffers no farther admixture of the species. 
 The mule is almost invariably non-producing ; 
 and although the union of a mule and female, 
 of different qualities, will occasionally produce 
 an excellent combination of the qualities of 
 both, with, perhaps, a fair proportion of uni- 
 formity, still the union of these again amongst 
 themselves will not be so happy. Indeed, they 
 are likely to throw only mongrels, differing 
 even widely from each other, and no more like 
 their parents, than an ordinary piece of frail 
 humanity might be considered to be to Her- 
 cules. Eor example, a cross was tried between 
 the hard-working Devon and the fat-accumu- 
 lating Hereford; but it was a failure. The 
 strength and activity of the former were no- 
 ivJiere; whilst the fattening qualities of the 
 latter were not obtained. A similar cross with 
 the Albany was also a failure ; as was another 
 cross between the Hereford and the Kyloe. A 
 cross between the short-horn bull and the 
 Ayrshire cow, only takes the latter from the 
 dairy, and gives her to the butcher. 
 
 The most successful cross ever made, was 
 between the Galloway cattle and the improved 
 short-horn, efi'eetcd by Mr. Colling. He put 
 one of his short-horn bulls to a well-selected 
 Galloway cow; and the produce was a bull. 
 He proceeded no further with this cross, but 
 carried the blood to his short-horn herd. To 
 Ih'is bull he put a short-horn heifer, with a 
 large accession of Hubback blood. The pro- 
 656 
 
 duce of this union was another bull, the sire 
 of his cow Lady, which, at his sale, sold for 
 206 guineas. Erom this cross, the probability 
 is, that the straight back, the round form, and 
 the wide hips were, in some degree, due to this 
 Galloway cross, as well as that shortness of 
 leg, which is the most striking defect of the 
 Teeswater cattle, and which the CoUings were 
 so anxious to improve. . This cross, notwith- 
 standing its encroachments upon the purity of 
 the blood, is certainly a most successful and 
 most judicious instance; for where a large and 
 strong-framed animal is covex'ed with a short- 
 horn bull, not only quality, but readiness to 
 fatten is imparted. To proceed further is, 
 perhaps, not wise. Attempting a system of 
 crossing with milk-produciug cows, is con- 
 sidered both unnatural and absurd ; but thei-e 
 is no sort of large-framed animal intended for 
 the grazier, which might not be improved by a 
 cross, for one generation, with the short-horn. 
 "With the smaller West Highland cattle, even 
 for grazing, reasonable doubts may be enter- 
 tained. They live in a bleak and comparatively 
 sterile district, to which a dash of short-horn 
 blood, however small, could hardly ever accom- 
 modate itself; but, to the larger Scotch breeds, 
 the same sentiment does not apply, as a single 
 crossing would be invaluable. This is instanced 
 in the case of a cross between a short-horn 
 bull and a large Aberdeenshire cow, to which 
 was awarded a prize by the Highland and 
 Agricultural Society of Scotland. The live 
 weight of this cow was 224 stone, of 14> lbs. 
 to the stone ; and she weighed when killed, 
 173 stone 3 lbs. 
 
 In considering this subject of crossing, some 
 very singular facts have been discovered. 
 These have been arranged and classified ; they 
 exhibit a kind of phenomenon so extraordinary, 
 that they cannot fail forcibly to strike the 
 mind of every person who has given the 
 slightest attention to this matter. It would 
 seem that, when a pure-bred animal has been 
 once impregnated by one of another breed, 
 the one impregnated is thereby, for ever after- 
 wards, a cross, and may be expected, for the 
 future, to produce cross-bred, and no more 
 pure-bred young. But the idea is capable of 
 still further extension ; for a female animal will 
 always produce young that will have a strong 
 resemblance, in character, to tlie animal by 
 
CATTLE-nuEEDixo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cviTLE-uuKKiiiNO. 
 
 which she was first impregnated, whether of a 
 cross breeil, or of tlio samo breed as herself. 
 iShi»uld it, tlioreforo, bo the c.iso tliat a simple 
 cross will stump its character for ever upon 
 the animal which is tho subject of it, there is 
 the greatest necessity for tho utmost vigilance 
 and caution to be used in selecting a male 
 animal, especially in the first impregnation of 
 the female. Dr. ITarvey, of Aberdeen, and 
 Professor jNPGillivray, hypothetically consider 
 that the intimate connection in bovine animals, 
 between the footus and its mother — consisting 
 of an absolute circulation of the blood of the 
 fa^tus through tho veins of tho mother, and 
 vice versd — so impregnates her with the vital 
 functions of the sire, as to render her, for ever 
 afterwards, incapable of transmitting her own 
 qualities unimpaired to her offspring. This, 
 therefore, forces upon her breeding qualities 
 the same characters as those which marked 
 lier first young, entirely independent of either 
 the defects or the beauties of the sire. Several 
 well-authenticated facts will effectually estab- 
 lish this view. One of the Earls of Morton had 
 a chesnut mare, which was put to a quagger, or 
 wild ass. The offspring gave the most unmis- 
 takable signs of the quagga in its head, its ears, 
 its stripes on its shoulders, &c. Afterwards, in 
 three successive seasons, the mare was put to 
 a black Arabian horse, and in as many years 
 the foal strictly resembled the quagga. In 
 the Transactions of the Royal Society, it is 
 stated that Sir Gore Ousely had a thorough- 
 bred mare covered by a zebra. The produce 
 was a striped animal, resembling its sire. The 
 mare was afterwards covered bv a thorough- 
 bred horse ; but a striped animal was the 
 result : the year afterwards she was put to 
 another horse, with the same result. Again, 
 six black-faced, horned Scottish ewes were 
 selected by Mr. II. Shaw, of Leochel, and were 
 served, some with a Southdown, and others 
 with a Leicester ram, the one white-faced, the 
 other dun-faced, but both hornless. The lambs, 
 as a matter of course, were crosses ; and, in 
 their second year, they were put to a horned 
 ram of their own black-faced breed ; but all 
 the lambs were hornless, and their faces of a 
 brownish colour. Again, they were put to a 
 very superior ram of their own breed : on 
 this occasion the crosses of some were less 
 distinct ; but two of the lambs were polled or 
 4 p 
 
 liornlcsa ; one was dun-faced, witli very Bmall 
 horns, and tho i.ther three wore white-faced, 
 with very small round horns only. Tho ewes 
 were considered bo impure as to bo thrown 
 out from tho flock ; and another lamb wai 
 never obtained from them by tho breeder. 
 
 A favourite setter bitch, belonging to Dr. 
 Hugh Smith, followed him one day in the 
 season, and sho was warded by an ugly cur, 
 which was shot, and Dido, the setter, lost her 
 noso in tho partridge season. Sho was put to 
 a superior setter; but her produce were the 
 colour and picture of tho cur; and, in her 
 many subsequent litters, no other kind of animal 
 could be obtained from her but a cur-looking 
 puppy. Even among the porcine species 
 there are singular instances of this kind. A 
 person had a black-and-white sow, which be- 
 came pregnant by a wild boar, of a dun colour. 
 Of course the breed was mixed, or crossed, 
 exhibiting symptoms of the qualities of both 
 its parents. But the same sow was afterwards 
 put to two different boars, and, in both in- 
 stances, the dun colour pervaded the breed, 
 though perfectly unusual before. The late 
 Prot'essor M'Gillivray tells us of an Aberdeen- 
 shire hornless heifer being put to a short-hom 
 bull, and had her first cross calf to that animal. 
 She was afterwards put to a pure-bred bull of 
 her own kind ; but she again had a cross calf, 
 a horned animal, though both its parents were 
 polled animals. The same authority mentions 
 another instance of a different Aberdeenshire 
 cow which had been served by a first cross 
 between the Aberdeenshire and short-horn, 
 and to this animal she had a cross-bred calf. 
 In order to have a pure-bred calf from her, 
 she was put to a pure Aberdeenshire bull ; 
 but the produce was a cross calf, both in 
 colour and appearance. The evidence of such 
 facts as these it is difficult to resist ; but facts 
 even stronger than these can be adduced toshow 
 the influence which the first impregnating 
 animal has upon the female for ever afterwards. 
 
 In the case of Dr. Smith's Dido, it does not 
 appear that her intercourse with the cur, if 
 any, had been fruitful ; but the following facts 
 will show the impossibility of any connection 
 whatever. INIr. Blaine had a pug bitch which 
 made a companion of a small white spaniel. 
 From this dog she was separated on account 
 of her heat, and was warded by another of hor 
 
 G57 
 
CATTLE-BREEDING.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [CATTLE-BREEDI^ra. 
 
 own breed. She threw puppies, one of which 
 was slender and spaniel-like, and perfectly 
 white; and, in two subsequent litters, she 
 always produced one white puppy, though it 
 might be less slender than the first. It is 
 possible, however, that she might, at some 
 period, have had unobserved intercourse with 
 the spaniel ; and if so, as a matter of course, 
 the principle would be precisely similar to 
 that which is involved in the preceding in- 
 stances ; but we have a case ia which this 
 was utterly impossible. A mare and a gelding 
 had long been companions in the team, in the 
 pasture, and in the stable. He was black, 
 with white legs and face, and possessed of a 
 singular rectangular form of hind legs. After 
 an association of about two years, the mare 
 was covered by a bay stallion, with black legs, 
 which was the colour of her own. The foal 
 exactly resembled the gelding, both in colour 
 and shape, especially in the hind legs. Here 
 connection was impossible. — We have already 
 alluded to the effect of the imagination of the 
 mother greatly influencing the colour and 
 form of her offspring; and the following fact 
 would seem to prove it. Mr. Boswell tells us 
 of a hornless cow coming in season, when one 
 of his neighbour's horned black-and-white 
 oxen broke over the fence, and accompanied 
 her home to the bull. Both the sire and the 
 dam were black and hornless, nor had the 
 farmer any horned or spotted beast on his 
 farm. The produce of the cow was black and 
 white; and, in due time, its horns grew, re- 
 sembling those of the ox. These facts may 
 not, in themselves, prove much ; but they raise 
 a doubt as to whether the imagination of the 
 mother may not, in some indescribable way or 
 other, operate upon the offspring. 
 
 Another point in connection with this sub- 
 ject is, the respective influence of the parents 
 in determining the sex of the offspring. This 
 part of our subject is necessarily involved in 
 no small degree of mystery. Nature seems to 
 have decided that the sexes should be pretty 
 evenly balanced ; but the causes which lead to 
 this decision she has refused to develop .to 
 mankind. There is a great difference of 
 opinion among physiologists as to whether the 
 male or the female, the sire or the mother, has 
 the greater influence in determining the sex. 
 Sir Everard Home thought that the ovum or ! 
 6-38 
 
 germ, previous to impregnation, is of no sex, 
 but is so formed as to be equally fitted to 
 become male or female; and that it is the 
 process of impregnation which marks the sex, 
 and forms either male or female generative 
 organs ; that, previous to the fourth mouth, 
 the sex cannot be said to be confirmed, but 
 that the parts, before that period, are so 
 blended, that either the one or the other may 
 be formed therefrom, as the tendency towards 
 the paternal or maternal type may preponde- 
 rate. This would account for the disposition 
 which some animals have to beget a greater 
 number of one sex or the other. Mr. Knight, 
 a distinguished naturalist, inclined to the 
 opinion that the female is principally con- 
 cerned in the development of the sex. " In 
 several species of domesticated animals," he 
 says, " particular females are found to pro- 
 duce a majority of offspring of the same sex ; 
 and I have proved repeatedly, that by dividing 
 a herd of thirty cows into three equal parts, 
 I could calculate on a large majority of 
 females from one part, males from another, 
 and females from the remainder. I frequently 
 endeavoured to change the habits by changing 
 the male, but without success." In the Fhilo- 
 sopJiical Transactions, mention is made of a 
 gentleman who was the youngest of forty sons, 
 all produced in succession, from three different 
 wives, by one father, in Ireland. One in- 
 stance is also recorded of seven successive 
 daughters being born to a man by his first 
 wife, and of seven sons by his second wife. 
 As, in this matter, both statements and 
 opinions contradict each other, the only con- 
 clusion to be drawn is, that both the male and 
 the female possess a certain degree of in- 
 fluence in determining the sex — sometimes 
 the one operating one way, and sometimes 
 the other. Some degree of weiglit, however, 
 is to be attached to the opinion, that where 
 the male is older than the female, the majority 
 of the offspring is likely to be males. 
 
 The rapidly-growing population of this 
 country has long demanded a correspondingly 
 extended supply of animal food, which has 
 been furnished, not by the greater productive- 
 ness of the grazing districts, but by the growth 
 of roots on arable farms ; so that, in fact, a 
 f-reatcr annual weight of meat is produced by 
 the latter than the former. AVhilat a larger 
 
CATTLE-BREEDixo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cATTLE-nnEEnixo. 
 
 quantity of land has thus been devoted to tlie 
 production of animal food, it liaa by no means 
 dimiiiislied the supjdy of grain ; but, on the 
 coiitrarv, has increased it by the enlarged 
 quaiititv of manure which, in cojisequenoe, is 
 Bup[)licd to the land — n fact so well established, 
 that it has already become an ndago, " No 
 cattle, no dung; no dung, no corn." The 
 objictions that aro sometimes raised against 
 over-fed cattle, and the attempts made to 
 disparage tho " mountains of fat," as they 
 aro sometimes called, may bo both sound and 
 reasonable : there is no doubt of tho practical 
 fact, that the best butcher cannot sell anything 
 but tho best fatted beef. " Of whatever ag*\ 
 size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, he is 
 never selected by judges as fit for human food. 
 Hence, a well-fatted animal always commands 
 a better price per pound than one imperfectly 
 fed ; and the parts selected as the primest beef, 
 are precisely those where there is the largest 
 deposits of fat. The rump, the crop, and the 
 sirloin (the very favourite cuts, which always 
 command from twenty to twenty -five per cent. 
 more than any other part of the ox), are pre- 
 cisely those parts on which the largest quan- 
 tities of fat are found. Thus, instead of the 
 taste and fashion of the age being against the 
 excessive fattening of animals, it is, practically, 
 exactly the reverse. Where there is the most 
 fat there is the best lean ; where there is the 
 greatest amount of muscle, without its share 
 of fat, that part is accounted inferior, and used 
 for a difierent purpose. In fact, so far from 
 fat being a disease, it is a condition of muscle 
 necessary to its utility as food — a source of 
 luxury to the rich, and of comfort to the poor." 
 The fattening capabilities possessed by various 
 animals, are the effect of a secretive power, 
 which enables them to reserve a store of their 
 superfluous food for seasons of cold or of 
 scarcity. The fat masses itself round the an- 
 gular bones of the animal, and gives it that com- 
 ibrtable appearance of rotundity upon which 
 the eye feels pleased to rest. Hence the ten- 
 dency to secrete fat is indicated by a roundness 
 of form, as opposed to the Jlaincss characteristic 
 of the milk-yielding animal. The fat lubricates 
 the joints, gives elasticity to the skiu and 
 muscles, and obviates the effects of pressure ; 
 but, above all, it is a store of heat- producing 
 aliment, set aside for seasons of scarcity. 
 
 TIjo larger portion of the diet of aniinuls 
 may be Haid to eoiiwiHt of a saccharine, aa 
 oleaginous, and an alhuininoiiH principle. To 
 the first belong all the pacehariiio, starchy, and 
 gummy parts of the plant.s, which, in tho diges- 
 tive organs, pass tiiroiigh changes similar to 
 fermentation, before they can be assimilated ; 
 throuf»h them, also, is animal heat austainod. 
 In sluggish animals, tho oily portions of plants 
 aro deposited and converted into fat; and, 
 when strength fails, it is taken up to supply 
 the place of tho consumed saccharine matter. 
 Tho albuminous or gelatinous priuciple of 
 plants is chiefly required to force the accumu- 
 lation of muscle ; while the ashes of plants, their 
 unconsumable portions, are designed for the 
 purpose of supplying bone, hair, and born, as 
 well as muscle and blood : they also replace 
 the waste which is continually going on. 
 Such are the several qualities which are essen- 
 tially characteristic of a dispo;?ition to fatten. 
 These marks are so definite and well under- 
 stood, that they are comprehended and acted 
 upon by every grazier. There is some diffi- 
 culty, however, in endeavouring to describe, 
 upon paper, all the indications of barrenness 
 or fertility which a practised eye alone could 
 detect. It is by experience and skill that 
 the grazier acquires his knowledge, and not 
 by theoretical rules. Observation, judgment, 
 powerful perceptive faculties, and minute dis- 
 crimination, are essential to his success. 
 
 One of his great reliances is on the ioiccJt, 
 which may be esteemed the criterion of quality 
 in every vaccine animal, whether to be boiighfc 
 tor milking or grazing. The skin is a great 
 indicator, and should neither be thick nor 
 hard, nor should it adhere firmly to the mus- 
 cles. If it does so, it may be concluded that 
 the beast is a hard grazer, as well as a poor 
 feeder; and as no man skilled in his calling 
 will purchase her, she must be palmed off" upon 
 some novice, and even to him at such a price 
 as can make her a sort of temptation to be got 
 into his possession. On the other hand, the 
 skin must neither bang loosely, nor exhibit 
 that kind of flabbiuess which is frequently seen 
 upon indifferent cattle, and which discloses a 
 delicate temperament, and a nature incapable 
 of the retention of fat. Human physiologists 
 give great attention to the subject of tempera- 
 ment ; and tiiough we do not make similar nice 
 
 659 
 
CATTLE-BEEEDiNG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [cattle-beeedincj. 
 
 distinctions in reference to brutes, yet is it of 
 extreme importance to keep in mind those 
 general and distinctive varieties of temperament 
 wliicli have a powerful operation upon the 
 characters of various animals. Assigning, tlien, 
 a broad division to the temperaments of ani- 
 mals, we might define them as consisting of 
 three kinds — the nervous, the thoracic, and 
 the abdominal. In proportion as the nervous 
 system, the chest, or the abdomen, is strongly 
 developed, an animal may be considered to 
 belong to the one class or the other. In the 
 breeding of oxen for the purposes of the 
 butcher, the grand object has been to establish 
 the supremacy of the belly, and to dethrone 
 the empire of the cranium and the chest ; or, 
 in other words, to preserve and perpetuate that 
 form of abdomen most favourable to the due 
 performance of the digestive processes, affording 
 the capability of extracting the utmost quantity 
 of nourishment from the food, and, at the same 
 time, diminishing as much as possible the 
 development of the nervous system (which 
 would induce too much irritability, and destroy 
 that indolence and quietness so essential for 
 the fattening process), as well as that of the 
 organs of respiration, which give, at once, the 
 capability and the disposition for muscular 
 exertion. 
 
 In reference to the formation of the beast, 
 in so far as it is susceptible of taking on fat, 
 size must enter largely into the consideration 
 where heavy weights are required. Christmas 
 beef is not only expected to be large, but like- 
 wise to be fat. *' The symbol of festivity," 
 says Mr. Milburn, " should be capacious as well 
 as prime ;" and we agree with him. A spare 
 scrag at Christmas would certainly be enough 
 to " chill the genial current of the soul" of any 
 Englishman who has heard of the bountiful fare 
 upon which his ancestors of old regaled at this 
 season of the year ; but in reference to the 
 grazier, who is buying in order to sell, profit 
 alone must be his guide. It may be observed, 
 however, that in accordance with the excellence 
 of the grazing-ground, so will be the largeness 
 of the animal fed upon it. Small animals cer- 
 tainly arc much more ciasily fed ; but then they 
 are usually the result of a poor soil. Besides 
 size, there must be breadth of carcass, which is 
 indicative of fattening, perhaps, above all other 
 qualifications. If rumps are favourite joints, 
 6G0 
 
 and produce tlie best price, it is best to have tlie 
 animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, 
 and the best rump. The same may be said of 
 crop, and of sirloin ; but breadth is essential to 
 the consumption of that quantity of food which 
 is necessary to the development of a large 
 amount of fat. Thus a deep wide chest, favour- 
 able for the respiratory and circulating func- 
 tions, enables the animal to consume a large 
 amount of food to burn up the sugary and 
 deposit the fatty matter, as then useless, but 
 afterwards to be prized. A full round crop 
 will be of the same physiological utility ; while 
 a broad and open framework at the hips will 
 afford scope for the action of the liver and kid- 
 neys. The head must be small and fine. JS'ot, 
 perhaps, that ib is of any special use in the fat- 
 tening of the animal to be so constructed, but 
 it is indicative of the bones being small, and the 
 legs short. Eor constitutional powers, the 
 beast should have his ribs extended well 
 towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave 
 as little unprotected space as possible. There 
 must be no angular or abrupt points ; all must 
 be round, bi'oad, and parallel. Any depres- 
 sion in the lean animal will show a deficient 
 deposit of flesh and fiit, when sold to the 
 butcher, and thus deteriorate its value ; and 
 hence the animal must be round and full. But 
 either fancj^, or accident, or skill (we will not 
 pretend to say which), has associated symmetry 
 with quality and conformation, as a point of 
 great importance in animals calculated for fat- 
 tening ; and there is no doubt that, to a certain 
 extent, this is so. The beast must be a system 
 of mathematical lines. To the advocate of 
 symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be a 
 condemning fault. The ridge of the back like 
 a straight line, with the outline of the belly 
 exactly parallel, when viewed from the side, 
 and a depth and squareness when viewed from 
 behind, like a geometrical cube, may be said to 
 be the indications of excellence in a fat ox. As 
 a partial resume of what we have said, we add, 
 that the qualities desirable to be obtained for 
 fattening, are pretty much the same in the 
 greater number of domestic animals — that is, 
 in those designed for animal food. They are — 
 the capability of converting a given quantity of 
 food into the utmost amount of flesh and fat, 
 and the development of this meat on those 
 parts of the body most esteemed for food. Thus 
 
MII-K BIIEEDS.] 
 
 C ATT L E, A N I) T 1 1 i: I K V Alii !• T I ES 
 
 [milk llUl^KUB. 
 
 BiTiftll heads, small lo<;!<, and small bones, alto- 
 gether, are essential nualifioations, and early 
 maturity is equally desirable. Connected with 
 theso points are invariably found a peculiarly 
 quiet and indolent disposition — what physiolo- 
 gists would term a lymphatic tempi-ramtMit — 
 which is denoted by a iineness of the skin — a 
 certain resistance to the touch, so to spi'ak, 
 caused by the development of those membranes 
 immediately under the skin, which serve for 
 the deposition of fat in common with other 
 objects. In cows kept for the purposes of the 
 dairv, where butter and cheese are the sources 
 of profit, the considerations just mentioned, 
 though not altogether to be lost sight of, are 
 yet secondary to others — such as the uevelop- 
 uieut of the lactic system, &c. 
 
 MILK-YIELDING BREEDS. 
 
 The pasture of this country having great 
 variety, means are thereby all'orded for rearing 
 cattle of every description ; consequently, the 
 iat-accumulating, as well as the milk-yielding 
 breeds, have each that kind of pasture beat 
 adapted to accomplish the end which their 
 owners have in view. Tiie scheme of creation 
 is so admirably adjusted to the wants of those 
 living beings which inhabit it, that every race is 
 apparently provided for. The grauivorous and 
 the carnivorous animal has each its destined 
 food. The elephant, that roams the region of 
 Central Africa, has its boundless forest, its 
 thick and long grass, with innumerable herba- 
 ceous plants, provided to satisfy its appetite, 
 and increase and sustain the enormous bulk 
 to wliicli it attains. The lion, in the same 
 region, has countless herds of the eland and 
 the gazelle to prey upon ; whilst the birds of 
 the air are equally cared for. Animals, how- 
 ever, reduced to a state of domestication, have 
 not the same resources placed within their 
 reach. They depend upon man for what they 
 want ; and as the exigencies of a highly culti- 
 vated civilisation press upon him the neces- 
 sity of making provision ibr it, he becomes a 
 rearer of cattle and a producer of milk, that he 
 himself may be enabled to live by the profit- 
 able returns which such labours afford him. 
 Flesh and milk being, to a large extent, 
 essential to human existence, these are sought 
 to be obtained in the greatest abundance, and 
 in the highest state of perfection. For this 
 
 reason, those animals that yield thorn to the 
 largest extent aro mo.st eagerly desired ; and, 
 as nature has decreed that dillereiit races, and 
 different individuals of theso races, aro better 
 adapted than others to the secretion of the one 
 or the other of theso essential products, lio 
 selects such as he deems the most suitable for 
 the object ho has in view. There is no breed 
 of which we are awaro that is equally calcu- 
 lated to produce both to a [)rolilablo extent — 
 the objects of the two secretions being quite 
 different, and the tendencies and qualities es- 
 sential for the production of both being spar- 
 ingly conferred upon the same animal. As tho 
 production of milk is, more or less, charac- 
 teristic of all kinds of animals, it must ne- 
 cessarily have its degrees of proportion, as well 
 as quality, in accordance with the size, num- 
 ber, and nature of tlie progeny which is to bo 
 nurtured by it. Some will give large quanti- 
 ties, but thin and poor in quality ; some smaller 
 quantities, and rich in oily matter; while 
 others will afford a small portion, but abundant 
 in solid matter. For profitable or commercial 
 purposes, the first will be selected by the milk- 
 man near the populous city ; the second by 
 the dairyman, whose product is intended to 
 be butter ; and the third by tho maker of 
 cheese. 
 
 The diffusion of the milk-yielding breeds is 
 more extensive than any other, because they 
 are capable of being advantageously maintained 
 on that description of herbage which is not 
 sufficiently nutritive to sustain the fat-secret- 
 ing breeds. The bulk of tho grass-lauds on 
 the clay soils of this country, on the sides of 
 the uplands, and even on the poorer sands, is 
 sufficient to supply the means of making butter 
 or cheese; but it will not remunerate the at- 
 tempt to feed cattle on herbage so inferior. 
 The rich alluvial feeding-pastures, which gene- 
 rally skirt our rivers, are far more profitably 
 employed in raising summer beef, than in the 
 production of milk or butter. 
 
 llow far is it possible to detect, by external 
 conformation, the capabilities of the individual 
 animal for the secretion of milk? — is a question 
 well worthy the cousideratiou of all those who 
 are cTigaged in dairy husbandry. There are in- 
 stances in every breed, where nature has more 
 bountifully, or more sparingly, bestowed the 
 qualities calculated to produce the secretion 
 
 GGl 
 
MILK BREEDS.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [milk beeeds. 
 
 for -wliich the race mav be celebrated ; and 
 there are, doubtless, well-knoAn marks, which, 
 to the dairyman, rarely fail to indicate the 
 status of the animal in the range of qualities 
 peculiar to his race. On the European con- 
 tinent, this knowledge has been professed to be 
 carried to a very minute extent. Eran9()is 
 Guenon, a Erenchmun, is said to have found 
 a mode of deciding authoritatively, not only 
 the' quantity and quality of milk which would 
 be yielded by any particular cow, but also the 
 period for which she would retain her milk 
 after calving. This he professed to determine 
 by external appearances alone ; and these of a 
 somewhat arbitrary kind. The possession of 
 such an invaluable species of knowledge to the 
 farmer was not readily to be lost sight of. Ac- 
 cordingly, the Agricultural Society of Bordeaux 
 appointed a committee, to test Guenou's capa- 
 bilities ; and they reported that, although the 
 process by which he arrived at tliese conclu- 
 sions was a secret, he had succeeded in satis- 
 fying them of the truth of his system. It was 
 deemed, however, that it would be more satis- 
 factory, if Guenon would submit it to a practi- 
 cal experimental test ; and this was done in the 
 following way: — Separate cows were brought 
 from strange dairies, and he wrote down the 
 characteristics and qualities of each. These 
 were compared with the separate statements 
 given by the owners of the animals ; and, in 
 cases of more than sixty head, he succeeded in 
 stating all their peculiarities exactly, with the 
 exception of a very slight difference in apprais- 
 ing the quantity of milk — a difference the com- 
 mittee attributed solely to the quality of food 
 given to the animal. 
 
 At Cantul, the Central Societj of Agri- 
 culture also reported upon his system with 
 equal favour. Their description of the process 
 of investigation pursued, is thus given: — " He 
 accompanied the members of your committee 
 to the farm of Veyrac, belonging to the presi- 
 dent of the society, lie examined, with scru- 
 pulous attention, the fine dairy cows of this 
 domain, which is composed of one hundred 
 milch cows of the best kind in the country. 
 * * * * M, Guenon gave, upon each of 
 them separately, precise indications as to tlie 
 quantity of milk each of them give per diem, 
 and the length of time they would hold their 
 milk after being again in calf. AVe must avow 
 GG2 
 
 to you, gentlemen, that they have, almost in 
 every instance, agreed with the declarations of 
 the owners of the cows." The mode he adopted 
 has been made known in this country ; and it 
 has for its foundation the classification of all 
 kinds of cattle into eight families. Each of 
 these he divides into three sections, according 
 to size only ; and each section, again, he sub- 
 divides into eight orders. The distintruishinfr 
 marks by which this division is made, are — 1, 
 the Gravure, which are those parts which com- 
 mence at the udder, and extend at the bearing- : 
 2, the E]yis — a soft brush of hair on the udder 
 of the animal ; and, 3, Contrepoil, or hair 
 growing the contrary way. These peculiarities 
 form the distinction between the families and 
 orders. Thus, if the gravure be large, the 
 reservoir of milk will also be large, and the 
 produce abundant. If it be formed of fine 
 hair, and if the skin be of a yellowish hue, and 
 a sort of bran-coloured powder fall from the 
 skin, they are to be taken as the signs of a good 
 milker. The rationale of the whole is, that the 
 gravure is but a continuation of, and corres- 
 ponds with, the lactiferous vessels under the 
 belly of the animal. These " epis," he states, 
 correspond with the reservoir of milk, and 
 are tuits of hair growing the wrong way on 
 the right or left of the bearing. The largest 
 indicates the most rapid loss of milk. The con- 
 trepoil, or hair growing the wrong way on the 
 gravure, amidst that which grows upwards, 
 indicates a deficiency in the production of milk, 
 even if the gravure be large. — Such is a general 
 description of a system invested with minutiae 
 of no ordinary kind ; and so precise and prolix, 
 that it would even require numerous engravings 
 to show the variations of family, class, and 
 order. In speaking of this system, it has been 
 remarked, that the observations of Guenon 
 have been carried far beyond their legitimate 
 objects, and are of a character rather indicative 
 of quality ; for while a wide capacity of upper 
 udder, a fine hair, a yellow scurf, are some- 
 what too indefinite to classify very precisely, 
 they are just the points which may indicate a 
 fineness of quality, and a large lactiferous ca- 
 pacitv, that may add to the physiological signs 
 by which a milking-cow is judged by the prac- 
 tical grazier, 
 
 III a good dairy cow, a beautiful form is aa 
 unimportant point in the eye of the dairyman; 
 
CATTLE-FEEDiNa.] CATTLE, AND TIIEJK VAIMETIE.S. [cattlk-feedino. 
 
 .symmetry of proportion being no criterion ofi being thin; tail small ; utldor large and round, 
 uiilliing qualities. The i^rtw-ii/tvj/ of a fiittened , with lour teats, well-formed, tapering to tho 
 
 ox in section is a parallelogram, and a cvlinder 
 is tliat of his superficies ; thus exhibitiug tho 
 essence of roundness : whereas, tlie very con- 
 verse is the perfection 0/ tho milker — that is, 
 fla/nrss. The following are tho best-settled 
 :nark3 or characteristics of a milking cow : — 
 l[ead small and fine; eyo bright and full, but 
 with a quiet and placid expression ; neck deep 
 and thin, which gives it an appearance of hol- 
 lowuess ; shoulder and breast narrow, but pro- 
 jecting; ribs flat; rump broad, and tapering 
 down to the knee joint, owing to the thighs 
 
 end, and at a moderate distance from each 
 other; skin thin, and witli plenty above; foro 
 teats round and full, and with a largo subcu- 
 taneous or milk-vein, as it is commonlv, but 
 erroneously called. There must, above all, bo 
 kindliness of touch, indicative at once of good 
 breeding and of quiet disposition. These, 
 united to a quiet and gentle temperament, aro 
 indications of milk producing animals, which, 
 when accompanied with health, aro almost 
 infallible criterioua in the cow suitable for tho 
 dairyman. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FEEDING OF CATTLE. 
 
 Ix the pastoral districts of the United 
 Kingdom, it might be imagined, that where 
 fat is no longer regarded as a luxury at the 
 tables of the rich, every mode which promotes 
 its accumulation on cattle would be so gene- 
 rally known, that the most unsophisticated 
 vould be initiated into its mysteries. This, 
 i.owever, notwithstanding all that has been 
 ■one, is not the case. " Everybody knows that 
 ich alluvial pasturage, that linseed-cake and 
 iSwede turnips, that combinations of hay and 
 bean-meal and ground corn, with a dozen 
 kinds of roots, will feed cattle sooner or later. 
 But the question now is simply one of economy 
 — How can tlie greatest numher of pounds of 
 leef he produced at ilie least iwssihle cost .«'" 
 This is the point to be ascertained ; and to do 
 this, the grazier must make his selection of 
 tuch beasts as will take on fat the most 
 rapidly. By a physiological law, there are 
 some which will sooner attain maturity than 
 others, and so be earlier fit for feeding. As it 
 requires no great amount of skill in a good 
 grazier to select an animal that is likely 
 to thrive under his management, he will 
 make a choice of a drove, of five, or ten, or 
 twenty animals; and nineteen of the last 
 
 number will be the best grazers for his par- 
 ticular farm. In doing this, his eye, as well 
 as the signs described in the chapter on the 
 breeds of cattle, guide him ; but, more than 
 all, he is directed by the touch. After select- 
 ing the animals, the mode of feeding them is, 
 to turn them out into a grass field, if possible, 
 skirted by a river, where the alluvium of ages 
 has been washed into the soil so deep, that 
 the roots of the herbage cannot find its bot- 
 tom, and so firmly comminuted as to admit of 
 the smallest filaments of the radicles of the 
 plants easily to peneti*ate it. It should like- 
 wise be so porous as to allow the air to enter, 
 and the water to filter gently through it. All 
 its elements should be kept in a state of 
 solution, so delicate, that they may be always 
 ready to nourish and strengthen the plants 
 which consume them. It should, also, have 
 all the elements of vegetation plentifully mixed 
 up with it. On such a soil, a lean bullock will, 
 in a few months, become fat, because he is 
 nourished upon all the elements congenial to 
 his nature. A little attention, to see that he 
 is iccll, is all that is required from the time of 
 his being placed in the pasture to his being 
 taken to the butcher. There is neitlier labour 
 
 C63 
 
CATTLE-i-EEDi^-G.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES. [cattle-feeding. 
 
 nor expense incurred. He is worth several 
 pounds more ■nhen he is taken out of tlie 
 pasture, than when he was put into it ; and 
 this is the grand point in the mind of the 
 grazier. The requisites here laid down for 
 feeding, are strictly conformable to experience. 
 There is abundance of fresh and highly nu- 
 tritive food; there is little or no labour in 
 searching for and obtaining it; with water, 
 and shelter, and warmth, and also plenty of 
 air, and freedom from constraint. In feeding 
 cattle in winter these should be the objects to 
 be kept in view. They cannot feed in the 
 open air ; the cold and wet starve off the flesh 
 as fast as the food lays it on ; therefore, shelter 
 must be provided for them. 
 
 In reference to the temperature at which 
 the atmosphere should be kept for the feeding 
 of animals, various opinions have been held. 
 At the Leeds meeting of the Yorkshire Agri- 
 cultural Society, this subject was partially dis- 
 cussed. The question was — Are we to run the 
 risk of a wasteful expenditure of food by per- 
 spiration under excessive heat? or are wo to 
 induce them to burn it up, to keep up animal 
 beat, by exposure to too much cold ? Nay 
 will not different classes of feeding animals be 
 subject to different consequences, from the 
 same degree of heat ? In the same cow-house 
 there may be some too hot, and others too 
 cold, from their different constitutions. Oxen 
 generally sweat at a temperature in which 
 heifers thrive admirably. This happens, at any 
 rate, till Christmas ; after which they seem to 
 be able to bear the same degree of heat as 
 female animals. A gentleman tied up two 
 sets of feeding bullocks —eight in a warmer 
 shed than the rest, where they were allowed 
 the same quantity and kind of food; but those 
 in the warmer shed made more beef than those 
 in the colder; thus showing that warm air, as 
 ■well as warm food, is higlily favourable to the 
 fattening of short-horns. The temperature 
 arrived at was about 55° to G0° of Fahrenheit. 
 A temperature beyond this caused them to 
 leave their food, and lose their tone and ap- 
 petite. 
 
 Perfect quiet, and proper shelter, are very 
 necessary to insure successful feeding. This 
 fact is well known. An animal that has to 
 search for its food will not readily fatten, 
 because it gives ofl", in waste, the very prin- 
 GOl 
 
 ciple that is necessary to enable it to accumu- 
 late fat. Hence the turnips for cattle should 
 always be brought to them, instead of their 
 being driven to the turnips. Whether animals 
 feed fastest in the darlc, or not, is another ques- 
 tioned point. " There can be no doubt what- L 
 ever," says Mr. Milburn, " that anything which f 
 distracts their attention, which excites action, 
 or which produces nervous irritation, is op- 
 posed to fattening ; and as darkness will induce 
 sleep, and promote quietness, it is so far favour- 
 able ; but it is not so easy to have darkness 
 and sufficiency of fresh air at the same time ; 
 and therefore, the best possible state, perhaps, 
 is to have the feeding-houses rather in a state 
 of shady gloom than in absolute darkness. A 
 certain amount of nervous energy is necessary 
 to give tone to the vital powers. Beyond this, 
 repose and quietness are easily attained by a 
 simple gloom ; while shelter from flies and heat 
 in summer, and from blasts, wet, and extreme 
 cold in winter, should be carefully provided." 
 The same gentleman adds, that abundance of 
 good food, and regularity of feeding, are essen- 
 tials in all kinds of fattening; and that it is 
 not desirable to allow tlie animals to have food 
 standing before them when they are filled ; nor 
 should they, on the other hand, ever experience 
 a single feeling of want. The usual hours of 
 feeding should be strictly adhered to, for the 
 twofold purpose of inducing regular periods 
 of sleep, and for supplying the system with 
 food at the first call of appetite. Variety in 
 the vegetables given them, too, is another most 
 essential element of rapid fattening; and it 
 may not be far from the truth to say, that all 
 kinds of food are eqiialhj fattening, if they are 
 given in sufficient variety. If roots, grain, 
 and bay be changed every few days, the appe- 
 tite is never cloyed ; and the whole are de- 
 voured with a relish which develops fat in the 
 most rapid manner. 
 
 In this country, food, to be esteemed palata- 
 ble—indeed, to be consumable — must be fat. 
 Unless it has this recommendation it is abso- 
 lutely unsaleable. The tastes of the higher, 
 and the necessities of the lower classes, de- 
 mand well-fattened beef, mutton, and pork; 
 and any meat brought to market in a lean or 
 scraggy condition, is denounced as a sort of 
 carrion. The younger members of the opera- 
 tive's lamily have to content themselves with 
 
OATTLE-FEEDiNo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cattle-feedinq. 
 
 tlie veget:ible3 and f^ravy ; while tho lu-ad of 
 tho family consumes the tlosli, to enable him 
 to perform his labour; ami thus, when tho fat 
 is not available, one important soureo of tho 
 fooil of liis household ia dried up. For this 
 reasi)n tho jjrazicr must supply tho whole of 
 his animals iti a fat state to tho consumer. 
 Be it observeil. that it is not tho number of 
 animals, nor their weijj;ht in pounds and 
 stones that he has to consider, but he has to 
 provide for them the means of fattening before 
 they can be brought to tho consumer. 
 
 The j^reparalion of food for the animal, or a 
 system of cooking it, is a very important 
 question; and, we believe, that all that a 
 feeder can wish, is attained by the cooking of 
 linseed. Steaming hay, potatoes, and turnips, 
 was tried very carefully in Scotland, and failed. 
 For cattle, at least, it was found useless, how- 
 ever valuable it might be for pigs. The fat 
 of animals being analogous to vegetable oil, 
 its elements are much of the same character 
 as sugar, starch, and gum ; and no doubt is 
 
 other feeding nuilter, the efTeet was purgative ; 
 and but \'(iw breedi-r.s persevere in tho use of 
 tho seed alone. The demand for tho oil, how- 
 ever, induced the crushing of tho seeds to 
 obtain it, and tho refuse was converted into a 
 valuable food for animals ; while tho portability 
 of oil-cake, its cleanliness, and capability of 
 being long kept, made it a general and de- 
 sirable food, both for growing and feeding 
 stock. The oil abstracted, tho cake contains — 
 
 Water i 10 0,3 
 
 Mucilage WWW 
 
 Albumen and gluten . . . 'Jlil 1 
 
 Oil u-'x', 
 
 Husks o-.j.j 
 
 Saline matter and sand . . . 7-2j 
 
 Good English-made cako has now been 
 thoroughly established as one of the very best 
 fattening products; and the extensive farmers 
 of Lincolnshire, and other places, expend upon 
 a single farm, in one year, as much as from 
 £100 to £500 for this article alone. It is 
 the opinion of some of the most intelligent 
 
 change. The elements of those compounds, 
 severally, are: — 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Starcli 
 
 . Gum. 
 
 ^^-'l»S- ^mmalfat 
 
 Carbon . .12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 24 71 
 
 Hydrogen . 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 19 G9 
 
 0.\ygen. . 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 19 7 
 
 The oil containe 
 
 d in 
 
 many 
 
 seeds has been 
 
 found to be, in — 
 
 
 
 Oil per cent. 
 
 Linseed , 
 
 
 
 11 to 22 say 17 
 
 Hempseed , 
 
 
 
 14 „ 25 „ 19 
 
 Rapeseed 
 
 
 
 40 „ 70 „ 55 
 
 White mustard 
 
 
 
 oG „ 08 „ 37 
 
 Sweet almond 
 
 
 
 40 „ 54 „ 47 
 
 Bitter „ 
 
 
 
 28 „ 4G „ 37 
 
 entertained, by physiologists and chemists, farmers, that when cake can be purchased at 
 that the fatty matter (vegetable oil) in plants, j tho same price per ton, in pounds, that beef 
 is assimilated into animal fat, with very little ! and mutton can bo sold at per stone in 
 
 shillings, it will be paid for in the cattle and 
 animals fed, without reference to the manure. 
 The price of cake, however, depends on no such 
 element of calculation. The demand for it has 
 become far greater than that of the oil ; and, 
 in some seasons, it has been so great, that the 
 former became an object of commerce rather 
 than the latter, and realised as much as twelve 
 guineas per ton. To render the uncrushed 
 seed available by a cooking process, attempts 
 have occasionally been made ; but it has gene- 
 rally been found better adapted for calves 
 than for store-stock or for fattening. "Wliero 
 used at all for the latter purpose, it has only 
 been to supply a deficiency in turnips, when 
 the crops of these have failed, and when tho 
 other has had to be substituted for them. 
 
 Tho most decisive step ever taken in the 
 use of cooked linseed, was by Mr. "Warnes, of 
 Trimmingham, near North A\''alsham, in Nor- 
 folk. He commenced by inquiring into t!io 
 nature of cake, which he found to be nothing 
 more than the refuse of linseed; and imme- 
 diately commenced a series of experiments 
 with linseed, crushed, steeped, boiled, and 
 cooked in various ways. lie also tried the 
 
 665 
 
 This analysis would lead to the conclusion, 
 that any of these seeds are, so far as they are 
 agreeable eating, useful; and when linseed 
 contains as much as seven per cent, of mucilage, 
 ten per cent, of sugar, and fifteen of soluble 
 albumen, its great value for feeding and nutri- 
 tive purposes is at once evident. Tliero was 
 some diillculty in grinding it by ordinary 
 mills, as it clogged up the teeth ; and when 
 givoi to animals, either alone or combined 
 with considerable quantities of corn, meal, or 
 4 q, 
 
CATXLE-rEEDiKO.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VAEIETIES. [cATTLE-rEEDiNG. 
 
 effect of boiled barley, and other food ou 
 various animals. These ultimately led him to 
 adopt a mode of feeding on what be termed 
 linseed compound. This was carried out in 
 connection with his experiments in growing, 
 dressing, and preparing the flax, the feeding of 
 bis cattle with the prepared seed, which be 
 put into boxes as being opposite to tying up, 
 and to the summer grazing by soiling. 
 
 These processes excited much attention, not 
 only in England, but also in Scotland and 
 Ireland, and were the cause of many visits 
 being paid to Trimmingham, that agriculturists 
 might see for themselves. On such occasions, 
 Mr. AYarnes was by no means niggardly, either 
 in his hospitality, or in laying the whole secret 
 of his experience before his visitors. Among 
 these was Mr. Milburn, who describes the 
 cooking apparatus as so simple, "that it is 
 managed by a blind man, whose bappy coun- 
 tenance bespeaks neither over-weening anxiety 
 nor unremunerated toil. The apparatus con- 
 sists of two cast-metal boilers, fixed in brick, 
 witli a fire-place beneatli them. The water is 
 made to boil before the linseed is put iu. The 
 seed is crushed by a very powerful implement, 
 made by Messrs. Harwood, of Ipswich, con- 
 sisting of two cylinders, one of them of large 
 diameter. They are made to press upon each 
 other in their revolutions by two lunar springs ; 
 and two men will thoroughly grind two bushels 
 in ten minutes. At this rate the men are able 
 to work the whole day. The mill is, however, 
 capable of being reduced to the capacity of one 
 man. The crushed linseed is sprinkled upon 
 the boiling water at the rate of one gallon of 
 seed to eight gallons of water. Great stress is 
 laid on sprinkling the linseed very gradually ; 
 otherwise, it is apt to adhere in lumps, and 
 cleave to the sides or bottom of the boiler. 
 With tins precaution, however, Mr. Warnes 
 assui'es us that he has had no instance for 
 several years of this occurrence. This mixture 
 is boiled six miiuites, and for that period is 
 slightly stirred. At the end of that time it is 
 found to be a thick gelatinous mass. In about 
 one minute the mass appeared more mucilagi- 
 nous, and we think was impi-uved. Nine 
 bushels of cut pea-straw were then placed very 
 gradually, and by one bushel at a time, in a tub 
 twenty-eight inches higli. The liquid jelly was 
 now taken out in the scoop, and poured upon 
 G66 
 
 it. As each addition was made, the whole was 
 rammed down by a kind of beater, more for the 
 purpose of mixing the mass, and confining the 
 heat, than for any other object. The present 
 cost of the 'animals in linseed, is 35. per head 
 per week. In addition to this, they have about 
 one bushel of cut Swedes per day. The animals 
 to which Mr. Warues at present gives the 
 compound, are seven cattle, nine horses, and 
 forty sheep. Occasionally he mixes his com- 
 pound with corn, or rather with meal. This, 
 when used, is also sprinkled over the boiling 
 mucilage ; but when we saw the process, corn 
 was not used. So soon as the first boiling was 
 nearly emptied from the boiler, it was again 
 filled with water, and was ready for another 
 boil when required." 
 
 As a test of the value of his system, Mr. 
 "Warnes furnished the following remarks and 
 experiments, as illustrative of the general 
 effects : — " Linseed," he says, "has five essential 
 properties — viz., mucilage, oil, albumen, gluten, 
 and sugar. The shell, or external crust, is the 
 hardest of all seeds, and the most difficult to 
 break in pieces ; but not too hard for the 
 miller, who has every particle gi'ound almost to 
 powder, in order that all the oil may be ex- 
 pressed, which it could not be if coarsely 
 crushed. This is demonstrated by the cake, in 
 which the presence of linseed is scarcely 
 apparent. To a similar state, linseed for the 
 cattle compounds ought to be reduced ; other- 
 wise some, at least, of the properties above 
 described, will pass off without benefit to the 
 fattening animals. This the scientific grazier 
 will discover by the excrements, in which he 
 will find sufficient cause not only for grinding 
 linseed, but also for grinding all grain or pulse, 
 if possible, into flour. From researches like 
 these, the profitable returns for grazing upon 
 my premises may be dated — returns such as 
 are represented by the following figures : — 
 
 7 Diirliam bul- 
 
 looks cost . . 
 
 10 Scotch ditto . 
 
 I Cow .... 
 
 10 Miscellanoous 
 
 small cattle . 
 
 Balance down . 
 
 } 
 
 59 
 
 10 
 
 c. 
 
 ( Sold within sis 
 • ( months for . 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 . Ditto ditto . 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 0. 
 
 . Ditto ditto . 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 0. 
 
 ( Sold witiiin nine 
 • ( mouths for . 
 
 297 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 £502 10 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 136 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 215 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13C 
 
 
 
 
 
 £.302 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 £297 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 £39 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deduct for 14 qrs. of linspod, mostly grown upon the 
 farm, £35 ; and £i for barley meal 
 
 lleturn for 19 acres of turnips, several acres of pea 
 straw, and about 3 months' autumnal grass for the 
 10 miscellaneous cattle .... £258 10 
 
TEEDINO.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND TIIEIR VA11IETIE3. 
 
 [KEEDraO. 
 
 " TIio linscod, with the pon-straw nml tiirnip- 
 tops, NYcro fonued into coinponml, tlio turnips 
 given raw, atid tlio b;»rh'v-ii»o:»l as circiiin- 
 Btaiices roiiuiriHl. Under tlio old system, the 
 turnip-tops would have been mainly destroyed, 
 and the pea-straw used for litter. But these 
 liavinsr bien employed as above described, will 
 account for the small consumption of turnip-^, 
 and show the immcnso importance of sueh 
 auxiliaries." The expense of this copper, with 
 
 bushel, tho cost for each animal, per week, 
 will stand thus: — 
 
 12 Ib-i. Ooz. of liiisci'd ptT week » 
 32 lbs. of corn, ut Hi-/, per stono 
 I.iihour divided per lu-ud 
 
 Coals 
 
 Interest of cost of apparutus 
 
 $. 
 
 t/. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 4 2^ 
 •i 
 
 Another p;enlleinan who carried out tho 
 
 the whole working apparatus for ei^^hty or a ' scheme very fully, gave the following experi- 
 
 hundred head of stock, was not more than ' meiit with tho linseed compound, as compand 
 
 £4. Every farmer will, we think, see, from 
 this small outlay, the great advantage which 
 
 with oil-cake. In this tho turnips were chargiij, 
 as well as tho compound, to make the terms 
 
 the possession of such an apparatus gives ' equal. Sixteen j)olled beasts (cows) wcro 
 overalmost that of every other kind ; whilst the ! taken up. They were divided into two lots, 
 labour necessary to work it in an efficient man- ' and each lot consisted of eight beasts, as nearly 
 ner, is, comparatively speaking, easy and light, equal, in weiglit and condition, to the other as 
 and, at the same time, requires very little skill, possible. One lot, costing iis. IQd. per head 
 
 Feeding in boxes, the growth of linseed, the j was fed as follows : — 
 manufacture of the fibre into flax, and the 
 soiling of cattle with green food and com- I 
 pound in the summer, all entered into the 
 system of Mr. Warnes, whose experiments 
 induced trials with all kinds of modifications of 
 linseed-cooking ; but the one which obtained 
 the greatest amount of favour, was that adopted 
 by Mr. ]Marshall, late of Holme Lodge, near 
 Thirsk. The difl:erence between Mr. Marshall's 
 plan and that of INIr. Warnes was, thai: the 
 material cooked had not the heat applied to it 
 directly, but to the outside of the boiler in 
 which it was to be cooked, so that no direct 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Linseed cakf, 3 stones, at 13^(/. per stone 3 4^ 
 
 Turnips, 980 lbs 3 o"* 
 
 Labour 5^ 
 
 Per week for each head 
 
 G 10 
 
 The other lot was fed upon prepared food : — 
 Linseed and ground corn . . .4-1 
 
 Turnips, 490 lbs 10 
 
 Labour, 8zc. . , . . . o.\ 
 Coals . ') 
 
 Per week for each head 
 
 6 9.V 
 
 The two lots were sold on two different days ; 
 application of the fire took place to burn the ! four being taken from one set of beasts, and 
 
 mucilaginous matter. Mr. Marshall insisted 
 that, to cook the material properly, it must be 
 boiled at least two hours. His mode was 
 this : — One pound of linseed was boiled for 
 two or three hours in about one gallon and 
 a-half of water. Five pounds of straw were 
 chopped to about the length of an inch, and 
 very intimately mixed with two pounds and 
 a-half of ground oat or barley-meal, which were 
 then placed on a floor of flags or bricks, and 
 
 four from the other set, at each sale. Tiie 
 cattle fed upon prepared food realised £2 6*. <jd. 
 more than the others, and the time occupied 
 in feeding tliem was eight weeks. 
 
 A Yorkshire agriculturist, of great skill, made 
 some very important experiments on the rela- 
 tive value of 7io/ and cold preparation o( VmseL^d. 
 He took two animals, and, after ascertaining 
 their exact weight, fed the one on hot and the 
 other on cold food. At the expiration of six 
 
 the boiled linseed poured upon the mass and I weeks they were weighed again. Tho auiitrd 
 turned. It was, after this, allowed to cool for fed on cold food weighed, when put up, lU7 
 one or two hours, when it was ready to be \ stones II lbs. ; that fed on hot, 108 stones 
 given to the cattle. The subjoined calcula- ' 7 pounds. At the end of the six weeks, the 
 tious are given for one animal; thougii the I first had gained 2 stones 12 lbs. ; while the 
 
 food for a larger number may be cooked at 
 the same time, and in the same proportions. 
 Supposing the linseed to be six shillings per 
 
 other fed on hot food, had gained 5 stones 
 1 pound. To guard against the one having 
 any special aptitude to fatten more readily 
 
 G07 
 
WEIGHT.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND TIIEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [weight. 
 
 than the other, he reversed the order; and it 
 turned out that the animal now fed on cold 
 food, and before on hot, gained 3 stones 1 lb. ; 
 while the other, now fed on hot food, and 
 before on cold, gained 5 stones 11 lbs. ! But 
 this was not all. While the one fed on hot 
 food had only 5 stones 10 lbs. of Swedish turnips 
 per day, the one fed on cold food was not 
 satisfied till his feed was increased to 7 stones 
 of turnips in the same time, thus showing a 
 greater consumption of other food to make up 
 for the want of heat ! 
 
 WEIGHT AND MEASUREMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 To estimate the weight and measurement of 
 cattle by the seuses of feeling and sight, is not 
 so easy an operation as some might suppose. 
 Indeed, it is so difficult a matter, that many 
 farmers, even of large experience, are unable to 
 perform the task with anything like accuracy. 
 A somewhat distant approximation is all they 
 can accomplish. Whilst this is the case with 
 the farmer who may not be moving quite in 
 the capacity of grazier, this latter has a still 
 more difficult duty to perform. He has to 
 purchase lean animals at a market or fair, and 
 to estimate their feeding qualities. He has 
 besides to calculate the stones they will weigh 
 when fat. It is all a money-calculating pro- 
 cess. On an average the farmer requires to 
 ihake £5 for grazing an ordinary sized animal 
 during the summer. Good grass will feed one 
 beast on an acre, and thus remunerate the 
 farmer. When beef is 5s. per stone, the 
 grazier must increase the weight by twenty 
 stones, in order to make his animals remunera- 
 tive. Hence, if he sees a beast which, in his 
 estimation, has frame and capabilities to weigh 
 fifty istones, he ought not to give more for it 
 than £7 5s. But this price will not compensate 
 the breeder ; therefore he and the grazier must 
 both suffer when the price is only 5s. per stone. 
 
 The various elements which enter into the 
 calculation of the weight of animals, are breed, 
 quality, age, degree of fatness, quality of food, 
 duration of feeding, &c. Of some of these the 
 buyer may be able to judge, but of others he 
 can form no idea. lie may conceive the breed 
 to be good, the age to be proper, and the 
 quality sucli as he wants ; he may even find 
 the animal well fed up, both as to quality and 
 food; but ho may still be deficient in the re- 
 6G8 
 
 quisite knowledge. The qfah of cattle have 
 also a material influence in regulating the 
 price. There was a time when the hide and 
 tallow would be an ample profit to the butcher ; 
 but that is past, and he must now sell the best 
 cuts of meat at more per pound than he gives 
 for the wliole, or he will be a loser of his fair 
 share of profits. 
 
 The oftal of ordinary beasts may be esti- 
 mated as follows : — ■ 
 
 stones. 
 
 Hide, tail, and horns 
 
 Tallow .... 
 
 Head, &c. 
 
 Heart, and eatable portions . . .11 
 
 Lights, liver, &c. 
 
 Blood 4 
 
 Bag and entrails, with contents . . 14 
 
 Mr. Ewart, of Newcastle, who paid very 
 great attention to this subject, and whose 
 slide-rule and cattle-gauge obtained for him 
 a degree of merit for skill which his labours 
 well merited, drew up a scale of per-centages, 
 which may be considered as a sort of standard. 
 He classes animals as to their peculiar proper- 
 ties ; and, in his first class, included the 
 following: — 
 
 EiKST Class. — Short-horns, Herefords, Suf- 
 folks, and Devons. Their per-centage of fat 
 to live weight, he thus estimated : — 
 
 Beef. Live Weight. . 
 
 Half fat . . . . 55 to 59 
 
 Moderately fat . . . 60 „ G2 
 
 Prime, to very fat . . 63 „ 66 
 
 Extraordinarily fat . . 67 „ 70 
 
 Second Class. — Craven, Lancashire and 
 Irish short-horns, Lincolnshire, Galloway, 
 Angus, Aberdeenshire, Eifeshire, Norfolk, and 
 better sorts of Welsh : — 
 
 Half fat 
 
 Moderately fat . 
 Prime to very fat 
 Extraordinarily fat . 
 
 Third Class. — Argyleshire, Highland, and 
 mountain breeds: — 
 
 Beef. Live Weight. 
 Half fat . . . - 
 Moderately fat . 
 Prime, to very fat 
 Extraordinarily fat 
 
 These estimates may help the buyer who 
 has not had experience sufficient to enable 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Liv 
 
 e Weight 
 
 50 
 
 to 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 )) 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 )) 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 J) 
 
 66 
 
 48 
 
 to 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 )> 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 )> 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 ,, 
 
 66 
 
WEIOnT.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [hairy feebino. 
 
 him to jud<;e 'A' the oarcass-woiglit of tlip 
 animal bo wisUes to make his own. Let' him 
 liavo it Wfighed, anil make a (loiluctiou acoord- 
 iug to the foregoing data ; and if it does nothing, 
 more, it will at least serve as some guide in tlie 
 forming of his judgment. The author of T/ia 
 Boole of the Farm, gives two rules for ascertain- 
 ing the weight of ealtle by aJiiieasurcmciit. Hi- 
 confesses, however, that they aro not foundeil 
 on any certain principle — a circumstance which 
 must be remembered in using them. 
 
 1st. ]Multiply the sc]u:ire of the girth in 
 inches, by tlie length in inches, and divide tlie 
 product by 73^1; and the quotient will be 
 the weight iu imperial stones. 2nd. iSquare 
 the girth iu feet, and multiply it by the length 
 iu feet ; multiply again by the decimal -238, and 
 the sum is the weight in imperial stones. By 
 the length, in all admeasurement, is intended 
 a line from the top of the shoulder to the 
 6etting-ou of the tail ; and the circumference 
 round the body, just behiud tlie shoulders, is 
 the girth. The same author remarks, that for 
 beasts between forty and seventy stones, the 
 rules of admeasurement apply pretty nearly ; 
 but below or above these weights, they cannot 
 at all be depended upon. 
 
 The following approved rule is given in the 
 little work of Mr. Milburn : — " Measure the 
 girth close behind the shoulder, and the length 
 from the fore part of the shoulder-blade, along 
 the back, to the bone at the tail, which is in a 
 vertical line with the buttock, both in feet. 
 Multiply the square of the girth, expressed in 
 feet, by five times the length, and divide the 
 product by 21: the quotient is the weight 
 nearly of the four quarters, in imperial stones, 
 of Mlbs. avoirdupois. For example, if the 
 girth be Gi feet, and the length 5]- feet, we 
 shall have G.V multiplied by Gi-, making 42^; 
 and 5^ multiplied by 5, making 2G]-; then 
 42} multiplied by 2Gi, making 1,109G; and 
 this, divided by 21, gives 52 84 stones, nearly, 
 or 52 stones lllb. It is to be observed, how- 
 ever, that in very fat cattle, the four quarters 
 will be about one-twentieth more ; while iu 
 tliose in a verj' lean state, they will be about 
 one-twentieth less than the weight obtained 
 by this rule. The four quarters are little more 
 than half the weight of the living animal; the 
 skin weighing about the eighteenth part, and 
 the tallow about the twelfth part of the whole." 
 
 ri:i:uiNG roii tmi-: dairy. 
 
 Ti) tho practical man, the inlluenco wliich 
 food exercises on the production of milk is 
 well known. Not only is tho daily quantity 
 of milk produced by a cow dependent on the 
 nature of the aliment consumed, but, also, tho 
 (juality of the milk is greatly alTt'ctcd by its 
 character. Butter and cheese may bo re- 
 garded as two very important articles of dairy 
 husbandry, and they are both tho products of 
 milk. According to the purpose for which 
 this wholesome beverage is intended to be em- 
 ployed — whether for the manufacture of butter 
 or the making of cheese — tho cow should be 
 dillerently fed. Chemistry has given us a 
 knowledge of tho fact, that butter contains 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitro- 
 gen ; whilst, with this last element, cheese is 
 abundantly supplied. Food which contains a 
 large quantity of fatty matter, or such sub- 
 stances as are, in the animal system, readily 
 converted into fat, will tend to the increase of 
 the proportion of cream in milk. On tho 
 other hand, the proportion of caseine, or cheese 
 matter in milk, is increased by the use ot highl}'- 
 nitrogenised food. Those, therefore, who desire 
 much cream, or who produce milk for the man- 
 ufacture of butter, direct their attention to 
 the selection of food likely to increase the pro- 
 portion of butter in the milk. In cheese 
 countries, on the contrary, the principal object 
 of the farmer is the production of milk rich in 
 curd. Vetches, clover, peas, and bean-meal, 
 abound in legumen — a nitrogenised organic 
 compound, almost identical in composition 
 and properties with caseine, or the substance 
 which forms tho curd in milk. The dairy 
 farmer, consequently, feeds his cows with ad- 
 vanta'^e with such and similar food as tends to 
 
 O 
 
 add to the richness of the milk in curd or 
 cheese. The quaiit\', as well as the quantity, 
 of the butter in tho milk, depends on the kind 
 of food consumed, and on the general state of 
 health of the cow. House-fed animals, particu- 
 larly if turnips is their principal food, always 
 yield inferior butter to cows living upon tho 
 fresh and aromatic grasses of pasture-land. 
 Succulent aliment, in which there is an abun- 
 dance of water, such as the green grass of 
 irrigated meadows, green clover, brewers' 
 refuse, distillery refuse, «fcc., increase the quan- 
 
 6G9 
 
DAiET FEEDING.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [dairy feediko. 
 
 titv rather than the quality of the milk. The 
 town dairyman who sells his new milk to daily 
 customers, increases the bulk of his milk by 
 such succulent food, and thus renders it thin, 
 without afterwards diluting it with water. 
 
 In the Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, an account 
 is given of the cost of producing a gallon ot 
 milk, according to different modes ; and, though 
 it may be a somewhat vague instance, it so 
 nearly approximates to the spirit of truth, 
 that we deem it worthy of being laid before 
 the reader. 
 
 The Gloucestershire system, where the cows 
 are fed on grass and hay, and sold lean wheji 
 unfit for dairy purposes, involves a cost, per 
 gallon of milk, of Q^d. The Ciieshire system, 
 in which a few turnips are added in the winter 
 keep, costs Qld. The Fifeshire system, of grass 
 pasture in summer, and nine tons and a-half 
 of turnips in the winter, with oat-straw, 
 amounts to Sfo'. ; and Mr. Young's plan, in 
 the same county, with a more liberal allow- 
 ance of extra food, as bean-meal, linseed, &c., 
 costs 5f(^. Now, though w-e might have ex- 
 pected a greater difference in the last two 
 cases, and in favour of the very last in pref- 
 erence to the former, we still see that it is the 
 dearest way of all to starve the cows ; and that 
 a moderate degree of attention and care is 
 necessary to the most economical produce of 
 the milk-cow, whether it be in milk or butter. 
 When the pastures begin to fail, it is usual to 
 turn the cow upon the fog or aftermath — say 
 in the month of October — for nearly all cow- 
 keepers have, of necessity, a quantity of grass- 
 land producing hay; and the aftei'-eatage of 
 this land affords the best possible food for the 
 milk-cow, whether butter or cheese be the 
 object sought by the dairyman. When this 
 runs short, a little " hand-meat" — a few turnip- 
 tops, or rape, or even a little bran-mash — will 
 be well bestowed ; for if the milk does go down 
 at this period, it is never regained in winter 
 by any care which can be exercised. If town 
 milk is the object, a few brewers' grains would 
 be the most advisable addition to the eatage 
 which could be made. If the weather should 
 still be open and favourable, the pasture, freed 
 in October, will have grown up ;i ilLile, and 
 will afford a very useful turn-out for the cow ; 
 for she must, usually, be housed at night, when 
 the fog is finished. In the house, she should 
 G70 
 
 either have hay and mangel-wurzel or turnips ; 
 or, if she have straw, she sbould have cooked 
 linseed, or oat or bean-meal mash. The chaff' 
 of the barn, after winnowing, may be collected, 
 as free from dust as possible ; or, if mixed 
 therewith, it may be sifted and laid by. A 
 bushel of linseed may be added to two bushels 
 of barley or oats, or even wheat, or any other 
 grain, grown in the ordinary way. This mnj 
 be boiled in a common boiler, taking care to 
 keep it well stirred, to prevent its "setting 
 on" at the bottom of the boiler. After boiling 
 a quarter of an hour, if this be poured upon 
 the chaff in the proportion of one-and-a-half to 
 two pounds of the meal, and a gallon of water 
 to one bushel of chaff, one of the most useful, 
 and certainly the cheapest adjuncts to milk- 
 cow and store-stock feeding which can be con- 
 ceived, will be adopted. The great objectiou 
 to turnips, at least iu large quantities, is the 
 flavour they impart to the milk and the butter. 
 This is a difficulty which can only be partially 
 removed. It is surprising, however, how few 
 turnips or roots will be required if a compound 
 system be adopted; and this quantity being 
 so small, it is easy to vary them, by giving 
 potatoes, carrots, mangel-wurzel, &c., in an 
 ever-changing round. It is a question whether 
 hay need ever be given, if this system be 
 adopted. If it be not, the cows must have a 
 libei'al allowance of hay. In Norfolk, oats, 
 barley, or bean-meal, is mixed with chopped 
 hay. It is questionable, however, whether the 
 cow has not more gratification, and hence more 
 advantage, from selectiug and masticating the 
 hay alone, than can be derived from the cutting 
 and mixture, which at least is a costly and 
 laborious process. A small quantity and a 
 great variety of food will, on the whole, 
 produce the most favourable effect on milk- 
 cows. In a Prize Essay of the Yorkshire 
 Agricultural Society, the Eev, Eobert PuUeine, 
 of Kirby Wiske, thus describes his very 
 successful method of keeping dairy-cows in 
 winter: — "In the management of dairy-cows, 
 during the winter season, it is of the greatest 
 importance to have a dry, well-ventilated cow- 
 house. The side walls should not be less 
 than seven feet in height; and, in the two 
 courses immediately below the top course, 
 every alternate brick should be left out to 
 itisure a sufficient ventilation. A rough board, 
 
rviuYrKEDiKO.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIK VAliiETlES. [daiiiy fkeuino. 
 
 , 1 H couple of hinges, may bo fitted to close 
 •openings, in ease of very severe weather; 
 lut I have never required it. Tlio iloor on 
 which tlio cows slanil slioulil bo uiado of 
 well-beaten soil, and behind them a kerb- 
 s'.. me, about three inches thick and twelve 
 •hes wide, to raise them above the channel, 
 M uieh should have a slight fall, to carry oil" the 
 \v:;ter at once. jNly cows arc tied up in pairs; 
 h pair having a space of eight feet by six 
 .c six inches, which is suflicieut room ibr 
 y beasts under sixty stones' weight. They 
 have a crib before them, nine inches deep by 
 twenty inches wide, raised upon twelve inches 
 of brickwork. Tiie advantage of the crib being 
 raised is, that the cows are less liable to get 
 turnips into their throats than when they have 
 to put their heads down to the ground for their 
 food. A rack I consider of little moment, as 
 hay is all given as chop. It is a good plan 
 It) take up cows as soon as the nights become 
 cold — say the middle of October — as the white 
 frosts, which occur about that time, cause them 
 to run oil' their milk. They are turned out 
 during the day until the middle of November, 
 if the weather keep fine. Erom that period, 
 until May-day, they are kept entirely in the 
 house, except being turned out a few minutes 
 every afternoon to water. They are milked at 
 half-past five o'clock, morning and evening. 
 As soon as the man who feeds them comes in 
 the morning, the dung is all removed, and each 
 w has a feed of 28 lbs. of roots : — 
 
 "At 7 o'clock . 7 lbs. chopped hay. 
 „ 9 „ . . A pail of water, with i lb. of 
 bean-meal stirred into it. 
 „ 10 ,, . . 2 lbs. of linseed cake. 
 „ 1 „ (r.:.l.) 7 lbs. chopped hay. 
 „ 2 „ „ Turned out to water, and then 
 
 2 lbs. of linseed cake. 
 „ 5 „ „ 28 lbs. roots. 
 „ 8 „ „ 7 lbs. chopped hay." 
 
 One of the first requisites, in a successful 
 dairy cow-house, is cleanliness. AVithout this, 
 a dairy is anything but what it should be. 
 It must be kept free from smells of" all descrip- 
 tions ; frequently washed and whitewashed ; 
 and the animals diligently rubbed, and even 
 curried. A thriving cow, out of doors, is known 
 by her having the marks of her tongue upon 
 her skin. It' she is not at liberty to lick her 
 own skin, she should, at least, have it done for 
 
 her. Her litter should bo removed the first 
 thing in the morning, and ro|)lacud by fresh 
 clean straw. Above all, HJie cannot have too 
 njuch air, if tho cold blast bo jin^t ahiflded off. 
 Bad as exposure is, tho crowding of co.vs in 
 close places is considerably wor.-i*. Tliero 
 should bo ventilators at tho top of the cow- 
 house, in tlie Louvro stylo; 0[)L'n fronts to 
 tho south, capable of shutting up in snow or 
 southern rain ; and capacious ventilators at tho 
 bottom, by grates or ventilating bricks, are 
 indispensable to the health of the animals. If 
 these be neglected there can bo no hope of 
 health or success in tho dairy. 
 
 llesj)ccting the iniluenco of the food on the 
 character and quantity of the milk, to which, in 
 the opening paragraph of this chapter, we 
 have alluded, several experiments have been 
 made. Among tiiese, a scientific agriculturist 
 furnished Mr. Milburn with one, which showed 
 that the increase of milk, within certain limits, 
 was almost in the power of the farmer, by an 
 addition of bean-meal to the ordinary root 
 food and hay. Although, as a general rule, 
 milk may be produced by these costly and 
 stimulative kinds of food at too great au ex- 
 pense, yet it is of great importance, in a par- 
 ticular season, or under special circumstances, 
 to know the means of increasing the supply 
 beyond the ordinary quantity. Two Ayrshire 
 cows were selected by Professor Thomson, 
 and fed with malt in various combinations, 
 when it was found that 100 lbs. of barley, hay, 
 and grass, produced 8*17 lbs. of milk; and 
 that the same quantity of malt and hay, pro- 
 duced 795 lbs. of milk; the former yielding 
 1-95 lbs. of butter, and the latter 1-92. Al- 
 though this was not at all satisfactory as to 
 the value, or otherwise, of malt for milk cows, 
 still, it shows how food may influence the 
 quantity and quality of the milk. Messrs. 
 Dumas and Boussingault also experimented 
 upon this subject. They made a number of 
 very careful and interesting investigations re- 
 garding the quantity of milk and its products 
 which would be given by cows fed on different 
 kinds of food. They tried nearly all the com«- 
 binations usually given, except, perhaps, bean- 
 meal ; and the result was, that, in every case, 
 the greatest quantity was produced when the 
 cow had green clover ; thus proving that, in 
 each instance, this yielded the greatest quantity 
 
 G71 
 
DAiET TEEDiKG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [calf-eeaeixg. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 E utter. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 9-3 
 
 4-8 
 
 3-3 
 
 8-9 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-0 
 
 9-8 
 
 2-2 
 
 4-0 
 
 7-8 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-7 
 
 5-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-4 
 
 6 
 
 4-2 
 
 3-0 
 
 5-G 
 
 4 
 
 3-4 
 
 of butter ; and, with one exception, the greatest 
 produce also of cheese; and that exception 
 was when the cow was but one day after 
 calving, which accounted for the abundance of 
 cheesy matter iu the milk. The table is full 
 of instruction, and justifies the quotation of 
 some of its items. 
 
 _ , Davs after 
 
 Foo'l- culvinj. 
 
 Potatoes and hay . . 176 
 
 Hay and green clover 182 
 
 Green clover . . . 193 
 
 Clover in flower . . 204 
 
 Potatoes .... 229 
 
 Turnips .... 207 
 
 lied beet .... 215 
 
 It is found that mangel-wurzel, bean-meal, 
 and grains, largely contribute to the increase 
 of milk ; that good hay and oat mash augment 
 tlie quantity of butter; and that turnips, 
 tl'ough they sometimes impart a disagreeable 
 llavour, materially add to the increase of both. 
 
 The result of Mr. Pulleiue's system of 
 management, in the production of milk, is as 
 follows; the cows being five in number, viz. — 
 
 1. Yorkshire, 9 years old; had her last calf 
 
 March, 1850. 
 
 2. Alderney, 2ji years old; calved July, 1850. 
 
 3. Yorkshire, 2| years old; calved Nov., 1850. 
 
 4. Yorkshire, 5 years old ; calved Jan., 1851. 
 
 5. Ayrshire, 6 years old; calved March, 1851. 
 
 He says — " It will be observed that Nos. 1 
 and 2 can hardly be called in full milk, and 
 No. 3 is only a quey. They produced, in the 
 seven weeks, from the 25th of March to the 
 10th of May, 191 rolls of butter, 24 oz. to the 
 roll, equal to about 251 lbs., IGoz. to the 
 pouTid. To this must be added 154 quarts of 
 new milk, and 42 quarts of cream, consumed 
 in the house. The milk was not regularly 
 measured, but averaged about sixty quarts 
 per day." 
 
 It is sonaetimes an object to keep the cow 
 as long as possible in milk. Some cows get 
 dry early; whilst others may be milked through, 
 though always with disadvantage to both her 
 and her calf — both being feeble and impaired, 
 if it be persisted in. In summer weather, 
 however, when cows are in high condition, and 
 good milkers, it is not only sometimes ad- 
 visable, but absolutely necessary. A cow not 
 put to the bull will hold her milk much longer 
 than one which is regularly breeding. 
 672 
 
 The spaying of milk cows is adopted by the 
 veterinary schools of France ; and much has 
 been said in its favour by various continental 
 authorities. A report on this subject was 
 furnished to the Academy of Erheims, by M. P. 
 Charlier, which spoke almost exclusively in 
 its favour. The practice is an old one in both 
 Germany and England. The object is sup- 
 posed to be to increase the i'eeding propensities 
 of the animals, but by no means for the pur- 
 pose to which we refer, and which mainly 
 occupies the attention of the Erench veteri- 
 nary school — viz., the prolonging of the period 
 of lactation. The report, which is very volu- 
 minous, furnishes a variety of experiments made 
 on cows, old and young — some as far advanced 
 in age as eighteen years ; but, in order to 
 realise all the promised advantages, the cow 
 is said to be best when from four to eight 
 years old. The operation is performed on the 
 right side, and does not, altogether, occupy 
 more than from four to ten minutes. It is 
 seldom fatal, unless the cow is in calf. In 
 some instances, the cows are said to go and 
 feed as usual, even after the operation. 
 
 "The conclusions from the above report, 
 endorsed by the reward of the society's medal, 
 were — that spaying increases the supply of 
 milk from the animal after a ^ev^ days ; that 
 there is a steady return of milk of the best 
 quality, less liability to fiill off milk, and no 
 troublesome tendency to desire the bull ; that 
 in eighteen months the milk does not diminish ; 
 that the feeding tendencies of the cow are 
 much increased, and the quality of the beef 
 improved. Nay, it is further said, that in one 
 diiiry (the number of the cows not being'given), 
 a difference between spayed and unspayed 
 cows, in milk, was 850 pints per annum ; no 
 great quantity, however, if it were a con- 
 siderable dairy, and where, possibly, the best 
 cows were spayed. There is, we must confess, 
 a barbarity about this practice — needless, we 
 believe — which makes our kinder feelings revolt 
 at an operation performed for so little ad- 
 vantage, over the gentle, patient, harmless 
 
 milk cow." 
 
 REARING CALVES. 
 
 The rearing of calves is more or less pursued 
 on every dairy farm ; and, although every cow 
 does not annually produce young, still heifers 
 are usually put to the bull at two years old, 
 
CALF-REARiKo.] C A T 1' L K, AM) Til HI i: VAlilETIKS. [calf-kevuino. 
 
 and the period of gestation varies from 1275 to 
 '2{)0 iluva. Therefore, the old-fushionod mode, 
 of ri'dvouiiiE: three months buck in the ulmanae, 
 i3 not a dilllcult way of knowini; the date at 
 whicii a cow, put to the bull, may be expected 
 to ealve. She is nearly three years old when 
 she produces her first calf, which is very often 
 the produce of a very iuditierent sire. In 
 about six weeks after calving, the cow will be 
 ready to take the bull again, although she may 
 not hold ; and if the mouth of June be suftered 
 to expire before she is covered, she will be 
 likely to calve at a time when it will bo un- 
 proliiable to the breeder. Sometimes only the 
 tenth of the cows of the dairyman are in calf, 
 when he loses both milk and produce; but 
 whether the cows are in calf, or only in an ex- 
 cited state, every twenty-one days it has a 
 very unfavourable eflect on the milk. To 
 arrest this evil, numerous remedies have been 
 suggested ; among which are confinement, 
 bleeding, abstinence at the time of bulling, or 
 ot permitting to have the bull for one return 
 <jf the season. Some drench the cows with a 
 pailful of cold water after the cow has been 
 ^jrved, and some change the bull. Thus, 
 (.■very one has his own peculiar mode of acting, 
 and, no doubt, every one thinks his own 
 remedy the best. Where the loins are to be 
 served, however, it is desirable to have this 
 done in the morning, previous to milking. 
 Bat sometimes the cow will not get into 
 season ; and here also the skill and ingenuity 
 of mankind have been sorely tried in order to 
 force her into an excited condition. Some 
 try one thing, and some another ; but, perhaps, 
 the best plan to adopt is, to give the animal a 
 quart of the milk of a cow that is in season ; 
 after this, it is said that, in three weeks, she 
 will be ready for the bull, and a second return 
 ■will be productive. 
 
 After the calf is produced, as a matter of 
 course, it requires to be fed with such aliment 
 as nature, at the commencement of life, has 
 provided for it. Xo food, therefore, is better 
 for the sucking animal than milk. In this it 
 finds proteiue compounds, or, in other words, 
 flesh-forming substances, to supply materials 
 for the development of muscle ; lime and 
 phosphoric acid, from which the inorganic part 
 of the bones is formed ; alkaline salts, which 
 enter so largely into the composition of blood 
 4 B 
 
 Hnd (i:lier animal juices; sugar and fatty 
 matters to supply the wasto of cnrbun, wliicli 
 is thrown oif during respiration, in the form of 
 carbonic acid. Milk thus contains, within 
 itself, all the elements necessary to the support 
 of life, and, from this circumstance, is justly 
 considered a modt nutritious, as it is an uni- 
 versal food. The sucking animal is, by nature, 
 created to suck this beverage, and is 8up[)orled 
 by it for a length of time, which varies in the 
 young of different animals. There can be no 
 doubt, that if the animal is too early deprived 
 of the milk of its mother, it will sulfer in its 
 growth. On the other hand, the addition of 
 milk to other food, properly proportioned to 
 the necessities of the growing animal, promotes 
 its growth, and assists in strengthening its 
 constitution in a more than ordinary degree. 
 Beyond a certain period, however, milk diet 
 alone cannot be continued with profit; for it 
 must be remembered that herbivorous animals 
 naturally require a bulky food to preserve 
 them in good condition. Young animals must 
 gradually be reared on a more solid food than 
 milk, as it is essential to stimulate all the 
 different parts of the alimentary canal to a 
 healthy activity. To bring up a calf for the 
 butcher, is by no means a diflicult process. 
 It is only necessary to allow it to suck its 
 mother for the requisite number of weeks, 
 until it has attained to the size and fatness 
 suitable to the judgment of the buyer and the 
 taste of the consumer. 
 
 "The materials usually employed for solid 
 food," says the autlior of The Cow, '' are, new 
 milk, skimmed milk, meal-porridge, linseed- 
 tea, and hay, grass, turnips, meal, potatoes, 
 mangel-wurzel, &c. Some breeders — whoso 
 object is the calf, and the calf alone — sacrifice 
 every other consideration to this. The breeders 
 of short-horns, whose early maturity require 
 a corresponding early supply of nutritious 
 food, generally apply nature's own provision, 
 and allow the calves to suck either their 
 mother, or some other dam, or in some cases 
 more than one cow, in order that they may 
 develop their precocious and distinctive quali- 
 ties. This practice they often continue lor 
 six or twelve months. It is, however, an 
 expensive mode of feeding for those who rear 
 only ordinary cattle for the market. More- 
 over, some aro so 'stingy,' that as soon as tho 
 
 G73 
 
CALr-rvEAuiKG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [calf-eeautng. 
 
 cow ceases to give ' beesting,' they begin to 
 give the calves skimmed milk. A process of 
 this kind does irreparable. injury to the young 
 animal. 
 
 " The best mode, with ordinary calves, is to 
 give new milk for at least fourteen days after 
 the calving. There are two modes of doing 
 this : either to allow them to suck the dam, 
 or to remove them as soon as calved, but 
 train them to drink in the first instance. Eor 
 ourselves, we think that taking away the calf 
 is both cruel and unnatural. The healthiness 
 of the mother, we consider, depends upon it. 
 AVe invariably allow the presence of the calf 
 for at least a fortnight. We suffer the mother 
 to lick over the whole of her offspring, because 
 we think that a privation of this medicine of 
 nature, is a cause of many a valuable animal 
 being lost. After the first fourteen days, we 
 mix one-half new, and one-half skimmed milk, 
 for fourteen days more ; this skimmed milk is 
 scalded nearly to the boiling point, set aside 
 to cool, and given to the animal. One great 
 secret in the successful rearing of calves, is to 
 vive them frequently small quantities of food 
 at a time. For the first fortnight the calf 
 ought to be fed, at least, four times per day. 
 About a quart at a time will be necessary ; 
 which quantity may be increased afterwards, 
 as the animal's wants may require it. Soon 
 after this the skim-milk time commences, when 
 the animal, if properly trained, will begin to 
 eat the solid food." In young and growing 
 stock, the process of renewing, or building up 
 the system, proceeds much more rapidly than 
 it does in the full-grown animal. Science, 
 therefore, has demonstrated that the food 
 should contain a large supply of flesh-forming 
 principles, and of phosphates, from which the 
 bones are formed. These are plentifully sup- 
 plied to the animal by the grain of barley, 
 oats, and wheat, which also contain large pro- 
 portions of gluten, albumen, and other nitro- 
 genised organic compounds, which supply the 
 young animal with the materials of which the 
 muscles consist. In peas and beans there are 
 still larger proportions of muscle-making ma- 
 terials. The addition of these in a state re- 
 duced to meal, to the food of growing stock, 
 if not otherwise detrimental to the general 
 health, will have great influence in accelerating 
 the growth of the fleshy parts. On the whole, 
 674 
 
 then, it may be concluded that the young 
 and growing stock require a more concen- 
 trated food than is required by animals which 
 have arrived at maturity. The plan of Mr. 
 Huxtable has been very freely discussed, as it 
 proposed to accomplish the feeding of calves 
 at a much cheaper rate than was usually done 
 by other breeders. "We subjoin his mode, with 
 that of Mr. Nicholson, a Scotch breeder. 
 
 The Plan of Mr. Huxtable. 
 First month : — 
 
 Two quarts of new milk daUy, 
 
 at l^. per quart, for each £ s. d. 
 week 19 
 
 Six quarts of skim-milk daily 1 3J- 
 
 -0 12 2 
 
 Second month : — 
 
 One quart of new milk daily 
 Five quarts of skim-milk . 
 Half a pound of oii-cake . 
 
 101 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 -0 10 
 
 Subsequent cost, viz. : — 
 
 From third to twelfth month, 150 lbs. of 
 
 cake, at £7 per ton 2 15 
 
 During last six months of second year, 
 
 2 lbs. of bean-meal daily .... 1 2 
 
 Attendance for two years 1 14 10 
 
 Calf born on farm ; price if then sold .090 
 
 Total 
 
 £7 3 7 
 
 The Scottish Plan of Mr. Niciiolsox, 
 
 £ s. d. 
 Forty-five days' milk, foiu- quarts, at l^f/. 12 6 
 Mixed gruel — wheat and linseed, four 
 
 quarts, at O^d. 7 6 
 
 Forty- five days of the same mixture in 
 
 double quantity 15 
 
 Hay, cake, and turniiis, at Id. . . .0 3 9 
 Grass from June 1st to October 15th, at 
 
 IQd. per week 15 10 
 
 Second summer's fjrass 2 
 
 Kinety days' oil-cake, 3 lbs. daily, at £7 
 
 per ton 1^' ^' 
 
 Price of calf, if bought 1 10 
 
 Loss from death, at 10 per cent., on 
 
 £6 13.. Id 13 
 
 Attendance for two years .....100 
 
 Total cost ... £9 4 3 
 In drawing this chapter to a close, we must 
 
THE DAIKT.] 
 
 r\TTLF>. AND THEIR VATvTETTl-lS. [nuTTER and cnEESE. 
 
 recommend thnt especial attention to clennli- 
 noss in tlie keepini; of all aiiinmlt*, whether old 
 or vouii;;, should form an essential portion of 
 the duty of their luH-pers. lu the cnilier stapes 
 of the life of the calf, it is extremely bad policy 
 to stint it in its food, "That calf," says tho j 
 author of The Cow, "may be said to bo always 
 fal which never loses its first layer; and, as 
 tlif dillVrence is often a question in after-fat- 
 tenini::, of some six months of keep, there can ' 
 be no question that it is of tho greatest im- ! 
 portauce to keep it well at iirsfc. Giving tho i 
 
 calf that food which is easy of digestion, and 
 suited to its feeble stomach, in early life, allow- 
 ing it especially its mother's milk, the beest- 
 ings and tho soothing inlluonco of its motlier's 
 tongue— weaning it from new milk grailually 
 and cautiously, with a plentiful allowance of 
 good sweet hay, are the real elements of suc- 
 cess in calf- breeding. This course, with a 
 proper attention to air, warmth, exercise, and 
 cleanliness, is all that is required in the proper 
 management of young calves ; and will gene- 
 rally be found suliicieut for their health." 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MAXAGEMIiNT OF THE DAIRY. — GKXFTvAL OBSKRYATIONS ; BUTTER AND CHEESE; THE ART OF MILEING; 
 
 PRKSERVATIOX OF MILK; TUE DAIRY. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Amo>'Gst the almost endless varieties of form 
 in whicli food is used for the sustenance of 
 animal lite, there is none in which it appears 
 to be po universal as in that of milk. In this 
 form this liquid assumes the utmost importance. 
 It is the first aliment with which the young of 
 the whole class of the mammalia of natural 
 history is nourished. The lactiferous teats 
 are. to these, the earliest objects of their search ; 
 anil the instinctive power with which nature 
 has supplied them to seek, find, and use them, 
 so soon after their birth, is one of the very- 
 remarkable phenomena which have excited the 
 wonder of mankind. As tiie food of the rustic, 
 as v.ell as the citizen, it also takes a prominent 
 place. To tlie young especially it is exceed- 
 in^dy grateful ; wliilst, in the shape of cream, it 
 flavours the coffVe and the tea of the peer, as 
 well as the plough-boy. Its butter is spread 
 over their bread, and softens and enriches 
 their pa^^try. In the form of cheese it becomes 
 the diet of the pooi', and, in the same form, 
 frequently finishes the repast of the wealthy. 
 A beverage, therefore, so agreeable in itself, and 
 80 universally valuable in its products, has 
 necessarily, in all ages, received a high share 
 of cousideratiou iu the siurht of mankind. In 
 
 the females of the class mammalia, it is white 
 and opaque, having a sweetish taste, and a 
 specific gravity somewhat greater than that of 
 water. When it is allowed to remain at rest, 
 it separates into a thick white fluid, called 
 cream, which collects on the surface, and the 
 fluid beneath which is more watery. The 
 quantity of cream obtained from miik, and the 
 time it requires to separate, vary according to 
 the nature of the milk, and the temperature of 
 the atmosphere. AV^hen the milk is allowed 
 to stand after the spontaneous separation of 
 the cream, it first becomes acescent, and then 
 coagulates. When the coagulum is pressed 
 gentl}', a serous fluid is forced out, and the 
 remuiudcr is tho caseous part, or pure cheese. 
 
 BUTTER AND CHEESE. 
 
 Butter and cheese are obtained artificially : 
 tho former by the operation of churning; and 
 the milk which remains after the butter has 
 been separated, or, as it is called, the butter- 
 milk, has all the properties of milk from which 
 the cream has been separated. Cheese is ob- 
 tained by the addition of rennet to the milk, 
 which is prepared by digesting the inner coat 
 of the stomach of young sucking animals, 
 especially that of the calf. The quality of the 
 
 075 
 
BUTTEE AND CHEESE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. 
 
 [milk. 
 
 cheese depends upon the quantity of cream 
 remaining in the milk. The best cheese is 
 obtained bj coagulating the milk at the 
 temperature of 100°, and expressing the whey 
 slowly and gradually, without breaking down 
 the curd. "Whey expressed from coagulated 
 milk, if boiled, and the whole curd precipi- 
 tated, becomes transparent and colourless. By 
 slow evaporation it deposits crystals of sugar, 
 with some muriate of potash, muriate of soda, 
 and phosphate of lime. The liquid which re- 
 mains, after the separation of the salts, is con- 
 verted, by cooling, into a gelatinous substance. 
 If whey be kept, it becomes sour by the 
 formation of the lactic acid ; and it is to this 
 that the spontaneous coagulation of milk is 
 owing. Milk may, after it is sour, be fer- 
 mented, and it will yield a vinous intoxicating 
 liquor ; it is likewise susceptible of the acetous 
 fermentation. In the former state it is used 
 by some of the inhabitants of the north-east 
 of Asia, for intoxicating purposes. The con- 
 stituent parts which enter into the composition 
 of milk, are water, oil, curd, gelatine, sugar oi' 
 milk, muriate of soda, muriate of potash, phos- 
 phate of lime, and sulphur. 
 
 The milk of various animals is composed of 
 nearly the same substances ; but the pro- 
 portions vary so much as to give them very 
 different properties. Every kind of milk pro- 
 duces cream. In that of the cow it is copious, 
 thick, and yellow. Goat's milk produces 
 abundance, and it is thicker and whiter than 
 that of the cow. Ewe's milk produces as 
 much as that of the cow, and of nearly the 
 same colour. The cream from asses' milk is 
 white and liquid. In mare's milk it is very 
 fluid, and similar in colour and consistence to 
 good cow's milk before the cream appears on 
 the surface. Butter obtained from the milk 
 of the cow differs in colour, but has always 
 much consistency. The butter of asses' milk 
 is white and soft, and disposed to be rancid. 
 That from goat's milk is abundant, white, and 
 soft. That from ewe's milk is yellow and 
 soft ; that from mare's milk has little consis- 
 tence, and is readily decomposed. The caseous 
 part of milk varies in different animals. That 
 from the milk of the cow is bulky, and retains 
 much serum. Tiic curd of asses' milk has but a 
 small portion of whey ; it is not unctuous. Curd 
 from the milk of the goat is abundant, of a 
 676 
 
 firmer consistence than that of the cow, and 
 retains less whey. Curd from ewe's milk is 
 fat and viscid ; that from mare's milk is very 
 similar to what is obtained from the milk of 
 the ass. The serum, or whey, constitutes a 
 great proportion of the milk. That from the 
 milk of the cow has a greenish cast, and a 
 sweet taste ; containing sugar of milk and 
 neutral salts. The whey of asses* milk is 
 colourless, and contains less salts and more 
 sugar than that of the cow. TVhey of the 
 goat is yellowish, and contains very little 
 sugar and saline matter. The latter is muriate 
 of lime. The whey of ewe's milk is always 
 colourless, and contains the smallest quantity 
 of sugar, and but a small portion of muriate 
 and phosphate of lime. That of mare's milk 
 has litle colour, and contains a large proportion 
 of sacclmrine matter, and of saline substances. 
 "When milk is analysed, it is found to con- 
 tain 87 parts of water, rather more than 4^ 
 parts of sugar, and a little more than 3 parts 
 of butter, something beyond one-half of saline 
 matter, and 4^ parts of cheesy matter (curd 
 or caseine). Its weight, whilst holding them in 
 a state of suspension and solution, is about 3 
 per cent, greater than that of water. The 
 milk of different animals, however, as we have 
 already hinted, contains different proportions ; 
 and this differs again according to the breed, 
 treatment, and food of the animals. The follow- 
 ing represents a few of these differences : — ' 
 
 Cow. "Woman. Ass. Ewe. Mare. 
 
 Cascinc (curd) 4-5 1-5 I'S 4-5 I'G 
 
 Butter . . 3-1 3-6 O'l 4-2 trace. 
 
 Su^'ar . . 4-8 6-5 6-1 5-0 8-7 
 
 Saks ... 0-6 O-o 0-3 0-7 ) 
 
 ^Vater . .87-0 87-9 91-7 85-6)'^^'' 
 
 100- 100- 100- 100- 100- 
 
 The object of the dairyman is sometimes to 
 assist, and sometimes to retard, the natural 
 stao-es of decomposition into which milk will 
 run when left to itself; and as it is sometimes 
 necessary to defer, as it is equally necessary 
 to hasten these degrees, all the appliances of 
 modern art requisite to perform them are nov.' 
 at his disposal. Heat is necessary to all 
 stages of this action. Hence, in winter, he 
 can easily arrest, and, by artificial means, as 
 easily advance the manipulations of his craft ; 
 but, in summer, it is not so easy to effect his 
 
MILK.] 
 
 C A TT r. K, A \ I > T 1 1 i: I li VMM V.T I KS. 
 
 [milk. 
 
 purpose. Thus, he has often to be in his 
 dairy iluriiiij suiiiiiior, to eeo that the rays of 
 tlio sun are not exercising an umluo iiilluenco 
 upon his milk ; wliilst, by other means, ho en- 
 deavours to preserve it at a temperature that 
 will keep it from receiviiic; such injury as 1 
 an improper amount of heat may cause to it. I 
 The process throui^h whicli milk nuist be made 
 to pass, when intended to produce butter, 
 is not the least dillieult portion of the business 
 of the dairyman. Commencing with new milk, 
 it is by no means necessary that the cream 
 should be separated from it. For the pro- 
 duction of this article, Mr. Milburn observes, 
 that there are two different modes of breaking 
 the globules of cuseine. " One is by the 
 application of a gradually-increasing, gentle 
 heat to the new milk, until the buttery matter 
 floats at the top, which is then taken almost 
 in a boiling state, and churned to butter in a 
 very few minutes. Tlie otlier is, by at once 
 applying the beaters of the churn to the whole 
 mass of the milk ; but, as the bulk of liquid is 
 so much greater in the latter case than the 
 former, and skim-milk is of greater value than 
 butter-milk, this is much less frequently re- 
 sorted to. Generally the cream is allowed time 
 to ferment. This process aids in breaking down 
 the structure of the enveloping skin, in pre- 
 cipitating the caseine of the mass, and thus 
 assisting the maturation and development of 
 the butter. In churning, the heat of the 
 mass rises from 5*^ to 10*^ ; and, in very 
 cold weather, it is sometimes necessary to 
 pour in boiling-water, in order to attain the 
 necessary heat. This heat is also indispensable 
 in separating tlie cream. At a temperature 
 nearly freezing, it will rise with difficulty. 
 Perhaps the most regular and healthy tem- 
 perature is 55° ; but, so rapidly does it rise at 
 76° or 77°, as to require great skill and atten- 
 tion to prevent the whole mass becoming sour. 
 At the first-named temperature it will be 
 perfectly raised in twenty-four hours ; but in 
 the latter state of the temperature it will be 
 complete in ten or twelve hours. As tlie 
 globules have to rise by specific gravity chiefly, 
 it is desirable that the milk should be dis- 
 posed in shallow dishes. Glass is clean and 
 beautiful, and porcelain is fashionable ; but 
 lead is the old-fashioned and useful medium ; 
 it retains the heat of the hot water from the 
 
 scalding process in winter, and slowly conducts 
 the heat after the cooling from evaporatitin in 
 sumnuT. The desirable temperature in churn- 
 ing cream ia 54° to 55° — a degree of heat 
 preservablo only in summer by early churning, 
 and in winter by raising tiie temperature 
 with boiling-water, and healing the cream at 
 tho fire before placing it in the cluirn, or by 
 adding boiling-water to tho ma.ss in tho 
 churn." 
 
 Having noticed several of the different kinds 
 of matter which milk contains, we must not 
 overlook the smell or aroma which it some- 
 times emits, in accordance with the kind of 
 food consumed by the cow. It is generally 
 supposed that this animal feeds on buttercups, 
 and that these must necessarily taint the 
 butter with some degree of their natuni.' 
 bitterness. The cow, however, in every possi- 
 ble way, does its best to avoid the buttercup, 
 which is a nauseous, bitter herb ; and, in walk- 
 ing through pastures as bare as possible, it is 
 left in all its luxuriance. "We have frequently 
 watched cows tearing away the grass round a 
 buttercup plant {lianunculus hulhosus), and 
 leaving it untouched, with every particle of 
 grass cropped close round it. Indeed, pastures 
 may be seen apparently most luxuriant, but, 
 on a nicer inspection, there is nothing but 
 buttercups left. Farmers like to see butter- 
 cups, because they prefer good, sound, dry, old 
 pastures, and the remainder of the herbage is 
 generally good. But cows avoid them as 
 much as possible. Along the valley of the 
 Trent this plant remains untouched by cattle; 
 and, during the mouth of May, field after field 
 may be seen sheeted with its living gold. 
 AV^e do not think cattle reject it on account of 
 its bitter character. Cows eat many bitter 
 and disagreeable plants with avidity. There 
 is a plant, called the bog-bane or buck-bean, 
 which grows in marshy places, having a taste 
 intensely bitter. In spring we have frequently 
 not'ced that the cattle tear up every particle 
 as fast as it springs ; indeed, it is eaten so 
 fast that they never allow it to flower. There 
 is another plant which is eaten with avidity 
 by cattle, the flavour of which is very dis- 
 agreeable — the broad-leaved garlic {A. itrsi- 
 num). In some parts of the valley of the Trent 
 this plant grows profusely, and flowers about 
 the end of May, or beginning of June. At 
 
 677 
 
CHUENIKG.] 
 
 CATTLE, AXD THEIE YAEIETIES. 
 
 [cnUKKIXG. 
 
 this period it causes great annoyance to the 
 dairy farmer, for tlie cows then eat it, and a 
 very unpleasant flavour is imparted to the 
 nulk and butter. AVe have heard of a person 
 who kept a cow in a meadow where it grew 
 abundantly, and who was obliged, during the 
 flowering season, to take her out and depasture 
 her on the higher ground, as no sale could be 
 met with for the butter on account of its dis- 
 agreeable flavour. The milk was not dis- 
 coloured, and the flavour was brought out 
 more strongly by the process of churning. 
 
 In the case of turnips, the smell of the 
 milk is very disagreeable; and the butter pro- 
 duced from the milk of a cow fed on these, 
 will even impart a portion of its flavour to 
 any pastry that may be. made with it. In 
 order to give butter a pleasing colour, some 
 colouring matter is usually mixed with it. 
 For this purpose, in most cases, annotta is 
 used ; but the best colouring is the juice of 
 carrots, which has the advantage of beinf 
 entirely free from injurious tendencies. 
 
 After a cow has calved, her milk is thick, 
 and deeply tinged with a yellow hue, when 
 it is termed the "beestings," or " beastings." 
 It is then more abundantly supplied with 
 caseine, or curd, which is sold for the purpose 
 of making cheese-cakes. Tlie strippings, or 
 afterings, is the last milk which is taken from 
 the udder of the cow, and is by far the most 
 plentifully endued with the cheese and butter 
 elements. Erom a knowledge of this fact, 
 many dairymen make it a practice always to 
 strip their cows themselves, notwithstanding 
 that the principal part of the milking may 
 have been performed by their servants. 
 
 The operation of churning is, when most 
 quickly performed, generally most successful ; 
 but, should the cows have been long calved, 
 and the weather cold and stormy, the process 
 becomes considerably protracted, and instead of 
 twenty minutes— the time allowed for a brisk 
 turning in favourable weather— it may extend 
 to ten, twelve, or even fourteen hours. When 
 butter first makes its appearance, it is said to 
 be in "skill," a technicality expressive of the 
 caseous matter being separated from the 
 butyraceous. When an adherence of the small 
 pjirticles of butter with each other commences 
 to show itself, the rapidity of the motion must 
 be lessened, and the butter-milk, to some 
 678 
 
 extent, let ofl", when the gathering process 
 will begin, and, in about ten minutes, be 
 completed. About 55° is the best heat 
 to churn with ; but it sometimes requires 
 more. Eespecting the form of the churn, 
 opinions differ ; but the grand object in the 
 constructing of this machine, ought to be to 
 secure the greatest facility of operation, com- 
 bined with a quick, steady, though accompanied 
 with a trembling or quivering pressure of the 
 contents.. In churns generally, this is accom- 
 plished by various mechanical contrivances, 
 every one of which has its merits. The most 
 common, however, is the form of churn which 
 has a cylinder studded w-ith plates, pierced 
 with holes, attached to its inner surface, re- 
 volving round a couple of axles, and admitting 
 of one or two handles, in accordance with the 
 weight or quantity of the cream. Another 
 kind of churn is made with a flapper, which is, 
 with great rapidity, driven through the cream 
 by means of a piston, with a perforated base, 
 and by up and down, or perpendicular motion, 
 either in a cylinder, or vessel similarly formed. 
 Plans have been conceived by which the labour 
 of churning might be lightened ; but we are 
 not aware that they have been attended with 
 much success. The American, and the table 
 clmrns, available for the immediate manufac- 
 tui-e of butter every morning for the breakfast 
 of the rich, are so far a step in advance, and a 
 luxury, but for the large operation of the 
 dairy farmer, a better application than the 
 churn of his forefathers, we believe, has yet to 
 be discovered. 
 
 The true method of butter-making, is to 
 have the churn, and the temperature of the 
 dairy, arranged so as to preserve,. as nearly as 
 poswiblo, tile degree of heat necessary to the 
 perfect separation of the cream. It should 
 not be so high as to impart a too great degree 
 of sourness to the contents ; but, if it be too 
 cold, the butter will not separate eflectually; 
 whilst the operation of churning will be ex- 
 tremely tedious, render the butter full of 
 breaks, make it brittle in texture, and give it 
 a pale colour. These will be the results of a 
 too cold temperature; whilst a too hot tem- 
 perature will make it both light and oily. 
 Another essential point towards the production 
 of good butter is, that the cows, from whose 
 milk it is to be made, should not have calved 
 
BUTTRB.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIlt VARIIuTIES. 
 
 rUUTTEIl. 
 
 too loiifj. Should this linvo been the case, the 
 butter will liave a bitter tHste, and he desti- 
 tute of that agreeable llavour which (»ui,'ht to 
 form an important element in every kind of 
 dairy [iroduce. Tho best butter is supposed, 
 by some, to be made from one-half of Houred 
 cream, and the remainder from fresh. The 
 reason assigned for this is, that tliere is a 
 suUiciency of the lactic acid in this portion to 
 facilitate the operation of churning; whilst, 
 in tho remainder, there will be enough of the 
 caseous matter to prevent insipitlity in the 
 butyraceous mass. Let it always bo re- 
 membered, that if a rancid or disagreeable 
 taste be imparted to butter, it is no longer fit 
 for the table ; it cannot be used for the pur- 
 poses for which it is essentially made ; although 
 it may be so far restored, or improved from its 
 disagreeable state, as to become suitable for 
 pastry purposes. As the unpleasant acids 
 with which it may be suflused are all, to a 
 certain extent, soluble in water, the butter 
 should be immersed in clear, fresh spring 
 water, then placed over a slow fire, and kept 
 there until the liquid boils. It should then 
 be skimmed, and the butter put into fresh 
 cold water, again to undergo tlie boiling pro- 
 cess. After this it should be thoroughly 
 washed, when it will be freed from many of 
 its impurities, and may be very well adapted 
 for pastry, although it will be too insipid for the 
 table. "When butter has to be preserved, or 
 packed for transportation, the author of TJie 
 Cow directs that it should be salted. " If it is 
 to be moved far, it may be necessary to pack 
 it well, and exclude the air. Hence, when it 
 is made on a large scale, it is put in firkins, or 
 casks, holding from three to five stones, which 
 are carefully fastened up by the cooper, so as 
 to exclude the air. Salt is well known to 
 have the power of preventing animal matter 
 from falling into the putrefactive state, by 
 means of its peculiar antiseptic power, which 
 prevents the caseous matter of the butter 
 from becoming putrid, and running into decay. 
 But such is the afiinity of salt for the moisture 
 of the atmosphere, that the outer portions of 
 the butter soon become subject to the changes 
 which contact with the atmosphere produces, 
 la order, therefore, to keep it for any length 
 of time, it must eitiier be covered with a 
 saturated solution of salt, or with a syrup of 
 
 sugar, which has tho same efl'ect. Otherwise 
 it must be placed in casks wiiicli are air-lij^dit, 
 or nearly so, with the toj) and bottom dndged 
 with salt. In fact, the more tho moisture is 
 protected from the attnosphcMv, the Uiore closely 
 will tho wood of the cask adhere, and vice 
 versd. A very important meaiiH of preserva- 
 tion is thus allbrdcd to the dairyman, and to 
 the inhabitants of our large towns; for without 
 this, even with all our facilities of railway 
 transit, it is difficult to conceive liow a constant 
 supply could be maintained. Tho lirkins mado 
 in summer are opened in winter; and, thougli 
 not so rich in tiieir contents as tho fi-esh 
 products from the dairy, they form a second- 
 rate class of butter by no means disagreeable, 
 called kennel butter. When these are opened 
 for use, a very free washing should be given 
 them, to wash out the soluble lactic acid ; and 
 the butter should afterwards be well washed, 
 and kneaded in new milk. This gives it much 
 freshness and flavour, which improves and 
 renders it, if well made and packed, much 
 more pleasant than some of the turnip-flavoured 
 fresh butter made in winter." 
 
 In France, Bretagne butter has obtained 
 great celebrity, for which it is almost entirely 
 indebted to the mode of its manufacture. The 
 immense sale which it has, necessitates it to 
 bo made in large quantities, and this circum- 
 stance greatly ijnproves its qualities. The 
 manner in which it is produced for the market 
 is by no means complicated. After being 
 churned and washed, it is steeped, or sprinkled 
 abundantly with new milk. It is then kneaded 
 into cakes of a cyliudrical form, and placed, 
 for a few minutes, in a kind of cylindrical 
 frying-pan, with heated coke both below and 
 above. After this, it is taken out in a con- 
 dition ready for immediate use. Although 
 the flavour of this butter is peculiar, it is es- 
 pecially rich. 
 
 Butter does not seem to have met with the 
 same favour among the ancients that it has 
 generally among the moderns. It was lato 
 before the Greeks appear to have had any 
 notion of butter ; their poets make no mention 
 of it, and yet are frequently speaking of milk 
 and cheese. The Romans used butter no 
 otherwise than as a medicine, never as a food. 
 The ancient Christians of Egypt burnt butter 
 in their lamps instead of oil ; and in the 
 
 G79 
 
CHEESE.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 
 
 [cheese. 
 
 Roman cnurclies it was anciently allowed, 
 during Christmas time, to burn butter instead 
 of oil, on account of the great consumption of 
 it other ways. 
 
 The principles of CJieeje-onaJcing, in many 
 respects, are those applied to the manufacture 
 of butter ; but the objects being, to a certain 
 extent, different, they are applied in a way 
 quite distinctive from the otlier. They all, 
 however, centre in the artificial development 
 of the caseiue of the milk, whether that be 
 new or skimmed. If left to itself, the lactic 
 acid (into which the sugar of milk is changed), 
 it has been observed, soon begins to form, 
 when the air and temperature have arrived at 
 that condition which is favourable to its de- 
 velopment. If to this mixture heat be applied, 
 to such an extent as to cause the caseous 
 matter to expand, genuine curd, fit for the 
 manufacture of cheese, would be the result ; 
 but the cheese would be unpalatable, hard, 
 and brittle, and the process too slow for the 
 purposes of commerce. Hence it is necessary 
 to introduce some kind of substance to facili- 
 tate the change. Lactic acid, added natu- 
 rally or artificially, combines with the soda 
 which holds the caseine in solution, and will 
 form lactate of soda. Here the acid will, with 
 the addition of a little heat, be developed ; and, 
 in order to accomplish this, various means 
 have been adopted. The usual addition which 
 is made for the effecting of this object, is that 
 of the stomach of the calf, or some ruminating 
 animal. In its natural state, the stomach of 
 the calf causes the milk to curdle, and 
 frequently this curdled milk forms the con- 
 tents of the calf's stomach. The animal 
 having first had a full meal of milk given to it, 
 is withdrawn, and made use of to turn the 
 3ilk into that state which is necessary for the 
 ultimate production of cheese. This, however, is 
 not necessary, for the stomach itself will effect 
 the desired change. Let this be well washed 
 and chopped up into pieces. Let these steep 
 in water, say for ten or twelve months, until it 
 is reduced either to a liquid or a powder, and 
 this will turn the milk. Even the skin itself 
 will cause tlie milk to coagulate. An idea 
 prevailed, and to some extent, no doubt, does 
 still prevail, that it is the gastric juice of the 
 stomach which produces the change in the 
 milk; but although that liquid would produce 
 
 it, it has now been satisfactorily proved that 
 the change is effected by some acid in the 
 structure of the rennet itself, especially in 
 such a case as that to which we have referred 
 — namely, when the stomach is used after 
 having been steeped for twelve months in 
 water. The coagulating process, however, 
 may be effected by other means than by the 
 rennet. Vinegar, tartaric acid, alum, and even 
 milk itself, have all been used with success, 
 under circumstances favourable to the opera- 
 tion. In reference to new- milk-cheese, the 
 whole of the milk, immediately it has been 
 obtained from the cow, and passed through a 
 sieve, is subjected to the action of the rennet. 
 " In cases," says the author of The Cow, " when 
 a full meal of milk will not produce a cheese, 
 the !^milk of the evening is reserved till the 
 morning, both added together, and the rennet 
 poured upon the mass. As something like 
 95° is the heat at which coagulation and con- 
 traction of the curd is performed with the 
 greatest rapidity, the milk should be raised to 
 about that degree. If more heat than that is 
 given, the cheese will be tough and waxy ; if less, 
 there is some difficulty, owing to its softness, 
 in separating the cheesy from the watery 
 matter. In cold weather, a small quantity of 
 hot water has to be added to the new milk 
 with the rennet ; but if much water is added, 
 or the temperature interfered with more than 
 necessary, it injures the quality of the cheese." 
 When this part has been satisfactorily effected, 
 the cutting-up of the curd is the next step to 
 be taken in the manufacturing of cheese. 
 This is to separate it from the whey — an 
 operation in which a considerable degree of 
 care is required to be properly done. If 
 effected rapidly, or in a slovenly manner, the 
 mass will burst, and the butyraceous particles 
 be pressed out. This duty must not be post- 
 poned after the curd is formed, or the whey 
 will have more butter than ought properly to 
 belong to it. To drain away ijhe whey held 
 loose in attraction by the curd, this must be 
 cut in pieces, and laid in a strainer ; then, by 
 light and equable pressure, the remaining 
 portion of the whey must be taken off. In 
 effecting this, the pressure, at first, should be 
 slight, but afterwards it may be increased, as 
 the curd, with the evacuation of the whey, 
 gains greater power to retain the fatty matter. 
 
CHKESE.] 
 
 CAITLI!, AND TIlIMli VAKliyriKS. Taiit of MiLKiJ?a. 
 
 At the coinmeiicement of tlie process, betweou 
 forty aud fifty pouiuls is as great a weif^Iit as 
 it may bo jiulioious to give tlie mass. Nearly 
 the whole secret of clieese-makiiiu:, says Mr. 
 Milburu, " depends upon thoroui;hly draining 
 oft' the whey. This carries olf the sugary 
 matter of the milk, the lactic acid, and, perhaps, 
 also the rennet. These substances are so liable 
 to undergo changes, that chcese-niaking al- 
 together depends upon this process being 
 properly attended to. In some places even 
 the curd is washed; for little injury, bc- 
 vond the danger of washing out some of the 
 butvraceous matter, would be sustained, com- 
 pared to the loss incurred, if the cheese were 
 suffered to retain any considerable portion of 
 the whey. Besides, as butter is sometimes 
 churned from this whey, tlie loss is made up 
 to the dairyman, if not to the consumer, in 
 another way. So powerful is the tendency of 
 the albuminous matter of the caseine to putrefy, 
 that even cheese itself will not keep unless the 
 salting process, ia one shape or another, is 
 adopted. This is performed in the manner most 
 favourable to the production of the peculiar 
 kind of cheese for which a district may be 
 famous, and is either added to the curd, or 
 rubbed in after the cheese is made aud strained. 
 Such is the affinity of salt for moisture, that 
 it will soon permeate the whole mass of the 
 cheese, and preserve the caseine from putrefac- 
 tion by its peculiar antiseptic qualities." 
 
 In making cheese, the most scrupulous 
 cleanliness should be observed, as the ilavour 
 of that article is often much more easily 
 injured even than that of butter. The in- 
 oculaiion of clieese is one of the refinements of 
 modern taste aud luxury. A blue mould is, 
 by some, cousidei-ed the sine qud non of a 
 tasty cheese ; while others prefer the decay to 
 be grey, aud the cheese to be in a state of 
 putrefaction, so absolute as to be soft and wet 
 — a nidus for mites and the jumpers. If it 
 be desired to give to a cheese, especially a 
 Stilton, the flavour peculiar to one of its kind, 
 it may easily be accomplished. A. dozen holes 
 may be made in the specimen to be operated 
 upon, with the common cheese-trier, and the 
 pieces taken away. The same trier may cut 
 as many pieces out of the favourite cheese, 
 and insert them in the places from which the 
 others were removed. This, covered up in a 
 4 s 
 
 close place i\>v u immlli, will, if free from 
 mould before, turn out ab.solutely ripe, and bo 
 of tho same Ihivour as the cheese from which 
 it was inoculated. 
 
 Tin: ART OF .MILKING. 
 
 The art of milking well is not taught in a 
 hurry. It requires long practice to milk prop- 
 erly ; and therefore all tho young people on a 
 farm ought to be shown how the labour should 
 bo done. It is quite important that this 
 branch of the dairy should bo particularly 
 attended to, for a good milker obtains at least 
 a quart more from tho same cow than a poor 
 milker. The first lesson to be taught to young 
 people is gentleness and kindness to the 
 cows. These never need be treated harshlv, if 
 the business is properly commenced. Cows 
 that have been caressed, and uniformly well 
 treated, are fond of having the milk drawn from 
 the udder at the regular time of milking, for it 
 gives them relief from the distension of tho 
 milk ducts. Let young people be put to milk- 
 ing the farrow cows first, or such as are to bo 
 soon dried, and then the loss from bad milking 
 will be less injurious ; the hands should extend 
 to the extremity of the teats, for the milk is 
 then drawn easier. They should be taught to 
 milk as fast as possible. Moie milk is always 
 obtained by a rapid milker than by a slow one. 
 They should therefore be taught to think of 
 nothing else while milking, and no conversa- 
 tion must be permitted in the milk-yard. 
 They should sit up close to the cow, and rest 
 the left arm gently against her shank. Then, 
 if she raises her foot on account of pain occa- 
 sioned by soreness of the teats, the nearer tho 
 milker sits to her, and the harder be presses 
 his left arm against her leg, the less risk wiil 
 he run of being injured. Cows may be taught 
 to give down their milk at once; and they 
 may be taught to hold it a long while, and to 
 be stripped indefinitely. The best way is to 
 milk quick, and not use the cow to a long 
 stripping, or an after-stripping. 
 
 "The most important part, in the operation 
 of milking," remarks the author of T/ie Coio, 
 " is perhaps to milk clean — to take out the 
 whole of the milk from the udder. Not only 
 is the last portion the richest in cream aud iu 
 butter, but there is not a more certain way of 
 di-viug a cow than allowing a part of her milk 
 
 GSl 
 
MILKIKG.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [milking. 
 
 to remain in the udder. It is a good plan, but 
 too generally neglected, to wash the udder 
 with warm water before milking. Nor is it of 
 less consequence to have a good-tempered and 
 expert milker. A savage, ill-tempered milker 
 will often spoil a cow ; and, if she once holds 
 up her milk, it is a proof that the milker is 
 defective or disagreeable to the animal, either 
 from her disposition and temper, or in the 
 manipulation of the udder. Pleasant milking 
 is that which sensibly relieves the cow's udder. 
 A free, decided, but gentle grasp of the teats, 
 and a full and vigorous stream of milk, are the 
 marks of a successful milker. It is desirable 
 to rub and stroke the udder when the stream 
 ceases, to encourage the delivery of the slightest 
 remains ; nor is it a bad plan for the milker, 
 or, in large dairies, for. the foreman, or even 
 master, to take a small measure, and follow the 
 milker to 'strip' all the cows. There are 
 some masters who make a point of always 
 attending to this at the milking, and they thus 
 see the character and capabilities of the milker. 
 Women are by far the most capable of milking ; 
 their hands are more gentle and delicate, and 
 the cows seem generally to prefer them." 
 
 As a sort of climax to these remarks, we 
 would suggest a few rules, which might be 
 advantageously acted upon. If you would have 
 a gentle cow, be gentle yourself. If a cow 
 kicks much, have a switch under the left arm, 
 the pail in the left hand; and if, while milking, 
 she kicks, let this act be invariably followed by a 
 single blow. Never strike but once at a time, 
 even if she kicks so hard as to break your leg ; 
 and never omit it if she hits only the air. By 
 never striking but once she has no time to " get 
 mad," when she is all the more terrific ; for who 
 cares for a blow while stimulated by fury? A. 
 t jiall mess of pleasant food, at the time, will 
 servo to do away with any disagreeable impres- 
 t'.on in connection with milking. To be a good 
 milker, you must pare your nails short ; sit on 
 a stool ; milk fast ; never scold a cow ; never get 
 out of patience ; tie her tail to her leg in fly 
 time, and never toet the teats loith the first 
 stream of milk. Milk, applied to the teats to 
 soften them, dries and forms a glossy varnish, 
 which tends to cause cracking or chapping of 
 these parts. Cold, or a little warm water is 
 much better, becoming quite dry by the ti:ne 
 tbe milking is finished. 
 GS2 
 
 Milking should always be performed the 
 very first thing in the morning; never later 
 than five o'clock in summer, and six in 
 winter. In the evening it may be done at 
 fivei and regularity, in this respect, should 
 punctually be observed. If distant, cows should 
 not be driven home, but the milk should be 
 carried from the field; for a great waste of 
 milk will take place, if they are driven about. 
 If under cover, their feed should be given them 
 whilst being milked. It assists to quiet them, 
 and makes them part with the liquid the 
 more freely ; and as most milk-cows, in winter 
 and spring at least, have mash, it is desirable 
 to give them this during the milking, the first 
 thing in the morning. 
 
 Several attempts have been made to accom- 
 plish the milking by other means than the 
 hand. Syphons have been invented, which 
 were alleged to have the peculiarity of empty- 
 ing the udder without the use of the hand. 
 But they have not been found so successful as 
 to obtain any extensive encouragement. In- 
 deed, we question if they have ever been heard 
 of by many large agriculturists. The syphon 
 was constructed on an erroneous principle, by 
 distending the mouth of the inner duct of the 
 iiiilk in the teats. This subjects the cow to a 
 flaccid state of teat, and is very likely to cause 
 her to commit the fault of milking herself. 
 
 There is a plan, in use in the United States, 
 which proceeds on the principles of compres- 
 sion and suction, and which are the only modes 
 of overcoming the tension of the udder. Tlie 
 American instrument consists of four india- 
 rubber bags, which are drawn over the teats, 
 and set so as to be air-tight. " At the lower 
 end of these, metallic tubes, with taps, are 
 inserted. When the adjustment is perfect 
 the taps are turned, and the whole of the milk 
 in the udder is said to be thoroughly exhausted, 
 and in half the time required for hand-milking. 
 It is said that a man can milk ten cows 
 thoroughly in fiteen minutes." 
 
 A novel, and somewhat extraordinary ex- 
 periment on milk-cows, was not long ago 
 made by M. Delamarre, at Paris. After the 
 fifth or sixth gestation, and five or six weeks 
 after calving, the cow underwent an operation, 
 by which she was deprived of her ovaries, in 
 order to render her unfit for subsequent re- 
 production. This operation, though known to 
 
PHKBEnvATiox OF MILK.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [rui: daiuy. 
 
 the nncienta, in modem times has only been 
 practised partially for soiuo years. Jt can 
 uow bo pertcirmi'd without exlenial incision, 
 
 will {jreiitly improv«» its Icecpinj» qualities. It 
 phoulii aJHO, after this, bo kept as cool as possi- 
 blo. M. Adepert's metliod id to subject the 
 
 and with little dan<;or. By this means the , milk to a heat so gentle, that the great bulk 
 nature of tlio nniinal is chantred, and the i of the purely watery parts will be evaporated ; 
 pucoeysions of rut, gestation, and parturition then to bo closely corked up. This has a far 
 disappear. In this new state, tho milk be- greater tendency to resist dceomposition than 
 conies regular, and is yielded in full abundance . if the whole of tho watery particles were still 
 for a whole year, and in smaller quantit}', but , retained as an element iu the beverage. If, 
 improved qi:alitv, for two, or even three years, ; while hot, it were boiled in tho bottles in 
 provided the animal is not too old. AV'lien the | which it was to be finally corked uj), as in tho 
 lactation ceases, this animal, which, during a { instance above, with a snuiU addition of soda, 
 calm and tranquil life, has gained the de- j it might keep in a palatable condition for a 
 velopment and fatness necessary for the mar- considerable period — not indeed to compete 
 ket. can be delivered to the butcher in perfect | with newly-produced milk, but to be a luxury 
 
 condition, its flesh much superior to that of 
 ordinary cattle. Thus, not only is better 
 milk given, but better beef is produced. This 
 milk is more abundant in cream than usual, 
 and it is equally rich in "caseum," which 
 forms the nourishing principle in milk. The 
 butter extracted from it is exquisite in taste, 
 testifying the abundance and richness of the 
 caseiue. This milk is found, moreover, ex- 
 cellent for nourishing infants, who instinctively 
 prefer it to any other. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF MILK. 
 For this purpose, various plans have been 
 
 on board a ship far out at sea, without any 
 fresh supply of that nutritious article. Duchoft', 
 a Russian chemist, goes beyond Adepert, and 
 professes to furnish a supply of milk for any 
 length of time, to be used at pleasure. It is 
 by forming essentially a milk powder. He 
 proposes to evaporate irom the milk, by a 
 slow fire, the whole of the watery matter, and 
 thus have a solid and pulverulent mass, which 
 may be kept iu a small compass in a bottle, 
 and, when required, be dissolved in a proper 
 quantity of water ; and, as milk contains water 
 in the ratio of nearly nine-tenths of its sub- 
 stance, it may, possibly, be much reduced in 
 
 adopted, notwithstanding that the ingredients compass, and made capable of being produced 
 of which milk is composed are so various and extemporaneously at pleasure. This would 
 
 changeable in their nature, that it is more 
 difficult than might at first be supposed, to 
 preserve it with success. The Dutch mix 
 their milk with carbonate of magnesia, which 
 thickens it, and prevents it from souring. 
 
 supply a great desideratum. 
 
 THE DAIRY. 
 The dairy should be kept apart from the 
 house, from open grates and from dung-heaps, 
 
 This, or some other alkaline mixture, has the and should, as far as possible, be so regulated 
 efiect of preserving it for a short time, es- I as to preserve an equable temperature, 
 pecially in winter, by forming a salt with the "What its construction ougiit to be is thus 
 lactic acid, and by keeping the caseine in a described : — "As, however, it is much easier 
 
 state of solution. Carbonate of soda will pro- 
 duce a similar action ; and it is believed by 
 some to improve the tendency of the cream to 
 separate from the milk. Another plan is to 
 bottle the new milk, and immerse them in a 
 pan of cold water, placing this on the fire 
 until the water boils. The air in the bottles 
 
 to keep a cold building warm, than to cool a 
 hot one, it is desirable that it should be, as 
 much as possible, shielded from the sun's rays. 
 It should have its side to the north, its end to 
 the east, and, if possible, be let into the earth 
 a few feet, but not so deep as to interfere 
 with the drainage. If covered by a large tree, 
 
 thus becomes rarefied; and, if corked up hot, it would be all the better. Around it should 
 the milk can be kept for a considerable time ; be either a hollow wall, or peat earth should 
 in a state of comparative freshness, to be used be walled round its exterior ; or, as another 
 immediately the bottles arc opened. The ad- alternative, and possibly the best, but most 
 dition of a few grains of carbonate of soda expensive, it should be surrounded by a 
 
 GS3 
 
DISEASES.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [diseases. 
 
 verandali. It should also have a double roof, 
 and abundant top and side ventilation — either 
 of which should admit of being closed. It is 
 niecessary to have in it a pump, and the floor 
 sloping. On the highest part, a perforated pipe 
 should be connected with the pump, to allow 
 of the cleansing of the floor, when necessary, 
 with cold spring water. Tho bowls should 
 either be earthenware or glass dishes, placed 
 upon wooden tables — fir, maple, or sycamore 
 being the best— or leaden bowls may be used. 
 
 placed on frames, and surrounding the dairy. 
 Slates are the best for the floors ; and a lining 
 for the walls, of white pottery, is not only 
 elegant, but useful. A pipe, connected with 
 the boiler attached to the kitchen fire, with a 
 stop-cock, so as to regulate the heat of the 
 room in winter, is a great advantage. The 
 scalding and churning-rooms should be dis- 
 tinct from the milk-house, and the latter should 
 be kept as free as possible from all kinds of 
 foreign matter." 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE, AND THEIR REMEDIES. 
 
 Theee is no part of our subject capable of 
 giving less satisfaction than that which treats 
 of the diseases of cattle, inasmuch as it is very 
 difiicult to know what is the precise nature of 
 the complaint with which any dumb animal 
 may be afflicted, and therefore it is surrounded 
 with a darkness which cannot be dissipated 
 without both an enlarged and an enlightened 
 experience. The extremes of temperature, or 
 the sudden transitions from heat to cold, are 
 frequently the causes of disease in young cattle. 
 It is, in many parts, a common practice to tie 
 up animals, of different ages, in the winter, 
 with the view of depasturing them in the fol- 
 lowing spring. Generally speaking, cattle 
 buildings are quite inadequate for such a pur- 
 pose. They are frequently in a wretched con- 
 dition ; there is seldom drainage for the liquid 
 matters below, or free ventilation for the exit 
 of foul aerial matters above. Such a condition 
 of things may do for fattening beasts, because 
 in such a warm, close atmosphere, the respira- 
 tion is but little exercised, and, the blood being 
 but imperfectly decarbonised, fat will more 
 readily accumulate. Under such conditions 
 the vital processes naturally become weakened, 
 without, perhaps, disturbing any particular 
 organ ; and, on the cattle being turned from 
 their warm quarters in the spring into the 
 open fields — oftentimes, too, with very little 
 G84 
 
 hair on their backs — for, from the hot-house 
 system of management which they have under- 
 gone, they are prematurely preparing to put 
 on their summer coats — disease is induced in 
 various ways. The sudden transition from 
 heat to cold produces internal congestion, of 
 the liver in particular, which has been stimu- 
 lated throughout the winter with highly car- 
 bonised blood ; and, hence, diarrhoea and dysen- 
 tery are a common occurrence. Catarrh is 
 also produced from the same influence, and 
 sometimes bronchitis, which is a highly dan- 
 gerous disease, and requires prompt attention, 
 and all the aid that veterinary skill can afford. 
 AVhen the disease reaches the bronchi, the 
 cough has a frequently painful husky sound, 
 and is easily recognised by the anxious, haggard 
 look, and rapid laborious breathing which the 
 poor animal exhibits. In favourable contrast 
 to this mode of wintering store-cattle, is 
 that of keeping them in small yards, having 
 comfortable roomy sheds attached, where they 
 are sorted, according to age, and supplied 
 with a fair allowance of roots, hay, cake, or 
 corn. — In cases of consumption and chronic 
 diarrhoea, there is generally an hereditary 
 taint; and breeders should beware of breed- 
 ing from stock having such predispositions. 
 It is also a very i-eprehensible practice to 
 rear calves on skimmed milk, or to supply 
 
DISEASES.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND TllHlli V.\K1I:TIES. 
 
 [CALVIXO. 
 
 them with insufTiciont or unwholesome food. 
 Many discuses snriiii; from this. By dt'privini; 
 the milk of its croam, the greater portion of tlio 
 muscle and fat-formin!» principles is removed, 
 whilst the phosphates arc rather in excess; 
 and hence the oriu;i?i of sueli a number of 
 sharp-backed, ilat-ribbed, coarse beasts, which 
 devour more food than stock of a better de- 
 scription, and, when fattened, present nothing 
 but coarse beef, having scarcely a joint fit for 
 the shop of a respectable butcher. Breeders 
 of calves would fuid it advantageous to accustom 
 them to consume small quantities of linseed cake 
 when about six weeks old, and this increased 
 in proportion as the milk is witlidrawn. AVhen 
 the weaning takes place, the allowance of cake 
 should be still further increased, which will 
 prevent the check so commonly produced in 
 their growth at this period, as shown by their 
 large bellies, and dry and thrifty appearance. 
 Tlie cake should be continued until the calves 
 are so accustomed to the grass as to be able to 
 dispense with it. It may be imagined that this 
 system of feeding may increase the liability to 
 inflammatory fever, or felon, to which stock at 
 this age, as well as yearlings, are exceedingly 
 disposed ; but, to prevent this, farmers should 
 increase the strength and constitutions of 
 their young stock — a condition not obtained 
 by excess of food at any one time, but by 
 regular feeding and proper management. 
 
 An imperfect system of drainage of soil is 
 another fruitful source of disease in calves and 
 yearlings. During periods of moist, warm 
 weather, on undrained soils, a disease called 
 "boose" frequently prevails. The windpipe 
 and bronchi become filled with masses of worms 
 {Strongyhis fiharia) and mucus, occasioning 
 violent inflammation of the membranes of the 
 air-passages. As these remarks apply only to 
 the more prominent of diseases in cattle, we 
 may observe that inattention to first symptoms 
 often terminates in fatal afiections. The ma- 
 jority of such cases which occur on a farm, pro- 
 ceed from not attending to the premonitory 
 signs of disease. These, in cattle, are usually re- 
 cognised by the animal showing a loathing for 
 food ; suspended rumination, or lazily per- 
 formed ; the muzzle dry, instead of being be- 
 dewed ; respiration increased ; hair pitched, and 
 not licked. AVhen these symptoms, or any of 
 them, make their appearance, it may be taken 
 
 as n certain sign tliat dinea8o is approaching; 
 and it becomes a duty to act without delay, as, 
 by doing so, the disease nuiy bo mitigated or 
 arrested. Very little attention to the causes 
 of disease must show that tli(;y are commonly 
 the result of mismanagement, ratlier than of 
 accident or of circumstances which cannot bo 
 controlled ; even tho agencies inducing epi- 
 zootic and contagious diseases may bo guarded 
 against, or considerably modified, by proper 
 and regular feeding, good drainage, and suit- 
 able yards, sheds, and farm-buildings. Tho 
 great secret of keeping all animals, however, is 
 to tend them carefully and keep them well. 
 Let the land, which is thought to be subject 
 to disease, be thoroughly drained as well as 
 farmed ; let the bad herbage and cold beds of 
 the cattle be improved, and they will bo 
 healthier, and thrive better. It is safer alway.} 
 to pay the cake-crusher or the miller, than to 
 pay the veterinary surgeon, however skij'ol he 
 may be. 
 
 Blown, Uoven, or Over-Full — Sometimes 
 a change of food, or a feed of wet clover, 
 or potatoes greedily eaten, will induce fer- 
 mentation in the stomach, instead of di- 
 gestion. The sides will be blown up, until 
 the stomach presses on tho skin with a force 
 which renders it hard to the finjrers. — In 
 treating for this disease, by far the best 
 method is to use the probang. It should be 
 introduced to the stomach by the throat, and 
 then the foul air will generally immediately 
 escape. AVhen this instrument is not at 
 hand, the beast may lie down, and the disease 
 may continue till the walls of the stomach 
 are ruptured. In these cases an ounce of 
 ammonia will often give relief. A pint of 
 vinegar has been known to effect it; but tho 
 safest remedy is a pint of linseed oil. Use 
 gentle exercise ; but all kinds of violence, aud> 
 above all, such doses as tar and salt, given 
 with the idea of making them eject their saliva, 
 can only do harm. — AVhen it is necessary to 
 cut into the stomach, employ a veterinary 
 surgeon. 
 
 Calviiig. — Strictly speaking, this cannot bo 
 called a disease ; but it ought not to be entirely 
 overlooked in a work of this kind ; for, in some 
 cases, more especially in the" first or second 
 instances of parturition, there is great danger 
 of the birth not being effected without 
 
ABOETION.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THETE TAETETTES. [calf diseases. 
 
 mechanical assistance. After this, however, the | 
 danger is not so probable, provided the proper 
 presentation takes pUice. It has been said, 
 that such animals as bring forth their young 
 \rithout any attention whatever, do the best r 
 and we have no doubt that much could be 
 said in favour of this observation ; but whether 
 it be true or not, there is no question that 
 premature interference is more likely to be 
 attended with unsatisfactory results, than if 
 the animal were left entirely in the hands of 
 nature. The first decided symptoms of coming 
 labour, exhibit themselves in what is called 
 "the waters;" after which the cow will ap- 
 parently feel perfectly at ease for an hour or 
 so, and sometimes eat a little food. The 
 second bezng thicker and larger, envelops 
 the feet of the calf. When both symptoms I 
 appear, a little mechanical assistance may, | 
 with safety, be given, should the head be 
 found above and between them. Above all 
 things, time should be given for nature to 
 work out her own operation, and the calf will 
 appear in due time. In cases of false presen- 
 tation — such as the appearance of the head, a 
 single foot, or the hind legs— it is, at all times, 
 the best plan to call in the aid of a veterinary 
 practitioner. " Some persons," says the author 
 of The Cow, "have the practice of giving every 
 cow a calving drink. We uniformly prefer, as 
 we said, nature's medicine — the licking of the 
 calf— to any and ali others which can be given. 
 If it has been a long and protracted labour, 
 a drink of a quart of home-brewed ale, or a 
 pound of treacle, will be found useful. If the 
 cow refuses to lick the calf — which heifers of 
 their first calves will sometimes do- — it is 
 seldom necessary to do more than run the 
 hand over the newly-dropped calf, and then 
 pass it across the mouth and lips of the mother. 
 Abortion. — Thi^ is frequent in some indivi- 
 dual cows, and is often caused by the disagree- 
 able effluvia arising from the decaying matter 
 which is sufi"ered to pollute both the cow-houses 
 and the yards. Imagmatiou has also a great deal 
 to do with this. Indeed, to such an extent is 
 this the case, that an instance of abortion in one 
 cow, has caused an epidemic of the same kind 
 to afiect all the rest in the yard. The cow 
 that has success^fu ly calved, should, therefore, 
 be immediately removed from the others, and 
 placed in a situation of quietness and solitude. 
 686 
 
 Chloride of lime ought to be abundantly strewn 
 near and about the stall where she was ; 
 and the noses of the whole of the others 
 should be rubbed over with tar. Hetention of 
 the placenta, or failing to cleanse, sometimes 
 occurs, and is indicative of weakness, and a 
 want of tone in the uterus. Where this ia 
 the case, a mild stimulant may be given ; and 
 nothing ia better than an infusion of camomile 
 flowers — say two handfuls in a quart of water 
 — added to a quart of good boiled ale ; and, if 
 necessary, apply an injection of soapsuds, to 
 keep open the bowels, and prevent inflam- 
 matory action. Should these fail, call in the 
 veterinary practitioner. 
 
 Cholcmg. — Where this has taken place, from 
 the eftects of some large root having " stuck in 
 the throat," an eftorc must immediately be 
 made to relieve the animal. The mouth should 
 therefore be first examined, in order to dis- 
 cover whether the object cannot be extracted 
 with the hand, which is by far the best instru- 
 ment to use, if it can conveniently be done. 
 Should this not be the case, however, the 
 assistance of the probang, invented by Dr. 
 Munro, must be called in. Before using this 
 instrument, a little sweet oil should be first 
 given ; after whicli it should be carefully passed 
 into the mouth, with the cup end downwards, 
 and gradually moved towards the impediment 
 which has caused the choking. Should this 
 be a turnip, which is not unfrequently the case, 
 and should it ofier much resistance, the in- 
 strument must be withdrawn, and its position 
 changed. Generally, however, this will not be 
 necessary, as the root will pass down without 
 much effort. Sometimes it may even be gob 
 out, by pressing the thumbs up each side ot 
 the neck, accompanied with a pressure of the 
 hand. 
 
 Costiveness. — In calves this disease is some- 
 times found ; and unless it has assumed a very 
 severe form, it is not necessary to have re- 
 course to medicine. An ounce of fat bacon, 
 boiled with a handful of onions, will, in all 
 probability, act as a suitable relief; whilst its 
 nourishing properties cannot injure, but may 
 improve the health of the animal. 
 
 DISEASES IN CA.LVES. 
 Young calves are not subject to many 
 diseases, and luediciue is very seldom necessary 
 
rHLOX.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND Til KIR VARIETIES. 
 
 [yOUL FEKT. 
 
 to restore their health, provided they hare 
 been well-inanai»ed, not neglected and half- 
 starved. Diarrluoa, or the scour, is usually 
 the most fatal disease with which they are 
 attacked; and, as this is usually the result 
 of some acrid or foreign matter in the bowels, 
 it is generailv mitigated or reuioved in a short 
 time, hv giving them a table-spoonful of 
 sulphur in their milk. Should the attack con- 
 tiuue after this, administer a table-spoonful of 
 tincture of rhubarb with a teaspoonful of 
 laudanum. Mr. IMilburn tells us that he once 
 had a calf nearly dead of diarrhoea, which was 
 so violent as to defy all the eftbrts of medicine. 
 It waa all but dead, when he gave it a bottle 
 of port wine, expecting its deatli next day. 
 In the morning, however, it was well, and 
 crying out for its breakfast. Mr. Milburn adds, 
 that a pint of good old port will often work 
 wonders, when all other remedies have failed, 
 both in man and beast. 
 
 The J^piJemic. — The symptoms of this dis- 
 ease are characterised by their affecting the 
 mouth witli blisters, and the feet with inflam- 
 mation and pain, and is very troublesome. — In 
 treating for it, give, in the first stage, a dose 
 of Epsom, or Glauber salts, accompanied with 
 bran-mashes and shelter. This will generally 
 prevent dangerous results ; but, should the 
 foot break out, or an eruption occur, treat as 
 in the case of foul in the foot — which see. 
 
 Felon. — Mr. Karkeek considers the outset 
 of this diseaue to be a febrile condition, in- 
 duced from sudden excess of food at a period 
 when the tote of the vital principle is unequal 
 to the work. The capillary arteries are more 
 numerous and active in the early period of life 
 than at any other, while they are carrying on 
 and completing the organisation of the frame. 
 They are, in fact, the masons and architects of 
 the system ; but, if a larger supply of building 
 materials is forced into these vessels than can 
 be efficiently used up in reparation and growth, 
 active congestion takes place almost every- 
 where; the vital principle is suddenly re- 
 duced; the body becomes amenable to the 
 ordinary chemical affinities; destruction of 
 the living parts ensues by decomposition, even 
 whilst the animal is alive, shown by the ex- 
 traction of gas from the cellular membrane, and 
 by the extensive sloughing process in the skin. 
 The great point, then, in the rearing of calves, 
 
 is to take care that the vital powers ore pnv 
 dominant, which condition is only obtained by 
 a proper supply of food, jjroper temperature, 
 and proper exercise. The complaint, however, 
 is common in all kinds of cattle, especially in 
 the tender breeds, and proceeds from cold and 
 exposure. It is accompanied with low fever 
 and loss of appetite. The coat stares, the 
 eve is heavy, the nose dry, and the back sore. 
 The animal will flinch from the touch, and 
 the teeth will be felt as if they were loose. 
 The remedy, therefore, is in the use of stimu- 
 lating cordials. 
 
 In treating for it, first house and give the 
 animal a drink ; then administer 1 oz. of tur- 
 meric, 1 oz. fenugreek, 1 oz. liquorice, 1 oz. 
 aniseed powder, in a quart of ale. This will 
 generally prove cflectivo; but, if not, repeat 
 the dose. A very common and very safe pro- 
 cess is to separate the nerve of the under side 
 of the tail, which relieves the back, and fastens 
 the teeth. To perform this operation, feel for 
 a soft place on the under side of the tail. 
 The knobs are the joints ; the soft place is the 
 bone. Cut the skin across at the soft part, 
 and it will bleed for eight or ten minutes, 
 when the tail should be tied up with a piece 
 of linen cloth. Great relief will be afforded 
 by this. 
 
 Foul in the Foot. — To this disease large 
 heavy milk-cows are specially subject. It is 
 to the cow what foot-rot is to the sheep. 
 There is inflammatory action between the 
 parts of the hoof; it begins to discharge fetid 
 matter ; and is a source of pain and irritation, 
 which often dries up the milk, and becomes 
 very difficult to cure. 
 
 In treating for it, let the foot be first well 
 cleaned and fomented with warm water, and 
 all loose flesh cut or clipped ofl". The foot 
 may then be poulticed for one night with 
 linseed-meal, and again fomented and anointed 
 with tar. If it should smell very offensively, 
 a little charcoal, or a few drops of chloride of 
 lime, may be added to the water. Next day 
 the inflammation will be lessened, and its 
 discharge rendered more free by the tar. Tho 
 foot may then be dressed with butyr of anti- 
 mony (chloride of antimony) night and morn- 
 ing, and the tar applied afterwards. Tho toot 
 should be confined in a boot or stocking, and 
 kept free from dirt. A little linseed oil or 
 
 C87 
 
MILK I-EVEE.] 
 
 CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. 
 
 [bed "WATER. 
 
 salts should be given, in order to keep up a 
 gentle state of activity in the bowels. 
 
 Gripes. — Toung calves are frequently at- 
 tacked by this disease after having sour milk 
 given to them. It is attended with acute 
 pain, as may be inferred from their pawing 
 the ground, and kicking the belly with their 
 hind legs. 
 
 In treating for it, give — a cupful of pepper- 
 mint-water, and a teaspoonful of laudanum. 
 
 Inflammation. — This disease indicates itself 
 by a coldness in the horns and extremities, and 
 by the animal exhibiting symptoms of enduring 
 both acute and continuous pains. Attempts 
 to cure it should never be made but by such as 
 have a thorough knowledge of nature. It is, 
 therefore, indispensable to call in a veterinary 
 practitioner ; and the same should be done in 
 all cases of acute disorders, such as stranguary, 
 staggers, &c. 
 
 Jaundice, or the Yellows. — This is one of 
 those forms of felon to which cattle are very 
 liable. It is found more particularly to attack 
 white cattle, and is easily recognised. Its 
 signs are marked by a yellowness of the eyes, 
 and also under the anus; when costiveuess 
 takes place, the appetite becomes dull, and 
 rapid debility ensues. 
 
 In treating for it, give — 1 dr. ginger, i oz. 
 Barbadoes aloes, 4 oz. common salt, 1 quart 
 home-brewed ale, made into gruel. 
 
 Loss of Cud. — This disease sometimes affects 
 ruminating animals, and is indicated by the 
 incapacity of the stomach to throw back 
 into the mouth the half-masticated food which 
 has been swallowed, to be again chewed. 
 
 In treating for it, give — 6 dr. Barbadoes 
 aloes, 1 oz. allspice, 3 dr. ginger, 6 oz. common 
 salt, in a quart of gruel. 
 
 Milk Fever. — Cows, which are deep milkers, 
 are, especially in summer, very liable to tliis 
 disease; to prevent which the utmost care 
 should be taken. AVhen it has occurred, it is 
 always best to call in the assistance of the 
 veterinary practitioner, rather than for those 
 ■who, not having m uch experien try to deal 
 with it themselves. The recommendations 
 given by the author of The Coio, are— to milk 
 the cow, before calving, regularly three times 
 a day, provided the udder be much distended. 
 To keep her as cool and as quiet as possible, 
 and to give her mashes of bran only, for a few 
 688 
 
 days after calving. This is cooling, and some- 
 what laxative. If the udder should be hard — 
 which it should not be after this treatment — 
 it may be rubbed with marsh-mallow ointment. 
 A gentle dose of purgative medicine can be 
 given if the cow is in very high condition ; and 
 she should be driven a few miles every day 
 before calving. 
 
 Pleuro-Pneumonia. — Tliere is no specific 
 remedy, with which we are acquainted, for this 
 disease. A gill of spirits of turpentine, and a 
 gill of spirits of sweet nitre, has been success- 
 fully tried ; but it is a desperate resource ; and 
 should the animal be fat, it is wiser to dispose 
 of it at once, before the flesh gets tainted with 
 the disease, and partially corrupt. 
 
 Quarter Felon. — This is one of the most 
 stubborn of all the diseases to which cattle 
 are subject. It is called Inflammatory Eever, or 
 Quarter 111 ; and, although there are instances 
 of its having been cured, they are rare, except 
 in cases where the disease has been early 
 arrested in its progress. It makes its appear- 
 ance usually before the calves are a year old — 
 seldom after; and, from its being extremely 
 contagious, it has been known to pass through 
 an entire herd before they had reached that 
 period of life. Its first evidences make them- 
 selves known by the calf beginning to loathe 
 its food, and becoming stiff" or lame in one of 
 its feet; and, although the foot may be 
 examined, and no cause of lamene visible, 
 yet the disease will very soon become general. 
 Air-bubbles form between the skin and muscles ; 
 and there is a crackling sensation to the hand, 
 on passing it over the skin, especially in the 
 legs. Inflammatory fever is disorganising the 
 body. Either for prevention, or as a remedy, 
 no specific for it has yet been discovered. The 
 following has been recommended. 
 
 Preventives — as the seton in the dewlap, 
 bleeding in autumn, doses of dyers' madder, 
 &c., are favourite remedies. The seton can 
 do no harm, but it may be tried. 
 
 Bed Water. — In some kinds of pasture, 
 cows are, in summer, frequently attacked with 
 this disease. In treating for it, give — a dose 
 of 8 oz. of Epsom salts, dissolved in a pmt 
 of water. This, if taken in an early stage, will 
 almost invariably set the beast right. If not 
 at band, 1 lb. of common salt may be given, and 
 the dose repeated in case of need. 
 
THi: KiuNDERPEST.] CATTLE, AN D TIIKI K \ A IM F/IM KS. ^iiii; ini inukbpest. 
 
 THE CATTLE PLAGUE. 
 In the July of 1SG5, the popuhitioii of 
 liOiulon were ponorally startled by tlio ap- 
 nt<araiioe of n disease whieh was deeiiiiatiii}; 
 the eattle of the country, and of which tens of 
 thousands of tlieni had uover either heard or 
 dreamt of. In the previous month a note of 
 warning had been given, that sonio certain 
 cahaniity was about to deprive thcin, to a 
 large extent, of " the roast beef of England ;" 
 but as the aggregate nervous system of this 
 (^reat and active city is not easily disturbrdby 
 things at a distance, its inhabitants still con- 
 tinued to eat their beef, without troubling 
 themselves, in any visible way, about what was 
 to befall them by being dopx-ivcd of it. In a 
 short time, however, they heard that a species of 
 murrain, or plague, had been imported, it was 
 supposed, from Russia, and soon assumed the 
 most alarming charactoristics. This disease 
 was subsequently called the rhinderpest ; but 
 it soon became generally known throughout 
 the country as the " Cattle Plague." 
 
 As the origin of all diseases is attributed 
 to predisposing or exciting causes, a majority 
 of evils require several agencies acting in 
 combination to produce them. There are 
 some, however, which can only be developed 
 by one invariable and specific means ; and this 
 has received the name of contagion. For 
 example, a sheep can only become scabby by 
 the influence of the scab-insect crawling, and 
 multiplying, over its body ; as a dog can 
 only become mad by the virus or rabid poison 
 of some other mad animal, inflicting a wound 
 on, or by some other means, entering its body. 
 From a knowledge of these well-established 
 facts, men of science have come to the con- 
 clusion that cattle can only be attacked with 
 the rhinderpest "as the result of direct, or 
 indirect, communication of the rhinderpest 
 poison to a healthy from an unhealthy animal." 
 General anxiety, from the dreadful strides 
 with which this malady advanced, gradually 
 rose higher and higher ; when the govern- 
 ment, also, excited by its manifest progress, 
 issued, in the latter end of September, a 
 commission from the crown, authorising certain 
 persons therein named to investigate the origin 
 and nature of the disease ; and to report upon 
 the mode of treatment best adapted for the 
 4t 
 
 cure of the infected animals, and the regula- 
 tions proper for preventing the Kpn-ad of the 
 plague, or its future recurrence. Tlio com- 
 missioners, urged by the evident necessity of 
 tho case, lost no tinio in prosfculing their 
 inquiries ; anil having taken evidence from 
 tho most competent persons, upon whoso in- 
 formation they could rely, made their report 
 within about tho compass of a month irom tho 
 date of tho commission. This important 
 document contains tho best authenticated 
 information relative to the origin, progress, 
 and treatment of tho disease ; and is replete 
 with tho most important facts respecting it. 
 
 According to tho commissioner.^, the 
 " plague" was first observed in this country 
 towards the close of the month of June, 1SG5. 
 About that period a couple of English cows 
 had been purchased (the actual date was Juno 
 19th) in the Metropolitan Cattle Market, by 
 a cow-keeper residing in Islington, in whose 
 sheds they were when the symptoms of tho 
 disease first attracted (on tho 27th) the 
 notice of the veterinary surgeon in charge of 
 the general stock. The same surgeon ob- 
 served similar symptoms of the disease on the 
 2Sth, in a cow which belonged to a dairyman 
 in Hackney ; and which had been purchased 
 in the same place, and on the same day. Two 
 Dutch cows, in a Lambeth shed, likewise 
 purchased in the Metropolitan Market on 
 the 19th, were attacked on the 21th, and 
 immediately afterwards the plague spread 
 through many of the London dairies. As an 
 appalling evidence of the remarkable virulence 
 of the distemper, wo may observe, that the 
 Islington cowkeeper lost her whole herd, 
 amounting to ninety-three; she also bought 
 more — lost them also ; making 107 in all. 
 An inspector, who had charge of a great 
 part of the north-east of the metropolis, stated 
 that, in his own district, more than four- 
 fifths had either died or been slaughtered; 
 and the general average, within the precincts 
 of the metropolis, was, in all probability, at 
 least as high. Very early in July it appeared 
 in Norfolk, and likewise in Suflolk and Shrop- 
 shire; then in one county after another; 
 when it was found, that the rapidity with 
 which it had diflfused its desolating breath over 
 the country, had enabled it to enter Scotland. 
 By the 11th of October it had extended to 
 
 Gb9 
 
THE EHiNDEEPEST.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [the ehindeepest. 
 
 twenty-nine English counties ; two in "Wales, 
 and sixteen in Scotland ; and was still ad- 
 vancing. From the Metropolitan Market it 
 crossed the sea into Holland, with some Dutch 
 oxen which had been shipped from Eotterdain 
 to London, and had been exposed during 
 three successive market-days, when, not being 
 sold, they had been re-shipped from London 
 to whence they came. It is unnecessary here 
 to follow its further progress ; but we may 
 state that, at the Smithfield Club dinner, at 
 which Earl Spencer presided, Mr. Clayden, 
 chairman of the "Agricultural Company," 
 &c., after speaking of the advantages which 
 had resulted to the farmers of England gene- 
 rally by the operations of the club, said that 
 the noble president had drawn a melancholy 
 picture of the state of the agricultural interest 
 from the effects of the cattle plague. He 
 observed, that " 30,000 animals had perished 
 from the efiects of that incurable disease ; 
 whilst whatever efforts had been made to dis- 
 cover an effectual remedial agent, had, in so 
 far as the best-informed and most scientific 
 agriculturists in the world yet knew, signally 
 failed." 
 
 It is reasonably to be expected that such an 
 alarming condition of things would originate, 
 among the veterinary faculty, many theories 
 for its prevention, as well as its cure ; but the 
 hopelessness of all these, as well as of every 
 kind of medical treatment, was thus set forth 
 in a letter to one of the newspapers, by Dr. 
 "Watson, a gentleman who ranks amongst the 
 most eminent of his profession in London. 
 He says — " The disease is a very fatal one. 
 Its death-rate is appalling — 90 in 100, they 
 say ; and it is ahsolutely incurable. "Witli or 
 without what is called treatment, a small num- 
 ber of recoveries happen ; but there are no 
 ciwes. Probably (but this is mere opinion), 
 of the sick animals subjected to treatment, a 
 larger proportion perish than those which are 
 left to themselves. I do not mean tliat medi- 
 cal care is useless or inexpedient. There are 
 measures relating to food, temperature, clean- 
 liness, support, even medicine (measures that 
 are defensive against all weakening influences), 
 which, sometimes, may turn the hesitating 
 scale, and give the victory to the restorative 
 force of nature. But there is no specific plan 
 or antidote that caa stop or chase away the 
 690 
 
 ] disease, any more than there is for the cure 
 or the cutting short of small-pox ; this is alike 
 true of all the specific fevers. They run a 
 definite course." 
 I The conclusion to which this gentleman 
 came was thus given, and largely adopted — ■ 
 " If all this be so, surely it is time to turn our 
 thoughts from the sick and the dying to the 
 animals that are yet left among us alive, in 
 health, and uninfected ; to abandon the vain 
 search after impossible specific remedies, and 
 to adopt the true and sole nostrum — which is, 
 prevention. This is still within the scope 
 of our power, and it is daily becoming more 
 diffused." 
 
 To give entire force to the meaning of 
 the v^ord prevention in this passage, it may be 
 added that it is designed to express complete 
 isolation ; the entire and perfect separation 
 of the healthy from the unhealthy animal ; 
 the diseased from the undiseased ; the clean 
 from the unclean. This was conceived to be 
 the most effectual, as it has proved the only 
 real, remedy for staying and finally eradicating 
 an evil so desolating to our herds. The con- 
 sequence has, for some time, been an entire 
 riddance of the " Cattle Plague," which is 
 always spoken of as a thing of the past, there 
 not having been, for a considerable time, a 
 single known instance of its existence in this 
 kingdom. The alarm which it created, how- 
 ever, necessitated the most decisive measures 
 to be adopted for its extinguishment. 
 
 The death of 30,000 animals, within the 
 comparatively limited period of two years, was 
 a cause sufficient to raise anxiety amongst 
 even a larger population than that of Great 
 Britain and Ireland ; yet, in the latter coun- 
 try, the flocks continued to increase rather 
 than diminish or remain stationary. This, 
 however, did not lessen the dread of the ex- 
 tension of the " 'Cattle Plague" in England, 
 nor hinder the adoption of those strong 
 measures of isolation or prevention to which 
 we have alluded, and which, in the absence of 
 all certain medicinal remedies, proved effec- 
 tual in eradicating it from the country. Super- 
 added to prevention, constant attention should 
 be paid to cleanliness, and keeping the sheds 
 well aired ; whilst lime-washing should not 
 be spared. "Where cure is doubtful, preven- 
 tion should be vigorously resorted to. 
 
1 1 I \' 1 S I () N \' 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 CUAPTER I. 
 
 FOKF.IOK BRKKPS OF SIIKKT ; THE RASS ; TIIK Sir.KUIAK ARCALl ; THE KAMTSCHATKAN AR'IAI.I; 
 THE AUMEXIAN AKGALI ; THE NAHOOll, OR SHA ; THE SUA; THE CURSICA.V MOfKLON; THE 
 WALLACm.VN SUEEP ; AFRICAN SUEEP ; TUE TARTARIAN SHEEP; TUB PERSIAN SHEEP; ICELAND 
 AND FAROE ISLAND SHEEP; TUE ALPACA AND LA>LV ; THE SPANISH MEBINO SUEEP ; THE SAXON 
 MERINO. 
 
 FOREIGN BREEDS OF SHEEP, 
 Of all our domestic animals, the sheep is 
 that of which we have the earliest notice; as 
 we are told that " Ahel was a keeper of sheep." 
 It was reclaimed in the primordial era of man's 
 existence on the globe, and we must look to 
 Western Asia as its original habitat. From 
 this centre it has, more or less, gradually spread 
 by the agency of man ; and, under the inQu- 
 ences of climate, food, and treatment, has 
 ramified into numerous varieties. 
 
 In the Zoological Proceedings, there is a 
 paper by Mr. Blyth, entitled " An amended list 
 of the genus Ovis;" in which he tells us, that 
 in the narrative of the celebrated Venetian 
 traveller, Marco Polo, upon the elevated plain 
 of Pamir, eastward of Bokhara, and 16,000 
 i'eet above the sea-level, wild animals are met 
 with in great numbers, particularly sheep of a 
 large size, having horns three, four, and even 
 six palms in length. More recently, an 
 animal called the Eass has been indicated, 
 from a report in Sir A. Burncs' Travels in 
 Bokhara, and its horns have been transmitted 
 to the lioyal Asiatic Society. He confirms the 
 narrative of Marco Polo ; says the flesh is 
 much prized ; and that the people shoot the 
 animal with arrows. "The Eass is said to 
 delight in the coldest districts ; a common- 
 sized individual will require two horses to bear 
 its flesh from the field." The horns, following 
 their curvature, are nearly five feet in length. 
 
 THE SIBERIAN ARGALI. 
 
 This noble sheep is described by Pallas, and 
 has a much wider range of habitat than the 
 Musimon; whilst its general characteristics bear 
 
 a striking resemblance to those of the sheep. 
 Its natural abode is on the tops of mountains 
 in cold latitudes, and it is common in Siberia. 
 
 THE KAMTSCHATKAN ARG.VLI. 
 M. Eschscholtz, who describes this species, 
 states it to be very numerous on the moun- 
 tains of Kamtschatka. In summer it resides 
 upon the snow-clad heights ; but, in winter, it 
 descends to the lower regions ; and, according 
 to Kotzebue, is remarkable for its agility. In 
 America there are two species very closely 
 allied to the Siberian Argali — the Eocky 
 Mountain Argali (Ovis Montana), and the 
 Californian Argali (0. Californiana, Douglas) ; 
 besides wliich there is the Caucasian Argali 
 fOvis Cylindricornis, Blyth), hitherto con- 
 founded with the Siberian Argali. 
 
 THE ARMENIAN ARGALI. 
 This is the Ovis Gmelin of Blyth, of which 
 specimens were sent from Erzeroum to the 
 Zoological Gardens in London. According 
 to Grmelin, this species is found only in the 
 highest mountains in Persia. Tlie males, ho 
 informs us, are very quarrelsome amongst each 
 other, insomuch that he had been at one place 
 where the ground was strewn with horns 
 that had been knocked off in their contests. 
 It is allied to the Corsican INIouflon. Sir John 
 McNeill informed Mr, Blyth that it appears 
 to be the common species of the mountains of 
 Armenia ; occurring likewise on the north-west 
 of Persia : but the wild sheep of the central 
 parts of Persia is evidently distinct, having 
 horns much more resembling those of the 
 domestic ram, being spiral, and completing 
 more than one spiral circle, 
 
 G91 
 
THE MOUrLON.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [the MOUFLOU". 
 
 THE NAHOOR, OR SHA, 
 The Nalioor, or Sha, of Tibet (Oi-is Nalioor, 
 Hodgson), is a native of the Kacliar region of 
 Nepal, and the glaciers of the Himalaya. Of 
 this sheep there is very little to be said ; but 
 it has a near alliance to the Burrhel — Ovis 
 Burrhel of Blytli — which inhabits the loftiest 
 crests of the Hitnalayan chain. Here it is 
 said to bound "lightly over the encrusted 
 snows, at an altitude where its human pur- 
 suers find it difficult to breathe. It has the 
 bleat of the domestic species, as indeed they 
 all have, and is very shy and difficult of ap- 
 proach. Flocks of ten or twenty, conducted 
 by an old male, have been observed to make 
 for the snowy peaks upon alarm, while their 
 leader scrambled up some crag to reconnoitre, 
 and, if shot at, would bound off a few paces, and 
 again stop to gaze. They pasture in deep and 
 hollow grassy glens." A former specimen, in 
 the Museum of the Zoological Society, was 
 shot near the Boorendo Pass, at an altitude of 
 about 17,000 feet. 
 
 THE SHA. 
 This is the Ovis Yignei of Blyth, a Mouflon 
 inhabiting the mountains of Little Tibet and 
 the Sulimani range, between India and Kho- 
 rassan. Vast numbers of this species are 
 driven down by the snow in winter, to the 
 branches of the Indus, where the river breaks 
 through the chain of the Himalayas. The wild 
 sheep of the Hindoo Koosli mountains, de- 
 scribed in the Journal of the Asiatic Society/ of 
 Bengal, is either this or a closely allied species. 
 Its climbing powers are extraordinary. 
 
 THE CORSICAN MOUFLON. 
 This is the Ofis Musimon of Linnajus, a 
 native of Corsica and Sardinia. Speaking of 
 it, Mr. Biyth remarks — "It has always ap- 
 peared to me, however, that the specifical dis- 
 tinctness of the Mouflon is very obvious ; and 
 I doubt whether it has contributed at all to 
 the origin of any tame race. That it inter- 
 breeds freely with the latter, under circum- 
 stances of restraint, is well known; but we 
 have no information of hybrids, or TJmbri, as 
 they are called, being even raised from wild 
 MouQons, though the flocks of the latter will 
 occasionally graze in the same pasture with 
 692 
 
 domestic sheep ; and all but mingle with them. 
 The male of this animal is denominated, in 
 Corsica, Mufro, and the female, Mufra; 
 from which Bufibn, as is well known, formed 
 the word Mouflon. In Sardinia, the male is 
 called Murvoni, and the female Murva ; though 
 it is not unusual to hear the peasants style 
 both indiscriminately Mouflon, which (as Mr, 
 Smyth remarks, in his description of that 
 island) is a palpable corruption of the Greek 
 Ophion. It is sometimes stated, but I do not 
 know upon what authority, that a few of these 
 animals are still found upon the mountains of 
 Murcia." 
 
 This would seem to be the same as the Ovis 
 Mouflon of Buffbn, found in the islands of the 
 Grecian Archipelago, in Sardinia, Greece, Asia, 
 and in the western part of European Turkey. 
 It is two-and-a-half feet high, and about three- 
 and-a-half long. It has large semicircular and 
 wrinkled horns, bending gracefully backward, 
 resembling, in some degree, the black-taced 
 sheep of the Highlands. They are, however, 
 much thicker, usually measuring from twelve 
 to sixteen inches at the base, and sometimes 
 as much as twenty-two inches in length. The 
 colour of the animal is grey ; and it is covered 
 with hair, of a curly and woolly kind. There 
 are a few black hairs about the head. When 
 the female has horns they are very small, but 
 she is frequently entirely destitute of them. 
 They always browse upon the sides of hills, or 
 upon their summits, in very temperate lati- 
 tudes. They are gregarious, herding together 
 for the purposes of defence; and, like other 
 sociable animals, place themselves under the 
 protection of the largest and the strongest ot 
 their rams. When the females are in season, 
 they separate into smaller flocks, and this is 
 the signal for the wars of the males. The 
 females usually tliroio two lambs in the month 
 of April or May, and these the dams defend 
 with indomitable courage in any emergency. 
 
 According to Cuvier, these animals are very- 
 dull and uutameable. He says that " domes- 
 tication has had no influence" in taming them ; 
 " it merely accustoms them to the presence of 
 new objects ; and they are no longer aft'righted 
 at the sight of man, but rather seem to acquire 
 more confidence in their own powers as they 
 become more familiarised with him. Instead, 
 therefore, of avoiding their keeper, especially 
 
MOCFLOy.] 
 
 AND TllElK VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [moufi.ox. 
 
 the malea, they attack him with fury." There 
 is another pcculi:irity helonging to thia species. 
 Their flesh is woll-flavoured ; but they are 
 always in lean comliLion. Tlieir skins are so 
 thick as to be ahiiost im|)ervious. 
 
 In this review of JNlr. Blyth's piijier, wo have 
 omitted the Ixiilas Probation, Oj,'ilby (of which 
 a unique spociinen exists in tho nuiaeum of 
 the Zoological Society, London, and the history 
 of which is obscure), and the Aoudad {Ovis 
 Tragelaplius, auct.), which we refer to the 
 goats. From none of the species here enu- 
 merated can we conlidontly select the type of 
 the domestic sheep {Ovis Aries, Linna)us) ; but, 
 " applying our knowledge as obtained inferen- 
 tially from the most ancient records," observes 
 the autlior of The Cow, " we iind incidental no- 
 tices tending to fix the character of the ear- 
 liest sheep, of which history informs us, with 
 the one or the other of the class of animals 
 above referred to, but especially the latter." 
 Abel had " firstlings of his ilock." Hence he 
 possessed domesticated animals. The lambs 
 of the Argali would be a ready means of pro- 
 creating a flock, as they are even now easily 
 domesticated, and which would hardly be the 
 case with the untameable Musmon. Abel also 
 offered fat, which is a secretion common to the 
 Argali, but of which the Musmon is said to be 
 destitute. The sheep of tlie Patriarchs, too, 
 had horns ; at any rate the rams had that dis- 
 tinction. Nor could they be simply upright ; 
 as a ram, it will be remembered, was " caught 
 in a thicket by his horns," when the staying 
 angel arrested the hand of Abraham. The 
 curvature of the horns being much more nearly 
 complete in the Argali than the Musmon (which 
 are merely bent back), renders it the most 
 likely of the two to be entangled in a thicket. 
 That sheep were, some of them, brown in Jacob's 
 day is quite certain, from their being set apart 
 for his wages; and this again agrees with the 
 colour of the Argali. That the covering of the 
 skin was something better than hair, even in 
 early days, is quite evident from Laban's shear- 
 ing his sheep ; for it always indicates, at least, 
 a woolly texture rather than a hairy one, which 
 requires the application of the shears. Job, 
 who lived, it is supposed, in early patriarchal 
 times, evidently made use of the wool of his 
 sheep. His flock consisted, at one period, of 
 7,000 sheep ; and, at another, of double that 
 
 number; and he thus reminds his friends of 
 his benevolence : — "If I have seen any perish 
 for want of clothing, or any poor without cov- 
 ering; if his loins have not blessed me, niid if 
 ho were not waruunl with tho llccce of my 
 sheep." 
 
 Tho Mouflons aTid Argalis — that is, the wild 
 species of tho genus Ovis — are covered witli a 
 harsh kind of hair; having beneath it, at its 
 roots, a short spiral wool, which, in winter, 
 becomes longer and fuller. Mr. Bell, indeed, 
 considers tho harsh hair as essentially wool in 
 its structure, presenting the imbrications which 
 tho microscope shows to be the cliaracteristic 
 of wool, and on which its felting property de- 
 pends ; and ho regards the short under-coat 
 as composed of hair, and not of wool. ]Mr. 
 Touatt makes the contrary statement ; and, 
 notwithstanding tho appearances noticed by 
 Mr. Bell, we incline to Mr. Touatt's opinion ; 
 for, be it observed, in the Cashmir and the 
 Angora goats, the long outer garment is hair; 
 the short under-coat, exquisitely fine v/ool. In 
 other wool-bearing animals, as the beaver and 
 otter, the same arrangement prevails ; and, in 
 some neglected breeds of common sheep, the 
 wool becomes mixed with long hairs (not 
 short and fine), which more or less obscure the 
 wool. 
 
 Dr. John Davy, in the Pliilosophical Journal, 
 furnishes a striking instance of the eftect ot 
 climate in changing the character of covering 
 on the body of a sheep. He says — " The 
 sheep from Barbadoes, originally from an Eng- 
 lish stock, afi'ords a striking example ot tho 
 change that may be effected by climate, in a 
 few generations, in the character of the hair of 
 an animal. In that island, instances are fre- 
 quently to be seen of sheep in which hair has 
 so taken the place of wool (using the terms in 
 their usual acceptation), that, were it not for 
 the form of the animal — and that is not alto- 
 gether free from change — it would be impos- 
 sible to suppose that they belonged to the 
 same species as our English sheep." He care- 
 fully examined two specimens of hair — one 
 from a sheep of two years old, the other from 
 one a year old. Both were of the same colour — 
 a light reddish-brown — and the same length. 
 " The hair of the three-year-old," he proceeds 
 to say, " was coarser than that of the one-year- 
 old ; it consisted chieflv of harsh fibres, slightly 
 
 G93 
 
MOTrFLOIf.j 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 FCRETATS" SHEEP. 
 
 tortuous, each about tlie 180th of an inch in 
 diameter— some cylindrical, others more or less 
 flattened — all looking towards a point at their 
 distal extremity. The hair of the one-year-old 
 consisted of coarse and fine fibres in about 
 equal portions, the one about the 3G3rd of an 
 inch in diameter, the other the 1333rd of an 
 inch ; the former resembling the hair of the 
 elder sheep, the latter having the appearance 
 of wool, both in its fineness and general aspect, 
 whether seen with the naked eye or under the 
 microscope. The presence of a portion of 
 wool underneath the hair of the younger sheep, 
 accords, I may remark, with the belief of my 
 friend, that all the very young lambs of the 
 island have wool, which gradually passes into 
 hair as they grow older." This, the Doctor 
 thinks, is the fact. He then expatiates on the 
 care "Divine Providence exerts in changing 
 the clothing of an animal to be suitable to the 
 climate it inhabits." 
 
 The causes which have rendered the fleece 
 of the European sheep what we now find it, are 
 involved in obscurity. AVe attribute much, in 
 the first instance, to the effects of temperature ; 
 for though the merino sheep of Spain (a race 
 originally imported from England), and the 
 flocks of Australia and Southern Africa, are 
 pre-eminent as wool-bearers, yet it would seem 
 that the predisposition to develop wool at the 
 expense of hair, is acquired only in temperate, 
 elevated, or even cold climates. Eor instance, 
 we learn from Mr. Hodgson, that the wool of 
 the Bhotean domesticated sheep, called Huniah, 
 is superb ; and, he adds, the animal is suited 
 only to the northern district of Nepal, suff"ering 
 much from the heat of the central district. 
 On the other hand, it is clear that, in the early 
 ages of man's history, the shepherds must 
 have selected, for breeding, those individuals 
 on which the wool predominated ; and that, 
 by following up this system, the sheep gradu- 
 ally attained its present condition, so that a 
 wool-bearing breed became, at length, per- 
 manently established.' Originally, perhaps, the 
 sheep, then a wool-bearer, and Jong domes- 
 ticated, was of a brown or rusty-black colour — 
 a hue still lingering on the faces and limbs of 
 many of our breeds, and sometimes appearing 
 as the general tint of individuals, thus con- 
 spicuous in the midst of their white-fleeced 
 companions. Nine out of ten of the sheep of 
 694 
 
 Dukhun are black, with short, crisp, coarse 
 wool. As the primitive fleece of the sheep 
 was a mixture of hair and wool, we cannot be 
 surprised to find races domesticated, in which 
 the hair predominates over the wool, and that 
 so greatly, that they may with propriety be 
 termed hairy. Sometimes the hair is like that 
 of a spaniel dog, long and silky ; and many of 
 the flocks of the Bucharian Tartars are thus 
 clothed. To this breed may be referred — 
 
 THE WALLACHIAN OR CRETAN SHEEP. 
 
 This is the Ovis Aries, var. Strepsiceros, 
 
 common in Crete, "Wallachia, Hungary, and 
 
 the western parts of Asia. A splendid ram 
 
 of this variety, from Mount Parnassus, was 
 
 presented by Dr. Bowring to the Zoological 
 
 Society, London. Its was vicious, unruly, and 
 
 of amazing strength. Its horns were very large, 
 
 and spirally contorted, adding greatly to its 
 
 striking and picturesque appearance. Its fleece 
 
 consisted of hair and wool, the former being of 
 
 great length, perfectly straight, close-set, and 
 
 beautifully fine, falling from the middle of the 
 
 back on each side of the animal, almost to the 
 
 eround. On the face the hair was short, and 
 
 of a rusty black ; on the body it was white. 
 
 In general, the horns in the male rise almost 
 
 perpendicularly from the skull, making a series 
 
 of spiral turns in their ascent, the first turn 
 
 being the largest ; while, in the female, they 
 
 diverge, taking a lateral direction. In the 
 
 specimen, however, to which we have alluded, 
 
 they extended laterally from the skull, and, 
 
 after the first turn, took a downward sweep. 
 
 Variations in these points may be expected in 
 
 domesticated animals. " The WallacJiian sheep 
 
 is a remarkable animal," says Mr. Milburn; 
 
 " and altogether the most beautiful, as a picture, 
 
 of all the various breeds. They are common 
 
 in the whole of Southern Eussia. The horns 
 
 of the ram are of a peculiarly tall and spiral 
 
 form. The wool is of a hairy character, but 
 
 beautifully white. The tail, however, is the 
 
 peculiarity. Kohl, in his Eussia, says, 'it 
 
 really carries its fat about in its tail, which 
 
 grows into a shape something similar to a pear, 
 
 swelling at both sides to an enormous size, and 
 
 tapering to a point at the extremity.' The 
 
 Eussian shepherds are a very dull and helpless 
 
 race of men ; and more credit is due to the 
 
 dogs and goats which accompany the flocks, for 
 
AFUiCAN SHEEP.] AND 'nlEIll VAKIOUS BKEEDS. [taiit.vuia:? siilep. 
 
 their care of the anininln, than to those eorfH, 
 who arc indolent, and dull ol" oompn-lu'iision. 
 About four goats are associated with a lloek of 
 every hundred sheep to brave thcPontiuo hur- 
 ricanes, and to load the sheep over ravines, and 
 by the sides of steppes, which otiierwise neither 
 the sheep nor their shepherds would face. The 
 sheep follow the courageous goats ; and, on 
 onco making the eflort, they have powers quite 
 equal to the task. The sliephcrds aro strictly 
 nomadic. They wander from pasture to pas- 
 ture, accompanied by their dogs and a waggon, 
 which is their kitchen and bed. The sheep 
 are collected for the night into as narrow a 
 compass as possible. The dogs watch them, 
 each sleeping on a mat; and with this the 
 flock is generally secure from the wolves, who 
 prowl about in the hope of finding some stray 
 or sickly animal on some unguarded point. 
 This race of sheep has spread for a great dis- 
 tance over Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria. 
 The peasants still use the shaggy skins for 
 coats, which are an ample protection from the 
 cold blasts of the northern climate." The tail 
 is large and fat, almost more from its length than 
 its breadth — a characteristic in which it diflers 
 from the African sheep, to which we shall 
 now allude. 
 
 AFRICAN SHEEP. 
 
 In the specimens of Guinea sheep which we 
 have seen figured, the limbs are long, the body 
 gaunt, the ears pendulous, the forehead arched, 
 and two fleshy excrescences hang from the 
 throat. A smaller hair-clad breed extends 
 along the Slave Coast. The Fezzan sheep, of 
 which we have seen examples, closely resemble 
 the Guinea sheep, but have a pendulous dew- 
 lap instead of the tassels of skin on the throat. 
 They are gaunt, coarse-haired, ill-formed ani- 
 mals, with high withers like a buffalo. The 
 males have small horns. In Madagascar the 
 sheep are covered with short hair. The South 
 African sheep is of the fat-tailed species ; but 
 instead of the long, pendulous, and conical 
 tail, it is broad and flat. All other parts of 
 the body are wolf-like and lank, with the flesh 
 flabby and thin. The tail of this animal is the 
 great furnace which supplies it with heat 
 against the chill and rainy seasons, when 
 caloric is requisite to resist the cold effects of 
 the atmosphere. Barrow, in hia work on 
 
 South Africa, says — " The tail is short, broad, 
 and flat ; naked on the under side, and weighs 
 the amazing weight of from six to twolvo 
 pounds. It is of a thin oily consistence, and 
 is sometimes used as a substitute for butter. 
 This tail is from twelve to eighteen inches 
 long, and tapers downwards, being five or six 
 inches thick near its setting-on at the rump." 
 The animal is covered with long curly hair, of 
 a powerfully resistive texture, which, from its 
 elasticity, is used for making cusliions. Tlio 
 wool varies from black to grey ; is often spotted, 
 and sometimes dun and brown. Little care is 
 taken of the breed, which furnish the Hottentot 
 witli a large proportion of his food. ^Nor is 
 Lheir covering more carefully preserved ; it 
 being usually allowed merely to drop off in 
 the autumn of the year. Some individuals 
 have a second or under coat, which has a groat 
 resemblance to fur, and is used for making 
 coverlets by the superior classes of Boers. A 
 similar sheep occurs in the same or higher 
 latitudes, and they are found in Madras and 
 Bengal. In Northern Africa there is an 
 animal similarly formed, especially in Barbary. 
 It has three, and sometimes four horns; but 
 its tail is thinner and fatter than the variety 
 of South African. Its colour is mostly white ; 
 and while the anterior parts are covered with 
 soft hair, the posterior are clothed with fine 
 wool. The ears are pendulous. 
 
 THE TARTARIAN SHEEP. 
 In Tartary, Persia, and other parts of the 
 East, there has long existed a singular variety, 
 with a great deposit of fat on the tail and 
 creep, giving an unsightly appearance to the 
 animal. The tail itself is short, and seems 
 buried in the mass on each side ; and the body 
 is generally white; the head and neck bhick. 
 Of the variety Ovis Aries, var. Sleatopi/jus^ we 
 have seen a specimen. The fleece of the sheep 
 consisted of short, coarse wool, mixed with 
 hair. This sheep is hornless, and thin and 
 gaunt in its general contour. Its ears are 
 pendulous, and reach to the bottom of the 
 jaw. Its shoulders are thin and small; and 
 its head somewhat deep, but not forward. 
 Behind the shoulders it is small. The legs 
 are also short and thin, as regards the mus- 
 cular parts; but the whole vital power of the 
 animal seems to tend to the production of tho 
 
 Cr'.j 
 
PEESIAN SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [PERSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 perfect cushions of fat by the sides of the tail, 
 which absolutely bury it. The female has 
 smaller horns, or is altogetber without them. 
 The colour varies, but is usually roan, or of a 
 light brown, mixed cast, while the ewe is black. 
 The wool is somewhat short, and fine in quality. 
 The weight of fat about the rump will be 
 nearly as much as thirty to forty pounds. It 
 must be kept in mind, however, that the fat 
 of the rump of this species is diflerent from 
 the fat of our mutton. On this subject, Dr. 
 Anderson observes— " There is no meat on 
 the body of our common breeds of European 
 sheep, which, in many of its distinguishing 
 characteristics, resembles that of the tail of 
 the broad-tailed sheep of the southern parts 
 of Africa or Asia; far less does any part of 
 the flesh of our mutton bear the smallest 
 similitude to that of the hemispherical bumps 
 on the bullocks of the Steatopaga breed, which 
 so much abounds in the northern parts of 
 Asia. The bumps are called fat, because they 
 resemble that substance in colour and con- 
 sistency, more than the lean of mutton ; but it 
 differs externally from the fat that is found on 
 any part of the body of our sheep." 
 
 THE PERSIAN SHEEP. 
 The Fersian Hornless sheep is one of the 
 fat-rumped varieties, and is very different 
 from every kind of sheep we have yet de- 
 scribed. It is short-eared, and the head and 
 neck are without wool. The body is both 
 deep and cylindrical ; whilst the breast is con- 
 siderably rounded in front. The legs are 
 small and thin; but this is compensated by 
 the rumps, which literally make a pair of 
 cushions of fat, and almost entirely conceal 
 the tail, notwithstanding its great size. The 
 wool is as white as snow, but is short, and 
 not very fine. In the Mosaical sacrifice, there 
 ia incidental allusion made to the rump, 
 Moses having taken the fat, and the rump, 
 and all the fat that was upon the inwards. 
 Mr. Youatt quotes this as indicative of the 
 Jewish sheep having been of the fat-rumped 
 variety. The author of The Cow gives reasons 
 which induce him to come to an opposite 
 conclusion. There were six parts of the ram 
 to be burned: — 1st, the fat; 2nd, the rump; 
 3rd, the fat of the inwards; 4th, the caul 
 above the liver; 5th. the two kidneys, and 
 GOG 
 
 the fat that is upon them ; and, 6th, the right 
 shoulder. "Now it appears to us," conti- 
 nues the same author, "that these directions 
 rather oppose than support the conclusion 
 that the rump was covered with fat. If so, 
 why did they not specify the fat covering the 
 rump, in the same manner as covering the 
 kidneys? And if the mention of the rump 
 along with other fat parts is to convey the idea 
 that it was fat also, the mention of the shoulder 
 would convey the same impression, which 
 would not be at all accurate. The assumption 
 that the fat was accumulated on the rump 
 and legs, would operate in favour of its also 
 being equally deposited on the shoulder. We 
 imagine that all that was intended was, that 
 all the hest parts were to be sacrificed in the 
 ' ram of consecration.' The internal accumu- 
 lation of fat, too, is opposed to much external 
 formation." 
 
 Another fat-tailed variety of the Persian 
 sheep is mixed up with others which develop 
 the fat in other parts of the body. Its wool is 
 of a long hairy grey, and extremely coarse. 
 It, however, has horns. The tail consists of a 
 large accumulation of fat, tending to the pen- 
 dulous, and has a somewhat conical form. 
 The wool is of a much finer staple than the 
 Wallachian, and is of two kinds — long and hair- 
 like, but thinly scattered, and wiry. There is an 
 under coat, from which the finest cL'^ss of wools 
 are obtained ; and these are said to be equal 
 to Cashmere in their fineness of texture. 
 
 The Abtssikian sheep is the same as the 
 Persian; and, according to Mr. Milburn, is 
 but one remove from the Argali, even at the 
 present time. Its habitat is along the shores 
 of the Eed Sea. Its tail is somewhat short ; 
 its wool coarse and heavy, and of a greyish or 
 brownish colour. The horns diverge from 
 their roots, and are bent so as to make the 
 large form of a circle. The relationship is 
 very close ; and it is thought not to be difiicult 
 to imagine this long-legged, horned, hair- 
 covered sheep, to be a variety of the Argali. 
 
 Among other strange varieties of sheep, may 
 be here noticed the sheep of Syria and Egypt, 
 with a long tail loaded with fat, which some- 
 times even trails on the ground. In the Egyp- 
 tian animals the tail is broad throughout, but 
 in the Syrian it narrows to a point. The ordi- 
 nary weight of the tail is fifteen pounds ; but. 
 
ICELAND SHEEP.] AND TIIElli VAlvIOUS JiliEEDS. [ali'aca and lama. 
 
 in some of the larj^or kiiul-s, well fiittencd, tho 
 tail will weigh seventy, eighty, and it 13 said, 
 even 150 poiuuls. Ludolph saw, in Egypt, a 
 sheep's tail of eighty pounds' weight. This 
 overgrown appendage is a great inconvenience 
 to tlie animal; and, in order to prevent injury 
 to it, the shepherds are often obliged to lix a 
 thin piece of board to the under surface of tho 
 part that trails on the ground, to which small 
 wheels are sometimes added. The caudal 
 deposit of fiit in these varieties of sheep is 
 olea'^iuous, being of a consistence between fat 
 and marrow, and is often used in the place of 
 butter : when the animal is young, this fat is 
 stated to be little inferior to tho best marrow. 
 The long-tailed breed (var. Macrocercus) is 
 not only found in Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, 
 but is very numerous in the interior and 
 southern parts of Africa, and is covered with a 
 mixture of coarse short wool and hair. 
 
 Aristotle speaks of the Syrian sheep in his 
 day, and names a variety which had tails a 
 cubit broad. Such a naturalist ought certainly 
 to be credited. Dr. Eussell describes the tails of 
 modern Syrian sheep as weighing fifty pounds ; 
 but these are house-fed animals, and excep- 
 tions to the general rule. The head is bare, 
 and the horns semicircular, and bending down- 
 wards. The ears are pendulous, aud the face 
 free from wool. The throat is covered with 
 long shaggy hair, projecting almost as far 
 forward as the mouth. The posterior parts are 
 woolly, aud the tail reaches nearly to the fet- 
 lock joint ; but, before it extends that length, it 
 makes an upward turn at its pointed tip. 
 
 THE ICELAND AND FAROE ISLAND SHEEP. 
 Leaving the regions of the East, and coming 
 nearer our own island, we find that in Iceland 
 and the Earoe Islands, there are two races of 
 sheep — one of a small size, and of a dun or 
 rust-black colour; the other of larger size, and 
 white. Both of these races are remarkable for 
 the number of their horns, varying from three 
 to eight. Eour, however, is the usual number. 
 Tlie larger race are strongly-built animals, 
 with a coarse fleece, consisting of long hair 
 externally, aud an under-layer of close wool, 
 impenetrable by the heaviest rain. The wool, 
 however, is of little value, being fit only for 
 horse-cloths and common rugs. These sheep 
 yield an extraordinary quantity of milk, far 
 4 u 
 
 superior to that of any of tho more soutliern 
 breeds. Von Troil, in his Letters on Icthmd, 
 states that a single ewe will yield from two to 
 six quarts a day. Tho Faroe Island race of 
 sheep is of great antiquity, and wild. They 
 are covered with black, short, curled wool, and 
 their ilcsh has a peculiarly dark aji[)ear:uiec, 
 and venison-like flavour. When IMr. Trevelyan 
 visited these islands, he found the remnants of 
 this wild race in no way dependent upon or 
 under the control of man. They are some- 
 times caught by dogs ; but can seldom be ob- 
 tained, except by being shot, or intercepted in 
 a narrow space, and driven over the cli3"d. 
 
 THE ALPACA AND THE L.\MA. 
 
 The alpaca and the lama, or Peruvian sheep, 
 are natives of the Andes, in South America. 
 The lama is somewhat taller than the alpaca; 
 and, though in some respects a remarkable 
 animal, its peculiarities are not such as to 
 render it, for purposes of practical utility, so es- 
 pecially interesting as the alpaca, ovt of its na- 
 tive regions. The alpaca — which it is proposed, 
 under the most respectable auspices, to domes- 
 ticate in Britain — is an animal combining tho 
 appearance of the common European sheep 
 with that of the goat, and partly of the deer and 
 camel. Like the sheep, it is lanigerous, or 
 wool-coated ; in its general structure it is 
 light, and possesses limbs adapted for spring- 
 ing and leaping like the goat. It resembles 
 the deer in skin, flesh, and general appearance ; 
 and though without the camel's deformities, 
 it is gifted like him with patience and docility, 
 being often used as a beast of burden by the 
 natives of South America. The height of the 
 alpaca is from three to four feet, when measured 
 from the ground to the top of the back ; tho 
 eyes are large, black, soft, and expressive ; the 
 animal has no horns ; the neck is long, 
 slender, curved backwards, and finely set; tho 
 head handsome, and the muzzle and cars 
 lengthened. To common observers, the alpaca 
 might seem to bo a fine tall goat, with small 
 head and no horns, but of more gentle and 
 fleecy appearance than that animal. The fine 
 quality of its wool forms, of course, a point ot 
 peculiar importance, taking into view the fact 
 of its having been introduced to Europe. 
 The flesh is also delicious. The experiment of 
 keeping these animals in Great Britain has 
 
 697 
 
AXPACA.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [alpaca. 
 
 been tested, and with some success. The 
 Earl of Derby has, at Knowsley, a flock of 
 lamas and alpacas, which not only live, but 
 multiply. The wool, it is said, is improved by 
 our pasture. These animals also adorn the 
 pleasure-grounds of the Marquis of Breadal- 
 bane, the Duke of Montrose, and other noble- 
 men and gentlemen. Their first introduction 
 to Europe is due to the Spaniards. 
 
 The alpaca was, after great difficulties, and 
 many misadventures, introduced to Australia, 
 in 1855, by Mr. Charles Ledger, an English 
 mercliant, established many years at Tachna, 
 in Peru. In 1852, this gentleman proceeded 
 to Sydney, for the purpose of fixing on the 
 most favourable localities for the pasturage 
 and breeding of alpacas. Having satisfied 
 himself as to the capabilities of the country, 
 he returned to Valparaiso in 1853 ; crossed the 
 Cordilleras in the same year, and rejoined a 
 flock of about four hundred, which he had 
 purchased previously to going to Svdney. 
 Overcoming a thousand obstacles, he succeeded 
 in procuring about three hundred and fifty 
 more of these precious animals, in order to 
 supply the place of others he had lost during 
 his absence, by the neglect of those whom 
 he had left in charge of them. This great 
 reverse, which would have overwhelmed any 
 ordinary mind, acted on him as a stimulus to 
 renewed exertions. He was, however, at this 
 stage, brought to a standstill by want of pecu- 
 niary resources ; and, to his great regret, com- 
 pelled to return to Valparaiso. Here he 
 speedily procured the amount required, and 
 uudertook, with greater confidence than ever, 
 new wanderings through the desert solitudes 
 of Peru and Bolivia, in order to recruit his 
 diminished flock. Einding himself under the ne- 
 cessity of deceiving the diff"erent governments, 
 in order to withdraw his flock from the Peru- 
 Bolivian territories, Mr. Ledger divided his 
 alpacas into three divisions, and commenced 
 his march, by different roads, to the Argentine 
 Eepublic. The details of this remarkable 
 journey, the obstacles, both natural and arti- 
 ficial, which had to be overcome, form the 
 subject of a journal full of incident and hard- 
 ships of all descriptions. After losiug nearly 
 one-half of his alpacas in a very severe snow- 
 storm, which, lasting without intermission for 
 nine days, placed the lives of even the drovers 
 698 
 
 j in jeopardy, Mr. Ledger succeeded in re- 
 , uniting two parts of his flock in the province 
 j of Sulta, Argentine Eepublic, during the 
 j month of August, 1855. During this part of 
 I his journey, he had to be constantly on his 
 j guard against the machinations of the Bolivian, 
 authorities, who were untiring in their efforts 
 to procure the destruction of the flocks. The 
 most active agent in endeavouring to carry 
 out this malicious purpose, however, was de- 
 feated in his object. In the same month, the 
 third division of his flock was seized in San 
 Pablo (Bolivia); but at length, in Eebruary of 
 the following year, he was enabled to deceive 
 the vigilance of the espionage under which 
 he was placed, and escaped with his alpacas 
 from the Bolivian territory. Mr. Ledger now 
 commenced his march on the valley of Cal- 
 chaquies, his object being to proceed to a spot 
 where "alfalfa" was cultivated, in order to 
 habituate the animals, by degrees, to this 
 species of pasture, both fresh and dry ; thus 
 preparing them for their ultimate shipment, by 
 giving them a little dry food every day. Whilst 
 resting, after the accomplishment of this por- 
 tion of his task, a terrible calamity overtook 
 him, and upwards of two hundred of his 
 precious flock died suddenly, after drinking 
 the water of one of the lakes, which was 
 infested with leeches. This great loss involved 
 the necessity of once again setting out in 
 search of a more suitable locality ; and although 
 Mr. Ledger had been separated twenty-two 
 years from his native land, and more than 
 five years from his home and family, he 
 determined to devote another year to the 
 purpose of recruiting his diminished flock. 
 The enterprise was one well worthy of the 
 labour and difficulties which it involved, being 
 nothing less than transporting, from the loftiest 
 peaks in the world, and introducing to Aus- 
 tralia, an animal which appears destined to 
 work out two great revolutions — the one in the 
 breeds of wool-producing animals, tlie other in 
 the fabrication of woollen textures. On leaving 
 the valleys, he kept the mountain sides, avoiding 
 the leech-infested lakes, and giving his flocks 
 the advantage of the invigorating air of the 
 highlands. Here he recommenced his wan- 
 derings, travelling very slowly, notwithstanding 
 the extreme severity of the weather, which 
 tried him greatly both by day and night; and, 
 
TIIK ALPACV.] 
 
 AND TIT I'll: VARIOUS BREEDS. [si-amsii meuino. 
 
 finally, arrived at Laj^una Blanca. Beinj; 
 satislietl that ho had now arrived at a dc- 
 sirablo spot for the propagation of the speciea, 
 not only did he, in time, aequiro a new flock 
 of alpacas, acclimatised to temperatures less 
 pure and rigorous than tliose in which their 
 predecessors had been reared, but succeeded 
 in educating them, to a certain extent, for the 
 great voyage which lay before them. For him- 
 self and people he built a hut of stones, which 
 furnished an indillercnt shelter from the in- 
 clen.cncy of the weather. For the animals, 
 large yards were enclosed, and provided with 
 troughs, in which they were supplied with 
 their daily rations of dry alfalfa, cut up and 
 mixed with bran, to which they became grad- 
 ually accustomed. Twice was Mr. Ledger 
 arrested by the authorities, and twice did he 
 effect his escape — once by exercising his medical 
 skill in the cure of the wife of the detaining 
 prefect, and next by mixing laudanum with 
 the grog of his military custodier. 
 
 The safe arrival at Sydney nf the flock of 
 alpacas was a great evidence of the skill, daring, 
 and perseverance of Mr. Ledger, and deserves 
 grateful acknowledgments on the part of a 
 discerning public. " We hope," says the editor 
 of the Sydney Morning Herald, "that it will 
 be found that the enterprise will pay in some 
 measure for the labour and the sacrifice. It 
 is, unfortunately, too true that benefactors 
 are themselves rarely benefited ; that the cost 
 of experience, and the toil of primary steps 
 towards success, often obtain no return for 
 those who first adventure on a new under- 
 taking. Thus, the fate of inventors and dis- 
 coverers is proverbial. It requires time to test 
 the value of their labours — to silence detrac- 
 tion — to realise the fruits of their enterprise — 
 to place their merits conspicuously before the 
 world ; and it often happens that those who 
 have most served mankind, never hear the 
 unmixed melody of praise : their services are i 
 only appreciated when it is impossible to reward 
 them," Tlie government of New South AVales 
 purchased Mr, Ledger's flock for £15,000, and | 
 secured his services for five years, allowing him 
 £1,300 per annum for their maintenance and 
 superintendent* — Such is a condensed narra- 
 tive of only some of the difficulties which 
 attended the introduction of this valuable 
 •animal to the shores of Australia. I 
 
 TIIK SPANISH MKRI.NO SHKi:i'. 
 Among tho breeds of Europe whicii have 
 attained to tho highest celebrity, and bv nu-ans 
 of which, through juiiiciouH erossin^r, tlie hheep 
 of Saxony, Prus.sia, Austria, and England have 
 been greatly improved as respt'cts the quality 
 of tho fleece, is tho far-famed Merino of Spain. 
 The term "Merino" alludes to the over-sea 
 origin of tho race; and there are good grounds 
 lor believwig tliat the.se Spani.-iii sheep are 
 originally of British extraction, being of the 
 old Ryland or Cotswold stock. Stow and 
 Baker, in their Clironicles, say — " This yero 
 (llGl), King Edward IV. gave a licence to 
 pass over certain Cotteswoldo sheep into 
 Spain." Baker adds— " King Edward IV, 
 enters into a league with King Joliu of Arra- 
 gon, to w hom ho sent a score of Costal ewes 
 and four lambs," 
 
 This is a breed so far superior to all others 
 of the ovine race, for the production of fine 
 wool for the manufacture of our most costly 
 cloths, that its breeding and culture have 
 received the greatest attention in every quarter 
 of the globe. There is no country where these 
 efforts have better succeeded than in Spain, 
 except, perhaps, in Australia, where the breed 
 has been brought to the higliest perfection. 
 The origin of this breed is involved in dark- 
 ness ; but it is supposed to have been introduced 
 from Barbary, probably about the time when 
 the Saracens were making their conquests in 
 the Iberian peninsula. This, however, is mere 
 conjecture ; but Spain has long been distin- 
 guished for the exc(?llent quality of her wools. 
 Ancient writers make several allusions to this 
 fact; and Columella mentions a cross made with 
 the Tarentine breed by his uncle, a farmer or 
 herdsman of Bootia. This was effected with 
 some wild rams of an extraordinary colour, 
 which had been imported to Cadiz from Africa. 
 The Bffitis, or Guadalquivir, was said to have 
 brown or grey wool; and Pliny remarks that 
 it had a red covering. Martial was a Spaniard, 
 and he praises the wool of BoBtia] whilst Strabo, 
 speaking of that of Turdentia, says — "Much 
 cloth used formerly to come to this country. 
 Now, also, fleeces come from it more than from 
 Coraxi, and they are exceedingly beautitul, 
 so that rams for breeding are sold for a talent 
 each. Also the fuie tvebs are very famous, 
 
 (j99 
 
SPANISH MEKINO.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [SAXON MERINO. 
 
 which are made by the Saltatise." Eroin all 
 these testimonies, it may safely be concluded 
 that Spain has long been celebrated for its 
 wools, for which it, no doubt, owes something 
 to climate, as well as to the constant care, and 
 the admirable management in the feeding and 
 breeding of the flocks. This once famous 
 country, however, has fallen from her high 
 estate in the scale of nations. She no longer 
 conquers, but succumbs ; whilst her cloth 
 manufactures have almost ceased to exist. 
 
 There are other breeds of sheep in Spain, 
 besides the Merinos, more or less intermixed 
 with them ; but of the pure race, it is calculated 
 that there are about ten millions, which, ex- 
 cepting, perhaps, the flocks of Leon and Estre- 
 raadura, are migratory, and termed transhu- 
 mantes, being periodically conducted from one 
 part of the country to another, and back again. 
 These translmmantes are divided into flocks, 
 which, under the care of a mayoral or chief 
 shepherd, and assistants, migrate from the 
 mountains of the north to the plains of the 
 south in winter, and return to the moun- 
 tains in summer. The flocks follow the shep- 
 herds, who lead the way, and direct the length 
 and speed of the journey. A few wethers, 
 perfectly tamed, tread in the footsteps of the 
 conductor, and the rest follow in due order. 
 Al powerful breed of dogs accompany the shep- 
 herds, in order to defend the flock from wolves ; 
 and a few mules carry their provision and other 
 necessaries, as well as materials for making up 
 the fold at night. 
 
 This migratory system is regulated by a 
 tribunal termed Mesta, which is of such long 
 standing as to be traced back to the middle of 
 the fourteenth century, at which period definite 
 laws with respect to it were enacted. These 
 enjoined, that persons were not to travel along 
 the course of the route pursued by the flocks 
 while tlie sheep were in motion ; they also 
 established a right to graze on all the open 
 and common laud that lay in the way; and, 
 moreover, assigned a path, ninety yards wide, 
 through all the inclosed and cultivated country. 
 The jouriiey taken by the Merino flocks is 
 upwards of four hundred miles, which they 
 accomplish in six or seven weeks, and the 
 same time is spent in retracing the route; so 
 that, in every year, about fourteen weeks (or 
 nearly a quarter) are spent in these toilsome 
 
 7oa 
 
 journeys. Popular prejudice, in Spain, attri- 
 butes the superiority of the Merino wool to this 
 practice — a practice injurious to the agricul- 
 turists, through whose corn-lands and vine- 
 yards the flocks pass, and injurious to the 
 keepers of stationary sheep ; inasmuch as the 
 common and pasture lands are completelj'- 
 eaten bare by the multitudes that slowly pass 
 over them ; while wilfully, or through careless- 
 ness, serious damage is done to farms, planta- 
 tions, fields, and vineyards, for which no redress 
 can be obtained. It is, however, much to be 
 doubted whether the Merino wool owes its 
 superiority, as is asserted by the Spaniards, to 
 this system. The stationary Merinos in Leon 
 and Estremadura, produce wool equal in quality 
 to that of the migratory flocks ; and these are 
 again exceeded by some of the German 
 Merinos, which never travel. Thus it would 
 appear that the advantages of the Mesta sys- 
 tem have been overrated ; while the evils result- 
 ing to the flocks from fatigue, and the injury 
 done to the lands in their course, have been 
 treated with indifierence. 
 
 THE SAXON MERINO SHEEP. 
 This is the same breed as the preceding,, 
 difiering from it only in accordance with the- 
 difierent management adopted in its rearing 
 and tending. It is not very migratory, and 
 it receives far more attention than the Spanish, 
 Merino. The flocks are clothed and sheltered, 
 and furnished with covered buildings provided 
 especially for them ; and, like the horse of the 
 Arab, are esteemed as nothing less than 
 members of the shepherd's family. In summer 
 they are depastured in the open air during the 
 day; but when night comes on, they are either 
 clothed or driven into their sheds. This is a 
 very ancient practice. In the days of Columella, 
 the Tarentine sheep were covered with skins, 
 and denominated " soft ;" but whether the 
 terra is meant to apply to their wool or their 
 constitutions, appears uncertain. In a modern 
 sense, we should think it was meant to desig- 
 nate the latter. Columella says that tlieae 
 animals were principally reared in the house ; 
 that great care was necessary to be bestowed 
 upon them in regard to warmtli, food, and 
 cleanliness ; and that, in his time, a similar 
 practice was pursued in Spain, and adopted by 
 the Eomans who settled in the north of G-auL 
 
MEBINOS.] 
 
 AND TIIEIK VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [UEUINOS. 
 
 With a view to acclimatise this valuable 
 breed of sheep iu En!j;laiul, fretjueiit utteinpU 
 have been made. The lir.st took |)hice in the 
 reign of George III., who, himaelf, made the 
 experiment, and took a deep interest in its 
 uaturalisation iu our island ; but tho fates 
 proved adverse. Tlie losses were so j^reat as 
 not to be eompensated by the extra value of 
 the wool ; while the absence of mutton would 
 have been a want to which the English Ucsh- 
 loving people would never submit. Tliey pre- 
 ferred the line and short wool of the Down, 
 though far inferior, because it was accompanied 
 by a superior class of mutton. The wool did 
 not, however, degenerate ; but tho lowland 
 pastures of England, witli their rich luxuriant 
 grasses and succulent herbage, were too strong 
 for the Merino. The first experiment was 
 made in 1791, from a very fine flock presented 
 to his majesty ; but in this country they 
 degenerated, and seemed to become less hardy 
 than when they were imported. The next 
 was made by the then Marquis of Breadal- 
 baue, who resolved to adopt all the skill and j 
 care that could be suggested, in order to 
 secure the safety of the fl.ock. Tho sheep 
 were housed, or shedded, at periods when 
 other breeds were exposed. They had the ' 
 best of keeping — perhaps an error arising from 
 the endeavour to increase the mutton ; but the 
 three shear wethers could not be made to i 
 exceed 61- lbs. each, except in very rare cases, ; 
 and these not more than 72 lbs. ; while less! 
 pampered breeds realised nearly double these 
 amounts of weight, and at an earlier period of , 
 their lives. The humidity of the climate seemed 
 to bear hard upon their constitution, as they 
 became weak under it. Lord "Western also ! 
 devoted considerable time and attention to the 
 breeding of Merinos in this country, llis 
 chief efforts were directed to crossing with 
 the Leicester ; but while the frame and mutton ' 
 of the animals seemed to improve, the wool in 
 some degree varied. He obtained it, however, 
 of a beautiful texture, and of great length ; 
 but it was not quite the Merino wool. 
 
 An experienced and well-known agricul- 
 turist favoured Mr. Milburn with the follow- 
 ing remarks on the Merino breed, which are 
 wortliy of the deepest consideration : — 
 
 "Although the importance of this breed of 
 sheep, at the fi.rst glance, may not be fully 
 
 recognised (for they are little known ; ond, 
 since tho deaths of Lonl Wi-sttTu and Mrs. 
 Dorien, have only been bred by -Mr. Sturgeon, 
 of Grays), a littlo reflection will show that it 
 can hardly bo overrated ; for it is this which 
 8ui)plie3 our colonists, at tho Cape and Aus- 
 tralia, witl> tho fresh blood which tho nature 
 of their climates renders periodically necessary. 
 In the latter colony gold may now absorb tho 
 greatest attention of its population ; but wo 
 must not forget that wool was the foundation 
 of its rapid growth and prosperity, nor over- 
 look its importance in finding employment for 
 our ships and our manufacturing artisans, by 
 its successful cultivation. Tho Merino sheep 
 is more distinguished for tho quality of its 
 wool than for other excellences. It presents 
 a very peculiar appearance — the face is beau- 
 tifully soft and white; a little rise is percep- 
 tible on the points of the shoulders, as also on 
 the back of tho head; the knees incline sliglitly 
 inwards, and the legs are covered with wool to 
 the feet. The rams are horned, and the ewes 
 almost invariably polled. The Merinos exhibit 
 a remarkable tendency to throw out horn, 
 their feet growing so rapidly, that it is neces- 
 sary to use the knife where they have not tra- 
 velled much — a provision of nature, seemingly 
 designed to fit them for the migratory life of 
 their ancestors They endure wet weather, or 
 low situations, with ditficulty ; but, in hot 
 weather, no sheep appear in better condition." 
 It is stated by Mr. Sturgeon, that our 
 climate seems to affect both the carcass and 
 wool of imported sheep. Nature would, there- 
 fore, appear to refuse to give the Jlnest wool to 
 the largest carcass. Mr. Sturgeon's exertions, 
 for many years, appear to have induced some 
 relaxation in his favour; for on sheep that 
 would, if fatted, weigh ten or twelve stones, 
 we find a quality of wool that can hardly be 
 surpassed ; and such sheep as (possessing the 
 requisites of size and form, and the constitution 
 peculiar to JEnglish-hred animals) must always 
 be in request by our colonists, and have the 
 preference over the German-bred animals, 
 which seem to want the size, form, constitu- 
 tion, and length of staple they are sent to 
 restore. Mr. Sturgeon's Merinos were tho 
 result of an amalgamation of the flock of his 
 majesty George III. with tliose of Lord "Wes- 
 tern aud ]Mrs. Dorien. 
 
 701 
 
BEITISH SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [beitish sheep. 
 
 In Spain, as in the East, from the earliest 
 times, the shepherd leads his flock. In Italy, 
 in Greece, and some parts of Erance, it is still 
 the custom ; and the reed-pipe of the shepherd 
 may be heard calling the flock together, or the 
 troop be seen following him as he leads them to 
 their evening folding- place. In Greece, it is 
 usual, as formerly, to give names to the sheep, 
 which they know, and will answer, coming to 
 the shepherd when called. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, let us revert to 
 our starting-point — the question as to the 
 origin of the domestic sheep ? It is clear 
 that we cannot identify it with any wild spe- 
 cies with which we are yet acquainted. If 
 such exists, it is most probably to be found on 
 the mountains of Armenia — but this is proble- 
 matical; and there is some ground for sup- 
 
 posing that, though the sheep of every region 
 intermingle with eacli other, they have de- 
 scended from difierent primitive origins. The 
 subject is full of obscurity It is, indeed, 
 strange, that while history teems with the 
 accounts of battles, massacres, invasions, the 
 reigns and the crimes of kings, it throws no 
 light upon the domestic animals which man 
 has reclaimed. The motives which led him to 
 attempt this important work, the manner in 
 which he accomplished it, the characters and 
 native abodes of the species selected, are buried 
 in oblivion. The subject was too mean for 
 history — the actors too humble to be noticed; 
 but it is always the case, that the glare of 
 mighty deeds eflaces the record of the useful, 
 tlie beneficent, and the truly great ; whilst that 
 which ia in reality mean, is magnified. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BRITISH SHEEP. — LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS. 
 
 PRELIMINA.RY REMARKS. 
 Teaditional testimony, as well as the oldest 
 records, are very unsatisfactory regarding the 
 existence of the sheep in Britain ; and no early 
 historian whatever deigns to take the slightest 
 notice of them. Wliether this neglect has 
 arisen from their, perhaps, comparative unim- 
 portance in those times in this country, it is 
 now impossible to say ; but even Caesar, who 
 enters at considerable length into a description 
 of tlie manners and customs of the ancient 
 Britons, docs not make the most distant allu- 
 sion either to the sheep or its wool. "When 
 he mentions the cattle of the ancient Britons, 
 however, it is probable that he meant sheep to 
 be included ; as Herodotus, when speaking of 
 the Persians, says—" The wealthy provide an 
 ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass, roasted whole 
 in furnaces ; and the poor provide the smaller 
 cattle." This is said in allusion to the feasts 
 of that people. After the subjugation of 
 Britain, the Itomans turned their attention to 
 the improvement of the country, cultivating 
 702 
 
 the soil, and gradually bringing about an order 
 of things very different from that which had 
 hitherto existed. Among other acts, they 
 established a woollen manufactory at "Win- 
 chester, which, as a matter of course, must 
 have been supplied by native fleeces, as there 
 was no other source whence these could be 
 obtained. This speculation succeeded so well, 
 that, in a very short time, the woollen cloths of 
 Britain entered into competition with those of 
 the Eoman empire, and early began to excel 
 them. This was soon evidenced by the fact, 
 that the finest and most costly dresses made use 
 of on days of ceremony and festivity at Eome, 
 were the product of British wool. The sheep 
 employed in furnishing the material for these 
 manufactures, were the short-woolled breed — • 
 Winchester being situated in the centre of a 
 county which was then favourable to the sup- 
 port of that kind of sheep alone. Erom this 
 period a darkness falls upon the history of the 
 sheep and its productions for some centuries, 
 until an old chronicler appears, and gives a 
 
BRITISH suKKP.] AND TIlElli VAlilOL/S JWiKKDS. 
 
 [buitisu sheep. 
 
 pleasing picture of the manners of the ago in 
 the time of Alfred, of whom it is said — 
 
 "His godemothcr ofte siiinl gyftes to liiiu slu- kiiully 
 toko. 
 For to li'vc o'bcr pli-, auJ lokc upon liis bokc." 
 
 This godmother seems to have had a just 
 approciation of the s^oiiius of Alfred, and is 
 said to have been skilled in the spinning of 
 wool, and to have busied herself in training 
 her daughters to the same employment. From 
 this circumstance, it would appear that the 
 long wool had now begun to bo employed, 
 although the manufactures of the AViuchester 
 mills continued to be held in due estimation. 
 In point of fact, remote as this period is, the 
 woollen manufacture may be said to have 
 already begun to assume a considerable degree 
 of importance, as various breeds of sheep were 
 cultivated, and diflferent kinds of cloth made, 
 so as to constitute it the principal source of 
 employment and wealth in the country. At 
 the time of the Conquest, we find it stated, 
 that an acre of land and four sheep were about 
 the same value. In the Saxon period, sheep 
 were valued at one shilling per head until 
 fourteen weeks after Easter, when, in all like- 
 lihood, they had attained to a higher condition 
 from the grass having sprung up, and, conse- 
 quently, aflbrdiug a better supply of pasture. 
 Both in lOil and 1125, a great destruction 
 took place among sheep on account of some 
 destructive epidemic ; and this might be one 
 reason why the price of sheep, subsequently, 
 became much higher. In the reign of 
 Henry I. the price rose to 20s., and in that of 
 Henry II., 25s. In the earlier part of the 
 fourteenth century, a variety of breeds had 
 been cultivated, and the prices for the different 
 kinds of wool varied considerably. The pro- 
 duce of the Shropshire sheep was sold at 
 £9 Gs. 8c?. per sack ; whilst the Cornish wool, 
 no doubt the produce of a mountain or forest 
 breed, was only £1; per sack. 
 
 The first determined and general improve- 
 ment of the sheep took place in the reign of 
 Henry III. ; but the great impetus to sheep- 
 farming was given by the introduction of 
 turnips. This well-known plant is cultivated 
 for its bulbous roots, both in the garden and 
 the field, and was originally introduced from 
 Flanders into Norfolk two centuries ago, and 
 
 from Norfolk was carried into the south of 
 Scotland and tho north of England, about a 
 century after. In IGSl, we find Mr. A\''orlid';o 
 .saying — "Sheep fatten very well on turnips, 
 which prove an exocHent nourishment for 
 them in hard winters, when fodder is scarce ; 
 for they will not only eat the greens, but feed 
 on tlie roots in tho ground, and scoop them 
 hollow oven to tho skin. Ten acres sown with 
 clover and turnips, will feed as many sheep as 
 ono hundred acres would havo done before." 
 Previous to the introduction of this invaluable 
 root, it is not easy to see how large flocks of 
 sheep could be kept alive throughout a long 
 winter. It must bo remembered that flocks 
 were so extensive as to require a vast amount 
 of provender. Harrison, who wrote a century 
 before AV'^orlidge, says that the farmer pos- 
 sessed as many as 20,000 sheep, notwithstand- 
 ing that an act had been previously passed 
 restricting one man to the number of 2,000. 
 In 1002, according to the Berkeleyan MSS., 
 the price of a " sheepe was vi.ss. ;" and, 
 according to the same authority, in the time 
 of Edward I., " a fat sheepe was worth from 
 XYii.d. to XX. d., a lambe i.d. ;" "a weight of 
 woll," in Eicliard II. 's time (twenty-one 
 pounds) "was v.s." Distinctions between 
 grass-fed and corn-fed sheep — winter and 
 summer mutton — were made by act of par- 
 liament in 1314. It determined the price of 
 a "corn-fed sheep." "A lambe" is spoken of 
 as being worth x.d. or xii.d. in the reign of 
 the first Eichard. In 1G09, there were said to 
 be twelve millions of sheej) in Britain, and the 
 carcass value of each was Is. 4d. The fleece 
 averaged about 10s. 4:d.; and, the boast of the 
 writers of the period is, that " no country but 
 England and Ireland, having a sward or turf, 
 would bear sheep producing the wool of which 
 the English draperies were made." Tiiey 
 were willing to let the Spanish wool have the 
 palm for the costly dresses of the peer ; but it 
 was insignificant — " not above 9,000 pieces of 
 these Spanish cloths were sent abroad;" and 
 these were only for the "wear of the richer 
 sort." 
 
 AVe will now consider individually the 
 various breeds which have obtained amongst 
 us, and which we will class separately, under 
 the heads of long-ivoolleti and short -icooUed 
 species. Before doing this, however, we will 
 
 703 
 
TEESWATEE.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [teestvatee. 
 
 give, from Mr. McCullocli's Dictionary of 
 Commerce, the following compendious view of 
 the more prominent characteristics of the 
 various bi-eeds:— 
 
 Names of Ereedo. 
 
 Wool 
 
 
 "i'o % 
 
 |a 
 
 "ibiT 
 28 
 25 
 
 22 
 2i 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 16 
 15 
 14 
 12 
 18 
 20 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 Si 
 
 1. Teeswater 
 
 Long wool 
 
 Short \\ 
 
 Lon? „ 
 Short „ 
 
 Fine ',', 
 Short „ 
 
 (fine) 
 >> 
 
 (coarse) 
 (fine) 
 
 (Mid.) 
 )> 
 
 (super) 
 (fine) 
 
 lbs. 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 6 
 3 
 
 2J 
 
 li 
 
 3i 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 li 
 
 \i 
 
 Zh 
 
 'A 
 
 2 
 
 3. Dishley, or New Lei- 
 
 cester 
 
 4. Cotswold 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 5. Romney Marsh 
 
 6. Dartmoor, orBramp- 
 
 ton 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 6. Biack-faced or Heath 
 9. Hereford— Kvelaiid 
 
 10. Morf., Shropshire ... 
 
 11. Dorset 
 
 'ih 
 3J 
 
 0* 
 
 12. Wilts 
 
 3 
 
 13. Berks 
 
 2J 
 
 
 ?, 
 
 15. Norfolk 
 
 3i 
 
 16. Herdwick 
 
 4^ 
 
 17. Cheviot 
 
 4J 
 
 18. Dun-faced 
 
 4i 
 
 19. Shetland 
 
 4i 
 
 20. Spanish 
 
 2i 
 
 21. Ditto Cross 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 THE TEESWATER. 
 
 Properly speaking, the long-woolled breeds of 
 sheep originally belong to the rich and marshy 
 pastures of England, whence, with the ad- 
 ■vauces gradually made in agriculture, they have 
 extended to all parts of Britain ; and, in many 
 localities, have encroached on the land previ- 
 ously appropriated to the short-woolled breeds. 
 !From this circumstance they have, for many 
 years, been increasing in numbers, while the 
 others have been either decreasing or remain- 
 ing stationary. This is to be accounted for 
 by the fact of the long-woolled varieties being 
 more profitable than the short-woolled, pro- 
 vided they are pastured upon such land as 
 may be found agreeable to their nature. 
 When this is the case, they produce a much 
 greater weight of fleece, which yields as much 
 per pound as that of the others ; while the 
 earlier maturity, and the superior fattening 
 qualities of one particular variety, render them 
 a much more preferable stock to the others. 
 Tet, it has been observed, that whilst many of 
 the mountain or up- land breeds have been 
 preserved in a state of purity from remote 
 ages, most of the ancient long-woolled breeds 
 have either altogether disappeared, or been 
 preserved, by the curious, in individual flocks ; 
 they have either been changed by extensive 
 crossing with the New Leicester breed, or 
 701. 
 
 altogether supplanted by it. A distinction has 
 been made of two classes of long-woolled 
 sheep ; one belonging to the fens and marshes, 
 and the other to the inland plains. The for- 
 mer embraces the Teeswater, the Leicester, 
 and other varieties ; and the latter, the Lin- 
 coln and the Romney Marsh. 
 
 The Teeswater is a very large breed, and 
 may, in some degree, be considered the giant 
 of the fleecy tribes, as it will frequently attain 
 to the heaviness of 50 lbs. per quarter, or 
 240 lbs. weight. The fleece is long, very 
 open, and somewhat coarse. It weighs from 
 9 to 12 lbs. This breed of sheep is very old, 
 and, for a long space of time, has been located 
 on the banks of the river Tees, whence it 
 takes its name. Most writers class it with 
 the Lincoln sheep, from which it is supposed 
 to have derived its origin. This, however, is 
 very uncertain. " The principality of Dur- 
 ham," says Mr. Milburn, " celebrated for its 
 native wild cattle and pigs, had doubtless its 
 own peculiar breed of sheep and cattle ; and 
 the old Teeswater sheep had as much a 
 habitat in those rich pastures as the wild 
 cattle of Brauspeth, or the deer at Auckland 
 Palace. The great peculiarity of the animal 
 was its slow growth, and, at the same time, 
 its large size and bone, its heavy, thin, and 
 coarse wool. The length of the legs, in par- 
 ticular, gave it an imposing and somewhat un- 
 gainly appearance ; while its thick skin made 
 it a slow feeder in any but its native pas- 
 tures — the alluvial washings of many gene- 
 rations." At one period, this gentleman ob- 
 tained two lambs, as a great favour, from a 
 flock of pure Teeswaters. The farmer forbade 
 histaking two of his best animals, and he had to 
 be contented with one. He selected another, 
 so close in the pelt, and so unsymmetrical, 
 that he decided in putting it off. The best 
 was well kept, and astonished both himself 
 and his visitors by its amazing size, and the 
 great weight and quantity of its wool; but, 
 just before shearing, it died the victim of wool 
 and mutton. As it was skinned, and not 
 shorn, there was no mode of weighing the 
 fleece ; but it could not be lighter than 12 lbs. 
 The load of fat, added to the envelop of heavy 
 wool, seemed to have suffocated the animal, 
 for it was exceedingly well kept. 
 
 Pure Teeswaters are now nqyj scarce. As 
 
KENTISH BHEEP.] 
 
 AND TREIK VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [KENflBU BUEEr. 
 
 we have already observed, they have all, more 
 or less, been improved by crosses with the 
 Leicpstors ; and a more beautiful cross can 
 hardly bo soon. The Leicester sliortens tho 
 leg; but it also shortens tho wool. Still, the 
 cross so far keeps up tho character of an open 
 fleece, that it is excellent in a point where tho 
 Leicester is somewhat deficient. Tho cross is 
 always the substitution of a Leicester instead 
 of a Teeswatcr ram to a Teeswater llock of 
 ewes. The finest animal shown at a meeting 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society at Liverpool, 
 was one of these crosses ; but it was excluded 
 because it was not a pure Leicester. " Long- 
 ■woolled," however, was a term soon after sub- 
 stituted for Leicester, so as to admit sheep 
 of this description to compete. Tiie old Tees- 
 water was a large, full sheep, of ungainly form, 
 with a coarse bead, rounded haunches, and 
 long and large limbs. Other large breeds 
 formerly existed in the midland counties, but 
 most of them were smaller than the Teeswatcr. 
 These and similar breeds, however, have now 
 altogether disappeared in England. 
 
 The Teeswater sheep thrive best in small 
 flocks, and when they are dispersed over pas- 
 tures with other stock, rather than when tiiey 
 are crowded on the ground. The ewes are 
 very fruitful, and usually produce two, and 
 often three lambs at a birth. They are ex- 
 cellent mothers, and famous milkers ; and 
 though almost incapable of being brought up 
 to a state of fatness at one year old, they will 
 weigh 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter at the shear 
 without difficulty. The contest respecting 
 large and small sheep on good land, and the 
 most politic course for breeding and fatting, 
 is by no means settled. 
 
 KENTISH OR ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP. 
 
 I 
 The Kentish, or Romney Marsh sheep is 
 
 not, in its external characteristics, unlike the 
 
 Teeswater : it inhabits a locality to which it is 
 
 peculiar)}' adapted. In the northern and 
 
 eastern districts of this county, there is much ; 
 
 open ground, covered with short pasture, upon 
 
 which this variety thrives amazingly. Sir 
 
 Richard Phillips says of them, in his day — 
 
 "The marsh lands of Kent, used for breeding 
 
 sheep and fattening cattle, are 82,000 acres ; 
 
 of which Romney Marsh is 41,000. It has ' 
 
 fourteen miles in length, and ten in breadth, 
 
 4x 
 
 and for tho greater part consists of a rich clay 
 soil, well ada[)ted for rearing a large breed of 
 sheep. This had been reclaimed, at somt* 
 time, from tho sea." Sir liichard again says, 
 "that four sheep will live on an acru oi' mode- 
 rate land in summer, and two in winter." Tho 
 proportion is now quintupled, but tlio scosca 
 is reversed. lie then huneuts "tho deteriora- 
 tion of tho wool of tlie liomneys ; for the wool 
 of sheep deteriorates as the sheep's carcass in- 
 creases; hence, for some years, owing to the 
 enlargement of the English sheep by new 
 breeds, the wool has become too long and 
 coarso for Cue cloths. Our long and coarse 
 wool will not unite or produce the required 
 substance for clothing." 
 
 The head of the original Romney Marsh 
 sheep is largo and thick, and covered with a 
 white woolly tuft. Tho forehead is flat and 
 broad, the neck long, and somewhat small for 
 the size of the animal. The loin and back 
 are wide, but the sides are flat, and the belly 
 is deep. This exaggerates a naturally narrow, 
 and not very deep chest, so as to make it 
 appear still less favourable. The legs, speak- 
 ing of them in the sense of mutton, are large 
 and broad; and the hind quartex'S generally 
 are better developed than the fore. The wool 
 is long, but fine, and very suitable for combing. 
 It weighs about nine pounds per fleece. The 
 mutton is good in quality, and the weight is 
 often 140 lbs. ; and, in some cases, loO or 
 160 lbs. 
 
 The race can bear cold, wet, and eastern 
 exposure. Formerly they were fed, both 
 winter and summer, on grass and a little hay, 
 and were seldom provided with shelter; so 
 that, not unfrequently, the lambs all died, 
 and the ewes suflered from the cold and wet. 
 The long-established custom of the Romney 
 breeders has been to send their lambs to the 
 farmers on the uplands, to be fed during the 
 winter; but they are usually kept very hard, 
 chiefly on the stubbles for a long time, when 
 they are often greatly debilitated before they 
 are transferred to the pastures. They are 
 rarely allowed hay — a kind of economy which 
 sometimes proves very destructive to the stock. 
 In the management of the ewes in the marshes, 
 the same negligence and want of caro are 
 apparent. However severe the weather may 
 be, shelter is very rarely alFarded them ; but 
 
 705 
 
LINCOIK SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEER 
 
 fLINCOLir SHEEP. 
 
 ^^•he^e this is done, it amply repays tlie cost 
 and trouble in the lives which it saves. The 
 breed, however, is now seldom found in a pure 
 state, as it has been extensively crossed with 
 the New Leicester, which has greatly improved 
 its form. The eifusion of Leicester blood, 
 says Mr. Milburn, " effected a change, possibly 
 for the better, on the old Eomney Marsh 
 sheep. It made a finer animal, reduced the 
 quantity, but not the quality, of the wool; 
 deepened the chest, and increased its width ; 
 rounded the rib, and lessened the bone gene- 
 rally ; drew up the belly, and destroyed the 
 tuft of hair on the top of the head ; so that it 
 made the sheep altogether a better feeding 
 animal, without destroying its suitability to 
 the soil and climate which it had inhabited for 
 years. With its other improvements, the 
 cross had also the effect of reducing the period 
 of bringing the animals to market. They 
 were usually three years old before they were 
 sold to the butcher for killing. They are now 
 prime for the London market at two ; and as 
 this enables the feeder to turn over one-third 
 more capital in sheep-fattening, it is a great 
 advantage, though he has possibly somewhat 
 injured the hardihood of the animal; and it 
 now requires a greater amount of care and 
 skill for the bringing up of the lambs. Nor 
 has the wool been so far injured as to prevent 
 the breed from being classed among those 
 celebrated for this commodity. The Leicester 
 may have shortened a little, and made the 
 fleece set closer on the body; but it has 
 neither destroyed its fine texture, nor pre- 
 vented it from standing high in the estimation 
 of the manufacturer." 
 
 THE LINCOLNSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 This breed bears a strong resemblance to 
 both the Teeswater and the Eomney Marsh 
 or Kentish sheep, and, in all probability, had 
 a similar origin to them. The Lincolnshire 
 fens extend into Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and 
 the adjoining counties, and are well suited for 
 ihe rearing of a large race of sheep ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, they form the native habitat of the 
 Old Lincoln— a breed in its pure state, we 
 believe, now almost quite extinct. They were 
 of a large and coarse make, with hollow flanks 
 and flat sides, large legs and feet. Their 
 fleece almost touched the ground, was long and 
 706 
 
 oily, and weighed from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs., and 
 upwards. They fed slowly, but accumulated 
 a great deal of internal fat, and were, on that 
 account, much sought after by the butcher. 
 This was the Old Lincoln, the progenitors of 
 the present existing race, which has been im- 
 proved by extensive crossing with the New 
 Leicester, and which ]\Ir. Milburn describes 
 as having been of great value. He says that 
 they have smaller faces than the Eomney 
 Marsh sheep, and are altogether lighter in 
 flesh. The carcass is large and coarse ; the 
 length, from the head to the tail, measuring, 
 in some cases, four feet six or seven inches. 
 It is to this great length that he attributes the 
 apparent hoUowness which this variety has in 
 its back. The ribs are flattish, and not covered 
 very thickly with flesh ; whilst the belly is deep, 
 and the shoulders so forward as almost to hide 
 the breast. The neck is thick and large, and 
 is encumbered with a deep and flabby dewlap. 
 The hind quarters are full and fat, with a ten- 
 dency to accumulate fat at the rump. The 
 legs are fleshy and deep. The whole animal 
 is of an ungainly form, taking the standard of 
 connoisseur taste as a criterion ; but, wlieu 
 the wool covers the animal, the whole of his 
 imperfections are hid. He is one living square 
 of wool, ranging from fifteen to eighteen inches 
 long; and more of this material is clipped 
 from the Lincolnshire sheep tlian from amj 
 English slieep to7iateve7\ The fleece varies from 
 12 lbs. to 14 lbs. weight, which, when it sells 
 for 15d. or ISd. per pound, is equal to the value 
 of the whole carcass of some of the smaller 
 breeds of sheep. Nor is it far behind in mutton. 
 The wether will weigh from 30 lbs. to 35 lbs. 
 per quarter, sinking the oflal, or a nett weight 
 of mutton, per sheep, of 140 lbs. 
 
 The effect of crossing this animal with the 
 New Leicester has been to reduce the size, 
 diminish the length, and to restore the power ot 
 internal accumulation of fat, and also to deposit 
 it externally on the sides and back of the sheep. 
 
 Messrs. Kennedy and Grainger state, that 
 the sheep bred in the wolds are deeper crossed 
 with the New Leicester than those in the 
 marsh lands, which may account for the fleece 
 of the latter being heavier. "The breed of 
 sheep generally," they observe, " has been 
 greatly increased since the turnip husbandry 
 has been introduced. Those bred in the wolds, 
 
LEiCESTEB SHEEP.] AND THEIR V A Kl O U S intEEDS. [leicestee siikep. 
 
 and, indeed, in every pnrt of the diatrict where 1 
 tliia system is pursued, aro roared chiefly on 
 artifie'ial grasses. Tlioro aro, however, groat 
 numbers bred on oUl pastures, the best of which 
 are kept for the purpose of fatting sheep." 
 The ollVctou tluMVOol.as to (piaiitity, certainly 
 depends on the degree of Leicester blood 
 infused. The lowland sheep, when the in- 
 fusion prevails to a smaller extent, have a largo 
 massv frame of flesli, covered and grained witli 
 fat. They are compact and kiiuUy feeders, 
 though they require more food than when a 
 larger proportion of Leicester blood prevails, 
 and cannot either be put on land so inferior, 
 nor on any land in the same average quantity. 
 Their produce of wool is very great. A 
 wether killed at Grantham, one of au equal 
 lot of twenty-seven, clipped 17 lbs. of wool, 
 and weighed almost 30S lbs. The sheep are 
 always sold at two shear, and the united clip — 
 the one made as a shearling, and the other at 
 two years old — will often average 20 to 25 lbs. 
 "When fatted to the utmost extent, a wether 
 has been known to weigh 300 lbs., and a ewe 
 262 lbs. Such instances exhibit the power of 
 these large-framed sheep to produce both wool 
 and mutton. Assuming a choice specimen to 
 be two shear, his whole produce will be — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 Two fleeces of wool, 24 lbs., at Is. 3rf. . . 1 10 
 Carcass, say 250 lbs., at 5d 5 4 2 
 
 Total . . . .£^6 14 2 
 "With higher prices, of course, the value of 
 the animal would be more ; but this is sufficient 
 to show that the Lincolnshire sheep, when 
 not far removed from its original stock, is an 
 animal very remunerative both as to wool and 
 mutton. 
 
 THE DISHLEY, OR NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 Tlie Leicester, or the Hew Leicester slieep, 
 had its type in the Teeswater, the Lincoln, 
 and the Eomney Marsh breeds. It was a 
 large, heavy, coarse sheep, with a disposition to 
 feed favourably, but with much grossncss about 
 it. Its wool, however, was excellent for comb- 
 ing. The rams would weigh, when fat, 40 lbs. 
 per quarter ; and the fleece would weigh 13 or 
 14 lbs. It was on these animals that Bakewell 
 began his experiment, with a view to improve- 
 ment ; and, in 17G0, he commenced the system 
 of letting rams, as distinguished from selling. 
 
 The usual course was for the farmers to save 
 
 the best of their several flocks, and resorvo 
 them uncast rated, as male lumbc*. Bakewell 
 began a letting system; but so liltlo was it 
 liked, and so little was thouglit of his ramn, 
 that ho lot one in that year, for tlio season, 
 for only sixteen shillings; and it was not till 
 twenty years afterwards, that anything like a 
 remunerative price was received. It was tlien 
 onlv ten guineas for one ram ; but it afterwards 
 rapidly increased, till, in 17SU, ho received 
 300 guineas for one ram ; and, three years 
 afterwards, he realised no less than G,'20Q 
 guineas, thus rewarding him for his unwearied 
 perseverance, under almost every species of 
 discouragement and opposition. Subsequently 
 he established the Dishley Society, with the 
 view of extending the breed, preserving it pure, 
 and benefiting the members of it. As an im- 
 prover of the breed of sheep, this gentleman 
 stands alone; but how ho accomplished the 
 great points he achieved, remains a secret, for 
 the plan he adopted died with him. It is cer- 
 tain that ho reduced the size of the native 
 animal, and gave him small offals, induced him 
 to lay on flesh and fat all along the breech, 
 the sides, the shoulders, the flank, and the 
 neck ; opened his wool, and also reduced it in 
 weight, and a little in length. He likewise 
 increased the tendency to lay on fat in propor- 
 tion to the food consumed, and made the animal 
 take on fat a year or two earlier at least, and 
 thus enabled two or three animals to be fed 
 where one only could be kept before. All this 
 he did ; and the same breed of sheep has, for a 
 century, not only maintained its position, but 
 has been employed, with more or less success, 
 to improve nearly every breed of sheep in the 
 United Kingdom, and, at the same time, has 
 more or less displaced almost every other breed. 
 The various points of the New Leicester 
 have been thus accurately set down by Mr. 
 Low: — "The head should bo hornless, long, 
 small, tapering towards tho muzzle, and pro- 
 jecting horizontally forwards. The eyes should 
 be prominent, with a great expression ; whilst 
 tho ears should be thin, somewhat long, and 
 directed backwards. The neck should be 
 full and broad at its base, where it proceeds 
 from the chest, but gradually tapering towards 
 the head, and being particularly fine at the 
 junction of the head and neck ; tho neck 
 
 707 
 
XEICESTEES.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [leicestees. 
 
 seeming to project straight from the chest, so 
 that there is, with the slightest possible devia- 
 tion, one continued horizontal line from the 
 rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; 
 the shoulders, also, broad and round, and no 
 uneven or angular formation where the shoul- 
 ders join either the neck or the back ; par- 
 ticularly no rising of the withers, or hollow 
 behind the situation of these bones ; the arm 
 fleshy through its whole extent, and even 
 down to the knee ; the bones of the legs 
 small, standing wide apart, no looseness of 
 skin about them, and comparatively bare of 
 wool ; the chest and barrel at once deep and 
 round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch 
 from the spine, so as, in some cases, and 
 especially when the animal is in good con- 
 dition, to make the apparent width of the 
 chest even greater than the depth ; the barrel 
 ribbed home ; no irregularity of line on the 
 back or the belly, but, on the sides, the carcass 
 very gradually diminishing in width towards 
 the rump ; the quarters long and full, and, as 
 with the fore legs, the muscles extending 
 down to the hock ; the thighs, also, wide and 
 full ; the legs of a moderate length ; the pelt, 
 also, moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and 
 covered with a good quantity of white wool, 
 not so long as in some breeds, but considerably 
 finer." Such is the Dishley, or Leicester 
 sheep ; and the breeders of the Teeswaters, of 
 the Downs, and of the Lincolns, all claim the 
 breeds as the source of Mr. Bakewell's im- 
 provement on the old Leicester stock. They 
 allege that he might reduce the bone and 
 frame by a simple dash of the favourite blood, 
 and thus obtaining a firm superstructure, 
 breed in-and-in, until it was indelible. But 
 this, according to some authors, is very im- 
 probable. He, no doubt, however, selected those 
 animals which corresponded with his ideas of 
 what were the best, with light offals, and a 
 tendency to feed, and which exhibited early 
 maturity, and very natural forms, 
 
 "It seldom happens," says Mr. Milburn, 
 "that one great man discovers any new fact 
 or principle in science alone. Discoveries, 
 according to Providential arrangements, seem 
 to bo made in different places at once. Mr. 
 Joseph Allom, of Clifton, in Leicestershire, 
 who rose from the plough-tail, by his mind 
 and energy, to be an extensive farmer and 
 70S 
 
 breeder, was known to select and purchase 
 choice ewes from all parts of the country, 
 chiefly from Melton. ^He had a breed which 
 were great favourites before Bakewell was 
 lieard of. Specific characteristics we cannot 
 very easily define. Mr. Touatt slurs even 
 Mr. Allom, in a note ; and, in the text, says, 
 'Up to this period (the middle of last cen- 
 tury) very little care had been bestowed in 
 the breeding of sheep.' Mr. Marshall goes 
 to tiie other extreme, and says that the origin 
 of Bakewell's improvements are due to Allom. 
 The truth is probably between the two. 
 Allom's stock might be made available to 
 Bakewell's purposes ; and his practice might 
 set the latter to work in more zealously im- 
 proving the breed." 
 
 Another cause was also in operation towards 
 the same end ; and, doubtless, gave another op- 
 portunity for Bakewell's selecting his speci- 
 mens to improve his breed. In I74i7, there 
 were some successions of bad seasons, which 
 so operated on the succulent grass of Leices- 
 tershire, as to sweep off nearly the whole of 
 the sheep on the lower clay soils of that 
 county. ' This banished the more wealthy 
 farmers from the district, and they had to take 
 refuge on the wolds of Yorkshire, and then 
 purchase some small-horned, fine-bred sheep, 
 for a supply to their decimated flocks. The 
 trade of jobbing thus commenced ; and it is 
 said that Bakewell employed the jobbers, who 
 brought down, from time to time, these York- 
 shire wold sheep, to allow him to cull the 
 best, before they offered them to the farmers. 
 He thus obtained compact, square, rapidly- 
 feeding animals; and persevered, year after 
 year, in selecting the best, in his judgment, 
 from his own flock, until he had obtained the 
 celebrity which has handed down his name as 
 the greatest improver that ever lived ; and the 
 once new Leicester sheep has become the Lei- 
 cester sheep ; so completely has it eaten out 
 its progenitors. 
 
 Although this breed has been intermixed 
 with many other breeds, in almost every kind 
 of degree, it still, in most respects, holds its 
 ground. Breeders, however, now incline to- 
 wards the production of a large animal, as be- 
 ing more profitable. Thus, the improved Cots- 
 ^^old — frequently designated the New Oxford- 
 shire — and some of the heavier species, have 
 
LEicESTEE SHEKP.] AND TIIEIll VAKIOUS BREEDS. [cotswold sueep. 
 
 become successful rivals of tlio pure Dishloy 
 breed. Tho LtMoestcr, Iiowovlt, still commands 
 a liirge extent of tlio mo.st fi-rtilo districts of 
 England, and has long been introduced to 
 Scotland, where it has boon cultivated with tho 
 utmost caro and success. In both countries 
 it is chieily restricted to tlio lowlands, or to 
 land of pretty good quality. lu the Journal 
 of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England, 
 we find an account of tlio modes of nianago- 
 luent pursued in Ivoxburghshire, on the borders 
 of tho Tweed and the Teviot, whicli niiglit bo 
 taken as the system generally adopted in tho 
 superior districts of both countries. " Before 
 the oommeucement of the present century, tho 
 Cheviot were almost tlie only sheep found in 
 Teviotdale and Tweeddale; whilst, witliin the 
 space of thirty years afterwards, the Leicester 
 breed, with few exceptions, had the entire pos- 
 session of these districts ; and they not only 
 greatly exceeded their predecessors in num- 
 bers, but still more so in weight. On nearly 
 all the farms of any considerable extent in 
 breeding, a stock of these sheep is kept ; and 
 from the ewes, thi-ee successions of lambs are 
 taken ; the dams being sold off at the close of 
 their third breeding season, or when four-and- 
 a-half years old. In general, the whole pro- 
 duce of these ewes is retained upon the farm 
 on which they are bred ; a proportion of the 
 ewe lambs, when gimmers, coming in to take 
 the place of the old ewes sold in each year. 
 The wcdder-lambs, again, are disposed of as 
 fat ; many of them, immediately afterwards, 
 being deprived of the first fleece ; and the re- 
 mainder, after being fed on turnips, in the 
 winter or spring of the second year. Not un- 
 frequently, however, upon farms where a large 
 proportion of turnips cannot be raised, the 
 whole wedder-lambs, and, sometimes, part of 
 the ewe-lambs, are disposed of at weaniug- 
 time ; and those ewe-lambs kept beyond the 
 number required to maintain the complement 
 of the year, are sold when gimmers, usually 
 at about eighteen months old. These young 
 sheep, being thus so early matured for the 
 butcher, are maintained from their earliest 
 time on full feed ; it being a great object to 
 prevent them losing any of the condition they 
 generally possess when taken from the ewes. 
 AVith this view, also, they are early put upon 
 turnips, as it is very desirable tliey should be 
 
 woU acquainted with this their ossential moans 
 of 8U[)port, previous to any failure in tho nu- 
 trilious properties in tho gra.ss, or tho occur- 
 rcnco of severe weather. To tho young stock, 
 intended to bo kept for breeding, fewer turnips 
 aro commonly allowed, although they aro sel- 
 dom, during any j)art of tho winter, entirely 
 without this useful assistance. Tho ewea 
 having, at this season, the range of the whole 
 pasture, are only allowed auxiliary food during 
 tho severity of a storm, and in hard winter 
 weather, until towards the aj)proach of the 
 period of lambing, when a proportion of turnips 
 becomes indispensable to maintain thorn in 
 sufficient condition to bring them well through 
 this critical and interesting season. In gene- 
 ral, more sheep aro fattened than aro bred in 
 the district." This system, with some modi- 
 fications, caused by tho qualities of the land, 
 prevails, with little difference, throughout the 
 midland districts of England. 
 
 The Leicester, as a turnip-feeder, is, perhaps, 
 the most successful of all breeds of sheep. 
 The fat is in greater quantity, collected on 
 the surface, than any breed whatever ; and it 
 will accumulate as much fat, if not more, 
 for the food consumed, than any other kind of 
 sheep. A better proof of the value of the 
 Leicester could not be adduced, than is 
 found in the fact of their having super- 
 seded a vast proportion of the sheep of this 
 country, under every circumstance of pastu- 
 rage and climate, and established themselves 
 in their stead. They have also been used to 
 improve the desirable points of almost every 
 breed, which still at all keeps its ground. la 
 fine, the Leicester is the only sheep whicli 
 can, with any degree of success, be fattened 
 at one year old. 
 
 THE COTSWOLD SHEEP, 
 
 Cotswold is one word produced by the union 
 of two, and signifies a. sheep-fold and a naked 
 hill. The breed of sheep which goes by this 
 name is both ancient and celebrated. The 
 hills which were its original habitat are of no 
 great elevation ; but they enjoy a fragrant 
 herbage ; and though, at one time, consisting 
 only of bleak marshes, have, in the course of 
 years, undergone great improvement. Kelative 
 to its breed of sheep, Camden speaks of it as 
 furnishing wool both fine and soft ; whilst 
 
 7U9 
 
COTSWOLD SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [daetmook sheep. 
 
 Drayton writes of its abundance. Speed, 
 writing upwards of 200 years ago, speaks of 
 the wool as similar to the Eyeland, and rival- 
 ling that of the Iberian peninsula. Indeed, 
 some have gone so far as to say, that the Cots- 
 wold is the progenitor of the Merino sheep, 
 as, in 1464, Edward IV. permitted a number to 
 be exported to Spain, where they multiplied 
 and spread. Before this period, however, 
 Spain enjoyed a celebrity for her wools. The 
 Cotswold is a large breed, with a long and 
 an abundant fleece. In the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth, when Markham wrote, he describes 
 them as a long-woolled race. The ewes are 
 not only prolific, but good nurses. At one 
 time they were bred only on the hills, and put 
 to fatten in the valleys of the Thames and the 
 Severn. Since the enclosure of the Cotswold 
 hills, however, coupled with the improvement 
 in their cultivation, they have been reared 
 and fatted in the same district. This species 
 has a great tendency to accumulate fat upon 
 the back ; and whilst its breast is not so wide, 
 deep, or prominent as that of the Leicester, it 
 IS of larger bone. Its sides are flatter, but it 
 is neither so broad nor so prominent in the 
 shoulders and legs. The fat and flesh are laid 
 in the back, in a large and unyielding mass ; 
 whilst the Leicester has a soft elastic firmness, 
 in every way agreeable to be touched. This 
 may arise from the fineness of the pelt. The 
 Cotswold, on the contrary, has a thicker pelt, 
 and the wool mats itself near the skin, and is 
 more straggling at the edges. The head is 
 white, and so are the legs ; while the ears are 
 small, and fall downwards and outwards. The 
 top of the head is a mass of soft bushy wool. 
 The weight of the animal will sometimes reach 
 28 lbs. per quarter ; but 28 to 30 lbs. will be 
 a nearer average for two-year-old sheep. At 
 a year and a quarter they will, when properly 
 fatted, be found to yield 19 lbs. per quarter, 
 and sometimes attain to 20 or 21 lbs. Their 
 yield of wool, v\ hich is fine and light in propor- 
 tion to its bulk, is from 8 to 9 lbs. 
 
 The gradual infusion of Leicester blood is 
 general amongst the most celebrated and ex- 
 tensive flocks of the Cotswold breed, other- 
 wise thi re would be longer wool, more hardi- 
 ness, less ?arly maturity, more bone, and some- 
 what ligl ter fore quarters. The Leicester 
 mixture, h 3)wever, is not excessive, and occurs, 
 71G 
 
 perhaps, in a very remote degree. The sheep 
 is still and quiet in its habits, and is one of 
 the best kinds for carrying out the board or 
 hurdle feeding. In Gloucestershire, the Cots- 
 wolds, now almost lost in the Leicesters, have 
 multiplied to a degree which would hardly 
 have been believed to be possible in this pavt 
 of the kingdom ; and the short-wools are nearly 
 driven out of this district. Writing upon this 
 breed, Mr. Spooner says, that "the superior 
 hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the 
 Leicester, and their adaptation to common 
 treatment, together witb the prolific nature of 
 the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have 
 rendered them, in many places, rivals of the 
 New Leicester, and have obtained for them 
 more attention to their selection and treat- 
 ment, under which management still further 
 improvement appears very probable. They 
 have also been used in crossing other breeds, 
 and have been mixed with the Hampshire 
 Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold 
 that, under the term of New or Improved Ox- 
 fordshire sheep, are so frequently the success- 
 ful candidates for prizes oflered for the best 
 long-woolled sheep at some of the principal 
 agricultural meetings or shows in the king- 
 dom. The quality of the mutton is considered 
 superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow 
 being less abundant, with a larger develop- 
 ment of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, 
 regard this breed as one of established reputa- 
 tion, and extending itself throughout every 
 district of the kingdom." 
 
 THE DARTMOOR SHEEP. 
 This is one of the principal forest breeds of 
 the West of England, and it bears a strong 
 resemblance to the Dorset. Its habitat is 
 found in the higher situations of Devonshire 
 and Cornwall ; and, from the hardiness of its 
 nature, it is well adapted to the poverty of the 
 pasture which the forests of Dartmoor and 
 Exraoor afi'ord. They have white faces and 
 legs ; have horns generally ; but some are with- 
 out these. The head and neck are small, and 
 so is the bone in every part of the animal t 
 whilst the carcass is narrow, and the sides are 
 flat. When fat, they weigh from nine to twelve 
 pounds per quarter. In the yolk, the place is 
 three or four pounds in weight, and the wool 
 is somewhat short, with a coarse top. It is 
 
eiMOOU suKEP.] AND TllEIli VAliiOUS BllEEUS. [aAMuououuu sujiEP. 
 
 classed, by some writers, amonpj tlio middle- 
 wooUoJ bieods; but, in our classitii-ation, wo 
 Imvo Ibllowod ^rcCiillocli, and inado only two 
 distinctions — namely, a long and u short, for tlio 
 sake of simplicitj-, Lnrgo numbora of them 
 browso on the hills and the commons of the 
 heathy parts of Devonshire ; but the ewes are 
 taken into inclosurcs to lamb. For tho sake 
 of their wool, tho wethers aro kept on the 
 downs, until they are five or six, or even eight 
 or ten years old, save when tho winters arc 
 severe, when they are inclosed to prevent their 
 being lost in tho snow. Their mutton is deli- 
 cate, and, in the metropolis, procures a ready 
 customer. Their wool, however, is not vei'y 
 fine. Indeed, from an early period, tho Devon- 
 shire produce of this article has had but an 
 indifferent character. In a note in the work 
 published in the Library of Useful Knowledge, 
 it is stated to have been inferior even in the 
 days of Edward IV., when the Devon manu- 
 facturers petitioned him to permit them to 
 mingle flocks with their wool, in the making 
 of their serge cloths, because the material was 
 so gross and stubborn, that cloth could not be 
 made thereof, without mixing it with flocks. 
 Since the introduction of the Leicesters, how- 
 ever, a better article has been produced. It is 
 mostly used for the manufacture of livery-cloths. 
 
 THE EXMOOR SHEEP. 
 
 This species is very like the Dartmoor as to 
 conformation and character, but it is of a still 
 smaller size. The males have hair under the 
 chin, like goats, and bear a striking resemblance 
 to these nimble-footed animals in their activity 
 and boldness. They are milder than the 
 Dartmoor breed, and their flesh is equally 
 good. The horns are large, and very peculiar, 
 spreading at the roots so much, as nearly to 
 touch each other, and proceeding backwards, 
 and growing outwards, so as to be somewhat 
 spiral. The little cars peer out of these folds, 
 and a dull, heavy-looking head is situated be- 
 tween. The throat is flabby and hairy ; the 
 breast narrow and thin, sinking backwards, 
 almost behind the fore legs; and the fore 
 quarter is short. There is a falling of the 
 back behind the shoulder, and a rise at the 
 rump. They are now much improved by the 
 infusion of a little Leicester blood. They are 
 the sheep of Cornwall, which, in early times, 
 
 were remarkably small, and their fleccoB so 
 coarse, that the wool boro no better title than 
 that of Cornish hair. Under tliat, name, tho 
 cloth made of Cornish wool, was allowed to bo 
 exported without being subject to tho cus- 
 tomary duty paid for woollen clotli. Wlien 
 cultivation began to extend, and tlio catlh; to 
 improve in size and quality, tho Cornish had 
 tho same poundage conferred on them by 
 grant from Edward the Black Prince, tho first 
 Duke of Cornwall, on condition of their paying 
 •is. for every hundredweight. These sheep 
 principally occupy the heaths and downs of 
 every part of the county, even as far as the 
 sandy hills, which hardly have a covering of 
 green towards the Land's-end. "\Ve have seen 
 many of them cropping their scanty herbage 
 in these parts, where they are highly valued, 
 on account of the peculiar flavour which their 
 mutton has, from the numerous aromatic plants 
 with which this part of England abounds. Tho 
 native breed is considered to have reached its 
 maturity at four years old; and the average 
 number of twin lambs produced, is about one 
 in six. 
 
 THE BAMDOROUGH SHEEP. 
 
 This is both a short and long-woolled race, 
 very peculiar and valuable, says Mr. Milburn ; 
 and yet it is scarcely named by half tho writers 
 on sheep. It makes mutton readily, and pro- 
 duces a valuable wool. It is bred in the 
 south-eastern parts of Northumberland, and 
 north of Durham — in fact, from the Tweed to 
 the Tyne — and the regular fair for their pur- 
 chase is Rodbury. Tho flocks are remarkably 
 like each other, having flat level backs, being 
 good grazers, producing G lbs. of uool of a 
 strong but close quality, and weighing 22 lbs. 
 per quarter when fat. The heads are placed 
 horizontally, and the animals rapidly accumu- 
 late fat. With ordinary keep the ewes are 
 always fat. They are excellent feeders, and 
 consume a great deal of food. The fat is laid 
 on internally to a large extent, but it is duly 
 mixed with the muscle ; and consequently tho 
 mutton is somewhat insipid. In feeding, they 
 grow more fiit and less muscle, perhaps, than 
 any other breed. From their great resemblance 
 to each other, they seem to be a distinct breed, 
 and are a good deal grazed, the ewes being pur- 
 chased for lambing in Yorkshire. After the 
 lambs are weaned, the ewes soon become fat 
 
 711 
 
HEATH SHEEP. J 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 ^HEATH SHEEP. 
 
 on grass in summer, and the lambs rapidly 
 feed for the butcher. 
 
 THE BERKSHIRE SHEEP. 
 About the centre of Berkshire, its old breed 
 was wont to be found, with their Eoman 
 noses, black faces, long tails, and black and 
 mottled legs. Some of them were polled, but 
 most of them were horned. Their strength, 
 activity, and height were considerable ; whilst 
 they folded well, and, when fattened, assumed 
 large proportions ; but to bring them to this 
 condition usually took a long time. Mr. 
 Herbert says, that " they were nest in weight 
 to the old Leicester breeds, but higher than 
 them on the legs. The wethers, when mode- 
 rately fat, weighed from ten to thirteen 
 stones ; and when fattened for prize show, they 
 weighed from sixteen to twenty-two stones." 
 This breed was first improved by a cross with 
 the Wiitshires, and subsequently with the 
 Southdowns, which are now the prevailing 
 breed in the county. The blood of the old 
 race may be said to have become so deeply 
 amalgamated vv'ith the Southdowns, that they 
 have lost their original character. 
 
 THE BLACK-FACED, OR HEATH SHEEP. 
 
 This peculiar breed of sheep inhabits the 
 lofty, but barren and heathy hills which, com- 
 mencing in Derbyshire in the south, run 
 thence into Scotland, through Lancashire, 
 Yorkshire, Cumberland, and "Westmoreland. 
 It is questionable whether they are the 
 aboriginal breedof these districts; but whether 
 they are or not, they have extended themselves 
 into the mountains of the Highlands, and even 
 penetrated to the Orkneys and Zetland, where 
 they have taken the place of the original and 
 more inferior breeds of these parts. They are 
 celebrated for the excellence of their mutton, 
 but their wool does not rank so high. There 
 is no doubt, however, that a breed of sheep 
 producing wool of a superior kind to that now 
 yielded by the black-faced sheep, was at one 
 period common in Scotland.' Hector Boe- 
 thius, who wrote about the year 1460, speaks 
 of the fineness of the wool produced in various 
 parts of this county. Remarking on the 
 sheep which inhabited the vale of Esk, where, 
 until the introduction of the Clieviots, the 
 rough-wooUed, black-faced sheep alone were 
 712 
 
 found, he says, as given by HoUinshed — 
 ""Whose sheep have such white, fine, and 
 excellent wool, as the like of it is hardly to be 
 found again in the whole island." Sebastian 
 Munster, in his Cosmograpliia Universalis, 
 published ninety years afterwards, says — " The 
 sheep pasture in each country (England and 
 Scotland) is such, that nowhere is there better 
 or finer wool." Dr. Anderson proves, that 
 three or four centuries ago, a fine-woolled 
 breed of sheep was common in Scotland. In 
 Galloway, Annandale, and JS'iddesdale, it was 
 found in the greatest numbers; but it re- 
 mained longest in some of the mountainous 
 districts of Aberdeenshire. liot a century 
 ago it existed in Eifeshire ; and if any of it 
 now remains, it is perhaps in the islands of 
 Shetland. 
 
 Eeturning to the black-faced sheep, how- 
 ever, we find it observed by Mr. Torr, that it 
 is a breed which possesses characters that 
 distinguish it from every other species in the 
 British Isles. It belongs to the smaller races 
 of sheep in regard to the weight to which it 
 attains ; but is not only larger, but more 
 robust than the Zetland, the "Welsh, and the 
 ancient soft-woolled sheep, which it displaced. 
 It resembles the "Wallachian, which has an 
 affinity with the Persian ; and, like it, a conjec- 
 ture might be ventured that it came originally 
 from the East. Its peculiarity is its extreme 
 hardiness, as it will subsist where many other 
 races would literally starve. It is left to shift 
 for itself amongst the heather and furze ; and, 
 when unmolested, wanders almost wild among 
 the hills, picking up such herbage as it finds 
 suitable or agreeable to its palate. Thus it is 
 reared at very little expense, until it is trans- 
 ferred to richer pasture, or till turnips are 
 given it, with the view of its being fattened 
 for the butcher. 
 
 The face and neck of these sheep are usually 
 black, though sometimes they approach to 
 grey ; and, a little before shearing-time, become 
 brown. Elegant and graceful horns grow from 
 each side of their heads, and usually bend 
 backwards and downwards. The specimens 
 on the heads of some four-year-old wethers, 
 have been pronounced really beautiful. The 
 head is broad, and the back straight and broad ; 
 the chest deep, and the legs straight and 
 fleshy. The wool is long and pendulous, and 
 
DonsETsniRE SHEEP.] AND I'lIEIR VAlilOUS BTIEEDS. [dousetsiiiue sheep. 
 
 considerably curled. The eyes are full, and 
 expressive of life : whilst tlie carcass is round- 
 barrelled, wilh well-nrched ribs. The lines 
 down the hams and the breast ore straight and 
 perpendicular. The neck is fiiio and clean. 
 The lean Higliland sheep are usually bouglit at 
 Falkirk trysts, where myriads of atiiinals cover 
 the moor. As many as 80,000, and even 
 90,000, are sometimes exhibited at the Oc- 
 tober trvst. Twenty thousand is a common 
 number at the other trysts. About half this 
 number are wethers of the sbear ; tho re- 
 mainder are two-year-olds, for further picking 
 on the moors, and for store or for feedinc;, and 
 a few rams. The year-old wethers arc either 
 purcliased there to fatten, or arc run on in 
 winter in any low pasture with rough grass, 
 and fattened in the summer of the following 
 year on grass. During the winter these will 
 subsist, and even improve, on very inferior 
 grass ; such, indeed, as almost every other 
 animal will refuse ; and if they are not crowded 
 on tlie ground, tbey will manage to get through 
 the winter. Many persons imagine, that it 
 takes four, or even five years, before the full 
 mutton-development of the black- faced sheep 
 takes place ; but this is not tbe case. Heather- 
 fed sheep, fed in the second winter after they 
 are lambed, are, when rapidly fatted, in as good 
 condition as they can be at any subsequent 
 period. " This breed," observes Professor Low, 
 " does not appear to amalgamate well with 
 other races, so that crossing has not generally 
 been successful as a means of permanent im- 
 provement. It has been frequently crossed by 
 the Cheviot, but the descendants have been 
 found inferior in weight, form, and quality of 
 wool, to the pure Cheviots, and to the black- 
 faced heath breed in hardiness and aptitude to 
 
 thrive in an upland country of henthH. Hut 
 as it is not always deemed aitfe to change a 
 stock of sheep, habituated to their locality, tho 
 practice of a continued crossing with the 
 Cheviot, until tho (lock haa acquired tho 
 cliaracters of the latter, has been Homeliines 
 adopted ; so that tlie original black-faced Htock 
 has become, in time, almost Clioviot. Another 
 species of crossing haa become remarkably 
 successful — namely, the employing of mahaof 
 the Leicester or Southdown for a first cross. 
 Tho lambs — tho result of this mixture — are 
 excellent, rising to a much greater weight than 
 those of the pure black-faced blood. Of these 
 crosses, the best has been found to bo with tho 
 Leicesters. That with the tSouthdowus pro- 
 duces very handsome sheep, having perfectly 
 black faces and legs, and a close good fleece ; 
 but they scarcely attain tho size of the Lei- 
 cester crosses ; and the latter, accordingly, are 
 preferred for the special purpose for which 
 this species of breeding is designed." 
 
 To keep black-faces properly, or well, they 
 should not be crowded, or too much over- 
 stocked. They are capable of bearing very- 
 hard treatment; will stand almost any degree 
 of cold, and any quantity of wet, whilst sup- 
 porting themselves on the poorest of pasture; 
 but they are seldom tried with this ; therefore, 
 age has to make up for previous neglect ; and 
 they must be kept longer than any other kind 
 of sheep, to bring them into suitable condition. 
 
 Heavy stocking will, nearly always, make 
 the difference between good and bad produce; 
 as it will diminish the size of the sheep, throw 
 it back in its feeding, and the breeder and the 
 feeder will be a much greater time in bringing 
 up their produce to that condition which may 
 be called ready for the market. 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 SHORT OR MIDDLE-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEF. 
 
 THE DORSETSHIRE SHEEP. I the Norfolk, the Suffolk, and Cheviot breeds, 
 
 What some designate the middle-woolled with some others, which were all formerly 
 sheep, comprise the Dorset, the Southdown, short-woolled. For the sake of simplicity, we 
 4 Y 713 
 
BOESET SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [doeset sheep. 
 
 Lave retained their original distinction, as 
 their wool has been lengthened only by the 
 improvements made in breeding. The Dorset- 
 shire sheep is a breed of itself, although it is 
 now greatly encroached upon by the South- 
 downs. It is a valuable breed ; and where 
 pure, is entirely white, with a long and broad 
 face, and with a tuft of wool on the forehead. 
 The shoulders are broad and low ; the chest 
 deep ; the back straight ; the loins broad ; the 
 legs somewhat long, and the bone small. They 
 are a hardy and useful race, folding well, and 
 yielding excellently flavoured mutton. AVhen 
 three years old, they average from 16 to 20 lbs. 
 per quarter. "The great peculiarity of the 
 Dorset sheep," says Mr. Milburn, " appears to 
 be, that while other breeds receive the ram 
 only at one and the same season, the Dorset 
 will take hira all the year round, and even 
 while the lambs are suckling. There is thus 
 the power of supplying lamb at any season of 
 the year for the pampered appetite of the epi- 
 cure ; and vast sums are thus realised by those 
 who keep them for the purpose. Nor is this 
 peculiarity one which at all applies, as might 
 be supposed, to the mild climate, or favoured 
 pasturage, of Dorsetshire. The breed possesses 
 the same peculiarity in all parts of the country, 
 even in Scotland ; though it must be obvious, 
 that the rearing of lambs at the period of mid- 
 winter, is far more likely to proceed favourably 
 in the mild and genial south-west of England, 
 than in the colder and more northern climes. 
 The ewes take the ram in May, so that they 
 will produce in October ; and the early lamb at 
 Christmas, in Loudon, is obtained from this 
 late produce." These lambs are house-fed — a 
 practice which is not now so common as it 
 used to be ; but the manner in which it was, 
 and still is, partially pursued, in the districts 
 near the metropolis, has been thus described 
 by Mr. Middleton. He says, that "the ewes 
 are always, witliout exception, of the Dorset- 
 shire breed, and the early lambing species are 
 sought for, throughout the country, with great 
 diligence ; for it is thought that not more than 
 one in three will lamb sufficiently early for the 
 purpose. Those of large size, with white noses, 
 are most in esteem ; and anything like black 
 on that part would occasion their being re- 
 jected. The colour of the flesh of those lambs, 
 when butchered, is, also, a matter which, in a 
 714 
 
 great measure, governs their value ; and, 
 therefore, those which can be warranted to die 
 fair always bear the highest price. This, evi- 
 dently, cannot be guaranteed when produced 
 by ewes which have been promiscuously pur- 
 chased at the fairs ; those breeders with whom 
 the sucklers usually deal, are, consequently, 
 careful in the selection of the rams, the issue 
 of which is said to be known by certain marks 
 in the mouth, even before any previous know- 
 ledge of their progeny. The rams and ewes 
 should be put together at such a time that the 
 lambs may fall at the proper season — say, 
 somewhere about Michaelmas — from which 
 period there is usually a succession of them, 
 until towards Christmas. The ewes, both 
 some time previously to this, and during the 
 whole period of suckling, are kept in a croft, 
 adjoining the lamb -house, and must be well- 
 fed, in addition to after-grass, cole, cabbage, or 
 any succulent roots which may be in season, 
 together with brewers' grains, pollard, ground 
 oats, or barley-meal, pea-meal, and linseed, or, 
 in short, any food which will best promote an 
 abundance of milk, and the consequent growth 
 of fat in the lambs. The lambs are separated 
 from their dams, and put into the house, which 
 should be well-littered with clean wheat straw, 
 a little of which should also be placed in racks, 
 with the ears downwards, in order to amuse 
 themselves, and prevent them from gnawing 
 each other's wool. Some chalk, baked in an 
 oven, should likewise be put in the troughs, 
 both in lumps and powder, in order to guard 
 them, as much as possible, against looseness ; 
 and the most scrupulous attention should be 
 paid to cleanliness, as they do not leave the 
 liouse until sent to the butcher. To prevent 
 them from playing, and thus insure quiet, 
 light is excluded from the house, until par- 
 tially admitted at such times when the dams 
 are brought to suckle them, which, in most 
 cases, is three, or even four, times in the day. 
 If the house, however, be large enough to ad- 
 mit of the ewes being allowed to remain with 
 them during the night, the usual plan is to 
 admit them at sun-down, and turn them into 
 the pasture soon after the dawn of day; in 
 which case, they should be again brought to 
 them about noon. The lamb-house is, how- 
 ever, generally too hot; and this successive 
 change from hot to cold is so very injurious 
 
DonsETsuiBE sheep] AND TlIEIIl VARIOUS lUiEEDS. [bouthdown biikbp. 
 
 to the ewes, tbfit it ia no uncommon thing 
 i'or a ewo or two to dio in the night. "Wlion 
 the ewo is eapablo of supplying as much milk 
 as the lamb will consume, such aa havo 
 lost thoir own, or which havo boon sold early, 
 aro brought in and lu'Kl by tlio head, or put 
 into a yoke, till the lambs, by turns, suck them 
 dry. They aro then turned into tho pasture, 
 and, at twelve o'clock, the dams aro driven into 
 the lamb-houso for an hour, in tho course of 
 which time each lamb is suckled by its mother. 
 At four o'clock, all the dam-ewes — as those 
 which havo not lambs of their own are called 
 — are again brought to the lamb-house, and 
 held for the lambs to suck ; and the mothers of 
 the lambs are afterwards brought to them for 
 the night. Lambs thus treated, and kept free 
 from all disturbance, will, in about eight weeks' 
 time, become sufficiently fat, and their flesh 
 extremely white and delicate." Should a lamb 
 die, the ewe is still retained to milk the rest in 
 turn ; and stands are made with stocks, into 
 which she is fastened until her udder is 
 thoroughly drained. This is done previous to 
 each lamb being allowed to suck its own 
 mother ; and thus the loss of a few lambs is 
 not so much felt, as tlie whole stock then de- 
 rives a larger proportion of the fattening milk. 
 The price at which the lambs arc sold will vary ; 
 but sometimes they produce as much as £3 ; 
 though £2 is possibly nearer the average, 
 which is a large sum for the care, and short 
 period of time (about eight weeks) which they 
 take to be fattened. When grass lamb is to 
 be produced, the ewes are put to the ram at a 
 later period, so as to have the offspring dropped 
 about March, and they are only partially pro- 
 vided with shelter. The ewes are kept in the 
 same liberal manner ; but the lambs have more 
 liberty, and are much less trouble to their 
 owners. Ten or twelve days after lambing, 
 whilst being fed on such nutritious food, they 
 will again often admit the ram, and thus will 
 bear lambs twice in the year. Such as are 
 house-fed, have by far the best chance of suc- 
 cessful breeding, as the second time of pro- 
 ducing the grass-fed lamb would be at an in- 
 convenient portion of the year, and the young 
 would be likely to suffer damage from flies, 
 and other insects, from the restlessness which 
 these little torments cause them at this early 
 period of their lives. 
 
 THE WILTSIIIRK siii:i:i'. 
 
 Tho old race of WdtHhire Hheep formerly 
 extended over tho greater portion of the 
 county, but they may now bo said to be 
 extinct. Tho present race ia tho largest of 
 tho fine wool-bearing animals; and what it 
 produces is extremely fine, and weighs 'iilba. 
 per fleece. It is described by Mr. !Milburn as 
 having horns rising near each other, and 
 bending backwards and downward^, close to 
 tho head of the animal. Tiie hair on the 
 face and legs is perfectly white. The bones 
 are large ; and, although the animal, compara- 
 tively speaking, makes little flesh, it eata 
 voraciously. The belly is destitute of wool ; 
 the head is long ; tho nose somewhat arched ; 
 and the nostrils open, wide, and prominent. 
 The fore quarters, especially tho breast and 
 shoulders, are light ; and there is a consider- 
 able dewlap. The hind quarters are better 
 developed, and the saddles and legs very 
 good. The back is black in the middle, and 
 the shoulder-points project upwards. On the 
 whole, it is a clumsy sheep, and is only pre- 
 served in an unimproved and native form on a 
 family farm near Hendon, where the stock is 
 kept pure, under tho provisions of a will, 
 which permits the fiirm to be held on this 
 special condition. The old Wiltshires were, 
 to a certain extent, improved 'oy selection of 
 the smaller, the better formed, and the more 
 generous feeders among the native breed ; but 
 they were chiefly indebted to the South- 
 downs, by which they were crossed again and 
 again, until almost every trace of the old 
 breed had been eradicated, and a useful variety 
 of the Southdown took its place. This 
 variety was distinguished from the true 
 Sussex sheep by being of a larger size, having 
 a lighter and finer fleece, and being of a lighter 
 colour. 
 
 THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 This sheep is, in England, what the black- 
 faced sheep is in Scotland, being, as a mutton- 
 producer, held in the highest esteem, especially 
 for the tables of the rich. Nor can there be 
 mentioned a breed which has undergone more 
 improvement than these beautiful sheep. The 
 advancement of the old short-wooUed sheep 
 into a middle-woolled race, is an advantage ia 
 
 715 
 
SOUTHDOW^'S.j 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [SOUTHDOWNS. 
 
 everv sense, particularly as the short wool, 
 used exclusively in the manufacture of fine 
 cloths, is abundantly supplied by foreign 
 " growers." Of this race, one of the first is 
 the improved Southdown breed, depasturing 
 on the long range of chalky hills extending 
 from the sea-coast of the Isle of Thanet, and 
 the cliffs of Dover, through Kent and Sussex. 
 Formerly this breed, as Mr. Ellman states, in 
 the Library of Agricultural Knowledge, was a 
 small size, far from possessing a good shape, 
 and late before they were capable of being 
 fattened ; now, however, they are greatly 
 improved, both in shape and constitution. 
 " They are smaller in bone, equally hard, with 
 a greater disposition to fatten, and much 
 heavier in carcass when fat. They used sel- 
 dom to fatten till they were four years old ; but 
 it would be a rare sight to see a pen of South- 
 down wethers at market more than two years 
 old, and many are killed before they reach that 
 age." The Southdown sheep is, in fact, the 
 model of what a hill sheep ought to be, and the 
 ilesh, in fineness of grain and flavour, is pecu- 
 liarly excellent. The wool is of a very useful 
 quality, but is both larger in fibre, and less 
 numerously serrated, than the short Saxony, 
 and does not, therefore, possess such a felting 
 power ; hence it is rarely used in the manufac- 
 ture of fine broad-cloths. Still, from its fine- 
 ness and felting powers, compared with the 
 wool of many other middle-woolled breeds, it 
 is highly esteemed; and for flannels and 
 worsted goods in general, is extensively em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In describing it, the hair on its face is black 
 or brown, even, short, and fine. The wool is 
 short, close, and remarkably fine in texture 
 and quality. It lies thick over the whole 
 body, and has, when touched, a feeling of great 
 softness, accompanied with a high degree of 
 elasticity. The top of the head is free from 
 wool, and the countenance is fine and placid ; 
 the eye is full and expressive, yet mild and 
 gentle, and somewhat prominent. The ears 
 are small, and fall backward and a little up- 
 ward. The legs are short, especially from the 
 knees to the feet. Tihe breast is full, round, 
 and moderately wide ; the neck thick and 
 short, but free from loose fleshy skin. The 
 top of the back is straight and flattish, but not 
 reu TLrk ably broad; whilst the bellv is nearly 
 716 
 
 straight, but a little tucked in behind the 
 shoulders. The wool is remarkably fine, and 
 is the only kind of English material altogether 
 suitable for the finer class of cloths. Tbn 
 breed is without horns, and comparatively 
 hardy, occupying the downs of Dorset, and 
 now gradually extending into Norfolk, York- 
 shire, Hampshire, Kent, &c. In the London 
 market, where their mutton is considered 
 superior to all other kinds, they are in great 
 request. This is the improved Southdown; 
 but the older breeds were low, and light in 
 the fore quarters, although they were backed 
 with good saddles and legs. The improvements 
 have not been effected by crossing from other 
 breeds, but from selecting the best, and breed- 
 ing carefully from them ; and while the sym- 
 metry and points of the animal have been so 
 much improved, the quality and grain of the 
 mutton, the equal distribution of fat and lean, 
 the marblings of the flesh, and the internal 
 fulness of tallow, have all been fully sus- 
 tained. An earlier maturity in the breed has 
 been attained, and the fattening process has 
 progressed. The wool is longer, being about 
 four inches, though not yet long enough for 
 combing. The fleece usually weighs from 2\ 
 to 3 lbs. ; and the average weight of the 
 carcass may be taken at 18 lbs., though the 
 improved breed will often weigh from 20 
 to 23 lbs. per quarter. Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, 
 was the great improver of this breed. Two 
 of his rams were bought by the emperor of 
 Eussia, to try the effect of a cross on the 
 Northern sheep. This honour was appreciated 
 by Mr. Ellman, who requested the Duke of 
 Bedford to put a price on them, as he did not 
 wish to charge a sovereign a greater price 
 than any one else. The duke accordingly 
 fixed the price of the two at 300 guineas, 
 and purchased a pair for himself at the same 
 rate. In order to thrive well, and groio in 
 mutton, the breed requires a dry, chalky lime- 
 stone, or gravelly soil, with fine short herbage. 
 The ewes are prolific, two bearing twins to one 
 being single ; and the draft ewes are usually 
 sold off, at four years old, to feed in the turnip 
 districts of Norfolk and Suffolk. The care of 
 the sheep is nowhere better understood than 
 in Sussex, where they are housed and sheltered 
 in severe weather, at and near the lambing 
 season. When the lambs are a-foot, they are 
 
irORFOLK SlIEEP.l 
 
 AM) Til I'll: VAKIOUS HHERDS. 
 
 [cheviot bhlkp. 
 
 well provided with shelter, and tiieir dams 
 witli noiirialiin? food. Tlio Soutluiown is a 
 sheep remarkably free from disease, especially 
 the sturdy ami tlie rot. 
 
 TlllC NOlilOLK SIIKKP. 
 
 This breed was tormerly extensively did'used 
 throughout the u[)lanils ot -Norfolk, ISuflblk, and 
 Cauibridgeshiro ; but it is now fast disappear- 
 ing before the Leicesters and the Southdowns. 
 They are a hardy raee, and have a striking re- 
 semblance to the black-faceil, or heath sheep, 
 being similarly marked in the face and legs, 
 •with long, spiral horns, largo bones, long 
 bodies, Hat sides, high backs, uarrow loins, 
 and light and somewhat short wool. The 
 mutton, however, is of rich flavour, such as is 
 usually found to be the characteristic of all 
 wild and semi-wild animals. They are of a wild 
 and roving disposition, and will leap over the 
 ordinary fences ; and their long continuance 
 in the county is probably one reason for the 
 somewhat elevated embankments on which the 
 fences are generally planted. Owing to this 
 disposition they are now mostly fed on the 
 large open, heaths, which, strange to say, are ' 
 still prevalent in Norfolk, notwithstanding its 
 fine climate, and general capability of improve- 
 ment. When fatted they are usually folded, 
 and will weigh from IG to 20 lbs. per quarter; 
 will fatten at two years old, and are famous ■ 
 travellers. 
 
 The principal value of the breed, however, 
 is in their haunches of mutton, and their deer- 
 like, graceful heads and horns. The mutton, 
 when long kept, perhaps more closely re- 
 sembles venison than the flesh of any other 
 breed. The horns are nine or ten inches in 
 circumference at the base, and as much as 
 thirty-six inches long. Lord Leicester, if not 
 the first, greatly helped to efi'ect a change in 
 this breed. " When he found that the Nor- 
 folk sheep," says Lord Spencer, " were a very 
 unprofitable sort, the same reasons induced 
 him to try the New Leicester breed, a variety 
 of sheep probably as ill calculated to succeed 
 on such a soil as the one he occupied, as any 
 breed which he could have selected. He, at 
 last, found that the very best sort of sheep he 
 could adopt were the Southdowns. In this, 
 however, as in every other of his farming ex- 
 periments, Lord Leicester acted with great 
 
 caution, and did not niako the changes which 
 ho contemplated, till thoroughly convinced by 
 practical exi)erienee that they would answer. 
 Accordingly, for several years he had upon ids 
 farm, at the same time, Norfolk sheep, New 
 Leicester, and Southdowns ; ho also tried tho 
 Merinos, but ho did not persevere long with 
 them," Subsequently, this celebrated agricul- 
 turist kept no other sheep but Southdowns. 
 The Norfolk breed were speedily abandoned 
 by the neighbouring farmers ; and in a very 
 short time, from Lynn to llolkhant, there was 
 not such an animal as a Norfolk sheep to bo 
 seen. The Southdowns entirely superseded 
 tJjem. 
 
 THE CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 Tho Cheviot breed is very distinct from tho 
 common mountain, or black-faced race, with 
 which it is, on all sides, immediately surrounded, 
 these two races dividing the north between 
 them. The Cheviot is hornless, and tho 
 general contour is excellent ; the shoulders 
 become full, the body round and long, and tho 
 limbs small-boned. The mutton is in great 
 esteem ; and the wethers average 16, 18, or 
 20 lbs. weight per quarter. It appears from 
 the testimony of practical farmers, that the 
 attention paid to the improvement of this 
 breed, in reference to the condition of the 
 carcass, has been followed by a deterioration 
 in the quality of the wool, which is said to 
 have been formerly capable of entering into 
 the manufacture of fine cloths. Still, how- 
 ever, the wool is good, though inferior to that 
 of the Southdowns. It far surpasses that 
 of the black-faced breed; and as the Cheviot 
 race is equally hardy, and as capable of sus- 
 taining cold as the former, and is content 
 with the alpine plants of the bleak hills and 
 mountains, it must be expected to supersede 
 the black-faced breed, as it has already done 
 in the forest of Ettrick and the whole of Sel- 
 kirkshire, and even Sutherland. The fore- 
 knowledge which these sheep possess of ap- 
 proaching storms, and the assiduity with 
 which, while the shepherd dreams of no im- 
 pending evil, they will seek a place of shelter 
 and security, are curious traits in their charac- 
 ter. It is thus that they often warn the 
 shepherd, by the display of this instinct, 
 wisely implanted within them, and lead him 
 to add his precautions to those which they 
 
 717 
 
CHEYIOT SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [cheviot sheep. 
 
 have themselves adopted. In spite, however, 
 of the vigilance of the shepherd and the in- 
 stinct of the sheep, many of them often perish 
 beneath towering snow-drifts, and sometimes 
 whole flocks are lost. It often happens, that 
 when sufficient shelter cannot be obtained, the 
 flock crowd together for the purpose of mutual 
 warmth, and are soon covered with the snow. 
 If this does not occur, the lambs, unable to 
 endure the severity of the storm, perish y and 
 the mothers, bewildered, wander about seeking 
 their ofispring, till they themselves sink ex- 
 hausted with their efibrts and distress. With 
 but little food, sheep can remain for many days 
 buried beneath the snow ; but where this 
 cannot be obtained, the period of endurance 
 is proportioned to the strength of the animal's 
 constitution and the intensity of the cold. 
 One winter, a sheep, near Kendal, was buried 
 in the snow for thirty-three days and nights, 
 without the possibility of moving, and yet 
 survived ; and a sheep in Cumberland was 
 buried for thirty-eight days. When extri- 
 cated, it was found to have eaten the wool off" 
 both its shoulders, and its frame was reduced al- 
 most to a skeleton. By due attention, however, 
 it gradually recovered. The Cheviot has a white 
 face and legs, somewhat resembling the cover 
 of the hills during the greater period of winter ; 
 but the grand characteristic of the Cheviot 
 flocks is their extraordinary likeness to each 
 other, how many soever there may be. Their 
 imperfection is a narrowness of the back, ribs, 
 and shoulders, from which arises their incapa- 
 bility of carrying a large accumulation of 
 mutton. Judges, therefore, choose those with 
 iroad faces, because this, they think, is indi- 
 cative of a large bony development. In select- 
 ing lambs, or even sheep for fattening, the 
 hand of the grazier grasps the back-bone, over 
 the kidneys, and forms his judgment by its 
 broadness, whether it be sufficiently capacious 
 to carry the complement of flesh and fat which 
 he calculates should be put upon it. The 
 eyes of the Cheviot are small, prominent, and 
 lively. The body is long; the fore quarters 
 somewhat light; the legs clean, and small 
 turned ; the feet thin ; the wool close and fine, 
 but neither so soft nor so elastic as that of the 
 Southdown. It is also too thick lor combing. 
 The improvements in the sheep have added a 
 little to the breast and shoulders, without di- 
 718 
 
 minishing the feeding qualities, or injuring 
 the wool. The neck and shoulders are fuller. 
 The breast has assumed greater prominency, 
 but is still narrow. The back retains its nar- 
 rowness ; but the fall behind the shoulders, 
 common in the old breeds, has been removed. 
 The ribs are flatter than either the Southdown 
 or the Highland. The animal combines fat 
 with muscle, and is, when well brought up, 
 covered internally with tallow. They are re- 
 markably hardy animals, and live on very poor 
 and stunted food growing on the mountains 
 of Northumberland. Their hardiness has in- 
 duced many of the Scotch farmers and breeders 
 to locate them on the Scottish mountains, 
 where, even on the hills of Sutheriandshire, 
 they are to be found successfully bred and 
 thriving. They have also an extensive range 
 on the Yorkshire hills. 
 
 The Cheviot hills form a part of that ex- 
 tensive and lofty range wliich, commencing in 
 Galloway, runs through Northumberland, into 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland, to the extent 
 of from 150 to 200 miles. The majority of 
 their summits end in points, and form termi- 
 nations to a series of conically-shaped moun- 
 tains. The sides of these are covered with 
 smooth, short herbage, and have a considerable 
 degree of steepness ; whilst, at their bases, they 
 nearly join each other. With the exception 
 of the summits the soil is fertile. On these 
 hills the Cheviot mutton is reared, celebrated 
 for its tenderness, sweetness, and delicacy. 
 The sheep are now sometimes fatted at one 
 year old ; and the flesh, in appearance, has, 
 when well kept, a striking resemblance to the 
 Welsh mutton ; but it is more tender, and not 
 so high in flavour. The bags will weigh 
 14 lbs. or 15 lbs. per quarter ; and the two 
 shear-wethers will sometimes weigh as much 
 as 22 lbs. Instances are mentioned where 
 they liave been brought to weigh 25 lbs. per 
 quarter; but these are extreme cases. The 
 improvements of this breed have chiefly been 
 effected by a mixture of the Leicester blood. 
 This has been done with great caution, as the 
 Leicester is a tender and delicate sheep, not 
 well adapted to cold regions, such as the 
 snow-clad moors of Northumberland, of West- 
 moreland, and of Scotland. While a single 
 dash of Leicester, however, improves the 
 frame, lengthens the wool, and increases the 
 
BTELAND SHEEP.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS. [uteland sheep. 
 
 feeding tendencies, it is not bo severe (if the 
 impression bo cnrriod ra[)idly back to tho 
 Cheviot race) as to woaken materially the vital 
 power of tho animals. Tho pcnod, when 
 Cheviot and black-faced sheep shoukl bo 
 selected for breeding and rearing on moun- 
 tain pasture, is given by Mr. TMilburn : — AVhen 
 the produce of tho hills is simi^ly black furze, 
 or heather, the black- faced Highland sheep 
 will bo preferable. "When tho grass is green, 
 though ever so pOv)r, the Cheviot will yield a 
 greater amount of profit. Tho following, tak- 
 ing this princi[>le, will bo about tho compara- 
 tive merits of the two breeds : — 
 
 Black-fared. Cheviot. 
 
 Wool inferior . . . "Wool superior. 
 
 Mutton superior . IMutton inferior. 
 
 Harciinesi? equal . . Hardiness equal. 
 
 Maturity later . . . Maturity earlier. 
 
 Feeding less rapid . . Feeding more rapid. 
 
 Less mutton .... j\Iore mutton. 
 
 The balance, on the whole, on suitable lands, 
 seems to be decidedly in favour of the Cheviots. 
 
 THE RYELAND SHEEP. 
 
 This sheep is another old, if not original, 
 breed, and takes its name from a district in 
 the southern part of Herefordshire, where 
 a large quantity of rye used to bo grown, 
 and where many of this kind of sheep were 
 reared. It is a small breed, rarely exceeding 
 more than fourteen or fifteen pounds the quarter 
 in the wether, or from ten to thirteen pounds 
 in the ewe. Its wool is white, and covers the 
 sides of the face, coming over the top of the head 
 in a bushy tuft. It is in great favour for carding; 
 superior, indeed, for this purpose, to all other 
 kinds of British wool, and almost rivals the 
 Australian. It is, therefore, put down as 
 essentially a wool-producing animal. As the 
 desire for mutton began to extend in the 
 country, and improved turnips, cultivated in 
 the light lands, enabled farmers to produce 
 more of that material, the breeding of the true 
 Ryeland sheep somewhat declined. So far 
 back as 1343, it was noted for its wool; 
 but even then it does not seem to have been 
 considered the most valuable of the British 
 fleeces. The Shropshire, Staffordshire, and 
 Oxfordshire, were all sold at a higher price 
 than the Eyeland. " It is difficult to account 
 for this inferiority," says a writer on the Sheep, 
 
 in the Library of Useful Knowledge, " at that 
 timt; for our earliest writers on tho sheep, 
 speak of tho liyelaiida as btaiiding at the head 
 of the short-woolled breeds. If, however, the 
 opinion of i\lr. Herbert bo correct, some light 
 is cast on the subject. Ho believes that tho 
 Ryelands, almost exclusively, in early times 
 of sheep-husbandry, extended longitudinally 
 through those districts, from the Thames to 
 tho Tyne ; and the Cotswolds were produced 
 by a cross between tho Ryelands and some 
 heavy sheep. Tho Herefordshire, Shropshire, 
 Staffordshire, and OxI'ordshiro wools, spoken 
 of in this record, were only varieties of the 
 Ryeland, and of which tho Herefordshire hap- 
 pened at the timo to bo the worst. In the 
 course of years, however, the Ryelands were 
 gradually displaced by a heavier sheep over 
 the greater part of the other counties, but 
 continued to be cultivated in a portion of 
 Herefordshire." Formerly these sheep were 
 taken great care of, and regularly housed at 
 nights — a practice which, no doubt, arose with 
 the view of preserving the sheep from the 
 inclemency of tho weather, as well as of im- 
 proving the quality of the wool. The race is 
 small, but it attains an early maturity. The 
 head and face, from being covered with wool, 
 have a large and heavy appearance, compared 
 with the short leg and compact carcass of 
 the animal. The ears are somewhat thick and 
 erect; the chest deep, but not broad; the 
 barrel round, but the back by no means flat. 
 The fat of the animal accumulates mainly on 
 the rump and tail, but not to such an extent 
 as to interfere with its activity. It is extremely 
 hardy, and is supposed to be capable of living 
 on less food than any English breed ; but re- 
 quires it to bo of a fine quality. Like all the 
 old races of sheep, it has a tendency to accumu- 
 late fat internally. 
 
 To improve the Ryeland, ""the principal ob- 
 ject has been to assist the development of fine 
 wool by crosses with tho Merinos. Years ago. 
 Dr. Parry, of Bath, M.D,, stimulated by the 
 venerable Bath and West of England Agricul- 
 tural Society, crossed the ewes with tho 
 Merino ; and the first cross was most success- 
 ful. The fleece was increased one pound per 
 animal ; the texture was finer; and the carcass 
 was considerably enlarged ; while the flavour of 
 the mutton was said not to be deteriorated. 
 
 719 
 
SHEOPSHIEE SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 ["WELSH SHEEP. 
 
 The wool, indeed, was pronounced as fine as 
 the pure Merino. But an error was committed 
 by interbreeding with the crosses themselves ; 
 hence, in three or four generations, they fell 
 off so much, that the Anglo-wool became so 
 inferior as to be nearly unsaleable. Having 
 once crossed, they ought to have carried back 
 the cross to the one pure breed or the otlier ; 
 or, what would have been, perhaps, better, 
 they should have kept a stock with which to 
 cross, and thus have preserved a fresh and con- 
 tinuous breed of newly-crossed animals. At- 
 tempts to improve the size of the sbeep have 
 been made by crosses with the Leieesters, Cots- 
 wolds, and Southdowns ; the results of which 
 were the destruction of all the peculiarly de- 
 sirable properties of the Eyeland, as well as 
 the obliteration of several of the others. The 
 breed has therefore been abandoned for more 
 profitable mutton-producing kinds of sheep. 
 
 THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 In the centre and north-western districts of 
 Shropshire sheep predominate ; the north be- 
 ing principally devoted to the dairying of cows, 
 and the breeding of cattle generally. Formerly, 
 there were several varieties of sheep in tbis 
 county, but modern times have brought them 
 to a greater equality of character. The old 
 Shropshire sheep had black or mottled faces 
 and legs, and were horned. They were about 
 the size of the Southdowns, but the neck had 
 greater length, and the carcass was not so com- 
 pact. They inhabited a rye-producing dis- 
 trict, probably the Morfe-down, consisting of 
 about 4,000 acres of common land, near the 
 Severn, which yielded a short and stunted, but 
 fine grass. The fleece is about the same weight 
 as that of the Eyeland' — 2 lbs.; but the staple 
 is particularly fine. They are seldom kept till 
 more than five years old ; and the ewes will not 
 weigh more, when fat, than 9 or 10 lbs. per 
 quarter. The wethers will weigh 13 or 14 lbs. 
 Modern tastes and habits, however, will not 
 allow of sheep being kept for 2 lbs. of wool, 
 and 40 lbs. of mutton ; and hence the altered 
 demands and wants of the population are fast 
 banishing all these original breeds. The Cots- 
 wolds and Leieesters having been introduced 
 into Shropshire, both pure, and in various 
 crosses with each other, they have changed the 
 character of every short-wooUed sheep. The 
 720 
 
 Shropshire short wool, however, was, at a 
 former period of our history, held in verv o-reat 
 estimation. The author of a work on the com- 
 mercial policy of the times, in 1694, speaks 
 thus of it: — "It is no small advantage to 
 trade, to be fitted with a complete assortment of 
 goods, abounding in the middle sorts of wool, 
 excellent of its kind, and suitable to a middle 
 sort of people, which are far the greater num. 
 ber; and herein chiefly is our strength: not 
 that we, in the least, full short in the merits of 
 our fine wool ; our Herefordshire and our 
 Shropshire wool is not to be equalled, in its 
 kind, by any part of the world, and suitable 
 to almost any degree." 
 
 THE WELSH SHEEP. 
 This is held as the most excellent of all the 
 mutton-producing race, owing to its flesh being 
 so highly- favoured, and so fine in the grain. 
 They are the very converse of the Lincoln- 
 shires, and are a truly Lilliputian breed. They 
 are the most remunerative of any kind of 
 mutton sold in the London market, and are 
 thus described by Mr. Milburn : — " The two 
 haunches are usually cooked together, undi- 
 vided, and present a most uncommon appear- 
 ance. The wethers are killed at four or five 
 years of age, and will then weigh, when fat, 
 only 8 or 9 lbs. per quarter. The ewes usually 
 weigh 2, or even 3 lbs. per quarter less. The 
 sheep, when alive, is a goat-like animal, some- 
 what resembling the gazelle of the Nimrod 
 sculptures. The ram has two crumpled horns, 
 rising upwards, and falling backwards again to 
 the neck. The ewes are usually hornless. 
 The neck is long ; the shoulders high and thin ; 
 the breast small, narrow, and backward ; the 
 legs and loins full and broad. The ribs are 
 flatfish, and the belly a little depressed ; the 
 tail long, and bushy towards the extremity, 
 nearly down to the middle of the hind legs. 
 The bones are remarkably small. They are 
 the most active and sure-footed race of sheep 
 we know. They are essentially wild in their 
 habits, and clip about 2 lbs. of somewhat fine 
 wool. The ewes are sometimes milked by the 
 Welsh farmers ; but this pulls them down, and 
 is very injurious to them. Some persons clip 
 them twice ; that is to say, they shear them at 
 the usual time in June, and again take off part 
 of the wool from tbe fore quarters in the month 
 
ui;kdwick SHEEP.] AND TlllMli \'Ai:i()lS lUiHEDS. [ueuuwilk bui,^i'. 
 
 of October, alleging that they aro less liable 
 to have it torn oil by tho I'ur/.o ami briarn, and 
 luore able to forage for their daily supply of 
 scauty herbage amongst tho buahcd iu wiuter." 
 
 THE IIKRDW H K SlIKKl'. 
 This i3 tho most valuable sheep ou the 
 inouutaiufl of Cumberland and AVcstniorelaud ; 
 and their origin is thus given by au admirable 
 writer on tho sheep. In the beginning of the 
 last century a ship was stranded on tho coast 
 of Cumberland, and had ou board some Scotch 
 sheep, which seem to bo now unknown in that 
 country. They were got ou shore; and being 
 driven up the country, were purchased by 
 somo farmers, who lived at Wasdale-head, in 
 the neighbourhood of Keswick. They were 
 small, active, polled, and their faces and legs 
 speckled, having a great proportion of white, 
 with a few black spots strewed upon it. They 
 were turned, at once, upon tho neighbouring 
 hills. They had not been long there before 
 they evinced a peculiar sagacity in foreseeing 
 the approach of a snow-storm ; for, a little 
 before its coming, they clustered together on 
 the most exposed side of the mountain, and 
 where the violence of the wind usually pre- 
 vented the snow from lodging. This instinct 
 caused them to be regarded with a degree of 
 interest, and almost of superstition ; and their 
 excellent qualities and adaptation to their new 
 situation, became speedily evident. Their 
 fleece was considerably finer than that of tho 
 common black sheep, and the matted quality of 
 the wool enabled them to endure any severity 
 oi weather, and even to pass tho whole of the 
 winter without the smallest quantity of hay 
 being expended upon them. They were con- 
 tinually moving about, and, therefore, rarely 
 or ever overwhelmed by tlie snow ; and, by 
 their ceaseless activity, they scraped away the 
 snow, however deeply the herbage might be 
 buried under it. The ewes weigh from six 
 to eight pounds per quarter, and the wethers 
 about eleven. The wethers are slaughtered at 
 four or five years old, and seem not only to 
 thrive best ou their native pastures, but, when 
 the ewes are driven away, they will invariably 
 return at lambiug-time to their old quarters, 
 however distant they may be. This shows a 
 remarkably wild instinct, and is of the same 
 character as that of the black-faced Highland 
 4z 
 
 sheep — flocks of which will Bometimes actually 
 swim across tho Firth of Forth to find their 
 way to tlieir native mountains. 
 
 Tho ewes breed for fifteen or twenty years, 
 and aro always kept as long aa tht-y will con- 
 linuo to do bo; the sales being made of tho 
 fatted wethers. AVMien killed at home, tho 
 legs aro usually cured and dried; and it is 
 jocosely said that tho inhabitants of these up- 
 lands never eat mutton but when they lind a 
 fallen sheep, which, when they do, they shako 
 by tho leg, and if it drops to pieces it is re- 
 jected ; but if not, it is carried home, dressed, 
 I and eaten. Their flesh has a strong game 
 j kind of flavour, much relished by the epicures 
 of large towns. Tho animal is said to have 
 fourteen instead of thirteen ribs, which is tho 
 number possessed by all other species. 
 
 Having thus specified some of tho more im- 
 portant of the middle-wooUed breeds of sheep 
 in our island, most of them, or all, derived from 
 the old short-wooUed breeds by a system of 
 judicious management, wo have now to state 
 that the middle- wool varies in difierent breeds, 
 in fineness and in its power of felting. Long 
 wool is much more uniform, and for this 
 reason — that it is the produce of tho Leicester 
 race, and of races with which tho Leicester 
 race has become completely intermingled. 
 " All long-woolled sheep," says Mr. Youatt, 
 " both in appearance and in fleece, are becom- 
 ing one family." Long wool, which is now 
 very much improved, it being the aim of tho 
 breeder to render it finer (at the expense of 
 its length, which it will bear), is characterised 
 by strength and transparency, but it is do- 
 ficicnt in the power of felting. Its average 
 length is about eight inches. This applies 
 more particularly to that sort called the long- 
 coiubiug wool ; there is, however, a variety of 
 long wool which approximates to the middle 
 wool, and termed the short-combing wool, 
 which is somewhat shorter than the other, 
 finer, and more disposed to felt. Tho long- 
 combing wool is used in tho manufacture of 
 hard yarn, and for purposes in which length 
 and firmness are essential ; the other is used 
 for stufls of a soft texture, and for hosiery 
 goods. AVe have alluded to the Leicester 
 breed as the typical example of the long- 
 fleeced races ; but it is to be observed that 
 ] this breed is an improvement upon the heavy, 
 
 721 
 
HEKDWICK SHEEP.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [herdwick sheep. 
 
 ill-made, and coarse-wooUed race, formerly 
 spread over all our midland counties. Lin- 
 colnslure also bad a breed of sheep celebrated 
 for its fine long wool; but tbis breed, de- 
 fective in form, and yielding mutton of inferior 
 quality, is now greatly improved. 
 
 There is one question which suggests i^zQli 
 and which we cannot omit to notice. As fai 
 as records serve us, it would seem that a long 
 woolled and a short-woolled (now middle- 
 woolled) race of sheep have tenanted our island 
 from the earliest times. To what causes, then, 
 are we to attribute this original difference? 
 Are the two races descended from different 
 primitive sources, or have food and soil grad- 
 ually produced the differences which have 
 been so long maintained ? No one, we think, 
 will hesitate to say the latter; impossible as 
 it may be to follow step by step the progress 
 of the change, or to determine the modus 
 operandi of the causes contributing to effect 
 ifc. It is, however, very remarkable, that it is 
 only in animals which have been so long do- 
 mesticated that we cannot tell their primeval 
 origin, and which there is reason to think are 
 factitious beings (that is, the produce of dif- 
 ferent, but still closely-allied species com- 
 mingling together), that these extreme varia- 
 tions as to size, figure, and length and quality 
 of fur, are most decidedly observable. "We see 
 these varieties in the dog — from the silky, 
 long-haired spaniel of Spanish race, to the 
 close-haired old setter of the same country; 
 from the woolly Erench poodle, to the mutin ; 
 from the rough English water-dog, to the 
 mastiff: so, in the sheep, we find a short-fleeced 
 breed, with tbe filaments of the wool peculiarly 
 fine, and uameroualy serrated ; a still longer- 
 fleeced breed, again subdivided into many 
 minor varieties, and having the wool fine, and 
 more or less capable of felting — or, in other 
 words, more or less numerously serrated ; and 
 a long-woolled race of old standing, in which 
 the wool, but thinly serrated, is inferior in 
 felting properties, but of great value to the 
 woolcomber. But further, as the misfciire of 
 a long and silky-haired breed of dogs with one 
 of close hair does not improve the coat, the 
 young resembling, some the male, some the 
 female, but not equalling them in their excel- 
 lences; so the crossing of long-woollcd and 
 short-woolled sheep leads to no good results} 
 
 snd, as it is with dogs, the improvement of 
 each breed depends on a judicious and careful 
 selection of the best and purest of that breed, 
 by which the properties distinguishing it may be 
 developed to their maximum in their progeny. 
 In England, the sheep is now only valuable 
 for the sake of its woo\ and flesh; but in 
 various parts of both Europe and Asia, the 
 milk of the ewe has been used from the earliest 
 times, either pure or curdled, as an article of 
 diet. Formerly, in many parts of England, 
 cheese was made from the milk of the ewe ; 
 and the ewes, to the injury of the lambs, were 
 milked regularly, as described in the Odyssey, 
 and, at a later era, by Virgil : — 
 " He next betakes him to liis evening cares, 
 And sitting down, to milk his ewes prepares ; 
 Of half their udders eases first the dams, 
 Then to the mothers' teats submits the lambs. 
 Half the white stream to hardening cheese he press'd. 
 And high in wicker baskets heap'd ; the rest, 
 Reserved in bowls, supphedthe mighty feast." 
 To the process of shearing we need scarcely 
 .allude; all are familiar with the manner in 
 which the removal of the fleece is effected ; and 
 it would seem that, in the earliest patriarchal 
 ages, the same process was in use. Among 
 the Eomans, however (and the practice has 
 been but lately discontinued in the Orkney 
 Islands, and is, perhaps, still prevalent in Ice- 
 laud), the wool was torn off" the animals; and, 
 as Pliny states, they were kept for three days 
 previously without food, in order that the 
 wool might be the more easily detached, their 
 bodies being exhausted. In his time, however, 
 the practice of shearing had begun to super- 
 sede this cruel and unjustifiable method. It 
 gave, however, origin to the word vellus 
 (fleece), from veUo (to pull away) ; and the 
 hill termed Velleia was tbe ancient spot on 
 which this cruelty was perpetrated. 
 
 With us, the season of sheep-shearing is a 
 season of rejoicing; and the manner in which 
 tbe important work is conducted, and the 
 dexterity of tbe shearers, are, to those not 
 accustomed to rural life, replete with interest 
 and amusement. It is, indeed, a pleasing 
 spectacle to see a large flock of snow-white 
 sheep collected together, and, in turn, losing 
 their soft fleece, rolled into an unbroken and 
 well-arranged whole, beneath the shears of the 
 shearer. The picture is poetical, and has been 
 the subject of many pleasing representations. 
 
■WOOLLEN TBij)B.] AND TllElJi VARIOUS 15 REEDS. [woollen tradi. 
 
 CIIArTKU IV. 
 
 niSTOUY Ol- TIIK WOOI.I.KN TRADK. 
 
 Professor Owex di'Gnes wool aa "a peculiar 
 nunlitieatiou of hair, cliaracterised by lino 
 transverse or oblique lines, I'roni 2,U0O to 
 4,000 in the extent of au inch, indicative of 
 a uiiuutely imbricated, scaly surface — when 
 viewed under tlie microscope— on wliich, and 
 on its curved or twisted form, depends its re- 
 markable felting property." In a state of 
 nature, many animals have a covering botli of 
 wool and hair ; the former underlying the 
 latter ; but a single fleece, whatever its charac- 
 ter, yields many varieties of wool, which seems 
 to have been the staple material of the primi- 
 tive weavers of Palestine, Syria, Greece, Italy, 
 and Spain. Previous to the art of manufac- 
 turing in wool, however, man, to clothe him- 
 self, made use of the sldns of animals; and 
 even in the patriarchal times, we find that the 
 skin of the goat was used by Jacob. At 
 this period, however, or very little later, the 
 fleeces of animals came into use ; for we find 
 that Joseph had a coat of many colours, made 
 him by his father, who would seem not only 
 to have understood the proper application of 
 the fleece, but, also, the art of dyeing it. 
 Still later, we find Job saying to his three 
 friends — "If I have seen any perish for want 
 of clothinj, or any poor without covering, if 
 his loins have not blessed me, and if he were 
 not warmed with the Jleece of my sheep." 
 Here is direct evidence that the fleece of the 
 sheep was novr used for the purposes of cloth- 
 ing. Weaving, in its rudest form, was prob- 
 ably pursued as a domestic employment at 
 this time; for there is no handicral't more 
 ancient, and none more universal. The al- 
 lusions to this art in the Scriptural writings, 
 have made us all familiar with it from our 
 childhood. " My life is cut oflf as by the 
 weaver," says Isaiah. '• My days are swifter 
 than a weaver's shuttle," says Job; and as 
 weaving was, from the remotest antiquity, the 
 occupation with which women engaged them- 
 selves, it has supplied the old epic and lyric 
 poets with many a beautiful figure, and the 
 
 ancient dramatists with some of their most 
 touching incidents. Tl)c antiijuariea who liavo 
 unl'ohied tlie cerements of tlie Egyptian 
 mummy — the travellers who have devoted thera- 
 eelvea to the CTploration of Central Africa — 
 the missionaries who have familiarised us with 
 the habits and traditions of the more than 
 
 ! semi-savage South-Sea Islanders — all testify 
 to the antiquity and the universality, in some 
 form or other, of textile industry. It is apart 
 from our province hero to enter upon the 
 history of such an art ; bat it is full of interest 
 as developing the inventive faculties of man, 
 in his onward progress towards a high and 
 refined civilisation. Its history links itself 
 with the colonisation of the Greeks; with the 
 dissemination, throughout the new-born Italy, 
 of the industrial arts of Constantinople ; with 
 the rapid rise of the Italian republics ; and with 
 that — more marvellous still — of the great com- 
 mercial city of the Netherlands. When the 
 textile industry of the Italians and of the 
 Flemings passed over to Prance and to Britain, 
 its development came to bo intimately con- 
 nected with three questions of state policy — 
 namely, the good or ill treatment of aliens ; 
 the liberty or thraldom of religious worship ; 
 and the restriction of the enfranchisement of 
 trade. AVith the mode of handling these three 
 questions by government, the fortunes of 
 weavers have been singularly involved. It is 
 probable, however, that, contemporaneous with, 
 or possibly antecedent to weaving', the process 
 of felting was adopted. If wool be pressed 
 together, or considerably heated in junction, 
 or otherwise be brought in very close contact, 
 it becomes a thick impervious mass, very 
 difllcult, if not impossible, ♦^^o be separated 
 again. This is owing to the structural con- 
 formation of the wool. Though the absolute 
 
 ; cause was not known, the fact was understood 
 and described at a very early period. The 
 wool is covered with a complete series of scales, 
 or serrations. These are capable of being 
 opened and compressed ; and felting is no more 
 
 723 
 
•WOOLLEN TRA.DB.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 ["WOOLLEN TRADE. 
 
 tlian tbe junction of these, and their compres- 
 sion with one another. So far will this go, 
 that even the smallest particle of wool seems 
 to possess the above quality. 
 
 " It is to this felting property," says Mr. 
 "Milburn, " that we have long been indebted 
 for our hats." It is mentioned in the Iliad 
 of Homer. Plato speaks of it as " cloth made 
 by the thickening of wool." Pliny, describing 
 it with the more practised eye of an observing 
 natural historian, says—" Parcels of wool, driven 
 together by themselves, make cloth." Hero- 
 dotus, when he describes the clothing of 
 Xerxes' army of Persian soldiers, says, they 
 wore " light and flexible caps of felt," which 
 he also describes as used by the Medes and 
 Bactrians. Julius Caesar, finding his soldiers 
 annoyed by the arrows of Pompey's army, de- 
 scribes them as making shirts or clothing of 
 felt, to protect them from the archers. Thucy- 
 dides mentions a similar device to protect the 
 body from the effects of arrows. The more 
 peaceful Greeks used the wool for a more 
 pastoral purpose. They clothed their sheep 
 with felted wool, according to Aristotle, in 
 order to produce an impression on the texture 
 and colour of the fleece. Tasso mentions that 
 the Attic sheep were clothed to improve and 
 preserve their fleeces ; and Demosthenes calls 
 them " soft sheep." It was the impossibility 
 of felting the hair of the goat and the camel, 
 doubtless, which first suggested the idea of 
 weaving. 
 
 Tasso says — "As the sheep yields to man 
 wool for clothing, so the goat furnishes hair 
 for the use of sailors, and to make ropes for 
 military engines and vessels for artificers. * * * 
 The goats are shorn in a great part of Phrygia, 
 because they have long shaggy hair. Cilicia 
 (Jiair-clotlis), and other things of the same 
 kind, arc commonly imported from that 
 country." The character of this cloth is inti- 
 mated in the prophetic symbols of the signs of 
 the second advent : — " The sun shall become 
 black as sackcloth of hair." 
 
 Dyeing seems to have been of very ancient 
 origin ; and nature appears to have suggested 
 the idea in the rearing of black, white, and 
 party-coloured sheep. But a taste for bril- 
 liant and glaring colours has prevailed in all 
 countries and in every age ; and although the 
 art of dyeing is, like many other arts, indebted 
 724 
 
 to chance for its origin, still it can be traced 
 up to a very remote antiquity. "We have 
 already alluded to the " coat of many colours" 
 possessed by Joseph ; and as the Israelites, 
 soon after their departure from Egypt, under- 
 stood the art of dyeing scarlet and purple, 
 or crimson, it is obvious, that at least 1,500 
 years before the birth of Christ, dyeing was 
 practised among the Egyptians. The proba- 
 bility is that they derived it from some one of 
 the Indian nations with whom they traded ; 
 but, be this as it may, it appears by Pliny, 
 that the Egyptians even knew the use of what 
 are called mordants, in fixing or modifying the 
 colours which they made use of. " Tyrian 
 purple" is alluded to by Juvenal. The Greeks 
 seem to have been slow in acquiring this art, 
 as, in the expedition of Alexander into India, 
 it was so little known in his army, that the 
 soldiers were surprised at seeing ensigns of so 
 many colours used by their opponents. After 
 its introduction to Greece, it passed into 
 Italy, and thence into other European coun- 
 tries, Bffitis had fieeces possessing " metallic 
 tints," especially the prized " golden hue," 
 and also the sober native hues of " Baetic drab 
 or grey." The two colours of Spanish wool 
 were said, in 1G07, to be — one a golden yellow, 
 and the other a ferruginous or brown colour. 
 These colours probably depended on the soil 
 on which the animals fed. Ancient monu- 
 ments attest the remote period at which the 
 wool trade was cultivated. On a Eoman altar, 
 dedicated to Hope, above the emblematic ears 
 of corn and the bee-hive, is a distinct bale of 
 wool. On the altar to Silvanus, is the cadu- 
 ceus of Mercury and a bale of wool, evidently 
 tied with twisted and knotted cords, as if 
 packed up for exportation. Amongst the 
 Belgaj and the Gauls, woollen manufactures 
 seem to have been common. The latter is 
 alluded to in contrast to the proud purple, or 
 Tyrian, and designated "goss Gaulish grey." 
 In Juvenal's ninth Satire, allusion is thus made 
 to Gailician manufacture : — " Some coarse 
 brown cloak I may happen possibly to get — 
 some Gallic fabric, as a defence from the rain." 
 At the Eoman conquest of Britain, Caesar 
 describes the inhabitants as a pastoral people, 
 possessing cattle, clothed in the skins of ani- 
 mals, and subsisting on flesh and milk. This 
 description especially applies to those who 
 
TVOOLLEX TRAUL.] AND Til K Hi V A li 1 O L S IWiEEDS. [woollkn tuaue. 
 
 lived nortli of the Thames. Tlio iuhabitants 
 of Kent are described, by Strabo, as excelling 
 tbo Gauls in their nianufaeturod. Eumoniua, 
 in his euloj^iutn on tho Emperor Constantius, 
 in 310, says — " And fortunate Britain, now 
 the happiest country upon earth ; for thou 
 bast been the first to seo Constantino made 
 emperor. * ♦ * Thy woods contain no 
 savage beasts ; thy land no noxious serpents ; 
 but an innumerable multitude of tame cattle, 
 distended with milk, and loaded with Jlecccs.'" 
 
 Mr. INLilburn tliinks that there cannot be a 
 doubt that, at the time of the invasion of 
 Ca"'sar, there were two kinds of wool produced 
 in this country, and two kinds of garments 
 manufactured by the polished Belgio, who 
 inhabited Kent. The one kind was thick and 
 rough, calculated to protect from the cold, and 
 common to northern countries ; the other, a 
 fine soft material, resembling the Highland 
 plaid. Doubtless the one symbolised the wool 
 of the Teeswater or the Cotswold, and the 
 other of the Southdown. That fine wool was 
 then known, amply appears by the quotation of 
 old Holinshed from Dionysius Alexandrianus, 
 who said — " The wool of Britain is often spun 
 so fine, that it is in a manner compared to a 
 spider's thread." The decay of the arts, con- 
 sequent on the irruption of the barbarians into 
 Home, does not appear to have extended to the 
 woollen manufacture, as clothing continued to 
 be made in most of the countries in which the 
 Eomans had established colonies. The wool 
 employed was, at first, the produce of their 
 onni country ; but they afterwards imported 
 wool from other countries, and carried on the 
 manufacture to such an extent, that the Low 
 Countries became, in a great measure, the 
 clothing district for Europe. Spain produced 
 cloth for herself, and, about the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, acquired considerable reputation for the 
 beauty of her fabrics. Consequently, we may 
 presume that the fine wool wliieh the Spanish 
 sheep have, for centuries, produced, is the best. 
 The Italians and Erench entered on this manu- 
 facture at a later period. In the time of William 
 the Conqueror, an inundation which occurred 
 in the Netherlands, drove many of the clothiers 
 into other countries ; and some of them came 
 to England. AVilliam of Malmesbury says, 
 that the king, glad of such an accession, placed 
 these Elemish clothiers first in Carlisle, and 
 
 then in the western counties. From that 
 time the mention of clothiers is frequent in 
 the old chroniclers. London, 0.vford, Lincoln, 
 York, Huntingdon, Nottingham, and Win- 
 chester, aro enumerated as towns wherein llio 
 manufacture was carried on ; while, at other 
 towns, there were clolh-dealera who paid a 
 licence duty to the king lor tho privilege of 
 buying and selling dyed cloths. Although, 
 however, clothiers are frequently mentioned, it 
 was not until 1110 that any very definite or 
 distinct allusion is mado to the British woollen 
 trade by any historical document. In that 
 year a petition was presented to King Stephen, 
 soliciting tho power to enable them, by his 
 charter, to form themselves into corporations 
 or guilds. The object of this petition was to 
 possess, under the monarch, self-government ; 
 to have the power of appointing their own 
 members, and subjecting them to such orders, 
 laws, and regulations as they, from time to 
 time, saw expedient. 
 
 The guild of Winchester, the old established 
 seat of woollen manufacture, paid one mark 
 (about forty shillings) for the power of self- 
 government; and an annual payment of £1G 
 is afterwards noted. The Loudon weavers 
 paid a similar sum ; while that of Oxford paid 
 forty shillings. Others paid even larger sums ; 
 which lead to the conclusion that these guilds 
 had arrived at a considerable degree of impor- 
 tance. The Worcester guild paid 100 shillings 
 for certain specific privileges ; and, in ten years' 
 time, the decaying Loudon guild paid £12 only. 
 In 1172, prohibitions against mixing Spanish 
 with English wool were issued, probably from 
 a desire to stimulate improvement in tho native 
 material. If this were really the intention, it 
 had the eflTect of throwing the British on their 
 own resources for the manufacture of broad- 
 cloth ; and from that day they acquired tho 
 power of manufacturing it independent of 
 Spain. 
 
 Tho religious crusades of the middle ages 
 drained the country alike of its fanaticism 
 and its money. So impoverished was our 
 Eichard I., that when he was imprisoned by 
 the Duke of Austria, he had his heavy ransom 
 of £300,000 paid .by levies on the plate of tho 
 avaricious monks ; and when they had no 
 plate, they had to send one year's produce of 
 wool, Into their hands the best of the sheep 
 
 725 
 
lyOOIiliEN TRAD 15. J 
 
 SPIEEP, 
 
 [WOOLLEK TRADE. 
 
 lands, and mostof tlie silver, ■were very rapidly 
 finding their way ; and hence they afforded a 
 ready means of r:\ising the ransom of their 
 king from the hands of the freehooter. In 
 the roign of Henry I., another inundation in 
 the Low Countries brought more Flemish 
 weavers to Britain, and gave a new impetus to 
 the cloth manufacture. The Gilda 8ellariorum 
 is of this reign, and is the oldest of the London 
 companies. It possesses a charter of Henry I., 
 which exacts that Eone but members shall 
 have tlie power to intermeddle with their craft 
 within London, South wark, or the parts adja- 
 cent. This ciiarler was confirmed by Henry II. 
 and by Edward I. ; but in the fourteenth of 
 Edward II., the privileges claimed under it 
 were brouglit into question by a writ de quo 
 icarranto. The consequence was, tliat the 
 company had to moderate its pretensions ; but 
 it continued to exercise an important jurisdic- 
 tion for several centuries. During the strug- 
 gles of the barons with tlie monarchy, the 
 woollen trade seems to have become depressed ; 
 and Sir Matthew Hale says, that in the reigns 
 of tlie two first Edwards it was " wholly lost," 
 and the money for wool was made by exporta- 
 tion. The Flemings had again established 
 their manufacture, and beat the English out of 
 the market. The third Edward set about re- 
 storing it by vigorous means. Aware of the 
 impetus given to it before, by the importation 
 of Flemish weavers (or from their present 
 skill in beating out tlie English manufacture), 
 in 1331, he brought John Kemp, with seventy 
 "Walloon families, from Flanders, and an act 
 of parliament was passed to encourage them. 
 Flemish or other foreign goods were also pro- 
 hibited by statute ; and, to crown all, exporta- 
 tion was altogether prohibited; although it 
 had before raised the sum of £53-1— a large 
 sum in these days— equal, perhaps, to £8,000 
 of our money ; and tliis at a period when popu- 
 lation and trade were equally scanty. The 
 promises made by Edward to the Flemings, 
 during his visit to the Duke of Burgundy, 
 were faithlully kept. Part of them were lo- 
 cated in Kent- the seat, no doubt, of woollen 
 manufacture before the Eoman conquest. 
 Some settled in the valleys of the Severn, 
 where they established the celebrated manu- . 
 facture of AVest of England cloths ; while ' 
 others went to the valleys of the Aire, where 
 726 
 
 they found situations and water suited to their 
 requirements. The two latter localities are 
 still the seats of woollen manufactures in this 
 country. " Happy the yeoman's house," says 
 old Fuller, in his characteristic way, " into 
 which these Dutchmen did enter, brino-in"- 
 industry and wealth along with them. Such 
 as came in strangers, soon after went out 
 bridegrooms, and returned sons-in-law, having 
 married the daughters of their landlords who 
 first entertained them ; yea, those yeomen in 
 whose houses they harboured, soon became 
 gentlemen, gaining great estates." Edward 
 strengthened both his purse and his country 
 by these judicious steps. He found that tlie 
 woollen trade he had encouraged, afibrded the 
 sinews of power in his wars with the French; 
 and when English wool again found its way to 
 Flanders, in 1337, it sold for £100 per sack; 
 and 10,000 sacks were sold at that time in 
 Brabant. In 1312, the king exported to 
 Cologne a great number of sacks of wool, in 
 order to redeem Queen Philinpa's crown, 
 which had been pawned there for £2,500 
 sterling. The average of wool at this time, 
 was Is. 3ii. per lb. Previous to this period 
 the wool had been weighed by means of steel- 
 yards, of nearly the same construction as those 
 used in some country places at the present 
 day; and hence the yard in which the mer- 
 chants usually met was designated "steel-vard." 
 In 1352, the weighing by the steel-yard was 
 prohibited, on account of the deception prac- 
 tised with it. and an equal balance was intro- 
 duced. 
 
 The reign of Henry VIII. imparted an im- 
 pulse to cloth manufacture, though his enact- 
 ments appeared calculated to repress it. Still, 
 when one man (John AYinchcombe) could 
 equip sixty soldiers at his own expense, and 
 maintain them at the battle of Flodden Field, 
 it is evident that his one hundred looms had 
 realised him a considerable profit. This was a 
 way in which the manufacturers were able, 
 when willing, to assist their monarch. The 
 privileges to certain cities, for services ren- 
 dered, doubtless had an origin soraewhat in 
 this manner. York had an exclusive monopoly 
 granted in the manufacture of coverlets ; and 
 worsted spinning was limited to ]N"orwich. 
 Another impetus was given to the trade hj 
 Elizabeth ; whilst the severities exercised by 
 
1V00LLWN lEADE.] 
 
 AND TILKIU VAUIOL'S BllEEDS. 
 
 [woollen tbadb. 
 
 tlio cruel Diiko of Alva ou tho protestant 
 inaiiufiictunTs of the Netlierlanils, caused 
 many of tlioin to omigrato to this country. 
 To tlicse it was tho policy of Elizabeth to 
 cxioiul luT protection, well kno\vin<; tlio skill 
 which they had in wi-aving, and tho iinprove- 
 nicuts which they wcro likely to introduce 
 amongst her own native subjects. Eivo hun- 
 dred of tlicse refugees settled in London ; and 
 the southern seats of maiuifacturo had large 
 accessions of weavers. The scarcity of hands 
 complained of in tho reign of Henry VII., was 
 no longer heard of; and Norwich was not 
 necessitated any more to deplore the paucity 
 of manipulators in her manufactures, lu this 
 reign, trade with Kussia, and the formation of 
 a Kussian trading company, followed, and still 
 further increased the foreign relations of tho 
 country. Tho Turkish Company was estab- 
 lished in 1581 ; the African Company in 1585 ; 
 and the East India Company in 1600. 
 
 In 1GG7, importation of foreign dyers took 
 place. They arrived under the guidance of a 
 person of the name of Brewer. The principal 
 English dye had hitherto been wood ; but he 
 taught them all the mysteries of dressing cloth 
 as well as dyeing. In the reigns of Charles I. 
 and II., the public turbulence and arbitrary 
 interference seem to have crippled the trade. 
 By Charles II., as well as by the Common- 
 wealth, the exportation of wool and sheep 
 was strictly prohibited. But in the reign of 
 William III., manufacturers made steady pro- 
 gress. Considering Ireland to be a linen manu- 
 facturing country, he discouraged the woollen 
 manufacture there. Florentine wool manu- 
 facture was stimulated by every means, legiti- 
 mate and otherwise, and Sweden began to 
 rival England ; the silk trade was pushed, and 
 a general activity pervaded all classes of tho 
 community. 
 
 The Georges encouraged the woollen trade ; 
 and thej were indebted to it in more ways 
 
 than one. Manufacturers and staplora raiacd 
 troops to assist them to repel invaders. John 
 llouth, a stapler of Thorplield House, in York- 
 shire, raised a troop, and had colours prcBcnted 
 by his sovereign, George II., for his loyalty. 
 Tho king also granted h charter, conceding 
 freedom of tolls to John llouth and othern, on 
 tho Aire and Calder rivers — an immunity of 
 great value to a wool-stapler. In tho reign of 
 George 111. our manufactures rose to their 
 [)innaclo of greatness; and, though heavily 
 taxed, wo were enjoying the blessings of 
 peace when all tho rest of the world was at 
 war. A largo portion of our national debt 
 doubtless passed into the hands of tho British 
 manufacturers for the cloths they made ; and 
 fortunes were realised, which created the 
 inillocracy of England. In this reign, inven- 
 tions in mechanical appliances, stimulated, 
 doubtless, by the vast demand for woollen 
 goods during tho war, raised the English 
 clothier to the highest opulence. At this 
 period we obtained wool from Auntralia, Ger- 
 many, Spain, Eussiii, the Cape of Good Hope, 
 South America, and the East Indies. In 
 England, the woollen manufactures will always 
 bo intimately bound up with its pastoral 
 character. Though dependent on foreign 
 countries for a large amount of the raw ma- 
 terial, it still produces within itself a vast 
 proportion of what it requires ; and the paying 
 character of sheep, both directly and indii-ectly, 
 has a great tendency to maintain mutual de- 
 pendence and reciprocity between the wool 
 grower and the manufacturer. The present 
 extraordinary rage for cheapness is amongst 
 the most wonderful tendencies of the age. It 
 is inducing the English manufacturer to make 
 up fabrics mixed with calico, and to work up 
 wool-dust, which is not only unprofitable to 
 the wearer, but must ultimately have a ten- 
 dency to bring discredit on himself, and those 
 with whom he is connected. 
 
 727 
 
snEEP-BEAra:s"G.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [SHEEP-EEAEING. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 BREEDING AND EEARING OF SHEEP. 
 
 "Whatever may be the object of the scieutific, 
 wealthy agriculturist in cattle or sheep breed- 
 ing, it is evident that, in the case of the farmer, 
 it resolves itself into a question of plain pounds, 
 shillings, and pence. In breeding the sheep, 
 however, the same principles which regulate 
 the production and improvement of any other 
 class of animals, must, in a great measure, be 
 acted upon ; and should one person be more 
 successful than another in the production of 
 stock, that person will be found to have given 
 greater attention to the subject, to have been 
 more persevering, and to be possessed of 
 qualities better adapted for carrying out the 
 object in view than the other. The question 
 for the consideration of the farmer is, what 
 kind of animal will ultimately become the 
 most profitable? This is the all-important 
 interrogatory whicli he must put to himself. 
 The present or immediate he must sink in the i 
 comparatively distant ; and, whatever may be 
 liis diappointment, he must persevere, and 
 try again and again, until the arrival of the 
 triumphant day which is certain to crown his 
 efforts with success. It was thus that Bake- 
 weil acted. It was by unwearied perseverance 
 that he succeeded, at last, in producing his 
 New Leicester, which, in the end, rewarded 
 him for all his labours. 
 
 The New Leicester and the Southdown 
 are the two breeds which have occupied the 
 attention of the agricultural world in putting 
 forth their claim to favour. As far as a ten- 
 dency to fatten and to arrive at an early 
 maturity are considered, there is no doubt 
 that the Leicester stands foremost in every 
 known breed of sheep whatever. For the 
 attainment of thfjse qualities, its form is a 
 perfect model ot adaptation; and all other 
 breeds which most closely resemble this form, 
 will possess these qualities in a more or less 
 degree. Even tlie Southdown is no exception 
 to this rule ; for if one of the improved, and 
 another of the neglected specimens were 
 placed together, the excellences of the former 
 728 
 
 would at once appear to lie in those points 
 whicli had the nearest approximation to the 
 Leicester. The production of wool, too, is 
 also to be considered ; for the fleece of the 
 Leicester is much longer than that of the 
 Southdown. "Where, therefore, the pasture 
 is favourable, and the sheep taken care of, and 
 not unduly exposed to cold and wet, the 
 Leicester must be esteemed the most remune- 
 rative of the pure breeds. What, however, are 
 its drawbacks ? These are, says Mr. Spooner, 
 the incapability of the animal to bear exposure, 
 for travelling, or living hard, being weak in 
 constitution, and very liable to inflammatory 
 disorders. Erom these circumstances, it is 
 unfitted for folding purposes, or to stand the 
 exposure of the Southdowns, and still more 
 for bearing up against the severities of the 
 Grampian Hills, or the Welsh mountains. In 
 the climatic variations of these localities, the 
 sheep would soon perish. Besides these draw- 
 backs, their mutton is by no means so good 
 as that of the Southdowns, which, however, 
 is partly owing to the early period (twenty 
 months) at which they are ready for the 
 butcher, and partly to the very large quan- 
 tity of tallow they make in proportion to 
 the lean. © Their mutton, therefore, is not 
 much esteemed in the London markets. Ac- 
 cordingly, the first cross between the Leicester 
 and the Down has been raised instead of the 
 Leicester ; and it is said that this first cross is 
 the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, 
 making greater and more rapid progress than 
 the Down, and yielding a better quality of 
 meat than the Leicester. 
 
 The improved Southdown is also possessed 
 of most valuable qualities; its tendency to 
 fatten being inferior only to the Leicester. It 
 is also later in coming to maturity, taking 
 from thirty to thirty-two months ; but it is an 
 excellent traveller, folds well, is haidy, com- 
 pared with the Leicester; can live on short 
 pastures ; and is, perhaps, the best of all the 
 breeds for the Down farmers in the south of 
 
SlIElir-UEAltlNO.] 
 
 AND Til Hill VMMors BREEDS. 
 
 LhHEEl'-UEAlilNU. 
 
 England. AVitli tlio exception of tiio small 
 mountain slieop, its mutton has ft lii^luT repu- 
 tation than any otlicr; and those ipialitifs, 
 with the wool it produces, have enabled the 
 breed, also, to lioKl a foremost place in the 
 favour of tho publie. »Yitli these two valuable 
 breeds, each adapted to dill'erent pastures, it 
 may bo asked, what need is there for any 
 other ? It will, however, be found that, in 
 tho marshes of Kent, and many other places, 
 tho superior hardihood of tho native breeds 
 Las rendered them more profitable than the 
 Leicester ; though, unquestionably, crosses with 
 the latter have much improved their value. 
 Notwithstanding the valuable qualities of the 
 Soutlidowns, however, they have been found 
 insufficiently hardy to endure the severities 
 of the Grampian hills, or the "Welsh moun- 
 tains. They have been tried, and found want- 
 ing. In these bleak situations, vast numbers 
 of them have fallen victims to the inclemency 
 of the weather ; and the losses which many 
 speculators have sustained, have been the 
 cause of discouraging others from following 
 their steps. 
 
 T\"here breeding is the object of tho farmer, 
 the first rule to act upon is to breed from 
 the best ; but this has its limitations and re- 
 strictions, as will be seen in the following 
 illustrations of Mr. Milburn : — " A man may 
 easily ruin liis flock by adhering to this rule, 
 without attending to its antecedents and ad- 
 juncts. There are two modes of effecting it. 
 One man will scour the whole country to 
 obtain the best ram, or to buy a few prize gim- 
 mers. From these he will select the most pro- 
 mising, and insure better alliances for his flock. 
 The result will be a set of nondescript mongrels. 
 Some distant impurity of breed manifests 
 itself; some tendencies, far back in the genea- 
 logy of the race, break out, which are modified in 
 one case, and fostered in another, until the flock 
 shows signs of indiscriminate and injudicious 
 dabbling. Another man, better acquainted 
 with the rules that regulate vitalism, takes 
 his own flock ; and, having selected the best, 
 he takes only those which he Icnoics to be of the 
 same breed ; and thus goes on steadily aiming at 
 giving breadth to the animal. He knows that 
 the sheep, in order to thrive, must have a large 
 lymphatic system. It must have a capacious 
 chest and loins, and a frame on which to secrete 
 5 a 
 
 fat, with lightness of oflul. Henco bo does not 
 select, at first, that wliich has tho most of the.so 
 qualifications, but which hiw, perhaps, tho 
 widest form, and most unlike liis own flock : ho 
 also takes such as show a tendency to pervade, 
 in one uniform direction, not an individual, 
 but tho whole of tho flock ; and this ho takes 
 to mend his own. liy this means all arc a 
 little improved in tho direction ho requires ; 
 and all keeping alike in their general contour, 
 there is a kind of permanency and uniformity 
 in tho main features of tho improvement. 
 Hence, if we look at the flock of the first- 
 named breeder, we shall have breeds both large 
 and small, 'bony' and 'bloody,' rough and 
 fine, white faces and blue, coarse and tender — 
 in fact, a set of mongrels, none of which are 
 of sufllcient value wherewith to form a flock, 
 and none to be depended upon for any future 
 breed. The other breeder, by his cautious and 
 judicious course, has a uniform JlocJc — a mark 
 both of purity and of skill; for no unskilful 
 man ever kept a flock long in a state of any- 
 thing like similarity to each other. Uniformity 
 is as important to the jobber and the butcher 
 as it is to the grazier. The merit of being 
 ' even' is always appreciated in a market, 
 because it always suits the same class of 
 customers. One butcher buys a large fat 
 animal ; it suits his friends : another, a light, 
 thin one (wool being required by one, and 
 mutton by another) ; one requires fat, and 
 another muscle ; and to make an uneven lot 
 of sheep sell for all they are worth in a market, 
 they must be judiciously sorted." 
 
 "Whatever may be the breed selected, it 
 should be suitable, and, in its management, 
 be tended with the greatest care and atten- 
 tion. Theory and practice have clearly shown 
 that health and thrift are intimately con- 
 nected in the breeding of sheep ; that tho in- 
 fluence of cold has such a deteriorating effect; 
 upon the body, that it contracts its proportions, 
 and renders a greater supply of food necessary 
 to support it. Therefore, to a certain extent, 
 warmth is a substitute for food. This, then, 
 suggests tho great importance of the covering 
 of fleece during the winter. It preserves the 
 temperature of the sheep, and prevents waste ; 
 and shows us the reason why animals thrive 
 better in the summer than the winter, except 
 during the verv hottest period. The usual 
 
 729 ' 
 
SnEEP-EEAEING.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [sheep- HE AEING. 
 
 course adopted in breeding is, to take one 
 of the owner's ewes, and buy it, or put it 
 to the ram of another breeder. Before doing 
 this, two selections have usually been raade by 
 the breeder ; first, those ewes which are so fa- 
 vourable to the object he has in view, are drafted 
 from his flock ; after which his best gimmers are 
 selected from the flock of the preceding year ; 
 he next chooses a ram of the same breed, suit- 
 able to their condition, and possessed of such 
 characteristics as he wishes to be reproduced 
 in his stock. The ram should be thoroughly 
 bred ; and unless it be one of his own, with the 
 qualities of which he is perfectly acquainted, 
 it should have been tried at least one year on 
 a small number of ewes of a good sort, in 
 order to test his excellence. This is com- 
 mended as safe-breeding ; but if uniformity of 
 flock, and purity of blood, are the objects de- 
 sired to be obtained, the surest way to get 
 them, is by adopting the best means. It 
 must always be borne in mind, that the im- 
 provement of a flock, by means of breeding, 
 requires not only very great caution, but long- 
 continued attention and care. 
 
 In breeding, the qualities of both parents 
 must be considered, equally with a view of eradi- 
 cating the bad, as well as perpetuating the good 
 qualities. Speaking on this subject, Professor 
 Spoouer, in his treatise on the sheep, remarks, 
 that it must be acknowledged, that in the ma- 
 jority of cases, the influence of the male pre- 
 ponderates over that of the female, and the 
 characteristics of the former are more likelv 
 to be impressed on the offspring than those 
 of the latter. This, he says, is shown in most 
 animals ; and instances several cases. " The 
 mule," he says, " partakes much more of the 
 nature and size of its sire, the ass, than its 
 dam, the mare. A large Cotswold ram, put 
 to a Down ewe, produces an offspring much 
 more resembling the former than the latter ; 
 and a pony mare, put to a full-sized horse, will 
 produce an animal half as large again as the 
 dam. Though this, however, appears to be 
 Nature's rule, it is not without exception ; for, 
 occasionally, we see the very opposi'^te results. 
 In breeding animals of a pure kind, the prin- 
 cipal rule to be observed, is to breed from the 
 very best of both sexes, and cull the faulty ones 
 every year, saving only the female lambs for 
 the future flock that are as free Irom defects 
 730 
 
 as possible. Of course the flock must be kept 
 up to its proper size ; but, year by year, the 
 finest animals should be selected, until, in the 
 course of time, the flock will entirely consist ot 
 them. When tliis is nearly accomplished, it 
 will not be prudent for a farmer to employ his 
 own tups for the purpose, as he will probably be 
 able to hire superior rams from others ; and it 
 will not do to spare expense in thus rais- 
 ing the character of his sheep.' "When a dif- 
 ference occurs in the general outline of a flock, 
 it is to be corrected by the breeder acting on 
 the flock itself, by regularly drafting oft' the 
 failing ewes, and breeding from the com- 
 mon size. This is said to have a very favour- 
 able influence on the breed — much greater 
 than that of the dam ; for, while she can only 
 influence two animals, the ram exercises hia 
 power, in a greater or less degree, over the 
 whole of the produce. The leading features to 
 be attended to in a ram, are, fineness of skin, 
 light offals, broad, deep, and round frame, and 
 the absence of superfluous coarse wool. The 
 back should be broad, especially near the 
 shoulders, and well covered with solid, but 
 yielding, and slightly elastic flesh ; though it is 
 sometimes said, that an animal on which it is 
 possible to get a full fat development, is one to 
 be selected, on the ground that, in a bad one, 
 this is impossible. As adipose matter, how- 
 ever, is necessarily laid on muscle, it is obvious 
 that where there is plenty of muscle, there also 
 fat may be expected. A deep chest, broad at 
 the base, is very essential ; for this is indicative 
 of xoeiglit. For successful feeding this must be 
 thoroughly capacious. The sheep should walk 
 wide on both legs, keeping them at a distance 
 of at least six inches parallel to each other. 
 The head should be fine, not flat, and rather 
 broad. The eyes very full and prominent, ex- 
 hibiting, on the whole, an expression of quiet 
 liveliness. The ears small ; and the bare parts — 
 the face, ears, and legs — must have a clothing 
 of fine hair or wool. 
 
 The colour, which varies according to the 
 breeds, is of great consequence. A departure 
 from white in the Cheviot, would be as great 
 a lailing as black in the Highland or the Heath 
 sheep ; brown in the Southdown, or blue in 
 the Leicester. Mr. Milburn thinks that the 
 colour of the face of a Leicester is of far more 
 consequence, in a fattening point of view, thaa 
 
siiEEP-nEAniKO.] AND TllFJll VAllIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [SIIKEP-IIKAUINO. 
 
 ia generally imngined. It ouplit, in liis 
 opinion, always to have a ttMnli'iu*y t'> liglit- 
 blue in the ram, or Hotuo Loiri-sUM-sIiiro or 
 Teeswatcr tampering may bo suapfcted. Good 
 legs is nnotlu'r great e8^^CIltial. The tendency 
 is to encourage llesh developments on tlio 
 bnclv, to the ne:;lect of the legs, especially in 
 the Lcicesters. The fino development of the 
 back seems not only to have robbed tlio leg of 
 its muscle, but, by contrast, to have exagge- 
 rated its owu deformity. The dread of a long, 
 coarse leg of mutton has diniiniahed the cir- 
 cumference, as well as the length ; and, though 
 )] short leg of mutton is desirable in a Leices- 
 ter, we must guard against a loss of its rotun- 
 dity. Size is also of consequence. The finest 
 ppecimeus of Leicester — the purest and most 
 Fvmraetrical — are now decidedly the smallest. 
 Breeders should earnestly look to this, and bo 
 careful, in selecting the ram, to have masculine 
 ijualities enough to secure a hardiness in the 
 flock. In reference to the various points 
 sought after by breeder?, not because of their 
 own intrinsic value, but because of their being 
 evidence of other valuable qualities, is an 
 aptitude to fatten, and the attainment of an 
 early maturity. In the Southdown breed, for 
 example, small heads, legs, and horns are es- 
 teemed, because experience has pronounced 
 them qualities which are found usually as- 
 sociated with fattening properties. Black 
 muzzles and legs are, also, highly valued, be- 
 cause they are indicative of a good consti- 
 tution, and a certain degree of hardiness, which 
 epeaks well for the animal. Roughness of the 
 back, roundness of frame, and breadth of loin, 
 are also points in great request, being not 
 only the signs of good qualities, but, in reality, 
 good qualities in themselves. Straightness of 
 the back, although perfect in the Leicester, is 
 not natural to the unimproved Southdown, 
 but rather the contrary. In the improved 
 breeds, however, it appears, and is considered 
 an excellent point, as it gives a greater sm'face 
 for the accumulation of flesh, and aflords 
 larger scope for the abdominal organs. The 
 opposite of this, as witnessed in a round or 
 convex back, is produced, and increased by the 
 effects of hunger and cold, and is almost sure 
 to make its appearance, should the breed be 
 exposed to neglect, and the rigours of an in- 
 clement season. In summing up some of the 
 
 profitable requisites of a well-formfd anima), 
 
 it may be stated, that it should have as mucii 
 flesh, aiul as little bono and griHtle as possible; 
 and this flesh should be found where it is most 
 wanted, and, therefore, most valuable. For 
 example, it is much more profitable on the loins 
 and quarters than about the head, and upper 
 or scrag-end of the neck. AVIiere there ia a 
 largo development of flesh, a proportional dis- 
 position to fatten may be expected ; but to bo 
 profitable, it is necessary that these qualities 
 should be early developed, or, in other words, 
 should bo exhibited by an early maturity. 
 
 Having described the points of the ram, wo 
 may observe that the ewe should be straight 
 and broad-backed, wide in the loins, and deep- 
 breasted. The angles of her frame will always 
 be sharper than those of the ram ; but depth 
 and breadth, with fineness about the throat 
 and legs, ought always to be specially attended 
 to. To secure uniformity in the flock, the 
 ewes ought always to be as much alike as 
 possible, otherwise it will be the next thing to 
 an impossibility to obtain this desirable object. 
 We have already observed that, in breeding 
 for improvement, it is a good rule to breed 
 from the best of the kind ; and if a superioi* 
 ram of the same breed can be obtained from 
 another flock, it ought to be taken, and a 
 preference given to it, should its qualities be 
 equal to any one possessed by ourselves. If 
 our own, however, excel all others within 
 reach, then it should be used, but with the 
 precaution of marking the ewes which are 
 deficient in any of the qualities desired to bo 
 perpetuated. 
 
 Cross-lreedinij of sheep has attracted a 
 great deal of attention ; and its object is either 
 to increase the size, or to improve the form ; 
 to stimulate its fattening tendencies, to give it 
 an earlier maturity, and to extend the length, 
 or enhance the quality of the wool. To prac- 
 tise any of these improvements, it might, at 
 first sight, appear that all that would have to bo 
 done, would be to select a ram of any special 
 breed, distinguished for the particular quality 
 desired to be produced. This, however, will 
 not always prove suitable ; for, by so doing, 
 a breed will frequently be reared, either weak 
 in constitution, or defective in form, on ac- 
 count of the too great dissimilarity between 
 the parents. Therefore, to render crossing 
 
 7:U 
 
SHEEr-EBAEING.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [SHEEP-REARINa, 
 
 successful, it may be taken as a general rule, 
 that there should be some affinity of consti- 
 tution between the intended improvers, and 
 those sought to be improved ; and this affinity 
 is sometimes denoted by the character of the 
 -n-ools. The most usual crosses are those of 
 the Leicester with the SouthdotV7i. The true 
 Leicester is unfashionable, is fed too early, 
 and is said to be too fat for its amount of 
 muscle to secure favour at the tables of the 
 rich epicure. Luxury seems greatly inclined 
 to discard that profitable animal; whilst the 
 Southdown has been selected to impart a 
 quality to the mutton, a fineness to the fleece, 
 and a tendency to lay on fat, with hardihood. 
 
 Some of a flock of this breed were seen by 
 Mr. Milburn, at the farm of Mr. Johnson, of 
 Chevet Grange, near Wakefield, in the West 
 Eiding of Yorkshire ; and he speaks greatly in 
 their praise. He says — " We happen to have 
 seen some extraordinary specimens of his flock, 
 embracing, perhaps, more of the qualities of 
 the two breeds than could be conceived pos- 
 sible. There was considerable size; a heavy 
 fleece of the finest wool ; large frame ; plenty of 
 fine-grained mutton ; with early maturity, and 
 a fair mixture of fat and muscle. These are 
 qualifications seldom realised in one animal. 
 AV^hat is more, they were precisely like each 
 other. The result seemed uniform ; and though 
 they cannot be considered as stereotyped cha- 
 racteristics, yet they are qualities preserved 
 with considerable tenacity, and, we are as- 
 sured, not at all obliterated by continuing to 
 breed in-and-hi with the crosses. Be this as 
 it may, the result is pretty certain ; and a good 
 flock of Southdown ewes, put to a Leicester 
 ram, may, with pretty considerable accuracy of 
 calculation, be depended upon as a successful 
 cross of sheep — fashionable to the butcher 
 and wool dealer, profitable to the farmer, and 
 more to be depended upon to meet a market 
 than, perhaps, any other class of sheep, if we 
 take the average of the run of seasons. We 
 have heard of the reverse. Mr. Johnson has 
 himself succeeded in breeding good produce 
 from Leicester ewes and a Southdown ram; 
 but we think that evidence is entirely in favour 
 of the reverse of tliis cross." 
 
 The Colsivold is sometimes crossed tvith the 
 Leicester, to wliicli size is thereby given, as it 
 is the custom to feed them at one year old. 
 7:32 
 
 A successful cross has, also, been made between 
 the Hampshire Down and the improved Cots- 
 wold. The Cotswold or Gloucester sheep is 
 of large proportions^ and has for centuries 
 been famous for the length and weight ot its 
 fleece. As one of the long-wooUed races, it is 
 superior to most others ; but its carcass could 
 not bear comparison with the Leicester. After 
 being crossed with it, however, it greatly im- 
 proved in its fattening properties, and attained 
 an earlier maturity, whilst it continued to 
 preserve the quality of its fleece. The Hamp- 
 shire was originally, in a great measure, derived 
 from the flocks of Essex, and is a larger variety 
 of the Southdown. Either from choice or 
 economy, the largest and coarsest animals were 
 selected and crossed with the native horned 
 sheep, and this breed has been perpetuated oa 
 the farms of North Hampshire for years. 
 
 A cross between the Leicester and the Black- 
 face is now well established, notwithstanding 
 the wide difference which exists in the cha- 
 racter and habits of the two breeds. The ex- 
 cellent mutton qualities of the one, and the 
 fattening tendencies of the other, have caused 
 this race to be extensively cultivated in the 
 north, where large numbers of them are reared, 
 and where they are held in very high estima- 
 tion, not only on account of their mutton 
 and their hardiness, but for the excellence 
 of the wool which they yield. Eor this cross, 
 however, it is not the very highest kind 
 of Leicester that is chosen to produce it. It 
 is the good and the useful, rather than the 
 delicate. Therefore, they possess in them- 
 selves a certain degree of hardiness, which 
 renders it more easy to acclimatise them to the 
 temperature and hill pastures of Scotland. 
 The cross between the Leicester and the 
 Cheviot is also established, and the produce of 
 this cross is rapidly taking the place of the 
 pure Cheviot. Its size is greater, its fatten- 
 ing tendencies better, and it attains to an 
 earlier maturity. Another cross, in the north, 
 is noticed as being somewhat successful. It 
 is between the Cheviot and the Black-faced — 
 the rams of the latter, and the ewes of the 
 former. This cross, Mr. Milburn says, is cal- 
 culated for barren pastures, and such exposed 
 situations as cannot be so well borne by any of 
 the other crosses already specified. This cross, 
 as might be expected, produces an extremely 
 
snEicp-iu:ARixo.] AM) TIir.IK V \ K I O rs BREEDS. 
 
 [BiiKEP-nEAnma. 
 
 hardy race, in wliich the quality of the mutton fertile cause of horc^ditary predisposition to 
 is not at all di'torioratcd. To obtain it, how- disease is prevented. A liealtliy form and 
 ever, requires considerable perseverance, as the sound conslitntion are essential to successful 
 first is not always successful. "When {gradually j breedinjr, and for the development of the 
 carried back to the pure Cheviot ram, it greatly I points wo seek to obtain. Thus, tlie principal 
 
 improves, when good mutton, better wool, and 
 heavier weights arc secured. Complications 
 in crossing are considered neither safe nor 
 successful. 
 
 Breeding from close affinities, or, in other 
 words, in-and-in breeding, has been much dis- 
 cussed : and, in the estimation of many, is still 
 an unsettled question. AVhatevcr may bo its 
 advantages, it certainly has its disadvantages. 
 Sexual intercourse is forbidden by tlie law, 
 between near relatives in the human subject ; 
 and even marriage between relatives of the 
 second, degree — such as cousins — is looked 
 upon by many persons as very objectionable, 
 from the liability of entailing disease on the 
 ofliipriug, and especially disease of a mental 
 kind. This opinion is strongly supported by 
 statistical facts bearing upon the subject. 
 *' In the animal," says Professor Spooner, 
 " there is no reluctance to sexual intercourse 
 between the nearest affinities ; and the custom 
 of breeding from sheep closely related, has 
 been, for a long time, practised by breeders of 
 considerable eminence. In the human subject, 
 the objections to the practice are at once 
 granted ; but let us see whether they likewise 
 obtain with animals. In the former, marriages 
 are generally entered into, with little, if any, 
 regard to the health of the individuals con- 
 cerned ; the consequence of which is, that the 
 diseases of the parents, or, rather, their pre- 
 dispositions, are entailed on the offspring. 
 The result of this is, that most families have 
 predisposition to some particular complaint ; 
 and thus, if two members of the same family 
 have sexual intercourse, the probability is, that 
 if both parents had predisposition to a par- 
 ticular disease, in an equal degree, this will be 
 increased in their offspring in a double ratio. 
 But, on the contrary, if a man unites with a 
 woman of a different family, and a different 
 predisposition, the idiosyncracy of the offspring 
 to the diseases of either parent is likely to be 
 prevented or retarded. "With animals, how- 
 ever, the case is very different. If due atten- 
 tion be paid, a principal object will be, to breed 
 from healthy subjects, by which means one 
 
 objection to breeding from near affinities, 
 which exists in the human subject, does not 
 obtain amongst animals; and even if, in the 
 former, mental disease is more apt to occur 
 when this practice is pursued, this, also, is an 
 objection which does not apply to animal^; 
 though it has been urged by some, that sheep 
 bred in-and-in, are more subject to diseases of 
 the brain — a conclusion, however, which 1 am 
 much disposed to doubt." From this passage, 
 then, it is evident that the effects of in-and-in 
 breeding may be productive either of good or 
 evil ; although, in neither case, may this result 
 be attributable to nearness of affinity, but 
 rather to the circumstances with which it is 
 connected. If due care is not taken in culling, 
 or making a selection of the flock, both defect 
 and disease may reasonably be expected to 
 arise; and two animals, having each a predis- 
 position to the same evil, defective, or diseased 
 tendencies, if permitted to have connection, 
 will produce an offspring similarly predisposed, 
 but in a double degree. If proper care is em- 
 ployed, however, in the selection of the flock, 
 the opposite result may be anticipated. 
 
 In managing rams and ewes for the purposes 
 of breeding, care should be taken, tliat about 
 the close of the month of September, the ewes 
 are put upon better keep. Eape is, perhaps, 
 the best thing to give the Leicesters ; but if 
 this be not present, aftermath or clover stubble. 
 If a largo progeny is the ))rincipal aim, such 
 food, will bo found greatly conducive to the 
 effecting of this object. It is said, that of 
 keeping sheep on rape before the ewes are per- 
 mitted to receive the ram, fully thirty per 
 cent, of lambs may be obtained. Ciima.te, and 
 the quantity of spring food provided, must, of 
 course, in a great measure, regulate the time 
 when the rams are to be put to the ewes. It 
 is of the utmost importance that the lambs 
 should be dropped as early as possible, in order 
 that they may be well nursed, and have sufficient 
 time to gather strength enough to enable tliem 
 to provide for themselves before tlie winter sets 
 in. It is also advantageous to the ewes, that 
 they may arrive at good ''nndition before the 
 
 733 
 
SHEEP-EEABTNG.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [snEEP-EEA'RIN'G. 
 
 commencement of the rutting season ; thus a 
 full crop of lambs may be secured. A proper 
 proportion of tups should be employed — say, 
 three to one hundred ewes, if they are much 
 scattered ; but, if they are kept in enclosures, 
 two will be sufficient for a hundred. " A ram, 
 when shearling, or two shear," Mr. Milburn 
 says, " will serve sixty ewes, or even eighty, if 
 proper care be taken. The too common mode 
 is to allow him to run with the ewes at large. 
 There is a great waste of the animal's virile 
 powers ; and when as many as the last-named 
 number of ewes are given him, another course 
 should be adopted. A shepherd should be left 
 in entire charge ; a pen or pair of stocks, as it 
 is indifferently called, provided, and the ram 
 kept confined in the house, or in a very small 
 croffc. An active lively ram should be sent 
 with the ewes, and should have an apron tied 
 about the crop, so as entirely to cover the ge- 
 nitals. If his breast is smeared with red it is 
 no disadvantage, as it more distinctly marks 
 the ewes. AVhen a ewe is observed in full 
 season, she should be brought to the stocks, 
 and served by the ram with whom she is in- 
 tended to produce, and immediately carried 
 away ; but, when eighty ewes are provided, it 
 is indispensable ; and when twenty to thirty 
 guineas are given for the loan of a ram for one 
 season, it is not unreasonable to expect him to 
 discharge more duties to the flock than is pos- 
 sible by running at large. When the flock 
 comes in season very rapidly, the ram serves 
 them only once ; if not, they are served twice, 
 and then turned away for a fortnight, when 
 they are brought back to the teaser ; and he is 
 then smeared with a blue or black colour, to 
 distinguish those who come once. When the 
 ewes are not named, they should all be num- 
 bered, and a register kept of the ram and his 
 breeding, and the date of each ewe being served. 
 This is not only an invaluable record in the case 
 of pedigrees, but it is still more useful as being 
 a guide to housing, when near the period of 
 lambing; and, though the doggrel distich is 
 true, tliat — 
 
 " ' There was never a shepherd, that ever begun, 
 
 Can tell wliether they go nineteen, twenty, or twenty- 
 one ;" 
 still, a very important classification is secured 
 by those who have their register, who cannot 
 house the whole flock, especially in a time of 
 734 
 
 severity and difficulty. When the active pro- 
 cess of gestation has commenced, care should 
 be taken to prevent the ewes getting too fat. 
 If they do, inflammatory disease, absence of 
 milk, and general risk, are sure to be the eon- 
 sequences." The apron alluded to in this pas- 
 sage, is believed by Dr. Parry to have been an 
 invention of the celebrated Bakewell. The 
 sexual appetite of the ewes being provoked, 
 and their condition being discovered, by it, 
 they are taken in succession to the proper 
 ram, which is kept in a yard or small enclosure, 
 and permitted to serve each only once. The 
 common practice, on high farms at this season, 
 is to collect the ewes, and drive them to the 
 low ground ; but this has frequently the efl'ect 
 of harassing the animals, and spoiling the 
 winter pasture. If they be altogether left at 
 liberty, however, an inconvenient number of 
 rams is requisite. The duties of the shepherd 
 at this season are extremely onerous, as he 
 must be constant in his attendance. If the 
 weather permit, the ewes must rather be kept 
 on the high ground, in separate bodies, scat- 
 tered here and there, in accordance with the 
 nature of the pasture, and the condition of the 
 ground. Each of these detachments sliould 
 have a proportion of rams allotted to it ; and 
 the shepherd cannot be too careful in not 
 allowing the lambs to quit the ewes to which 
 they have been appropriated. If this be done 
 properly, fewer rams will be required on the 
 ground. When the ewes have become large, 
 they should be run about as little as possible. 
 Nor should they in any way be disturbed, but 
 carefully watched over, and kept away from 
 wet ground, and everything that may be sup- 
 posed to have an injurious effect upon their 
 health. When very heavy, they are apt to get 
 cast, and unable to rise ; and when this is the 
 case, the shepherd should approach them with 
 gentleness, and help to raise them with as 
 much tenderness as he can use. Should a«e.we 
 miscarry in very cold or severe weather, she 
 should be brought to her cot, and kept there 
 until she has recovered. In mild weather, 
 however, she will be equally safe in the open 
 air. When the yearning time arrives, the 
 ewes should be placed on the most level and 
 driest ground, not only for their own accom- 
 modation, but for that of the lambs when 
 dropped. 
 
SUEEl'-JtKAUl.NO ] 
 
 AND Til El II VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [silKEl'-llt.vniKO. 
 
 Having alluded to the ouerouB duties of the 
 shepherd during tho breeding seiiaoii, wo may 
 hero observe, that one, whoao pastoral care lies 
 among the mountains, must bo possessed of 
 certain qualifications to enable him to act upon 
 his trust with pleasure to himselt" and satisl'ac- 
 tiou to his employer, lie must bo active, 
 attentive, careful, honest, and good-tempered 
 withal. This last qualification is as indispon- 
 sabld to make up tho character of a good shep- 
 herd, as it is to complete the character of a 
 moral philosopher or a sago. Should he sulVer 
 himself, at any time, to get into a passion with 
 his sheep, the probability is that he will not 
 only injure them, but act greatly to his own 
 disadv;uitago in herding and working among 
 them. This observation is not applicable to 
 the shepherd alone. It applies to every man 
 who is in a position to govern, command, or 
 control. He who loses his temper, generally 
 loses a portion of his time, as he certainly does, 
 a portion of his reason, which temper must 
 again restore, before be can do for himself, or 
 get others to act for him satisfactorily, A lad 
 or shepherd, and a close-mouthed dog, will ac- 
 complish the object desired in half the time, 
 and with half the trouble which will be given 
 to the quick-tempered, passionate man. It is 
 not by running and hounding his dog after 
 them, that sheep are to be easiest driven to 
 where they are wished ; but by quickly direct- 
 ing them, agreeably to the quality of the soil, 
 the nature of the climate, the locality of the 
 farm, where they may obtain in greatest quan- 
 tity, and with certain safety, a, sufficient supply 
 of nutritious food throughout the year. In 
 Little's Practical Olservations on Mountain 
 Sheep, it is remarked, that " it is not by walk- 
 ing much or seeming to be doing much, that a 
 shepherd proves himself to be a good one ; but 
 by walking so as to disturb the sheep the least, 
 and by doing, and at the time, whatever is 
 necessary to be done. There is not an expe- 
 rienced shepherd, who does not, as soon as he 
 rises in the morning, and observes the state of 
 the weather, know almost to a certainty where 
 to find nearly every sheep on the hill ; and he 
 will, accordingly, take his course to the place 
 where he knows bis presence is most wanted. 
 If any of bis own or bis neighbour's sheep 
 have trespassed, it is foolish to dog or to abuse 
 them ; bat the more quietly they can be turned 
 
 back the better. If tho boundary should be 
 
 on the top or ridge of a lieit,'ht, towards which 
 sheep are apt to draw at night, it is better to 
 turn his own u little closer to tho boundary ia 
 tho afternoon, than to drive back his neigh- 
 hour's ; it will better answer tho simo purpuse; 
 and, after tho flocks have been a few times 
 gently directed in tho morning, without dogs, 
 they will become so well acquainted with their 
 own side, that, at the very sight of the shep- 
 herds, they will take to it without trouble. 
 Those slu'pherds who dog and force their 
 Hocks, I take to be bad herdsmen for their 
 masters, and bad herdsmen for the neighbour- 
 ing farmers. If the boundary be a bourne or 
 brouk on low ground, where the sheep graze in 
 the middle of the day, the same plan should be 
 adopted by turning the sheep down tolerably 
 early in the day." These observations, although 
 directed to tlie mountain shepherd, have yet, 
 more or less, an application to every one who 
 has the care of sheep in any situation. 
 
 About a fortnight before the expiration of 
 the period of gestation, the ewes should be 
 separated from the flock, and placed in a grass 
 crofc near the house. They should be sheltered 
 by being allowed temporary houses made of 
 hurdles and straw, with smaller houses, in 
 which the newly-dropt lambs may be sepa- 
 rated from the rest, and kept free from danger. 
 This is not always practised ; but it ought to 
 be done ; and for the lambing season, a croft 
 of winter-freed grass, or uneaten moss, should 
 be preserved. To save the grass at a time 
 when, from a backward spring, or other 
 reasons, it is scarce, the ewes may be driven 
 daily to tho turnip-field, and taken at night 
 elsewhere — a plan which, by giving them ex- 
 ercise, will bo found very beneficial. The 
 best food for the ewes, after shelter is no 
 longer necessary to the lambs, is Italian rye- 
 grass, or rye, which, after being eaten down, 
 grows rapidly; and nothing teaches the lambs 
 to eat sooner than this. The corn should still 
 be continued along with Swede turnips ; while 
 the advent of fine weather, and the diminished 
 wants of the lamb, will be the criteria for 
 deciding when the practice ought to be dis- 
 continued. "When lambs are observed to drop 
 on a spot where they cannot easily rise, they 
 should be lifted, and placed on their feet ; but 
 if everything be favourable, they are better 
 
 735 
 
SHEEP- EEAEINa.j 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [SHEEP-EEARIKG. 
 
 left to themselves. "When a day or two old, 
 they may be docked, which will be the means 
 of saving a great deal of trouble afterwards, 
 when the disease called " pinding" attacks them. 
 About three inches is, perhaps, a length suffi- 
 cient for the tail ; but males, provided pinding 
 does not take place, should not be docked 
 until the season for performing the operation 
 of castration has arrived. When lambs ex- 
 hibit little signs of sportiveness, in all proba- 
 bility there is something the matter with them, 
 and they should be examined, as well as their 
 dams. By nature they are lively and frisky, 
 full of fun, and much given to play; if, there- 
 fore, they exhibit little or no signs of this 
 disposition, it may be taken as a certainty 
 that there is something the matter, either with 
 them or their dams. If they are in any way 
 deformed, they should be slaughtered for home 
 consumption. Should a lamb die, it ought to 
 be slowly dragged home, when the ewe will 
 follow it. After she has been brought into 
 the house, a twin lamb from another ewe may 
 be put to her ; and, as soon as she has allowed 
 it to suck, they may be both turned out 
 together. 
 
 In the weaning of lambs, the ewes should 
 
 be taken from the lambs, and not the lambs 
 
 from the ewes. It is said to be always best 
 
 to place the ewes and lambs together in a 
 
 pasture most suitable for the lambs. The 
 
 ewes should be carried out of hearing of their 
 
 oiFspring, and placed in a poor pasture, and 
 
 milked for a few days, until the lactiferous 
 
 system ceases to secrete, and then it is best 
 
 to send them to a cool upland, if possible. 
 
 Lambs, however, should be allowed to suck 
 
 during three months and a-half, after which 
 
 they may be taken up and kept for a fortnight 
 
 or three weeks, at a distance from their dams. 
 
 Sale lambs are usually not taken up till their 
 
 purchaser comes and removes them at once. 
 
 It is the practice of some to wean their lambs 
 
 about the middle of July, considering it as 
 
 important to habituate them to a change of 
 
 provender before the arrival of the season 
 
 when braxy is likely to set in. If nature 
 
 were to be taken for our guide, however, early 
 
 in August would be sufficient time for the 
 
 removal of the lambs. 
 
 Should lambs become infested with vermin 
 before the time of smearing, the following 
 736 
 
 directions, given by Dr. Parry, will be found 
 serviceable : — The ticlc, or hippohosca ovina, is 
 extremely injurious to sheep, by making the 
 animal bite and rub itself, so as not only to 
 prove detrimental to the fleece, but to break 
 the skin ; in consequence of which, the fly is 
 apt to fix on the wool near the wounded part, 
 and there deposit its eggs. This troublesome 
 animal may be, in a great measure, destroyed 
 by a solution of white arsenic in powder, 
 made in boiling water, in the proportion of 
 an ounce to a gallon, and poured, when cold, 
 on the back of the sheep, and allowing it to 
 diS'use itself down the skin on each side ; in 
 this method, however, several of the ticks 
 escape by crawling to the extremities of the 
 filaments. It will be still better to wash the 
 lambs in the autumn, whether shorn or not, 
 in a tub of a similar mixture. Eor this pur- 
 pose, three pounds of the same arsenic in 
 powder, may be dissolved in six gallons of 
 boiling water, and the solution mixed with 
 forty gallons of cold water. The whole being, 
 then, well stirred with a stick, the lambs may 
 be plunged into it, great care being taken that 
 they do not dip their heads, or taste the 
 water. The liquor must be squeezed out of 
 their fleeces back into the vessel, in order that 
 it may not be wasted. It is hardly necessary 
 to point out the poisonous quality of this 
 liquid, and how important it is to keep the 
 vessel locked up, and, after the operations are 
 performed, to clean it well ; or rather never to 
 use it for any other purpose ; and to throw 
 the liquid which remains, where not the 
 smallest quantity of it can be drank by any 
 creature whose life we value. Infusion of 
 tobacco is equally eflective, but not so eco- 
 nomical. 
 
 When the lamb is fairly on its legs, and able 
 to do something for itself, it is frequently the 
 case, that a pasture is chosen for the dam, as 
 uncongenial for the production of milk, as it 
 is unfit for teaching the ofl"spring to feed, which 
 thus prolongs the dependence of the latter on 
 the lacteal supplies which it must draw from 
 the mother. When the vegetable food which 
 the lamb consumes becomes increased, the 
 milk of the dam diminishes ; and, either from 
 natural constitution, or from some accident, it 
 frequently happens that she becomes dry, not- 
 withstanding the efl"ort3 of the lamb to preserve 
 
SHEKP MAyAOKMEN'T.] AND TlIEIli VAlilOUS BREEDS, [bukep management. 
 
 the laotilerous stream. AVhca thia is tliecaso, 
 tho lambs are often depastured on over-eaten 
 seed ; and as their bowels are tender, and not 
 yet inured to such food, they becoino alll-cted 
 with purginj];, and hence the cause of unweaned 
 lambs being afllicted with the scour, wlien un- 
 availing recourse ^is bad to the shears and 
 medicine, to savo lives which too often pass 
 beyond the reach of skill. The discovery is tlien 
 made that the lambs have been so weaned, and 
 have bad improper pasture Ouce place 
 weaned lambs on over- eaten seeds, and the 
 whole flock takes the scour, followed by flies, 
 maggots, medicine, and death. To prevent 
 such a calamity, Mr. ^Milburu recommends 
 a bard old grass, or a second crop of mown 
 clover, which he considers perfectly safe. " It is 
 not the excellence of the pasture," he says, 
 " as regards its quantity, which is to bo feared, 
 but the quality ; for if the land be rich, 
 with grass and newly-grown seeds, the scour 
 is certain to follow. Some flock-masters, who 
 have not red clover, or poor grass laud, will 
 send their lambs to a poorer soil to graze, until 
 their bowels have become accustomed to purely 
 vegetable diet. Should scour take place, it is 
 often diflicult to stop it. Tho bowels must bo 
 relieved of the dry food, and the system 
 hardened by tonics. A dose of a quarter of 
 
 an ounce of flower of sulphur, in old milk, will 
 generally succeed in stopping tho disease, if it 
 bo properly attacked in its early stages." 
 
 " ]t is an excellent plan," tho same practical 
 gentleman further remarks, "to have a few 
 wetiiers, ur barren ewes, to put in the flcld 
 with tho lambs after weaning. They teach 
 them to select their food ; they draw out tho 
 instincts of the young lambs, and mati-ri.illv 
 assist in drawing and training. A pea should 
 be provided in tho corner of the field ; and to 
 dip as soon as possible after weaning is by no 
 means a bad practice. As soon as the ewes 
 are shorn, and before the weaning, it is very 
 desirable to have the l^mbs dipped. If deferred 
 till after weaning, there is often much fretting 
 excited in them, and they seem to sufier more 
 by far than when they are subjected to tho 
 process during the period when they arc re- 
 maining with their dams. It is often necessary 
 again to dress tho lambs in the autumn, and 
 so keep them from tho annoying and irritating 
 eflects of insects whicli seem to grow upon 
 them, despite every care, unless they are sub- 
 jected to frequent remedial applications. If 
 sale at one year old is intended, the lambs 
 should be kept on artificial food, Irom the veiy 
 season of weaning, in order that they may be 
 well brought up." 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT AND F.MTKNING OF SHEEP. 
 
 Befoke directly considering the methods pur- 
 sued in the management and fattening of sheep, 
 the construction and power of the digestive 
 organs of the animal, upon wliieh experiments 
 are to be tried, should be well known. These 
 in the sheep, like those of almost all vegetable 
 feeding animals, are extremely complicated ; 
 and, in the exercise of their functions, accom- 
 plish a much more diflicult task than those 
 which are possessed by animals that princi- 
 pally feed upon flesh. The food of these, be- 
 fore it is eaten, is in a great measure ready 
 5 B 
 
 prepared. The constituent parts of which it 
 is composed have a close resemblance to those 
 of tho blood itself, and necessarily bafve an exact 
 similarity to the very flesh it is intended to 
 nourish. This being the case, a much smaller 
 quantity is required to sustain the body, 
 as there is little of it given off" in the way of 
 waste, or ejected in the form of foeccs. This, 
 however, is very difllirent from what is neces- 
 sary to sustain the body of the herbivorous 
 quadruped. The food required for it has to be 
 sought in the wilds of nature, in the fields auc^ 
 
 737 
 
MATfAGEMENT.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 ^lv^A■^rAGE■M:E^"T. 
 
 the forest, -where it is found in the very cru- 
 dest state, and requires to be consumed in large 
 quantities, in order to yield a sufficiency of 
 nourishment for the sustainment of life. This, 
 as a matter of course, iiecessitates a diiference 
 of construction in those internal organs which 
 have to act upon such a bulky species of nutri- 
 ment. Accordingly, the digestive organs of the 
 graminivorous animals are much more extensive 
 than those of the carnivorous, and proportion- 
 ally more complicated, that they may be equal 
 to the performance of their work. Both the 
 ox and the sheep have very extensive digestive 
 organs. Their intestines are of great length ; 
 and, in place of having only one stomach, like 
 the horse, they have no fewer than four. " The 
 usual course of the food," says Professor 
 Spooner, " is into the rtnnen, ov first stomach, 
 whose entrance is close to the termination of 
 the oesophagus and the entrance of the canal. 
 This stomach is of enormous extent, occupying, 
 indeed, when full, nearly three-fourths of the 
 abdomen. It lies towards the left side, ex- 
 tending to the flank ; and, by a sort of muscular 
 band, it is partially divided into two principal 
 compartments. It is lined internally by the 
 peretonial membrane, in common with the other 
 contents of the abdomen, and, internally, by 
 an insensible membrane, called the cuticular, 
 between which there are two other coats — 
 the mucus, which secretes the fluid found in 
 the stomach ; and, external to this, the muscu- 
 lar coat, which is formed of two orders of fibres 
 running in opposite directions. Its interior 
 aspect presents a number of pouches or com- 
 partments, which are formed by muscular 
 bauds, thrown across from one part to another ; 
 and the surface presents an innumerable num- 
 ber of pupillo?, or eminences, not sharp, but 
 blunt pointed, which are formed by the mucus 
 coat, and merely covered by the cuticular. 
 These pupillaj are coarser in the lower com- 
 partment of the viscus than in the upper. We 
 have said the rumen consists of two compart- 
 ments ; but, with greater propriety, it may be 
 stated, that there are three ; a smaller one be- 
 ing situated immediately below the termination 
 of the oesophagus, and adjoining the second 
 stomach. The use of these partial divisions is 
 very evident. They relieve one portion of the 
 stomach from sustaining the whole of the weight 
 of the food ; and thev afibrd a sort of steps, or 
 738 
 
 resting-places for the food that has undergone 
 maceration, the upper, and smaller, compart- ■ 
 ment being that into. which the food is raised 
 just previous to being ruminated. The rumen 
 is partly attached to the second stomach, but 
 only communicates with it through the common 
 opening into the cesophagean canal. The 
 second stomach is called the recticulum ; its 
 size is considerably less than the rumen, but it 
 possesses much strength in its coats, and its 
 muscular fibres are more developed. It is 
 globular in shape, and somewhat larger than 
 the maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe, 
 not only from its cellular structure, but 
 from its being thicker than the others. Its 
 internal aspect is very singular, having a vast 
 number — indeed, several hundreds — of shallow 
 cells, somewhat like a honey-comb. The cells 
 are much smaller at the part of the viscus 
 nearest the entrance, and gradually increase in 
 size from this point. The sides of these cells 
 consist of ridges formed by the mucus and 
 cuticular coats, and smaller ridges are also 
 observed, running across within the cells. 
 Most of them are pentagonal, but many have 
 six sides ; and, on their surface, we observe an 
 immense number of sharp-pointed pupillse, 
 much smaller in size, though sharper than 
 those of the rumen, and which secrete a mucous 
 fluid. This viscus has the same coats as the 
 rumen, but the muscular coat ha-s two layers of 
 strong fibres, arranged both transversely and 
 longitudinally. The opening into this stomach 
 is of some extent, compared to its size; the 
 duplications, or lips, which form it, are, indeed, 
 the floor of the greater portion of the cesopha- 
 gean canal. Though, in the ordinary state, 
 the root, or upper part of the reticulum, is the 
 floor of the cesophagean canal, yet if air is 
 pumped into the oesophagus, so as to distend 
 the stomachs, the situation of the reticulum 
 will become reversed, rising up towards the 
 oesophagus ; and thus, if this rexius is distended 
 in the disease of hoove — as, from its free oom- 
 munieation with the rumen, it probably is — it 
 must press on the diaphragm with consider- 
 able force, greater in proportion, even, than 
 the rumen itself. The contents of this stomach 
 are more liquid than those of the others. 
 Somewhat before the end of the entrance of 
 the secend, the canal terminates, as it were, in 
 the third stomach — the oiianiplus, ovonmifold; 
 
siiKEi' MAyAOEMEXT.] AND Til 111 R VARIOUS BKEEDS. [siikkp manaoiment. 
 
 80 called from its curious internal struo 
 ture, which is roriiicd by n j^rt-at number ot" 
 plaits, or folds, arraiigfJ loiii;itutliiially iu a 
 direction from tiio entrance of the stomach; so 
 that, althous^h it is not larc;e externally — not 
 exceedinj^ t!io reticulum — its external surfnco is 
 increased in more than a tenfold decree. These 
 plaits aro very curiously arraiij^ed, being in the 
 form of seven or eight {groups of six leaves, each 
 leaf dissimilar in lenj^th, tho largest extending 
 almost froi i tho upper to t!io lower part of the 
 stomach. These leaves arc studded with 
 numerous small pupillae, much harder than 
 those of the reticulum, and some on the edges 
 of the plaits, of the shape of a bent cone, the 
 points directed towards the entrance. It has 
 been found, in certain cows that would never 
 retain their Ibod, but were continually scour- 
 ing, that these plaits were unusually short. 
 The uianiplus has but one opening, but this 
 opening is in dii'ect coraniunicatiou with both 
 the canal and the fourth stomach. The plaits 
 are studded with numerous minute pupilla), 
 somewhat similar to those found in the reticu- 
 lum. The maniplus possesses four coats like 
 the others, and its external appearance is 
 globular. Its contents are generally found of 
 a much harder consistence than those of the 
 oth^r stomachs. This stomach, when full, is 
 found above the ojsophagean canal, forming, 
 indeed, a portion of its roof; and its longest 
 leaves fall down, as it were, almost into the 
 canal. The ahomasum, as the fourth stomach 
 is called, is, in fact, the true stomach, being 
 that which secretes the gastric juice, by which 
 the food is converted into chyme. It is this 
 peculiar acid which gives it the power of 
 coagulating milk; and, in calves, it is particu- 
 larly employed for this purpose in the manu- 
 factureof cheese, under the term rennet. Exter- 
 nally, this organ is somewhat conical in shape, 
 its apex being the part which joins the intes- 1 
 tines. It possesses three coats, like the other 
 stomachs, but its internal surface is very 
 different, being smooth and shining, and of a 
 pale-red colour. Its mucous membrane is, 
 indeed, very vasicular, and this secretes the 
 gastric juice. The internal surface is greatly 
 increased, and exceeds tlie external, by being 
 in the tbrm of plaits, arranged longitudinally, 
 but very different from those found in the 
 manii)lus. Tlie entrance to this stomach (its 
 
 cardiac opening) is close to tho ontranco of 
 tho manipluH; it is arranged in a somewhat 
 crescentic form, and is sitinited at one ex- 
 tremity of tho base ; whilst the pyloric opening, 
 backfng into tho small intestine, is, as before 
 observed, situated at tho apex. Such is tho 
 situation and appearance of the stomachs; and 
 we deem it unnecessary to follow tho course of 
 tho food through them. 
 
 "To meet the necessity of all these slomacha 
 in the sheep, wo all know that a certain quan- 
 tity of food is required, that tho animal may 
 not only bo preserved in health, but be kept 
 alive. This quantity is designated its neces- 
 sar}' ration of food ; and if it is given more 
 after it has consumed this portion, it will 
 grow in flesh, or yield milk, or wool. When 
 an animal is growing, whether of tho human 
 or any other species, it should never be stinted 
 iu its food. Keep tiie stomachs of babies and 
 puppies full, and thero will be comparatively 
 little crying in the one, or whining in the 
 other. Stint them, however — never let them 
 feel themselves full, and they will necessarily 
 make known their dissatisfaction. It has 
 been found that an ox requires two per cent, 
 of his living weight in hay per day ; if he 
 works, be requires one-half per cent. more. 
 A milch cow requires three per cent. ; and a 
 fatting ox five per cent. — four-and-a-half when 
 half fat, and only four when fat. Grown 
 sheep take three-and-a-half per cent, of their 
 weight iu hay per day, in order to be kept in 
 store condition." 
 
 Mr. E-ichardson, in his treatise on the Sheep, 
 supposes a fiirmer purchasing a score of the 
 Leicester and Cheviot hogs at the same period, 
 and feeding them for the same length of time 
 on. the same food; when the results would bo 
 something like the following :■ — 
 
 £ t. d. & s. d. 
 20 Leicester hops, at 335., bought in spring 33 
 
 Then Eay 7 lbs. each of -wonl, at an average 
 price of Is. 1'/. per lb., 7s. 7rf. each, or . 7 IS 6 
 
 Si)l(l off fat, say at Chiistinas, weighing 
 24 lbs. per quarter, at 5J. per lb. . . 40 U 
 
 The 20 sheep will leave for food and profit 
 
 — — A'l 13 
 
 8 
 
 14 13 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 3 5 
 3G 
 39 5 
 
 (J 
 
 
 20 Cheviot hoRS, at 20s. 
 
 Then say 3 Ins. of wool each, at Is. \d. 
 
 Sold oil' fut, 18 lbs. per quarter, ut ijd. 
 
 The sheep ■will leave for food and profit . 1 J 3 
 
 As quiet and warmth contribute in a largo 
 degree to the fattening of sheep, these should 
 
 73t) 
 
MANAGE:M;E^X.1 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [maitagement. 
 
 always be taken into the calculations of the 
 farmer. Their modus operandi is simple, and 
 verv easily described. Experience has taught 
 us that, as we accelerate our own motion, we 
 increase respiration, when the excess of oxygen 
 inhaled requires an increased quantity of car- 
 bon, which would otherwise be given to the 
 accumulating of fat. So, likewise, cold takes 
 away from the system its animal heat ; to renew 
 which, more oxygen and more carbon must be 
 employed in producing extra combustion, in 
 order that the diminution of temperature may 
 be restored. iSTature effects this restoration 
 of heat, by causing cold to produce both hunger 
 and the desire lor motion ; supplying carbon 
 by the gratification of the former, and oxygen by 
 the indulgence of the latter. In proof of these 
 facts, the following experiment may be given : 
 — One hundred sheep were put into a shed, 
 and ate 20 lbs. of Swedes each per day ; whilst 
 another hundred, in the open air, ate 25 lbs. 
 At the end of a given period, the former weighed 
 3 lbs. more than the latter ; which proves that, 
 to a certain extent, heat, with animals, is a sub- 
 stitute for food. This was also proved in other 
 experiments into which the effects of exercise 
 on the living animal entered. No. 1. — Eive 
 sheep were fed in the open air between the 
 21st of November and the 1st of December. 
 They consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, at a 
 temperature of about 44°. At the end of this 
 time they weighed 2 lbs. less than when first 
 exposed. No. 2. — Eive sheep were put under 
 shelter, and permitted to run at a temperature 
 of 49°. They consumed at first 82 lbs., then 
 70 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 23 lbs. 
 No. 3. — Eive sheep were put in tlie same shed, 
 but not allowed any exercise. They. ate, at 
 first, 64 lbs,, then 58 lbs., and increased in 
 weight 30 lbs. No. 4.— Eive sheep were kept 
 in the dark, quiet, and covered. They ate 
 35 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 8 lbs. 
 
 Mr. Itichardson gives the following experi- 
 ments bearing closely upon this subject. 
 They were mostly made by Mr. Lawes. That 
 gentleman instituted a series of inquiries as to 
 the abstract food and increase in weif^ht of 
 these sheep in themselves, and also as com- 
 pared with the Hampshire Downs, assuming 
 the Sussex Down to be the type of the original 
 Southdown sheep. One disadvantage was, 
 tliat they had to be fed on dry food ; they had 
 740 
 
 294 
 
 
 
 259 
 
 12 
 
 3941 
 
 
 
 oil- cake and clover chaff. At first they had 
 food supplied in given quantities, and propor- 
 tioned to their weight. The quantity given, 
 per day, to the Hampshires was one pound of 
 each ; while to the Sussex Downs it was only 
 three-fourths of a pound of each per day 
 The former weighed 113^ lbs., and the latter 
 only 8S lbs. Swedes were also given ad 
 libitum, but from quantities previously weighed. 
 The sheep were fed for twenty-six weeks. 
 The Hampshires consumed 1,249 lbs. of oil- 
 cake, 1,120 lbs. of clover hay, and 16,995 lbs. 
 of Swedes; and the increase of live weight was 
 428 lbs. So much for the large sheep. The 
 smaller, or Sussex Downs, in fact, consumed 
 965 lbs. of oil-cake, 926 lbs. of clover hay, and 
 12,445 lbs. of Swedes, and gave an increase, in 
 live weight, of 324 lbs. To put it in a more 
 striking light, it required, to produce 100 lbs. 
 increase in live weight, the following quanti- 
 ties of each kind of food in the Hamp- 
 shires : — 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 Oil-cake . . . , 
 
 Clover hay 
 
 Swedes .... 
 
 Or a total of food of all kinds . 4494 12 
 
 Whereas the Sussex sheep required, to pro- 
 duce 100 lbs. live weight, the following quan- 
 tities: — 
 
 Oil-cake . 
 Clover hay 
 Swedes 
 
 Or a total of food of all kinds . 4704 7 
 
 The Sussex sheep needed, therefore, in 
 twenty-six weeks, 20 lbs. 4oz. more oil-cake, 
 44 lbs. 7 oz. more clover hay, and 145 lbs. less 
 Swedes, to produce 100 lbs. live weight ; or 
 about 7 per cent, more oil-cake, I7i per cent, 
 more clover, and 3^ per cent, more Swedish 
 turnips, for the same result. The taste indi- 
 cated a difference in the animals : the Sussex 
 sold at about 3^. 2d. per stone of 8 lbs. ; the 
 Hampshire only 2s. 10\d. per stone ; and after 
 paying their way, and allowing for the pur- 
 chased food — the cake and hay — the forty 
 Hampshire sheep left a profit, as well as the 
 increase, of Gs. 7^d., and the Sussex, of Qs. O^d. 
 per head. The oil- cake is, however, reckoned 
 at only £6 15s. per ton, and the clover hay at 
 
 lbs. 
 
 314 
 
 oz. 
 4 
 
 304 
 
 3 
 
 40S6 
 
 
 
SHEEP MAXAOEMEKT.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS, [sueei- management. 
 
 £1 per ton. Nothing is clmrgod for atten- 
 dance. 
 
 As fur, therefore, ns tliis was a piiynig 
 spccuhition, neither seemed to answer. Tlio 
 Swede.<<, the attendanee, the waahinj^, shearing, 
 and other et-celcras, woukl diminish the profit 
 to less than nil ; but this was hardly tlic 
 object of ]\rr. L.iwes. The forty ITampshires 
 consumed 40.;^ tons of Swedes, and the Sussex 
 only 3G.V- The latter were, however, much 
 the smaller, and more would bo consumed to 
 the acre. jNEp. Lawes himself, however, puts 
 the case in another light, lie says — Suppose, 
 then, that in both cases 100 tons of Swedes 
 had been eaten, we should have had consumed 
 with them, and paid for by the increase of the 
 animal — 
 
 Oil cake, lbs. Clover, lbs. 
 By the Sussex sheep . . 17,o74 and 1G,GTG 
 By the Ilampshire . . . 1G,170 and 14,7G7 
 
 904 1,909 
 
 That is to say, in consuming 100 tons of 
 Swedes (and the dry foods), Sussex sheep 
 would, according to our experiments, have 
 given the increase from 904 lbs. more oil-cake, 
 and 1,009 more clover, than the Ilampshires. 
 To have consumed the quantities of food sup- 
 posed above, however, in twenty-six weeks, 
 there would have been required eighty Hamp- 
 shire, and about one hundred and ten of the 
 Sussex sheep. 
 
 Mr. Lawes subjected the Cotswold to the 
 same course. Having, however, originally in- 
 tended them for a comparative trial witli the 
 New Oxfords, but without success, he tried 
 the fifty sheep alone, on diflcrent qualities of 
 food, and subjected them to a comparison (as 
 to their fattening tendency) with the two 
 kinds of Downs he had before tried. He 
 commenced with the flock selected by Mr. 
 Game, on the 24th of October, and fed them 
 on turnips in the field until the 21st of No- 
 vember, when he put them on boards or rafters, 
 and then fed them on oil-caice, clover-chop, 
 and as many Swedes as they could eat. The 
 same proportion of dry food was allotted to 
 the Cotswold in proportion to their weight, 
 which was 113. V lbs. average per animal. The 
 food at first given was 1 lb. per day each of 
 clover chaff, and the same of oil-cake. Near 
 the conclusion of this experiment the oil-cake 
 was increased by one- half. The average 
 
 weight, on the 1st of December, was llDlbg. 
 14 ozs. ; but there was a difTLTcuof! between the 
 greatest weighted animal of IKJ lbs., and the 
 smallest, 1():J lbs , which showt-d how vnnt a 
 variation there may be in a lot pn.-ttv nearlv 
 equal in appearance. ]\Ir. Vernon JIarcourt 
 .showed that great diflerences of produce would 
 take place in tho same field in various parts 
 similarly treated ; and Mr. Lawes' experiments 
 show tho same results. In the first month of 
 tho experiment, after the weighing alluded to, 
 tho increase was in a margin frcjm nil to 
 22 lbs. ; nor could previous weight, or any 
 other element, account for tho difference. 
 Tho weekly average gained, per head, was 
 3 lbs. 10,V 0Z3. during the month. In 
 the second month, the extreme variations of 
 increase were 1 lb. against 22 lbs. ; but it is 
 very remarkable that it was not the one which 
 had been the greatest gainer the precedin<T 
 month, or increased the most, nor vice versa. 
 Though it eventually happened, that the one 
 which gained the most was that which realised 
 the greatest amount at the end of the experi- 
 ment. The average gain in this month was 
 less, being on 3 lbs. 3,\ ozs. per head per 
 week. In the third month, the greatest in- 
 crease was again 22 lbs., and the smallest 
 3 lbs. ; and it is again remarkable, that the one 
 which gave the smallest increase in the second 
 month, was that which progressed tho most in 
 the next. The average gain fell, however, to 
 3 lbs. 6^- ozs. per week. In the fourth 
 week, the lowest increase was again 3 lbs., and 
 the highest 28 lbs. ; the latter being the one 
 which stood highest in the second month. 
 The average increase was 3 lbs. 5 ozs. per head 
 per week — an increase which shows how much 
 may be gained by judicious management 
 and proper treatment, under the circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Tiie result of these experiments was, that the 
 final mean weight, without woo!, was 174 lbs. ; 
 tho highest weight, 214 lbs. ; and the lowest 
 weight, 147 lbs. The highest average increase, 
 per week, was the one before particularly 
 referred to, which averaged 4 lbs. 7 ozs. ; tho 
 lowest average being lib. x4 ozs., and tho 
 general average 3 lbs. 2.} ozs. The increase in 
 twenty weeks, per 100 lbs. of live weight, took 
 259 lbs. 11 ozs. of oil-cake, 2 19 lbs. 1 oz. of 
 clover hay, and 3,G0Slb3. of Swedes. Now, 
 
 741 
 
MANAGEMENT.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [management. 
 
 the comparlsoa with the Downs, of the two 
 •kinds before referred to, is as follows : — The 
 
 Cotswold gained, per week 
 Hampshire Downs 
 Sussex Downs . 
 
 lbs. ozs. 
 3 2^ 
 2 12" 
 2 1? 
 
 But there was a difference in the food. The 
 Cotswold consumed more food — more of every 
 kind than the Sussex Downs ; and more, 
 though very slightly, of all but the clover hay, 
 than the Hampshires. But then they had a 
 larger frame, and produced greater results. 
 Taking the 100 lbs, increase, for instance, as 
 the test, as it ought to be, the result is, in 
 every way, in favour of the Cotswold ; as the 
 following: shows : — 
 
 Oil-cake . 
 Clover hay 
 Swedes . 
 
 Cots-svolds. 
 
 239£- lbs. 
 219 „ 
 3601 „ 
 
 Hampshires. Sussex. 
 
 294 lbs. 314 lbs. 
 
 259 „ 304 „ 
 3941 „ 4086 „ 
 
 The increase in weight, per 100 lbs., was 
 about 2 per cent, greater with the Cotswolds. 
 
 The "balance-sheet," always so satisfactory, 
 is not here of the same consequence as the 
 experiment. It is not likely, when the animals 
 are so confined and often weighed, that so 
 much can be defined as clearly to make profit 
 a guiding element. The cost of the sheep is 
 given at £66 IO5. ; the quantity of purchased 
 food consumed by oil-cake and clover hay, 
 £29 6s. 5^d.—si total of £95 IQs. 5ld. ; while 
 the proceeds of the sale were £92 35. 7-3-c/. ; a 
 small difierence of £3 12s. 10 J., in the lot, with 
 the manure, for the risk, return for capital, 
 land crop, and Sv.edish turnips ; but they were 
 sold at a " heavy" market, and this may partly 
 account for the loss. There is one curious 
 fact, in this and the preceding experiments, 
 which we cannot help noticing. Mr. Lawes 
 observes, that there is some general uniformity 
 to be seen in the quantities of food in their 
 fresh state, consumed by all the three kinds 
 of animals, per 100 lbs. live weight weekly. 
 "But when the quantities of the respective 
 foods are calculated, each to their contents of 
 dry substances', it is found that the total 
 quantity consumed to a given weight of animal, 
 within a specified time, is all but absolutely the 
 same for the three breeds." 
 
 Fatteniuf) sheep, at one year old, aliould begin 
 to lamb ; and not only must artificial food be 
 given to the lambs as soon as they will eat it, 
 742 
 
 but they must be supplied with it indirectly 
 before they begin to partake of it in the milk of 
 the mother. Oat, bean, and linseed cake may, 
 and ought to, be given to the parent animal, so 
 that the offspring may always have plenty of 
 the materials wherewith to form bone and 
 muscle, and even fat. The fattest lamb (other 
 things being equal) not only makes the fattest 
 shearling, but will eat the least amount of food 
 to produce any given amount of mutton. Eape 
 cake is said to lay on mutton very cheaply, and 
 is second only to linseed, whilst its price is one- 
 half less. 
 
 When the hogs are weaniug, they require 
 clipping, and superior food. Por this purpose, 
 different combinations of spirits of tar, arsenic, 
 tobacco water, with a mixture of oil or soft 
 soap, are used in various proportions ; but 
 Biggs' or "Wilson's composition is recommended 
 as being the best. At this time the lambs 
 should not be placed where sheep have been 
 depastured before. The object of this caution 
 is to prevent the probability of an attack ot 
 diarrhoea. The second crop of mown red clover, 
 or the fog of inferior grass land, is by far the 
 best food. Should this, however, not be ob- 
 tainable, a cattle-eaten pasture, but not of 
 the richest kind, will be the most favourable, 
 and the quantity of food given artificially 
 should be slightly increased. Great care must 
 be taken in confining the young sheep on the 
 turnips. The best mode is gradually to accus- 
 tom them to the watery and succulent, but 
 very valuable sheep-feeding food. With re- 
 spect to the most advantageous food to be 
 given to sheep, there is a difference of opin- 
 ion — some preferring oil-cake, some beans or 
 peas, and others oatmeal or barley-meal. Much, 
 of course, will depend upon the nature of the 
 farm, as it must, to a considerable extent, be 
 preferable to make use of the product of the 
 land. Sheep prefer beans to oats ; and beans 
 abound in that principle in which turnips are 
 most deficient. Thus they are, in some mea- 
 sure, well adapted to counterbalance the disad- 
 vantages of turnip-feeding ; and, as the latter 
 abounds more in the elements of fot, it probably 
 prevents the beans from hardening the flesh 
 too much, which they are apt to do. Barley 
 and oats contain less albumen than beans, and 
 are therefore more fattening. Oil-cake does 
 not yield much nourishment, bat possesses 
 
BHEKP MAy.vGEMEXT.] AM) Till' IK VAKIOUS BREEDS, [bukki- maxaoemknt. 
 
 the fattening principle in a concontrnted form. 
 !Mr. Cliildera states, that slieep led with the ad- 
 dition of half a pint of barley per sheep per day, 
 lialf a pound of linseed cake, a little hay, and 
 with a constant supply of salt, becomo ready 
 for tho butcher in ten weeks; and ^ain, of 
 flesh and tallow, from thirty-three to forty 
 pounds per head (one sheep gained fifty-llvo 
 pounds in twelve weeks) ; and that, with ar- 
 tificial food, thirty tons of turnips uill feed 
 eiity sheep ; while, on tho usual plan of feeding 
 on turnips alone, out of doors, tlio average of 
 the country is, that twenty tons of turnips will 
 feed, in sixteen weeks, ten sheep, with a gain 
 of only twenty pounds of ilcsh and tallow. 
 This gentleman long ago established the fact, 
 tiiafc house, or shcd-fcediug, was a great saving 
 of food. Mr. Eichardson was staying with him 
 at Cantley during the experiment, whicli was 
 most carefully conducted by Mr. Childers in 
 ercry way. The same food was given to eacli 
 lot — one exposed, and the other sheltered in a 
 walled and -well-littered yard: 27 stones of 
 turnips, 10 lbs, of linseed cake for each lot, and 
 half a pint of barley per sheep per day, with a 
 little hay and salt to go to, were given ; but 
 soon the sheltered sheep ate less, by 3 stones 
 of turnips per day, than those exposed, and ul- 
 timately 2 stones more, as well as 3 lbs. of 
 cakes per day. The result was, that in three 
 months, two field-fed sheep had increased 3G 
 stones 8 lbs., and the shed-fed, 56 stones G lbs. 
 — <i difference, in twenty sheep, of just 20 stones 
 live weight ! This experiment, Mr. Richardson 
 says, gave the example for general imitation, 
 and has divided sheep-feeders into several 
 classes. The field feeder values the consoli- 
 dation of the animal's kneading, and feeds 
 out of doors. Amateurs, like Mr. Mechi, 
 advocate loard-feeding, or houses with hollow 
 floors of boards, set on an edge sufficiently 
 near to prevent the sheep's feet from falling 
 through ; and one from his Cotswolds may be 
 fat at one year old. As we disapprove of 
 bo-ard-feeding, except under very special cir- 
 cumstances-^strong clay land, for instance, 
 or some equally potent physical preventive to 
 the feeding out of doors — we think it fair to 
 give the opinion of a gentleman who warmly 
 advocated it — we mean the Hon. Captain 
 Dudley Pclham. 
 
 "The sheep," he says, "should be upon 
 
 gratings, made with oak frames and deal tops, 
 
 three-(]iiarter8 of an inch between the bars. 
 Beneath the gratings, which should bo sup- 
 ported on either side, without cross-supports 
 (which are inconvenient in emptying tho pit), 
 should bo a tank or pit in brickwork, or rammed 
 with marl, not less than two-and-a-half to three 
 feet deep, so as to contain all tho manure 
 dropped by one lot of fattening sheep ; thus 
 avoiding tho necessity of disturbing tho animals 
 for tho removal of the manure." Tiiis gentle- 
 man rcconunends gypsum to be thrown over 
 tho gratings to prevent unpleasant smells, and 
 that tho sheds should be even cooler than those 
 intended for oxen, 15° being the point he con- 
 siders to bo aimed at, while those of oxen ho 
 thinks should bo 50°. The size of the pons ho 
 recommends to be eight feet by six, and to 
 contain six Down sheep. The quantity of 
 food eaten by fifty Down sheep, he estimates 
 at two tons; and sheep in these sheds, be 
 conceives, will feed in about twelve weeks. He 
 has had sheep, for three weeks, increase at tho 
 rate of 4,i-lbg.; and each animal will make, ho 
 calculates, 2 cwt. of powerful solid manure. 
 
 Stall-feeding sJieej) is n step still more in 
 advance even of this ; and, though inapplicable 
 to young sheep, is, in some parts, practised 
 with considerable success. 
 
 Respecting the co7nparative economy of 
 feeding sheep ai one or two years of age, Mr. 
 Richardson made an estimate, which he pub- 
 lished in the Farmers' Magazine. Ho showed 
 that, during the two years tho two-year-old 
 feeding system was iu operation, the produce 
 would be, on thirty acres of land, 7,S001b3. of 
 mutton; and the same area of laud would 
 produce 11,000 lbs., in the same period, by tho 
 one-year-old system ; thus showing a gain, per 
 annum, of 1,900 lbs. of mutton, on thirty acres 
 of land, to the community. He further cal- 
 culated the comparative advantage to the 
 feeder ; and showed that, with mutton at Gd. 
 per lb., tlie one plan would leave a profit on 
 the two years — out of which the rent was to bo 
 paid — of £G2 10s. ; while that of the oqe-year- 
 old system would leave a profit of but £59 is. 
 The figures and calculations are too extended 
 for us to make use of them ; but the change, 
 he says, in the demand for small mutton, since 
 the period wheu these calculations were pub- 
 lished, will somewhat modify the calculation, 
 
DISEASES.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [diseases. 
 
 and give the turn in favour of the one-year-old 
 system — a course, it will be seen, which is 
 only perfectly right, as more capital would be 
 
 required in the one-year than in the two-year- 
 old system, however it may otherwise bci 
 thought. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, AND THEIR REMEDIES. 
 
 In the whole range of domesticated animals, 
 there is none so difficult to manage as the 
 sheep, labouring under a state of disease. In 
 acute cases, the use of remedies seems to be 
 utterly in vain ; whilst the power of known 
 remedies seems to have literally no effect 
 whatever in effecting the purpose for which 
 they are administered. This is, perhaps, of 
 less consequence now, seeing that the system 
 of management is so well understood, that the 
 animal is always kept fat and ready for the 
 butcher, in order that, on the first symptom 
 of illn<ess, it may be dispatched before the 
 disease has affected its vitals. Let sturdy, or 
 rot, or inflammation, however, take place, and 
 all the medicines in the world may be admin- 
 istered, and no effect will be produced. 
 
 The first ailment — for it cannot be called a 
 disease — of which we will take notice, is that 
 
 of 
 
 PARTURITION. 
 
 In this country, the usual time of lambing 
 with the greater number of sheep, is in the 
 months of March and April ; but sometimes an 
 earlier period is obtained, for the purpose of 
 having the lambs sooner fattened for the 
 market. Accordingly, the Somerset and Dorset 
 eheep have their lambs dropped generally be- 
 fore Christmas. At this season great care 
 and attention should be given to the ewes, by 
 way of affording them proper food and shelter 
 from those inclemencies of weather which 
 frequently prevail during the earlier months 
 of the year. They should either be driven 
 nightly into yards or cots properly protected, 
 or a shelter should be supplied to them in the 
 fields, by means of double rows of hurdles 
 lined with straw, with a pouud or iuclosure, 
 744 
 
 which will afford still greater protection. The 
 care of the shepherd should, at this period, 
 be in constant exercise ; whilst the eye of the 
 master should be continually on the watch, 
 as a little assistance, opportunely extended to 
 the labouring ewe, might be the means of res- 
 cuing her from the dangerous position of a 
 too much exposed situation in reference to life. 
 Mr. Price, in his work on sheep, observes, 
 that many lambs may be lost without its being 
 possible to chaise the lamber or shepherd 
 with either ignorance or neglect, although 
 greater attention on his part might have saved 
 many, which otherwise would perish. . The 
 practice of lambing is at times very intricate, 
 and is apt to exhaust the patience of a lamber. 
 Sheep are obstinate ; and lambing presents a 
 scene of confusion, disorder, and trouble, 
 which it is the lamber's business to rectify, 
 and for which he ought always to be prepared. 
 Some of the ewes, perhaps, leave their lambs, 
 or they get intermixed ; and the ewes that 
 have lost their lambs run about bleating, while 
 others want assistance. These are only a few 
 of the various circumstances which call for the 
 immediate attention of the lamber, and which 
 render it necessary that the owner of the 
 sheep should be on the spot, and should 
 superintend the whole of the operations. The 
 shepherd, however, must not be led to inter- 
 fere with the ewe prematurely, if she appear 
 to be labouring under great uneasiness and 
 pain. He must watch her closely ; and so 
 long as she rises at his approach, he ^may be 
 assured that, whatever amount of uneasiness 
 she exhibits, still all is going on well. Much 
 pain is apparent, as she will repeatedly lie 
 down, and rise again with seeming distress. 
 
PABTUurno-v.] 
 
 AND TIIEIK VAlilOUS HllEEDS. 
 
 [pAmuniTioN. 
 
 Should this occur whilst he is driving her to 
 fold, ho must give her time, nnd exercise great 
 caution in urging her too fast. Symptoms of 
 tliis kind ought to bo sullored to continue for 
 two or tluvo hours, or even longer, before lie 
 feels himself called upon to interfere, unless 
 the lamb is in such a dangerous position as to 
 excite fears of losing it. Protracted labour 
 often occurs in cold weather. On such occa- 
 sions, should the ewo seem exhausted, and to 
 bo gradually sinking under the prolonged 
 severity of her labour, some oatmeal gruel, 
 with a little linseed, in the proportion of a 
 spoonful of the latter to two of the former, 
 should be given her. "When, the ewe feels 
 that she cannot of herself expel the lamb, she 
 will quietly submit to the interference of the 
 shepherd, and almost look for his assistance. 
 Where this assistance is necessary, the first 
 duty will be to ascertain whether the presenta- 
 tion is natural. "When this is the case, the 
 muzzle of the lamb is foremost, with a foot on 
 each side of it. Should this be the presenta- 
 tion, his first business will be to disengage 
 the lamb, by gently drawing down the legs, 
 and, with all possible tenderness, smoothing 
 and accelerating the passing of the head with 
 his fingers, rather tliau forcibly extricating it 
 — the particular attention of the shepherd 
 being given to these points. This is to be 
 done by passing the finger up the rectum 
 until the back of the lamb's head is felt, which 
 must be urged forward, at the same time that 
 the legs are gently pulled. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that the legs are too backward, whilst 
 the head is sufllcieutly advanced. In such 
 cases, the head should be gently pushed back, 
 and the hand, being well oiled, that the object 
 may be the more easily effected, must bo in- 
 troduced into th.e vagina, and applied to the 
 legs, so as to place them in their natural posi- 
 tion equal with the head. On the other hand, 
 should the fore feet protrude, they must, in 
 like manner, be returned, and the same assis- 
 tance given to advance the head. If the hind 
 quarters present themselves first, the hand 
 must be so applied as to get hold of both legs 
 together, and draw them gently, but firmly. 
 In this position the lamb may be often easily 
 removed. It frequently happens that the 
 head of the lamb is much swollen and pro- 
 truding. "Where this is the case, both patience 
 5c 
 
 and gontlo manipulation will bo required to 
 bring it forward by degrees. Nature herself, 
 however, if not unduly interfered with, will, 
 provided the pelvis bo not very much deformed, 
 (•(feet her own operation. In case the strength 
 of tho mother should bo rapidly diminish- 
 ing, the head may be taken awav, and then 
 tho operator will bo able to [)ush back tho 
 lamb and introduce his hand, when, by layinf» 
 hold of the fore legs, ho will ellcct the delivery, 
 it sometimes happens, however, that tho legs 
 are thrust out to the shoulder, when, from tho 
 throes of the ewe, it is not possible to replace 
 them so as to raise tho head of the lamb ; but 
 by partially skinning the legs, they may bo 
 separated from the shoulder-joint, when room 
 will be given for tlie introduction of the hand, 
 and by laying hold of tlie head the ewe may 
 bo delivered. The practice obtained in one 
 season, however, will do more to enable the 
 farmer to act in difllcult cases of labour, than 
 all the instructions that can be given in a 
 volume of writing; but, as a general rule, it 
 should be remembered that the foetus should, 
 if possible, be placed in its natural position 
 previously to any attempt to extricate it by 
 force. "W'hen this must be employed, it ou"ht 
 to be in as gentle a manner as can be consistent 
 with tho tenderness of the object to be de- 
 livered. After parturition, it is hardly neces- 
 sary to observe that tlie ewe should be nursed 
 with the greatest care and attention until she 
 has completely recovered. After difficult 
 labour, and where much assistance has been 
 given, the labiao of the uterus and vagina are 
 sometimes ruptured. In such cases, where 
 there is no other hope, a veterinary surgeon 
 will have to divide the ligatures 
 
 "When ruptures of the vagina take place, use 
 the following dressing, rudely known as tho 
 " Driffield oil," or black oil :— 
 
 Take of Olive oil . , .1 pint. 
 
 Spirit of turpentine . 2 ounces. 
 Sulpliuric acid . . G drachms. 
 They are safest mixed in a stone jar, as great 
 heat will be generated during and just after 
 the mixture. "When cool, it may be put in a 
 bottle for use. 
 
 If an appearance of mortification or gangrene 
 occurs, a more decided application will be ne- 
 cessary, when it is best to call in a veterinary 
 
 J4.0 
 
TEVEB.J 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [EOT. 
 
 GARGET. 
 This is an iullammation of the udder, and is 
 a Tery common, painful, and sometimes fatal 
 disease. It is less frequent in the sheep, how- 
 ever, than in the cow, and may be produced by 
 cold and wet lair, and, it is stated, from the 
 hardness and dryness of the ground, or from 
 constitutional derangement. "Warm fomenta- 
 tion in the first stage, and rubbing with marsh- 
 mallow ointment after each fomentation, with 
 a warm, dry towel, is the best local application ; 
 while an internal medicine, composed of — 
 
 Three drachms of nitre, 
 Two of cream of tartar, 
 Dissolved in four ounces of lukewarm water, 
 
 may be given with advantage. The black oils 
 may be used, after the first few days, to pro- 
 mote suppuration of the matter formed in the 
 udder, and, after it breaks, a dressing of tinc- 
 ture of myrrh. An ounce or two of Epsom 
 salts is also recommended to be given to the 
 ewe, with a drachm of ginger dissolved in 
 warm water or gruel, and the udder fomented, 
 for some time, with water as hot as she can 
 bear it. The lamb may afterwards be allowed 
 to suck her. The fomentation, if necessary, 
 should be repeated, and the camphor ointment 
 rubbed in twice a day. If the swelling con- 
 tinue, it should at once be opened, and the 
 discliarge of the pus assisted by pressure, 
 and renewed fomentation. Should the wound 
 smell disagreeably in the least degree, it 
 should be syringed with a weak solution of 
 chloride of lime for several days. It some- 
 times happens that, from the eflfects of garget, 
 some portions of the udder become hard or 
 schirrous, as it is termed, and, of course, no 
 longer secretes milk. When such is the case, 
 the ewe should invariably be drafted and fat- 
 tened for the butcher. 
 
 PUERPERAL FEVER. 
 This is not so common in the ewe as it is in 
 the covr. When it does occur, the medicine 
 recommended for acute garget will be found 
 useful, and may in general be given ; or the 
 following may be administered : — 
 
 Epsom salts . . . . ^ oz. 
 Tincture of opium . . .1 drachm. 
 Camphor pulo . . . . X drachrji. 
 746 
 
 This is recommended by Professor Spooner 
 after ahortion — a complaint which sometimes 
 attends ewes when kept exclusively on turnips. 
 
 CASTRATION. 
 
 When this operation is performed on lambs 
 about a mouth old, it is very simple; and, 
 though often executed in a manner somewhat 
 barbarous, it may be more humanely done by 
 a kind of combined knife and forceps, which 
 has. been invented for the purpose. In per- 
 forming the operation, an attendant holds the 
 lamb with a fore and hind leg in each hand, 
 and with the back close to his breast. The 
 operator cuts oW the end of the scrotum, 
 presses on the bag till the testicles protrude, 
 and either seizes the testicles with his teeth, 
 one by one, or with the forceps — and no more 
 trouble is necessary than to confine the lamb 
 for a night or two, if the weather be frosty. 
 To accomplish the castration of aged rams, 
 however, is a more difficult operation. After 
 ascertaining that there is no rupture, both the 
 testicles, which are very lau'ge, are inclosed 
 and held firmly together by iron clams, and 
 the testes are divided in a line with these by 
 the cautery. Other methods are adopted, but 
 this is by far the most popular. Some use 
 two sticks united at one end, into which each 
 testicle is inclosed, the inner part of the sticks 
 being smeared with a solution of sulphate of 
 iron. The other ends of the sticks are then 
 tied, and the testicle cutofi". In twelve hours 
 the sticks are removed by cutting the string, 
 and all the vessels are thoroughly cauterised. 
 This mode is a great improvement on the 
 cautejy. 
 
 ROT. 
 
 Bad and unwholesome food is generally 
 believed to be the cause of this disease, espe- 
 cially as it appears to be much, more prevalent 
 in wet seasons, when plants, at other periods 
 wholesome, become rank and impregnated 
 with poisonous qualities. Drainage is doing 
 much to banish it from the country ; for it is 
 found that the disease is very rare when the 
 sheep are fed on dry, heathy pastures. There- 
 fore, when it makes its appearance, the sheep 
 should be removed as early as possible, either 
 to a salt marsh, or to such pastures as are of 
 the driest description. Salt may be given to 
 
sniEP-pox.] 
 
 AND TilEIll VARIOUS BliEEDS. 
 
 [SHEEP.POX. 
 
 the anitnalB in as lar£^e quantities as they will 
 take it with thfir l\»od ; uiid to tliia t!io sulphate 
 of iron uiay be aihit'il. Half a drachm duily 
 lor each ahoe[), with the same quantity of 
 Cfingcr, is rfconunendcd to be {;iven in nourish- 
 ing gruel. Dining the treatment an api'riont 
 !?hould be given onoo or twice, and it may be 
 composed of one or two ounces of sulphate oi 
 magnesia, or a hirgo tablespoonful of common 
 salt dissolved in warm gruel or water. Food 
 of the most nourishing kind should be given ; 
 and a pint of beans daily is esteemed an ex- 
 cellent diet, with good hay, or sound pasture. 
 The best preventive of the disease, Mr. Mil- 
 burn thinks, is an allowance of plenty of dry 
 food, with salt ad libitum. He knew a farmer, 
 in Cleveland, who saved his Hock of Teeswaters 
 in a rot year, which almost denuded that valley 
 of its sheep, w-ithout any other exception than 
 his own Hock. Tliey had constant access to 
 the hay-stack, and so were preserved amongst 
 the general ruin. "When the rot unhappily 
 sets in, it is by far the best to sell the whole 
 of those which are at all fit for the butcher, for 
 immediate slaughter. ^ 
 
 SHEEP-POX. 
 
 This disease was introduced into this coun- 
 
 Germany, and Central Kurope. But while tho 
 
 communication of sick with healthy animals 
 might be said to bo an essential element in tho 
 propagation of stnall-pox, yet it waa Been that 
 this could not bo tho sole element. For now 
 tho disease had been observed to break out in 
 one or two scattered instances, and then would 
 appear with a malignity wliich almost set 
 control at defiance. At one time the flocks 
 showed a higher susceptibility to tho disease 
 than at another. This consideration entered 
 largely into the question of prevention. " In tho 
 case of human small-pox, Professor Simouda 
 observes, "that we possess a simple, efficacious, 
 and an almost harmless means of prevention 
 in vaccination; but it was not so iu the case 
 of sraall-poi in sheep. Vaccination affords 
 thera no protection. "Where the separation 
 of the affected animals from the healthy ones 
 proved insufficient to stay the disease, there 
 remained only inoculation to be had recourse 
 to. Kothing was more efficacious than this 
 for securing the ultimate welfare of tho flock. 
 He could well understand why so great aa 
 authority as Dr. Copeland should, on account 
 of the greater protective power of inoculation, 
 express sometliing like a regret that, in this 
 country, it was prohibited for man. Dr. Cope- 
 try by the continental sheep. It is very I land apparently doubted the greater value of 
 destructive to the flock, and highly injurious vaccination as a protection against small-poi. 
 
 to those animals which recover from it. 
 Professor Sim ends, of the Veterinary Col- 
 lege, London, recently lectured upon it, as his 
 experience has, unfortunately, lately been very 
 great in the treatment of this disease. We 
 find that, before ISi?, the malady had never. 
 
 Of the justness of this doubt Professor Simonds 
 expressed no opinion ; but he thought it well 
 that it should be alluded to at a time when 
 the recent events in Wiltshire had led to so 
 much discussion on the question, and when the 
 fact of the prohibition of inoculation for man 
 
 during the present generation, been observed had been used as an argument I'or prohibiting 
 among the flocks of this kingdom. It had it in the case of sheep. It had been forgotteu 
 long, however, been prevalent and well known by the objectors, that, iu the case of sheep, wo 
 iu several of the great sheep districts of the had no option between vaccination and iuocu- 
 contiuent. In some localities, the aflectiou latiou. Wide and extended ex])erience had 
 was, so to speak, naturalised ; iu others it had shown that vaccination was valueless as a pro- 
 shown itself, from time to time, iu wide and tection against small-pox in sheep Wider and 
 disastrous outbreaks. Within historic periods, more extended experience had, oj the other 
 the disease had probabl}! never appeared hand, shown the great value of inoculation in 
 among healthy flocks, unless there had been mitigating the severity of the disease. Small- 
 prior communicatiou, immediately or recently, pox lirst appeared among the flocks of England 
 with animals suflering from the aff'ection. One in 1847. It was introduced by foreign sheep 
 sheep would iufecc a flock ; a flock would infect sold in Smithfleld market. The disease spread 
 a district; and in this way the malady would rapidly, and committed frightful ravages in seve- 
 be spread over the area of a vast country. So ral counties during the years 1817, '18, '-19, and 
 it had happened once and again in France, 18-30. Since the latter year, the malady had not 
 
 747 
 
POOT-EOT.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [the scab. 
 
 been heard of among our flocks until tbe month 
 of July, 1862, when it broke out at Allington, 
 near Devizes, It soon spread ; and neither the 
 shepherds nor the proprietors were satisfied as 
 to its real nature until the aid of Professor 
 Simonds had been sought; and at that time 
 many animals had been lost. The disease 
 quickly spread to neighbouring flocks, and 
 subsequently extended to Berkshire. At the 
 present moment there is good hope— thanks to 
 the preventive measures adopted — that the 
 malady has been stayed in the vicinity where 
 it had first showed itself. As the value of the 
 flocks of this country amounts to many millions 
 sterling, the loss by death, from small-pox, 
 ranges from one-fifth to one-half, or even more, 
 of an infected flock ; but this is only one part 
 of the loss which the farmer has to suffer. He 
 has to bear the effects of the disease on the 
 breeding and rearing of lambs, the fattening 
 of stock, &c. In treating for this disease, the 
 advice of an experienced veterinary surgeon 
 should be at once taken. 
 
 FOOT-ROT. 
 
 This is one of the most obstinate and pow- 
 erful local diseases to which the sheep is liable, 
 and, if not immediately attended to, is difficult 
 to cure. Should the affected animals not be 
 kept assiduously from the sound, the disease 
 will, for some time, obstinately keep possession 
 of the flock. The infected sheep, therefore, 
 should at first be carefully examined, and all 
 the diseased parts cut completely away. A 
 dressing should then be applied, consisting of — 
 
 CoiTosive sublimate . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of iron . . . 1 j> 
 
 Muriatic acid . . . . 1 ,> 
 
 Sulphate of copper . . • 1 » 
 
 Coarse turpentine . . . 1 u 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . . 1 j, 
 
 Spirit of turpentine . . . 1 „ 
 
 Slieep ointment . . . 4 „ 
 
 This mixture, simple as it is, is sometimes a 
 necessary application. The sound portions of 
 the flock should have all their four feet dressed 
 with tar, and should be kept all night on a 
 floor smeared with quick-lime. As the diseased 
 slieep approach convalescence, they should be 
 carefully watched, and dressed, if required, 
 daily. In the course of 1862, this disease was 
 rather prevalent in the south-eastern districts ; 
 748 
 
 and the following practical suggestions may be 
 valuable. Mr. E. C. AVaide, an experienced 
 farmer, says — " Take Jib. of alum, and 2 ozs. of 
 blue vitriol; boil them in one pint of water; 
 when quite cold, add f of a pint of aquafortis, 
 and it will be ready for use. It is equally effi- 
 cacious for the foul in beasts feet." Another 
 cure is suggested by a farmer at Malton: — 
 "With a sharp knife cut away the infected 
 part, and then, with a clean wooden skewer, 
 apply once a day some muriate of antimony. 
 This will stop the disease, and effect a cure. A 
 strong solution of sulphate of copper would 
 answer the purpose, applied with a brush ; but 
 it is neither so speedy nor so effectual." An 
 " East Suffolk Earmer" suggests the following, 
 which, he believes, is a certain cure : — " Take 
 sixpennyworth of quicksilver dissolved in six- 
 pennyworth of nitric acid ; add the same quan- 
 tity of good vinegar ; pare the horn well ; shake 
 the bottle, and apply to the parts affected. 
 One or two applications will be suflB.cient." 
 
 THE SCAB 
 Is a disease of the skin, arising from the 
 presence of minute insects called acari. The 
 German naturalists trace it to the actual fact 
 of the acariis, which buries itself in the skin 
 of the animals, and which must be destroyed ; 
 and the sooner the better. The following oint- 
 ment rubbed in, the wool being first shed lon- 
 gitudinally, and at about four inches apart, 
 will often be successful : — 
 
 Sand 2 lbs. 
 
 Sulphur . . . . . 1 ), 
 Spirits of tar . . . . h „ 
 
 The application of mercurial ointment is 
 another mode of cure. To make it — take from 
 three to five parts of lard, and mix with it one 
 part of strong mercurial ointment ; and after 
 parting the wool, rub it into the furrows 
 from the head to the tail, and about four inches 
 apart. — The following is also au effectual oint- 
 ment : — 
 
 Lard or palm oil . . . 2 lbs. 
 Oil of tar . . . . h „ 
 
 Sulphur . . . • . 1 » 
 
 Mix the two latter ingredients gradually 
 together, and then rub down the former with 
 it. Tobacco- water is another remedy, which 
 has been found very effectual. 
 
BTUitDY— uiAUinia:.v.] AND Til H Hi VAKIULS BliEEDS. 
 
 [uiStNlLUT. 
 
 THE BLIND. 
 
 This is a disease of tlio eye, and soon 
 takes tho cliaracter of an epidemic. At firsl 
 it appears in n little iiillaniiiiation, and tlien 
 becomes opaque, Tho animal sutlers dread- 
 fullv, and ia reduced both in frame and con- 
 dition. Smearing tho eye with tar relieves 
 the pain, and abates tho inllammation ; but it 
 sometimes removes the wool, and causes the 
 animal to look ugly if he is for sale at any 
 early period. 
 
 THE STURDY. 
 This is an incurable disease, arising either 
 from water in the head, hydatids in tho brain, 
 or other disease of the latter organ. As the 
 fattest sheep are usually attacked, the animal 
 should at once be sent to be slaughtered, for 
 the mutton is not impaired in the slightest 
 degree. Various modes of treatment have 
 been tried to cure the sturdy, but they have all 
 been, more or less, failures. 
 
 DIARRHOEA. 
 
 This disease is most frequent in hogs or 
 young sheep, and is often caused by improper 
 as well as by rapid changes of food. It has 
 
 Ist. Diarrhoja chiefly attacks hogs and two- 
 year-old sheep; whereas dybcutery ia frequent 
 among such as are older. 
 
 2ud. Diarrhcea almost always occurs in the 
 spring, and ceases about June, when dysentery 
 only commences. 
 
 3rd. In diarrhcea there is no fever or pain 
 before tho stools, as in dysentery. 
 
 4th. In diarrliuua the Icjeces are loose ; but, 
 in other respects, natural, without any blood 
 or slime; whereas, in dysentery, the ia'ces 
 consist of hard lumps, passed occasionally, 
 the rest being blood or slime. 
 
 5th. There is not the degree of bad smell in 
 the excrement, in diarrlia'a, which takes place 
 in dysentery. 
 
 6th. In dysentery the appetite is totally 
 gone ; in diarrhcea it is rather sharper than 
 usual. 
 
 7th. Diarrhoea is not contagious ; dysentery 
 is highly so. 
 
 8th. In dysentery the animal wastes rapidly ; 
 but, by diarrha>a, only a temporary stop is put 
 to its thriving, after which it makes rapid ad- 
 vances to strength and vigour. 
 
 9th. Dysentery is commonly fatal ; diarrhoea 
 rarely, unless the animal has been previously 
 much debilitated. In cases of dysentery, the 
 
 been said that two teaspoonfuls of sulphur : following treatment is as good as can be ad- 
 will seldom fail of producing the effect, when vised, provided proper care is bestowed upon 
 administered in gruel in time ; but if the first [ the animal, and the food attended to : — 
 
 Linseed oil . . . . 2 ozs. 
 Powdered opium ... 2 grains. 
 This is to be given to each sheep, in an infusion 
 of linseed, the gruel being repeated several 
 times; and, on the following day, the opium 
 to be again administered with half a drachm of 
 powdered ginger, and the same quantity oi' 
 gentian. This may be given several times, 
 and sometimes combined with linseed oil. 
 
 These are the principal diseases of the 
 sheep. Those which refer to inflammations of 
 the chest, bowels, &c., require the treatment 
 of a skilful veterinary practitioner, whose ser- 
 vices should be sought as early as possible ; 
 
 stage is over, it will require more vigorous 
 means. A dose of two ounces of linseed oil, 
 with two grains of opium, to allay the irrita- 
 tion of the bowels, will often answer the pur- 
 pose ; but if the disease should still prevail — 
 
 Prepared chalk . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Opium ^drachm. 
 
 Ginger ..... 3 „ 
 
 Port wine .... 2 ozs. 
 
 may be given in a gill of gruel with great ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 DYSENTERY. 
 This disease resembles the preceding to 
 
 Bome extent, yet is distinguished by other , for the longer the delay, the greater is the 
 symptoms, which should be well observed. ^ danger of fatal consequences being the result. 
 Sir G. Mackenzie thus draws the marks of , This ought always to be borne iu mind in such 
 distinction between them :— { cusea. 
 
 749 
 
MEBICINES.] 
 
 SHEEP, 
 
 [iTEDTCIXEg. 
 
 MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES IN SHEEP. 
 
 Aloes. Used as a tincture to stimulate wounds. 
 It should not be given internally to the sheep, 
 because of the danger uhich attends it. 
 Alum. Used externally, in the form of a lotion ; ap- 
 plied to several diseases of the mouth ; and, mixed 
 -with chalk, it makes an excellent external appli- 
 cation to sores. As an astringent, it is inferior 
 to other medicines used as such ; but when given, 
 the dose is half a drachm, with gruel. 
 Antibiony, Butyr, or Chloride of. This is an 
 admirable caustic for foot-rot and other diseases, 
 and should be applied with a feather. 
 Arsenic. This is sometimes employed as an in- 
 fusion, in Avhich the sheep are dipped, for the 
 purpose of destroying ticks and other insects. 
 Great caution, however, should be used with it ; 
 and all vessels into which it has been put, should 
 be immediately cleaned after using them. 
 Camphor. Used with oil or spirits of wine, cam- 
 phor is employed as an external stimulant. When 
 used internally it acts as a narcotic, sedative, 
 and anti-spasmodic. The dose is from one 
 scruple to a drachm. 
 Cantharides, or Spanish Flies. This is rarely 
 employed in the diseases of the sheep, except in 
 the form of blisters, in which it makes the chief 
 ingredient. 
 Caraway-seeds. A stomachic, in which the dose 
 
 is from two to four drachms. 
 Catechu. Given with opium and chalk in case of 
 diarrhoea. The dose is from half a drachm to a 
 drachm. 
 Chalk, Prepared. Used as an external applica- 
 tion to wounds and sores ; also as a mild astrin- 
 gent in diarrhoea. In such case the dose is from 
 half an ounce to an ounce. 
 Copper, Sulphate of, or Blue Vitriol. Ex- 
 ternally, this acts as a mild caustic; internally, 
 as a tonic. The dose is half a drachm. 
 Corrosive Sublimate, or Bichloride of Mer- 
 cury. This requires to be very cautiously used. 
 It is employed as a strong caustic and poison in 
 cases of scale, and to kill vermin. 
 Castor Seeds, or Oil. A powerful purgative, 
 useful in cases of severe costiveness. The dose is 
 from five to fifteen drops of the oil. 
 Digitalis, or Foxglove. Used as a sedative 
 to diminish the rapidity of action in the heart. 
 The dose is one scru])le. 
 Epsom Salts, or Sulphate of Magnesia. An 
 excellent i)nrgative, given in doses of from one 
 to two ounces, or more, dissolved in warm-water 
 
 gruel. 
 
 750 
 
 Gentian. A vegetable tonic of great usefulness, 
 administered in doses of from one to three 
 drachms. 
 Ginger. Used as a cordial and stomachic, usually 
 with aperient medicine. Dose, from half a drachm 
 to three drachms. 
 
 Hartshorn, Spirits of. Used as a stimulant and 
 anti-spasmodic in cases of hoove. The dose is 
 two drachms, in six ounces of water or gruel. 
 
 Iodine. A powerful stimulant to the absorbent 
 vessels. It is used both internally and externally, 
 and exercises great influence over glandular 
 swellings. As an external application, it is 
 generally used in the form of iodide of mercury, 
 mixed with eight parts of lard. In the form of 
 iodide of potassium, it is used internally, in doses 
 of from four to six grains. 
 
 Laudanum, or Opium. A sedative and anti- 
 spasmodic, used either in the form of a powder or 
 a gum: the dose is ten grains. When given in 
 the form of tincture of opium, or laudanum, the 
 dose is from one to two drachms. 
 
 Le.\d — Acetate of Sugar of Lead. A common 
 ingredient in cooling lotions. Used in the form 
 of Goulard's extract. 
 
 Lead, White. A useful application for the pre. 
 vention of the fly. 
 
 Lime, Chloride of. Useful as a preventive of 
 infection, and also an excellent application to 
 foul wounds and ulcers. 
 
 Linseed Oil. A useful and safe purgative. Dose, 
 two ounces. 
 
 Muriatic Acid, or Spirit of Salt. Useful in 
 foot-rot, as a powerful caustic. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, Nitre, or Saltpetre. A 
 diuretic. Dose, two drachms. 
 
 Olive, or Sv^eet Oil. A laxative, but less valu- 
 able than linseed oil. As an external applica- 
 tion, it is useful in cases of burns and bites from 
 venomous insects. 
 
 Pimento, or Allspice. A cordial and stomachic. 
 Dose, from one to two drachms. 
 
 Rye, Spurred, or Ergot of Rye. A strong 
 stimulus to the uterus, given in cases of pro- 
 tracted lambing. The dose is a scruple, infused 
 in hot water; to be repeated, if necessary, in the 
 course of one or two hours. 
 
 Salt, or Muriate of Soda. In small doses, a 
 stomachic and tonic. In large, a purgative. 
 When given in moderate quantities it is useful 
 to the health of sheep. For counteracting and 
 curing the rot it is very efl'ective. As a pur- 
 gative, the dose is about an ounce. 
 
HEMEDIES.] 
 
 .WD TllHIK VAKIOL'S HuEEDS. 
 
 [UKMKUllSB. 
 
 Spirit of Nitrous Ether, or Swkkt Simrit op 
 NrrUK. An nnti-spasmodic or stiinulunt. Dose, 
 two drachms. 
 
 S'JU'UATE OE Ikon, or Gkkks Vitridi,. Used 
 as a tonic. Dose, a drachm mixed witlj ginger. 
 
 SiM'iiATE OE Copper, or Blue Vitriol. A 
 strong tonic, but rarely given to tlie sheep. 
 Dose, one scruple. As an astringent lotion it is 
 excellent, infused in hot water. 
 
 Sulphur is a well-known substance, sold in the form 
 of a ])owder or in solid pieces, when it is called 
 brimstone. It ie procured in the neighbour- 
 hood of volcanoes. In the tract of land between 
 Naples and tlie ancient Baiir, called Solfa-tcrra 
 — the smoking plains, the remnant of a hulf-ex- 
 tinguished volcano — it is found in great abun- 
 dance ; and is also brought in large quantities to 
 this country from !Mount Etna, in Sicily ; but is 
 to be had, in greater or less quantities, near all 
 volcanoes, of which the number throughout the 
 world is very great. It is often found in coal 
 mines ; and, indeed, the common coal in our fires, 
 more or less, contains this mineral ; which is fre- 
 quently combined with iron, copper, and other 
 metals, when it is called pyrites. 
 
 SuLPHURETS are combinations of alkalies or metals 
 with sulphur. 
 
 SuLPnuElc Ethek. A strong stimulant, and 
 anti-spasmodic. Dose, with warm water, one 
 drachm, 
 
 SuLPHrRic Acid, or Oil of Vitriol, is gene- 
 rally procured by burning a mixture of sulphur j 
 and nitre in chambers lined with lead. It is a j 
 
 liquid, somewhat of an oily consistence, trans- 
 parent, and colourless as water, without any 
 smell, and of a very strong acid taste. When 
 applied to animal or vegeUiblc substances, it very 
 soon destroys their texturo. It may be procured 
 by the following jjrocess :— Put into u glass re- 
 tort two parts of 8ul|)huric acid and one part of 
 mercury, and apply the heat of a lamp; the mix- 
 ture effervesces ; and a gas issuing from the beak 
 of the retort, may be received in glass jars 
 filled with mercury, and standing in a mercurial 
 trough. Tliis gas is sulphurous acid. It is a 
 very strong caustic, and is used in cases of foot- 
 rot, either alone, or combined with tar. 
 
 Sulphur, Suijlimed, or Flower of Sulphur. 
 Given with Epsom salts, as an aperient. Dose, 
 from one to two ounces. In the form of an 
 ointment it is used externally for the scale. 
 
 Sulphur Verum. This is cheaper, but not so 
 pure as the yellow sulphur. It is of a grey 
 colour, and is only used as an external appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Tar. Applied to the feet in cases bordering on 
 foot-rot ; it is combined with sulphur, acid, or 
 other caustics. — Oil of Spirit of Tar is used 
 for the same purpose. It is also used for wouads 
 in the skin, and also for the fly. 
 
 Turpentine. The common is used in digestive 
 ointments, but is not given to the sheep inter- 
 nally. Venus turpentine is pure, and more ex- 
 pensive. — Oil, or spirit of turpentine, is given as 
 •A poAverful anti-spasmodic and stimulant, in doses 
 of one drachm. 
 
 7«l 
 
DIVISION VI. 
 
 PIGS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED PIG. 
 
 The hog family is a genus of pachydermatous 
 mammalia, exhibiting strongly-marked dif- 
 ferences, in most of their characteristics, from 
 tlie rest of that very singular class. Like 
 all the ruminating animals, they have cloven 
 feet, or only two fully developed toes; and 
 they are the only pacliydermata which do not 
 entirely confine themselves to vegetable food. 
 The others are exclusively vegetarians, prin- 
 cipally subsisting on strong and harsh vegeta- 
 tion; though most of them would give the 
 preference to a more delicate food, if they 
 could obtain it. Hogs are omnivorous, but 
 chiefly vegetable in their feeding, and they 
 prefer such as are succulent, especially wild 
 fruits and roots ; though, when other food 
 fails, they can subsist upon almost any kind of 
 digestible matter that falls in their way. 
 
 All naturalists admit that the wild hog is 
 the origin of our domestic race ; but at what 
 period it was reclaimed is very uncertain. The 
 circumstances, indeed, connected with the 
 domestication of every animal subject to the 
 bondage of man, are enveloped in obscurity. 
 The domestication, however, of the wild hog 
 would not involve much ditBculty. Young 
 animals, taken in their native forest, soon 
 become reconciled to captivity, and display the 
 same contentment and familiarity which are so 
 conspicuous in tl ^ <irdinary tame beast. It is 
 this disposition — ^ cliaracteristic of the pachj- 
 dcrmata — which renders the elephant, the rhi- 
 noceros, the tapir, and others, so easily subju- 
 gated ; but, on tlie other hand, the readiness 
 with which they submit to the restraints of 
 captivity, is counterbalanced by an equal readi- 
 ness to assume a life of independence. The 
 752 
 
 hog, when left to itself, resumes its original 
 habits — as is the case in America, where wild 
 herds roam the forest ; and, as we are told, 
 the elephant often escapes its trammels, and 
 joins its wild brethren ; but immediately sub- 
 mits, if retaken, to the voice of authority 
 which it had previously learned to obey. The 
 horse, in a wild state, scours the plains of 
 Tartary and South America, and it requires 
 but a brief struggle to break-in the most 
 
 DO 
 
 spirited. It may be laid down as an axiom, 
 that the animals of the services of which man 
 stands most in need, are, each in their way, 
 those whose nature most readily induces them 
 to submit to his dominion — nay, even to court 
 his friendship. Some can be tamed, and only 
 tamed ; others can be educated. 
 
 The skull of the hog affords an index of the 
 habits of the animal, and is of a conical or 
 wedge-like form. The base, or occipital por- 
 tion, forms a right angle with the oblique upper 
 surface, and a bold transverse ridge is formed 
 by the union of the occipital and parietal bones. 
 The nasal bones are prolonged nearly to the 
 end of the snout, which, in the living animal, 
 terminates in a movable cartilaginous disc, 
 pierced by the nostrils. The lower jaw is of 
 great strength. The dentition consists of — iu- 
 6 1—1 . 7—7 
 
 cisors, — ; canines, 
 
 ; molars, ;=- 
 
 = 44. 
 
 (i ' ^'' 1—1' — ^^^"' 7—7 
 
 The canines of the upper jaw are prismatic, 
 and curve downwards, having their anterior 
 surface worn by the action of the huge canines 
 of the lower jaw, which are sharp, sweeping 
 out from the sides of the mouth, and often at- 
 taining to the length of eight or ten inches, 
 and sometimes even more. These canines, or 
 
WILD 1!0\R.] 
 
 V\C,S, AM) Til 1:1 K VARIOUS liRllKDS. 
 
 [wild BOAn. 
 
 tusks, are terrible weapons: rushing on his 
 antagonist, the boar strikes obliiiucly upwanls, 
 right and left, with prodigious force — a mode 
 of action the best calculated for bringing these 
 weapons into ellL-ctivo play, and in which the 
 muscular powers of the neck and sliouldcrs are 
 the most advantageously and naturally exerted. 
 
 The hog is found in both continents; but 
 the American animals are so diflerent from 
 those of the eastern continent, that they require 
 to be separated as a distinct sub-genus. They 
 are much smaller than those of the oast, but 
 less useful, and more limited in their distribu- 
 tion, being met with only in the humid woods ! 
 of the central parts of South America, to the 
 eastward of the Andes. In some parts of these . 
 woods, however, they are very numerous. In 
 every part of the globe they delight in humid 
 localities, reposing in the sun by the margins ^ 
 of pools and streams, wandering amongst mud 
 or mire ; or, in the absence of anything better, 
 basking by the side of some soft dung-heap. 
 They are much more extensively distributed 
 in the east tlian iu the west — in Asia than in 
 America ; but it is iu the damp forests of 
 tropical countries where they most abound. 
 In some of the more central parts, and in tlie 
 south of Europe, they are plentiful, but not so 
 extensively distributed as they once seem to 
 have been. In Britain the wild race is ex- 
 tinct; but tradition has handed down to us 
 records of their having, at one period, abounded. 
 In the remote islands of the Pacific they are 
 still general ; whilst, in the more densely 
 wooded portions of Africa, and south-eastern 
 Asia, they are to be found in largo herds. In 
 some parts, however, there is considerable dif- 
 ficulty in distinguishing between the wood hog, 
 which is the native, or aboriginal, and such as 
 have been introduced from other countries, and 
 naturalised in their new regions ; as these, 
 having been turned loose into the woods, have 
 multiplied, assumed the habits of the wild 
 species, and proportionately lost many of their 
 own original characteristics. 
 
 In no essential point does the wild race of 
 Europe differ from our domestic breeds, saving 
 that the snout is more elongated, and, as miglit 
 be expected, the contour of the frame is more 
 gaunt and bony. The ears are short and erect, 
 the tusks large, and the bristles long and 
 coarse; the general colour is rusty-black, or 
 5d 
 
 blackish brown, more or less brindled ia 
 patches. After the ago of tlireo years tlio 
 wild boar leads a solitary life in the forest, 
 fearless of every foe, and confident in his 
 weapons, which, added to his great strength, 
 render him a formidable antagonist. It is not, 
 however, until the ago of five or six years that 
 he attains to his full dimensions, and the dura- 
 tion of his life is from twenty-five to tliirty 
 years. The females, with their young, asso- 
 ciate in herds, for the sake of mutual protec- 
 tion. On tho approach of an enemy the young 
 are placed in tho centre, the old ones forming 
 a circle round them; and should ho be hazard- 
 ous enough to venture on tho attack, he meets 
 with a rough reception. It is thus that the 
 young are preserved from wolves, the chief foes 
 to be dreaded by them ; to which, in some dis- 
 tricts, they often fall a prey, notwithstanding 
 the vigilance of their parent. It is only in 
 defence of their offspring that the females are 
 furious ; but the old males are not to be ap- 
 proached without caution, and often rush out 
 upon those who venture near the precincts of 
 their lair. At certain seasons, indeed, the wild 
 boar is very savage ; and should he meet a rival, 
 the most sanguinary combat ensues. The wild 
 boar of Europe is now, however, by no means 
 the terrible animal he once was ; nor is he 
 hunted in the German forests in the same 
 brave and adventurous spirit which, in former 
 ages, mark the spirit of the Teutons. This is 
 evidenced by the present style of hunting the 
 boar in Germany, where he still roams in free- 
 dom, and where he is still hunted, but in a 
 manner which appears to us very unsportsman- 
 like. As a proof of this, we will describe tho 
 manner in which his serene highness of Co- 
 burg enjoys the sport. 
 
 About four miles i'rom Coburg, and a little 
 to the westward of Ivoseuau, rise several abrupt 
 hills, clothed to the summits with pine woods, 
 altogether occupying a space of a thousand 
 acres. These are tho boar preserves of his 
 highness; and having been honoured by a 
 visit from her most gracious majesty Queen 
 Victoria, they had earned for themselves 
 an extraordinary prestige. The person who 
 describes this scene was directed to be iu 
 attendance on the chamberlain of the hogs at 
 five o'clock precisely ; and exactly at that hour, 
 as ho made across certain fields of flax lying 
 
 753 
 
WILD BOAE.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [VILD EOA.It. 
 
 between the woods and the high road, that 
 functionary appeared, emerging from his pig 
 penetralia. He went about the ceremonial in 
 which he was engaged, quite according to the 
 craft or etiquette of his order. The narrator 
 was requested to approach the preserve with 
 gravity and decorous legerity of foot. On- 
 wards he went, treading lightly, till he arrived 
 at a sort of park-paling inclosure, some six feet 
 high, and closely boarded. Entering there by 
 a gate, which closed behind him, he was shown 
 by an ancient forester, with a mortal blunder- 
 buss on his shoulder, and a rapier by his side, 
 into a thing like a cockney summer-house 
 upon stilts. Within this he was shut up 
 among much musty hay, there being a party of 
 tea in a room suitable only for two. On each 
 of the four sides of the square box were peep- 
 holes, through which these anxiously watched 
 the process of strewing around provisions of 
 corn and potatoes, that savoured very much of 
 the board frugal housewives at home spread 
 for their domestic circle of bacon. Long and 
 fearfully they waited for the guests. Some- 
 times the master of the ceremonies hinted tliat 
 perhaps they might not come at all ; and when 
 some of the musty hay-dust elicited a sneeze 
 from one of the party, he said he almost des- 
 j)aired of an arrival. But they were not des- 
 lined to be so disappointed. At the end of 
 an hour, spent about as agreeably as it 
 would be in the black hole of Calcutta, a 
 xidette at the peep-holes cautiously gave the 
 words, " Here they come !" And sure enough 
 there they did come, as orderly and well-be- 
 haved as if they had been borne in, in rashers, 
 and ornamented with poached eggs. First 
 marched a matron of the sty, accompanied by 
 a very numerous family— quaint little roasters 
 — like nothing in zoology so much as hedge- 
 hogs upon a large scale. Anon, through all 
 the loopholes opened for their admission, 
 trooped boars, singly, and in parties; but save 
 an occasional poke in the spare ribs, given by 
 the snake-like snout of some bully to a more 
 gently-disposed sow (the ladies were the most 
 quarrelsome), all went off very tamely. Thus 
 did the feast proceed till the potatoes and corn 
 were consumed, or so much of them as these 
 ravenous creatures were disposed to discuss ; 
 for all went to their afternoon meal aa gingerly 
 as a Paris elegante, 
 754 
 
 The wild boars of Germany have, indeed, 
 the characteristics of a race not exactly bred to 
 pass from their nurses into sausages. They 
 give you the idea of a cross between the wolf 
 and domestic swine, but retain, apparently, no 
 trace of their savage origin, except a look of 
 cunning, and an apparent instinct of misan- 
 thropy. The least move made by the cooped-up 
 witnesses of this scene, was instantly detected 
 and acknowledged; but that was all. The 
 herd made no manifestation of fight. They 
 are as unpoetic and unvalorous a race as those 
 that frequent the trough of the English 
 farmer — at least, those that were there — and 
 their hunting offers no features of enterprise 
 beyond the slaying of pigeons at the Eed 
 House. "When a boar is to be shot, the herd 
 is enticed to dinner in the inclosure already 
 spoken of. Then, all but the devoted one 
 being scared away, the trap -door of the loop- 
 holes are closed, and the sportsman, ascending 
 a sort of box — like the distance-chair of our 
 English race-courses — quietly administers a 
 leaden pill to his patient. The reigning duke^ 
 though keeping up a herd of nearly two thou- 
 sand, kills a vast number this way every season 
 — such is the degeneracy of European wild hog 
 shooting: no horse-riding, no spear-pointing, 
 no dog-barking; nothing to give the excite- 
 ment of sport ; not even the smallest danger, 
 which we take to be one of the grandest ele- 
 ments that enter into the pleasures of hunting 
 this once formidable animal. 
 
 An old French newspaper furnishes an ac- 
 count of an extraordinary boar killed near 
 Cognac, in Angoumois, He had been fre- 
 quently hunted, but unsuccessfully. His pro- 
 digious strength and powers of endurance 
 carried him, on all occasions, safely through 
 the various dangers to which his notoriety 
 had, from time to time, exposed him. He had 
 killed many valuable horses and dogs, and had 
 maimed, as well as destroyed, several men. 
 When at last victimised, several bullets, re- 
 ceived during previous conflicts, were found 
 between the skin and the flesh. This animal 
 is described by Sonuiui, who does not give his 
 exact measurement, but says that his size was 
 immense. He had a very long head, an elon- 
 gated and sharp snout, and a terrific mouth, 
 armed with tusks of unusual magnitude and 
 singular shape. The hair on his body was 
 
BOAK-IIDNTIXO.] 
 
 A:SD TlIEIlt VAKIUUS BKKEDS. 
 
 \rhite; that on tho head yellowish; and on 
 the neck ho hail a blaek haiul ; tlie ears wore very 
 larj^e and straiL;ht. Notwithstundinfj tlio pro- 
 dis:jioiis bulk of this formidable and ferocious 
 brute, it is stated that ho dit^played great 
 swiftness. 
 
 Boar-hunting in India still forms a fa- 
 vourite amusement to those who delight in tlie 
 excitement incident to such diversion. The 
 animal is usually hunted with Arabian horses; 
 the swiftness of which, and their well-ktiowii 
 tractability, render them well adapted for this 
 kind of sport, AVhen the boar is just started, 
 he sets oft' at a slow trot at first; but this is 
 soon quickened into a sort of shambling gallop, 
 keeping his eyes well heliind upon his pursuers. 
 Tiie pace now becomes exceedingly swift, and 
 he can only be taken by being run down. 
 After running three miles he frequently makes 
 his escape, and will sometimes run even and 
 even without suftering himself to become a 
 victim. The usual height of this animal is 
 about three feet; but some of them reach a 
 few inches over that. The young of the Indian 
 boar are of a palish yellow hue, irregularly 
 marked with yellowish brown. From a remote 
 period, hunting the wild boar has been a 
 favourite amusement with those who delight 
 in manly exercises, and have nerve sufficient 
 to confront danger even when it glares from the 
 eyes of a hard-pressed and infuriated animal, 
 capable, by his strength, of bringing a horse to 
 the ground, and, with a single rip of his tusks, 
 depriving it of life. 
 
 In the mouth of December or January, each 
 male attaches himself to the society of a chosen 
 female, which he accompanies in the deepest 
 glens of the forest for about thirty days. 
 When about to produce her young, the female 
 seeks some undisturbed retreat, remote from 
 the haunts of the male, which, it appears, 
 exhibits a propensity to devour her progeny if 
 he discover the litter. To her young the 
 female is a most attentive mother. She suckles 
 them lor three or four months, and they remain 
 with her for a long time. An aged female is 
 sometimes seen followed by several families, 
 among which are some of the age of two or 
 three years. These young rovers are called, 
 by the French hunters, leles de compaqnie. 
 The wild boar seldom stirs from his lair during 
 the day. and may, therefore, be regarded as, 
 
 [BOAn-nUNTIKO. 
 
 in Rotne degree, nocturnal. On tho approach 
 
 of twilight, ho rousivs from his indolent slum- 
 bers, and sots out in quest of food, which con- 
 sists of acorns, beech-mast, grain, different 
 vegetables, and roots. In search of tho latter, 
 he ploughs up tho ground with his snout. 
 Corn-fields in tho vicinity of fun-sts, whero 
 wild hogs exist, often suft'er extensively from 
 
 I their nightly incursions. Tho wild boar, 
 though not truly carnivorous, does not refuse 
 animal matters which chance may throw in his 
 way. Jfe does not, however, ordinarily attack 
 and kill others for the sake of their flesh, but 
 only devours what he may meet with in his 
 rambles. In the morning he returns to his 
 
 . lair, which is generally in the thickest and 
 most gloomy part of tho forest, under a rock, 
 in a cave, or under the canopy of gnarled and 
 intertwined branches. When roused by tho 
 hunter and his dogs, the old boar retreats 
 sullenly and slowly, gnashing his teeth, foaming 
 with anger, and frequently stopping to receive 
 his pursuers, on whom he often rushes with 
 sudden impetuosity, striking with his tusks, 
 goring dogs and men, and scattering terror 
 around. When he turns upon a pack, the 
 foremost dogs are sure to suffer, and several 
 will fall by as many strokes. An instance is 
 on record in which a boar turned suddenly 
 upon a pack of fifty dogs which pursued him, 
 and instantly dispatched six or seven of them, 
 wounding all the rest with the exception of 
 ten. The young boar is less resolute than the 
 old, and will run to a considerable distance 
 before he is brought to bay ; nor is the 
 assault attended with any great degree of 
 danger. 
 
 AV^'e have said that, from a remote period, 
 boar-hunting has been a favourite diversion ; 
 and we find the writings of the Greek and Ro- 
 man classics abounding with allusions to it, and 
 the great risks which men run in its pursuit. 
 Ovid gives a spirited account of the chase, in 
 which tho fury and strength of tho enraged 
 beast are admirably depicted. It would seem 
 that the ancients endeavoured to enclose the 
 boar by nets, so as to prevent his esca|)ing into 
 the recesses of the forest. The combat being 
 close, it was necessarily dangerous. Driven 
 from his lair by tho dogs, and liemmed in, the 
 infuriated animal turned savagely upon his as- 
 sailiints, and died — after killnig and wounding 
 
 755 
 
BOAE-nUNTING.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [BOAE-HUNTIXa. 
 
 flogs 
 javelins 
 
 and men — transfixed by spears and 
 Our Saxon forefathers, in the middle 
 n^es, deemed the wild boar one of the noble 
 "beastes of venery," and kept a powerful 
 breed of hounds for the chase. The weapons 
 used by the huntsmen were spears, and a sort 
 of short sword, or couteau de chasse. The spears 
 were used when the boar was brought to bay, 
 aud the attack gave abundant opportunities to 
 the hunters of showing their skill and courage. 
 Tlie loud blast of the horn, mingled with the 
 ehouts of men and the baying of the hounds, 
 proclaimed the vigorous home-thrust which 
 brought the savage lifeless to the ground. The 
 hunters were always mounted on horseback; 
 and, instead of meeting the animal with spears, 
 attacked him with javelins, which were launched 
 Qt him as he fled, or as he rushed to the charge, 
 which was often so determined that the horses 
 could not be brought to stand the shock, or, if 
 they did, were thrown down and gored. Serious 
 accidents sometimes occurred. Mr. Johnson 
 relates an Indian instance, in which a large 
 and resolute boar, after being driven by the 
 hunters into a plain, stood at bay, and chal- 
 lenged the whole party. He charged every 
 horse that advanced within fifty yards of him, 
 with great ferocity, causing them to rear and 
 plunge, and throw oft' their riders, whose lives 
 were in jeopardy. Though many of the horses 
 were accustomed to the sport, none would 
 stand his charges, or bring the rider within 
 javelin distance; and at last, he fairly drove 
 the party from the field ; and then, gnashing 
 his tusks and foaming, made his way to the 
 iungle, where it was useless to attempt to 
 follow him. 
 
 The wild hog was once common in Britain ; 
 and it is surprising, considering the passion for 
 the chase, which seems to be part and parcel 
 of our English temperament, that this animal 
 is not re-established in some of its old haunts, 
 the parks and forests of nobility. Englishmen 
 in India are enthusiastically fond of chasing 
 the wild boar ; but, as tliere is greater room in 
 that country than in this, for such a ferocious 
 monster to play his gambols, it may bo as well 
 to leave him there. Perhaps the revival of 
 boar-hunting in England would not be attended 
 with that success which some enthusiasts may 
 anticipate. When that animal tenanted our 
 glens and forests, however, he was by no means 
 756 
 
 held in slight estimation. He enjoyed royal 
 protection ; and there are in existence various 
 records, which principally consist of edicts or 
 proclamations issued, announcing sundry pains 
 and penalties as the consequence of its illegal 
 destruction. Howel Dha, or Howel the Good, 
 gave permission to his grand huntsman to hunt 
 the boar from the riiiddle of November to the 
 beginning of December ; and AYilliam the Con- 
 queror inflicted, as a punishment, the loss of 
 sight on those who illegally killed the boar. 
 In the old forest laws, the season laid down 
 when the animal might be hunted, was from 
 Christmas to Candlemas. 
 
 In the History of the Anglo-Saxons, by 
 Sharon Turner, we are informed, that " among 
 the drawings in the Saxon Calendar, in the 
 Cottonian Library (Table vi. 4), the month of 
 September represents a boar-hunt. A wood 
 appears, containing boars. A man is on foot 
 vi'ith a spear ; another appears with a horn 
 slung, and applied to his mouth ; he also has a 
 spear, and dogs are following." And in the 
 Saxon Decalogue, we have this conversation : — 
 " I am a hunter to one of our kings !" *' How 
 do you exercise your art?" "I spread my 
 nets, and set them in a fit place, and instruct 
 my hounds to pursue the wild deer till they 
 come to the nets and are entangled, and I slay 
 them in the nets." " Cannot you hunt with- 
 out nets ?" " Yes ; with swift hounds I follow 
 the wild deer." "What wild deer do you 
 chiefly take?" "Harts, boars, and fallow 
 deer." "Did you hunt to-day ?" "No, be- 
 cause it was Sunday ; but yesterday I did. I 
 took two harts and a wild boar." " How ?" 
 " The harts in the nets, and the boar I slew." 
 " How dared you slay him ?" " The hounds 
 drew him to me, and I, standing opposite to 
 him, slew him. Such was his fate — one of 
 the most handsome animals I ever beheld of 
 his kind, and such as few have ever seen the 
 like. His size was very great ; whilst his 
 enormous tusks added a formidable fierce- 
 ness to his appearance, which I shall never 
 forget." 
 
 Strutt thus mentions the wild boar in the 
 days of Edward the Second : — 
 
 " Master John Gyftbrd and William Twety, 
 that were with King Edward the Second, com- 
 posed a book on the craft of hunting, the which 
 book is now preserved in the Cottonian Library. 
 
WILD BO.vn.] 
 
 A^D TilElii VAIilOL'S BltEEDS. 
 
 [wild boab. 
 
 Part of it is in verse: it runs tliU3, with no 
 inapt achnouitioa against a lifo of idleuesa : — 
 
 " ' All such ilysport as voyileth ydlenesso 
 It syltytli every gentlfinnu to knowc, 
 Far inyrth annexed is to genlKncssc. 
 ***** 
 Anil for to sette yonge huntcrys in the way 
 Of N'encry, I rnst nie fyrste to goc 
 Of wliieh foiire beastes be — that is to say, 
 The Hare, the Uerte, the Wulf, the Boor also. 
 And thare bon other bestis five of chase 
 The Ikick the liist, the scconde the Do, 
 The Fox the thyrdc, whiclj oft has hardc grace. 
 The forthe the Marty n, and the last the Hoc.' 
 
 " The boor," say the authors of tlie book 
 referred to, " is first a, pi j as long as he is witli 
 his damme ; and wlien tlie damme levjeth 
 him, tlien he is a gorgeant ; and iu the thirde 
 yeare he is called an hoggast ; and when they 
 be foure yeares of age, they shall depart from 
 the sounde for aye ; and when he goeth soolc, 
 then he is called a boor." 
 
 At what precise period the wild boar became 
 extinct in our island cannot be exactly deter- 
 mined ; it is evident, however, that as popu- 
 lation increased, and the vast woods which 
 spread over many parts of the country were 
 cut down and the land cleared, that the range 
 of the boar would become more and more 
 limited, and its numbers decrease, till at 
 length its extirpation would be complete. "We 
 look iu vain for the forest which, iu the twelfth 
 century, covered the country to the north of 
 Loudon ; and of wliicli Fitzstepheu, in the reign 
 of Henry II., writes, observing that, " on the 
 north are corn-fields and delightful meadows, 
 intermixed with pleasant streams, on which 
 stands many a mill, whose clack is so grateful 
 to the ear ; beyond them an immense forest 
 extends itself, beautified with woods and groves, 
 and full of the lairs and coverts of beast and 
 game, stags, bucks, boars, and wild bulls." 
 Banished, however, as the wild boar is from 
 among our native mammalia, " its name is 
 immortalised," as Mr. Bell observes, " by 
 having given origin to the appellation of many 
 places in difl"ereut parts of the country, and 
 by its introduction into the armorial bearings 
 of many distinguished families of every division 
 of the kingdom." 
 
 The special haunts of the wild boar in ancient 
 times, are distinguished by such still-existing 
 names as " "Wild Boar's Fell," iu Cumberland ; 
 
 "Barlow," or "Boar's Field;" Byro lliiia, 
 formerly " Buar's Hills," near St. Andrew'u, 
 iu Scotland ; Mucros, near Killarney, in tho 
 county of Kerry, in Ireland ; and Mucross, in 
 Fifeshire, Scotland — meaning literally, " Boar'a 
 Promontory." This last designation origi- 
 nated in commemoration of the slaughter 
 of an enormous boar, which had previously 
 committed terrible ravages throughout tbo 
 surrounding country. " The village of Brancc- 
 [)etli," says I\Ir. Bell, in bin History of British 
 (2ucidritj>L'ils, " and the adjoining iiill of Bran- 
 don, in the county of Durham, took their names 
 from a wild boar or Irawn, which is recorded 
 to have been a terrilic beast, and tho dread 
 of the whole neighbourhood ; his deu being 
 on Brandon (brawn's den) hill, aud his usual 
 path or tract leading through tho woods of 
 Braucepetli (brawn's path). Tradition states, 
 that one Eoger Hodge, or Iloodge, valiantly 
 slew the monster, and delivered the district 
 from his ravages. The seal of this illustrious 
 lioger still remains, and represents a boar 
 passant." 
 
 Fitzstcplien, who wrote in the latter part of 
 the twelfth century, states that boars, wolves, 
 wild bulls, aud other game, abounded iu the 
 great forests surrounding Loudon ; aud Scot- 
 tish writers have not failed to meution those of 
 
 " Caledonia, stern and wild." 
 
 And it is known, that so recently as the date 
 of Charles I., that monarch endeavoured to 
 introduce the wild boar to the Xew Forest, 
 Hampshire, They were, however, all destroyed 
 during the time of the civil wars. 
 
 Formerly the boar's head was held as a 
 trophy of victory won in single combat between 
 the hunter and the enraged beast. AVoe to 
 the former, if, either froni want of skill or 
 weakness of nerve, he missed his aim. The 
 attack of the roused animal, like that of the 
 Spanish bull iu the arena, was both sudden 
 and impetuous, ripping up with his formidable 
 tusks whatever came in his way, whether man 
 or horse ! Shakspeare's description of an en- 
 raged boar is as true as it is graphic. 
 
 " On his bow-back he hath a battle set. 
 
 Of bristly i)ikes that ever threat his foes ; 
 His eyes like glowworms shine when he doth fret ; 
 
 His snout digs sepulchres where'er he goes. 
 Being moved, he strikes whate'er is in his way, 
 And whom he strikes his cruel tushes slay.'' 
 
 To7 
 
DOMESTIC HOa.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [domestic hog. 
 
 The genus Siis, as at present constituted, 
 contains, besides the common wild hog and 
 its domestic relatives, two other species known 
 to naturalists. Of these, one is the Papuan 
 hog, or Bene of the natives of New Gruinea 
 (Sus Papuensis), figured and described in the 
 Zoologie de la Coquille, by MM. Lesson and 
 Garnet. Ifc is remarkable for its small size, 
 its light and agreeable proportions, and the 
 shortness of the tusks. It is common in 
 the forests of New Guinea, whei'e it is 
 esteemed by the native Papuans as delicate 
 food, and who contrive to catch these animals 
 when young, and rear them in a state of 
 domestication. The other animal is the Wood- 
 swine of Sontliern and Eastern Africa, and of 
 Madagascar — the Bosch- Vark of the Dutch 
 colonists of the Cape (Sus larva tics, Cuv.). 
 This savage and formidable brute resembles 
 the wild boar of Europe ; but its head is larger 
 in proportion, its snout broader, and an ele- 
 vated callous protuberance is seated on the 
 cheeks between the tusks and eyes, imparting 
 a revolting aspect to the physiognomy. Prompt 
 and vicious, the Bosch-Vark is much to be 
 dreaded in combat, its strength and the size of 
 its tusks rendering it a match for almost any 
 foe. It dwells in excavations in the ground, 
 where it is dangerous to attack it, as it sud- 
 denly rushes out from its retreat, and deals 
 
 rapid destruction among its assailants. Dr. 
 Smith observes that this species is subject to 
 great variety of colouring, scarcely any two 
 specimens being precisely alike. Some are of 
 a brownish black, variegated with white ; and 
 others are of an almost uniform light reddish 
 brown, or rufous without white markings ; 
 and it is scarcely possible to say which is the 
 most prevailing style of colouring. The bristles 
 are long, particularly upon the upper parts of 
 the neck and back ; the canines are of huge 
 size and strength; the ears are short, and 
 thinly covered, both without and within, with 
 coarse black hair, which is longest at their tips. 
 The tail is thinly covered with black bristles. 
 Average length of body, between four and five 
 feet ; of the tail, one foot. 
 
 The discovery of the bones of an extinct 
 hog, of huge size, in the cavern of Sund- 
 wick in Westphalia, is due to M. Goldfuss. 
 Bones of three distinct species occur in the 
 Epplesheim sand (Miocene division of tertiary 
 deposits, Lyell) ; and fossil relics of a species 
 have been found in Hutton Cave, in Mendip, 
 and in other places. Several species of an 
 extinct genus (Chseropotamus), closely allied to 
 the hog, have been discovei-ed in the gypsum 
 of Montmartre, in certain strata in Switzerland, 
 and in the Eocene formation of the Isle of 
 Wight. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DOMESTIC HOG, AND FOKEIGX VARIETIES. 
 
 TriE domestic hog is too well known to 
 require particular description, and its utility 
 too well appreciated to call for comment. It 
 is not, however, valued alike in all countries; 
 and in some it is regarded with abhorrence. 
 In India, both Brahmin and Mussulman reject 
 its flesh as food ; yet, in many districts of that 
 country, semi-domesticated hogs wander about 
 the villages, feeding on the refuse which they 
 pick up in the streets. Colonel Sykes states, 
 that in Dukhun, "every village abounds with 
 758 
 
 hogs ; but any property in them is equally 
 abjured by individuals and the community." 
 Detestation of the hog was a feeling enter- 
 tained by certain nations in remote antiquity. 
 Tlie animal was classed by the Jews among 
 the vilest of quadrupeds; and in Egypt the 
 swineherd was numbei'ed among the profane, 
 and forbidden to enter the temples of their 
 gods. Even the lowest dregs of the people 
 refused to bestow their daughter on him in 
 marriage. The Egyptians sacrificed the hog 
 
DOMESTIC hol}.] and TlIElJv VAJ:i()L'S JUiEEDS. [westphalian breed. 
 
 to Bacchus, and also to the moon when full. 
 "In tho evening of the festival of Bacchus," 
 savs Herodotus, "thouj^h everyone bo obliged 
 to kill a hog before the door of hia house, yet 
 ho iinnunlialoly restores the carcass to tlif 
 swineherd that sold him."' Tlie ancient Scy- 
 thians, according to the same authority, made 
 no use of swine, nor sullored any to be kept in 
 the country. The Abyssinians and tlie Copts 
 of Egypt, as well as the Moliamtnodans, reject 
 the iiesh of the hog. Among tho ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, though tho ofBco of 
 swineherd ajipoars to have been held in con- 
 tempt, the ilesh of the hog was in high estima- 
 tion, and a sucking pig was as favourite a dish 
 with them as it is with many of our own 
 countrymen at the present day. The Chinese 
 have derived no prejudices against tho hog 
 from the Mohammedan nations of tlie East: 
 on the contrary, they rear these animals in 
 great numbers for the sake of their flesh ; and 
 even the numerous population, who tenant the 
 floating town of rafts or barges, contrive to 
 keep and rear them. " One of the most sin- 
 gular circumstances," says Mr. AVilson, in the 
 Qnarterli/ Journal of Agriculture, "in the 
 domestic history of this animal, is tlie immense 
 extent of its distribution, more especially in 
 far-removed and insulated spots inhabited by 
 semi-barbarians, where the wild species is 
 entirely unknown. For example, the South 
 Sea Islanders, on their discovery by Europeans, 
 were found to be well stocked with a small 
 black-legged hog ; and the traditionary belief 
 of the people, in regard to the original intro- 
 duction of these animals, showed that they 
 were supposed to be as anciently descended as 
 themselves. Tet the latter had no knowledge 
 of the wild boar, or any other animal of the hog 
 kind, from wliich the domestic breed might be 
 supposed to be derived." 
 
 The domestic hog is by no means destitute 
 of intelligence, and little deserves the charac- 
 ter of a stupid filthy brute, as some are pleased 
 to give it. As regards filthiuess, this, iu a 
 great measure, depends on its keeper. It is 
 true that, like the elephant and hippopotamus, 
 it delights to wallow in the mire ; but no 
 animal more luxuriates in clean straw ; and 
 when it is styed up in filth, justice is not done 
 to it. The hog is a " huge feeder ;" but so are 
 the horse and ox ; and a fat hog is a more 
 
 comely-looking beast than ono that is lean and 
 ill-fed. "With respect to intelligence, it may 
 bo ranked far before tho ox and horse, though 
 it is less docile. In Alinorca it is used to draw 
 tho plough, and works well ; and Pennant 
 says, that in the district of Murray, between 
 the Spey and Elgin, in Scotland, it was for- 
 merly employed for the same purpo:>o ; and 
 that a credible eye-witness informed hiu), 
 •' that he had seen, in his pariah there, a cow, a 
 sow, and two young horses, yoked together, 
 and drawing a plough in light sandy soil, and 
 that the sow was the best drawer of the four." 
 The senses of taste, smell, and hearing arc 
 possessed in great perfection by the hog. It 
 is a saying among a certain class of persons, 
 that pigs can smell the wind ; and they are 
 certainly aware of the approach of a storm, as 
 they have often been seen in a state of great 
 agitation during its continuance, screaming, 
 and running about with straw in their mouths, 
 or carrying it to their sty as if to add to their 
 shelter. In Italy, advantage is said to be 
 taken of the sense of smell with which this 
 animal is endowed in searching for trufiles ; 
 and in our own country, the famous sow Slut, 
 of which we have spoken in a preceding division 
 of this work, was broke-iu to the gun, and 
 stood to her game as staunch as the best 
 pointer. But it is now time to speak of some 
 of the continental varieties of this animal, 
 before noticing the British breeds. 
 Perhaps the most important is — 
 
 THE WESTPHALIAN BREED. 
 
 The hams of this species have, in this country, 
 become greatly celebrated, from tho peculiar 
 excellence of their flavour ; and, on this ac- 
 count, large numbers of them are imported 
 from Germany. Tlie animal which supplies 
 these is closely allied to the wild boar of his 
 native country, and, like him, roams the forest 
 in search of food, which principally consists of 
 acorns and beech-malt, to which they are ex- 
 tremely partial, and which gives a favourable 
 development to their flesh. After they have 
 fattened themselves upon this, they are driven 
 home to be slaughtered. In former ages, iu 
 Britain, the acorn was the principal food of 
 the hog, as its flesh then formed a large pro- 
 portion of the diet of the people, who esteemed 
 the increase or luultiplicatiou of these animals 
 
 759 
 
S-EAPOLITANS.J 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [FRENCH BEEEDS. 
 
 as a necessity to their comfort and happiness, 
 if not absolutely to their existence. Even at 
 the present day, the hogs of Spanish Estrema- 
 dura are mostly reared on the acorns of the 
 Ballota oak. In the Westphalian species, the 
 colour of the adult varies. Many are so 
 coloured, that, were it not for their superior 
 condition and less bristly appearance, it would 
 not be an easy matter to point out any striking 
 difference between them and their feral rela- 
 tives ; but in every case, whatever may be the 
 hue of the parents, the young are, at birth, and 
 for some months afterwards, marked with the 
 longitudinal bauds so characteristic of their 
 wild blood. In several parts of England, espe- 
 cially in the New Eorest, herds of swine are 
 permitted to roam at large during the acorn 
 season, and, when driven home, are said to be 
 in prime condition. Erom this circumstance 
 it may readily be inferred how valuable were 
 the oak forests of our forefathers to their very 
 subsistence, by enabling them to feed and 
 fatten their swine. Indeed, one of the most 
 oppressive measures of William the Conqueror, 
 was that by which be converted the English 
 forests into hunting-grounds, and thereby de- 
 prived the people of the means of rearing their 
 hogs to a good condition. It was felt to be 
 such a grievance, that King John was called 
 upon to remit it at Euunymede, when, on 
 June 19th, 1215, he was, by his assembled 
 subjects, forced to sign Jilagna Cliarta. Swine, 
 like some other animals, seem naturally dis- 
 posed to return to their feral condition, should 
 an opportunity offer, and the circumstances be 
 favourable to their feeding. Mowbray tells us, 
 that two young boars, retiring into a wood 
 between Colchester and Mersey Island, con- 
 tinued, for years, to be the terror of the 
 neighbourhood. The Westphalian swine are 
 seldom over-fat; but they are not on that 
 account to be deemed difficult to fatten. On 
 the contrary, they take on fat with great readi- 
 ness, and attain to an enormous weight. 
 
 THE NEAPOLITAN BREED. 
 The colour of the Neapolitan breed is black, 
 with little hair on their bodies, and no bristles 
 whatever. Their flesh has a very delicate 
 flavour, the fat being entirely destitute of that 
 rankness whiah characterises that of some 
 other varieties. Most of the native Euo-lish 
 760 
 
 breeds may be improved by a cross with the 
 Neapolitan. Indeed, by far the larger portion 
 of the middle breed of pigs, in all the counties 
 of England, manifest some relationship to it 
 by the existence of blue spots on different 
 parts of the body. Mr. Eowlandson, the 
 author of the Prize Essay of the Eoyal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, on the Manage' 
 inent of Pigs, endeavours to prove that the 
 Neapolitan is the original breed of pigs ; 
 and even urges that the Essex, or rather the 
 improved Essex breed, is due to that race, of 
 which he says it is an improvement ; but Mr. 
 Milburn thinks that the Italian climate, 
 operating on the wild boar domesticated, as 
 well as that of China, softened down the as- 
 perity of activity and bristles, and made the 
 soft delicate animal we now see, in the shape 
 of the one or the other of these varieties. 
 ""With the true Berkshire breed," he continues, 
 ** the Neapolitan produces a cross, to be sur- 
 passed by none in every desirable quality that 
 the breeder could look for, more especially if a 
 dash of the lohite Chinese be added. The inter- 
 mixture of these three breeds — the Neapolitan, 
 Chinese, and Berkshire — may be regarded, if 
 done judiciously, as the ne plus ultra of swine- 
 breeding Thus was produced that long- 
 celebrated breed kept by Lord Harborough. 
 After having been a short time in this country, 
 the Neapolitan hog begins to lose his naked 
 appearance, and to acquire a coat better 
 suited to the more chilly climate into which 
 he baa been introduced." 
 
 THE FRENCH BREEDS. 
 It is believed that the French breeds have 
 some relationship to the Chinese variety of 
 the hog, as the breeders of that nation have 
 been long acquainted with the valuable 
 qualities of the variety which claims the 
 celestial empire for its original habitat. The 
 most distinguished of these breeds are those 
 of Poitou, the Pays d'Auge, Perigord, Cham- 
 pagne, and Bologna. In describing these, it 
 may be observed that the Poitou breed has a 
 long and somewhat large head, with pendu- 
 lous and rather coarse ears — an elongated 
 body, broad and strong feet, and large bones, 
 with coarse bristles and hair. That of the 
 Pays d'Auge has a sharp muzzle, and a smaller 
 head, narrow and pointed ears, long body, 
 
TRENCn imEF.DS.] 
 
 AND TIII'IK VAKIOL'S lUiHllDS. ■'nii; hiinksi: uiiEKi). 
 
 broad and stron£» limbs, but 8m:ill bono. Its colour is that of a reddish yellow, and their 
 
 hair is very rough. Tiio lluiigariun j)ig8 aro 
 of a grey colour, with straij^ht, poiuted oars, 
 short body, and short and linn legs. These 
 arc very rough in the coat, and the young aro 
 nuirked with longitudinal bands — two circum- 
 stances indicative of a connection, and that by 
 no means remote, with tlio wild boar. They 
 inhabit Turkey in Europe, Bosnia, Croatia, 
 Hungary, and Austria, and are designated 
 according to tiio country from which tiio spe- 
 cimen immediately iu question may have been 
 procured. In reference to tlio Portuguese hog, 
 it is 80 extremely like the Chinese, tliat it has, 
 by Mr. Laurence, been made a question whe- 
 ther these varieties aro not identical ; the 
 former being but the latter naturalised in that 
 of Portugal. 
 
 THE CHINESE BREED. 
 
 The Chinese hog is found in the south- 
 eastern countries of Asia, as Siura, Cochiu- 
 China, the territories of the Birman empire, 
 the kingdom of Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatni, 
 and in Batavia, and other islands of the 
 Eastern Archipelago. There are also varieties 
 iu India and China. 
 
 The principal point of difference between 
 the hog of Siam and that of China Proper, is, 
 that the former is usually black, whilst the 
 latter is of a white colour. Neither, however, 
 exhibit a constant uniformity iu this respect, 
 the colours of each frequently varying — the 
 blacks coming from China, and the whites 
 from Siam. Even in the same litter, pigs 
 of different colours frequently appear ; and 
 instances are not uncommon in wliich even 
 pied individuals have occurred. On account 
 of these differences of colour, some have gone 
 so far as to assert that there are no fewer than 
 seven varieties of the Cliinese pig ; but, as the 
 distinctions are referred only to colour, these 
 varieties can hardly be said to have more than 
 a hypothetical existence. The small white 
 breed is almost perfect iu make and quality. 
 Parkinson says — " These are certainly pigs in 
 miniature ; their legs about two or two-and- 
 a-half inches long ; their ears, the size of a 
 large leaf on an apple-tree ; the length of the 
 jaw, from the snout end to the crown, about six: 
 inches ; from the crown to where the tail is set 
 are small, but they are hard feeders. Their I on, about two feet ; with height proportionate ; 
 5 E 701 
 
 hair is also coarse, but scanty in quantity, and 
 of a white colour. The Perigord are generally 
 hlaek, with a very sliort thick neck, and a 
 broad compact carcass. The swine of Cham- 
 pagne aro of considerable size, long-bodied, 
 and ftat-sided, witti broad pendulous ears, 
 and not favourably looked upon. Those of 
 Bologna are related to the English breeds. 
 Tliev arc of a large size, have a largo and 
 broad ear, arc quick fatteners, and white in 
 colour. It is to these that we are indebted 
 for the celebrated Bologna sausages. 
 
 The following extract from the Annales 
 d\igricnlture Fran^aise, presents us with the 
 unsuccessful trials of a breeder to improve his 
 stock: — "I commenced," he says, "with the 
 large Shropshire pigs. They pleased my eye, 
 and, for some little time, I felt perfectly satis- 
 lied. In a short time, however, I began to 
 observe that, although they devoured an im- 
 mense quantity of food, they fattened but very 
 slowly, and seemed to derive no advantage 
 from the herbage and vegetables which they 
 found in the fields. When killed, the flesh, 
 and especially the fat, was exceedingly coarse. 
 The sows, nevertheless, produced many pigs at 
 each farrow, which, from their size when young, 
 sold well to persons who were tolerably rich, 
 and knew little or nothing about the breeding 
 of pigs. I next tried the small Berkshire pigs, 
 and immediately perceived a very sensible im- 
 provement. They fattened quickly, procured 
 most of their nourishment from the fields, and 
 their flesh was very superior to that of the 
 last-named breed. But as they were large, I 
 thought to effect a still greater improvement 
 by exchanging them for the Chinese ; but here 
 I fell into the opposite extreme. The Chinese 
 ■were prolific, fattened speedily, and almost 
 obtained their own subsistence; but they were 
 faulty in form, and their flesh was not firm, 
 but loose in fibre, as if they had died of disease." 
 Jutland swine are long-bodied, curve-backed, 
 long-legged, with large pendulous ears ; and 
 they attain a very great size. They, however, 
 are of a coarse make, and heavy -boned. Sweden 
 possesses many diflerent breeds, the favourite 
 being a supposed oft'-shoot from the wild boar, 
 with erect ears, a turned-up snout, and long, 
 bony legs. The hogs of Russia and Poland 
 
J8J1ITISH BEEEDS,] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [beITISH BEEEDS. 
 
 weif'lit, when full-grown and fat, sis stones, 
 at two years old." The black variety is of 
 similar shape and beauty, and, when fat, is 
 of a heavier weight. Both the Chinese and 
 Siamese pigs feed well, and attain to an early 
 maturity. They require less food, and, within 
 a given time, become fatter and heavier than 
 any of the European varieties. To the flesh 
 of the pig the Chinese are remarkably partial, 
 and they fatten it to an enormous extent, 
 taking great care that the animals which yield 
 it are thoroughly attended to, and fed regularly. 
 Those which are kept in temples become per- 
 fect monsters, and are viewed by the Chinese 
 with an eye of great tenderness and partiality. 
 They are not even permitted to 'distress them- 
 selves with w\'ilking, but are often carried 
 from one place to another, to which may be 
 attributed the admirable qualities of their pork. 
 The animals are kept especially dry and clean, 
 
 which, no doubt, has a corresponding efiect 
 upon their health ; and the very knowledge of 
 which has a tendency to impart a greater relish 
 to their flesh when it is brought to the table. 
 Those which are generally seen in this country, 
 principally come from the neighbourhood of 
 Canton, and have been brought thence as part 
 of sea-stock. They have greatly improved 
 the larger kinds of our English pigs, having 
 been advantageously crossed with our own 
 coarser domestic breeds. The ofi'spring of this 
 cross have shown a vast improvement even in 
 their Chinese progenitor: and, on the whole, 
 proved a most profitable breed. 
 
 The Chinese pigs are less known in Ireland 
 than in England or Scotland; although the 
 climate of the last-named country would appear 
 unsuitable to their Asiatic temperament and 
 constitution, probably from the variableness of 
 its temperature. 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 BRITISH BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HOG. 
 
 "We have, in a previous chapter, alluded to 
 the fact of the hog being of great importance 
 to our Saxon ancestors. Its flesh was a staple 
 article of consumption in every household ; and 
 a great portion of the wealth of the farmers 
 and landed proprietors consisted of droves of 
 swine, which were attended by swineherds, 
 thralls, or bond- slaves, and which were driven 
 into the woods of oak and beech, in order to 
 feed on acorns and mast, and all the while 
 guarded from the attacks of the wolf. The 
 domestic hog of that period, appears to have 
 closely resembled, in form and colour, the 
 wild species; and the old unimproved breed, 
 now seldom seen, may be regarded as its 
 modern representative. There are now, in our 
 island, several breeds of this useful animal, of 
 acknowledged excellence, the result of judicious 
 crossings. The test of excellence is producti- 
 bility, a readiness to become fat, small bone, 
 and the quality of the whole animal when 
 7G2 
 
 converted into bacon. Size is of minor im- 
 portance. The introduction of the small 
 Chinese breed is one great source of improve- 
 ment. This breed, we have said, is short in the 
 head, with neat ears, low on the limbs, and 
 high in the chine. It is very prolific, and 
 fattens readily. The prevailing colours are 
 black, or half black and half white. Another, 
 closely allied to it, extends from China 
 throughout various groups of islands in the 
 Pacific. The breed nearest to the Chinese, in 
 this country, is the Suflblk, which is generally 
 white, compactly made, and deep in the chest. 
 Another source of improvement is the Nea- 
 politan hog. This, as already described, is a 
 plump animal of a black colour, without any 
 hair, and wuth a singular predisposition to be- 
 come fat. It is, however, of a tender con- 
 stitution. The pure black breed of Essex, 
 which has very little hair, is closely allied to 
 it; and when crossed with the Neapolitan, 
 
TUK BKUKSHTKE iioQ.; AND TIIKIR VAKIOUS BUEEDS. tiik ueuksiiihe iiuo. 
 
 produces a most valuable stock. A cross be- 
 twceu tlio NoapolitfUi niul iKM-kshire breed is 
 also in his^li esteem. A breed between the 
 Berkshire, Chiueae, and Neapolitan, may, by 
 careful eeleetion, produce every quality wliicii 
 can bo desireil — •'reat tecundity, an early ac- 
 quisition of fat, and moderato size, with ad- 
 mirable form and proportions. Mr. Cully 
 asserts, that there are, in this country, only 
 three true varieties of the domesticated lion; — 
 the Berkshire, the Chinese, and the lii<j;hland, 
 or Irish ; and that all other breeds, altlioufjh 
 they have a separate description, are nothing 
 more than ofl'-shoots from one or other of these 
 three main stocks. In some degree this may 
 be true ; but these themselves, must, at the 
 same time, be regarded as only oft'-ahoots 
 from the great original wild stock. To dis- 
 tinguish these, therefore, as the primitive 
 breeds to which we are indebted for all the i 
 other breeds now grown in Britain, is to i 
 give them a distinction which can hardly be | 
 said to belong to them. Indeed, the fact of j 
 the matter is, that we are not only indebted 
 to these breeds for the numerous varieties 
 amongst us, but to the Spanish, Portuguese, 
 Italian, and African hogs, as well as to the 
 wild boar of the large forests of Europe. 
 
 THE BERKSHIRE HOG. 
 
 Berkshire was the first county to avail itself 
 of the opportunity of improvement afforded by 
 the introduction of foreign stock ; and among 
 the black breeds, the improved Berkshire 
 stands at the top of the list, either for breed- 
 ing pure, or crossing with other breeds of in- 
 ferior qualities. The old breed is said to be 
 now extinct ; but, for a long period, it had a high 
 reputation, and held a prominent place among 
 breeders or rearers of swine. The improved 
 Berkshires are almost all traced back to the 
 herd of Lord Barrington, who died in 1S29. 
 In Mr. Touatt's treatise on the pig, we find it 
 remarked, that the improved race is now con- 
 sidered, by the Berkshire farmers, to have de- 
 viated into a middle-sized and a small-sized 
 breed. To rank in the first class, they should be 
 well covered with long, black, silky hair ; whilst 
 the white should have only four white feet, a 
 white spot between the eyes, and a few white 
 hairs behind each shoulder. 
 
 The old race of Berkshires had' a long and 
 
 crooked snout, witli tiio muzzle taking; an up> 
 ward turn ; tlio cars were large and heavy, with 
 u 8lii,'lit inelination to be pendulous ; the body 
 was not deep, but long and thick ; whilttt tho 
 legs were short, the bono largo, and tho sizo 
 enormous. Tho modern improved Berkahiro 
 is an animal of large size, wi»ich, to bo fully 
 developed, should not be allowed to breed 
 until it is over a year old. Mr. Sadler, one of 
 tho most successful improvers of Berkshires, 
 considers the improved breed superior to anj" 
 other black breed for size, quality, hardness o^ 
 constitution, Iruitfulness, early maturity, and 
 aptitude to fatten. Tho Kev. T. C. James, 
 one of the judges of pigs at the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society's show at Warwick, in 18-39. 
 says, that "the improved Berkshire is a good 
 big animal, well calculated to produce a pro- 
 fitable llitch. A good little pig is very well, 
 but a good big pig is better, if with aptitude 
 to fatten. Two exhibited at Chelmsford, in 
 1856 (of Sadler's breed), weighed each twelve 
 score at seven months old ; and, with that 
 weight, were of such good constitution, that 
 tiiey were well upon their legs. They had 
 walking exercise in an orchard every day while 
 fattening." The Mr. Sadler alluded to in this 
 passage, resides at Bentham, near Crickdalc, 
 and is one of the most successful improvers ot 
 Berkshires: his original stock all came from 
 the herd of Lord Barrington. Speaking of 
 the Berkshire breed, Mr. Loudon says, "that 
 they are, in general, of a tawny, white, or 
 reddish colour, spotted with black ; large ears 
 hanging over the eyes ; thick, close, and well- 
 made in the body ; short legs ; small in the 
 bone, with a disposition quickly to fatten, and, 
 when well fed, producing fine flesh. This 
 county has long been famous for its breed of 
 swine, which are excellent in all respects, but 
 particularly so as a cross for heavy, slow-feed- 
 ing sorts. It has extended itself from tho 
 district from which it takes its name, over 
 most parts of the island ; is the sort mostly 
 fattened at the distilleries ; feeds to a great 
 weight ; is good either for pork or bacon ; and 
 is supposed by many to be the most hardy, 
 botli in respect to its nature and the food 
 on which it is fed." Mr. Bakewell, the founder 
 of the new Leicester sheep, was a great im- 
 prover of domestic swine. 
 
 "Before his time," says Mr. Martin, "tho 
 
 763 
 
nA:MPSUIEE HOG.] 
 
 PIGS 
 
 [HAiiPSHiBE no a. 
 
 Leicestershire' hogs were of the same coarse, 
 ungainly kind, which prevailed generally 
 tliroughout the midland counties. He com- 
 menced, as he had done with the sheep, by a 
 judicious selection of stock destined for breed- 
 ing ; and, by persevering in this course, he 
 greatly modified the characters of the old 
 races. This was imitated in Yorkshire. The 
 old breed, by crossings with the new Leicester 
 stock, was much improved. The cross breed 
 lost in size, but gained in every other good 
 quality. Ifc became deep-chested, short-limbed, 
 small-boned, and fattened readily. The coarse 
 ugly bristles were exchanged for fine thin hair, 
 and the whole aspect of the animal underwent 
 a transformation. The hogs, at about two 
 years old, averaged from thirty to fifty, and even 
 sixty stones, of 14 lbs. ; the younger animals 
 weighing in proportion." 
 
 Some of the Yorkshire breeders still rear 
 the pure new Leicesters, and consider them 
 more profitable than the larger kinds. These 
 breeds have also found friends in Yorkshire ; 
 and among these, are the Berkshire crosses 
 with the old Yorkshire, and with Lord Wes- 
 tern's improved Essex breed. The improved 
 Berkshires are classed among large swine ; 
 but the effect of crossing with various smaller 
 breeds, has been to reduce the size and improve 
 the shape; so that the present Berkshires are 
 Lihort of limb, roundly made, arched in the 
 neck, with heavy cheeks, sharp ears, and 
 abruptly rising forehead, short snout, broad 
 back, and clean limbs. In colour they are usu- 
 ally a mixture of half white, half black. The 
 average weight of an improved Berkshire hog, 
 fit to kill, is about 400 lbs.; but ham-curers 
 purchasing them from the farmers, give a pre- 
 ference to the smaller breed, which averages 
 Irom nine to fourteen score. 
 
 THE HAMPSHIRE HOG 
 
 This hog is about the same size as the 
 Berkshire; but as less attention has been paid 
 to its improvement, it possesses a degree of 
 coarseness to which the other is a strano-er. 
 It is generally black, or spotted with red ; but 
 there arc, also, a considerable number of white 
 pigs in this county. Within the last twenty 
 years a great improvement has been produced 
 in their make, which may be considered to 
 have been forced upon the breeder, on account 
 764 
 
 of his being so near a good market where 
 improved animals could meet with ready dis- 
 posal. No Hampshire farmer, however, has 
 distinguished himself as a pig-breeder ; and we 
 do not remember an instance of Hampshire 
 pigs carrying away any of the prizes at the 
 Smithfield show. Prom these facts we may 
 draw the conclusion, tliat although the county 
 is productive of excellent hogs, still these are 
 not such as would be choseu to establish a 
 new, or improve an old breed. The New 
 Porest of Hampshire was long notable for 
 the numbers of swine which fed upon the 
 acorns that fell from its oaks. Even so re- 
 cently as the time of the Eev. Mr. Gilpin, we 
 find him describing, in his liemarlcs on Forest 
 Scenery, the manner in which the swine were 
 suftered to regale themselves as they wandered 
 beneath the umbrageous trees, which were the 
 means of both sheltering and nourishing 
 them: — " These woods afi'ord excellent feeding 
 for hogs, which are led in the autumn season 
 into many parts of the forest, but especially 
 among the oaks and beeches of Boldre-wood, 
 to fatten on mast. It is one of the rights of 
 the forest borderers to feed their hogs in the 
 forest during the 2Jawni?iy month, as it is termed, 
 which commences about the end of September, 
 and lasts six weeks. Eor this privilege they 
 pay a trifling acknowledgment at the steward's 
 court at Lyndhurst. The word pawnage was 
 the old term for the money thus collected. 
 The method of treating hogs at this season of 
 migration, and of reducing a large herd of 
 those unmanageable brutes to perfect obe- 
 dience and good government, is curious. The 
 first step the swineherd takes is to investigate 
 some close-sheltered part of the forest, where 
 there is a couveniency of water, and plenty of 
 oak or beech mast, the former of which he 
 prefers, when he can have it in abundance. 
 He fixes next on some spreading tree, round 
 the bowl of which he wattles a slight circular 
 fence of the dimensions he wants ; and covering 
 it roughly with boughs and sods, he fills it 
 plentifully with straw or fern. Having made 
 this preparation, he collects his colony among 
 the farmers, with whom he commonly agrees 
 for a shilling a-head, and will get together 
 perhaps a herd of five or six hundred hogs. 
 Having driven them to their destined habi- 
 tation, he gives them a plentiful supper of 
 
nAMPsiiinE iioo.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS. [hampsuiuk iioo. 
 
 acorna or bt'ecli-uuidt, which ho had already 
 provided ; sounding liia Iiorn during tlio repast. 
 IIo then tnrii3 them into tho littor, whore, 
 after a lo'ii; journey and a hearty meal, they 
 eleep comfortably. Tho next morning ho lets 
 them look a little around, and shows them 
 the pool or stream where they may occasionally 
 drink; then leaves them to pick the oflalof the 
 last night's meal ; and, as evening draws on, 
 gives another plentiful repast, scattering acorns 
 among them for an hour together, to the 
 sound of his horn, lie now scuds them again to 
 sleep. The following day ho is perhaps at 
 the pains of procuring them another meal, 
 with music playing as usual ; and then leaves 
 them a little more to themselves, having an 
 eye, however, to their evening hours. But as 
 their stomachs are full, they seldom wander far 
 from home, retiring generally very early to 
 bed. After this he throws the sty open, and 
 leaves them to cater for themselves ; and from 
 henceforward has little more trouble with 
 them during the whole time of their migration. 
 Now and then, in calm weather, when acorns 
 fall sparing!}', he calls them perhaps together, 
 by the music of his horn, to a gratuitous meal ; 
 but in general they need little attention, re- 
 turning regularly home at night, though they 
 often wander, in the day, two or three miles 
 from their sty. There are experienced leaders 
 in all herds, which have spent the roving 
 life before, and can instruct their juniors 
 iu the method of it. By this management 
 the herd is carried home to their respective 
 owners iu such condition that a little dry meal 
 will soou fatten them. The hog is commonly 
 supposed to be an obstinate, headstrong, un- 
 manageable brute. lie may, perhaps, have a 
 degree of positiveness iu his temper ; in gen- 
 eral, however, if properly managed, he is an 
 orderly, docile animal. The only difficulty is 
 to make your wishes, when they are fair and 
 friendly, intelligible to him. Effect this, and 
 you may lead him with a straw. 
 
 "Nor is he without his social feelings, when 
 be is at liberty to indulge them. In these 
 forest migrations, it is commonly observed, that 
 of whatever number the herd consists, they 
 generally separate, in their daily excursions, 
 into such little knots and societies as have 
 formerly had habits of intimacy together ; and 
 iu theic friendly groups they range the forest, 
 
 returning homo at night in difleront parties, 
 some earlier aiul some later, as they havo been 
 more or less fortunato in tho purnuits of tlio 
 day. It sounds oddly to afllrm tho life of u 
 hog to bo enviable ; and yet thero is something 
 uncommonly pleasing iu tho lives of tlicHO 
 emigrants — something at least more desirablo 
 than is to bo found iu a hog Epicuri dc greye. 
 They seem themselves, also, to eujoy their modo 
 of life. Tho hog has a greater variety of lan- 
 guage than, perhaps, any other quadruped, lie 
 signifies his want of food with great energv ; 
 when affronted, his note is very significant; 
 and his cries of distress are truly lameutable. 
 But here you see him perfectly happy, going 
 about at his ease, and conversing with hia 
 friends iu short, pithy, interrupted sentences, 
 which are, no doubt, expressive of his enjoy- 
 ments and of his social feelings. Besides tho 
 hogs thus led out iu the mast season to fatten, 
 there are others, the property of forest-keepers, 
 which spend the whole year in such societies. 
 After the mast season is over, the indigenous 
 forest-hog depends chiefly for his livelihood on 
 the roots of fern ; and he would find this food 
 very nourishing if he could have it in abun- 
 dance. But he is obliged to procure it- by so 
 laborious an operation, that his meals are rarely 
 accompanied with satiety. He continues, how- 
 ever, by great industry, to obtain a tolerable 
 subsistence through the winter, except in 
 frosty weather, when the ground resists his 
 delving snout; he must then perish if he do 
 not, in some degree, experience his master's 
 care. As spring advances, fresh grasses, and 
 salads of diflerent kinds, add a variety to his 
 bill of fare ; and, as summer comes on, he finds 
 juicy berries and grateful seeds, ou which he 
 lives plentifully, till autumn returns and brings 
 with it the extreme of abundance. Besides 
 these stationary hogs, there are others, which, 
 in some of the more desolate parts of the forest, 
 arc bred wild, and left to themselves without 
 any settled habitation ; and, as their owners 
 are at no expense, either in feeding or attending 
 them, they are content with tho precarious 
 profit of such as they are able to reclaim." 
 
 This kind of feeding has brought the Hamp- 
 shire bacon much into demand ; and it brings 
 even a higher price than the Westphalian. 
 This is, in some measure, to be attributed to 
 the manner in which it is cured, and which 
 
 763 
 
suffole: noG.j 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [tokkshire ho a. 
 
 has been greatly the means of preserving its 
 high reputation. 
 
 THE SUFFOLK HOG. 
 
 Mr. Eichardson, with some other writers, 
 thinks that the Suffolk hog is the most nearly 
 allied to the Chinese; and Mr. Loudon de- 
 scribes it as a small, delicate, white pig, which, 
 lor many years, has enjoyed a great reputa- 
 lion. It is shorter, he says, and more pug- 
 Tormed than the Norfolks; and, by its dish- 
 face and pendent belly, it may be supposed 
 that the variety proceeded originally from the 
 white Chinese. Some of tliem are extremely 
 handsome, and very regularly shaped. Otliers 
 Jiave observed, that the Suffolk is the best 
 bred race in England; but whether such be 
 the case or not, is a matter of opinion. " The 
 present breed of Suflblk," says Mr. Eichard- 
 son, " or, at least, that which existed in that 
 county within the last few years, is a long, 
 straight-backed pig, with a broad forehead, 
 and short, bristly hair; appearing large and 
 heavy from its extreme length." Prince Albert 
 was very successful with a cross of the Suffolk 
 and Bedford. 
 
 The improvement in the Suffolk breed con- 
 sists in small and light oftals, with greater 
 length being obtained. It is a white pig, and, 
 on several occasions, has figured popularly in 
 the Smithfield Club Show; but the most cele- 
 brated pigs are quite black. Mr. Crisp, of 
 Butly Abbey, a distinguished Suflblk breeder, 
 reared both black and white pigs. The best 
 Suffolks now, however, are Torkshire-C umber- 
 lands, which have settled in the county, and 
 have found their way to Windsor. 
 
 THE YORKSHIRE HOG. 
 
 The old Yorkshire pig was a large, narrow 
 animal, having a strong coat of white hair, and 
 a few pale-blue spots on the skin, the hair 
 on these being white. It was long-headed, 
 great-eared, long-logged, and strong in the 
 bone. A long period elapsed before it attained 
 its full growth, when it could bo fr.ttcucJ up 
 to 800 lbs. ; but it is doubtful if this could be 
 done with profit. The first step taken for the 
 improvement of this breed, was the introduc- 
 tion of tlie white Leicesters to Yorkshire. 
 These were a large species; but their heads 
 were smaller than the old sort ; their ears erect ; 
 7UU 
 
 their hair finer ; their bone smaller, but with a 
 carcass less deep, and not so full in fiesh. The 
 white Leicesters were the great improvers of 
 the Yorkshire large breed, which is now prin- 
 cipally confined to the northern part of the 
 county. On the introduction of the Leices- 
 ters, in the early part of the present century, 
 they were carefully bred from until several 
 admirable qualities were obtained — viz., early 
 maturity, beautiful proportion, and a constant 
 fatness, even from the time of their birth. 
 The difficulty with this breed is, how to keep 
 them poor, as the sows have enough to breed 
 and suckle their offspring. This species is 
 denominated the swjfl^Z treed; and the spinners 
 and artisans of the large towns, more particu- 
 larly those of Bradford and Leeds, discover 
 great skill in breeding them. In a new edition 
 of Mr. Youatt's work, we find it stated, that 
 in the "West Eiding, the competition in pigs 
 is keener than in any other part of England. 
 There is scarcely a town which has not its pig 
 and pouitry show, where prizes are presented 
 for pigs reared by working-men, with rules 
 that entirely exclude shopkeepers and small 
 tradesmen. The breed of these competitors 
 is usually of the large or middle-size; and 
 the prizes contended for are — for the first, 
 £4; second, £3; third, £2; fourth, £1. 
 The Keighley Agricultural Association keep 
 a van for conveying the pigs of the exhibi- 
 tors to their shows; and the following de- 
 tails from Mr. Youatt's work, edited by Mr. 
 Samuel Sydney, places, in a graphic point 
 of view, the enthusiasm which pervades the 
 minds of some of the small pig-breeding fan- 
 ciers of Yorkshire. "One evening in August, 
 1858, a stout labouring woman left her home 
 iu Airedale, accompanied by her only sow and. 
 her litter of pigs, on a journey (by rail) of 
 sixty-five miles, to the city of York, where the 
 Yorkshire Agricultural Society held its show 
 that year. She bore with her the wliite 
 rosettes of several previous victories of her 
 treasure, 'Lady Kate;' but on this occasion 
 fortune did not smile on her, and ' hwAy Kale' 
 suffered her first defeat. Although, however, 
 she did not win the prize, she carried tiie 
 public pig-breeding opinion so far witli her, 
 that she was able to sell all * Lady Kate's' 
 suckers at £5 a-head. When, next month, 
 the Keighley and Shipton shows arrived, * Lady 
 
TOUKSniUE llOQ.l 
 
 AND Til HI i; VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [iJEDKOUK IIOO. 
 
 Kate' retrieved her first and only defeat, and 
 stood at the top of her class. Thirty-eight 
 .soveroigns had hi'en counted down on tl>o 
 table tor * Lady Kate.' She afterwards reared 
 a litter of sixteen, and enabled lier owner to 
 maintain an aged father and invaliil sister in 
 comparative comfort. She was, indeed, tlie 
 prop of tlie house; and by the side of many a 
 sty in Airedale, for years after her flesh 
 had been consumed in bacon, were her merit 
 and victories discussed in the long summer 
 evenings consecrated to pig-gossip. ' Lady 
 Kate' was of the middle breed ; a cross between 
 a small boar and a sow of the modern improved 
 large breed. 
 
 "At Northallerton, iu 1S59, the finest lot of 
 large sows ever seen iu one place were col- 
 lected together. There were at least a dozen, 
 the live weight of each of which would not be 
 much less than half a ton. The Eoyal Agri- 
 cultural prize-winner at Norwich only got 
 second honours. When the two famous sows, 
 'Lady Havelock' and the 'Duchess,' went 
 for the Chester prize, the partisans of each 
 were confident of success, and the betting was 
 hot and heavy. ' Lady Havelock' was in 
 splendid condition, having been bought at a 
 long price, and 'bottled up' specially for 
 tliis event; while the 'Duchess,' from having 
 weaned her little ones so lately, was not quite 
 up to the mark, but was again in a breeding 
 state, and it was thought that would have 
 weight with the judges. It was, however, 
 universally agreed that one of the two must 
 win, for Yorkshire had never sent anythinf' 
 like them before. On "Wednesday night it 
 oozed out that the 'Lady' was the prize- 
 winner. The telegraph was set in motion, 
 and the morning trains brought in a motley 
 crowd of the Leeds pig fancy, with wives, aunts, 
 and sisters, all bound to the Ehoodee, to cele- 
 brate the triumph. There the ' missus' of the 
 ' Lady,' excited by the congratulations of her 
 friends, gave her native Yorkshire eloquence 
 full swing, and astonished the assembly with a 
 speech, in which she complimented the judges ; 
 vowed that ' Lady Havelock' should lick all 
 the world ; whispered her Tom would never 
 have bought the sow but for her, and an- 
 nounced that the prize money should be spent 
 ou the spot." In Yorkshire, the prejudice 
 against black pigs is now greatly modified. | 
 
 TIIL Llll.MlIRIi: HOG. 
 The size of the Chehhiro hog is very great; 
 his proportions having been pronounced jri- 
 gantic ; but is now, however, almost extinct. 
 Ho was long-legged, long-eared, and had u 
 loose kind of unsightly skin. His colour was 
 either white, patched black and white, or 
 blue and white. The prevailing pigs, now 
 mostly used in Cheshire, are what are termed 
 " Manchester boars," which is only another 
 name for the Yorkshire- Cumberland breed. 
 
 Til 15 WILTSHIRE HOG. 
 
 This hog is a long-bodied, low animal, 
 hollow about the shoulder, aud high on tlio 
 rump, round in the bone, with middling- 
 sized pointed ears, and of a light colour. It 
 is supposed to have come originally from 
 Wales, and was of comparatively little value ; 
 but since it has been crossed with the im- 
 proved Berkshire breed, its worth has in- 
 creased. AViltshire bacon is celebrated, the 
 reason of which may partly be attributed to 
 the judicious crossing which has, from time 
 to time, been practised with the Neapolitan, 
 Chinese, and other improved breeds. These 
 are not so large as the former breed ; while they 
 are more compact, and fatten quicker, without 
 any deterioration to the quality of the meat. 
 
 THE BEDFORDSHIRE HOG. 
 Bedfordshire cannot boast of an original pig 
 stock ; but one bred at AVoburn, aud described 
 by Mr. Youatt, was a good animal, although 
 it had no specially-marked character worthy 
 of notice. It was a bad smeller, but a good 
 feeder. It has, however, been allowed to die 
 out ; and a race sprung from Berkshire sows 
 crossed with Suflblk boars, has taken its place. 
 At present a white breed is looked upon with 
 the most favour in Bedfordshire. The late Duke 
 of Bedford introduced ^the improved breed, 
 and was the means of introducing them also 
 to East Lothian iu Scotland, where they carried 
 off" all the agricultural prizes. They have the 
 peculiarity of growing very rapidly, and, at the 
 same time, when mature, feeding very fast 
 iu proportion to the food given. The former 
 breed was so little distinguished, that the 
 tenant of a large farmer in the shire, said 
 he was not aware that such a race had an 
 
 707 
 
LUICESTER HOG.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [koefolk hog, etc. 
 
 existence, until he saw it notified over one of 
 tlie pens of the late Prince Albert, about ten 
 years ago, at the Smithfield Show. 
 
 THE LEICESTERSHIRE HOG. 
 
 The original hog of Leicestershire was a 
 large, deep, flat-seated, light-spotted animal, 
 possessed of rather a handsome head, with 
 well-formed ears. Mr. Bakewell, however, by 
 skilful crossing, not only improved the breeds 
 of sheep and cattle, but also those of pigs. 
 Accordingly, his Dishley pigs evinced con- 
 summate skill, as did his Leicester sheep. 
 " With symmetrical form," says Mr. Richard- 
 son, "as far as rotundity, depth, and thickness 
 could constitute it, he combined such great 
 aptitude to fatten, that it has, with the Chinese 
 and Neapolitan, been the source of almost all 
 the in/provements of our breeds of pigs ; and a 
 pig is just good ' blood' or bad in proportion 
 as it is allied nearly or remotely to the Dishley 
 breed. There was a little tenderness of con- 
 stitution, but so much flesh and fat in pro- 
 portion to time and oflal, that it looked more 
 like one great cylinder of flesh than a living 
 animal — the feet, neck, and face being lost in 
 the exuberance of fat. Owing to its lethargic 
 disposition, and thoracic temperament, it is not 
 a vigorous breeder, and much less prolific 
 than many other kinds ; neither will it grow 
 so rapidly as some varieties, being more cal- 
 culated to lay on fat than to make bone and 
 muscle. Still it is a physiological wonder — a 
 triumph of skill." The Leicesters have been 
 crossed into middle, or small Yorkshires, and 
 have been the grand improvers of the large 
 York breed. Mr. J. V. Williams, of Hay- 
 grove, Bridgewater, Somerset, in 1S54, ex- 
 hibited a pair of white Leicesters, and received 
 the gold medal of the Smithfield Club. Writing 
 to Mr. Sydney, he says—" I first exhibited in 
 1852, and have since won, besides the Smith- 
 Held Club gold medal, two gold medals of the 
 Paris Universal Exhibition in 1855, five silver 
 medals and cross, and upwards of one hundred 
 prizes." Ilia fat pigs usually average the 
 following weights : — 
 
 5 to G months old, from 7 
 ^ )» »> ., ,,10 
 
 10 ,. » „ „ 12 
 
 12 „ 18 „ „ „ l-i 
 
 The three pigs exhibited in 1S5-1., at eighteen 
 7G8 
 
 to 9 score lbs. 
 12 
 
 " l-^ » „ 
 „ IS ., .. 
 
 weeks' old, weighed, sinking the offal, nine 
 score each. 
 
 THE HEREFORDSHIRE HOG. 
 
 Of this animal there is little to say ; but it 
 is commonly believed to be the result of a 
 cross with the Shropshire. Mr. Eichardson 
 says it is little inferior to the Berkshire breed ; 
 and that it is to the adoption of crosses from 
 the boars of Herefordshire and Berkshire, that 
 we are to attribute the major part of the im- 
 provement which has, of late years, appeared 
 among the Irish breeds. To the present white 
 breed of this county no attention has been 
 paid, although the sow is acknowledged to be a 
 useful animal. 
 
 THE NORFOLK HOG. 
 The Norfolk breed is small, with pricked, 
 erect ears ; and variously coloured, but gene- 
 rally white. They are well-formed, fatten 
 quickly, and produce good meat. Those that 
 are white are said to be the best; but in the 
 vicinity of Lynn, and generally on the Lin- 
 coln side of the county, there is a larger 
 spotted variety, of good form and quality. 
 AYe believe, however, that little or no attention 
 has been paid to this variety. 
 
 THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE HOG. 
 
 The hog of Gloucester is less in size than 
 the Hampshire breed ; still it is of suflicient 
 proportions to be ranked among the larger 
 breeds. It is round in form, somewhat short 
 for its depth in the belly, and altogether pre- 
 senting a very compact appearance. It is 
 generally white, and has — what may be either 
 an ornament or a disfiguration — wattles hanging 
 from each jaw. Its constitution is hardy ; the 
 sows are prolific, and the pigs are very profit- 
 able, more particularly for pork. As store 
 pigs they are excellent. 
 
 THE NORTHAMPTONSHIRE HOG. 
 
 This animal is considered handsome, being 
 very compactly formed, steep-sided, and having 
 little bone. It feeds well, attains early to 
 maturity, and fattens rapidly. Por storing or 
 pork it is excellent. It is of a light colour. 
 
 THE LINCOLNSHIRE HOG. 
 
 The old Lincolnshire breed was a \vA\t- 
 
THE SUSSEX noa.] A:sD TILElii VAiilOL'S liiiEEDS. [tue ebsex iioo. 
 
 coloured, long-logged, ungainly-looking animal, ^ 
 with a narrow buck and a thick skin, covered 
 with close, coarse hair. The hcail was largo, 
 and the Ibrehead being ample, the oars were 
 necessarily placed far apart. It was an enor- 
 mous cater, and a very indiflercnt lattoncr. 
 The true Lincolnshire is now a very dillerent 
 animal from this, having a straight body, round 
 carcass, fine skin, and few bristles. It is gen- 
 erally white, and is easily fattened. At a year 
 and a-half old it will often weigli twenty-five 
 and even thirty stoues, giving 11 Iba. to the 
 stoue. 
 
 THE SHROPSHIRE HOG. 
 The original breed of this county ha3 been 
 improved by a cross with the Berkshire, 
 Chinese, and other favourite breeds. The 
 former breed was not very well adapted for 
 farm stock ; but by brewers and distillers, who 
 have large quantities of refuse grains and 
 mash, they were held in some degree -of esti- 
 mation. 
 
 THE CUMBERLAND HOG. 
 
 Little has been done towards the improve- 
 ment of the large Cumberland breed; but the 
 small breed of this county has risen into con- 
 siderable favour. It is larger than the small 
 Yorkshire, and is the offspring of a cross 
 between the Cumberland and the Yorkshire; 
 the former giving quality and proportion, and 
 the latter affording size. The bacon of this 
 county has attained great celebrity in the 
 north of England. The breed is described as 
 being short in the legs, with a straight and broad 
 back, well-developed ribs, full neck and breast, 
 and cood hams. The snout is short ; the ears 
 clean, fine, and of moderate size ; whilst the 
 body is evenly covered with short, fine hair. 
 
 THE SUSSEX HOG. 
 The bogs of this county are of moderate 
 size, well-formed, thin-skinned, and black and 
 white. The hair upon them is both long and 
 fine. They rarely feed over twenty stones ; but 
 they attain an early maturity, fatten quickly, 
 and produce excellent flesh. In this county 
 there was formerly a breed called the Eudgmik 
 swine, among which were some of the largest 
 hogs ever seen in England. Although they 
 yielded capital meat, they were considered 
 5f 
 
 very unprofitable, from the time which they 
 took to fatten. They are now extinct. 
 
 THE OIUCINAL OLO ENGLISH HOG. 
 The primitive breeds of England have now 
 almost lost all traces of their individuality, 
 from the diflferent systems of crossing to which 
 they have been subjected, by the spirit of im- 
 provement which has [)Ossessed many of tho 
 breeders of agricultural stock. It may be a 
 question, however, whether this has not been 
 alreadv carried too far. Mr. Low observes — 
 ""While we should improve the larger breeds 
 that are left us, by every means in our power, 
 we ought to take care that we do not sacrifice 
 them altogether. "We should remember that 
 an ample supply of pork is of immense im- 
 portance to the support of the inhabitants of 
 this country. England may, one day, have 
 cause to regret that this over-refinement has 
 been practised, and future improvers vainly 
 exert themselves to recover those fine old 
 races which the present breeders seem aiming 
 to efface." The original English breed had a 
 heavy head, a large ear, long legs, and rugged 
 coat, and had by far too much bone to be a 
 profitable animal. 
 
 THE ESSEX HOG. 
 Essex, like other counties, has improved ita 
 breed of pigs, by crossing with the Berkshiro 
 and Neapolitan races. The original animal, 
 however, possessed some good points ; but as 
 improvement seemed necessary, a new breed 
 appeared, and now takes a high place among 
 the different species of Great Britain. The 
 present race has erect ears, a long, sharp head, 
 a short flat back, with small bone. The colour 
 almost invariably is white. It is a rapid feeder, 
 and makes fat so quickly, that before it has 
 obtained its due proportions it usually attains 
 an inconvenient state of obesity. So great, 
 indeed, are its fattening properties, that it 
 sometimes becomes the victim of them. 
 
 " One of the finest specimens of the improved 
 Essex breed," says Mr. llichardson, " was 
 reared by C. L. Clare, Esq., of Hiudley House, 
 near Liverpool. She won eight first prizes, 
 ! two seconds, and one third ; and several of her 
 j litters have been sold for £120. The pecu- 
 liarities of Mr. Clare's improved breed, are 
 small hone, great aptitude to fatten, early 
 
 7G9 
 
ORKNEY HO a.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 rORKNET HOG. 
 
 arrival at maturity, and a small proportion of 
 loss between live weight and dead. A very 
 favourable specimen of the whole, weighed, 
 alive, 688 lbs. ; and dead, as much as 653 lbs. 
 — a most unprecedented fact — her offiil being 
 but 30 lbs. She was shown at the Yorkshire 
 Agricultural Society's meeting at York, with 
 twenty-nine competitors ; and though she did 
 not receive a prize, was highly commended. 
 This, against all the best pig-breeders in the 
 kingdom, showed her to be of a very prime 
 sort." 
 
 There is another improved breed in this 
 county, called Half-blacks, supposed descen- 
 dants of the Berkshire race. Lord Western ori- 
 ginally introduced it into the county, and it rose 
 to great celebrity. They are black and white, 
 line-skinned, short-haired, with smaller heads 
 and ears than the Berkshire, having short 
 snubby noses, and a very fine bone. They are 
 broad and deep in the belly, full in the hind 
 quarters, but light in the offal. They feed re- 
 markably quick, grow fast, and are of an 
 excellent quality of meat. The sows are 
 capital breeders, and bring litters of from 
 eight to twelve; but they have the character 
 of being bad nurses. 
 
 THE ORKNEY BREED. 
 In the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, and 
 the Shetland Islands, there exists a small breed 
 of swine, characterised by Dr. Hibbert, in Ins 
 Account of the Shetland Isles, as a little, ugly, 
 brindled monster — an epitome of the wild boar, 
 yet scarcely larger than an English terrier. 
 " This lordling of the Shetland scatholds and 
 arable lands," says he, "ranges undisturbed 
 over his free demesnes ; and, in quest of the 
 roots of plants, or of earthworms, hollows out 
 deep furrows and trenches in the best pastures ; 
 destroys, in his progress, all the nests which 
 he can find, of plovers, curlews, or chalders ; 
 bivouacs in some potato field, which he rarely 
 quits until ho has excavated a ditch large 
 enough to bury within it a dozen fellow-com- 
 moners of his own size and weight. Nor is 
 the reign of this petty tyrant altogether 
 bloodless. When a young lamb is just dropped, 
 it is then that he foams, and, as Blackmore 
 Las pompously sung, 'flourishes his ivory 
 war,' never quitting liis ground till the grass 
 is stained with the red slaughter of his victim " 
 770 
 
 These small animals give their owners little 
 care, as they are mostly left to shift for them- 
 selves in the best way they can. They are 
 wholly unprovided with shelter ; and although 
 they must, during some part of the year, un- 
 dergo great privations, still they are healthy, 
 and produce good and agreeable flesh. In 
 autumn they are in best condition ; and if 
 then put up to fatten, very inexpensive prov- 
 ender will suffice for this purpose, as they 
 lard themselves with considerable rapidity, 
 growing quickly in size, and presenting a short, 
 diminutive, aldermanic appearance, capable of 
 raisins: astonishment in the minds of those 
 who, before the commencement of the hringing 
 up process, had seen them. 
 
 The Eev. G-eorge Low, in his Fauna Crea- 
 densis, describes them as very diminutive 
 creatures, but exhibiting a great variety of 
 colour. They are bristly in the back, stand 
 erect on their legs, and have short, pointed 
 ears. Their snouts are singularly strong, pro- 
 duced, no doubt, by the constant exercise of 
 their grubbing propensities in t!ie inhospit- 
 able region to which they are confined. They 
 travel far and near in search of food, wander- 
 ing over distant hills, and feeding on such roots 
 and earth-worms as they can find. With 
 such roving habits, it need be no matter of 
 wonder that this little animal, notwithstand- 
 ing his dwarfish size, should perpetrate greater 
 ravages in corn-fields than the most gigantic 
 of our English porcine breeds. This small 
 breed is usually converted into pork, and 
 forms an article of considerable commerce 
 between the natives and the coast, for shipping 
 stores. In Mr. Low's time, the butchers used 
 to purchase the breed from their owners at 
 from four to five shillings a-piece ; and after 
 being cleaned and cured, they were disposed of 
 to the shipping contractors at the rate of two- 
 pence per pound. The average weight of these 
 pigs is from sixty to seventy pounds. Eopes 
 are made of their hair, and used in the Orkneys 
 by those adventurers who suspend them- 
 selves from the summit of the clifis, in search 
 of the eggs and young of the sea-fowl. They 
 are preferable to those made of hemp, on 
 account of their not being so apt to cut from 
 the efiects of friction against the sharp edges 
 of the rocks. The Highland pig of Mr. Cully, 
 is the same as that of the Orkney Isles. 
 
OLD iKisn noo.] 
 
 AND TTTKIU VAlilOUS IMIEEDS. 
 
 lEXTINCT uace. 
 
 TIIK OLD lUlSn IIOU. 
 In Ireland tho pi^» is truly a ilomoslicatcd 
 animal, ol'ten haviiiij tho suugi^ost part of tho 
 labourer's cabin allotted to him, wliero ho 
 sleeps at his ease, leeds with comtbrt, ^rumphs 
 to tho children, and fattens for the rent. Tho 
 old, high-leirged, tlat-sided race, has for many 
 years been gradually dying out, and is now to 
 be met with perhaps only in Galway, and the 
 western part of tho country. An improved 
 breed is taking their place; and as they ex- 
 hibit all or most of tlie characteristics of the 
 English races, it has become dilficult to dis- 
 criminate between them. The small cost at 
 which pigs can be kept and fattened, coupled 
 with their extraordinary fecundity, make them a 
 real substantial blessing to many a poor cottier, 
 who, with his small savings, may purchase a 
 young and poor-conditioned animal, fatten it 
 on all the refuse he can spare or collect, 
 and sell it at a very remunerative profit. 
 Nay, he may kill it with advantage to his own 
 family, who will thereby obtain a large supply 
 of a cheap, nutritious, and strengthening 
 diet. AYere it not for this animal, numberless 
 individuals of the labouring poor would hardly 
 be able to preserve a roof over their heads ; 
 and, on this account, the pig is not inaptly 
 called " the poor man's friend." The improve- 
 ment effected in Ireland upon her old stock, 
 has been done by the introduction of Berkshire 
 and Chinese boars and sows, with which the 
 old breed has been extensively intermingled. 
 Accordingly, the great size and large bone have | 
 been reduced, whilst the fattening qualities 
 have been very much increased. It is well 
 known that England imports a large propor- 
 tion of the bacon, pork, and live pigs, whether 
 fat or as stores, necessary to her consumption, 
 from Ireland, which has a great tendency to 
 keep up the price of bacon in that country. 
 Notwithstanding the rather unpromising ex- 
 terior presented by the original old Irish pig, 
 there was one shown, some years ago, at the 
 cattle-show of the lioyal Dublin Society, which 
 is said to have been the oflspring of a cross 
 with the Hampshire. AVhetber this was or 
 was not the case, the animal weighed over 
 forty-one stone, and was the property of an 
 humble cottier. It attained that weight with 
 a very small proportion of feeding. Irish , 
 
 Bwine possess flesh of a peculinrly good flavour, 
 which tho principle of iinproveinent does not 
 deteriorate; whilst tho hams chisely restinble, 
 in form aud quality, those of Wcatphalia. 
 
 EXTINCT RACE. 
 
 The skull of a variety of pig found in an ex- 
 cavation in an island on Loch (iur — a lake in 
 tho neighbourhood of Limerick — is, by Mr. 
 Kichardson, supposed to indicate suilicient 
 evidence of having been the great ancestor of 
 our well-known long-faced pig, once so plenti- 
 ful in Galway, and usually designated, from its 
 long limbs and gaunt appearance, by the name 
 of tho " Greyhoutid Pig." Several of these 
 skulls were found at Loch Gur, with those of 
 oxen, goats, sheep, red deer, reindeer, and the 
 extinct gigantic deer, sometimes erroneously 
 styled the "Irish Elk." They were found 
 several feet below the surface, resting on layers 
 of a calcareous tufa, and covered with black 
 bogstuft', the result of the decomposition of 
 vegetable substances. All the skulls, appa- 
 rently, belonged to animals which had been 
 slaughtered ; as their froutals were all broken 
 in, as if by the blow of a pole-axe, or other 
 heavy instrument. It would be difficult to 
 assign the precise period when these animals 
 were thus slaughtered ; but, from the circum- 
 stance of their being cotemporary with the 
 gigantic deer, it has been suggested as possible 
 that they lived in the times of the Druids, and 
 that Loch Gur was the scene of one of their 
 vast assemblages, and these osseous fragments 
 the long-buried remnants of a stupendous 
 sacrifice to their sanguinary gods. 
 
 Having thus described the principal breeds 
 of swine, several of which present really such 
 veiy slightly-marked differences from others, 
 that it was almost unnecessary to introduce 
 them to our pages — but, in order to give this 
 work all the fulness possible, we deemed it un- 
 avoidable — we may observe, that there are cer- 
 tain fancy breeds, which require no specific 
 descrii>tion, as being less adapted to the prac- 
 tical, than to the gentleman farmer and breeder. 
 Prominent among these is the Windsor breed, 
 greatly cultivated by his late royal higiiness 
 Prince Albert; the Coleshill and the Bushy 
 breeds. Tiiese are all wiiite, and much sought 
 after by gentlemen pig-breeders, who hold 
 them in high 'Nstimation. 
 
 771 
 
POINTS OF A PIG. J 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [points of a pig. 
 
 POINTS OF A PIG. 
 In describing the points wliicli are to be 
 looked to in making the purchase of what is 
 called a good pig, it may be as well to remark, 
 at the outset, that care must be taken not 
 to be influenced by a mere name. There is 
 nothing easier in the world for an eager and 
 unscrupulous salesman to do, than to say that 
 his pig is a true Suffolk, when it is, in reality, 
 no more allied to the Suffolk, than the buyer 
 might be himself if he were a Hebrideau. The 
 only certain plan to go upon, is to make oneself 
 thoroughly acquainted with the approved points 
 of the animal, and rely upon that knowledge 
 rather than upon the declarations of the seller. 
 "If you find a pig," says Mr. Eichardson, 
 " possessed of such points of form as are indica- 
 tive or productive of early maturity and facility 
 of forming flesh, you need care little what it 
 has seemed good to the seller to call him ; and 
 remember that no name can bestow value upon 
 an animal deficient in the qualities to which I 
 have alluded. The true Berkshire— that pos- 
 sessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan 
 varieties — comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired 
 standard than any other." The chief points 
 which characterise such a pig, are suflicient 
 depth of carcass, and such an elongation of 
 body as will insure a wide lateral expansion. 
 The loin and breast should be broad; the 
 breadth of the former denoting room for the 
 play of the lungs, and a consequent free and 
 healthy circulation, essential to the thriving 
 or fattening of the animal. The bone should 
 be small, and the joints fine. Nothing is more 
 indicative of high breeding than this ; and the 
 legs should be no longer than, when fully fat, 
 would just prevent the animal's belly from 
 trailing upon the ground. The leg being the 
 least profitable portion of the hog, no more of 
 it is required than is absolutely necessary for 
 the support of the rest. The feet should be 
 firm and round ; the toes lie well together, and 
 press straightly upon the ground; and the 
 daivs oven, upright, and healthy. " Many say 
 that the form of the head is of little or no con- 
 sequence, and that a good pig may have an 
 ugly head ; but the head of all animals is re- 
 garded as one of the principal points in which 
 pure or impure breeding will be the most 
 fibviously indicated. A high-bred animal will 
 772 
 
 invariably be found to arrive more speedily at 
 maturity, to take flesh earlier, and with greater 
 facility, and altogether to turn out more profit- 
 able than one of questionable or impure 
 stock ; and, such being the case, the head of 
 the hog is by no meana a point to be over- 
 looked by the intending purchaser." It should, 
 therefore, be rather light in bone ; not too flat 
 in the fore part, or too long in the snout. 
 " Indeed, the snout should, on the other hand, 
 be short, and the forehead rather convex, 
 recurving upwards ; the ear, while pendulous, 
 should be inclining somewhat forward, and, at 
 the same time, be light and thin." Nor should 
 the carriage of the pig be overlooked as an in- 
 dication of the health and spirit of the animal. 
 Of course, if you are purchasing a fat hog tor 
 slaughter, or a sow heavy with young, you are 
 scarcely to look for much sprightliness of de- 
 portment ; but, in young stores, sprightliness 
 is a consideration. 
 
 The points of each breed, though generally 
 similar, have still a difference. In the small 
 breeds the hair should be soft and delicate, 
 and short, light, and silky in its texture ; nor 
 ought there to be any indications of bristles, 
 or any increased thickness of hair on the top 
 of the neck. The skin should be soft and 
 elastic to the touch ; whilst the cuticle should 
 be thin, and almost transparent. A thick 
 cutis is an almost invariable symptom of hard- 
 ness, and of difficulty in fattening. In the 
 side-view, the frame should have a resemblance 
 to a rectangle. The back should be long, and 
 show nearly a straight line from the rising 
 behind the ears to the setting-on of the tail, 
 with only a slight elevation over the shoulder 
 and ham, to the line, or even above it. This, 
 however, must be so slight as not to present a 
 slack back. When the back is so raised as to 
 be nearly as high as the shoulder-blade and 
 hip-bones, it is a good sign, for there must be 
 room for the active and full play of the vital 
 viscera. The elevation at the back of the ears 
 is, perhaps, the surest indication, as regards 
 form, of the power of the animal to accumulate 
 fat. When there is a fattening tendency in 
 this part of the animal, it may be taken as an 
 almost certain indication that the animal will 
 deposit it elsewhere with facility. The same 
 will take place with the shoulders and the 
 hams, which are the best portions of the animal. 
 
poiKTs OF A no.] AND Til KI U VA IMOUS BREEDS. [roiNxs of a pig. 
 
 Hence they should have depth enough to give 
 the two enda of the rectanf,'lo, which is the 
 desideratum in a well-formed pip;. The same 
 remark applies to the throat. It is not natu- 
 rally fat; but if it descends so as to till that 
 corner of the rectangle, it is also indicative of 
 the thriving propensity. The chest should be 
 deep and long ; and as the belly carries with it 
 a deposit of internal fat, it may bo ex[)ccted 
 nearly to fill that corner also of the rectangle. 
 Such may be considered the principal features 
 of a perfectly formed pig. 
 
 It must bo further stated, that whether 
 viewed from behind or before, the animal 
 should still present the rectangular view. 
 Looking at it in either of these directions, the 
 back will exhibit a broad and flat appearance, 
 and form the top ; the sides will be full, and 
 the hams and shoulders will fill up the angles, 
 and give the base of the rectangle. In con- 
 junction with these marks, the head should be 
 fine and small ; while the chaps and upper 
 part of the face should show a full develop- 
 ment of muscle and fat, not only because the 
 snout is useless and the chaps valuable, but 
 because the smallness of the former is highly 
 characteristic of a fine quality in the pig, 
 while the latter indicates a power to feed well. 
 The neck siiould be short and deep ; for if 
 flabby and loose, coarseness and grossuess 
 must be expected in the animal. The ears 
 should be small, pricked upwards, thin and 
 fine, and either destitute altogether, or very 
 slightly sprinkled with fine soft hairs. The , 
 bones should be small ; the legs short and i 
 fine ; and the tail small and curled, as beinc 
 indicative of a strong back. The eyes should < 
 have a bright and mild expression, and all the 
 extremities should be as small, light, and • 
 delicate as possible. 
 
 In the large breed of pigs, there is much , 
 that is the converse of this. Here the skin 
 is thicker, the hair stronger and coarser ; and . 
 though the large animal can grow and thicken, i 
 and increase in size, it is not fat only that is 
 accumulated. It is divided with muscle ; and 
 hence the bacon is the streaked, marketable ' 
 article, which is sought after much more than 
 that of the prick-eared animal. This sort of 
 pig is also hardier and constitutionally stronger, 
 and much more able to resist the influences of 
 a cold climate than the smaller animal. Ac- 
 
 cordingly, in the valleys which intersect the 
 hills, especially of the " backbone of England," 
 this breed is highly esteciiu'd. It is fed on 
 the skim-milk of dairies where butter is made, 
 and on the whey where cheese is the product, 
 and is, therefore, altogether more prolitable to 
 the dairy farmer than the small-bred pig. 
 IMany efl'orts have been made to combine the 
 qualities of the two ; but, to a certain extent, 
 they have been found incompatible. More 
 rapid feeding and earlier maturity may bo 
 gained, at the expense of size, constitutional 
 power, and mottled or streaked bacon. 
 
 As types of the smaller and larger breeds, 
 the Leicester pig, or the Essex, will be the 
 most perfcxit for the former, and the Yorkshire 
 and the Berkshire for the latter. In the pur- 
 chase of a pig, Mr. Eichardson says, that even 
 colour is not altogether to be neglected. " In 
 the case of pigs," he says, " I would, as in ref- 
 erence to any other description of live stock, 
 prefer those colours which are characteristic of 
 our most esteemed breeds. If the hair be 
 scanty, I would look for black, as denoting 
 connection with the delicate iS'eapolitan j but 
 if too bare of hair, I would be disposed to ap- 
 prehend too intimate alliance with that variety, 
 and a consequent want of hardihood, which, 
 however unimportant if pork be the object, 
 renders such animals hazardous speculations as 
 stores, from their extreme susceptibility of cold, 
 and consequent liability to disease. If white, 
 and not too small, I should like them, as ex- 
 hibiting connection with the Chinese. If light 
 or sandy, or red with black marks, I should 
 recognise our favourite Berksliire; and so on, 
 with reference to every possible variety of hue. 
 Some judges are much influenced by the colour 
 of an animal. They disregard his make and 
 qualities, and pass him by if he is not UacJc. 
 It is true that the black nose in cattle is gene- 
 rally indicative of a want of pure blood, as the 
 white back is in any ox, not a Hereford or an 
 Irish. To so ridiculous an extent was this 
 notion at one time carried, that the best pigs 
 were passed by, at the Show of the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, and the prizes 
 given to those which were of the black breed; 
 this being considered an indispensable qualifi- 
 cation for a winner. As indicative of breed, 
 therefore, it may be useful to attend to colour; 
 and it may be taken as one point indicative of 
 
 773 
 
PIGGEKIES.J 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [PIGQEEIES. 
 
 quality: the blue spots of Neapolitan; the 
 white, if small, of Chinese ; if large, of the old 
 English ; if black, of Berkshire, &c. ; but be- 
 yond this, it is neither politic nor reasonable 
 
 to go." 
 
 PIGGERIES. 
 
 For general purposes, an inclosure which 
 allows sufficient space for the number of swine 
 to be kept, with the means of extending it, if 
 necessary, will be found the best ; for there are 
 few things which conduce more to the health 
 of the pig family, than spacious, airy, well-con- 
 structed, cleanly kept accommodation. At one 
 time, swine were imagined to be far happier 
 when kept in a continual state of filthiness ; any 
 place was then deemed good enough for them ; 
 and the consequence was, that the poor despised 
 animals were housed in dirty, damp, close sheds 
 or sties, without the smallest atteation to com- 
 fort or cleanliness being bestowed upon them. 
 In such places who could expect the blood of 
 any animal to be preserved lor any length of 
 time in a healthy state ? 
 
 " The blood, the fountain whence the spirits flow ; 
 The generous stream that waters every part, 
 And motion, vigour, and warm hfe conveys 
 To every moving, breathing particle." 
 A proper piggery should have a range of 
 sheds, so situated as to be quite sheltered from 
 the north and east winds ; from snow and rain ; 
 and it should be paved or flagged at the bot- 
 tom, with an outward slope. To insure clean- 
 liness and dryness, very efficient drainage is 
 absolutely necessary ; and it will be advan- 
 tageous if the bottom be of concrete, as well as 
 drained. " The whole pig-cote should slope 
 towards one corner, and be intersected by chan- 
 nels in the flagstone or pavement : the former 
 is by far the best ; and to this a common metal 
 stench-trap should be placed. This is, in every 
 respect, the best. Connected with this drain 
 fchould be a tank ; or it might communicate 
 with the drainage of the rest of the buildings. 
 The interior, or covered shed, should be kept 
 constantly littered ; and so, indeed, should the 
 court-yard, if the object of the pig-keeper be to 
 convert his straw into manure. If not, it 
 should be swept and washed clean, and occa- 
 sionally sprinkled witli fresh sawdust. Thero 
 is no better absorbent — no cleaulier material 
 than this — and it is cheaper than straw, when 
 both have to be purchased ; much more por- 
 774 
 
 table, easier obtained, carried, or stowed away, 
 and should be the sheet-anchor of the amateur 
 pig-keeper." 
 
 Mr. Henderson recommends a house on an 
 entirely different plan. " Have a house," he 
 says, " thirty feet by fifteen, with four doors, 
 all opening outwards, and three partition-walls 
 through the house, by a wall between each of 
 the doors, dividing the house into four com- 
 partments — the two middle ones for eating, 
 and the others for sleeping apartments, having 
 an inner door between each eating and sleep- 
 ing apartment. By this plan, the keeper is 
 enabled to get the eating chambers swept out, 
 and troughs cleaned, and the food put into 
 them, without disturbing the swine, or being 
 disturbed by them. There should be a divi- 
 sion-wall through each sleeping apartment. In 
 the hinder part should be the litters ; and the 
 front and smaller compartments, through 
 which the animals pass to their food, may be 
 used by them as a kind of necessary; for these 
 animals will never defile their beds, if they can 
 avoid it. 
 
 " The manger should be as long as the house 
 is wide, and fixed against the middle wall ; in 
 form similar to a horse manger — wide at the top, 
 narrow at the bottom, but not so deep. It 
 must be divided into compartments by par- 
 tition-boards four feet in length or height, and 
 a little broader than the manger is wide. At 
 such a trough a number of pigs will feed as 
 quietly, and as well, as two or three. Before 
 every meal the trough should be well washed, 
 and the place swept; and once every day a 
 little fresh litter should be placed in the sleep- 
 ing chambers. Each of the eating and sleep- 
 ing rooms should be divided into two. The 
 sleeping rooms should be dark, as animals 
 fatten more rapidly when they can quietly lie 
 down and sleep after each meal." — Mr. Par- 
 kinson suggests, that in the yard, or inclosure 
 before every piggery, there should be "a rub- 
 bing-post, or, what is still more beneficial, 
 two posts, having a hole between them, similar 
 to a horse's leaping-bar, but not revolving; 
 this pole should be raised or let down to the 
 height of the pigs, as the rubbing of the ani- 
 mals against it causes a freer circulation of 
 blood, the same as the flesh-brush does to 
 human bodies." All these plans, however, 
 are suitable only for large farm-yards. Por 
 
BRKEDINO. 
 
 AND TIIEIK VARIOUS HIM-KDS. 
 
 [uUi^KDIMO. 
 
 cottage?, therefore, some mode less aspiring 
 
 should bo adopted. 
 
 In this case, a well-built stand, and water- 
 proof shed for a sleeping-plaee, with an inclo- 
 sure for air and cxeroise, as largo as conve- 
 nieut, will bo sulllcient. It should not open 
 to northerly or easterly winds; nor should it 
 be exposed to the full heat of the mid-day sun. 
 Its dimeusioua should bo about eight feet 
 square, and the court about ten. Tho second, 
 or supplemental sty, need not be more than 
 six feet square ; and it does not necessarily 
 
 require a court. Of courso, if the three mud 
 walls can be built, and a little gate appended 
 for tho ingress and egress of tho tenant, it 
 will be 80 much tho better; but here cottier 
 management only is spoken of. In construct- 
 ing cottier pig-cotes, it is Iiardly nece.ssarv to 
 say that tho roof should always slope from the 
 court and behind tho sty, or be spouted in 
 such a nianner as to allow the water to be 
 carried off by a system of drains cntirelv sepa- 
 rate from those conveying tho liquid from the 
 sties. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EEEEDIXG REARING, FATTENING, AND FEEDING THE HOG. 
 
 It is now a fact admitted in the principles of 
 breeding, that the progeny usually inherit the 
 physical and constitutional qualities of one or 
 both of the progenitors ; and in the case of the 
 hog, it is the qualities of the boar which prin- 
 cipally predominate in the offspring. Hence 
 the male animal, in swine, should always be 
 selected with the utmost care. "In the 
 breeding of swine," says Thaer, "as much as 
 in that of any other live stock, it is important 
 to pay great attention, not only to the breed, 
 but also to the choice of individuals. The sow 
 should produce a great number of young ones, 
 and she must be well fed to support them. 
 Some sows bring forth ten, twelve, or even 
 fifteen pigs at a birth ; but eight or nine is the 
 usual number ; and sows whicli produce fewer 
 than this must be rejected. It is, however, 
 probable that fecundity depends also on the 
 boar. He should, therefore, be chosen from a 
 ram that multiplies quickly. As good one- 
 year bacon-hogs are much in request, we must 
 do all wo can to obtain a breed well adapted 
 for producing them. Swine of such a breed 
 may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, 
 and short legs. Long pendulous ears are 
 usually coupled with these qualities, and at- 
 tract purchasers. If, however, as is often 
 advisable in large dairies and cheese factories, 
 
 hogs are to be sold at all seasons to the 
 butchers, great attention must be paid to 
 quickness of growth and facility of gaining 
 ilesh, so that the animals may attain their full 
 growth, and be ready for killing before they 
 are a year old. This quality is particularly 
 prominent in the Chinese and African breeds ; 
 but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are 
 oi'tea met with wliicli are better adapted for 
 this purpose, than for producing large quan- 
 tities of bacon and lard. The boar should be 
 selected from a breed well suited to these 
 several purposes. He must be sound, and 
 free from hereditary blemishes. He should 
 be kept separate from the sows till he is about 
 a year old, and has finished his growth, or he 
 will begin to leap too early. He is usually 
 castrated before completing his third year, 
 otherwise bis flesh becomes uneatable. If, 
 however, he is of a peculiarly excellent breed, 
 one which cannot be easily replaced, his flesh 
 may be sacrificed for the sake of preserving him 
 for breeding from, a few years longer. A boar 
 left to pasture at liberty with the sows, might 
 suffice for thirty or forty of them ; but as ho is 
 generally shut up, and allowed to leap at stated 
 times only, so that the young ones may be 
 born nearly at the same time, it is usual to 
 keep one boar for ten or twelve sows. Full- 
 
BEEEDIKG.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [beeeding. 
 
 grown boars being often savage, and difficult 
 to tame, and attacking men and animals, must 
 be deprived of their tusks. The sow must be 
 chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, 
 sound, and free from blemishes and defects. 
 She should at least have twelve teats ; for it is 
 observed that each pig selects a teat for him- 
 self, and keeps to it ; so that a pig not having 
 one belonging to him would be starved. A 
 good sow should produce a great number of 
 pigs, all of equal vigour. She must be very 
 careful of them, and not crush them by her 
 weight ; above all, she must not be addicted 
 to eating the after-birth, and what may often 
 follow, her own young ones. If a sow is 
 tainted with these bad habits, or if she has 
 difficult labours, or brings forth dead pigs, she 
 must be castrated forthwith. It is, therefore, 
 proper to bring up several young sows at 
 once, so as to keep those only which are free 
 from defects. Breeding-sows and boars should 
 never be raised from defective animals." 
 
 These observations comprise much that is 
 excellent in connection with the principles of 
 breeding ; and they might be greatly extended, 
 although it would be a work of repetition. 
 It may be observed, however, that, in every 
 case, whether bacon or pork be the object of 
 the breeder, a spirited-looking head, a deep 
 and broad chest, ample ribs and barrel, a 
 haunch almost as low down as the hough, 
 broad loins, wide hips and long body, in pro- 
 portion to the height, are the qualifying points 
 of a good animal. The back should also be 
 broad, and the flesh abundant, round, and be- 
 hind the ears. Smallness of bone is also one 
 of the first considerations, and should be taken 
 into calculation with the proportion of flesh, 
 fineness of the best parts, and the lightness of 
 the ofi'al. 
 
 Breeders are not altogether agreed as to the 
 exact age for the boar and the sow to commence 
 breeding at. In speaking upon this point, 
 Mr. Eichardson advises that the sow should 
 be at least one year old, and the boar at least 
 eighteen months; but, if the former have 
 attained her second year, and the latter his 
 third, a vigorous and numerous off"spring are 
 more likely to result. The boar and sow con- 
 tinue to breed for about five years ; or until 
 the former is upwards of eight years old, and 
 the latter seven. A boar should not be used 
 77G 
 
 after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow 
 after she has passed her fourth, unless she has 
 proved a peculiarly valuable breeder. In such 
 a case she might be sufi'ered to produce two 
 or three more litters.' When the services of 
 the boar are no longer required, he should be 
 emasculated — an operation that can be per- 
 formed with safety at any age — fattened, killed, 
 and sold. "When it is no longer desirable to 
 breed from the sow, she should be killed also. 
 Perhaps the most saving plan, where the breed- 
 ing and fattening of pigs are carried on simul- 
 taneously, is to take no more than three litters 
 from a sow before she is killed. If less are 
 taken, she will not have attained her full ma- 
 turity ; if more, she will prove injurious for 
 bacon. A sow that has had only three litters, 
 will be as fine bacon as an emasculated hog ; 
 but, if she has had more, the flavour of her 
 flesh will be coarse and strong. Should a sow 
 exhibit a more than ordinary tendency to take 
 on fat, she should be bred from at an early 
 age — say at about nine months — as the rapid 
 accumulation of fat in the animal is attended 
 with danger at the period of parturition. She 
 should be allowed the boar a couple of months 
 after pigging, and permitted to breed as fre- 
 quently as she is capable of doing. This will 
 effectually check her fattening tendency. After 
 having taken a few litters from her, the rapidity 
 with which she will consume her food, will soon 
 bring her into condition for the butcher. The 
 boar should be well fed, in order that he be 
 kept in high condition without being fat. On 
 the other hand, till after conception has taken 
 place, the sow should be kept rather low ; but 
 after that, she should be gradually brought up 
 to good condition. 
 
 For successful breeding of swine, the best 
 times are in the month of April and the 
 beginning of August. After this period, the 
 litters being farrowed late, they have a good deal 
 to contend with regarding the inclemency of 
 the weather ; consequently they do not always 
 turn out profitable. Indeed, some assert that 
 the litter, either from accident or some other 
 cause, is not worth keeping. Should, how- 
 ever, a late litter be brought into the world, 
 the best plan is to trust them entirely to the 
 care of the sow ; and both her and them should 
 be well fed on warm stimulating food. This 
 will secure good pork at a period when that 
 
BREEDIXO.] 
 
 AXD TIli:ii; VARIOUS liliEKDS. 
 
 [UKAKIKQ. 
 
 commodity is both scarce and bigl>-priced, and 
 when a payiii"; profit may be obtained upon 
 it. This is the only phui to realiao some 
 benefit by a lato litter. The time which 
 the sow carries her youiii:; is about ll;i days, 
 or sixteen weeks. This is our observation ; 
 but a French gentleman, of the name of 
 M. Tessier, afTirnis, that from his having care- 
 fully observed the period of gestation in twentv- 
 five sows, he concluded that it varied from 109 
 to 1-J:3 days. Be this as it may, however, the 
 young produced average from eight to thir- 
 teen, and sometimes even more at a litter. "We 
 have beard of one sow producing, in thirteen 
 litters, no fewer than 301 pigs ; and of others 
 exhibiting an extraordinary degree of fecundity; 
 but it is questionable if this is desirable, as the 
 pigs are generally much smaller than those that 
 form tlic aggregate of litters less abundant. 
 "When giving suck, the sow should be well fed, 
 as she has then a craving appetite for both 
 meat and drink ; and which, if properly satis- 
 fied, will keep both her and her pigs in good 
 condition. This is an important point ; for, if 
 the mother is allowed to become lean, it will 
 require double the quantity of food to en- 
 able her to get into condition again ; and the 
 young ones, if suffered to degenerate, will not 
 only require extra feeding and time before they 
 can be brought to market, but will never make 
 such good swine as they would have done had 
 tliey always been kept up to a proper standard. 
 " To guard against such evils," says Mr. Hen- 
 derson, in his Practical Grazier, " let the sow 
 and her progeny be fed three times a-day with 
 milk and wheat-bran, or something similar. 
 Water, a little warm, may be substituted for 
 milk, when it is scarce or too valuable. The 
 mixture, of whatever kind, ought never to be 
 thick, but should be more of the nature of a 
 drink than anything else. After the pigs are 
 about ten days old, if the weather is mild, they 
 ought to be allowed to stretch their legs a 
 little, once a day, in an open court attached to 
 their house ; during which period the sow may | 
 be turned out from them, which will contribute 
 
 very materially to the supply of milk ; but care 
 must be taken to avoid the sow's remaining out 
 from them all niglit. Feeding as above will be 
 found very beneficial almost in every case ; but 
 more especially when a sow brings forth more 
 than she is able to support, which is not un- 
 6g 
 
 frequently the case. It is likewise of great 
 importance to accustom pigs to food when 
 
 sucking, as such will prevent their taking tho 
 • weaning brasli.' AVI.en tho pigs are about a 
 month old, such as ar(< not intended for breed- 
 ing should be castrated or spayed." 
 
 As some sows are apt to lie upon, and 
 thereby destroy their young, it is better to 
 keep such from getting too fat, and to havo 
 tho straw of her bed short, and not too much 
 in quantity. It has been suggested by some, 
 to put an inclining or projecting rail to tho 
 lower part of tho interior wall of the sty, that 
 the pigs might run through between the rails, 
 and make their escape if the mother attempted 
 to lie upon them; but whether this plan 
 would be successful we cannot say, as wo 
 havo never seen it tried, although we believe 
 such has been the case. Before weaning the 
 pigs they should be gradually fed; and should 
 they and their dam have been kept warm and 
 dry, and well supplied with drinks moderately 
 warm, mixed with a little meal or wheat-bran, 
 the young ones may in general be weaned 
 when they are six weeks old. Should they, 
 however, have been neglected, they will re- 
 quire to be left with their mother two weeks 
 longer, and even then will not be in such good 
 condition as they otherwise would have been, 
 had they received a sufficiency of food for six 
 weeks. If the pigs are intended for sale, this 
 is the time that they should be driven to 
 market, as they have then a better appearance 
 than they would have for many weeks after 
 j being weaned. After they have been taken 
 from the sow, it is necessary that she should 
 be well fed for ten days with boiled potatoes, 
 meal, oats, &c., which, in a short time, will 
 stimulate coition, and tho proper season for 
 bringing forth her young will not be lost. 
 After weaning, the pigs must be regularly fed 
 three times a day, with similar food to that 
 recommended to them while sucking, and in a 
 few weeks they will begin to eat raw potatoes 
 or grain. The author of The Pig says, that 
 young pigs should be gradually fed* before 
 they are perfectly weaned; and recommends 
 milk for their first food ; which, he says, " may 
 be succeeded by ordinary dairy wash, thickened 
 with oat or barley meal, or fine pollard ; and 
 this is better scalded ; or, better still, boiled. 
 To tho sow some dry food should be given 
 
 777 
 
TATTENING.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [fa-ttenifg. 
 
 once daily, whicli might consist of peas or 
 beans. Swedish turnips, carrots, parsnips, or 
 tlie like, either well boiled or raw, may be 
 given ; but a preference should be shown for 
 the food alicays boiled, or, what is better, 
 steamed. Some wean the pigs within a few 
 hours after birth. It can hardly be conceived 
 under what circumstance this may be found 
 advantageous. The best mode of management 
 is clearly to turn the boar into the hog-yard 
 a month or two after parturition, at which 
 time it is proper to remove the sows for a few 
 hours daily from their young, and let them 
 accept his overtures when they please. It 
 does not injure either the sow or her young if 
 she take the boar while suckling ; but some 
 sows will not do so until the cessation of their 
 milk; and this is much more natural. At 
 weaning-time the young pigs may be rung. 
 After about five weeks' high and careful feed- 
 ing, subsequent to weaning, the young pigs 
 may be put up for stores, porkers, &c., accord- 
 ing to the owner's views respecting them. 
 Very young pigs, indeed, immediately after 
 being weaned, if fed on the refuse of a dairy, 
 can be brought up for delicious pork in five or 
 six weeks ; for the last week, prior to killing, 
 the addition of beans, peas, or bruised corn, 
 will impart a degree of firmness to the flesh, 
 which is considered an improvement. This is 
 called "dairy-fed pork," and it never fails to 
 fetch an enhanced price, thereby amply remu- 
 nerating the producer." 
 
 "When pigs are intended for pork, they should 
 not be so highly fattened as those which are des- 
 tined for bacon. This should especially be the 
 case with such animals as are designed for 
 home consumption, or, in other words, domes- 
 tic purposes. To the feeder whose object is 
 to sell, however, a different line must be pur- 
 sued. What he wants is fat, because fat 
 produces weight, and weight yields profit. It is 
 questionable, however, even whether he should 
 feed the animals till they attain the enormous 
 state of obesity to which we see them brought 
 and exhibited for sale. "There is," says 
 Ilurtrel D'Arboval, " no animal so liable to 
 become over-fat as the pig, and especially the 
 Chinese and Siamese swine. Naturally in- 
 clined to corpulence and gluttony, they easily 
 acquire an enormous bulk ; and when fat has 
 once begun to accumulate, the animal eats 
 778 
 
 little, breathes with difiiculty, becomes inert, 
 unable to sustain its own weight, and deficient 
 in sensation. "We have seen wretched pigs 
 so fat that they wei'e obliged to be lifted or 
 dragged out of the sty whenever it was neces- 
 sary to move them. We have, also, made in- 
 cisions in their buttocks, and even taken off por- 
 tions of skin from their backs, without their 
 betraying any sense of pain. We saw a hog 
 that had lain for a considerable period on one 
 side, too powerless or too inert to shift its 
 position ; and when it was raised, a large hole 
 was perceived in that part of the back which 
 had been undermost. This had been made by 
 rats feeding and gnawing into the fat of the 
 beast, evidently without its being in the least 
 conscious of their proceedings." When fat- 
 tening pigs for bacon, they should be kept by 
 themselves, as they require no liberty. Their 
 sties, however, should be kept nice and dry, 
 and clean ; whilst, in order to bring them into 
 the condition required for the knife, they 
 should be abundantly fed. It seems almost 
 ridiculous to talk of the cleanly comforts which 
 ought to be extended to the pig ; but if its 
 accommodation be not attended to in every 
 way to make it feel comfortable, it will not 
 thrive so fast or so well as it would otherwise 
 do. Whilst speaking of pigs being fattened 
 for bacon, Parkinson says, that when he lived 
 with his father, acorns were so plentiful in the 
 woods one year, that they made the pigs 
 sufiiciently fat for bacon without any other 
 food. The flesh was equally good, and as well 
 flavoured as that of other animals which had 
 been fed on beans and peas. In the United 
 States, when apples and pumpkins are abun- 
 dant, the swine are fed on these fruits, which 
 are considered excellent for them. A breeder 
 says on this subject, that on the lOfch oi 
 October, twenty swine were put up to fatten, 
 all of which were only in middling store order, 
 in consequence of the scarcity of food. The 
 covrs producing very little wash from the 
 dairy, and the crops of apples being scanty 
 this season, they had only, during summer, 
 the free range of a small orchard containing 
 an acre and a-half of land — with the premature 
 apples which fell — in which was a pond of 
 water ; a very essential requisite to hogs, and 
 one to which, under the powerful influence of 
 the sun, they will resort for their chief 
 
FATTEiriNO. 
 
 AND TlIElJi VAKIOL'S BliEEDS. 
 
 [l ATTKMNO. 
 
 comfort. These twenty pwino wero divided into 
 three lots, and closely confined ; we proceeded 
 to fattt.!! them, by stoaininn; four bu.shela of 
 small |)otntoo3, twelve bushels of apple pomace, 
 four bushels of pumpkins, and one hundred- 
 weight of buck-wheat cornel, addin<; u little 
 salt; the whole being well incorporated to- 
 gether, while hot from the steamer, with a 
 wooden pounder, and suttered to undergo fer- 
 mentation before it was used as food. They 
 were, at the same time, supplied with plenty 
 of charcoal and pure water. AVhile feeding 
 them with the first steamer, or the compound, 
 a more than ordinary moisture was observed 
 on their litter, which was occasioned by urine: 
 a knowledge of animal nature convinced the 
 owner, that any more than an ordinary flow 
 would weaken the system, and retard the 
 progress of fattening ; and he attributed this 
 evil to the steamed pumpkins acting as a 
 diuretic, stimulating the kidneys, and increas- 
 ing the evacuation of urine. In the next 
 steamer, therefore, four busliels of ruta-baga 
 were substituted for the pumpkins, and this 
 had the desired eflfect. The experiment af- 
 forded proof that a mixture thus compounded, 
 contains a larger mass of nutritive material 
 ready prepared for the action of the stomach, 
 and therefore producing flesh more rapidly, 
 than any other combination of food made 
 use of. 
 
 Professor Johnston furnishes a table of the 
 comparative nutritive elements of different 
 kinds of food ; and from which we take the 
 following materials used in the feeding of the 
 pig:— 
 
 Flesh -and-bonc- 
 Hoat-produfing : producing : Fat-producing : 
 Starch, sugar. Gluten, albumen, 
 
 gum, &c. legumt-n, &c. Fatty matter. 
 
 Wheat . . 55 . . 15 . .3 per cent. 
 
 Barky . . CO . . 14 . . 2 „ 
 
 Oats . . CO . . IC . . C 
 
 Rye ... CO . . 13 . . 3 
 
 Indian corn . 70 . , 12 . . 7 ,, 
 
 B-ice ... 75 . 7 . . 07 „ 
 
 Beans ... 40 . . 20 . . 3 ,, 
 
 Peas ... 50 . , 24 . . 21 ,, 
 
 Potetoes . . IS . , 2 . , 0-3 ,, 
 
 Turnips . . 9 . . 1-5 . . 03 ,, 
 
 Carrots . . 10 . . lo . . 04 „ 
 
 Mangel-wurzel 11 . . 2 . . ,, 
 
 A food, formed of the combination of roots 
 — say potatoes and grain, as oats — is general) v 
 chosen by the best pig-feeders for fattening 
 
 larpfe pigs. The Ilov. Arthur loung, in bis 
 work on fattening cattle and Bwine, gives 
 the following directions in refert'uco to the 
 beat method of using grain aa a meal for this 
 purpose: — "The most prolitablo method of 
 converting corn, of any kind, into food f^r hogs, 
 is to grind it into meal, and mix this with 
 water in cisterns, in the proportion of five 
 busiiela of meal to one huiuired gallons of 
 water; stir it well several times a-day, for 
 three weeks, in cold weather, or for a fortnight 
 in a warmer season — by which it will have 
 fermented well, and become acid ; till which 
 time it is not ready to give. It should be 
 stirred immediately before feeding. Two or 
 three cisterns should be kept fermenting in 
 succession, that no necessity may occur for 
 giving it not duly prepared. The diirereuco 
 in profit between feeding in this manner, and 
 giving the grain whole, is very great — so great, 
 that whoever tries it once, will not be apt to 
 [ changeit for the common method." In another 
 portion of his work, tlie same author observes 
 — " Some persons appear to be exceedingly suc- 
 cessful in fattening their pigs on bread made 
 of coarse rye or barley-meal. They cut this 
 bread in pieces ; dry it in an oven ; then soak it 
 in water, mash it, and give it to the animals 
 in the form of porridge. Where sour milk or 
 whey can be substituted for water, this food is 
 said to surpass all others for quickness and 
 efficacy in fattening, and for the goodness of 
 the flesh and the fat it produces." 
 
 AVheat-meal is not so well relished as oat- 
 meal, because, from its glutinous character, it 
 sticks to the teeth of the animals, and thus 
 annoys them ; and all annoyances do harm to 
 fattening animals. For store pigs, nothing 
 more is necessary than the pickings of the 
 fold-yard (especially where cattle are fed on 
 linseed cake ; for they will carefully collect all 
 the dung in this case, and feed upon it), with 
 a few chopped turnips and a little sour wash 
 in winter. In summer tliey may be given a 
 run in the grass fields, with a little wash, in 
 which almost any refuse may be thrown. As 
 the pastures fail, and before the stubbles are 
 ready, a handful of old dry beans in the 
 morning, per animal, will exercise a very 
 wonderful influence for the better; the biijding 
 character of the beans will counteract the too- 
 relaxiniT wash and grass ; and, when the harvest 
 
 77!) 
 
FP.EDIKG.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [feeding. 
 
 is over, the stubbles are a very valuable aux- 
 iliary. When these are finished, the pigs 
 should at once be put up to feed ; and at first 
 a large quantity of roots may be given. It is 
 a great satisfaction, then, that diseased pota- 
 toes will not only have no injurious tendency 
 on either the live animal or its bacon, but will 
 be almost, if not altogether, as fattening as 
 when they are sound. Hence the value of a 
 stock of pigs. As the feeding progresses, 
 barley or oatmeal should be given in increasing 
 proportions ; and, as the process becomes more 
 nearly completed, the whole of the roots may 
 be abstracted with advantage. 
 
 When the pig gets too heavy to stand, in 
 the west of Yorkshire they give him oatmeal 
 balls, made just dry enough to hold together; 
 and the display by the porcine tun-bellied 
 mammoth, as he lies, eats, and sleeps, with the 
 evident satisfaction he evinces, shows that they 
 are no bad j udges of his appetite. Boiling and 
 steaming the food is absolutely essential to 
 pigs. Their digestive powers being by no 
 means strong, they partake of the sluggishness 
 of their general organism. Hence they must 
 have their roots broken down by steam or 
 boiling, and their grain not merely crushed, 
 but absolutely made into flour. 
 
 Position, circumstances, and price, will often 
 decide the kind of food given to pigs ; and those 
 who make pig-feeding a business, and conse- 
 quently keep a number of them, should so 
 manage as to be enabled to provide for their 
 maintenance and fattening from the produce 
 of their crops. "They should therefore cul- 
 tivate, for pig-feeding, beans, peas, barley, 
 buck-wheat, potatoes, flax, parsnips, carrots, 
 lettuce, lucerne, rye-grass, Italian clover, rape, 
 chicory, and vetches ; they should also sow 
 thistle — which is a most nutritious article of 
 diet for pigs ; but so much neglected, that it is, 
 as yet, scarcely ever to be met with in a state 
 of cultivation, or in any condition but that of 
 a weed. Nor ought we to forget a most im- 
 portant article of porcine dietary — namely, 
 mangel and Swedish turnips." 
 
 " Until this last year," says an anonymous 
 writer in the Farmer's Gazette, " I was in the 
 habit of giving them steamed potatoes, with a 
 portion of broken corn, and now and then 
 bean- meal. The latter article I have used 
 very little, as beans are seldom grown in mv 
 780 
 
 district, except by the landed proprietors, and 
 a few extensive farmers. I resolved this year 
 to try, for experiment, if pigs could be fat- 
 tened on Swedish turnips ; and am happy to 
 say, at present, my herd are fattening as well 
 as they were this time last year, when they 
 were consuming a great quantity of potatoes. 
 Hay being so scarce this year on my small 
 farm, I should have been obliged to buy a con- 
 siderable quantity, had I not changed my 
 mode of feeding. The potatoes my pigs ate 
 last year, I am able to give to my horses and 
 cows, thereby saving my hay ; and I have no 
 doubt but pigs can be fattened as well, though 
 not, perhaps, as quickly, on steamed Swedish 
 turnips. I give them as much as they can eat 
 of the turnips, mixed with a little broken corn 
 and wheat chaff", with about a pint of buttermilk 
 to every three pigs ; and I have every reason to 
 expect, judging from their present improve- 
 ment, that they will be ready for market about 
 a fortnight later than I had them last year, 
 and at, at most, one-half the expense. I bought 
 them in the beginning of December, for about 
 £2 a-head ; and, if they continue to improve 
 as they are doing, I have no doubt but they 
 will average from 4 to 4-2- cwt. at Christ- 
 mas," &c. 
 
 Eice is, also, an important article used in 
 porcine dietary. An amateur pig-breeder 
 says — " We purchased from the government 
 stores several tons of damaged rice at a very 
 cheap rate ; with this we fattened our pigs ; 
 and such pork I never saw before or since. 
 The fat was as firm and solid as the lean, and 
 the flavour of the meat very superior. The 
 way in which the rice was prepared as food 
 was as follows : — My copper held forty gallons ; 
 in the afternoon it was filled, or nearly so, 
 with water ; as soon as the water boiled, the 
 fire was raked out, two pails of rice immersed 
 in the vrater, and the whole covered close 
 down, and left to stand until the morning. 
 On the following day tlie copper was emptied 
 of its contents, which consisted of a thick jelly, 
 so firm as only to be taken out with a shovel ; 
 and on those contents the pigs were fed. The 
 effect was perfect. As to the economy of the 
 plan, that, of course, must be a matter depen- 
 dent upon circumstances; we louud it more 
 profitable than almost any other kind ot food 
 we could have given, from the price at which 
 
rEEUIKO.] 
 
 AND Til 1:1 K VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [feedixo. 
 
 we were able to purcliase tl>e rice, aud its 
 goodness. From slight experiments, I am 
 induced to tliitik that fqual parts of rico-jelly 
 and niashfil potatoes would coiistiluto an ex- 
 cellent food." iiay-toa is another advanta- 
 geous kind of feeding, of which wo have an 
 account given by ^Ir. liichardson. Tho article 
 was firi<t publicly announced by ^Ir. Saunders, 
 of Stroud, in Gloucesteri^hirc. This gentle- 
 man was induced to try it with pigs, 
 from having observed its elficacy in weaning 
 calves ; and the result was laid before the 
 public in the columns of tho Agricultitral 
 Magazine. In the manufacture of his tea, he 
 employed various sorts of qualities of hay. 
 The most suitable were found to bo clover, 
 sainfoin, and lucerne. The tea produced from 
 an infusion of these plants was thickened with 
 grains, pollard, bran, any kind of meal most 
 abundant at the time, boiled cabbages, or po- 
 tatoes ; but he had no carrots, or he would 
 have used them. Mr. Saunders generally 
 compounded several of these ingredients into 
 a mess, aud found that one sack of potatoes, 
 thus used, went as far in feeding as four or 
 five bags given in an unmixed state ; the ex- 
 pense being also greatly reduced. He gradually 
 increased his stock of swine to the number of 
 400, and, in the course of his experiments, 
 used upwards of 1,500 hogsheads of wash, or 
 about live hogsheads daily, llis swine were 
 thus maintained at a rate somewhat under one 
 penny per day for eacli — were in excellent 
 condition, and many, indeed, ripe and ready 
 for the butcher. He had previously been 
 feeding them on potatoes alone ; and after he 
 resorted to this new method of feeding, he, 
 within a week or fortnight, found his stock not 
 only improved in coat and skin, but in general 
 health and condition. Mr, Saunders used to 
 store his potatoes, after having them steamed, 
 in casks carefully closed ; and found that, thus 
 stored, they were preserved sweet for twelve 
 months, and fermenting, generally, a sort of 
 spirit, which, as it promoted sleepiness in the 
 swine, conduced to their acquiring fat with 
 more than ordinary rapidity, as well as giving 
 to the pork a peculiarly rich and delicate 
 flavour. One sack of meal was thus found 
 to go as far as two under the old system ; 
 and he found also, that thickening the wash 
 gradually with meal, formed the best introduc- 
 
 tion to what are generally kuu ,vu as tho higher 
 and last stages of tho process of fattening. la 
 Mr. Saunders' calculationH, ho did not take 
 tho manure into consideration at all ; but had 
 ho done so, of course, even his eatiiiiate of ono 
 penny per day for tho feeding of one pig, 
 would have been considerably reduced. 
 
 Indian corn is another article employed iu 
 fattening tho pig. Professor Voelcker says 
 tiiat it is richer in fat-forming matters than 
 any other description of food. Tho ready- 
 made fat, in corn, amounts to from live and 
 a-half to six percent. ; but animals should not 
 bo led entirely on Indian corn, because the 
 flesh-forming matter in it is small. Bean- 
 meal supplies the deficiency. Five pounds ol' 
 Indian corn, ground or crushed, to one pound 
 of bean-meal, is a mixture which contains tho 
 proportion of flesh-forming and fattening 
 matters nicely balanced. Flax-seed is also 
 used for fattening swine ; " but," says Mr, 
 Richardson, " such as have adopted it, have 
 not found it to answer nearly so well in the 
 crude state as in boll, previously kiln-dried, 
 and well crushed, so as to crack the seed ; 
 otherwise the animal will pass a large pro- 
 portion of the seed in a whole state. Tlie 
 whole seed also acts as a purgative and diu- 
 retic — qualities which will be seen to be opposed 
 to the secretion of fat. To prepare the bolls 
 for food, steep them for twelve hours in water, 
 which may be poured on them in a tepid 
 state, but not at boiling heat; and, prior to 
 giving the mess, add as much lukewarm wash 
 as will bring it to the consistence of gruel. 
 This wash may be produced from brewer's 
 grains, or simply from mangel or Swedish 
 turnips, well boiled and smashed, and given 
 with the water in which they have been boiled. 
 The addition of a proportion of bran improves 
 the mess ; and, when at hand, it should not 
 be omitted. The adoption of hay-tea, as the 
 vehicle for mixing these ingredients, will be 
 found also advantageous. Do not boil the 
 flax bolls. Boiling will produce a coarse, 
 tough, and not very digestible mass ; but 
 steeping, on the contrary, furnishes a rich aud 
 nutritious jelly. Linseed-cake is a good sub- 
 stitute for the bolls ; and it is to be given in 
 the proportion of a stone, substituted for 
 seventeen or eighteen pounds of ground bolls. 
 Xeither the linseed-cake nor the bruised bolls 
 
 781 
 
FEEDING.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [rEEDiNa. 
 
 should be given, except in combination with a 
 large proportion of other substances, as they 
 are of a very greasy nature, and are apt to nn- 
 part a rank flavour to the flesh, if given in an 
 unmixed state ; and are, besides, actually more 
 eflacacious in combination. If there is plenty 
 of meal, the addition of a little to one of the 
 daily feeds will be found to tell well, especially 
 towards the close of fattening, a few weeks 
 previous to transferring your stock to the 
 butcher. The refuse of mills also forms a very 
 valuable item in swine-food, when mixed with 
 such boiled roots as have been enumerated; 
 or as what are called starch-sounds, the refuse 
 from the manufacture of that article; and 
 also the fibrous refuse remaining from the 
 manufacture of potato starch." In treating 
 of this subject, we must not forget to notice 
 the important experiments made by B. Lawes, 
 Esq., on the chemistry of pig-feeding; and 
 published in the fourteenth volume of the 
 Eoyal Agricultural Society. This Essay is of 
 the greatest value to the scientific agriculturist; 
 but for general perusal, is, perhaps, too elabo- 
 rate. The food employed in the experiments 
 made by this gentleman, comprised — 
 
 1. Equal weights of beans and lentils. — 
 2. Indian corn. — 3. Bran. 
 
 The food was accurately weighed, and the 
 animals were, every fourteen days, put into 
 the scales. Eor the first series of experiments, 
 thirty-six animals, of the same character and 
 age — about ten months — were bought and 
 separated into lots of three each. They were 
 then inclosed in twelve pens, and, for twelve 
 days, fed alike; but afterwards changed from pen 
 to pen, and the evil-disposed, or quarrelsome 
 ones, whipped, so that they might all be 
 brought into a sufficiently agreeable state, to 
 start fair in the feeding experiment for weight. 
 When this had fairly commenced, twelve dieta- 
 ries were prepared from three standard food- 
 stuffs, and arranged in the following order: — 
 Pen 1. — Of bean and lentil mixture, an un- 
 limited quantity allowed. 
 
 Pen 2. — Two pounds of Indian corn to each 
 pig per day ; of beans and lentils, unlimited. 
 
 Pen 3. — Two pounds of bnin per pig per 
 day, and beans and lentils unrestricted. 
 
 Pen 4. — Two pounds of Indian corn, two 
 pounds of bran, and the beans and lentils un- 
 restricted. 
 782 
 
 Pen 5. — Indian corn alone, in unlimited 
 
 quantity. 
 
 Pen 6. — Two pounds of beans and lentils, 
 
 and an unlimited quantity of Indian corn. 
 Pen 7. — Two pounds of bran per day, and 
 
 an unrestricted quantity of Indian corn. 
 
 Pen 8. — Two pounds of bean and lentil 
 
 mixture, two pounds of bran, and unlimited 
 
 Indian corn. 
 
 Pen 9. — Two pounds of bean and lentil 
 
 mixture, with bran unlimited. 
 
 Pen 10. — Two pounds of Indian corn-meal, 
 
 and bran unlimited. 
 
 Pen 11. — Two pounds of bean and lentil 
 
 mixture ; two pounds of Indian corn, with an 
 
 unlimited quantity of bran. 
 
 Pen 12. — Beau and lentil mixture ; Indian 
 
 corn-meal and bran; each separately and un- 
 limited. 
 
 To render this food more palatable it was 
 
 mixed with water, and the animals were fed 
 with it three times a-day — early in the morning, 
 at noon, and at five in the evening. In the 
 first two feeds, a small quantity of the food 
 which was to be given ad libitum, was mixed 
 with that which was limited, and care was taken 
 that the pigs should always have a liberal al- 
 lowance within their reach. The troughs were 
 also carefully cleaned out before a fresh supply 
 of food was put into them. 
 
 Three sets of pigs having been portioned off, 
 and put into twelve pens, containing three 
 each, they were subjected to three series of 
 experiments, with the various proportions of 
 the food mentioned. In one series, barley- 
 meal took the place of Indian corn ; and the 
 third series was devoted to the trial of dried 
 Newfoundland cod-fish, in connection with the 
 other food named. The quantity given varied 
 from one to two pounds of cod-fish per day. 
 In all cases it was boiled, and a portion of other 
 food mixed with the soup thus obtained. The 
 more simple conclusions at which Mr. Lawes 
 arrived are as follow : — " Indian corn, or bar- 
 ley-meal, given with a liberal supply of bran, is 
 f^ood ; the bran contributing to the value of 
 the manure. Wiien the animals had unre- 
 stricted access to three kinds of food— namely, 
 to the highly nitrogenous false mixture, the 
 non-nitrogenous Indian meal, and the mode- 
 rately nitrogenous bran— the proportion of their 
 first week's consumption was gradually diacon- 
 
FEEDINa.l 
 
 AM) 111 1:1 li VAKlolS BKKKDS. 
 
 [kebdino. 
 
 tinued as they approached maturity ; and, 
 throughout, cousunied ouly five per cent, of 
 brail. The average eonsuinption of corn, per 
 pig, per week, was sixty pounds, or ahout nine 
 pouiuls per day, wliicli yielded from ten to 
 twelve pounds of meat per week, or about one- 
 and-a-half pounds per day. As tlio animal 
 fattened, a considerable reduction took place in 
 the consumption of food. The nearer it ap- 
 proaclicd to maturity, the greater was the j)ro- 
 portion of fat in the gross increase obtained. 
 On the whole, it was found — " That the larger 
 the proportion of nitrogenous compounds in 
 the food, the greater was tiie tendency to in- 
 crease in frame and flesh ; but that the ma- 
 turing or ripening of the animal — in fact, its 
 fattening — depended very much more on the 
 
 hard, and the fat wastes in cooking. Fish, 
 flfHh, and strong oily matters, give the pork a 
 rank flavour. Finally, it is the iutercHt of the 
 farmer to uso highly nitrogenous leguminous 
 seeds, and even refuse flcHh, if at command, 
 during the earlitT and growing stagca of his 
 bacon hogs. But if a constant market ia to bo 
 secured for pork, barley-meal, or other cerfal 
 grain, must supersede everything else as fat- 
 tening proceeds." 
 
 Sucli were tlio general conclusions arrived 
 at by Mr. Lawes, after he had made a series 
 of the most elaborate experiments which were 
 ever entered upon by any scientific pig-breeder 
 whatever; and we arc all aware that swine aro 
 often kept and maintained by butchers, mostly 
 upon such garbage as entrail.'', the paunches, 
 
 amount of certain digestible non-nitrogenous lights, and the viscera of sheep and cattle, as 
 constituents in the food. It also appeared that well as the blood. The pig being omnivorous, 
 some of the cheaper, highly nitrogenous foods, | hardly any kind of food comes amiss to him; 
 would produce a given amount of gross in- but, when the animal is not fed upon choice or 
 crease more economically than the expensive selected food, his flesh becomes both rank in 
 ones (peas, beans, etc.), which are usually pre- smell and taste, and is easily recognised as 
 ferred by pork -feeders. If the amount of gross not having been nourished by a vegetable 
 produce of meat, in return for a given amount dietary. Pork-butchers, resident in large 
 of food of a given money value, is alone to be towns, usually feed their pigs with their gar- 
 taken into consideration, then, in addition to bage, and not unfrequently help greatly to 
 roots, wash, &c., it would be most advantageous I support one pig by the offal of another. This 
 to rely for fattening upon highly nitrogenous practice is very disgusting ; and, if it were 
 foods, such as dried fish or animal refuse, or generally known, we believe that there would 
 
 leguminous seeds, beans, lentils, and the like ; 
 because, not only would the weight be obtained 
 at less cost than by the use of cereal grains, 
 but the manure, the value of which must never 
 
 be much fewer purchasers of pork than there 
 really are. ]\Ir. Eichardson says that there is 
 yet another kind of pig-feeding, which has a 
 great tendency to produce revolting sensations. 
 
 be lost sight of in calculating the economy of. It is that of feeding swine in knackers' yards, 
 the feeding process, would be much richer than "The animals are kept by these persons iu 
 if the latter were employed. But it is not a ' considerable numbers, and are fed wholly upon 
 large amount of gross increase that makes the the refuse of the dead horses — chiefly the en- 
 farmer's profit upon his sties. When pigs arc ; trails, the carcass being in too great demand 
 fed freely upon highly succulent food, such as ' among those who keep dogs to permit of its 
 cooked roots, the refuse of starch, herbs, and being unnecessarily wasted. I have frequently 
 the like, they are frequently found to give a been disgusted by the sight, in one of these 
 very rapid increase. But pork so fed is found ' yards, of three or four fierce, wolfish-looking 
 
 to sink rapidly iu the salting process, and to 
 waste considerably when boiled. And, al- 
 though the first batch of pigs so fed may fetch 
 a good price, their character is at once de- 
 tected, and the market closed against a second 
 sale. On the other hand, when pigs are fat- 
 tened upon the highly nitrogcnised legumin- 
 ous seeds — peas being, however, much less 
 objectionable than some others— tlie bone is 
 
 hogs, thfir muzzles plunged to the eyes in the 
 abdomen of a slaughtered horse, and their 
 savage jaws dripping with gore. Nor aro 
 these horses always fresli. I have witnessed 
 the swine, on more than one occasion, revelling 
 in corvKj^tion, and disputing with the maggot 
 and the worm the possession of a mass of liquid 
 putrefaction. In Paris this shocking practice 
 has been long known ; but where the hiacJcera 
 
 7S3 
 
FEEDING. J 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [feedikq. 
 
 themselves are in the habit of regaling on the 
 choicest morsels, can we wonder that they 
 should fancy the less dainty portions of the 
 same old carrion good enough for hogs ? In 
 the yards attached to many of the continental 
 schools of veterinary science, a similar, but, if 
 possible, more disgusting spectacle is con- 
 stantly to be witnessed. "While such a practice 
 is tolerated, with what caution should we not 
 purchase bacon or pork, lest we should thus 
 eat, at second-hand, of substances so revolting 
 to the feelings, so dangerous to individual and 
 public health ! Whether knackers should be 
 permitted to keep swine at all, is, indeed, a 
 question ; for, without an express prohibition 
 to that effect, issued by the higher powers, I 
 do not see how the evils of which I have spoken 
 could possibly be removed. Chandler's greaves 
 are likewise objectionable as food for swine, 
 unless given in comparatively small quantities, 
 and mixed with bran- meal and boiled roots. 
 If fed wholly on either greaves or oil-cake, 
 or flax-seed, the flesh becomes loose, unsub- 
 stantial, and carriony, and gives out a flavour 
 resembling that of rancid oil." 
 
 Pigs that have been fed chiefly on corn, al- 
 ternately with the vegetable diet, yield pork 
 nearly equal in delicacy of flavour, whiteness of 
 colour, and consequent value, to that well- 
 known delicious article, dairy pork. "When 
 swine are not of very large size, and it is de- 
 sirable to raise pork rather than bacon, a very 
 economical mode of feeding may be advantage- 
 ously adopted. It consists of equal parts of 
 boiled Swedish turnips and bran. If it be de- 
 sirable to render the accumulation of fat a little 
 more rapid, let oatmeal be substituted for bran. 
 
 "We have more than once spoken of the great 
 requisite of cleanliness to the well-being of 
 pigs. A hog washed weekly with soap and a 
 brush, will be found to thrive, and take on flesh 
 in a ratio of at least five to three, in compari- 
 son with one not so treated. This has been 
 proved. There can be no possible question 
 about its correctness ; and, as it is not a very 
 difficult operation, neither involving a great 
 deal of time or much cost, it should be attended 
 to. Surfeiting hogs is an evil as well as starv- 
 ing them. Illustrative of this, the following 
 anecdote is adduced by Mr. jNIoubray : — " Pour 
 or five-and-twenty years ago, the late Mr. Tat- 
 tersall requested of me to choose him a store- 
 78i 
 
 pig, to put up for fattening. I applied to Mr. 
 Wyat, the then salesman, and we chose one at 
 Pinchley, out of a fine drove of Serefords, not 
 then out of fashion. After the hog had been 
 at Mr. Tattersall's two or three days, I re- 
 ceived a letter from him, to tell me it was taken 
 very bad — in fact, dying/ On inspection, I 
 found the animal sleepy and torpid, refusing 
 food, but occasionally throwing up the contents 
 of its stomach, which consisted of half-digested 
 meal. I immediately perceived the cause of 
 the patient's malady. The feeder, determined 
 to lose no time, had been assiduously filling 
 the trough with food. The hog being empty, 
 after a long journey, voraciously devoured it, 
 until its stomach was filled, and its digestive 
 organs totally overpowered. My prescription 
 was, abstinence from corn, a moderate quantity 
 of sweet grains, thin wash, and sulphur with it : 
 in a few hours the hog was perfectly recovered. 
 In the sequel, the feeder held up his hands with 
 astonishment at the possibility of a hog being 
 gorged with food." 
 
 Many examples might be given of the great 
 weight attained by pigs, when they have 
 been skilfully fed and properly attended to. 
 A Mrs. Snarbrich, of Naseby, is instanced as 
 having fed a pig, which, eight weeks before she 
 was publicly noticed, farrowed nine fine young 
 pigs, which were sold in Garstang market for 
 £7, being five weeks old, and this her second 
 litter. The former litter realised the same 
 sum ; and, when slaughtered, the sow weighed 
 thirty-four score, which realised, at 85. per 
 score, £13 125.; which, by adding the £14 
 for the two litters of pigs, makes the value of 
 this pig amount to £27 12^. This was a 
 profit of more value than could be made from 
 a fat cow in the same neighbourhood. 
 
 The following was the mode of feeding 
 adopted : — " Profit was the great object of the 
 feeder of the pig slaughtered by Mr. Eccleston, 
 of Garstang; and it would have well repaid 
 keeping for a few weeks longer ; but Lent being 
 at hand was the reason why it was not kept. 
 Here, in this experiment, is a clear proof that it 
 is better to keep pigs more than one year for 
 profit ; and it is well known that there is little 
 gained by feeding an old sow. The food of this 
 pig had been principally whey, as in this neigh- 
 bourhood there are large quantities of cheese 
 made, and the whey is excellent both for pigs 
 
CAT I lO.NS.] 
 
 AxND TliKlli VAUIULS liUKEU.S. 
 
 CAL'TIONS. 
 
 ami calves ; uiul if it was not for them it , 
 would not bi' coiisuiued. To this wlit-y wore 
 merely added what waste and leaviut,'8 were j 
 made in the house, or what is called the sioil- ^ 
 lens. When she had the younp pi^js, she luid j 
 about 12 lbs. oforttnieal allowed the first week, 
 which was made into porriiiii;e. The mode of 
 feeding for fattening was on oalmeal and 
 potatoes. Tiie latter were boiled by them- 
 selves; to 21 lbs. of meal were added 7 lbs. of 
 potatoes, they being boiled to a complete jelly, 
 and then mixed witii the meal, and made into 
 balls. It consumed 90 lbs. of meal, and 30 lbs. 1 
 of potatoes per week, with whey and water to 
 drink ; so that in eight weeks it consumed 
 720 lbs. of meal, the price being lid. per lb., 
 and which, therefore, amounts to £3 15*. ; and , 
 the oOlbs. of potatoes per week, amounts to 
 210 lbs., which, at Id. per pound, amounts to 
 5s. ; and there were also 20 lbs. of wheat bran 
 given to it at diflerent times, to keep its bowels 
 open ; the price of this bran was Is. 2d. ; and 
 for 2ilbs. of meal, given to it when it had the 
 young pigs, 2s. Gd. The price of the pig, at 
 tirst, \\as 125. : which makes the total amount 
 laid out on this pig, to be £4- 15*. Sd. ; and, j 
 therefore, by deducting this sum from the ' 
 £27 12s., the produce, it leaves a clear profit | 
 of £22 IG*. -iid., besides the valuable manure it 
 must have made in the course of the two years." ; 
 
 The ibllowiug cautions, which we have ■ 
 slightlv altered, in conjunction with the direc- 
 tions already given relative to feeding, are 
 suggested by Mr. Kichardson : — j 
 
 Avoid foul feeding. No food fit for the 
 table can proceed from unclean feeding. — Add 
 salt, in moderate quantities, to the mess given, i 
 It is advantageous to do this. — JTeed at regular 
 intervals. Nothing is more essential to a 
 healthy animal. AVithout this precaution, all 
 other attempts at cleanliness will be in vain. — 
 Cleanse the troughs previous to feeding, by 
 washing out carefully. — Do not overfeed. Give 
 only as much as will be consumed at the meal. 
 Never allow any to remain in the trough : 
 clean it out for the store pigs. — Vary the bill 
 of fare. Variety will create, or, at all events, 
 increase appetite; and it is, farther, most con- 
 ducive to health. These variations should be 
 guided by the state of the dung cast : this 
 should be of medium consistence, and of a 
 greyish-brown colour. If hard, increase the 
 
 o 11 
 
 quantity of bran and hueculent roots. If too 
 licpiid, dimini.sh or tii.spenso with bran, and give 
 beans or acorns, and let the ntess be firmer. If 
 a portion of corn can be added, hucIj uh may 
 have been spoiled, and rendered unfit for other 
 purpose.««, it will bo found to answer |H'rfectly 
 well. — Feed stock .sfpitratcly, in classi-.-*, uc- 
 curding to their rehitivi^ conditions; keep sows 
 in young by themselves; stores by themselves; 
 and bacon pig:< and porkers by themselves. It 
 is not advisable to keep stores too high ia 
 llesh ; for high feeding, however strange it 
 may seem, is calculated to retard development 
 of form and bulk. It ie better to feed pigs 
 intended to be put np for bacon, loosely, and 
 not too abundantly, until they have attained 
 their full stature. They can be brou'^ht into 
 the highest possible condition in an incon- 
 ceivably short space of time. It is by such 
 a system of management as this, that the 
 monstrous swine ave raised — their weight 
 frequently exceeding 1,200 lbs., or, at all 
 events, half a ton.- Do not regret the lost 
 or scarcity of potatoes, so far as swine-feeding 
 is concerned. The potato is capable of being 
 replaced ; and its loss has been the means of 
 stimulating inquiry, and producing experiment, 
 which has resulted in the discovery that many 
 other useful vegetables have been hitherto 
 neglected, and thoughtlessly passed aside. — 
 Do not neglect to keep swine clean, dry, and 
 icarm. These are essentials, and not less im- 
 perative than feeding ; for an inferior descrip- 
 tion of food will, by their aid, succeed far 
 better than the highest feeding without them ; 
 and, while speaking of cleanliness, we may 
 reiterate the benefit derivable from washiiig 
 pigs; this will amply repay the trouble. 
 They are always washed for agricultural shows, 
 where they must be exhibited fat. — Watch the 
 warJcets. Sell when a reasonable profit is to 
 be got. Many a man has swamped himself by 
 his cupidity, and by desiring to realise an un- 
 usual amount of gain. Recollect how very 
 fiuctuating are the markets, and that a certain 
 gain is far better than the risk of loss. Even 
 great capitalists have fallen from over-avidity. 
 Before leaving this subject, it may be bene- 
 ficial, as well as interesting, to give a few in- 
 stances of pigs which, by difterent kinds of 
 feeding, have, in a given time, arrived at a pro- 
 portionate increase of wcighi. 31 r. Laureraco 
 
 7S.5 
 
FATTENIXa.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [rATTENiya, 
 
 notices a few of these. He says that fifty 
 large Norfolk swine, from 18 to 19 stone 
 each, in thriving, healthy condition, were 
 kept so on four-and-a-half bushels of peas per 
 day, with wash ; being about three quarts each 
 per day. A Hampshire sow, .weighing 11 
 stone, was stored upon two quarts and a-half 
 of peas per day, with roots and wash. A 
 Shropshire hog, three years old, was kept in 
 high condition as a store — being nearly 80 
 stone, or 640 lbs. weight — on three bushels of 
 barley-meal, with house-wash as usual, for 
 every seventeen days : about eleven pints per 
 day. The Earl of Winchelsea's celebrated pi'ize 
 hog, so much admired when exhibited, con- 
 sumed, of corn and meal, one quarter, one bushel, 
 and one peck, in fourteen weeks and three 
 days. This animal was of the Suffolk breed, 
 and consequently small. A Kentish hog, being 
 six months old, and weighing 20 stone 1 lb., or 
 161 lbs., having been put up to fatten, con- 
 sumed, during a period of forty-two weeks, 
 forty-six bushels of peas and barley. It was 
 then killed; and when stripped of its head, 
 feet, flare, or internal fat, all loose fat, skirts, 
 and kidneys, it was found to weigh 53 stone 
 3 lbs. A Tonquin pig — an epithet then given 
 to the black and white, or improved Essex 
 breed — weighed, at four months old, 104|- lbs. 
 It was put up for forty-seven weeks; when, 
 during that period, it consumed eleven bushels 
 two pecks of hog peas, and eighteen sacks of 
 meal, at 85 lbs. to the sack. "When killed, its 
 weight was 30 stone 2 lbs., at 8 lbs. to the 
 stone; and it bad, as usual, been dressed London 
 fashion; that is, deprived of head, legs, flare, 
 loose fat, &c. 
 
 Mr. French Burke gives the following 
 details : — 
 
 " The time requisite for fattening, depends, 
 of course, on the condition of the animal when 
 put up, as well as upon its age. If a young 
 store, five or six weeks may be sufficient ; if 
 older, six or eight ; and if the mature age in- 
 tended for a perfect bacon hog, of that mode- 
 rate degree of size and fatness which is pre- 
 ferred for the general consumption of the 
 middle classes, from twelve to fourteen. A 
 bacon hog, if intended to be thoroughly fat- 
 tened for farm use, should, however, be of a 
 large breed, and brought to such a state as 
 not to be able to rise without difficulty ; but 
 786 
 
 may, perhaps, require five or six months, or 
 even more, to bring him to that condition. 
 This, however, supposes him to be completely 
 fat ; to ascertain which with perfect accuracy, 
 he ought to be weighed every week during the 
 latter part of the process ; for although his 
 appetite will gradually fall off as he increases 
 in fat, yet the flesh which he will acquire will 
 also diminish, until, at last, it will not pay for 
 Ids food, and he should then be immediately 
 slaughtered. Thus the increase of flesh in a 
 pig put up to be fattened, and regularly 
 weighed, was, on the following dates : — 
 
 
 stone. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 ' Oct. 10 . 
 
 . . 36 
 
 7 
 
 
 „ 24 . 
 
 . 41 
 
 5 . 
 
 . 38 lbs. gain. 
 
 Nov. 7 . 
 
 . 45 
 
 7 . 
 
 . 34 do. 
 
 „ 21 . 
 
 . 47 
 
 2 . 
 
 . 11 do. 
 
 Dec. 5 . . 
 
 . 48 
 
 7 . 
 
 . 13 do. 
 
 » 22 . . 
 
 . 48 
 
 6 . 
 
 1 lb. loss. 
 
 *• Eespecting the quality of food, vast num- 
 bers of bacon hogs are imported from Ire- 
 land, where they are almost invariably fed 
 upon potatoes ; but however apparently satis- 
 factory may be their weight and condition, 
 yet, when slaughtered immediately, or before 
 having several weeks of substantial food, to 
 harden their flesh, they are always found in- 
 ferior to the corn-fed pork and bacon of this 
 country, the fat having a tallowy appearance, 
 of an insipid taste, and shrinking for want of 
 firmness ; whereas, when boiled, it should be 
 transparently hard, with a tinge of pink in 
 its colour ; the flavour should be good, and the 
 meat should swell in the pot. Potatoes, there- 
 fore, though fine food for stores, should never 
 be used alone as sustenance in the fattening 
 of bacon hogs ; for, in proportion to the quan- 
 tity employed, they will render the flesh, and 
 consequently the price, inferior to that of hogs 
 which have been properly fed. They are, 
 however, frequently employed, when steamed, 
 in conjunction with either tail or stained 
 barley, coarsely ground; and farmers who 
 grow potatoes for the market, may thus profit- 
 ably dispose of the chats along with their 
 unmarketable corn: but those persons who 
 wish to acquire a reputation for producing 
 fine bacon, should never use anything for fat- 
 tening but hard meat, together with skim- 
 milk, if it can be procured." The rapidity 
 with which flesh can be laid on by pigs, 
 
BLATJonTEnrso.] 
 
 AM) Tiii'i \i v.\iM(M's ni;Ki:ns. 
 
 [rlaughtebino. 
 
 (says Mr. Kiclmrdaon), when all the resources 
 of human skill aro broiip;ht to bear upon the 
 point, is further illustrated by an experiment 
 mailo by a very intellii^eut agrieulturist, Mr. 
 John duthwaite, of Bainessee, related at the 
 Thir.sk meeting; of the Yorksliiro Agricultural 
 Society. He laid a wager of £10, that one of 
 hi3 pig3 would lay on 10 stones in a month, 
 in place of one iu a week, which is the usual 
 
 average of a well-fed pig. He estimated the 
 weight of the atiiinal at 32 stones ; and it 
 increased lu-arly a stone over the gain of 10 
 stones in twenty-eight days. The eye can, 
 perhaps, detect tho increaMO in pigs' flcHh more 
 readily than either in cattle or in sheep — the 
 touch being called to tho aid in both these, to 
 
 I assist tho eye, which is scarcely ever done ia 
 
 [ tho fat pig of any ago whatever. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SLAUGHTERING; CURING BACON AND IIAMS. 
 
 The ordinary way of slaughtering a pig in the 
 country, is to tie a rope round the upper jaw, 
 and throw it across a joist or beam. This, by 
 an assistant, is pulled just sufBciently tight to 
 force the animal to support himself upon the 
 extremities of his toes, whilst his snout is 
 raised in the air. The butcher then kneels in 
 front of him, and taking a knife, first shaves 
 away the hair from a small portion of the front 
 of the throat ; then gently passing the blade 
 through the superficial fat, he gives it a forward 
 thrust, a turn, and then draws it out. This 
 operation is followed by a gush of blood, which 
 is caught in various vessels, for the purpose of 
 being manufiictured into black-puddings. The 
 rope is next a little slackened, and life speedily 
 becomes extinct. The next process is to put 
 the pig into a scalding-tub, whence he is soon 
 withdrawn, placed upon a table, and the hair 
 and bristles carefully removed by scraping 
 with a knife. He is next disembowelled. The 
 more humane practice of stupefying the animal 
 with a knock on the head before his throat is 
 submitted to the knife, is often done ; but we 
 have heard it asserted, that a pig does not 
 scald so well unless he has some remains of 
 life in him. The ordinary way of ascertaining 
 the death of the animal, is by passing a sharp 
 knife between the claws, where the part is 
 extremely sensitive ; and the scalding process, 
 if he quivers or exhibits some lingering signs 
 
 [ of life, is not allowed to begin utitil this ceases. 
 
 ! When this no longer appears, it is token for 
 granted that sensation has fled. An important 
 element in the production of good bacon is, 
 that the pig should be slaughtered as quickly, 
 and with as little excitement, as possible. Tho 
 animal, for at least a day, ought not to be 
 allowed any kind of nutriment ; and in killing 
 the greatest care should be taken thoroughly 
 to divide the jugular vein, so that he may 
 bleed both rapidly and completely. After this 
 comes the cutting-up. 
 
 " The hog," says Mr. Henderson, " should 
 be left fasting for full twenty-four hours before 
 being killed ; and, after the carcass has hung 
 all night, it should be laid upon its back upon 
 a strong table. The head should then be cut 
 off close to the ears, and the hinder feet so far 
 below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, 
 and leave room sufficient to hang them up by ; 
 after which the carcass is divided into equal 
 halves, up the middle of tiie back-bone, with a 
 cleaving knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. 
 Then cut the ham from the side by the second 
 joint of the back-bone, which will appear on 
 dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by 
 paring a little off the flank, or skinny part, so 
 as to shape it with a half-round point, clear- 
 ing oft" any top fat that may appear. The 
 curer will next cut off the sharp edge along 
 the back-bone with a knife and mallet, and 
 
 787 
 
CURING.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [cueing. 
 
 slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where 
 he will find a bloody vein, which must be taken 
 out ; for if lei't in that part it is apt to spoil. 
 The corners should be squared off when the 
 hara is cut out." 
 
 For curing bacon, there is, literally, no end 
 of recipes ; and in Yorkshire, Westmoreland, 
 and Cumberland, no sugar is made use of. 
 Mr. Eowlaudson's plan for saltiug is thus 
 described : — " Having cut up a well-fed hog, 
 which absorbs much less salt than an ill-fed 
 animal, and runs very little risk of having been 
 over-fed, salt and saltpetre, in the proportions of 
 about one pound and a-half of salt, and one of 
 saltpetre, to 41 lbs. of meat, must be sprinkled 
 over the flitches, &c. ; and then they must be 
 liid, one over the other, in a slate trough, or 
 a wooden trough lined with lead, to the num- 
 ber of half-a-dozen. In the course of twenty- 
 four or forty-eight hours, according as the salt 
 is converted into brine (and this will depend 
 on the atmosphere ; in frosty weather the meat 
 will not take the salt, and in moist weather 
 it is apt to spoil), tiie sides are removed, 
 rubbed, replaced in inverse order, the top at 
 the bottom, with a little fresh salt sprinkled 
 between each course, and the brine thrown 
 over the whole. In favourable weather for 
 curing, once turning and replacing \%ill be 
 found enough, and will not occupy more than 
 a vreek. Packed dry with layers of salt, and 
 covered with canvas, bacon is thus prepared 
 ' green' for the Loudon markets, and thence 
 drawn to be smoked as required for consump- 
 tion." To this Mr. Eowlandson adds, "that 
 nothing makes better hams or bacon than a 
 well-bred sow, spayed after producing four or 
 five litters." 
 
 The most approved method of curing bacon, 
 as practised by a majority of extensive curers, 
 is thus given by Mr. Eiehardson : — " If the 
 swine you design killing have been a recent 
 purchase, and have been driven from a distance, 
 so as to have become winded or jaded, it is 
 right that they should be kept up for a week, 
 or perhaps more, until the eill'cts of the jour- 
 ney have been entirely removed, and the 
 animals restored to their original tranquillity 
 and primeness of condition. During this in- 
 terval they should be fed upon meal and water. 
 A difference of opinion exists, as to whether 
 this food should be given in a raw state or 
 788 
 
 boiled. I have taken some pains to ascertain 
 the truth, and have no hesitation in pronounc- 
 ing in favour of the latter. At the same time, 
 however, the mess should be given in a per- 
 fectly cold state, and not of too thick con- 
 sistence. Some recommend that a small dose 
 of nitre should be given daily in the food for a 
 fortnight previous to killing. Others pro- 
 nounce this to be unnecessary ; but all unite 
 in recommending a very considerable reduc- 
 tion in the animal's food for two days before 
 killing, and a total deprivation of food for at 
 least the last twenty hours of life." 
 
 For dosnestic purposes, bacon is cured by 
 well rubbing into the flitches a sufficient quan- 
 tity of salt with a little nitre, either with the 
 salting-glove or the bare hand. The flitches 
 are then placed on the floor of an outhouse, and 
 covered with straw, with the rind downwards- 
 straw being laid above this ; then another flitch, 
 and so on. Over the whole is placed a board ; 
 and, above all, heavy stones or weights. In 
 three weeks, or a month, the meat is suffi- 
 ciently salted, and is hung upon hooks in the 
 kitchen rafters. The general practice of burn- 
 ing wood and turf, in some kitchens, imparts a 
 sweetness to the bacon not to be met with in 
 any which can be purchased. Another mode 
 is to prepare a pickle, by boiling common salt 
 and nitre in water. ]\Iix, for a single pig of 
 tolerable size, 1 lb. of coarse brown sugar with 
 half a pound of nitre: rub this well in with 
 the salting-glove; then put the meat into the 
 pickle, and let it lie there for two days ; after- 
 wards take it out, and rub it with salt alone ; 
 then put it back into the pickle. A sweet 
 pickle may be formed by boiling molasses with 
 salt and water. In using this, rub the meat 
 with sugar and nitre ; add a small portion of 
 strong pickle to the meat ; put the meat into 
 this, and let it lie in it for three weeks. If 
 there be any spare room in the cask, fill it up 
 with molasses. Eight pounds of salt, one pound 
 of nitre, and sis pints of molasses, will about 
 suffice for each hundredweight of meat, and 
 will take about five gallons of water. In about 
 three weeks — less or more time being required, 
 according to size — take the meat out of pickle, 
 and hang it in the drying-house. While 
 kept there, the flitches should be hung neck 
 downwards. The ham and the flitch may 
 be cut out and trimmed, according to fancy. 
 
WESTi'UALiAN ii-VMs] AND TllElK A'AKlOuS IJlil^CDS. [yokksiiiuk u.vcox. 
 
 "Nearly every county has, in this respect, a 
 fashion ot* its own. If you possoss tlio means, 
 retnovo your haiu.s suul bat'on to the sinoking- 
 lioiise. They should not bo sulfcrod to touch 
 each other. With this precaution you may hang 
 them as closely iis you please. JSnioke-liousea 
 are of every dimension ; but the smallest an- 
 swer as well as the most extensive. Before 
 euspendiiig the meat in the smoke-house, it 
 should be previously well rubbed over with 
 bran. The fire is made of sawdust, which 
 burns with a low smouldering glow, giving out 
 far more smoke than if actually flaming. In 
 the process of smoking, your meat will lose 
 from about 15 to 20 lbs. per hundredweight — 
 a fact necessar}' to bo borne in mind." 
 
 Sometimes the pigs are killed before they 
 arrive at full size, and their hair removed by 
 singeing; the bacon and hams of those are 
 said to possess peculiar delicacy of flavour. 
 The best sawdust for smoking hams or bacon, 
 is ihat made from oak, and it should be 
 thoroughly dry. The sawdust of common 
 deal imparts a flavour of a disagreeable charac- 
 ter, not unlike that of red herrings. 
 
 "WESTPHALIAN HA:MS. 
 The genuine Westphaliuu bacon is particu- 
 larly good, and the fine quality depends on 
 several causes ; as the healthy and semi-wild 
 life the swine are permitted to enjoy ; their re- 
 lationship to the wild boar; and their not being 
 fattened to the fullest extent previous to kill- 
 ing. A large portion of sugar and juniper- 
 lerries is used in curing, the proportion beiu"- 
 usually 1^ lb. of sugar to 3 lbs. of salt, and 
 2 ozs. of nitre. The smoJce is also applied in a 
 cold state. This is, perhaps, the principal 
 secret. The hams are hung at the top of a 
 very lofty building, and by the time the smoke 
 reaches them it is perfectly cold. Tiiese hams 
 are the most famous in Europe, and are prin- 
 cipally cured at, and exported from, Hamburg. 
 The smoking process which they undergo, is 
 performed in extensive chambers in the upper 
 storeys of high buildings. Some are four or 
 five storeys high ; and the smoke is conveyed to 
 these rooms from fires in the cellar, through 
 tubes, on which the vapour is condensed, and 
 the heat absorbed ; so that the smoke is both 
 dry and cool when it comes in contact with 
 the meat. They are thus kept perfectly dry. 
 
 and acqm'ro a colour and flavour unkuown to 
 those smokeil by tlie common method. Hams, 
 after being smoked, may be kept for any length 
 of time, by being packed in dry aslies or pow- 
 dered charcoal, or by being left in the smoke- 
 liou.se, if that is secure against theft; or a 
 smoke being nj:ide under them once a week. 
 When meat is fully smoked or dried, it mav 
 be kept hung up in any dry room, bv Hlipiiing 
 over it a cotton bag, the neck of which in 
 closely tied around tiie string that supports 
 I the meat, and thus preserving the bacon from 
 bug, Sy, &c. The small part of a iiam or 
 I shoulder should always be hung downward in 
 j the process of smoking, or when suspended for 
 preservation. 
 
 I YORKSHIRE BACON. 
 
 I The mode of curing, in Yorkshire, consists 
 I of hanging the pig for twenty-four hours, until 
 it has become perfectly stilF. It is tlieu cut up 
 in the common way. The large veins which 
 I proceed from the jugular are carefully ex- 
 tracted with a fork. The bacon is then removed 
 to leaden bowls — the salt wiped over the smooth 
 side, and the shanks carefully stopped with 
 salt and saltpetre, from four to six incites deep. 
 The skin siue is then laid downwards, and the 
 whole flesh side covered with salt, and sprinkled 
 with saltpetre. The same is done to the hams 
 and the other sides ; and the proportion of 
 coarse salt — which is always used for the pur- 
 pose, in preference to the more finely pounded 
 — allowed for a 20 stone pig, is 1 stone of 
 salt, and 1 lb. of saltpetre ; and so on in 
 proportion. Two or three pigs may be laid 
 in a leaden bowl, exposed to a northern aspect, 
 with plenty of air, and in a place especially 
 free from all putrefying matter. In three 
 days all the sides are removed, the bottom 
 ones placed uppermost, and the whole of the 
 bare places, in tiie flesh side, again covered with 
 salt. In tliis way the bacon is removed three or 
 four times in a mouth, during which period it 
 is said to be in pickle. It is then taken out 
 of the leaden bowls, set on an edge, and the 
 extraneous salt wiped off". It is hung for three 
 weeks more in the kitchen, and is then fit for 
 storing away. This is generally done in 
 sacks, strewed with bran, where it remains 
 until taken out for use, when it is much 
 esteemed. 
 
 789 
 
DAilPSniEE BACO:S'.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [scotch BACOir. 
 
 HAMPSHIRE BACON. 
 
 This bacon is held in very high estimation. 
 With both Hampshire and Berkshire bacon, the 
 proper time is to choose a dry day, when the 
 wind is blowing from the north ; and kill the 
 hog early in the morniug, if having fasted 
 the day before. "When dressed," says Mr. 
 Touatt, " hang him up in some airy place for 
 twenty-four hours ; then proceed to cut him 
 up. This being done, lay the flitches on the 
 ground, and sprinkle them with salt lightly ; 
 BO let them remain for six or eight hours ; then 
 turn them up edgeways, and let the brine run 
 off. In the meantime, take two or three gal- 
 lons of the best salt, and two ounces of saltpetre, 
 pounded very fine, and well mixed together ; 
 and the salting-bench being made of the best 
 seasoned oak, proceed to salt the flitches by 
 rubbing in the salt on the back side of the 
 flitch. This being done, turn the inside up- 
 wards, and lay on the salt about a quarter ol' 
 an iucla in thickness. In like manner treat 
 every flitch. On the third day afterwards 
 change the flitches — namely, take ofi'the upper- 
 most, and reverse them at the same time, 
 laying the salt a quarter of an inch in thick- 
 ness. There will be no need of rubbing as 
 before mentioned, neither should the saltpetre 
 be repeated, otherwise the lean of the bacon 
 will be hard. The changing and salting should 
 be done every third day for six successive times, 
 when the bacon will be suIScieutly salt. Then 
 proceed to rub oflf all the stale briny salt, and 
 lay on each flitch a covering of clean fresh 
 bran or sawdust, and take it to the drying-loft. 
 It should be there hung, by means of crooks 
 fastened in the neck of the flitch, and remain 
 for fourteen or sixteen days. Cleft oak or 
 ash is the best wood for drying bacon." In 
 both this county and in Berkshire, singeing is 
 adopted more generally than scalding; and 
 this process is considered superior to scalding, 
 the latter being supposed to soften the rind 
 and render the fat less firm. The Wiltshire 
 bacon is of a peculiarly delicious quality ; but 
 the cause is obvious, and is not to be referred 
 to any of the details of the curing process. 
 It is prepared from dairy-fed pork. This is 
 the true secret. The same remark applies 
 to the Cumberland bacon. In several counties 
 the hog is shinned prior to curing. Some 
 790 
 
 amount of additional profit is, of course, de- 
 rivable from this practice; but the bacon is 
 inferior, being liable to become rusty, as well 
 as to waste in the boiling. Hams and flitches 
 should always be hung up in a dry place. 
 Indeed, it will be found useful to sew up the 
 former in pieces of canvas or sacking, as is 
 the practice with the Westphalian. 
 
 THE SCOTCH MODE OF CURING HAMS AND 
 BACON. 
 
 In Mr. Henderson's treatise on swine, we 
 find the following account of the method of cur- 
 ing hams and bacon in Scotland: — "In killing 
 a number of swine, what sides you may have 
 dressed the first day, lay upon some flags or 
 boards, piling them across each other, and giving 
 each flitch a powdering of saltpetre, and then 
 covering it with salt. Proceed in the same man- 
 ner with the hams themselves, and do not omit 
 giving them a little saltpetre, as it opens the 
 pores of the flesh to receive salt, and gives the 
 ham, besides, a pleasant flavour, and makes it 
 more juicy. Let them lie in this state about 
 a week ; then turn those on the top under- 
 most, giving them a fresh salting. After lying 
 two or three weeks longer, they may be hung 
 up to dry in some chimney or smoke-house ; 
 or, if the curer chooses, he may turn them 
 over again, without giving them any more 
 salt ; in which state they may lie for a month 
 or two, without taking any harm, until he haa 
 convenience for drying them. I practised, for 
 many years, the custom of carting my flitches 
 and hams through the country to farm-houses, 
 and used to hang them in their chimneys, and 
 other parts of the house to dry — some seasons 
 to the amount of 500 carcasses. This plan, 
 however, was found to be attended with a 
 number of inconveniences. About twenty 
 years ago I contrived a small smoke-house of 
 very simple construction. It is about twelve 
 feet square, and the walls about seven feet 
 high. One of these huts requires six joists 
 across — one close to each wall, the other 
 four placed at proper distances. To receive 
 five rows of flitches, they must be laid 
 on the top of the wall. A piece of wood, 
 strong enough to bear the weight of one 
 flitch of bacon, must be fixed across the belly 
 end of the flitch by two strings, as the neck 
 end must be hung downwards. The pieces of 
 
IinSIt HAMS.] 
 
 AND Tlli:iU VAIilOUS BKEEDS. 
 
 [lUlSU BACON. 
 
 wood must be lonpjer than the flitch is wide, 
 80 that their ends may rest upon a beam. 
 They may bo put so near to each othi-r as not 
 to touch. The width of eacli will hoKl twenty- 
 four flitches in a row, and there will bo five 
 rows, which will contain 120 flitches. As 
 many liains may bo hung at the same time 
 above the flitches, arran£!;ed in the best 
 manner you can. The lower end of the 
 flitches will be within two-and-a-half or three 
 feet of the floor, which must be covered five 
 or six inches thick with sawdust ; this should 
 be kindled at two diflorent sides. It will 
 burn, but not cause any flame to injure the 
 bacon. The door must be kept close, and the 
 liut must have a small hole in the roof, so 
 that part of the smoke may ascend. This lot 
 of bacon and hams will be ready to be packed 
 up in a hogshead, and sent off in eight or ten 
 days, or a little longer, if required, with very 
 little loss of weight. After the bacon is salted, 
 it may lie in the salt- house until an order 
 is received." 
 
 THE IRISH MODE OF CURING HAMS 
 AND BACON. 
 
 In Limerick, hams have long had celebrity ; 
 and their excellence is supposed to arise princi- 
 pally from the sparing use of salt, and the 
 substitution for it, to a large extent, of coarse 
 sugar, accompanied with a judicious plan of 
 smoking. Some of the rooms in which this 
 process is carried on, have a height of upwards 
 of thirty feet. To extract the superabundant 
 salt from the meat, Mr. Richardson recom- 
 mends the following : — " Put your meat to 
 steep in tepid water ; and after it has lain in it 
 for some hours, add a small quantity of sul- 
 phuric acid. In three or four hours take it 
 out, and wash it two or three times in water; 
 to the third water add a small portion of car- 
 bonate of soda. Take your meat out, wash it 
 again, and boil it for dinner. Tou will find 
 the salt nearly, if not wholly discharged ; but 
 you need not be surprised, should the colour 
 of the meat be somewhat darkened ; the dete- 
 rioration does not extend further ; the flavour 
 remains the same as when first corned, and 
 the article becomes as wholesome as fresh 
 meat. It is possible tiiat this simple process 
 may be found useful in long voyages ; for a 
 long- continued diet of salted animal food, 
 
 without a tiro ubo of vegotableB, is found to 
 contribute to the production of many diseaaea. 
 A much more himplo ])roce38 in the utecping 
 of the bacon over-niglit in cold water. So 
 great is tho alllnity of salt for water, that a 
 twenty-four, or even eighteen hours' steep 
 will generally remove any degree of superabun- 
 dance of salt. It intorfcres less with the fla- 
 vour than any other chemical mixture whatever; 
 and is, on this account, and its easy mode of 
 being effected, by far the preferable plan." 
 
 The following communication was sent by 
 IVfr. .1. Hawkins, Dublin, to ]\Ir. Jiichardson, 
 and explains tho Irish mode of curing hams 
 and bacon : — 
 
 " The hog is usually kept fasting for twenty- 
 four hours previous to being killed. Ho is 
 then brought to the slaughter-house, and dis- 
 patched in the following manner: — The 
 butcher takes a maul (a hammer with a long 
 handle, like those used for breaking stones on 
 a road), and with it strikes the pig on the fore- 
 head. If he be an expert hand, a single blow 
 will suflice to knock the hog down, and ren- 
 der him quite senseless. A knife is then 
 taken, and the butcher sticks the animal in 
 the lower part of the throat, just between the 
 fore legs. A boiler, or tub, full of very hot, 
 or boiling water, is iu readiness, in which 
 the hog is immersed until the hair becomes 
 so loose that it can be scraped off with a knife 
 quite clean. When there is no convenience 
 of this kind, the same effect may be produced 
 by pouring boiling water over the pig. The 
 hog is then hung up by the hind legs, cut up 
 the middle, and the entrails taken out ; after 
 this, the carcass is left there for about twelve 
 hours, to cool and become firm, when it is fit 
 for boning or cutting up. Sometimes, instead 
 of scalding, the pig is swalcd by fire : burnt 
 straw is generally used for this purpose ; and 
 this is called ' singed pork.' 
 
 " The following is the mode of boning or 
 cutting : — The pig is placed on a strong table 
 or bench ; the head is then cut off close to the 
 ears, and the body opened down the back. 
 A cleaver or saw is used for the purpose, and 
 both back-bone and hip-bones are taken out, 
 except in one or two places, yet to be spoken 
 of, where a different system is pursued. The 
 hind feet are then cut oft', so as to leave a 
 shank to the ham. Tiie fore legs are next cut 
 
 791 
 
lEISH EACOX.J 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [lEISH BACON'. 
 
 roinul at the hough, the flesh scraped upwards 
 off the bone, and off the shoulder-blade, which 
 is taken out quite bare under the side. The 
 saw is then run along the ribs, so as to crack 
 them, when they will lie quite flat. The pig 
 is then divided straight up the bade, and the 
 sides are ready for salting ; the ham still 
 remaining in. This is the method usually 
 practised in the county of Wicklow. When the 
 sides are ready for salting, they are well 
 rubbed on the rind side, and the space from 
 which the shoulder-blade was taken out is 
 filled with salt. The sides are then laid singly 
 upon a flagged floor, and salt is shaken over 
 them. In a day, or two days, if the weather 
 is cold, they must be again salted in the same 
 manner; but now two sides may be put to- 
 gether, and povi'dered saltpetre shaken over 
 them, in tlie proportion of about two ounces 
 to each side, if of average bacon size. After 
 three or four days, the sides are to be again 
 changed, the shanks of the ham rubbed, 
 the salt stirred, a little fresh salt shaken 
 over them, and Ave or six sides may now be 
 placed over each other. The sides may then 
 be left thus for a week, when they may be 
 piled one above the other, to the number of 
 ten or twenty, if there liave been so many 
 pigs killed. Leave them so for above three 
 weeks, until they get firm. They may then 
 be considered cured, and will Iceep so for six 
 or eight months, or according to pleasure. 
 AVhen required for use, or for market, the sides 
 are taken out of the salt, and well swept and 
 cleaned ; the ham taken out, hung up, and 
 dried with turf. If a brown colour is desired, 
 a little sawdust of hard wood may be thrown 
 over the turf. ,If hung up in a kitchen where 
 turf is burned, and suflered to remain, not too 
 near the fire, the same effect will be produced ; 
 and if the bacon has been well cured in salt, 
 it will be excellent. The Belfast and Limerick 
 methods of cutting differ from what I have 
 described, inasmuch as the hip-bones are left 
 m, and the liams are cut out while the pig is 
 fresh, and cured separately. In some cases, 
 also, the ribs are taken out of tlie sides ; and, 
 in Belfast, the shoulder-blade is taken out over 
 tlie side. Both the Belfast and Limerick 
 liasiis are cured in the same mild manner; 
 they are, as I have stated, cut out of the pig 
 when fresh, cured separately, and only left a 
 792 
 
 sufiicient time to be cured, and no more. 
 They are not suffered to become too salfij — a 
 fault sometimes perceptible in the Wicklow 
 hams. The Limerick and Belfast curers also 
 make up diflerent other portions of the pin' 
 separately, as long sides, middles, and o'olls, for 
 the English market. Sometimes the ribs are 
 taken out, and sometimes not, according to 
 the market for which they are intended. 
 Limerick, Belfast, Wicklow, and Waterford, 
 are the principal curing districts of Ireland. 
 The Wicklow method, first described, is that 
 in use in all counties of Ireland which prepare 
 their bacon for the Dublin markets. The 
 bacon, when cured, is then consigned to fac- 
 tors in Spitalfields, and sold on commission to 
 the provision-dealers of Dublin. Limerick 
 and Belfast haras are cured in the following 
 manner. They are, as I have said, cut fresh 
 from the pig, with the hip-bones left in them, 
 and are placed on a flagged floor, the front of 
 the second ham resting upon the shank of the 
 first, and so on until all are placed ; they are 
 then sprinkled with strong pickle from a 
 watering-pot, and a small quantity of salt is 
 shaken over them. Next day the haras are 
 taken up, well rubbed with salt, and laid down 
 as before, when saltpetre is shaken over them 
 in quantities proportionate to their size ; they 
 are left so for two days, and then taken up and 
 rubbed as before, when they are laid down 
 again, according to the space they have to fill 
 — from three to six hams in height, with layers 
 of salt between. After six days, the hams are 
 reversed in the piles ; that is, those that were 
 packed on the top are put at the bottom. 
 They then remain for six days longer in the 
 pile, when they are considered cured. After 
 this, they are taken up and washed, and hung 
 up to dry in the air. When it is intended to 
 smoke them, they are placed in a house made 
 for that purpose, and smoked — in Bellast, with 
 wheaten straw and sawdust ; in Limerick, 
 with peat or turf." 
 
 Curing hacon for the navy is differently per- 
 formed from ordinary salting. A little more 
 skill is exercised in cutting up the pig into 
 pieces of as nearly equal size as possible ; 
 when a combination of salt and saltpetre dis- 
 solved in water, and almost in a saturated 
 solution, is placed in the curing-tub, and there 
 allowed to remain from three to four weeks. 
 
DiSE.vsrs.] 
 
 AN 1) Til HI li VA UK) IS 15Ki;i:i)S. 
 
 [AlOl'LtXY. 
 
 A bnrrel is provided, and the bottom covered 
 with a liiver of hay and salt ; tlien altoninte 
 lavorjt of pork and salt up to tlio top, when it 
 is covered and ooopert'd up. »o as to oxoludo the 
 air as completely as possible. A holo is then 
 made in the head of tliooask, and the saturated 
 pickle is poured in till tho cask is full, when it 
 is plugged up, and ready for use. Salt pork, 
 ns it is called, is generally a much more useful 
 and genuine article than either of the pre- 
 served meats, or tho salted beef supplied to 
 tlie navy. 
 
 The principal injuries to which bacon, after 
 curing, is liable, is that of becoming resfi/, 
 
 and being infested with tho larvs of a small 
 fly known as Jumpers. Tho first often takes 
 place if it is dried too near tho fire, or 
 is exposed unnecessarily to tho air. In 
 
 I drying, it should bo so near tlie firo aa to bo 
 
 I within its inllueuco — so far from it as to pre- 
 vent its frying, and so turning rancid, knowa 
 
 ' provincially as "rusty" or " reasty" bacon. 
 Some parties recommend whitt-washing tho 
 bacon with lime- wash after it is dried ; and this 
 is certainly a decided preventive ; but it may 
 be equally prevented by being cured with 
 
 ' plain bran, or any wholesome material which 
 
 I will keep it from the air. 
 
 CHAPTER Vr. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE PIG. 
 
 It is observed by Mr. Touatt, that swine, 
 from having been, until recently, considered as 
 a subordinate species of stock, have not yet, to 
 anv extent, become sharers in the benefits 
 which the present advancing state of veterinary 
 science has conferred upon other domesticated 
 animals. "AVhen anything goes amiss in the 
 pic:gery, the farmer, too often, instead of exer- 
 cisino' that shrewd sense which he turns to so 
 good an account in almost every other instance, 
 either sends for the butcher, or consigns the 
 sick tenants of the sty to the care of an igno- 
 rant pig-doctor, whose whole pretensions to 
 leech-craft rest on the possession of some 
 antiquated recipe, which he uses, indiscrimi- 
 nately, as a grand panacea for ' all the ills that 
 swine's flesh is heir to,' or on the traditionary 
 lore he inherits from some ancestor, famous in 
 his day for certain real or supposed wondrous 
 cures." That this is still, in a great measure, 
 the case in many parts of the country, cannot 
 be doubted ; but if proper care were taken of i 
 the pig, disease would much more rarely 
 attack him, and his owner would reap far 
 more advantage from it than he otherwise 
 does. 
 
 " Cleanliness," says Mr. Eichardson, " is 
 '5 I 
 
 the great point to be insisted upon in swine 
 management. If this, and warmth, be duly 
 attended to, the animal will not, in one case 
 in a hundred, become afll'cted with any ail- 
 ment. The pig-feeder will find that, in most 
 cases, bis pigs will never ail from their 
 birth to their slaughter. There may be a 
 few attacked with disease; but the feeder 
 will generally find that the first symptoms of 
 it will give way before a dose of flour of sul- 
 phur — say half an ounce for a large animal, 
 combined with new milk, which he will gene- 
 rallv drink — with warmth and confinement. 
 As it is almost impossible to administer medi- 
 cine by force, it is better thus to take the 
 disease in its first stage, and give it to them 
 by enticement." 
 
 The following are a selection of some of the 
 principle diseases to which the pig is liable; 
 and the treatment recommended in them is 
 such as has been found eftectual. 
 
 APOPLEXY. 
 
 This disease is chiefly brought on by high- 
 feeding, want of exercise, and laziness, all of 
 which beget a plethoric habit, inducing apo- 
 plexv, which in swine is often fatal. When it 
 
 7.0^ 
 
CASXBATlOSr.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [CEACKINGS. 
 
 appears, the treatment must be very prompt, 
 aud blood should be immediately taken from 
 the palate. As purgatives, Epsom salts and 
 sulphur should be given, or emetic tartar, dis- 
 solved in sufficient water to cause the animal 
 to vomit. Should these prove effectual, there 
 must be no stiaiulatiug food given for some 
 time afterwards, and the animal should be 
 bled, at least, every three months. There 
 should also be some nitre infused with the 
 water he drinks. 
 
 CATARRH, OR COLD. 
 
 This disease springs from the same causes 
 as those which affect other animals with it. 
 It consists of an inflammation of the mucous 
 membrane of the nose, &c. ; and, if taken in 
 time, is easily cured by opening medicine, 
 succeeded by a warm bran mash, abstinence 
 from rich grains, and careful, comfortable 
 housing. "Where the cases are very severe, it 
 is well to administer medicine ; and the follow- 
 ing is recommended by a writer in Morton's 
 Cyclopcedia : — 
 
 Antimonial powder . . . 2 to 6 grains. 
 
 Nitre . . . . . 10 „ 30 „ 
 
 Digitalis . . • • 1 » 2 „ 
 
 This to be given daily. Should the disease 
 extend to the lungs and become bronchitis, in 
 addition to the above medicine, the animal 
 should be bled, and a stimulant rubbed on the 
 brisket. 
 
 COLIC. 
 
 Colic frequently attacks the bog, and is in- 
 dicated by the animal rolling on the ground, 
 murmuring sounds that betray suffering, and 
 exhibiting great restlessness. The following 
 is recommended to be administered : — 
 
 Peppermint water 
 Tincture of opium 
 
 1 gill. 
 40 drops. 
 
 The animal must be kept warm, and supplied 
 with new and warm milk, until well. Some re- 
 commend a dose of Epsom or Glauber salts ; 
 but for colic, oleaginous medicines are the best ; 
 therefore, castor-oil, given in a dose propor- 
 tioned to the size of the pig, may be safely 
 administered. 
 
 CASTRATION. 
 As this can be no more called a disease than 
 
 794 
 
 parturition or spaying, it might have been 
 introduced in another part of the Division of 
 this work ; still, as it is a surgical operation, 
 we consider this the most appropriate place to 
 speak of it. There is no great difficulty in 
 the performance of this operation, conse- 
 quently, in country towns, there is always one 
 sufficiently skilled in the art to gain a liveli- 
 hood by it. In castrating hogs, which should 
 not be older than three weeks, they are 
 grasped by an assistant by the hind legs, with 
 their faces towards his person, so that the testes 
 may be kept on a level with the hands of the 
 operators. As the skin of the testes is loose, 
 a longitudinal cut is made in the scrotum, over 
 each of them, when the finger and thumb are 
 pressed gently on each side of the incision, so 
 as to cause the testes to protrude. This 
 being done, it is gently taken hold of by the 
 other hand, and the spermatic cord separated 
 by the knife. The whole of the operation is 
 soon over ; but, after it, the pig should be suf- 
 fered to fast for a few hours, although the 
 little animals seem to be so slightly aflected by 
 any pain which they may have endured, that, 
 by the following morning, they are as active as 
 ever. Beyond three weeks, and in proportion 
 to the age of the animal, the operation becomes 
 proportionally difficult. " With the aged boar, 
 especially, it is a very tedious affair, as he 
 cannot be held up in the way the young pigs 
 can under a month old. It is thus necessary 
 to lay him on his side, and have him well 
 secured before the operation is performed. 
 He should also fast a little before it is done, 
 as well as through the following night, and be 
 supplied only with bran and milk after. Sows 
 in season should be kept from him till the 
 wound is healed. There is more difficulty, 
 however, in performing the operation, either 
 on the old or young, when there is a rupture, 
 which is not unfrequently the case. Greater 
 care must be taken in making a perfectly clean 
 cut. The pigs should fast a day before, and a 
 night, at least, after the operation; and the 
 scrotum should be carefully stitched up after 
 its performance, otherwise inflammation will 
 ensue." 
 
 CRACKINGS. 
 The cause of crackings is exposure to the 
 extremes of temperature; and when they do 
 
rEVEn.] 
 
 ANT) TTIKIR VARIOUS BREEDS. 
 
 [fetek. 
 
 appear oa a \ug, it is usually u[)Oti the Hanks, 
 !iiul at the ruots of the ears ami tail. In the 
 heat of summer tlio disease is es|)t'eially 
 troublesonio, shoukl the hog bo ex|)ost'd, for 
 any length of time, to the direet inlluenee of a 
 liot sun, and no pool or marsh near in whieh 
 ho might reeruit himself, and eool his body 
 with a bath. To euro the disease, after ne- 
 glect has brought it ou, tlie all'ectod parts 
 should be anointed two or three times a day 
 with tar and lard, well melted together. 
 
 DIARRIIffiA. 
 Among all our domesticated animals this 
 disease is very common, and is produced by 
 scanty and unwholesome food, as well as by 
 over-feeding. It arises from intlammation or 
 congestion of the mucous lining of the intes- 
 tines, and consists of a thin discharge of the 
 foecal matter. Before trying to stop this 
 discharge, a change of diet, from that which 
 the animal has been feeding on, will often be 
 effectual in producing a cure. If, however, 
 it continue for any considerable length of 
 time, medicinal remedies should be resorted 
 to. The best for it is — 
 
 Prepared chalk . 
 Powdered catechu 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 2 drachms. 
 
 „ ginger 
 
 „ opium . . . -h „ 
 
 These should be mixed and dissolved in 
 half a pint of water, and from half an ounce to 
 an ounce of the mixture, according to the size 
 of the animal, given twice a day. The diet 
 should, as far as possible, be composed of dry 
 farinaceous food. 
 
 EPILEPSY. 
 
 This disease is common, and often arises 
 from the ringing of the mother during the 
 period of gestation. The indications are rest- 
 lessness, constant grunting, and a greater 
 quickness in the breath, accompanied with an 
 unsteady, staggering gait. Bleeding, strong 
 purgatives, and cold effusions applied to the 
 head, followed by low diet and cooling medi- 
 cines, are the remedies. 
 
 FEVER. 
 The symptoms of this disease are, redness 
 of the eyes, dryness and heat of tlie nostrils, 
 the lips, and the skin generally. The appetite 
 
 is entirely gone, or very indifiorcnt; whilst tho 
 thirst is usually violetit. Tho animal should, 
 as soon as possible, bo bled at the back of tho 
 ears; and if this is not sufficient, a portion 
 of the tail should be excised. ( lood and com- 
 fortable housing must bo attended to; whilst, nt 
 the same time, there must bo a free admission 
 of fresii air. The bleeding will, perhaps, in 
 an hour or two be followed by such a return 
 of appetite as to induce tho animal to eat 
 sufficiently to enable it to support tho ad- 
 ministration of some internal remedies. For 
 giving it these, the best vehicle is bread, 
 steeped in broth. The fever, however, will 
 usually be found to yield to tho bleeding ; and 
 the only object to be kept in view is, to en- 
 deavour to support the strength of the animal 
 by small portions of nourishing food frequently 
 administered. It must, however, be borne in 
 mind, that, as the hog surpasses every other 
 animal in the rapidity witli which it accumu- 
 lates fat, so does it in the facility with which 
 its strength becomes prostrated when once it 
 loses its appetite. The French veterinarian 
 practice recommends the addition of pepper- 
 mint to the bread and broth ; and if the 
 bowels are confined, the addition of castor and 
 (unboiled) linseed oil, in equal quantities, and 
 in the proportion of two to six ounces, accord- 
 ing to the size of the pig, should not b- 
 omitted. Mr. Moubray relates the following; 
 instructive case, which may serve as an ex- 
 ample to be taken in others : — " One of my 
 sows, ibur years old, a good mother, remark- 
 ably good-tempered, a cross between tho 
 Oxford and China breeds, with eleven fine 
 pigs by her side, which had been farrowed 
 three weeks, was suddenly seized with fever 
 and inflammation. In twelve hours she be- 
 came unable to stand ; was very restless, and 
 apparently in great agony ; no evacuation 
 having taken place during two days. In conse- 
 quence, I called in the aid of a noted cow-leech 
 in tho vicinity, who gravely promised he would 
 do what he could for her, but that all would 
 be of no use. The operations of bleeding, 
 anointing, and medicine, were carried on for 
 three days, at a charge of thirty-five shillings, 
 when tho sage doctor dismissed the case, with 
 the consolation to me that he could do no 
 more for the patient, and that it was impossi- 
 ble that she could live. I then took her in 
 
 795 
 
FJEVEE.] 
 
 PIG^S, 
 
 [rEVER. 
 
 hand myself, bled her, and gave her a strong 
 dose of salts and jalap, which I succeeded in 
 delivering, her jaws being held open by a rope 
 attached to each. In about an hour there- 
 after she had three pints of warm gruel ; and 
 in less than three hours I had the satisfaction 
 of obaei-ving symptoms of great tranquillity 
 and improvement in my patient. After leav- 
 ing her at night on a clean and comfortable 
 bed, I was gratified by finding her on her legs 
 the next morning, and in a fair way of re- 
 covering. I then repeated tlie above dose, 
 somewhat reduced in strength, and still keep- 
 ing her on warm gruel, when, in two days, 
 my satisfaction was complete, on finding her 
 quite restored to her former health, saving a 
 little inconvenience from the obstruction of her 
 milk. Of the young pigs, previously removed, 
 nine did well ; and the sow became freed from 
 all relics of her disease in ten or twelve days. 
 I did not, however, choose to risk another 
 farrow with her, therefore put her to the boar 
 in October, and fed her for the knife. She 
 was killed at Christmas, and made excellent 
 bacon. Thus, I saved a fine bog by Dr. 
 Common Sense, to atone for the insufficiency 
 of the most skilful leech then and there going ; 
 and if my brethren pig-breeders would follow 
 my example, in most cases, in my opinion, it 
 would be to the benefit both of their pockets 
 and their pigs." 
 
 There is a description of fever that frequently 
 occurs as an epizootic, which is described by 
 M. Kooche Lubin, in The Veterinaricm, and 
 from which we make some detached extracts 
 bearing upon this subject. 
 
 " The Charlonneiise typhus of pigs does not 
 always assume the same character. It often 
 attacks the male pigs, and generally the most 
 vigorous and the best looking, without any 
 distinction of age, and with a force and promp- 
 titude absolutely astonishing ; for in the space 
 of twelve hours I have seen a whole piggery 
 succumb. At other times its progress is mucli 
 slower; the symptoms are less intense and 
 less alarming; uud the veterinary surgeon, 
 employed at the commencement of the attack^ 
 may promise himself some success. It will 
 be advisable to divide the whole into difierent 
 classes. 
 
 " PlRST ChK^Q.— Symptoms. — The pigs that 
 are ranged in this class often die without 
 790 
 
 there being the slightest precursory symptoms. 
 I have been able to collect only the following : 
 — Sudden loss of appetite, and a general 
 prostration of strength ; small and frequent 
 pulse ; the ears drooping, of a dark colour, and 
 tender to the touch ; the eyes projecting and 
 haggard ; the conjunctiva of a deep red ; the 
 mouth half open, red, and charged with foam ; 
 a leaden tint stealing over the part ; frequent 
 and laborious perspiration ; anxiety ; plaintive 
 cries ; frequent convulsions ; the appearance 
 of red spots, and becoming more and more 
 deep at the ears, the belly, and the inner sur- 
 face of the thighs; palsy of the hind limbs; 
 involuntary and fetid discharge. In less than 
 an hour this animal died. 
 
 " Second Class. — Symptoms. — In this class 
 I range the pigs in which charbonneuse typhus 
 follows a somewhat rapid march, and offers 
 some sufficiently distinct periods. The symp- 
 toms that are the least alarming, and the 
 malady the least rebellious, are the following : 
 — The animal is dispirited, continually lying 
 down, and not getting up without evident 
 pain; the ear is hot and painful; the pulse 
 quick, but regular; the conjunctiva red; the 
 eye fixed ; the respiration a little agitated ; the 
 flank distended and painful ; the tail hanging 
 down ; the animal drinking with difficulty, and 
 eating, without appetite, even the most delicious 
 food ; he is likewise constipated. This state 
 sometimes remains two days without any sen- 
 sible change ; but, on the third or fourth day, 
 if the medicine that we have employed is with- 
 out effect, the symptoms redouble their inten- 
 sity. The pig grinds his teeth, trembles, and 
 is convulsed in every part ; the pulse becomes 
 intermittent, and, by degrees, is almost per- 
 fectly lost; the pupil is dilated; the red spots 
 become more and more deep in colour, and 
 death is near at hand. The pathological lesions 
 are nearly the same as those already described, 
 except those of the tissues. I have sometimes 
 found the nasal and buccal membranes quite 
 decomposed, and the interior of the mouth 
 presenting numerous black and charbonneuse 
 spots. One mark should be regarded. The 
 sows with young ones always resist the attack 
 of the disease ; but, as soon as the little ones 
 are produced, the malady does not spare either 
 the one or the other. The causes of the dis- 
 ease are, in the majority of cases the had sties 
 
rEVEH.] 
 
 AND Til 1:1 R VAIMOUS i; K H H DS. 
 
 [feyeb. 
 
 in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome 
 victuals which they often contain. The food 
 which the pign nu'ct with and devour, is the re- 
 mains of inoulii) hit'ad and fruit, more especially 
 peas and lentils — the fermentation and decom- 
 position of which fariniicious suhstances, with 
 the quantity of bran which \s too frequently 
 given to them, occasion the most serious ills in 
 the animal economy, in addition to this, is 
 the constant lyint;: on the dung-heap, whence is 
 exhaled a vast volume of deleterious gas; and 
 also, when they remain too long on muddy or 
 arid ground, or are exposed to the rigour of 
 the season for any length of time. Such are 
 the causes which eficct a functional derange- 
 ment that cannot fail of being dangerous or 
 fatal, especially when brought back to the farm. 
 The pigs are then exposed to an alarming de- 
 gree of humidity ; they lay themselves down on 
 a poisonous and disgusting dung-heap, which 
 is certainly destructive. I could also cite many 
 villages and farms which, for two months of 
 the year, have the houses of their pigs desti- 
 tute of almost everything that is conilbrtable 
 and useful. Although, during the whole course 
 of the year, this typhoid disease never suspends 
 its ravages, yet there are certain times in which 
 it rages with great intensity — in the course of 
 the summer, and the commencement of autumn. 
 Tliere are farms and communes where it is 
 enzootic. It is a highly contagious disease. I 
 could cite many facts confirmatory of this ; and 
 need only speak of the inoculation in different 
 parts of the body, and the ichorous matter 
 which is contained in the spots that aflect 
 every part. The consequence to the pigs at 
 first brought home, apparently sound, is, that 
 when a little time has passed away, the disease 
 spreads through the whole of the piggery. 
 As to the transmission of tlie malady, by oi-dl- 
 nary means, to difierent kinds of animals, I 
 am unable to give any opinion. The flesh of 
 infected pork has been given to dogs. Is'o evil 
 has resulted from this experiment ; and the 
 inoculation of blood and of ichorous matter 
 has not occasioned any morbid affection to 
 the last of these animals ; but it was not the 
 same with regard to some sheep that were 
 submitted to a similar experiment. They 
 died two days alter the operation, presenting 
 all the symptoms and pathological lesions of 
 charhonueuse fever. 
 
 *• Preservative Treatment. — The experience of 
 every day proves that it is more easy to pre- 
 vent a malady than to cure or coujbut it. In 
 consequence, 1 have always said to the far- 
 mers who suller the accumulation of typhoid 
 maladies, that they will never banish these from 
 their piggeries whilst the system of careless- 
 ness and ignorance, touching the rearing of tho 
 pig, continues to bo bo negligently overlooked. 
 i have always said to them, that, in despite of 
 their singular remedies, tho scourge under 
 which they labour will not disappear nnlil 
 they place the animals in proper situations — 
 not humid, but well aired, and where the liti'jr 
 is often renewed ; until, also, they give tiiein 
 sound nourishment, properly regulated, and of 
 sufficient quantity ; a pure and limpid water to 
 quench their thirst; and bathe them, when- 
 ever the temperature is much increased, while 
 they are weltering in the mire. It is also 
 requisite that the pigs should remain in their 
 sties in cold and rainy weather. In the course of 
 the summer, it is always necessary to give, 
 from time to time, some nitrated, salted, and 
 acidulated food. The Kochefort cheese is a 
 useful stimulant for those that are weak and 
 feeble ; and the administration of any bitter de- 
 coction will often be productive of benefit. 
 During the principal ravages of the epizootic, I 
 have seen benefit derived from small quantities 
 of camphor and nitre, mixed with a decoction 
 of sorrel. To this some have added, and with 
 considerable benefit, a small quantity of mer- 
 cury. The nasal membrane then secretes 
 more abundantly, the urine is clear and more 
 frequent, and the evacuation of the foecal 
 matter is more easy and copious. This mode 
 of treatment may be continued eight days. 
 If a pig is evidently ill, it should be separated 
 from its companions ; and even their abode 
 should be changed, and fumigation should be 
 practised every tliird day. As soon as a pig 
 is attacked with disease, he should be separated 
 from the others, placed in a warm situation, 
 some stimulating ointment applied to the 
 cliest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. 
 Trictions of vinegar should be applied to the 
 dorsal and lumbar region, with aromatic fumi- 
 gation about the belly. The drinks should be 
 emollient, and slightly mixed with nitre and 
 vinegar. If the fever now appears to be losing 
 ground, which may be ascertained by the 
 
 797 
 
IJSTLAM3IATI0IT.J 
 
 PIGS. 
 
 [lepeost. 
 
 regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the 
 plaintive cries that were before heard, by a 
 respiration less laborious, by the absence of 
 convulsions, and by the non-appearance of 
 blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of 
 recovery. We may then be content to ad- 
 minister, every second hour, the drinks and 
 the lavements already prescribed, and to give 
 the patient his proper allowance of white 
 water, with ground barley and rye. "When, 
 however, instead of these fortunate results, the 
 symptoms are redoubling in intensity, it will 
 be better to destroy the animal ; for it is rare 
 that, after a certain period, there is much or 
 any chance of recovery. Bleeding, practised 
 at the ear or tail, is seldom of much avail, but 
 occasionally produces considerable loss of vital 
 power and augments the putrid diathesis." 
 
 FOUL SKIN. 
 
 Washing the animal with a solution of 
 chloride of lime, and keeping it clean, will gene- 
 rally cure this disease, provided it has not 
 been sufiered to go so far as to have assumed 
 a malignant character. 
 
 HEAVINGS. 
 
 This disease takes its name from the prin- 
 cipal symptom by which it is characterised, 
 and, is scarcely to be regarded as curable. 
 "In its first stage," says Mr. Eichardson, 
 " when indicated by loss of appetite, and a 
 short hard cough, it might run some chance of 
 being got under by copious bleeding, and 
 friction with stimulating ointment on the 
 region of the lungs. Minute and frequent 
 doses of tartar emetic should also be given in 
 butter ; all food of a stimulating nature care- 
 fully avoided, and the animal kept dry and 
 warm. Under these circumstances there 
 would be no reason absolutely to despair of a 
 cure ; but it would be advisable at the same 
 time, if the pig, when this primary stage of 
 the malady is discovered, were not in verv 
 poor condition, to put him to death." The 
 cause of the disease is damp lodging, foul air, 
 want of ventilation, and unwholesome food. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 This disease is frequent among pigs. Pro- 
 fessor Dick says, that the only hope of savintr 
 the patient, is by attacking the complaint in 
 798 
 
 its early stages. Bleeding should be imme- 
 diately resorted to. A dose of the followino- 
 ingredients may be tried to stave off consump- 
 tive tendencies : — 
 
 Spirit of sweet nitre . 
 Digitalis tincture 
 Emetic tartar . 
 Hydroceanic acid o 
 
 T oz. 
 20 drops. 
 
 1 drachm. 
 10 drops. 
 
 If, after the first stage, incipient infiammatory 
 action passes over, warmth and milk diet will 
 be necessary ; and the sooner the animal is fed 
 the better. Mr. Youatt says, as soon as the 
 first symptoms are perceived, the animal 
 should be bled ; the palate will, perhaps, be 
 the best place to take blood from ; purgatives 
 must then be given, but with caution. Ep- 
 som salts and sulphur will be the best, adminis- 
 tered in a dose of from two to four drachms 
 of each, according to the size of the animal. 
 To these may succeed sedative medicines, 
 composed of the following ingredients : — 
 
 Digitalis . 
 
 Pulv. antimonialis 
 
 Nitre 
 
 2 grains. 
 6 „ 
 •9 drachm. 
 
 This forms a very soothing and efficient medi- 
 cament for moderate-sized pigs, and will often 
 produce very satisfactory results. Cleanliness, 
 warmth, and wholesome, cooling, nutritious 
 food, are likewise valuable aids in combating 
 this disease. 
 
 JAUNDICE. 
 
 The symptoms of this disease exhibit them- 
 selves in a yellowness of the white of the eyes, 
 and also of the lips, and sometimes in a swell- 
 ing of the under portion of the jaw. In 
 treating for it, the food given to the animal 
 should be restricted, and an aperient given to 
 it every day. Aloes, combined with colocinth, 
 in proportion to the size of the animal, may 
 be administered. French veterinarians have 
 recommended a decoction of woodbine-leaves, 
 with shoots ; but we are not prepared to speak 
 of the effects of this preparation. 
 
 LEPROSY. 
 
 The symptoms of this complaint naually 
 show themselves in a small humour in the eye, 
 the head drooping, the breathing short and 
 hot, accompanied with giddiness, and a dis- 
 charge of matter from the eyes. When the 
 
LKTllAltUt.] 
 
 AND Til 1:1 K VAKIOL'S lUiEEDS. 
 
 MANOS. 
 
 disease is pretty far advanced, the ukin be- 
 comes quite scaly. The flesli of a leprous pig is 
 Baid to possess extremely deleterious qualities, 
 aud to bo wliolly unfit for human food. In 
 the fust stage of the disease, a little blood 
 should be taken Irom the animal by cutting 
 the ear aud tail ; then boil a handful of nettles 
 in a gallon of small beer, and add half a pound 
 of Hour of sulphur, a quarter of a pound of pul- 
 verised aniseeds, three ounces of liquorice, 
 and a quarter of a pound of elecampane. 
 This liquid should bo given in milk in six 
 doses, and the diseased animal kept on whole- 
 some food. To remove the scurf, the pig should 
 be washed with soap and warm water. Mr. 
 Kichardson recommends the following mode 
 of treatment : — " The cause of this disease is 
 want of cleanliness, absence of fresh air, want 
 of due attention to ventilation, and foul feed- 
 ing. The obvious cure, therefore, is — first, 
 bleed ; clean out the sty daily ; wash the af- 
 fected animal thoroughly with soap and water, 
 to which soda or potash has been added; 
 supply him with a clean bed ; keep him dry 
 and comfortable ; let him have gentle exercise, 
 and plenty of fresh air ; limit the quantity of 
 his food, aud diminish its rankness ; give bran 
 with wash, in which you may add, for an 
 average-sized hog, say one of 20 stone (8 lbs. to 
 the stone), or IGO lbs. weight, a tablespoonful 
 of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre 
 as will cover a sixpence, daily. A few grains 
 of powdered antimony may also be given with 
 effect. The animal, if in the summer, should 
 be kept in the shade, and placed in a house 
 facing the north, where he may have free access 
 of air of the coolest kind." 
 
 LETHARGY. 
 The symptoms of this disease exhibit them- 
 eelves by the animal apparently labouring 
 under depression, with the head drooping, 
 the eyes occasionally red, a general torpor, 
 and a great desire to sleep characterising 
 
 this, reduce the quantity of food usuaMy 
 allowed, and mix with each morning's miul a 
 little sulphur and nitre. 
 
 Lie P.. 
 
 !!\rercurial ointment, tobacco-water, and tur- 
 pentine, are the most effectual remedies for 
 vermin, which are engendered by inattention 
 to cleanliness, and often become exceedingly 
 iroublesomo and annoying. Every animal 
 affected with vermin should immediately bo 
 separated from its herd, to prevent the affec- 
 tion extending. Mr. Parkinson says, " the 
 cause of vermin infecting animals, clearly 
 arises, in a general way, from bad feeding, 
 which occasions weakness of the blood ; for," 
 he adds, " if an animal be ever so lousy, by 
 giving him strong food for a few days, the 
 vermin will disappear, probably because the 
 rich blood is poison to them." He considers 
 that a free access to water for bathing, also 
 occasional exposure to heavy rain, is not only 
 necessary to the general hcaUh of swine, but 
 a most excellent preventive of vermin. 
 
 MANGE. 
 
 Mange is, by some, supposed to be caused by 
 the presence of a minute insect, called acarus 
 scabiei, or "mange-fly," burrowing beneath 
 the cuticle, and, in its progress through the 
 skin, causing much irritation and annoyance. 
 Others, again, ascribe it to a diseased state of 
 the blood, which eventually conveys its morbid 
 influences to the superficial tissues. But what- 
 ever may be the cause, the si/mptotns of the 
 disease are sufiicieutly well known. These 
 consist of blotches, scabs, and sometimes mul- 
 titudes of minute pustules, on different parts 
 of the body. 
 
 In treating for this disease, it is recom* 
 mended, by Mr. Eichardson, that the animal 
 should fast for five or six hours ; after whichi 
 to a pig of average size, give Epsom salts, 
 2 oz., in a warm bran wash. This quantity is, 
 
 the whole appearance. It is caused by the ! of course, to be increased or diminished as the 
 want of cleanliness, improper food, and bad size may require it; but would suffice for a 
 
 air. In treating for it, the animal should be 
 bled as copiously as possible at the back of both 
 the ears, or at the tail. Besides this, admin- 
 ister an emetic, consisting of a decoction of 
 chrometic flowers, or a dose of emetic in ac- 
 cordance with the size of the patient. After 
 
 pig of from 15 to 20 stone (8 lbs. to the stone). 
 It should be previously mixed with a pint of 
 warm water, to which should be added about 
 half a gallon of the warm bran wash. It will 
 act as a gentle purgative, and be found highly 
 beneficial. 
 
 799 
 
MEASLES.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [PARTUEITION. 
 
 Give afterwards, in every meal, for three 
 days or a week— according as you observe the 
 state of the disease— one tablespoonful of flour 
 of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a 
 sixpence. When you perceive the scabs begin 
 to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery 
 sores to fade, you may pronounce your patient 
 cured. But, before that pleasing result will 
 make its appearance, you will perceive an ap- 
 parent increase of violence in all the symptoms 
 —the last eff'ort of the expiring malady, as it 
 were, ere it finally yields to your care and 
 
 skill . 
 
 There are, liowever, some very obstinate 
 cases of mange occasionally to be met with, 
 which will not be so readily subdued. When 
 tlie above mode of treatment has been put in 
 practice for fourteen days, without efi'ecting a 
 cure, prepare the following : — 
 
 Train oil . 
 
 Oil of tar 
 
 Sph-its of turpentine 
 
 Naphtha . 
 
 1 pint. 
 
 2 drachms. 
 2 „ 
 
 1 ., 
 
 Add as much flour of sulphur as will form the 
 above into the consistence of a thick paste. 
 Eub the animal, previously washed, with this 
 mixture, and let no portion of the hide escape. 
 Keep the pig dry and warm after this applica- 
 tion, and sufi"er it to remain on the skin for 
 three entire days. On the fourth day, wash 
 it off once more with soft soap, adding a small 
 quantity of soda to the water. Dry the animal 
 well afterwards, and allow it to remain quiet, 
 having again changed its bedding for a day or 
 so. Continue the sulp^iur and nitre as before. 
 The patient being convalescent, whitewash the 
 sty ; fumigate it, by placing a little chloride of 
 lime in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a 
 little vitriol upon it. In the absence of vitriol, 
 however, boiling water will answer nearly as 
 well. 
 
 MEASLES. 
 Mr. Touatt describes this disease as rather 
 a sub-cutaucous than an actual afi'eetion of the 
 skin, consisting of a large number of small 
 watery pustules, which take up their seat 
 between the skin and the fat, and scatter 
 themselves, besides, throughout the cellular 
 tissue and the adipose matter. Some have 
 supposed it to be a milder form of leprosy — a 
 SOU 
 
 supposition which has a good deal to support 
 it. The measles in the hog is not always fatal ; 
 but it has a very deleterious effect upon the 
 quality of the flesh, making it pale, flabby, 
 tasteless, and little disposed to take salt. In 
 the adoption of remedial measures, the animal 
 should be made to fast for twenty-four hours, 
 and then have a warm drink, containing an 
 ounce of bole armenian, and a drachm of car- 
 bonate of soda. Cleanliness should be care- 
 fully attended to ; and at every feeding, or three 
 times a day, it should be given thirty grains of 
 flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. The ancients 
 treated a hog affected with the measles in the 
 following manner : — After being put into a sty, 
 and kept three days and nights without food, 
 they took five or six apples, picked out their 
 cores, and filled up the holes thus made with 
 flour of brimstone. The holes were then 
 stopped, and the apples thrown to the measly 
 hog. He first tasted one or two, then one or 
 two more, until he ate them all. He was thus 
 treated for five or six days, by which time be 
 was quite well, and as wholesome as ever. 
 
 MURRAIN. 
 The murrain bears a great resemblance to 
 leprosy in its symptoms, with the addition of 
 shortness of breath, staggering, and a discharge 
 of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth. The 
 treatment should consist of cleanliness, cool- 
 ness, purging, bleeding, and limitation of 
 food. Cloves of garlic have been recom- 
 mended to be given. Garlic is an antiseptic ; 
 and as, in all those febrile diseases, there 
 exists, more or less, a tendency to putrefaction, 
 it is not improbable that it may be found 
 useful. 
 
 PARTURITION. 
 
 Of all domestic animals, the pig suffers least 
 from parturition. This, however, is not a dis- 
 ease ; still, as it frequently requires surgical 
 care, we have placed it in this chapter. No 
 animal is so easily delivered as the pig, which, 
 when her time is near, generally discovers 
 considerable uneasiness ; first, by being angry 
 with every one of her species that happens to 
 fall in her way, and then by collecting straw, 
 and carrying it to the place she seems to have 
 chosen to litter. She must not be interrupted 
 in this, or prevented from doing it. It is 
 
PAitTUiu rioy.] 
 
 AND TIIEIli VAIMOUS JJKI'KDS. 
 
 [UAUIKS. 
 
 luT nature thus to act ; and wIkmi lliat is 
 satialied, she will bo inoro reconciled to 
 her condition. Allien lier bod is niado, slio 
 should bo taken into a liouao somewhat dark, 
 about eiLjht or nine feet sijuare, which will bo 
 room Bufllcient to admit of her turning hor- 
 Bclf in every direction. IMr. Kichardson re- 
 commends tor this, a lath to bo run round the 
 house, six inches from the ground, and six 
 from nil sides of the house, well stayed below, 
 and on each side, by perpendicular and hori- 
 zontal pieces of wood. This will prevent her 
 lying close to any one side of the house, and 
 keep her from crushing to death any of her 
 oflspring during the throes of parturition. 
 At the commencement of her troubles, atten- 
 tion is necessary, to see that she is all right. 
 She must be kept as still as possible, unless 
 needing help, whicli is not often the case. 
 It does, however, occur ; as, when a false 
 presentation, a sinking of the pig into the 
 uterus, instead of its being presented in the 
 vagina, or a contracted orifice shows itself. 
 In the latter instance, a veterinary surgeon, 
 of correct anatomical knowledge, is indispen- 
 sable. The most usual false presentation is 
 when the pig comes sideways, and so chokes 
 the passage. In such a case, a mere turn with 
 the hand will make things as they should be. 
 If the pig has sunk down, it may be necessary 
 to have a child's hand introduced, to raise up 
 the young animal to its proper position. This 
 will succeed when all other methods fail. 
 As soon as each pig is delivered it should be 
 placed before its mother, and it will soon 
 begin to select its teat. Once selected, it 
 will generally keep to it, if its right is not 
 disputed by a stronger brother. If any pig 
 should be extremely weak, and the weather 
 very cold, it may be taken near the fire, 
 and wrapped in flannel. So soon as parturi- 
 tion is completed, the sow will begin to 
 cleanse — or, in other words, eject the placenta ; 
 which, when accomplished, should at once be 
 removed, or she may begin to eat it, or learn 
 from it to devour poultry, lambs, and, very 
 probably, her own produce. As parturition 
 usually begets thirst, let the sow have a 
 quart of slightly warmed milk, thickened with 
 a little bran. This is one of the best of 
 medicines. As soon as she has cleansed, and 
 all the young ones have been suckled, she 
 
 K 
 
 shoulit bo gently dnvi-ii out to slaie. '• A littlo 
 caro of her boweis, plenty of bran and milk 
 food, given in small (juantities, with frequent 
 turning out for short periods in a sheltered 
 place, will bo necessary at first. If much 
 fever or consti[)ation should take place, a 
 little sulphur — two heaped toaspoonfuls — in 
 her milk will relievo her; nor will she refuse 
 tho milk which contains it, if it is thickened 
 with a littlo wheat meal, liarley, and even 
 oatmeal, must bo avoided for tho first three 
 or four days. Afterwards she may have :inv 
 kind of food whatever, except meal, which, 
 useful as it is to store pigs, should never be 
 given to those that are suckling." 
 
 QUINSY. 
 
 This disease consists of an infiaramatory 
 affection of the glands of the throat ; is of fre- 
 quent occurrence, and often proves fatal. 
 Acidulated drinks, tonics, cleanliness, warmth, 
 and strict attention to diet, accompanied with 
 active cautery to the root of the evil, is the 
 treatment prescribed. In Mr. Richardson's 
 treatise, we find shaving away the hair, and 
 rubbing the parts affected with tartar emeiic 
 ointment, recommended. " Steeping with very 
 warm water is considered useful. AVhen ex- 
 ternal suppuration takes place, it may be re- 
 garded as rather a favourable symptom than 
 otherwise. In this case, wait until the swell- 
 ings are thoroughly ripe ; then, with a sharp 
 knife, make an incision through the entire 
 length, press out the matter, wash with warm 
 water, and afterwards dress the wound with 
 any resinous ointment, which can be obtained 
 from the nearest apothecary. If this cannot be 
 obtained, a very tolerable substitute may be 
 made by blending yellow soap with coarse 
 brown sugar." 
 
 R.\BIES. 
 
 This is one of those diseases which is, per- 
 haps, developed in the greatest possible degree 
 in the pig. All hope of recovery should be at 
 once abandoned, and the animal slaughtered 
 by shooting, and buried whole. If there is 
 any chance of preventing the affliction, it is 
 by immediate incision of the part where the 
 animal has been bitten, and an application of 
 the cautery. Medicines may alleviate the 
 symptoms, but the disease is incurable. 
 
 bOl 
 
BPAYIXG.] 
 
 PIGS, 
 
 [tetanus. 
 
 SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN. 
 In the hog the spleen is of great length, 
 and, throughout its whole extent, of nearly 
 uniform thickness and breadth. The symptom 
 which indicates tlie disease called ratille, is per- 
 ceived by the animal leaning towards one side, 
 bending towards the ground, and drawing it- 
 self together, as it were, from internal suffer- 
 ing. The cause of this proceeds from over- 
 feeding, which, in the animal, has injured the 
 condition of the secretions, and obstructed 
 the excretory ducts. As a curative, strong 
 aperients, to produce copious evacuations, are 
 recommended ; also bleeding, if the disease 
 has continued some length of time. French 
 veterinarians recommend the expressed juice 
 of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liver- 
 wort, to be given in quantities of half a pint to 
 a dose. The decoction of these plants, pro- 
 duced by boiling them in soft water for six 
 hours, is more readily obtained than the ex- 
 pressed juice ; and this may be given in doses 
 oi" from half a pint to a pint and a-half, accord- 
 ing to the size, age, &c., of the patient. 
 IScammony and rhubarb, mixed up in a bran 
 mash, or with Indian meal, may be given the 
 following day, or equal portions of blue-pill 
 and compound colocynth pill, formed into a 
 bolus with butter; and the animal, having 
 been kept fasting the previous night, will 
 probably swallow it. If not, it is recom- 
 mended to keep the pig fasting for a couple of 
 hours longer, and then it will take it. Lower 
 the diet, and keep it on reduced fare, with 
 exercise, and, if you can manage it, p'azinr/, 
 until the malady has quite passed away. If 
 you then wish to fatten, do so gradually. Be 
 cautious of at once restoring the patient to 
 lull diet. Indeed, it would be better to keep 
 it for a month as a store ; and then feed at 
 regular intervals, always removing vrhatever 
 food is left from each meal. 
 
 SPAYING. 
 Spaying of female pigs is an operation 
 which usually requires considerable care ; and 
 is generally performed when the pig is about 
 three weeks old. The whole litter is usually 
 cut at prices varying, in difierent localities, Irom 
 Is. Qd. to 25. Gflf. per litter, great or small. 
 In performing the operation, the little animal 
 S02 
 
 is first laid on its right side, and the two hind 
 legs are stretched out straight, so as to allow 
 the mid-flank to come fairly under the eye and 
 hand of the operator. An incision, about two 
 inches long, is then made with a round-pointed 
 knife, and the thumb and finger are introduced 
 to search for the ovaries, which, from their 
 being separate at one end, and presenting a 
 convoluted or knotted appearance to the eye, 
 are easily found. These are collected together, 
 and folded in a downward direction over the 
 edge of the wound. "When the operator finds 
 that all are exposed, he cuts them by a little 
 pressure of the knife towards the skin, and 
 the uterus falls back into its place. He now 
 stitches up the orifice, and the animal usually 
 very soon recovers. The operator should 
 clean his knife well after every cut ; secure the 
 whole of the ovaria, and be careful not to 
 stitch up any of the intestines with the skin. 
 If this be done, death is almost certain to 
 follow. Though this operation is usually per- 
 formed at or before the pig is a month old, it 
 may be safely done at any reasonable age of 
 the animal. 
 
 STAGGERS. 
 
 Tliis complaint is caused by excess of blood 
 to the head. Bleed freely from behind the 
 ears, and purge. 
 
 SURFEIT. 
 
 This is another name for indigestion. The 
 symptoms are — loss of appetite, swelling of the 
 region about the stomach, &c., and fi'equently 
 throwing up the food. The illness will, in 
 general, pass away of itself, provided the ani- 
 mal be kept from any kind of food for a few 
 hours. A small quantity of sweet grains, with 
 a little bran wash, may then be given, but not 
 nearly so much as the animal will take. For 
 a few days the food had better be limited in 
 quantity, and also be of a washy, liquid 
 nature. 
 
 TETANUS. 
 
 The common name for this disease is Lock- 
 jaw, and is by no means an unlrequent malady 
 in pigs. It is often produced in young ones 
 by castration, especially if, after this operation, 
 they are highly fed for a few days. The disease 
 is frequently fatal, and soon brings the life of 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 AM) Till; Hi VAKlors lUiEEDS. 
 
 [medicikes 
 
 the patient to a termiuation. Bleediug, lotions, 
 warm baths, ami friction, witli stimulating oils, 
 are all recomiuoniloil ; also pur^^iitivcs, if the 
 mouth can be forced to admit them ; if uot, 
 anoilvncs and enemas must be given. 
 
 TUMOURS. 
 
 Tuiiiourfi, or liard tswellings, niako their 
 appearance on dillerent parts of the auiumrs 
 body. Give aperient medicines; keep the 
 
 animal clean, and administer u change of 
 wholesomo food. 
 
 These are all the principal diseases to which 
 swino are subject. Tho remedies accompanv • 
 in<j them are such as have been found njo.>^t 
 i.'lleclual ; but where these fail, a skilful practi- 
 tioner should be called in, that tlie lifu uf a 
 valuable animal may not bo sacriliccd. 
 
 MEDICINES USED IX THE TKEATMENT OF DISEASES IN SWINE. 
 
 Antimony. — Tiiis is rarely given alone; but, in 
 combination with sulphur, it forms a cooling and 
 cleansing medicine. Wiien combined with sul- 
 j)hur, hog's-lard, or palm or train-oil, it forms the 
 common mange-ointment. 
 
 AKsr.NlC. — Used in cases of disease of the skin. 
 To form a solution of sufficient strength for 
 external application, use from one ounce to 
 an ounce and a-half, dissolved in a gallon of 
 water. Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a 
 bluish-while colour, subject to tarnish, and grows 
 first yellowish, then black, by exposure to air. 
 It is brittle, and, when broken, exhibits a lami- 
 nated texture. Its specific gravity is 5 -703. In 
 close Vessels it sublimes entire at 35G° F., but 
 burns with a small flame if respirable air be 
 present. The arsenic met with in commerce has 
 the form of a white oxide. It is brought chiefly 
 from the cobalt works in Saxony, where zafTre is 
 made. Co!)alt ores contain much arsenic, which 
 is driven off by long torrefaction. The ore is 
 thrown irlo a furnace, resembling a baker's oven, 
 with a fiue, or horizontal chimney, nearly 200 
 yards long, into which the fumes pass, and are 
 condensed into a greyish or blackisli powder. 
 This is refined by a second sublimation in close 
 vessels, with a little potash, to detain the impu- 
 rities. As the heat is considerable, it melts the 
 sublimed flowers into those crystalline masses 
 which are met with in commerce. Arsenic is 
 used in a variety of arts, and enters into metallic 
 combinations, wherein a white colour is required. 
 It is a deadly poison when received into the 
 stomach. The best remedies are mucilaginous 
 liquids and milk. Syrups and linseed tea are of 
 service. Vomiting should be excited by tickling 
 the throat with a feather. 
 
 Arsenic Acid is formed by the distillation of the 
 white oxide with nitric acid ; or by exposing it 
 
 to chlorine vaixiur. It is a white concrete sub- 
 stance. The arsenic acid has a sour, and, at the 
 same time, a metallic taste. It reddens vegetable 
 blues, attracts humidity from the atmosphere, 
 and effervesces strongly with solutions of alkaline 
 carbonates. AVilh alkalies, earths, and oxides, 
 it constitutes a class of salts, called arseniates. 
 The arseniate of potash was introduced into the 
 materia inedica by Dr. Fowler, for the cure of 
 agues; but it is not used in the diseases of 
 swine. 
 
 Calomel. — This drug being very dangerous, should, 
 whei'e used at all, be given with extreme caution. 
 In combination with an equal portion of tarta- 
 rised antimony, it may be administered in cases 
 of great emergency. To form an active emetic, 
 take from two to three grains. 
 
 Creosote. — In cases of virulent cutaneous erup- 
 tions this is a useful medicine. 
 
 Croton Oil. — In cases of severe constipation, 
 from one to three drops may be given of this 
 powerful 'purgative. 
 
 Digitalis. — Valuable as a sedative in cases of 
 fever. 
 
 Epsom Salts. — A purgative, used in almost every 
 ordinary case. In a general way, the dose is 
 from half an ounce to an ounce and a-half. 
 
 Gentian. — Used as a stomachic. A portion of it 
 should be given with every aperient draught, with 
 great care and consideration. 
 
 Ginger. — Used as a tonic. It is also an excellent 
 stomachic. 
 
 Linseed Oil. — In cases of considerable intes- 
 tinal inflammation, this may be given as a pur- 
 gative. 
 
 Mercurial Ointment.— In conjunction with the 
 sulphur ointment, this is used for the mange and 
 scab. The proportions are, one part of the former 
 to eight parts of the latter. 
 
 803 
 
MEDICINES.] 
 
 PIGS, AND THEIE VAUIOUS BEEEDS. 
 
 [medicines. 
 
 j;-j.pRE. In febrile cases this is used as a cooling 
 
 medicine. The dose is from one to two drachms, 
 dissolved in the water the animal drinks. 
 
 Palm Oil. — This is esteemed the most valuable 
 emollient for forming the basis of all ointments 
 for cutaneous eruptions. Under the name of 
 Palmce, Linnaeus arranged several genera, which 
 he placed apart in an appendix to his work. The 
 same plants constitute one of the seven families 
 or tribes into which all vegetables are distri- 
 buted by Liniiffius, in his Philosophia Botaimica. 
 They are defined to be plants with simple stems, 
 which, at their summit, bear leaves resembling 
 those of the ferns, being a composition of a leaf 
 and a branch ; and whose flowers and fruit are 
 produced on that particular receptacle, or seat, 
 called a spadix, protruded from a common calyx, 
 in form of a sheath or scabbard, termed by 
 Linnaeus "spalha." 
 
 Salt. — Valuable for purifying the blood. A little 
 of it should regularly be mixed with the food of 
 the animal. 
 
 Sulphur. — An excellent cooling medicine, and one 
 of the best, if not the best, gentle aperient for 
 
 common use. In mange-ointment it forms the 
 principal ingredient. 
 
 Tartar Emktic. — Used as an emetic. 
 
 Tobacco. — A decoction of this plant, when mingled 
 with equal parts of digitalis, is efficacious in 
 cases of mange and other cutaneous diseases. 
 
 Turpentine. — Useful in cases of worms, which it 
 destroys. There is no danger in administering 
 it to swine. 
 
 Vinegar. — Used in cooling fomentations. Its spe- 
 cific gravity varies from 1-0135 to 1-0251; and 
 it differs also in its other properties, according to 
 the liquid form in whicb it has been procured. 
 It is very subject to decomposition ; but Scheele 
 discovered, that if it is made to boil for a few mo- 
 ments, it may be kept afterwards for a long time 
 without alteration. Besides acetic acid and water-, 
 vinegar contains several other ingredients, such 
 as mucilage, tartar, a colouring matter, and often, 
 also, two or more vegetable acids. When dis- 
 tilled at a temperature not exceeding that of 
 boiling water, till about two-thirds of it have 
 passed over, all these impurities are left behind, 
 and the product is pure acid diluted with water. 
 
TM VISION VI r. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 CIIArTEIl I. 
 
 OniGIN OF TIIK rOMKSTIC FOWL. 
 
 Feom the earliest records of time, tlie cock 
 seems to have been known to man, and to liavc 
 held an important place in his estimation, not 
 only on account of his qualities as a table fowl, 
 but on account of the heroic courage with which, 
 as a game bird, he is animated in combating 
 for viotorv over an antagonist. Ilis origin, 
 however, is involved in obscurity. We have 
 no means of deciding where was situated the 
 Eden in which the Adam and Eve of our do- 
 mestic fowls were first placed. All, we believe, 
 are agreed that it was in the East; but it is 
 very singular tliat they arc no longer found in 
 a wild state, any more than the camel is ; that 
 their originals are a matter of theory and spec- 
 ulation rather than of certainty ; and that, if 
 we assign them to India, we can do so only by 
 a process of reasoning based upon probability, 
 rather than fact. Presuming, however, that 
 India was the country of their origin, we find 
 it stated, on the highest authority, that the 
 range of the wild common fowl does not 
 extend, westward, beyond the lofty ranges of 
 mountains tliat form the natural boundary of 
 India in that direction; and yet the domestic 
 bird is said, by the same authority, to liave 
 been common among the western nations from 
 the remotest antiquity. As difterent views of 
 this subject have been taken by difierent writers, 
 we will bring the theories of each before the 
 reader in a form as condensed as we possibly can. 
 One supposes that the early patriarchs, before 
 leaving the eastern cradle of mankind, were 
 fortunate enough to possess themselves of an 
 individual wild species of cock and hen ; which, 
 by some means, they managed to tame, and 
 attach to either themselves or the locality in 
 which they settled. By constant care these 
 became domesticated ; and their ofl'spring, in- 
 heriting the attachments of their parent:), be- 
 
 came still more civilised, and consequently 
 less inclined to wander from the j)lace of tlieir 
 birth. To what species, however, did this first 
 pair belong? Mr. Edward Blyth, Curator to 
 the Asiatic Society's IMuseum at Calcutta, and 
 one of the ablest ornithologists of the day, 
 adheres to the opinion that all the domestic 
 varieties of fowl are derived from one wild 
 species of jungle fowl — namely, from that 
 common in the Bengal Presidency, and the 
 countries to the east and south-ea^t of it, and 
 not at all from Gallus Sonncratii, as has been 
 so often suggested. " In the formerly Burmese 
 province of Arekan," says Mr. Richardson, 
 following Mr. Blyth's argument, " many of the 
 tame hens are scarcely distinguishable from 
 the wild, and only so by being a little coarser 
 in the leg, with a tendency generally to a 
 greater development of comb ; and these hens, 
 hardly removed from the wild, are fi'ce breeders. 
 Domestic cocks, of various breeds, may often 
 be found to match, feather by feather, with the 
 wild bird, even some of tolerably gigantic di- 
 mensions; and the voice is absolutely that of 
 an English game fowl. This is of importance, 
 as the notes of the two other Indian species 
 are so utterly difierent ; the dill'erence of voice 
 among the races of domestic fowls being as 
 nothing in comparison. Moreover, the wild 
 hen signifies aloud, after the same fashion as 
 the tame one, her deposition of an egg ; and 
 thus it is that the eggs are occasionally found, 
 though not very commonly." 
 
 ]\[r. Blyth remarks, in reference to the re- 
 searches of M. Suudevall — "He might well have 
 sought in vain for traces of the wild Gallus 
 Sun/icraiii in the domestic poultry of India, 
 inasmuch as though, curiously enough, I have 
 found that species of South India far moreeasiltf 
 domesticable than the Bengal jungle fowl — the 
 
OEIGINAIi FOWL.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [OKIGINAL FOWL. 
 
 latter is, 'beyond all question, the exclusive abori- 
 ginal stock from wliich the whole of our domestic 
 varieties of common poultry have desceuded." 
 
 Mr. Blyth continues — " However difFerent 
 these may be, whether the silky fowl of 
 China, the gigantic Chittagong race, or the 
 feather-legged bantams of Burmah, their 
 Toice at once and unmistakably proclaims 
 their origin, and is as difFerent as can be, 
 in every cry, from that of G. Sonneratii; 
 besides that we continually meet with common 
 domestic cocks which correspond, feather by 
 feather, with the wild bird, the peculiar notched 
 comb of which is again retained invariably, 
 even when the comb is double or compound. 
 This much premised, however, it is remarkable 
 that the domestic jjoultry of India do not ap- 
 proximate to the wild race in any respect more 
 closely than the common fowls of Europe ; and 
 I have sought in vain for traces of intermixture 
 of jungle-foivl blood in districts where the 
 species abounds in a state of nature^ 
 
 A friend of Mr. Blyth's, in one of his sport- 
 ing excursions in Cuttack, came upon the nest 
 of a jungle hen, in the hole of the trunk of 
 a tree. It contained nine eggs, which he took 
 home with him, and placed under a common 
 hen. The chickens were all reared, and lived 
 with his other poultry, being permitted to go 
 at large to feed during the day, whilst, at 
 roosting time, they returned home with the 
 other fowls. He, however, set no particular, 
 value on them ; but observed them sufficiently 
 to be able to state that they interbred with 
 the other fowls, and that the breed finally 
 merged in the general stock. From this, 
 taken in connection with other facts, Mr. 
 Blyth is certain that our domestic poultry 
 are derived from this particular wild species ; 
 and of the tame pea-fowl being desceuded 
 from the vital Indian one. He further 
 says, that the peculiarities of many of 
 the domestic breeds are not such as occur 
 among any wild birds whatever ; such, for in- 
 stance, as the silk fowl, with its black skin and 
 periosteum; the frizzled birds, with their 
 feathers twisted the wrong way; those with 
 supernumerary toes; and the feather-legged 
 varieties. This theory, however, is apt to 
 startle us when we think of the gigantic 
 Cochin-Chiuas and Malays, the tiny Bantams, 
 the superb Polish, and the droll Kumples and 
 8UG 
 
 Negro fowl, being all the progeny of one 
 single Indian species. This supposition, how- 
 ever, is coincident with that maintained by 
 some in reference to the origin of all tha 
 varieties of the dog:. 
 
 Mr. Blyth goes on to say — " It is a curious 
 instance of how little is currently known of 
 the zoology of India, that, to this day, authors 
 who write on the history of the common fowl, 
 generally repeat the statement, that 'its 
 original stock is very uncertain ; but it is sup- 
 posed to be descended from a wild species still 
 met with in the island of Java!' The truth 
 being, that the genuine wild common fowl is 
 familiarly known to every sportsman in all 
 Northern India, and is with justice highly 
 prized as a game bird — abounding in all 
 suitable localities, from the sub-Himalayan 
 region on the north, to the Viudhyan range on 
 tlie south, and spreading farther southward, 
 along the eastern coast of the peninsula, to 
 some distance beyond Vizagapatam ; while to 
 the eastward it likewise abounds in Assam, 
 and all along the eastern side of the Bay of 
 Bengal, throughout the Burmese countries, 
 the Malayan peninsula, Java, and Sumatra. 
 G. Sonneratii begins to replace it on the 
 Viudhyan range of hills, bordering tlie great 
 table-land of the peninsula to the northward ; 
 and wholly replaces it in Southern India 
 generally ; while in Ceylon two other wild 
 species occur, the hen of one of these being 
 figured by the name of G. Stanlejji, in Hard- 
 wick's Illustrations y 
 
 In support of his position, Mr. Blyth bids 
 us look to the crest of a Polish fowl, and see 
 how different it is to the crest of the pea-fowl, 
 or of the Impeyan Lophophorus, consisting of 
 hackles similar to those of the saddle and 
 neck. The same is the case witli the feather- 
 legged breeds. It is observed that the tarsal 
 plumelets of owls, grouse, &c., are of a charac- 
 ter peculiar to themselves ; while the foot 
 plumes of pigeons, and some other fowls, bear 
 a striking resemblance to those of the corre- 
 sponding joints of the wings. That animals 
 long domesticated fall into singular varieties, 
 we have sufficiently shown in the case of the 
 dog, which has entirely lost the uniformity of 
 appearance which, with the exception of a 
 few, is found in the numerous wild animals 
 belonging to that species. Even among fish 
 
OniOIXAL FOWL.] 
 
 POULTKV. 
 
 [onioiNAL rowL. 
 
 there are endlesa varietips. The domesticated 
 Cliinese gold lish is continually varyiiii? aa to 
 the nunibor of both its Una and tails, lu 
 place of one, some of thcao have three tails ; 
 whilst, in point of shape, tho changes are end- 
 less. These cireuiustauccs have a stronji^ 
 tendency to make us ceaso to wonder at tho 
 varieties found in other species of animals — 
 in the dog and tho domestic fowls. These are 
 much more under the inlluenco of domestica- 
 tion than the Gsh ; they are in nuieh more 
 constant association with man; whilst the 
 cross-breeding that is continually taking 
 place amongst them, may be expected, in the 
 course of time, to produce feathers, so dill'ercnt 
 from those which chanicterised their originals, 
 as to give them all the appearance of a new 
 and distinct species. In tho common fowl we 
 might expect extraordinary varieties. Every 
 day experimentalists are trying to produce 
 new breeds, which, in their turn, will produce 
 other breeds, and so on, until the originals are 
 lost, and an entirely diiferent character of fowl 
 is tlie result. 
 
 The principle that "like produces like," 
 applies to fowls, as much as to the horse, or 
 any other species of animal ; and it is from a 
 knowledge of this fact that the breeder acts 
 when he desires to produce another variety in 
 such animals as he may have under his care, 
 and will breed together. 
 
 AVith respect to cross-breeding, Mr. Teget- 
 meier remarks : — " Should it be deemed desir- 
 able to cross the Dorking, for the purpose of 
 producing a hardier fowl, such a plan as the 
 following seems to offer the best chance of suc- 
 cess ; being based upon the fact that, in cross- 
 breeding, the pullets usually resemble the 
 mother, and the cockerels the father. Early 
 in the year, so as to obtain a brood in May, 
 put two or three large Dorking hens with a 
 short-legged compact Cochin cock, either a 
 common buff, or a grey Shanghai, or Brahma 
 Pootra. Erom the chicken?, select those 
 pullets possessing, in the greatest degree, the 
 Dorking character— viz., having liue bone, short 
 white legs, and compact body, square on the 
 limbs ; in the following season mate them with 
 a good Dorking cock. The progeny will be 
 three-fourths Dorking ; and, if care is taken 
 in the selection, will show very little trace of 
 Cochin blood; whilst the size and constitu- 
 
 tional hardihood of tho breed would be much 
 imj)rovcd, by tho infusion of new blood from 
 tho hardiest of races. One caution, however, 
 would bo requisite : if tiiese birds were allowed 
 to breed amongst themselves, they would occa- 
 sionally throw back to tho Cociiin ; it would 
 be therefore necessary to mate tho pullets 
 again with a Dorking cock ; and, as in all 
 cases of breeding for size and strength, great 
 care must bo taken to avoid breeding closely — 
 viz., from birds related to each other." Here 
 is the secret of variety, which we see is tho 
 simple and natural effect of cross-breeding. 
 
 Ecgarding tiie processor domestication, con- 
 siderable weight is laid on tho difference of 
 disposition exhibited in diflerent individuals of 
 the same species, whether they have only been 
 tamed, or fully domesticated. In the breeding 
 of horses, and even of cattle, disposition is 
 greatly considered ; and the breed of a vicious 
 animal is avoided, whatever may be the excel- 
 lences of its physical conformation. 
 
 That the domestication of all our reclaimed 
 species has been gradual, and originally accom- 
 plished by those whoso lives were chiefly de- 
 voted to pastoral pursuits, may be reasonably 
 inferred. In accomplishing this, the process 
 would be both simple and natural. The dani 
 would be either killed or taken from her off- 
 spring, which would be petted and fed by an 
 individual of the household, to whom they 
 would naturally become attached. As they 
 would be always provided with food, they 
 would not be forced to seek it in those wild 
 places to which their originals were compelled 
 to confine themselves ; and from being con- 
 tinually under kind inlluences, and tiie sound 
 of the human voice, they would gradually lose 
 their natural fcrocit}^ and become tame. Erom 
 being tame they would soon be reduced to a 
 state of domestication; and in the multiplica- 
 tion of their species, varieties would be thrown, 
 and perpetuated by the art of those who would 
 naturally make it their study to watch their 
 dispositions, and mark whatever distinctions, 
 in their physical forms, might appear. But, 
 however plausible these arguments may 
 seem, it is somewhat extraordinary that we 
 have never been able to tamo a quail, a par- 
 tridge, or a pheasant. "We have never been 
 able to attach the Argus pheasants to our 
 dwellings, as we have done the peacock ; nor 
 
OEIGINAIi rOWL.j 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 Ftheoeies. 
 
 the wolf as we liave done the dog. How ia 
 this ? How is it that the wild animals, with 
 which we are acquainted, are now found to be 
 so difficult to be brought into a state of 
 domestication ? Ai'e we in these matters the 
 inferiors of those who lived in pre-historic, or 
 even anti-traditional times ?— for it must have 
 been in these that cattle and poultry were 
 brought under the subjection of a household. 
 These are questions easier put than answered ; 
 but, as the subject may be found discussed in 
 Ornamental Poultry, by Mr. Dixon, we must 
 refer those who are interested in the subject 
 to the pages of that gentleman's work. 
 
 In placing the various arguments, by the 
 different investigators, before his readers, Mr. 
 Eichardson says — " It is candidly acknowledged 
 — and a very important admission it is, though 
 there is no possibility of refusing to make it — 
 tliat the wild types of sevei'al of our domestic 
 animals no longer exist, while that of our fowls 
 is thus precisely indicated ! The wild origin 
 of the camel in the old world, and of the llama, 
 and alpaca, in Chili and Peru, and even of the 
 little guinea-pig, which was found domesticated 
 among the natives of Brazil, is quite un- 
 known. Neither the guanaco, nor still less 
 Mie diminutive vicugna, will suffice for the 
 former, nor the restless and other wild cavies 
 for the latter. Eespecting the wild original of 
 such an every- day and familiar creature as 
 the domestic cat, our knowledge is anything 
 but superabundant. Great doubts are enter- 
 tained whether either the true wild horse, or 
 the true wild ass is known, or the parent of the 
 humped ox (a most decided species) ; and it is 
 far from clear that the so-called wild yaks are 
 the true origin of the tame breeds. Amongst 
 birds, it is not pretended, or even hoped, that 
 the wild stock of the knobbed or China goose 
 (^Anser Cycnoides) is still in existence; although 
 there must be in China several tame breeds of 
 that remarkable bird. The original type has 
 probably been exterminated for ages." 
 
 Of some of our domestic creatures, therefore, 
 there is no idea, among our best-informed 
 naturalists of the present day, of indicating 
 the wild ancestor ; but of others such a notion 
 does prevail. Eespecting a few, there can be 
 little or no doubt. Of the Indian buffalo, 
 there can be no mistake ; nor of the hogs of 
 different countries, from several nearly. related 
 808 
 
 wild races, though the origin of the Chinese 
 hog is probably lost. Amongst domestic birds, 
 the pea-fowl, the turkey, and the guinea-fowl, 
 come from an undisputed parentage, which are 
 still found wild in their native home ; bat there 
 are other companions, of which we are unable 
 to speak with the same degree of certaintv. 
 It is doubted whether we know the true wild 
 origin of the domestic canary-bird. Mr. 
 Blyth actually remarks, " that the albinos (or 
 what can we call them ?) of all green birds 
 (amongst others, the yellow wagtail) are 
 yellow ; for instance, parrots, bee-eaters, &c.;" 
 and, as he observes, the tame canary-bird has 
 a true albino eye ! The origin of the cage 
 turtle-dove is uncertain. The voice of the 
 wild Turtur risorius is quite different. Mr. 
 Hodgson has clearly shown that certain very 
 large and short-tailed Asiatic breeds of sheep 
 are derived from the wild ammon ; the fighting 
 rams of India may have their origin in ovis 
 vignei ; but though the species of Asiatic wild 
 sheep are remarkably numerous, there is no 
 other that seems to have contributed to any 
 domestic race ; and it is probable that the 
 wild origin of the long-tailed, tame, and other 
 sheep, is no longer in existence. The list of 
 " doubtfuls" might be extended; but the ob- 
 ject here is merely to show that there is such 
 a list, and to impress it on the reader's atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Whether the several varieties of Domestic 
 Fowl are of ascertained or doubtful de- 
 scent, must always remain an open question 
 Naturalists, generally, think that it required 
 more than one wild type to produce the many 
 difterent species which we now find adorning 
 the poultry -yard ; whilst Mr. Blyth, who has had 
 great opportunities of observation, adheres to 
 the idea of one Indian species being the common 
 parent of all the forms, sizes, and colours which 
 exist. Notwithstanding this, however, there 
 are circumstances which he acknowledges and 
 points out, suggesting considerable difficulties 
 in the way of establishing his theory. 
 
 As other naturalists affirm that the wild 
 type of our tame cocks and hens has no ex- 
 istence, it is no more than fair that their 
 reasons for entertaining such an opinion should 
 be stated. Geological progress has proved 
 that many species of beasts and birds have be- 
 come extinct, and are now, instead of walking 
 
EXTINCT srKcn:s.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [kxtinct species. 
 
 on the face of the earth, or soaring through 
 the fields of the nir, lyintj hiiried in tlio depths 
 of the morass, or iinhedded in the various utrala 
 which help to form '• the great gloho" which 
 wo inliabit. In the Geology of Sir Charles 
 Lvell, we lind a notice of some of the species 
 tiiat have become extinct in our own island. 
 Besides those which have been driven out from 
 some haunts, and, everywhere, reduced in num- 
 ber, there are a few which have been wholly 
 extirpated; such as the ancient breed of indi- 
 genous horses, the wild boar, and the wild 
 oxen ; of which last, however, a few remains 
 are still preserved iu the parks of some of our 
 nobility. The beaver, which was eagerly 
 sought after for its fur, had become scarce at 
 the close of the ninth century, and, by the 
 twelfth century, was only to bo met with, ac- 
 cording to Giraldus do Barri, in one river in 
 AVales, and another in Scotland. The wolf, 
 once so much dreaded by our ancestors, is said 
 to have maintained its ground in Ireland so 
 late as the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury (1710) ; though it had been extirpated in 
 Scotland thirty years before, and in England 
 at a much earlier period. The bear, which in 
 AVales was regarded as a beast of the chase, 
 equal to the hare or the boar, only perished as 
 a native of Scotland in the year 1057. 
 
 Many native birds of prey have also been 
 the subjects of unremitting persecution. The 
 eagles, larger hawks, and ravens, have dis- 
 appeared from the more cultivated districts. 
 The haunts of the mallard, the snipe, the red- 
 shank, and the bittern, have been drained 
 equally with the summer dwellings of the lap- 
 wing and the curlew. But these species still 
 lin<^er in some portion of the British isles: 
 whereas the large capercallie, or wood grouse, 
 formerly natives of the pine-forests of Ireland 
 and Scotland, have been destroyed within the 
 last fifty years. The egret and the crane, 
 which appear to have been formerly very com- 
 mon in Scotland- are now only occasional 
 visitants. 
 
 " The bustard (^Olis /«?•(/«)," observes Graves, 
 in his British Ornithologij, "was formerly 
 seen in the downs and heaths of various parts 
 of our island, in flocks of forty or fifty birds ; 
 whereas it is now a circumstance of rare occur- 
 rence to meet with a single individual." 
 Bewick also remarks — " That they were for- 
 5 L 
 
 mcrly moro common in this island than at pre- 
 sent ; they are now found only in the open 
 counties of the soutli and east, in the plains of 
 Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and some parts of 
 Yorkshire." In the few years that have 
 elapsed since liewick wrote, this bird lias 
 entirely disappeared from Wiltaliire and Dor- 
 setshire. 
 
 The extinction of such a species as the dodo 
 (for wo must conclude, we fear, that this bird 
 is blotted out from the catalogue of living 
 animals) is remarkable. 
 
 " The most striking example of the loss, even 
 within the last two centuries, of a remarkable 
 species, is that of the dodo — a bird first seen 
 by the Dutch, when they landed on the Isle of 
 France, at that time uninhabited, immediately 
 after the discovery of the passage to the East 
 Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. It was of 
 a large size and singular form ; its wings short, 
 like those of an ostrich, and wholly incapable 
 of sustaining its heavy body, even for a short 
 flight. In its general appearance it difiered 
 from the ostrich, cassowary, or any knowa 
 bird. 
 
 " Many naturalists gave figures of the dodo, 
 after the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century ; and there is a painting of it in the 
 British Museum, which is said to have been 
 taken from a living individual. Beneath the 
 painting is a leg, in a fine state of preserva- 
 tion, which ornithologists are agreed cannot 
 belong to any other known bird. In the 
 museum at Oxford, also, there is a foot and a 
 head, in an imperfect state ; but M. Cuvicp 
 doubts the identity of this species with that of 
 which the painting is preserved in London. 
 
 " In spite of the most active search, during 
 the last century, no information respecting the 
 dodo was obtained; and some authors have 
 gone so far as to pretend that it never existed ; 
 but, amongst the great mass of s.atisfactory 
 evidence in favour of the recent existence of 
 this species, we may mention that an assem- 
 blage of fossil bones were recently discovered, 
 under a bed of lava, in the Isle of France, and 
 sent to the Paris museum by M. Desjardins. 
 They almost all belonged to a large living 
 species of land-tortoise, called Testudo Indica; 
 but amongst them were the head, sternum, 
 and humerus of the dodo. M. Cuvier had 
 many of these valuable remains in Paris, and 
 
 b09 
 
EXTINCT SPECIES.] 
 
 POtlLTET. 
 
 [extixct species. 
 
 asserted that they left no doubt in his mind 
 that the huge bird was one of the gallinaceous 
 tribe." 
 
 When new species, multiplying widely, and 
 requiring large supplies of food, are introduced 
 into a country, the older tenants of the soil 
 must necessarily be reduced by want, and some 
 classes must be destroyed. The millions of 
 wild cattle and horses which are established in 
 the New World, from the latitude of 25° N. 
 to 40° S.; the sheep and goats which have 
 multiplied enormously there, as well as the 
 cat and the rat, tlie latter having been intro- 
 duced unintentionally in ships; the dogs 
 which have at different periods become wild in 
 America, and hunt in packs, like the wolf and 
 the jackal ; and " the many millions of square 
 miles of the moat fertile land, originally oc- 
 cupied by a boundless variety of animal and 
 vegetable forms, which have been already 
 brought under the dominion of man, and com- 
 pelled, in a great measure, to yield nourish- 
 ment to him, and to a limited number of plants 
 and animals, which he has caused to increase ; 
 must convince us that the annihilation of a 
 multitude of species has already been effected, 
 and will continue to go on hereafter, iu certain 
 regions, iu a still more rapid ratio, as the 
 colonies of highly-civilised nations spread 
 themselves over unoccupied land." 
 
 Those who have closely studied the poultry 
 question have doubted whether living creatures 
 do undergo, from generation to generation, 
 such changes as would be evidenced by the 
 conversion of a wild jungle fowl into the 
 marked and distinct sorts which constitute our 
 races of domestic fowls. "They doubt the 
 progressive transmutation of species, and are 
 more inclined to regard them as immutable. 
 That animals do vary, they readily allow ; but 
 they also believe there is a limit to their vari- 
 ation. The pea-fowl, for instance, and the 
 guinea-fowl, ought to have branched off into 
 as many breeds as the common fowl, if the 
 theory of derivation from the jungle fowl 
 were true. These innovators also say that 
 each creature has its natural disposition im- 
 planted in it from the first, which no art of 
 man can alter; that there are tameable and 
 untameable species of animals, unconquerablv 
 shy, and unhesitatingly confiding; that they 
 are reclaimable, partially reclaimable, and 
 810 
 
 utterly irreclaimable ; and that those authors 
 who, by a pleasant legerdemain, so easily trans- 
 form one of the Indian ffalli into a barn-door 
 fowl — who put the Sonnerat's jungle cock, 
 or perhaps some quite apocryphal bird beneath 
 a bushel, hocus-pocus a little, lift up the cover, 
 and then exhibit a veritable chanticleer — write 
 as if they had only to catch any wild bird in 
 the woods, turn it into a court-yard for a week 
 or two, and make it straightway as tame as a 
 spaniel ; — an educational feat as yet imprac- 
 ticable with most of the creatures which fall 
 into our hands." 
 
 Taking these various arguments into con- 
 sideration, it has been suggested that many 
 varieties of fowl are aboriginal (though no 
 longer to be met with in a wild state), and are 
 not the results, but the protegees of domestica- 
 tion ; that the wild race, the one which ibr- 
 merly ranged the primaeval woods and jungles, 
 is now extinct ; and that many of our domestic 
 animals are the survivors of extinct races — 
 survivors, because domesticable — of extirpated, 
 because defenceless creatures — and many na- 
 tural historical difficulties vanish, and become 
 reconcilable with what we see around us. 
 
 There are other theorists who think that the 
 various breeds of poultry bear an analogy to 
 the different races of mankind, as found in the 
 different parts of the habitable globe. "Either," 
 they say, "you must commit the heresy of 
 asserting that Adam and Eve were not the 
 common parents of all mankind, or you must 
 give up your doubts about domestic cocks and 
 hens. Either you must allow the native Aus- 
 tralian man to be a distinct and peculiar species 
 of Homo, or you must admit the more than 
 probability of the Bengal jungle fowl being 
 the original type of our domestic fowls." In 
 meeting this argument, Mr. Eichardsou ob- 
 serves — that, " passing over the fact that no 
 one wild original species of man is pointed out 
 to fulfil the ofiice of type to the existing 
 human inhabitants of the world, in the sam 
 way as the Bengal jungle fowl is supposed to 
 be for domestic fowl — omitting all that, it may 
 be fairly remonstrated that the argument is 
 not a generous one, inasmuch as it takes an 
 unfair advantage of people's dislike to shock 
 the feelings of others, especially in matters 
 which, in the slightest degree, touch upon 
 Scripture history ; it is exactly the same kind 
 
inEOKIES.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [destuovixq biuds. 
 
 of opposition as was made to geological truths 
 Bomo years ai»o. AVero an observant ami ro- 
 ileotinc; naturalist, driven by pressure and per- 
 secution, to make such a recantation, it would 
 be of as little value to his opponents, as a 
 triumph, as Galileo's denial of his deliberate 
 statement that the earth moved; and niij^ht, 
 like his, be (]uielly followed by the private as- 
 fertiou that the earth did niovo nevertheless. 
 But suppose that, to avoid the charge of insin- 
 cerity and cowardice, our speculator were to 
 seize the dilemma by one of its horns, and 
 render himself liable to be suspected of be- 
 lieving the native Australian man to be a dis- 
 tinct and peculiar species ; other naturalists, 
 of deservedly high reputation, have previously 
 entertained t!ie same suspicion, and declared 
 their doubts whether the negro and tiie Euro- 
 pean have proceeded from the same origin. It 
 is impossible to say that much has yet been 
 done in the way of taming and incorporating 
 into civilised Anglo-Saxon society any one 
 tribe of Australian natives. They still remain, 
 as yet, both physically and morally undomesti- 
 cated. AVhat are the prospects of the abo- 
 rigines of Tasmania? Even tlie more domes- 
 ticated iXew Zealanders diminish in num- 
 bers, while they are trying to fall in with 
 the ways of civilised life. Their constitution 
 cannot stand it. Keither has the Red Indian 
 proved a rcclaimable animal. Captain Fitzroy's 
 well-meant experiment wltli the boy and girl 
 from Terra del Euego cannot be called a suc- 
 cessful one. Darwin's description of the loild 
 men he saw there, in his voyage in the 
 Beagle, impresses most readers with the 
 idea of beholding a totally distinct species of 
 human creature. 
 
 " Some people are bold enough to aver, that 
 the more they consider, the more they are con- 
 vinced that the solution thus given of the 
 mystery about the derivation, or rather non- 
 derivation of many domesticated from wild 
 creatures, is correct ; and they also feel equally 
 assured that there are certain races of men, 
 whom to concentrate and domesticate, is to 
 destroy. Immense sums, and great pains have 
 been extended on the education of children of 
 the Australian aborigines. Tliey are found 
 docile ; they learn to read and write, even 
 more quickly than white children ; but, as 
 they attain the age of puberty, they either die, 
 
 or tako to the woods. A geutlcinau in Aus- 
 tralia had two orphans, whom he saved amidst 
 the slaughttr of a hohtilu tribe. They were 
 faithful even to death; one was killed at hia 
 side — but nothing could prevent them Iroui 
 periodically associating with their black brotliers 
 and sisters. The Kew Zealanders, on the 
 other hand, are perfectly capable of civilisa- 
 tion ; but, in spito of that, their numbers de- 
 crease." 
 
 Tiio possibility that our domestic fowls are, 
 jierhaps, rather a chanco possession than other- 
 wise, is strengthened by the acknowledged 
 fact that animals, in a state of nature, and un- 
 protected, are liable to extermination, nut only 
 in consequence of the assaults of man, but 
 from the persecutions of other species, often 
 those most nearly allied to their own. A lew 
 years ago there was a violent onslaught made 
 upon the hawk tribe, in consequence of their 
 imagined propensity to destroy game. In 
 some of the sporting journals and periodicals, 
 letters appeared upon the subject ; some fear- 
 ing that the whole race of the Falconidcc 
 would fall victims to the cruel prejudice 
 which had risen against them ; whilst others 
 rejoiced in the destruction of these beauti- 
 ful birds. One of the latter says — "Tour 
 description of the hen-harrier is excellent, 
 &c. You will, I have no doubt, remember 
 how plentiful hen-harriers and other hawks 
 were here, when wc took the gi-ouud; you 
 will therefore scarcely credit it, when I tell 
 you that I have not seen a hen-harrier for 
 the last two years ; I have exterminated them 
 by trapping them at the remains of what they 
 killed themselves. In five years we have killed 
 upwards of 900 head of vermin ; and the result 
 is, that we have now live head of game for 
 every one we had on our taking the moors. Wo 
 have had two merlins' nests here every year 
 since I have been here. They build in the long 
 heather, similarly to the hen-harrier; I have 
 known them carry grouse poults to their young 
 heavier than themselves. The sparrow-hawk 
 builds in trees, and is very destructive to 
 grouse in the months of April and j\lay ; sho 
 kills principally the hen birds, these being, at 
 this season of the year, very slow and heavy in 
 their flight, and consequently fall a very easy 
 prey ; I have tra[)ped hundreds of hen sparrow- 
 hawks at grouse and partridges which they had 
 
 Sll 
 
DE3TE0XING BIHDS.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [destkoting bieds. 
 
 killed, but I never trapped the cock sparrow- 
 hawk at the remains of a grouse or partridge, 
 although I have frequently taken him with the 
 remains of small birds that he had killed ; I have 
 known a sparrow-hawk take nine grouse poults 
 to her nest in less than twenty-four hours. 
 I have seen the sparrow-hawk, build for years 
 in succession in the same tree, although the 
 hen bird was killed every year, and sometimes 
 both birds. They sometimes build in an old 
 hoddie's nest When they build for them- 
 selves, their nest is very similar to that of a 
 wood pigeon." 
 
 Here is an instance, amongst others that we 
 liave already adduced in the progress of this 
 work, of the exterminating war which is 
 occasionally made upon certain species of the 
 lower kinds of animals ; these, howevei'^ some- 
 times find defenders, and several rose up to 
 propitiate mercy for the doomed hawks. One 
 who signs himself " Merlin," says — " Of your 
 numerous correspondents who have given 
 their vote against the poor hawks, but one 
 has attempted to discriminate betwixt the 
 different species ; and, although describing 
 the most fatal mode by which each may be 
 destroyed, he has not pointed out those against 
 which game-preservers have no just cause of 
 complain'." 
 
 In woodlands, the female sparrow-hawk, and 
 on moors the hen-harrier (called sometimes 
 the ringtail and glead), are the only species 
 deserving of death for any breach of the game- 
 laws. Tlie former bird does destroy a few 
 partridges and young pheasants during the 
 summer and early autumn (although its prin- 
 cipal quariy is the young wood and house- 
 pigeon) ; the hen-harrier anything it can meet 
 with, from a grouse to a frog upon the ground, 
 over which it makes its daily beat. Against 
 these birds, the pole-trap, so generally recom- 
 mended, is almost useless, although certain to 
 capture the harmless mouse-hunting little 
 kestrel, as also the equally harmless long-eared 
 owl, particularly when baited, as one corres- 
 pondent advises, with a liviug mouse, which, 
 he tells us, "is certain death to any hawk in 
 the neighbourhood." One would have thought 
 that this fact alone was sufficient to enlishteu 
 the writer as to the usual objects of pursuit 
 amongst the birds he would exterminate. To 
 the agriculturists the little hawks are of the 
 812 
 
 greatest service, by destroying, in the courso 
 of the year, immense numbers of these true 
 " pests of the farm ;" and if they ever do inter- 
 fere with the game-owner's property, it is by 
 picking up a half-dead chick or two, artificially 
 reared under a hen confined to the coop, and 
 therefore incapable of defending her charges. 
 To game, in a state of nature, they do no injury 
 whatever. At certain seasons of the year, it 
 would do little local good, even supposing all the 
 charges against the birds were true, to destroy 
 every hawk over a tract of country ; because, 
 being, like others of their feathered brethren, 
 more or less migratory birds, the majority of 
 tliose which, during the breeding season, fre- 
 quent our woods and wilds, and elsewhere, 
 and the comparatively few which remain in 
 this country, shift their quarters before that 
 period arrives. 
 
 We know how useless it is to attempt to argue 
 against prejudice, and therefore shall refrain 
 from pointing out how much enjoyment to the 
 lovers of animated nature — and these are not 
 a few — the presence of some of these victims 
 to the game-keepers' art in the smiling land- 
 scape affords — particularly when, to this pre- 
 judice, is added the feeling which could prompt 
 one writer to advocate the hanging of human 
 transgressors " on the first lamp-post ;" and in 
 a subsequent epistle, when treating on his 
 feathered foes, to recommend that the chain, 
 by which the trap is secured to the pole, should 
 be fastened about a foot from the top ; by which 
 humane contrivance, the hawk, when caught, 
 is suspended mid-air by the mangled limb. 
 
 As there are a few remaining who still 
 retain a love for the use of these birds, in the 
 management of which, activity, both of body 
 and mind, is required, ib might be suggested to 
 those who will catch them, that by the use of 
 small traps without teeth, and where the jaws 
 do not quite close, and are wrapped with some 
 soft substance, as tow, profit may be combined 
 with humanity ; as they would find a ready 
 sale of such birds as the peregrine, hobby, or 
 merlin, if offered with unbroken limbs. 
 
 Were it not for the gamekeeper and the 
 sportsman, the red-legged would soon get the 
 upper hand of the grey partridge in many 
 English counties; the Norway rat has made 
 the black old English rat exceedingly scarce ; 
 and the mute swau of our parks and streaiua, 
 
THEOUY.] 
 
 POULT KV. 
 
 [theory. 
 
 if carried to Australia, aud suflVred to fly wild 
 there, would, in the course of years, drive the 
 native black swan iuto us narrow quarters as 
 tbo European settlers did the human aborifjines 
 of Tasmania. Domestication ailords a refa<;e 
 against this extermiuatinjj; warfare, in which no 
 quarter is given ; but in whicli, species that re- 
 fuse to accept the asylum, aud which obstinately 
 shout for "death or liberty," must take the 
 consequences of their choice, and disa|)prar. 
 
 A singular instance of extermination, as 
 liaviug occurred iu modern times, is given by 
 Mr. llichardson. " It happened in the island 
 of Tristan d'Acunha, where poultry, intro- 
 duced by tiie first settlors, became wild, and 
 multiplied to an extraordinary degree. About 
 1822; cats having unfortunately been imported, 
 began to multiply still more rapidly, and 
 entirely destroyed the wild poultry, and much 
 of the tame. Similar cases are very likely to 
 have occurred in early ages, and point to the 
 probable distinctness and antiquity of the pre- 
 sent races of domestic fowls." 
 
 Having placed the conflicting theories be- 
 fore our readers, we may observe that the 
 inquiry is not one of mere curiosity, but of 
 secondary importance — though it is extraordi- 
 nary, that our ejforts to tame the pheasant, the 
 partridge, and the quail, have proved unavail- 
 ing. A fact of this kind has induced many to 
 entertain the belief that the races of domesti- 
 cated animals were never wild ; and the follow- 
 ing observations are not without weight upon 
 this point : — 
 
 " In the first place, tbere is no evidence of 
 a greater number of kinds of domesticated 
 animals now in the world, than have been from 
 the earliest period of history ; and, in the next 
 place, there have always existed as many kinds 
 of domesticated animals as have been useful 
 to man iu his most civilised state. As the 
 civilisation of man increased, so have the 
 variety aud quality of domesticated animals 
 increased ; but the number of their kindg 
 has not enlarged. There were horses, as^■es, 
 camels, dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats, in the 
 days of Abraham, as well as now ; and these 
 constitute the largest proportion of our do- 
 mesticated animals. Many attempts have 
 been successfully made to tame single individ- 
 uals of wild races ; but such animals, though 
 tamed, are in quite a difl'erent state from our 
 
 domesticated animals. Some wild animals 
 exhibit a degree of familiarity. The swallow 
 builds her nest in our windows, and the robin 
 enters our dwellings ; whilst tho blackbird and 
 sparrow are constantly before us. 'J'his famil- 
 iarity, liowever, does not amount even to 
 tameness, far less to domestication. It ap- 
 pears, indeed, that wild animals are preserved 
 unchanged, for the great purpose of Providence, 
 throughout tho globe, and that jN^ature has pre- 
 sented to man only such anin'»als as are obvi- 
 ously most suited to his wants. With these 
 he must be satisfied. AVhat wild creature 
 would he desire to substitute for any one of 
 our animals ? Should we desire it, Nature 
 {i.e., the Creator) has placed such a barrier iu 
 our way, that it is impossible for us to make a 
 single wild creature available to our domestic 
 purposes. We may exercise our ingenuity, 
 judgment, aud even caprice, in moulding tho 
 habits aud qualities of domesticated animals to 
 our tastes, wants, and conveniences. There 
 the field of experiment is open to us — not to 
 an unlimited, but to a great extent; but 
 Nature will not permit us to make a single 
 predatory excursion among her wild animals." 
 Of the power of man to impress modifica- 
 tions of great apparent amount on the forms 
 and properties of animals and plants, there is 
 sufllcient proof to be found in the field of the 
 farmer, as well as in the garden of the horti- 
 culturist. Every ox, sheep, and pig ; every 
 plant and apple ; every cabbage and cabbage- 
 rose, is an instance of the ease with which 
 the natural constitution of organised beings 
 may be changed, aud of the wide diff'ereuce 
 which may be made from the progenitor of the 
 stock, as it appeared when man received it 
 from the hand of Nature. These changes, how- 
 ever, are only permitted, and not adopted by 
 Nature, and endure only so long as man con- 
 tinues to extend to them his fostering care 
 and supervision. Let him be taken away ; 
 let human labour no longer till the field, or 
 prune the garden ; tend, or feed domestic 
 animals ; and the scene soon chauges. The 
 natural war of the various tribes of the 
 animal and vegetable worlds recommences. 
 Tlie species that had developed their secret 
 powers whilst iu a state of social alliance with 
 the lord of the creation, when deprived of his 
 assistance, are no longer capable of maintaining 
 
 M3 
 
THE HAMBUEGH.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [the hambtjegh. 
 
 their ground. The weak either perish, or 
 are speedily destroyed, whilst the strong be- 
 come fierce and pugnacious. The sheep and 
 the ox become the prey of the dog and the 
 wolf; whilst the garden-flower, renouncing 
 the dress and habits of its artificial home, as- 
 sumes those of the daughters of the field. 
 All change. The bond which bound them 
 together has been broken. The alliance has 
 ceased between them ; and the sweet flavour 
 
 and beautiful exterior of the products of the 
 orchard, are assailed by a democratic aggression 
 of thorns and brambles. In this struggle they 
 either perish, or preserve their place only by 
 becoming as rude and as coarse as their 
 neiglibours. The crab, the sloe, and the weed 
 may remain ; but the fragrant apple, the 
 luscious plum, and the curded cauliflower, are 
 to be found no longer. Vicissitude has be- 
 come the rule. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DOMESTIC FOWL AND ITS VAKIETIES ; THE HAMBURGH; DOHKING; GAME FOWL ; SPANISH; POLISH; 
 COCHIN-CHINA; MALAY; BANTAMS; RUMPLES; SILKY; NEGRO AND FRIZZLED; SCOTCH BAKIES; 
 BOLTON GREYS ; PARIS SHOW. 
 
 THE HAMBURGH. 
 
 In treating of the varieties of our domestic 
 fowl, we will confine ourselves to such as may 
 be deemed the most suitable for the collection 
 of the amateur ; and, where we can, endeavour 
 to indicate their points of excellence according 
 to the opinions of the best authorities. The 
 first that we shall treat of are the Hamburgh 
 fowls, which all partake of one common type, 
 and which are remarkable for the beauty and 
 purity of their distinct races. They are very 
 fertile in producing eggs ; are of moderate 
 size ; excellent table birds, but are non-setters. 
 There are said to be thirteen points in a 
 Hamburgh ; but one of the most successful 
 breeders of this kind of fowl, says—" That he 
 never yet saw a bird possessed of the thirteen 
 points which some of the Lancashire breeders 
 say a good Hamburgh ought to have. In the 
 silver-spangled variety the cock should have 
 large white ear-lobes ; a well-formed, compact 
 comb, nicely pointed; breast regularly span- 
 gled ; back and hackle white ; tail white, with 
 perfect spangle at the end of each feather; 
 legs slate-coloured ; eye large ; cariiage erect. 
 The hen should be one mass of spangles— the 
 back spangled as perfectly as the breast ; tail 
 white, with spangles at the end ; hackle span- 
 gled or Inced ; legs, comb, &c., the same as the 
 811, 
 
 cock. The ground-colour of both must bo 
 pure white, neither muddy nor splashed. 
 In the Northern and Midland counties, Ham- 
 burghs, both gold and silver, are more exten- 
 sively reared, and more highly prized, than 
 all the other varieties of fowl put together ; 
 although their constitution is considered, by 
 many, to be less robust or hardy than 
 that of some other breeds. In the pen- 
 cilled, the cock should have comb and ear- 
 lobes like those of the spangled ; body (of tho 
 golden) a rich gold colour, with tail nicely 
 bronzed. The hens pencilled from the hackle 
 to the end of the tail ; hackle of a clear gold- 
 colour ; comb, eyes, legs, &c., same as cocks." 
 
 The points considered necessary by the 
 Lancashire breeders, are thus given in the 
 Eev. W. W. AViugfield's Poultry book:— 
 Cumb. — Best double ; best square ; best piked 
 
 behind. 
 Eni-s.- — Largest and whitest. 
 iVc'c/w— Streaked with green black in middle of 
 
 feather, fringed with gold at the edges. 
 Breast. — Largest moons ; brightest green black, 
 
 free from being tipped with white or red at the 
 
 end of the moon ; clear red from moon to bottom 
 
 colour. 
 Back. — Ditto, ditto, ditto, ditto. 
 Rump. — Ditto, ditto, ditto, ditto. 
 7f7/i.y.— Four points :— 1st, bow: bright green, 
 
 black, and clear red. 2nd, bars : two distinct 
 
 bars, formed by largest, clearest, brightest, greea 
 
nAMBUROlIS.J 
 
 POULTKY. 
 
 [iiAMBunons. 
 
 black moons; bright red from moon to bottom 
 colour. 3rd, Uiglit: clear red. -llh, the lacing 
 or top oJ" llie wing ahove tlu- lliglit: large, 
 clear, bright, given black spots on the end of 
 the feathers ; clear red from spot to bottom 
 colour. 
 
 2\til. — liright dark-green black ; full feathered. 
 
 Z^-'/.s-. — CK'ur blue. 
 
 General appeanmcc. — Best feathered hen. 
 
 For a considerablo time our knowledge 
 rcspcctinc; tho diflVrent varieties of llain- 
 biirgli fowls was both imperfect and confused. 
 Mr. llallam, liowever, in his lUiistrations, 
 published at Birmingham, has done much to 
 dilVuse more correct ideas on this species of 
 fowl ; and as ho is regarded as high authority 
 on this subject, we acknowledge our obliga- 
 tions to him for the following observations : — 
 " Nothing, probably, has occasioned greater 
 perplexity to the poultry fancier, or interposed 
 more frequent obstacles to the satisfactory 
 prosecution of his plans, than the multiplicity 
 of synonyms by which the several varieties of 
 llamburgh fowls have been long known in 
 dillercnt parts of the country. For a con- 
 siderable time there appeared to be no help 
 for him ; and any ellbrts to identify one or 
 other class, under the changing and arbitrary 
 designations applied to them, were little less 
 arduous than tho attempts to determine who 
 was ' Junius,' or ' the Man with the Iron 
 3Iask.' If he had any faith in books, he would 
 naturally enough resort to some of the pub- 
 lished treatises on the subject of domesticated 
 birds, which, however, instead of extricating 
 him from his difScidties, only ' darkened 
 counsel by words without knowledge,' and 
 rather added to, than lessened his embarrass- 
 ments. The path of knowledge, proverbially 
 rugged and toilsome, was, in this instance, 
 beset with accumulated discouragements ; and 
 instead of receiving assistance, he was removed 
 farther than ever from the attainment of his 
 wishes, by finding, with one exception to be 
 presently noticed, the objects of his search 
 indiscriminately described as 'Creoles,' 'phea- 
 sants,' 'corals,' 'moonies,' 'moss fowl,' ' Bolton 
 bays,' 'Bolton greys,' 'Dutch fowl,' ' Chitte- 
 prats,' * everlasting layers' — and so on, through 
 a wearying catalogue of local and conflicting 
 terms. To simplify the nomenclature of the 
 llamburgh fowls, and to apply to each of their 
 specific variations such dcliuitions as would be 
 
 easily understood and universally recogni.Hed, 
 was, thfrt'fori', a necessary undertaking; and it 
 may bo said to have been satisfactorily accoiu- 
 pliahed by the principlu of classification laid 
 down in tho prize list of tho great Binning- 
 ham Exhibition, which has become an authority 
 iu all matters of tho kind. 
 
 " Of modern English Poultry books, that of 
 Mowbray stands first in the order of time, 
 lie speaks of 'the coral, or Bulton greys,' as 
 ' apparently tho crack breed of their vicinity, 
 but entirely unknown in tho metropolis ;' and 
 appends a description of them, by the Rev. 
 Mr. Ashworth, vicar of Tamworth, in the fol- 
 lowing terms: — 'Small sized, short in tho leg, 
 and plump in tho make. The colour of tho 
 genuine kind invariably pure white in the 
 whole lappel of the neck; the body white, 
 thickly spotted with bright black, sometimes 
 running into a grizzle, with one or more black 
 bars at tho extremity of the tail: they are 
 chiefly esteemed as very constant layers, 
 though their colour would mark them for good 
 table-fowl.' 
 
 " The Hambuxghs are now classified in the 
 Birmingham prize list as follows : — 
 
 1. Golden Pencilled Hamburgh. 
 
 2. Golden Spangled Hamburgh. 
 
 3. Silver Pencilled Hamburgh. 
 
 4. Silver Spangled Hamburgh. 
 
 The use of the terms employed to distinguish 
 what were erroneously called sub-varieties, is 
 entirely discontinued, all the llamburgh fowls 
 being included in the four classes thus enu- 
 merated. It should also be mentioned here, 
 that all birds having crests or top-knots, are 
 distinguished in the same list as Poland fowl ; 
 an arrangement now universally adopted. 
 
 " The Hamburgh fowjs, however designated, 
 have been for a considerable time, and still are, 
 held in much estimation iu this country, on 
 account of their attractive appearance and 
 great utility. Tho silver pencilled have met 
 with zealous cultivators iu Yorkshire and Lan- 
 cashire, as ' Chitteprats,' and 'Bolton greys;* 
 ' Creoles' and ' corals' are tho titles they have 
 received iu the South and elsewhere. They 
 are handsome and prolific; though persons 
 wlio have paid attention to them incline to the 
 opinion that they are somewhat less hardy than 
 the others. But when the situation and other 
 circumstances in which each is placed are 
 
 &1.J 
 
HAMBIJRGUS.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [hambueghs 
 
 exactly alike, such an impression may, after 
 all, be more fanciful than real. Single combs 
 may occasionally, at rare intervals, be met with 
 amongst them ; but when they are of pure 
 blood, no variety of our domestic poultry 
 transmits their own characteristics to their off- 
 spring with greater constancy. They are, at 
 present, more frequently met with than the 
 gold pencilled, to which they must yield the 
 palm, so far as mere beauty of colour is con- 
 cerned. In this respect the latter are not 
 surpassed by any of the inmates of our poultry 
 yards. The cock, with the rich metallic lustre 
 of his sickle feathers, and the glowing hues of 
 the rest of his plumage, is a peculiarly hand- 
 some and brilliant-looking bird. There is no 
 difference between the two, except as to the 
 ground or foundation-colour, which in one is 
 golden, and in the other silvery white. 
 
 "Mr. Edward Lowe, of Comberford, near 
 Tamworth, had a pair of the gold pencilled, 
 which formed part of the pen which gained the 
 first prize and silver medal for a cock and three 
 hens, at one of the Birmingham Exhibitions. 
 They were never shown elsewhere. This gentle- 
 man, who has been a very successful cultivator 
 of the variety, gives the following results of 
 his experience of them: — 'I find that a hen, 
 now twelve months old, which has laid about 
 five eggs each week since Christmas, weighs 
 exactly three pounds six ounces ; and a cock 
 bird, ten months old, weighs three pounds five 
 ounces. If in good condition, and at full 
 maturity, the cock should weigh at least four 
 pounds, and the hens three-and-a-half pounds 
 each. I have had them at these weights soon 
 after moulting, and before the hens commence 
 laying; but I find them produce such an ex- 
 cessive number of eggs, that they always feel 
 lighter in hand compared with their apparent 
 bulk, and no amount of food which they are 
 able to take seems sufficient to keep up their 
 flesh. I have never been able to ascertain the 
 exact number of eggs that one hen will lay in 
 a year, but I know that some of them have 
 produced more than two hundrea. ')Juder 
 very favourable circumstances, a single hen 
 might produce at least two hundred and fifty ; 
 but I should say about one hundred and seventy 
 would be the average for any given number of 
 fowls. True-bred llamburghs never show any 
 inclination to sit ; and this, which is considered 
 
 by many one of their best qualities, might prove 
 a serious difficulty to many poultry-keepers who 
 are not able to keep another sort of hens as incu- 
 bators. I keep a good many game fowls, and the 
 two sorts work well together, though, of course, 
 I am obliged to have them on separate walks, 
 as the Hamburghs are very timid, shy fowls, 
 and easily distressed. When the chickens are 
 produced healthy and right, I always find them 
 endure quite as much hardship as any other. 
 Eor ornamental as well as useful purposes, the 
 pencilled Hambm-gh fowls are certainly un- 
 rivalled ; and I decidedly give the preference 
 to the golden variety, because they do not 
 show the dirt in a wet season so much as the 
 silver. Their plumage is equalled by none, 
 and their symmetry and qualities of flesh are 
 only surpassed by the game fowls ; and they 
 are the greatest producers of eggs of any breed 
 we have." 
 
 In the formation of an estimate as to the 
 relative value of particular breeds of fowls, it 
 is important to consider not only the number 
 of eggs which the hens will lay in a given 
 period, but also the proportions in which they 
 are likely to be produced at particular seasons. 
 As chickens, the silver spangled are vivacious, 
 hardy, thriving little creatures. Tliey are 
 thickly clothed with dark-grey down, present- 
 ing a mottled appearance ; and it is not until 
 they are nearly full-grown that the true 
 character of their feathering is clearly mani- 
 fest. The cocks are not unfrequently black- 
 breasted, a peculiarity occasioned by the in- 
 creased size of the spangles, and from the 
 overlapping of the featliers concealing the 
 white portions of them from view. Many 
 persons do not object to breed from a bird of 
 this description, and some of the very best 
 chickens, both cockerels and pullets, have 
 emanated from such parentage. According, 
 however, to exhibition requirements, the breast 
 of the cock must be marked in the same man- 
 ner as that of the hen, or they will be deficient 
 in an essential qualification. In some locali- 
 ties the taste runs in favour of a black breast ; 
 but, according to accredited standards of judg- 
 ment, it is founded in error, and will not hold 
 o-ood. Their qualifications for the table are also 
 very considerable ; for although they are in- 
 ferior to some other varieties as regards bulk, 
 for firm plumpness they are unsurpassed. 
 
HAMBUBOHS.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 LHAMUL'UUIIS. 
 
 ** Silvkr-Spakolkd Hambuuoii. — JUale. — 
 Head of moderato size ; eyes lari:;e and full ; 
 beak stroiii:^, pointed at tho end, and slate- 
 coloured ; wattles larLje, and of n rich briijlit, 
 transparent eriinson, liaiiying freely. Comb 
 large and double, but not overhanging tho 
 bead ; tho pointa should bo sharp, thickly set 
 together, and not open or cupped ; it should 
 rise a little iu the centre, narrowing behind, 
 and terminating in a point ; it should hang 
 loosely, and move as the bird moves. The 
 comb of the cock is much larger than that of 
 the hen ; but it should, nevertholesa, bo re- 
 markably neat, and really ornamental, and not 
 have the appearance of a heavy and unneces- 
 sary excrescence. The ear-lobes should bo 
 large and well-defined, of a creamy white, and 
 appear as if they were raised from the cheek 
 The neck and tail hackles should bo a pure 
 ■white, and full and long, covering together 
 nearly the whole of the upper part of the body ; 
 but not too thick on the neck. The cock 
 sliould be clearly spangled on the breast and 
 on the lower part of the body ; and the wings 
 should also be marked with rows of spangles, 
 and distinctly laced on the edges ; the lacing 
 being bold and unbroken — this forming a very 
 important property. The sickle, and other 
 principal feathers of the tail, should bo pen- 
 cilled in the centre of each feather, one half 
 being black, and the other half perfectly white. 
 The other tail-feathers should be of a rich blue 
 black ; the tail should also be full and well 
 spread. The legs should be strong, and slate- 
 coloured ; a white or yellow, leg would dis- 
 qualify a pen of otherwise good birds. An 
 average-sized bird, at his full growth, will 
 weigh from four-and-a-half to sis pounds, 
 which some fine specimens may be found to 
 exceed. 
 
 " Female. — Head small, and snake-like ; eyes 
 bright, lively, and surrounded by a peculiar 
 dark rim. Comb double, of moderate size, and 
 upright ; but so loose as to follow every move- 
 ment of the bird, without banging over the 
 front or side of the head ; the back part of the 
 comb should terminate in a point; the projec- 
 tions on its upper surface should be small, 
 sharp, and placed at equal distances ; and its 
 colour a bright transparent red. Ear-lobes 
 white, and of good size. The neck feathers 
 distinctly pencilled with black along the centre; 
 5 M 
 
 each one of the«e markingn extending, in width, 
 to one-half tho surface of the feather. Tho 
 breast and tho whole of tho body of tho hen, 
 with tho exception of tho neck, should bo 
 clearly and distinctly spangled ; tho wings 
 being also marked with rows of spangles, and 
 regularly barred with straight lines or 'lacings* 
 ' along tho edges of tho large coverts ; tho h-sser 
 I coverts are laced round the edge. Tho princi- 
 pal tail-feathers margined with black, and per- 
 fectly clear and free from 'mottle,' or stain ; 
 the legs a clear slate-colour ; tail spread out 
 and elevated ; and the carriage and general 
 appearance of the bird should convey the im- 
 pression of great vivacity. The ground-colour 
 of tho body throughout must be pure white, 
 and the markings, whether 'pencilled' or 
 ' mooned,' an intense glossy black. An aver- 
 age-sized hen will weigh from three-and-a-half 
 to five pounds." 
 
 The following is the basis, which is given by 
 a "Dublin Amateur," of great eipericuce, for 
 judging these fowls : — 
 
 The Cock. 
 
 Head. — Surmounted with full, globular, floating 
 crest, pure white, each feather pointed witti 
 black. — The comb rudimentary, or in two small 
 spicula ; the smaller the better. — The beard full 
 and black, or pure wliite pointed with black. 
 
 Hackles. — Pure silvery^white, each feather clearly 
 ti])ped with black. 
 
 Breast. — The largest moons best defined black, 
 most free from being tipped with white at the 
 end of the moon ; best and purest white ground- 
 colour. 
 
 Bac7c. — The largest and most distinct black edging, 
 according to the size of the feather, on purest 
 white ground. 
 
 Sudd/e.— Ditto. 
 
 IFhiff. — Divided into four parts: — 1st, The shoul- 
 der : the best and purest white, with largest and 
 most distinct black moons. 2iid, The bars : to 
 liave two distinct bars crossing the wing, com- 
 ])osed of the largest, clearest, brightest, and best 
 black lacing on purest wiiite. 3rd, The flight : 
 the cleanest and purest wliite. 4th, The secon- 
 dary fli','ht feathers : the clearest, best, and most 
 distinct black lacing, on purest white ground. 
 
 Tiiil. — The fullest and purest white, most free from 
 mossing, and most distinctly laced with purest 
 black. 
 
 Lc(/s, — The clearest and best blue. 
 
 Tin; Hex. 
 Identical in markings with the cock, except the 
 head ; the crest most globular, largest and ptircst 
 white, with best and largest moons at the end of 
 the feather. 
 
 Golden. 
 Descriptive points of both cock and hen the same 
 
 817 
 
DOEKINGS.] 
 
 POTJLTEY, 
 
 [doekinqs. 
 
 as in the silver, the difference being only in the 
 ground-colour variety. 
 
 THE DORKING. 
 
 Dorking fowls, comprising the Surrey, 
 Sussex, and Old Kent fowls, attain to a heavy 
 ■weight, produce eggs of considerable size, and 
 are very superior table-birds. They derive 
 their name from a town in Surrey, where they 
 are bred and fattened in large numbers. Their 
 leading characteristic is an additional toe on 
 each foot. Their varieties, in which the fifth 
 toe is absent, are known as the Sussex or Sur- 
 rey — heavy, short, square, and plump fowls. 
 Good hens weigh from seven to nine pounds, 
 and cocks even heavier. They stand low on 
 their legs ; are wide in the breast, with plenty 
 of white and well-flavoured flesh. The hens 
 are generally good layers; and their egg3, 
 smaller than those of Spanish, and larger than 
 those of Polish fowls, are white and well- 
 flavoured. In point of colour, there are pure 
 white Dorkings, mostly somewhat smaller than 
 the tinted birds. These, it is generally 
 understood, require to be furnished with a 
 double comb. Of the darker hues, there is a 
 great variety ; some are speckled birds, with 
 "white pea-like spots upon a rich brown ground ; 
 and the cuckoo Dorkings, banded with grey 
 and white, are both very handsome and very 
 highly esteemed. For coloured birds, eitlier a 
 single or double comb is admissible, though 
 many fanciers of experience prefer the former. 
 In the Birmingham Prize Lists, all the 
 coloured Dorkings have been classed together, 
 without distinction of comb; but single and 
 rose-combed birds are equally eligible. All the 
 Dorkings are good incubators, though their 
 heaviness and their extra member render them 
 somewhat clumsy nurses. 
 
 A breeder at Dorking furnishes the following 
 information in reference to these useful 
 fowls -.^ 
 
 The Qualities of ihe Bird. — There can be no dis- 
 pute as to the size lo which tlie white Doikiiig will 
 {Xrow, compared with tiie coloured birds; but, since 
 the commencement of the poultry shows, there has 
 been added, I shouhl tliink, about 31bs. to their 
 weight; and doubtless, wiili care, even tliis may be in- 
 creased (if necessary), though I certainly think a 
 fowl of live, six, or seven pounds' weight is quite 
 sufHcient for the table — in fact, the perfection of 
 size. I have been testing several diiferent breeds 
 of fowls; and I think I can say, perfectly free from 
 
 818 
 
 all prejudice, that no one will compare with a 
 white Dorking at five months old — it is the very 
 model of a perfect table-bird. 
 
 Their Laying Qualities. — They do not, as a rule, 
 by any means enter into competition with the 
 Polands, Hamburghs, or Cochins, as layers ; though, 
 during the season, they will lay a great many eggs, 
 and these of a large size, and very delicate in 
 flavour. By rearing early birds, eggs may be pre*, 
 cured in winter, as the pullets generally commence 
 laying in November. 
 
 As Sitters and 3Iothers. — In this department 
 they certainly are unequalled, with the exception, 
 of course, of the coloured birds. They sit remark, 
 ably close ; are very courageous in the protection of 
 their young; good foragers ; and, what is a very 
 great advantage, remain a long while with their 
 chickens before turning them off. 
 
 3Iude of Rearing, etc.— There is a prevalent idea 
 that they are delicate ; but certainly my experience 
 will not indorse such an assertion. Last year 1 
 reared very few ; but the year before, the results 
 were these — seventy-three chickens hatched ; one 
 of these had to be cut out of the shell, and, won- 
 derful as it may appear, every chicken was reared 
 with the exception of this one, which was killed by 
 the hen treading on it : so much for the delicacy of 
 these birds. Of course, this was under as favour- 
 a!)le circumstances as could be ; that is, they were 
 well and judiciously fed, kept scrupulously clean, 
 and had a run on what is, perhaps, one of the most 
 beautiful commons in England — I allude to the one 
 called " The Holmwood," and which almost adjoins 
 the town of Dorking. For the benefit of the mere 
 novice, I will now explain our mode of feeding, 
 &c. : — Let the chickens be undisturbed under the 
 hen tv*enty-four hours after hatching, only taking 
 care occasionally to remove the loose shells ; after 
 this time, place the hen under a coop, and feed the 
 chickens with equal parts of hard-boiled egg and 
 stale bread crumbs, well chopped up together ; let 
 the next meal consist of ground oats, mixed with 
 either milk or water into a stiff crumbly mass ; this 
 to be followed by chicken groats. Let the chickens 
 be fed every hour, varying the meals as above : at 
 the expirstion of a fortnight, a little crushed barley 
 may be added ; and, at the end of a month or six 
 weeks, they may be allowed to run and fare as the 
 older fowls — supposing, of course, that you feed all 
 your poultry liberally, and with various foods. 
 Pursue this plan ; and when you see a hundred 
 beautiful white fowls roaming over some green 
 lawn or fields, I think you will have no cause for 
 regret that you have chosen ^or your favourites a 
 breed that can be equalled by none for its useful 
 qualities, and is surpassed by few in beauty. 
 
 Till the Cochin-Cbinas came into fashion, 
 the Dorkings — whose proprietor had utility 
 in view — held the highest place in all poultry- 
 yards. The abundance with which they supply 
 the London markets, both as capons and 
 chickens, is incalculable; and the breed, not- 
 withstanding the excessive favour shown to- 
 wards its modern rivals, still preserves, in the 
 estimation of buyers, a very forward place. 
 
D0KKIK08.] 
 
 POULTUT. 
 
 [doukings. 
 
 lu.Mr. Dixon'a Ornamental and Domestic 
 Fault ry, wo fiiul the follow in j:^ roinarka upon 
 this kind of fowl :—" For thus.^ who wish to 
 stock their poultry-yardd with fowls of the 
 most dosirablo shape and size, c-loLhid in rich 
 and varii'gati'd pluniai^o, and, not oxpectin!^ 
 perfection, aro willing to overlook one or two 
 other points, the speckled Dorkings aro the 
 breed to be at ouce selected, Tho hens, in 
 addition to their gay colours, havo a largo flat 
 comb, which, wheu they aro in high hcallh, 
 adds very much to their brilliant appearance, 
 particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The 
 cocks are magnificent. The most gorgeous 
 hues are frequoully lavished upon them, whicli 
 their great size aud peculiarly square-built 
 form display to the best advantage. The 
 breeder and the farmer's wife behold with 
 delight their short legs, their broad breast, the 
 small proportion of ofial, and the large quan- 
 tity of good profitable flesh. "When fattened 
 and served at table, the master and mistress 
 of the feast are satisfied. The cockerels may 
 be brought to considerable weights, and the 
 flavour and appearance of their meat are in- 
 ferior to none. Those epicures who now and 
 then like a fowl killed by dislocation of the 
 neck without bleeding (the more humane way), 
 will find that this variety aflbrds a tender aud 
 high-flavoured dish. 
 
 "Dorkings aro better adapted than any 
 other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch super- 
 abundant turkey's eggs. Their size and bulk 
 enable them to aflford warmth and shelter to 
 the turkey-poults for a long period. For the 
 same reason, spare goose's eggs may be in- 
 trusted to them. But, with all these merits, 
 they are not found to be a profitable stock, 
 if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their 
 powers seem to fail at an early age. They arc 
 also apt to pine away and die just at the point 
 of reaching maturity. "When the pullet ought 
 to begin to lay, and the cockerel to crow and 
 start his tail-feathers, the comb, instead of 
 enlarging and becoming coral red, shrinks aud 
 turns to a sickly pink, or even to a leaden 
 hue ; and the bird, however well fed aud 
 warmly housed, dies a wasted mass of mere 
 feathers, skin, and bone." 
 
 Aa a remedy for the above-mentioned weak- 
 ness, a fresh, well-selected cock-bird or two 
 should be introduced into the walk, every 
 
 second or third year at farthcHt, With such 
 |)recaution carefully altendi'd to, tlio race will 
 gciu*rally bo much improved, Tho arrange- 
 ment is the best that can bo devised ; but tho 
 necessity for adopting it shows that the cocks 
 of this breed aro deficient in vigour, 
 
 A high authority gives us tho following de- 
 scription as a basis for judging tho grey 
 Dorking : — 
 
 The Cock. 
 Jio(h/. — Long and square; the back and belly, 
 
 breast and behind, forming nearly ])aralkl lines. 
 7/t'a(/.— Comb erect, single, rather low than high, 
 serrated, free from cKft behind or side sprigs; 
 waxy eyes orange-red ; cheeks crimson-red ; ear- 
 lobe" small, whitish ; wattles turgid, rounded, not 
 pendulous. 
 Neck. — Hackles bright straw colour, either per- 
 fectly frie from markings, or having the mid-rib 
 black, and webs straw colour; if marked, mark- 
 ings must be distinct. 
 Buck. — Same colour and same markings as hackles. 
 .S"arW/e.— Ditto. 
 
 Winq. — Shoulder clear straw colour, crossed with 
 
 a broad, rich coloured steel blue bar ; flight 
 
 feathers white, having the secondaries spangled 
 
 or partly laced with black on the inner web. 
 
 Breast. — Largest, clearest, and best black, least 
 
 splashed with white. 
 Tin/.— Very full, black, well carried, shot with 
 
 iridescent colours. 
 Legs. — White, shorter in proportion than other 
 
 breeds. 
 Feet. — Five-toed; the articulation of the hind and 
 rudimentary toe to be perfectly defined. 
 
 The Hex. 
 
 Head. — Comb, when in high condition, falling^ to 
 one side, serrated, free from cleft behind or side 
 sprigs ; waxy eyes orange-red ; cheeks crimson ; 
 ear-lobe whitish ; wattles rounded. 
 
 iVec/c— Hackles, mid-rib black; edges silvery white, 
 well defined. 
 
 ^ac/c— Shaft white; webs minutely dotted with 
 black on whitish ground, presenting a grc-y 
 appearance. 
 
 Saddle. — Same, 
 
 irui/;,— Shoulder same grey as back ; shafts broad, 
 and very distinct straw colour; flight, dark 
 brown. 
 
 Breast. — Reddish fawn colour, 
 
 7(1/7.— Full rich brown, with minute black mark- 
 ings ; edges approaching silvery. 
 
 Zer/s and i^t'c!!,— White ; toes, five in number; 
 articulations clearly defined. 
 
 Dorking (WniTE). 
 
 7/^rtr/.— Comb single or double; if the former, sub- 
 ject to the same rules as the grey Dorking; if 
 double, the duplicature to be di.-.tinct. 
 
 Body. — Clear white. 
 
 Tail. — Full and well carried. 
 
 Legs. — Five-toed ; articulation of toes well defined. 
 
 Dorking (Pheasant and Speckled), 
 Of doubtful purity ; no markings to be relied on. 
 
 819 
 
GAME FOTVL.J 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [game fowl. 
 
 THE GAME FOWL. 
 
 The Game Fowl is, iu the estimation of many, 
 one of the most beautiful of birds. His flesh is 
 excellent ; whilst the hen is a fair producer of 
 eggs, a good sitter, and attentive mother. 
 Both male and female, however, are very 
 troublesome, from the extraordinary combative 
 qualities with which they are endowed. The 
 cock has long been known for his fighting pro- 
 pensities ; and mankind having early discovered 
 this, made them administer pleasure to their 
 own destructive tendencies. " Cock-fighting 
 is indeed so old," says an article in the Sport- 
 ing Dictionary , " that we hardly know whence 
 to derive its origin. Asia, however, has the 
 credit of first fostering it ; and it seems to 
 have been cultivated by the natives amongst 
 their earliest games. The first records of 
 China note it. In Persia, it was early encou- 
 raged, in conjunction with hawking and quaii- 
 fighting ; nor was it to be wondered at, that, as 
 man became belligerent, he would, in order to 
 extend his conquests, commence his education 
 by observing the ofiensive and defensive opera- 
 tions of animals, thereby the better to regu- 
 late his own. When Themistocles was engaged 
 iu warfare with the Persians, he was struck 
 ■with admiration at the bravery and determina- 
 tion displayed in the battles between the cocks 
 of that people ; which was such as to occasion 
 him to exclaim to his admiring army, * Behold ! 
 these do not fight for their household gods, 
 for the monuments of their ancestors, nor for 
 glory, nor for liberty, nor for the safety of their 
 children, but only the one will not give way 
 tinto the other.' This so encouraged the 
 Grecians, that they fought gallantly, and ob- 
 tained the victory over the Persians ; upon 
 which, cock-fighting was, by a particular law, 
 ordained to be annually practised by the 
 Athenians. The inhabitants of Delos were 
 great lovers of the sport ; and Lanagra, a city 
 of Boeotia, the Isle of Rhodes, Chalcis and 
 Euboea, and the country of Media, were famous 
 for their generous and magnanimous race of 
 chickens. It also appears that they had 
 some peculiar method of prepariug the birds 
 for battle. Cock-fightiug was an institution, 
 partly political, at Athens, and was continued 
 there for the purpose of cultivating the seeds 
 of valour in the minds of youth. But it was 
 820 
 
 afterwards perverted and abused, both there 
 and iu other parts of Greece, till it became a 
 common pastime and amusement, without any 
 moral, political, or religious intention, as it was, 
 until lately, followed amongst us." 
 
 In his form and aspect, and in the extra- 
 ordinary courage which characterises his nat- 
 ui-al disposition, the game fowl exhibits all 
 that either the naturalist or the sportsman re- 
 cognises as the heau-ideal ofliigh Mood. 
 
 He is somewhat inferior in size to other 
 breeds ; but his shape, approximates more 
 closely to the elegance and lightness usually 
 characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated 
 race. Amongst poultry, he is what the 
 Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred 
 short-horn amongst cattle, and the fleet grey- 
 hound amongst the canine race. Such being 
 the character of this variety of fowl, it would 
 doubtless be much more extensively cultivated 
 than it is, were it not for the difficulty attend- 
 ing the rearing of the young ; their pugnacity 
 being such, that a brood is scarcely feathered 
 before at least one-half is either killed or 
 blinded by fighting. Their elegance of form, 
 and brilliancy of colour, however, render the 
 breed objects of great admiration. They are of 
 all colours ; and each variety seems to have had 
 its patrons, the rule being to mate the cock 
 with hens of the same feather, or " rightly 
 plumed to the cock," as Spetchly has it. Devia- 
 tions from this rule are frequent, as we find the 
 same to be the case in all kinds of animals which 
 have been reduced to a state of domestication. 
 
 When a cock is selected, he should be 
 placed with from four to six hens, bringing 
 them together in IS^ovember or December. If 
 he be young, the hens may be full-grown ; if 
 two years' old, then the hens may be young 
 pullets, in the case of a strong breed being 
 desired. Mark attentively how he bears him- 
 self to all his hens, as it frequently happens 
 that one or other of them falls under his dis- 
 pleasure, in which case she should be removed. 
 Choose the best-shaped eggs, and neither the 
 earliest nor the last laid ; and, to avoid mis- 
 takes, mark them, and place them under an 
 old game hen — the old being excellent mothers. 
 Their place for sitting should be private, and 
 free from all annoyance or intrusion. 
 
 When hatched, the young should be regu- 
 larly audi often fed, in small quantities at a 
 
THE SPANISH FOWL.] 
 
 POULTKY. 
 
 [tub bpanisu fowl. 
 
 timo, after tlio first day or two. Thi'ir food 
 sliouKl bo : — 
 
 Macerated epps l)oili'(l hard. 
 
 Crumbs of white bread 
 
 Lettuce-leaves and meadow aiiLs. 
 
 M:i«;}j(it3 from j^raiiis. 
 
 Steeped oats and small wheat. 
 
 Curds, witli new milk. 
 
 Bread, toasted, and steeped in chamber-ley. 
 
 Tho varieties of game fowl bred in thia king- 
 dom are very nuuierous, and, to the unin- 
 itiated, their designations very unintelligible. 
 For the purposes of combat, the black-breasted 
 reds have been the favoured variety. The recog- 
 nised breeds are, according to Spetchly : — 
 
 1. 151ack reds. 
 
 2. Silver black-breasted 
 
 ducks. 
 
 3. Birchen ducks. 
 
 4. Dark grey 
 
 6. Mealey greys. 
 
 6. Blacks. 
 
 7. Spangles. 
 
 8. Furn esses. 
 
 9. Polecats. 
 
 10. Cuckoos. 
 
 11. Gingers. 
 
 12. lied duns. 
 
 13. Duns. 
 
 14. Smoky duns. 
 
 " In all these," says Spetchly, " good birds 
 may be found. From them, however, have 
 been raised crosses innumerable ; and it is the 
 aim of the fine breeders of the present day, to 
 have their birds as much as possible uniform 
 in feather, blood, and constitution." 
 
 The best montli for hatching game chickens 
 is IVIarch, as it has been generally found, that 
 when hatched in this month, they prove to be 
 the most hardy birds. We should state, how- 
 ever, that whatever may be their beauty and 
 high courage, game fowl will be very trouble- 
 some in a poultry-yard of various breeds, 
 especially if another chanticleer is kept; for 
 although their smaller size might lead to the 
 supposition that they will not be the aggres- 
 sors, this is a mistake. Their indomitable 
 spirit forces them to quarrel with every other 
 bird; and their activity and strength render 
 them dangerous to the heaviest adversary. 
 
 THE SPANISH FOWL. 
 
 The Spanish fowl is one of the largest 
 breeds ; a productive layer of full-sized eggs ; 
 and, in the great majority of cases, a non- 
 sitter. Its plumage is black ; and it is a little 
 smaller in size than the old "shakebag;" but 
 in every other quality, in which excellence is 
 to be expected, it surpasses that bird. The 
 
 back of tho Spaniali fowl is tinted witli a 
 glancing green; whilst the feathers of the 
 legs, thighs, and belly are particularly decided 
 in the hue, and of a velvety aspect. In its 
 carriago it is stately, having a grave and 
 majestic deportment, such as might be sup- 
 posed to become tho monarch of the poultry- 
 yartl. AVhen in condition, ho is not only a 
 beautiful, but a useful bird, with white 
 clieeks, and large comb and wattles, very 
 highly coloured. Tho legs are of a leaden 
 eulour, and so are tho feet, except the soles, 
 w hich aro of a dirty fleshy hue. A full-grown 
 cock weighs about seven-and-a-half pounds; 
 tho hen about six-and-a-half. 
 
 These fowls have long been established in 
 Great Britain and Ireland; and exhibit no 
 constitutional peculiarities which suggest diffi- 
 culties in either hatching or rearing. As 
 table-birds, they hold a place in the very first 
 rank, their flesh being particularly tender and 
 juicy ; whilst the skin possesses that beautifully 
 clear white hue, so essential in birds designed to 
 be consumed by the gourmand. The hens are 
 the highest class of layers ; and of all tlio 
 naturalised and' indigenous varieties of fowl, 
 they, with other sub-races of the same type, 
 produce the Andalusians and Columbians, 
 being the largest and best-flavoured eggs. 
 Besides, they are prolific, and extremely easy to 
 feed. Spurious specimens of this fowl are 
 often in the market; consequently, a buver 
 should know all the points of a fine bird 
 before he enters the market. To purchase a 
 spurious fowl will cost as much as the other; 
 will be as expensive to feed, but will not bring 
 an equal return in the way of profit. By 
 applying, in the first instance, to a breeder of 
 known respectability, much disappointment 
 will be avoided ; and though the price demanded 
 may appear high, it may not, perhaps, be 
 higher than what would have been paid for a 
 bad article. Even should a few shillings extra 
 have to be laid out, it is better to do so 
 willingly, as, in the long run, it will be found 
 the most prudent plan. It may hero be 
 observed, that the addresses of the leading 
 amateurs and dealers in poultry, may be learned 
 by consulting the catalogues of the principal 
 shows throughout the country. 
 
 Spanish fowls have occasionally changed 
 their plumage, and become perfectly white. 
 
THE POLISn FOWL.] 
 
 POTJLTET 
 
 [the polish fowl. 
 
 A person writing to a sporting paper, says 
 that he has seen a perfectly wliite Spanish 
 hen which had once been entirely black ; and 
 inquires if such a thing is not very uncommon, 
 and if any of his readers can account for such 
 change ; it had not the plea of cold, like the 
 ptarmigan and mountain hare. We have 
 heard of several instances of a black Spanish 
 fowl becoming a white bird ; and recollect one 
 exhibited at a poultry show as a white Spanish 
 fowl, which we were told had undergone this 
 curious change. 
 
 In forming a judgment of the excellences 
 of the Spanish fowl, the following are the 
 points to be looked at : — 
 
 The Cock. 
 Head. — Comb erect, serrated, surface waxy, free 
 from side sprigs or warts ; not too high; face 
 pure opaque white, as well over the eye as the 
 cheek, separated from the comb by a distinct 
 line of black feathers ; ear-lobe pure white, free 
 from pink or bkie tints, and very large, meeting 
 under the wattles ; eyes orange ; beak blackish 
 horn colour; wattles long and pendulous; all 
 the body black, brilliantly glossed ; legs black. 
 
 The Hen. 
 
 To match ; distinctive marks the same, except in 
 
 the comb, which should fall over on one side. 
 
 THE POLISH FOWL. 
 
 I'olisJi fowls, have a top-knot of feathers in- 
 stead of a fleshy comb. They are generally non- 
 sitters ; lay medium-sized eggs ; are of middle 
 weights, and great favourites with the epicure. 
 "Why these birds are called Polish, or Poland, 
 we are unable to say, as there is no evidence 
 of which we are aware, to show that they origi- 
 nally were imported from Poland. They are 
 birds which frequently exhibit great courage, 
 whilst their beauty is unquestionably very con- 
 siderable, although that property has, in one 
 point at least, formed a subject of dispitte. 
 This point is the beard ; but the best way of 
 determining the merits of this appendage of 
 the head, is by making both bearded and un- 
 bearded specimens equally eligible to prizes. 
 There is now only one class for bearded or 
 unbearded Polish of each colour— the same 
 applying, in this case, as in Dorkings. 
 
 The impression, however, is, with many, that 
 the ruffs, or beards, should be taken as one 
 point in favour of the birds which are adorned 
 with that appendage. Mr. Wright's opinion 
 is, that the bearded fowl will, in every case, be 
 822 
 
 found to be the best in all respects. It is 
 quite true, that while the unbearded varieties 
 have greater delicacy of form and plumage, the 
 bearded are endowed with considerably more 
 constitutional vigour. 
 
 " The favourite varieties of Polish fowls, are 
 the Black, with white crests ; the Golden 
 Spangled, and the Silver Spangled. The Golden 
 Spangled is of no ordinary beauty ; it is well 
 and very neatly made ; has a good body, and 
 no very great offal. On the crest, immediately 
 above the beak, are two small fioshy horns, re- 
 sembling, to some extent, an abortive comb. 
 The wattles are small ; the hackles on the neck 
 are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow ; and 
 the general ground-colour of the body is of the 
 same hue, but somewhat darker. The thighs 
 are of a dark brown, or blackish shade, and the 
 legs and feet are of a bluish grey. The full- 
 grown cock weighs about six pounds, and the 
 hen five-and-a-half pounds ; the eggs moderate 
 in size, and very abundant. In the Silver 
 Spangled varieties, the principal difference is, 
 that the ground-colour is a silvery white. But 
 the spangles themselves have been the subject 
 of serious feud ; and the Birmingham list now 
 discreetly contents itself with calling them 
 Golden and Silver Poland ; which it has the 
 greater right to do, inasmuch as the degree of 
 disposition of the markings is not so rigidly 
 laid down for Polish as for Hamburgh fowls. 
 Besides these, there are pure white Polands, 
 entire dun-coloured Polands, and other com- 
 binations of hues. A much-desired variety — 
 white, with black top-knot — like the common 
 cuckoo, * tuneful bird, seldom seen, but often 
 heard' of — is to be met with in every Poultry- 
 book, and would make the fortune of any one 
 who could produce a pair or two alive." 
 
 In England, these fowls are esteemed rather 
 a fancier's than a farmer's stock. Their non- 
 sitting disqualification renders them unsuitable 
 for agricultural purposes ; but their flesh is of 
 the very highest excellence. They are reared 
 in Egypt, in immense numbers, the practice of 
 artificial hatching supplying the constitutional 
 defect of the birds. A vast number of Polish 
 fowls are bred in the department of Calvados, 
 in France, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 Caen, whence they are brought to Le Havre 
 by various conveyances, for the supply both of 
 the town and the shipping. No care is taken 
 
•WHITE FOWL.] 
 
 POULTKY. 
 
 [COCUIN-CIIINA FOWLS. 
 
 to keep the breads p\ire, and thoy are found 
 with or without beards, as tho caso nmy be. 
 A warmer and drier cliinato than that of Great 
 Britain secma to bo nioro congenial to the 
 Polish fowl. Tho chickens are very slow in 
 •^rowing, and it is dilhcult to distinguish the 
 sexes at an early period of their life. Still 
 they are exceedingly pretty objects, as they 
 carry their little downy top-knots on tho very 
 day of their entrance into existence. 
 
 In referenco to this fowl, one, who seems 
 to have studied its nature and qualities, says, 
 that in judging of tho jjoints of this kind of 
 fowl, he would suggest the following as a good 
 basis to go upon : — 
 
 Fowls with Crests. 
 
 Improperly calUd Poland or Polish ; nc record to 
 
 be found of fowl so named. 
 
 White-crested Black. 
 
 Tin; Cock. 
 
 Head. — Surmounted with a globular, floating crest, 
 in two parts ; smallest amount of black on fore- 
 head, and fullest and clearest white falling equally 
 on all sides. — The comb rudimentary, in two 
 small spicula. — The ears fullest and clearest 
 wliite. — The beak, horn colotn-. — Wattles full. 
 
 JN'ec/;. — Best brilliant shining L...k, free from white 
 or any other colour. 
 
 B.)f/v.— Ditto. 
 
 Wings. — Ditto. 
 
 T(;j7.— Ditto. 
 
 Legs. — Blackish grey. 
 
 The Hex. 
 
 Similar in all respects to the cock, the crest ap- 
 pearing more globular on account of a difference 
 of shape of feather. 
 
 Black-crestkd White. 
 
 The reverse of the foregoing, believed to be extinct ; 
 
 the greatest desideratum of the poultry fancy. 
 
 Chest i;d White Fowl. 
 
 Description as to form of crest the same ; the colour 
 
 best and purest white. 
 
 The Sultan fowl, or Serai Tii-ook, is, by 
 Eonie, supposed to belong to the Poland species. 
 
 "In fulfilment of a promise of long stand- 
 ing, to Mr. Tegetmeir," says an intelligent 
 writer, " to send him the first Sultan 
 fowl which should die, for the purpose of as- 
 certaining whether these fowls are possessed 
 of the peculiar conformation of head of the 
 Polands, I lately sent a hen for post-mortem 
 examination ; and he stated, ' tlie structure is 
 
 of that very ri'inarkablo kind, found in the 
 Polands. ' When tho young chickens aro 
 hatched, the embryo crest shows itself as in 
 tho chickens of other Polands ; and, in all their 
 habits, they pronounce themselves of that 
 variety. So much for their kind. 
 
 " Tho SuUan is a short-legged, plump, com- 
 pact fowl of medium size. Tho tuft on tho 
 head is large, compact and globular ; it has a 
 mull", whi.skers, and gravel eye. Tho plumago 
 is abundant, and of a pure white. The legs 
 are well booted and vulture-hocked; there aro 
 five toes on each foot. It is a brisk, active 
 fowl, and exceedingly ornamental. 
 
 " In their own country, Turkey, they are 
 known by the name Serai of Til-ook ; literally 
 translated, ' Sultan's Palace Fowls,' or ' FowU 
 of the Sultan's Palace.' The first fowls re- 
 sembling the kinds which attracted my notice, 
 were Dr. Burney's Ptarmigans ; but they 
 were very inferior to those imported in 
 ISoi (which, with their progeny, have taken 
 so many prizes since that time), being very 
 poor in the crest, leas compact in form, un- 
 mufted, and without the fifth toe. But, like 
 the handsomer Sultans, they were good layers 
 of large eggs, and non-sitters." 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA FOWLS. 
 
 The Cochin-China fowl is of great weight; 
 very prolific of eggs and young ; a good incu- 
 bator, but not of a decidedly good quality for 
 the table. 
 
 This species of fowl, on its appearance 
 amongst us, produced a perfect mania in the 
 poultry world ; and we are principally indebted 
 to her Majesty and the late Prince Albert 
 (who, in April, 1846, sent two fine specimens 
 to the cattle-show of the Eoyal Dublin Society) 
 for having first made them knowii to our 
 poultry-yard. 
 
 Since that time the breed has been exten- 
 sively cultivated ; and new, whenever there ia 
 a poultry exhibition, the representatives of the 
 celestial empire are suro of having a place. 
 The large prizes awarded for these fowls, and 
 the extraordinary prices they realise at public 
 sales, show the excess to which a passion may 
 be carried. At Kensington, a collection, con- 
 sisting of a lew birds (with their young 
 chickens) which had obtained the prize and the 
 extra medal at the Birmingham Exhibition in 
 
 Sl'3 
 
cocfliK rowiiS.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [COCHITT FOWLS.' 
 
 December, was sold at what might well be con- 
 sidered fabulous prices. For a cock, £8 5s. 
 was given; and for a hen, £5. The entire 
 sale realised £100. At a sale bj auction of 
 Cochin-China fowls, in Kiug-street, Covent 
 Garden, and at another in Deptford, light 
 buff-coloured specimens fetched the highest 
 prices. A pair of chickens, hatched March 
 6th, the pullet being " fine and light," fetched 
 £3 17^.; "a light-coloured cock," hatched in 
 the same month, was sold for £2 ; " a beautiful 
 light-coloured imported hen, 1851," for six 
 guineas ; and another light-coloured hen, and 
 a light-coloured cock, both hatched in 1851, 
 sold for £5 each. Inferior specimens averaged 
 about 105. a head. The Deptford specimens 
 were much too leggy to fetch very high prices. 
 One lot, a light cockerel and pullet, was sold 
 for £3 55. " But what is still more extraor- 
 dinary," says Mr. Eichardson, " we are assured 
 that a gentleman, well known as a breeder 
 near London, lately sold a pair of fowls for 
 thirty guineas, and another for thirty-two 
 guineas. The same person has been offered 
 £20 for a single hen ; and has sold numerous 
 eggs at one guinea each. He has also been 
 paid down, twelve guineas the half-dozen for 
 chickens just hatched, to be delivered at a 
 month old. Nay, we are credibly informed 
 that as much as £60 per pair has been given 
 for the pure breed. The collection of Cochin- 
 China fowls formed by Mr. Andrews, of Dor- 
 chester, was sold by him to Mr. Catliu, 
 for £250." 
 
 The exhibition of the first white Cochin- 
 Cliiuas, in this country, was at Birmingham, in 
 1850 ; and Mr. E. Herbert, of Powick, Wor- 
 cestershire, was the exhibitor. He had them 
 from the Dean of Worcester, who received 
 them directly from the importer. A price of 
 £5 was placed upon the pair, which was in- 
 tended to bo prohibitory ; but tliey were, not- 
 withstanding, immediatel/ bought; and the 
 buyer was at once offered £7 for them, which 
 he refused. At a subsequent Birmingham 
 show, tho same birds were sold for £10 ; and 
 the prices of tho variety have since risen con- 
 siderably. 
 
 The first birds of this breed were brought 
 to the Queen's aviary, and called the " Cochin- 
 China," from their being imported from tluit 
 country. The breed is also called " Shanghae," 
 824 
 
 from specimens having been early introduced 
 by Mr. S. Moody, of Manchester, from that city. 
 The terms Cochin-China and Shanghae are, 
 therefore, used synonymously. Cochin-China 
 is a country about one-third larger than the 
 British Isles, and ranges from about 9° to 23^ 
 north latitude ; while Shanghae is one of the 
 most northerly ports with which we trade in 
 the Chinese dominions, being situated in a 
 much higher latitude than Cochin-China. It 
 is quite possible that birds of this kind may 
 have been imported from both parts of China, 
 and have originally sprung from the same 
 stock ; or, if difterent varieties exist, there is 
 certainly some difficulty in discriminating. As 
 commercial intercourse has long been estab- 
 lished between the Chinese and the Cochin- 
 Chinese, either country may have imported them 
 from the other. At Shanghae they are known 
 by the term Loo-Choos — the name of a group 
 of islands lying ofi" the channel coast. It is 
 also well known, that birds of large size, with 
 feathered legs, and having all the principal 
 features of these birds, have been imported 
 to Adelaide, in Australia, from Singapore. Some 
 years ago, they were in the very southern part 
 of the Malay peninsula. 
 
 From these circumstances, we may reason- 
 ably infer that the breed has, for some years, 
 been pretty generally distributed over the 
 eastern coast of Asia, and that to establish the 
 precise place of its origin, would be a matter 
 of considerable difiiculty. This fact will, to 
 some extent, account for the many spurious 
 specimens, or impure-bred birds, which have 
 been brought to Britain from the southern 
 ports of China, as this is the district of the 
 Malay variety of which we shall by-and-by 
 speak. The birds, therefore, from Shanghae, 
 are, perhaps, of the purest blood. At all events, 
 to separate them into two classes is decidedly 
 a mistake, as no sufficient marks exist to estab- 
 lish a Cochin-China as a distinct bird from a 
 Shanghae. 
 
 The author of the F oultry- Keeper^ s Calen- 
 dar, furnishes us with the following interest- 
 ing remarks : — " There are, doubtless, many 
 handsome and profitable kinds of poultry, in 
 difterent parts of the world, which are unknown 
 and unnoticed in England. In Eussia, there 
 are some which are so much valued there, that 
 it is almost impossible for strangers to obtain 
 
cocnix-cuiNA rowLS.] 
 
 ruULTKY, 
 
 [CUCHI 
 
 K-CHIN.V FOWLS. 
 
 them ; and, in Turkey, the Cochin-Chinns were 
 
 known and lii^'hly prized while still stmiij^cra 
 here, having passed into that euuiitry hy way 
 of Asia. A few years back, while the Cochiti- 
 China fowls were yet unknown to me, and 
 after I had met with only disappointment in 
 an endeavour to discover, in the Spanish, the 
 good qualities often attributed to them, I was 
 told of some fowls to be found in Turkey, pos- 
 sessing size and other good qualities in great 
 ]ierfection, and I, of course, became immedi- 
 ulely very anxious to buy some of these rare 
 birds. Several of our friends, at that time 
 living in Constautinople, and their friends, 
 kindly placed themselves in full pursuit of 
 these wonderful fowls, but without success ; 
 and we were, after some time, obliged to give 
 up the idea of having them. At length, one 
 of our Constantinople friends came to London 
 to see the Exhibition, and, on his return, I sent 
 bv him a Cochiu-China cockerel and two pul- 
 lets, as a present to his father. During the 
 vovage, many persons from the different ports 
 came on board to see these wonderfully large 
 fowls, with a strange, unearthly crow ; and, on 
 the arrival of the ship at Constautinople, it 
 was found that those were the very same fowls 
 which I had been so anxious to obtain from 
 Turkey ; which had, however, become very 
 scarce there, and which, if ever sold at all, 
 were only to be purchased at an enormous 
 price. 
 
 " About eight years ago, a young sailor, who 
 had served in our family before he went to sea, 
 brought me a fowl from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, of a kind which I have never seen since. 
 He (for it was a cock bird) was entirely jet 
 black, with long scarlet wattles, and a very full 
 roie comb ; the shape of his head and neck 
 was Malay-like, and his tail drooping. He 
 was very upright in carriage, and he looked 
 tall, even by the side of a fine Spanish cock. 
 He was certainly very handsome. Of his other 
 qualities I had little opportunity of judging; 
 for very soon after I had him, he and his rival, 
 the Spanish cock, got together and fought, al- 
 though we had fancied them securely sepa- 
 rated, and both ultimately died from the injuries 
 which they then received. I never but once 
 saw a bird like him, and which I have always 
 thought must have been brought over at the 
 same time ; for the same sailor had two cocks 
 5 k 
 
 with him in that voyage. Thin nccond bird I 
 saw exhibited at a poultry exhibition in the 
 Zoological Gardens, Ivegcut'H Park : lie was 
 mated with hens very unlike hiiiiHelf, and the 
 coop was labelled ' Crow Birds.' " 
 
 In the essentials of size and power, tho 
 Cochin-China fowls excel every other kind of 
 poultry ; wiiilst the softness of their colour is 
 the admiration of many. This generally con- 
 sists of rich glossy brown, or deep bay, with 
 an occasional mark on the breast, of a blackish 
 eolour, and of the shape of a horse-shoe. This 
 mark, however, is not to be taken as an infal- 
 lible sign of tho breed. Tho comb is of a 
 medium size; sometimes, but not always, 
 ylightly serrated ; and the wattles are double. 
 The plumage is bright, and has a peculiar soft- 
 ness to the touch ; whilst the prevailing and 
 most admired colours are buff, yellow, cinna- 
 mon, and grouse. 
 
 In exhibiting the Cochin-China fowl, colour, 
 beauty, symmetry, weight, and general excel- 
 lence are of great importance. Various rules 
 have been laid down for the guidance of 
 amateurs in the purchase of these birds ; and 
 having been framed, the following general 
 outline can safely be given : — 
 
 1. Moderate length of legs, inclining rather 
 to short than long. The legs yellow, or yel- 
 lowish, in front, with reddish or flesb-coloured 
 sides, and well covered to the toes with 
 feathers. Fowls without feathered legs (that 
 is, " not booted," to use the technical phrase), 
 do not possess one of the essential character- 
 istics of a first-rate bird. The more densely 
 the outside of the leg is feathered, and the 
 nearer in colour the leg feathers are to those 
 of the other parts of the body, the greater the 
 beauty, so far as the booting is concerned. 
 
 2. Head, rather small and narrow ; face 
 red ; comb somewhat diminutive, single, and 
 not too deeply serrated ; even {i.e., not bent in 
 and out) and upright. 
 
 3. Tail very short, so as to be almost buried 
 in the rump feathers, especially in the hen. 
 Pure Cochin-China fowls have no "scimitar 
 tail-feathers." Some were exhibited at Lewes, 
 which had these feathers naturally, aud were, 
 therefore, disqualified. 
 
 4. Wing small, the extremitie.-} of which 
 should be almost hidden under the breast fea- 
 thers before, and by the saddle feathers behind. 
 
COCHIK FOWLS. J 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [cochin rowLs. 
 
 5. Body deep from back to breast; wide 
 on the rump, and very broad behind, which 
 part, as well as the thighs, ought to be covered 
 with downy feathers, in such abundance as to 
 give them a very large appearance. Tail and 
 wiug very small ; thigh remarkably thick, and 
 the stilt short ; den^e fluffness of the stern and 
 thighs ; legs well-feathered, or looted, down 
 the outside. 
 
 In matters on which there are many opinions, 
 it can never be an iujudicious plan to give 
 what are esteemed the best, by those who have 
 a large acquaintance with the subject of which 
 we are treating. Accordingly, from others 
 which we will presently give, we select the 
 following for insertion here, as being from an 
 amateur of great experience : — 
 
 " The cock bird is of a dark-red colour, with 
 a dark hackle, edged with yellow ; very fluffy 
 about the thighs ; each flufly feather presents 
 a very peculiar characteristic — viz., being semi- 
 double, or as if it had been split from the apex 
 to the base (I have never found the feathers 
 thus in half-bred birds) ; the wings very short, 
 and doubled under ; comb single serrated, but 
 not deeply so; legs short, flesh-coloured in front, 
 pink down the sides, and somewhat feathered ; 
 a few sword feathers in the tail ; the crow 
 generally ending in a prolonged kind of roar : 
 weight about 10 lbs. Hens partridge-coloured; 
 by abundantly, very dark, middle-sized eggs ; 
 weight tbout 7 lbs. or 8 lbs, each. Chickens 
 feather slowly; cockerels even more so than 
 pullets. When about three months old, cocks 
 weigh 41 lbs. ; hens, 3 lbs. to Z\ lbs. each : 
 roost on the ground at night ; all of a quiet 
 disposition, seldom or never fighting. Hens 
 excellent sitters and kind nurses." 
 
 The remarks of Mr. Trotter, of Henley Mill, 
 near Hexham — written in further illustration 
 of the Essay for which the Eoyal Agricul- 
 tural Society, in 1851, awarded him a prize — 
 merife notice here. They are valuable, as 
 coming from a gentleman of great practical ex- 
 perience, who carried off several prizes at the 
 Northumberland and Durham Society's show, 
 for the best Cochins, Dorkings, Spanish, and 
 Pencilled Hamburglis. 
 
 *' Beneath the vent," he says, " there is a 
 
 much^ greater abundance of ' fluffy' feathers 
 
 than in other varieties of fowls. The feathers 
 
 on the thighs also partake greatly of this 
 
 826 
 
 fluffy nature. The outside of the legs, and 
 the outside toe, ought to be profusely covered 
 with feathers. The wings are so short as 
 almost to deprive the birds of flight ; in fact, 
 it is with difficulty they can mount a balk two 
 feet high ; it is therefore necessary to have the 
 balks where these fowls are kept, even lower 
 than I have already recommended. These 
 fowls having great length, breadth, and depth, 
 attain to almost incredible weights, averagino^ 
 about 11 lbs., if good specimens. The hen 
 weighs seven, eight, nine, or even sometimes 
 as high as 10 lbs. ; but as some commence to 
 lay much earlier than others, a greater dif- 
 ference prevails in their weights than in those 
 of the cocks. 
 
 " The most esteemed colour of these fowls is 
 ginger ; but as there are pure bred birds of 
 almost all colours, including black and white, 
 I am in favour of selecting them as much by 
 their shapes as by their colour. No judge of 
 * short-horns' would, when acting in that capa- 
 city, give preference to an animal of * fine roan,' 
 the shape of which was less perfect than 
 one of a less admired colour — such as red or 
 white — providing the character of purity were 
 evident. Neither do I think any judge of 
 fowls ought to give advantage to any Cochins 
 on account of colour, if the shapes are less 
 perfect than others of less admired colours. 
 The colour of the legs varies in different speci- 
 mens ; but a ' pinky' is most admired. Their 
 eggs mostly partake of a chocolate colour, but 
 difler very much in deepness of hue ; some ap- 
 proaching almost to pink, while others are only 
 a few shades removed from white." 
 
 As a basis for forming a judgment, the fol- 
 lowing points are given by a Dublin ama- 
 teur :— 
 
 The Cock. 
 
 Head. — The beak, in the lighter varieties, yellow ; 
 in the darker, horn colour. — Eyes pearl, or 
 orange red. — Comb low, single, serrated, free 
 from sprigs, and smooth. — The wattles full and 
 round. — Earlobe very full, falling to a level with 
 the wattles. — Face brilliant crimson. 
 
 Neck. — Orange, varying in tint according to variety. 
 
 Back. — In the light-coloured varieties, orange ; in 
 the dark, orange marone. 
 
 Wing. — Shoulder, and throughout, graduated tints 
 of orange yellow in the light colours ; in the dark, 
 orange marone ; flight feathers bay. 
 
 Breaat. — In light colours, buff; in partridge- 
 coloured, brown, with dark markings, sometimes 
 pheasanted ; in grouse-feathered, black breasted. 
 
cocniN-cniXA fowls.] 
 
 POULTUV 
 
 [COCIIIN-CUIXA FOWLS, 
 
 Tail. — Black, scanty, and droopinp. 
 
 Letjs. — FfntluTPil to the tot-s; yellow; the skin, in 
 
 the dark varietifS, iiicliiiini; to roil nt the hiu k. 
 
 In the li;;liter vnritties, pule yellow, free I'rum 
 
 blotches of dark colour. 
 Thiijhs. — Fully covered with long loose featlier.t. 
 
 The Hi:n. 
 
 Head — Small ; comb sin^'le ; eyes pale orange, or 
 pearl colour ; wattles sunie as cock, but smaller 
 HI proportion. 
 
 Keck. — Graceful ; small at the insertion of the 
 head. 'In the lighter varieties, tlie hackles 
 graduated tints of pale orange buff; the lower 
 ieatliers brown in middle, outside webs orange. 
 In the lemon colour, free from marking. In the 
 partridge, mid-feather brown, edge golden. 
 
 Sack. — In the ligliter varieties, gradations of yel- 
 lowish buff, accordinu: to class. In the partridge, 
 brown, with yellow sliaft and liglit edge. In the 
 grouse, a darker brown. 
 
 Saddle. — Ditto ; feathers very long and loose, almost 
 obscuring the tail. 
 
 r<a7.— Brown. 
 
 Lcgfi. — Yellow : well feathered to the feet, according 
 witli body colour. 
 
 Thiyhs. — Very full-feathered ; webs long and dis- 
 united. 
 
 Of the gentle disposition of the Cochin fowl, 
 much has been said ; for it seems quite averse 
 to any display of pugnacity ; whilst it may, 
 with safety, be inclosed within a fence of not 
 more than three feet high. From this cir- 
 cumstance, its desire to wander cannot be 
 deemed very great. Tliere are instances where 
 it has been kept in a flower-garden, in a space 
 of about thirty feet long and twelve wide, 
 inclosed by galvanised iron network only three 
 feet high ; and it never attempted to get over. 
 The feathers of the wings being short, and well 
 doubled under, or clipped, entirely prevent 
 its flying, or "over-leaping" a fence. 
 
 An amiable trait in the character of Cochin 
 fowls, is the tameness which they evince in all 
 their relations with man. Domestication, in 
 their case, seems to be brought to the highest 
 perfection : as they will not only readily feed 
 from the hand, but permit themselves to be 
 handled witliout betraying the slightest un- 
 easiness. At first sight, however, they do 
 not seem so attractive as other fowls. In 
 this country, we have bad, constantly before 
 our eyes, clean-legged poultry, with plenty of 
 tail : it is therefore some time before we become 
 accustomed to this eccentricity ; but when the 
 eye has become used to it, there are no finer- 
 looking birds in the poultry-yard than they 
 are — the cock birds wei"liin<j; from 10 to 12 lbs. 
 
 each, and tlie hens from 8 to 9 lbs. In the 
 specimens, the cocka are best— upright fellows, 
 square built, and ubundiintly feathered on tlio 
 leg and ttiigli, with only n bunch for a tail, and 
 a bright crimson saddle. Long golden-reddish 
 feathers fall over eaoli side of the back, just 
 beyond the wings. The hens have a very small 
 tail, and tlio fullness of the thigh is more 
 marked in them than in the male bird. The 
 crow of the cock birds is not like that given by 
 the common chanticleer, but ends with a note 
 similar to the growl of a dog. 
 
 It is not unnatural for the Cochin-Cliina to 
 roost ; but their wings are so defective, tliat tliey 
 cannot attain any considerable height by flight ; 
 and, if enabled to mount up by a ladder, they 
 arc apt to maim themselves in leaping down. 
 A bench, with a top, si.t inches broad, and 
 raised a foot from the ground, with the floor 
 swept out, and fresh sand every morning, is 
 the best roosting-place that can be made for 
 them. 
 
 There appear to be several distinct varieties 
 of the Cocliin-Cliina race, some of them being 
 square-built, and others resembling the Malay; 
 which are considered the purest breed. The lat- 
 ter throw out the indispensable single comb, 
 before and while laying, and, to a great extent, 
 lose the Malay- like appearance about the head. 
 The white Cochin-Chinas are a splendid va- 
 riety, of robust shape, and equally hardy with 
 the others. There is also a variety termed tho 
 "Lovell breed," which, for fulness of breast, 
 generally surpass all others ; but the breed is 
 scarce. A careful and judicious cross between 
 the large Slianghae birds and the Cochin, has 
 been found to improve the progeny in size and 
 constitution ; but, for breeding purposes, the 
 shortest-legged Shanghaes must be selected, 
 and those with most of the properties of the 
 Cochins. 
 
 A correspondent of the Cottage Gardener 
 says, that he succeeded in producing, from a 
 very large imported hen, and a magnificent 
 cock, three or four decided grouse-piumaged 
 pullets ; and so definite is the colour, he says, 
 that strangers, one and all, exclaim, *' How liko 
 the grouse!" They are large, strong upon 
 their legs, and have the usual quiet demeanour 
 of the Cochin. The dark-red and partridge- 
 coloured cockerels, which attain to a consider- 
 able bulk, are preferred by some ; while others 
 
 827 
 
COCHIir FOWLS.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [cOCHIir FOWLS. 
 
 prefer those of a medium size, deep in the 
 breast, broad across the back, and with short 
 legs. Putting aside all these minor points, 
 however, which are mere matters of taste to 
 the fanciers of these fine birds, we may safely 
 say, tliat the light-coloured varieties are in 
 general highly prized ; while, for strength and 
 weight, the dark birds are superior ; but for 
 beauty, the yellows, fawns, and bulFs carry off 
 the palm. Eed cocks, with hackles of a uni- 
 form gold colour, produce a variety of good 
 light birds, especially if with light hens, and 
 thus materially strengthen the stock. 
 
 In rearing and keeping these birds, rice, 
 boiled and kept well, and stirred for six minutes, 
 so that the grains are separated one from an- 
 other, should form a portion of their food. 
 When young, it is particularly grateful to them. 
 In the spring, when the hens are laying, the 
 most suitable food is the best heavy barley, 
 with occasionally a few oats and wheat, and, 
 once a- week, some offal meat, such as sheep's 
 pluck, well cleaned and cut in pieces ; sheep's 
 noses, with the hair scalded off; worms, plenty 
 of chickweed, and now and then a cow-cab- 
 bage. 
 
 When moulting, barley, oats, wheat, Indian 
 corn, and soft meat of barley meal, with the 
 best sharps, mixed rather stiff together — not 
 exactly scalded, but made up with warm water 
 — should be given. Fowls are fond of a variety 
 of food, and like it frequently to be chauged ; 
 but for staple food, give them the best heavy 
 barley. Put some lettuce-seed into the ground 
 early, and, as soon as fit, transplant in a warm 
 place. Give the fowls plenty of these, as well 
 as cabbage-leaves, as they like most kinds of 
 green meat. To be kept up, they must have 
 their meat constantly by them. It will not do 
 to feed them at stated times, for then they 
 glut themselves, and do not lay so weil ; 
 whereas, if the food is by them, they take it 
 regularly. 
 
 In rearing chickens, much attention must 
 be paid to their food, giving them frequent 
 changes, and tending them with great care. 
 Bread scalded in milk, rice, grits, barley ; and, 
 for a change, put some rice into the side-oven 
 with water, leaving it to be scalded only to 
 such an extent as will make it separate or 
 granulate easily ; the same with barley ; and 
 8^ soon as the chickens eat well, let them 
 82S 
 
 have barley- meal. They should also have, 
 once a-day, some chopped meat, such as beef 
 and mutton ; and of chopped green meat, such 
 as lettuce, they will eat abundance. 
 
 An eminent writer on poultry states, that 
 he allows three pints per day of grain to twelve 
 fowls, besides a dish of potatoes, and a quart 
 of middlings made into porridge. He also 
 gives them the run of a small orchard a few 
 hours each day. 
 
 To attain those heavy weights for which 
 this breed is distinguished, the birds must not 
 only be liberally, but judiciously fed. To the 
 growing chicks, the materials necessary to 
 form bone, as well as flesh and sinew, must be 
 supplied. " At Birmingham, a cockerel, other- 
 wise perfect, was supposed to have suffered 
 some injury or fracture in the legs; but 
 he was only rickety. His frame abounded 
 in all requisites, except phosphate of lime, 
 which, of necessity is a great essential. Ifc 
 should be remembered, that quadrupeds suck 
 in this luilding-material of their skeleton with 
 their mother's milk, which contains it in suffi- 
 ciency ; but that gallinaceous birds, to attain 
 weight and corpulency, must take it with their 
 food. Therefore calcined oyster-shells, broken 
 egg-shells, chopped bones, pollard mixed stiff 
 with milk, and such like, should be allowed to 
 be freely eaten ad libitum.'''' 
 
 The whole of the Cochin- China race are ex- 
 cellent layers — a circumstance which, in an 
 economical point of view, adds greatly to their 
 value. With the exception of a short interval 
 at moulting, they lay the whole year round ; 
 and a supply of young pullets would produce 
 eggs even at the time when the old ones cease 
 laying. A hen exhibited by her majesty at a 
 Dublin show, laid ninety-four eggs in 103 
 days. Pure birds will generally lay from 
 thirty to thirty-five before wanting to sit. 
 The number of Cochin eggs laid at poultry 
 shows, especially when the exhibition is one 
 that happens to be open for several days, and 
 the fowls, therefore, have to be on the spot 
 some time before and after, is surprising. 
 But this may not be a subject of wonder, 
 when it is recollected that most of the birds 
 are in the best possible health and condition. 
 On such occasions, the poor things are sadly 
 puzzled to know what to do with their incon- 
 veniuntly-timed produce ; and to see a hen, 
 
COCIUX-CIIIN'A.3.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [COCllIN-cillNAS. 
 
 after a few momenta of uneasinosa, carefully 
 roll her possible chicken up into ono corner of 
 her pen, frequently aliorda consiJenible aniuae- 
 ment to the loolcor-on. 
 
 As to tlio fecuntlity of the China fowl, it is 
 thus testilied to, by tlie Rev. W. W. Winlield. 
 He says — "A rcnuirkiiblo instance of the 
 merits of Cochin-Chinas, as layers, has just 
 come before me. A young Punchard hen was 
 brou<;lit homo on tlie 2lth of last December. 
 She laid on the 25th, and continued to do so, 
 till, in 90 days, 95 eggs were laid : 10 more 
 eggs were then laid in 20 days — making, in 
 all, 105 eggs in IIG days ; she then sat and 
 reared a brood." Mr. F. W. Rust, of Stow- 
 market, Sull'olk, says that ho had a hen, which, 
 ou two occasions, laid two eggs in ono day ; 
 the first time on the IGth of April, within 
 three hours, and the last on the 12th of June, 
 within the hour. Captain W. "VV. Hornby, 
 H.N., of Knowsley Cottage, Prescot, Lan- 
 cashire, reared pale buS'-coloured Cochin- 
 Chiua cockerels of the very first class ; and 
 states that one of bis hens laid two e2:2;s in 
 
 DO 
 
 one day, but that she did not lay on the 
 following. The eggs of the Cochin-China 
 are not quite so large as those laid by the 
 Malay, and the colour is generally a pale 
 chocolate, or yellowish-white ; but some are 
 nearly white. They have a very delicate flavour. 
 
 An essential object in the hatching of these 
 birds, is to infuse fresh blood into your stock, 
 by purchasing a fine young cock, or eggs of I 
 good breed from some party on whose stock i 
 reliance may be placed. As eggs obtained in j 
 town are often inferior, try to get them from 
 the country ; and, if possible, see the parents. '■ 
 The eggs will carry perfectly safe, if placed in ' 
 a box, with the large end uppermost, and well 
 bedded in bran — not sawdust, as the turpen- ! 
 tine may injuriously affect them. 
 
 The usual time of sitting and hatching is ' 
 from nineteen to twenty-two days ; but it may 
 be a day sooner or later. If, however, an 
 unusual delay takes place, it may be attributed 
 to staleness of the eggs, or unsteadiness of the 
 sitter at the commencement of sitting. Some- 
 times young chicks, from various causes, die 
 in the shell, either from some fault in the parent 
 birds, or the eggs having been stale ; from 
 want of warmth or steadiness in the sitter ; or 
 from their being put in a situation which is 
 
 too dry. But tho uHme mischances are 
 likely to occur with other birds. If tho eggs 
 aro fresh, they do not require a longer time 
 for hatching than those of ordinary i'owU; 
 but instances have occurred of a couple of daya 
 longer being required for tho purpose of in- 
 cubation. As sitter and nurse, tho Cochin- 
 Cliiria hen ia decidedly superior to tho Malay, 
 tho length of the limb of which makes her aii 
 awkward sitter, wliilat it also renders tho taak 
 irksome to her. The hens should be set early 
 in spring, and not later than tho middle of 
 April. But if in March, it allows a chance of 
 mild open weather during April ; and thb 
 birds will bo finer grown in tho ensuing 
 autumn than if hatched later. Cochin-China 
 hens are kind and attentive mothers to their 
 young brood, and generally remain with them 
 for a week or ten days after beginning to lay, 
 which is usually one month after hatching. 
 
 Mr. Broughton Kingston, of Eieter, a suc- 
 cessful breeder of the Cochin fowl, gives tho 
 following results of his experience : — " I com- 
 menced with a pair of young fowls, whose 
 grand-parents were imported birds. Tho 
 pullet began to lay on January 14th : on 
 March 3rd she hatched sixteen chickens, and 
 again began laying when these were five weeks 
 old. On May 27th she brought out another 
 fine brood, and recommenced laying in about 
 a month. On August 12th she hatched a 
 third brood ; and in six weeks laid again. In 
 October she wished to sit a fourth time ; but, 
 being so late in the season, I prevented her. 
 On the 13th of December, 1851, she again began 
 to lay, and continued to produce her daily 
 Qgg, having laid, that year, 101; eggs. Of tho 
 March brood, some of the pullets began to lav 
 when about eight months old ; and several of tho 
 cockerels weigh about 9.} lbs. ; cockerels of the 
 May brood, about G lbs. As regards the iiardy 
 nature of the breed, I need say no more than 
 that I have not lost a single chick from ill- 
 ness." 
 
 After setting his hens, the breeder should 
 be careful to have them oft' their nests at stated 
 times, and see that they are liberally fed with 
 barley and soaked bread. The strongest 
 chickens come from the eggs of hens twelve 
 months old, or the second season of their 
 laying. To have a healthy stock, cock birds 
 should be changed every two years, and never 
 
 S29 
 
COCHIK- CHIN-AS. J 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [cOCHIJf-CHIN-AS. 
 
 be bred from the same stock, if it can be 
 avoided. By ' this method the quality of the 
 breed will be kept up. It is quite as easy to 
 have good birds as mongrels. Chickens, to be 
 larce, must be abundantly and uourishingly 
 fed, on the same principle that a race-horse, 
 from the day he is foaled, has his milch-cows 
 kept for him. At ten weeks old, they are just 
 at the age when they have scarcely a feather 
 to cover their nakedness. After this age, 
 however, if they are kept warm, and fed 
 generously, they speedily become covered with 
 feathers. They usually prefer oats to barley, 
 which are, in some respects, better for them. 
 
 The principal circumstance in which the 
 treatment and management of the Cochiu- 
 China fowls differ from that of the lighter 
 varieties, is in the mode of their roosting. 
 They do not require to be coddled. At 
 Shanghae, the winter weather is, at least, 
 equally severe as it is with us in England. 
 The vacant space beneath the greenhouse stage, 
 makes an excellent winter roosting-place. If 
 kept clean, and they are prevented irom getting 
 into the house, there will be little fear of their 
 injuring the plants. 
 
 These heavy birds, indeed, should not be 
 allowed to ascend a high perch. Those per- 
 mitted so to do, invariably become deformed in 
 the breast-bone; and have an unsightly ap- 
 pearance, independently of their health being 
 greatly impaired. When a hen's ladder is placed 
 against the perches, the fowls will make use of 
 it in mounting to roost ; but in coming down, 
 they almost always use their wings alone. 
 Many persons attribute this deformity in the 
 breast-bone to injury sustained in these hasty 
 descents (which are often as bad as a fall) ; 
 but it proceeds rather from the great weight 
 of the fowl bearing upon one point for so 
 many hours together. Where this is the case, 
 either high or low perching is likely to be 
 injurious. But, be this as it may, high perch- 
 ing is proved to be so, to heavy fowls. 
 
 Broad perches, near to the ground, are some- 
 times provided for them ; but a bed of straw, 
 either on a wooden platform, or in a basket, so 
 large as to avoid any danger of injuring the 
 plumage, is to be preferred. The straw should 
 be shaken up, cleansed every day, and renewed 
 once a-week, or oftener, if necessary. The 
 purchase of this straw occasions an additional 
 830 
 
 outlay of money ; but this will be found no 
 loss to those who have even a small garden, as 
 the rotted straw, mixed with fowl's manure, 
 forms a valuable addition to the dung-heap. 
 
 When ordinary care is taken of the Cochin 
 fowl, it is not found more delicate in habit, or 
 more difficult to bring to perfection, than any 
 English fowl ; and the chickens are quite as 
 easy to rear. Cross-bred chickens are some- 
 times very delicate, subject to roup, and diffi- 
 cult to raise ; but this is seldom the case with 
 the pure breed. On the contrary, these are 
 generally thriving, and hearty -feeding chickens. 
 Where common poultry are fed twice a-day, it 
 is desirable to feed the Cochin-China three or 
 four times, and to give the food so abundantly 
 that some may be left after the fowls have satis- 
 fied themselves. 
 
 Viewing Cochin-China fowls as subjects of 
 profit or loss, it has been contended that the 
 Polish fowl may be more profitable than some of 
 the Cochin-Chinas ; but, if they are fed alike, it 
 is certain that the best Cochin breed will surpass 
 the Polish in the number of their eggs. Some 
 are of opinion that the Spanish are a more profit- 
 able variety than the Cochin ; but a gentleman, 
 who has paid much attention to the subject of 
 profit and loss, says, that " after a fair trial of 
 almost every breed — the Spanish being the 
 last — I have given them all up but the Cochin- 
 Chinas, and now keep no others. Erom 
 March, up to the 1st of May, I have hatched 
 131 chickens, and disposed of a large number 
 of eggs — all from six hens. I have now chick- 
 ens, hatched the first week in February, weigh- 
 ing 9 lbs. per pair ; and one of the pullets laid 
 an egg before she was four months old." 
 
 It has frequently been asked, whether the 
 brown or white Cochin-China fowls are the 
 more productive ? — and whether the latter are 
 so superior to the former as the great differ- 
 ence in price would lead us to expect ? But no 
 very marked diflference in productiveness has 
 yet been observed. The extra price is asked 
 and obtained for the rarity of the colour 
 — many fanciers being willing to pay some- 
 thing more for an article which their neigh- 
 bours do not possess. The same conventional 
 value is attached to most other objects of fancy. 
 Cochins are highly esteemed as table birds ; 
 and, as such, may be turned to profitable ac- 
 count. The great size and weight which they 
 
cocniN-cniNAS.] 
 
 rOULTKV 
 
 [COCIIIX-CUINAS. 
 
 attain, at a very early age, render them de- 
 sirable for the table ; and thoy cost but little 
 for food in the short space of tiino required 
 for rearir:g them. Ac four months old, there 
 should be no dilliculty, under ordinary circum- 
 stances — allowing a good run and fair feeding 
 — in getting pullets to three-and-a-half poumls, 
 and the cockerels to live pounds, live weiglit ; 
 and, by being then cooped, they may, with ease, 
 be grown still larger. In flavour they are most 
 excellent, and their tenderness is unsurpass- 
 able. Another valuable produce of the Cochin- 
 China fowls, and consequently a source of prolit, 
 is their feathers, which are nearly equal to 
 goose down. 
 
 All circumstances considered, in reference 
 to the Cochin fowl, it may safely be said that 
 it is the most profitable for the poor man and 
 the farmer; viewing it, not as an object of 
 fancy, but as productive stock. The early 
 period at which the pullets begin to lay, is 
 capable of being turned to valuable account by 
 the cottager ■while getting his stock together 
 by the restoration, during the scarcity of win- 
 ter, of the little capital expended during the 
 year. Thus the owner, who has raised or pur- 
 chased chickens in the spring, may obtain a 
 brood or two late in the summer, or earlv in 
 autumn, and have chickens ready for the table 
 abour Christmas, which might partly or wholly 
 replace his original outlay. 
 
 If any of the fowls exhibit symptoms of dis- 
 ease, a jalap pill should be given, and they 
 may be crammed a little with stiff" barley- 
 meal. 
 
 The whiteness, or scurfy appearance of the 
 cocks' comb is a kind of disease which does 
 not appear seriously to affect their health ; but 
 it greatly militates against their appearance, 
 and should be taken as a true sign that the 
 birds are not in a perfect condition. The dis- 
 ease is not confined to the comb only, but 
 spreads itself dowu the neck, both before and 
 behind, denuding it of its feathers, and leaving 
 only their stumps. For the cure of this, some 
 have considered high-feediLg to behest; but 
 the following recipe has been given by Mr. 
 Payne. He says — " A lady friend of mine, who 
 has just returned from India, after a residence 
 of eight years, happened to see my fowls, and 
 told me that the ' Kulm fowl' — which I be- 
 lieve ig the ' Malay,' and of which she kept a 
 
 conHiderublo number in India — was aubject to 
 the Bumo iliHeaao, nn<l that the natives, upon 
 discovering it, u|)plied cucoa-nut oil and tur- 
 meric. IShe strongly advised mo to do the 
 same, which 1 did immediately, and with the 
 most complete eucceas ; for it 8to[)ped the 
 spreading of the disease at once, and very soon 
 restored tho comb to its original colour : but 
 for the return of feathers, I must wait till tho 
 moulting season." 
 
 An experienced amateur thus speaks gene- 
 rally of the Cochin-China, or Shanghae fowl : — 
 " A great deal has been said and written about 
 the colours and tints of these fowls. I say tints, 
 because even tlio buffs are subdivided into 
 lemon-buffs and buff's proper ; and if it may bo 
 included in tint, as it is allowed to be equi- 
 potential in merit, to the cinnamon. Then we 
 have the various grades of shade, till we come 
 to the downright partridge colour. Some ama- 
 teur, or some scientific colouriat, should take 
 the lead, and lay down a new scale of degrees in 
 this matter ; it would be useful, and, I opine, 
 it would be acceptable. Supposing such a one 
 should say at once — There are three grand di- 
 visions of these coloured birds ; viz., the buffs, 
 the cinnamons, and the partridge-browns — not 
 forgetting the whites and the blacks of this 
 race. These three divisions of coloured birds 
 are again subdivided into the self, the pen- 
 cilled, and the spangled, or mottled, buffs, cin- 
 namons, or partridge-brown. I do not see wliy 
 a pencilled bird should not be as good as a buff- 
 coloured one : they are as line in the fluff' and 
 feather, and decidedly, as I could show by 
 reference to my own stock, much prettier 
 specimens. I have two pullets of one year, 
 and another of the year preceding, of exquisitely 
 fine buff, charmingly pencilled (almost as richly 
 laced as a gold or silver-laced Bantam), and of 
 fine shape and luxuriant proportions — of finer 
 development, as a whole, than any I possess. 
 But, however this may be determined, one thing 
 is very certain — no yard will ever remain, 
 throughout the year, as it may be constituted 
 in spring. Shape, size, gait, and weight, may bo 
 assumed as permanent characteristics ; not so 
 feather. In the birds of the air, and of the water, 
 and many others, as the ostrich, the emu, &c., 
 feather is as invariable as tho other characters. 
 But either it never was so from the creation, 
 or it has become otherwise from circumstances 
 
 b31 
 
COCHIN-CHINAS.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [COCHIN-CHINA-S. 
 
 nnd time immemorial, that the domestic races 
 oi poultry vary their plumage ad infinitum. Not 
 only do white or black Bantams, cuckoo-Dork- 
 ings, and game-fowls sjjot't in the feather, but 
 the more uniform breeds, the black Polanders, 
 the Minorcas, and even the Spanish, take a 
 white speck spot, and even feathers, when the 
 fit is on them. So with the Shanghaes. The 
 breeder may start in spring with buffs, cinna- 
 mons, or partridge-coloured parents, and their 
 progeny in November will display all the 
 colours of the rainbow, except, to be sure, the 
 blue. Nay, tJiei/ may put 07i the affirmative of 
 due proportions of the whole as white, or the 
 negative as black specimens. The yard may be 
 kept to one colour by cutting the sporters, and 
 the propensity to sport may be checked, but, 
 I believe, never subdued. Pancy must direct 
 choice in colours, and the leading fanciers will 
 give the eclaf to their preferred colour. It is 
 true that the lighter tints are of the more deli- 
 cate feathers, perhaps of the more delicate 
 flesh. But the dark birds are the finest, 
 largest, and, almost invariably, the fairest 
 specimens, which are, at the same time, of 
 good growth and weight, of good buff colour, 
 and so rare, that the}^ are very highly prized. 
 
 " The Cochin- China, or Shanghae fowl, which 
 has made so great a noise, and brought about 
 so great a revolution in poultry-yards and 
 poultry shows of late years, may possibly retire 
 from public estimation with no less silence and 
 rapidity. Eor, unquestioned as its novelty of 
 form, beauty of plumage, and gentleness of 
 disposition and manners are, its usefulness as 
 a supply for the tables of the upper classes, 
 though not as a contributor to the couch and 
 the pillow, by its soft and silky redundancy of 
 fluff and feather, have been long under anxious 
 consideration. It is well to speak of the 
 game-like flavour of its delightful flesh, and to 
 dilate on the pounds avoirdupois which they in- 
 dividually rise to. Is it as well to be silent 
 ■upon the large proportion of offal ? — to ignore 
 the fact of the boasted game-like flavour being 
 unattended by the shortness of substance so 
 acceptable to the rcflned palate? — to be blind 
 to the colour, and insensible to the pachy- 
 dermy ? Regarding them as such exceedingly 
 pleasant inhabitants of the yard, and orna- 
 mental to the lawn and the pleasure-grounds, 
 we grieve over the defects we are bound in 
 832 
 
 candour to admit. The frequent announce- 
 ments of salesmen and auctioneers, of whole 
 stocks and yards to be disposed of, is far from 
 a disallowance, much less a contradiction, of 
 our position. 
 
 " In respect to size and weight, there is 
 much solid ground for scepticism. Doubtless 
 there have been individuals of large develop- 
 ments, with legs several inches in length and 
 three in girth, and a great length of middle claw, 
 which would be important iteins if reducible to 
 broth or jelly ; but such growths are not aver- 
 age, or even usual. In my own yard, and 
 in every other I have inspected, I have seen 
 nothing approaching these models. I do 
 not say that Mr. Sturgeon may not, out of ten 
 or twenty scores of annual produce, have been 
 able to select a very few of such specimens as, 
 at the second or third year, may have reached 
 twelve pounds in the male, and nine in the 
 i'emale ; but even that gentleman, the spirited 
 and highly commendable proprietor of the 
 breed, does not achieve or speak of more. I 
 have heard mention of even greater weights. 
 Inspection has convinced me of the soundness 
 of the late Lord Althorp's advice to gra- 
 ziers, ' Not to look at their own cattle with 
 too much partiality,' so as to see them in 
 points of view which sober eyes cannot find 
 or allow. I think I should not be hazard- 
 ing too much to say, that the weight of 
 Shanghaes does not absolutely exceed that of 
 the finest Dorkings; and, relatively to use — 
 sinking the ofliil — would fall below it. I 
 have possessed both in their best forms and 
 degrees. 
 
 " The propensity to incubation, in the female 
 of this breed, is so remarkable, so persevering, 
 so irremediable, that, while it would make a 
 \Q\; hens desirable to the general breeder, it is 
 a serious drawback to them as sale stock. 
 They begin to lay their winter supply of not 
 large, but delicious eggs in the midst or end of 
 November, and lay regularly, for six or eight 
 weeks, one egg a day. Then they assume the 
 broody humour, and are with difficulty diverted 
 from their purpose. After some eight or ten 
 days' seclusion, they reappear as layers to 
 the extent of from ten to twenty eggs, when 
 they again claim the sweets of maternity. 
 Then you cannot easily turn them from 
 their purpose. I have frequently taken hens 
 
cocniw-OHiirA fowl.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [tiIU MALAY KOWL. 
 
 off their nests, put thorn down on the floor, 
 and left them, only to find them hours after in 
 the siune spot, and in preoiaely the aamo acci- 
 dental posture, like dead thingn, as I left 
 them. Tiiey are the sweetest, gcntloat, and 
 most rational of irrational niothera. The 
 chicks are hardy and 'fendible' — a very excel- 
 lent Yorkshire word, with which the next 
 edition of Johnson may bo enriched. It is a 
 Tery, very rare occurrence for one to die, or to 
 be weakly. The soft and warm flulTiness of 
 the hens makes their brooding most eliectivo. 
 
 "I may add that they are most conformable 
 creatures in this, as in most other respects. 
 They will sit wherever you wish to place them. 
 One winter, about the beginning of January, 
 I diverted some hens from this purpose for a 
 week or two ; in February, they became again 
 hroody, while the weather was yet untoward. 
 I brought them from their laying-nests in the 
 poultry- house, and placed them on eggs in 
 cupboards in my kitchen. They then sat, 
 batched, and got through the chickenhood of 
 their ofispring as kindly as could be. It was 
 a subject of mirthful observation to my 
 household, that the same hens, when again, in 
 May or June, they became prone to multiply, 
 bounced up, in profound fussiness and impor- 
 tance, to the kitchen, and demanded, by peck- 
 ing at and opening tho door that stood ajar, 
 admittance to their comfortable winter quar- 
 ters. They were, unresistingly, put on eggs 
 in a new place ; but, as that was not far from 
 the kitchen door, they sometimes repaired, 
 after their periodical recreations, to the old 
 and favoured, instead of their new locality, of 
 •which they only needed a gentle memento to 
 resume their maternal duties. I have spoken 
 of the rarity of a weakly chicken ; and I add, 
 that I do not remember ever to have lost one, 
 except by some such death as the mother 
 treading on it, or a door blowing-to, and killing 
 one. 
 
 " Talle Qualities. — Since writing the above 
 jots of experience, I have sat down to a young 
 Cochin-China, or Shanghae chicken. It was a 
 deformed bird, though otherwise very hand- 
 some, and therefore condemned. Its weight, 
 ready for spit, was only 5} lbs., but of fine ap- 
 pearance, sent up turkey-wise. The quality 
 of the meat was better than I expected. Still, 
 its flesh must be pronounced coarse in fibre, 
 5 o 
 
 compared with tho old breeds of poultry. 
 There was great whiteness, plumpness, and 
 juiciness— tho substance as beuf to veal, or as 
 codfish to turbot— not denying that both tho 
 antecedents in tho contrasts aro excellent 
 eating. Tho legs were, ajjparently, of whiter 
 meat, and moro delicate consistency, than is 
 usual with tho legs of chickens or of turkeys. 
 It will bo obvious, hence, that I do not con- 
 sider their table-excellence unsurpassable or 
 unsurpassetl." 
 
 In judging these birds, another amateur 
 suggests tho consideration of the following 
 points : — 
 
 Head. — Beak to harmonise with colour. — Eyes red 
 {ptarl rye too Malay likt).—Comh single, small, 
 straight, evenly serrated, fine in texture, and 
 free from excrescences. — Earlobe in cock, red, 
 full, and long ; in hen, small. — Face, red. 
 
 Body. — Very square ; j'. e., broad and deep in the 
 keel, with abundance of thick, soft plumage, 
 giving breadth behind ; short neck. 
 
 Tail. — Remarkably short; in colour harmonising 
 with that of the bird; almost buried in long 
 loose feathers. 
 
 Wi7ig. — Folded up very close, so as to leave the 
 fluff of the thigh standing out full. 
 
 Legs. — Yellow, and heavily feathered. 
 
 Colour of Chinese Fowls. 
 
 Cinnainoji. — Cock and hen both to be cinnamon, 
 and, as far as may be, to agree in shade; liackle 
 marking nothing deeper than a golden tinge ; 
 absence of black in tail and flight, a beauty; 
 colour throughout of a uniform shade. 
 
 Buff. — Cock and hen to agree in shade to a great 
 degree ; marking on neck-hackle to be tolerated 
 in hens ; tail, colour of plumage, or mixed with 
 black ; plumage clear, unflecked, and to agree in 
 shade throughout. 
 
 Gruusc. — Very dark ; each feather a mixture of 
 rich brown and black, as in a pheasant. Breast 
 and tail of the cock, black [accordiny to tne 
 Dublin amateurs'] ; hackle richly marked. In 
 the hen, breast like a pheasant. 
 
 Partridge. — Dark ; the plumage of the hen a minute 
 mossing. Cock with black-spangled breast, and 
 dark-red hackles. 
 
 Blade. — Pure deep black ; no coloured feathers. 
 
 White. — Pure and clear white ; no foul feathers. 
 
 Cuckoo, or Grey Shanyhae. — All the plumage evenly 
 ])encilled, clear grey ; no mixture of red or yellow 
 tinge. 
 
 THE MAL.\Y FOWL. 
 IMalays are a tall race of birds, of high ceurage, 
 excellent nurses and incub.itors of other spe- 
 cies, but moderate layers themselves, and not 
 easy to fatten to a fleshy state. The name of 
 this fowl implies that it is a native of the 
 
 833 
 
THE MALAY FOAVL.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [the MALAY FOWL. 
 
 peninsula which forms the southern point of 
 Hiudostan ; and is a title probably much more 
 correct than most other names of poultry 
 derived from the countries whence they are 
 supposed to come. 
 
 Malays stand very high on the legs ; are long- 
 necked, serpent-headed, and carry too much 
 oflUl for the poulterer. They are, accordingly, 
 Bot so valuable to him as are some other fowls. 
 Their flesh, before cooking, is not tempting in 
 its appearance, and they very often have yellow 
 skins. Their colour is various: some greatly 
 resemble the duck-winged game; others are 
 dark-brown, streaked with yellow. Black Ma- 
 lays are handsome birds ; and the white va- 
 riety, with bright yellow legs, is a remarkable 
 creature. Good Malays, although unprofit- 
 able, certainly adorn a poultry-yard ; but hav- 
 ing a domineering disposition, with the power 
 to indulge in it, they frequently are the cause 
 of considerable annoyance. Chittagongs are 
 members of the Malay family, which is widely 
 spread throughout the East. Crosses with 
 Malays produce fine birds, but they are of 
 uncertain qualities and colours. Their weight 
 is considerable ; and their efficiency as duelists 
 terribly certain, if it were the fashion now to 
 indulge in such practices. 
 
 Tears ago, tiiere used to be a variety of fowls 
 much in request in England, called the " Shake- 
 bag," or the " Duke of Leeds' fowl ;" a noble- 
 man of that name having been a great amateur 
 breeder of them. These fowls were as large as 
 the Malays, but differed from them in the su- 
 perior whiteness and tenderness of their flesh, 
 as well as in their very superior combative 
 qualities. Mowbray thus writes of one in his 
 possession : — " The only one I ever possessed 
 was a red fowl, in 1784, weighing about ten 
 pounds, which was provided for me, at the price 
 of one guinea, by Goff", the dealer, who then 
 lived upon Hulborn Hill, in Loudon ; and who, 
 at the end of two years, received him back at 
 half a guinea, having allowed me, in the interim, 
 three shillings and sixpence each for such tho- 
 rough-bred cock chickens as I chose to send him. 
 At that puriod, the real 'Duke of Leeds' fowl' bad 
 become very scarce, which induced the dealers 
 to put Shakebag cocks to Malay hens, by that 
 means keeping up the original standard size, 
 but entirely sacrificing their colour, and delicate 
 flavour of the fiefsh." 
 83-i 
 
 The name of this fowl seems to have arisen 
 from the old practice of cock-fighting, when the 
 fancy used to challenge all-comers, who had 
 their cocks concealed in a bag ; and the tre- 
 mendous size and power of the Duke of Leeds' 
 fowl proving so far superior to all competitors, 
 as usually to insure conquest. The breed 
 eventually obtained the ndLme,par excellence, of 
 Slialcehag, since corrupted into Shackbag. 
 
 Mowbray informs us that this fine bird was 
 not unfrequently substituted for a turkey ; and 
 this, IS he facetiously adds, " to the great 
 convenience of poulterers and inn-keepers of 
 Wokingham and elsewhere." 
 
 In judging this bird, an intelligent writer 
 suggests the following points for a basis : — 
 
 The Cock. 
 
 Head. — The beak, horn colour. — Eyes, orange red, 
 sunk beneath a projecting eyebrow. — Comb 
 low, indented. — Wattles, very small, more pro- 
 perly folds of the skin of the throat than wattles. 
 — Earlobe, rudimentary. — Face, brilliant crimson. 
 
 Neck. — Orange red. 
 
 Back. — Marone. 
 
 Saddle. — Orange red. 
 
 Wing. — Shoulder, marone; steel-blue bar across; 
 flight-feathers, bay. 
 
 Breast. — Black, with irregular bay markings. 
 
 Tail. — Scanty, drooping. 
 
 Legs. — Olive-brown. 
 
 The Hen. 
 
 Head. — Same characters as cock, but less de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Neck. — Middle of feather brown, edges golden, 
 shaft straw colour. 
 
 Back. — Brown, shaft of feathers straw colour. 
 
 Breast. — Brownish fawn colour. 
 
 I'ail. — Brownish black. 
 
 Legs. — Olive-brown. 
 
 The Malay is widely distributed. It is to 
 be met with largely in India, China, the islands 
 of the Indian Archipelago, the South-Sea 
 Islands, and America. Its introduction into 
 England is of comparatively recent date ; and 
 as, in our culture of poultr}'-, varieties of food 
 and climate enter so largely into the consider- 
 ation, diversities will necessarily arise ; and, 
 whether the birds exhibited be brown- breasted 
 reds, cream-coloured, white, or otherwise, all 
 we mean to suggest is, that main descriptive 
 points shall be attended to, and lots assorted. 
 Of the sub-varieties of Malay, there are three 
 well-defined. The first, Temminck's Gigan- 
 teus, long cultivated in India, under different 
 names, stands nearly two feet in height. 
 The second, the variety commonly imported 
 
THE MAI AT TO 
 
 AVL.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [Tin; MALAY FOWL. 
 
 from Singapore — that generally seen in the 
 English poultry ."^howa — is a smaller ami more 
 lep^v bri't'd. Tlio third, cultivatod in Crylon 
 for lighting, is about tho sizo of our game-fowl. 
 In this the comb is of tiio same character, bul 
 scarcely above the level of tho skull ; no wat- 
 tles ; neck naked; tail very long, carried on a 
 level with tho back ; feathers very narrow, 
 drooping, almost sweeping tho ground ; pri- 
 maries turning outwards — almost leading ono 
 to suppose it indebted, for these peculiarities, to 
 G all us f (treat us, found wild in Ceylon. Tail of 
 hen drooping in like manner ; colour and mark- 
 ings, same as in description. This last kind is 
 rare. 
 
 Another, who has observed the bird in India, 
 thus gives his opinion : — 
 
 *' T/<e Cock. — General carriage and appear- 
 ance, restless, independent, and commanding ; 
 head largely developed, and somewhat eagle- 
 shaped ; tho bone above the eye projecting 
 and overhanging it, giving it a fiery, savage 
 expression ; iris of the eye, pale straw colour ; 
 beak very strong, particularly the upper man- 
 dible, which is thick, and curves downwards to 
 the apex; neck long and snake-like; the comb 
 a low, double, warty excrescence — the points oi 
 papillae on its surface being very close and 
 minute ; fiice nearly devoid of feathers, the 
 t-kin being of a bright blood-red colour; throat 
 also nearly naked, and red, extending from be- 
 hind the ears to a point three or four inches 
 down the front of the neck ; wattles and ear- 
 lobes rudimentary ; hackle feathers of neck 
 rising as a thick mane from its upper third, and 
 falling in to the neck at its lower part in front 
 of the shoulders, not spreading over them as 
 in the game-cock. Shoulders of the wings 
 greatly developed, standing out prominently 
 from the body ; body broad in front, tapering 
 off, and descending to the rump ; breast round 
 and full ; skin covering the crop in the centre 
 of the chest, naked, and of a livid red colour, 
 particularly remarkable when the craw is full ; 
 tail close, somewhat pheasant-formed, and but 
 slightly elevated ; legs rather long ; feathers of 
 the thigh very close; leg, or shank, strong, 
 clean, and of an olive-yellow tinge ; foot large 
 and strong; spur thick, not sharply pointed. 
 Colour — general hue of the neck, back, and 
 rump, a deep glossy chesnut-red ; the neck 
 hackles being browniah-red in the centre, and 
 
 of a brilliant chesnut-red at the edges; rump 
 hackles entirely of a very deep and beautiful 
 glossy cheanut-red ; lesser wing-coverts, a rich 
 glossy lake-red colour; greater wing-covt-rts 
 •)f a deep metallic Hteel-blue, with green reflec- 
 tions; primary llight-featliers a dull black, 
 edged, on tho outer web, with chesnut or bay ; 
 secondary flight-feathers also dull black on 
 their iinier webs, and alight bay on their outer 
 webs, those feathers of the flight nearest tho 
 body being tipped with metallic steel-blue; 
 tail-coverts of a metallic blue-black ; tail- 
 feathers of a dull black, showing somo metallic 
 lustre on their outer webs ; general colour of 
 the breast, under part of the body and thighs, 
 a dull black, tinged and blotched with brown. 
 
 " lien. — Shape of head, neck, and body, much 
 as in the cock ; tail close, and carried generally 
 more elevated ; comb of the same general cha- 
 racter as the cock's, but nearly rudimentary. 
 Colour — head and neck a dark chesnut-browu, 
 with brighter edging to each feather ; back and 
 body generally a clouded chesnut ; tail — inner 
 webs, dull black ; outer webs, chesnut ; wing- 
 flights, a light chesnut, edged with black ; inner 
 webs nearly black ; feathers of the throat 
 scanty and short. Somo hens, in colour, ap- 
 proach more to the grouse character of body 
 feather, and some are spangled with white. 
 The feathers of the Malay fowl sit exceedingly 
 close to the body of the bird, and are more 
 scanty than in any other variety of poultry." 
 
 At poultry shows the Makjs are not 
 favourites, as may generally be inferred from 
 the following remarks, made by one of the com- 
 mittee of the Annerley show: — "In arranging 
 the prize-list, and deciding upon tho regula- 
 tions for the next meeting at Annerley, the 
 committee have been actuated by a desire to 
 conciliate all parties. How far they are jus- 
 tified in doing so, depends upon the co-opera- 
 tion of those who are interested in the rivalry 
 and emulation which properly-conducted ex- 
 hibitions usually excite. Yet there are, doubt- 
 less, some in the poultry world who have still 
 reason to complain. The first cause is tho 
 omission of the ' Malay' in the prize-list, 
 Now, this omission has not arisen from any 
 neglect to, or want of appreciation of this 
 class of birds ; for its merits are at once 
 acknowledged, and have been fully discussed ; 
 but the onus rests entirely with the owners 
 
 835 
 
BASTAMS.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [ba-n-tams. 
 
 themselves — they won't bring them out. Erora 
 this cause, like the ofBcials in the celebrated 
 •Circumlocution Office,' they appear to try 
 * how not to do it.' 
 
 " I can bear my own humble testimony in 
 favour of the Malay, not only for its indomitable 
 courage, but for its delicacy of flesh and general 
 utility ; and, however much the owner of a 
 courtly Spanish or plebeian Dorking may pooh- 
 pooh its appearance, its time has yet to come ; 
 and we should be glad to see it take a promi- 
 nent position in our list. But how stands this 
 class at exhibitions ? At Annerley, last year, 
 four pens were shown, and the same number 
 only at Birmingham in the adult class. The 
 reply, of course, will be, that nothing has 
 hitherto been held out to induce emulation in 
 this peculiar variety. Yet it is not too late, if a 
 sufficient amount of competition can be antici- 
 pated, to ofi'er handsome prizes for these 
 neglected but valuable birds, whose owners 
 always seem reluctant to exhibit. Divested 
 of all extraneous motives, the real object of 
 poultry shows is, 'purely and simply,' the 
 improvement of the various breeds. If any 
 should doubt that such is their ultimate 
 result, let them contrast a Cochin at Hue with 
 an English specimen of the same class, or 
 taste any native bird in its own climate, and 
 one from the breeds of our distinguished 
 amateurs or dealers. 
 
 " In 1847, I had an opportunity of sharing 
 a variety of presents from high Cochin- China 
 authorities. Many fowls were included, and I 
 can scarcely conceive that the present bird, in 
 this country, ever emanated from this same 
 stock. Ducks, also, presented the same melan- 
 choly comparison to the prize birds here. 
 So much for cultivation and care ! But why 
 should the Malays be doomed to a status quo, 
 from the apparent diffidence of their possessors? 
 I have oftentimes, with much satisfaction to 
 self, 'discussed' a portion of 'Malay' on their 
 own coasts ; and if they be good there, taking 
 other classes of birds as precedents, why allow 
 them to degenerate here ?" 
 
 BANTAMS. 
 Bantams are high-spirited little birds ; good 
 •layers ; delicate to eat ; useful as destroyers of 
 insects and small vermin ; and pretty domestic 
 pets, but dreadfully combative. 
 836 
 
 The varieties of Bantam fowl cultivated in 
 England, some thirty or forty years ago, would 
 fill a longer list than they do at present. 
 
 The gold and silver-laced, or the laced gold 
 and silver, are the most popular favourites, and 
 were most carefully cultivated under the aus- 
 pices of the late Sir John Sebright, if they do 
 not owe to him their existence as a breed. 
 The baronet's mode of proceeding is thus de- 
 scribed by one who had opportunities of know- 
 ing it : — " As I am living only nine miles from 
 Beechwood, it may be interesting to you to 
 learn, that neighbours, who knew the late Sir 
 J. S., say that he sometimes hatched five hun- 
 dred chickens in a season, but killed all those 
 which showed the slightest irregularity of 
 colour, and only reared a very few. Ordinary 
 people cannot aflibrd to breed fowls on that 
 system; and, even if they could, such waste- 
 fulness and wantonness, approaching to cruelty, 
 would not be creditable to them." 
 
 Mr. Eichardson says, that the forms of the 
 Bantams are usually modelled after the Game 
 and the Hamburg fowls. The Sebright has 
 its legs perfectly naked down to the toes. The 
 cock, of this breed, should have a rose comb, 
 full hackles, a well-feathered and well-carried 
 tail — from which, however, the sickle feathers 
 should be absent, and he is thence said to be 
 hen-tailed — a stately courageous demeanour, 
 and should not be quite a pound in weight. The 
 lacings, which must be fine and regular, should 
 follow the edge of the feather, on a golden yellow 
 or creamy-white ground. The bird is of high 
 courage, and will fight with great resolution. 
 The attitude of the cock is proud and haughty ; 
 his head being thrown back so as nearly to 
 touch the feathers of his tail, much in the style 
 of a fan-tail pigeon. Well-bred birds fetch 
 high prices. 
 
 The white Bantams, kept by her majesty at 
 the Home Park, are of a perfectly white colour, 
 and ■ exceedingly small size ; they appear also 
 to have exhibited some peculiar traits of habit 
 and disposition. The cocks were so fond of 
 sucking the eggs laid by the hen, that they 
 would often drive her from the nest in order to 
 obtain them. They have even been asserted to 
 attack her, tear open the ovarium, and devour 
 its shell-less contents. In order, if possible, to 
 subdue this unnatural propensity, her majesty's 
 keeper first gave the cocks a hard-boiled, and 
 
BAN I'AMS.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [BANTAMS, 
 
 then a marble egs; to fij^lit with, takinp; caro, 
 at the s:imo time, to prevent their access to the 
 liens or to any real egi^s. After a few weeks 
 the birds p;ave up their unprofitable labour, 
 and, as the keeper had anticipated, wholly 
 abandoned, for tlie future, all attempts to de- 
 stroy the hen or the actually laiJ ei,'";. 
 
 "The black Bantam," says Mr. Dixon, "is 
 a beautiful example of a great soul in a little 
 body. It is the most pugnacious of its whole 
 tribe. It will drive, to a respectful distance, 
 great dunghill cocks five times its weight. It 
 is more jealous, irascible, and domineering, in 
 proportion to its size, than tlio thorough-bred 
 game-cock himself. Its combativencss, too, is 
 manifested at a very early period. Other 
 chickens will fight, in sport, by the time they 
 are half-grown ; but these set to work in good 
 earnest. One summer we bought a small 
 brood, as soon as they could safely be removed 
 from their mother. There were two cockerels 
 amongst them. They were little things, beau- 
 tifully shaped, but ridiculously diminutive — 
 fairy chickens, some of our friends called them. 
 They had not been with us long before the 
 liberal supply of barley began to excite them ; 
 and the two little imps spent the greater part 
 of their time in fighting, which only made us 
 laugh, judging serious injury impossible. But 
 shortly observing one unusually triumphant 
 (for it had always been a sort of drawn game 
 between them), and the other walking about 
 in an odd uncertain manner, though firm and 
 fearless, I found that this latter had both its 
 eyes closed from wounds received the day 
 before. I carried it to my dressing-room, to 
 relieve it by sponging, and set it on the staiu- 
 cloth, while I went to fetch some warm water. 
 Still blind, it began crowing vivaciously. In 
 a few minutes its eyes were unsealed, and it 
 was returned to the yard. But battle after 
 battle was immediately fought, and we were 
 obliged to eat one of the combatants to pre- 
 vent the mutilation of both. We can, con- 
 sequently, confirm the statements of those 
 who praise the excellence of their flesh, par- 
 ticularly if it be accompanied by a little good 
 bread sauce. One, that I have seen, was in the 
 constant habit of fighting, or rather sparring, 
 with a little spaniel that belonged to the 
 same owner. Though apparently attacking 
 each other with great fury, they never seemed to 
 
 bo really in earnest. The arrival of strangera 
 was generally the signal for tlio commence, 
 ment of this sham figlit, which ended without 
 bloodshed as soon as one or both of the com- 
 batants were out of breath. The spaniel was 
 mostly the first to give-in, when the victor 
 evinced as much triumph as if ho had van- 
 quished a feathered foe. 
 
 " The black Bantam, in his appearance, is a 
 pleasing little fellow. Ho should have a full 
 rose comb, clean and sinewy legs, glossy 
 plumage, with almost metallic lustre, of a dif- 
 fercnt tint to the glancing green of the Spanish 
 towl ; arched and llowing tail, waggish impu- 
 dent eye, and self-satisfied air and gait. The 
 hen is of a duller jett3'-black, is less knowing 
 in her manner, and, I think, in every way of 
 inferior capacity. These little black hens 
 liave great credit for fulfilling their maternal 
 duties well ; but I have found them less 
 afiectionate and careful than other Bantams. 
 They are great stayers at home, prowling very 
 little about, and therefore are desirable in 
 many situations, such as suburban villas that 
 are surrounded by captious neighbours. They 
 will remain contented with the ranf^e of a 
 moderate stable-yard, and the least bit of 
 shrubbery ; and will do much good by the 
 consumption of numerous insects. They are 
 reputed good layers during winter; but that 
 will depend on the liberality with which they 
 are fed. Cooks say that their eggs, though 
 small, are ' very rich ;' which means, perhaps, 
 that they contain a greater proportion of yolk 
 than those of larger fowls. Guinea-fowls' 
 eggs are prized for the same quality ; and any 
 one may, at breakfast, observe how much less 
 a proportion of white there is in them than in 
 those of the Turkey. Black Bantams' eo-ors 
 are smooth, tinged with bufl', decidedlv louc- 
 oval in most individuals, and with a zone of 
 irregularity towards the smaller end in some. 
 
 " The new-hatched chicks are covered with 
 black down, which occasionally has a grevisb 
 cast under the belly : bill, eyes, feet, and legs 
 black. The female chicks are not bigger than 
 the queen of the black-and-yellow humble 
 bees, and their slender little legs appear fitter 
 to belong to an insect than a chicken, A 
 desire to obtain the largest possible brood, 
 induced me to hatch some under a great 
 Dorking hen, because she can cover so many 
 
 S37 
 
BANTAMS.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [BA5TTAMS. 
 
 eo-gs; but I only overreached myself. The 
 hie hea was too heavy and clumsy to officiate 
 as nurse to such fragile atoms." 
 
 The Creeper is also a small variety of 
 Bantam, with very short legs. In addition to 
 these diminutive races, there is another, the 
 Jumper, mentioned by Buflbn, as being so 
 short-le^yged, that they are compelled to pro- 
 o-ress by jumps. They are prolific, as well as 
 excellent sitters, the hen having been known 
 to batch two batches of eggs in succession, 
 without even an intermediate day of rest. 
 These dwarf fowls were described by Aldro- 
 vandi, more than two hundred years ago ; and 
 also, much further back, by Pliny, under the 
 designation of the Adrian breed. 
 
 A gentleman of known experience suggests 
 the following points for a basis : — 
 
 Sebright Bantams. 
 
 The Cock. 
 
 S'ead. — Best helmet comb ; best, fullest, and clearest 
 
 black eyes. — The ears, best, largest, and clearest 
 
 vhite. 
 ]Sfeck.—B.Ack\es, shortest and clearest red, and best, 
 
 laced with black. 
 Breast. — Clearest and best red, and laced with 
 
 largest and clearest black. 
 Bach— Ditto. 
 Winrjs. — Ditto. 
 Saddle. — Ditto. 
 Tail. — Hen-tailed, most erect, clearest and best, 
 
 red ; the two longest tipped with best and 
 
 clearest black ; the other feathers best, laced with 
 
 black. 
 ie(/s.— Clearest and best blue. 
 
 The Hens to Match. 
 
 General Appearance. — The smallest, _ most sym- 
 metrical, and best-feathered birds. 
 
 Silver Sebright Bantams. 
 
 Characteristics the same, on clearest and best white 
 ground. 
 
 Indian Bantams. — {Glean Legged). 
 The Cock. 
 
 Eead. — ^The comb, best double, best square, best 
 spiked behind. — ^The eyes, brilliant orange. — The 
 ears, roundest and clearest while. 
 
 Neck. — Hackles, best, fullest, and clearest golden 
 red. 
 
 Back. — Best and richest golden marone. 
 
 Saddle. — Ditto. 
 
 Tail. — Best carried, fullest, and best glossy green 
 black. 
 
 Breast. — Clearest and best reddish fawn colour. 
 
 Legs. — Best and clearest olive, or best and clearest 
 yellow. 
 
 Wings. — Shoulder, best ana richest marone ; flight- 
 feathers, best and clearest bay. 
 
 S38 
 
 The Hen. 
 
 Head. — The comb, best double, best square, best 
 
 spiked behind. — The eyes, brilliant orange. — The 
 
 ears, roundest and clearest white. 
 Neck. — Hackles, best and clearest brown in middle, 
 
 edged with golden ; shaft, straw colour. 
 Breast. — Clearest and best fawn colour. 
 Back- — Clearest and best brown, and clearest and 
 
 best straw-coloured shaft. 
 Tail. — Ditto. 
 Legs. — Clearest olive, or clearest yellow. 
 
 In reference to the name of a species of 
 Bantam, formerly called the Calcutta Jungle 
 fowl, several amateurs have written their 
 opinions, and suggested what they deem more 
 appropriate designations. One says — " It has 
 been hinted, that it would be better to name 
 these birds, lately imported from Calcutta, 
 Indian Feather-legged Bantams. The owner 
 considered it better to let them keep the name 
 under which they were purchased at Calcutta, 
 until some certain intelligence respecting their 
 origin should make a change advisable. AVhen 
 new fowls have been imported, the owners have 
 often appeared to seek a well-sounding name, 
 rather than one which should continually point 
 to their origin. If the last rule bad been ob- 
 served, the nomenclature of fowls would be 
 less puzzling than it is in many instances. 
 The little fowls in question were called Jungle 
 fowls ; but it seemed likely they had been 
 domesticated, as, although very wild, they 
 were not sufficiently so for wild fowls. They 
 came over in the Lady Jocelyn screw-steamer, 
 where a lady passenger kindly took them in 
 charge, and fed and noticed them after every 
 meal during the passage. Calcutta Bantams 
 would be a better name for them than the 
 above." 
 
 Another says — " The little fowls which won 
 prizes at Birmingham and Colchester, and en- 
 tered under the title of Calcutta Jungle fowl, 
 were bought at Calcutta as Jungle fowl, and 
 have some similarity in the head to the Bankiva, 
 being for a long time very wild. These are 
 the circumstances which attached to them the — 
 probably inappropriate — name of Junrjle Ban- 
 tams. Tar from having lost the sickle feathers 
 and hackle, like the Sebright, their furnishing 
 is quite ridiculous for their size. The hackle 
 of the old bird is bushy, and long enough to 
 reach the ground when he feeds ; and the tail 
 so well furnished with sickle feathers, that, in 
 
bantams] 
 
 rOULTRY. 
 
 [rUIZZLBD jrOWLS. 
 
 windy weather, its owner ia borno along with it, 
 as if it were a sail. Tlio j)lutniif;o is black, 
 with a brilliant {jreen tnt'tallic lustre ; ami about 
 the head and neck are streaks of white, which 
 increase as the fowls approach maturity, at 
 which time tlie head ia nearly wliite. The 
 iei^s are feathered, not booted. The fowls are 
 Bantam-like in size, very plump, compactly 
 made, short in the leg, and exceedingly 
 spirited. The cockerels will light a cock of 
 any size, and make large Brahmas fly before 
 tliem. The little hen is a good layer. The 
 eirgs are almost invariably fertile. AVhen tho 
 chickens are hatched they are tiny black and 
 yellow things, with a slight appearance of a 
 turned ridge on each side of the head, a little 
 distance from the eye. They are active and 
 Imrdy — exceedingly so, considering the change 
 of climate they have had. The cock is a capital 
 father; as soon as the little hen will let him 
 (for she is a virago when she first gets her 
 brood), he takes as active a part with the young 
 ones as any hen can do, leading and feeding 
 them by day and watching them at night : this 
 attention he continues long alter the hen has 
 turned them off." 
 
 " The Calcutta Jungle Bantam," says an in- 
 formant, " is not a Jungle fowl, but a domestic 
 bird from the coast of liangoon and the Straits, 
 and, although timid, has nothing very wild. 
 The real Jungle fowl I have shot, in great 
 numbers, on the range of hills running through 
 Midnapore to Hajmahaul. The cock is very 
 handsome and beautiful, delicately formed, 
 and something less than half the size of tlie 
 Malay fowl — his carriage and colour much the 
 same ; but he has a very small head, with 
 single comb ; his legs are not long, but clean, 
 with olive-yellow tinge; he stands very upright ; 
 spurs thin, and very sharp. He is courageous, 
 and generally has six or eight hens. The ben 
 is handsomely made ; blackish-brown, speckled, 
 with a diminutive head, and very dark-red round 
 the eyes. I have known many attempts to 
 domesticate these fowls, but none succeeded, 
 even when the eggs were set under a house 
 ben ; when the chicks were able to provide for 
 themselves they went off." 
 
 Another says—" I believe, as yet, India is 
 known to possess but two species of Jungle 
 fowl — Callus BanJciva and Sonneralii ; the 
 former is supposed to be the origin of all our 
 
 domesticated varieties, although doubted by 
 some. Experience hart jiroved that it can bo 
 domesticated, antl that the cross is fertile with 
 others, inttr se. Sonneratii have been bred with 
 Bantams, but rarely ; tho cross was not fertile, 
 thereby proving it a distinct species. Tlioso 
 birds are described as feather-legged ; there- 
 tore I take them to bu JJankiva, bred in-and- 
 in : by which means the feathered leg ia pro- 
 duced, and the loss of sickle feathers and 
 hackles, tho hen-hackle being produced, as in 
 the Sebright Bantams. 1 had, many years ago, 
 from India, Bantams identical with Baukiva, 
 although smaller, tlie hens of which were very 
 wild. By in-and-in breeding I produced tho 
 crested liamburgs (kuown as such for a 
 century before the erroneous nomenclature 
 of 1S18), wanting tho sickle feathers, and 
 with feathered legs, which I have found most 
 difficult to eradicate, each year producing 
 one or two, notwithstanding the introduction 
 of new blood. I have a pullet of this sort, 
 which I should have killed, but have kept, 
 thinking some of the curious in varieties 
 would like to have her." 
 
 RUMPLESS, SILKY, NEGRO, AND FRIZZLED 
 FOWLS. 
 
 Eumpless, Silky, Negro, and Frizzled fowls, 
 are interesting birds, and deserve the attention 
 of the fancier. Their leading characteristics 
 are indicated by their names, and the first are 
 found of all colours. They are more abundant 
 in Trance than in England, and have a singular 
 appearance, reminding one, to some extent, of 
 the English sheep dog. Their appearance 
 never fails to attract attention, whether in the 
 yard or at the exhibition ; but they find no 
 favour with the epicure, depriving bi:a of a 
 dainty morsel. 
 
 " Of Silky fowls," says Mr. Richarason, 
 " there are several varieties, mostly direct im- 
 portations from the East, their merits being 
 unduly appreciated, and their cultivation as 
 good as neglected. As an exception, Mr. 
 Bedingfield, of Ditchingham Park, Norfolk, 
 adopting the judicious plan of having only one 
 sort of fowl about his house, selected silk 
 fowls for the purpose. They increased well, 
 laid a sufficiency of eggs, and proved most 
 docile sitters and nurses, both for their own 
 young, and for pheasants and partridges. 
 
 b'SO 
 
rEIZZLBD POWLS.] 
 
 POTJLTET. 
 
 [scotch BA.KIE3. 
 
 Some of the hens would submit to be placed | 
 on a nest of eggs that might happen to be 
 found in the park, and took to them directly, 
 hatching them off without further trouble. 
 They were, of course, so posted as to make her 
 sit at once. These silk fowls were of the kind 
 sometimes called Hong-Kong Bantams — small, 
 short-legged, and but slightly furnished with 
 wings and tail, and, in the eyes of some be- 
 holders, very pretty. People condemn a thing 
 seen in a dealer's cage, or an exhibition pen, 
 which they would delight in if they made its 
 acquaintance at a country mansion. Still silk 
 fowls are not slww birds, and find but little 
 favour at Birmingham. But till the Cochin- 
 China epidemic had a little subsided (and the 
 remedy of bleeding the purse was boldly prac- 
 tised on patients in an advanced stage of the 
 complaiiil), the phoenix itself was 'pooh- 
 pooh'd' into the background. There are silky 
 fowls with black skins ; and they make a near 
 approach to negroes." 
 
 Of the jN'egro fowl, Mr. E. L. Layard, bro- 
 ther of the distinguished Ninevite discoverer, 
 thus writes from Jafira, Ceylon : — " The kallu- 
 mas-JcuTcullo of the natives is, as the name 
 implies, a fowl with llach flesh ; its bones are 
 also black ; and, on table, it is a revolting-looking 
 dish. But taste it! No other fowl, in this 
 country, can compare with it for juiciness and 
 tenderness. I never saw this fowl in England ; 
 here it is abundant. The prevailing colour of 
 the hue breed resembles a white fowl drawn 
 several times through a sooty chimney ! The 
 skin, the eye-wattles, legs— in fact, all flesliy 
 parts bearing the same leaden hues. It is 
 little eaten by the Europeans, on account of its 
 colour. I am, however, glad to get it on my 
 table; and always esteem it (knowing, from 
 experience, its good qualities) as one of my 
 most favoured dishes." 
 
 The Erizzled fowl— so called from the friz- 
 zled and crisped appearance of the feathers, 
 and not from a corruption of Eriesland, at one 
 time erroneously conceived to be its native 
 country— varies as much in colour as the 
 Eumpless fowl, and is quite as striking to an 
 unaccustomed beholder. The natives of Ceylon, 
 where it is occasionally seen, say that it origi- 
 nally came from Batavia. Tiiis agrees with 
 Temminck. It is susceptible of cold, diiEcult 
 to rear, and mainly prized as a curiositv. 
 
 BOLTON GREYS, CREELS, CHITTEPRATS, Etc. 
 
 Forjudging these fowls, the following points 
 are suggested as a basis : — 
 
 Dutch Pencilled Fowl (Gold or Silver). 
 The Cock. 
 
 Head. — Best double rose comb, best square in 
 front, most erect, and best spiked on the top and 
 behind. — Wattles full and round. — Ears largest 
 and best white. 
 
 Neck. — Clearest and best white. 
 
 Breast. — Largest, clearest, and best white. 
 
 Hump. — Largest and best clear green, black spot 
 on the end of the feather, and clearest white 
 ground. 
 
 Wing (in four parts). — 1. Shoulder. 2. The Bars 
 — The clearest white ground ; best and clearest 
 edging to upper and lower Aving-coverts, forming 
 two distinct black bars on the clearest white 
 ground. 3. Flight — Clearest and best white. 
 4. Lacing on top of wing above the flight; i.e., 
 the inner webs of secondary flight-feathers : 
 largest and best clear green-black spots on the 
 end of the feather, and the clearest white ground. 
 
 Tail. — Best brown, v/aved witli black; best and 
 clearest silver edging, dotted with clearest and 
 best black spots. 
 
 Legs. — Clearest and best blue. 
 
 Tiir: Hen. 
 
 Head. — The Comb — Best double rose comb, best 
 
 square in front, most erect, and best spiked 
 
 behind. — Wattles full and round. — The ears 
 
 largest and best white. 
 Nech. — Clearest and best white. 
 Breast. — Largest and clearest white, each feather 
 
 ended with clearest black spots, increasing in 
 
 size, proportionate to feathers. 
 Bacli. — Clearest white, crossed with clearest black 
 
 bars, separated by white shaft. 
 Thighs. — Clearest white, with largest and clearest 
 
 black s])ots. 
 Rump. — Clearest white. 
 JVing. — Clearest white, crossed with most distinct 
 
 and clearest black lines. 
 Flight- — Clearest white, crossed with clearest wavy 
 
 black lines. 
 Tail. — Clearest white, crossed with broadest and 
 
 clearest black bars ; shaft white. 
 Legs. — Clearest and best blue. 
 
 (Golden). 
 
 Markings and characteristics the same, on a bay 
 
 ground. 
 
 SCOTCH BAKIES, OR DUMPIES. 
 
 " Of this variety," say the authors of the 
 Poulinj Booh, " Mr. Fairlie, of Cheveley Park, 
 near Newmarket, the only person, we believe, 
 into whose hands they have yet passed, has 
 recorded so favourable an opinion of their. 
 merits as layers and mothers, no less than for 
 
BOOTCH BAKIES.] 
 
 I'OULTKY, 
 
 [SCOTCU BA.k.I£S. 
 
 the table, that wo shall bo much surprised if, 
 oither in their present state, or erosHed with 
 other fowls, they fail to prove a useful addition 
 to our poultry-yards. 
 
 " Mr. Fairlie obtained his binls from Seot- 
 hiiul ; but all his inquiries have hitherto been 
 uuablo to trace their origin in, or importation 
 into, that country. Their general character, 
 however, so closely assimilates to that of tho 
 Dorkings, that the probability of their being 
 descendants of birds of the latter breed, stinted 
 in growth by the less genial climate of the 
 northern district of our island, may readily be 
 admitted ; and this the more easily, when we 
 remember how many would describe the early 
 ancestors of the Dorking race as * stumpy, 
 thick-set, white fowls.' 
 
 '-* For a detail of their several characteristics 
 and points, let us refer to Mr. Fairlie's own 
 words, * The Scotch Bakies, or Dumpies,' he 
 tells us, ' are a breed of fowls closely resembling 
 the Dorking in form, symmetry, and quality of 
 flesh : the average weight of the full-grown 
 male bird, is from six pounds to seven pounds ; 
 and of the hens, from five pounds to six pounds ; 
 their legs are singularly short, not exceeding 
 two inches in length from the hock joint ; the 
 comb is generally single, erect, and well 
 serrated ; the body round and plump, and the 
 tail ample. As layers, they have great merit; 
 for after filling one nest, if the eggs are re- 
 moved, they at once take to another, filling 
 that also before they sit ; during which process 
 thev fully justify the oft-repeated remark made 
 at a late Metropolitan Exhibition — ' What ex- 
 cellent sitters they must make.^ They cover 
 many more eggs than might be expected from 
 their size ; for while on the nest, they appear as 
 if they had been pressed flat upon it. They 
 are gentle and quiet when hatching, and sub- 
 sequently prove fond and attentive mothers, 
 their short legs enabling the chickens to brood 
 well under them, even when standing up. I 
 have found them very hardy ; and their eggs are 
 larger, and the shell of a clearer white, than 
 the usual average of an English market Q^^^ 
 
 "In the pen of these birds exhibited at' 
 Cheltenham, in June, 1853, the ground colour 
 of the cock's plumage was white ; the hackle, 
 breast, saddle, with the flight and tail-feathers, 
 beinfr a little freckled with black. The white 
 earlobe was very fully developed. I 
 
 '5p 
 
 " Wo are glad to lenrn that tho effect of a 
 warmer climate and high feeding will be care- 
 fully watched in this instance ; and if there is 
 a manifest increase in size within the next two 
 or three generations, tho probability of their 
 inheriting eomo of the old Dorking blood 
 w ill be thereby greatly increased ; while the re- 
 tention of their present dwarfed proportions 
 would indicate their claim to bo considered as 
 a permanent variety." 
 
 In concluding this cha])tor, we will notice a 
 report of the Paris Agricultural Meeting, at 
 which various breeds of fowls held a prominent 
 place — there being present 400 pens. Thero 
 were, besides, 1,300 beasts, with goats, rabbits, 
 zebras, lamas, deer, &c., &c., conveniently and 
 tastefully arranged in and about a building 
 splendidly decorated with the choicest flowers, 
 trees (of no small size, transplanted for 
 tho occasion), fountains, painted glass, and 
 tapestry. 
 
 In the galleries, specimens of agricultural 
 produce, of diflierent countries, were laid out 
 for inspection ; wliilst, outside, a number of 
 handsome tents were provided for the use and 
 protection of the sheep, pigs, goats, and agri- 
 cultural implements. 
 
 At first the poultry were sadly injured by 
 the scorching sun during many hours of the 
 day, as they were totally without covering, 
 and many suffered greatly. Afterwards, how- 
 ever, an awning was erected, and they did 
 better. 
 
 We must, however, remember that tho 
 Erench are not much used to cattle shows; 
 and taking this circumstance into considera- 
 tion, we may give them credit for the way they 
 managed their first large exhibition of cattle. . 
 
 It is somewhat curious to observe the man- 
 ner in which they belied their character, as 
 admirers of what is neat and beautiful, in 
 distinction to that which is coarse and ugly. 
 If you notice a crowd, it is sure to be col- 
 lected round the coarsest and ugliest animal of 
 its kind, size being the great attraction. It is 
 the same with the poultry ; they prefer the 
 ]3rahmas and the biggest Cochins to the 
 Dorkings, or to any neater or smaller breed. 
 
 There are a few, however, who seem to know 
 what a good fowl is ; and we shall not easily 
 forget the look of disgust with which a well- 
 known breeder of Dorkings received an iuti- 
 
 811 
 
FBEKCH rOWLS.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [feexch fo^ls. 
 
 mation from a "stout party," that she considered 
 his pen of fowls very fine, and could imagine 
 nothing better than a fricassee of his fowls ! 
 
 In describing the most remarkable breeds of 
 poultry at this exhibition, the reporter begins 
 with the first named in the catalogue, as it is 
 an acknowledged French breed, and is called — 
 
 " The Oreve-cceurs. — I tried hard to discover 
 the real merits and characteristics of this fowl," 
 he says, " but obtained different and very dif- 
 fering accounts. All my informants, however, 
 were agreed on one point — viz., that they were 
 the best sort of fowl for the table that they 
 had in France. This, however, is not saying 
 much, for we know that the French raise large 
 numbers of every kind of poultry for the mar- 
 ket ; they are not over-particular as to quality, 
 or the appearance a bird presents on the table. 
 It is seldom (very, very seldom indeed) that 
 an entire bird is placed before you : it is 
 either hashed, smashed, pulled, fricasseed, or 
 smothered and smuggled into you in some way ; 
 so that often nine persona out of ten would 
 not be up to what they were eating. This 
 fowl has, however, by no means a badly- shaped 
 body ; it is long and low, and not very narrow. 
 They gave me an idea of coarseness, yet I have 
 no doubt they are hardy, useful birds in their 
 own country ; but their rusty-black feathers, 
 and smutty legs and feet, are anything but 
 pleasing to the eye ; nor do I, in any way, com- 
 mend them to the notice of the English 
 amateur. No two Frenchmen could agree 
 upon what their shape or plumage ought to be ; 
 and the birds, in their pens, differed very widely 
 in form and feather. At the same time, we 
 could not but admire them in all their charac- 
 teristics, which were not of a common order, 
 and which called forth general approbation. 
 
 " TJie CoeJiin-Ohinas were divided into five 
 classes — viz., yellow, white, black, brown, or 
 freckled, and those not classed in the above 
 descriptions. The cinnamon and buffs are, by 
 common consent, called yellow in France ; and 
 it was not at all considered necessary that tlie 
 birds should be matched. Nothing was more 
 842 
 
 common than to see prize pens composed of a 
 cock and two or more hens of quite difierent 
 colours. The rule is, that there must be one 
 cock, and not less than two hens, in a pen ; but 
 as many more as the exhibitor pleases. 
 
 " There are very few Frenchmen who have 
 as yet discovered the value of the Dorkings. 
 We trust they will allow them a fair trial, and 
 have no doubt they will acknowledge their 
 many excellences. The first-prize pen was 
 greatly admired for the size and beauty of the 
 birds. 
 
 " "We now come to the Breda fowls. "What 
 are they ? you will ask. "Why, it appeared to 
 me that they were no-breed-at-all fowls. This 
 would certainly apply more reasonably to the 
 birds I saw exhibited under the former name ; 
 for of all the jumbles I ever beheld, this was 
 the most complete. There were some with 
 tufts, and some without ; some like Silver- 
 pencilled Hamburgs, and some like cross-bred 
 Cuckoos, and so on. I actually did not stop 
 to see who had the honour of the prizes, but 
 passed on to the 
 
 " Bralimas. — This breed has been greatly 
 prized in France. ]\ir. Baker had a compli- 
 ment paid him that few can boast of, and of 
 which he might well have been proud. His 
 birds in this class were so good that three 
 first prizes were awarded to him. One of the 
 pens, containing the handsomest cock of the 
 kind I ever saw, he sold for 1,000 francs ; and 
 another, I understood, was marked out for the 
 empress. For my part, I never wish to see 
 better fowls than those brought to the exhibi- 
 tion by Mr. Baker, and I heartily congratulate 
 him on his success. 
 
 " The other classes of fowls were not well 
 represented. I shall, therefore, abstain from 
 any remarks. 
 
 " The Turheys were not very fine. 
 
 " For Geese there were only four com- 
 petitors. 
 
 " The Ayleshury BucTcs were good ; but the 
 Bouen Ducks were not the truest of their 
 kind." 
 
STOCK.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [stock. 
 
 CHArTRK III. 
 
 ril()(iSIN(; OK STUCK. 
 
 Airo?ro tlic reciprocal bonofits wliieli unite tlio 
 lover of poultry and his cliar^e, porliaps a liabil 
 of early rising takes tho tirst place. At a 
 season of the year when a protracted winter 
 mav, in a small degree, have induced a dis- 
 inclination to early exertion which we arc 
 unwilling to encourage, it is a very good thing 
 if our favourite recreation is one which calls us 
 betimes in the morning into the open air. 
 One of our best judges has repeatedly advised 
 that chickens should be fed soon after sunrise. 
 There are (ew young things in whose case food 
 has to do so much as in that of young chickens. 
 Unlike those animals which come into the 
 world with their clothing of warm fur, young 
 birds depend on food for all the necessaries of 
 life, for them food must secrete the requisite 
 supplies for feathers as well as for bone and 
 muscle ; and there is never a time when good 
 and frequent feeding are of such vital impor- 
 tance as while the little ones are fledging. A 
 fast of a number of hours is a greater call upon 
 the vital powers of young poultry than they 
 can support. The careful cottagers, to whom 
 is often entrusted the charge of turkeys, are 
 ■well aware of this fact ; and, although they keep 
 the poults shut in, safe from getting wet with 
 the dew, they feed them early. 
 
 Poor liichard says, " The eye of the master 
 does more work than both his hands." Let the 
 owner's eye, then, whether it be master or 
 mistress, see that the young broods of the 
 different kinds of poultry receive the early 
 attention indispensable for the production of 
 prize birds. Let the fancier see that the 
 poultry-houses (which will naturally be close 
 after being shut up all night) are thrown open 
 to the wholesome morning air ; that tlie twit- 
 tering, liberated little throng have the where- 
 withal to satisfy their morning appetites before 
 the twittering changes to complaint ; and we 
 believe we may prophesy, that the good which 
 the poultry cannot fail to derive from such 
 care, will reward their owners by a great ac- 
 cession of health. 
 
 To whatever branch of scientific culture wo 
 turn, whether it be to tliat of plants or aniinaia, 
 nature seems to point out that there aro 
 certain forms and characters more pleasing 
 than others, which must be accomplished to 
 attain perfection ; as, for instance, in flowers, 
 pelargoniums, pansies, &c. Wo can all recol- 
 lect the long, loose-petalled flowers of former 
 days ; the onward progress of improvement 
 pointed out that, the nearer the approach 
 to the circle, tho more perfect the i'orni. Tho 
 gardeners of the time, as in every new theory, 
 ridiculed the idea. AVe have, nevertheless, 
 seen that, however diflicult or apparently im- 
 possible it is to change natural forms, it 
 has been done. The same applies to poultry. 
 Sir John Sebright, and other eminent breeders 
 of cattle, arrived at similar results ; and it is 
 only by settling and insisting on points, whe- 
 ther of colour, shape, or markings, form of 
 combs, &c., and discouraging shortcomings, 
 that perfection will be generally arrived at. 
 In estimating the qualities of poultry, there 
 are many conflicting opinions, which is a cause 
 of much dissatisfaction to poultry-breeders, 
 particularly beginners ; but we see no reason 
 why rules cannot be framed, binding judges — a 
 most important step — which would greatly 
 lighten their labour ; because the public, being 
 made acquainted with a given standard, would 
 breed to points. This would also prevent tho 
 caprice of judges, so much complained of. 
 
 To specify some particulars, wo may ob- 
 serve that the eyes of fowls are distinguished as 
 pearl or grey eyes, and gravel or red eyes, of 
 various shades. Some fowls have crests of 
 feathers instead of combs. The Poland crest 
 is large and round, hanging almost over the 
 eyes. A lark crest is narrow, and falling back- 
 wards ; but although Mr. Dixon honours lark- 
 crested fowls as a variety, we think this crest 
 is nothing but an accident from some distant 
 cross with Poland-crested fowls. A muff, or 
 beard, is a bunch of feathers hanging from the 
 lower mandible. Many of the Poland sub- 
 
 S13 
 
STOCK.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [stock. 
 
 varieties have it ; and we cannot recollect ever 
 having seen it on an uncreated fowl. Whiskers 
 need hardly be minutely described. In poultry, 
 they consist of tufts of feathers standing out 
 from the cheeks. There used to be a kind of 
 fowl, called the Eussian fowl, in which they 
 ■were the chief characteristic ; and they are also 
 seen in some kinds of Polands. 
 
 The wing of a fowl is divided into various 
 parts. The primary quill or flight-feathers are 
 those which grow on the last joint of the wing. 
 They are ten in number, are the main instru- 
 ments of flight, and those which we conse- 
 quently shorten, to destroy the balance of 
 power, when we wish to check the licentious 
 wanderings of my lord or my lady. The 
 secondary quills grow on the next joint of 
 the wing, are shorter than the primary, and 
 are those which are most seen when the wing 
 of the fowl is closed. We believe there are 
 thirteen of these. The wing of a bird, in its 
 skeleton, has been not inaptly compared to the 
 skeleton of the human hand. The joint, repre- 
 senting the thumb, is set with three additional 
 smaller quill feathers, which lie down over the 
 first few primaries in an uncommonly neat 
 arrangement. In the Hamburgs, the spots 
 or spangles on the secondary quills, and those 
 on the first range of the greater wing-coverts, 
 form the bars so much insisted on by judges. 
 The greater wing- coverts are the first few 
 ranges of feathers which lie in order over the 
 quills ; and the lesser wing-coverts are the 
 feathers of smaller size and softer texture, 
 which finish up the wing, and pass round its 
 edge so neatly. The under side of the wing is 
 covered with soft feathers, also arranged in 
 beautiful order. 
 
 Legs (familiarly, the shanks — learnedly, the 
 tarsi — the part between the knee-joint and the 
 foot) may be clean (or, in other words, with- 
 out feathers), feathered (with a stripe of fea- 
 thers down the outside), or booted (entirely 
 covered with feathers). Sultans, or Serai 
 Tii-ooks, Ptarmigans, and some Bantams, are 
 booted. Shaughaes, Brahmas, Ghoon Docks, 
 and two or three other kinds, are feather- 
 legged. Spanish, Dorkings, Game Fowls, 
 Hamburgs, and most Polands, Sebrights, and 
 black and white Bantams, are clean or plain 
 legged. Some feather-legged and booted fowls 
 are abundantly feathered on the feet also. 
 8U 
 
 Vulture or falcon hocks are tufts of long 
 feathers, standing out from the hocks. 
 
 The tail-feathers are the fourteen stiif ones 
 of the tail. The tail-coverts are the softer 
 curling feathers which hang over these. We 
 believe there are, properly, only two (the 
 centre two) sickle feathers, which are really tail- 
 feathers ; the others are tail-covert feathers. 
 
 Dubbing — generally, only applied to game- 
 cocks — is cutting off" the comb and wattles. 
 
 We may mention, that Spanish fowls are, 
 perhaps, the most profitable to keep, provided 
 the owner is lucky enough to have some that 
 may turn out very excellent ; but there is un- 
 certainty in this, as fowls breed somewhat at 
 random. There is great difficulty in getting first- 
 rate Spanish fowls, even at a very high price ; 
 and there is no certainty that first-rate fowls will 
 produce first-rate chickens. The latter are, 
 besides, delicate to rear, the handsomest being 
 generally the most tender. If you stoop to 
 the now vulgar consideration of the merely 
 useful — eggs and fowls for eating — there is no 
 particular fault to be found with Spanish fowls 
 for the table (especially pullets) : they lay a 
 respectable number of the finest eggs which 
 the poultry -yard can produce; and, as to ap- 
 pearance, a little lot of Spanish fowls, in high 
 condition, is no contemptible ornament to the 
 pleasure-ground of a nobleman. High condi- 
 tion is that state of exuberant health which 
 will make almost any fowl handsome and orna- 
 mental. It shows itself in the clear beaming 
 eye, and the ruddy comb (according to the time 
 of year); a feeling in the flesh, firm yet pliant ; a 
 good covering of meat upon the bones, but not 
 too much fat; and last, not least, crispness 
 and resplendence in the plumage — over which 
 the bird, in fine condition, has as complete con- 
 trol as he has over his other limbs. When a 
 bird is out of condition, tbe eye looks dull, the 
 flesh is pufty, hard, or absent without leave, 
 and the plumage entirely without gloss. You 
 could not draw a feather without tearing the 
 fevered skin. We speak now of condition, 
 because it is a thing especially to be observed, 
 if you buy Spanish fowls or chickens. With- 
 out attention to this, the smart new hen-bouse 
 may soon be empty again ; and perhaps you 
 will blame the species, when you should find 
 fault with your ill-conditioned purchase. To 
 know the points of a Spanish fowl, study what 
 
CnOOSINO STOCK.] 
 
 roui/riiv 
 
 [cnOOSINO STOCK. 
 
 we hftve nlroady said of the cock of that species, 
 and get a bii<l as luar to the description as 
 you can ; adil a couple of bhxck hens, of a 
 cheaper sort, to lay ei^Ljs for family uso ; and 
 the chances are, you will make a bi-ttcr start 
 in Spanish tluui you would do if you bought a 
 dozen hens and tliree or four cocks, hap-hazard, 
 at high prices, and turned all in together to 
 fight it out. The price of tidy Spanish fowls 
 varies from £1 upwards. Dorkings are nice, 
 motherly, good-looking fowls; and first-rate 
 specimens fetch high prices : they are only 
 tolerable layers, but the eggs are largo and 
 delicately llavoured. As fowls for the table 
 they rank A 1 ; and, iu this particular, are 
 popular with poulterers, almost to the exclu- 
 sion of all other kinds. The chickens are deli- 
 cate, and so dillleult to rear, as to prove dis- 
 heartening to the most experienced amateurs. 
 You may get good Dorking fowls at 5*. each ; 
 but, if anything superlative is desired, prices 
 run up much as in the Spanish. 
 
 The accusations brought against Cochins is, 
 that they eat more than any other kind of 
 fowl, and have a continual propensity to incu- 
 bate. On the other hand, they are tame, 
 tractable creatures, and very good fowls to 
 have where a high fence would be unsightly, 
 as an altitude of four feet is sufficient to 
 keep them in. They are capital layers — a 
 quality often more important than any other 
 to amateurs, who are anxious to begin to keep 
 just a few fowls, chiefly with an eye to the 
 luxury of new-laid eggs. Malays are well 
 worth attention ; they are very good fowls, 
 besides having the advantage of being some- 
 what handsome. 
 
 Brahmas have all the merits of Cochins, 
 without their faults, and are as handsome as 
 Malays. Cochin-China fowls may bo bought 
 for from almost nothing up to £5 each ; very 
 good birds from 10s. to £1 each. Pretty 
 good Malays may be bought for 10s. or 15s. 
 each ; and Brahmas at prices varying from 10s. 
 to £2. In trying to give those who purchase 
 fowls for the first time, some idea of their 
 prices, we take those of the usual run of good 
 birds. There is but one first-prize pen of a 
 sort in every show, be it remembered : if, 
 therefore, you want first-prize birds, you must 
 be prepared to give the price which the owner 
 sets on them ; for the same reason that makes 
 
 it necessary to givo more for pearls than for 
 pebbles — because they are less plentiful. 
 
 Three varieties of fowls coino next, varied 
 and etjual in beauty, and all very ornamental 
 and very good layers — llamburgH, Polauda, 
 and Game. If you try the first, you may 
 chance to see your fowl perched on the top of 
 your nei'^hbour's chimney, with an cvitient 
 intention of extending his travels — a position 
 of your vested property at which you will feel 
 rather annoyed. If you try Polands, all the 
 young chicks may die in rearing ; and if you 
 devote your attention to Game fowls, they mav 
 take a sudden freak of animosity, and peck out 
 each other's eyes before you are up some 
 morning. "With these little drawbacks, they 
 are all really good and beautiful I'owls: only, 
 if you try Hamburgs, take care that your 
 fences are high enough ; if Polands, bestow 
 especial care on the young chickens while they 
 are fledging, and for some little time after- 
 wards ; and if Game, do not let them get to 
 fighting — ifi/ou can help it. 
 
 Tolerable Hamburg and Game fowls will 
 cost from five to fifteen shillings each, and 
 Polands from ten to twenty. 
 
 Where there is scarcely room for common- 
 sized fowls, or for the large varieties, a few 
 Bantams may be kept. They will always look 
 active and pretty ; and the eggs, though small, 
 are deliciously delicate. Pretty Bantams may 
 often be bought for a very iew shillings. 
 
 The next thing to the price of the fowls, 
 is where to buy them. We have a prejudice 
 against buying at auctions ; because we do 
 not think owners would allow birds, likely to 
 do good service to the purchasers, to go for so 
 much less than they can get for them either at 
 home, or by selling them through the medium 
 of a respectable dealer. The best plan is, 
 either to go to a reputable tradesman, or to 
 an amateur, and see and choose the birds at 
 home. Another good way of making purchases 
 is by going to the poultry-shows. There the 
 beginner can look well at the prize birds, and 
 choose the cheaper ones which are most like 
 them. We do not recommend a great outlay 
 to hegin ivith. Buy fowls at a moderate price; 
 see what good you can do with their chickens; 
 gain experience ; and then spend a large sum, 
 and get first-rate fowls if you feel disposed to 
 do so. 
 
 845 
 
CHOOSING STOCK.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [choosing stock. 
 
 There are many amateurs who would like to 
 have handsome, productive fowls, but who care 
 little about the fancy. We think they might, 
 with great advanta<7e, turn their attention to 
 systematic crossing. We are as great an enemy 
 as the most fastidious fancier can be, to turning 
 in a lot of differ'ent fowls hap-hazard ; but we 
 believe judicious crossing may give excellent 
 results in producing fowls which shall be very 
 hardy, fine for the table, and abundant layers. 
 The experimentalist has an almost unlimited 
 field ; let him only mark the merits of difierent 
 varieties, and study to unite, reproduce, and 
 continue them. 
 
 Let a Malay hen run with a Game cock ; 
 set the eggs, and save the pullets which are 
 hatched from them. Match these pullets with 
 a good stout-built Spanish cock, and the 
 chickens will prove brilliant in plumage, very 
 hardy, excellent for the table, and will lay four 
 days out of five for most part of the year. 
 
 Brahmas and Cochins would be valuable in 
 crossing, to produce hardihood and size. A 
 touch of the Game gives delicacy of flavour to 
 both fowls and eggs. The good properties of 
 almost every kind might be turned to profitable 
 account. 
 
 "The great point of selection," says Mr. 
 Eichardson, " is the breed which it shall be de- 
 termined to keep ; and this must be mainly de- 
 cided by circumstances. The wealthy amateur 
 may do as he pleases, but a diff'erent rule must 
 be the guide of those who make poultry-keep- 
 ing a matter of business. A few words of ad- 
 vice shall be hazarded. 
 
 "Both for appearance and for profit's sake, 
 it is advisable that the farmer should confine his 
 stock to some one approved breed. To retain 
 several breeds in their purity, requires more 
 personal attention, hired labour, and choice of 
 out-buildings, than he can usually aff'ord. It 
 is best managed by such country gentlemen as 
 have three or four lodges belonging to their 
 park, at each one of which a distinct set of 
 fowls may be maintained, and another or two 
 quartered upon the gardener and the game- 
 keeper, if the former official will submit to be 
 plagued with them. In this way things will 
 go on satisfactorily, especially if the people 
 can be brought to take an interest in their 
 charges, and perhaps to feel a little rivalry as to 
 whose set is the best managed. A large farmer 
 846 
 
 may often attain the same object by making a 
 like use of the cottages of his workpeople. But 
 that is not the thing which he requires. Pure 
 chickens may be had from fowls that usually 
 live together in miscellaneous socialism, by 
 secluding the intended parents in an airy out- 
 building, and rejecting a few of tlie eggs first 
 laid by each hen. This plan requires constant 
 attention and a pitiless hand, to clear off the 
 many good-looking mongrels that will be con- 
 stantly displaying their new-fashioned charms 
 in the yard. The farmer had better decide to 
 keep one pure breed only of cocks and hens, 
 especially now that pure-bred fowls often fetch 
 such extraordinary prices. 
 
 " If it is asked to determine wJiich variety 
 shall be kept, the counsel given must be ac- 
 commodated to what the farmer loants. Are 
 eggs greatly in demand in his neighbourhood ; 
 and does he wish to be spared the expense and 
 trouble of rearing many young birds ? Then 
 let him take some of the non-sitting breeds. 
 At the head of these stand the Black Spanish 
 fowls, and their sub-variety, the Andalusians ; 
 next come the Hamburgs — the races that 
 are so highly prized in the midland and 
 northern counties — i.e., the Bolton Bays, the 
 Bolton Grays, the Silver Moonies, and the 
 Copper Moss fowls, according to the numerous 
 local aliases of the four sub-races. Last in 
 profitableness among the non-sitters, though 
 not in beauty nor in excellence of flesh, are 
 the Polish fowls. But the Spanish fowls are 
 larger birds, and consume a good deal. It is 
 true that their eggs are of proportionate size 
 and excellence ; but, in the market, an egg is 
 an egg', and we believe that greater numbers 
 will be obtained, at the same cost of food, by 
 adopting one of the Hamburgs as the estab- 
 lished colonist of the farm-yard. We there- 
 fore beg leave to take the Bolton Bays, or 
 Golden-pencilled Hamburgs, by the hand, 
 and introduce them to the favourable considera- 
 tion of the farmer and his amiable consort. 
 Whichever breed of non-sitting fowls is se- 
 lected, the stock must be annually kept up by 
 sending out eggs to the neighbouring cottages 
 to be hatched, and paying, for all reared, a 
 certain amount of head-money, at an age 
 agreed upon. 
 
 " If, however, eggs are not the principal desi- 
 deratum, and Madam has the leisure and good- 
 
bicei:di>'q.] 
 
 POULl KV. 
 
 [UBEKUIRO. 
 
 will to see to the rearing of numerous broods ; 
 if sho Ima also three or four rosy-cheekod sons 
 ami dauL^litera to assist luT in t\w ainusi'inent, 
 besides a boy and a maid to do tho lieavior 
 ^ork — then let one of tho often-incubating 
 breeds bo destined to people her barn-door 
 paradise with tho pliiloprogenitivo set of in- 
 habitants. Sho may honour tho Dorkings 
 and tho Surrey, or tho Game fowls, or tlu- 
 Cochin-Chinas, with her preference. There 
 cannot be a better sort for tho farmer than 
 the race of Surrey fowls, known as Cuckoo 
 fowls. They are somewhat dull and quaker- 
 like in plumage, and inactive in their move- 
 ments. So much the better : the fowl-stealer 
 cannot spy them out so well in tho dusk ; and 
 they fatten famously, besides being good 
 layers, sitters, and nurses ; and, in short, pos- 
 sessing every gallinaceous virtue. Game fowls 
 are more beautiful, and are equally good 
 parents ; their flesh, too, is delicious, but wants 
 the weight of tlie Cuckoos, and is apt not to 
 dress so white for market. The cocks, as they 
 
 grow old and jealous, are very j)rone to kill tho 
 other male inhabitants of tho poultry-yard, 
 such as turkoys, guinea-fowl, and ovi'ii drakcH, 
 if they fancy tlR'niHi-lvea insultfd by tliem. 
 They aro more suited to tho lodge, tho dog- 
 kennel, tho coach-house court, or oven tho 
 cottage orn^, than they aro to tho farm-yard, 
 to which ([uiet place, when very good, they aro 
 apt to give a sort of sporting character. It 
 must bo confessed they aro often birds of 
 great beauty ; but tho Cuckoo fowls aro much 
 more business-like. Tho Cochin-Chinas, even 
 yet, are more in tho hands of wealthy ama- 
 teurs and exhibitors at poultry-shows, than 
 available for farmers as a main crop of fowls. 
 Tho prices asked for specimens that have been 
 cried-up by fanciers, aro altogetlicr unprece- 
 dented, and will bo quoted hereafter, in his- 
 tories of the present times, as instances of tho 
 lengths to which a popular mania will go. Still, 
 some farm-yards aro peopled with them ; and 
 the effect is good, whilst the result is highly 
 satisfactory." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SELECnON OF STOCK ; IXTERBREEDING ; EGG-BUYING; nATCIIING ; FEEDING; FATTENING; HOUSING. 
 
 Among the earliest authorities we have on 
 the subject of the breeding and management of 
 poultry, is Columella ; but besides him, there 
 is something to be found in Cato, Pliny, and 
 Varro ; but all may, substantially, be considered 
 as entertaining similar views. Columella is, 
 however, the grand source of poultry antiquity ; 
 and, in our day, by the writers on this subject, 
 he is mostly quoted at second-hand. Gesner 
 made a collection of passages relative to birds ; 
 but Aldrovandi was, in his time, the exhaust- 
 less mine of all that was known on the subject. 
 Considering the immense mass of his ma- 
 terials, this ornithologist arranged his matter 
 in marvellous order ; but his discrimination 
 was much less than his patience ; and his judg- 
 ment was, perhaps, less than either. AVe are 
 not aware of there being an English transla- 
 
 tion of him ; therefore his voluminous treasures 
 have not yet fallen into the coffers of every 
 literary artist. To the common fowl, alone, he 
 devotes one hundred and forty-six pages of his 
 folio, opening his subject with half a page of 
 preliminary matter, and then entering on his 
 ambiguities touching cocks and hens. Tlien 
 comes his Synomnia ; followed by his account 
 of the dillerent kinds ; which is again succeeded 
 by a general description of the cock and hen, 
 replete with learning. Amatomica is the head- 
 ing of the next section ; followed by the natural 
 history of their mode of increase up to hatch- 
 ing. This comprises the growth of the egg, 
 the progress of the chick during incubation, 
 &c., with a vast deal of mosaic work in the 
 shape of truth and falsehood, sense, and non- 
 sense, on the breeding of these creatures. "We 
 
 i>-17 
 
BBEEDING.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [beeedino. 
 
 have then six pages on the food of chickens, 
 succeeded by a number of separate sections, 
 with which we have here little to do, but 
 which remind us that what we have indicated 
 in this brief review, is introductory to a large 
 portion of the subject of this chapter. 
 
 Eeturning to Columella, we find that he 
 allots twelve hens to one cock. Since his day, 
 however, polygamy, even in the poultry world, 
 has been less fashionable. In the Farmer's 
 Director, by Bradley, one cock is to be satis- 
 fied with seven or eight hens. The same num- 
 ber is recommended by other breeders, of 
 equally abstinent principles. These, however, 
 are English breeders. On the other hand, 
 Parmentier, a French writer, assigns fifteen, 
 or even twenty hens to one cock, provided he 
 be young, vigorous, and healthy, which, in our 
 humble opinion, he would need to be. Bose, 
 another French writer, says that it is only in 
 spring that a cock should have fewer than 
 twenty hens ; but as the Gallic bird may have 
 more vigour in him than the Saxon, we will 
 not stay to dispute his opinion. Our own 
 Dixon sensibly says, that the hens allowed to 
 one cock, should vary in accordance with the 
 object in view ; but it is the opinion of Mr. 
 Nolan that in order to secure a prime breed, 
 a cock two years old should not have more 
 than five hens. Breeders of game fowl for 
 combat limit the number to four, or, at most^ 
 five ; their objecfc, of course, being the produc- 
 tion of strong chickens. In winter, or in cold 
 or damp weather, Mowbray says, a cock should 
 only have four hens. 
 
 Even from these high authorities there are 
 dissentients, who say, that if fowls are kept 
 chiefly for the sake of the eggs, for domestic 
 purposes, ten hens, or even more, may run 
 with one cock; and some of our best judges 
 affirm, that it makes no difference in the num- 
 ber of eggs produced, whether a cock is kept 
 at all or not. If, therefore, it is thought ad- 
 visable to avoid the expense of keeping a gen- 
 tleman, a few eggs for setting can be bought, 
 begged, or exchanged. In the case of the 
 cottager, the keep of one hearty fowl, to be set 
 off" against the produce of the sale of eggs at a 
 penny or twopence each, may be worth con- 
 sideration. When fowls are kept with a view 
 to rearing chickens, we think no more than 
 four hens should run with the cock. If a fine 
 84.8 ' 
 
 healthy, well-fed bird is allowed to run with 
 four fair ladies only, the owner may fairly 
 expect every e^g to prove productive ; that is 
 to say, after the danger of the chills of the 
 early season is past. 
 
 It is impossible to be too careful in keeping 
 choice hens from the intrusion of any male 
 bird except the one which it is wished to have 
 as sire to the chickens. "We know so little of 
 the intricate rules of good breeding, that we 
 entertain a prejudice against brood hens mixing 
 even with hens of different kinds, especially 
 with fowls of colours which would be objec- 
 tionable in their chickens. Authorities too 
 high to be doubted, affirm, that one stallion will 
 influence not only the one foal, but those which 
 the mare may have in after years. We would 
 therefore keep choice pullets away from other 
 fowls from chickenliood, and never, at any 
 season, allow them to mix with either cocks or 
 hens of a different breed. In assorting the 
 fowls, care should be taken that both cock and 
 hen have not the same fault or deficiency. 
 Too many beauties and perfections they cannot 
 have. 
 
 " If you look to the production of eggs 
 alone," says Mr. Hichardson, "one cock — if a 
 stout, young, and lively bird — may have as 
 many as twenty-four hens. If, however, you 
 want to obtain strong and thriving chickens, 
 you must restrict them to six at most. If 
 your object be the improvement of a worn-out 
 and degenerate breed, the fewer hens you 
 allow to one cock the better ; and you should 
 not, under these circumstances, allow him 
 more than three. But whatever the breed 
 selected, or the object in view, the cock should 
 be in perfect health.'''' 
 
 Having, we hope, got over this difficulty as 
 to the number of ladies to be assigned to the 
 Spanish gentleman in black, or any other gen- 
 tleman, however gaudy may be his colouring, 
 we trust we shall be able to pursue our subject 
 without much interruption from the diverse 
 opinions of opposite parties. 
 
 In reference to breeding, if the object in 
 view be strength of constitution, it is a maxim 
 with many, that there is nothing like breeding 
 from two-year- old fowls on both sides ; but if 
 great weight is given to beauty and points, it 
 is doubted whether it is not better to pair a 
 one-year-old hen with an old bird. Without 
 
BRKEDINO.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [llUKEDINO. 
 
 attempting satisfactorily to solve the problem 
 ourselves, the following has been proposed by 
 one of the most eminent amateur breeders of 
 the present day : — " I ahouUl very much like 
 to know what exporleiiced bri'iclers think of 
 the three folK)wiii'; oases, and from which they 
 would expect the chickens to turn out best: — 
 No. 1. A two-year-old cock with a hen : No. 2. 
 A one-year-old cock with a two or three-year- 
 old ben : or No. 3. A two or three-year-old cock 
 with a one-year-old hen." The same gentleman 
 thinks that, for his first breeding season, the 
 young cock should have only two females. 
 
 AV'heu a hen gets broody, there is no danger 
 of mistaking her meaning. Sometimes she 
 fusses about the yard, with tail set and feathers 
 erect, like an angry turkey-cock. Sometimes 
 she establishes herself in a nest, and, with 
 great avidity, takes possession of any egg 
 which may be there. It is a curious sight to 
 see a broody hen carry an egg. She takes it up 
 under the chin (if we may be allowed to speak 
 of the chin of a hen), holding it carefully against 
 her breast with her beak ; and so we have 
 known it conveyed to some little distance, and 
 over a low partition. As no sentimental idea 
 of meiim and tuum influences sitting hens, it 
 will not do to set them side by side without a 
 partition between the nests ; for the hen gifted 
 with the largest bump of acquisitiveness, will 
 be continually pilfering eggs from her neigh- 
 bours ; in process of which manipulations, some 
 eggs will get broken, others chilled, and, in 
 others, the germ of the chick, very tender 
 during the early period of incubation, will be 
 deprived of life. 
 
 AJ"ter health and strength have been duly 
 considered, the next grand object to enter into 
 the calculations of the breeder, is the age of 
 the birds. In the selection of the cock, he 
 should be neither too old nor too young, but 
 running from one year and a-half to three 
 years and a-half Some vigorous gentlemen, 
 of good constitutions, retain their power till 
 they are even past six ; but these are not to 
 be chosen for breeding purposes ; nor are those 
 young fellows, whose premature amative pro- 
 pensities are developed so early as the age of 
 live or six moiilhs. It is, in every proceeding in 
 life, safer to rest on a certain than an uncertain 
 basis ; and this principle holds good in poultry 
 breeding, as well as in matters of greater ini- 
 5ci 
 
 portanco : therefore, the best plan to pursue, 
 is to obtain a strong healthy bird, in the very 
 fulness of his prime, and so avoid such prema- 
 ture developmonta, which are always deci'()tive. 
 aM well as the iiilirinities of ii<;e, wliicli, although 
 existing, may not be so readily detected. Ex- 
 tremes are, at all times, dangerous. 
 
 As in all fowls, except Brahmaa and Cochins, 
 it is a dtmbtful exj)eriment to move a broody 
 hen, it is best, as soon as a fowl gives warning 
 to sit, by remaining long on the nest for laying, 
 to give her a movable one, which will do for 
 the pur[)03e. If she should steal a nest in a 
 hedge, or any out-of-the-way corner, it should 
 be considered as desirable. If she choose 
 one in the hen-house, most hens will bear 
 moving, nest and all, to a quiet place ; but a 
 great many will not like to be taken out of 
 the chosen nest, and placed in another. The 
 brooders should, if possible, be placed where 
 they cannot be interrupted or annoyed by other 
 fowls. Food and water should be put near 
 them, that they may come ofi" and eat when 
 they feel the desire, which will be once a day. 
 Give them gravel as well as food, and some 
 dust to roll in and clean their feathers. A per- 
 son should bo on the watch to know when the 
 bens leave the nest, to see that they do not 
 remain ofi' too long, or get to fighting, and that 
 each one returns to her own place. Most hens 
 remain ofi" from five minutes to twenty. 
 
 Sometimes annoyance will be caused by the 
 pugnacity of the cocks. This is said to arise 
 from their temperaments having a large infusion 
 of tlie amorous element, which causes a great 
 jealousy of disposition. jNIascall, or rather his 
 original. Columella, recommends, as a cure for 
 this, that we should "slitte two pieces of thick 
 leather, and put them on his legges ; and 
 those will hang over his feete, which will 
 correct the vehement heat of jealousies within 
 him." This direction is approved by M. 
 Parmentier, who adds, that "such a bit of 
 leather will cause the most turbulent cock to 
 become as quiet as a man who is bound both 
 hand and foot." 
 
 Dorkings are better sitters than layers; 
 whilst Spanish fowls reverse this order; and 
 these conditions will be found to be pretty 
 generally characteristic of hens partaking of 
 the prevailing colours of these two varieties 
 respectively — the black usually being the best 
 
 819 
 
BEEEDING.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [INTEEBEEEDII70. 
 
 layers, and the grey or chequered hens, more 
 particularly those with light-coloured legs, the 
 best sitters. 
 
 When a hen is anxious to sit, she intimates 
 her desire by a peculiar kind of cluck, which 
 she continues, even after hatching, and until 
 ber brood no longer require her motherly care. 
 At this period the heat of her body is mate- 
 rially increased, which, no doubt, generates an 
 uneasy feeling, should it not be drawn off, 
 either by the gratification of natural desire, or 
 by artificial means. Should she not be desired 
 to sit, a common practice for allaying this heat 
 is immersion in cold water ; but to place her 
 in her coop, in some cool, quiet spot, where she 
 may look out upon the grass, is a much more 
 humane method of proceeding. 
 
 Should doubts be entertained as to the 
 steadiness of the hen required to sit, she 
 should be tried for three or four days, by 
 having her placed on several eggs of little or 
 no value. If chickens are desired to be hatched 
 by some particular time, and there are no hens 
 cluclcing^ or ready to sit, the desire of incuba- 
 tion may be excited by stimulating food, such 
 as oatmeal porridge well boiled, seasoned with 
 Cayenne pepper ; toast, or dry bread, steeped 
 in good ale, or hard-boiled eggs, and fresh raw 
 meat cut small. The practice of plucking the 
 feathers, or using nettles, is a bad one, and far 
 less efficacious than cruel. 
 
 There are some hens as constant in their 
 sitting as those we have been describing are 
 the reverse ; and birds possessing this tem- 
 perament will frequently sit until they half- 
 starve themselves, if not prevented. Mr. 
 Lawrence says, that he has had hens which, 
 under these circumstances, reduced themselves 
 to such a pitch of weakness as even to faint ; 
 and, after the chickens were hatched, to be so 
 weak as to be scarcely able to attend to them. 
 Quoting Mr. Eickardson, in a previous page, 
 we have observed, that the great point of 
 selection is the breed which it shall be deter- 
 mined to keep, and that this must be mainly 
 decided by circumstances; that the wealthy 
 amateur may do as he pleases, but that a 
 different rule must be the guide of those 
 who make poultry-keeping a matter of busi- 
 ness. This should always be borne in mind. 
 We recommend the farmer to coufiue his 
 stock to some one a2)proved hreed. 
 850 
 
 INTERBREEDING. 
 
 Whilst remarking on the selection of the 
 breed, we would observe, that in poultry, as well 
 as in all other classes of animals, an infusion of 
 different blood, so to speak, is necessary to 
 improve or prevent a degeneracy in the stock. 
 
 For exhibition purposes, it has been allowed 
 that cross-breeding is of no avail ; but holding 
 the opinion that the exhibition of birds is only 
 a secondary consideration, when compared with 
 their commercial utility, a good primd facie 
 case may be made out how cross-breeding is 
 likely to be advantageously and profitably 
 pursued without interfering, in the slightest 
 degree, with those whose tastes confine them 
 to the production of pure-bred birds. 
 
 The two great points to be desired in poultry, 
 are the increased production of eggs, and its own 
 improvement for the table. These are, perhaps, 
 the only legitimate grounds on which we can 
 justify ourselves in entering upon cross-breed- 
 ing. If either one or the other of these can be 
 obtained, it follows, as a matter of course, that 
 a great benefit will be conferred, especially 
 upon those who keep poultry when the latter 
 may be made to help to keep them. That 
 judicious cross-breeding does materially im- 
 prove the value — that is, the marketable value 
 — of many animals, is a well-established fact. 
 For example, a pure Southdown or Leicester 
 sheep is exceedingly valuable, but a cross 
 between the two is more valuable still : the 
 meat not only brings more per pound in the 
 market, but the quality of the wool is mate- 
 rially improved ; vrhile hardihood and early 
 maturity are not to be forgotten as important 
 considerations arising from this excellent cross. 
 Besides this argument, the cross will live and 
 fatten, where the pure-bred will starve and die. 
 The same argument holds good with cattle. 
 Many of the cross-breeds make what is called 
 "the best butchers' " beasts. If such is the 
 case, why may not poultry, judiciously crossed, 
 produce the most profitable varieties ? And 
 that they will do so we have not the smallest 
 doubt. 
 
 To combine quality with size, of course, is 
 the great desideratum in table poultry. From 
 observation in such matters, the best birds to 
 start ivith are, perhaps, a cross between Co- 
 chins and Dorkings. A good cock of the first 
 
INTERliUEKDIXG.] 
 
 ruLLTJvi', 
 
 [euq-bellinq. 
 
 vnriety, not above three j'cnrs old, should be 
 seli'ctod, and mated with six lirst-rato Dorkinii: 
 hens of a year old. The pulhti of tliat eross 
 should bo mated the next season witii (^iine, 
 and their produce used. It ia not recommended 
 to breed from them again on any consideration, 
 as it cannot be done to gain any point of ex- 
 cellence. By the above crosses all the essentials 
 of a good fowl are obtained. In the first 
 place, size is obtained from tho Cochin, and one 
 good cross of quality from tho Dorking. By 
 the Game cross very little in size is sacrificed, 
 whilst another first-rate cross, in point of 
 quality, is added. AVe have seen birds of this 
 cross attain first-rate and rapid weight, and, 
 when killed, retain nothing of their Eastern 
 origin, except that peculiar juiciness for wliich 
 they are remarkable — the flesh being as white 
 as snow, and as savoury as any aldermanic 
 gourmand could desire. "We believe that this 
 cross cannot be improved upon for table pur- 
 poses. We have seen the above first cross, 
 crossed with Malay instead of Game ; but it 
 may easily be conceived it was a mistake, as 
 the IMalay cross was going too mucli back to 
 the Eastern type, without giving any counter- 
 balancing advantage. 
 
 It is great folly to breed further than one 
 cross ; or, in other words, to mate cross-bred 
 birds together, as it has been found that the 
 further we get from the first cross the more we 
 are disappointed. 
 
 In crossing, it is much easier to produce 
 increased value for the table than increased 
 egg-layers. Indeed, we do not think that any 
 amount of crossing can produce birds which 
 would, in laying, beat some of our present 
 known favourite varieties ; therefore, on this 
 head, it is unnecessary for us to enlarge. 
 
 If, by cross-breeding, additional size and 
 superior quality can be obtained, it is, to a 
 certain extent, worthy of carrying out — not 
 that we would, on any account, advocate it in 
 the fancy, but it might be the means of sup- 
 plying our markets with an improved variety 
 of domestic fowl, with a profitable return to 
 both breeder and feeder. 
 
 An anonymous writer, who has evidently had 
 great experience in animal-breeding, remarks 
 — "I have bred in'and-in from almost all 
 varieties of pigeons, rabbits, pigs, canaries, 
 and numerous varieties of flowers and vege- 
 
 tables: in t;u!i and every easel found that, 
 for tho iirst few generations, they improvi-d, 
 and finally degenerated : in aniinaln, invariably, 
 diseases of tho head aro prominent; in fiowera 
 and vegetables it produced general delicacy. 
 This is forcibly exhibited in some of our 
 favourite flowers ; many of tho pet roses are 
 useless on their own roots, and wo bud them 
 on the healthy briar, which man has not tam- 
 pered with, I am often, almost daily, in com- 
 pany with short-horn breeders. A common 
 complaint is, of tho barren heifers and bulla. 
 I make no exception in their case; I would 
 cross them with tlie "West Highland cattle, 
 and so fulfil our trust and duty to posterity by 
 saving to them a breed which the present 
 system of shows is encouraging all breeders to 
 render degenerate. 
 
 "So long as man confines himself to the 
 species, and does not breed too near akin, he 
 will be successful in producing useful animals, 
 especially in the first cross ; but it is against 
 nature to decrease the natural size of any 
 animal's head. It is against nature, also, to see 
 a four-year-old heifer standing on four legs that 
 would well become a full-bred yearling colt. 
 In a recent instance I measured a prize four- 
 year-old heifer, 95 stone weight, and a year- 
 ling Elatcatcher : the former I could span, the 
 latter not. As responsibility rests upon all 
 show committees, it would be well for them to 
 consider it. A few years ago, cottagers, about 
 me especially, cried out for something with a 
 little more ^' blood" wlien buying their pig: 
 now the complaint is the reverse." 
 
 EGG-SELLING, AND BUYING. 
 
 "We have frequently heard great complaints 
 made about bought eggs ; and we have often 
 thought that two reasons may account for the 
 disappointment complained of. Those who 
 sell the eggs are careless as to what they sell; 
 and those who buy them expect better luck 
 than it is in the power of eggs to command. 
 
 In selecting eggs for sitting, it should bo 
 borne in mind what are the number of hens 
 the cock should associate with. Tliose of the 
 average size, laid by that particular hen, are 
 most likely to prove productive. The oft- 
 repeated notion that round eggs contain female 
 chicks, whilst long ones produce cockerels, has 
 been refuted over and over again. 
 
 851 
 
EGO-BrrTIXG.J 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [E&a-BUTINO. 
 
 Those who sell eggs for incubation, unless 
 they are usually tJiemselves on the spot, to see 
 that every circumstance connected with the 
 transaction is properly conducted, had better 
 keep but one kind of fowl in one locality. As 
 the eggs are laid they should be put by in a 
 box of chaff or bran, with memoranda to state 
 the date when each was laid, the kind of fowl, 
 if different varieties are kept, and the particu- 
 lar hen that laid each separate egg. Eggs 
 more than three weeks old should not travel, 
 as the fresher they are the better. When 
 amateurs have eggs to dispose of, we think it 
 is best to advertise them ; and we decidedly 
 recommend pre-payment to be made a condi- 
 tion. To pay for a dozen of eggs which were 
 set weeks ago, is a trifle which may escape a 
 person's recollection; although, perhaps, it 
 ought not to do so ; and, therefore, we recom- 
 mend pre-payment to be made a condition in 
 all such sales. Eggs are sold now at more 
 moderate prices than they fetched some years 
 ago; and numerous letters, to jog the me- 
 mories of backward payers, become a discount 
 rather more than should be allowed on each 
 sale. Many persons who forget to settle 
 trifles of this kind, do so quite unintentionally. 
 If, therefore, amateurs generally made pre-pay- 
 ment imperative, we believe it would prove an 
 advantage both ways. Dealers cannot do this : 
 those who run long accounts with them, and 
 other tradesmen, neglect to calculate the mag- 
 nitude of the spreading evil they create by 
 doing so; but amateurs, to whom we may 
 reckon selling a matter of less importance, can 
 take the law into their own hands. No one 
 ever yet sold eggs for hatching, without having 
 some complaints, and demands for more eggs, 
 in place of those that have proved unproduc- 
 tive. "Whether these demands should be ac- 
 ceded to, must, of course, depend on their 
 apparent fairness. AVe think those who sell 
 eggs should never promise to make up loss 
 or failure ; but many would wish to do so 
 under certain circumstances. 
 
 Having spoken of selling, we may say a few 
 words upon buying eggs. In this case we 
 can only depend on the known character of 
 the amateur, or the dealer, from whom we pur- 
 chase. By holding the eggs in a strong light, 
 we may ascertain, by the size of the air-bladder 
 at the large end, whether the egg is fresh ; and 
 852 
 
 this is about all we can do beyond placing 
 reliance upon the seller. In fairness, we must 
 give the eggs a good chance, by having them 
 immediately placed under a good hen, in a 
 place where her sitting cannot be disturbed by 
 other fowls, or entities still more mischievous. 
 If the chickens are in the proportion of two to 
 three, or even to four eggs, we may reckon 
 that we have been well treated, and lucky into 
 the bargain. If it were intended to establish 
 a stock by purchasing eggs, the best plan 
 would be, to buy sittings from difterent 
 breeders ; to bring the chickens up apart ; or to 
 place such marks upon them as should distin- 
 guish them as they grow older, and then to 
 mate the cocks from one stock with the hens 
 of another. The objection to this plan is, that 
 the fowls, the next year, when their owner 
 would wish to breed from them, would be all 
 young alike. A better plan would, therefore, 
 be, to rear pullets in this manner, and in the 
 autumn, or following spring, to purchase a good 
 mature cock. Then, the owner would at once 
 be in a position to breed fine chickens. 
 
 " Caution," says Mr. Eichardson, " is neces- 
 sary in the purchase of eggs for sitting, espe- 
 cially from strangers and from a distance. 
 Mr, Puuchard has demonstrated, that skill in 
 the packing of eggs is well bestowed, and 
 that the average amount of productiveness of 
 travelled eggs, may be greatly increased by the 
 way in which they are sent out upon their 
 journey. Much, however, must always depend 
 on the manner in which they are treated in their 
 transit by railway porters and other officials. 
 In the county court of Lynn, Norfolk, an 
 action was, on one occasion, brought to recover 
 the sum of £4 10s, Qd., the value of thirty-six 
 Cochin eggs which had been sent by the plain- 
 tiff from Penzance, Cornwall. The box not 
 arriving at the time it was due, he sent to the 
 station to enquire, and was told by one of the 
 clerks that it had not arrived ; but on a search 
 being instituted, the box was found in an open 
 shed, exposed to frosty weather. Hens, and 
 Cantelo's incubator, failed in producing from 
 them a single chicken. Eor the defendants — 
 namely, the East Anglican Eailway Company- 
 it was argued that the action had been brought 
 against the wrong parties. In order to recover 
 damages for loss, the plaintiff was bound to 
 show that vitality existed in the eggs when they 
 
EOG-BUYIXO.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [hatch 1. so. 
 
 were brought to the station of the company. 
 
 The box had beiMi luuler aevcral fonvi'yniicea — 
 by steamer from l\'iizanoe to IJri.stol, ami from 
 Bristol to PaddiMpton by tin- (rreat Wcatern, 
 wheiiee it had to bo convoyed over the stones, 
 from I'addiiigton, to the Eastern Counties sta- 
 tion ; and it did not eomo into tlie jurisdietion 
 of the East Anglican Company until it arrived 
 at Ely. The judge said that bo could not con- 
 scientiously see that it had been proved that 
 there was any vitality in the eggs when they 
 arrived ; but there was clearly a wrong, on the 
 part of the company, in not delivering the goods 
 as soon after they arrived as possible. The 
 plaintitt" was, therefore, nonsuited, without 
 costs on either side. la short, it was dis- 
 covered that all the law in the world could not 
 bring the addled eggs to life again. Other 
 confiding purchasers of Cochin-China eggs have 
 found that their beautiful chcsnut tint has been 
 the result of skilful dyeing." 
 
 Eggs for batching should be preserved by 
 placing them, with the small end downwards, 
 in sawdust, bran, sand, wood-aslies, or any 
 other substance which will form a soft bed, 
 and, at least, to some extent, exclude the air. 
 Li\ however, the object is to preserve them for 
 a considerable length of time, with the view 
 that they may be eaten, they should, when 
 newly laid, be dipt in oil, or warm — not hot — 
 pure hog's-lard. The greasy substance should 
 be rubbed with the fingers into the pores of 
 the eggs, and then they should be packed, with 
 the liroad end upwards, in a box or barrel. If 
 they are to be exported across sea, a coat of 
 varnish might be tried upon them ; but if they 
 are intended for hatching, all these extraneous 
 substances must, as a matter of course, be re- 
 moved. In packing them, care should be taken 
 that it be compactly done, so that as much 
 shaking as possible may be prevented. For 
 this purpose various modes are adopted. Some 
 pack in hay in a crate, and others in hay in a 
 hamper. Baily, the great breeder, packs in a 
 crate of hay, and Baker in a hamper of hay. 
 Both plans are good ; the chief thing being 
 to give the eggs plenty of room, so that the 
 bumps and thumps of outrageous fortune 
 they are pretty sure to meet with in the rail- 
 way transit, may not injure them. Some per- 
 sons pack in a box, with chaff, or in oats ; and 
 others tie a wisp of hay round each egg, and 
 
 fill in the intor«tice8 with any yielding com- 
 modity. After packing carefully, the owner caa 
 do uo more than Imvo the package safely con- 
 veyed to the railway, and consigned to tlio 
 mercy of the oiliciiils, which wo fear is fre- 
 quently of a Romewhat rough kind, consider- 
 ing the fragility of the articlo entrusted to 
 their caro. 
 
 HATCHING. 
 
 Itegarding the number of eggs to be placed 
 under a hen for hatching, from nine to eleven 
 is usually chosen. Much of the ill luck attend- 
 ing hatching is caused by setting too many 
 eggs under one hen. Nine eggs are sufficient 
 for any hen — of course we mean Spanish eggs. 
 The result generally proves this to be so. We 
 all know that the eggs of our prize fancy fowls, 
 which are, to a very great extent, brought up 
 artificially, do not hatch so well as tiiose of 
 commoner kinds. May it not be that the germ 
 in the egg is far more delicate, or, properly 
 speaking, weaker, and requires greater warmth 
 to give it life ? This is, however, dependent 
 on the size of both eggs and hen. An odd 
 number is preferred as better adapted for cov- 
 erinq in the nest. Be sure they are fresh. 
 During the early period of incubation, hens 
 will sometimes eat their eggs — a circumstance 
 arising from their craving after calcareous 
 matter and animal food, with both of which 
 their appetites should iiave been satisfied pre- 
 vious to the commencement of incubation. 
 
 Never let a poor hen waste the anxiety of 
 three weeks on bad eggs. When she has sat 
 nine or ten days, try the eggs, and take away 
 every one which has no chicken-germ within. 
 It is easy to discriminate between the good and 
 the bad eggs ; that is, those that contain, and 
 those that do not contain chickens. The 
 manner in which this may be done is simply 
 by holding them up to a good light; but the 
 best contrivance is to make a round hole in the 
 hen-house door. Should this not be convenient, 
 make a hole in the bottom of a box, which will 
 always come in handy for the same purpose, 
 as it can be fixed up pro tern, against the win- 
 dow of the hen-house, or a lamp can be placed 
 inside. The best size for the hole is 1:^ inches 
 in diameter. This will furnish sufficient light 
 to try Spanish fowls' eggs, and will do equally 
 well for Sebrights. Have this apparatus close 
 
 853 
 
HATCHING.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [HATCHINa. 
 
 at handjwhere the liens have been sitting be\-ond 
 a week. Eemove the eggs from under each hen, 
 and carefully guard against allowing them to 
 be shaken, or kept away from the fowl long 
 enough to get in the slightest degree cool. 
 Hold each egg to the round hole, and the opaque 
 germ of the chick will be quite perceptible, as 
 well as the delicately-traced blood-vessels upon 
 the shell, which are intended to nourish the 
 embryo until they dry up at the expiration of 
 the period of incubation— as a hint to the 
 chicken that it had better issue forth, and 
 scratch for its own living in this world of orni- 
 thological as well as human cares. Eggs which 
 appear to have undergone no change must be 
 removed. It is better to make up each nest 
 to nine good eggs ; and if any hens should, by 
 these manipulations, be left at liberty, they 
 may have fresh batches of eggs given to them. 
 It will do no injury to any good steady sitter to 
 remain in the nest thirty days, or even a little 
 longer. 
 
 Except in this one examination of the eggs, 
 which must be conducted in the gentlest man- 
 ner possible, never interfere with the sitter. 
 
 The day before that day three weeks on 
 which the eggs were set, especial care should 
 be taken to notice the nest when the hen 
 leaves to feed, and to observe if any of the 
 eggs are chipped. When hatching-time arrives, 
 the bill of the expanding chick presses up one 
 spot of the shell, with starry cracks diverging 
 from it. If there is no appearance of this kind, 
 the hen may safely be left until the twenty- 
 first day, as the chickens generally require no 
 feeding for the first twenty-four hours. The 
 chick, from this first spring in the shell, spreads 
 the cracks by its own force alone, until it 
 opens a door for itself. Then it lies, a little 
 wet and weakly thing, beneath its mother's 
 warm feathers for some time. When twenty 
 hours old or so, it begins to eat. Then we 
 think it best to place before the mother, in the 
 nest, a tiny basin filled with moistened oat- 
 meal or barley meal. We would give this 
 in preference to a chopped egg, as some do, 
 because most likely the mother will set to 
 work herself, and devour that greedily ; and if 
 she does her duty, she is worthy of her hire ; 
 that is, her share (sometimes the lion's cer- 
 tainly) of the good food provided for the 
 chicks. When this is gone, a chopped, hard- 
 854 
 
 boiled egg, mixed up wnth stale bread-crumbs, 
 and a little water, should be put into a very 
 shallow pan, as the chicks soon want to drink. 
 
 " Eor about twenty-four hours after birth," 
 says Mr. Eichardson, " chiclis not only do well 
 enough without extraneous nourishment, but; 
 will be far more likely to .thrive if let aloue. 
 The next day they may be fed with crumbs of 
 bread and eggs, boiled hard and chopped fine. 
 Eor the first four days they require food at 
 least hourly, to supply the rapid increase in 
 bulk and feathers. Damp is fatal to them. 
 Small-grained oatmeal, gives raw, or slightly 
 scalded, and suffered to cool down to a very 
 low degree of tepidity, will be found useful 
 and good. Do not forget that, in all prob- 
 ability, thirst will be present before hunger; 
 and there ought, therefore, always to be a flat, 
 shallow pan, or plate of clean spring water 
 left within reach ; and the hen herself, glad of 
 a little refreshment after so long a task, will 
 usually lead the way to it." 
 
 Eor the purpose of breaking open its prison- 
 house, and " seeing the light," one would think 
 that there could not be any living thing in the 
 world so ill adapted as a chick when about to 
 emerge into life. Yet Nature, in her exhaust- 
 less powers of ingenious operation, enables it 
 to do so. If the chick, however, be weakly, 
 artificial assistance is sometimes necessary to 
 give it the liberty it seeks. The position 
 which it holds in the egg is such, as frequently 
 to render it difficult for such a tender young- 
 ling to Ireak its way. The neck slopes towards 
 the belly, to about the centre of which comes 
 the head ; whilst the head reposes beneath the 
 right wing. The feet are gathered up, some- 
 thing in the style of a fowl trussed for the 
 spit ; and the claws are bent backwards to such 
 an extent as almost to touch the head. It is 
 in this confined position that the shelly wall 
 of the prison has to be broken through. Such 
 is the position; and when we consider the 
 hardness of the calcareous wall that has to be 
 reached, we can hardly conceive anything more 
 difiicult for the accomplishment of a chick. 
 " The process of eflecting the breaking of the 
 shell, is a succession of taps from the beak, by 
 which first a crack or star, with many cracks 
 diverging from it, takes place ; a hole is soon 
 efi"ected; the sides gradually chip away, and 
 the chicken enters into its new sphere of being. 
 
HATCniKG.] 
 
 i'or i/riiv 
 
 [uATCinxo. 
 
 Sometimes the little bird, on proceeding to 
 leave the broken slu'll, imexpectcilly fimls 
 itself retained in its place by some accidental 
 or irregular circumstance. The shell may, lor 
 instance, have been well crackod, and yet its 
 lining membrane may bo bo tough as to defy 
 all the eflbrta of the inmate to rupture it, and 
 thus still present a barrier — often, williout 
 assistance, an insurmountable one. Some 
 chickens wasfe their time striving to tear this 
 membrane before they have made a sulUcient 
 crack in the shell. These had better not 
 receive assistance, as they will speedily find out 
 their error, and go to work in a proper 
 manner." 
 
 It is recommended that, in every case, the 
 egg should be looked through before helping the 
 ciiick. The chicken, whicli comes forth pre- 
 vious to the complete absorption of the yolk, 
 is sure to be an unhealthy, delicate little 
 thing, walking about like a gallinaceous ghost, 
 ready to fall olT its legs at every pull' of wind. 
 Before quitting the shell, a chicken ought to 
 have imbibed such a portion of nourishment 
 as will, at all events, support its existence for 
 twenty-four hours afterwards. The yolk is 
 designed for this purpose ; an I any excess of 
 light that may be permitted lo strike upon 
 the egg, or any injudicious handling of it 
 as the close of incubation approaches, will 
 generally be the cause of inducing the chicken 
 to strive to get out too soon, which, as a na- 
 tural consequence, is frequently productive of 
 considerable numerical loss. As every mem- 
 brane or shell is not alike in point of thickness, 
 another difliculty presents itself in preventing 
 the chick from easily coming forth. 
 
 Dipping the eggs into warm water the day 
 before (some poulterers think they will be 
 pecked at), is a plan sometimes adopted ; but, 
 as this ca'.i produce no real difference upon 
 the consistence of the shell, the plan may 
 safely be pronounced futile. This practice 
 has, therefore, been objected to. Too much 
 heat is another obstacle in the way of the 
 egress of the chick, as the albumen with which 
 it is encompassed, sometimes becomes con- 
 verted into a kind of ^lue, which fastens them 
 to the extraordinary abode in which they are 
 inclosed. 
 
 The only case in which interference can 
 prove useful; is said to be — '* When you find 
 
 the fracture on tho outside of the shell re- 
 maining the Hamo for five or nix hourB, and 
 when, on examining tho ed/^ea of thia fracture, 
 you linil tlicm dry and uumoiatened by any 
 fluid, you may conclude that aHHistanco is 
 called for, and may procei'd to render it with 
 all possible caution. Tho best mode to bo 
 adopted, on such occasions, is to imitate, as 
 nearly as possible, tho natural eflbrta of tho 
 chicken itself, which may be done by Hharp, 
 short strokes with the back of a knife or key ; 
 or, what is better than either, tho point of a 
 pair of scissors. Bo, however, both gentle, 
 firm, and deliberate, and take care lest you 
 penetrate the cavity of the egg. Having suc- 
 ceeded in making a sufficient opening in tho 
 sliell, you may, by a careful and tender use of 
 your fingers, extricate the chick. Sometimes a 
 few scales of albumen, or of tho lining niejn- 
 brane of the egg, may remain on the bird's 
 plumage for some days. Do not be uneasy 
 about thera. Leave them alone, and, as they 
 dry, they will fiill off of themselves. In aftord- 
 iug your assistance to the embarrassed chick, 
 be extremely tender with your finger?. You 
 may otherwise often kill when your intention 
 is only to cure. 
 
 " For my own part," continues tho same 
 authority, "my confidence in the unassisted 
 powers of nature is such, that I should be dis- 
 posed to permit, at least, eifjht hours to elapse 
 before I resorted to mechanical means of in- 
 terference. A chick so weak as to perish be- 
 fore that time, is not worth striving to extri- 
 cate ; and, on the score of humanity, its death 
 within the shell will be less painful than after 
 quitting it." 
 
 "When the chickens are all hatched out and 
 dry, we think it a capital plan to move the 
 mother and her family into a clean warm ne?t, 
 because the one in which she has been sitting 
 will most likely be infested with hens' fleas ; 
 and if these get into the young brood — for they 
 love to prey on the young — the evil will be great. 
 In this the chicks may remain over the second 
 or third day, according to their strength, and 
 the state of the weather. 
 
 In reference to the vermin " pest," affecting 
 the chickens, two anonymous writers supply 
 tlie following statements and suggestive reme- 
 dies, or preventives : — 
 
 "Last year my chickens, as also those of 
 
 855 
 
HATCHING.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [hatching. 
 
 my neighbours, were attacked with lice on the 
 bead, which destroyed numbers of them. This 
 vear some of my neighbours have the scourge 
 again. When I set a hen, she has always the 
 opportunity of getting a dust-bath whenever 
 she comes off her nest. This she had also last 
 year, and she was, and is, removed to a fresh 
 peu after hatching. The plan I have adopted 
 this season is, before giving the hen her 
 chickens, to dust her well with flour of sulphur 
 under her wings, on her breast, and under her 
 feathers : it can do the chickens no harm. As 
 yet I see none of my former enemies. My 
 houses were perfectly clean last year, as they 
 are this." 
 
 " To insure a sufficient amount of moisture, 
 when it is found necessary to set the hen in a 
 spare hay-loft or room, with a boarded floor, I 
 would recommend a plan which I have found, 
 so far, to answer well this season — viz., to place 
 beneath the box in which the hen sits, a piece 
 of matting or carpeting which has been ex- 
 posed to a good shower of rain. No doubt, 
 the ground is the best place on which to set a 
 hen ; and, at this season of the year, it should be 
 in-doors ; but it is not every one who has such 
 convenient places, where the kindly-inten- 
 tioned visits of other hens, adding to the store 
 of eggs for incubation day by day, can be 
 avoided. It would, perhaps, add to the com- 
 fort of the hen if, previous to setting her, a 
 little flour of sulphur were dusted under her 
 feathers. This would settle the vermin, which 
 are a source of annoyance, not only to the 
 niuther, but to her young progeny. I have 
 found young chickens infested with them, even 
 when the hen, in summer, had sat under the 
 hedge of my lawn, where she had every oppor- 
 tunity of dusting herself." 
 
 When chickens are hatched during cold 
 weather, they require artificial warmth, or, at 
 the very least, comfortable housing ; and the 
 kitchen of a farm-house afi'ords this in the ut- 
 most perfection.... Freedom from annoyance, 
 commodious and warm housing, and a sheltered 
 walk, are all that they require. It ought 
 always to be borne in mind, that the dangers 
 which are most likely to prove destructive 
 to the hopes of an amateur in rearing his 
 broods, are wet, cold, bleak winds, neglect, 
 short commons, cats, rats, hawks, and vermin 
 of all kinds. If a hen is left at liberty with 
 85G 
 
 her brood, she leads them under shelter at the 
 approach of rain ; and many little bright eyes 
 may be seen glancing from their safe retreat, 
 and watching for the return of fair weather. 
 By our interference, the exercise of this in- 
 stinct in the old hen is often prevented. We 
 place the coop, in the morning, on a warm 
 sunny spot, where — with the addition of good 
 feeding of course — we think they will be con- 
 tented and happy for many hours. But, in 
 the course of a few revolutions of the long 
 hands of the clock, what changes may happen ! 
 The sun either leaves the place, or blazes on 
 it with an intensity of heat enough to give the 
 hen the vertigo ; a sharp east wind springs 
 up, and the poor little ones stand pinched and 
 shivering in its blast ; or a chilly rain comes 
 on, and beats into the coop. The coops should 
 be visited once an hour while the chickens are 
 very young, and every two hours afterwards. 
 The chickens should then be fed and supplied 
 w^ith clean water, and the coops shifted if neces- 
 sary. At night, the hen and her chickens may 
 be driven into the hen-house, and a slight 
 shelter, according to the weather, placed before 
 the bars of the coop. Constant attention and 
 frequent feeding are indispensable for chickens. 
 Cats and other hairy and feathered enemies 
 will require unceasing vigilance, and, perhaps, 
 a good gun. Por these, too, the services of a 
 well-trained terrier are invaluable ; nor are 
 good traps to be despised. With regard to 
 feeding, it is with young chickens as it is with 
 grown fowls- — variety is best. Sometimes food 
 of various kinds should be given them in one 
 day ; occasionally, a change of the kind should 
 be made from day to day ; and, in addition to 
 all that can be given them, the hen should be 
 allowed to roam at large for a little time every 
 day, to seek for her progeny, ants' eggs, worms, 
 &c., taking care to coop her again before she 
 can over-tire the little ones. For the first 
 week, there is nothing better to feed with 
 than chopped hard-boiled eggs. The eggs 
 which are removed from the nests of the sit- 
 ters, within the first ten days, will do very 
 well to boil for the young chickens. 
 
 After the first week, various other viands 
 may be given. Perhaps the best plan for us 
 to pursue here, will be to give a bill of fare. 
 Barley-meal and oat-meal, moistened with 
 water or with milk : grain broken in a mill ; 
 
HATCUrNO.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [uATcnrso. 
 
 boiled barley ; pearl barley rolled in bran or 
 pollard ; pieces of meat and potatora ; bones, 
 and any other scraps from tlio table ; swoUed 
 rice rolled in bean-meal. Ship biscuit, lu-inp- 
 seed, canary, buck-wheat, and in:iny other 
 things may be used occasionally, in small quan- 
 tities, by way of a change. 
 
 Should the chicks be very weakly, they 
 may be crammed with crumbs of good white 
 bread, steeped in milk or butter, with well- 
 minced, hard-boiled egg; but, at the same 
 time, it must be noted that their little crops 
 are not capable of holding more than the bulk 
 of a pea — therefore rather under than over 
 feed. If the hen has been much exhausted 
 by hatching, it will do well to cram her with 
 crumbs of bread steeped in port wine ; or, in 
 the absence of wine, diluted spirits or ginger 
 cordial may be substituted. Such treatment, 
 however, is very rarely necessary. 
 
 Tor hatching, warm damp weatlieris wanted. 
 Kothing can be worse than an east wind, 
 especially if accompanied with occasional bursts 
 of cold rain, also from the east. 
 
 Sprinkling the eggs, now and then, has 
 been recommended when the hen comes 
 off to feed. Tor this, of course, warm water 
 must be used. AVe once placed a little pan 
 of water in a hen's nest, for her to drink from. 
 This she cleverly upset, and gave the eggs a 
 cold shower-bath, which killed all the chickens, 
 or nearly all. 
 
 "Whilst on this subject of hot and cold water, 
 it will not be out of place to give an extract 
 from Bechstein, which was written with refer- 
 ence to the fledging of young cage birds ; — 
 " It sometimes happens, in very dry seasons, 
 that the feathers of the young birds cannot 
 develop naturally. A bath of tepid water, em- 
 ployed on such an occasion by Madame , 
 
 was so successful, that I cannot do better than 
 recommend it." In another passage, Bech- 
 stein recommends that the young birds shall 
 be dipped in lukewarm water, so as quite to 
 moisten the quills of the sprouting feathers. 
 
 Mr. Bailey — about the highest poultry autho- 
 rity in the country — advises that the old hen be 
 confined under a rip, placed on the grass in a 
 warm sheltered situation, and moved about, 
 as often as necessary, to keep the mother and 
 her brood on a clean spot. 
 
 At farm-houses, complete success often 
 5 li 
 
 attends chicken-rearing with much Bitnplcr 
 and cheaper apparatus ; namely, by a common 
 wicker coop, which may bo bout^ht nnywhero 
 for lifteen pence, or a bit of wide flannel list, 
 with which to tethiT the hen. 
 
 Some breeders have gone to the exponso of 
 making permanent chicken coops, with a com- 
 fortable little house, and a run of three feet by 
 six for each brood ; but we do not think this so 
 likely to form the best treatment for chickens 
 as any little movable contrivance. 
 
 As prevention is better than cure, and 
 example better than precept, wo may as well 
 say a few words about hatching diflicultiep, 
 at such times and seasons as they generally 
 occur. One Monday, under a bright sky and 
 a biting wind, a breeder divided twenty eggs 
 (of a choice kind, of course — for who thinks 
 of anything else ^low ?) between two willing 
 recipients — well-tried, broody hens. lie set 
 one wide, plump, short-legged old hen in a 
 nest nine inches by ten ; and she soon gave 
 signs that her quarters were too straitened 
 by breaking four of the eggs. The remaining 
 sixteen, he found, contained twelve chickens, 
 which went through the process of incubation, 
 without further breakage, to the twentieth, 
 twenty-first, and twenty-second day: still no 
 chickens made their appearance. B}' this time 
 the chicks were cheeping inside the egg-shells, 
 but none were cracked, A drying and bitter 
 east wind prevailed, finding its way through 
 the few crevices that were in the hen-house. 
 In two of the eggs the chickens had died, 
 which left ten eggs under one hen. The other 
 had had a fresh batch given to her when this 
 was discovered. Tliis was a most unsatis- 
 factory state of things ; therefore he had the 
 nest (with the hen in it) taken into his house, 
 and placed over a foot-bath, into which hot 
 water was poured, and an old piece of flannel 
 thrown over ail, in a manner to give the hen 
 and eggs a vapour-bath, but not enough of it 
 to set her panting. The nest was left in a 
 room with a fire in it, and very soon the eggs 
 hatched. 
 
 lie believed the loss of the two chickens, 
 which we have mentioned as having died in tho 
 egg-shell at an early stage, to have been his 
 own fault ; for, finding one hen had but two 
 good eggs, he made up her nest with others, 
 ivhich he gave her cold; and we have no doubt 
 
 857 
 
rEEDIlTG. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [feed IN O. 
 
 these cold eggs chilled the two she had. 
 Another hatching, by the same gentleman, 
 was better managed. He gave the hens good 
 roomy nests; almost all the eggs contained 
 chickens, and the egg-shells began to crack on 
 the twenty-first day. Two or three times in 
 the course of the day, he had the hen-house 
 watered with hot water, so as to produce steam 
 in the place, where, as a matter of course, 
 there were no fowls to roost. The next 
 morning, bonny broods were popping in and 
 out round the mothers ; but a few of the eggs 
 were still unhatched. One was a good deal 
 broken ; but the white skin looked hard and 
 dry, and the chicken was unable to extricate 
 itself. This he opened carefully, dividing the 
 two skins sufficiently for the chicken to expand 
 itself. He replaced it under the mother, and 
 the next morning could not tell it from the 
 rest. On the twenty -third day, two eggs only 
 remained uncracked. These he opened, and 
 found dead chickens inside, the lives of which 
 might have been saved if he had opened the eggs 
 the day before. "We do not blame him for the 
 delay, although it proved unfortunate in this 
 instance, as the chickens were not crying in 
 the eggs, and as we have known the egg-shell 
 to be, sometimes, opened on the twenty-second 
 day, and found that it should have been left a 
 day later. 
 
 Premising that a constant supply of suitable 
 food is the great essential which enters into 
 the rearing of the delicate birds, such as 
 turkeys, pheasants, and guinea-fowl, the fol- 
 lowing hatching-table shows the periods of 
 incubation of a few tame birds : — 
 
 
 r^umber of Eggs. 
 
 Days 
 
 Swan . . , 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 . . 42 
 
 Goose . , . 
 
 o 11 to 13 . 
 
 . . . 30 
 
 Duck . . . 
 
 . 11 to 13 . . 
 
 . . 30 
 
 Turkey . . 
 
 . 11 to 13 . 
 
 . 27 to 31 
 
 Pea-fowl . . 
 
 5 to 7 
 
 , . . 29 
 
 Guinea fowl 
 
 . 11 to 15 . 
 
 . . . 30 
 
 Hen . . 
 
 . 9 to 13 . 
 
 . . . 21 
 
 If'EEDING. 
 
 All who have bestowed attention on the 
 feeding of stock of diflerent descriptions, tell 
 us tliat various kinds of food are necessary for 
 the diflerent functions which it is the object of 
 food to perform. One kind is required to give 
 warmth, and to aid respiration ; and anotlier to 
 858 
 
 restore the muscular waste of the matured, or 
 to increase the bulk of the growing animal. If 
 we give only warmth-producing substances, the 
 consumers will fail in the increase of bone, 
 muscle, &c. ; and if we give too much flesh- 
 producing nourishment, it goes to waste, or 
 becomes injurious. Experimentalists say that 
 peas, beans, wheat, pollard, oatmeal, and some 
 other vegetables, contain much flesh-forming 
 substance ; but it is difficult to say what pro- 
 portion of them should be used, or what 
 quantity given, without doing mischief. We 
 have known chickens to be fed on two meals 
 a day of these nourishing kinds of food, making 
 up the other meals with barley-meal, potatoes, 
 ground corn, and green food ; and they have 
 thriven well. 
 
 Powls, however, are blessed with capital 
 appetites, as every breeder can prove by his 
 bill at the corn-dealer's. The plan of feeding 
 which used to be followed by almost all poultry- 
 keepers (what one may call private poultry- 
 keepers), and which still is followed by some, 
 was to give the fowls plenty of barley, and 
 nothing else. This is neither good for them 
 nor for their owners. Eowla do not thrive on 
 it, and are constantly ravenous. It is proved 
 by the elaborate experiments of M. Eeaumer, 
 that each fowl will eat a quarter of a pint of 
 grain ^cr die)n, when fed on this kind of food 
 only. A great objection which we find to it 
 is, that it is the most expensive kind of feed- 
 ing we can use. Mr. Bement, the American 
 writer on poultry, found that eight Poland 
 fowls consumed a peck of Indian corn in eleven 
 days ; a peck of oats in six days ; a peck of barley 
 in seven days ; a peck of wheat in ten days ; a 
 peck of millet in eight days ; and a peck of 
 wheat screenings in seven days. During the 
 experiment, the fowls had a few boiled potatoes 
 only, in addition. 
 
 Opposed to this plan of feeding on grain 
 only, is that of some of our most experienced 
 breeders, who feed entirely on meal dough. 
 We do not think, however, that fowls would 
 remain healthy, year after year, fed on meal 
 food only, with no mixture of hard corn to 
 swell in their interior, and to give work to the 
 gizzard. 
 
 "The substances that may be used in 
 poultry-feeding," says Mr. Kichardsou, "are 
 very numerous and various— viz., cabbage, rape^ 
 
lEEDINQ.] 
 
 vol LTKV. 
 
 [fkuuino. 
 
 turnipa, cnrrota, parsnips, nmngel-wurzel, oats, 
 wheat, barley, ryo, and dHut >^nunA — sul)- 
 Btaucea too well kuowu to require enuinoratinj^. 
 It will not answer to feed fowls entirely upon 
 aril/ one variefi/ of food ; neither will it be fouml 
 advisable to feed wholly upon any one class of 
 food. 1 must speak of the latter point lirt<t. 
 Fowls require a mixture o^ green with hard food, 
 fully as much as horses or cattle do. When 
 the birds have the advantage of an extensive 
 walk, they will find this for themselves ; when 
 they have no such advantage, you must provide 
 green food for them. Some do so by supplying 
 the birds with cabbages, or other greens, chopped 
 small. My plan is to fasten heads of cabbages, 
 lettuce, rape, or other green herbs, to some 
 fixture, by means of the roots, and to let the 
 fowls pick for themselves. This practice not 
 merely prevents waste ; but is, in consequence 
 of the amusement it afibrds, decidedly conducive 
 to health." 
 
 If we make the health and well-being of our 
 poultry the only consideration, everywhere, in 
 the neighbourhood out of doors, is the best run 
 they can have; and if their hahitat should 
 happen to include rick-yards, with barns and 
 corn -stacks, stock-sheds, with abundance of 
 litter and unavoidable waste food, kitchen- 
 gardens with hotbeds and vegetables of every 
 sort, and flower-gardens, shrubberies, and wil- 
 dernesses composed of fine loam well stocked 
 with insects, it will be first-rate/br the fowls. 
 But, as the master is pretty sure to dislike the 
 little unavoidable derangement of the corn- 
 ricks likely to follow this free range ; and, as 
 the gardener has a prepossession in favour of 
 doing all the raking himself, it is generally 
 necessary to fence in a piece of ground for the 
 fowls. If they can have a run out into a field 
 or lane, although it may be only for a very few 
 hours eacli day, we are sure they will pick up 
 many things for themselves, and supply wants 
 which, with all our study of their habits, we 
 may probably overlook, or of which wo may be 
 ignorant. 
 
 The run, even for a very limited number of 
 fowls, should not be smaller than fifteen feet 
 by thirty. If it is twenty feet by sixty, so much 
 the better, or as much larger as can be con- 
 veniently managed. AVhen confined to one 
 spot like this, there are many requisites towards 
 health and well-being, with which the fowls 
 
 must bo supplied, that they would find for 
 themselves, if tliry enjoyed a free range. Somo 
 of tlieso are grass, lime, jind small stones. 
 
 AVi; consider a mixed dietary the bent, both 
 with regard to giving diflerent kinds of food, 
 and a change from time to time. An intelli- 
 gent and large breeder gives whole corn onco 
 a day, and meal-dough twice a day ; or corn 
 twice a day, and meal once. The meal-dough 
 is mixed with the hand, with 'o little water 
 as to leave it dry enough to i'all to j)iece3 when 
 thrown on the ground ; or it may be mixed 
 with boiling water — not with the hand ; tliat 
 might prove inconvenient — or it may be boiled 
 until quite thick. Ik can bo made of oatmeal, 
 which is very good, but dear; or barley-meal. 
 Either of these, for economy or change, may 
 be mixed with one-third (measure) of middlings 
 or pollard. Potatoes and scraps from the 
 table, bits of stale bread, and pot-liquor to 
 mix with the meal, all make valuable changes 
 in the poultry-yard. These things, and others 
 of a like nature, may form one meal a day, at 
 least, for the fowls. 
 
 This gentleman thinks that fowls should have, 
 at least, one meal a day of corn. Dilferent 
 kinds of grain are favoured in different coun- 
 tries. In this country barley is the staple 
 commodity ; in America, the fowls are fed al- 
 most entirely on Indian corn; in France, a 
 great deal of buck-wheat is used. All these 
 diflerent kinds of grain are good in change, 
 and also oats and wheat. It has been found a 
 good plan to give barley and oats alternately, 
 feeding with each for a fortnight. Wheat, 
 Indian corn, and buck-wheat are used more 
 sparingly, because they are so much dearer ; 
 but a little of each is given every day, some- 
 times for a week at a time, as a change. 
 
 In addition to these regular meals of vege- 
 table produce, fowls require a little flesh meat 
 sometimes. AVhen they run out every day 
 into fields and roads, there is no necessity 
 for the owner to attend to this want, except 
 in continued frost, as the fowls hud the means of 
 supplying themselves with meat, in the shape 
 of worms, flies, insects of all kinds, slugs, 
 snails, frogs, and such comestibles as suit 
 their palates, and their voracity ; nor will a 
 good plump field-mouse escape being turned 
 into hen's meat, if it venture within reach of 
 Dame Partlet's strong beak. But if fowls are 
 
 859 
 
FEEDING.] 
 
 POTJLTKY. 
 
 [feeding. 
 
 kept to a smaller plot of ground than will 
 give good scratcbing-room to the number on 
 it, a little meat will do them good, and pro- 
 mote laying. 
 
 Varioua plana have been suggested for pro- 
 ducing poultry game. Oliver de Serves ver- 
 miider has often t^een mentioned by writers 
 on poultry. It was a hollow place, twelve 
 feet square, and four feet deep, sloped at the 
 bottom for draining. In this were placed 
 straw, horse manure, and earth, each six 
 inches deep ; and over all blood was poured, and 
 garbage of any kind, mixed with chafif. In 
 this manner the pit was filled : the rain soon 
 rendered the whole sufficiently moist to pro- 
 duce putrefactive fermentation, and myriads 
 of worms were engendered for feeding poultry. 
 A miniature verminier is described by Mr. 
 JS^olan, in his work on domestic poultry. 
 " Place bran in a deep crock ; lay on it a piece 
 of carrion ; cover it with a glass, so. as to admit 
 light, but exclude rain ; and in a few days, it 
 will be a moving mass of living insects." Worms 
 thus generated by corruption, may be as good 
 as those which come naturally in mother earth ; 
 but we cannot help feeling a prejudice against 
 fowls eating such; besides, the hosts of blue- 
 bottles, with which such a neighbour would 
 infest the place, might prove a great annoy- 
 ance. "When the fowls want meat, scraps from 
 the family refuse, fresh ofial from the butcher, 
 or even fresh greaves are better. Care must. 
 be taken not to give too much. A quarter of 
 an ounce to each fowl, and that not often, is 
 quite enough. 
 
 " I do not think," says Mr. Eichardson 
 again, " that one circumstance connected with 
 the feeding of poultry, and that a most im- 
 portant one, is sufficiently well known — I 
 allude to the necessity they are under of ob- 
 taining czotized, or, in other words, animal 
 food. Of course, when the birds possess the 
 advantage of an extensive run, they can them- 
 Belves pick up insects, worms, snails, or slugs ; 
 but, in cases where they do not possess this 
 advantage, it is necessary that you cater for 
 them. I have always experienced the best 
 effects, especially as manifested in greatly in- 
 creased laying, of giving scraps of animal food 
 about twice or thrice a week to '^the fowls. 
 Bullock's liver answers the purpose well. 
 This I consider to be better in a raw than 
 860 
 
 in a cooked state. In winter, in order to 
 supply the place of the insects and other 
 animal food, which they pick up in summer, I 
 give them, once a week, sheep's entrails, boiled 
 and peppered, together with meat bones to 
 peck at, and also barley made hot in a sauce- 
 pan, without water, and given warm. Hot 
 potatoes are always good food. Small pota- 
 toes may be picked out, and steamed for the 
 purpose. But meat is indispensable, if you 
 wish to have eggs in winter." 
 
 Gravel is necessary to birds to aid digestion, 
 and lime for the formation of egg-shell, &c. 
 Stones can be best given by keeping a part of 
 the run gravelled ; and lime by throwing down 
 a heap of old mortar, rubbish, oyster-shells 
 either burnt or broken up fine, egg-shells broken 
 up fine, or lime in any other form which will 
 admit of poultry pecking and swallowing small 
 portions. 
 
 Of green food, grass is best. Fowls will 
 not do well without green food of some kind ; 
 if they cannot run out upon grass, they should 
 have turfs, and a moderate quantity of cabbage, 
 lettuce, or any other green vegetable. 
 
 The poultry should be fed with regularity, 
 and have enough to satisfy their hunger. 
 The food should be so scattered abroad that 
 the fowls will have to use some activity to 
 earn the meal ; and care should be taken to 
 avoid leaving quantities of food always lying 
 about. 
 
 The American principle upon which fowls 
 are fed, is thus shown in the Miner's Domestic 
 Foultry: — " The principal food for fowls should 
 be Indian corn, in some shape — sometimes 
 whole, sometimes cracked, sometimes ground 
 to meal, and occasionally ground to the cob. 
 Then you want oats, buck-wheat, and any 
 other grain you please; but the three kinds 
 here named constitute a good supply for the 
 extensive breeder. Besides the above grains, 
 furnish a mess of boiled potatoes or other 
 vegetables several times a week, mixed with 
 meal of some kind ; and be careful to change 
 the diet of your fowls often. In the laying 
 season, a solid feed of shelled corn (Indian 
 corn), given profusely, is too heating ; and boiled 
 potatoes, if taken to excess, are too laxative. 
 The careful breeder will always guard against 
 these results, by watching the condition of his 
 fowlf. If they are relaxed, a change of food 
 
FEBDINO.] 
 
 POULTKV. 
 
 [feeding. 
 
 must be given at once, of a more solid nature. 
 A little rye or wheat is an excellent change 
 in such caaes. If they are costive, a boiled 
 nash of potatoes will generally bo a remedy. " 
 
 In a work of this kind, it iniglit bo expected 
 that calculaliuus would be given as to the most 
 economical mode of rearing poultry ; but, as no 
 general rule, alike applicable to Great liritain 
 and Ireland, can be established, we have 
 deemed it better to omit them. Not to speak 
 of the dill'ereuees of prices which exist between 
 the several products of these countries, there 
 are even diflereuceg, in these particulars, to bo 
 found in various localities in the same county. 
 Tliis circumstance, alone, presents a difliculty, 
 doubtless, sufficiently great to render all cal- 
 culations upon this part of our subject nu- 
 gatory. Respecting the profits of poultry- 
 keeping, the Agricultural Gazette has, at 
 various times, given statements. The foUowiug 
 are taken from the columns of that paper, and 
 may enable the inquirer upon this portion of 
 our subject, to form a basis for his own cal- 
 culations, as they have done for those of 
 others. 
 
 The actual cost and receipts for the produce 
 of ten hens and a cock in one year, and of 
 twelve hens and a cock in another, are given. 
 The food was all bought at a high market price, 
 and the produce sold in the village where they 
 were fed. The fowls were kept clean, and well 
 housed and attended. They were fed regularlv 
 three times a-day when young, and had the 
 run of a large grazing-yard in the day-time. 
 
 the Dorking breed ; six ducks, and from seventy 
 to eighty geese : — 
 
 COST. 
 
 Darlpy, milk, meid 
 
 luid corn 
 Woiiiiin'n wuRCH and 
 
 iiiurkft cliurK<''i . 
 70 Keciiv, ut"2j. 0</. . 
 Bulunco pruflt 
 
 £ (. J. 
 
 G 4 1 
 
 •« 12 7 
 
 . 8 15 
 
 . 31 8 10 
 
 £'.! (i 
 
 SOLD. 
 
 1. d. 
 7 
 i 
 
 3,4()Ooirif", nl Ut.M. 
 
 l>iT 100 . . 9 
 
 2()H chickens, at 
 
 l«. 9</. . . .18 
 b\ cbickeni con- 
 
 HUiiicJ lit lioino . 4 14 
 CO (rccpte, ul 5«. M. . IC 10 
 10 ditto cuiiHiimed . 2 15 
 20 duckji, ul 2j. fid. .2100 
 
 Pro fit 
 
 54 
 
 
 8 10 
 
 COST IX ONE YEAR. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 40 pints groats 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley-meal . 
 
 Barley . 
 
 Tail Wheat . 
 
 Eggs for sitting 
 
 Collecting eess, &c. 5 
 
 Balance, profit . 3 18 
 
 £S 14 2 
 
 RECEIPTS SAME YEAR. 
 £ s. d. 
 
 For eggs, at 8d. . 13 8 
 10 ducks, at Is. 9d. 17 C 
 12 do. at li. 8rf. 10 
 82 chickens, at 
 
 Is. (id. . .630 
 
 8 14 2 
 Profit . . £3 18 
 
 COST FOLLOWING YEAR. 
 £ *. d. 
 For 16 pints of groats 3 4 
 9 bushels barley . 2 14 
 Barley-meal . " .079 
 Collecting eggs .029 
 Balance, proht .558 
 
 £8 13 6 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 2 11 G 
 
 For eggs, at 9(i. . 2 U G 
 66chickcns, atls. 8i. 5 10 
 8 ditto at Is. Gd, n !•> n 
 
 12 
 
 8 13 6 
 
 Profit , 
 
 . £j 5 
 
 Another authority, in the neighbourhood of 
 Newcastle, gives the following statement of 
 cost and income for sixty hens, priucipallv of 
 
 To produce anything approaching to these 
 profits, however, it is necessary to have a 
 superior breed, in place of the fowls commonly 
 found in the barn-yard; and also to have 
 suitable houses and yards for their accom- 
 modation. 
 
 With respect to the poultry of cottagera, 
 which are fed on what would otherwise bo 
 wasted, or what is collected by the industry 
 of their children, and warmly housed under 
 the same roof as the owner, they often thrive 
 better, and prove more prolific, than the ex- 
 pensively tended inmates of ornamental poultrv- 
 houses. The celebrated Aylesbury ducks are 
 an example of this kind. They are often 
 reared under the beds of the cottagers in Buck- 
 inghamshire; and dunghill hens, that roost 
 in the " kitchen and parlour and all" of the 
 peasant, often lay, when the choice, everlasting 
 layers of neighbouring noblemen and gentle- 
 men, seem to have retired on half- pay. 
 
 A gentleman breeder found, that from the 
 2'ith of March to the 7th of May, he had set 9S 
 eggs under nine hens. From this number o2 
 chickens were hatched, 20 were dead in tlie 
 shell, and 46 had no birds in them. 
 
 The next year he commenced setting on the 
 2ndof April, and put, altogether, 72 eggs under 
 eight hens. The produce was 40 chickens ; 14 
 were dead in shell, and crushed by hatching 
 hens, and 12 eggs were addled. Instead, how- 
 ever, of having only 17 chickens from three 
 hens, which were set at the same time, he did iu)S 
 hesitate to say that he ought to have had 21 ; 
 but, in consequence of two o\ the hens desert- 
 ing their nests seven days before the chickens 
 were hatched, he had to get another broody 
 hen, which had only set a few days. The 
 other eggs he had to divide among several hens 
 which were sitting; and, as they chipped, ho 
 
 8G1 
 
FEEDING.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [feedixo. 
 
 had to take them out and place under one 
 hen, and some in flannel on a stove. So that, 
 in fact, it might be said that one hen and the 
 stove hatched these 17 chickens — which were 
 perfectly strong and healthy. 
 
 The only sickness he had with chickens was 
 caused by lice, which destroyed great numbers. 
 The bad hatching of eggs was not confined to 
 hens, but extended also to ducks ; for out of 
 24 duck-eggs, he had only five ducklings. He 
 reared 29 chickens over nine months old. For 
 his breeding stock he had two cocks, with five 
 hens each. Only one case of roup occurred; and 
 as the hen was not a valuable one, he destroyed 
 her. One hen died from paralysis, and an- 
 other from diseased liver. The number of eggs 
 he had was nearly 2,000 ; and he knew, with 
 the exception of 17, to what purpose every egg 
 was applied. A stock consisting of 17, in- 
 creased to 60 by chickens in the spring, and 
 purchases, consumed — 
 
 ^^19 loads, at a cost of 
 £12 13s. 6d. 
 
 The expense of rearing fowls, as we have 
 said, is subject to great variation ; but let us 
 suppose that there were but one kind of 
 cereal on which poultry could be fed, and that 
 it maintained one invariable price throughout 
 the kingdom ; " still, the proportional amount 
 of hand-feeding, required by an equal number 
 of fowls, varies greatly, according to the cir- 
 cumstances of their owner. A head of fifty 
 birds, kept at a suburban villa, with high- 
 dressed gardens, and little other elbow-room, 
 •will not be able to obtain for themselves the 
 same amount of unpurchased food as the fifty 
 which belong to a small farmer, who has a 
 common in front of his yard, and a young 
 plantation at the back. The fifty that are 
 kept on a dairy-iarm will fare diff'erently from 
 another fifty, in whose master's barn the flail 
 is perpetually going. Cochin-China fowls, 
 too, and Malays, will consume a different 
 amount of food from what bantams do ; and 
 to strike an average on a miscellaneous col- 
 8(52 
 
 Barley 
 Indian meal 
 Sharps 
 Wheat and rice, 
 
 , 2 loads 
 . 2 „ 
 _ . 1 „ 
 mixed 5 ,, 
 
 Indian corn 
 Oats 
 
 Potatoes . 
 Barley meal 
 Wheat . 
 
 . 2 „ 
 . 1 „ 
 . 4 „ 
 . 1 » 
 . 1 „ 
 
 lection, gives, in truth, but the phantom of a 
 precise result." 
 
 The writer from whom we have just quoted, 
 suggests, as the only way to obtain a safe cal- 
 culation, to shut up a given number of fowls 
 of the same breed and age, and mark what 
 they consume in a given time. " But the ex- 
 perimenter should be warned, that the birds, 
 when first confined, will probably sulk, and not 
 eat nearly so much as their brethren at large ; 
 and so an error will be admitted that would 
 prove of considerable importance, if the calcu- 
 lations founded thereon, were of equal conse- 
 quence with those on which astronomy, navi- 
 gation, or even large mercantile enterprises 
 rely for satisfactory results. It is better, 
 therefore, not to attempt giving any account 
 of the quantity of grain each bird may be ex- 
 pected to consume, than to give such an ac- 
 count as must necessarily mislead, if it is 
 made the groundwork of any calculation in- 
 tended to be generally applicable." Instead, 
 therefore, of aiming at anything like exactness 
 in this matter, we will quote, from the Agricul- 
 tural Gazette, a tolerably full account of the 
 miscellaneous collection of an amateur, and of 
 the way in w'hich they were fed and managed. 
 
 "It may be premised," says the writer, 
 " that my object in keeping fowls is not mere 
 money profit. If it were clearly proved to me, 
 that, at the end of the year, I lost a small sum 
 by them, I should still go on keeping them, 
 for convenience and amusement sake ; and so 
 would many other country ladies, gentlemen, 
 and clergy. If it could be demonstrated to 
 me that the eggs laid at home cost more, per 
 score, than what eggs can be bought for in 
 Leadenhall market, I would still indulge in 
 the home-produced article, instead of French 
 eggs, twenty-four for the shilling — just as I 
 would prefer a joint of home-fattened pork ; 
 although meat, spelt with the same four letters, 
 might, perhaps, be bought in a neighbouring 
 city one-eiglith of a farthing cheaper per 
 pound. If men want to enter on the business 
 of fowl-dealing and fatting on a large scale, as 
 a trade to live by, let them serve a short ap- 
 prenticeship, and they will soon discover the 
 most profitable way of proceeding, according 
 to the produce and the demand of their own 
 special locality. This class of very useful 
 persons are, in general, too acute and too 
 
r£EDI>'Q.] 
 
 POULTKI. 
 
 [fKKUl.NQ. 
 
 practically experienced, to need much in- 
 btructiou of the kind Iroiu books. 
 
 "Another point in view lins been, not to 
 attempt tlie foriiiatiou of anylliiii'^ like a com- 
 plt-te collection or menagerie of poultry — 
 though wo have alwaya wished to have j 
 plenty, both to observe and to eat — but rather 
 to have a succession of breeds ami species 
 continually passing in review through our 
 premises ; to have their peculiarities noted ; a 
 pen-and-ink sketch of their portraits taken ; 
 and then, when what we fancy to be the secret 
 of their life has been coaxed out of them, or 
 shrewdly guessed at, to dismiss them as incon- 
 venient supernumeraries, and to replace them 
 with less familiar faces. This mode is better 
 suited to the income, the establishment, and 
 the brains too, of most naturalist poulterers, 
 than to have a vast, overcrowded, unwieldy 
 aviary population, which distracts and per- 
 plexes the student as much as it pleases the 
 common starer. There are minds capable of 
 threading their way continuously through such 
 a wilderness of interesting objects, and of 
 carrying along with them a collection of clear 
 and conclusive ideas ; but such minds are not 
 the majority. It is wiser to attempt the per- 
 formance of a feat a little below, rather than a 
 little above one's powers. 
 
 "Our collection, then, consists of turkeys, 
 geese, ducks, various breeds of fowls, pigeons, 
 with their several young, besides guinea-fowl, 
 guans, a stork, a brood or two of pheasants and 
 partridges, and a few pair of cage birds ; alto- 
 gether about a hundred and fifty head. At 
 seven in the morning, during summer, those 
 birds which had been shut up in their re- 
 spective houses the night before, are let out 
 for the day. A sprinkling of barley is 
 thrown on the floor of each house the pre- 
 vious evening. The geese (to begin with 
 them) are driven into a large, well-screened 
 orchard (nearly an acre), that slopes slightly 
 to the south, and contains a good-sized pond. 
 There they have thrown down to them a few 
 handfuls of barley, as much as is thought suffi- 
 cient for their gradually diminishing numbers 
 • — i.e., about half of a quarter of a peck for 
 ten or a dozen geese. This, however, is 
 shared with them by such fowls as choose to 
 fly over the fence and join the breakfast party ; 
 the ducks, too, will frequently creep through 
 
 and under the palings ; bo that, although two 
 or three additional handfula may be given oa 
 such occasions, still, if every handful, or even 
 every grain were counted, no truo aeecjunt 
 could be exactly rendered of the (luiinlity ot 
 corn appropriated to the geeae. Their [jrin- 
 cipal maintenance ia the grass in the orciiard ; 
 and wo find that, during summer, they are tliua 
 kept in sufficiently good condition to kill for 
 the house. During autumn and winter they 
 require to bo shut up, to fatten in the regular 
 way. About half this quantity of barley is 
 given at noon, and again at sunset, in tho 
 court-yard, when they are driven up for the 
 night about eight o'clock. 
 
 " Our ducklings are kept pretty nearly in 
 confinement — i.e., in coops with small iiiclo- 
 sures in front — from the time they are hatched 
 till they are about a quarter grown. During this 
 infantile state they are entirely dependent on 
 the food brought to them, consisting of bread- 
 crumbs, mixed barley- meal, worms, &c. As 
 soon as they are judged sufficiently robust to 
 take to the water — of about an acre of which 
 they have the range, besides open drains and 
 ditches — they arc turned loose with their nurse, 
 but are always got home at night. Previous 
 to this complete enfranchisement, they are, of 
 course, disciplined by a few preliminary swims 
 in a large milk-pan sunk in the ground. If 
 their nurse be a hen, they very soon desert 
 her, and cater for themselves ; if a duck, then, 
 under her guidance, they pick up by far the 
 greatest part of their maintenance, costing 
 nothing but the few kernels of barley that are 
 thrown to them three or four times a-day to 
 keep them in the habit of returning home with 
 tolerable frequency. Now it is impossible to 
 make any calculation of what these birds con- 
 sume or are maintained by, that can all'ord 
 any real instruction. I cannot properly enter 
 into ray balance-sheet, the insects, worms, 
 seeds, and water-weeds on which my ducka 
 grow, get flesh, and even fat, although they 
 are all the produce of my own premises. De 
 minimis non curat lex. The law careth not for 
 crumbs and atoms. A farmer who wants to 
 know the exacc profit and loss on each duck 
 and hen, would, we take it, be penny, or 
 rather farthing wise and pound foolish ; that 
 is, if his time and thoughts are worth money to 
 him. And what most baffles us is, that these 
 
 803 
 
FEEDING.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [feeding. 
 
 savings, which poultry get from off their walk, 
 to the sparing of the barley-sack, perpetually 
 vary. Thus, from Midsummer to Michaelmas, 
 ducks cost very little to keep, where they 
 have a proper range ; and so do other poultry. 
 Nature is then in her most liberal mood. 
 But when the ground is petrified by frost, and 
 covered with snow, it becomes quite a different 
 affair. Powls are then at their most costly 
 time. A calculation of the expense of keeping 
 them, at either period, cannot but mislead. 
 And as the greater number of ducks do not 
 live six months, their yearly average consump- 
 tion cannot be taken. 
 
 "In the same way, turkey-chicks and common 
 chickens are, with us, assiduously fed on their 
 proper diet, their mothers being cooped, and 
 dependent on the grain given to them. As the 
 younglings gain strength they are gradually 
 released ; and, when finally turned adrift, have 
 the range of more than eight acres of lawn and 
 grove, where their mothers and themselves 
 find abundance of nutriment, which, though 
 valuable, cannot be charged in any bill for the 
 maintenance of the growing families. During 
 the time the mothers remain cooped, a per- 
 son goes round to them as often as is thought 
 needful (that point being much regulated by 
 their respective ages), with a supply of suitable 
 food. It mainly consists of hard-boiled eggs 
 chopped up with lettuce and onions, bread- 
 crumbs, boiled rice (costing Is. 4<d. the stone 
 of 14 lbs.) as a variety, barley-meal, and fine 
 pollard, either mixed with parboiled rice, or by 
 themselves, with as little water as is sufficient 
 to bring them to a consistence. Little chickens 
 are treated to a few kernels of wheat. The 
 most economical way of distributing grain is 
 to scatter it on the bare ground, and to give 
 no more at a time than the fowls will quite con- 
 sume ; and we find that the only mode of pre- 
 venting the sparrows from getting much more 
 than their fair share (their really fair share 
 should be none at all), is to remain with the 
 birds and chickens while they are eating, till 
 they are quite satisfied, and to repeat the 
 visit after a short interval, Youus: chickens 
 never should go more than two hours at most 
 without a supply of food ; for adult birds, three 
 times a-day is plenty. It does not appear to me 
 that extreme precision in stating tho weights 
 and measures of the articles used as food 
 SGI 
 
 for live stock, is so very necessary or expedient. 
 For creatures that have either to work hard, or 
 to grow, or to get fat, a little too much food is 
 better than a little too little. "We should pre- 
 fer even some waste by sparrows, to seeing our 
 poultry stunted in their growth, or checked iu 
 their moulting, or moping about in ill-con- 
 ditioned plumage. Full-grown guinea-fowl, 
 that have a range (and they should not be 
 kept otherwise), require no more corn for 
 their maintenance in health and in full laying 
 powers, than what they tvlll have when the 
 poultry is assembled by the rattling of the 
 corn-measure at morning, noon, and night. 
 AVith us, the least profitable birds are, we 
 believe, the pigeons, of which there are about 
 forty. Besides the corn which these get at 
 the general mess, they are entertained with 
 peas, at the rate of about a peck a- week, in 
 their private apartment, the pigeon-loft, to 
 which, however, they are not at all confined. 
 They are fed at an extra rate to prevent them 
 trespassing on our neighbours' fields. Pigeon- 
 pies, in sufficiency, could be had at a less cost ; 
 and the sale of choice pairs is not resorted to 
 as a means of lessening the expense of keeping 
 the flock. 
 
 "The commissariat department of every 
 rearer of a general stock of poultry, must be 
 arranged, not as for a regular army, where the 
 men are all of a certain equal height, and are 
 supposed to be of a certain equal capacity of 
 stomach ; but as for a mixed multitude or 
 rabble, such as the followers of Peter the 
 Hermit ; or a disorganised riotous populace, 
 consisting of old and young, male and female, 
 healthy, sick, and lame. To the entire mass 
 of this feathered band of insurrectionists (rjnd 
 very riotous tliey do become as the pangs of 
 hunger continue to pinch them), it may be 
 advised that three feeds of corn a-day be ad- 
 ministered till they are tolerably satisfied. It 
 is an error to believe that poultry will eat corn 
 to repletion; they will turn from that, when 
 they feel they have had a sufficiency, to pounce 
 upon the fly, drag out the half-hidden worm, 
 or crop the sprouting grass. Wastefulness iu 
 giving corn to fowls, consists in throwing them 
 down a large quantity at once — more than 
 they care to have — and then leaving them to 
 themselves, instead of doling it out, handful 
 by handful, and stopping the distribution as 
 
FATTENIKO.] 
 
 roL'1/rKV 
 
 [PA.TTK.NI>0. 
 
 80011 as appetitt' bc^ina to iliig. Tlioy should 
 not bo allowed to leave a grain. The juiiiorn, 
 the prisoners, ami the invalids must havo sepa- 
 rate attention, which wo shall not bo expected 
 to particularise here. For poultry that is put 
 up to fatten loose in a small shed — really a 
 good and more healthy way than tattening- 
 coops with separate compartments (for we 
 never see a return of the number of birds 
 which die, instead of fattening, from this incar- 
 ceration") — for poultry so confined, no feeding- 
 trough is better than that iigured as for 
 turkeys in Dixon's Ornamental FouUry ; but 
 even the degree and kind of fatness expected 
 in poultry, is a matter of local taste and fashion. 
 Most country-people like a fowl, or a duck, 
 that has been kept at large in high condition, 
 either at the barn-door or in the pond, with- 
 out any confinement at all — thus making an 
 approach to the edible qualities of game. 
 Londoners prefer birds that have never stirred, 
 except in a dark cellar, nor used their wings, 
 unless to help them to a perch three feet from 
 the ground at most. This inaction of the 
 muscles gives a peculiar tenderness to the 
 flesh, and unctuousness to the fat, •which is 
 much valued by metropolitan purveyors. As 
 far as the digestion of the eaters is concerned, 
 it would be well if the parties could change 
 their taste. The capon-like and luscious pecu- 
 liarity of the fowls supplied by the best London 
 poulterers, requires a little fresh air and exer- 
 cise to settle comfortably ; while the lightness 
 of the barn-door flesh, if not eaten too soon 
 after slaughter, is more suitable to a sedentary 
 stomach. How hard, then, is it to dictate 
 which is 'the best mode of feeding and fatten- 
 ing,' when connoisseurs difter so widel}'' as to 
 the result most worthy to be aimed at!" 
 
 FATTENING. 
 
 Poultry intended for the table, like every 
 other living thing raised to be eaten in an 
 artificial state of society, must pass through a 
 certain change previous to its being sub- 
 jected to the masticating process of the mouth 
 of man. In order to have a chicken fat, the 
 best thing to do is never to allow it to get 
 thin. To "fetch them up," however, for the 
 table, they should either be absolutely cooped 
 up, or, at all events, inclosed in a very small 
 space. If they are put into coops, these should 
 5 s 
 
 bo worm, rather dark, and placed under cover. 
 They should also havo HuiRcient height, and 
 ho large enough for each fuwl to be CKm- 
 fDrtable, without being forced to move about; 
 and each should havo a portion of the coop 
 partitioned olf to itself, so that it may see its 
 neighbour, without touching it. At the front 
 of the coop, there should be a large trough to 
 hold tlio food, with a compartment for water, 
 raised fully an inch from the ground. "What 
 this convenience is to bo made of is a matter of 
 taste; but, instead of wood, cither pottery or 
 glass is recommended as even more suitable, 
 on account of their being more easily kept clean ; 
 whilst they look equally well, and are by no 
 means expensive. Tlie back part of the floor 
 ought to bo grated, so that the droppings of 
 the fowls may readily pass through. Tho 
 birds should be starved for a few hours after 
 cooping, and then supplied regularly, three 
 times a-day, with as much food as they will cat, 
 and no more. The trough should be cleaned 
 out each time after they have been fed. Very 
 little water should bo given them. In this 
 manner, steamed potatoes alone have fattened 
 chickens in eight or ten days. Boiled dry 
 rice, moistened with milk or water, is also a 
 very fattening diet ; and if accompanied with 
 a portion of treacle, the process is greatly 
 quickened. By great attention, and giving a 
 constant variety of food, in order to excite tho 
 appetite of the fowls, they ought to be ready 
 for the table in a fortnight. Vegetables of 
 every description, and grease of every kind, they 
 will eagerly devour and fatten on ; and tho 
 most economical plan is to boil everything 
 given to them. Upon this subject Mr. Bailey 
 has written a practical little pamphlet, called 
 The Dorking Fowl : Hints for its Management 
 and Feeding for the Table ; from which wo 
 extract the following passage: — 
 
 " I advise, from the first, to feed tho hcu 
 and her chickens well, in the following manner. 
 Instead of throwing down handfuls of whole 
 corn, let it be ground, and slaked with luke- 
 warm milk, to such consistence, that when a 
 ball of it is thrown on the ground it will break, 
 and scatter about in particles. If there be 
 green-meat, such as onion-tops, chopped fine, 
 and mixed with it, so much the better. The 
 chickens should be fed in this manner three 
 or four times per dav, and the little extra 
 
 SG5 
 
HOUSING.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [HOTJSIN&. 
 
 trouble will be amply repaid by their growth 
 and health. As they get older this may be 
 gradually discontinued, and they may feed 
 with the old fowls on whole corn. But even 
 with old birds a change of food is not only 
 advantageous, but necessary ; and I would 
 therefore advise that, once a fortnight, the food 
 be changed for a day or two, and boiled or 
 crushed corn substituted for whole. They 
 must also have constant opportunities of pick- 
 ing among grass and other herbs. Fowls in 
 confinement will starve and pine to death with 
 heaps of barley around them, unless they have 
 such opportunities." An observance of these 
 rules would save the editors of agricultural 
 journals the task of answering many a poultry 
 inquiry, in their '■ xM'otices to Correspondents." 
 
 For the banquets of the ancient K-omans, 
 poultry was carefully reared and fattened, as 
 well as crammed; the operation of which, ac- 
 cording to authority, does not seem to have 
 greatly differed from that practised in our own 
 day. The tastes of the birds, and the advantages 
 to be derived from feeding them in a dark 
 place, were well understood. 
 
 In France, the practice of cramming is, at 
 present, quite common. For this purpose a 
 machine is used, constructed on the principle 
 of the forcing-pump. With the aid of this 
 instrument, one man can cram fifty birds in 
 half-an-hour. In operating, the throat of the 
 bird is held until the stomach is gorged through 
 a pipe, which forces the food from a reservoir. 
 This process causes the fowls to attain the 
 highest state of fatness and flavour in fifteen 
 days. 
 
 HOUSING. 
 
 In choosing a hen-house, as in many great 
 events of life, most persons have to consider 
 what they can have, rather than what they 
 would prefer. The house musi be weather- 
 tight and well ventilated ; it should occupy a 
 sheltered spot, and enjoy a warm, sunny as- 
 pect. Crowding should be carefully avoided : 
 a dozen fowls is enough for a house ten feet 
 square, and so in proportion. The talented 
 author of the Poultry Pentalorjue, says the 
 house " should be composed of non-conduct- 
 ing materials, that it may be comparatively 
 warm in winter, and cool in summer." This 
 would promote laying in cold weather, and 
 866 
 
 mitigate distress from heat. " My own fowls, 
 however," he continues, "never did better 
 than when kept in a rough weather-boarded 
 place ; but then it was but loosely parted off 
 from the end of a large cow-house, which was 
 always filled with cattle in the winter, and 
 empty in the summer." 
 
 It sometimes happens that mortality, for 
 which we can assign no reason, makes most un- 
 welcome inroads on our poultry ; and when we 
 reflect upon the manner of life of our favourites, 
 it is difficult to find a solution of the dis- 
 couraging enigma. The fowls had access to 
 gravel, lime, grass, and also had a liberal sup- 
 ply of food properly varied ; yet sickness and 
 death were of frequent occurrence. As whole- 
 some air is as necessary to the well-being of 
 every living animal as wholesome food, the 
 breeder of stock, of every description, will find 
 it advantageous, occasionally, to visit the sleep- 
 ing-places at night. When fowls follow their 
 own instinct, they seek a lofty place to roost 
 upon. Now that we bring them to a weight 
 and buUc which they would never attain in a 
 state of nature, we counteract this instinct; 
 and, as the wings of such heavy birds are in- 
 capable of saving them from injury in a great 
 descent, we oblige them to roost near the 
 ground. By this means we bring them nearer 
 to the carbonic acid gas, which, from its specific 
 gravity, falls to the ground. Many useful 
 hints, on different subjects connected with the 
 rearing of stock, may be found in a work entitled 
 Agricultural Chemistry,\ij^. C. Nesbit, F.G.S., 
 F.C.S., &c. ; to which we refer the reader. 
 
 A piece of any convenient part of the hen- 
 house may as well be left unfloored, to be 
 divided off into nests, leaving the bare earth 
 for the bottoms of them. They will do either 
 with or without straw. If baskets or boxes 
 are used for nests, for the safety of the eggs, 
 they had better have an abundant supply of 
 straw. 
 
 We have just observed that large fowls should 
 never roost high ; for if lialf-a-dozen hen-ladders 
 are placed for their convenience, they prefer 
 to use their wings, which were never made to 
 poise, in mid-air, from seven to eleven pounds 
 of fatted, feathered flesh and bone. The best 
 practical judges reckon that the perches should 
 be witUn two feet of the ground, and made of 
 poles from four to six inches in diameter 
 
nousiNo J 
 
 poiJi/nn' 
 
 [lIOCSlNfl. 
 
 We would never leave fowls dependent on 
 
 the hon-luniao alono tor slu'ltiT. In addition 
 to tliat, tlifv slioiiUl have u alied, undi-r which 
 tbev niav find protection from rain and hot 
 sun, ami a dry spot for a dust-balii, which 
 must be always supplied with plenty of dry 
 dust, in the use of which the fowls will require 
 no teaching. If a good potting-shed, or any 
 shed of the kind, bo included within the 
 precincts of the hen-run, nothing can be better 
 for the fowls; and they can do no harm by 
 having a corner for a scratching-bit. If there 
 be no such shed ready to hand, a slight ono can 
 be constructed at small expense. A few lengths 
 of carpenter's quartering, made into an oblong 
 frame, fixed upon a sullicient number of legs 
 (according to its length), and covered with 
 rough board or patent felt, will answer the 
 purpose very well. 
 
 There are numerous kinds of fencing for 
 forming the boundary-line to the run. Gal- 
 vanised iron wire, stretched on a framework, 
 is neat and durable. Galvanised iron netting 
 may be set up, with the support of upright iron 
 rods only. A firm rod along the top of a low 
 fence bad better be avoided, for it will be used 
 by the fowls to lodge on in getting over. 
 As they are less likely to rest on an edge 
 which is shaky or uneven with spikes, some 
 manufacturers make their wire- work for poultry 
 witliout the finish of a wire at the edge which 
 is intended for the top of the fence. The cost 
 of a wire fencing is from one penny to three- 
 pence per square foot. 
 
 In Suffolk, an excellent warm fence is made 
 by bracing fagots of fern, gorse, &c., close to- 
 gether upon iron hurdles. 
 
 Common sheep hurdles, in the usual position, 
 will make a good fence for poultry ; but placed 
 on end, fixed together, and made firm with 
 stakes, they afi'ord a fair high fence, where 
 appearance is not an object of consideration. 
 If thatched, they will make a very tolerable 
 hen-house. Simply fixed with the spikes in 
 the ground, they are not high enough to keep 
 in any poultry, nor firm enough after two years' 
 wear and tear ; but these defects may be reme- 
 died, and a good lasting fence made of them, 
 at the expense of a little labour. If the poplar 
 or the willow grows in the neighbourhood, it 
 
 is not a bad plan to cut largo sprays of either, 
 about six feet high, and stick them into tho 
 ground so close together, along ono side of tho 
 hurdles, that tho twigs moot and cross above 
 them, so as to form a tolerably clo.so screen. 
 They will take root, becointj firm Hup])orterrt to 
 tho hurdles, and f'oriii u la.-sting, and not an 
 unsightly fence. 
 
 A lattice of laths is quite as dear as wiro 
 netting, and not so pretty; neither, wo tliink, 
 will it bo found so durable. 
 
 With tho addition of drinking-pans — of 
 which tho best are those which can bo kept 
 clean most easily — tho home of the fowls may 
 now be reckoned ready for their reception. 
 
 All pans for food, and divers contrivances for 
 inducing the fowls to stuff themselves immode- 
 rately, we repudiate. 
 
 As a suitable conclusion to this part of our 
 subject, we subjoin a description of the cottier's 
 poultry-house, as given by Mr. llichardaon. 
 
 " One of the best modes of rearing fowls, is 
 the old custom of suffering them to roost on 
 the rafters of the room in which the cottier 
 keeps his fire. It is, perhaps, owing to 
 the warmth thus afforded to the birds, that 
 during winter, when eggs are scarce, and con- 
 sequently at a high price, they will bo procur- 
 able from the humble cabin, when they have 
 long vanished from the elaborately constructed, 
 but less warm poultry-house of the more 
 affluent breeder. 
 
 " Should circumstances, however, render the 
 keeping of poultry in the cabin objectionable 
 or unadvisable, a very suitable place may be 
 erected for them against tho outside of tho 
 cabin wall. If possible, the part of tho wall 
 against which the little hut is erected, should 
 be that opposite to tho fire-place within ; thus 
 securing the necessary warmth. If shelbe.'* bo 
 required, it can be obtained by means of a 
 few bushes, or a wall of sods. Tlie neighbour- 
 ing roads will serve as an ample walk ; and 
 the nearest stream will slake their thirst. A 
 few laying-nests may bo placed in a warm 
 corner of the cabin. By these means, tho 
 poultry of the poor cottier will thrive as well, 
 and yield as great a profit, as those kept in 
 the best-appointed establishments in the 
 kingdom." 
 
 867 
 
THE TUiiB::^;^.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [the tueket. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE TURKEY ; GUINEA IIEN ; PEA-FOWL ; PHEASANT, ETC. 
 
 THE TURKEY 
 Under the singular impression that this bird 
 and the Meleagris of the ancients are identical, 
 Linnaeus, and some other naturalists, have de- 
 signated the Turkey as the Meleagris Galli- 
 ■pavo. This error was first observed by the 
 Prench academicians, who pointed it out ; and 
 it is now generally accepted as correct. 
 
 The common turkey is a native of North 
 America, and was introduced into England in 
 the reign of Henry YIII. According tc 
 Tusser's ^ive Hundred Pointes of Good Hus- 
 handrie, it began, about the year 15S5, to form 
 an article in our rural Christmas feasts : — 
 
 " Beefe, mutton, and porke, shred pies of the best, 
 Pig, veale, goose, and capon, and turkie well drest; 
 Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolly carols to heare, 
 As then in the countrie is counted good cheere." 
 
 The turkey is one of the most diflBcult birds 
 to rear of any that we have ; yet, in its wild 
 state, it abounds in the forests of Canada. 
 
 The origin of the name appears to have 
 arisen from the confusion that, at first, sub- 
 sisted relative to the identity of the bird with 
 the Guinea fowl, which is really a native of 
 Turkey, and was introduced into England from 
 the Levant. Athenians, and other classical 
 ■writers, with the most minute accuracy, refer 
 to this fowl ; and in scarcely one particular, can 
 any resemblance be traced between it and the 
 turkey. 
 
 The disposition of the female turkey bird is, 
 in general, much more mild and gentle than 
 that of the male. "When leading out her 
 young family to collect their food, though bo 
 large, and apparently so powerful, she gives 
 them very little protection against the attacks 
 of any rapacious animal that may approach 
 them. She rather warns them to shift for 
 themselves than prepares to defend them. 
 
 The best mode of keeping turkeys, is to allow 
 them a large open shed, sufficiently protected 
 from tlie weather, and, above all, from moisture, 
 to the destructive eliects of which the turkey 
 is singularly liable. The j^erchcs should be 
 
 soy 
 
 high, and a hen-ladder is very necessary to be 
 placed in their habitation. The reason for suo-- 
 gesting this is, that although turkeys may fly 
 very well in their natural state, yet when fat- 
 tened by the arts of domestication, they be- 
 come by far too weighty for the strength of 
 their wings. The consequence of this is, that 
 they often injure themselves in their descent 
 from a lofty perch, more particularly if kept 
 in a state of confinement. When enjoying 
 the fulness of their liberty, they are enabled 
 to take better care of themselves, and also to 
 take such an amount of exercise as will pre- 
 serve them from assuming alderraanic prooor- 
 tions. In warm weather they should be al- 
 lowed to choose their own roostiug-places, 
 whether on the trees or about the farm ; but 
 if frost be expected, this liberty must not be 
 granted them, on account of the tenderness of 
 their toes, and their susceptibility to be frost- 
 bitten. To these birds, although originally the 
 inhabitants of an extremely cold climate, it is 
 now found that summer is the only season of 
 the year when they may, with safety, be per- 
 mitted to roost out of doors. 
 
 In a wild state turkeys are gregarious ; and 
 associate in flocks, sometimes to the number of 
 five hundred. They frequent the great swamps 
 of America to roost ; but leave these situations 
 at sunrise, to repair to the dry woods in 
 seai'ch of acorns and berries. They perch on 
 trees, and gain the height they wish, by rising 
 from bough to bough, and generally mount to 
 the summits of even the loftiest. They are 
 very swift runners, but fly awkwardly; and, 
 about the month of March, become so fat that 
 they cannot carry themselves beyond three 
 or four hundred yards, and are then easily run 
 down by a horseman. 
 
 The females lay their eggs in spring, gene- 
 rally in some retired and obscure place ; for 
 the cock, enraged at the loss of his mate while 
 she is employed in hatching, is apt to break 
 them. They sit on their eggs with so much 
 perseverance, that, if not taken away, they 
 
THE TURKEY.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [iiir. 
 
 1 I kkky 
 
 ■will almost perish with hunger before eutirely 
 
 leaving the nest. 
 
 The morning is the time wlicn the hen 
 turkev usually lays; bonie performing this 
 operation daily, and others only every Bccond 
 uav. From iirtoen to twenty egi^'s is the number 
 generally laid ; but this varies aceording to the 
 age of the bird — a hen of a year old laying 
 fewer eggs than one of greater maturity. 
 "When tlie turkeys are about to be let out in 
 the morning, the hens should be examined, and 
 those whieh are about to lay should be kept 
 iu until that process has taken place. 
 
 Tiie eggs, :'.3 we have said, are to be taken 
 away as soon as laid, lest they bo broken, 
 through the awkwardness of the hen, or sucked 
 by vermin ; and if put into a basket, and sus- 
 pended iu a dry place, they will keep till the 
 hens have done laying. As the hen turkey has 
 no very reBned feelings of exclusiveness, there 
 is no necessity for keeping the eggs, belonging 
 to each, in a separate place. Her disposition 
 manifests no wonderful excess of maternal 
 love towards her eggs ; neither are her dis- 
 criminative qualities very great ; for she will, 
 witli equal kindness, care, and attention, rear a 
 batch belonging to another, as if they were 
 her own. Even in the nest, such eggs as those 
 of geese, ducks, and common fowl, do not come 
 amiss to her. In the second laying, the eggs 
 are fewer in number, and rarely exceed from 
 ten to thirteen; but, on this occasion, more than 
 ordinary care is requisite. 
 
 We have observed that the hen turkey is 
 a most persevering incubator; and Mr. 
 Ixichardson says, that "if her eggs were not 
 taken away, she would sit upon stones, if she 
 could not procure the eggs of another bird, 
 and would perish before quitting the nest. 
 Eggs should, therefore, be left with her, not 
 only to tranquillise her, but because sitting 
 upon eggs fatigues her less than sitting upon 
 an empty nest. These eggs, however, should 
 be marked, in order to distinguish them from 
 those the poor bird continues to lay. Any 
 eggs that seem to her to be slow of hacching 
 will be abandoned, as she will quit the nest as 
 soon as she perceives the chick. Consequently, 
 as soon as the eggs you have placed under her 
 are hatched, she will leave the nest, and the 
 eggs of her own laying will be sacriticed. 
 liemove, therefore, the former. It is for this 
 
 reason that I recommend them to be markci!. 
 Kee|) the lu-nt clean while tho turkey lien is 
 sitting, as dirt will injure tlio eggs. No popHon 
 should go near a hen when sitting, except her 
 keeper ; and none shouhl turn the eggn, or 
 meddle with them further than I have already 
 indicated. Tiie bird will turn lier eggs with 
 more judgment than you can." 
 
 The time of sitting varies. Sometimes it is 
 twenty-seven, and at other times thirty-one 
 davs. "When tho latter takes place it is at 
 Midsummer. As some of tho chicks c-uno 
 forth more slowly than others, these should bo 
 removed to a place where they may get greater 
 warmth ; but, generally speaking, all inter- 
 ference should be avoided : where, however, 
 they have been removed, they may be returned 
 to the hen for six or eight hours before feeding 
 them. As in cases with more common fowls, 
 assistance is sometimes necessary to enable the 
 chick to leave the egg ; and if so, the utmost 
 caution should be observed, lest any injury 
 be the result. A too great eagerness to ren- 
 der aid, on these occasions, often does far more 
 harm than good. 
 
 Many writers recommend a vast deal of what 
 may well be denominated quackery in the treat- 
 ment of the young chicks ; but they generally 
 thrive much better when left to themselves. 
 
 In feeding poults, after the second month, 
 it will be sufficient to supply them with such 
 boiled herbs and plants as are esteemed nou- 
 rishing. Those which in their natural state 
 they would feed upon, are, as a matter of course, 
 the best. Among these may be enumerated 
 wild succory, nettles, milfoil, turnip-tops, cab- 
 bage-sprouts, or the outside leaves of greens, 
 well macerated by boiling. Potato skiu;^, or a 
 few potatoes themselves, may be given ; and, 
 if beans, oats, barley, or buck-wheat be amal- 
 gamated with them, the poults will rapidly 
 fatten. Besides these, the meal of Indian corn 
 is advantageous ; but, as this requires to bo 
 boiled three times more than that of oats, it is 
 proportionallv more troublesome to be used as 
 a food. If, however, the market has to be met, 
 the sooner the poults can be " got up" the 
 better ; and, although the feeding required for 
 this may be a little more expensive than usual, 
 the results will, nevertheless, prove satisfac- 
 tory. "When approaching their sixth month, 
 especially if there be an appearance of cold 
 
 869 
 
THE TUEKET.J 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 Fthe guinea hek. 
 
 weather setting in, give them boiled potatoes, 
 mashed and mixed with meal, and then chopped 
 small. This should be given them /res/i and 
 fresh, in a vessel perfectly clean, and always to 
 be kept so, lest it contract a disagreeable smell. 
 It must be remembered that turkeys are par- 
 ticularly nice in their appetite, and are also 
 very cleanly in their habits. After a month of 
 this kind of feeding, morning and evening, the 
 poults will be in a condition to be made use of; 
 and, if of a good sort, they ought, at least, to 
 weigh eighteen pounds. During this process 
 of fattening, they should, after their meals, be 
 kept pretty much in the dark ; indeed, a great 
 portion of their time should be spent in dark- 
 ness, and their exercise much curtailed. 
 
 In considering the advantages in connec- 
 tion with the expense which attaches to the 
 raising of turkeys, it must be borne in mind, 
 that until they are wanted to be fattened for 
 sale, there is no necessity for nourishing them 
 to the extent we have just indicated, as, of all 
 our domestic fowls, they are the best providers 
 for themselves. They are also blessed with a 
 good digestion ; therefore, nothing comes amiss 
 to them in the way of herbs, grass, berries, 
 fruit, corn, insects, and even reptiles. This 
 universality of appetite, so to speak, generally 
 enables them, in their wanderings, to find 
 plenty to satisfy themselves, almost without 
 the artijB.cial assistance of man. In its native 
 forests, a favourite food of the turkey is the 
 seed of a kind of nettle, and a small red acorn, 
 on which latter food they soon become so fat 
 as not to be capable of flying, when they 
 are easily run down by a dog. The weight to 
 which the bird attains, in this country, has been 
 much exaggerated ; but twenty pounds is a fair 
 weight for a fat yearling bird. For one only 
 six months old, this is a very great weight. 
 A turkey weighing thirty pounds, of any age, 
 is a fine bird ; and few, save the Norfolk, ever 
 exceed forty. 
 
 Cold, or damp, being fatal to turkey poults, 
 it is necessary that the weather should be 
 watched before allowing them to stray far from 
 their habitation. Intense sunshine is also fatal 
 to them. In such weather, therefore, they 
 must not be led to pasture, unless this can be 
 tlone under shade. Should rain fall, they must 
 be at once housed. 
 
 To the peasant the turkey is a bird of con- 
 870 
 
 siderable profit ; as, among the hedgerows, and 
 upon the roads, it can find almost as much 
 food as sufiices for its maintenance. Worms, 
 snails, and slugs are amongst its most favoured 
 repasts ; and any stream suffices to quench its 
 thirst. From its great partiality to grain, how- 
 ever, it is a pest to the farmer, who should 
 circumscribe its roaming propensities to the 
 boundaries of his yard, until his crops are so 
 strong in their roots as to offer no temptatioa 
 to its depredations. 
 
 THE GUINEA. HEN. 
 
 It is diiBcult to ascertain the precise time 
 when the Guinea fowl was first brought into 
 Great Britain ; but its introduction must, at all 
 events, have taken place at a remote period ; for, 
 in Kennet's Parochial Antiquities, it is stated 
 that it was well known in England as early as 
 the year 1277. Its original country is Africa. 
 The Guinea fowl is a little larger than our ordi- 
 nary barn-door fowl ; but it is inferior in size to 
 the larger foreign breeds, as the Malay and 
 Spanish. In both aspect and character, it ap- 
 pears to occupy a position between the 
 pheasant and the turkey. Although long 
 familiarised, the Guinea fowl has never been 
 fully domesticated. It still retains much of the 
 restlessness and shyness of its primitive feral 
 habits. Its courage is very great, as it will 
 not only attack the turkey, but frequently 
 conquer him. 
 
 The cock and hen are so nearly alike, that 
 it is not easy to discover which is which. 
 Sometimes there is a difference of hue in 
 certain parts ; but this difference only occurs 
 occasionally ; and it is rather on the distinction 
 of voice and demeanour that we must chiefly 
 depend, in order to distinguish the one from: 
 the other. It must be remarked that they 
 pair ; therefore, a second hen will be neglected 
 and useless, except for eggs. 
 
 As a source of profit these fowls are not 
 much to be recommended. The eggs are very 
 small, three of them being scarcely equal to 
 an ordinary hen's egg; and the flesh of the 
 bird is not relished by every palate, though ifc 
 is in tolerable request in the London markets, 
 when the game season closes. Its flavour re- 
 sembles that of the pheasant. 
 
 This bird dislikes confinement, and will not 
 thrive unless it has perfect liberty: where such. 
 
THE PKA-FOWr.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [tIIK J'UEASAKT. 
 
 tliorefore, cannot bo afforded, it is uaclesa to 
 attfinpt to kei'p it. 
 
 The lion commencoa to l:iy in May, luul 
 ccntinucs throughout the outiro auramer. For 
 the table, the birda are in season from February 
 to June. Tlie period of incubation is twenty- 
 eight dara. The chicks, while young, reijuiro 
 careful uianagemeut, and must bo constantly 
 fed. In a short time they become perfectly 
 hardy. At nine months they aro lit for the 
 table. The hen is prolific. 
 
 THE PEAFOWL. 
 
 A peacock, in all tlie pride of his " Argus- 
 eyed tail" spread before the rays of the sun, 
 parading on a green lawn, or from the extremity 
 of a terrace wall, is one of the most beautiful 
 of living objects which can adorn the garden 
 landscape. Of fruit, however, he will be 
 found a devourer, not to be guarded against ; 
 and both him and his mate are not uufrequently 
 the veritable assassins of the young of other 
 fowl. The cock does not attain the full splen- 
 dour of his plumage until ho is three years 
 old : and the hen does not lay until she is of 
 the same age. She lays from live to seven eggs, 
 and sits twenty-nine days. If the first batch 
 of eggs is taken away, she will lay a second ; 
 so that, by having a hen turkey as foster-nurse, 
 two broods in one summer may be obtained. 
 The pea- hen generally chooses a very retired 
 spot, quite out of the way of the peacock, 
 M-hich is often a cruel, uni.iitural father. 
 
 The young of this breed must be tended like 
 Guinea fowl and young turkeys ; and without 
 they are abundantly and regularly fed, they 
 are apt to wander. "When fat, and hung long 
 enough, they make a delicious and enviable 
 roast. They should be larded over with slices 
 of fat bacon; the head and neck, with the 
 feathers on, carefully wrapped in paper, and 
 tucked under the wing, away from the fire ; 
 and, when ready, set up in purple glory, to 
 match the tail adorned with feathers, neatly 
 stuck in at the last moment. 
 
 THE PHEASANT. 
 
 We have already treated of the Pheasant 
 in the division on "The Gun;" but here it is 
 necessary to say a few words upon it, in what 
 may be called its domesticated state. 
 
 To hatch the eggs of this beautiful bird, a 
 
 Haiitaiii hen is the boat. The young oriea 
 Hlu.uld b(.' left with her for twenty-f(»ur houra 
 after being hatched, without being disturbed ; 
 and then they ahould bo fed every hour with 
 hard-boiled eggs, bread and milk, bread crumbs, 
 young nettles, or lettuces, chup|)ed fine, and 
 eggs from ants' nests. They Hhuuld bo kept 
 in a dry, warm place, and be allowed plenty of 
 lino soft sand. A piece of meat may bo put 
 in a convenient spot, and kejit there till it bo- 
 eoiuea lly-blown, when tho maggots, thereby 
 generated, should be given them every day. 
 When moulting, supply them with a little 
 boiled rice. The vessels in which they aro fed 
 must be kept quite clean; and as they aro sub- 
 ject to various diseases, alum-curd, made by 
 boiling new milk with a lump of alum, until 
 it is of the consistence of custard, may bo 
 given them. If vent-bound, clip ofl' the vent 
 feathers carefully, and apply some sweet oil to 
 the part. 
 
 Although we havo recommended a Bantam 
 hen for a sitter, there are many circumstances 
 under which it may be found necessary 
 to hatch and rear young pheasants by means 
 of common hens. In Stonehenge's Manual 
 of British Sural Sports, the author says — 
 " The old hen of each hive < :• nide is 
 always anxious, if alive, to retain her old nest, 
 and to drive the young hens away from her 
 neighbourhood. If the keeper is not on his 
 guard, the hens stray far oflf his beat; but 
 if watchful, he can easily detect the nest 
 of almost every pheasant. If the eggs are 
 likely to be taken, he may then, and then 
 only, as soon as the hen has laid her full 
 number, remove them." Hen pheasants will 
 spread themselves abroad, and no art will keep 
 them closer together than they like ; but the 
 above plan may save a great many 'ggs. 
 There are many situations in which nests 
 should be disturbed, if found early enough, or 
 the eggs taken if found late : for instance, in 
 situations likely to be flooded ; in ditches or 
 hollow water-ways, or in clover-fields or 
 vetches which will be mowed over before tho 
 time of hatching." 
 
 As the hen pheasant never rears her full 
 number of chicks, five or six eggs should be 
 removed from every nest which is found. A 
 moderate-sized hen will cover thirteen egga. 
 She should be set in a box without a bottom, 
 
 S71 
 
THE PHEASANT.J 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [THB DOMESTIC DUCF 
 
 SO that the nest shall be on the ground; 
 and the box should have a lid, that the hen 
 may be shut in. The boxes should be eighteen 
 inches high, and perforated, to admit of venti- 
 lation. The hens must be let off to feed, and 
 shut up again. Boxes are only necessary where 
 a number of hens are set together. When 
 the hens have sat for five or six days, the eggs 
 may be tried, and all which are not good, re- 
 moved, making up each hen's nest, and giving 
 fresh eggs to those that may be left without 
 any. 
 
 After the pheasants have been batched 
 about ten hours, the hen should be put under 
 a coop, solid all round, except two bars in 
 front, just wide enough to allow the poults to 
 run in and out. In other respects it is the 
 same as a common rip for ben and chickens. 
 This should be placed on the grass, on a 
 sunny spot, with a west or south-west aspect. 
 While the chicks are quite young, a run 
 should be made for them, by three boards a 
 foot and a-hali wide, to be supported by pegs 
 driven in the ground, to fence in a square 
 piece before the coop. This piece to be made 
 safe by a network covering. 
 
 If the chicks are strong at the end of a 
 week, the little inclosure may be removed, and 
 they may run at large. When the chicks are 
 a month old, some breeders recommend that 
 the hen should be tethered by day, and placed 
 in the coop again at night. A constant sup- 
 ply of ilean water is very important. 
 
 The greatest difficulty is to hatch the eggs, 
 for t'ley are very easily spoiled by being 
 shaken. In the early days of sitting, the 
 embryo chick is so delicate, that a very slight 
 blow or shock destroys life, and the egg be- 
 comes addled. If a hen can be reckoned on, 
 it is far better to wait till within a week of 
 the time of hatching, as the eggs will bear 
 removal very well at that time, if placed in a 
 basket full of warm, dry wool. In this way 
 we have known eggs removed more than 
 twenty miles, and afterwards nearly all 
 hatched. 
 
 I'or a coop, some make a box, nearly three 
 feet long, two feet wide, and two feet high in 
 front, sloping off to one foot high at the 
 buck, and give it a boarded floor. This box 
 has a lath front, with intervals to allow the 
 young birds to pass out. This is the coop for 
 872 
 
 the hen ; but the young birds ought to have- 
 a further space of about two yards square to 
 run in, fenced off by some means. In rearing 
 young pheasants and partridges, success is 
 more likely to crown our care in a walled 
 garden, as they are then almost safe from the 
 attacks of the weasel, stoat, or rat. If this 
 cannot be procured, we should be careful to 
 select a good aspect, sheltered from the east 
 and north, and open to the morning sun. It 
 should not be exposed to the incursions of 
 poultry. For food, ants' eggs are the best, 
 if they can be got in sufficient quantities ; 
 or maggots, scoured by keeping them twenty- 
 four hours in bran. Mix oatmeal and eggs 
 together carefully ; tie them up in a cloth ; boil 
 them until hard-; and this, broken up, makes 
 excellent food. When the young ones are a 
 fortnight or three weeks old, soaked bread, or 
 bruised barley soaked, may be given, and, soon 
 afterwards, whole barley ; but ants' eggs and 
 maggots should be continued even until the 
 birds are turned into the woods. The feeding 
 recommended by some is — first, hard-boiled 
 eggs chopped fine, crumbs of bread soaked in 
 milk, curd pressed iu a cloth until dry, and 
 ants' eggs ; afterwards, dough, of oatmeal and 
 water. This mu^o not be thrown down 
 to them, but they must be fed with little balls 
 of it as long as they will eat, Tor change, give 
 barley and wheat. 
 
 THE DOMESTIC DUCK. 
 In keeping ducks, one of the first considera- 
 tions to be attended to is, to see that they 
 have plenty of water; for, although a small 
 quantity of this will suffice for them, still, to 
 have it always in such a situation as will admit 
 of easy access to it, is one of the most essen- 
 tial points of duck-keeping. As the flesh of 
 this land of fowl always, more or less, partakes 
 of the flavour of the food upon which the 
 bird has been fed and fattened, it should be 
 confined, at least, for not less than a week 
 before it is killed, and put upon a more choice 
 kind of food than the duck will feed upon 
 when left entirely to provide for itself. This 
 bird is by no means very particular as to 
 what it eats ; whilst its capacity of gorman- 
 d'ising is, where opportunities offer, carried to 
 an enormous extent. We have seen some ot 
 them admitted into a field to follow the plough 
 
THE DOMESTIC DUCK.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [the call duck. 
 
 while at work, when they have bo stuflVd thom- 
 selves with the exhumed worms, that they have 
 actually been unable to rise after lyin-^ down. 
 For tlio purpose of fattenin£», and brint^iiig 
 their tlosh to a good flavour just before killing, 
 boiled potatoes are excellent, and, if mixed 
 with a little grain, the feeding is greatly im- 
 ])roved. Imlian meal is also good, although, 
 at iir.st, it should be given sparingly. If ducka 
 are allowed to enter a garden, they will not do 
 much harm, while they will help greatly to 
 free it from slugs and insects ; but, as they are 
 rather ungainly walkers, and by no means 
 remarkable for any extraordinary beauty of 
 plumage, we, ourselves, would rather put up 
 with a i'ew extra slugs in our flower-beds, than 
 permit a few of these unhandsome creatures 
 to walk over them at their pleasure. Ducks 
 lay a large number of eggs ; and we have 
 heard of the case of one laying upwards of 
 eighty in succession. This is prodigious ; and 
 when we consider that three duck-eggs are, 
 in culinary estimation, of the value of six hen- 
 e"f^s, a bird possessed of such prolific powers 
 is not, even in a commercial point of view, to 
 be lightly estimated. It is mostly by night, and 
 not by day, that the duck lays ; and while pro- 
 ducing, she requires a greater degree of at- 
 tention than the hen, until she has acquired 
 the habit of resorting to a regular nest. 
 "When she has done this, attention is no longer 
 necessary. In hatching, the eggs require 
 thirty-one days ; and after the ducklings have 
 come forth, they should have, for their first 
 food, boiled eggs, nettles, and a little barley. 
 For the first day or two they should be kept 
 from water ; but after they have seen the light 
 for a few days, they may, with the greatest 
 safety, be left to shift for themselves. The 
 drake should have from four to six females, as 
 he does not pair like the wild duck. Of the 
 domestic duck there are many varieties ; the 
 white having a preference by some over all 
 the rest. Of this variety, the Aylesbury is 
 the favourite. It is very easily tamed ; and, in 
 Buckinghamshire, it lives with tiie cottager in 
 a state of domestic familiarity, similar to that 
 which characterises the sociable qualities of 
 the pig in the cabin of the sister isle. In this 
 county, many of the cottagers add to their 
 little incomes by rearing the Aylesbury duck 
 for the market; and the interior of the cot- 
 5 X 
 
 tagerfl' dwellings Bomotimes presents a singular 
 appearance to the eye of the Htranger. They 
 are 8up[)lied with boxes and pens, ranged 
 round the walls, for the purpose of protecting 
 the early broods, which may be said to bo 
 brought up by hand. Tins duck ia a large, 
 handsome bird, with unspotted plumage, yellow 
 legs and feet, and flesh-coloured bill. It is a 
 most assiduous mother, and very productive. 
 
 Until the introduction of the Khone, or 
 liohan duck, which is very prulilic, and lays 
 largo eggs, the Aylesbury variety was held to 
 bo the most valuable of all the species. The 
 latter, however, still fairly divides the honour 
 with the former, and is by some regarded as 
 superior. Its flesh is of a most delicate flavour, 
 being by many compared to that of the chicken ; 
 but it is said, that a cross between it and the 
 Khone is superior in flavour to all others. 
 
 In France, ducks are both excellent and 
 abundant, especially in Languedoc and Nor- 
 mandy, where duck-liver pies are considered a 
 great delicacy. 
 
 THE MUSCOVY, OR MUSK DUCK. 
 This bird does not, as some suppose, take 
 its name from having been imported from that 
 country, but from t\\Q flavour of its flesh. It 
 is easily distinguished by a red membrane sur- 
 rounding the eyes, and covering the cheeks ; 
 and the Mush name, by which it is distin- 
 guished, is both a contraction and a corruption 
 of the term Muscovy. It is a distinct species 
 from the common duck ; and the hybrid race 
 will, therefore, not breed again between them- 
 selves. They are, however, capable of doing 
 so with either of the species, from the com- 
 mixture of which they spruug. 
 
 THE BLACK EAST INDIA DUCK. 
 This species of duck is all black, except the 
 bill, whicli is deeply tinged with a rich green. 
 When floating on the bosom of a pond, mingled 
 with the pure white Aylesburys, they present 
 a beautiful contrast. The varieties of water- 
 fowl may, perhaps, be as well studied in the 
 inclosuro of St. James's Park, Loudou, as auy- 
 where else. 
 
 THE CALL DUCK. 
 
 Thisi3thci?(7«/«;«ofitsrace,u3uallycoloured 
 like the wild mallard, but often ichite — a colour 
 
 873 
 
CAPONISING."] 
 
 POITLTEY. 
 
 [toflouse goose. 
 
 preferred by fowlers, who use it in the decoys, 
 on account of its being so easily distinguished 
 from the others. These birds are a AViltshire 
 breed, with compact and elegantly rounded 
 crests, and are very handsome. 
 
 CAPONISING. 
 
 The practice of converting fowls into capons 
 has been long followed by the Chinese ; but 
 it does not appear to have been early practised 
 in Europe. Some years ago the Erench began 
 to use it extensively ; and now, both on the 
 male and female fowl, the practice is quite 
 common. The object proposed in making a 
 cock a capon is the taming of his natural 
 fierceness, so as to render him of a more placa- 
 ble disposition ; and assuredly it has this effect. 
 His pugnacity entirely deserts him. He no 
 longer seeks the company of the hens ; he 
 grows to a far larger size than he otherwise 
 would have done ; acquires flesh with far greater 
 rapidity ; and that flesh is peculiarly white, firm, 
 and succulent. Even the fat is perfectly 
 destitute of rankness. The process which 
 efiects this singular metamorphosis in the dis- 
 position of the bird is extremely simple, and 
 one which the rural hen-wives of France per- 
 form with facility and certainty. The practice 
 of these is to select the close of the spring, or 
 the beginning of autumn, as well as fine 
 weather, for operating upon their fowls. The 
 parts necessary to be removed being fixed in 
 the abdomen, and attached to the spine at the 
 region of the loins, it is necessary that the 
 abdominal cavity should be opened for the 
 purpose of their extraction. The bird should 
 be healthy, fasting, and about three months 
 old. He must then be secured by an assis- 
 tant, laid upon hie back, with his belly up- 
 wards, and his head down, that the intestines, 
 &c., may fall up towards the breast ; the tail is 
 turned towards the operator. The right leg 
 is then carried along the body, and the left 
 brought backwards, and held in this position, 
 so as to leave the left flank perfectly bare. 
 Here the incision is to be made ; and this is 
 to be directed, from before, backwards, trans- 
 versely to the length of the body, at the 
 middle of the flank, and slightly to the side, 
 between the ends of the breast-boue and the 
 vent. Having plucked away the feathers from 
 the space where the cut is to be made, a fine- 
 874 
 
 tempered pen-knife is taken, and the skin, 
 abdominal muscles, and peritoneum incised. 
 This is best done by two or more cuts, in 
 order to avoid the possibility of wounding the 
 intestines — a casualty which would, in most 
 cases, be attended with fatal results. The in- 
 testines will then present themselves at the 
 orifice ; but they must not be allowed to pro- 
 trude. On the contrary, they must be pressed 
 gently aside, so as to leave room for action. 
 The incision should be sufficiently large to 
 admit the fore-finger, previously well-oiled, to 
 pass into the abdomen, and to be carried 
 carefully towards the lumbar region of the 
 spine. There will be found what is wanted. 
 You first reach the left substance, which is to 
 be detached with the nail, or with the finger 
 bent book- fashion. The right is treated 
 similarly. Bring both substances forth, and 
 return the intestines ; sew up the wound with 
 a silk thread — a very few stitches will suflace — 
 and smear the place with a little fresh butten 
 Some , persons recommend the amputation of 
 the comb, close to the skull of the newly-made 
 capon ; but this is an unnecessary piece of 
 torture ; though, of late years, it has been ex- 
 clusively adopted on the continent : the pro- 
 posed object of this amputation being to in- 
 sure the recognition of the capon among his 
 co-mates of the poultry-yard. 
 
 DOMESTIC GEESE. 
 
 Amongst the varieties of our common do- 
 mestic goose, there is one which has, not a 
 great number of years, been introduced to our 
 island ; and which, from its great size and 
 capacity of carrying flesh, has taken a very high 
 place in the estimation of the breeder. This 
 bird is designated — 
 
 THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. 
 
 Originally, this fowl was imported from the 
 Mediterranean by the Earl of Derby, and is 
 known indiscriminately by the names of Medi- 
 terranean, Pyrenean, and Toulouse. It is 
 principally remarkable for its vast size, being 
 perfectly gigantic, and therefore to be regarded 
 as a most valuable addition to the poultry- 
 yards of Great Britain. Its prevailing colour 
 is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and 
 occasionally relieved with black. The head 
 and neck, down to the beginning of the breast, 
 
THE OniNESB Q003E.] 
 
 POULTET. 
 
 [the ciiikese aooss. 
 
 aud the back of the neck as far as tlio 
 bliouKlera, are of a dark brown ; tho breast ia 
 slaty blue, and the belly and uiider-surface of 
 the tail arc grey. Tlio bill is oraii<^e-red, and 
 tho feet are llesli colour. This bird is sup- 
 posed to bo the unmixed and itnmediato de- 
 scendant of tho grey-lag. In its habits it 
 resembles its congeners, but appears to possess 
 a milder and more easy disposition. Of its 
 other peculiarities, it may be remarked, tiiat 
 the curl of plumage on the neck cornea closer 
 to the head tlian in the common goose, aud 
 that the abdominal pouch, which, in other 
 varieties, is attendant only upon age, exists in 
 these birds from the shell. The white Irish 
 goose is fully larger than the Toulouse. 
 
 THE CHINESE GOOSE. 
 
 A Ci/gnoides. — Of the Chinese goose there 
 are three sub-varieties, each presenting strik- 
 ing points of difference, and yet sufficiently 
 alike to justify their being classed together. 
 These are — The Hong-Kong, which has a 
 large horny knob on the bill and forehead. 
 Its prevailing colour is grey, with a longi- 
 tudinal stripe, of a deep brown, running 
 above the back of the neck. The legs are of 
 a red colour, whence it is sometimes dis- 
 tinguished as the "Red-legged China goose;" 
 and has long been known amongst us as the 
 " Poland goose." The Black-legged Chinese 
 Goose. — Also knobbed, and usually with a 
 white edging round the hnoh, somewhat similar 
 to that of the wild breed called the " AVhite- 
 frouted goose." The White Chinese Goose. — 
 A very handsome bird, knobbed like the rest, 
 of snow-white colour, and with legs of a bright 
 orange-red. These geese are all smaller than 
 the Toulouse; but they are, nevertheless, very 
 fine birds. The white variety, especially, with 
 red legs, is very beautiful, and forms an appro- 
 priate ornament on a piece of water. The 
 flesh is also good, and they feed well, fatten 
 easily, aud are very prolific. Of our ordinary 
 domestic geese there exist but two sorts, the 
 only distinction of which seems to rest in their 
 relative size. They are divided into the large 
 and small ; and by some, according to their 
 colour, into the ivhite and the grey. These di- 
 visions are, to a certain extent, arbitrary ; as 
 out of one clutch, several varieties, both as to 
 size and colour, will generally be found. The 
 
 best sorts of geeso, however, are those which 
 vary least in colour. Those approaching most 
 nearly to tho [)riinitivo stock, are the birds 
 which every good judge will prefer breeding 
 from. Grey is tho best colour, as coming 
 nearest to tho original groy-lag: white is not 
 quite 80 good ; but mixed colours are not so 
 prolific, and the young are more difficult to feed 
 up to tho required standard. Markhaiii says* 
 " the largest is the best; and the colour should 
 be white or grey, all of one paire ; for pycd geese 
 are not so comfortable, and black are worse." 
 
 In reference to mating the gander, it ia 
 observed by Mr. Richardson, " that this en- 
 tirely depends upon the object which tho 
 breeder has in view. If eggs are wanted, one 
 gander is plenty for six or even eight geese; 
 or he may abandon the unnecessary trouble of 
 keeping a male at all, and only occasionally 
 send his geese to his neighbour's. It so hap- 
 pens, however, that keeping geese for the pro- 
 duce of their eggs alone is not profitable; and 
 hence these must be rendered duly fertile. To 
 effect this, one gander to a large number of 
 geese will not answer. For the purpose of 
 hatching, a gander should bo mated with, at 
 most, four geese. If of the ordinary kind, 
 amongst which colour varies, he should bo of a 
 pure white, or ash-grey colour ; but not at all 
 of two colours. His dimensions should be 
 large, his gait active, his eyes lively and clear, 
 his voice ever ready and hoarse, and his de- 
 meanour full of boldness. The goose should 
 be chosen for her tceight of body, steadiness of 
 deportment, and breadth of foot — a quality 
 which indicates the presence of other excel- 
 lences. In one season the goose lays from ten 
 to twenty eggs; and, should she noc be desired 
 to sit, by removing the eggs as fast as she lays 
 them, and at the same time feeding her highly, 
 she may be induced to continue laying to the 
 number of forty-five, or even fifty. This is, 
 however, unusual, as well as unprofitable. 
 When tolerably well looked after, geese may 
 be made to lay, and even hatch, three times in 
 the year. "When this is desired, the plan to 
 pursue is only to feed highly, and house them 
 well, and early in the spring, so as to have 
 the first brood soon in March ; but we would 
 rather have two good clutches reared than 
 three bad ones ; and therefore recommend pa- 
 tience aud moderation." 
 
 875 
 
CHIlfESE GOOSE. J 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 The goose will begin to lay about the latter 
 end of February, or the beginning of March. 
 The commencement of her laying may be 
 readily discovered, by noticing her running 
 from one place to another, carrying straws iu 
 her mouth. This is for the purpose of forming 
 a nest, when she should be watched, lest she 
 drop her eggs where they cannot be found. 
 On this account Mascall recommends trying 
 the geese manually over-night, and confining 
 such as are ready to lay. When a goose is 
 shut up, and lays her first eg^ in any particular 
 nest, no further trouble need be taken with 
 her, for she will continue to lay in that spot, 
 and will not be likely to stray elsewhere. 
 
 When the inclination to hatch discovers 
 itself, the nest should be made of straw, with 
 a little hay as a lining, and should be so 
 formed that the goose will not throw the eggs 
 over the side when in the act of turning them. 
 There is no necessity for banishing the gander. 
 On the contrary, he may be suifered to remain 
 as near the nest as he chooses, and he will act 
 the part of a guardian. Fifteen eggs will be 
 found sufficient for a fair-sized goose to pro- 
 perly cover ; and they should not be touched 
 during incubation, or the goose interfered 
 with. As she is heavier than the hen, her 
 food and drink should be left rather nearer to 
 her than is necessary with common poultry, 
 because, if she chance to absent herself from 
 her eggs so long as to allow them to get cool, 
 she may abandon the process of incubation 
 altogether. It is, however, not necessary to 
 mix either vinegar or pepper with her food or 
 water, as some recommend, or in any way to 
 meddle with her. The necessary period of in- 
 cubation is one month ; but the early-hatched 
 goslings must be removed, lest the more tardy 
 be deserted. About the twenty-ninth day 
 these begin to chip the shell ; and, should their 
 own capabilities prove inadequate to their 
 liberation, aid should be rendered them. The 
 Eggs should all, as nearly as possible, be of 
 equal freshness, that they may be hatched at 
 one time. On the appearance of the goslings 
 they should be turned out into a sunny walk, 
 if the weather will permit ; but they should 
 not be made to feed for twelve hours, at least, 
 after leaving the shell. Their food may then 
 be bread soaked in milk, boiled greens, curds, 
 porridge, or even bran, mixed with boiled 
 876 
 
 [CHINESE GOOSE. 
 
 potatoes; and care must be taken that th& 
 food is not given in too hot or too cold a state. 
 Avoid exposing them to rain or cold breezes ; 
 and be particularly careful that the walk into 
 which they are turned is sheltered both from 
 wind and weather. The goslings should also 
 be kept from water for at least two days after 
 hatching, lest they become afiectedwith cramp 
 — a disease which frequently proves fatal to 
 them. 
 
 Geese should be confined as little as pos- 
 sible, and should be kept in an inclosed yard, 
 sufficiently large to admit of their having 
 plenty of room for walking about ; and if there 
 is a common in close proximity, they should 
 be allowed to stroll about and shift for them- 
 selves. This will considerably lighten the 
 expense of keeping them. They require water, 
 and cannot be advantageously kept when 
 they are deprived of it ; still, however, they 
 may thrive without having access to any pond 
 or river, if they have only a small artificial 
 pool in which they may bathe themselves. 
 When geese are within range of water, 
 and suffered to roam at large, they usually 
 discover it, and afterwards daily resort to it. 
 Though they are so fond of water, their sleep- 
 ing-places must be kept perfectly free from 
 damp. Grass is as necessary to them as 
 water; and the rankest, coarsest kind, such as 
 cattle reject, constitutes their delicacy. Such 
 grasses as they prefer will be found on swampy 
 lands, of which, perhaps, no more profitable 
 use could be made. The stubble-field is, when 
 it can be obtained, also an excellent walk for 
 geese ; for they not only find the young grass 
 and herbage springing up amongst the stubble, 
 but likewise pick up much corn that would 
 otherwise be lost 
 
 Goslings, produced in June or July, will 
 fatten without other food than such as the 
 stubble-field may yield, as soon as they are 
 ready to consume it ; but if required to be 
 brought up by a given time, potatoes, tur- 
 nips, or other roots, bruised with meal, 
 should be given at least once daily. The 
 goose is very voracious, and only requires to 
 get plenty to eat in order to accumulate fat. 
 Geese, fed principally on grass and corn, dO' 
 not, perhaps, attain the same bulk with such as 
 are crammed ; but their fat is much sweeter, 
 and they are altogether much more desirable- 
 
STRASBITRa GEESE. J 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [btbabburo geese. 
 
 for the table. Early geeso require l»ome- 
 feediiig, as they have no atubble-tielda. Loudon 
 feeders, therefore, when they receive goslings 
 from the country, about Mareli or April, feed 
 them first with meal from the best barley or 
 oats, made into a liquid paste, and »ubse(juently 
 with corn, to give greater lirmuesa and con- 
 sistence to their fat. 
 
 Geese are fattened in large numbers in some 
 places of the European continent. This is 
 especially the case in the neighbourhood of 
 Strasburg — a place celebrated for its pies. 
 There geese have a shepherd to tend them as 
 sheep have. The birds arc reared by the 
 peasantry, every one of whom is possessed of 
 some stock of these valuable fowls ; and the 
 shepherd, every morning, wakes the echoes of 
 the village by the sound of a trumpet, with 
 which he assembles his feathered Hock, which, 
 in the company of a herd of pigs, repairs to 
 pasture on the common devoted to that pur- 
 pose. In the evening, the shepherd leads back 
 his tlock ; but, before they arrive at the village, 
 almost all the geese take flight, rise above the 
 roofs, and settle down in their respective 
 homes. They flap their wings, cross, and fly 
 against each other in the air, uttering a cry 
 not unlike the note of a hoarse trumpet, and 
 presenting an animated scene to the delighted 
 villagers. 
 
 Towards autumn the peasants carry to town 
 their finest birds, and occupy a place in the 
 market, which is so large as to furnish a very 
 great number with plenty of accommodation. 
 One hundred and fifty thousand geese annually 
 pass through the market of Strasburg. The 
 woman who fattens them is acquainted with 
 those peasants who come from where the best 
 geese are produced. She fingers the bird to 
 assure herself that the body is well formed ; 
 examines the foot and beak, to determine its 
 age ; then makes her bargain, and carries home 
 her purchase. When she returns, she places 
 the goose in a separate compartment, and feeds 
 it with marsh-beans. As soon as it is considered 
 sufficiently strong to undergo the process of 
 fattening, this is begun. The pupil passes into 
 a higher class, and is fed with maize, steeped 
 in salt water. Erom this time the feeding is 
 regular and forced. It is admitted, now-a-days, 
 that geese ought to be fattened without exer- 
 cise ; therefore they are packed, about thirty 
 
 together, in a stable, and, during the last eight 
 days of tho fattening, they are placed in a cago 
 open at the top. It is tho skill of the trainer, 
 in this latter period, that determines tho suc- 
 cess of tho operation ; and as it is nece»sary to 
 kill the bird just at tho time when tlio liver 
 will remain white and firm — night and day 
 must this favourable moment bo watciied for. 
 Tiie following is the manner in wliich tho fat- 
 tening process is carried on : — Tiie feeder places 
 tho gooso between her knees, and holds tl.o 
 wings fast, whilst the feet are left free. With 
 one hand she holds the beak open ; with the 
 other she drops tho grains of maize into the 
 throat, and pushi's them homo with her fore- 
 finger. This operation is gone through regu- 
 larly thrice a-day. One woman alone cannot 
 cram more than twelve geese an iiour. Au 
 estimate of tlie labour may be made i'rom the 
 fact, that 200 geese are often trained by the 
 same feeder. The bird being killed, plucked, 
 and disjointed, the feeder hangs it up in an 
 airy place ; and not until twenty-four hours 
 have elapsed can she judge of the condition of 
 her treasure. She then takes down the bird, 
 and carefully efl'ects the extraction of the 
 much-esteemed liver, which is immediately 
 taken to the pie-makers, who make of it the 
 well-known pies. Matthieu, the cook of Car- 
 dinal de Rohan, was the first who suggested 
 the use of the liver of the goose for pies. Suc- 
 cess crowned his efibrts ; and from that period 
 the fattening of geese became a trade. It is 
 by the feeding of geese, that the wife of the 
 mechanic, who is deprived of work in the win- 
 ter-time, supports her family. Other women, 
 who have a little capital, carry on feeding on a 
 larger scale. The business is a very arduous 
 one. The woman has to rise two or three times 
 in the night, and inspect her stock ; geese, dur- 
 ing the latter period of their feeding, being sub- 
 I ject to apoplexy. This dreadful watch-woman 
 { marches about with a sharp knife, to cut the 
 I throat of the first which shows symptoms of 
 sufibcation. Every goose that dies against 
 rules, occasions to its owner a clear loss of 
 more than 65., besides labour and time. A 
 goose costs from 2^. Gd. to '3s. in the market ; 
 and, on an average, it consumes, in food, about 
 2s. (id. Killed in good condition, it ought to 
 weigh from 6 to 7 lbs., and is worth about Gd. 
 per lb. It yields, besides, 1 lb. of fat, worth 
 
 877 
 
POULTEr-HOUSES.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [POULTET-HOUSBS. 
 
 about lO^d. ; the ofFal fetches Sd. ; the feathers 
 and down about Is. 2d. ; making a total of 
 5*. 8d. All the profit, consequently, is derived 
 from the liver, which is sold, according to its 
 size and quality, from 2s. 6d. to 4s. Qd. The 
 value of the liver is said to depend, like beer, 
 chiefly on the quality of the water. 
 
 POULTRY.HOUSES. 
 
 Previous to the laying-in of a stock of poultry, 
 a house must be made ready for their reception, 
 or more harm may be inflicted on them than 
 will ever be repaired, by setting them to roost 
 in a cold place, or cooping them up in what 
 may be called little better than a hole, where 
 the heat of their bodies engenders an atmo- 
 sphere at once deleterious and destructive. 
 A poultry-house may easily be erected, and 
 at very little cost. In nine cases out of 
 ten, some outhouse, without preparation or 
 alteration, is appropriated to the poultry ; but, 
 if consistent with the owner's means and posi- 
 tion, a proper house should be constructed. 
 If this be done, a piece of gravelly soil, 
 well drained on a slight declivity, near trees 
 which will afford shade from the sun, and 
 shelter from winds, should be chosen. The 
 building must be sufficiently high to admit 
 the poultry-keeper without stooping, and the 
 roof should be kept weather-tight. Thatch is 
 ■warm and ornamental, but apt to brued vermin. 
 If, therefore, slates or tiles are employed, the 
 house should be ceiled, in order to protect the 
 fowls from draughts and sudden changes of 
 temperature. In the absence of lath and 
 plaster, a piece of patent asphalted felt, closely 
 nailed, forms both a cheap and efficient pro- 
 tection. 
 
 The best perch is made in the shape of a 
 broad double ladder, and in such a way as to 
 form a wide angle — the bars being placed so far 
 apart, that one fowl shall not overhang another. 
 If roosting-bars are so placed as to run across 
 the fowl-house, care should be taken that a 
 convenient hen-ladder is attached to them, and 
 that they are not placed too high. Perches, 
 if lofty, and unaccompanied with a ladder, 
 are dangerous to the heavier fowls, as they fre- 
 quently break their breast- bones in descending 
 by flight from them. After the fowls have 
 taken up their roosting-places for the night, 
 the poultry-keeper should see that they are all 
 878 
 
 comfortable, and not too crowded, with sufficient 
 room for the weak ones to remove themselves 
 from the strong, which are apt to peck them. 
 The floor must be sound, dry, and strewed 
 with fine gravel or sand, and it should be swept 
 clean every day. Nothing injures the health 
 of fowls more than bad smells, A basket of 
 slaked lime or cold mortar ought always to be 
 kept in a corner, with a shovel, so that it may 
 be shaken over any droppings. For the same 
 reason, the interior wal'ls should be frequently 
 whitewashed, and the window opened in fine 
 weather. The door should have a hole at the 
 bottom, with a sliding panel to admit the 
 poultry during the day ; and if there are no 
 windows, movable loose boards, fitted to the 
 door, may be useful to admit air. As warmth 
 is very requisite to poultry, one side of the 
 poultry-house, if it can be done, might stand 
 against the outside wall of a kitchen or boiler- 
 house ; or a hot-water pipe, running through 
 it from the hot-house, will well repay the out- 
 lay. With a sweet, warm, clean poultry-house, 
 a good supply of eggs may be expected as the 
 result. 
 
 lu reference to the nests, the great object 
 should be to have them near the ground, that 
 they may be easily cleaned, and of moderate size. 
 If they are too large, two fowls will often try 
 to sit in one nest at the same time ; and 
 if tliere is any difficulty in getting at them, 
 hens are apt to drop their eggs on the ground. 
 Nests may be made of wood, uuglazed earthen- 
 ware, or basket-work. If of the first, there 
 should be a small ledge to prevent the eggs 
 from rolling out. A little old mortar, or wood« 
 ashes laid at the bottom, will tend to keep the 
 nests clean. Straw and heather both make 
 good lining for nests ; but the latter must be 
 cut into short lengths. Should the ne-*ts be 
 arranged in two storeys, there ought to be a 
 broad ledge, sufficiently wide for a hen to walk 
 on, in front of the top row, and a hen-ladder 
 should be placed at each end; but nests are 
 better on the ground. It is of some advantage 
 to have fowls that are sitting placed in a retired 
 situation, where they will not be annoyed by 
 the others, and where, when the hatch takes 
 place, they can be cooped with their young, 
 out of danger, vrith a dry yard, or close- 
 cropped lawn in front to run on. Many 
 hens, as well as pea- fowl and turkeys, are 
 
POULTRY-ITOUSKS.] 
 
 POULTJiV 
 
 [POLLTUV-HUUSES. 
 
 Vicious, and will try to destroy a rival brood. 
 A small brick hutch, about a yard square, 
 with a hard dry lloor, and a movable woodou 
 top, is excellent as a titling- rootn for hens. 
 Before a fowl is put to sit, the nest should 
 be made perfeelly clean ; for if the hen 
 becomes infested with vermin, she [)inc3, 
 and cannot sit close. Should tho stock 
 comprise more than ono breed of fowls, and 
 should the races be intended to bo prosi.'rvcd 
 pure, they must, as a matter of course, bo kept 
 separate. 
 
 ""Where this is attempted," says Islv. 
 Eichardson, " an iucloauro adjoining tho poul- 
 try-house, with three divisions of iron wire, if 
 the space can bo spared, will bo found useful. 
 In these inclosures, in wet cold weather, the 
 poultry can be confined, with room to scratch 
 and feed. The largest division will be for 
 laying hens and turkeys, and miscellaneous 
 stock. In this space you can muster them, 
 accustom them to be fed, see that all are in 
 health, and make the close observations which 
 are needful for success. In the second, you 
 can place hens with young broods, before they 
 are strong enough to mis with the other fowls. 
 In the third, and smallest, you can keep poul- 
 try for fatting. If the accommodation is large 
 enough for them to enjoy the air without being 
 able to run about much, with shade, sun, 
 plenty of clean water and food, they will 
 generally thrive better than when cooped. A 
 few good coops, either of wood and wire, or 
 wicker, with the top thatched, should always 
 be at hand. These may be made so as to 
 shut up the chickens, if necessary, as well as 
 the hens. If the fowl-house is largo enough, 
 have a small hollow sunk in one corner where 
 there is light, and fill it with fine sand or 
 ashes, slaked lime, or burnt oyster-shells, as 
 a dust-bath for the fowls. If it is not, place 
 in the yard, under cover, a large glazed earth- 
 enware pan. By placing the dusting material 
 in a pan, it is easily changed from time to 
 
 time. If you are obliged to put up with :i 
 siuall loan-to, or other confined place, for your 
 fowl-houao, at any rate tako caro to keep it 
 clean ; for warmth, cleanliness, and judicious 
 feeding are tho cardinal muxim.s for poultry 
 management." 
 
 THE rOTTlKR'S POULTRY-HOUSE. 
 Under tho head of " Housing," wo have 
 already observed, that the bent mode of reaririLT 
 fowls, is tho old plan of allowing them to roost 
 on tho rafters of the room in which the cottier 
 keeps his fire. Owing to the warmth thus 
 afibrded during winter, when eggs are scarce, 
 and consequently at a high price, they are to 
 be obtained from tho humble cabin, when they 
 are not to be got from the less warm poultry- 
 house of the more affluent breeder. Let us 
 repeat, however, that should circumstances 
 render tho keeping of poultry in the cabin 
 unadvisablc, a comfortable house may bo 
 erected for them against the outside of the 
 cabin wall. If possible, tho part of the wall 
 against which the little hut is erected, should 
 be that opposite to the fire-place within. It" 
 shelter is required, it can be obtained by means 
 of a ievf bushes, or a wall of sods ; and the 
 neighbouring roads will servo as an ample walk ; 
 whilst the nearest stream will slake their thirst. 
 A few laying-nests may be placed in a warm 
 corner of the cabin. By such means as wo 
 have stated, the poultry of the poor cottior 
 will thrive as well, and yield as great a profit;, 
 as those kept in the best-appointed estab- 
 lishments in the kingdom. Indeed, we are 
 not certain that they will not thrive better; 
 simply because the artificial means adopted 
 to nourish and preserve them, is of a less 
 complicated kind than such as aro employed 
 by the more affluent. iS'ature is left much 
 more free to carry on lier own operations; and 
 ' as she is usually the best nurse of the bird, 
 j she generally performs her duties with aa 
 . unerring certainty as to results, 
 
 879 
 
DISEASES.] 
 
 POULTEY. 
 
 [diseases. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE DISEASES OF FOWLS, AND THEIR TREATMENT. 
 
 As the poet Burns has affirmed that the best- 
 laid schemes of mice and men " gang aft ajee ;" 
 so may it, with equal certainty, be affirmed, 
 that the strongest, as well as the weakest 
 of animated beings, are the subjects of oc- 
 casional disease. From this penalty incident 
 to life, fowls are no more exempt than other 
 animals ; consequently, when the poultry- 
 keeper sees one of these beginning to droop, 
 or to fail in appetite, it is better, at once, to 
 have it dressed for the table. If, however, it 
 is of great value — perhaps a Spanish cock, worth 
 more than a sovereign — a trial to save its life 
 should be made. 
 
 The most common diseases to which fowls 
 are liable, are the following : — 
 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 When these show themselves in bruises, 
 loss of feathers, fractures, ulcers, &c., they 
 may, in most cases, be left to nature. When 
 bones are broken, however, the patient had 
 better be consigned to the cook ; but in less 
 severe cases of accident, common sense will 
 generally dictate the remedy. 
 
 ASTHMA. 
 
 This disease is accompanied by panting, 
 gaping, and difficulty of breathing, and is 
 usually caused by the sudden and frequent 
 change of weather which takes place in this 
 country. Poultry, having originally been 
 brought from warm climates, still inherit the 
 natural love for heat, transmitted to them by 
 their progenitors, and are, notwithstanding the 
 feathery covering with wliich nature has pro- 
 vided them, easily aflected by climatic in- 
 fluences ; and hence the colds, catarrhs, coughs, 
 and consumptions to which they are subject. 
 Eor asthma, the treatment recommended is 
 warmth, with small doses of hippo powder, 
 frequently repeated, and sulphur mixed with 
 butter. 
 
 CONSUMPTION. 
 
 This disease is pronounced incurable ; but 
 a change of air and warmth is recommended. 
 
 880 
 
 CORNS. 
 These may generally be extracted with the 
 point of a penknife. Should weight have 
 brought them to an ulcerated state, a little 
 lunar-caustic may be applied to them with 
 success 
 
 COSTIVENESS. 
 When this occurs, change the diet, and let 
 it be given more sparingly than usual. Thin 
 porridge is good. For a cure, give a little 
 castor-oil with burnt butter. 
 
 DIARRHCEA. 
 
 This disease is usually caused by damp and 
 improper food. Therefore change the diet, 
 and have the fowl taken into a dry place. 
 Should the disease become very severe, ad- 
 minister chalk, and a little starch, mixed with 
 cayenne in porridge, and give it a little warm. 
 
 FEVER. 
 In all febrile affections to wliich fowls ar 
 frequently subject, give castor-oil, with a little 
 burnt butter. Also, let the birds have a 
 change of air, if possible, with light food, and 
 not much of it. 
 
 GOUT. 
 
 Administer pellets of colchicum. 
 may also be found useful. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 INDIGESTION. 
 
 This is caused by over-feeding and want of 
 exercise. Administer powdered gentian and 
 cayenne in the food, of which the usual quan- 
 tity should be lessened. With this regimen 
 let the fowls have an open walk to run in. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE TRACHEiE. 
 The disease to which this term is improperly 
 applied, is an inflammation of the tail-gland. 
 The symptoms are — difficulty of breathing, 
 dimness of sight, constant gaping, and total 
 loss of sight ; a discharge from the nostrils, 
 that gradually becomes purulent and foetid; 
 
INFLAMMATIONS.] 
 
 POULTllY. 
 
 [iNFL.VMMATIOSS. 
 
 nlso loss of appetite ; but tliirst remaitis, to the 
 most aj^L;ravated I'xtoiit. Someliinea tliis 
 disease appears to occur iiulepeudeutly of any 
 obvious cause; but dirt, too hot feeding, and 
 want of exercise, are anionv,'st tl»o most usual. 
 Tiio remedies reeommi'iided are various. 
 ^Ir. -Martin prescribes one grain of calomel, 
 made up with bread into a pill ; or, if preferred, 
 two or three grains of Plummer'a pills (pilJij/dr. 
 Siib/nur. co., Lond. Fharm.) ; alter which let 
 il iwer of sulphur be administered, to which add 
 a little ginger, with mixed barley-meal reduced 
 to a paste, and the mouth well washed in a weak 
 solution of chloride of lime. lu the mean- 
 time, let the bird bo kept in a dry, warm, well- 
 ventilated apartment, separate from the other 
 tow Is. AVhen the bird dies of this disease, the 
 trachea will be found swarming with narrow 
 worms about half an inch in length, imbedded 
 in slimy mucus. The worms are the distoina 
 lineare — a long and short body united ; the 
 lor.g body being the female, the short the male. 
 Tiiey are permanently united ; otherwise they 
 are quite perfect in themselves. Mr. Martin 
 is uncertain whether these worms are the 
 cause or consequence of the disease ; but it is 
 certain that when they have once established 
 themselves, their removal is necessary to give 
 the bird a chance of recovery. This is sometimes 
 done by means of a feather, neatly trimmed, 
 and introduced into the windpipe. It is there 
 
 given every morning. If tho discharge should 
 become fcutid, tlie mouth, nostrils, and eyes 
 may bo bathed with a weak solution, coin- 
 posed of equal part^ of chloride of lime 
 and acetate of load. Fomentation with aa 
 infusion of cainomilo flowers is al»o highly 
 beneficial. Tho other affection — that impro- 
 perly passed under this name, viz., swelling 
 of tho tail-gland — may be treated as a boil. 
 If it become inconveniently hard and ripr, let 
 the J} us or mailer out with a penknile, and it 
 will soon get well. 
 
 Mr. Tegetmcier first announced, in his 
 writings, the elTieacy of certain local applicx- 
 tions, in some stages of roup ; and a person of 
 the name of Homer, wo think, first gave the 
 solution of copaiba. This was administered 
 through a quill : for where so given, it becomes, 
 to a certain extent, a local application also ; in- 
 asmuch as the fowl usually makes a coughing 
 or a sneezing effort after it is given. The 
 caustic potash, spirit, &c., used in forming the 
 solution, seems to increase its efficacy as a 
 local agent. Tor this purpose, Fauk's solution 
 of copaiba is as good as any. It is readily given 
 by means of a quill ; which should be shaped 
 like a blunt-pointed pen, or rather a scoop, for 
 the facility of pouring the solution into it. 
 The plume, or top of the quill, should then be 
 cut off", leaving a circular aperture. On this 
 end the fore-finger should be placed ; the 
 
 turned round once or twice, and then, drawn solution poured in at the scoop end, and well 
 out. This will dislodge some of the worms if inserted in the bird's mouth above the tongue, 
 dexterously performed, and with some know- The fore-finger should then be raised from the 
 jL'dge of the anatomy of the parts. A cock, in other end, when the contents of the quill 
 the last stage of roup, was cured by washing quickly flow into the fowl's throat. As all arc 
 its mouth and nostrils with soap and warm not equally informed, we shall be pardoned 
 water; its eyes with warm milk and water; ' for stating, that there is a difference between 
 and the internal application of pellets, consist- balsam of copaiba and solution of copaiba ; 
 ing of " barley-meal and flour (equal parts), the latter being, in some respects, weaker, as it 
 with mustard and grated ginger (equal parts), is prepared from the former. But the ingre- 
 and half the above." Its drink consisted of I dients used in preparing the solution are, them- 
 lukewarra water sweetened with treacle. An ' selves, of efficacy, especially from their local 
 acquaintance of the Kev. Mr. Dixon gave action. But we must warn fowl-keepers not to 
 spirit; of turpentine in rice, and afterwards a expect that catarrh or roup in fowls is now to 
 
 little salt in the water given them ; he thus 
 saved sixteen out of twenty chickens attacked 
 with this disease. Mr. Kichardsou's treat- 
 ment is, for pellets — Powdered gentian, one 
 part ; powdered ginger, one part ; Epsom 
 salts, one-and-a-half part ; flower of sulphur, 
 one-half part; marlo up with butter, and 
 .") u 
 
 be " cured in one minute," as some peripatetic 
 " doctors" vouch for the tooth-ache. These 
 diseases seem often to be as depressing and 
 lingering in fowls, as influenza or inflammatory 
 sore throat is with ourselves. 
 
 The treatment frequently found most speedy 
 and beneficial, is, first to give a dose of 
 
 b81 
 
IXPLAMMATIOS^S.] 
 
 fOULTEY. 
 
 [PAEASITES. 
 
 powder jalap, made into a bolus, the size of a 
 filbert or nut. The dose may be repeated 
 twice or thrice every third day. Give a large 
 quilfull of the solution of copaiba every night ; 
 that is, about a teaspoonful. In bad cases, we 
 should give it night and morning, especially to 
 large fowls. When the eyelids are swollen 
 and gummed up, besmear them with an oint- 
 ment, made from half an ounce of spermaceti 
 and five drops of Goulard's extract. If this 
 cannot easily be procured, or is not at band, a 
 little softened tallow from a caudle, spread 
 on the eyelids, greatly prevents their being 
 gummed up. Such is good treatment. Every- 
 body knows that the birds should be kept 
 vrarm and dry; and we cannot too strongly 
 protest against all effluvia and want of atten- 
 tion to cleanliness and ventilation. Let it al- 
 ways be remembered, that when these are not 
 attended to, they are more frequently the 
 cause of vi'hat are usually termed colds, and 
 roupy attacks, than even cold and rain. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 
 Is attended by quick breathing, with a rattle, 
 an audible dulness, disorder of plumage, va- 
 cancy in the eye, and general indisposition. 
 We know of no cure recommended for this 
 disease. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. 
 A fatal disease among poultry, and only de- 
 tected by examination after death. The patient 
 appears to droop; refuses to eat, retires to roost, 
 and is found dead in the morning. In this 
 case, the peritoneal membrane exhibits indica- 
 tions of active inflammation. This complaint 
 is more peculiar to parrots, and caged birds of 
 that description. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS 
 
 MEMBRANE. 
 
 This generally proceeds from aggravated 
 
 diarrhcea. Damp and improper food is the 
 
 cause of the disease. The remedy, to be sue- 
 
 cesaful, must be administered early! First, give 
 
 Q small quantity of castor- oil ; alterwards,' give 
 
 doses oZhydrargyriim mm creta {Land. Pharma- 
 
 co;;a?/«), with rhubarb and laudanum, as follows: 
 
 —Ilydr. cum creta, three grains ; rhubarb, two 
 
 or three grains ; laudanum, two, three, or four 
 
 S82 
 
 drops ; mixed in a teaspoonful of gruel and 
 given twice a-day. 
 
 MOULTING. 
 Moulting- ean hardly be called a disease, 
 but, as it takes place annually in birds, and is 
 very dangerous to young chickens, it is neces- 
 sary to notice it. With full-grown fowls, 
 warmth and shelter from the inclemency of the 
 weather, are usually sufficient to preserve then, 
 from any evil consequences, if fed with an extra 
 degree of nutritive and stimulating food. 
 This treatment is recommended, from the fact 
 of Nature causing the wild birds to moult at 
 the very season when they have food in great- 
 est plenty ; which may be safely taken as a sign 
 that good food is necessary to them at this 
 time. After the third year, the time of moult- 
 ing becomes later and later ; and in proportion 
 as this happens, so the degree of warmth 
 should be supplied. Two or three grains of 
 Cayenne made into a pill, with bread, may 
 be given them. Sometimes the feathers will 
 fall off fowls when they are not moulting, 
 which is caused by a cutaneous aflectiou simi- 
 lar to the mange in dogs. The treatment for 
 this disease is such as we have recommended 
 for animals so aflected, in the preceding divi- 
 sions of this work : and which are alteratives ; 
 such as sulphur and nitre, in the proportions 
 of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter ; a 
 change of diet, cleanliness, and fresh air in ad- 
 dition to this, will generally be found suffi- 
 cient to effect the cure. Care should be taken 
 not to confound this infection with moulting. 
 The distinction is, that in the latter case, the 
 feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as 
 they are east ; in the former, this is not so, and 
 the animal becomes bald. 
 
 PARASITES IN FOWLS. 
 The insects which infest poultry are particu- 
 larly obnoxious, and the utmost possible clean- 
 liness, and frequent lime-washing and fumiga- 
 tion, are necessary to keep them away. Mr. 
 Eichardson says, that *' a correspondent of the 
 Agricultural Gazette, had a beautiful brood of 
 black Spanish chickens hatched. Taking one 
 in his hand on the second day, be was much 
 struck by observing on his poll five or six full- 
 sized lice {Goniocotes liolog aster'), evidently 
 caught from the mother. All the brood wore 
 
PIP.] 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 [ulcers. 
 
 Bimilarly affected. Some white precipitnto I lessens ; and tlio bird hIiows ita diatross by 
 
 powder, applied with a snudl c:unel-hair pencil, 
 was sprinkled over tliein,anil the day after the 
 parasites had disappeared ;" nor could ho dis- 
 cover ono during their after-growth. This 
 powder must bo used in very small quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Like the donics^lie fowl, tho peacock has also 
 its parasites in tho Qoniodes pulciornis. 
 " Alter the death of tho bird," says Mr. 
 Dennv, in the Monograph Annphtroniin Bri- 
 tannia, "the insect may be found congre- 
 gated m numbers about the base of tho beak 
 and crown of the head." This gentleman was 
 afterwards induced to examine all the genera 
 of domesticated birds ; and ho found on the 
 turkey, Lipeurus polyirapezius as a common 
 parasite: the Goniodcs stylifcr is also fre- 
 quently in the head, neck, and breast. Over 
 the domestic fowl he found three species of 
 parasitic Goniodes dissimilis, of rare occurrence. 
 Lipeurus variabilis preferring the primary and 
 second feathers of the wing, among the ribs of 
 which they move with great celerity. Menopon 
 pallidum he also found in great abundance ; 
 and, as a general rule, he observed, that when 
 two or more species frequented the same de- 
 scription of bird, each had its own locality. 
 The remedy in all cases is cleanliness (when 
 the fowls are over-infested), fumigation, and 
 a plentiful bath of clean, dry, and rough sand : 
 for the white precipitate powder, named 
 above, is poisonous, and only fit to be used 
 on very young birds, which have not yet 
 learned the art of preening their feathers with 
 their bill. 
 
 riP. 
 This disease, to which young fowls are ex- 
 tremely subject, exhibits its symptoms in the 
 effected birds having a thickening of the mem- 
 brane of the tongue, especially towards its tip, 
 and, by-and-by, a gasping for breath, when the 
 beak will often be held open. The plumage 
 becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about 
 the head and neck. Tho appetite gradually 
 
 pining, moping, and seeking solitude and 
 darkness. Tlio cause of all thin is want of 
 clean water, and from feeding too much \ipon 
 hot fxcitinrj food. Dr. JJechslcin coiiHiders it 
 to bo analogous to tho injluenza of humaa 
 beings. In treating for it, mo.st writers 
 recommend tho immediate renjoval of tho 
 thickened membrane. Mr. Martin has 8Ug- 
 gi'sted that tho tongue be cleansed by apply- 
 m" a little borax, dissolved in tincture of 
 myrrh, by means of a camel-hair pencil, two 
 or three times a day. Mr. Jiichardson would 
 rather anoint tho part with fresh butter or 
 cream. Prick the scab with a needle, if you 
 like ; and give, internally, a pill about the sizo 
 of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped 
 garlic and horseradish, with as much cayenne 
 pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat. 
 Mix this with fresh butter, and give it every 
 morning — keeping the fowl warm. Keep the 
 bird supplied with fresh water; preserve it 
 from molestation, by confining it to itself, and 
 you will generally find it get well, if you have 
 taken the disease in time. 
 
 ULCERS. 
 
 These may be kept clean by being dressed 
 with a little lard, or washed with a weak 
 solution of sugar of lead, as they appear to 
 require it. If the ulcers seem sluggish, they 
 may be touched with bliiestone, in order to ac- 
 celerate their action, and bring them more 
 speedily to a healthy state. 
 
 Such are the principal diseases to which 
 poultry is subject ; and which, whenever they 
 make their appearance, should be attended to 
 with as great promptitude as those which 
 afflict animals of much higher value to man- 
 kind. If fowls are kept, they should have 
 every attention their condition requires. Hu- 
 manity, if not interest, demands this; and 
 it is very frequently the case, that precisely 
 in proportion to the attention given them, 
 their beauty ia developed, and their value 
 enhanced. 
 
 SS3 
 
DIVISION VIII. 
 
 PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF MODERN ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 LINES OF COMMUNICATION ; NECESSITY OF LABOUR ; THE FECUNDITY OF WEEDS ; AGKICULTUTJAL 
 EDUCATION ; THE LITTLE SMITHFIKLD CLUB ; TURNIP CROPS ; THE ROTATION OF CROPS ; ARTHUR 
 YOUNG ; THE EARL OP LEICESTER ; ARTIFICIAL FATTENING. 
 
 LINES OF COMMUNICATION. 
 
 '• Of all inventions," says Lord Macaulay in 
 liis Sistory of England, " tlie alphabet and 
 the printing press excepted, those inventions 
 which abridge distance have done most for the 
 civilisation of our species." Every improve- 
 ment, he adds, of the means of locomotion, 
 benefits mankind morally and intellectually, 
 as well as materially. Of the truth of this 
 remark, every one who has, whether from plea- 
 sure, choice, or business, had to traverse the 
 primitive cutllngso^^ British colony in its semi- 
 iufautine state (as the present writer has had 
 to do), must be conscious. There, as a general 
 rule, there is nothing but difficulty to the 
 traveller. If his excursion is commenced in 
 love, he soon finds that it must be prosecuted 
 with toil ; and if he set out with the intention 
 of viewing the country, he discovers that he 
 must first see through the wall of an intermin- 
 able forest, the immediate trees of which 
 extend their branches over his head, and, for 
 the greater part of his journey, shade the 
 narrow way upon which he is proceeding, 
 even, in many instances, to the shutting out 
 of the light of the sun. He does not proceed 
 easily and gaily over the smooth and level 
 surface of a macadamised road, but over a 
 sort of mud swamp, hardened— when it may 
 happcu to he hard— by the broken and decay- 
 ing branches of the neighbouring trees ; pre- 
 senting no other sign of an approach to civili- 
 sation than that of its having been rudely cut 
 by the hand of man. It is evident that where 
 there are difficulties of this kind in the way of 
 communication between different parts of a 
 884 
 
 country, its progress must be slow indeed 
 towards the goal of an advanced civilisation. 
 
 The earliest maker of roads, of which his- 
 tory has given us any information, was an 
 Egyptian Pharaoh, who, by forced labour, 
 constructed a gigantic causeway, to enable his 
 workmen the more easily to convey materials 
 for the erection of a useless pyramid, which 
 has certainly immortalised his folly, notwith- 
 standing that the name of the founder is a 
 subject of doubt. Herodotus has handed 
 down to us the cruel edicts which this despot 
 passed for the purpose of compelling the un- 
 fortunate creatures subjected to his power, 
 to carry out his fanciful caprice, and the 
 curses with which they loaded his memory. 
 On this remote effort at road-making, how- 
 ever, it is here unnecessary to dwell, when even 
 road-making, especially through the most popu- 
 lated parts of Great Britain, has, in a measure, 
 been put out of fashion, in order that railway- 
 raakiug may apparently take its place. But 
 it must be long, if it is ever to take place, 
 before the railway can be made subservient to 
 the requirements of every portion of an agri- 
 cultural district. There, if farming is to 
 thrive, good roads must still be preserved in 
 a state of repair. " It is well known," says 
 Sir John Sinclair, " that the best cultivated 
 districts are those which possess the greatest 
 facility of internal communication, without 
 which agriculture languishes in the most 
 fruitful soil ; and, with it, the most ungrateful 
 soil soon becomes fertile." The truth of the 
 last clause of this sentence is remarkably 
 verified when we look at the efi'ect which the 
 
HAmi.0W2M©. "WITH ©XEK 
 
 (COW ■ leiOlD'i^K 
 
noAUs AND K.U1.S.] MODEKN ENdl.lSlI rAK.Ml.N( 
 
 [lauoub. 
 
 expansion of our railway system Ims had in 
 Btimulating tho faiiniiif^ operations of tlio 
 couutrv. "For several years past," snya a 
 well-informed writer on this subject, '• all the 
 railway companies have agreed to convey live- 
 stoelv free, and implements at half their usual 
 cliarges, to and from the shows of tliu Itoyal 
 Aj^rienltural Society ; tho railway companies, 
 at the towns where they are held, generally pro- 
 viding accommodation for the mechanical com- 
 partment. This, at Chelmsford, coat the Ivistern 
 Counties Eailway Company upwards of £3,000. 
 Kaihvay fares and pace could alouo bring the 
 number of shilling-])aying strangers who contri- 
 bute to the enormous expense of these exhibi- 
 tions. The population of the city of Salisbury, 
 including men, women, and children, amounts 
 to 10,000 ; but the visitors to the show, in 
 ISC 7, were over 35,000. This is of itself a 
 striking proof of the wide and eager practical 
 interest which is felt in agriculture, for there 
 is little to gratify the eye of mere holiday- 
 gazers ; and when, in addition, wo consider 
 the mountains of coal, iron, timber, artificial 
 manure, lime, and chalk conveyed in the one 
 direction, and live-stock and corn in the other, 
 we cannot help coming to tho conclusion, 
 that George Stephenson's locomotive has 
 been the great cultivator of the farmer's mind 
 and the farmer's land — the great agent for the 
 extraordinary advance which British agricul- 
 ture has achieved in the last quarter of a 
 century. Very significant were the figures 
 given by the chairman of the above company 
 at the Chelmsford dinner, when he told 
 his farmer friends, that, in tho course of the 
 preceding twelve months, the lines over 
 which he presided had conveyed 21,000 
 tons of guano and other portable manures ; 
 700,000 quarters of grain ; "50 sacks of flour; 
 71,000 beasts; 3S0,000 sheep; 13,000 tons 
 of meat and poultry ; and 43,000,000 quarts 
 of milk !" This was ten years ago ; and, as 
 Dopu'.alion has since greatly increased, and 
 agricultural appliances considerably multi- 
 plied, we may fairly presume that these figures 
 have increased in amount to a proportionate 
 extent. AVell may tho writer exclaim — 
 *' Who can calculate the value of the maiiy 
 rewards held out to breeding, feeding, and 
 corn-growing, in the shape of four thousand 
 miles of railway ! and how little are men, who 
 
 live in tho midst of these changes, conscious 
 of their magnitude until tho results are col- 
 lected and put on paper !" 
 
 TIIIC NIXKS.^ITY OF L\UOUIl. 
 If a pcr.son enters upon tlm operations of 
 farming, ho must not ex|)ect that ho is begin- 
 ning a life of idleness. In tho mere fecundity 
 of tho weeds upon his fields, intermingling 
 with ids crops, ho will very soon find the truth 
 uf tiie original sentence passed upon A<iam, and 
 thus written iu Milton's Furadise Lust : — 
 
 " Cursed is the ground for thy srikn ; thou in sorrow 
 Shalt cat thereof all the days of thy life ; 
 Tliorn«, also, and thistles it shall bring thee forth 
 Unhid." 
 
 Nothing can be truer than i\u^, for ill weeds 
 grow apace. As the crop ripens, so do they ; 
 therefore there is a constant vigilance, accom- 
 panied with labour, to keep them down, or 
 rather to eradicate them from the soil, in 
 wliich they seem to find such a congeniality 
 of conditions, that they appear literally to 
 love it with an enduring and inseparable af- 
 fection. Sir John Sinclair, however, considers 
 these wild and spontaneouslj^-growing children 
 of the soil as a positive advantage. Strange if 
 this is really the case, when every farmer com- 
 plains of them, and labours at their extirpa- 
 tion. No doubt Providence has supplied them 
 for something more than merely that of cursing 
 the ground. " What," says Sir John, " is the 
 inference from the fact, that couch-grass and 
 thistles can by no means be extirpated ? Is 
 it not perpetual exertion, fallowing and agri- 
 cultural labour ? Some may be inclined to 
 say, 'A melancholy rellcction!' But I say, 
 No ! not at all. Providence could not have 
 better contrived than that exertion should 
 be perpetual, and that success should be iu 
 proportion. There is not a weed that we 
 ought to wish out of our fields, unless we 
 remove and destroy it ; because if there were 
 none, or very few, all fields would be clean, 
 and no praise could light on superior modes 
 of tillage. Some may say, again, ' So much 
 the better!' But I say, iS^'o-' Does any man 
 think that our various soils would have been 
 sufficiently pulverised and worked, had there 
 been no enemies of this sort to challenge forth 
 our labours ? Sterility would have seized 
 upon our turnip lauds, which are only con- 
 
 885 
 
A>'CIE>'T 
 
 A>'ECDOTE.] PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF 
 
 [steeds. 
 
 tiuuod in a state to bear tlieir rotations of 
 crops, by tlie necessary periodical renewals of 
 their fertility. The necessity of subsistence 
 produces industrious hands for every depart- 
 ment of labour; but the sluggish nature of 
 man requires every stimulus to exertion. The 
 weeds of the fields excite emulation among 
 farmers ; and foul fields are always a reproach 
 to the occupier. Thus we are compelled, by 
 an unseen hand, to better habits and more 
 active industry." 
 
 This reasoning, we fear, is more specious 
 than sound, as there are thousands of fiower- 
 gardeus entirely destitute of weeds, and yet 
 possessing soils perfectly pulverised. We 
 have heard even of kitchen-gardens being so 
 completely denuded of weeds, that it was 
 deemed necessary to cultivate groundsel, for 
 the humble purpose of feeding a solitary pet 
 bird. Whatever may be the providential 
 purpose of weeds, however, toil is as neces- 
 sary to eradicate them, as tillage of the soil is 
 necessary previous to its reception of the 
 seed for a valuable crop. We profess to 
 small knowledge, indeed, of the meanings of 
 the ways of Providence ; but that weeds will 
 multiply rapidly and indefinitely, without they 
 are rooted out, is a fact which comes within 
 the experience of every farmer, and which, 
 without any effort of memory, is daily brought 
 within the range of his observation upon his 
 own grounds. Pliny tells a story which will 
 bear quoting, as it strikingly shows the value 
 of labour when nicely applied to the objects 
 of agriculture. " I cannot forbear stating," 
 says he, "one instance from old times, from 
 which we may perceive both that questions of 
 culture were brought judicially before the 
 people, and also how men of that time were in 
 the habit of defending themselves. C. Purius 
 Cresinus, a freeman, became the object of 
 much ill-feeling on the part of his neighbours, 
 in consequence of his gathering, from a very 
 small field, much more produce than they 
 could procure from very large ones. He was 
 accused of attracting the crops from otlier 
 fields by charms. Sp. Albinus appointed a 
 court day to hear this charge ; and Cresinus, 
 fearing that he might be found guilty, when 
 the tribe were about to pronounce their 
 verdict, brought his live and dead stock into 
 the forum ; and he brought with him a stout 
 886 
 
 wench, and Piso says that she was in good 
 case, and well clad. His iron implements 
 were exceedingly well manufactured ; the 
 spades were strong, the shares powerful, and 
 the oxen in high condition. Then he said, 
 ' These, Romans, are my charms ; but I can- 
 not show you, or bring into the forum, my 
 mental labours, my vigils, nor the sweat of my 
 brow.' " Here are some of the great secrets 
 of good farming — strong and willing labourers, 
 good implements, long watching, and hard 
 labour. 
 
 THE FECUNDITY OF WEEDS. 
 
 What is a weed ? is a question much more 
 easily asked than answered. Por example, 
 every person at all conversant with fields and 
 flowers in this country, would be loth to con- 
 sider the dandelion as a specimen plant, suit- 
 able to take its place in the garden ; yet has 
 this very plant been lionised in Australia. It 
 has there formed one of the attractions at a 
 flower show, and was the means of drawing 
 thousands to gaze upon its charms. Dr. John- 
 son defines a weed to be "an herb noxious 
 and useless" — a definition more brief than 
 true. In his Booh of the Farm, Mr. Stephens 
 says — " AVhen any plant is found growing 
 where it should not be, it is a weed. Por 
 example, a stalk of wheat in a bed of tulips in 
 a garden, is a weed, and should be removed ; 
 and, in like manner, a tulip in a wheat-field is 
 a weed, and should be eradicated." This is 
 just saying that it is a fruit or a flower out of 
 place. The author of the_ article on " AVeeds," 
 in Morton's Cijclopcedia of Agriculture, says — 
 "Every plant different from the crop, and 
 growing with the crop, to its hindrance, is a 
 weed. Regarded in this light, most of our 
 wild, and even cultivated plants, may take the 
 place of weeds : thus potatoes, left in the soilj, 
 may completely smother a succeeding crop ; or 
 the shed seeds of a former crop may germi- 
 nate amid a new one ; and, in both cases, their 
 removal by weeding will be necessary to suc- 
 cess." This is sufiiciently clear and compre- 
 hensible for the farmer's view of the subject; 
 and as weeds are certainly greatly obnoxious 
 to good cultivation, it may not be amiss to 
 show here the wonderful fecundity with which 
 they are endowed. Professor Buckland, in 
 an article in the Agricultural Gazette, says 
 
WKKOS.] 
 
 MODERISr ENGLISH 1\\ RMIXO. 
 
 [■\VEEUS. 
 
 that "tho Crow-garlie is a liliaceous plant, 
 the scapo or llower-stein of which is as much 
 as from two to threo feet high, rising from a 
 bulb, which, especially in non-llowering exam- 
 ples, will bo surrounded by from four to eight 
 s;iialler bulbs or htilbrls. Tlio original inleu- 
 tiou of tho scapo is to bear tho flowers, after 
 the manner of tho garlic and onion of our 
 garden; but it curiously happens that, instead 
 o[ flowers, tho scape is surmounted by from 
 one to three compacted heads of minute bulbs, 
 possessing tho structure and characters of 
 those at the base of the plant, and endowed 
 with such a power of vitality, as to be, in 
 most cases, viviparous; that is, growing or 
 sending out leaves before they fall from the 
 parent stem. These are sometimes, but very 
 rarely, mixed with flowers ; and as they readily 
 and singly separate from the parent as its 
 stem becomes dry, they become scattered 
 around, and take possession of the soil. Thus 
 a whole colony, in one season, results from a 
 single plant. 
 
 " Thus, then, we see that the Crow-garlic, if 
 allowed to seed, has a prodigious method of 
 increase; but we must recollect that this in- 
 crease is not, like the majority of weed-plants, 
 by seeds which are agreeable to birds and 
 insects, by which means many much more 
 productive plants are kept in check. On 
 
 the contrary, it would appear to be avoided 
 by all classes of tlieso creatures; whilst the 
 bulbols themselves, which uro seldom abortive, 
 possess such wonderful powers of vitality, 
 that they may bo kept like onions, or tho 
 ordinary flowering bulbs, for months, and, 
 perhaps, oven years, and still maintain their 
 germinating power." 
 
 The importance of this subject must be our 
 apology for tho length of this quotation ; but 
 it makes it clear, that the farmer who does not 
 know that tho principal means by which tho 
 Crow-garlic is multiplied is through the bulbs, 
 has done but half his work in tho destruction 
 of tho weed, if ^ho allows these still to exist. 
 Facts of this sort necessarily suggest the value 
 of a knowledge of botany to the farmer, espe- 
 cially when tho operation of weeding alone, on 
 an acre of arable land, costs the yearly sum of 
 from five to twenty shillings. An old rural 
 rhyme says that — 
 
 " One year's seeding 
 Is seven years' weeding." 
 
 And the truth of the maxim it embodies will 
 be apparent from the following table, drawn 
 up from several hundreds of observations, 
 stretching over a period of five years, in dif- 
 ferent parts of England, and under the most 
 varied conditions of geological formation and 
 modes of farminer : — 
 
 Tahh of the Fectmdity of Weed-Plants. 
 
 Trivial Xames. 
 
 Botanical Names. 
 
 Kumbcr of Seeds 
 to a Plant. 
 
 When Gathered. 
 
 Black Mustard . . 
 Charlock .... 
 
 Shepherd's Purse . 
 Hedge JNIiistard . . 
 Cow Parsnip . . . 
 Fool's Parsley , . 
 Red Bartsia . . . 
 Dandelion . . . o 
 Hardhead Scabious . 
 Nipple Wort . . . 
 Stinking Chamomile 
 Slay- weed ...... 
 
 Burdock .... 
 
 Sow-thistld; . •■ . 
 Giouudsel . . o . 
 I\Iusk-thistle . . . 
 Corn Cockle . . . 
 Common Campion . 
 Common Dock . . 
 Red Poppy . . . 
 
 Siuapis I\ igra . . . . 
 Sinapis Arneusis . . 
 Capsella Bursa-pastoris. 
 Sisymbrium OBicinale . 
 Heraclium Spoudylium 
 QSthusa Cynapium . . 
 Bartsia Odontites . . 
 Leontodon Taraxacum . 
 Centaurea Scabiosa . 
 Lapsana Communis . . 
 Autlicmis Cotula. . . 
 Authemis Arvensis . , 
 Arctium Lajipa . . , 
 Lonchus Oleraceous . . 
 Seiiecio Vulgaris . . . 
 Carduus Kutaus . . . 
 Agrodtemma Githago . 
 Lychnis Dioica . . . 
 
 Humex 
 
 I'apaver Rhacus . . . 
 
 8,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 5,400 
 
 5,000 
 
 0,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 2,040 
 
 4,000 
 
 8,400 
 
 40,050 
 
 45,000 
 
 24,520 
 
 19,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 3,750 
 
 2,940 
 
 3,425 
 
 13,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 August 17. 
 September 18. 
 September 9. 
 October 13. 
 August 17. 
 August 17. 
 October 1. 
 OctobL-v 1. 
 September 10. 
 September 23. 
 September 23, 
 October 14. 
 October 1. 
 October 1. 
 September 10. 
 October 13. 
 September 8. 
 October 1. 
 September 15. 
 October 19. 
 
 bST 
 
FAltlllXG.J 
 
 PRIJ^CIPLES AND PEACTICE OF 
 
 [r ARMING, 
 
 Such is the astonishing fecundity of weed- 
 plants. Of 21,950 seeds of the followmg 
 weeds, upwards of 6,000 have been found ripe 
 in April, when hosing is frequently carried on. 
 Tlie grey speedwell, ivy-leaved speedwell, 
 shepherd's purse, hairy bitter cress, chick- 
 weed, and groundsel. In the very process of 
 hoeing, then, these are scattered about under 
 the most favourable circumstances for grow- 
 in^; and, if the hoeing is, for some little time, 
 deferred, or not done at all, the 21,950 will, 
 in all probability, by next season, have taken 
 entire possession of the soil. The manner in 
 uhich weed-seeds are propagated are, first, by 
 the neglect of way-sides and waste places; 
 second, from permitting weeds to be thrown 
 on the manure heap ; and third, from sowing 
 weed-seeds with the seeds for the crop. To 
 these circumstances, therefore, the farmer 
 should be particularly attentive. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 
 Of the necessity of an agricultural education, 
 independent of his other scholastic acquire- 
 ments, for the young or rising farmer at the 
 present day, no one of the slightest intelli- 
 gence has the smallest doubt. The customs 
 of our grandfathers are already old and eftete ; 
 whilst those of our fathers are fast wearing 
 out. In a lecture delivered by Mr. Morton, 
 at the Eoyal i\gricultural College, he laid 
 down these three points as essential to the 
 young farmer : — 1st. That he should have 
 practical skill. 2ud. That he should have 
 business tact. 3rd. That he should have a 
 liberal and scientific education. This gentle- 
 man showed that, if a man possessed a merely 
 practical skill, and nothing more, he was 
 little better than a labourer ; that if, added to 
 his practical knowledge, he had business tact, 
 he might not only be a labourer, but become 
 tl>e manager of a farm ; but that, without 
 having, in addition to capital, a liberal and 
 scientific education, he was not fitted to hold 
 a large farm in the present day. This sub- 
 ject is a most important one. We ourselves 
 are acquainted with several young gentlemen, 
 the sons of farmers, who have been boarded 
 out to receive what is called a liberal educa- 
 tion ; and they have gone homo to follow the 
 occupation of their lathers, with as much of 
 the kind of knowledge necessary for such an 
 8SS 
 
 object, as a watchmaker may be supposed to 
 have for the manufacture of a steam-plough or 
 a threshing-machine. Their case, however, 
 is by no means singular. At a meeting of 
 the weekly council of the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society, in April, 1801, the subject of ngricul- 
 tural education was introduced by Mr. Hol- 
 land, M.P., and discussed. Among the 
 authorities quoted upon this subject was Mr. 
 AVilson, of Edington Mains, the author of 
 British Farming ; who, in respect to the rising 
 young farmers, gives his opinion in the ibl- 
 lowing terms : — 
 
 " The mere possession of capital," he says, 
 " does not qualify a man for being a farmer ; nor 
 is there any virtue inherent in a lease to insure 
 his success; to these must be added probity, 
 knowledge of his business, and diligence iu 
 prosecuting it. These qualifications are the 
 fruits of a good education in the fullest sense 
 oC the term, and are no more to be looked for 
 without it, than good crops without good hus- 
 bandry. * * * But the great diflaculty, at 
 present, lies in finding appropriate occupations 
 for such youths between their fifteenth and 
 twentieth years. In many cases, sons of 
 farmers are, during that period, put to farm- 
 labour. If they are kept steadily at it, and 
 are made proficient in every kind of work 
 performed on the fixrm, it is a good profes- 
 sional training, as far as it goes. The more 
 common one — at least as regards the sons of 
 the larger class of farmers — which consists of 
 loitering about, without any stated occupa- 
 tion ; attending fares and markets, and, pro- 
 bably, the race-course and hunting-fields, is 
 about the most absurd and pernicious that 
 can well be imagined. Such youths are really 
 to be pitied, for they are neither inured to 
 bodily labour, nor aff"orded the benefits of a 
 liberal education. It need not surprise any 
 one that such hopeless lads often prove in- 
 competent for the struggles of life, and have 
 to yield their plans to more vigorous men 
 who have enjoyed the benefit of bearing the 
 yoke in their youtli. Unless young men are 
 Iccpt at labour, either of mind or body, until 
 continuous exertion during stated hours, con- 
 finement to one place, and prompt obedience 
 to their superiors, have ceased to be irksome, 
 there is little hope of their either prospering 
 in business, or distinguishing themselves iu 
 
8M1TIIF1ELD CLUB.] MODEliX ENGLISH lAKMlNC. 
 
 [lUUNIP CHOPS. 
 
 their prufc't^sion. Owing to tlio ulterLtl liubita 
 of" Hocifty, tlicro is now lesa likeliliooJ tliaa 
 lifntoforc, of such youn^ pL-r.soiis us we are 
 rt'frrriiig, to, being subjeitcii to the arauous 
 tiviining to bodily labour, wiiich was onco the 
 inii\iM\<al jtractico ; and hcnro tlio necessity 
 i'oi- an appropriate course of study to take 
 pliice. * * * It is al^^o couinion loi^'such 
 youths to be sent to .luiinburji;l» for a winter 
 or two, to attend a class of agriculture, and, 
 perhaps, also of chemistry and the veterinary 
 college. This is well enough in its way ; yet 
 there is wanting in it an adequate guarantee 
 that there is real study — the actual perform- 
 ance of daily mental work. * * * After 
 enjoying the benefits of such a course of 
 training as we have here indicated, young 
 men would be in circumstances to derive re;ii 
 advantage from a residence with some ex- 
 perienced practical farmer, or from a tour 
 through the best-cultivated districts of the 
 country." 
 
 Enough to show what the present age 
 requires in the young farmer to rise or be suc- 
 cessful in his profession. 
 
 THE LITTLE SMITHFIELD CLUB. 
 
 In order to come clearly down to the present, 
 we must look a little way into the past. In 
 170S, the Duke of Bedford, Lord Somcrville, 
 and several others, with Arthur Toiiug as 
 Iionorary secretary, formed the "Little Smith- 
 fiLdd Club," with the view to the exhibition of 
 fat stock at Christmas-time. A specification 
 of the food upon which each animal had been 
 kept was to be given, and prizes were to be 
 competed for. This society has wonderfully 
 grown in strength, and has rendered incalcu- 
 lable service to the interests of agriculture, by 
 making known the kinds of food most favour- 
 able to the rearing of cattle for meat, and by 
 educating both the grazier and the butcher up 
 to the knowledge of the best form of animal. 
 In ISOG, a toast of Mr. Coke, of Ilolkliam, 
 afterwards Earl of Leicester, was — '' Small in 
 size, and great in value." But notwithstanding 
 the far-sightedness which, even at that time, 
 in the face of great proclivities, he exhibited 
 in his judgment of cattle, the tallest ox con- 
 tinued to take the prizes. Long legs have 
 long been reckoned a serious fault, as they arc 
 the most profitless parts of tiie beast. In 
 5 X 
 
 1S50, a little Devon ox, of aa egg-liko »hape, 
 whicii is tho modern heau-idral, gained the 
 Smithfiehl gold medal, in competition with 
 gigantic Hhort-horna, and llereforda of ele- 
 phantine proportions; uud, iu IbGA, a large 
 animal of Sir Harry V'ernoy's wua puased over 
 without even the compliment of a commenda- 
 tion, because ho carried on his carcaso too 
 much olTal, and nionj threepenny than uinc- 
 penny beef. Tho Smitlilield Club is now a 
 great institution, bringing annually together 
 all the best breeders and cattle-judges iu the 
 country. 
 
 TURNIP CROPS. 
 
 In order that the improvement ot cattle 
 might extend generally, as far as possible, 
 throughout the country, and not mostly be 
 restricted to rich grazing districts of the 
 midland counties, it was felt that some ad- 
 dition to the usual supply of food was neces- 
 sary. Already had the finest, most productive 
 arable laud, of the kingdom been exhausted, 
 by the years upon years of cultivation it had 
 undergone ; whilst the barren fallow, w hieh 
 annually absorbed one-third of tlie soil, was 
 inadequate to the task of restoring -ts fertility. 
 In this emei'gency a new source of agricultural 
 wealth was discovered. Turnips sprung into 
 notice, and were received with a sort of geiicral 
 enthusiasm in the farming districts. Tiiey 
 were found to answer the purpose of a fallow 
 crop, which cleaned and rested the old arable 
 land ; they were excellent food for fattening 
 cattle in winter ; and when raised on light 
 land, and afterwards eaten down by sheep, 
 which pressed the soil into firmness with their 
 feet, led the way for corn crops on wastes 
 which had before been hopelessly assigned to 
 the rabbits. By this means the heatiis and 
 wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, with 
 some assistance from marling and tho travel- 
 ling sands of Norfolk, jN'ottingiiamshire, and 
 Bedfordshire, were gradually recovered and 
 peopled by the race of farmers, who have been 
 first to adopt all the improvements in English 
 a;:^riculture for the last century. The nev»- 
 system, however, required capital ii: both the 
 landlord and the tenant. Erom the landlord, 
 it required barns and yards, and houses 
 suitable to the wants, habits, and tastes of 
 first-class men, with high means. But when 
 
 8S0 
 
MAltx->MtT.] 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND PliACTICB OF 
 
 [mahltsg. 
 
 the spirit of improvement takes possession of 
 a class or people, neither proper men nor 
 plenty of means will be wanting to realise the 
 objects in view. Mr. Coke, of Holkham, 
 expended over £100,000, in twenty years, on 
 dwellings and offices alone. This sum, how- 
 ever, was by no means unprofitably laid out ; 
 but whatever sums the new system required 
 to be expended by the landlord, it also de- 
 manded a proportionate expenditure on tlie 
 part of the tenant. It required him to lay 
 out a large sum on flocks and herds, and, 
 above all, in labour, for years, before the ^M 
 laud began to return a profit. We are told, 
 that a Mr. Eodwell, in Suflolk, sunk £5,000 
 in merely marling 820 acres, with a lease of 
 only twenty-eight years. The value of his 
 produce, during that period of his occupancy, 
 was £30,000 greater than the twenty-eight 
 years preceding his improvements. Specula- 
 tions of this kind required no mean degree of 
 intelligence to conduct them, and no small 
 amount of spirit to enter upon them; yet 
 they seem generally to have been crowned with 
 success. 
 
 Turnips' are said, by Young, to have been 
 brought into farm cultivation by the celebrated 
 Jethro TuU, and found an ardent advocate in 
 Lord Townshend, who, in 1730, retired from 
 taking part in public affairs. After this, he 
 devoted the remaining eight years of his life 
 to the improvement of his estate. It is said' 
 that lie originated practices which increased 
 the produce not only two but a hundred-fold, 
 and from which the country still continues to 
 draw the benefit. In England, the practice of 
 marling and claying farms was far from being 
 new. Indeed, it was very old. In the reign 
 of Elizabeth, Harrison, in his Description of 
 Britain, says — " Besides the compost that is 
 carried out of the husbandmen's yards, ditches, 
 and dove-houses, or out of great towns, we 
 have with us a kind of white marl, which is of 
 so great force, that if it be cast over a piece 
 of land but once in three-score years, it shall 
 not need of any further composting." The 
 usage, however, died out ; and seems not to 
 have been again recovered until Lord Towns- 
 hend and a Mr. Allen applied it to the sands 
 of Norfolk, and converted immeasurable acres 
 of rabbit-warrens and sheep-walks into rich 
 soil. At the close of the last century, Young 
 880 
 
 estimated that three or four hundred thousand 
 waste acres had been reclaimed and turned 
 into gardens, and rents rose from sums 
 varying from a sixpence and two shillings an 
 acre up to fifteen and twenty. Marling, how- 
 ever, would not, of itself, have reclaimed the 
 wildernesses of Norfolk ; it required the as- 
 sistance of something else ; and that was found 
 in turnips. Townshend had the sagacity to 
 perceive that this was to be the parent of all 
 future crops. Without a supply of food 
 through, the winter, a limited stock must be 
 kept, and this could yield but little manure, 
 without which profitable farming was vain. 
 "The turnips were, therefore, employed to 
 secure a large dung-heap; and the dung-heap, 
 in turn, was mainly appropriated to securing 
 the largest possible store of turnips. This 
 tillage, in a circle, w^as as productive as it was 
 simple. The ground, cleaned and enriched by 
 the root-crop, afterwards yielded abundant 
 harvests of corn; and as has already been 
 observed, the treading of the sheep upon the 
 loose soil, while they fed off a portion of the 
 turnips, gave it the necessary firmness. Thus, 
 through the agency of the turnips, a full fold 
 and full bullock-yard made a full granary." 
 Essex and Suffolk soon followed the method, 
 although they did not proceed in it so far as 
 they did in Norfolk ; and, in many parts, the 
 turnips were never thinned or hoed, upon 
 which their dimensions) and, consequently, the 
 largest portion of their value, depended. 
 
 To the reader of the ancient agricultural 
 writers, it will seem strange how it was that, 
 for so many centuries, the value of the turnip 
 was not perceived by the farming mind, when 
 its qualities were, at least, tolerably known 
 eighteen hundred years ago, Pliny tells us, 
 that no crop is so valuable except grasses and 
 corn. He also says (we quote from an article 
 of Ancient Agricultural Literature), "That 
 they are most wholesome food for man, and 
 excellent, dressed in a variety of ways ; that 
 they keep through the year, cither potted or 
 when mixed with mustard ; that they are most 
 valuable in ornamental cookery, as capable of 
 receiving six colours besides their own, one of 
 the colours being purple — a quality possessed 
 by no other kind of food ; that, when boiled, 
 they will feed fowls, and that the leaves are 
 good for cattle ; and, finally, that he has seen 
 
KOTATiox ciioi's.] MODEliN EXGLISII FAHMING. 
 
 [AnTiiun Youyo. 
 
 Olio 40 lbs. weight." Columella says, that " in 
 Gaul, the bulbd are used as winter food for 
 cattle aucl slicei);" showing that the aiieieiit 
 fathers of our neighbours across tho Clianiiel 
 were not ignorant of tho value of tho turnip, 
 in supplying their Hocks and herds willi 
 nourialiiug food throughout tho long, dreary 
 months of tho wiuter. Nor is marling a 
 discovery of the moderns, for it seems to havi- 
 been, both in Gaul and Britain, a sta[)lL' 
 practice in husbandry. Pliny recommeuds 
 six dill'erent kinds of marl used for pulverising 
 the soil. Some were of a clayey description, 
 which were used for light ground ; some 
 sandy, for heavy. Some were of a rocky son, 
 which pre^c^ved its form till several years of 
 the effects of sun, rain, and frost reduced it to 
 amalgamate with the soil. Some lasted ten, 
 some thirty, and some fifty years. Some were 
 got at in a day : and one kind which endured 
 eighty years, and which no man had ever been 
 known to apply twice to the same land, was 
 obtained in Britain from narrow pits, dug to 
 a depth of thirty yards. 
 
 THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 The course of Eoman agriculture, with some 
 partial exceptions, was of the simplest de- 
 scription — a crop of grain and a fallow. Every 
 year one-half of the arable laud was in grain, 
 and the other half in fallow. A third of this 
 was sown with a green crop of some kind, to 
 be given to the cattle ; and this was the only 
 portion of the fallow that received the benefits 
 of manure. The result of this mode was, that 
 the arable land was manured once in six years ; 
 and, in that period, produced three crops of 
 grain, and one of green stuff". This system, 
 by degrees, wore out the land. It took tlie 
 very heart out of it, so to speak ; so tliat, in 
 the time of Varro, a great falling-ofT had taken 
 place in the returns for the quantity of seed 
 sown. Fi'.ty years later, Cicero gives an 
 account of the rich Sicilian lands, and claims 
 2| bushels to the statute acre. This, well 
 cultivated, seems to have yielded eight or ten 
 for one, equal to t.venty or twenty-five bushels 
 respectively. In another half century. Colu- 
 mella tells us, tliat over a large part of Italy, 
 the instances are few in which the return is 
 more than four to one ; and the increasing 
 lamentations over the penury with which the 
 
 lurid returned it8 grain for the seed, as we 
 
 descend in tho series of authorB, aro in entire 
 accordanco with the paucity of tla-ir crops. 
 
 In England, during tho last century, tho 
 rotation of crops wa^ viewed as tho special 
 characteristic of tho husbandry of Norfolk. 
 Unlil past tho year 17.jO, no just ideas upon 
 tho subject seem to have been formed in any 
 part of the kingdom ; in proof of which, Sir 
 Juhii Sinclair makes the remark, that all 
 courses were thought to bo alike, and merit- 
 ing neither censure nor praise. Tho estab- 
 lished rule upon which the farmers of Norfolk 
 acted, and to wliicii they doggedly adhered, 
 was never to take off tho same ground two 
 corn crops in succession. But this formed 
 only one rule or part in tho whole of a valu- 
 able system. They had not discovered tho 
 importance of alternating grain with other 
 products of tho soil ; but they had perceived 
 and I'ound the advantage of following turnips 
 with barley ; this with clover ; and this with 
 wheat. Tliey had discovered that the fibrous 
 roots of the clover were the best possible 
 pabulum for the nourishment of the wheat, 
 and that nothing else answered so well. By 
 1767, Young found this four-course system 
 widely prevalent, the principal variation being 
 in the duration of tlie clover, which some 
 farmers permitted to remain for two or three 
 seasons previously to its being broken up for 
 wheat. All these changes occurred during 
 the thirty years between 1730 and 1700 ; 
 but, with slight exceptions, they were entirely 
 confined to Norfolk ; and it was not till Young 
 made his appearance upon the scene, that 
 they began to penetrate into other districts. 
 
 ARTHUR YOUNG. 
 
 One who did so much, in his time, to en- 
 lighten the agricultural mind of this countrv 
 when it was involved in a cloud of thick dark- 
 ness, merits some notice in these pages. The 
 reclamation of barren sheep-walks ; an im- 
 provement in the different breeds of live- 
 stock ; an increase in the quantity of food 
 grown on arable land for their support ; and a 
 better rotation of crops, are the principal 
 events which distinguish tho progress of 
 English agriculture during the last century. 
 After some advances had been made, the next 
 step was to demolisli those obstructions which 
 
 bOl 
 
EAEL LEicESTEii.] PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF [state of ^ojbpolk. 
 
 kept the formers of that day apart from each 
 other, and which held them in the bonds of 
 ignorance as to what was passing in every 
 district beyond the immediate limits of their 
 own, as complete as if they were so many 
 Eobinsou Crusoes, doomed to cultivate a piece 
 of solitary land, on a solitary rock, in the 
 middle of the Pacific. The man who entered 
 heartily into this work was Arthur Young, 
 the son of a prebendary of Canterbury. A 
 writer describes him as one of the most useful 
 and sagacious, if not one of the most brilliant 
 of men. Long before his time, however, Nor- 
 folk was celebrated for the superiority of her 
 roads. The inhabitants quoted with pride an 
 observation of Charles II., who said that the 
 county ought to be cut up to make highways 
 for the rest of the kingdom. This, however, 
 only proved how deplorable, in this respect, 
 were the other parts of the country. When 
 Young made his "tours," and visited Norfolk, 
 he did not fsill-in with a single mile of good 
 road in it. In Essex, the lanes were so narrow 
 that it was only possible for a carriage to get 
 along them. " Euts," says the writer already 
 quoted, "of an incredible depth; and chalk- 
 waggons stuck fast, till a line of them were in 
 the same predicament, and it required twenty 
 or thirty horses to be tacked to each, to draw 
 them out one by one. The thoroughfares, in 
 fact, were ditches of thick mud, cut up by 
 secondary ditches of irregular depth. In at- 
 tempting to traverse them, Young had some- 
 times to alight from his chaise, and get the 
 rustics to assist him in lifting it over the 
 hedge. Such was the state of things when, in 
 1.7G7, he abandoned the farm, in which he had 
 experimented too much to be successful, and 
 availing himself of the frank hospitality which 
 lias, in every age, been the characteristic of 
 our farmers and country gentlemen, made 
 those celebrated ' tours,' which are absolute 
 photographs of agricultural England, and are 
 models of what all such reports should be — 
 graphic, faithful, picturesque, and philosophi- 
 cal 1" Such was the man and his work, which 
 did so much to iin[);irt an impetus to agricul- 
 ture ; and which, from Ins time to the present, 
 has, without pause, continued to advance. 
 
 THE EARL OF LEICESTER. 
 
 Mr. Coke, of llolkham (afterwards Earl of 
 892 
 
 Leicester), headed the agricultural movement 
 towards the close of the last, and throufrhout 
 the first quarter of the present century. Ee- 
 claiming the Norfolk wastes, marling the light 
 lands, extensively cultivating the turnip, and 
 introducing the rotation of crops, have all 
 been ascribed to Iiim. That he was the 
 originator of all these improvements, however, 
 can hardly be the case, as Young states, in his 
 Tours (published some years before Mr. Coke 
 held an acre in Norfolk), that every one of 
 these practices were then in common use. 
 But though the precise nature of what Mr. 
 Coke did has been exaggerated or misunder- 
 stood, what he really did accomplish was very 
 great. He is the first in the ranks of that 
 class of whom Young wrote in 1770 — " Let 
 no one accuse me of the vanity of thinking that 
 I shall ever, by writing, wean farmers from 
 their prejudices. All improvements in agri- 
 culture must have their origin in landlords." 
 Five years after this, Mr. Coke succeeded to 
 the estates of the Leicester famih' ; and here 
 we find it stated, that " the fine house at 
 Holkham, erected from the designs of Kent, 
 about the middle of the last century, bears an 
 inscription, which imparts that it was built in 
 the midst of a desolate track ; and its noble 
 founder was accustomed to say, at once jocu- 
 larly and sadly, that his nearest neighbour 
 was the King of Denmark. There was still 
 many a broad acre in its primitive sheep- 
 walks ; and Mr. Coke graphically described the 
 condition of portions of the property surround- 
 ing this princely mansion, by the remark, 
 'that he found two rabbits quarrelling for one 
 blade of grass.' " This was an unprofitable, as 
 well as an uninviting, condition of things; but 
 he was not disheartened. He immediately 
 set about applying the known methods prac- 
 tised, to bring into a state of fertility the 
 wilderness with which he was encompassed; at 
 the same time adopting such improvements as 
 suggested themselves on the existing modes. 
 He also endeavoured to persuade his neigh- 
 bours to adopt his practice. Having, by per- 
 severance, labour, and example, succeeded in 
 rousing them from the lethargy into which 
 they had sunk from the success which had 
 attended the practice of Lord Townshend, the 
 second revoltition commenced. The great 
 evil of the time, as we have already observed, 
 
IIOSI'ITAMTV.] 
 
 MODKKX HNdl.lSIl I'AKMIXG. 
 
 [kattenino. 
 
 was the isolation in which farmers lived. They 
 wtMv nearly as much lixturea as tlicii* houses; 
 and what was done upon one side of a hedj^o 
 w :is hardly known upon the other. " Tho 
 Lortl of Jlolkham instituteil his annual sheep- 
 yhearing, at which he feasteil crowds of quests 
 from all parts, and of all degrees. Under tho 
 guise of a gigantic festival, it was an agricul- 
 tural school of tlie most eft'i-ctive kind ; for 
 the social benevolence engendered by such 
 magnificent hospitality disarmed prejudice ; 
 and manv wlio would liave looked with dis- 
 dain upon new breeds of stock, new-fangled 
 implements, and new modes of tillage, re- 
 garded them with favour when they came 
 recommended by their genial host. * * • 
 Excluded by his political opinions from public 
 oQice, and the favour of the court, Mr. Coke 
 found abundant compensation in the feudal 
 state of gatherings, at which, as a contem- 
 porary journal records, hundreds assembled, 
 and were entertained. Tarmiug, hunting, or 
 shooting in the mornings : after dinner, dis- 
 cussing agricultural subjects ; whether the 
 Southdown or new Leicester was the better 
 sheep — whether the Devon or the old Norfolk 
 OS was the more profitable. In dealing with 
 those who farmed under him, he showed the 
 same wisdom as in his own village. He formed 
 an intimacy with Young, and acted on three 
 of his maxims, on which agricultural progress 
 mav be said to depend — ' that a truly good 
 tenant-farmer cannot be too much favoured, 
 or a bad one have his rent raised too high ;' 
 tliat 'good culture is another name for much 
 labour;' that 'great farmers are generally 
 rich farmers.' By these methods he raised 
 his rental to more thousands a year than it 
 was Inindreds when he inherited the estate, 
 lind had enriched a numerous tenantry into 
 t!ie bargain. « * * The wealth, never- 
 theless, which accrued to himself was the 
 snv.dlest part of the gain. He was a national 
 benefactor upon a mighty scale, and was the 
 cause, directly and indirectly, of adding a 
 countless mass of corn and cattle, of beef and 
 mutton, bread and beer, to tho resources of 
 the country." 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FATTENING. 
 In lS2i, from a suggestion made by Mr. 
 Blackie (^the steward of Mr. Coke), Mr. John 
 
 Hudson, of tho farm of Castlo Acre, entered 
 upon tho experiment of supplying his young 
 wethers with oil-cako and sliced turnips. 
 "What, in tho last century, would have been 
 thought of such an act ? Ho would have hci'n 
 pronounced mad, and in a cotulilion suitable 
 only to become tho inhabitant of a lunatic 
 asylum. Jiut what was tho result ? When 
 ]\Ir. Coke asked to see tho produce of his 
 tups, he foutul that they had been sent to 
 market twelve months before the usual time. 
 Yet even the neighbours of Mr. Hudson, and 
 even his own father, a man of intelligence and 
 agricultural progress, prognosticated his ruin 
 from his extravagance in purchasing food for 
 sheep. Now, however, tho buying of linseed- 
 cake, or meal, or foreign pulse, is one of the 
 regular means by which an increased quantity 
 of meat is grown. Wherever turnips are 
 raised and sliced, there the cake-trough is 
 to be seen ; and the improved material for 
 feeding, united to the natural tendency of the 
 best breeds to arrive at an early maturity, has 
 increased, to an amazing extent, the quantity 
 of mutton in the kingdom. It is affirmed, by 
 Mr. Morgan, that, twenty years ago, the 
 majority of sheep brought to Smithfield 
 market were three and four years old; and 
 to find a score under two, Avould have been a 
 matter of some difficulty. And now a three- 
 year-old sheep is scarcely to be met with ; 
 whilst fat sheep, no more than a twelve- 
 month old, are abundant. Thus, independent 
 of the vast increase in the numbers kept, 
 three generations of sheep are fed and fat- 
 tened for our tables, in the same space of 
 time in which one was prepared in 1S3S. 
 But purchased food would have been almost 
 thrown away on the former species of tardy- 
 growing animals. Applied, however, to the 
 improved stock, reared on the principles of 
 Bakewell, it has created a demand, not only 
 for tups from Sussex, steers from the Quan- 
 tock hills, and oil-cake from Germany, but for 
 new im[)lement3 and machinery of almost 
 every agricultural description. 
 
 For some time the Leicester breed of sheep 
 was preferred by Mr. Coke ; but he subse- 
 quently replaced them with the Southdowns. 
 Tiiese he considered superior ; and the bring- 
 ing of them to the high state of perfection in 
 which they are beheld by the present genera- 
 
 893 
 
EOTAL sociETr.] PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF [kotal society. 
 
 tion, was accomplished by Mr. Jonas Webb, 
 and arose out of one of those trifling circum- 
 stances from which great results often ema- 
 nate. His grandfather was a breeder of rams 
 in Korfolk ; and it was one of the oddities of 
 the old gentleman, at his annual sales, to put 
 his grandsons to ride on his tups, without 
 saddle or bridle, but making them hold fast 
 bj the immense horns of the animals. Ex- 
 periencing both the pain and the diificulty of 
 retaining his seat on these occasions, it sug- 
 gested itself to tlie mind of Jonas, that, if 
 ever he arrived at manhood, and bred sheep, 
 he would endeavour to provide them naturally 
 with " better saddles of mutton." A lean 
 hurdle-backed Norfolk ram was at this time 
 the animal ; which, indeed, might have better 
 
 racing qualities, but could not compare, in 
 eating qualities, with the beautiful firkin- 
 bodied Southdown, for which Mr. Webb re- 
 fused 500 guineas at the Paris Exhibition of 
 lS5i). Nothing but Norfolk sheep could 
 have thriven upon the uncultivated Norfolk 
 heaths of former times ; and nothing but the 
 roots of artificial grasses, the cake, and the 
 corn of modern days, could have brought the 
 Babraham "Downs" to their present state of 
 matchless perfection. 
 
 We have now arrived at the period when 
 Norfolk is no longer foremost in the race of 
 agricultural improvements, and when the new 
 era commences in the foundation of the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England, incorporated 
 by special charter. 
 
 THE EOTAL 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GEICfTLTTJKAT, SOCIETY; DEAINAGE ; THE FIRST FIELD DEAINED ; Tm 
 POPvTABLE MANUKES ; THE GEOLOGISTS; THE GAINS OF FAEMi:-.G. 
 
 CHEJIISXS ; 
 
 THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
 The source of the present mode of farming 
 dates from the foundation of the Eoyal Agri- 
 cultural Society, in 1837-'38. The late Mr. 
 Henry Handley, M.P., has the merit of having 
 suggested the formation of this association, in 
 a pamphlet which he published in 1837, and 
 which seems, very rapidly, to have carried 
 conviction to the minds of those who became 
 the originators of the society. Mr. Handley 
 was a Lincolnshire squire; an excellent judge 
 of stock, and a good sportsman ; whilst he 
 cultivated liis own estate, it is said, with a 
 higher degree of intelligence than was usual 
 in his time. The first meeting of the asso- 
 ciation was held at Oxford, in 1839 ; and the 
 first number of its Journal appeared in the 
 following year. It was placed under the 
 editorship of Mr. Philip Pusey, who died in 
 1854, wiio was a good writer, an ardent 
 farmer, and who devoted his time, his talents, 
 and his fortune to recording the progress of 
 89-1 
 
 his favourite science, and stimulating improve- 
 ments in every direction to which his influ- 
 ence extended. He is said to have been an 
 example of "that delightful combination of 
 scholarship and practical energy which is so 
 common in England ; and he exercised the 
 double influence of an accomplished gentle- 
 man and an enliglitened agriculturist." 
 
 It is impossible to calculate the benefits 
 which have been conferred on English agri- 
 culture by the establishment of this society. 
 The brightness of its own light has been dif- 
 fused through the remotest corners of tl)e 
 land. In the able article from which we have 
 alreadv quoted, it is stated that, "with its 
 council of peers, squires, tenants, and imple- 
 ment-makers ; its professors of chemistry, 
 botany, and veterinary art; its thousands of 
 subscribers spread over every county of Eng- 
 land ; its journal of transactions and reports ; 
 and, above all, its annual encampments in the 
 centres of successive districts, has done lur 
 farmiui? what the great fairs of the middle 
 
nuYAL SOClETr.] 
 
 i\rODEKX ENGLISH FAlOlJXr^. 
 
 [DnAINAOK. 
 
 . - d did for commcrco — concentrated and 
 (iilFiised knowledge, brought ciistoinors nnd 
 producers into contact, and helped to ex- 
 linguisli prejudices in the excitement of sociul 
 triUherings. Tiioy have carried to provincial 
 cities the best live-stock, the best inipleuientH, 
 :itid the best cultivators. Tiie inlluenco of 
 »v;iinple, of competition, and even of rank and 
 Irishion, has been brought to bear on local 
 obstinacy. Squires have been encouraged to 
 improve their estates by tlio speeches of 
 superior men ; and young noblemen, in want 
 of an object, have found it in agricultural 
 duties. Implement-makers have had the ad- 
 vantage of the suggestions of their customers, 
 and, thus taught and teaching at the same 
 time, have, every year, become more de- 
 pendent on tenants, and less on fancy farmers." 
 As with every institution which is founded 
 •with great objects in view, and which meets 
 with success, there always remains something 
 ■which has not been fully foreseen, and which, 
 in the course of time, gradually develops 
 itself. Thus it happened that, when this 
 society was founded, not one of the promoters 
 foresaw the importance of the machinery de- 
 partment. In the ten sections of its cliarter 
 of incorporation, explaining the objects of the 
 association, implements have only an inci- 
 dental reference, as one of the objects to 
 which scientific men were to be stimulated to 
 direct their attention, in a miscellaneous para- 
 graph, which includes the construction of 
 farm buildings, the application of chemistry to 
 the general purposes of agriculture, the de- 
 struction of insects injurious to vegetable life, 
 and the eradication of weeds. At Oxford, a 
 few manufacturers perceived an opening for 
 procuring customers, and found their way to 
 the " show-yard," notwithstanding the difficul- 
 ties from the absence of that kind of cheap 
 conveyance which is now, happily, placed 
 within the reach of the humblest member of 
 the community at large. One gold medal for 
 a collection of implements, three silver medals, 
 and £5 for a paddle plough for raising 
 potatoes, were all the rewards distributed 
 in 1S39, for what was destined to be the most 
 attractive, as well as the most useful feature 
 of the exhibition of the society. After the 
 meeting at Cambridge, in 1840, the importance 
 of the implement department was acknow- 
 
 ledged; and tho mechanical appliances dis- 
 played, beginning with some three hundred at 
 Liverpool, in 1811, increased at tho rate of 
 about one hundred on every Bucceediug year; 
 until, in 1853, at (51oucehter, they reached 
 their highest point in a total of two thousand. 
 Tho rise and fall of a few hundreds chiefly 
 depends upon tho importance in railway facili- 
 ties of tho town where tho " show" is held ; 
 and tho number of implements cxliibited is 
 not so great a test of tho progress of me- 
 chanical invention as of tho sales which are 
 likely to be effected in any particular district. 
 Tlio annual show is only one of the numcrouB 
 ways which the manufacturers adopt to adver- 
 tise and exhibit their ingenuity of invention, 
 and beauty of workmanship, in producing their 
 mechanical contrivances. The real prize to 
 the maker is the one which brings to his estab- 
 lishment plenty of custom. 
 
 At the show at Bury St. Edmund's, steam- 
 engines and barn machinery constituted the 
 class of implements brought to the test; but 
 one hundred acres of heavy land, and twenty 
 acres of light land, were provided for the per- 
 formances of the steam ploughs. Several new 
 arrangements were made in the show-yard ; 
 .among which we may observe that a fence 
 encircled the horse-ring ; and the horses which 
 gained the prizes were distinguished by a set 
 of numbers, similar to those which gave so 
 much satisfaction at the Yorkshire sho\^ of 
 1SG6. Tho poultry show was revived, and 
 £209 worth of prizes were distributed. 
 
 DRAINAGE.- 
 AVlien the Eoval Society was founded there 
 were about 400 local societies in existence; 
 but they were associations formed rather 
 for the encouragement of the social qualities of 
 life, than for the promotion of the arts by the 
 means of which tlie materials for eating and 
 drinking are increased. The speeches de- 
 livered at these convivial " gatherings" were 
 usually of a highly complimentary character ; 
 and the members congratulated each other 
 upon the pre-eminence which distinguished 
 their own enlightened district. They were, 
 in short, associations apparently formed for no 
 other purpose than that of maintaining local 
 ignorance, rather than of obtaining additional 
 knowledge from practical experiment and 
 
 b95 
 
FIELD beainagk] PEINCIPLES and PKxVCTICE OF [field dkaixaoe. 
 
 experience. This is a lamentable truth ; but 
 we must now give our consideration to those 
 especial improvements which liave, during the 
 career of the society, taken place in the agricul- 
 tural parts of the kingdom. Amongst these, 
 perhaps, tlie very first deserving of especial at- 
 tention is drainage. Prom the earliest times at- 
 tempts have been made to drain. We believe 
 there are in existence specimens of clever work- 
 manship in this art, upwards of a century 
 old ; but when it ought to be done, and why 
 it ought to be done, and how it ought to be 
 
 was drained on the four-foot plan. Prom 
 small beginnings, however, there often spring 
 very large results. Accordingly, this was the 
 commencement of the subterranean network 
 of those pipes, which have more than doubled 
 the value of our retentive soils. There was, 
 however, still a great deal to be done. The 
 proper tools had not yet been made, nor had 
 a cheap conduit yet been discovered. But, in 
 1814, a Birmingham maker succeeded in 
 manufacturing the cutting implements, which 
 have gradually been brought to perfection ; 
 
 done, was never reduced to the simplicity of \ and, in the preceding year, at the Derby show 
 
 an intelligent practical rule. AVhatever books 
 there were upon the subject, were entirely 
 destitute of principles. Lord Bacon, who pos- 
 sessed a large collection of works upon agri- 
 culture, had them, one day, piled up in his 
 court-yard, and set on fire; for, said he, "in 
 all these books I find no principles; they 
 can, therefore, be of no use to any man." 
 This we take to be one of the truest signs of 
 liis wisdom ; and this was just the deficiency in 
 all that had been done respecting drainage until, 
 in lSi3, Josiah Parkes undertook the task of 
 explaining its principles. Two years later, he 
 m.ade suggestions which led to the manufac- 
 ture of the steel tools which were necessary 
 for forming the deep cuttings, as well as the 
 cheap pipes, which were essential to carry oft' 
 the water from them after they had been 
 formed. Ten years previous to this, however, 
 when draining a peat-bog near Bolton, in 
 Lancashire, he made the discovery of the great 
 eftect which deep cuttings produced in 
 relieving the soil of a certain number of 
 inches of the water which, during a rainy 
 season, is stagnant, and remains in that state 
 until removed by evaporation in a dry season. 
 Purther experience brought him to the con- 
 clusion, that the shallow drainage advocated 
 by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, about eight miles 
 Irom Stirling, Scotland, was a vital error, and 
 that four feet, which left a sufficient layer of 
 dry, warm, surface earth, after allowing for 
 the rise of the moisture by capillary attraction 
 above the water-level of the drain, should be 
 the minimum depth. 
 
 THE FIRST FIELD DRAINED. 
 On a farm near Bolton, Lancashire, belong- 
 ing to a celebrated bone-setter, the first field 
 89(3 
 
 of the Agricultural Society, a person of the 
 name of John Eeade, a gardener by trade, 
 and a self-taught mechanic (well known as the 
 inventor of the stomach-pump), exhibited 
 cylindrical clay pipes, with which he had been 
 in the habit of draining the hot-beds of his 
 master. His method of constructing them 
 was, to wrap a lump of clay round a mandril, 
 and rub it smooth with a piece of flannel. 
 ]N"othing could be more simple. It was seen 
 by Mr. Parkes, who showed one of them to 
 Earl Spencer ; remarking, at the same tinie, 
 " My lord, with this pipe 1 will drain all Eng- 
 land." The council, on the motion of liis 
 lordship, awarded to John Eeade a silver 
 medal for his idea ; and, in the following year,, 
 ofi'ered a premiam for a tile-making machine. 
 A great deal of money was wasted in attempts, 
 and many patents were taken uut for the pur- 
 pose, but with indifi*erent success. At length, 
 in 1845, a person of the name of Thoimis 
 Scragg, at Shrewsbury, received a prize for u 
 raachino which triumphed over the diliicultics, 
 and pipes can now be made as fast as the 
 kilns can take them. Prom that hour the 
 work proceeded at a rapid pace. In tlie iV.- 
 lowing year, Sir Eobert Peel, from the know- 
 ledge he had obtained in the management of 
 his own property, passed an act, by which lour 
 millions sterling were appropriated towards 
 assiating landowners with loans for draining 
 their land, with leave to repay the advance by 
 instalments extending over twenty-two years. 
 Nearly the whole of this first loan was taken 
 up by the Scotch, before Englishmen had 
 made up their minds to take advantage of it. 
 The four millions of government money, how- 
 ever, was comparatively small, when placed in 
 juxtaposition with the sums supplied by pri- 
 
TIIF. CHEMISTS.] 
 
 MODERN E X L 1 S 1 1 1' A K M 1 N G. [portable ma}juub§. 
 
 vr.te enterprise, for cnrrying out an improve- 
 
 ineiit which, on tho worst chiss of wt-t hiiul, 
 "•ave m'iilonce of ita value by tho nvilisutioti of 
 iiiiinediate profits. 
 
 Resides the government encouragenjent 
 given to tlie drainage scheme, there was 
 another circumstance which gr(>:\tly helped to 
 promote the worU. About the period when 
 the system of deep draining was brought to 
 perfection, tlie great hmiiowners, being solici- 
 tous of encouraging their tenants, who were de- 
 pressed by the approaching free trade iu corn, 
 madt) thorough draining the most fashion- 
 able improvement. Tlie Norfolk sheep- 
 folding rotation had accomplished much for 
 li<Tht laud : had brought the cultivation of roots 
 to a high pitch, and proportionably increased 
 the live-stock on every light-land farm. The 
 proprietors of strong retentive soils were 
 naturally anxious to follow in the path of 
 their light-land neighbours, and to grow tho 
 roots which were seen to afford such high 
 profits in beef and mutton; and deep drainage 
 enabled them to realise these hopes and 
 desires. 
 
 THE CHEMISTS. 
 Previous to the farmers, and the agricul- 
 turists generally, having become accustomed 
 to the value of certain foreign manures which 
 had been imported into the country, Professor 
 Liebig suggested that the fertilising power of 
 bone manure, which had already been used, 
 would be increased by the application of sul- 
 phuric acid, and the consequent production of 
 superphosphate of lime. This suggestion was 
 not lost on some of our keen commercial 
 speculators. Accordingly, the experiment was 
 tried by a carboy of sulphuric acid being 
 poured over a few bushels of ground boucs, 
 when Suffolk drills, charged with superphos- 
 phate and guano, were despatched through 
 the farming districts of the country, to show to 
 agriculturists, that if they desired to grow 
 larf'e root-crops, there was something neces- 
 sary to be added to their immemoriably- 
 estublished favourite manure, which they 
 designated by the name of " muck." "We 
 are told that one of the first to experiment 
 upon the new manure, and then to manufac- 
 ture it on an extensive scale, was Mr. Lawes, 
 of Uertfordshire, a squire and scientific chemist. 
 5y 
 
 Uo was followed by Mr. Pursor, of London; 
 who, ill ISi:}, be^^an with a solitary carboy of 
 sulphuric acid, which cost ten shillings; and fre- 
 quently afterwards he ])urcha8ed ten thousand 
 cnrbovs at a time. A few years later, Mossrs. 
 Dixon aiul Cardus, at Soutlmmpton, niado a 
 profitable speculation by a contract with tho 
 government of Buenos Ayrcs, fur the cxclu- 
 sivo right of exporting tho charred llesh and 
 ashes of joints of meat burned, for want of 
 other fuel, on tho treeless Pampas, to boil 
 down tho tallow. This animal refuse (tho 
 accumulation of a quarter of a century), when 
 treated with sulphuric acid, is converted into 
 valuable superphosphate. But, although every 
 quarter of tho globe, even battle-fields, w^re 
 searched for bones, the supply was insufllcient 
 to meet the demand. It consequently became 
 necessary that some new resource should be 
 found, in order to keep down the price of 
 those manures, become so scarce, and deemed 
 30 valuable. 
 
 PORTABLE ]MANURES. 
 Before 1835, farmers and agriculturists, in 
 addition to farm-yard dung, or night-soil, used 
 for manuring their lands, gypsum, chalk, lime, 
 soot, marl, salt, saltpetre, rape-cake, and 
 bones. The discovery of the fertilising pro- 
 perties of bone was made by accident, at a 
 fox-hound kennel in Yorkshire. Generously 
 strewed over the heaths and wolds of Lincoln- 
 shire, it proved to be the philosopher's stone, 
 which converted rabbit-warrens and gorse fox- 
 coverts into fields of yellow grain. A Mr. 
 Nelson, one of the late Lord Tarborough's 
 tenants, was wont to say, that he did not care 
 who knew that he had made £SO,000 out of 
 his farm, by making use of bones before other 
 people were acquainted with the manner of 
 usiu"' them. But what proved to bo a success 
 in one parish, or field, frequently failed in the 
 one adjoining ; and sometimes the farm which 
 had once yielded abundantly in return for a 
 dressing of lime or gypsum, inflexibly refused 
 to respond to a second application. More 
 extraordinary still, the root-crop — the founda- 
 tion of the famous Norfolk rotation, the Gol- 
 conda of half-a-dozen counties — began to fail, 
 devoured in infancy by the fly. This was 
 startling enough; for, without the turnip, 
 whence was the provender to come for sheep, 
 
 b07 
 
PORTABLE MANUEE3.] PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP [geologists. 
 
 and 'svinter-fed cattle? The philosopher, 
 however, happily stepped in. He came to the 
 assistance of the fanner, and, by his know- 
 Jedge, relieved him from the difficulties by 
 which he was encompassed. Nitrate of soda 
 and guano were imported ; and, as we have 
 just shown, superphosphate of lirae from bones 
 was invented. Agricultural chemistry soon 
 won the place of a practical or a profitable 
 science, and the anomalies in connection with 
 the use of lime, chalk, gypsum, &c,, were 
 explained by the joint exertions of the farmer 
 and his new ally, the philosophical explorer 
 and expounder of Nature's secrets — the 
 chemist. Nitrate of soda was imported from 
 Peru, and sold, in small quantities, by an agri- 
 cultural manure-dealer, about 1835 ; and, in 
 the same year, a cargo of guano was consigned 
 to a Mr. Myers, a Liverpool merchant. The 
 value of this manure proved immense. At 
 first its merits were not credited by the 
 farmers — a tardy race, and much given to 
 incredulity in their own vocation ; but the 
 shrewd-witted dealers in artificial manures 
 accepted the new article, and sold it, either in 
 a pure state, or under a special name, mixed 
 with less active ingredients. In 18i3, a store, 
 inferior to that of Peru, having been discovered 
 on the Ichaboe Islands, off the coast of Africa, 
 1,100 feet long, 400 broad, and, on an average, 
 35 feet deep — the whole was removed before 
 the end of 1844, and realised upwards of a 
 million sterling. Three years before this, an 
 article of forty-three pages, from the German 
 of Dr. Charles Sprengel, appeared in the first 
 volume of the Journal of the Boyal Agricul- 
 iural Societjj ; in which, though every kind of 
 animal manure was described, guano only 
 received a passing mention as a curiosity ; and 
 no note, to supply the deficiency, was attached 
 by the editor — so little was it then known to 
 the most intelligent cultivators, and so rapidly 
 had the knowledge of its value spread in the 
 interval. 
 
 About 1851, an important addition to the 
 portable manures was discovered by Mr. 
 Odams, in the blood and garbage of the 
 London slaughter-houses. This refuse had 
 hitherto been thrown down the.^ sewers, or 
 upon dung-heaps ; but, in 1858, it was con- 
 tracted for, to the extent of upwards of nearly 
 800,000 gallons a year- Mixed with ground 
 898 
 
 or calcined bones, and sulphuric acid, it is 
 turned into a vig irous corn and root fertiliser, 
 known to agriculturists as the " nitro-phos- 
 phate manure." The mere circumstance of 
 these products becoming articles of sale, and 
 not of home manufacture by the farmer, had 
 the effect of greatly extending their use. The 
 seller of artificial manures helped, in another 
 way, the general movement, which was stimu- 
 lating the whole of the agricultural mind 
 throughout the kingdom. He made the dis- 
 covery, that his fertilising stimulants were 
 stripped of half their value when applied to 
 wet or ill-cultivated land. - " Hence," says 
 the reviewer already quoted, " he became the 
 eager advocate of thorough drainage, and 
 that thorough preparation of the soil, which 
 can only be effected by the best class of 
 ploughs, hari'ows, horse-hoes, and clod-crush- 
 ers. His customers would have been cus- 
 tomers no longer, unless he could have con- 
 vinced them that the fault was in themselves, 
 and not in the goods. He argued to ears 
 which had, at least, been opened, and pre- 
 vailed without the assistance of the hedge- 
 stake. A man grudged growing weeds on a 
 fertile soil, for which he had paid hard 
 cash ; nor could a manure that cost £10 or 
 £12 a ton, be refused the economy of a 
 machine to distribute it carefully; and thus 
 drill husbandry spread, led by pipe-drains 
 from Norfolk, Sufiblk, and Bedfordshire, into 
 every county of England, and with it brought 
 all the machines and implements required for 
 a clean, rapid, concentrated cultivation." 
 
 THE GEOLOGISTS. 
 
 The chemists having performed their work, 
 it remained for the geologists to do theirs. 
 Accordingly, Professor Henslow, the botanist, 
 had, in 1842, observed some nodules at Felix 
 Stowe, on the coast of Sufiblk; and, in the 
 following year, collected a quantity of them, and 
 forwarded them to a Mr. Potter, for analysis. 
 The manipulation proved them to be fossils, 
 commonly called coprolites, on the hypothesis 
 that they consisted of the excrement of ani- 
 mals, and containing from 50 to 55 per cent, 
 of phosphate of lime. Prom this discovery 
 the professor might have realised a fortune ; 
 but professors of science are not proverbially 
 shrewd in monetary affairs. The quarry of 
 
C. HKEX CUOl'S.l 
 
 I\I()UEKN ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [OUEES CHOPS. 
 
 coprolites was to be obtained at a common 
 rer.t ; nnd there were munuro iimimructurera 
 pnpiirod to pay lor tlio information ; but Mr. | 
 Ilenalow " did not consiilor 8ucl» a course i 
 consistent with his position as a uiuu of; 
 science and a clerfjyinan,"" Jlo was rciiuestcd 
 by Mv. Potter to keep silent I'or some months 
 upon tlio subject, as that gentleman " wiulied 
 to have the chance of availing himself of the 
 discovery." Accordingly, he sent the results 
 of his investigation to jNIr. J. B. Lawes, who 
 made the superphosphate, obtained iVom copro- 
 lites, the subject of a patent, which he, how- 
 ever, was not ablo to maintain. After this, 
 beds of coprolites were discovered in Hamp- 
 shire, Cambridgeshire, and Dorsetshire ; and 
 further investigations ia Norway put Mr. 
 Lawes in the exclusive possession of large 
 beds of a mineral called apatite, rich in 
 phosphates; of which he began to import 
 whole cargoes, for his manufactory at Bow, 
 near the English metropolis. The super- 
 phosphate of lime, however, produced from 
 fossils, being much less soluble than those 
 which are obtained from fresh bones, can 
 only be applied when mixed iu moderate 
 proportions with the latter. 
 
 GREEN CROPS. 
 
 One of the best essays ever read oa a 
 matter of agricultural art, was delivered by 
 Mr. J. K. Fowler, of Aylesbury, at the 
 Midland Earmers' Club ; the chairman, 
 Viscount Sandon, very justly praising it as 
 •• quite a model paper, full of facts." ifarmers 
 are, on most occasions, twitted with their 
 delight in '* talking turnips," and the subject 
 of Mr. Eovvler's paper was the congenial one 
 of growing green crops. Although tabular 
 statistics and elaborate calculations were kept 
 iu the background, still Mr. Eowler, in his 
 practical little treatise, has embodied as much 
 sound information as experts in other 
 branches of industry contrive to compress into 
 their literary efforts. But we will not follow 
 the thread of Mr. Eowier'a diicou;ae throusrls 
 
 the details of preparing seed-beds, sowing, 
 weeding, utilising winter and spring vetclies, 
 rye, w inter oals, trilolium, incarnalum, lucerne, 
 rape, white mu:«tard, and oilier crops, clasaod 
 as green food for the summer and early autumn 
 mouths. Neither is it necessary lor ua to 
 describe his production and treatment' of the 
 various kinds of turnips, SwedcH, Kohl liabi, 
 cabbage, and mangold- wurzel, chissed as food 
 for winter and early spring. The Biinple 
 mention of this diversified list of subjects will 
 show the wide range of agricultural produce 
 treated of iu a well-handled paper, on one single 
 but important branch of the business of the 
 farmer. Mr. Fowler's opening remark, how- 
 ever, merits attention. Very naturally allud- 
 ing to the importance of maintaining the 
 supply of animal food, he observed that the 
 great point for consideration was, how to raise 
 the largest quantity of vegetable produce for 
 feeding the live stock, not upon grass farms, 
 but upon arable or mixed farms ? He believed 
 that more stock and meat might be produced, 
 acre for acre, on arable than on grass land ; 
 and, in discussing the subject, one gentleman 
 observed — "He was glad to hear that Mr. 
 Fowler thought the growth of green crops the 
 foundation of British farming, because many 
 of the farmers of the midland counties were 
 disposed to place that fouudation upon the 
 plan of consuming a vast amount of corn by 
 their cattle. This was like beginning to build 
 a house with the chimney-pot. If, by the 
 purchase of four shillings' worth of superphos- 
 phate of lime, Peruvian guano, or other arti- 
 ficial manure, they produced one ton of roots 
 (which he held they could), and that tou was 
 worth nine shillings by their stock, then the 
 raising of their green crops must ever be the 
 foundation of agricultural progress and im- 
 provement." 
 
 In concluding this division, we must ac- 
 knowledge our great obligations to several 
 articles in the Quarterly Rfvieio, which show a 
 mastery in the treatment of agricultural sub- 
 jects, highly cre«^table to that periodical. 
 
DIVISION IX. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY OF ENGLISH FAEMING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PKOGRESS. 
 
 Up to a very recent period, tlie history of agri- 
 culture, in this country, presented a very 
 curious anomaly. A few facts were promi- 
 nently exhibited ; but the gradual progress of 
 It as an art, a manufacture, and as a branch of 
 commerce, was entirely unnoted and un- 
 chronicled : and an industrial occupation, the 
 capital of which, even thirty years ago, was 
 calculated at £217,000,000, had no history, 
 no Btatistics, no representative in the law or 
 the state — no board, no minister, no depart- 
 ment ; in fact, nothing. Yet, about a cen- 
 tury ago, this country was doing a large 
 trade as an exporter of corn. Between the 
 years 1773 and 1703, there was a sort of " pivot 
 period," when the exports and imports nearly 
 balanced each other : a slow but steady in- 
 closure of land, at the same time, began to 
 mark the consumption o*. a gradually increasing 
 trade and population ; the price of wheat ■ 
 averaged 45^. per quarter; and rents were 
 from 7s. to 10s. per acre ; so that the price of 
 a bushel of wheat was, in fact, about two- 
 thirds of the rent of an acre of land. There 
 was no account of the progress of inclosure 
 during the century ; but a committee of the 
 House of Commons, in 1797, computed the 
 total quantity at about 4,000,000 acres. 
 
 In the present century, there has been a 
 detinite record kept of inclosures, of popu- 
 lation, of corn imported, of prices, and rent of 
 laud. From 1800 to 1810, the amount in- 
 closed was 1,057,980 acres ; the population of 
 Great Britain having increased 150,087 ; while 
 the quantity of wheat imported was 6,009,408 
 quarters. From 1810 to 1820, 1,410,930 acres 
 were inclosed ; the population increased to the 
 900 
 
 extent of 1,978,523 ; but the imported wheat 
 was reduced to 4,585,780 quarters. From 
 1820 to 1830, 340,380 acres were inclosed, 
 and the population increased 2,161,495. In 
 the next decennary period, from 1830 to 1840, 
 236,070 acres only were added to the cultivated 
 soil, although the population increased by 
 2,249,648 ; while the imports gradually dimin- 
 ished. Thus, during the forty years, rather 
 more than 3,500,000 of acres were added to 
 the cultivated soil, against an increase of popu- 
 lation to the extent of 6,000,000 ; while the 
 foreign supplies did not amount, on the average, 
 to three weeks' consumption in the year, cal- 
 culated over the whole period. During this 
 time the country had passed through some 
 remarkable phases. While a large amount of 
 acreage had been brought into cultivation, the 
 circulation had been restricted to a metallic 
 currency, and wheat had fallen from 78s. 4<d.^ 
 at the close of the war, to 58s. 3d. And 
 nothing but the steady increase of population, 
 and the still more rapid increase of trade and 
 capital, could have sustained cultivation at the 
 point it had extended to ; nor was this done 
 without considerable reduction of rents, though 
 to nothing like what they had been before the 
 war. During the agitation for the repeal of 
 the corn-laws, it was thought that the measure, 
 if passed, would have the effect of throwing 
 much of the land out of cultivation ; but, on 
 the contrary, Britain was beginning to present 
 the opposite phenomenon of a population 
 overtaking the resource of fresh inclosure, and 
 compelled to have recourse to some other 
 means for increasing the produce of the soil. 
 Just at this period, agriculture begins to 
 
AGBIdrLTUEE.] 
 
 ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [aqbicultiue. 
 
 nssiimo ft diftoront ami most important aspect, amounted to no lens than 2,<X'{2. Jiiit tliia is 
 
 lour distinct elements at once conspiring to an argument equally applicable to older or- 
 
 open up new resources. Tlieso were- the in- paniscd associations, wliicli havo f^ono throuj^U 
 
 troduetion of the use of guano ; the publi- aimilar changes. Drainage, tho fourth ele- 
 
 cation, in this country, of the works of Liebig ; ment, has uiupiostionably been a j)rincipul 
 
 the establishment of tho Koyal Agricultural cause of agricultural progress, and does not 
 
 Society of England ; and tho introduction of a require illustration here. It may be observed, 
 
 new system of drainage. Q^he two first of these liowever, that there are two great heads into 
 
 elements may almost bo taken together; for, which agricultural improvement naturally di- 
 
 though the manure had been discovered which vides itself; viz., tho Chemical and tlio Me- 
 
 has since efiected a marvellous revolution, the chanical— the former applying especially to tiio 
 
 prejudice was so great against it, that, but for light soils, and the latter to tho clays. ]t is, 
 
 the authority of Liebig's name, it might 
 not have been admitted as a manure; or, in 
 other words, the manure having come, a man 
 was needed to answer the challenge ; and 
 that man was found in the distinguished Pro- 
 fessor of Giessen, whoso publications, if they 
 
 however, to the latter that we must chiefly 
 look for any increase in the production, inas- 
 much as, on tho lighter soils, the wheat crop 
 occurs only onc« in the four-course system ; 
 whilst upon the clays, whether managed upo. . 
 the six-course system, or upon the older threo 
 
 did not initiate, at least drew attention to tho course shift, it is grown upon a larger odd- 
 important and new-sounding fact, that, the mark, approaching to the ratio of a third, in- 
 bulk of a plant not being derived from the stead of a fourth, of the arable land, and is, 
 soil, the bulkiness of a manure had little to do therefore, looked to by the farmer as laruishing 
 with its value. Nor must we omit to mention the profit which, on the light soil, is drawn from 
 
 the important point subsequently established 
 by Mr. Lawes ; namely, that " the lasting 
 qualities of farm-yard manure are, in a com- 
 mercial sense, not an advantage ; for it is get- 
 ting back your money by instalments, instead 
 of getting it back all at once. A great deal of 
 your capital is placed in the laud, where it 
 lies dormant for a long time ; but science can 
 correct that evil, by enabling you to put the 
 right manure in the right place." 
 
 With regard to the third element, perhaps 
 it does not merit the same value in the cate- 
 gory of agricultural elements ; lor high patron- 
 age gives no lasting prosperity : and we must 
 not forget, that if any benefit has been derived 
 from societies, in several parts of the couutry, 
 these already existed, and still exist, to extend 
 their influence in their particular localities. If 
 the Hoyal Agricultural Society has done any 
 especial good, the seeds were sown before it 
 had been called into lite ; and it has only had 
 ihe effect of giving a stimulus to agricultural 
 pursuits, by summoning up a new race of po- 
 tent genii, and setting them all at work for the 
 farmer. This may be illustrated by the fact, 
 that at the Society's first meeting at Oxford, 
 in 1S39, for the exhibition of agricultural 
 implements, the entries were but twenty -two ; 
 while at Gloucester, in 1852, the number 
 
 the wheat and barley crop together, besides a 
 wider range of profit derived from the sheep 
 flock. It seema obvious that the improvement 
 of the clay soils to their utmost extent, is tho 
 special, nay, perhaps, the only means left to 
 us for operating in any important degree to 
 maintain the produce of wheat proportionately 
 with our increasing numbers. Accordingly, it 
 is by increased mechanical means that we 
 diminish the amount of time required for 
 bringing the land, alter the crops, into pre- 
 paration for the future crops. Much has, in- 
 deed, been done by improved implements ; but 
 the application of steam culture to the soil is the 
 greatest agricultural feat of tho dav. The 
 clavs are thereby enabled to hold the race 
 more evenly with the ligliter soils; for the 
 great inherent powers of the heavy soils then 
 come in aid to counterbalance the easier work- 
 ing of the lighter soils. These remarks naturally 
 lead us to speak of the MACiiiNEur of tue 
 FAini, under which general heading, we have 
 introduced some articles which may not pro- 
 perly be called machinery, but which, never- 
 theless, take a part in the numerous appliances 
 of the agriculturist, farmer, or husbandman. 
 The whole of this division we have arranged 
 alphabetically, as it gives greater clearness and 
 facility of reference. 
 
 901 
 
HXTiiMELLEE.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [sBEAKiNa macsii,-b. 
 
 ASPHALTING APPARATUS. 
 This is au apparatus used for asphalt floor- 
 in^'-, being well knowu as the best, cheapest, 
 and most healthy flooring for barns. It ren- 
 ders every description of agricultural building 
 impervious to VFet, not liable to decay, and se- 
 cure from the touch of vermin. The materials 
 are cheap, and the cauldron used for it may 
 also be used for boiling cattle-food. The price 
 of 100-gallon size, with working-tools, is about 
 
 £17. 
 
 AXLES AND WHEELS. 
 
 The naves of these wheels are of iron, cast 
 on chills, by which the wearing parts become 
 go hard as to resist tlie file ; the spokes are of 
 oak, and the Iclloes of ash. They are made by 
 machinery, which, from the accuracy this gives, 
 jenders them superior to those made by hand. 
 They are also durable, and run easy. Mr. 
 Crosskill is both their inventor and maker; 
 and upwards of 90,000 of them have been sold 
 for various purposes, and sent to every quarter 
 of the globe. Price, per pair, £8 5s. ; if with 
 tire, 3 by finch, £7 IO5.; and 2^ by finch, 
 £7. An improved set may be purchased for 
 £10 lis. Four pairs of patent wheels and 
 axles, fitted with naves cast on steel pins, have 
 also been highly spoken of. The spokes are 
 made of the best malleable iron, one end of 
 which is cast into the nave, the opposite end 
 having a box screwed firmly on to receive the 
 felloe ; the end of the spoke is let up into 
 the felloe by au auger, thereby preventing the 
 destructive mortice holes. The tire is shrunk 
 on hot, in the usual way. Price, No. 1, one 
 pair 4 feet 6 inches high, 2^ inches tire, 2} 
 inches axle, £6 106\ per pair; No. 2, one pair 
 3 feet 6 inches high, 2i inches tire, 2j inches 
 axle, £5 10s. ; No. 3, one pair 4 feet high, 2 
 inches tire. If inches axle ; and No. 4, 1 pair 
 o feet high, 2 inches tire. If inches axle, 
 £12 12s., with boxes to carry oil. 
 
 BARLEY HUMMELLER. 
 This implement is designed to separate the 
 horns from the barley. It is fitted with re- 
 volving cutters and wire cylinder, so that it 
 will take oft" the horns, and, at the same time, 
 separate them from tiio barley, at the rate of 
 about two bushels per minute. Its price is 
 about £3 .12s. One of these machines, in- 
 y02 
 
 vented by Mr. Holben, of Barton, Cambridge- 
 shire, consists of an elevating apparatus, which 
 supplies the corn direct from the dressing-ma- 
 chine, and a breaker, making nearly 300 strokes 
 per minute, under which the barley passes in 
 a thin layer, at the rate of from ten to twelve 
 quarters per hour. Whilst this process is 
 going on, it, at the same time, brightens and 
 improves the samples, which are delivered per- 
 fectly free from awns. It is easily worked by 
 a lad ; whereas all other machines for the pur- 
 pose require two men. The price is £5 10s. 
 
 BREAKING MACHINES 
 Are now very much in use. One, invented 
 by Mr. Nicholson, of Newark, Norwich, has 
 received high commendation, and was, at Ches- 
 ter, awarded the prize for being the best for 
 common cake. It is made with Nicholson's 
 patent method of driving the movable roller 
 with an internal cog-wheel ; thus obtaining an 
 unusually great variation in size, broken in a 
 simple and effective manner, and greatly dimin- 
 ishing the friction and power required to work 
 it. Its strength and simplicity are further in- 
 creased by a new and effective setting arrange- 
 ment. The price is £3 13s. 6J. Another, manu- 
 factured by Messrs Airaes and Barford, re- 
 ceived the first prize at the North Lincolnshire 
 shows, open to all England, both in 1S60 and 
 1861, in competition with all the prize machines 
 by the best makers : it is immensely strong, and 
 adapted for either hand, horse, or steam power. 
 This machine is fitted with two sets of rollers, 
 both of which are adjusted by a double eccen- 
 tric movement. It will reduce the hardest 
 and largest cakes into seven sizes, varying 
 from the largest size required for bullocks, 
 down to dust for drilling. Price, including 
 dust-screen and wood box, £6 10s. ; pulley 
 for power, 12s. Qd. extra. 
 
 Other oil-cake breakers have obtained con- 
 siderable celebrity ; and among these are 
 those manufactured by Messrs. Ransome and 
 Sons, of Ipswich, Suftblk. They have one both 
 powerful and effective. It is fitted with a 
 pair of toothed rollers, for breaking the hardest 
 cake; and, by means of a parallel adjustment, 
 the distance between the rollers may be varied 
 so as to reduce coarse or fine at pleasure. 
 It is fitted with another roller and face-plate, 
 through which the broken cake may be made 
 
CAiiTB ATO) WAOGoxs.] OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [CAHTS AWD "WAOOOyS. 
 
 to pass when required to bo reduced to powder 
 for mnnure. The jirico of tliis maohino is 
 £12 5*. (id. — Another, by the samo miikera, 
 and callt'il a Combined Mill niul Oil-cake 
 Breaker, consists of a benii-outter, nu oat-mill, 
 and an oil-calve breaker ; all conibined on a 
 neat iron stand. This is a cheap, durable, and 
 cilifient mill, for cuttinj* oats and beans, and 
 breakinfj; oil-cake for beasts and sheep. Its 
 price is £0 9s.; pulley for steam-power rxira. 
 
 CARTS AND WAGGONS. 
 Carts and wajxgons of every de8cri|ition, and 
 for every conceivable purpose to facilitate 
 farming operations, have been invented and 
 improved. The Nevrcastlo prize or model 
 one-horse cart, invented by "\V. Crosskill, 
 has had awarded, by the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society of England, the Silver Medal, at Lin- 
 coln, and the first prize of £5, at Newcastle. 
 It is plain and durable ; useful for general pur- 
 poses ; and, we are informed, that upwards of 
 6,500 have been sold. It has loose side and 
 end-boards ; a simple tipper for delivering 
 manure, &c., in heaps, and patent wheels. 
 Its price is £14 55. ; or, with harvest shelving 
 £15 15s. — A light spring cart, by the same 
 maker, has had awarded to it the prize of £2 
 for a cheap market cart, by the Eoyal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, at Leeds; also, 
 the first prize by the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland. It has patent wheels, 
 4 ft. 6 in. high, Ij in. convex tire, to carry 
 15 cwt., and is well adapted for a nag-horse to 
 convey luggage, &c. Price, £12 15s. — A 
 harvest cart, invented by J. Hannam, Esq., of 
 Burcott Park, is a very good one. It possesses 
 a light and low body (expressly adapted for 
 carrying hay, corn, &c.), and patent wheels, 
 4 ft. 6 in. high, with convex tire — which does 
 not injure grass land like the flat tire with 
 aharp edges — 4 in. wide. Its price is £14, or, 
 with front and hind ladder.s or raves, £15 10s. 
 Thi?, also, has had a prize awarded it. An 
 improved one-horse cart, with harvest frame, 
 is a capital implement for farm work ; and there 
 is a very good one, made by Woods and Cock- 
 sedge, Stowmarket, Suffolk. It has been 
 awarded a first prize by the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society of England ; and is made of the beat 
 seasoned timber ; fitted with an improved self- 
 acting tipping apparatus, with side boards, 
 
 florap-iron arms, fagoted, Bteeled, and turned 
 up, boxed and capped, with the improved 
 fall linch-pin, rendering accident imposBible ; 
 11-apoko patent boxccl iron nave wheels ; navo 
 of the best seasoned English timber; tire of 
 wheels, 4 in. wide, and § in. thick. Price, com- 
 plete, £15 10s; without the harvest frame, 
 £18 10s. — ]\rr. Thompson, of Lewes, Sussex, 
 sells a combined one-horse cart, water-cart, 
 and irrigator ; invented, improved, and manu- 
 factured by him. This implement obtained 
 the first prize — a gold medal — and 250 franca 
 in Paris, in 1S5G, and is a complete one-horse 
 cart, which, by a very simple and effective con- 
 trivance, can instantly be converted into a 
 water-cart, and with an irrigating apparatus 
 for water or liquid manure; its slight addi- 
 tional cost, beyond that of an ordinary cart, lias 
 commanded an extensive sale. Price, £18. — 
 The improved harvest cart, by Messrs. Hayes 
 and Sons, Stamford, Lincolnshire, has a great 
 advantage over all other carts, being low to 
 the ground, very roomy, mounted upon wheels 
 with 3 5-inch hoop tires, and Scotch iron axle- 
 tree, ao arranged that the wheels and axle can 
 be removed in a few minutes, when not re- 
 quired for harvest, and put under a manure 
 Scotch cart body, as preceding ones. Its 
 price is £13 los. — A pair-horse waggon, in- 
 vented by W. Crosskill, has had awarded, by 
 the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, the 
 first prize of £10 at Norwich, £10 at Exeter, 
 £5 at Lewes, £10 at Gloucester, and £3 at 
 Leeds. This implement has patent wheels, 
 3 ft. 4 in. and 4 ft. 9 in. high, 2^ by in. tire ; 
 ia light, will carry 3 tons, and turn in a short 
 space. Price, with pole or single shafts, 
 £29 10s., and with double break, £32 10s. ; 
 harvest ladders, £1 10s. extra. — Tiie Yorkshire 
 waggon has had awarded the first prize ot 
 £7 by the Eoyal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land. It is constructed with oak soles, and 
 stout red deal or plank sides. ^Haa patent 
 wheels, 3 ft. 9 in. and 4 ft. 9 in. high, 3 by 
 2 in. tire, to carry 3 tons. Price, with pole 
 or single shafts, £30 10s. ; and with deep side 
 and end-boards, to put on for carrying bones, 
 soot, &c., £32 10s. ; drag-chain and shoe, £1 
 extra. — A light waggon, improved by Cross- 
 kill, has its framework of the body constructed 
 of oak, and lined with red deal. It has patent 
 wheels, 3 ft. and 4 ft. hiirh. 2h by ^ in. tire, 
 
 003 
 
CHAi'i--cuTrEES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [chaff-cutters. 
 
 will carry 30 cwt., and turn in a short space. 
 This is a neat and useful vehicle, suitable for 
 one horse, or a pair of ponies. Price, £21 with 
 single shafts. 
 
 A two or ihree-horse waggon, invented and 
 manufactured by Messrs. Hayes, is excellent 
 for quick delivery of corn, flour, or any other 
 produce. It is mounted upon springs and 
 patent axles, of the best manufacture, and will 
 carry 60 cwt. It is fitted with pole, or two 
 pairs of shafts, so arranged that either pair will 
 work with a single horse. It has a seat in 
 front, whereby the horses can be driven at a 
 fast rate. The body is so constructed, with a 
 circular front, made of iron, that it will turn in 
 twenty feet of ground; the front wheels, 
 4 ft. 4 in. high ; and body no higher from 
 the ground than ordinary waggons without 
 springs : a great advantage in loading and 
 unloading, and easy draught. This waggon 
 has obtained several first-class prizes. Price, 
 £i2 10s. — The same makers produce a light 
 one-horse spring waggon or van, mounted upon 
 patented axles, and fitted with four side and 
 three cross springs, of the best manufacture. 
 The front wheels lock under ; body wide and 
 square, up-fitted with floating raves, and 
 strengthened with angle iron plates, for top 
 loading. The framing of the body is made of 
 the best English oak. In every respect, it is 
 complete for railway carriers, merchants, and 
 manufacturers ; and very suitable for town or 
 country. — Its price is £35. It would be al- 
 most endless to describe all the excellent carts 
 and waggons in use. They are, as we have 
 said before, of every kind ; and almost every 
 maker has his patented article. 
 
 CHAFF-CUTTERS. 
 Chaflf-cutters are, like carts, very numerous, 
 many of them exhibiting very slight dif- 
 ferences in their construction. One is espe- 
 cially arranged for small occupations, fitted 
 with toothed rollers, and having all the work- 
 ing parts securely protected. Its price is 
 £2 105. — Another is constructed entirely of 
 iron, having the improved form of toothed 
 rollers, rising mouth, and adjustments similar 
 to the larger machines. Its price is £3 15s. — 
 Another is constructed to work by a simple 
 arrangement of wheels, instead of worm ; fitted 
 with an improved form of toothed roller, rising 
 904. 
 
 mouth, patent steel mouth-piece, and arranged 
 to vary the length of cut without change 
 wheels. This is well adapted for export, pack- 
 ing in a small compass. Price, £5 10*. — An- 
 other has a stop-motion, and a patent steel 
 mouth-piece, which is never worn hollow or un- 
 even by the friction of the passing knives. 
 Price, £7. — Another, of greater power and ca- 
 pacity, is adapted for steam or horse-power ; 
 fitted with the patent steel mouth and other 
 improvements, the rising mouth adjusting 
 itself to all and every variation or irregularity in 
 feeding. Price, £10. — Another is constructed 
 on entirely new principles, having two pairs of 
 feed-rollers acting independently of each other, 
 with the steel mouth-piece and stop motion. 
 The accuracy of the fitting, and the solidity of 
 construction, recommend this implement for 
 steam-power. — Besides these, Mr. Samuelson, 
 of Banbury, has invented a chaflf-cutter on an 
 iron frame, and adapted for hand or machine 
 power. The feed-rollers are self-adjusting, to 
 suit the thickness of straw or hay, so as to keep 
 it at a uniform pressure. It is fitted with 
 stop motion, enabling the man feeding to throw 
 it out of gear without stopping the driving 
 power. It has two knives, and the size of 
 mouth is 11 in. by 3^ in. ; intended to cut 
 1-inch chaff, but wheels for other lengths are 
 supplied at 5s. per length extra. Price (car- 
 riage-paid to any principal railway station in 
 England, Scotland, and to Dublin, Cork, or 
 Waterford), with pulley, £10 15*.; without 
 pulley, £10. — Messrs. Eansome, of Ipswich, 
 produce chaff'-cutters adapted for large occupa- 
 tions, railway carriers, job-masters, &c. These 
 may be used by steam or water-power ; cuts 
 ■jSyth, ^, and f-inch lengths, and more, if so 
 ordered. They are fitted with rising and fall- 
 ing rollers, adapting themselves to the thick- 
 ness of the feed ; have three knives, and will 
 cut from 30 to 35 cwt. of l-inch chaff per hour. 
 The cog-wheels are all covered over, and fitted 
 with striking-out gear. The box can be re- 
 moved when not at work. Price, £24 ; pulleys 
 for steam-power, extra. — Another, by the same 
 makers, can be worked by one or two men, 
 horse or steam-power. , It cuts diflerent 
 lengths of chaft"; viz.,i and i inch, or a greater 
 variety, if ordered. It has rising rollers and 
 patent striking-out gear, and is well adapted 
 for General use. Can be fitted with two or 
 
cm 
 
 •iixs.] 
 
 OK I'NOLTSIl FAKMTXG. 
 
 [ci.oD-cnusnEns. 
 
 three knives, as ordered. Price : for one man, 
 
 iClO lOs. ; for two nuMi, £ll ; for hor.-<c-power 
 only, £10 10s.; stoam-pDwer only, .Cll 11*. 
 — The prize chatV-cuttinc; engine, for steam- 
 power, was invented by the hite Hugh Carson, 
 of Warminster, and improved and inanufaclured 
 bv the Messrs. liansomo. It was awanhui the ■ 
 only prize at the Canterbury meeting of the 
 Eo\al Agrieultural Society, and at tlie Cardiff 
 meeting of tlie Batli and West of Enghind 
 Soeitty. Tlio mouth of this machine is lOi 
 inches wide, and it will rise to 5 inches deep. 
 It has two pairs of feed-rollers, rising mouth, 
 and roller, and will cut three lengths of chaff'. 
 The feed can be stopped or reversed instantly 
 at the will of the feeder, or in case of accident. 
 It has three convex knives ; and its price is 
 £13 I'o^. ; pulley for power and change-wheels 
 extra. 
 
 CHURNS. ! 
 
 Although these implements can hardly be 
 said to belong to the machinery of the farm^ ; 
 properly speaking, still they are very necessary 
 in the manipulations carried on in one depart- 
 ment of it. Accordingly we will describe a 
 few of them that have obtained some degree of 
 celebrity. The improved barrel-churn con- 
 sists of a sort of barrel, made of the best oak 
 wood, hung on a frame, so as to revolve 
 without much friction ; the cream is put 
 inside, and the whole turned round by means 
 of the handles ; in this manner the cream is 
 thoroughly shaken, with the least possible ex- 
 penditure of power. It is adapted for from 2 
 to 40 lbs. of butter. Price, £1-.— The patent 
 Sussex churn, invented by Green and Hale, of 
 Brighton, improved by R. Green, of London, 
 and manufactured by Perkins and Son, of 
 London, is made of block tin, with trough for 
 placing hot or cold water, to obtain, at any 
 season of the year, the proper temperature: 
 to make 7 lbs. of butter. Price £I 5*. — 
 The patent American churn, invented by C. I. 
 Anthony, of America, has received prizes at all 
 the meetings of the Eoyal Agricultural Society 
 since its introduction, including that given 
 at the Great Exhibition of ISOl. It is simple 
 in construction, easily cleaned, and the opera- 
 tion of making butter is usually performed in ' 
 ten minutes. The principle is, that by means 
 of cells in the dasher, the air is forced through 
 5 z 
 
 the cream, thereby causing a greater separa- 
 tion of partich'9 to take place, and also a 
 larger quantity of butler to bo made. Tlio 
 price, to make 3 lbs. of butter, ia £l lOs. 
 
 CLf)I). CRUSHERS. 
 
 The clod-crusher, invented by AVilliam Cross- 
 kill, (if Beverley, is an improvement upon tho 
 well-known roller to which tho gold medal of 
 tho Society was awarded, in ISIG; and it re- 
 ceived tho first prize at the competitive trial 
 of clod-crushers at Warwick. The roller-discs 
 are made of different diameters, in order that 
 they may be cleaned by the irregular motion 
 produced ; and they are kept in an upright 
 position by a novel arrangement of the bosses 
 or centres. The 6 ft. size is most generally 
 used. Its price is £16 10*. ; travelling-wheels, 
 £2 extra. — There is a cast-iron press-wheel 
 clod-crusher or land-roller, invented, improved, 
 and manufactured by Messrs. Amies and 
 Benford, Peterborough, Northamptonshire, 
 with cylinders or rings 30 inches diameter, on 
 Cambridge's principle ; but the frame is made 
 wholly of wrought iron, and has a steerage 
 wheel and guide-rod, instead of the ordinary 
 wood shafts. By this arrangement the undue 
 strain upon the shaft horse is avoided, and a 
 saving of at least one-third in power is effected ; 
 the greatest possible strength is also secured. 
 It ia provided with a seat for the driver, 
 which enables him to dispense with the services 
 of a boy, as, with the assistance of reins, he has 
 perfect control over both horses and imple- 
 ment. The price, fitted with patent scrapers, 
 is £19. — jMessrs. Wedlake and Dcndy, Ilorn- 
 ciiurch, Essex, have registered an economic 
 clod-crusher and pulveriser. Tho great defect 
 of all rollers and revolving clod-crushers is, that 
 when the soil is partially pulverised, they have 
 a tendency, instead of crushing the remaining 
 clods, to press them into the loose soil beneath, 
 so that the process of harrowing and rolling 
 must frequently be repeated, and the land thus 
 often rendered hard and solid, without effect- 
 ing the desired pulverisation. This defect is 
 said to be both easily and quickly remedied by 
 the economic pulveriser, which rubs the clods 
 into a fine mould, at the same time levelling 
 the surface of the land, and leaving it light, 
 friable, and in a greatly improved condition. 
 Price £5 15s. 
 
 905 
 
CHEESE PEES3ES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [cultivators. 
 
 ' CORN-SCREENS. 
 
 The corn-screen, or smut machine, tas a 
 diameter of 14 inches, and consists of iron 
 conical-flated scrubbers, interspersed with 
 covered fans at suitable distances. Immediately 
 the grain leaves the machine an exhaust-blast 
 is applied, which draws chaff and light seed up 
 from the good grain. Price, £30.— Another 
 implement of this kind, invented, improved, 
 and manufactured by William Ball, of Both- 
 well, had awarded a silver medal by the Eoyal 
 Agricultural Society of England, at Chelmsford, 
 an°d the first prize at the trial of corn-screens 
 by the Eoyal Agricultural Society, at Chester. 
 This machine effectually separates all the thin 
 kernel from either wheat, barley, or sainfoin, 
 and gives an equal and weighty sample by 
 means of a patent screen that clears itself at 
 every oscillation. It will screen about sixty 
 bushels per hour. Price, £7. 
 
 A new implement of this description, in- 
 vented by Mr. Boly, of Bury St. Edmund's, 
 has two screens, worked from one spindle. 
 The advantage of this is, that the same lad era- 
 ployed to turn a No. 1 screen, can work this, as 
 it requires no more power, one screen acting as 
 a counterbalance to the other ; and, compared 
 with a No. 1 screen, just double the work can 
 be done. It will screen, in fact, ISO bushels 
 per hour. Price, £16. 
 
 CHEESE-PRESSES. 
 
 A single cheese-press, with wooden stool and 
 double lever and pulley, invented by the late 
 Hugh Carson, of Warminster, has been, and 
 is now, improved and manufactured by Messrs. 
 Wedlake and Dendy. It has a compound 
 lever, and a pulley at the end of the second 
 lever, over which a chain passes, secured at 
 one end to the press, and, at the other, the 
 weights are suspended ; the effective weight is 
 thereby doubled, and great pressure obtained 
 for large cheeses. There are four weights, 
 which can be used as occasion requires, de- 
 pending on the state of the cheeses. The 
 price of this implement is £2 15s. — Another, 
 by the same makers, has received prizes from 
 the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, at 
 Chester, and a silver medal at Salisbury ; from 
 the Bath and West of England Society, at 
 Newton Abbott ; and at Cardiff. It is similar 
 900 
 
 in principle to the other, but has an iron stool, 
 eighteen inches in diameter, with a channel for 
 carrying off the whey which runs from the 
 cheeses. Price, £3. — A cheaper press is made 
 by Messrs. Wightman and Dening, Chard, 
 Somerset. It has been improved by a roller 
 being placed on each side of the follower, to 
 facilitate its working against the uprights, or 
 guides, thereby preventing friction. It occu- 
 pies but small space, and the pressure can be 
 regulated from 1 to 16 cwt., by means of a 
 weight shifting on a lever. Its price is 
 £2 10s. 
 
 CORN-DRYING MACHINE. 
 
 A patent corn-drying apparatus, invented 
 and improved by Don and Co., of London, and 
 manufactured by Smith and Co., of Leeds, is, 
 perhaps, rather expensive for most farms. It 
 is made for drying all kinds of grain, seeds, or 
 berries ; is heated by steam, and fitted with 
 apparatus to exhaust the steam as it is given 
 off from the grain. It is well adapted for the 
 drying of Egyptian and Black Sea wheat, or 
 other grain which has been washed, for the 
 purpose of freeing it from clods of earth or 
 other impurities, and for mollifying the 
 grain which has been injured by salt water, or 
 found too dry for grinding purposes. Com- 
 plete, and fixed in London, its price is £150. 
 
 CULTIVATORS. 
 
 Messrs. Eobinson and Son, of Burtou-upon- 
 Huuiber, Lincolnshire, have invented a drag- 
 harrow, or cultivator, suitable for working tal- 
 lows. It is made almost exclusively of wrought 
 iron ; the teeth can be moved either horizon- 
 tally or vertically, so as to suit the number of 
 teeth to the state of the land. The principal 
 improvement consists in one lever in the middle, 
 raising and lowering the whole of the harrow, 
 without the aid of side levers, as in other cul- 
 tivators. They are made of various widths, to 
 suit different occupations ; and the price is 
 £10 10s. 
 
 A chain harrow, invented by Cartwright, 
 of Shrewsbury, consists in the absence of any 
 rigid links in the body of the harrow, which, in 
 some states of the soil, have a tendency to clog ; 
 the links are expanded by improved bars, which 
 ! only touch the extremities of the harrow, leav- 
 ! ing all the links free. The size 9 feet wide by 
 
DIBDUXO MACUDTE.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH rAHMIXG. 
 
 [UUKSSINO MACillNES. 
 
 7 feet G inches, and very atroni":, is chartjed 
 £G ios. Messrs. ISiuith aiui Taylor, of Ips- 
 wich, have u patent cultivatiir, or broailshare, 
 adapted for all the purposes ol' a bromi share, 
 scarifier, or drag-harrow, lilted with live 
 wrought iron tines, arranged so that either 
 shares or points may bo used, which can be 
 raised out of the ground backwards. It is 
 similar to a drag-rake, and is self-relieving, 
 when choked with weeds, stubble, &e., or when 
 turning at the ends of the land. Fitted with 
 side levers, to regulate the depth of work, it 
 is charged £9 10s. 
 
 Mr. Charles Clay's cultivator and cradica- 
 tor is a very good implement, applicable to all 
 cultivating purposes, such asbroadsharing, cul- 
 tivating, and grubbing. The tines are lixed to 
 revolving bars by keys, in a very simple man- 
 ner, and are raised out of the soil backwards, 
 similar to a horse-rake. Prizes have been 
 awarded by the Koyal Society, at A\'arwick, 
 and by the Council of the Paris Exhibition, as 
 well as by numerous local societies, to this cul- 
 tivator, and it is now well known as a first-class 
 implement. It is worked by two horses, with 
 five tines. Price, £7. — This maker has also a 
 new implement adapted to steam-power. It 
 runs on one pair of wheels, five feet in diame- 
 ter; requii'es one-half the usual power, and 
 does not require to be turned at the ends. The 
 tines are mounted upon revolving bars or axles ; 
 and, by reversing the engine, the tines place 
 themselves in and out of work without any at- 
 tention from the man, who sits at one end of 
 the implement, and steers by a lever attached 
 to the large pair of wheels, which are in the 
 middle of the frame. Its price is £iO. 
 
 DIBBLING MACHINE. 
 
 A new patent grain and seed-dibbling or 
 planting machine, with six planting wheels, 
 invented and manufactured by Mr. Freer, of 
 liothly, Leicestershire, is an expensive imple- 
 ment, but of excellent construction. It deposits 
 its seeds by hollow iron wheels, which, when 
 drawn over the ploughed soil, press holes, con- 
 centrating the ploughed soil, and reuniting it 
 with the subsoil, by which means the roots of 
 the plants are conducted deep into the earth. 
 Another advantage of concentrating the soil 
 beneath the nots is, that the surrounding 
 loose soil, as it falls by the weather, breaks from 
 
 the steins, allowing them to expand, and niakinf^ 
 the crop less liable to bo brought down by 
 storms. The maeiiino is capable of depoMilinf; 
 from one peck to four bunhels per acre ; but not 
 more than half the seed used by tho drill is 
 required to produce an average of Ovo bushols 
 per acre more than witli the <lrill. It in also 
 durable, and warranted to work elDciently. 
 Its j)rice is £00. 
 
 DRESSING IMACIIINES. 
 Of these machines there are several good 
 makers, each of whom has his own improve- 
 ment to recommend. Mr. Crosskill's has five 
 riddles, and two screens for wheat, beans, &c., 
 and can bo used as a blower by removing the 
 riddles. It is very simple and ellective, and an 
 immense number are now in use. Price, 
 £8 10*. Messrs. Holmes and Sons have 
 manufactured 3,000 of these machines, which 
 are very efficient and simple. They turn easy 
 for the man ; will dress a large quantity, mak- 
 ing a good sample; are very .strong, and fitted 
 up with great care. Price, £9 95. ; carriage 
 wheels, 7*. 6d. extra. — The sauie makers have 
 another, which is very useful for small oc- 
 cupations, and is much approved. It is 
 made on the same principle as the preceding, 
 but smaller, with riddles of 18 by 10 ; and the 
 price makes it a favourite in small occupa- 
 tions. It is £o lO*. — A 20-in. riddle corn- 
 dressing machine, for all kinds of grain, is 
 made by Messrs. Stacey and Sons. With 
 improved wind-board it is convertible, with 
 ease, into a powerful blower or rectifier; 
 being simple, and its perforn)ance equal to the 
 more complicated arrangements. Fitted with 
 six corn-sieves, its price is £10 10s. — Another, 
 to which upwards of forty prizes have been 
 awarded during the last twelve years, including 
 the first prize at the Highland and Agri- 
 cultural Society's shows, held at Glasgow, 
 Edinburgh, and Dumfries; and lirst and second 
 prizes at Perth. These machines efiectuaUy 
 separate the grain from all impurities; are 
 easily driven, and deliver the grain at the side; 
 They are made by llicliardson, of Carlisle, in 
 Cumberland. Price, £9 10*. — Another, for 
 hulling clover and trefoil seed, and made by 
 the liev. li. Hunt, of Earl's Colue, Essex, 
 received the prize at the Bath and West of 
 England show, and the silver medal at Carlisle. 
 
 907 
 
DUILLS.} 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [i-aem EAiLWATa. 
 
 It is for separating the husk or hull from the 
 seed, which it does in a most expeditious man- 
 ner, and without injury to it; a dressing 
 apparatus is attached for separating chaft", 
 seed, and hard cob, mounted on four wheels 
 for travelling. Its price is £46. 
 
 DRILLS. 
 These implements are made by numerous 
 manufacturers, but are all very similar in their 
 construction. What is called the Improved 
 Suffolk Lever Corn Drill, made by Messrs. 
 Garrett and Son, obtained the prize of £10 at 
 Norwich. It is adapted for drilling in rows, 
 at any distance apart, wheat, barley, beans^ 
 peas, and other grain ; also turnips, mangel- 
 wurzel, and other seeds, on every description 
 of land, and will deposit quite evenly on steep 
 or side hills. The price of the 13-row drill, 
 with good levers, is £26 15s. — Messrs. Holmes 
 and Son have a seed and manure drill, on the 
 flat ridge. This machine received the highest 
 prize of the Eoyal Society of Leeds, and has 
 rollers working between the manure and seeds, 
 which effectually cover the manure, and leave 
 the ridges in their proper form. The seed is 
 also covered up by a light roller following, 
 when worked as a ridge drill. Price, £25. 
 —Messrs. Tasker and Sons have invented a 
 broad-cast corn-sowing machine, which delivers 
 the corn by cups from the box on to a wire 
 screen, which distributes it regularly, the 
 quantity is regulated by difterent-sized cog- 
 wheels. Three screens are sent with each 
 machine, to be used according to the descrip- 
 tion of corn to be sown. One horse can draw 
 it, and twenty acres a-day can be gone over. 
 Price, £1G 10s. — They have also invented a 
 corn drill for eleven rows. This implement will 
 drill every description of grain in rows at any 
 distance apart, from six inches and upwards, 
 and is seventy inches wide between the car- 
 riage-wheels. The quantities sown are regu- 
 lated by diiferent-sized cog-wheels, and the 
 supply of corn from the box to the barrel by 
 movable slides. The price, fitted with im- 
 proved steerage, is £27 10*. ; without steerage, 
 £123. — Another machine of theirs, the nine- 
 row corn and seed drill, is suitable for small 
 occupations. It will drive all kinds of grain 
 and turnip seed, the quantities being varied by 
 different-sized cog-wheels. The distance be- 
 908 
 
 tween the rows may be increased to suit the 
 various crops. The whole of the different 
 parts are arranged as simply as possible. 
 Price, £21; mangel-barrel, £1 10s. extra. — 
 They have, besides, a drill for sowing turnips 
 and mangel-wurzel seed with manure. The 
 quantity of manure drilled can be regulated 
 by a slide moved by racks and pinions, and can 
 be adjusted, at pleasure, by the man in at- 
 tendance. It is 84 inches between the car- 
 riage-wheels. Price, £24 10s. ; steerage, 
 £4 10s. extra. 
 
 ELEVATORS. 
 A portable straw elevator was invented by 
 James Hayes, of Elton, and improved and 
 manufactured by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttle- 
 worth. It is adapted for taking the strr.w 
 from the end of shakers, when worked in con- 
 junction with a portable thrashing machiue, to 
 the height of 20 feet, or more ; absorbs very 
 little power ; will deliver the straw, in any 
 direction, from a straight line to right angles, 
 and is calculated to save the labour of three 
 men. Tiie price is £59. — The same firm has 
 another implement, invented by S. "W. Cam- 
 pain, of Deeping St. Nicholas, and improved 
 by them. It is adapted for conveying the 
 straw, by means of an endless wire rope, to any 
 distance, height, or angle. The apparatus is 
 simple, and not liable to get out of order. 
 Price, complete, including carriage for travel- 
 ling, £45. — Another implement, of a similar 
 description, was invented by James Hayes, of 
 Elton. It is worked in conjunction witli the 
 portable thrashing machine, and will deliver 
 the straw 20 feet from the machine, on to a 
 stack at any angle, which saves, also, the labour 
 of three men. Price, £59. 
 
 FARM RAILWAYS. 
 
 Specimens of improved portable farm rail- 
 ways, invented by William Crosskill, have 
 appeared at various exhibitions. The rails are 
 constructed to carry loads of 15 cwt., and are 
 made of wood edged with iron where tiie 
 wheels run, and framed together in lengths of 
 15 feet. These lengths are connected by an 
 improved fastening-piece, easily adjusted, and 
 not liable to get out of order. Price, 4s. per 
 running yard. There i*^ an additional charge 
 for points, switches, &c. Trucks are con- 
 
QUUUBEH8.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [nABBOWB. 
 
 structed to run on this portable railway — ono to cut or break tho "couch," but draw it from 
 to tip the load on either side, and one to tip tho soil, and deliver it on tho Hurface. The 
 endwise. Price, JL'5 10a'. each. — An in\proved price, with five conltorH, ia £5, incrcasinp £1 
 turn-tablo for portable railways, ulso invented , for every additional two coulterH, up to eU-vcn, 
 
 by William Crosskill, is constructed to fit the 
 portable railway, 2 ft. G in. gauge, and is found 
 to be an important addition to it when re- 
 quired to turn the trucks at right angles, or 
 
 for which tho price in dCS. 
 
 Grubbers, scarifiers, scufflfrs, &c., perform 
 a very important function in agriculture, di- 
 minishing the amount of labour, and reducing 
 
 round sharp corners, and especially when the the expense of tillage. It has been calculated 
 
 railway is fixed in cattle-sheds, for carrynig 
 turnips, &c. Price, £5 10s. These inventions 
 have not vet been brought into very great use. 
 
 CRUBBERS AND SC.\RIFIERS. 
 If the utility of any implement is the nicasure 
 of its worth, there can be no question of the 
 value of the various classes tliat come under 
 the difl'erent denominations of grubbers and 
 scarifiers ; the great object gained by their 
 use being a very considerable saving in tho 
 number of ploughings required for any course 
 of farming, as much even as to the extent of 
 half of the number, according to the calculations 
 made by some. They are also of use in stir- 
 ring the soil in the intervals of the drills. 
 Carson's seven-share scarifier is a very excel- 
 lent implement of its kind, covering a large 
 space in its operations, and with the shares 
 made broad. — Coleman's scarifier, with five or 
 nine tines, is a well-known implement. A 
 prize medal was awarded for it at the Ex- 
 hibition of 1S51 ; and, in the report of the 
 jury, the advantage in saving of labour is thus 
 pointed out : — " Coleman's scarifier, one of the 
 best for hard ground, is five feet wide, seven 
 times as wide as a plough, and drawn by six 
 horses. These three pair, therefore, will cover 
 as much ground as seven pair at plough ; and 
 the labour, accordingly, would not be half of 
 one ploughing." It is also stated of this, that 
 it " never rises or swerves, but does its work 
 as true as a plough — doing it, therefore, once 
 for all. This is a decided advance, and greatly 
 facilitates the substitution of the scarifier for 
 the plough." A prize was also given for this 
 at the meeting at Carlisle ; and it is ranked as 
 the fii'st of the class, together with Garrett's 
 
 that, by tho use of these machines, the number 
 of ploughings is brought down to one- half, 
 and the work more efTt'ctually done. Mfssrs. 
 Bentall have long been known for their broad- 
 share : it has three or more points, the centre 
 one projecting, and may be used as a broad- 
 share with several tines, to a breadth of Git. Gin., 
 or, with the centre point alone, as a subsoil 
 plough. This implement is especially adapted 
 for heavy soil. Messrs. Bentall have also cul- 
 tivators for light land. — Messrs. Clay's imple- 
 ment, of this class, is strong, the tines being 
 raised backward, as in a horse-rake, and tho 
 width of the cup can be varied during the 
 working. — Tennant's self-cleaning grubher 
 cleans and pulverises the soil, and is ni;ide so 
 as to take to pieces easily, and be packed into 
 a small compass. 
 
 HARROWS. 
 
 Amongst the makers of harrows, Messrs. 
 Howard, of Bedford, take a high place. "JMieir 
 set of patent four-beam iron harrows are re- 
 commended as useful three-horse barrows, 
 having a width of 10 feet. Price, £4. Tlieir 
 patent jointed iron harrows are of similar con- 
 struction to these, but with six rows of teeth, 
 and furnished with joints in the centre of each 
 harrow, which allow them to adapt themselves 
 to the form of the ridges, or any unevenness of 
 the surface. By a simple arrangement tiiese 
 joints may be easily locked, or allowed as much 
 play as required: this is a valuable improve- 
 ment. It is found desirable, in very rough 
 work, to fasten the joints. AV^idth, 9} ft. 
 Price, £4< Gs. Tiieir patent jointed iron iiar- 
 rows gained the first prize, as the best light 
 harrows, at the Gloucester, Lewes, Cheiins- 
 
 and Bentall's, of wl;ich " the superiority was i ford, and AVarwick meetings of the Koyal 
 
 not contested" at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. 
 — The Messrs. Howard's scarifier is of wrought 
 iron, so made as to combine strength with 
 lightness. The coulters are formed so as not 
 
 Agricultural Society of England. The teeth 
 are arranged so as to leave a fine surface, and 
 they are adapted for a pair of horses. Width, 
 So tt. Price, £3 12s. Their patent two-beam 
 
 909 
 
HAEEOWS.] 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 [hat machines. 
 
 iron harrows are adapted for land plouglied 
 in small stitches of eight, ten, or twelve fur- 
 rows. Tliese harrows having but two beams, 
 they adapt themselves to the shape of the 
 ridge, and fall into the furrows better than 
 wider harrows. The couplings are made with 
 an improved joint, which preserves the relative 
 distance of the harrows. Width, 9 ft. Price, 
 £4i Ss. — Mr. Cambridge, of Bristol, has a pa- 
 tent-jointed self-expanding chain harrow, in- 
 vented and improved bv him. This harrow is 
 so made as to yield to the land, however un- 
 even it may be. The links are made to work 
 between each other, producing double effect. 
 It is fitted with a tubular iron whippletree, 
 which is not so heavy as wood ; yet stronger, 
 and more durable. The links are made of 
 round iron, which work cleaner and lighter in 
 draught, but producing more effect. It is so 
 constructed, that two most perfect harrows 
 are combined in one, as the front part can 
 easily be removed, and the two other parts 
 attached to the whippletree. It is 8 ft. 6 in. 
 wide, and 7 ft. 6 in. long. Its price is £6. 
 He has also a set of three four-beam patent 
 tine harrows, invented and improved by him- 
 self. They are made with thin cutting tines, 
 which are more effectual than any other. The 
 beams are of double -flanged or ribbed iron, 
 put on edge, which makes the strongest 
 beam that can be used for harrows. The tines 
 are fitted in the flanges of the beams, and 
 secured by bolts and pins, and there is no 
 possibility or their getting loose. Each tooth 
 cuts a separate track, at equal distances. The 
 price of the set is £4 10s. A set of light 
 patent solid frame harrows, with adjustable 
 teeth, have been invented and improved by 
 Messrs. Kansome and Sons. They are of en- 
 tirely novel, yet simple construction. The 
 teeth are of equal size throughout, not being 
 shanked as usually is the case, and therefore 
 very strong. They can be shifted when the 
 points are worn, so as to make the teeth as 
 long as when new. Any tooth can be taken 
 out in an instant, and replaced with the least 
 trouble. The framework is quite independent 
 of the teeth, and is not taken to pieces when 
 packed. It covers nine feet, and the price is 
 £5.— A set of patent double-action steam 
 harrows are invented and manui'actured by the 
 Messrs. Howard. They are made to work 
 910 
 
 either backwards or forwards, like the steam 
 cultivator, the attendant steering them in the 
 same manner. They are most useful imple- 
 ments after the land has been broken up by 
 the steam cultivator; and fifteen to twenty 
 acres a day may be done with them much 
 more effectually than by horse-power. Price, 
 £12. — The improved Norwegian harrow, bv 
 the same makers, is adapted for steam- 
 power, and worked backwards and forwards 
 in the same manner as the last implement. 
 Price, £18. 
 
 HAY MACHINES. 
 A great saving of labour results from the 
 use of these machines, and the work is more 
 quickly done ; the great point to be attained 
 in the construction being, that the work shall 
 be done without clogging. All the working 
 parts of the machine must, therefore, be so 
 arranged as to prevent any grass or dirt from 
 interfering with the mechanism. The patent 
 haymaking machine, invented and manu- 
 factured by Messrs. Howard, was first exhibited 
 at the Leeds meeting of the Royal Agricultural 
 Society of England, in 1861, when it gained 
 the first prize. The fork barrels are so ar- 
 ranged as to render clogging almost impossible. 
 The forks themselves are mounted on short 
 heads, in sets of three, and placed in zigzag 
 position, which more perfectly separates and 
 distributes the crop. The gear-work is strong 
 and simple ; the sliding pinions used in other 
 double-action machines for reversing the motion 
 being dispensed with. A simple eccentric 
 moves the pinions in and out of gear instantly. 
 A similar movement is also used for raising 
 and lowering the barrels. Its price is £15 ; if 
 fitted with patent roller — to prevent the grass 
 lodging on the front — 15s. extra. Their 
 patent haymaking machine is similar to the 
 preceding, but with double shafts, for two 
 horses abreast. Price, £17 ; if fitted with 
 patent roller— to prevent the grass lodging in 
 the front — 15s. extra. — Messrs. Ashley and 
 Co., of Stamford, have a patent haymaking 
 machine, to which, for ten yeai's in succession, 
 all the prizes of the Royal Societies of Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, were awarded, as 
 well as the prizes of all the principal provin- 
 cial societies : also seventeen additional prizes 
 since the expiration of the ten years; seven 
 
noEsi-Howr.]' 
 
 OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [lIORSK-UOKS. 
 
 prizes bavinpj been taken in ISOl, including 
 the tirst prize of one huiidreil guildt-rs, at the 
 great trial of haymakers, at Jlaerlein, in llol- 
 Jand. The first prize gold ined.il and 200 francs 
 were also awarded to it at the great nu'eting 
 in Paris, 18G0. It still continues to maintain 
 its well-earned reputation ; 800 having been 
 sent out during the last two years without a 
 single failure. The price of this excellent 
 machine is £15 15*. ; if with wire guard, to 
 keep the hay oft' the horse in windy weatlier, 
 15s. extra. — The same makers have another 
 similar machine ; but it has attached to it 
 double-edged steel blades, for cutting down 
 
 of Ireland, at Londonderry. It has a now 
 steerage apj)aratuH, under the iiniiadiato con- 
 trol of the man attending it, which turns tho 
 wheel, and, at the sani(> tin)e, alters tho line of 
 draught in the contrary direction. It thus 
 secures straight work on tho hill side. Price, 
 £!•. — Messrs. Priest and Woolnough have a 
 patent horse-hoe for roots, invented by theru- 
 selves. It was awarded a priz(; at tho meeting 
 of tho lioyal Agricultural Society of England, 
 at Salisbury, and lirst prize at that society's 
 meeting at Leeds. It is adapted for hoeing 
 between the rows of all drilled crops. Tho 
 hoe is made the same width as tho drills it 
 
 young thistles. — They have also patented a ' is to follow, and hoes at once as many 
 method of attaching forks to the same for rows as were drilled. Each boo works on a 
 breaking and distributing manure on grass \ separate lever, which is pressed into the ground 
 laud. Price, £15 15*. ; if with eight thistle i by weight like a drill, so that all tho ground 
 Jcnives, 32s. extra ; forks, 40s. extra ; forks and between .the plants is cut, however uneven it 
 Icuives, £3 3s. the set complete. — Another, in may be. The exhibitor's patent improve- 
 
 many respects similar to the preceding, but 
 simplified in its construction, with external 
 instead of internal shifting gear, and the fork 
 bearers revolving on a solid main axle, is made 
 
 ments are indispensable to the effective work- 
 ing of the implements. Price, £19. — Tiiey 
 have another machine for corn and roots, to 
 which was awarded a prize by the Royal 
 
 by them. It is remarkably easy to take apart i Agricultural Society of England, at Salisbury, 
 for cleaning or repairs, by an ordinary smith ; and first prize at Leeds. It is of similar con- 
 
 and the apparatus for reversing the action and 
 throwing out of gear is operated upon by means 
 of a lever at the near side, so that the man 
 has entire control of his machine without leav- 
 ing his horse. He can also raise or lower the 
 machine while going along by the side of his 
 horse. Price, extra strong, £16 IGs. 
 
 HORSE-HOES. 
 In the manufacture of hoes, Messrs. Gar- 
 rett and Sons have been very successful. 
 Their patent lever horse-lioe has successfully 
 carried off fourteen prizes — £65 in specie — 
 and five medals. It will hoe effectually all 
 drilled crops of grain or roots, and on every 
 description of soil. A man and a boy will do 
 iroin ten to fifteen acres per day, at a cost of 
 6d. per acre. Fitted with the new patented 
 ;;rraugement for regulating the position of the 
 hoe blades, its price is £19. ]\[essrs. Carson 
 and Toone have a wrought iron horse-hoe, for 
 hill sides, with hoes, and five tines ; invented 
 by the late Hugh Carson, of AVarmiuster. It 
 received a prize from the Bath and West of 
 England Society at Cardiff, and was highlv 
 commended by the Royal Improvement Society 
 
 struction to the precedimg, but set for hoeing 
 wheat. The patent improvements allow the 
 attendant to adapt the hoe to lands or ridges, 
 or side hills, as well as to regulate the depth 
 of the hoeing while it is in motion. Price, 
 £22. — Another implement for small occu- 
 pations, for turnips, &c., is similar in principle 
 to the preceding, but reduced in size, and num- 
 ber of levers and hoes, to adapt it to farms of 
 moderate extent. It is fitted with an arrange- 
 ment whereby the man steering, by depressing 
 the steerage handles, takes the hoes out of work. 
 Price, £12 12s. — Another, for small occupations 
 and general purposes, is also similar in principle 
 to the preceding, but fitted with sufficient 
 levers and hoes for two hoes to work between 
 the different rows of plants. These horse- 
 hoes are well adapted to follow small occu- 
 pation drills. Price, £14 14s. 
 
 A patent turnip-thinner and horse-hoe com- 
 bined, invented, improved, and manufactured 
 by John Eaton, had a prize of £5 awarded to 
 it at Leeds. It is especially adapted to thin 
 or bunch-out turnips or wurzels, on the ridge 
 or flat, pre;paratory to singling by hand; 
 leaving the bunclies at nine, twelve, or fifteen 
 
 911 
 
HOKSE-KAKES.] 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKT 
 
 VllOESE-EAKES. 
 
 inches apart, and hoeing all the ground be- 
 tween the rows at the same operation.— 
 Another, of a similar description, is made by 
 the same manufacturer. A man and cob horse, 
 -with these implements, will bunch-out and hoe 
 from three to four acres per day, requiring 
 only children, or inexperienced persons, to 
 follow after the cut plants are withered, leav- 
 ing the best and single plant— thus expe- 
 ditiously often saving the whole crop.— Another 
 implement enables the operator to miss the 
 plants in thin places, by simply raising the 
 handles, and thus avoid cutting-up one plant 
 that ought to be left growing, the flat hoes 
 remaining in work as before. These imple- 
 ments can be used as ordinary horse-hoes, 
 by simply taking off the revolving frame. — 
 Another implement can regulate the size of 
 the bunches left, according to the state of 
 the soil or superabundance of the plants 
 growing, by putting on longer or shorter re- 
 volving hoes. Extra hoes for the purpose 
 at 5s. per set. The price of each of these 
 machines is £6 Gs. 
 
 HORSE -RAKES. 
 These implements very materially diminish 
 the labour, and, in consequence, are very ex- 
 tensively adopted. In most of them, the tines 
 are made to act separately, so as to yield to 
 any inequality of surface. The leverage has 
 been latelymuch improved, the action beingvery 
 light. The Messrs. Howard have patented a 
 horse-rake, which has carried all the first prizes, 
 for some years past, awarded by the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England for this imple- 
 ment. It is used for collecting hay, corn, 
 stubbles, twitch grass, and leaves ; for drag- 
 ging meadows after a flood, raking in clover 
 and grass seeds, and as a weed extirpator on 
 corn crops in the spring. A guide is fixed to 
 all the rakes, to prevent the lever from being 
 strained by careless usage ; the end of the 
 guide forms loops, through which a pair of 
 reins can be passed. Extreme width, 7^ feet. 
 Price, £8 5s. ; if fitted with twenty-eight steel 
 teeth, £8 12s. (Jd. — Another, invented and 
 manufactured by the same makers, gained the 
 first, and only prize, as the best horse-rake at 
 the Leeds meeting of the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society of England, in 1861. The teeth of the 
 rakes are formed so as to collect no rubbish 
 912 
 
 with the corn, and, by a new arrangement, 
 are allowed greater freedom to adapt them- 
 selves to the irregularities of the surface. 
 The raising bar is placed above the heads of the 
 teeth ; so that when the lever is put into 
 action, the raising bar, pressing upon the heads, 
 brings the teeth out of work. Price, £8 15s. ; 
 if fitted with thirty-two steel teeth, £9 2s. Qd. 
 — Another, with movable shafts and wheels, is 
 on the same principle as the former, but made 
 so that the shafts can readily be moved to the 
 end of the rake, by which means the implement 
 can be drawn endwise through any gateway, or 
 along very narrow roads. It is well adapted 
 for "Wales, and other mountainous districts, 
 where the roads are too narrow for the ordi- 
 nary horse-rake. Price, £9 10s. — Messrs. 
 Smith and Brothers, of Thrapston, North- 
 amptonshire, have a steel-toothed horse-rake, 
 which took a prize at the Eoyal Society's 
 Show, at Salisbury ; also a special prize at the 
 Manchester and Liverpool Agricultural Show, 
 at Wigan. The beams are made of tubular 
 iron ; the teeth of spring steel ; which makes 
 it light, strong, and durable. It has a lever 
 behind to raise the teeth when the rake is full. 
 It is mounted on wrought iron wheels, which 
 are capped to prevent the hay from winding 
 round the axles. Price, £7 15s. — A patent 
 balance horse-rake, invented by C Woods, 
 of Ipswich, improved and manufactured by 
 Messrs. Eansome and Sons, is made on an 
 entirely new principle. The man rides, and, 
 by his weight, partly counterbalances the 
 teeth ; so that the work of discharging the 
 load, which is done by his foot, is greatly 
 lessened. The wheels are of wrought iron, 
 and very high, so that the draught is light. 
 This rake is especially useful when large tracts 
 of land must be covered in a short time, both 
 at home and abroad. •. It covers 10 ft. in work. 
 Price, £17 10s. — The same firm has also 
 invented and improved a lever horse-drag rake. 
 This light and effective implement rakes the 
 laud quite clean, and is unloaded without 
 stopping the horse. The form of the teeth is 
 so constructed as to enable them to carry a 
 great load. By means of a sliding-rod, each 
 alternate tooth may be raised out of work — a 
 desirable arrangement for raking twitch, &c. 
 It is fitted with side levers, by which the 
 teeth can be heightened or lowered at plea- 
 
DISTniBUTOBS.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [mIJ,L8. 
 
 euro; ami also with steel teeth. This implement 
 will cover, iu work, G ft. in. Price, .CS 5*. 
 
 MANUKK DISTRl 151 TORS. 
 
 TIio introduction of artitlciiil niaMures haa 
 necessitated the conatruction of iiuplenients 
 which shall distribute tlicin equally over the 
 surface. These distributors are well adapted 
 for the purpose. l^Fany of the drills are also 
 arranged so as to deposit these manures in an 
 even manner. 
 
 Chambers's patent broadcast manure dis- 
 tributor, invented and improved by Thomas 
 Chambers, jun., and manufactured by Messrs. 
 (larrett and Sons, has taken prizes at Lincoln, 
 Carlisle, Salisbury, and Leeds. It is made 
 with screw regulator and frame shafts ; is well 
 .•ulapted for the regular distribution of guano, 
 blood manure, salt, nitrate of soda, &c. ; and 
 will sow from two to sixty bushels per acre on 
 flat or ridge. Its price is £10. — Another, on 
 the same principle as the preceding, but of 
 more simple construction, is charged £1G 10s. 
 — The liquid manure distributor, or water-cart, 
 invented by W. Crosskill, carried the silver 
 medal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of 
 England, at Cambridge. The body is made of 
 iron plates, fitted with a brass valve, which a 
 man can open and shut as he walks by the 
 side of the horse. The spread-board is easily 
 adjusted, so as to hang level when on hill sides. 
 It is fitted with patent wheels, 4 ft. G in. high, 
 Mith convex tiro, and holds 120 gallons. 
 Price, £17 ; or, with apparatus for watering 
 four rows of turnips, &c., 15«. extra. — A 
 portable pump, for liquid manure or water, by 
 the same inventor, was awarded the first prize 
 by the Highland and Agricultural Society of 
 Scotland, at Edinburgh. It has a .'?^-in. work- 
 ing barrel of cast iron, fitted with brass valve 
 and bucket, so that it is not liable to get out 
 of order. Price, with seven feet of leather hose, 
 and three feet of copper tube, £.j lijs. ; porta- 
 ble tripod stand, 1-Js. extra. — Another liquid 
 manure distributor, or water-cart, was awarded 
 the first prize of £6 by the Koyal Agricul- 
 tural Society of England, at Leeds, 18G1. It 
 will hold 200 gallons, and is much used for 
 conveying water to cattle, portable steam- 
 engines, &c. Price, £22 ; or, with apparatus 
 for watering four rows of turnips, &c., 15s. 
 extra. — The patent manure distributor of 
 G A 
 
 Mesara. Pricat and "Woolnougli, is made for 
 depositing broadcast guano, and other artificial 
 manure-^, in (juantiticH of from three to forty 
 bushels ptT aero ; and ia fitted with a patent 
 manure barrel and steel spring scrapera. The 
 pressure of the spring scrapers on the barrel 
 is so light, that considerable diflerence ia mado 
 in till' horse's draught; and thoy may almost 
 instantly be removed when not required. Im- 
 proved means are adopted to insure a regular 
 delivery of manure ; and the distributor ia 
 mounted on iron wheels. Price, £19. 
 
 MILLS. 
 The machines which fall under this heading 
 comprehend crushing mills, grinding, crushing 
 and grinding combined, bean, malt and oat 
 mills, ilour mills, and bono mills. A few of 
 them will suffice for our purpose. The univer- 
 sal mill, invented, improved, and manufactured 
 by Messrs. Kansomo and Sons, consists of a 
 pair of smooth rollers of equal diameter, for 
 crushing oats, malt, barley, linseed, &c. ; with 
 a bean mill attached for cutting beans, peas, 
 Indian corn, &c. It will cut and crush every 
 kind of grain or seed on the farm. It is 
 mounted on a strong iron frame, and is con- 
 structed with a view to durability and economy 
 of power. Price, £21 10*. ; pulley, extra. — A 
 steel grinding mill, invented by John Hardley, 
 of Sliide, and improved and manufactured by 
 Messrs. Picksley, Sims, and Co., as a general 
 grinder and crusher, has been acknowledged, 
 by competent judges, to be a high-class ma- 
 chine. It combines the properties of a pair 
 of stones and the smooth-roller crushing mill, 
 and its advantages are consequently manifold. 
 It is suitable for grinding all kinds of graiu 
 into meal for feeding purposes, at the rate of 
 twelve bushels per hour, or it can bo adjusted 
 merely to break the grain. Price, £12 10^. 
 — A portable corn mill, invented, improved, 
 and manufactured by Messrs. Eansome and 
 Sons, is mounted on a strong, compact, 
 wooden frame, and is fitted with three- 
 feet best Erench burr-stones, ^Yith a flour- 
 dressing apparatus, for preparing flour for 
 household purposes, which can be thrown 
 out of gear w hen grinding barley, beans, peas, 
 &c. This machine is adapted to be driven by 
 steam, water, or horse-power; will produce, of 
 barley-meal, six bushels per hour, or of fine 
 
 913 
 
MomKG MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEET [moaving machines. 
 
 flour, three bushels per hour, with the power of 
 four horses. Price, £70 ; pulleys, 70^. per pair 
 extra. — The same makers have also a port- 
 able corn mill. This is a useful mill, mounted 
 on a strong, neat, and compact iron frame, 
 and is fitted with 24-inch best French burr- 
 stones ; the lower stone, in this mill, being the 
 runner. The adjustments are easy of access, 
 and it is not liable to get out of order. It 
 can be worked by steam, horse, or water-power. 
 Price, £35. — They have also a portable horse- 
 gear thrashing machine, which is arranged so 
 that it can be put to work without unloading 
 the horse-gear. The power is communicated 
 to the barn-works, through an intermediate 
 motion, by means of a strap. The horse-gear 
 is timed for horses, and calculated on the 
 strength of foreign horses. It may be worked 
 by oxen, if necessary. Price, £85. 
 
 MOWING MACHINES. 
 The mowing is an offshoot of the reaping 
 machine, requiring no delivery ; it is more 
 simple in its construction, and has been brought 
 to a great state of perfection, cutting any de- 
 scription of grass crop with ease and certainty. 
 Messrs. Burgess and Key have made great 
 improvements in this machine. Cranton's is 
 made on Wood's principle ; it is a smaller im- 
 plement, and can be worked by one horse. 
 Many of the manufacturers have also com- 
 bined implements, both for reaping and mow- 
 ing. This has been done with a view to eco- 
 nomy in the purchase-money ; but as the 
 principle involved differs in each, the com- 
 bination can scarcely be expected to produce 
 an implement which can work effectually. 
 "Wood's prize grass mowing machine, invented 
 by W. A. Wood, of Hoosick Palls, New York, 
 awarded the highest prize by the Eoyal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, at Leeds, in July, 
 1861, was highly commended by the Highland 
 and Agricultural Society of Scotland, at Perth ; 
 and received a gold medal and 1,000 francs, 
 and the grand gold medal of honour, from the 
 Prench government, at Vincenues, in June, 
 1860 ; also, the highest prizes by the United 
 States' National Agricultural Society; first 
 prizes of the Yorkshire, the Eoyal North 
 Lancashire, the Eoyal North Lincolnshire, and 
 the Kent County Agricultural Societies. Of 
 this implement, 800 have been sold in one 
 914 
 
 season. It is said to be unsurpassed in close- 
 ness of cut, simplicity of construction, light- 
 ness of draught, portability, &c., and will cut 
 one acre per hour, with one man and two 
 horses. It is built in the best workman-like 
 manner, with steel-cutter bars and cutters, 
 connecting-rod, crank-pin, and shafts ; the 
 metal used for the wheels and gearing is of a 
 very superior quality, which admits of being 
 made much lighter without reducing its 
 strength, making them more durable, and re- 
 quiring less power to work them. The cutters 
 are so arranged as to follow the uneven sur- 
 face of ground when at work, and can, by a 
 lever, be instantly elevated to pass over cut 
 grass and other obstructions by the driver. 
 The knives never work when the machine is 
 backed ; they are placed in front, the more 
 easily to be seen by the driver. Price, in- 
 cluding two extra knives, six blades, six fingers, 
 bevel pinion, oil cup, &c., £22. — Another 
 machine, constructed on the same principle, is 
 a little cheaper, on account of its not being 
 arranged with shafts for one horse, and a shorter 
 cutter bar, which is 3 ft. 6 in. long. When 
 not in use it will pass through 4-ft. gates. 
 It is light, portable, and of easy draught; simple 
 in construction, and well adapted for the use 
 of small farmers ; and will cut from five to six 
 acres per day. Price £20. — Wood's prize 
 combined mowing and reaping machine, is 
 another implement patronised by his late royal 
 highness the Prince Consort, the Emperor of 
 the Prench, the King of the Belgians, &c., &c., 
 and has been awarded more prizes than any 
 other in the world. Simple in construction, 
 light draught, portable, easily managed, it can 
 be changed from a mower to a reaper, and vice 
 versd, in a few minutes. Of this machine, the 
 large number of 1,200 have been sold in 
 three years. It will cut any kind of grass or 
 grain at the rate of ten to twelve acres per 
 day. Its price, including extra knife, blades, 
 fingers, pinion, and package, is £35. Notwith- 
 standing the great merit of these machines, 
 and the extensive patronage they have re- 
 ceived, we have some excellent makers amongst 
 ourselves. 
 
 PLOUGHS. 
 In implements like the plough, the per- 
 manent form having been determined by 
 
PLOUGHS.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [pLouons. 
 
 experience, improvements can only be made in 
 the inanut'aoturo ot tlie aocoiulary parts, and in 
 the proper adjustment of tlio whole. Iron lias, 
 in a great measure, superseded wood, the 
 nu-tal combining strength with lightness ; the 
 mouki-boards are of varying liMigth, to suit 
 uiriV'rent soils, and the coultors can bo inclined 
 to one side or the other. The Messrs. lian- 
 some may be said to have originally taken the 
 first steps in improving the plough ; and, with 
 iSlessrs. Busby, llornaby, and Howard, still 
 sustain the reputation they all have so long 
 merited. The Messrs. llansome, besides their 
 ordinary ploughs, have introduced a double- 
 furrow plough, for turning two furrows at the 
 same time ; by removing the mould-boards of 
 the ridging-plough, it is adapted for a sub- 
 soiler, to work after the plough ; and, by at- 
 taching a pair of open-ribbed mould-boards, 
 it is adapted for raising potatoes. — Messrs. 
 Howard, in addition to their other ploughs, 
 have a small pony plough. — Messrs. Hornsby, 
 also, besides implements adapted for heavy 
 and light lands, have a pony plough. — Messrs. 
 Hunt and Pickering have invented a new 
 mode of pitching the share : by a simple con- 
 trivance, the nose can be altered so as to regu- 
 late the depth ; and the patent oil-boxes for 
 the wheels, while retaining the oil, exclude 
 the grit. — IMessrs. Page have some very ex- 
 cellent forms of ploughs, with an adjusting 
 coulter. In some localities the wooden beam 
 has been retained, and attention has, there- 
 fore, been directed to the improvement of the 
 implement under this form of construction. — 
 Messrs. Grey have a sub-soil pulveriser, with 
 improved leverage ; and Messrs. Hancock, a 
 triple-trenching plough, which, on any soil, 
 will make a seed-bed at one operation. 
 These are gratifying tests of the inge- 
 nuity, and also of application, in reference to 
 the agricultural department of science. It 
 must be remembered that the steam-plough 
 was unknown at the Exhibition of 1S51. It 
 might then be considered as in an embryo 
 state, soon, however, to burst forth as an agri- 
 cultural fact. In general terms, the principle 
 which has now been established would appear 
 to consist of a strong frame, containing either 
 fixed ploughshares or tines for stirring the 
 soil, to which wire ropes are attached ; these 
 are received on a revolving drum, worked by a 
 
 portable steam-engine, the framework being 
 drawn to and fro between anehorn fixed at op- 
 posite jiniiits, until the operation is completed. 
 — Mr. Fowler's name stands among those who 
 have directed attention to the development of 
 steam-ploughing. In that implement the soil 
 is turned over either by shares or by tines 
 fixed in a frame, and having a double set of 
 each, BO as to bo worked either way. The 
 windlass is attached to the engine itself, or 
 there are revolving drums worked bv the 
 engine : to prevent tiie drag of the slack chain 
 on the land, wire-porters are used — a very 
 important element in saving the wear and tear 
 and tlie dead weight. The Messrs. Howard 
 make use of revolving drums, worked direct 
 from the engine, by which much power is 
 saved ; the wire ropes pass through two re- 
 volving wheels lying horizontally, and near the 
 ground. A great improvement has lately been 
 made in the working by the additional central 
 wheel, placed at a little distance from the 
 others, which regulate the action of the wire 
 rope ; the rope-porter also is new, and very 
 eflicient. — Mr. Stevens's general-purpose im- 
 plement differs from the others. It is made 
 of wrought-iron and steel, and consists of a 
 main framework, which carries two under- 
 frames. To these are attached eight ploughs, 
 four at each end, which rise and fall parallel 
 to the ground, thus avoiding the balancing or 
 tipping motion. The centre wheels that sup- 
 port the whole machine are strong, and stand 
 5 ft. 6 in. in height, by which the draught is 
 considerably diminished when in motion. — Mr. 
 Hayes has invented an improved windlass for 
 steam cultivation ; the framework is very 
 strong. The following are the peculiarities ; 
 — " The plough can be instantly stopped by 
 anchormen at the headland, without stopping 
 the engine, the engine continuing in motion 
 as in thrashing or other work : no signals are 
 required ; the work may be performed in foggy 
 weather, or by moonlight, with perfect safety 
 to the machinery. One man can superintend 
 engine and windlass. A double cylinder is not 
 needed, as the engine is not 8to[)ped; and no 
 wheels are required to be put in or out of 
 gear." — The machine of Messrs. S.imson and 
 Jewell is called a paring and breaking cul- 
 tivator, and is adapted both for horses and 
 steam-engines. It consists of an iron frame, 
 
 915 
 
PLOUGHS.] 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [potato-digqees. 
 
 upon which are placed four paring ploughs in 
 succession; behind each ploughshare is a 
 rotary digger; as the plough turns the soil, 
 the digger, revolving rapidly, thoroughly pul- 
 verises it, and it is at once made into a seed- 
 bed. The machine is worked by a cogged 
 wheel.— Mr. Halkett's is known as the guide- 
 way system of steam-cultivation ; in order to 
 adapt it, rails must first be laid down. The 
 machine consists of a large frame running 
 on the rails, and drawn by a steam-engine ; to 
 this framework are attached all the imple- 
 ments employed in the cultivation of the soil ; 
 and there are arrangements by which labourers 
 can work upon the frame. The system is 
 complete in itself, and, in certain soil and 
 localities, might be made use of to advantage. — 
 These several implements indicate the different 
 -plans that have been invented ; but they are 
 all worked by portable steam-engines acting 
 upon wire ropes, by means of which the 
 frames themselves are drawn to and fro. 
 Besides the general advantages which must 
 arise from the establishment of steam-plough- 
 ing, there is this especial one — that lands, 
 whether heavy or light, can be tilled in un- 
 favourable seasons, when it would be impos- 
 sible to use horse labour. This principal 
 process of cultivation is thus rendered more 
 certain, and less dependent on the changes 
 4ind chances of the weather. To descend from 
 generals to particulars, we may instance a two- 
 wheeled general-purpose plough, invented and 
 improved by William Busby, of Newton-le- 
 Willows, and manufactured by the Busby 
 Implement Company. It received the award 
 of the council medal at the Great Exhibition 
 in 1851 ; a first-class medal at the Paris 
 Exhibition; also six prizes from the Eoyal 
 Agricultural Society of England in eight years ; 
 £10 at the Eotherham meeting, 1856 ; and a 
 prize at Warwick, 1860. Its price is £4 4s. ; 
 steel breast clasp chain and weight, 16s. extra. 
 Price, £5 complete. — The same company have 
 also a new implement, which is called a com- 
 bined plough and presser, invented by Thomas 
 Ilarrison, foreman to the Rev. W. F, Wharton, 
 Banuingham Rectory, and J. Gr. Harrison, 
 Kirby Ravensworth, Yorkshire. ' It completes 
 the ploughing and pressing the seed-furrow 
 at one operation, saving much labour at seed- 
 time, and requiring little, if any, more horse- 
 916 
 
 power than the ordinary plough. The 
 price of the plough is £3 15s. ; presser, 40s. 
 extra. The pressing plate wheel may be 
 readily attached to any plough. Price, £5 15s., 
 combined. — Messrs. Page and Co. have a 
 double-breast or moulding plough, for earth- 
 ing-up or forming ridges or bouts for turnips, 
 potatoes, mangold, &c., or for striking water- 
 furrows. The breasts are made of steel, and 
 can be expanded or contracted, as required. 
 The plough is also easily convertible into a 
 horse- hoe, by merely removing the breasts 
 and attaching a set of hoes. The price Is 75s. ; 
 with one wheel, 70s. ; two wheels, 75s. ; marker 
 to regulate the width of ridges, 7s. 6^. extra ; 
 and horse-hoes, 10s. extra. — Another, similarly 
 constructed, but adapted for the use of a small 
 horse or pony. Price, with one wheel, £2 15s. 
 — Another combined moulding plough, horse- 
 hoe, and stirrer. This is, perhaps, one of the 
 most useful, efficient, and economical com- 
 bined implements ever introduced, it being 
 adapted for three superior implements, and 
 easily and simply arranged for transition into 
 a one-horse hoe, a moulding or bouting 
 plough, and a five-tined expanding scuffler 
 or scarifier. This implement is especially 
 adapted for small occupiers, to whom it 
 is recommended as a valuable appendage. 
 Price, £4 10s. ; if without bouting-ploughing, 
 £3 10s. — The combined plough, drill, and har- 
 row, invented by Levi L. Sovereign, of Canada, 
 manufactured by Clubb and Smith, of 118, 
 Fenchurch-street, London, is another instance 
 of combining several implements in one. 
 The object of this implement is to complete 
 three operations by once going on the land, 
 which economises time and labour, and also 
 prevents horses compressing the soil after the 
 land is ploughed. It is so constructed as to 
 deposit the seed entirely out of the reach ot 
 birds. Any width or depth can be drilled. 
 Seed drilled by this implement in Western 
 Canada, produced far superior crops to any 
 wheat otherwise sown. Price, £25. 
 
 POTATO-DIGGERS. 
 
 A potato-digging plough and cultivator, in- 
 vented and improved by L. D. Owen, and 
 manufactured by Childs and Owen, of New 
 Oxford-street, London, weighs only 85 lbs. ; is 
 light of draught, and simple in its construction. 
 
BEAPIXQ MACHINES.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH FA UM IXC 
 
 [itr.AI'INd MACIIINKS. 
 
 One man, vfith a pair of pinall liorsi-s, will j 
 ensilv dig potatoes as fast ua twenty per- 
 sona can pick them up. Tlio potatoes nro 
 turned out and distributed on the surface of 
 the ground so clean, that scarcely one bushel 
 in a hundred, whether largo or small, is 
 left uncovered. Price, £2 10*. — Anotlier, in- 
 vented by Levi L. Sovereign, and manufac- 
 tured by Clubb and Smith, Fcnchurch-street, 
 London, will, when the tops of tho potatoes 
 are gathered, raise the potatoes into baskets. 
 With two horses it will save the labour of ten 
 men. Price, £25, 
 
 REAPING MACHINES. 
 The invention of the reaping-machino is due 
 to the ingenuity of the Americans. It is true 
 that, in the early part of this century, a machine, 
 with a revolving drum, had been used to cut 
 corn in this country ; but it did not achieve 
 success ; and it was not until Messrs. M'Cor- 
 mick and Hussey brought their implements 
 over, that any practical solution of the subject 
 took place. These, with the machine of the 
 Kev. Mr. Bell, have been the models on which 
 all improvements have taken place. In tho 
 report of the Exhibition of 1851, there were 
 only two reapers mentioned as being present — 
 M'Cormick's and Hussey's; and at a trial 
 made, the council medal was given to M'Cor- 
 mick, Hussey's on that occasion not working 
 well. At a subsequent trial, however, this im- 
 plement worked equally with the other, but it 
 was too late to alter the decision. There are 
 two principles on which reapers have been cou- 
 etructed — the one where the implement is 
 drawn forward by the horses ; the other, where 
 it is propelled from behind by the horses. 
 The awards of the Eoyal Agricultural Society 
 Beem to have been distributed without any ref- 
 erence to this distinction, so that the principle 
 is still in abeyance. — Messrs. Burgess and 
 Key's implement is an improved M'Cormick, 
 the cutting being done perfectly ; the delivery 
 is effected by means of Archimedean screws, 
 by which the cut straw is thrown on one side, 
 ready for the binder. There is a revolving 
 fan, to bring the standing corn more readily 
 upon the cutting-knives. It is thus made en- 
 tirely self-acting, working w ith two horses ; 
 and, by a simple contrivance, the machine can 
 be shut up 80 as to pass through any ordinary 
 
 gate. — CroskiU'B machine is an improved Boll's. 
 It is proprllrd bv thrco horses abroaht, and 
 guided by tho driver, who walks behind tlio 
 horses. Tho delivery can bo made on either 
 side, by means of revolving endless bands. 
 Tho breadth of cut is 7 foot, so that tho work 
 is done expeditiously. — Messrs. itunsoine's 
 machine is drawn by horses ; tho delivery 
 is nmdo on tho side, by means of a series of 
 rakes and arms revolving round a vertical 
 shaft. — IVIessrs. Samuelson's implement is a 
 modification of the same plan.— Messrs. Kemp, 
 J^Iurray, and Nicholson's reaper is on Hussey's 
 plan, tlie delivery being made by a man seated 
 on tho machine; thus, with tho driver, two 
 persons are employed. The cut corn falls upon 
 a tipping platform, which is delivered on tho 
 side by rakes. — Messrs. Dray's is on the same 
 principle. — Messrs. Cuthbert's machine also 
 requires two persons, the delivery being mado 
 by a rake over a receiving platform. — Bamlett's 
 is a combined implement, worked with one 
 horse only ; the delivery is made by a man on 
 the machine. — Messrs. Picksley and Simms' is 
 made on Eamlett's patent, but with improve- 
 ments. There is a simple contrivance by means 
 of a lever, by which the cutting-knives can be 
 raised or lowered G in. This gives to it the 
 power of a combined machine, and, at the same 
 time, there is the power of accommodating tho 
 cutters to any inequality of surface ; these two 
 last can be worked by one horse. In 1851, 
 M'Cormick's machine, at the Exhibition, 
 created a greater sensation, in its way, than 
 either Power's statue or Hobbs' locks. Its 
 fame at once, of course, raised up for it a host 
 of antagonists and imitators ; and it was not 
 till the golden fruits of many autumns in the 
 fields of England, France, Belgium, and Ger- 
 many had been saved by this machine, that 
 its superiority was tacitly acknowledged ; and 
 even competing agricultural implement-makers 
 were compelled to own that, if not the best, 
 it was certainly the most popular, and tho 
 most generally used. The manufacture of tho 
 machine, for this country, was, after 1851, 
 entrusted to the agency of Messrs. Burgess and 
 Key ; and, since that time, as many as 3,000 
 have been made, and supplied to the farmers 
 of the United Kingdom, and probably as 
 many more exported to the continent. 
 Since 1851, however, Mr. M'Cormick's patent 
 
 917 • 
 
EEAPiN&MACHiKES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEET [eeaping machines. 
 
 for these machines has expired in America, and, 
 of course, the attempt to renew it waa violently 
 opposed by all who had, or fancied they had, 
 a better reaper themselves. In the course of 
 the investigation, it came out in evidence that 
 Mr. M'Corraick had sold no less than 40,000 
 of his reapers in the United States alone ; when 
 the patent authorities at "Washington, thinking 
 that, out of such a large transaction, the in- 
 ventor of the machine must himself have 
 reaped a golden harvest of no common weight, 
 declined to renew the patent. Hence Mr. 
 M'Cormick was driven to invent another and a 
 better machine, which has been approved in 
 this country. The old machine, as we may 
 term it now, was one which cut the corn, and, 
 as it dropped back upon the platform behind 
 the cutters, turned it off in " swath" — i. e., 
 left it in a continuous roll alongside the track 
 of the machine. In very moist countries, this 
 swath delivery is rather an evil ; and during 
 wet seasons, the machine has been often left 
 unused altogether. In addition to this draw- 
 back, a great amount of manual labour is, of 
 course, necessitated to collect the swath into 
 sheaves, and this, too, must in some cases be 
 done before the return of the machine over 
 the same track. The object, therefore, has 
 always been to invent a machine which will 
 deliver, on the ground, the cut corn in sheaves 
 ready for binding; and such a machine Mr. 
 M'Corraick has now invented. It is founded 
 entirely on his old machine, as made by Burgess 
 and Key ; the new patent consisting simply in 
 the introduction of an automaton rake, which, 
 at regular intervals, by one rapid sweep, draws 
 the corn on the platform together, and, with a 
 quick turn, throws it aside in a loose sheaf out 
 of the way of the machine. The mechanism by 
 which this is effected is very simple, though, 
 from its very simplicity, it is difficult to give a 
 clear idea of it to the reader. Putting it in its 
 briefest form, we may say that the wheels on 
 which the old machine was drawn along, set in 
 motion a mechanism by which tlie corn was cut 
 close off at the ground, and, at the same time, 
 revolved a light four-armed wooden fan or 
 gleaner, which, as fast as tlie corn fell, pushed 
 it on to the platform. This, in substance, is 
 the old macliine. The new one consists in an 
 addition of the automaton rake, which has two 
 actions. During one part of the revolution of 
 918 
 
 the gathering fans, it acts with and as one of 
 them, till its wooden teeth are level with the 
 platform where the cut corn lies. It then 
 ceases to revolve, and, by a most ingenious 
 piece of mechanism, makes a sudden horizontal 
 movement, throwing aside, on to the ground, 
 the entire sheaf, and instantly after resuming 
 its motion as one of the revolving fans. Thia 
 machine was publicly tried iu the presence of 
 a number of gentlemen farmers, about three 
 miles beyond Hemel-Hempstead. This trial 
 was made under the most unfavourable circum- 
 stances ; in fact, under circumstances which, 
 the farmers present contended, should have 
 prevented the machine from being tried at 
 all. The night and morning had been very 
 wet, and the rain was still falling, when the 
 machine, drawn by two horses, and wielding 
 its fans and rake in the most aggressive man- 
 ner, was brought to a field of twenty-one 
 acres, covered with a heavy crop of red laramas 
 wheat, completely saturated and bent down by 
 the wet. Along the edge of this field, where 
 the ground was very rough, and the corn 
 straggling and beaten down, the machine was 
 turned. Much misgiving was expressed, before 
 starting, as to the power of the rake to act on 
 such ground against wind and rain, and to re- 
 move the soddened crop from the platform 
 into regular sheaves. A very few moments^ 
 however, sufficed to put these fears at rest. 
 The reaper went to its work about three 
 miles an hour, making a clear cut broad track 
 of 5 ft. G in. wide, and turning out neat and 
 remarkably large loose sheaves, at intervals of 
 about 15 ft. apart. The movements of the 
 reaper were exact and perfectly noiseless, aiid 
 it was easily turned in any direction. An 
 ordinary agricultural labourer at first drove it. 
 Afterwards Mr. Dixon took the place of 
 driver ; but the results were the same. The 
 bunches were well laid ; the cut was clean and 
 close to the earth ; and the spacing between 
 the sheaves as clear and accurate as if every 
 foot had been measured. At one part the corn 
 was tangled, and badly flattened — badly enough 
 to have presented difficulties to the ordinary 
 reaper ; but the machine went through it with 
 the same ease and regularity as through all 
 the rest. The horses were tlien turned direct 
 and across the thickest part of the crop, from 
 corner to corner of the field ; and thougli, as a 
 
BOLLEBS.] 
 
 OF EXaLISH FAEMING. 
 
 [sACE-JJAUBO'n'S. 
 
 matter of course, the passage of the aiiim:ils 
 drawing the machino traiiipK'il clown a largo 
 portion of the stalks before its track, tlie reaper 
 still worked as clearly and eilk-iently as ever. 
 First came one of the fans, pushing its <y«a/J- 
 tutn, when cut, on to the platform ; thou a 
 second, third, and fourth, when the rake swept 
 round in a senu-curve, and turned the whole 
 mass out in a thick sheaf on to the ground. 
 The horses appeared to draw it easily — more 
 easily, in fact, than the old machine; while, 
 from the strength and simplicity of the im- 
 proved mechanism, it was evident that, even 
 in the most inexperienced hands, nothing but 
 wilful damage could derange its slight but 
 strong machinery. It is estimated that this 
 reaper can reap and stack, in sheaves, from 
 sixteen to eighteen acres of wheat per day, at 
 a cost, including wear and tear of plant, food 
 of horses, &e., of Is. Gd. per acre. Manual 
 labour costs from 7*. Qd. to 10s. per acre ; and 
 a good reaper averages only from half to a 
 little over half an acre a-day. The new machine 
 effects a saving of, at least, one-third of the 
 manual labour that was still necessary with 
 the old reaper ; and the price at which Messrs. 
 Burgess and Key will be able to sell it, will 
 be lower than that which has hitherto been 
 charged — probably about £34. 
 
 ROLLERS. 
 
 A universal-jointed land-roller, invented, 
 improved, and manufactured by Mr. Nicholson, 
 is a three-part plain roller, constructed on an 
 entirely new plan, to adapt itself to the ground, 
 however rugged or uneven the surface, or 
 high or irregular the ridges, thereby overcom- 
 ing the great defect of all ordinary laud 
 rollers. By an ingenious arrangement of 
 universal joints, each part will move up or 
 down, or at any angle, independently of the 
 others. Price, 18 in. diameter, to cover 7 ft. of 
 ground, £11 ; driving seat, £1 extra. — Messrs. 
 Woods and Cocksedge have constructed a 
 double barley roll, to which has been awarded 
 a prize of ten guineas by the Eoyal Agricul- 
 tural Society of England. It is designed for 
 rolling spring corn, and is so constructed as to 
 obviate the evil complained of with those in 
 common use, which, in turning, are apt forci- 
 bly to displace the soil, and disturb the new- 
 sown seeds. This implement has become one 
 
 of general utility to the farau-r, liom its ap- 
 plication to 80 many |niri)osea us a roll. 
 Price, £S 8s. — Amies aiul Barford have a new 
 implement, called a Water Ballasting JioUer. 
 It is mado with two separuto water-tight 
 cylinders of best wrought iron, which can be 
 (illud at j)leasure. A removable plug is let into 
 the solid plate, so that a tube or hose-pipe can 
 bo inserted, and the cylinders iilled in two or 
 three minutes. When full weighted this roll 
 reaches 25 cwt. ; when empty it is about 12 
 cwt., so that a two or three-horse roll is secured 
 in one implement. The size of the cylinders 
 is 27 in. by G ft. G in. Price, £17 10«.— Mr. 
 Cambridge has a patent double-action press- 
 wheel roller and clod-crusher, to whicix wa3 
 awarded the Boyal Agricultural Society's 
 prize at the Warwick meeting. It is com- 
 posed of a number of patent plain wheels; 
 and a serrated or notched wheel, of peculiar 
 construction, is placed between each plain 
 wheel, by which arrangement the ellective 
 action of the best clod-crusher and wheel- 
 roller are combined. It is G ft. wide, with 
 2U-iiich wheels. Price, £14. 
 
 ROOT-WASH ER. 
 
 Mr. Croskill has an improved Archimedean 
 root-washer, consisting of an open cylinder 
 partly immersed in water, containing an Archi- 
 medean screw. The potatoes, roots, &c., are 
 put into a hopper ; and as long as the cylinder 
 is turned round in one direction, they remain 
 in it, and are well cleaned; but when the 
 handle is reversed, the Archimedean screw 
 brings them out of the cylinder without the 
 necessity of lifting it out of the water, as in 
 all other root-washers. Price, £5 10«. 
 
 SACK-BARROWS. 
 A combined sack-barrow and elevator, in- 
 vented, improved, and made by Amies ■ and 
 Barford, is a convenient implement. By its 
 aid one man can fill, tie, and remove a sack of 
 corn with ease, thereby doing the work of three 
 men at a great saving of time and money. 
 For corn-factors, maltsters, merchants, wharf- 
 ingers, coal-wharvea, and farmers' use in 
 general, this machine is found invaluable, as 
 also for facilitating the removal of corn from 
 a steam thrashing-machine. To prevent the 
 possibility of breakage, the best malleable iron 
 
 919 
 
STEAMING APPABATus.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [cultivators. 
 
 racks are now substituted for cast iron ones. 
 Price, £3 5*. 
 
 SOWING MACHINES. 
 A grass and seed broadcast sowing machine, 
 invented, improved, and manufactured by 
 Earrett and Exall, consists of a box 12 feet 
 long, with a spindle running through the 
 centre of it, on which are fixed brushes work- 
 ing against copper regulators, and a barrow, 
 on which the box is placed transversely 
 when fixed for work. The barrow-wheel drives 
 all the machinery, and the quantity of seed is 
 regulated at pleasure. Price, £3 3s. — A broad- 
 cast corn-distributor, invented and manufac- 
 tured by Gower and Son, is quite a new im- 
 plement, and has been brought out to supply 
 a want in wet seasons — of a machine to sow 
 when the use of a drill is impracticable. Two 
 men, or a man and a lad, can sow with it more 
 expeditiously, and with much greater regula- 
 rity, than by hand. Price, £5. 
 
 STEAMING APPARATUS. 
 
 A fixed steaming apparatus for large farms, 
 gaols, unions, asylums, &c., was invented by 
 the late W. P. Stanley, of Peterborough, and 
 improved and manufactured by Messrs. Amies 
 and Barford. It consists of a strong 2-horse 
 power boiler or steam-generator; two 100- 
 gallon boiling or compound pans, made of 
 strong galvanised iron, for boiling water, cook- 
 ing, washing, brewing, and other domestic 
 purposes; also for preparing linseed meal, and 
 other compounds for cattle, horses, and pigs ; 
 two 12-bushel galvanised chaff or root pans ; 
 strong brass feed-pump for boiler, with all 
 pipes, cocks, and fittings as fixed. A similar 
 apparatus is in constant use at the Nor- 
 thampton, Cambridge, and Arlsey asylums; 
 the Strand and Poplar unions, London; and 
 nearly 200 other public and private establish- 
 ments. Price, £S0 ; wood and felt lagging to 
 the boiler, £5 10s. extra. — Another, called the 
 i'armcr'sportablesteaming apparatus— invented 
 by the same gentleman, and sold by the same 
 maker — received the prize of 300 francs and a 
 gold medal at the Paris Exposition ; and more 
 recently distinguislied at the public trials open 
 to all England at the North Lincolnshire shows, 
 and at every other local show where it has 
 been snhjpcted to competition. It consists 
 020 
 
 of a strong wrought iron portable boiler or 
 steam-generator, with an improved oval flue 
 of Lowmoor iron, one 6-bushel root pan, and 
 10-gallon compound pan, as fixed. Price, 
 £27 10s. ; water-gauge, 20s. extra. — Mr. 
 Thompson, also, has a paragon portable steam- 
 ing apparatus, which combines every improve- 
 ment for steam-cooking for agricultural pur- 
 poses, or for asylums, or other large establish- 
 ments : the boiler is constructed to produce 
 the necessary steam with a minimum quantity 
 of fuel ; it is fitted with a steaming-pan to 
 contain six bushels of roots, and a 40-galloa 
 copper boiler, in wood tub, for boiling linseed 
 compounds, soups, &c., by steam ; but the 
 apparatus may be arranged, in various other 
 forms, to suit any particular requirement. 
 Price, complete, £21 10s. 
 
 STEAM CULTIVATORS. 
 
 The patent steam plough and cultivator, with 
 windlass and rope-porter, manufactured by 
 Messrs. Eisken, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, takes 
 its place among other agricultural mechanical 
 improvements. It is a three or four-furrow 
 plough, on the balance principle, capable of 
 being used as a cultivator. The peculiarity of 
 the apparatus is, that the power is transmitted 
 from the engine by an endless rope, acting on 
 self-moving anchor-windlasses, so that the 
 plough is dragged directly from one windlass 
 to another. Price, £150. — A new implement, 
 called a regulating windlass, invented, im- 
 proved, and manufactured by Messrs. Han- 
 cock and Co., has also a claim upon the 
 notice of the agricultural world The hauling- 
 drums are tied to, and mounted on, independent 
 shafts ; and each drum is acted on by "clutches" 
 of two speeds, by which the speed of the im- 
 plement is adapted to the power of the engine 
 without stopping. It is a common 8-horse 
 power engine ; is enabled to master all the 
 difficulties of steam tillage ; and by which the 
 land can be tilled to a greater depth by a light 
 engine than heretofore. In hauling imple- 
 ments up hill, or through heavy or wet patches 
 of ground, the speed can be two miles an 
 hour of the implement up hill, the engine 
 working equal to 16-horse power; and four 
 miles an hour down hill, the engine going 
 at 8-horse power, or any speed that may be 
 required Price, £100. 
 
STEAM-ENUI^ES.] 
 
 OF ENGLISH FARMING. 
 
 [tDDABHINO HACHINEB. 
 
 stk.vm-i:nc;ini:s. 
 
 There are, no doubt, some who look upon 
 the iiitroilia-tioii of a sli'aiii-eii;^'iiio into runil 
 matters, with tlio same kiiul of liorror tliat tho 
 poet Wordsworth did thr invasion of a railway 
 into his own hike scenery. A ateam-cngiiio 
 may not be, perhaps, an object for poesy ; 
 although we do not see, if treated in the right 
 way, why it should not be considered wortiiy 
 of poetical illustration quite as nuieh as the 
 many rural objects which have eo long been 
 sung in the poet's song. There is nothing in 
 a spade, per se, poetical, or iu a plough. They 
 have been merely rendered so. The labourer 
 jiimself is only poetical afar oflf; and few will 
 care for a closer connection, especially after a 
 day's toil. AVhen the eye has become used 
 to the steam-engine in the field, and the ear 
 to its puffing and snorting, some poet may 
 arise to clothe it " in liquid lines niellifluously 
 bland," and thus give to it a poetical name 
 and habitation. Our business, however, is to 
 deal with it practically. A steam-engine, as 
 compared with the human or equine machine, 
 is more useful, economical, time-saving, and 
 money-making. There is a limit to the labour 
 of man, and the drudgery of the horse. Each 
 requires rest to recruit exhausted nature ; but 
 the steam-engine knows not fatigue. Feed it 
 with the " black diamond" drawn from the 
 bowels of the earth, and, so long as the supply 
 lasts, the engine plies its ceaseless toil. It 
 cares not for sunshine or rain. The storm 
 passes over unheeded ; and it knows no dis- 
 tinction between night and day. 
 
 Fixed engines have been in use some time 
 in the north. It is only within the last fifteen 
 years that movable engines have been brought 
 into use through the instrumentality of the 
 Koyal Agricultural Society, as being more 
 convenient; for, with a fixed engine, the pro- 
 duce has to be taken to the barn ; while, with a 
 movable one, the corn may be at once tlirashed 
 out in the field. A saving is thus eftocted in 
 time, in labour for the tenant, and in buildings 
 for the landlord, fewer being required for 
 storing, &c. One of the principal points to 
 be taken into consideration as to the efficacy 
 of an engine, is the amount of the consumption 
 of fuel ; and even, iji 1851, great progress had 
 been made ; for, as stated iu the report of the 
 G B 
 
 Exhibition, " our boat engine now conRumes 
 leas than 8 lbs. of coal per hour per horae- 
 power; whereas au engine made by tho 
 winning manufacturer of four years ago, con 
 Bumcd lis lbs. ; that is, four limes as much fuel 
 for the same work." 
 
 Now, however, there are portable steam-enginea 
 in tlie field. Meaara. Aveling and Porter; 
 Barrett, Exall, and Andrews; Burrell, Brown 
 and May, Clayton and Shuttleworth, (iarrett. 
 Gray, Hornaby, Humphries, Kansomo and 
 Sims, Kobey, Huston, Turner, and Tuxford, 
 are all makers of portable engines. There are 
 also fixed engines, which, under the require- 
 ments of modern farming, may, in some cir- 
 cumstances, be of more avail even than port- 
 able engines for carrying out tho necessary 
 operations. It is unnecessary to particularise 
 the merits of all these makers' machines. 
 They are well known. Wo may, however, 
 notice alO-horse-power patent portable steam- 
 engine, invented by Messrs. Biddell and Balk, 
 of Ipswich, and improved and manufactured 
 bv Messrs. Kansome. This engine is fitted 
 with Biddell and Balk's patent boiler, which 
 is so constructed, that the fire-box, tubes, and 
 tube plates can be taken out all in one piece, 
 and put in again, with facility ; the advantages 
 of this boiler being facility of cleaning, in- 
 spection, and re{)air3. The boiler is proved 
 to 100 lbs. pressure on the square inch. The 
 crank shaft is of wrought iron ; the bulk of 
 the plates are Lowmoor, the others being best 
 Stafibrdshire. Price, £280 ; steam-gauge, 60s. ; 
 pulley, extra. 
 
 THRASHING MACHINES. 
 This is the most complicated agricultural 
 machine in general use. Before 1829, so great 
 was the imperfection of farm machinery, that, 
 technically speaking, the duty performed was 
 2o per cent. only. But the application of 
 steam has induced improvement in all kinds 
 of machinery, and in none more than in 
 thrashing machines. So great, indeed, have 
 been the improvements, that they may bo 
 considered as equal to new creations. Tho 
 corn now is commonly delivered from the 
 stack upon the machine, and then from the 
 machine into sacks ready for market — a great 
 saving of time and money. These imple- 
 ments received due notice at the Exhibition 
 
 921 
 
THRASHING MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [lUIiNIP-CUTTEES. 
 
 of 1851, and prizes were awarded to Messrs. 
 Garrett, Hensman, and Holmes ; and though 
 not now possessing actual novelty, there have 
 been so many improvements effected, that the 
 present machine is almost a new invention. The 
 Messrs. Garrett, instead of three blasts, have 
 now contrived one blast, by which the currents 
 of air are conducted through separate channels 
 to dress the grain. The machine is, in con- 
 sequence, much simplified in its construction, 
 and requires less power to drive it. Messrs. 
 Barrett, Exall, and Andrews manufacture a 
 finishing-machine, with their perforated beater 
 drum, and the patent corn-elevator, which 
 dispenses with the ordinary tin cups; there 
 is less wear and tear, and the working gear is 
 more simple. — Messrs. Clayton and Shuttle- 
 worth's improved machines are fitted with a 
 centrifugal-force corn-elevator, which dispenses 
 with six driving-pulleys and three driving- 
 bands. — Messrs. Hornsby's has only one belt 
 for working, giving three dressings with two 
 blasts. — There are also only two running 
 spindles and four pulleys ; the machine is 
 fitted with a centrifugal-force elevator, and a 
 new differential shaker. — Messrs. Eansome 
 and Sims have introduced a new rotary shaker, 
 which separates the straw, carries back the 
 grain to the dressing part of the machine, and 
 carries away the straw. There is also an ad- 
 justable rotary screen, which separates the 
 good from tlie light corn. — Messrs. Turner 
 have a small machine which may be worked 
 by a 4-horse-power engine. — There are also 
 machines made by Messrs. Burrell, Gibbons, 
 Gray, Holmes, Humphries, Eobey, Euston, 
 Tasker, and Uuderhill. In connection with 
 the thrashing machine, a new implement has 
 been brought forward within the last few 
 years. It consists of a frame, on which is a 
 straw-elevator: the straw thrown from the 
 thrashing macliine is received upon the 
 elevator, and is carried by an endless revolv- 
 ing band, with projecting spikes, to a height 
 of 20 feet, and upwards, doing the work of 
 several men in stacking the straw. The old 
 winnowing machine has not been altogether 
 Buperseded by the thrashing machine ; but, in 
 an improved condition, still keeps its place, 
 being better adapted for small holdings than an 
 implement which can only be worked by steam- 
 power. Nor has the steam-power machine 
 922 
 
 thrust out the horse thrashing machines. They 
 are useful on small occupations, and continue 
 in great demand on the continent, where the 
 system of farming has not reached the standard 
 that is required in this country. Many of 
 these useful machines are still manufactured 
 by some of the largest implement-makers. 
 
 TURNIP-CUTTERS AND PULPERS. 
 A root-cutter, invented and improved by 
 G. A. Biddell, of Ipswich, and manufactured 
 by Messrs. Eansome, is an excellent machine. 
 The knives remain stationary, while the hopper 
 revolves on a vertical axis. By this arrange- 
 ment great freedom of cut is attained, and it 
 is impossible for the last piece to escape with- 
 out being cut. It works easily, and cuts roots 
 at a rapid rate. They are made to cut slices, 
 finger-pieces of difierent sizes, and very thin 
 strips. Price, £5 IO5. ; wheels and handles, 
 12s. extra ; pulley for steam-power, extra. — A 
 patent root-pulper, invented by the late 
 F. Phillips, of Brandon, improved and manu- 
 factured by Woods and Cocksedge, has been 
 awarded several prizes by the Eoyal Agricul- 
 tural and other societies. This machine has 
 been perfected, and is now offered as the most 
 simple and effective implement for pulping of 
 roots. All complicated parts are done away 
 with ; there is no worm or cutter-block ; and 
 no oscillating motion is required to assist the 
 cutting-barrel in reducing the largest roots to 
 a fine regular mince. This is a small-sized 
 macliine for limited occupations, for stables, 
 or where one or two cows are kept. Easily 
 worked by a lad. Price, £3 10s. — Another, 
 of larger size, by the same makers, has the 
 cutting-barrel or cylinder 12 inches in diame- 
 ter, 14 inches in width, and is constructed 
 entirely of iron ; each tooth being fixed in sepa- 
 rately, and secured by a wooden wedge, so that 
 any common labourer may replace the teeth 
 at a cost of a penny each, without taking the 
 barrel out of its bearings. It will cost con- 
 siderably less to keep in repair than any other 
 turnip-cutter yet made. Price, £4! 15s. — 
 Another, fitted with brass bearings, and made 
 stronger for increased power, will cut a very 
 large quantity with greater ease than any other 
 machine of the kind, as has been proved at the 
 trials of the Eoyal Agricultural and other 
 societies. This size is especially adapted for 
 
/XTllll'AToHS. 
 
 OK ENGLISH FAl^M I NO. 
 
 rWEinHINO MACHIKES. 
 
 BtiM'k-iVedt'i-s. It produces a perfect pulp, 
 witlioht ill liny whv bruisiiiir or BIIl^^*llill•; llio 
 roots, or deslroyiiii,' or losiii^j; tlie juice — :i iiiOMt 
 important tcjitiire. Price, £o 10*. — Another, 
 with a 20-iiHli barrel, will perlonn a very large 
 quantitv of work when attiu-lictl to steam- 
 power, and is especially adapted to lar^e atoek- 
 feeders. Since the tirat introduction of 
 Phillips' root-pulpers, several thousands have 
 been sold to the first agriculturists of every 
 country in Europe. One of tlieir best qualities 
 is, that they never clog, and seldom got out 
 of repair; and in case of accident to the teeth, 
 these can easily be replaced at the cost of one 
 penny each. Price, £7 10s. — Messrs. Perk sly 
 and Sons have a root-pulper, which is a new 
 implement. It is constructed with a double 
 cone cylinder formed of perforated steel plates, 
 with gauge or diamond-shaped cutting-points : 
 the ends of this cylinder, being larger than 
 the centre, discharge the pulped matter as 
 rapidly as it falls into the interior, without the 
 assistance of an iron weight, worm, or other 
 contrivance, hitherto inetlectually employed 
 for such purpose. The cutting-plates are 
 fixed upon the cylinder in sections, and are 
 cheaply and easily replaced by duplicates in 
 cases of accidental breakage. It will perform 
 a greater amount of work, more efficiently, 
 and with less power, than any other machine 
 of the kind, and is less liable to breakage, and 
 more readily and cheaply repaired. The 
 frame and other parts of this machine are of 
 iron. Price, £5 10s. 
 
 WEED EXTIRPATORS. 
 
 A poppy and weed-extirpator and fer- 
 tilising lever harrow, invented by the late 
 Fred. Phillips, E;;q., of Brandon, and improved 
 and manufactured by Woods and Cock sedge, 
 has been awarded a silver medal by the lioyal 
 Agricultural Society of England. It loosens, 
 by its gentle action, hidebound lands, making 
 them tender and friable ; opening countless 
 millions of pores to the influence of the atmo- 
 sphere, promoting vegetation, and bringing 
 fresh nourishment to the plant. ]S'o farm 
 should be without it, as the extra produce on 
 a few acres will more than repay the cost in 
 the first year. Iron frame and levers. Price, 
 £8 10s. — Anotlier, called a Weeding-Padule, 
 or 'Lhislle-JJestroyer, by iieeves, has been 
 
 awarded a silver medal at tho Bnyal Agricul- 
 tural Show at Leeds. It is sMiiple, and used 
 tho »anie as a comtnon wceding-paddlo, which, 
 at the Hnino tiiiit* as it is pumhed into the 
 pround to cut off the weed, diHchnrgCH a por- 
 tion of Bait on the bleeding root. Tlu' nalt 
 thus penetrating tho roots, cH'ectunlly destrovs 
 them. It is portable, and is easily used as .-i 
 common paddle. Price, lOs. each. 
 
 WEIGHING MACHINES. 
 A three-ton cart-weighing machine, im- 
 proved and manufactured by !Mr. ^lason, is 
 fixed level with the ground, so that a cart can bo 
 easily weighed, or any ponderous article. It 
 is also fitted with a pen for weighing cattle ; 
 will weigh from 1 lb. to 3 tons ; and is taken 
 out of gear by a lever, so that it cannot 
 be injured when out of work. Price, £21 ; wiih 
 pen for cattle, £2 10s. extra. — Another port- 
 able machine for weighing cattle alive, is set 
 on wheels, with large platform and guard, to 
 weigh 15 cwt. with mall weights. Price, £0. 
 — Anotlier, for weighing pigs and sheep alive, 
 is adapted for all general purposes by removing 
 the guard and balance-weight, which is done 
 in an instant : having a large platform or scale, 
 it can be used either for corn, wood, or any 
 bulky article. Price, £-1 10s. — Another, adapt t-d 
 for the same purpose, but on the lever prin- 
 ciple, only requiring small weights, is made by 
 the same manufacturer, to weigh 4 cwt. Price, 
 £4. — A combined sack-holder and weighing 
 machine, invented by John Spencer, and im- 
 proved and manufactured by JMr. Mason, will 
 enable sacks of corn or other products to bo 
 filled and raised, by a rack and pinion attached 
 to the machine, to the height required for 
 carrying oft" on the back. Price, £5 5s. 
 
 WINNOWING MACHINES. 
 The manufacturers of implements of this de- 
 scription are Messrs. Ilornsby, Gooch, Gar- 
 rett, Dray, Coleman, Sawney, Caborn, Cam- 
 pain, and Hunt. On these machines generally, 
 the report of the Exhibition of 1S51 contained 
 the following remarks: — "Even winnowing is 
 becoming a refined process ; for, instead of 
 trusting the corn to the wind, it is now placed 
 in a machine so discriminating, that the best of 
 these — Messrs. llornsby's — required, on the 
 part of the judges at the York meeting, 
 
 923 
 
wiiT>-owiifG MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [conclusion. 
 
 epecific terms for describing its work, more 
 than are easy to understand." It then goes 
 on to say — "Messrs. Hornsby and Son are, 
 above all others, the most successful in these 
 machines, dressing more than double as much 
 corn as any otlier in a rough state ; it is also 
 excellent for finishing the corn for market ; 
 we, therefore, awarded it a medal." Price, 
 £13 10s. This machine received a prize at 
 Carlisle. The report then adds—" Mr. Gooch 
 oxhibited a machine which did its work well." — 
 Messrs. Garrett have several corn-dressing 
 machines, which were highly commended at 
 Carlisle, the price varying from £7 IO5. to £12. 
 Extra sieves may also be obtained for beans, 
 peas, &c. — Messrs. Dray have a patent grain 
 and seed-separater, invented by G. Salmon, of 
 Illinois. ^The judges at Carlisle said of this 
 — " AVe consider it likely to throw a new light 
 on dressing machines. Its performance in the 
 hands of its inventors was wonderful ; but it 
 must be seen to be appreciated. We awarded 
 it a medal." — Messrs. Coleman have corn- 
 dressing machines ; prices varying from £7 10s. 
 to £8 10s.: and Messrs. Caborn have also a 
 machine — the price being £14. — Mr. Sawney's 
 winnowing machine is priced at £8 IO5. — Mr. 
 Campain has a very complete machine, price 
 £25. This includes a patent elevator, which 
 raises the dressed corn by a revolving baud, 
 to which are attached tin troughs. These 
 receive the corn as it is dressed, and, raising 
 it, deliver it into a sack placed to receive it. 
 A very considerable saving of time is tlius 
 effected. — Mr. Hunt's engine for drawing 
 clover and trefoil seed was considered worthy 
 of especial mention at Carlisle, and had a silver 
 medal awarded to it. This machine separates 
 the husk from the seed, at the rate of from 
 two to three bushels of clover per hour, and 
 from four to six of trefoil seed. It is mounted 
 on a pair of wood or iron travelling wheels, 
 and a pair of draughts are attached, so as to 
 render it portable. The net price for steam- 
 power is £25 ; for horse-power, £27 ; and 
 the travelling wheels, with draughts of irou 
 or wood, from four to five guineas extra. 
 Numerous testimonials of merit have been 
 given for its efiiciency and superiority. 
 
 In closing tlio account of these valuable im- 
 plements, we cannot do better than give the 
 sentiments of tlie Jurors of the Exhibition ot 
 921 
 
 1851, which are just as a[)[ilicable now, as 
 they were then : — "Adopting the standard of 
 economy as the test of their merit, we find 
 that if a ploughing be valued at Ss., they can 
 save 7s. an acre yearly over the whole of an 
 arable farm ; and we may adopt this calculation 
 in their favour more confidently, because, by 
 other means, an equal saving of horse-work 
 can be made at other seasons in other descrip- 
 tions of work. Some exceptions to this 
 general use of cultivators will occur, of course, 
 to every farmer; but the substitution of them 
 for the plough has long been known to many 
 good farmers, though probably it has not, as 
 yet, been carried out upon system by any one 
 of them to its fullest extent." 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 AVhatever strides have lately been made in 
 the science of chemistry and the improvement 
 of mechanics, as applied to agricultural opera- 
 tions, there is yet another subject which, under 
 the name of Meteorology, ought to claim the 
 serious attention of those who are occupied in 
 the cultivation of the soil. As in other 
 matters connected with agriculture, the first 
 step in improvement, or the first advance in 
 the acquisition of any views of practical im- 
 portance, has been made in Scotland ; so, on 
 this point, the men of the north have, for some 
 time, busily interested themselves in establish- 
 ing a system of observations of what may be 
 generally termed m.eteorological occurrences, 
 which cannot fail to be of great value in 
 guiding the agriculturist in his course. It 
 must be evident, that to be of any practical 
 use, such observations cannot be confined to 
 one spot, but must be carried out over a large 
 extent of country. Every one in his own 
 neighbourhood, with but little trouble, can 
 add to the general stock of knowledge, and 
 thus the book of nature will be gradually un- 
 folded. A great fact will then be made ap- 
 parent to the comprehension of the farmer; 
 namely, that he must not look to the result 
 of a favourable or an unfavourable season — to 
 the chances of war or famine — to the supplies 
 that may come from other countries, to bid 
 him down as it were in his own ; — but that he 
 must extend and enlarge his views ; and he 
 will then find that, if he grounds his calcula- 
 tions upon reasonable expectations, the laws 
 
CONCLUSIOX.J 
 
 Ui-' ii.NtlLiSII FA i;.M INT,. 
 
 [conclusion. 
 
 of uuturo will bo found sullicieiitly firm and 
 iiivaiiabli' to all'ijrd liim cvory liopo that liid 
 labour will not be lost, if, at tlio same tinie, lio 
 takes advantage of tlie science and skill wliich 
 have already opened their resources for his 
 use. The variableness i)f climate, in tlieso 
 islands, arises from causes of easy explana- 
 tion. Tliero are disturbing forces, ou the one 
 hand, from the vast tract of land comprisiu"' 
 the continent of Europe ; and, on the other 
 from the extensive inlluence of the Atlantic 
 Ocean. The changes that wo thus experience 
 are dependent ou elements existing afar off 
 From the cold and inhospitable steppes and 
 tracts of Eussia on the one hand, and from 
 the tropical warmth convoyed through the 
 waters of the Mexican Gulf on the other, may 
 be traced the influences that affect our climate. 
 And thus it is found that the temperature is 
 more equable than is felt in similar latitudes, 
 cither in America or on the European con- 
 tinent. But these elementary influences pro- 
 duce a marked effect on the characters of 
 climate in those parts of our island that 
 receive their impulse from one or other of 
 these causes. Thus, on the west coast there 
 
 is a Inrp'er quantity of rain-fall than on tlio 
 east, litre, then, a rule for agricultural opera- 
 tions is at onco arrived at. Cereal grains 
 flourish bettor in the cast ; while grasses and 
 green crops find a. more genial climate in the 
 humid atiiiosphero of tlio west. There are, 
 besides, local causes affecting climate, but still 
 dependent on theso great outlines. It is 
 from theso peculiarities of local situations 
 that information may be derived, which, by 
 being classified, can be made generally useful 
 in guiding the inhabitants as to the course to 
 be pursued, bo as to regulate their system of 
 husbandry under the most advantageous cir- 
 cumstances. And we urge, therefore, upon the 
 agricultural body, not to keep their attention 
 confined to the chemistry and .mechanics 
 of agriculture — although, separately, each is 
 of incalculable importance; and, combined, 
 they have, within a few years, completed a 
 total revolution in all the routine of the farm 
 — but to study Nature and her laws ; and 
 there will be found such rules as cannot fail 
 to point to the farmer how to act, so as to 
 make the governing influences of the world 
 in a manner subservient to himself. 
 
 025 
 
DIVISION X. 
 
 THE PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE GARDEN OF EDEN ; THE GARDENS OF EESPERIDES ; THE OAilOEN OF ALCINOX-^S ; THE GARDSSS 
 OF CYRUS • GARDENS OF THE EAST GENERALLY ; GRECrAN GARDENS ; ROMAN GARDENS ; VEGETABLH 
 GARDENS. 
 
 THE GARDEN OF EDEN. 
 
 The cultivation of a garden, as it is one of 
 the most innocent, so must it have been one 
 of the first of the employiiieuts of man. Ac- 
 cording to the sacred writings, our Adam and 
 Eve were placed in Paradise, or the Garden 
 of Eden ; and profane historians and poets of 
 the remotest antiquity, have bequeatlied to us 
 descriptions of gardens, redolent of the most 
 enchanting beauty, and breathing fragrances 
 capable of inspiring the utmost delight. Ee- 
 specting the locality of some of these gardens, 
 however, learned topographers are very widely 
 divided. For example, the garden of Eden 
 is supposed, by some, to have been situated in 
 Armenia ; by others, in Persia ; by others, in 
 Chaldea ; and James Silk Bucluugham in- 
 forms us, that the people of Damascus im- 
 plicitly believe that it was placed in the 
 neighbourhood of their city. Happy belief! 
 as it must impart to the reflective and dreamy 
 mind of the ^i:,Turk, the most agreeable 
 visions of the \<jng, long past. But the inha- 
 bitants of Ceylon declare that the garden of 
 Eden was in their country, in which we know 
 there is an Adam's Peak, rising to a height of 
 7,420 feet above the level of the sea ; an 
 Adam's Bridge, which consists of a chain of 
 shoals extending across the gulf of ilauaar, 
 between the island and the peninsula ; and a 
 tomb of Abel. They have also a tree, the Bivi 
 Ladncr, which, they say, bore the forbidden 
 fruit, which still grows in great beauty, amidst 
 an abundance of the most deliciously scented 
 flowers, most inviting and tempting to all who 
 behold them. The form of the fruit is such 
 as to suggest the idea of a piece huviug been 
 92G 
 
 bitten out of the side by the sweet and innocent 
 mouth of our first mother ; and, to confirm 
 this fact, the Ceylonese affirm, that the fruit 
 was exquisite before this event took place, 
 though it is now •poisonous. Other countries 
 have been chosen for the localisation of this 
 celebrated garden ; and a Swedish professor 
 of the seventeenth century, composed a book 
 to prove that Sweden was the happy land in 
 which Eden had been placed. If so, it must 
 have been very cold in winter. 
 
 THE GARDENS OF HESPERIDES. 
 
 Eastern nations, in general, must have 
 taken great delight in gardens, from the man- 
 ner in which their enjoyments are usually 
 described. The gardens of Hesperides were 
 placed in Africa, near to Mount Atlas, or, 
 rather, somewhere among the valleys of the 
 chain which goes by that name. They are 
 described as situated in a spot upwards of 
 100 feet deep, and enclosed by very steep 
 and almost inaccessible heights. In them 
 grew apples of gold (oranges), pomegranates, 
 mulberries, olives, almonds, w'alnuts, and 
 grapes. The ornamental trees comprised the 
 arbutus, myrtle, bay, ivy, and wild olive. 
 They were inhabited by three celebrated 
 nymphs, daughters of Hesperus, and gmirded 
 by a terrific dragon, which never slept. Here 
 were — 
 
 " Groves whose rich trees wept cilorons gums and bnlm ; 
 Others whose fruit, burnish'd with golden rind, 
 Hung enviable, Hesperian fables true, 
 If true, here only, and of delicious taste." 
 
 Some writers have supposed these gardens 
 to have been nothing more than the oases in 
 
ANCIENT QAUDENs.] PRACTICE OF 11 ORTI C TTLTURE. [«ahdbks of crnus. 
 
 the desert; but wluituver llu-y wrri-, or are 
 m imagination, the vast exuberance of thtir 
 oJoriterous llower.-^, and the " thousand and 
 one" euchantin|j[ charnia with wliich the Greek 
 mind, as seen iu its poetical mythology, 
 has invested tlieiii, have been thorougld}' de- 
 molished by the ruthless hand of Ijientenant 
 ]3i.'echy. It is a sad, but, we believe, an 
 undeniable truth, as shown by this writer, 
 that these famous gardens were nothing more 
 than old stone quarries, out of which the 
 material ni'ce^sary to build the town of Be- 
 renice, now 13ougazi, had been taken. 
 
 'THE GARDENS OF ALCINOUS AND 
 LAERTES. 
 
 The gr.rden of the Phoenician king, Alci- 
 nous, is said to have been situated in an 
 island of tliat name, supposed to have been 
 Corfu, in the Ionian sea ; but, wherever it 
 was situated — whetlier in Corfu, or in some 
 one of the Asiatic islands, as some suppose — 
 its description, by the Homeric muse, is ex- 
 C-'i.diugly beautiful. It lay close to the gates 
 of the palace of the king ; and was carefully 
 defended from the inclemency of the weather 
 by such means as may be supposed, at that 
 time, to have been at the command of a 
 powerful sovereign. It consisted of four 
 acres, and was fenced all round with a green 
 enclosure. It was planted, here and there, 
 with fruit trees ; and contained beds of cu- 
 linary vegetables, and some borders of flowers. 
 The poet, however, describes it in much 
 warmer terms than we are attempting to do. 
 Here the reddening apple ripened into gold ; 
 and — 
 
 " Here the blue fig with luscious juice o'eiflows,. 
 With deeper red the full pomegranate glows ; 
 The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, 
 And verdant olives flourish round the year. 
 The balmy spirit of the western gale 
 Eternal breathes on fruits, untaught to fail ; 
 Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, 
 On apples, apples, figs on figs arise ; 
 Tiie same mild season gives the blooms to blow, 
 The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow." 
 
 Besides its fruits and flowers, it contained 
 a couple of fountains, or wells ; the one for 
 the use of the palace, and the other for 
 watering tho garden. — The garden of Laertes 
 was similar to that of Alcinous ; and they 
 are both described in the Odyssey. 
 
 THE (iARDENS OF CYRUS. 
 Tlie Babylonian or AHHyriaii kinga seem to 
 have ])033L'a8ed u reniarkublo predilection for 
 magnificent gardens, 'i'hoae of Cyrua, the 
 founder of the Persian empire, have fre- 
 (juently been deHcribed. According to Mr. 
 i iioudon, who condeuHcs from Dr. rulconer, 
 the form of these gardens was square, each 
 side liaving a length of about one hundred feet, 
 and the whole giving an area at the base of 
 closely upon four acres. "They were made 
 to rise with terraces, constructed in a curious 
 manner above one another, in the form of 
 steps : and were supported by stone pillars to 
 the height of more than three hundred 
 feet, gradually diminishing upwards till the 
 area of the superior surface, which was flat, 
 was reduced considerably below that of the 
 base. This building was constructed by vast 
 stone beams, placed on pillars of stone (arches 
 not having then been invented), which were 
 again covered with reeds cemented with bitu- 
 men, over which was placed a double row of 
 bricks united by cement. The bricks were 
 covered with plates of lead, which effectually 
 prevented the moisture from penetrating 
 downwards. Above all, was laid a coat of 
 earth, of depth sufficient for plants to grow in 
 it ; and the trees planted there were of various 
 kinds, and were ranged in rows en the side of 
 the ascent, as well as on the top ; so that, at 
 a distance, it appeared as an immense pyra- 
 mid covered with wood. The situation of this 
 extraordinary efibrt of human skill, aided by 
 wealth, was nearly adjoining to, or upon, the 
 river Euphrates, from which water was sup- 
 plied by machinery, for the fountains and 
 reservoirs employed for cooling the air, and 
 watering the gardens." Yet the monarch 
 whose power and wealth enabled him to con- 
 struct these wonderful monuments, was as 
 deeply impressed as the most reflective plii- 
 losopher could be, with the fast-fleeting 
 glories of all earthly materialities. Saadi, in 
 his Gulistan, copies the inscription which 
 Cyrus ordered to be put upon his crown. 
 " What avails a long life spent in the enjoy- 
 ment of worldly grandeur, since others, 
 mortal like ourselves, will, one day, trample 
 our pride under foot ! This crown, banded 
 down to me from my predecessors, must soon 
 
 027 
 
EASTERN GAEDENs.] PEACTICE OF HOETI CULT UEE. [ouecian gaedens. 
 
 pass in succession to the lieads of many 
 others." Keraarkable as this may be, it is 
 not nearly so striking as his epitaph :— " 
 man! whoever thou art, and wherever thou 
 comest (for come I know thou wilt), I am 
 Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire. 
 Envy me not the little earth that covers my 
 body." Peace to his manes! 
 
 GARDENS OF THE EAST GENERALLY. 
 
 Erom the foregoing descriptions, it will 
 readily be inferred, that gardens, among the 
 Asiatics generally, were objects from which 
 great pleasure was received ; and hence the 
 reason that they are so frequently spoken of by 
 the inspired writers in such away as to illustrate 
 subjects of a spiritual or heavenly nature. 
 One of the first essentialities of an Eastern 
 garden seems to have been elevation of situa- 
 tion. " When Serairamis came to Chanon, a 
 city of Media," observes Diodorus Siculus, 
 " she discovered, on au elevated plain, a rock 
 of stupendous height and considerable extent. 
 Here she formed another paradise, exceedingly 
 large, enclosing a rock in the midst of it ; on 
 which she erected sumptuous buildings for 
 pleasure, commanding a view of both the 
 plantations and the encampment." The exist- 
 ence of these gardens, however, has been 
 questioned; and so has even that of Queen 
 Semiramis. 
 
 Looking back to a period 1500 B.C., Solo- 
 mon's gardens necessarily come into view. 
 The form of this plot was quadrangular ; and 
 it was encompassed by a high wall. It was 
 adorned with plants of various descriptions — 
 curious as objects of natural history, such as 
 the hyssop : but it was also fragrant with the 
 rose, the lily of the valley, cinnamon, spike- 
 nard, camphire, saffron, and other plants. 
 Its timber trees were the cedar, the pine, and 
 the fir. Its fruits were the pomegranate, the 
 tig, the grape, the apple, and the date. No 
 doubt, like Milton's Eden, it was supplied 
 with grots and caves of cool recess, over which 
 the mantling vine — 
 
 '« Lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps 
 Luxuriant ; meanwhile murmuring waters fall 
 Down the slope hills, dispersed, or in a lake. 
 That to the fringed bank with myrtle crown'd 
 Her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams." 
 
 In the hotter parts of Eastern couutries, a 
 92S 
 
 constant supply of water is so necessary, that 
 were the application of this precious beverage 
 to be denied to a garden but for a few days, 
 everything in it would be literally burnt and 
 destroyed. There is, therefore, in these parts, 
 no garden whatever without a certain supply 
 of water, obtained either from some neigh- 
 bouring river, or from some reservoir, either 
 collected from springs or filled during the 
 rainy season, to an extent sufficient to yield 
 an ample quantity for the rest of the year. 
 As a general description of the manner in 
 which an Eastern garden is laid out, that of 
 the Emir of Berytua may be taken. Eefer- 
 ring to this piece of art, Mr. Maundrell, in 
 his Travels, says — " The best sight that the 
 palace afi'ords, and that which is most deserv- 
 ing of recollection, is the orange garden. It 
 contains a large quadrangular plot of ground, 
 divided into sixteen lesser squares, four in 
 a row, with walks between them. The walks 
 are shaded with orange trees of a large 
 spreading size. Every one of these sixteen 
 lesser squares in the garden was bordered 
 with stone; and in the stone-work w^ere 
 troughs, very artiScially contrived for con- 
 veying the water all over the garden, there 
 being little outlets cut at every tree, for the 
 stream, as it passed by, to flow out and water 
 it." Kempher describes the royal gardens 
 at Ispahan as being watered in a precisely 
 similar manner. 
 
 GRECIAN GARDENS. 
 The Greeks, original, elegant, and refined iu 
 most things, yet copied the Persians iu 
 gardening. We are informed by Diogenes 
 Laertius, that the philosopher Epicurus took 
 great delight in a garden, and chose such a 
 scene for teaching his principles. This plot 
 was in the city of Athens ; and he is stated 
 to have been the first who introduced tie 
 charms and enjoyments of trees and flowers 
 into the heart of a city. Thus the pleasures 
 of country life could be experienced without 
 the necessity of going out of town, and thoso 
 of town life might be participated in without 
 having to go into the country. This was in 
 accordance with the philosophy which teaches 
 that happiness consists in pleasure, not cer- 
 tainly altogether of the pleasures of sense, 
 but of that species of pleasure which would 
 
TioMvx iJ.vnDEXs.] I'UACrU'H OF 1 1 o KT U" T l/iriv E. [kitcuejj OAnDENS. 
 
 deny an energetic activity to the faculties of 
 the niiiid. The Athenians, however, etijined 
 both the j)hilo30j)hy and the llowers, nuionji; 
 which were the narcissus, the violet, and the 
 rose. "The rich and polished Atlienians," 
 observes Gilbert Laini:; ^leason, "preferred 
 n residence in the country, that they might 
 withdraw theraselves from the jealousy of 
 envious citizens. In villa gardening they 
 borrowed from Asia IVlinor. They had myrtles 
 and roses ; the box and the lime tree were 
 planted for topiary works : and Theophrastus 
 rells us that flowers and fruits were cultivated 
 in the winter ; and that the violet was in 
 profusion in the market of Athens while 
 enow was on the ground." The cemeteries 
 of the Greeks may be included in their 
 public gardens ; and groves, and even the 
 waysides, were sometimes chosen for the 
 burial-places of public men. 
 
 ROMAN GARDENS. 
 The gardens of the Romans were similar to 
 those of the Greeks, the one being a copy 
 of the other. Those of the Emperor Xero 
 partook of the appearance of one of our 
 modern parks. Tacitus says — " Moreover, 
 Nero turned the ruins of bis country to his 
 private advantage, and built a house, the 
 ornaments of which were not miracles of 
 gems and gold, now usual in vulgar luxuries ; 
 but lawns and lakes, and after the manner of 
 a desert ; here groves, and there open spaces 
 aud prospects ; the masters and centurions 
 being Severus aud Celer, whose genius and 
 boldness could attempt by art, what nature 
 bad denied, aud deceive with princely force." 
 The city gardens of the Eomans seem to 
 Lave been nothing more than small square 
 plots in the fronts of their bouses, enclosed 
 with trellis- work, planted with espaliers, and 
 ornamented with fountains, urns, and other 
 sculptural works of art. Plants in boxes and 
 pots appear, sometimes on the walks and 
 window-sills; and over the doors there appear 
 
 ciimberB, resembling lioneyBuckles. The size 
 of the plots would Heem to liavo varied, aa 
 they do with us, from a few Bijuare yanb up 
 to, perhaps, a (juarter of an acre. 
 
 V i£ ( ; i:r A n l i-: r. a r d f: n s. 
 
 In the laws of the Bicinnviri, among the 
 Koinans the word hortus originally meant 
 both a garden and a country-house ; but, in 
 the course of time, the word pinguis was 
 added to it, when the conjunction of the two 
 words signified a kitchen garden. AVe aro 
 informed by Cato, that the principal citizens 
 had their liortiy or garden-farms, in which 
 they reared their vegetables, close to the city. 
 In the earlier ages these farms were cultivated 
 by the hands of their proprietors, as was the 
 case with Cincinnatus ; and the success of 
 some of these dignifled growers, in the culture 
 of certain plants, suggested family names, not 
 only for themselves, but for future genera- 
 tions. Thus we have Piso, from the pea , 
 Cicero, from the vetch ; Tabius, from the 
 bean ; Lentulus from the lentil ; and otliera. 
 If the owner had reared too large a crop of 
 vegetables for his own use, the remainder 
 was taken to the Fora Olitarum, and there 
 exposed to sale. The principal culinary pro- 
 ducts cultivated by the liomans were cab- 
 bages, which were esteemed alike by the 
 sovereign and the slave ; turnips, carrots, 
 beet, parsnip, radish, skirret, asparagus, 
 sorrel, onions, and several kinds of garlic. 
 Of leguminous plants, the pea, and the com- 
 mon, as well as the kidney bean, were cul- 
 tivated. Of salads, endive, mustard, lettuce, 
 succory, and others. Of pot and siccet herbs, 
 dittander, alisanders, orache, parsley, fennel, 
 elecampane, chervil, and a variety of others. 
 Mushrooms were in repute ; and although not 
 vegetables, wo may here observe, that bees, 
 snails, and dormice bad appropriate places 
 assigned them, as necessary additions to the 
 kitchen garden. 
 
 Gc 
 
 929 
 
OBSEEYATIONS.l 
 
 PKACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [nonesuch. 
 
 PRELIMrNABT OBSERVATIONS ; 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NONESUCH; PROGRESS OP GARDENING IN ENGLAND 
 GARDENS AT WINDSOR. 
 
 THE EOYAL 
 
 PRELIMINA.IIY OBSERVATIONS. 
 By the time that the Eoman cominonwealth 
 had ceased to exist, the catalogue of fruits 
 then cultivated had risen to a considerable 
 number. According to Hirschfeld, the Eomans 
 had received the almond and the fig from 
 Syria, the citron from Media, the peach from 
 Persia, the apricot from Epirus, the pome- 
 granate from Africa ; pears, apples, and plums 
 from Armenin, and cherries from Pontus. The 
 list was greatly extended by tlie numerous 
 different species of some of these, and the 
 principles of grafting and pruning were both 
 understood and practised. Even the mode 
 of generating heat, and applying it to the 
 purposes of horticulture, seems to have been 
 known ; but, with the decline of the empire, 
 garden cultivation also declined, or, at least, 
 became stationary. Subsequently it seems to 
 haye sunk into the torpid state into which 
 the whole of Europe had passed ; but, with 
 the revival of learning, it awoke from the long 
 slumber of the dark ages, and, once more, 
 began to unfold its innumerable charms to 
 the eyes and imaginations of men. Eor some 
 time it continued to be repressed by the 
 dreams of alchemistical empiricism, the re- 
 strictions of unlucky days, and the supposed 
 effects of lunar influences ; but it gradually 
 shook itself free from these chains of igno- 
 rance and superstition, and joined in the race 
 of general improvement, which was fast taking 
 place in society. Throughout Europe its 
 advancement has been general ; but in no 
 state has it made greater progress towards 
 its present condition, than it has done in 
 Great Britain, where it has been cultivated 
 with great steadiness, assiduit)^ and ardour, 
 by men not only possessed of the means and 
 position, but of the talents capable of de- 
 veloping the science in all its departments. 
 It is to Britain, therefore, that we will chiefly 
 confine ourselves in treating of this subject ; 
 and, also, more especially to the middle por- 
 930 
 
 tions of the island, taking mostly, for our 
 guides and authorities, such men as Dr. 
 Lindley, the first of physiologists, and Mr. C. 
 Mackintosh, the first of gardeners. Before 
 entering upon this portion, however, we wld 
 notice a few of the royal gardens of England, 
 briefly tracing the progress of the art down 
 to the present time. 
 
 NONESUCH. 
 
 After the revival of gardening in England, 
 it made great progress in the time of 
 Henry VIII., who encouraged and patronised 
 the art, to an extent commensurate with his 
 means. It was in his reign that the royal 
 Gardens of Nonesuch were laid out and 
 
 o 
 
 planted. In a survey taken in 1650, above a 
 century after the death of Henry, these 
 gardens are said to have been divided into 
 several compartments, alleys, and rounds, in- 
 tended, no doubt, as an exemplification of 
 improving taste, and surrounded with thorn 
 hedges. On the north side was the kitciien 
 garden, and, on the west, a wilderness sepa- 
 rated from a little park by a hedge ; the whole 
 containing ten acres. In the private gardens 
 were fountains, and basins of marble, pyramids 
 and statuary, representing various subjects. 
 Indeed, it seems altogether to have been an 
 extraordinary place for the age. Hentzner 
 tells us, that " Nonesuch was built by 
 Henry YIII., with an excess of elegance and 
 magnificence even to ostentation ; as one 
 would imagine everything that architecture 
 can perform to have been employed in this 
 one work. Tliere are everywhere so many 
 statues, that seem to breathe ; so many 
 miracles of consummate art ; so many easts 
 that rival even the perfection of Eoman an- 
 tiquity, that it may well claim and justify its 
 name of Nonesuch, being without an equal; 
 or, as the poet sung — 
 
 This which no equal has in avt or fame, 
 Britons deservedly do Nonesuch name. 
 
 " The palace itself is so encompassed witk 
 
OAltDEJJlNO.] 
 
 PUACTICE OK IIOKTICULTURE. 
 
 [in ENGLAND. 
 
 parka full of deer, delicious gardens, grovea 
 surrounded with trellia-wurk, cabinets of 
 veriiuiv, and walks so embowered by trees, 
 that it seems to be a place pitched on by 
 Pleasure herself to dwell in along with Heulth. 
 lu the pleasure and artificial gardens are 
 many columns and pyramids of marble; two 
 fountains that spout water — one round the 
 other like a pyramid, upon whicb are perched 
 small birds that stream water out of their 
 bills. In the grove of Diana is a very agree- 
 able fountain, with Actteon turned into a 
 stag (as he was), sprinkled by the goddess and 
 her nymphs, with inscriptions. There is, 
 besides, another pyramid of marble, full of 
 concealed pipes, which spurt upon all who 
 come within their reach." Such was the 
 style of a royal garden in the time of 
 Henry VIII. Taste, however, has entirely 
 changed ; and great as may be the opulence 
 of modern garden proprietors, whether of 
 the patrician or the plebeian orders, '" statues 
 that seem to breathe," where they do exist, 
 do not take such a promiiieut place as they 
 did in the days of " Bluff King Hal." 
 
 PROGRESS OF GARDENING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Passing by the immediate successors of 
 Henry, the art met with great encourage- 
 ment from our Stuart kings. James I. greatly 
 improved the gardens at Theobalds and 
 Greenwich. Of the former, Maudelso, who 
 visited this country in 1G40, says — " It is 
 a large square, having all its walls covered 
 with phillyrea, and a beautiful jet d'eau 
 in the centre. The parterre hath many 
 pleasant walks, part of which are planted 
 on the sides with espaliers and others, 
 arched over. Some of the trees are limes 
 and elms ; and at the end is a small mount, 
 called the Mount of Venus, which is placed in 
 the midst of a labyrinth ; and is, upon the 
 whole, one of the most beautiful spots in the 
 world." Lord Bacon, who himself bad a lair 
 garden, endeavoured to improve the taste of 
 the time, but w ith little success. " As for 
 the making of knots or figures," says he, 
 "with divers coloured earths, they be but 
 toys. I do not like images cutout in juniper 
 or other garden stuff; they are for children." 
 No great advance was made during the Com- 
 monwealth; but in the reign of Charles II. 
 
 tho art was iniprovod. It waa in this reign 
 
 that Chatsworth, the splendid neat of the 
 Duke of Devouhhire, wua laid out ; and Daincii 
 Barrington tiiinks that gard«'n buildings were 
 first erected in England during this reign, at 
 Beckett, near Farringdon ; and the celebrated 
 Inigo Jones was the archiifct. Evelyn 
 fiouri.shed in this reign ; and, by his writings 
 and his taste in gardening, did much to im- 
 prove tho art. 
 
 During tho reign of AVilliam and IVIary, 
 Switzer says that gardening had attained to 
 tho highest point of perfection ; and we daro 
 say that it is the opinion of many that such 
 is the case at the present day. But anv 
 sudden revolution in the taste of the nation 
 would change the whole of its features, now 
 deemed beautiful and perfect, within the com- 
 pass of a very few years. Dainea Barrington 
 informs us that King William greatly ex- 
 tended what is called to])iary-icorJc, which 
 consists of giving fanciful forma to arbours 
 and thickets, trees and hedges. This gro- 
 tesque style "Was patronised by William, who 
 loved to see clipped yews, accompanied with 
 magnificent gates and rails of iron. The 
 largest iron screens of this kind in England, 
 after those of Hampton Court, were formed 
 by Switzer, at Leeswold, Flintshire, the 
 grounds of which were laid out by that artist 
 in a mixed style. Mr. Loudon informs us, 
 that Hampton Court being, at this time, the 
 actual residence of the royal family, the 
 gardens underwent considerable improvement. 
 " An elegant alcove and arched trellis were 
 added at the end of one of the alleys, and 
 four urns placed before the principal part of 
 the house — supposed, by Daines Barrington, to 
 have been the first that were thus used in 
 England. Towards the end of this century, 
 Tegetable sculptures and embroidered par- 
 terres were probably in their highest vogue — 
 a conjecture confirmed by the works of 
 Le Blond, James, Switzer, &c., published 
 during this and the following reign." Longleat, 
 the tiiagnificent seat of the Marquis of Bath, 
 was laid out in this reign. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Anne, the principal 
 alteration which appears to have been made, 
 took place in the royal garden.s at Windsor, 
 when the parterre before the great terrace 
 was covered with turf. It was this queen who 
 
 931 
 
DESiaiflNG.] 
 
 PEACTICE Oi' HORTICULTUEE. [eaelt gardening. 
 
 caused the old gardens at Kensington, com- 
 menced bv William, to be finished. Wise (of 
 London and AVise, noted gardeners) was en- 
 gaged for this purpose. He converted the 
 gravel-pits into a shrubbery, laid out in mean- 
 dering walks ; the effect of which upon the mind 
 of Addison was so great, that he elevated Wise 
 to a comparison with an epic poet, considering 
 the improved pits as episodes to the garden, 
 which of course was, in the eye of the Spectator, 
 the epic itself. Both London and Wise were 
 nurserymen and designers, who enjoyed great 
 popularity in their time. To them succeeded 
 Bridgeman, who banished vegetable sculpture, 
 substituting in its place wild scenes and cul- 
 tivated fields. This was a better taste. He 
 still, however, continued to clip his alleys, 
 though he left to their natural growth the 
 central parts of the masses through which 
 they were pierced. *' Blenheim, Castle 
 Howard, Cranbourne, Bushy Pai'k, Edger, 
 Althorp, JS'ew Park, Bowden, Hackwood, 
 Wrest, and, indeed, almost all the principal 
 noblemen's seats in the ancient style, were 
 laid out during this, the preceding, and part 
 of the latter reigns, or between the years 
 1660 and 1713. Blenheim was laid out by 
 Wise in three years. Wanstead in Essex, and 
 Edger in Hertfordshire, were the last of 
 London's designs. 
 
 Under the first of the Georges, gardening lan- 
 guished rather than improved ; but under the 
 second George, his queen enlarged and planted 
 Kensington gardens. She also formed what is 
 now called the Serpentine Eiver, by uniting a 
 Btring of detached ponds. This bold step was 
 the precursor of subsequent changes in taste. 
 It would appear from Daines Barrington, that 
 Lord Bathurst informed him, that he (his lord- 
 ship) was the first who deviated from the straight 
 line in pieces of made water, by following the 
 natural lines of a valley, in widening a brook 
 at liyskins, near Colnbrook ; and that Lord 
 Strafford, conceiving that it had been done 
 from poverty, asked him to confess fairly how 
 much more it would have cost him to have 
 made it straight. In Mr. Loudon's Encj/clo- 
 pcedia, it is stated that Christopher Wren 
 (chaplain to Charles I., Dean of Windsor, and 
 father of Sir Christopher Wren, the architect) 
 claimed, as his, the invention of making serpen- 
 tine rivers. In a marginal note, ajQ&xed to 
 932 
 
 Sir H. AVotton's Elements of Architecture^ 
 published in 1624, he says — " Eor disposing 
 the current of a river to a mightier length in 
 a little space, I invented the serpentine, a 
 form admirably conveying the current in cir- 
 cular, and yet contrary, motions upon one and 
 the same level, with walks and retirements 
 between, to the advantage of all purposes, 
 either of gardenings, plantings, or banquetings, 
 or very delights ; and the multiplying of in- 
 finite fish in a little compass of ground, with- 
 out any sense of their being restrained. la 
 brief, it is to reduce the current of a mile's 
 length into the compass of an orchard," 
 
 The extent of Kensington gardens,, ori- 
 ginally, was twenty-six acres, to which Queen 
 Anne added thirty, and Queen Caroline nearly 
 three hundred more, taken out of Hyde Park, 
 and laid out by Bridgeman. Beckham, who 
 wrote in 1712, says — " The gardens of Ken- 
 sington Palace, which are three miles and 
 a-half in circumference, are very fine ; they 
 have been much improved and enlarged since 
 his present majesty came to the throne, under 
 the care and management of the late inge- 
 nious Mr. Bridgeman. They are kept in the 
 greatest order ; and in the summer-time, when 
 the court is not there, are resorted to by a 
 vast concourse of the most polite company." 
 Canons, the magnificent seat of the Duke of 
 Chaudos, is one of the principal places laid 
 out in the ancient style during this reign. 
 
 Having thus traced the rise, progress, and 
 decline of the ancient style of gardening in 
 England, we will now, without entering into 
 the disputed point as to the originators of 
 the modern style, give, principally from jNIr. 
 Loudon, a brief description of the royal 
 gardens at Windsor, as being, perhaps, the 
 finest in this country. 
 
 THE ROYAL GARDENS AT WINDSOR. 
 
 Notwithstanding that Windsor Castle has 
 been a royal residence since the time of 
 William the Conqueror, we hear nothing of 
 the garden till the time of Henry V., when 
 James I., of Scotland, celebrated it in a poem 
 whilst a prisoner within the walls of the 
 fortress. In the reign of Elizabeth, the prin- 
 cipal terrace was formed on the north side of 
 the castle ; and in that of Charles II., this 
 same terrace was extended round the east, 
 
KOTAL oAnDExs.] PRACTICE OF IIORTICULTUllE. 
 
 [at WINDSOtt. 
 
 nutl a part of the soutli, fruiit. Duiiiifj the Britain. Tho Great Park lias a circumference 
 reign of William and Mary, the Litllo Park of eif^hteun mili's ; and both it and tlio Littlo 
 
 was enclosed by a brick wall, ami avenues of 
 elms and clumps of forest trei's planled. This 
 was continueil to bo done by Queen Anne ; 
 but not one of these autjust personaj^es seema 
 to have thought anything about a garden. 
 Although plans seem to have been suggested 
 for furnishing tho caallo with gardens and 
 plea^^ure-groumls, they do not ap[)ear to have 
 borne fruit. Wiiately, the author of Obaei-va- 
 tioris on Modern Gardening, wrote, in 1772, a 
 paper upon the subject, which he left in manu- 
 script, and which, many years afterwards, 
 came to light in the Gardener s Magazine. In 
 this paper he says — " A more magnificent and 
 deliglitful royal residence can hardly be 
 imagined than that of "Windsor Castle. Tiie 
 eminence on which the castle stauds is de- 
 tached from every other, and advanced into 
 
 Park aro studded with largo treea, mostly 
 arranged in avenues. It is observed by 
 Whately, that the space which these avenues 
 enclose might be divided into three parts. 
 "Tho declivities of the hill towards Trog- 
 moro and Datcliet aro comprehended within 
 one of these divisions ; tho level from the foot 
 of tho hill towards Datchct, constitutes tho 
 second ; and all tho plain which borders on 
 tlio Thames, from Datchct to Eton bridge, is 
 included in tho third." ]\Ir. Loudon observes, 
 that, in the first of these divisions, the ground 
 varies considerably. Ancient oaks and lofty 
 elms are scattered about, sometimes crowning 
 tltc brow of the descent, and at others giving 
 richness to tho valleys. Among these trees 
 appear diflercnt views of the towers of the 
 castle ; and, from some points, two fronts may 
 
 the plain which it commands ; it falls in a ' at once be seen in perspective. The beauties 
 bold slope on one side, wiiile it is easy of i in the second division are of a tamer character, 
 access on the other ; and, as the palace occu- The castle is entirely hid ; and the principal 
 pies almost all the brow, the whole liill seems ' point of importance is a little water-course, 
 but a base to the building. It rises in the which might easily be converted into a rivulet, 
 midst of an enchanting country, and it is Tiie plain between the castle and the Thames 
 there the most distinguished spot; but though is remarkably rich; and it is on this side that 
 the situation is singular, it is not extravagant ; the slopes are situated, which, in the latter part 
 it is great, but not wild. It is in itself noble, of the reign of George III., were turned into 
 and all around it is beautiful. The view from a garden. On the other side of the Great 
 
 the terrace is not the most picturesque, but it 
 is the ga^'est that can be conceived. The 
 Thames uilTuses a cheerfulness throuirli all the 
 
 Park stretches "Windsor Forest — a vast tract, 
 which exhibits almost every possible variety 
 of scenery. The slopes, which form the 
 
 counties where it flows; and this is, in itself, declivity of the hill, making the north ter 
 
 peculiarly cheerful. It is luxuriantly fertile ; 
 it is highly cultivated ; it is full of villas and 
 
 race, were first enclosed in the reign of George 
 III.; but about eighteen acres of pleasure- 
 
 villages, and they are scattered all over it — grounds adjoining them were subsequently 
 
 laid out. 
 
 not crowded together. No hurry of business 
 appears, and iio dreary waste is in sight. 
 Country churches and gentlemen's seats are 
 
 In the reign of George IV., a grant was 
 obtained for making improvements in "Windsor 
 everywhere intermixed with the fields and Castle ; and a suite oi apartments was built, 
 the trees. E\ery spot seems improved, but under tho direction of tSir Jelfery Wyatville, 
 improved for the purposes of pleasure. All are a new terrace being formed in front of them, 
 rural, none are solitary : and the amenity of 1 which was carried round a small flower-garden, 
 the plain is, at the same time, contrasted with ' This garden coniprises between three and 
 the rich woods in the Great Park — their height, four acres; and is twelve or fifteen feet below 
 
 their shade, and their verdure." 
 
 the level of the new terrace, which is on the 
 
 This enthusiasm of Whately is by no means same level as the old terraces. The descent 
 undeserving his theme ; for, in reality, the to the garden is by two flights of stone steps, 
 whole domain which encircles the castle of Tiie orangery is formed under part of the ter- 
 AVindsor, is, perhaps, not only the most beau- race, and has an opaque roof. It is lighted by 
 tiful, but the moat maguiliccut in Great upright windows, after the manner of the old 
 
 U33 
 
POINTS.] 
 
 PEACTICE 0¥ HOllTICULTUEE. [plan of a gaiidex. 
 
 orangeries at Kensington and Versailles, 
 facing the south and south-west. It follows, 
 from this arrangement, that those walking on 
 the terrace round the flower-garden, look 
 down on its arena of grass, and beds of trees 
 and shrubs on the one hand ; and outwards 
 towards the splendid park scenery on the 
 other. The effect thus produced is dignified 
 and grand, and well suited both to the castle 
 and the situation. The slope is grass ; and 
 the greater part of the level surface of the 
 ::yarden is in grass also, with beds of shrubs and 
 flowers parallel to the walks. There is also a 
 
 slope of turf from the inner edge of the 
 terrace to the level arena of the garden. 
 Several years after the foundatioii of this 
 garden, it received the addition of a number 
 of marble vases and some statues, nine of 
 which were in m'Jirble, and seven in bronze. 
 Some of these are I'rom the antique ; but the 
 others resemble those seen in the French 
 gardens, laid out in the time of Louis XIV' 
 A fountain was also erected in the centre of 
 the garden ; and additional improvements are 
 still being made to this royal domain, which 
 is the finest in Enjjlaud. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 POINTS IN A GAKDEN ; PLAN; SIZE ; FORM ; WATEE-SUPPLY ; SITUATION' ; SOIL ; "WALLS ; SLIPS AND 
 KING-FENCE ; SHELTER, ; HOT-HOUSES ; THE MEL0>f-GE0UND ; DISTRIBUTION OP THE GARDEN" AREA. 
 
 j setting out to make his Italian conquests, 
 
 POINTS IN A GARDEN. ^.[^g^ j^g swept the legions of the Austrians 
 
 Peevious to the planting of a garden, there : before him. He planned and calculated; 
 
 foresaw, conquered, and entered the capi- 
 tals of his loes, and even predicted where 
 battles should be fought between the con- 
 tending forces, and whicli actually did take 
 place on the very spots, as indicated by black 
 and red- headed pins on the maps of the 
 countries through which he was to lead his 
 armies. Although the designing of a garden 
 is a much more humble effort than the plan- 
 ning of a campaign, still it ought to be con- 
 sidered of sufficient importance to those who 
 are to enjoy its fruits, to induce them to 
 make a draft of its general features in 
 tlieir own minds before they commence to 
 form it. Indeed, everything connected with 
 this part of it should be clearly set down 
 upon paper. "A well-arranged plan," says 
 Mr. C. Mackintosh, " is as necessary in com- 
 mencing a garden, as in beginning to build a 
 mansion, if unity and system are things worth 
 caring for. The whole of the projected ar- 
 rangements of a garden should be laid down 
 onpajjer, and submitted to competent examina- 
 waathus that Napoleon I. acted previous to his I tiou. The execution of the diflerent parts 
 93db 
 
 are various points to which attention should 
 be given, and which will indeed, to a large 
 extent, absolutely determine the manner in 
 •which it must be arranged and laid out, in 
 order that its space may be thoroughly 
 utilised, both as regards beauty, and the 
 fruits, vegetables, and flowers with which it 
 is intended to be stored and adorned. The 
 principal of these points comprise Plan, Size, 
 Form, Water-supply, Situation, Soil, Walls, 
 Slips, and Eing-feuce ; Shelter, Hot-houses, 
 the Melon-ground, and the Distribution of the 
 Area. 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 Whatever is to be carried out with taste, 
 skill, or enterprise, no matter of what cha- 
 racter it may be, the mind should previously 
 form a clear conception upon, at least, its prin- 
 cipal features, if for no other purpose than to 
 impart greater vigour to action, and ensure 
 greater certainty of success. It is thus that 
 every general conducts his campaigns. It 
 
SIZE— FORM.] 
 
 PKACTICE OF HOKTICULTURE. 
 
 [WATKR- SUPPLY. 
 
 may be carrii-il iiit.i rlVcct ul diici', or pro- 
 gressively, according to tlie wants and wishes 
 of the owner. Thus tho walla may bo built ; 
 artificial Bhelter planted, it* required; tho 
 ground drained, levelled, and trenched, so that 
 tho fruit trees may be early ]>lante(l, as it 
 requires some years to brin;; the majority of 
 them to a fruit-bearing state." 
 
 SIZE. 
 As a niatter of course, the size of a garden 
 must be determined by the amount of pro- 
 ducts desired to be obtained from it, the place 
 in which it is situated, the family it is to 
 supply, and, in some degree, their social posi- 
 tion. It should, however, be proportioned to 
 the dwelling to which it is attached, and to 
 the number of iuhabitants it does or may 
 coutain. Tiiis is a judicious rule; yet it is 
 always better to have the garden too large 
 thau too small ; and it is not considered 
 anomalous for a large garden to be annexed 
 to a small house. It is well known that there 
 are some families who care very little about 
 vegetables ; whilst there are others who prefer 
 them to almost every other kind of food. 
 Some will go for weeks together without them, 
 whilst others will not go a day. Accordingly, 
 it may be as v>ell to state, that the quantity of 
 ground to be laid out for a family of four 
 persons, exclusive of servants, should be a 
 rood, provided it be good working, open 
 ground ; and the same proportion preserved 
 ia calculating for higher numbers. If it be 
 possible, however, to allow more, it should be 
 done, as the over-ground may be allotted for 
 the cultivation of tho strawberry in all its 
 varieties ; or, if not for this, it may be stocked 
 in such a manner as to secure the family 
 from, at any time, running short of vegetables. 
 It should also be considered that artichokes, 
 asparagus, and a long succession of peas and 
 beans, require a quantity of ground ; whilst if 
 cucumbers, melons, &c., are to be raised in 
 any considerable quantity, the hot-beds neces- 
 sary for them will occupy a good deal of room. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 Either a square or an oblong is the form 
 
 most approved of by practical men for a 
 
 garden. Abercrombie, however, proposed the 
 
 long octagon form ; or, in other words, an 
 
 oblong with tho angles cut uli', a.sHigning, aa a 
 reason, that it equalised the advantages of 
 aspect beLwoeu the inner and outer hides of 
 tho wall. Hill recommended a geometrical 
 square, " set out in such a manner that each 
 wall may have as much brielit of tiio sun aa 
 possible." Besides these, circular, oval, and 
 irregular figures have bcLMi recommended and 
 adopted ; but tho general opinion is, that tho 
 square or oblong form is the most convenient; 
 but every form appears to bo admissible. 
 " Tho oval, polygonal, and trapezium forms 
 have been adopted for the walls of a garden," 
 says Mr. Loudon, '* in order to procure a more 
 equal distribution of sun and shade ; but the 
 inconveniences attending tlie culture and 
 management of the compartments of such 
 gardens are considerable. Nor does it appear 
 that an equal distribution of sun is so suitable 
 as that of having some walls as advantageously 
 exposed as possible for tho more delicate 
 fruits, and others less so for hardier aorta, 
 and for retarding fruits." 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY- 
 
 "Water is one of the most essential elements 
 in all garden operations. To a kitchen garden 
 it is indispensable ; and from whatever source 
 it is supplied, it should be kept either in open 
 cisterns, reservoirs, or in pipes properly pro- 
 tected, in different parts of the garden. It 
 should, also, be handy to the hot-houses. 
 Many kitchen crops are lost, or produced of 
 very inferior quality, from being denied a 
 sufficiency of water. It is from this circum- 
 stance that lettuces and cabbages are often 
 hard and stringy ; that turnips and radishes 
 do not swell ; that onions decay ; and that 
 cauliflowers die off. Generally, in dry seasons 
 all the Crueifera (turnips, cabbages, radishes, 
 &c.) become stunted, or covered with insects, 
 even in ricli deep soils. Even the foliage of 
 fruit, as well as other trees, require watering 
 in dry seasons. By dispensing it freely, it 
 destroys and prevents the accumulation of 
 insects, and the fruit of the strawberry-bush, 
 and other fruits, are enlarged by it. "If 
 there be no natural stream that can be con- 
 ducted through a garden," observes Nicol, 
 " water should bo conveyed from the nearest 
 river, lake, or pond ; sofc water being most 
 desirable for the use of a garden." 
 
 035 
 
SlTtXATIOX.] 
 
 PEACTICE Oi^ HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [soil. 
 
 SITUATION. 
 
 As convemence of situation is one of the 
 first considerations tliat concerns us in the 
 taking of a house, so ought it to be in making 
 choice of the ground intended for a garden. 
 In making this choice, the bottoms of valleys 
 and all low situations should be avoided. 
 "The greater warmth of low situations," 
 observes Dr. Darwin, " and their being gene- 
 rally better sheltered from the cold north-east 
 winds, and the boisterous south-west winds, 
 are agreeable circumstances ; as the north- 
 east winds, in this climate, are the freezing 
 winds ; and the south-west winds being more 
 violent, are liable to do much injury to 
 standard fruit trees in summer, by dashing 
 their branches against each other, and thereby 
 bruising or beating off the fruit ; but in low 
 situations, the fogs in vernal evenings, by 
 moistening the young shoots of trees, and their 
 early flowers, render them much more liable 
 to the injuries of the frosty nights that 
 succeed them, which they escape in higher 
 situations." Thus, of two evils, choose the 
 least; and Professor Bradley adduces a fact 
 decisive of Dr. Darwin's opinion. A friend 
 of his had two gardens, one not many feet 
 below the otiier ; but so different that tlie 
 low garden often appeared covered with the 
 evening mists, when none appeared in the 
 upper one ; and, in a letter to Bradley, he 
 mentions, that his lower garden is much 
 injured by the vernal frost, though his upper 
 one has escaped. A similar fact is mentioned 
 by Lawrence, who observes that he has often 
 seen the leaves and tender shoots of tall ash 
 trees after thick mists, to be frozen, and, as it 
 vrere, singed in all the lower parts and 
 middle of the tree; while the upper part, 
 wliich was above the mist, remained un- 
 injured. 
 
 As the selection of ground for a garden is 
 a most important point, we vvill dwell upon it a 
 little longer, and adduce several other opinions 
 as to situation. Abercrombic says that this 
 should not be so elevated as to be exposed to 
 boisterous and cutting winds ; nor should a 
 very low situation bo chosen, if circumstances 
 afford any choice : but it should be situated 
 conveniently for access from the house. 
 Nicol and Forsyth agree in preferriu"- a 
 930 
 
 ' gentle declivity towards the south, a little 
 inclining to the east, to receive the rays of 
 the morning sun. " If it be situated in a 
 bottom, the wind will have the less effect upon 
 it ; but then damps and fogs will be very 
 prejudicial to the fruit and other crops. If 
 situated too high, although it will, in a great 
 measure, be free from damps and fogs, it will 
 be exposed to the fury of the winds, to the 
 great hurt of the trees, by breaking their 
 branches, and blowing down their blossoms 
 and fruit." Respecting the situation of the 
 kitchen garden Nicol speaks very strongly. 
 In relation to the house, he considers the 
 most awkward situation for the kitchen 
 garden is to be in its front ; especially if 
 placed near, so that it cannot be concealed by 
 some sort of plantation. " Generally speak- 
 ing," he remarks, " it should be placed in the 
 rear or flank of the house, by which means 
 the lawn may not be broken and rendered 
 unshapely where it is required to be most 
 complete. The necessary tiaffic with this 
 garden, if placed in front, is always offensive. 
 Descending to the consideration of more 
 humble gardens, circumstances are often so 
 arbitrary, with respect to their situations, as 
 that they cannot be placed so as to please or 
 give satisfaction by their products. There 
 are cases where the kitchen garden is neces- 
 sarily thrust into a corner, and, perhaps, is 
 shaded by buildings, or by tall trees, from the 
 sun and air ; where they are placed on steep 
 slopes, in a northern aspect, the subsoil is a 
 clayey or cankering gravel, and the site cold 
 and bleak. Such situations as these are to 
 be avoided, and may be considered among the 
 worst possible. The next worst are open, un- 
 sheltered plains ; but even there, if the soil is 
 tolerably good, and the subsoil not particularly 
 bad, shelter may be formed, so that, in a few 
 years, the garden may produce a return for 
 the expense laid out in its improvements." 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 As a good man may often enhance the 
 respect of a humble ofiice, so may a good soil 
 make a fair garden, even in an indifferent 
 situation. A bad man, however, degrades the 
 best of positions ; and a bad soil, let the situ- 
 ation be what it may, will never make a 
 good garden. But it is within the power of 
 
SOIL.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [walls. 
 
 raan to change the soil, althou<;h ho cannot, 
 exee|it to a very limited extent, cliaiii^e the 
 situation. He niay cover what is bad with 
 what is p^ood ; and, by de^'iees, so e(nn|)letely 
 mctaniorphoso the surface of the eartli, that 
 he will have no difficulty whatever in rearing 
 the best cropa upon it. IMany of our best 
 gardeners, in da^'s gone by, were sometimes in 
 the habit of sacrificing soil to situation ; but tliis 
 is not now so much the case. Nicol tliought 
 that several kinds of soil were necessary in the 
 same garden ; and Dr. Neill was of tlio same 
 opinion. " It is a happy circumstance," says 
 Nicol, " that, in many instances, we meet 
 with different soils in the same acre. In the 
 same garden they should never be wanting ; 
 and where nature or natural causes have been 
 delicient, recourse must be had to art, inas- 
 much as the variety of fruits and vegetables to 
 be cultivated, require different soils to produce 
 them in perfection." J^orsyth, in his Treatise 
 on Fruit Trees, recommends a deep soil, "of a 
 mellow pliable nature, and of a moderately dry 
 quality ; and if the ground should have an 
 uneyoa surface, by no means attempt to level 
 it ; for, by that unevenness, aud any little 
 difference there may be in the quality, you 
 will have a greater variety of soil adapted to 
 different crops. The best soil for a garden is 
 a rich mellow loam ; and the worst a stiff 
 heavy clay. A light sand is, also, a very 
 unfit soil for a garden." 
 
 The soil of a new garden should be from 
 two to three or four feet deep ; and, according 
 to Loudon, its varieties should comprise — 
 strong clayey loam, light sandy loam (which 
 are the two grand objects), a composition of 
 one-fourth strong, with three-fourths light, 
 loam ; half strong and half light, and one- 
 fourth light, and three-fourths strong. These, 
 ho says, by a proper treatment, and with the 
 proper application of manures, may be ren- 
 dered productive of any of the known and 
 commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest 
 degree of perfection. In selecting a piece of 
 ground for a garden, it is not a bad plan to 
 take for our guide the natural herbage with 
 •which it may be covered. !N'eill recommends 
 this. He observes — "Tiie plants growing natu- 
 rally on the surface should be noted ; as, from 
 these, a pretty correct opinion may be formed 
 of the qualities of the soil. The subsoil 
 G i> 
 
 should nleo be examined. If this bo radically 
 bad,HUc]i as an iron tiltii mixed with gravel, no 
 drawing, trenching, or manuring will ever prove 
 an effectual remedy; if, on the contrary, the 
 subsoil be tolerably good, tho Burfaco may bo 
 greatly meliorated by these means. In every 
 garden, two varieties of soil aro wanted — a 
 strong and a light one; or, in otlier words, a 
 clayey loam and a sandy loam ; different plants 
 requiring these respective kinds. For tho gen- 
 eral soil, a loam of middling quality, but par- 
 taking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is 
 accounted the best." Loudon recommends 
 these qualities of soil : — a strong loam, a light 
 loam, and a loam of medium quality ; the 
 latter occupying the borders, aud about half 
 of the compartments. 
 
 WALLS. 
 
 "Walls with a south aspect have always been 
 considered the best fur growing fruits ; and 
 the approved height is from ten to twelve 
 feet ; but this is a circumstance usually de- 
 cided by the form and size of the garden. 
 AVith respect to the height of fruit-walls, 
 considered merely as such, jS'icol gives the 
 preference to twelve feet ; that height being 
 very convenient for pruning, watering, and 
 gathering the fruit. It also admits of a 
 sufficient expansion for the branches of most 
 trees. A small garden encompassed by high 
 walls, has a bad effect, aud presents a gloomy 
 appearance ; but if they be of different heights 
 they give relief to the view. In a garden of an 
 acre, for example, forming a parallelogram of 
 the best proportion, aud gently elevated, the 
 north wall may be raised to the height of four- 
 teen feet ; the east and west walls to twelve 
 feet ; and the soutii wall to ten feet above 
 the ground-level. Although walls are erected 
 round a garden chiefly for the purpose of rear- 
 ing fruit against them, still they have another 
 advantage. — A kitchen garden may be as per- 
 fectly fenced aud sheltered by hedges as by 
 walls, which was the case in former times. But 
 in order to obtain the finer fruits, it becomes 
 necessary to build walls, or to erect pales as 
 substitutes. The influence which walls have 
 in increasing the temperature of the air im- 
 mediately in contact with them, is estima<"ed 
 at 7° of south latitude. Tlie mean tempe- 
 rature of a south wall, or within a few inches 
 
 937 
 
SLIPS, ETC.J 
 
 PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [bheltbb. 
 
 of one, is equal to the mean temperature in 
 the open plain of T further south. Hence it 
 is that grapes, which ripen in the open air at 
 Bordeaux, require a south wall in the vicinity 
 of Loudon, whicli is 7° further north. 
 
 The best materials for building the walls of 
 a garden are pronounced to be bricks ; and 
 where these cannot be got, it is better, For- 
 syth says, to dispense with walls altogether, 
 or to adopt wooden ones. Nicol is of the 
 same opinion, although he considers stone 
 best for the foundation and basement. Bricks 
 are warmer and better for training trees upon 
 than stone. It is, therefore, recommended 
 that the south, east, and west aspects, should 
 either be entirely composed of bricks, or faced 
 with them. If the wall be entirely con- 
 structed of, or backed with stone, though 
 faced with bricks, and trees are to be trained 
 against such backings, the stones should be 
 laid in regular courses of from four to seven 
 or eight inches thick, and be each fifteen or 
 twenty inches long, in order that there may 
 be a frequency of joints, and that the trees 
 may be properly trained against the wall. 
 Dark-coloured whiustone (greenstone or ba- 
 salt) is, after bricks, the next best material ; 
 and the nearer it approaches to black, the 
 higher does it rise in value. "Walls having 
 south, south-west, or south-east aspects, 
 against which apricots, figs, nectarines, peaches, 
 and the finer kinds of pears and plums are 
 grown, should be built with this stone, provided 
 bricks cannot be obtained. The basement of 
 the wall, however, should always be built of 
 durable stone. 
 
 SLIPS AND RING-FENCE. 
 
 There are few who have walked into the 
 country, and still fewer, we presume, whose 
 usual abode is in the country, who have not 
 observed that there is generally round the walls 
 of large gardens a fence consisting of a hedge 
 of some sort — a paling or a low wall, or sunk 
 fence, placed at some distance from what may 
 be called the inner or principal wall, by which 
 the garden is surrounded. This is technically 
 designated the Bhuj-fence, and the interven- 
 ing spacs between it and the principal wall, is 
 donominatcd the Slip. One of the objects of 
 this arrangement is to enable both sides of 
 the main wall to be brought into use if ne- 
 938 
 
 cessary ; another is, to obtain an additional 
 portion of garden-ground ; and another is, to 
 serve, in some degree, as a protection to the 
 principal garden. The sli[>, 'according to 
 McPhail, and most authors, should not be nar- 
 rower than thirty feet ; neither should it be 
 so wide as to throw the plantation for shelter 
 too far off. According to Nicol, the breadth 
 should be, at least, twenty feet, in order to 
 afford a sufficient border for the trees and 
 a walk. It may, however, be increased in 
 breadth to such an extent as to allow ground 
 without the space, enclosed by the principal 
 walls, for the supply of the family ; and it may 
 be enlarged on all sides, or any particular 
 side, for that purpose. In addition to these 
 opinions, Forsyth states, that the garden 
 should be surrounded with a slip from forty 
 to sixty feet wide, or more ; and this, again, 
 enclosed with an oak paling from six to eight 
 feet high, with a clieval-de-frize at top, for the 
 sake of additional protection, as well as of 
 giving more strength to the paling. By making 
 slips on the outside of the garden wall, 
 ground, upon which gooseberries, strawberries, 
 and currants may be grown, is obtained; and 
 that part of the slip lying nearest to the 
 stables (if well sheltered, and, at the same 
 time, exposed to the sun), may be laid out in 
 melon and cucumber beds ; whilst, as has 
 already been stated, both sides of the prin- 
 cipal garden wall may be occupied by fruit 
 trees. 
 
 SHELTER. 
 
 Shelter from the inclemency of the seasons 
 is as necessary to the infancy or blossoming 
 of the vegetable, as it is to that of the animal 
 world ; and horticulturists concur in the 
 opinion that a garden should be especially 
 sheltered from the east, north, and west 
 winds. McPhail says that this should be 
 done by hills, rising grounds, high buildings, 
 or plantations of trees, and at such distances, 
 on the east and west sides, as not to intercept 
 the rays of the sun. Nicol is of opinion, 
 that the kitchen garden should be sheltered 
 by plantations ; but should by no means be 
 shaded or crowded by them. If walled round, 
 it should be open and free on all sides ; or, at 
 least, to the south-east and west, that the 
 walls myy be clothed with fruit trees on both 
 
WINDS.] PllACTICE Ui- 
 
 pides. Soiiio years at:;o, the followinfj calcu- 
 lations, respecting the prevaK'iico o( certain 
 winds, were nuiile by tlio l\oyal Society of 
 London ; and are worthy the consideration 
 of tiioso engaged in horticultural, as well ns 
 even agricultural pursuits. Jn England, the 
 following are the number of days from which 
 the winds specified blow : — 
 
 Soul'i-wcst 11- days. 
 
 Nerth-cast i'S „ 
 
 North- west r)() „ 
 
 North 10 M 
 
 South IS „ 
 
 West r);j „ 
 
 East 2(5 „ 
 
 South-east 32 „ 
 
 3G5 
 
 "Westerly winds seem to prevail most in 
 the months of July and August ; north-east 
 during those of January, March, April, May, 
 and June ; north-west from November till 
 March. The north-east wind is less fre- 
 quent during Fcbruar}^ July, September, and 
 December ; and the north-west less frequent 
 during September and October, than iu any 
 other months. 
 
 As similar calculations have been made in 
 the neighbourhood of Glasgow, the following 
 table may serve for the west of Scotland : — 
 
 North-east 101 doys. 
 
 North-west 40 „ 
 
 South-east 47 „ 
 
 South-west 171 „ 
 
 365 
 
 In Tveland, tlic prevailing winds are the 
 west and south-west. 
 
 AVhilst these tables may assist in enabling 
 us to determine the quarters in which the 
 garden requires the greatest shelter or pro- 
 tection, Wo» may observe that this may not 
 uafrequently be derived even from the natural 
 shape and situation of the ground. It is ob- 
 served by Neiil, that gentle declivities at the 
 bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, 
 or the sloping banks of wii;ding rivers with a 
 similar exposure, are very desirable. If plant- 
 ations exist in the iieiglibouihood of the 
 house, or of the site intended tor the house. ' 
 
 iioKTicrLTriii:. 
 
 [noT-noui5i:s. 
 
 tho de.sigticr of a garden naturally turns hia 
 eye upon tlani ns tlic nu-ans of hia principal 
 shelter. Hi- takes care, however, that his 
 ground hhall be chosen at bucIi a dislauco 
 from then> as will prevent his fruits from being 
 shaded by thorn. If the [tlanlations bo young, 
 and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall- 
 growing trees, allowance, as a matter of 
 course, is made for this in tho meaHurement 
 of tho distance. It is a rule, however, that 
 there should be no tall trees on tho south of a 
 garden, except at a considerable distance. 
 This has been suggested from tho fact, that 
 during winter and early spring, they fling 
 their long shadows into the garden at a time 
 when every sunbeam is a welcome visitor. On 
 the east, also, they must be sufficiently re- 
 moved to admit the orient beams of the early 
 morn ; but on the west, and more particularly 
 on tho north, trees may be suffered to be 
 nearer — say, perhaps, within about a hundred 
 feet— and they may be more clustered. 
 
 HOT-HOUSES. 
 
 It is frequently a matter of choice as to 
 where the hot-houses e.hall be placed in a 
 kitclien garden ; but in extensive establish- 
 ments, a whole garden, or walled enclosure, is 
 sometimes entirely devoted to the cultivation 
 of the products belonging to this department 
 of horticulture. This is the case both at Kew 
 and at Frogmore ; but in places of more 
 moderate dimensions, the hot-houses either 
 find a position against the north wall of the 
 garden, or against some of the cross-walls, 
 which, here and there, partially intersect ita 
 area. Occasionally they are placed in the 
 slijy, which has greater width accorded to it 
 for that purpose, either on the east or west 
 sides of the garden, or on tho north, where 
 there may chance to be a favourable declina- 
 tion of the ground. It is the opinion of iMr. 
 Loudon, however, that their efl'ect is always 
 best when they are situated witliin the boun- 
 daries of the garden proper, either attached 
 to, or on, the north of the cross-walls. "In 
 this way they are sources of greater interest 
 to the proprietor, and come more naturally 
 into the general course of promenade than by 
 any other arrangement ; for it must not be 
 forgotten that the pleasure or satisfaction 
 derived from even culinary hot-houses, does 
 
 939 
 
MELOX- GROUND.] PRACTICE OF noBTlCULTUEE. [garden auea. 
 
 not wholly consist in being put in possession 
 of certain fruits of excellent qiiality (for, if so, 
 recourse need only be had to public markets), 
 but in marking the progress of the trees or 
 plants on which these fruits are grown in all 
 their different stages ; and, as jSTicol observes, 
 in being able to say — These are the products 
 of my 010 n gar den. ^^ 
 
 It is advisable not to mix culinary hot- 
 houses with such as are erected for the rearing 
 of ornamental plants. This is the case in some 
 old-fashioned places which, like the customs 
 of the East, have been handed down from 
 father to sou, as if they had been stereotyped 
 from time immemorial. This, however, should 
 not now be the case, if there be space enough 
 for a different arrangement. In the old plaus 
 alluded to, the green-house, the plant-stove, 
 or botanical hot-houses, were attached to 
 those in which the culinary products were 
 reared, without any considerations of taste, or 
 suitableness whatever, entering into the minds 
 of their owners. In some instances it was a 
 work of necessity, and may still be in mode- 
 rately-sized gardens ; but where variety and 
 effect are taken into the calculation, " the 
 ornamental or curious productions of garden- 
 ing will be kept separate from those whose 
 beauty consists entirely or chiefly in their 
 utility. In this way two distinct and strongly 
 marked characters are produced, instead of 
 scenery ofa mixed and, as it were, neutralised 
 character." 
 
 THE MELON- GROUND. 
 It is a practice pretty well established to 
 place the melon-ground in the slip. "Where 
 the range of the hot-houses occupies the north 
 wall, with such a degree of slope, or declivity, 
 as will shorten the shadow of this wall in 
 winter, when the sun is low, the melon-ground 
 may then most appropriately be placed in what 
 may be designated a bay of the slip behind 
 the north wall. Mr. Porsyth, as he usually 
 does, gives reasons for assigning a portion of 
 the outside slip next the stable to hot-beds 
 for raising melons and cucumbers. These are, 
 first, because there will be no litter to carry 
 within the walls to dirty the v/alks ; secondly, 
 the beds will not be seen from the garden ; 
 and, thirdly, there will be a convenience in 
 carrying the dung, by which a great deal of 
 9i0 
 
 time will be saved in carting and wheeling. 
 It will be necessary, especially in exposed 
 situations, he says, to enclose the melon- 
 ground with either a wall or paling, from six 
 to eight feet high. It was formerly a prac- 
 tice to enclose melon-grounds with reed- 
 fences ; but although these are tolerably 
 warm, and are easily removed from one place 
 to anotber, being made in separate panels, 
 they are very apt to harbour vermin. It will 
 certainly be found the most convenient plan 
 to have the mould and compost-ground as 
 near to the melon-ground as possible : and 
 if placed between the pits and the hot-beds, 
 it will be all the better. This is Loudon's 
 opinion ; so that when the melon-ground is 
 placed in the bay behind the north wall, the 
 compost-ground will occupy a space which 
 would otherwise be too much shaded for hot- 
 beds or pits. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE GARDEN AREa. 
 
 The most propitious seasons for forming or 
 laying out a garden are those of the spring 
 and summer ; but at whatever period the opera- 
 tions are commenced, they should be disposed 
 in such a manner as to enable them to be 
 finished early in autumn, in order to admit of 
 the planting of fruit trees, and the laying 
 nicely the edges of the walks. When we 
 liave resolved to make a garden, the distri- 
 bution of its several compartments is neces- 
 sarily one of the primary considerations. In 
 this we must, in a great measure, be guided 
 by the form and size which we have deter- 
 mined to make it. " The best figure," says 
 Porsyth, " is a square, or oblong, where the 
 garden itself is of either of these forms ; but 
 if not, they may be laid out in any other figure 
 that is thought to be most convenient." In 
 some of our best gardens, the compartments 
 are laid out in beds four feet wide, with narrow 
 alleys. These alleys, however, occupy a large 
 space, and are, therefore, not to be recom- 
 mended for a small garden. Mr. Kelll 
 thinks that their " advantages of convenience 
 and neatness, in enabling the workmen to clean 
 and gather the crops without trampling the 
 ground, seem to compensate for the sacrifice 
 of space." Por currant, gooseberry, or rasp- 
 berry bushes, the compartments remain un- 
 divided ; whilst for large perennial plants, 
 
GAHDEN BouDEus.] PR A CTI C E O F II ORTI C U LT Ull E. [gabden bouukbs. 
 
 such aa rhubarb ami artichukos, narrow bcJa 
 are not requisite. 
 
 la ret'ciouL'o to tlio luyini; out of borders, it 
 is reconuiieuiK'il by Abercrombie, that tliosu 
 next the walla should bo coini)osod of pre- 
 pared soil of from eight to twelve feet wide, 
 and the same deseriptioii of soil extended 
 under the walks, in order to allow a liberal 
 width for the roots to spread without impedi- 
 ment. Next to the borders a s[mco should 
 be left for a walk entirely round the garden, 
 of from four to six feet wide. Some persons 
 fancy a border on the inward side of the walk, 
 lor llie cultivation of espaliers and esculents 
 of small growth; whilst others divide the 
 central parts, at once, into main compart- 
 ments or divisions. In regulating the walks 
 or alleys, convenience of access is the principal 
 object to bo attended to ; and when the 
 ground is large, its centre should be traversed 
 by a walk, with parallel borders, from which 
 cross-walks may be made to I'amify, if neces- 
 sary. It must be remembered that it is not 
 enough to provide good surface soil for fruit- 
 tree borders. In addition to this, the ground 
 must be thoroughly drained, and the roots 
 must not be permitted to penetrate the sub- 
 soil, but be kept within a few inches of the 
 surface of the ground, that they may draw 
 their nourishment from the upper soil. Re- 
 specting the most congenial soil for the 
 nurture of fruit trees, we find an intelligent 
 writer in the Gardener's Chronicle, observing, 
 tliat the soil, in the most productive part of 
 Kent, is locally called hassock, or stone-shatter. 
 The surface of this is a mixture of sandy loam, 
 largely intermixed with small pieces of ligiit- 
 coloured Kentish rag-stone, and is from six 
 inches to two feet deep on solid stone rock. 
 In this soil, "fruit trees of all sorts flourish 
 and produce abundantly ; even peach and pear 
 trees, of tlie most delicate kinds, grow with the 
 greatest luxuriance, and are free from disease. 
 Tj what are we to attribute this result? 
 rruit trees growing in the kind of soil just 
 described produce short-jointed wood ; when 
 the roots are stimulated by rich manures, 
 ram[)ant luxuriant branches are produced; 
 when they descend to a distance beyond the 
 genial influences of the atmosphere, they 
 absorb a large quantity of water, which tlie 
 leaves are unable to get rid of by perspiration, | 
 
 and the inevitable result is green canker, aud 
 a whole host of diseases. Such trees eontinuo 
 to grow to a late period of the aulunni, when 
 the lownesa of the temperature, and tho 
 absence of sunlight, render it impossible for 
 them to give oft* their superabundant water 
 by per.spiration, tho only means by which all 
 trees and plants are enabled to part with it." 
 On tho other side of the question wo find it 
 stated, that trees in tho stone-shatter soil, 
 "grow slowly; their tissues become perfectly 
 organised as they proceed, and are not liable 
 to bo acted upon by accumulated moisture. 
 As the days become short, and the power of 
 the sun declines, the motion of the fluids and 
 the action of the cells gradually cease, when 
 the whole system is in unison with the course 
 of nature; in winter the roots are almost 
 dormant, the branches are short-jointed, and 
 well-ripened, and all are prepared to with- 
 stand the severity of the weatiier, and to 
 awaken in spring, full of life and blossom." 
 
 In laying out the area of the garden, the 
 principal points demanding attention are 
 clearly enumerated by Mr. Loudon, in the 
 following passage, with which we will conclude 
 this part of our subject. " The area, or space 
 enclosed by the garden wall?, is usually formed 
 into compartments, very commonly called 
 quarters and borders, or narrow slips, running 
 parallel to the walls and walks. The magni- 
 tude and number, both of compartments and 
 borders, as well as of the walks, depend on 
 the size of the garden, and partly, also, on the 
 taste of the designer. Rectangular figures are 
 almost universally preferred to both. Tho 
 breadth of wall-borders ought, generally, to 
 be the same as the height of the accompanying 
 wall ; the borders may be broader, but do not 
 produce a good effect when narrower. In a 
 garden of an acre within the walls, the walks 
 are never less than six feet broad, the sur- 
 rounding or wall-border from ten to fifteen 
 feet, and the marginal borders from seven to 
 eight feet wide. In the latter an espalier rail 
 is frequently 6xed about five feet from tho 
 edging of the wall ; in other cases the trees 
 are planted along the middle of the border, 
 and trained as dwarfs ; an alley, or a path, 
 commonly two feet wide, separates the borders 
 from the compartments. In the slip may be 
 formed irregular compartments, or borders, 
 
 911 
 
TEGETAliLE STBTTCTUBE.] PRACTICE OF H OETI C ULTUEB. [PBOPAaATIOK. 
 
 the gardener's house, and the compost and 
 melon-ground. The fence on the south side 
 may be" an open railing, and on the north a 
 wall or close holly-edge, the whole surrounded 
 by a plantation near or more distant, according 
 to circumstances. The hot-houses being 
 placed against the north wall, behind them 
 are placed the sheds ; and, on a moderate scale, 
 these may contain a working-room, fruit, and 
 seed-room, tool-houses, and the furnaces. To 
 the open space behind, for composts and hot- 
 beds, there should always be a carriage 
 
 entrance for bringing in earth, fuel, dung, &c. 
 lu the centre of the garden, may be a 
 fountain, or basin of water ; and in the 
 gardener's house an upper bed-room to over- 
 look the whole. In smaller gardens the same 
 general plan is adopted, as far as their extent 
 admits. To comhine ornament with use, the 
 standard fruit trees and shrubs may be planted 
 in borders accompanying the walks ; but where 
 economy of ground is the object, the trees and 
 shrubs may be collected together in compart- 
 ments, and borders altogether omitted." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 VEGETABLE STRUCTURES ', PROPAGATING BY SEEDS ; BY BULBS, SUCKERS, AND RUNNERS ; BY SLIPS 
 
 AND OFFSETS ; BY LAYERS ; BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING ; BY IN- ARCHING AND CUTTINGS ; BY 
 SINGLE LEAVES. 
 
 VEGETABLE STRUCTURES. 
 Ix considering the microscopic portion of the 
 vegetable structure, we find that its elementary 
 tissues are few and simple. They consist of 
 organs, to wliich the designation of celh and 
 vessels has been given ; the former taking the 
 shape of minute bladders or vesicles, varying 
 in size and form ; and, united together, consti- 
 tuting what is called a cellular tissue. The 
 latter are closed tubes of an elongated form, 
 often tapering to each end, and, when com- 
 bined, constituting vascular tissue. The dis- 
 tinction between cells and vessels is based 
 on their comparative length; but occasiouallv, 
 cells become lengthened so as not to difi'er 
 from vessels in tliat respect. This is the case 
 with some veins, and also with the filamentous 
 or thread-like tissue of fungi. Where such long 
 cells exist, they are briefly characterised by 
 the thin and delicate nature of tluir texture. 
 The first form of the elementary organs of 
 plants is a closed spherical or elongated 
 vesicle, its walla being composed of a mem- 
 brane, in which a fluid is contained. If, after 
 its development, it still continue closed, it 
 then receives the name of cell; but if a row 
 of vesicles, arranged in lines, become united 
 in the course of development, so as to form a 
 9^2 
 
 tube with an uninterrupted cavity, by absorp- 
 tion of the cross walls, then what has received 
 the name' of a vessel is produced. " On 
 making a transverse section of a succulent 
 stalk," says a modern scientific writer on 
 Botany, " such as that of rhubarb, or of a cu- 
 cumber or melon, we perceive, by the aid of a 
 glass, circumscribed angular meshes and 
 rounded openings ; and, in a longitudinal 
 section of the same stalk, similar meshes are 
 also seen, with long tubes of various kinds. 
 The membrane, forming the walls of both 
 cells and vessels, is composed of a substance 
 called cellulose, in many respects resembling 
 starch, but dilfering in giving a yellow in place 
 of a blue colour with iodine. The membrane 
 has, in general, no visible pores or perfora- 
 tions, but fluid matters pass tlunnigh it 
 easily. Some plants — such as sea-weeds, 
 mushrooms, and lichens — consist of cellular 
 tissue alone, and hence are called Cellular 
 plants ; while others — such as ordinary flower- 
 ing plants — consist of cells and vessels com- 
 bined, and receive the name of Vascular 
 plants." 
 
 PROPAGATING BY SEEDS. 
 Among the most curious, as well as difiicult, 
 
IMturAOATION.] 
 
 riiACriTH OF UOIITICULTUEE. [uuujs, buckebs, etc. 
 
 operations of p^nrdeoing, is the propngatioa of 
 plants. This is univers<ally doiio by seed ; but 
 also, to soino extent, by f^crms or bulbs, 
 suckers, runners, slips, and olVitcts. Arti- 
 iicially, it is done by layers, budding, grafting, 
 iti-ardiing cuttings, and siuijlo leaves. ]t 
 is a general rule that imported seeds should 
 be sown as soon as passible after their re- 
 ce[)tion, except in tho case of such as speedily 
 vegetate, which, however, should not be put 
 into the ground either lato in the autumn, or 
 early in the winter. Tho reason for this ad- 
 vice is, that if. they vegetated during the 
 dark months of the year, the probability is 
 that the young plants would be cut off. Hard 
 seeds, and such as have no ti-udency to rapid 
 vegetation, uiay be sown at those seasons 
 when it is calculated that their growth will 
 commence. A primary object, however, as 
 regards all seeds, is to be sure that they have 
 the principles of life iu them ; for some are 
 deprived of their vitality very early after they 
 are gathered, while others retain it only for 
 one, or perhaps a couple of seasons. Anotlier 
 consideration of some importance, is the size 
 of the seeds, as on this depends the depth to 
 which they require to be covered with the 
 soil. For the same reason, the texture of 
 their own covering must be attended to. Mr. 
 Loudon tells us, that on the form and surface of 
 the outer coating of seeds, sometimes depends 
 the mode of sowing, as in the carrot ; and on 
 their qualities in general, depends their liability 
 to be attacked by iusects. The germination of 
 the seed, likewise, greatly depends on the 
 presence of moisture, and a due amount of 
 heat and air iu the soil. No seed will sprout 
 or germinate at 32° Fahr., nor if enclosed in 
 hermetically sealed vessels, nor even if too 
 deeply buried in the earth. Such are the 
 points to be kept in remembrance in propa- 
 gating by seed; whilst the nature of the 
 climate, the soil, and the season, must assist in 
 determining how, where, when, and in what 
 quantity, the seed should be sown. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY BULBS, SUCKERS, AND 
 RUNNERS 
 
 Whether the bulb be cauline — that is, 
 growing immediately on the herbaceous stem 
 or stalk — or radical, it generally requires to be 
 planted very soon after it has bt'cu removed 
 
 from the parent plant. It ehould, also, be 
 put into light earth, and buried no deeper 
 than about tiio dc|)th of its own diameter 
 from tho surface. Jiulba which huvo attained 
 to maturity, may bo preserved for several 
 months out of tho soil, without their powers 
 of vitality aulli-ring in any degree; but infant 
 bulbs cannot bear treatment of this kind. If 
 withheld from the soil, they soon dry up, and 
 become seriously injured, if, iudecd, they do 
 not entirely lose their vitality. Suc/cers have 
 been described as mere runners under-ground ; 
 and propagation by them is seldom adopted, 
 uulefs it be in tho case of some hardy shrubs, 
 and the piue-apple. Plants raised by these 
 means, among the former, however, are 
 usually held to be of inferior quality ; but in 
 the case of the pine-apple it is otherwise. 
 Wliero a system of good culture is pursued, 
 an abundant stock is easily maintained to 
 meet the necessities of a private supply, by 
 making choice of the strongest suckers pro- 
 duced on the stem. The redundancy of 
 these, of course, depends, more or less, on the 
 amount of check which the plant may have 
 sustained by the formation of the fruit. Bare 
 sorts may be vastly increased by retaining the 
 stump instead of throwing it; away, which is 
 usually done after the fruit has ripened, aud 
 placing it in a damp pit, with a bottom tem- 
 perature of 90'. Every latent eye should then 
 sprout, and a large quantity of young plants 
 be the result. Loudon, in speaking of pro- 
 pagating by suckers, says, all that is neces- 
 sary to be done is to dig them up, and to 
 cut off each plautlet with a portion of root ; 
 after which its top may be reduced, by cut- 
 ting off from one-fourth to one-half of the 
 shoot, in order to fit it to the curtailed root ; 
 and it may then be planted either in the 
 nursing department, or, if a strong plant, 
 where it is finally to remain. Propagating by 
 runners is, with a certain species, both con- 
 venient and certain. All that is necessary to 
 be done, is to allow the plantlet on the shoot, 
 or runner, to be well rooted before being 
 separated from the parent. It; may then be 
 planted in the spot where it has been deter- 
 mined it shall remain. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY SLIPS AND OFFSETS, 
 
 A slip is a shoot which springs from tho 
 
 9i3 
 
PEOPAOATION.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [layers, etc. 
 
 upper part of the roots of herbaceous 
 plants, and may be readily seen in the 
 auricula, or in under-shrubs, as the thyme. 
 Wlien the lower part, from which the roots 
 DPoceed, has acquired a comparatively firm 
 texture, or begun to ripen, the shoot sought 
 is to be slipped or drawn from the parent 
 plant, so far as to take with it a claw of the 
 old wood stem, or root. As this claw is 
 usually ragged in its edges, it is to be made 
 smooth by means of a sharp knife, and the slip 
 then planted in a congenial soil. It should 
 be kept in shade until it strikes root afresh, or 
 a!)i)ear3 to have recovered from the effects of 
 its separation from the parent plant. Propa- 
 gating by offsets is, strictly speaking, appli- 
 cable only to young radical bulbs, which, 
 when taken from the parent roots, are only 
 termed offsets. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY LAYERS. 
 A layer is a branch bent into the earth, and 
 luxlf cut through at the bend, the free portion of 
 the wound being called a tong.e. It is, n 
 fact, a cutting only partially separated from 
 its parent. Dr. Lindley, in his celebrated 
 work on the Theory and Fractice of Horti- 
 culture, informs us, that the object of the 
 gardener is to induce the layer to send forth 
 roots into the earth at the tongue. " With 
 this view he twists the shoot half round, so as 
 to injure the wood vessels ; he heads it back 
 so that only a bud or two appears above 
 ground ; and, when much nicety is requisite, 
 he places a handful of silver sand round the 
 tongued part ; then, pressing the earth down, 
 so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without 
 furtlier care. The intention of both tongue- 
 ing and twisting is, to prevent the return of 
 sap from the layer into the main stem, while a 
 small quantity is allow^ed to rise out of the 
 latter into the former; the effect of this being 
 to compel the returning sap to organise it- 
 self externally as roots, instead of passing 
 downwards below the bark as wood. The 
 bending back is to assist in this object, by 
 preventing the expenditure of sarp in the for- 
 nration, or rather completion, of leaves ; and 
 the silver sand is to secure the drainage so 
 necessary to cuttings." L;\yering is practised 
 iu the case of roses and other shrubs, which 
 do not strike so readily by cuttings. It is a 
 944 
 
 matter of no importance as to how the layer- 
 ing is effected. It may, therefore, be varied 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY BTj DOING AND 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 These operations, says Dr. Lindley, consist 
 in causing an eye or a cutting of one plant to 
 grow upon some other plant, so that the two, 
 by forming an organic union, become a new 
 and compound individual. The eye, in these 
 cases, takes the name of bud ; the cutting is 
 called a scion ; and the plant, upon which 
 they are made to grow, is named a stock. 
 Propagation by eyes aud cuttings is, there- 
 fore, the same as budding and grafting, with 
 this important difference — that, in the one 
 case, the fragments of a plant are made to 
 strike root into the organic soil, and to grow 
 on their own bottom, as the saying is ; while, 
 in the other, they adhere permanently to 
 living organic matter- In like manner, the 
 operation of in-arching, or causing the branch 
 of one plant to remain attached to its parent, 
 and, at the same time, to grow upon the 
 branch of another tree, is analogous to layer- 
 ing. 
 
 The object of these operations is to effect 
 many purposes. Plants, such as the apple 
 aud the pear, will bud or graft easily ; but 
 they are both difScult to strike from cuttings. 
 There are many other plants of a similar consti- 
 tution. It would appear, that the species which 
 are naturally delicate, become strong when 
 grafted on robust stocks. The result of this 
 is a greater abundance of fruits and flowers. 
 "Thus, the more delicate kinds of vines pro- 
 duce larger and finer grapes when worked 
 upon such vigorous sorts as the Syrian and 
 Nice. The double yellow rose, which so 
 seldom opens its flowers, and which will not 
 grow at all iu many situations, is said to 
 blossom abundantly, and grow freely, when 
 worked upon the common China rose. One 
 plant may be made to bear a different variety 
 upon every branch, as has been seen with 
 pelargoniums, fuchsias, and cacti. The pecu- 
 liar qualities of some plants can only be pre- 
 served by working. This is especially the case 
 with certain kinds of variegated roses, which 
 retain their gay markings when budded, 
 but become plain if left to their own modes 
 
l'U01'A(JATU)N 
 
 N-] 
 
 PRACTICE OF IIOKTICULTURE. 
 
 [ULDDINU, Lie. 
 
 of grorting. Fruit may be obtnincd from 
 8Ct>illinij plants by thoao prooosses much 
 earlier than by any o'hora : tho ijuality of 
 eet'iiling fruit trees mny bo ascertuined in 
 two or tiireo years, instead of twenty or 
 thirty ; and thus loni:^ ami objectless ex- 
 pectation may be avoided." It has been 
 
 denied by Mr. Knight ; but it Ih maintained by 
 Dr. Litidley. In his Theory of Jforticiilfurti 
 ho says—" Probably in Perwia, tho nutivo 
 country of the peach, that speciefl, or its wild 
 typo tho almond, is the bcHt stock for the 
 former fruit ; because tho temperature of l;ie 
 earth is that in which it was created to grow, 
 ascertained, by Mr. Knii^ht, that it is within Jiut in a climate like that of England, tho 
 the reach of possibility to transfer tho blossom- i summer temperature of whoso soil is eo much 
 buds of one plant to another, so as to obtain I lower than that of Persia, the plum, on which 
 tiowers or fruit from them immediately, llo tho peacli takes freely, is a iiardy native, and 
 thus fixed on the wild rose the llower-buds of suited to such soil ; and its roots aro aroused 
 garden roses ; and these buds being pleuti- from their winter sleep by an amount of 
 fully supplied with nourishment, produced warmth insufficient for the peach. Experience, 
 much finer roses than they would have done in this case, completely confirms what theorv 
 had tliey been permitted to retain their teaches ; for although there may be a fevv 
 natural situation. He repeated many similar healthy trees in tliis country, growing upon 
 experiments upon tho pear and peach tree, the almond stock, it is certain that the greater 
 with equal success ; but in the case of the part of those which have been planted have 
 
 pear, he discovered, that if the buds were 
 inserted earlier than the end of August, or 
 the beginning of September, they became 
 branches and tiowers. 
 
 The modes in whicli these manipulations were 
 performed, were both numerous and various ; 
 aiid the whole theory was fully explained | 
 by De CandoUe, in his Vegetable Fhysiology ; ■ 
 by D'Albret ; also by Knight, and others. 
 The most valuable information on the subject, 
 
 failed ; while, in tlio warm soil of France and 
 Italy, it is the stock upon which the old trees 
 have, in almost all cases, budded." 
 
 That budding and grafting may be practised 
 with greater certainty of success, a soil suit- 
 able to the nature of the stock should bo 
 carefully chosen. Thus experiment has proved 
 that, in loamy soils, the apple succeeds best 
 on the Doucin stock; and in chalky soils, 
 the crab. The pear thrives best in a loamv 
 
 however, is to be obtained in Dr. Lindley's soil, or in light soils enriched with decayed 
 
 Theory of Horticulture, from which we have 
 already quoted, and which is one of the best 
 works on this subject in the language. As 
 the parent possesses considerable iniluence 
 over the scion, great care should be taken 
 in making tho selection. If nothing more 
 than the increase of individuals was to be 
 expected froni the operations of budding and 
 grafting, then the stocks most readily ob- 
 
 vegetablo matter, when grafted on the 
 quince; but on light chalky soils the wild 
 pear is preferable. The plum succeeds best 
 on loamy soils ; when worked on the piuni 
 stock ; but it does better on the almond, if in 
 chalky or light soils. Tlie cherry thrives best 
 in loamy, or in light rich soils, when worked 
 on the wild cherry ; and in chalk when on 
 the mahaleb stock. In horticulture, as in every 
 
 tained, if of a relationship near enough to the other science, one condition influences another. 
 
 scion or bud, would be the most suitable. 
 But this is only of secondary importance. 
 AVhat is of far higher moment, is the fact 
 that the operation ennobles the tree, by meta- 
 morphosing its character to an improved con- 
 dition, whether as regards its flowers or fruits. 
 To a certain extent, it hardens a tender sort 
 when worked on a stock more capable of eU' 
 
 Thus, the stock considerably affects the fruit 
 as well as the strength of the scion. This ha^ 
 been proved in the case of the Stanwick nec- 
 tarine, which has a great tendency to crack 
 rather than ripen in the ordinary way. A\'e are 
 informed tliat this tendency can be cured by 
 bcing first budded on a very strong magnum 
 bonum plum, about a foot high from tho 
 
 during cold, or one which is better adapted to ground. Tlie quality of the fruit is, in general, 
 the low-soil temperature of northern latitudes, also improved by growing the plant in this 
 than such as may bo natural to the tree from manner. 
 
 which the bud or scion is taken. 
 G E 
 
 This fact is ' Budding has been defined as consisting iu 
 
 945 
 
PEOPAGATION.] 
 
 PExlCTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [geafting. 
 
 introducing a bud of cue tree with a portion 
 of bark adbering to it, below the bark of 
 another tree. In order to accomplish this, a 
 longitudinal incision is made through the bark 
 of the stock down to the wood ; and is then, 
 at the upper end, crossed by a similar cut, so 
 that the marks made bear a resemblauce to the 
 letter T. The bud, with a portion of the bark, 
 is then pared off from the scion, and the back 
 portion pushed below the bark of the stock, 
 until the bud is actually resting on the naked 
 wood of the stock. The upper lips of the 
 incision in the stock, as well as in tlie bud, 
 are made to fit each other, when the whole is 
 iastened down by a ligature of bast applied 
 wet, narrow tape, adhesive straps, or white or 
 green worsted, which completes the operation. 
 The bud should be inserted either when the 
 vegetation of a plant is languid, or the growth 
 above the place of insertion should be arrested 
 by pinching the terminal bud. If this be not 
 done, the sap, which should be impelled 
 into the bud, in order to aid in the process of 
 adhesion, passes on to other parts, and the 
 bud is literally starved to death. Tor similar 
 reasons, when a bud has firmly fixed itself 
 upon a stock, and began to grow, the stock 
 should be headed back neai'ly as far as the 
 bud, with the view of forcing all the ascending 
 current of sap to flow towards it. It is neces- 
 sary that this should be done ; for, if not, 
 the buds of the stock itself will receive the 
 nourishment which ought, more properly, to 
 be given to the stranger. 
 
 In the operations of grafting, there are also 
 some very essential points to be attended to. 
 Dr. Lindley says, it is always found that 
 a union between the scion and the stock 
 occurs most readily when the latter is headed 
 down : but as he is here thoroughly practical, 
 we will take the liberty of quoting his own 
 words. " The scion," he says, " should always 
 be so prepared that a bud is near the point of 
 union between itself and the stock ; because, 
 such a bud, as soon as it begins to grow, as- 
 sists in the formation of wood, and, also, in 
 binding the two together. The scion should 
 be more backward in its vegetation than the 
 stock, because it will then be less excitable ; 
 otherwise its buds may begin to grow before a 
 fitting communication is established between 
 the stock and scion, and the latter will be ex- 
 946 
 
 hausted by its own vigour. If, on the con- 
 trary, the stock is in a state of incipient 
 growth, and the scion torpid, cellular granu- 
 lations will have time to form and unite the 
 wound ; and the scion will become distended 
 with sap forced into it from the stock, and 
 thus be able to keep its buds alive when they 
 begin to shoot into branches. In order to 
 assist in this part of the operation, a ' heel' is 
 sometimes, in difiicult cases, left on a scion, 
 and inserted into a vessel of water, until the 
 union has taken place ; or, for the same pur- 
 pose, the scion is bound round with loose 
 string, or linen, with one end steeped in water, 
 so as to secure a supply of water to the scion 
 by the capillary attraction of such a bandage. 
 Indeed, the ordinary practice of surrounding 
 the scion and stock at the point of contact 
 with a mass of grafting clay, is intended for 
 the same purpose ; that is to say, to prevent 
 evaporation from the surface of the scion, and 
 to aftord a small supply of moisture ; and 
 hence, among other things, the superiority of 
 clay over the plaisters, mcstics, and cements 
 occasionally employed, which simply arrest 
 perspiration, and can never assist in commu- 
 nicating aqueous food to the scion." 
 
 In concluding our remarks upon this por- 
 tion of our subject, we give the following 
 recipes, from Dr. Lindley's work, for making 
 grafting-wax : — 1. Bees'-wax and tallow, equal 
 parts, laid on warm with a painter's brush. 
 2. Four proportions by weight of pitch, four of 
 resin, two of bees'-wax, one of hog's lard, and 
 one of turpentine, melted and well mixed. 
 When this, or some similar composition, is 
 spread on brown paper, it forms grafting- 
 paper, as it is sometimes termed, which, being 
 cut into slips, can easily be applied. — Another 
 substitute for grafting-clay is sheet india- 
 rubber, cut into narrow strips or ban- 
 dages, from one-half to three-quarters of an 
 inch broad. The india-rubber is said to 
 possess all the requisites sought for in clay. 
 It is air-tight and water-tight, and will not 
 fall away ; it is, also, elastic, which admits of 
 the swelling of the scion in its growth ; and it 
 is applied with great ease and rapidity. 
 After wrapping the bandage round the gralt 
 and stock, as a linen bandage is applied to a 
 cut finger, the last turn only requires securing, 
 by tying w^ith a piece of thread or thin bast. 
 
riiOi*A.OAT10X.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF IIOKTICULTUKE. [is-ABcnixa xtc. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY IN- ARCHING AND CUT- 
 
 TINGS. 
 
 In-arching ia auppoaecl to have been the 
 most ancient kind of j;r;it"tini^, as it naturally 
 ami by accident takes placo in IbrL'sta. Tlio 
 point iu which it stands distinct from Rralt- 
 iug, ia found in the scion not beiuj; cut or 
 separated from the parent, but remains 
 attached to it, nntil it becomes part and par- 
 cel of the stock to which it is tied and 
 adapted iu a variety of ways. The scion and 
 stock are, accordingly, mutually independent 
 of each other, the former subsisting on ite 
 own resources until a complete union takes 
 place between them. Professor Thowine enu 
 
 at one operation, or only partially cut through 
 first, and, in a few days, completely severed. 
 A week or two after tho union has taken 
 place, tho remaining portion of tho scion, if 
 any is left on, when separated from tho 
 parent plant, should be cut oli' close to tho 
 stock, that the wound may heal over, and leave 
 tho stem as [)erlect as possible. ISidc in-arching 
 without tonguing ia well adapted for young 
 shoots of camel ias, oranges, &c. ; and when 
 the wood of both scion and stock is soft and 
 lull of sap, a union speedily takes place. 
 Tongue in-arching is useful when both or 
 either stock or scion are more fully matured, 
 and are somewhat hard and dry." 
 
 Propagation by cuttings is, with tho ei- 
 
 nierates no less than thirty-seven varieties of i ception of grafting, by far the m^st common of 
 
 this mode of propagation. Practical gar- 
 deners, however, reduce these to two, which 
 are thus defined by Mr. Mackintosh: — Crown 
 in-arching, which consists of cutting oft' the 
 head at the time of operating ; side in- arching, 
 which retains the head for a certain time. 
 
 all the modes of artificial plant culture, and de- 
 pends upon its success from tho circumstance 
 of the cuttings themselves bearing leaf-buds or 
 eyes upon their surface. In bo far as physio- 
 logical science can explain the operation of 
 propagation by cuttings, Dr. Lindley states, 
 
 For performing these operations, generally, . that '* it appears that roots are formed by the 
 the spring is the proper season ; but any j action of leaves ; that branches are developed 
 season wlien the sap is iu suitable condition, ! from the buds ; and that the buds are main- 
 as it may be in hot-houses, will serve for the | tained by the suitable aliment stored up in 
 purpose. 
 
 as that of grafting, by inducing an earlier 
 disposition to the bearing of fruit. It may, 
 likewise, be applied to plants vrhich may be 
 difficult to propagate by other means. In 
 order that in-arching may be the more certainly 
 accomplished, Mr. Mackintosh says, that " it is 
 necessary that the plants, both the stock and 
 scion, should be either growing near to each 
 other, or, if in a portable state, placed so that 
 their branches may meet. A portion of the 
 bark is then removed from each at the intended 
 point of union — say from one inch to three 
 inches in length, according to the size and 
 strength of the subjects. These parts are fitted 
 together so that the inner barks of both co- 
 incide ; and the process of tying and claying, or 
 mixin'j:, follows, as iu common grafting. Some, 
 however, tongue tho scion and stock in the 
 same manner as is done in tongue-grafting. 
 In either way, the cambium shortly becomes 
 developed ; the alburnum of the scion and 
 stock becomes united ; and when this is ac- 
 complished the scion may be cut oft", a little 
 
 The eftect of in-arching is the same [ the stem. Everything beyond this seems to 
 
 be connected with specific constitutional 
 powers, of which science can give no expla- 
 nation." The earth in vrhich cuttings strike 
 most readily is thus practically described by 
 Dr. ]N"euman : — " Difi'erent sorts of trees do 
 not root equally well in all soils. There are 
 some cuttings which can scarcely be made to 
 succeed in saline earth, while others succeed iu 
 it very well. The soils considered the best 
 for striking cuttings in the open air, are those 
 which are free, sandy, and soft to the touch. 
 Tamarix elegans, and T. Germanica, prosper in 
 a soil rich iu saltpetre; but the Gingko and 
 Poplars eannot strike in it. Cuttings made 
 in glass-houses generally require to be planted 
 in earth mixed with peat in preference to any 
 other, but varied according to the nature of the 
 plant. Wliatever composition is used, we 
 must take care not to employ it too dry, or 
 too moist : ni the first case, the earth not 
 being able to sustain itself in a convenient 
 manner around the cutting, tiie latter falls or 
 I ia displaced when we wish to water it; in the 
 below where it is united to the stock, either second case, tne earth being too compact, it 
 
 917 
 
PEOPAGATION.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [single lea. yes. 
 
 hinders the formation of roots. Nature 
 makes vain efforts, and the cutting suffers, 
 decays, and dies, in spite of its disposition to 
 vegetate." 
 
 It is a rule with all practical gardeners, that 
 the root end of a cutting should be close be- 
 tween a leaf-bud. Every one, however, seems 
 to have a mode of his own in managing cut- 
 tings ; and as the whole are too numerous to 
 describe, we give the following by Professor 
 Delacroix. "My cutting," he says, "is 
 placed entirely under-ground, so as to form a 
 subterranean curve, of which the convexity is 
 uppermost, the very middle of the curve being 
 on a level with the surface of the soil. At 
 this middle point there must be a good eye, 
 or a small shoot. In this way the whole 
 length of the cutting is protected by earth, 
 and the smaller end, instead of becoming the 
 seat of dryness, which is always more or 
 less injurious, becomes a passage for absorp- 
 tion. The bud, which, under these circum- 
 stances, is the only part exposed to the air, 
 bears, without injury, or rather, with advan- 
 tage, all the causes of excitement." — "Although 
 I did not commence my experiments before 
 the end of June," says a writer on this subject, 
 " I have seen quite enough to satisfy me 
 that the method may be of serious advan- 
 tage. Two drills, about three inches apart, 
 were drawn parallel with each other, in a 
 kitchen garden of indifferent quality, situ- 
 ated on a calcareous plain near Be8an9on. A 
 Imndred cuttings of apples, pears, plums, 
 apricots, tulip-trees, roses, &c., almost all of 
 one year's wood, were bent and buried in the 
 manner described, with their ends in the two 
 drills. They were watered a few times ; and, 
 at this moment, every cutting in the open air, 
 and exposed to the full sunshine, is just as fresh 
 as it was when planted. In most of them, the 
 part exposed to the air (the bud) ia the seat 
 of active vegetation, especially in the pear 
 and tulip trees, the buds of which have al- 
 ready made some progress." 
 
 AVhen the means at command of the propa- 
 gator are limited, there is a method of striking 
 cuttings in vials of water. A writer in the 
 Gardener's Chronicle, thus describes hia prac- 
 
 tice : — " I tie vial-bottles together by the 
 necks, and hang them in the windows of our 
 small greenhouse, having filled them with 
 clean soft water. I then put in slips of salvia, 
 calceolaria, mimulus, myrtle, or anything I 
 wish to propagate of the same description of 
 plants. In about two or three weeks, or 
 a month, the little silver-like roots appear; 
 and in a week or ten days I plant them in 
 small pots well watered. They never seem to 
 flag or mind the change, and I rarely lose a 
 slip. Myrtles are longer in forming roots ; 
 cuttings from the same plant have varied from 
 six weeks to twelve months. They were planted 
 in November. A string of bottles I also 
 hang against the back of the greenhouse, 
 where they have plenty of light ; and they do 
 equally well, although not quite so quickly." 
 This practice is old, and well adapted to soft- 
 wooded plants ; but even some of the hard- 
 wooded kinds, such asazalias, will strike freely 
 with this treatment. 
 
 Light has a great effect on the colouring 
 matter of some plants. Ducaisne found that, 
 in the madder plant, when the lower parts of 
 it were enclosed in cases, glazed at the side 
 with transparent green, red, or yellow glass, 
 the leaves and stem of the part surrounded by 
 red glass became pallid, and exhibited signs 
 of suffering in a greater degree than under 
 the other colours ; but uU were more or less 
 affected. 
 
 PROPAGATING BY SINGLE LEAVES. 
 
 Some plants possess the peculiarity of 
 producing adventitious buds upon their upper 
 surfaces and edges ; and some leaves, like 
 those of the echeverias, strike root soon after 
 they fall to the soil. Some genera, as the 
 gloximia, gesnera, clianthus, and others, re- 
 quire to have only the footstalk of their leaves 
 planted in sandy soil, in which, with a proper 
 temperature, they will produce young plants. 
 These leaf-cutticgs form, at first, a callosity at 
 their base ; then roots ; aud, lastly, a bud, 
 from which the future plant is organised. 
 Some plants produce this bud more freely 
 than others ; while a few exhibit great back- 
 wardness in producing it at all. 
 
 948 
 
PLANTING.] 
 
 PKACTICE OP HOETICULTUllE. 
 
 [V&UIT TttEEI. 
 
 CIIArTEK V. 
 
 TUEATMKNT OF THE SmJErT ; PI-ANTINC KKI'IT TUKKS ; TIIK SORTS AM> AdKH OK I'I.ANT-1; KlSTANCEa 
 IN 1'I.ANTING ; I'LANTlMi ; TKA1.MM5 ; I'KoTKt TloN <»K TUK IIUlSSOM ; KSl'Al.l KllS. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 What has, iu the preceding chapter, been 
 stated in a general way, may, in some par- 
 ticular instances, in this be repeated, when 
 speaking of tliose trees which more especially 
 belong to the fruit garden. AVo will, how- 
 ever, avoid this as far as possible, only allow- 
 iuc: ourselves to do so when we think greater 
 perspicuity will be given to the special subject 
 of which we may be treating. It has been 
 customary to treat the fruit and culinary 
 gardens as one, seeing that they are in reality 
 often both united. But it is far better to 
 keep them distinct ; although this cannot, in 
 many cases, be done because of the want of 
 space. In large establishments, however, 
 where system and order are held to be leading 
 features in the arrangement of the grounds, 
 the fruit and the kitchen gardens should be 
 separately disposed, and each complete in it- 
 self. Tliis would be a vast improvement on 
 the promiscuous mode now generally prac- 
 tised ; but, as we have said, in places of cir- 
 cumscribed dimensions this cannot be accom- 
 plished ; so, we fear, that the medley system 
 of huddling fruits and vegetables together 
 within the same enclosing walls, must still 
 be practised ; and that it must be a long time 
 before we can expect to see many examples 
 of an entire separation between the culinary 
 aud fruit gardens. 
 
 PLANTING FRUIT TREES. 
 
 In the formation of a garden, the selection 
 and distribution of the difi'ereut kinds of fruit 
 trees, is one of the most important and in- 
 teresting points. Those which are adapted 
 for walls, may be considered in respect to 
 their sort, tlieir fruit, the mode of planting 
 them, and the distance at which they should 
 be planted from each other. These are points 
 which ought never to be lost sight of; nor 
 should the advice of Mr. ^'^icol bo forgotten. 
 
 " I have long made it my busineas," says this 
 practical gardener, "to per.iuado my em- 
 ployers, in the planting of new gardens and 
 orchards, to limit the varirties of fruit, in the 
 firm conviction that I was acting for their 
 interest ; for, certainly, the rago for multiply- 
 ing them, and of having a numerous collection, 
 has too much prevailed of late. It were better 
 to bo contented with a few kinds which pro- 
 duce well in most seasons, tlian to plant many 
 sorts for the sake of variety, of which a crop 
 is obtained, perhaps, once in three or in seven 
 years. It is, no doubt, of very great importance 
 to select and adapt the kinds to the climate, soil, 
 and aspect ; and, in some situations, a greater 
 variety may be planted with propriety than 
 in others. This matter must be determined 
 by existing circumstances, by the fancy of the 
 proprietor, and by the discretion of the 
 gardener." 
 
 In Delecting the various sorts of fruit trees, 
 and distributing them along the different 
 aspects of the wall, principles should be 
 adopted, and, if correct, as far as possible 
 rigidly adhered to, and acted upon. In select- 
 ing fruits to be grown against walls, the 
 general principle is, that the more delicate 
 species of trees, such as the peach, fig, and 
 grape, should be planted in the warmest parts. 
 This ia the most congenial situation for them ; 
 whilst the next warmest part should be as- 
 sigiied to the more delicate varieties of the 
 hardier fruits, such as the cherry and pear; as 
 well as to such descriptions of the hardy 
 fruits as it may be desirable to bring to a 
 state of ripeness at a very early period. 
 Abercrombie lays it down as a rule, that the 
 best border and wall should be given to the 
 peach, the vine, apricot, fig, and nectarine. 
 These are all delicate fruits ; and the vine 
 should, iu this country, have the first place 
 in respect to aspect, as it does not readily 
 ripen out of doors north of London. Where 
 a south aspect is not to be obtained for tliese 
 
 nio 
 
soETS AND AGES.] PEACTICE OF HOETICTTLTURE. 
 
 [distances. 
 
 delicate fruits, a south-east and south-west are 
 the next best ; although some of the earlier 
 kinds of the apricot will attain to maturity on 
 an east or west wall. In so far as regards the 
 cherry, it may be placed in any situation, 
 except that which is directly exposed to the 
 north ; but the finest cherries will not arrive at 
 the height of perfection unless they have a south 
 border. The morello cherry, the plum, pear, 
 apple, and mulberry, will succeed on any wall: 
 •' but all late fruit is universally improved in 
 proportion to the goodness of the aspect 
 from the west to the east, through all the inter- 
 mediate points to the south ; and some of the 
 high-flavoured French pears require a high wall, 
 and a good aspect, to bring them to perfection." 
 For a free-growing pear tree, the end of a 
 building is a good situation ; for if the wall of 
 the garden be not higher than usual, it wiU 
 not have sufficient room. A long and high 
 wall is also required for fig trees. 
 
 THE SORTS AND AGES OF PLANTS. 
 Standards planted against a wall are in the 
 form of dwarfs and riders, which may be one 
 year old from the graft, or they may be 
 several years trained. The permanent trees 
 are understood to be the dwarfs, the riders 
 being merely temporary plants, introduced to 
 give fulness to the upper portion of the wall. 
 In selecting from both kinds, it is the practice 
 to choose those trees which have passed 
 through the training of two or more years ; 
 or should they, every second year, have been 
 moved in the nursery, they may take five or 
 six years to train ; and in such case they will 
 bear immediately. Touug plants, however, 
 are preferred by some gardeners. Eegardiug 
 the age of the plants, it is observed by Nicol, 
 that the " maiden, or one-year-trained trees, 
 are to be preferred, especially if apples and 
 pears. Even of the stone fruits such will 
 succeed best; though two or three years' 
 trained are often planted. I here allude to 
 the dwarfs. Riders of greater age than 
 dwarla may be planted, in any case, with pro- 
 priety, they being considered temporary, and 
 it being desirable to obtain fruit from them as 
 soon as possible." It is recommended as a 
 Kul'e plan, to plant partly maiden and partly 
 trained plants ; by wliich mode, those which 
 fructify early, should they turn out of inferior 
 '950 
 
 quality, may be replaced by others, or re- 
 grafted with improved species. Meanwhile, 
 the kinds to which approval has been given, 
 will afford a return sufficiently early to com- 
 pensate for any additional labour or expens? 
 they may have cost. 
 
 DISTANCES IN PLANTING. 
 
 The distances at which the permanent trees 
 are planted, are regulated by the known 
 growth of the different sorts selected to be 
 trained against the wall, as well as by the 
 height of that enclosure. It may be remarked, 
 too, that the distance of the stem of the tree 
 from the wall, on the surface of the ground, 
 should be about nine inches. In rearing nec- 
 tarines, peaches, and vines, this distance may 
 be somewhat diminished. In respect to the 
 height of the walls, there are some slight dif- 
 ferences of measurement given. Marshall 
 says, that for one nine or ten feet high, the 
 distances at which nectarines, peaches, and 
 apricots are planted from each other, should 
 be twenty feet. For a wall twelve feet 
 high, Nieol gives the following distances : — 
 apples, eighteen or twenty feet ; apricots, 
 from twenty to twenty-four feet ; figs, from 
 fifteen to eighteen feet ; nectarines and 
 peaches, twelve or fifteen feet ; pears, from 
 twenty-four to thirty feet ; and plums, eighteen 
 or twenty feet. For low walls, of no more 
 than five or six feet high, apple trees should 
 be planted at thirty feet apart, and plums from 
 twenty to twenty-four feet. " The distances 
 at which wall trees ought to be planted, ac- 
 cording to Abercronibie," says Mr. Loudon, 
 " depend on the general growth of the species, 
 connected with these other tilings — whether 
 the individual plant has been dwarfed by the 
 mode of propagation, or is a free grower ; 
 whether the species will bear to be kept 
 within bounds by the knife ; and, lastly, on 
 the height of the wall. Thus, a higlier wail 
 is a compensation for a reduced distance, and 
 a lower will make it necessary to increase the 
 intervals. Supposing the wall to be twelve 
 feet high, the following are gi)od avera!j;e dis- 
 tances for planting the kinds Jiamed : — Vines, 
 from ten to fifteen feet apart, or in vacant 
 spaces between other walls, where the distance 
 is less, because the vine bears pruning well, 
 and can always be reduced to the prescribed 
 
PLANTING.] 
 
 PKACricE OF HOirnCULTURE. 
 
 [t»\i>ino. 
 
 limits. Peacli trees und lU'ctariiicH, from 
 fit'ieeu to tweuty lo<ft. l''!-^ trt-t's, from 
 eightt'cix to tweuty iW't or more, as the bfar- 
 er8 are uot to be short eueil. Apricot treeH, 
 fiiieen feet, fur the dwarf early aorta ; eiphteuu 
 to twenty-four leot for the free-j^rowers, as 
 tliis plant does uot boar the knife well. 
 Ciierry trees, from lit'lt»oii to twenty feet; the 
 stroug-j^rowiug, large-leaved sorts requiring 
 the wider distauee. Pear trees, tweuty feet, 
 if on dwarf stocks ; twenty-four to thirty 
 feet, if on free stocks. Plum trees, from 
 fifteen to twenty-four feet, Apple trees, if on 
 dwarf stocks, lifteeu feet ; if on free stocks, 
 from twenty-five to thirty feet. Mulberry 
 trees, fifteen or twenty leet. Along the line 
 of the walls only nine feet high, increase the 
 intervals to one-lifth as much again ; and of 
 walls six feet high, to one-fourth." 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 It is generally agreed that November is the 
 best month to plant in, as at that time the 
 leaves have mostly fallen to the ground. It 
 is also agreed, that about the middle of De- 
 cember is the period when the tree should be 
 headed back. Before planting, the root of 
 each plant should be trimmed, cutting ofi" the 
 points of those which have been braised in 
 the taking up, and moderately thinning them 
 out, if too thick, or too much crowded. I 
 Maiden trees do not often require this opera- 
 tion ; but plants which have, for several years, 
 stood in the nursery, or which have been 
 trained against walls or pales, and have 
 strong roots, frequently requu'e thinning 
 out. The roots should, in some degree, be 
 rendered proportionate to the tops ; and as 
 the shoots and branches are to be headed 
 down, or to be considerably shortened or 
 thinned out, as a consequence, the roots 
 should also be moderately thinned and 
 pruned. In performing this operation, how- 
 ever, great care must be taken that the most 
 promising plants, and those furnished with 
 the most fibres, be retained. The spot for 
 planting being determined, a pit, no deeper 
 than that from which the plant has been re- 
 moved, should be prepared, and the future 
 tree placed just as deep, and no deeper, in 
 the ground than it was before. The roots and 
 fibres should he spread out, and carel'uUy 
 
 bedded in Huilablo corupost. Then the com- 
 mon earth should bo tilled ^n, pently trod 
 upou rouud the »Um\, prcMervinp it a irw 
 inciieH clear of the foundation, and Becuriii^ 
 the plant from tlu) injuridUB rlloctH of high 
 winds, by nailing it to tlie wall. Thus, 
 sbouhl tree alter tree be planted ; and ihev 
 will require? no further atlLMition till th»? fol- 
 lowing ]\larch, when they should bo headed 
 down. 
 
 TRAINING. 
 
 In training, the knife is the grand inntru- 
 ment; and he who has had 8uflicientexperien3e 
 and practice to be able to apply it with skill. 
 mav be said to have a jjerfect command over his 
 trees. The points wiiich most essentially belong 
 to the operation of training are, tliat they 
 should be as simple as possible, and the work 
 of amputation or lopping be not too frequently 
 carried on ; that it should accord with the 
 growth of the tree ; and that it should be 
 such as to render it more easy for the fruit 
 to come to perfection. That these points may 
 the more certainly be secured, it has been laid 
 down as a maxim, that the knit'e should be 
 used with some degree of reserve, as nothing 
 is more injurious to the health and fructifica- 
 tion of fruit trees of every descriptiou, than 
 frequent and injudicious cutting. 
 
 In placing a fruit tree against a wall, it is 
 evident that it is put into a constrained and 
 unnatural situation, from which it would 
 endeavour to make its escape by every means 
 in its power. Much care is, therefore, neces- 
 sary to check this tendency, as the more it is 
 permitted to exert itself, the more unsightly 
 must become the form of the tree. He, 
 therefore, to wliom the charge of a garden is 
 assigned, should be well acquainted with the 
 theory ot vegetation ; should make the manner 
 in which dift'erent sorts of trees grow a study ; 
 and, above all, should never forget the real 
 eud or object of all training — the production oj 
 hearing loood. Perhaps one of the greatest 
 difficulties is to preserve equality in the growth 
 of the several points of the same tree. It 
 should thereibre be known that a shoot will 
 push itself forth more vigorously when 
 enjoying a free situation in the open air, 
 than when it is nailed against a wall. Con- 
 sidering this fact, it naturally suggests that, in 
 
 951 
 
THE BLOSSOM.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICrLTTJEE. 
 
 [ESPALIERS. 
 
 training, a weak shoot should be left free, 
 whilst a strong one should be restrained. 
 A shoot slightly turning off from the perpen- 
 dicular will, ccBteris paribus, be more plentifully 
 supplied with sap than one which is laid out 
 in a horizontal direction, or deflected from its 
 parent stem. The growth of a luxuriant shoot 
 may, for some time, be impeded by having its 
 tender extremity pinched off, when one of a 
 much weaker description may even surpass 
 it in the capacity of fruit-bearing. By giving 
 attention to these hints and expedients, and 
 making a judicious employment of the pruning- 
 knife, it will be easy for any practical gardener 
 to execute the general forms which trees are 
 made to assume, and which are mostly de- 
 tailed in horticultural works. The most simple 
 of these, and the most practised for their 
 general excellence, are distinguished as the 
 horizontal, the fan, and the lialf-fan forms. 
 But the choice of particular modes of training 
 is too often determined by mere fashionable 
 prejudice, which leads to the application of the 
 same form in all sorts of trees. " Thus," 
 says a writer on this subject, " the French are 
 apt to reduce everything to the fan system, 
 while some English horticulturists are inclined 
 to force trees of the most rambling growth 
 into the pillory of a horizontal arrangement. 
 Such a uniformity cannot possibly be in 
 accordance with nature. The enlightened 
 cultivator will employ various forms, and will 
 determine for himself which is the most appro- 
 priate, not only for every species, but even for 
 each particular variety of fruit trees. By 
 attentive observation and rational experiment, 
 more knowledge in this department may be 
 obtained in a few years, than by a whole life 
 spent in routine practice." 
 
 PROTECTION OF THE BLOSSOxM. 
 
 In a climate so variable as that of England, 
 more especially in the northern and eastern 
 parts of the island, it is necessary that the 
 gardener should be furnished with such appli- 
 ances as will enable him to protect the blos- 
 soms of his fruit trees from the late frosts in 
 the season of spring. Frames covered with 
 osnaburg, bunting, and similar light fobrics, 
 have been recommended for this purpose, with 
 the observation that they should be set in a 
 slanting position in front of the trees It is 
 952 
 
 said that the best protection for wall trees are 
 portable wooden copings about nine inches 
 in breadth, attached to permanent iron brac- 
 kets, fixed in the wall immediately below the 
 stone coping. These wooden defences should 
 be applied during spring, previous to the 
 commencement of the blossoming and ex- 
 panding of the buds ; and there should be 
 connected with them a material called scrim- 
 cloth — a sort of thin canvas, admitting light 
 very freely, yet, of itself, sufficiently capable 
 to ward off frosts of ordinary severity. This 
 cloth should be let down on the approach of 
 evening, and drawn up again on the return 
 of the morning ; but any invention which 
 serves to interrupt radiation, though it may 
 fail to preserve the temperature much above 
 the freezing-point, will act beneficially. 
 Standard fruit trees must be left to themselves ; 
 and, indeed, from the lateness of the season at 
 which they flower, they are generally more 
 deteriorated by drenching rains and blight, 
 than by the immediate influences of cold. 
 
 ESPALIERS. 
 
 In making choice of the trees most suitable 
 for an espalier rail, it may be taken as a 
 general rule, that those which are of a finer 
 quality than can be cultivated with advan- 
 tage as standards, are the best ; and, at the 
 same time, not to take such as require the 
 greater heat and the protection of a wall. 
 " It should be a maxim for all climates," 
 says the Eev. Nathaniel Paterson, who has 
 devoted much of his attention to horticulture, 
 " that fruit, good of its kind, though the kind 
 be inferior, is preferable to that of a better 
 nature, but imperfectly produced. A good 
 crop of codlings is better than a bad crop of 
 golden pippins. . . . Having your walls 
 already furnished with the best sorts that may 
 suit your climate, you have only to go a degree 
 lower in the scale to make up your espaliers. 
 But should your wall be so limited as not to 
 aftbrd room for so many of the better sorts 
 as might otherwise be admissible, it will bo 
 proper to cultivate as espaliers certain trees 
 which ought, in other circumstances, to have a 
 place on the wall. That part of your rails 
 which is opposite to the south wall, and has 
 some benefit from its reflection, is the most 
 favourable for such an experiment. At the 
 
GRAPE-VINE.l 
 
 PKACTICK OF HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [aUAI'£-VINE. 
 
 medium elevation the Kibstou pippin will do 
 well in this situation ; for tliough it will not 
 come to such perfect maturity, it will yet be 
 better than most other fruits, and the tree will 
 prDve more healthy than it usually iloi-s on the 
 bi'st wall. A jarixonello pear, in the like cir- 
 cumstances, may be not unsuccessfully tried ; 
 and in lower situations, failing the extent of 
 wall, a variety of the finer sorts of ai^jiles and 
 pears may be raised in this way. The less 
 favourable aspects of the espalier rows must, 
 
 of course, bo fitted up with such as aro 
 
 coarser and more hardy It 
 
 may be remarlicd that none of the stone 
 fruits do well for training in the es- 
 palier mode, save cherries, which bear for 
 a number of years on the old wood ; but 
 though they admit of the protection of a 
 net as well as on tho wall, yet this method 
 is in other respects less eligible, as tho young 
 wood cannot bo laid in to tho uaino ad- 
 vautaee." 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRELIMINARY ; THE GRAPE-VINE ; THE FIG ; PEACH ; APRICOT ; PLUM ; CHERRY ; PEAR ; APPLE ; 
 STORING PEARS AND APPLES ; QUINCE ; MEDLAR ; SERVICE-TRKE ; MULBERRY ; CURRANT ; TUB 
 GOOSEBERRY; RASPBERRY; STRAWBERRY; CRANBERRY; ALMOND TREE ; HAZEL-NLT; WALNUT; 
 CHESTNUT. 
 
 PRELIMINARY. 
 
 In passing to particulars from the generalities 
 into which our treatment of the fruit garden 
 has, to some extent, necessarily led us, we 
 will commence with the more delicate or 
 tender sorts of fruits, and restrict the lists which 
 we shall give to selections from the very best 
 descriptions in present cultivation. It is in 
 the forcing garden alone, however, that many 
 of the finer sorts of fruits can be brought to a 
 state of perfection. To that department we 
 must, therefore, refer the reader for whatever 
 details we give of these, as it is there that, in 
 this country, the artificial processes of vege- 
 tation are pursued upon the principles of ex- 
 perimental science, and with a view to attain 
 to the highest results. 
 
 THE GRAPE-VINE. 
 
 This plant is generally considered to bo a 
 native of Persia ; thence passing into Egypt, 
 Greece, and Sicily. From this island it was 
 carried into Italy, Spain, and France; and, 
 ultimately, by the Eomaus into Britain, but at 
 what period is uncertain. That there were vine- 
 yards in England in a.d. 280, is certain, if the 
 authority of the venerable Eede is to be be- 
 lieved. But, however this may be, wherever 
 it is now cultivated in England, it is absolutely 
 F 
 
 necessary that it should have a good aspect ; 
 and to the north of York, a dessert of grapes 
 cannot be produced without the assistance of 
 a hot wall. It is said that, in the extreme 
 south-west districts of England, grapes, suit- 
 able for tho manufacture of wine, perhaps 
 equal in quality to those grown in the north 
 of France, might be produced on dwarf stand- 
 ards. Of this we entertain no doubt, unless 
 the climate has greatly changed for the worse, 
 as there is abundant historical testimony-, 
 shoving that productive vineyards once existed 
 in that part of the island. In the catalogue 
 of the London Horticultural Society, 197 
 kinds of grapes are enumerated. Some of 
 these, however, are of indifferent quality, and 
 some are utterly worthless. We will, there- 
 fore, select the names of a few of those which 
 are considered to be most deserving of the 
 attention of the cultivator. 
 
 Black Damascus, Black Hamburg, Black 
 Lombardy, Chasselas Musqud, Frontiguan, 
 Muscat of Alexandria, Eoyal Muscadine, Nice 
 or AVhito Nice, Barbarossa, Black Prince, Es- 
 perione, or Turner's Early Black, the Syrian 
 Grape, Slillward's Sweetwater, or Chasselas 
 Precorce, Trobbiaua, tho Yerdellio, and White 
 Sweetwater. 
 
 The Black Damascus is a late variety, and 
 does not set well ; but its bunches are large, 
 
 953 
 
THE riG.] 
 
 PEACTICE OP HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [the peach. 
 
 and the berries round and sweet. The Black 
 Hamburg is highly valued, and more generally 
 cultivated in this country for the dessert than 
 any other grape. There are several seed 
 varieties of it in existence. The Black Lom- 
 bardy is a late and excellent fruit. There are 
 five varieties of the Frontignan, distinguished 
 as the blacTc, Hue, grizzly, red, and wJiite. 
 They are all of great excellence. The Muscat 
 of Alexandria has a most delicious flavour, but 
 it requires a high temperature, and ought to 
 have a vinery set apart for itself. The other 
 varieties require no especial remark, with, per- 
 haps, the exception of the Esperione," which 
 ripens on the open wall in the vicinity of 
 London. 
 
 For a vinery of ordinary description, the 
 Black Hamburg, CbasselasMusque, Stillvvard's 
 Sweetwater, "White Prontignan, Black Lom- 
 bardy, andEoyal Muscadine are recommended. 
 Tor a slow or late vinery, the Muscat of Alexan- 
 dria, the Barbarossa (Black and White), the 
 Grizzly Erontignan, the Black Tripoli, and the 
 Canon-hall Muscat. For training against the 
 rafters of a greenhouse, the Verdelho, the Black 
 Prince, Black Cluster, and Esperione, are the 
 most suitable. The grapes usually grow^n in Eng- 
 land against the open wall are — the Esperione, 
 "White Muscadine, Miller Burgundy, Grove- 
 end, Early Black, Pitmaston,"White Cluster, and 
 the "White Sweetwater. Both in the north of 
 England and the south of Scotland, hot walls 
 are always required for the cultivation of the 
 grape ; but, even with this artificial help, vine- 
 culture can never be calculated on with 
 certainty in this country, if pursued in the 
 
 open air. 
 
 THE FIG. 
 
 The fig tree is a native of Asia and Bar- 
 bary, and was imported to England by Car- 
 dinal Pole, about 1525 ; but it is not a 
 favourite in this country. Gardens of first- 
 rate character, however, should not be with- 
 out some trees ; and the following are in 
 greatest esteem : — ■ 
 
 Angelque, Brunswick, Black, "White, and 
 Brown Ischias, Large AVhite Genoa, Malta, 
 Marseilles, Nerii, Brown Turkey, Pergusata, 
 and Lee's Perpetual. 
 
 The Marseilles, the Brown Turkey, Lee's 
 Perpetual, and the Black Ischia, are the best 
 954i 
 
 for forcing ; whilst the others are better 
 adapted for walls. 
 
 THE PEACH. 
 
 Persia is considered the original country of 
 the peach ; but this fruit, from time immemorial, 
 has been cultivated in most parts of Asia. The 
 characteristics of a good peach, or nectarine, are 
 firmness of flesh, thinness of skin, depth and 
 brightness of the red colour next the sun, and 
 a yellowish-green next the wall. Its pulp 
 should, also, be of a yellowish colour ; and it 
 should be full of high-flavoured juice, with 
 the fleshy part thick, and the stone sm411. 
 The two principal varieties of the peach, pro- 
 perly so called, is the one (the peach) with a 
 downy skin; and the nectarine with a smooth 
 skin. Each of these varieties is again divided 
 by gardeners into freestones, or peclies, and 
 clingstones, ov pavies, according as the stone 
 adheres to the pulp, or parts freely from it. 
 In the horticultural catalogue, there are given 
 183 peaches, and sixty-five nectarines. One 
 would think that invention would fail in 
 finding names sufficient to distinguish such a 
 family : we, however, will indicate a few of 
 those most congenial to our climate. 
 
 Peaches. — The Acton Scot, Bellegarde 
 (the Galande of the nurseries). Late Admiral, 
 or La JRoyale, Madaleine de Courson, No- 
 blesse, Grosse Mignone, Eed Nutmeg or Avant 
 Eouge, Eoyal George, and Spring Grove. 
 
 The Eed Nutmeg is one of the earliest, and 
 produces abundantly. All the others are ex- 
 cellent varieties ; and one of the very best 
 late ones is the Late Admiral, which ought to 
 be in every collection. 
 
 Nectaeines. — Of these the best are the 
 Early Newiugton, theElruge, Fairchild's Early, 
 Hunt's Tawny, and the Eed Eoman. We may 
 enumerate a i'ew more first-class nectarines, 
 suitable equally for open-air culture or for 
 forcing. These are, oi freestones — the Brinion, 
 Downton, Murray, Pitmaston, Orange, Vio- 
 lette Grosse, Due de Telle, New White, and 
 the Hardwick Seedling. Of clingstones — 
 there are the Iniperatrice and the Newington 
 Tawny ; but these last are not deemed so suit- 
 able either for opeu-air culture or for forcing. 
 
 THE APRICOT. 
 
 Armenia is the country in which it is sup- 
 
THE xriticoT.] 
 
 PJiACTlCE OF IIOJ: riCULTUllE. 
 
 [thK IM.UM. 
 
 posed the apricot oriLrlnattil ; ullium^h Pallas 
 Btates tliat it is louucl aloiii; tho whole rniigo 
 of tho Caucasus, the mountains of which, even 
 to their summits, are covered witli it. It is 
 described as being, in Japan, a lar;i;e, Hpreadiiig 
 tree, full of branches ; and in China, as cover- 
 ing the mountains to the west of Pekin. It 
 appears to have been first cultivated in Etig- ; 
 land about 15G2. It is used in a raw state 
 for the dessert, and is esteemed next to the 
 peach iu tiie quality of deliciousness. It is 
 also made into jellies, marmalades, and pre- 
 serves. The following are the principal va- 
 rieties : — 
 
 The Blenheim, Breda, Ilemskirke, Moor- 
 park, Musch-Muach, Kaisha, New Early, I 
 Koman, Turkey, Large Early, Orange, and 
 Ivjyal. 
 
 The Blenheim is of En2;lish origin, and a 
 good bearer. The Breda is of the highest 
 excellence, and in the south of England does 
 well as a standard ; but the best apricot in 
 tliis country is the Moor-park, of which there 
 are several sub-varieties, known by different 
 i.ames; and among them Shipley's is the best. 
 The Turkey is an excellent late variety ; and 
 the Kaisha has quite superseded the rea and 
 white Masculines, which, in former days, were 
 our earliest kinds. 
 
 The apricot, being a tree of much stronger 
 growth than the peach, requires more room 
 and pruning, both in summer and winter. 
 The most common error in pruning apricots 
 is the laying-in of the bearing-shoots too 
 thickly, Keferring to this tree, Dr. Lindley 
 says that the principal branches "must be 
 trained wider apart than those of peach and 
 nectarine trees; but, in other respects, they 
 should be regulated by the same principles. 
 The main branches of the apricot may be 
 fifteen inches apart." 
 
 TIIE PLUM. 
 
 The plum tree, although a native of, or, 
 perhaps, only naturalised in, Grreat Britain, is 
 supposed to have been originally taken from 
 Asia Minor ; for Pliny says that it was brought 
 from Syria into Greece, and thence into Italy. 
 It is frequently found growing spontaneously 
 in our hedges ; and in its cultivated state is 
 highly esteemed as a dessert-fruit. " Plums," 
 says Professor Martyn, " when suUiciently 
 
 ripe, and taken in modcrato (pianiitv, are not 
 unwholesome ; but in an immature state, thev 
 are more liable to produce pains in tho stomach, 
 diarrhoa, or cholera, than any other fruit of 
 tliis class." Tiiere are many varieties, rang- 
 ing from ten to nearly a hundred, as given by 
 different autiiorities ; but tho catalogue of tho 
 Horticultural Soeiety gives 274 sorte. Wo 
 notice a few of tho best for tho dessert, and 
 then select some others, most esteemed for 
 culinary purposes. 
 
 Tho Green-gago (or Heine Claude of tho 
 French), Coe'a Golden Drop, the Drap 
 D'Or, Angelina Burdctt, tho Blue Impera- 
 trice, tho Jell'erson, the Koine Claude Violotte, 
 the Washington, Koine Claude de Buvay, 
 Cowper's Large lied, Coo's Late Ked, D'Af^en, 
 Blue Perdii^'on, Duwnton Imperatrice, Law- 
 son's Golden-gai;e, and the White Perdrigou. 
 
 It is supposed that the green-gage was in- 
 troduced into England by the Gage family; 
 and the foreign name having been lost, or for- 
 gotten, the present was given to it, as being 
 the next most appropriate. It is, in every 
 respect, a fruit of the highest excellence. 
 When grown against a wall with an east or a 
 west aspect, the fruit attains to a large size ; 
 but, as a wall tree, it rarely bears well till it is 
 old. Coe's Golden Drop requires a wall of the 
 most luvourable aspect, and is excellent, botli 
 as a table and preserving plum. It does not 
 succeed in a bleak climate. A\^e are informed 
 that the Angelina Burdett, the standard of 
 England, and the Woolston black-gage, were, 
 some years ago, raised from seed by Mr. 
 Dowliug, of Woolsion, near Soutiiamptou. 
 They are all plums of tlie highest excellence. 
 Speaking of their qualities, Mr. Thompson 
 says — " These plums are first-rate, and I should 
 recommend their extensive cultivation. As 
 regards the last, it throws the green-gage into 
 the shade, for it contains all the properties of 
 that fine plum, with more sugary sweetness. 
 The Jefierson is tho best of all the American 
 plums. The Washington is also a good 
 plum, and succeeds as a standard. Cowper's 
 large red is a fruit of great productiveness, 
 and on that account deserves a place in the 
 garden. Gisborue's early plum is one of 
 the best that can be recommended, especially 
 for the northern parts of the island." 
 
 Of second-rate plums we may enumerate 
 
 955 
 
THE CHEEET.] 
 
 the Cheston, Sliarpe's Emperor, the Fother- 
 ingham, Goliath, La Eoyale, Wilmot's IS'ew 
 Orleans, the Orleans, and the Morocco. 
 There are also some Damasks, which should 
 find a place in the garden. The Early Violet 
 is a capital bearer, and highly recommended 
 by Lindley for cottage gardens. 
 
 For preserving, and the use of the kitchen, 
 the following are recommended : — The Cale- 
 donia or Nectarine Plum, Isabella, Shrop- 
 shire Damson, Imperial Diadem, White Mag- 
 num Bonum, Eed Magnum Bonum or Im- 
 perial, the St. Catharine, the Mirabelle, 
 Bullan, and Wine Sour, Deen's Jedburgh 
 Seedling, Denniston's Superb, Tay-Bank, 
 Topaz, Gisborne's Plum, Guthrie's New 
 Apricot Plum, Pond's Seedling, and Guthrie's 
 Minette. 
 
 In training plum trees they require plenty 
 of room, and are chiefly propagated by bud- 
 ding upon Musell or St. Julian stocks. They 
 are sometimes grafted ; but when this is the 
 case, gum is apt to exude from the tree at the 
 place of junction. On common walls they 
 should be allowed from twenty to twenty-five 
 feet of breadth, over which to extend them- 
 selves ; and for this purpose a preference 
 should be given to such as have been trained 
 in the nursery for a couple of years. 
 
 THE CHERRY. 
 
 In 73 A.C., the cultivated cherry was 
 brought to Italy by Lucullus, the Eoraan 
 general, who found it growing in Cerasus, the 
 name of a town in Pontus in Asia, and from 
 which the designation given to the fruit is 
 derived. It is supposed to have been intro- 
 duced by the Eomans into Britain ; but if 
 such was the case, it would seem that it was 
 suffered to die out. It is stated to have been 
 re-iiitroduced by Eichard Harris, the fruit- 
 erer of Henry VIII.; but Wharton shows, 
 by a quotation from Lidgate, a poet who 
 nourished about 1415, that the London 
 hawkers exposed cherries for sale in a manner 
 similar to that which is now done in the 
 early part of the fruit season. The tree is 
 very generally cultivated, not only as a wall, 
 but as a standard fruit, and has been intro- 
 duced to the forcing garden for upwards of a 
 couple of centuries. The fruit is used as a 
 dessert, and for making pies, tarts, aud other 
 956 
 
 PEACTICE OE HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [the peae. 
 
 elegant preparations, in both confectionery 
 and cookery. The Horticultural Society's 
 catalogue, with geans included, gives no fewer 
 than 219 varieties, of which the following 
 may be considered as among the most excel- 
 lent : — 
 
 The Bigarreau or GrafSon, Belle de Choissy, 
 Black Tartarian, Amber or Yellow Spanish, 
 Buttener's October Morello, Early Purple 
 Griotte, Elton, Harrison's Heart, the May 
 Duke, Late Duke, Morello, Kentish Cherry, 
 and the Waterloo, Besides these, may be 
 specified the Black Heart, Black Eagle, Early 
 Heart, Bowyer's Downton, Carnation, White 
 Heart, Knight's Early Black, and the Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 The Early Purple Griotte is the earliest of 
 all cherries, generally ripening at the end of 
 May. The May Duke is one of the most 
 common, and, at the same time, one of the 
 most valuable of cherries; but the Kentish 
 cherry is one of the oldest and most prevalent 
 of English cherries, much cultivated in the 
 orchards of Kent. It ripens at the end of 
 July, and is commonly grown as a standard. 
 The Morello is a late cherry, much in request 
 for confectionery ; and of the same species are 
 the Erogmore, New Morello, and Eumsey'a 
 Late Morello. The Bigarreau is an excellent 
 fruit, largely cultivated in England for the 
 London market. 
 
 Guignes, or Geans, are cherries, but in a 
 state not so highly cultivated, or so far 
 removed from their natural state. When old 
 they are very prolific, and are usually grown as 
 standards. The Amber Gean, and the Lunelle 
 Gean, are the principal kinds ; the former a 
 sweet tender fruit, and an abundant bearer; 
 the latter a small black cherry, of high flavour. 
 
 THE PEAR. 
 
 The pear tree bears its fruit on wood up- 
 wards of one year old, but principally on spurs, 
 and very rarely on two-year branches. In the 
 Theory of Horticulture, Dr. Lindley has the 
 following remarks relative to the rearing of this 
 tree : — " Plant a maiden tree in autumn ; allow 
 it to establish itself for one year, and then head 
 it back to a good eye, a 'i^'^ buds from its 
 base. Let one shoot grow as strong and 
 upright as possible during the summer, and 
 bead it back to within thirteen inches of the 
 
EAUl.V rEA.B3.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HOETIOULTURE. 
 
 [late peabs. 
 
 gnniiul ill autumn, cutting very close to a 
 buii, in onler tlmt the shoot springing from it 
 may lorm little or no btMiding. Tniin it up- 
 rigljt ; whilst three or lour shoots, from buila 
 immediately below it, should be more or less 
 inclined to a horizontal direction, according to 
 their strength ; the strongest should bo nmat 
 depressed. These three or four constitute 
 the commencemenb of the lirst or lower tier. 
 For the next tier, head back the upright 
 leader to within eighteen inches of its base, if 
 the soil is rich ; if not to tit'teen inches ; and 
 from the shoots produced in the following 
 season from buds, just under the cut, train a 
 ehoot for a leader, and three or four some- 
 what horizontally, as before, for a second tier. 
 Precisely, in this manner, tier after tier must 
 be started, till the tree attains its assigned 
 height. All this can be effected in accordance 
 with the natural disposition of the tree, to 
 form an upright stem, and with the tendency 
 of the sap to develop the uppermost buds of a 
 shortened shoot. But it ia not to be done 
 without serious difficulties." 
 
 The list given of cultivated pears amounts 
 to upwards of 600. We will, therefore, 
 confine ourselves to specifying a few of tlie 
 best dessert sorts, both early and late. 
 
 Eablt. — Autumn Bergamot or English 
 Bergamot, Early Bergamot, Elton, Beurre 
 d'Amalis, Citron de Carmes (this is the Made- 
 leine of Lindley, and the Premature in 
 Scotland), the Dunmoro, Doyenne Blanc, 
 Flemish Beauty, Foudaute d'Automne, Man- 
 suette, the Summer Hose, the Jargonelle, 
 Summer Francreal, Duhamel, Seckle, Red 
 Doyenne, the Van Mods Leon Leclerc. The 
 summer and early autumn pears may be 
 added. The Summer Francreal, Summer Bon- 
 chretien, William's Bonchretien, and the Musk 
 Robine. These generally require the pro- 
 tection of a wall. 
 
 The Jargonelle is the most esteemed, as it is 
 the most common of our early autumn pears. 
 It grows to a large size against the wall ; but 
 the fruit does not keep well. The Citron de 
 Carmes is our earliest pear, ripening in July. 
 It is a sweet pear without much flavour. 
 The Summer Rose is an excellent variety, and 
 the Summer Francreal a large bearer. The 
 Early Bergamot is one of our best early pears ; 
 and the Autumn Bergamot one of our most 
 
 richly flavoun d. It ripens towards the end of 
 October, but it does not keep. 
 
 Late. — Of late pears the assortment is 
 large ; but the following may bo viewed aa 
 some of the choicest : — Bergamot de Hollaude, 
 Ik'urre Die!, Easter licurro, Beurre liance, 
 Beurre Laiigflier, Brown Btnirn', licurn'? do 
 Cii[)iamont, Bello do Bourne, Moorlield Egg, 
 Gansel's Bergamot, Bezi do la Motte, Marie 
 Louise, Craaanne, Colmar, Passe Cohnar, 
 i'oire Neill, and the Urbaniste. To these may 
 be added, as late autumnal and winter pears, 
 the Autumn Colmar, Aston Town, Beurre 
 Spence, Echassery, Bezi Vaet, Bezi de la Motte, 
 Sylvange, Chanmontelle, Glout ^lorccau, 
 Downtown, Hacon's Incomparable, Ducheso 
 d'Angoulfime, Swan Egg, Winter Nelis, Flem- 
 ish Beauty, Napoleon, Brougham, Calibasse, 
 Chaptal, Comp de Laney, Althorp Crasanne, 
 Winter Crasanne, Dundas, Elton, Emerald, De 
 Louvain, Eyewood, Fulton, Groom's Prin- 
 cess Royal, Jean de Witte, Louis Boune of 
 Jersey, Moccas, Ne Plus Mennis, and Knight's 
 Monarch. 
 
 Of stewing pears, or the kitchen sorts, wc may 
 name — Uvedale's St. Germain, Catillar, Bel- 
 liaine d'Hiver, the Black AVorcester or War- 
 den, and the Gilogil. These are either kept 
 as dwarf standards, or placed on espalier rails, 
 or inferior walls. 
 
 Of the early pears, the autumn or English 
 bergamot has long enjoyed an established re- 
 putation for the high flavour it possesses. It 
 comes to perfection about the end of October; 
 but it does not keep. The jargonelle is the 
 most esteemed of our early autumn pears ; and 
 when grown against a wall, it attains to a 
 very large size. The fruit, however, does not 
 keep well. The others call for no special 
 remark. Of late pears, the Brown Beurre is a 
 plentiful bearer ; and so is the Beurre de Ca- 
 piamont. The Moor-fowl Egg is of Scottish 
 origin, and presents us with two varieties, of 
 which the Galston is the best. Tlie tree ia 
 hardy, and the fruit of excellent quality. The 
 plant should be grown as a standard. The 
 Marie Louise is a large and an excellent pear, 
 raised by Duquesne. Thompson says it ia 
 one of the finest, even as a standard, on which 
 it bears abundantly. The Easter Beurr^ ia 
 hardy, and an abundant bearer. Thompson 
 observes that it is one of the most valuable 
 
 057 
 
APPLES.J 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [apples. 
 
 of the spring sorts, " compared with which, the 
 early pears of short duration deserve not a 
 wall." The Beurr6 Eance is the best very late 
 sort yet known. 
 
 " Summer and autumn pears," says a writer 
 on this subject, "should be gathered before 
 they are fully ripe, otherwise they will not, in 
 general, keep more than a few days. The 
 Jargonelle, as Torsyth rightly advises, should 
 be allowed to remain on the tree, and be pulled 
 daily, as wanted ; the standard fruit thus suc- 
 ceeding the produce of the wall trees. In 
 reference to the Crasanne, Mr. George Lind- 
 ley recommends gathering the crop at three 
 different times : the first, a fortnight or more 
 before it is ripe ; the second, a week or ten 
 days after; and the third, when fully ripe. 
 The first gathering will come into eating 
 latest ; and thus the season of the fruit may 
 be considerably prolonged. It is evident that 
 the same method may be followed with the 
 Brown Beurre, and Gansel's Bergamot, or with 
 any others which continue only a short time 
 in a mature state." 
 
 THE APPLE. 
 In a wild state, the apple is a native of 
 most European countries ; but when the cul- 
 tivated fruit first came into Britain is 
 entirely unknown. It is supposed to have been 
 introduced by the Eomans, as, in the time 
 of Pliny, these people were acquainted with 
 twenty-two varieties. But, however this may 
 be, we have it, on the authority of Stowe, that 
 carp and pippins were brought to England 
 by Muscal, who, in 1572, wrote on fruit 
 trees. The apple tree never bears, except 
 accidentally, upon young wood. It is on 
 wood two or more years old, and on the 
 stunted branches called " spurs," that its 
 fruit appears. The fruit is principally grown 
 as a staudanl, which should have a clean, 
 straight, and substantial stem. Of the apple, 
 there are upwards of 1,400 varieties 
 enumerated in the Loudon Horticultural 
 Society's catalogue, of which about one- 
 seventh, perhaps, may be good kinds. To 
 attempt to give detailed descriptions of such 
 a multitude of species would be vain; we 
 fiball, therefore, conliue ourselves to giving a 
 list of the sorts deemed most worthy of the 
 attention of the grower. 
 958 
 
 Table Apples. — The earliest of these are 
 the Juncating, or White Geniton, ripening 
 about the close of July ; the Eed, or Striped 
 Juncating ; the White Crofton, an abundant 
 bearer, and useful for the kitchen, as well as 
 the table ; the Arbroath Pippin, or Oslin ; the 
 Early Julian, or Clydesdale ; Summer Golden 
 Pippin; Eed Quarrenden, or Devooshire, and 
 the Early Harvest. To succeed these, we 
 have Hick's Eancy, or the Early Nonpariei; 
 the Autumn, or Eoyal Pearmain ; the Doon- 
 side ; Baird's Favourite ; White Astrachan ; 
 Eed Astrachan ; Shepherd's Parae ; Pearson's 
 Plate; Old Golden Pippin; Franklin's 
 Golden Pippin ; Pomme de Niege ; Maclean's 
 Favourite ; King of the Pippins, or Hamp- 
 shire Yellow, a valuable variety ; Kerry 
 Pippins, one of the best of the Irish apples ; 
 Cole Apple, or Scarlet Perfumed ; Leishman'a 
 Pippin, and Longville's Kernal. 
 
 Winter dessert apples being in great force, 
 we can only enumerate a few of the best. 
 The Eibston Pippin has long h«ld a high 
 character, not only for the richness but the 
 highly aromatic flavour of its juice. Hubbard's 
 Pearmain is of the finest quality ; the Golden 
 Harvey, or Brandy Apple of Forsyth, though 
 a small, is a capital fruit, characterised by Mr. 
 Lindley as juicy, rich, and finely flavoured. 
 It has the quality of great hardiness, and is 
 an abundant and a constant bearer ; and no 
 garden in which a dozen trees can be con- 
 tained, ought to be without one. The Doun- 
 ton Pippin is also an excellent fruit, and 
 a large bearer ; it ripens at the end of October, 
 and keeps till January ; the Tellow Ingestre ; 
 the Berehamnell; Court of Wick Pippin; 
 Wood's Transparent ; Scarlet Crofton ; Scarlet 
 Pearmain ; Dutch Mignonne ; Fearn's Pip- 
 pin ; Paradise Pippin ; Old Nonpareil ; Brad- 
 ick's Nonpareil ; Scarlet Nonpareil ; Pitmas- 
 ton Nonpareil ; Kirke's Golden Kennet ; 
 Sykehouse Eusset; Cornish Aromatic, a 
 famous apple; the Sam Young, an Irish 
 fruit; and the Norfolk Beaufiu, which is the 
 best apple for drying and preserving, making 
 an admirable winter fruit. 
 
 Desseet Apples. — The Baddon Pippin, 
 and Barton's Incomparable, are excelient; 
 as are the following: — Ashmead's Kernel; 
 Clara Pippin ; Christie's Pippin ; Cockle 
 Pippin; Cornish Gillyflower; Creed's Mari- 
 
BTOuiTio FnriT.] TRACTICE OV II o U TICULTUKE. [quince— medlab. 
 
 gold ; Colonel Vaughun'a White Crofton ; 
 Elford Pippin; Formaii's Cri'we ; Scarlet 
 Goliieu Pippiu ; Golden Kussi-t ; Now (ioldfii 
 Pippin; Winter Goldea Pearmain ; Clay;,':ite 
 Peannaiii ; Heretbrdaliire Pearmain ; Ijaiub 
 Abbey Pearmain ; Scarlet Pearmain ; Uoyal 
 Pearmain; Iveepinij liuaset; lieiuette iVanclio; 
 iiud Powell'sn Ivusset. 
 
 Of American apples, the most suitable for 
 our climate is the Boston Husset. 
 
 Kitchen Apples. — Under this specification 
 we mean such as are principally used for tarts 
 or sauces ; and they are so very numerous 
 that the names of some of the best can only 
 here be given. The Nonsuch, Ilanwell 
 Souring, Fulwood, Menshul Crab, Alexander, 
 Blenheim Orange, Wheeler's Kusset, Cat's 
 Head, Forman's Crewe, and the Ilunthouse 
 of Yorksliire, are all held in high estimation. 
 The Bedford Foundling is a certain bearer, 
 whilst it is a large and handsome fruit ; and 
 the Cellini is a good apple for November. 
 Some of the best apples for keeping long are 
 Scottish Gogar Pippin ; Moncrieff, or Stone 
 Pippin ; the AVormsley Pippin ; Baxter's Pear- 
 main ; Winter Strawberry Apple ; the York- 
 shire Greening ; the Northern Greening ; the 
 Calvill Malinger ; Winter Lud ; Pentcarland 
 Pippin ; Cockle Pippin ; Green Fulwood Al- 
 friston ; Beauty of Kent ; London Pippin ; 
 Hawthornden ; Glory of England ; Pope's 
 Apple ; Eoyal Russet ; Carlisle Codlin ; and 
 the Eastern Pippin. 
 
 STORING PEARS AND APPLES. 
 For this purpose there should be attached 
 to every considerable garden, a well-ventilated, 
 commodious fruit-room, fitted up with the 
 necessary drawers and shelves, and such other 
 conveniences as may be iound requisite. 
 Forsyth says — " The fruit on shelves should 
 be turned two or three times during the 
 winter ; as delicate and tender fruit, by lying 
 long without turning, is apt to rot on the 
 under side, even if perfectly sound when hud 
 up. Be particularly careful, however, to pick 
 out all the damaged fruit. TVheu the fruit is 
 laid in, put the earliest sorts on the lower 
 shelves or in the lower drawers, according to 
 their time of coming in, beginning with the 
 Nonsuch, Golden Eenuet, and Juncating 
 apples ; and Bergamot and Beurre pears. 
 
 Thus, by proper management, you may havo a 
 coiiHtant snccession of fruit from ono season 
 to the other." The best way of kccfjing fruit, 
 however, is to pack it in glazed earthen jart. 
 " The peara and apples must bo separately 
 wrapped up in soft paper; then put a little 
 well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar, and 
 over the bran a layer of fruit, then a little 
 raoro bran to fill up the interstices between the 
 fruit, and to cover it ; and so on, a layer of 
 fruit and bran alternately, till the jar be full; 
 tlien shake it gently, which will make the fruit 
 and bran sink a little; fill up the vacancy at 
 top with more bran, and lay some paper 
 over it, covering tho top with a piece of 
 bladder, to exclude tho air ; then put on the 
 top or cover of tho jar, observing that it fits 
 as closely as possible. These jars should be 
 kept in a room where you can havo a firo in 
 damp weather." 
 
 THE QUINCE. 
 
 This fruit is a native of Austria, and other 
 parts of Europe, and, in lo73, is mentioned by 
 Tusser ; but it does not seem to have ever 
 been much cultivated in this country. The 
 tree is much branched, of low growth, and 
 generally distorted. Two or three trees 
 are usually sufficient to be planted either in 
 the slip or the orchard. They may be pro- 
 pagated either by grafting, by layers, or by 
 cuttings ; and the two principal sorts are the 
 Portugal Quince and the Pear Quince, the 
 latter being the most productive, and serving 
 for all culinary purposes equally well as the 
 former. 
 
 THE MEDLAR. 
 
 The Medlar is a native of tho south of 
 Europe, but appears to have been naturalised 
 in some parts of England, by birds which, ia 
 tlieir migrations, have sown it in copses. 
 This is the opinion of Mr. Loudon. The 
 vririeties most worthy of notice are the Dutch 
 Medlar with broad leaves, and the Notting- 
 ham Medlar with narrow leaves. The fruit is 
 gathered in November, and kept till it begins 
 to decay, when it is served up in the dessert, 
 and much relished by some. The tree is pro- 
 pagated by seeds, layers, cuttings, or grafting 
 ou seedliugs of tlieir own species. The plant, 
 
 r.-o 
 
THE CUEEANT.] 
 
 PRACTICE or HOETICULTUEE. [the goo3ebeekt. 
 
 hovvever, is somewhat difficult to strike by 
 cuttings. 
 
 THE SERVICE-TREE. 
 This tree is a native of the mountainous 
 parts of Cornwall, and, though not much cul- 
 tivated, must not be entirely overlooked. Its 
 fruit has a peculiar kind of acid flavour, and is 
 used only when thoroughly mellowed by 
 keeping. There is both a pear-shaped and 
 an apple-shaped variety, both of which may 
 be propagated by layers, or by grafting on 
 seedling plants of their own species. 
 
 THE MULBERRY. 
 
 This is a fruit but little known in Scotland, 
 although, in old gardens, there are to be 
 found some aged trees which, in favourable 
 seasons, yield some berries. The plant is 
 originally from Persia ; and, in this country, 
 requires to be cultivated in warm situations. 
 During the months of August and September, 
 the fruit is in request for desserts, possessing a 
 rich aromatic flavour, and a fine sub-acid juice. 
 Where it grows abundantly, wine is made 
 from it : and, in Devonshire, a little of the 
 juice added to full-bodied cider, produces a 
 delightful beverage, known as Mulberry Cider, 
 which preserves its flavour for several months. 
 The tree is propagated by layers or by cut- 
 tings ; also by branches of an inch or more 
 in diameter. 
 
 THE CURRANT. 
 
 Under the general title of Small Fruits, the 
 red, white, and black currant, the gooseberry, 
 the raspberry, tlie strawberry, and the cran- 
 berry are usually cultivated in this country. 
 Their uses in cookery, confectionery, as well 
 as in making some wines, give them con- 
 siderable importance. Besides our red and 
 white currants, there are included, in the 
 Eibes Jiithrum, many sub-varieties. Among 
 these may be noticed as the principal — the 
 Euby Castle, the Dutch Eed, Knight's Early 
 Eed, Knight's Sweet Eed, Wilmot's Large 
 Ec(], Goodwin's Eed, Champagne, Dutch 
 White, AVoolly-lcaved Dutch, Victoria White, 
 and Wilmot's New White.— The Black Cur- 
 rants comprise the Common Black, Black 
 Kaplos, and Ogdcn's Black Grape. 
 
 Efd and wliite currants are easily propa- 
 960 
 
 gated by cuttings, and succeeii in any sort of 
 common garden soil. They thrive best, how- 
 ever, in warm moist situations, where they may 
 have the benefit of plenty of air. When 
 planted by themselves, in separate compart- 
 ments, or trained as dwarf standards, or as 
 bushes from single stems of about a foot high, 
 they are best : but care must be taken that 
 the principal branches do not cross each other. 
 In winter, the young bearing- wood is short- 
 ened down into spurs of from one to two 
 inches in length, — The Black Currant succeeds 
 best in a shady situation, with a deep, moist 
 soil. Its culture is much the same as that 
 of the other currants, only the young shoots 
 are not spurred. 
 
 THE GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 The bush which bears this exquisite fruit is 
 a native of several parts of Europe ; and, in 
 the Vallais, abounds in copse-woods, where it 
 produces a small, green, hairy, and highly- 
 flavoured fruit. In England it has been na- 
 turalised in various places against old walls, 
 among ruins, and in the woods and hedges 
 about Darlington. In Lancashire it is culti- 
 vated in greater perfection than in any other 
 part of Britain. The following are some of 
 the sorts recommended by the Loudon Horti- 
 cultural Society, Of the Yellow Kind — the 
 Golden Tellow, the Yellow Ashton, and the 
 Yellow Champagne, the Smooth Yellow, 
 Smiling Beauty, Eumbellion, Sulphur, and 
 Yellow Smith. — Of the Eed Kind — the Eob 
 Eoy, Ironmonger, Eed Champagne, Keen's 
 Seedling, Small Eed Globe, Lord of the 
 Manor, Leigh's Eiflemau, Wellington's 
 Glory, Shipley's Black Prince, and the Eed 
 AVarrington, — Of the White Kind — the 
 Cheshire Lass, White Champagne, White 
 Crystal, Bright Venus, White Damson, White 
 Smith, and the White Honey, — Of the Green 
 Kind — the Green-gage, Pitmaston, Langley 
 Green, Green Gascoigne, Green Laurel, Late 
 Green, Gregory's Perfection, Green Walnut, 
 Cupper's Bonnie Lass, and the Jolly Tar. 
 
 The gooseberry-bush thrives best in a loose, 
 rich soil, which readily absorbs, but does not 
 retain much moisture. It may be propagated 
 by all the modes of application to shrubs or 
 trees ; even by pieces of the roots ; but the 
 mode usually adopted is by cuttings for con- 
 
THE STBAWDEnuv.] I'KACTICE OF 11 OUTI CULTUKE. [the cnA^JBKuuY. 
 
 tinuing varieties, and that by seeds for procur- 
 ing them. 
 
 Tilt: RASPUIilRRY. 
 
 This is a imtivo of Britain, and ia vitv often 
 found in woods where the situation ia low and 
 uioist. The fruit ia grateful ; but sugar used 
 with it heightens the llavour, which helps to 
 make it much esteemed when niado into sweet- 
 meats, jams, tarts, and sauces. The best 
 varieties are the Eed Antwerp, Yellow Aut- 
 vrerp, Baruet, Cornish, Ked Globe, Belle 
 de Fontenay, Coxe's Honey, Kiver's Large- 
 fruited Monthly, Eoger's Victoria, Prauconia, 
 White Monarch, White Globe, and Falstaff; 
 which last is the most profitable. 
 
 In propagating the raspberry, " varieties can 
 be perpetuated by young sucker-shoots, rising 
 pleuteously from the root in spring and sum- 
 mer. When these have completed one season's 
 growth, they are proper to detach with roots 
 for planting, either in the autumn of the same 
 year or the next spring, in February or March, 
 but not later than the middle of April. These 
 new plants will bear some fruit the first year, 
 and furnish a succession of strong bottom 
 shoots for full bearing the second season. 
 New varieties are easily raised from seed ; 
 and they come into bearing the second 
 year." 
 
 THE STRAWBERRY. 
 
 This fragrant, delicious, and universally- 
 esteemed fruit, is a native of temperate or cold 
 climates, such as Europe and America. In the 
 catalogue of the London Horticultural Society, 
 no fewer than 112 varieties are given; but 
 the following are sufficient for any garden, as 
 they are the most worthy of cultivation : — 
 Cuthili's Black Prince, for its early ripening 
 qualities; Grove-end Scarlet, most suitable 
 for preserving, on account of its fine carmine 
 colour ; Elton, on account of its late ripening ; 
 British Queen ; jNIyatt's Pine ; Deptford Pine ; 
 Eleanor; Ingram's Prince of Wales; Keen's 
 Seedling; Princess Eoyal ; Princess Alice 
 Maud ; Trollop's Victoria ; Nicholson's Ajax ; 
 White and Ked Alpine; Sir Harry Myatt's 
 Mammoth ; Large Plat Hautbois, and Comte 
 de Paris. 
 
 Scientific gardeners have difierent modes of 
 growing the strawberry ; and among these we 
 G a 
 
 believe that the experiments of Mr. Cuthill, of 
 Cuinberwell, have been very eucoeHHful. The 
 present writer has been shown, by tliia exoellciifc 
 grower, numerous medals preaeuted to hun aa 
 prizes, for the various varieties he has produced 
 by his judicious mode of cultivating this fruit. 
 '* The plants multiply spontaneously every sum- 
 mer, aa well by suckers from the parent btein aa 
 by the numerous runners, all of which rooting 
 and forming a plant at every joint, n cpiire only 
 removal to a bed where there is room for theia 
 to fiourish. Each of these, separately planted, 
 bears a fine fruit the following season, and 
 will bear in full perfection the second summer. 
 A plantation of the Alpine yields fruit the same 
 year that it is made. The wood and the al- 
 pine come quite true from seed, and bring a 
 finer fruit than from offsets. Tlie other species 
 are uniformly propagated by oflsets, except the 
 intention be to try for new varieties." 
 
 In reference to the soil and site most suit- 
 able for strawberries, Neill says that they are 
 generally placed in a compartment of the 
 garden by themselves, and it should be one 
 which is freely exposed to sun and air. They 
 are sometimes, however, planted in single 
 rows, as edgings to borders ; and in this way 
 they often produce great crops. In either 
 case, care must be taken to re-plant them 
 every fourth or fifth year at the furthest. The 
 alpine and wood species may be placed in 
 situations rather cool and shady ; perhaps as 
 an edging in the shrubbery. In such places 
 they produce their fruit perfectly well, and 
 late in the season, which is desh-able. 
 
 THE CRANBERRY. 
 
 This plant is a native of North America, 
 
 and was known to Miller, who, of the tribe in 
 
 general, says—" They can only be cultivated 
 
 for curiosity in gardens, for they will not 
 
 thrive much, nor produce fruit out of their 
 
 native swamps and bogs." The culture of 
 
 ' the cranberry, however, need not now be 
 
 confined to swamps and bogs. Salisbury 
 
 says that it may be cultivated very suc- 
 
 cessfully in situations not positively wet, if 
 
 ' only planted in bog earth, which retains its 
 
 ' moisture longer than any other soil. Hallet 
 
 I found both the cranberry and the bilberry to 
 
 succeed perfectly in a dry bed of peat earth ; 
 
 1 80 tiiat it may be cultivated in any garden 
 
 UGI 
 
THE WALNUT.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [the chestnut. 
 
 where that kind of soil exists, or can be pro- 
 cured. 
 
 THE ALMOND TREE. 
 This is a native of China, and may be 
 noticed here, although its importance as a 
 fruit tree in this country is very little. Every 
 good garden, however, should contain a tree or 
 two as standards. In very fine seasons they 
 will yield a crop; and in spring they are 
 always ornamental, from the beauty of their 
 blossoms. The sorts most worthy of notice, 
 are the Tender-shelled Sweet Almond, or 
 Jordan ; aud the Common Almond, or Bitter. 
 The tree is generally budded on seedlings of 
 its own kind ; but, for heavy soils, plum-stocks 
 are preferable. 
 
 THE HAZEL-NUT. 
 
 Of nuts the hazel is indigenous to this 
 country, and is the original parent of the Red 
 and White Filbert, the Cob-nut, Cosford-nut, 
 Frizzled, Spanish, and other improved varieties. 
 The whole of these thrive best in a rich dry 
 loam, carefully worked, and receiving from 
 time to time a slight application of manure. 
 It is the usual practice to plant them in slip ; 
 but they succeed best by themselves in an 
 open quarter. The mode of pi-opagating them 
 is by suckers or layers ; and where there 
 are stocks of the common hazel, the other 
 sorts may be grafted upon them. Preference is 
 generally given to the Cosford, on account of 
 the thinness of its shell, and its possessing a 
 kernel of high flavour. If the Filbert or 
 Cosford be grafted on small stocks of the 
 Spanish nut, which grows fast, and does not 
 throw out side suckers, small yet fruitful 
 trees may be obtained. By pruning the 
 roots in autumn the trees may be kept in a 
 dwarfish state. 
 
 THE WALNUT. 
 The tree which produces the walnut is 
 originally from Persia, or the south of Cau- 
 casus ; it does not, therefore, arrive at com- 
 plete maturity in this island, except in the 
 warmer districts. The common walnut is 
 well known ; but, besides it, there are several 
 cultivated varieties, which are held in much 
 esteem. These are the Large-fruited, or 
 Double Walnut ; the Tender-shelled ; aud the 
 962 
 
 Thetford, or Highflyer. This last is by far 
 the best walnut grown. It is only by budding 
 that the varieties can be propagated with 
 certainty ; but this operation being rather 
 delicate, frequently does not succeed. Upon 
 this subject, that great gardener, Knight, 
 observes — "The buds of trees, of almost 
 every species, succeed with most certainty 
 when inserted in the shoots of the same year's 
 growth ; but the walnut tree appears to afibrd 
 an exception ; possibly, in some measure, 
 because its buds contain within themselves, 
 in the spring, all the leaves which the tree 
 bears in the following summer, whence its 
 annual shoots wholly cease to elongate soon 
 after its buds unfold : all its buds of each 
 season are also, consequently, very weedy of 
 the same age ; and long before they have 
 acquired the proper degree of maturity for 
 being removed, the annual branches have 
 ceased to grow longer or to produce new 
 foliage." Notwithstanding many difficulties 
 with which Mr. Knight had to contend, he at 
 length succeeded in propagating the walnut 
 tree by budding ; but, as we have said, it is a 
 very nice operation. The tree has generally 
 been propagated by the nut ; and this mode is 
 recommended both by Miller and Forsyth; 
 probably, Mr. Loudon thinks, from their not 
 having known that the tree may be continued 
 by inoculation, as successfully practised by 
 Knight. 
 
 THE CHESTNUT. 
 
 Some of the oldest trees in the world belong: 
 to this species, which is supposed to have 
 been originally brought from Sardis, in 
 Italy, by Tiberius Caesar. It is so common 
 there, as well as in France, as to be considered 
 native to the soils of each country. Some 
 consider it to have been naturalised in Eng- 
 land; but, however this may be, it is well 
 known to have been long an inmate of our 
 forests. Several varieties have obtained cele- 
 brity, especially Knight's Prolific, the New 
 Prolific, and the Devonshire. These are 
 propagated by grafting upon stocks raised 
 from nuts ; and when grafts are taken from 
 bearing-wood, fruit may be produced in a 
 couple of years. It is on a dry sub-soil that 
 the tree succeeds best. 
 
roncivo.] 
 
 riiACTicE OK iioK'Pirri/ruRE. 
 
 [llEBTlNO. 
 
 CUAlTKll VIL 
 
 yoRriNO ; rf.stint. ; r.riT.nixo ok ikit-iidisks ; Ari'LK'ATiuN of autikicial iikat; roxsTiircTiON of 
 builkr; dikkkkknt mopks ok ukatinc; scikntikio instkimknts ; 8olaii hkat; lkmit axu 
 
 AlK ; TMK VIXKKY ; TllK I'EACU- UOL .sK ; TllK FlU-llOlHK ; THE Cll KltKY-HOlSB ; THE I'ISKKY ; TUB 
 MELOMiY : TUE CUCl'MUEU. 
 
 FORCING. 
 
 Ix tlio science of horticulture, the term 
 forcing si>j;nified the art of raising, by artificial 
 heat, plants", flowers, and fruits at an earlier 
 season than that to which nature has assigned 
 them. To what nation or people we are 
 indebted for the discovery of this art, we 
 
 believe no one has yet shown ; at all events, ' dition in which it cannot grow. This ia 
 it could not have been made in those Oriental , analogous to its winter state. In reference to 
 
 land, she, as a lady moving in the highe»t 
 circles, must have frequently beea regaled 
 w ith tlicm ut the tables of tlie gruut. 
 
 RESTING. 
 
 As there is a forcing system in the science 
 of horticulture, so is there a resting syhtem, 
 which consists in exposing a plant to a con- 
 
 countries where the genial warmth of the 
 climate is such as to produce two or three 
 harvests within the year, and to furnish, spon- 
 taneously, successions of the finest fruits and 
 vegetables known to man. It must, there- 
 fore, have been made in some of the nations 
 of Europe where the climate is always more 
 or less variable and uncertain. From Martial 
 we learn that the Eomans were acquainted 
 with the use of hot-houses ; but whence they 
 borrowed the idea of their uses and structure 
 nowhere appears. Tiberius Caesar, being fond 
 of cucumbers, erected houses in his garden, 
 and had them heated by means of stoves 
 throughout the year. Pliny informs us that 
 they were grown in boxes, which were, in fine 
 weather, wheeled out into the open air, and 
 returned to their artificial abodes in the nights 
 or in cold weather. "With the construction of 
 flues the Romans were well acquainted, so 
 they possessed the knowledge of the means of 
 heating the houses constructed for the arti- 
 ficial ripening of their fruits and vegetables. 
 In England, hot-houses for the growing of 
 pUies do not seem to have been known in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century. We 
 infer this from the fact, that Lady Mary 
 Wortley Montague, on her journey to Con- 
 stantinople, in 171G, makes the remark of 
 pine-apples having been served to table in the 
 dessert, at the Elector of Hanover's — a cir- 
 cumstance she had neither seen nor heard of 
 before. Had pines been then raised in Eng- 
 
 what relates to forcing, this is a very important 
 point for consideration. " If we look over the 
 diirerent climates of the world," says the 
 author of the Theory of Horticulture, "we 
 sliall find that in each there are a season of 
 growth, and a season in which vegetation is 
 more or less suspended ; and that these 
 periodically alternate with the same regu- 
 larity as our summer and winter. I do not 
 know that there is in nature any exception to 
 this rule ; for even in the Tierra Tempeleda of 
 Mexico, where it is said that, at the height of 
 4,000 or 5,000 feet, there constantly reigns the 
 genial climate of spring, which does not vary 
 more than 8^ or 0° — intense heat and excessive 
 cold being alike unknown, and the mean 
 temperature varying from G8^ to 70° — we 
 cannot suppose that even in that favoured 
 region a season of repose is wanting ; for it is 
 diflicult to conceive how plants can exist, any 
 more than animals, in a state of incessant 
 excitement. Indeed, it is pretty evident that 
 these countries have a period when vegetation 
 ceases; for Xalefra belongs to the Tierra 
 Tempeleda ; and we know that Ipomosa 
 Purga, an inhabitant of its woods, dies down 
 annually, like our own Couvolvuli.^ We also 
 know that jonquils, hyacinths, and tulips, 
 when grown in the Bahamas, where they are 
 unable to take the rest which is natural to 
 them, refuse to flower." The author goes on 
 to say, that, although plants have naturally a 
 season of repose, their winter is not, in all 
 
 0G3 
 
nOT-HOUSES.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [nOT-ilOUSES. 
 
 cases, cold. In the tropics it is marked by 
 coolness and dryness, while the summer is 
 rainy and very hot; and in extra-tropical 
 countries the two seasons vary in their cha- 
 racter, in accordance with latitude and local 
 circumstances. 
 
 The above is sufficient to lead to the 
 conclusion, that "the natural resting of plants 
 from growth is a most important phenomenon 
 of universal occurrence, and that it takes 
 place equally in the hottest and the coldest 
 regions. It is, therefore, a condition neces- 
 sary to the well-being of a plant, not to be 
 overlooked nnder any circumstances whatever ; 
 and there cannot be any really good gardening 
 where this is not attended to in the manage- 
 ment of plants under glass. Rest is effected 
 in one of two ways — either by a very con- 
 siderable lowering of temperature, or by a 
 degree of dryness under which vegetation 
 cannot be sustained." 
 
 BUILDING OF HOT-HOUSES. 
 It is not necessary that we should recapi- 
 tulate here what has already been written by 
 many authors on this subject : it may be re- 
 marked, however, that the improvements in the 
 construction of hot-houses have by no means 
 kept pace with those which have, within these 
 few years, taken place in other departments 
 of gardening. In the Annals of Horticul- 
 ture, a writer observes — " There is yet much 
 which remains to be realised in the erec- 
 tion of bouses for the cultivation of plants, 
 not only as regards their number and di- 
 mensions, but also their arrangement and 
 details. We seldom see more than the same 
 kind of flat lean-to or span roofs ; the same 
 kind of formal stages where the plants are 
 grown in pots ; and the same kind of formal 
 beds when the latter are planted out in 
 borders of prepared soil. Even refinements 
 or elegancies of construction fail to invest 
 Buch buildings with any character of distinct- 
 ness or novelty, owing to the sameness or 
 monotony which forms the basis of the de- 
 sign." Since this was written, however, there 
 have been improvements in the construction of 
 hot-houses. This has, perhaps, been more 
 especially the case in regard to the roofs. 
 Among these, the ridge-and-furrow form, as it 
 is called, may be considered the greatest It 
 904 
 
 was, in 1816, first suggested by the late Mr. 
 Loudon, and afterwards admirably worked 
 out by the late Sir Joseph Paxtou, in the 
 large house at Chatsworth and elsewhere ; but 
 more recently in covering in nearly twenty 
 acres of ground for the Exhibition in Hyde 
 Park. This, at the time, was the largest 
 building ever constructed of timber, iron, and 
 glass ; and showed, with the most perfect 
 clearness, the possibility of extending the 
 same description of pillared covering over any 
 space, however extensive. 
 
 In discussing the merits of this subject in 
 his Book of the Garden, Mr. C. Mackintosh says, 
 that " the greatest advantage of a ridge-and- 
 furrow roof is, that any extent of area may be 
 covered without internal walls. Indeed, no 
 walls whatever are required, as the sides and 
 ends may be glass close to the ground— the 
 whole being supported on cast-iron tubular 
 columns, with cast-iron valleys, or gutters. 
 A good idea of the effect and practicability of 
 roofing over a whole garden, may be obtained 
 by a careful examination of some of our 
 most extensive raijway stations — that at 
 Derby, for example, which, we believe, could 
 be extended over a hundred acr5*s, if re- 
 quired." 
 
 We do not wish to enlarge upon this sub- 
 ject ; but it may not be amiss to give, in 
 Sir Joseph Paxton's own language, an ex- 
 planation of the principles of this improved 
 sort of roof. In a lecture which he delivered 
 before the Society of Arts, in London, he 
 says — " In the construction of glass- houses 
 requiring much light, there always appeared to 
 me to be one important objection. In the plain 
 lean-to or shed roofs, the morning and evening 
 sun — which is, on many accounts, of the 
 greatest importance to forcing fruits — pre- 
 sented its direct rays at a low angle, and, 
 consequently, very obliquely to the glass. 
 As, at those periods, most of the rays of light 
 and heat were obstructed by the position of 
 the glass and the heavy rafters, so that a con- 
 siderable portion of time was lost both 
 evening and morning, it consequently became 
 evident that a system by wliich the glass 
 would be more at riglit angles to the morning 
 and evening rays of the sun, would obviate 
 the difficulty, and remove the obstruction of 
 the rays of light entering the house at uu 
 
AnriFicrAL HEAT.] PKACTICE OF HORTICULTURE. [autificial iilvt. 
 
 early and lato hour of the day." By this 
 imule of reasoiiiiif?, 8u^'<;estt'd by close obser- 
 vation, ho was k-d to adopt tlie ridgo-aud- 
 furrow priiu'iple for glass roofs*, which phjccs 
 
 gen and carbon — all of which ore extremely 
 
 injurious, not only to vegctablp, but to animal 
 life— it need excite no Burpritio that tlio pre- 
 ference has been given to steam over smoke, 
 
 the glass in such a position, that tlio rays of in the heating of the forcing-house. Besidcn, 
 liflht in the mornings and evenings enter the bricks usually employc"d in constructing 
 
 the structure without " let or hirulrance," and 
 present themselves more perpendicularly to 
 the glass at those periods when they are least 
 powerful ; whereas, at mid-day, when they arc 
 most powerful, they present themselves more 
 obliquely to it. 
 
 APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL HEAT. 
 Hot or forcing-houses are .'loated by dif- 
 ferent means, and in various ways. The 
 means are hy JIiics and ivpcs ; and the ways 
 are in allowing the former to convey both 
 emoke and air through the building ; and the 
 latter to conduct steam or hot water in any 
 given direction. The other means are by 
 constructing the forcing-house in such a man- 
 ner as will enable the calorific action of the 
 Bun's rays to be increased ; and, occasionally, 
 by the heat wliich is produced by the process 
 of fermentation of vegetable substances : this 
 mode, however, is rapidly disappearing from 
 amongst us. The smoke-flue is now pretty 
 generally abandoned for the hot-water pipe, 
 which possesses many advantages over the 
 former. In the first, it is more lasting ; in 
 the second, it requires much less space ; in 
 the third, it admits of being placed in situa- 
 tions where the flue could not be placed; in 
 the fourth, it yields a more uniform heat ; in 
 the fifth, it can rarely be over-heated — a 
 great matter in a forcing-house ; in the sixth, 
 it is much more cleanly and elegant ; and, in 
 the seventh, it seldom gets into such a state 
 of disrepair as to require mending. On the 
 other hand, the flue is liable to burst by ex- 
 plosion from the ignition of the inflammable 
 gases generated within. This, of itself, is con- 
 demnatory to the flue ; and although the pipe is 
 more costly than the flue at its first erection, it 
 has usually been found the cheapest in the end. 
 It must be remembered that noxious gases 
 cannot be prevented from entering the struc- 
 ture, be the flue ever so well built; and when 
 it is considered that these gases consist of 
 sulphurated, phosphorated, and carburated 
 hydrogen, besides various comparts of uitro- 
 
 tho flues, have, from the softneas of their 
 texture, the power of withdrawing from the 
 air of the house much of the moisture ne- 
 cessary for the health of the plants— a power 
 which the hot-water pipe, being unabsorbent, 
 does not possess. Upon this subject, the 
 Book of the Garden thus delivers its opinion 
 — •* Heating by hot water is, undoubtedly, the 
 most wholesome form yet adopted ; and, in its 
 various modifications, it may be applied to all 
 kinds of structures. The temperature it 
 produces is uniform and moderate when 
 compared with hot-air stoves, flues, or steam. 
 There arc a 'icw cases, however, which should 
 be noticed, where heating by hot water would 
 be attended with more expense than is ne- 
 cessary; and these are small green-houses and 
 nurserymen's plant-liouses, where only half- 
 hardy plants are kept, and where a well-con- 
 structed flue can be introduced without occu- 
 pying much space. These only require heat 
 suflicient to exclude frost; and they miglit be 
 heated by an Arnott's, White's, or other 
 stove, placed outside the building. In ordinary 
 winters, it might not be necessary to use the 
 stove above a dozen times ; and as frost, in 
 general, sets in pretty suddenly, these houses 
 would, by such means, be heated in less time 
 than by a hot-water boiler and pipe." 
 
 The length into which a complete considera- 
 tion of this subject alone would lead us, 
 would occupy more than the space allotted to 
 us for the treatment of horticulture in this 
 work : we must, therefore, content ourselves by 
 referring the reader to the numerous systems 
 which he will find explained, and illustrated 
 by diagrams, in the Book of the Garden, by 
 Mr. Charles Mackintosh. After all that has 
 been said, written, and practically carried out 
 in this matter, it would appear that we have 
 still to be supplied with a proper heating 
 apparatus for the forcing-house. In an excel- 
 lent paper read by John Rogers, Esq., before 
 the Horticultural Society of London, we find 
 him declaring this fact. After alluding to 
 the many and various modes which have been 
 
 965 
 
THE BOILER.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTURE. 
 
 [heating. 
 
 adopted for heating forcing-houses, and ac- 
 knowledging the decided superiority of the hot- 
 water system over all other methods, he states 
 that the saving of fuel is equal to 25 per cent, 
 in well-arranged hot-water apparatuses, over 
 flues, however well arranged or well managed 
 they may be. He, however, at the same time, 
 observes that many of the modes, even at pre- 
 sent in use, are so defective, that they actually 
 consume a greater amount of fuel than ordi- 
 nary furnaces : he then adds that " this remark 
 applies not merely to the earlier apparatus, 
 when the power was inadequate to the work 
 required, but even to the best-constructed 
 modern ones; and the waste of fuel arises 
 from a misunderstanding of the nature of a 
 hot-water apparatus, and from an attempt to 
 make it do that which, if it be properly con- 
 structed, it is impossible that it should do." 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOILER. 
 
 Almost every variety of form has been sug- 
 gested, and even practically carried out, in 
 the construction of the boiler designed to heat 
 water for the forcing-house. As a matter of 
 course, many of these are of no value what- 
 ever; but in the Gardener's Magazine we find 
 the rationale of the process of heating the 
 conical boiler, invented by Mr. Rogers, of 
 Sevenoaks, Kent, thus given : — " As fuel 
 cannot be consumed without air, if a furnace 
 be constructed of considerable depth, and filled 
 with fuel, and air be admitted only at the 
 bottom, that fuel alone is consumed which lies 
 immediately on the bars, and first receives the 
 draught of air. The fuel above, provided it 
 transmits the air, becomes red-hot, or nearly 
 so ; but does not consume until that below it 
 is destroyed. In this manner, one of these 
 conical furnaces being lighted and filled with 
 fuel, that portion in the upper part of the 
 furnace which cannot burn, absorbs the heat 
 ot the burning fuel below, and radiates or 
 transmits it to the water on every side. So 
 perfect is this absorption of heat, that for 
 several hours after the furnace has been filled 
 up with cinders, though there may be a fierce 
 fire below, little or no heat escapes up the 
 chimney— the whole being taken up by the 
 surrounding water. The economy, tlierefore, 
 of fuel in such an apparatus is very great. 
 It ia evident that excess of draught must be 
 9GG 
 
 carefully guarded against, so much only being 
 allowed as will consume the fuel steadily ; 
 but this is easily learned by experience. The 
 necessity, also, of keeping the aperture in 
 front close, so that air enters the furnace 
 only through the ash-pit, is, hence, evident. 
 The water is (then) in close and immediate 
 contact with the red-hot fuel on all sides, no 
 black, smoking coals intervening, as in most 
 kinds of boilers ; hence the great power in 
 proportion to size." In commenting upon 
 these boilers, another writer says, that the 
 economy in fuel is not their chief advantage ; 
 their great recommendation being a long and 
 steady heat. When properly managed, this 
 heat may be relied upon from fifteen to 
 twenty consecutive hours. Tbey have been 
 successfully applied to all kinds of hot-houses ; 
 but for pits they are eminently useful, from 
 the limited space they occupy. "When fired 
 with coke, gas-cinders, or anthracite, they 
 give off very little smoke. 
 
 DIFFERENT MODES OF HEATING. 
 
 An ingenious method of heating has been 
 exhibited by Mr. Fowler, in a tract written 
 on an instrument which he terms the ther- 
 mosyphon. By this contrivance, he shows 
 how walls, as well as glass-houses, may be 
 heated. He says, that any one may prove 
 that hot water will circulate in a syphon, by 
 taking a piece of lead pipe, say of half an inch 
 in bore, and four or five feet long, bending it 
 like a syphon ; but one leg a good deal more 
 bent than the other, in order to give the 
 descending water time and space for giving 
 out its heat ; and then filling this tube with 
 water, and placing one hand on each end to 
 retain it full, immerse the extremities in a pot 
 of water over a fire. Supposing the water of 
 a uniform temperature in both legs of the 
 syphon, no circulation would take place ; but 
 supposing it to cool sooner in the long leg 
 than in the short one, then the equilibrium 
 would be destroyed, and the water in the long 
 leg would descend and draw up water through 
 the short leg. This circulation would continue 
 as long as the water was preserved at a tem- 
 perature above that of the surrounding atmo- 
 sphere. 
 
 Another invention is Mr. Kewley's adapta- 
 tion of the syphon to heating purposes. 
 
HEATING.] 
 
 PRACTICE OP nORTICULTUEB. 
 
 [iNBTttUMBNTS. 
 
 Mr. Perkins constructed an apparatus con- 
 sisting of BUiall tubes, bernietically sealoci, in 
 which water circulated at a tennierature vary- 
 ing from .'^OO^ to •100'' Fahrenheit. This in- 
 vention, however, ia uusiiitablo for horticul- 
 tural purposes. 
 
 Be.-*ides these, there is a mode of heating, 
 applied by Mr. Ivendlc, of Dynioutli, in wliich 
 tanks, in place of gutters or pipes, are em- 
 ployed, and which is designed to be adapted 
 to the purposes of both surface and bottom 
 heating. These tanks are built of brick or 
 stone, or made of cast-iron or wood. AVlien 
 made of wood, the planks require to be good 
 and sound, not less than a couple of inches 
 thick, well jointed ; and they are usually 
 covered with slates. If they are built of brick 
 or stone, the inside should be clothed with a 
 thick coating of Soman cement ; and their 
 covers should consist of slate, stone, or brick 
 pavement. The cast-iron tanks have covers 
 of the same materials. In describing this 
 mode of heating, a writer observes, that 
 " when only one tank is fitted up in a house or 
 pit, a division is made along the centre, 
 leaving an opening at the end furthest from 
 the boiler for the water to flow through ; the 
 hot water, or flow-pipe from the boiler, being 
 fixed to the end of the tank on one side of 
 the division ; and the cold water, or return 
 pipe to the boiler, being fixed to the end on 
 the opposite end of the division. When two 
 tanks are used, they are joined to the flow and 
 return pipes respectively, and united at the 
 extreme ends. In pits, the tanks may be 
 carried round the sides and ends of the pit, 
 with a division between the flow and return 
 pipe." It would appear that the advantage 
 to be gained by this plan of heating, consists 
 in its adaptation to the production of bottom 
 heat. It is necessary, however, that pro- 
 vision should be made for preventing no more 
 of the steam or vapour rising from the hot 
 water (into the house) than is required. If 
 this precaution be not adopted, there will be 
 too much damp, in the winter season, for the 
 proper growth or preservation of the plants. 
 
 In closing this important branch of our sub- 
 ject, it should be remarked that, in the 
 management of artificial heat, it is necessary 
 to exercise a considerable degree of care. All 
 the operations of nature being in opposition 
 
 to those of artificial force, and being gradual, 
 tho best plan is to follow theni. Tlie skil- 
 ful horticulturist will, connequently, apply 
 his heat, ut lir.st, very gradually. Ho will, 
 for several weeks, slowly increase it by de- 
 grees ; and, ospeciully, ho will watch tliat 
 no sudden decrease of warmth occurs, as 
 nothing more certaiidy insures buccchh, tiiaa 
 that tho course of vegetation bo continued unin- 
 terruptedly through foliation, inflorescence, 
 and I'ructification. Ho will make tho tem- 
 perature increase by day, and decrease by 
 night ; to rise in summer, and to fall in 
 winter. In short, the operations of tho sun 
 shall bo his guide : by its natural and vary- 
 ing influence ho shall be ruled. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Tho scientific instruments absolutely ne- 
 cessary to the horticulturist, are a Fahrenheit 
 thermometer, which is not only an indispen- 
 sability in the forcing-house, but is required 
 in almost every department of his professional 
 practice. Six's registering thermometer ia 
 also a convenient instrument for ascertaining 
 the extremes of the temperatures of night and 
 day. Besides the thermometer, the hygro- 
 meter is very necessary to the hot-house, as it 
 measures the quality of elastic vapour in the 
 atmosphere ; and thus enables us to ascertain 
 the degrees of its humidity. In the Theory of 
 Horticulture, it is observed, that " skilful 
 balancing of temperature and moisture in the 
 air, and a just adaptation of them to the 
 various seasons of growth, constitute the most 
 complicated and diflicult part of a gardener's 
 art. An excess of dampness is indispensable 
 to plants in a state of rapid growth, partly 
 because it prevents the action of perspiration 
 from becoming too violent, and partly because, 
 under such circumstances, a considerable 
 quantity of aqueous food is absorbed from 
 the atmosphere, in addition to that obtained 
 by the roots. But it is essential to observe, 
 that when not in a state of rapid growth, a 
 largo amount of moisture in the air will be 
 prejudicial rather than advantageous to a 
 plant ; and if the temperature is, at the same 
 time, high, excitability will remain in a state 
 of continued action, and that rest which is 
 necessary will be withheld; the result of 
 
 967 
 
LIGHT ATTD AIE.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUR]^. [light and aie. 
 
 wliich will be an eventual destruction of the 
 vital energies. But, on the other hand, if the 
 temperature is kept low, while the amount of 
 atmospheric moisture is considerable, the 
 latter is absorbed without it being possible for 
 the plant to decompose it." 
 
 SOLAR HEAT. 
 
 Perhaps it might be deemed an omission 
 if we did not take notice of the solar rays, 
 being a species of artificial heat, when re» 
 fleeted from other surfaces. Mr, Mackintosh, 
 referring to this subject, says — " This species 
 of heat is materially affected by the admission 
 of the air necessary to the growth and healthy 
 st^te of the plants. Solar heat, if properly 
 regulated by ventilation, is of immense im- 
 portance in the ripening of many of our finer 
 fruits. In the orchard-houses, brought into 
 notice by Mr. Eivers, fruits are ripened by 
 the influence of solar heat alone. The idea is, 
 however, by no means new. We have known 
 many glass-houses in which peaches and grapes 
 have ripened in the greatest perfection, with- 
 out any other heat than that of the sun. 
 . . . . The management of the tempera- 
 ture consists solely in the proper regulation ol 
 the ventilators, securing as much solar heat 
 during the day as possible, ventilating early 
 in the morning, and shutting up early in the 
 afternoon." 
 
 LIGHT AND AIR. 
 
 Whatever may have been the nature of the 
 experiments of natural philosophers in investi- 
 gating the laws of light, and the eflect which 
 the ditFerent coloured rays produce upon the 
 vegetable kingdom, the conclusion arrived at 
 by Mr. Lindley is, that the white light which 
 is natural to plants, is, therefore, the one best 
 adapted to their constitution. Mr. Hunt, 
 who has given much patience to experimenting 
 upon this subject, has still, according to Mr. 
 Lindley, failed in arriving at any valuable 
 practical results in his investigations. " No 
 advantage seems to have resulted from glazing 
 the great palm-house, at Kew, with green 
 glass, of a tint selected by Mr. Hunt himself." 
 In the Tkeonj of Horticulture, it is stated, 
 that "when a leaf ia exposed to the direct 
 influence of the sun, it gives ofi" oxygen by 
 decomposing the carbonic acid; whereupon 
 1)U8 
 
 the carbon remains behind, in the interior of 
 the leaf, in a solid state. In the total absence 
 of solar light, there is little or no extrication 
 of gaseous matter ; and what little is given off 
 will be found to be carbonic acid, which plants 
 exhale at all times in small quantities : oxygen, 
 however, which was before expelled, is inhaled. 
 Hence plants decompose carbonic acid during 
 the day, and acquire it again during the night ; 
 and during the healthy state of a plant, the 
 decomposition of this gaseous matter by day, 
 and its recovery by night, is perpetually going 
 on. The quantity of carbonic acid decom- 
 posed is in proportion to the intensity of light 
 which strikes a leaf, the smallest amount 
 being in shady places ; and the healthfulnes8 
 of a plant is, cceteris paribus, in proportion to 
 the quantity of carbonic acid decomposed ; 
 therefore, the liealtliiness of a plant sliould be 
 in proportion to tJie quantity of light it receives 
 by day." In times when the science of horti- 
 culture was less advanced, no great degree of 
 attention was paid to the form of the roofs of 
 those houses in which plants were artificially- 
 raised. Now, however, the minutest circum- 
 stances enter into the calculations of the 
 scientific gardener. That the greatest pos- 
 sible influx of light might be secured. Sir 
 George Mackenzie proposed hot-houses with 
 curvilinear roofs ; for he thought that " if we 
 could find a form for a glass roof, such that 
 the sun's rays should be perpendicular to some 
 part of it, not on two days, but during the 
 whole year, that form would be the best." 
 Such a form is the sphere ; accordingly, this 
 shape of structure has been, by some, warmly 
 advocated. But, however this may have been, 
 the span and ridge-and-furrow roofs are now 
 the prevailing forms ; and any form is better 
 than that of the lean-to, both for the con- 
 venience of internal arrangement as well as 
 efl'ect. 
 
 As the natural element of plants is the open 
 atmosphere, where they are constantly sur- 
 rounded with air in a state of continual 
 motion, to arrive as nearly as possible at the 
 circumstances of their natural conditions in 
 the climates to which they belong, ought to 
 be the aim of the gardener. " The atmo- 
 sphere is the proper pasture of plants," says 
 Dr. Lindley ; " and its ever- varying density is 
 a natural phenomenon, most intimately con- 
 
THE VINEIIT.J 
 
 PKArriCE OF IIOKTlcn/rURR 
 
 [the VlNEllT. 
 
 M'l'ti'd with the maiiit(Minnco of vegetable 
 lifulth. It ia a beaut ilul compensation for 
 tlieir want of locomoLion ; aa planta cannot 
 move to tlio atnioaphere, the atmosphere ia 
 fVtT nioviii},' towarJa them. It ia therefore 
 certain, without imiuiring into the exact 
 philosophy of the matter, that free aceesa of 
 abundant air must bo secured if the hi-allh of 
 phuita in ghiss-houses ia to equal that in the 
 opi'U air." To remedy the defecta felt to 
 exist iu the former modea of ventilation, wliat 
 is termed aeration, or subterranean ventilation, 
 liua now been adopted. The mode in which 
 tiiis is efifected is by introducing supplies ot 
 fresh air tiirough tubea or drains, placed at a 
 distance of several feet uuder the surface of 
 the borders, and having one end opening into 
 the open air, while tlie other opens through 
 various parts of the floor or border, and often, 
 very properly, under the hot-water pipes. By 
 this means fresh air is admitted, at almost the 
 same temperature as that of the air close to 
 the front of the house, and also charged with 
 the moisture which it receives iu passing 
 through the damp pipes or drains. As plants, 
 like animals, cannot long exist without their 
 necessary supply of air, whether by night or 
 by day, when it is admitted iu this manner, it 
 may often be allowed to act beneficially during 
 the hours of natural darkness, as well as those 
 of natural light. 
 
 THE VINERY. 
 
 The vinery admits of almost every variety 
 of structural form ; for, of all the fruit trees 
 cultivated under glass, the vine is the one 
 which entails the least trouble upon its 
 growers. If the design be to bring the crop 
 to maturity chiefly by the natural heat of the 
 sun, or by this alone, then the vinery may 
 have any form, provided the trees are trained 
 near the glass. If the crop is designed to 
 ripen in July, it is recommended by Knight 
 that the roof be at an angle of 35°; but both 
 Miller and "Wilkinson recommend an angle of 
 45°, which is the slope most generally adopted 
 for both grapes and peaches. The angle of 
 inclination in glass-work is not, however, of 
 the very highest importance. Abercrombie 
 says that the diagonal side of a glass case, de- 
 signed for a short periodical course of forcing, 
 beginning on the 21st of December, may be 
 G H 
 
 55°; 22nd of January, 50" ; 2lBt o( February, 
 4(3°; 21»t of Mnrch, Vi". If the front and 
 back wall of a vinery iiavo ehuttera for venti- 
 lation, ita roof may bo fixed. The comraon 
 trellia ia a.s good as any for training vines. 
 
 In reference to the pruning and training of 
 the vine, every h()rticultMri.>'t of eminence 
 entertains an opinion of hia own. It would, 
 therefore, bo tlie next thing to an impossibility 
 for ua to reca[)itulato even the half of what 
 haa been written upon this subject. MePhail, 
 however, saya, that " to liavo good crops of 
 grapes, much more depends on the soil they 
 are planted in, and the climate in which they 
 are kept, than on any methoda of pruning 
 and training that have been, or ever can bo 
 adopted." Mr. Loudon coincides with this 
 remark ; but, according to a high authority, 
 the great object ia "the reproduction of bear- 
 ing ; that is, annual wood over every portion 
 of tiie house. When this ia accomplished, 
 the next matter to be determined ia the 
 number of eyes or buds to be left on each 
 shoot ; that is, whether we shall adopt the 
 sJiort or the lojig system of pruning. Tbe 
 former is most allied to the practice of foreign 
 vineyards, and has been most successfully em- 
 ployed in this country. According to this 
 system all the lateral shoots are cut down to 
 single eyes. The other it is unnecessary to 
 describe." In estimating the merits of the 
 diflerent modes, however, Mr. Lindley says — 
 "As the ultimate object of every metliod of 
 pruning and trainiiig must be supposed to be 
 the obtaining a large crop of good fruit, it is 
 material to consider how and by what means 
 this is to be ellected ; and whether it ia de- 
 sirable to grow a large number of bunches or 
 a number of large bunches ; the weight of the 
 whole of each being the same. 1 have myself 
 ever been an advocate for large fruit, or the 
 largest size to which any particular fruit 
 usually attains ; being fully satisfied that the 
 value of fruit is more to be estimated by its 
 individual bulk or weight, than by the number 
 of individuals composing that weight. I mav 
 illustrate this by taking, for exainjde, any 
 variety of either the grape or of any other 
 fruit. For example, let the Muscat of Alex- 
 andria, the Black Uamburgh, or, indeed, any 
 other sort, be selected, and compare fifty 
 single berries, of the largest size, with a bun- 
 
 nu9 
 
THE VIXEUT.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE. 
 
 [peach-house. 
 
 dred smaller ones, making the same aggregate 
 weight, equally ia a state of maturity, the pre- 
 ponderance ill the scale of merit will be given, 
 I apprehend, by all competent judges, to the 
 filtv berries instead of the hundred. If, then, 
 we are to consider the maximum of merit to 
 consist in the attainment of the largest- sized 
 fruit, this can be best accomplished by having 
 the vine in a vigorous and flourishing state." 
 This condition is, according to this eminent 
 man, to be attained, provided all other circum- 
 stances are favourable, by the alternate system 
 of fruiting one shoot every year, to be cut 
 down at the winter pruning, for the purpose 
 of furnishing a shoot to succeed it in the fol- 
 lowing year. This is neither more nor less 
 than what McPhail denominates the long or 
 new method of pruning, and what Mr. Speechly 
 called the alternate system. Mr. Loudon 
 agrees with the system advocated by Mr. 
 Liudley. 
 
 As to the soil for a vinery, it ia recom- 
 mended that the front border should be fresh 
 and rich. It should not exceed 2h feet in 
 depth, and should be laid over a vaulted foun- 
 dation, or one rendered perfectly dry by 
 drainage; and all borders of forcing-houses 
 should be elevated in height equal to their 
 depth above the general ground-level. The 
 soil, however, is not of such importance as the 
 obtaining of a dry bottom, which may be 
 secured by using the following ingredients: — 
 Oue-half of good loamy soil with its turf, one 
 quarter of rich old dung, and one quarter of 
 brick and lime rubbish ; the turf well rotted, 
 aud the whole well mixed. Plants raised 
 from eyes, and prepared for two years in pots, 
 are preferable for a vinery ; and when planted 
 inside the house, there ought not to be fewer 
 than two plants to each four feet of space. 
 
 In forcing grapes, the kinds should be as- 
 sorted according to the order in which they 
 ripen. Thus the Muscadines, Chasselas 
 Musque, and Hamburghs, should be planted in 
 a house by themselves, as being the first or 
 earliest in order ; the Prontignans, being of a 
 medium character, may occupy a second ; while 
 the Tokay, the Muscat of Alexandria, Nice, 
 Syrian, Barbarossa, and others would be suit- 
 able for a third. These, if planted in order, 
 Will succeed each other, and keep the table 
 well supplied. 
 \)70 
 
 THE PEACH-HOUSE. 
 
 Peach-houses, constructed in what is known 
 as the lean-to form, and intended to be heated 
 by one furnace, have usually the dimensions 
 of forty feet in length, ten or twelve in width, 
 and a height of forty feet. These, however, 
 may be considerably varied, according to the 
 time at which the crop is desired to be brought 
 into season. Por early forcing, it has been 
 suggested that twenty-five or thirty feet in 
 length, and seven or eight in breadth, are suf- 
 ficient ; whilst a house in which the operations 
 of nature are only to be slightly assisted, may 
 be extended to fifty feet. Por peaches, as for 
 vines, the span-and-ridge and furrowed roofed 
 buildings are equally adapted, as in them the 
 trees can be treated as standards, which is 
 their natural habit. Besides, the fruit obtains 
 a more favourable position, in so far as respects 
 air and light, than it can obtain under any 
 other form of house-training. 
 
 In the forcing-house, the pruning and train- 
 ing of peach trees does not materially differ 
 from the practice followed in the open air. 
 " Pire-heat is commonly applied about the 
 beginning or middle of Pebruary ; but where 
 there is a large suite of houses, and an ex- 
 tended succession is wanted, forcing, as it then 
 truly becomes, may begin a month sooner. 
 At first the temperature is kept at 45° ; but it 
 is afterwards gradually increased to 50° or 
 55° Pahrenheit. While the trees are in flower, 
 and till the fruit be set, the house is occa- 
 sionally steamed by sprinkling water on the 
 warm pipes; but, much belter, by placing 
 shallow troughs of water so as partly to sur- 
 round the lower or returning pipe, the lower 
 pipes being less heated than the upper ones. 
 After this period the foliage is washed, from 
 time to time, with the garden engine. When 
 the fruit has stoned, or the kernels have been 
 formed, the temperature is raised to about 
 G0°." Water is then plentifully supplied 
 to the border, the fruit thinned out, the 
 different operations of disbudding and tying 
 are performed, aud air admitted in abundance. 
 After the end of April little fire is required for 
 the peach-house. 
 
 The best soils for fruit trees, generally, are 
 such as are open and well drained, in order 
 that the air may get freely into the roots. 
 
ClIKlilty-llOUSE.] 
 
 PKACTICE OF iioKTicr i/ri'Ki:. 
 
 [the IMNEllT. 
 
 Loamy Boila are genonilly proferrod for 
 peaches, iioctarinea, apples, ami pears; but 
 light gravelly or eaiuly soils aro euitablo for 
 figs and apricots. Dr. Liiulley saya that tiio 
 reason chopped turf forms the best of all 
 soils for fruit trees, is, that the " roots pene- 
 trate the soil in all directions, forming myriads 
 of fine tubes, which convey air and moisture 
 throu'.;h the whole mass of earth." Tiie beat 
 soil for peaches and nectarines is the turf 
 Irom the loamy soil of an old sheep-walk, or 
 line pasture field, pared off about three inches 
 thick, and roughly chopped. The fresher it is 
 used the better. 
 
 The sorts recommended as the best for 
 forcing, are — Gross Mignonne, Eoyal George, 
 Eoyal Charlotte, Eed Magdalen, and Belle- 
 garde. 
 
 Is£CTABiNE8. — Ebruge, Violet, and Ilative. 
 
 THE FIG-HOUSE. 
 
 For the forcing of figs alone houses are 
 but rarely built, as in most families there is 
 no great demand for this fruit ; and, perhaps, 
 because figs are generally forced in flues or 
 tubes in the peach or cherry-house, and 
 managed in the same manner as the trees of 
 these houses are. 
 
 THE CHERRY-HOUSE. 
 
 The cherry is amongst the most difficult of 
 all fruits to force. This arises from its blos- 
 soms being apt to fall off before the fruit is 
 set, and also from the fruit itself frequently 
 falling off" before it has attained to the size ot 
 a pea. The period of commencing to force 
 the cherry is sometimes in December, but 
 more generally in January or February. 
 Newly-planted trees, says Kicol, will bear 
 gentle forcing next spring, from the first 
 or middle of March, which ought to be con- 
 sidered merely as preparatory to forcing them 
 fully from about the Ist of February the third 
 year. As cherry trees are trained against 
 the back wall, the house should be narrow, 
 and the roof steep. When the fruit is setting, 
 the temperature is kept, as steadily as possible, 
 at 50^ ; but after it is set, a plentiful supply of 
 water should be given to both their roots and 
 foliage. When the fruit is colouring, water is 
 almost entirely withheld, and air freely ad- 
 mitted. During the whole process of forcing 
 
 cherriep, an excessivo heat from the rnys of 
 the Bun mu^t bo prevented, either by hliading 
 or a duo ailmisMion of air. In the clierry- 
 houso the plum and thu apricot may iiavo a 
 place, as their treatnient is almost identical. 
 
 TIJE IMNKllY. 
 
 Tho pine-apple being a native of the tropics, 
 naturally requires, in this country, all the light 
 which our cloudy cliniato can afford it. It iti 
 rarely propa<^'ated by t^eed, but frecjuently by 
 crowns, which grow ou the top of tho fruit; 
 though oftener by suckers, which rise from tho 
 stem. Tho following may be taken as a choice 
 list for propagation : — 
 
 Enville, Black Antigua, Old Jamaica, Globe, 
 Eussian Globe, Montserrat, Queen, Moscowr 
 Queen, Antigua Queen, Ripley 'a Queen, 
 Smooth Queen, Prickly Cayenne, Smooth 
 Cayenne, Providence, and Prince Albert. 
 
 Formerly it took about three years to bring 
 the fruit of the pine to perfection in this 
 country ; but on the system of training prac- 
 tised now, that period is reduced to much less 
 than one-half. In regard to the rearing of 
 this luscious fruit, it would appear that it is 
 only to be brought to its highest state of 
 perfection by being grown in low pits, just 
 sufficient for the full development of the 
 foliage of the crown and the fruit. " So 
 closely is this adhered to by Mr. Fleming, of 
 Treutham, one of our most successful cul- 
 tivators, that he has had occasion to take out 
 a pane of glass to allow the crown of the 
 fruit to protrude into the open air. A pas- 
 sage a'ong the centre of such pits is exceed- 
 ingly useful, particularly in the fruiting depart- 
 ment." In order to obtain sufficient warmth 
 fur these plants, the pots in which they are 
 placed are usually buried in a bed of tanner's 
 bark, decaying leaves, or other kinds of fer- 
 menting matter. This hoitom-heat, as it is 
 called, is somewhat difficult to be properly 
 managed ; and it would appear to have been, 
 bv gardeners, universally kept at too great a 
 height. " Perhaps the upper limit of its 
 temperature may be fixed at blood-heat, or, at 
 moj^t, 100°, while the richer or winter limit 
 may be brought down to 7o° or 75°. The 
 principles of the application of bottom-heat 
 have, until lately, been little understood. Iq 
 practice its value has been acknowledged for 
 
 971 
 
THE MELOKET.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTFEE. [the cucumber. 
 
 ages, having been aa element in Eomau gar- 
 dening in the days of Claudius. The roots of 
 fruit trees, even of the hardiest description, 
 become paralysed whenever they descend too 
 deep into the soil ; and this paralysis is one of 
 the evils of deep planting." Although pine- 
 apples have been usually potted, it is found 
 that they succeed better unpotted, if planted 
 freely in soil, and exposed to a proper 
 ar)iount oflottom-heat. In the Theory of Hor- 
 ticulture, we are told that a Mr. Martin 
 Call, one of the emperor's gardeners at St. 
 Petersburg, was the first to assert this ; and 
 others have since proved it. In 1830, a pine- 
 apple obtained by this treatment, weighing 
 9 lbs. 4oz., was sent to the King of England 
 by Mr. Edwards, of Eheola ; and, in modern 
 practice, all great pine-growers adopt this plan 
 when circumstances permit them to do so. 
 The following summary, by Mr. Lindley, in 
 reference to the culture of this fruit, will serve 
 to complete our notice of it: — "One of 
 the best methods, without entering into any 
 lengthened detail of operations, seems to be 
 that which has been recommended by Mr. 
 Sweet; which is, to pot the young plants in a 
 mixture of one-third loam, and two-thirds of 
 half-deca*yed leaves ; in which they root very 
 freely. They may then be plunged in frames, 
 or a stove ; but not in too much bottom-heat, 
 as that will injure their roots, as is often done 
 by those who expect to force them on by 
 bottom-heat ; and who, by that means, kill 
 their plants, or injure them so much that they 
 never perfectly recover. They do not con- 
 sider that giving plants a strong bottom is 
 working against nature ; for, in their native 
 climate, it is the sun that warms the ground 
 in which they grow ; and this heat should not 
 be exceeded here." 
 
 THE MELONRY. 
 
 The melon has long been cultivated in 
 Britain ; but its original country is not tho- 
 roughly ascertained, neither is the period of 
 its introduction into this island. The plant is 
 a tender annual, demanding considerable 
 attention and skill to bring to perfection, 
 although it repays the labour of the horticul- 
 turist, by showing a large, and, to most 
 persons, by being an agreeable fruit. The 
 water-melon ia seldom reared in this country 
 972 ' 
 
 save as a curiosity ; but the following species 
 may be taken as a list somewhat select : — 
 The Beachwood; Trentham high-bred, green- 
 fleshed ; Cuthill's Early Cantalousse, remark- 
 able for its earliness and hardiness ; Broom- 
 ham-hall ; Green-fleshed Egyptian ; Cassabar ; 
 Sweet Melon of Ispahan ; and Green Valencia. 
 The melon succeeds best in a strong rich soil, 
 in a prepared compost, formed of two-thirds 
 of rotted turf, and one-third of old cow-dung. 
 This should be prepared some months before 
 being used in the melon-bed. The average 
 heat required for the successful growth of 
 melons is about 70° Fahrenheit. In the com- 
 mon hot-bed, this is maintained by protecting 
 it during the night, and by applying linings 
 from time to time. In pits or houses heated 
 by the circulation of hot water, this is easily 
 efiected at any season ; and such pits are said 
 to supersede the hot-bed frame altogether. 
 
 THE CUCUMBER. 
 
 This, like the melon, is a tender annual, 
 which, in order to bring it to perfection, 
 requires the assistance of artificial heat. It 
 also requires great care and attention, although 
 it is somewhat hardier than the melon, and in 
 summer requires less heat. In every other 
 respect, however, it is managed precisely in 
 the same way as the other. The leading 
 varieties are — the Victory of Bath, Tilly's 
 Captivation, Cuthill's Black Spine, Hunter's 
 Prolific, Lord Kenyon's Favourite, Sir Colin 
 Campbell, Canrobert, Snow's Prize, Allen's 
 Victory of Suffolk, Duncan's Victory, and 
 several others ; but, like the melon, they 
 run into endless varieties if grown in the 
 same structure. The prickly sorts of cucum- 
 bers are, in the summer months of the year, 
 frequently raised under hand-glasses. To do 
 this, a cavity is made in a border in front of a 
 wall or rather warm place, and is filled with 
 hot dung. This is covered with earth, and 
 two or three plants are put into it, and shel- 
 tered with a hand-glass. They are, from time 
 to time, watered and dressed ; and by this 
 means a sufilcient supply of small cucumbers, 
 or gherkins, is obtained for pickling. In the 
 southern counties of England, pickling cu- 
 cumbers are easily raised without any arti- 
 ficial heat, being sown in drills in the open 
 ground. 
 
AUTICIIOKES.] 
 
 PKACTICK OF HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [jl81>AUAUUd. 
 
 CIIArTEU VIII. 
 
 ANOKLFCA ; AUTICIlttKE (j KRUSAI.Em) ; AUTICUOKK (qLOBE) *, ASPARAaUS ; BROCCOLI; BERT; BEANg 
 (cLlMlilNC.) ; BEANS (r.KOAl») ; BKANS (krk.NCU) ; BRU8.SEIJ4 SPROUTS; (;AIUJA<iK; CARHOON ; CARR'»T ; 
 CAULIFLOWER; CELERY; CELKRIAC ; CUKRVIL, ETC.; CRESS ; CRESS (AMERICAN) ; CRESH (NORMANUV) ; 
 CRESS (INDIAN) ; ENDIVE; ESCHALOT; (JARLIC ; ICE PLANT: LEEK; LETTUCE; MALLOW (ciRLED); 
 MARJORAM (KNOTTED); MELON; MUSHROOMS; ONIONS; PAR.SLEY ; PARSNEP ; PEAH ; POTATOES J 
 KUUBAKU; SAVoy ; SEA-KALE; SPINACH; TURNIPS; VEtiETAULE MARROW. 
 
 ANGELICA. 
 
 In treating of the plants of the kitclicn 
 garden, we shall adopt an alphabetical arrange- 
 ment, as being simpler than that which would 
 bring them before the reader in the order of 
 their importance. Accordingly, tlio fii&t is 
 Angelica, a biennial, and a native of England, 
 where it is found in moist situations, as it is 
 over the northern countries of Europe. It 
 grows freely in any soil and exposure. It 
 should be sown in September, in drills a foot 
 apart. When the seedlings have attained to 
 a height of six inches, they should be trans- 
 planted to the spot where they are to remain 
 for use. Tlie stem may be blanched and eaten 
 like celery ; and the young green shoots may 
 be gathered in May, candied or preserved in 
 sugar, and used in confectionery. 
 
 ARTICHOKE (JERUSALEM). 
 
 This is a perennial, which flowers in August 
 or September. It is a native of tho south of 
 Europe, and, in ISiS, was introduced into Eng- 
 land. The three varieties cultivated, are the 
 Conical, Erench or oval Artichoke, with a green 
 head; the Globe, or largest, with dusky-purplish 
 head ; and the Dicar/lsk Qlobe. It will grow in 
 any soil in which the potato will grow; but light, 
 friable, and loamy soils will always produce the 
 best-flavoured tubers. It is useless, however, 
 to plant on poor barren land. Trenching, to 
 the depth of two feet, should be done, and a 
 good dressing of manure given, if a line crop 
 is desired. Plant in rows, alternately two and 
 four feet apart, allowing the tubers to be at 
 least eighteen inches apart in the row, which 
 should run north and south, so that the sun 
 may shine freely on the soil. The tubers 
 should be planted whole, any time from No- 
 vember until March. The former, however, 
 
 I is profcrablc, on various accounts. This root 
 I may bo grown for years upon the same spot 
 of ground, and tho produce increased, pro- 
 vided the soil be annually well trenched, and 
 afterwards kept loose and open by thorough 
 surface-stirring. 
 
 ARTICHOKE (GLOBE). 
 
 About the last week in October this vege- 
 table should receive its winter dressing, and its 
 old leaves should be cut away close to tho 
 ground. This must be done without giving 
 any injury to the centre or side shoots. The 
 bed should then be forked over, the earth 
 being thrown in a ridge about eight inches 
 high over each row, at the same time putting it 
 close round eacii plant, but taking caro to pre- 
 serve the heart from being touched by any 
 crumbs of the soil. This accomplished, pile 
 round each plant with some long litter or pea- 
 haulm, four inches thick; and to prevent this 
 from being carried away by the wind, as well 
 as to help to preserve the roots from severe 
 frosts, the litter should be covered over witli 
 coal ashes, to a depth of about two inches. 
 In the spring the ashes may be turned inte 
 the soil, as they are congenial to the arti- 
 choke. Should the land be stifl^" and clayey, 
 trench it to a depth of eighteen inches, filling 
 in with a mixture of dung and mould ; and in 
 April plant out in this mixture. A plantation 
 will last many years. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 This perennial is found near the son, in 
 stony or gravelly situations ; but it is not verj 
 common in such places. It grows in the Isle 
 of Portland, near Bristol, and, not very abun- 
 dantly, near Edinburgh. For growing first- 
 class asparagus, the following plan is recom- 
 mended by Mr. Arthur Henderson. After 
 
 973 
 
BROCCOLI.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [beans. 
 
 having selected a piece of ground that has been 
 well trenched, manured, and, for years, worked 
 about for other crops, apply all the manure 
 that can be got in the shape of decayed vege- 
 tables, and good, sweet, rotten dung. Then 
 trench the ground three feet deep, and fork up 
 the sub-soil. This should be done iu February, 
 allowing the ground to remain until the 
 young plants (one or two years' seedlings) 
 have grown an inch, which will be the best 
 time for planting. The rows should be six 
 feet apart, and the seed sown four inches 
 apart in each row. "Where the ground is wet 
 and damp, and no expense spared to have the 
 best grass that can be raised, " it is advisable 
 to have a drain right under each row, of any 
 rough material ; and a very efficient one can 
 be made with bundles of rough stakes (not 
 brushwood), which lasts ten or fifteen years. 
 The finest asparagus has been raised in this 
 way." To have asparagus in fine condition, 
 the third season after planting, a few may be 
 cut for use, but not too many ; and all through 
 the summer the berries should be gathered as 
 they make their appearance. 
 
 BROCCOLI. 
 
 Mr. Loudon tells us that, in the time of 
 Miller, the few broccolis then known were 
 supposed to have come from the cauliflower, 
 which was originally imported from the Isle of 
 Cyprus, about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. Miller speaks of the white and 
 purple broccoli coming from Italy ; and it is 
 supposed that from these two sorts all the 
 subsequent kinds have sprung, either by 
 accident or intentional impregnations. To 
 cultivate this plant successfully, it requires a 
 deep, rich, and somewhat adhesive soil. The 
 ground should be kept clean, and all weeds 
 kept down. As broccoli is often cut off by 
 the frost, as many as possible should be 
 planted in sheltered situations. Mr. Hen- 
 derson says that the following is an excellent 
 plan for growing first-class broccoli: — "Prick 
 them out from the seed-bed nine inches apart 
 in July, choosing strong sturdy plants, dis- 
 carding all that are doubtful. Let the bed or 
 border be well prepared with plenty of manure 
 To get them strong and vigorous plants 
 biifore they are finally planted on a dry clay, 
 mark, with a spade or dibber, one yard 
 974 
 
 away from their destined places. Take 
 out the mould from each successive place, 
 one foot wide and one foot deep ; pass it 
 through a coarse sieve, adding a teaspoonful 
 of guano, or a cupful of horse-dung. The 
 refuse clods or stones should be put in the 
 bottom of the hole, well broken up ; press the 
 earth down firmly with the foot, and then 
 plant the above sturdy, stout plants from the 
 bed or border, taking up with each plant 
 plenty of ball and earth. It is an excellent 
 plan, in hot, dry weather, which often prevails 
 when the Cape broccoli is put in the ground, 
 to sow the seed thinly in drills, where a por- 
 tion can be taken out, and the remainder left 
 for the crop." 
 
 BEET. 
 
 Red Beet is a biennial, and a native of the 
 sea-coast of the south of Europe. The white 
 beet is also a biennial, and is a native of the 
 sea-coasts of Spain and Portugal, and was 
 introduced into this country in 1570. The 
 sea-beet is a native of the shores of Britain, but 
 is not common. The field-beet, or mangold- 
 wurzel, is supposed to be a hybrid between 
 the red and white species of beet. This root 
 is best grown in a deep and somewhat sandy 
 soil. For salad beets no manure need be 
 used, as it is not requisite to have them large. 
 Ground well pulverised, with plenty of the 
 manure of former years, well worked and 
 trenched three feet deep, is what this root 
 likes. For early use, a little should be sown 
 in the middle of February ; but for general 
 use, sowing should be done about the middle 
 of May, twelve inches from row to row, and 
 finally thinned out to about eight inches. 
 When the crop is taken up, store it in a cool 
 dry shed, covering it over with straw, after it 
 has thoroughly dried, among dry sand. 
 
 BEANS (CLIMBING). 
 
 The climbing section of beans are natives 
 of South America; and of late years there 
 have been some valuable additions made to 
 this class, excelling, both in tenderness and 
 prolificness, the French beans, and even the 
 Scarlet Eunners. None of this section should 
 be sown before the 10th of June, being strictly 
 late summer and autumn kinds : notwith- 
 standing, their growth is so rapid, and they 
 
BBussELs sntoLTs] PKAc'TU'i: OF ii(»KTic' r i/rr Ki:, 
 
 [CALLIFLOWEH. 
 
 art* 80 tlolifato aiul toiulcr i-atinij, tliat they 
 tli'iiiaiul ii siiiiij, warm, ami ahi-ltcrcd bilualiou 
 ill cvtry garden, liowever Huiall. 
 
 BEANS (iniOAD). 
 
 For tlioso the ground sliould bo trendicd to 
 a dt'pth of two leet, with some good manure 
 added through the top spit. If sown in rows 
 parallel to each other, thorows (siiigli') should 
 be about three feet apart, and the beans six 
 in the row, tlio large Windsor kinds re- 
 quiring more room. As soon as a crop is 
 insured, it is a good practiee to pinch oft" tho 
 tops. This makes the pods swell better, and 
 impedes tho ravages of the dolphin lly, to 
 which this family is peculiarly liable ; it also 
 concentrates the sap, and brings them forward 
 a week earlier. ^Marshall's Dwarf ProliHc is 
 excellent for early work ; and the Mazagan, 
 though not so productive, is valuable because 
 of its hardiness and early growth. 
 
 BEANS (FRENCH). 
 
 For the cultivation of this valuable and 
 wholesome vegetable, choose a warm, snug 
 border, taking care to earth them up in good 
 time, in order to prevent the wind from break- 
 ing them. The hoe must be liberally used, 
 and also watering, should the weather be 
 very dry. Single-row culture is recom- 
 mended ; but if another mode is adopted, the 
 rows should be two feet and five inches apart 
 between the plants. Regarding the time of 
 sowing, about the first week in May, in the 
 open garden, is the best; and should the 
 weather look suspicious, lend them a slight 
 protection. One of the most prolific and 
 finest flavoured sorts for forcing is the Tellow 
 Canterbury, or Golden Dun; and, for sowing 
 out-of-doors, the White Battersea is excellent. 
 It should be placed in a warm, snug situation. 
 Fulmer's Sion House, Newington Wonder, 
 and the Early Battersea, are the best for 
 forcing. 
 
 BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 
 
 This is one of the most valuable winter 
 greens, and ranks also among the hardiest of 
 vegetables. The seed should be sown in the 
 middle of March, and again about the 15th of 
 April. If sown in May, which is a very gene- 
 
 ral and a vi-ry wrong cuBtom, it is impoaaiblo 
 
 for the planla to becomo tall and stout. 
 
 CAIJIiAGE. 
 
 Tho common garden cabbage is too well 
 known, and too universally used, to recjuiro 
 any description hero. In British gardeuB, by 
 proper culture, it produces, from May to No- 
 voinber, llrm, compact heads, glaucous, green, 
 or greenisli-yeliow externally, but blanched 
 within ; and varying, in difl'erent sorts, from 
 three to twelve or fifteen inches diameter, and 
 from two to fifteen or twt-nty pounds' weight. 
 Its sub-varieties are numerous. 
 
 CARDOON. 
 
 This is a perennial, and a native of the 
 south of France and Spain. It closely re- 
 sembles the artichoke, but is larger. It pros- 
 pers in a light deep soil. The seed is sown 
 annually, about the middle of May, in shallow 
 trenches, like those for celery, and the plants 
 are thinned out to ten or twelve inches from 
 each other in the lines. During severe frosts, 
 the tops of the leaves should be defended with 
 straw or litter. 
 
 CARROT. 
 
 The best varieties of this root are the Early 
 Horn and the Long Horn ; the former for 
 early, the latter for general cultivation. Tho 
 Altringliam is also a good garden sort. The 
 Carrot delights in a light, deep, fresh soil, in 
 which it may be free to push down its long 
 spindle-shaped roots. On a bed moderately 
 hot a few Early Horn carrots may be sown in 
 February ; and, in the beginning of March, 
 the same sort may be sown in the open air. 
 The other sorts may follow in April, as a 
 general crop. Tlie carrot succeeds best in 
 drills. After sowing, it is only necessary to 
 thin the plants, and keep them clear of weeds. 
 They are stored in winter, alter the manner iu 
 which turnips are doue. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. 
 
 Tliis variety of the cabbage tribe is culti- 
 vated for the sake of the flower-buds, which 
 form a large dense head, and yields one of the 
 most delicate products of the kitchen garden. 
 The sowing, for the first or spring crop, takea 
 
 97o 
 
CELEBIAC] 
 
 PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [C2S38. 
 
 place in the latter half of the month of 
 August ; and, iu the vicinity of London, the 
 growers adhere, as nearly as possible, to the 
 21st of that month. A second sowing takes 
 place in February, on a slight hot-bed ; and a 
 third in April or May. As the cauliflower is 
 a tender plant, when young, it requires pro- 
 tection in winter. A good method is to plant 
 them thickly in the ground, under a common 
 hot-bed frame, and to secure them from cold 
 by coverings, and from damp by giving air in 
 mild weather. A rich soil, and a warm situa- 
 tion, are the best conditions for growing cauli- 
 ilower, of which the varieties are — Early 
 Loudon, White, London Particular, Early 
 Dutch, Large Asiatic, Walchereu, and Wait's 
 Alma. 
 
 CELERY. 
 
 This plant, a native biennial, and inhabitant 
 of ditches near the sea, is usually sown at 
 three different times : on a hot-bed in the 
 beginning of March, and in the open ground 
 in March ; and again in April. The seedlings, 
 when about two inches high, are pricked into 
 rich soil, in which they are allowed to stand 
 till they have increased to four or five inches. 
 The first crop is defended by frames, or hand- 
 glasses, and is planted wide, to admit of being 
 lifted with balls of earth adhering to the roots. 
 As the plants advance iu growth, earth is laid 
 up about the stalks of the leaves — an opera- 
 tion which is repeated at the end of every ten 
 or fifteen days, care being taken not to choke 
 the plants. As the celery approaches ma- 
 turity, scarcely anything but the tips of the 
 leaves appear above the ridges; and, when 
 lifted, the stalks are found to be completely 
 blanched. Successional crops should be 
 planted out from the 1st of June till the 1st 
 of August, in a rich light soil, where there is 
 plenty of moisture, iu which this plant de- 
 lights. The varieties are — Cole's Superb Eed, 
 Colu's Superb AVhite, Lion's Paw, Seymour's 
 White Champion, Nutt's Champion, Man- 
 c'.iester Giant Eed, Cole's Crystal White, 
 Wall's AVhite, and Cole's Dwarf lied. 
 
 CELERIAC. 
 
 This plant resembles celery in its flavour, 
 and is, at first, treated like the early crop of 
 that salad. In the beginning, or middle of 
 97(5 
 
 June, it is planted out in a flat bed, in drills 
 fifteen inches apart. Afterwards, a single 
 earthing suffices. Its roots are used in soups; 
 but it is not so much a favourite in Britain as 
 it is in France and the Low Countries. 
 
 CHERVIL, AND OTHER PLANTS. 
 
 The chervil. Lamb's lettuce, marigold, and 
 borage, are all used either as salads or in cook- 
 ing, and may be sown in spring or in summer, 
 in any light, fresh soils. The common sorrel 
 the French sorrel, and the horseradish a. 
 perennials, and are increased by parting their 
 roots. They succeed best in any cool, shady 
 situation. The capsicum, or chili, and the 
 love-apple, are tender annuals, from tropical 
 climates. Both are sown in hot-beds in 
 spring; and after being transplanted, and 
 nursed in separate pots, are planted out — the 
 former in a warm border, and the latter 
 against a wall. Dill has, for a long time, been 
 cultivated in our gardens, though not exten- 
 sively. It is easily raised from seed. Fennel 
 is a beautiful perennial, used iu salads and 
 sauces. It may be propagated either by 
 parting the roots or by seeds, which should be 
 sown in autumn, soon after they are ripe. 
 
 CRESS. 
 
 The common or curled cress may be sown 
 in shallow drills, a little successively every 
 week, in spring, summer, and autumn, by 
 those who prefer it cut in the seed-leaf; but 
 if it is not cut till in the fourth or fifth leaf, 
 as many prefer it, one sowing will last many 
 weeks, provided the outside leaves only are 
 picked off". In winter it may be sown in pots 
 kept iu a window, or on moistened sponge or 
 flannel. As it is not required to produce large 
 or strong plants, air may be wholly dispensed 
 with. Heat, darkness, and moisture alone are 
 necessary to make it germinate. It should be 
 always sown on the surface of the soil, and 
 not covered with it; for the more rapidly it is 
 grown, the more tender will be the crop. 
 
 CRESS (AMERICAN). 
 
 This is a very good autumn, winter, and 
 early spring salad, in use from September till 
 INlay. It is an excellent substitute for water- 
 cress, and may be cultivated in any corner of 
 
o vit Lie AND 11 IV K.] P 11 A C T 1 C V. O 1 " 11 O IIT I C U LT U II R. 
 
 [lkttucb. 
 
 the garden. The best time to sow it is in the 
 
 tirst week of July. 
 
 CRKSS (NOUMANDY). 
 A liardy variety, succeeding well iu the open 
 air. If sown in a sheltered situation, about 
 the beginning of Sepleinber, it will produce 
 leaves throughout the latter niontlia of the 
 iiutainn, the winter, and spring. Sow the seed 
 thin, and keep the bed or edging well hoed 
 up. 
 
 CRESS (INDIAN. OR NASTURTIUM). 
 
 This is a ealad not niuch used in this 
 country ; but, wlien young, it is considered 
 wholesome. Sow at intervals iu heat, begin- 
 ning as early as January, cutting it down in 
 the same nuinner as Common Cress for use, 
 or make use only of the tops. It soon sends 
 out side-shoots, which produce many gather- 
 ings. 
 
 ENDIVE. 
 
 This is an annual, and a native of China, 
 whence it was introduced to this country in 
 1518. It is the lettuce of winter, the blanched 
 hearts being used for salads and soups. It 
 prefers a very rich but light soil, and should 
 be sown at various times, beginning iu the 
 middle of May, and sowing monthly after- 
 wards ; the last sowing for autumn and winter 
 being made in the middle of July. Some- 
 times they are planted in drills, to facilitate 
 the operation of blanching. The Batavian 
 and the Curled are the most highly-marked 
 varieties ; and of these there are many sub- 
 varieties. 
 
 THE ESCHALOT, OR SHALOT. 
 
 This plant is originally from Palestine, and 
 is much used in cookery, for higlily-flavoured 
 soups and gravies. It is also sometimes put 
 into pickles. There are two sorts — the Com- 
 mon, and the Kussian, which is much larger, 
 and less pungent. It is propagated by oflsets, 
 which are commonly planted in September or 
 October. 
 
 GARLIC AND CHIVE. 
 
 This is a common ingredient in continen- 
 tal cookery, but is not much used in this 
 G I 
 
 country. A few rows are quite Bufliciont for 
 dome^4tic purposes. It is propugjited by 
 olV-tela from tho roots or by the bnlbelrt, which 
 grow on tho ilower-Htem. The Chive is also 
 occasionally used as a salad and alliaceous 
 seasoning. A sijigle row may bo planted as 
 an edging; and it is eahily increased by 
 parting the roots in spring or autumn. 
 
 ICE PLANT. 
 
 As a garnisher for tho table, this plant 
 possesses great elegance, and is easily cul- 
 tivated. The seed tthould bo sown iti heat, 
 about the beginning of April, potting them 
 oft' singly as the plants acquire strength. 
 They siiould be hardened off, and planted 
 out about the end of May. 
 
 LEEK. 
 
 The Leek is originally from Switzerland; 
 but, in all probability, has been cultivated iu 
 this island for many centuries. It is sown 
 in beds in spring ; and in June or July 
 planted out in rows, fifteen or eighteen 
 inches apart, and six inches asunder between 
 the rows. When the weather is moist it is 
 beneficial merely to lay the plant into the hole 
 made by the dibble, without closing the earth 
 upon it, the stem being, by this means, en- 
 couraged to swell out and fill the hole, as well 
 as getting blanched at the same time. The 
 varieties are — the London Flag, Dutch Flag, 
 Musselburgh, Erfurt, and llouen. Of these, 
 the Musselburgh is the most hardy plaut. 
 
 LETTUCE. 
 
 The native country of this plant is not 
 known. There are two principal varieties — the 
 Cos, or upright, and the Cabbage Lettuce. Its 
 sub-varieties are numerous ; and among them 
 the following may be named : — The White 
 Cos, Cilicia, Winte Cabbage, Early Forcing 
 Cos, Dutch Cabbage, Imperial Cabbage, 
 Grand Admiral, Pans White Cos, Green 
 Paris Cos, Brown Cos, Wait's AV'liite Cos, 
 Malta Cabbage, Neapolitan Cabbage, Tennis- 
 ball, Hardy Green Hammersmith, and Black- 
 seeded Grotte. By proper care fresh lettuce 
 may be had throughout the year. The first 
 sowing is made in January, in some sheltered 
 situation ; or in February, on a gentle hot- 
 
 077 
 
MU8HE00MS.] 
 
 PEACTICE OP HOETICIJLTURE. 
 
 [onion. 
 
 bed : the second in the beginning of March ; 
 and the third in April. For winter a sowing 
 is made in August or September, and the 
 plants are pricked out in October, along the 
 bottom of walls, or under glazed frames. 
 
 MALLOW (CURLED). 
 
 This plant is a very hardy annual, and is 
 used for garnishing, in the place of vine- 
 leaves ; but when the leaves of the vine can 
 be obtained they are preferable. The plant 
 grows to a height of about three feet, and 
 flowers in common garden soil. 
 
 MARJORAM (KNOTTED). 
 
 The most suitable time for sowing mar- 
 joram is about the end of Tebruary, and 
 during March. This should be done on a 
 bottom-heat ; and when up, it should be 
 potted and gradually hardened off for plant- 
 ing out-of-doors, or forced for early use. 
 "When the demand for it ia large, a portion 
 of what is planted out-of-doors should be 
 cut down before the flower-stems run to 
 seed ; and as soon as the an ts begin to 
 grow again, they should be taken up, potted, 
 and placed in a pit or house, to cut as 
 green marjoram during the winter. A light, 
 deep, and friable soil is the best adapted for 
 succestjfully growing of this plant. 
 
 MELON. 
 
 "We have spoken of this fruit in the forcing 
 garden ; but those who take pleasure in trying 
 experiments, may be informed that melons 
 are to be cultivated out-of-doors with success. 
 The points to be attended to, are a south-east 
 aspect bed, raised one foot above the level of 
 the ground, only allowing nine inches for 
 the plants to grow in ; below them, to have a 
 good drainage of rough bushes, straw, leaves, 
 or other similar material. Plant under hand- 
 glasses, and continue the use of them for 
 some weeks, depending, of course, on the con- 
 geniality of the season. The plants intended 
 for this purpose should be brought up very 
 hardy. 
 
 MUSHROOMS. 
 
 This is one of those fungi with which it is 
 dangerous for the inexperienced to deal. Those 
 who desire to study the artificial production 
 978 
 
 of their spawn may cultivate them ; but for all 
 other ends they are.better left alone. However, 
 small spare spots under stages, platforms, or 
 at the ends of houses, can always be found 
 for making a flat little bed, two feet in thick- 
 ness, of droppings ; soiled, and defended by a 
 mat, taking care to beat the bed well down. 
 By this means abundance of mushrooms will 
 be produced with very little trouble ; but 
 " excessive moisture," says one of the flrst 
 gardeners, " is not only apt to destroy the 
 spawn, but it debases the flavour of such fungi 
 as are produced under it ;" and such excess 
 of moisture, he further observes, is sup- 
 posed to render the "salutary sorts less, 
 and to make the unwholesome kinds more 
 
 acrimonious. 
 
 ONION. 
 
 This is one of the most precious inmates of 
 the garden ; and one sort differs far less from 
 another than the degree of skill in different 
 hands, or the degree of quality in different 
 soils. "The best sort for keeping," says 
 Mr. Paterson, " is the Strasburg ; and, for a 
 large crop, the white Spanish; the silver- 
 skinned is beautiful, and the dwarf-grown of 
 that sort are the handsomest for pickles. The 
 Blood-red and James' Keeping are excellent 
 for pungency, and for the quality, which the 
 latter name implies. The soil cannot be too 
 light, if it be rich with old manure, incor- 
 porated by digging about the end of autumn." 
 It is advantageous in the course of winter, 
 after the manure has become amalgamated 
 with the soil, to ridge up the earth like potato 
 drills, which, by pulverising and drying, pre- 
 pares for early sowing. Drilling is greatly to 
 be preferred to broadcast, as the former 
 admits of the hoe, which not only promotes 
 the growth of the crop, but saves the trouble 
 of weeding. One or two ounces of seed may 
 be sown in August for a spring and early 
 summer crop. At a medium elevation the 
 middle of August is the proper season ; and, 
 sooner or later, from the beginning to the end 
 of the month, according as the locality is near 
 to mountains or the level of the sea. Some, 
 in any condition, will shoot ; but, by pinching 
 off the early buds, good-keeping bulbs may 
 be secured. The potato onion is very hardy, 
 very productive, and of mild quality— equally 
 
POTATOES.] 
 
 PRACTICE (U- HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [the bavot. 
 
 80 with the Spnniah ; aud it comes into uhu 
 earliiT tlinii ftiiy othor sort. Plant in tlio 
 iniiiiUe of October: it is as well to give them 
 a 8lij:;lit covering of litter in eevero weatlier. 
 There ia a silver-skinued vnriet}' of this under- 
 ground onion, very excellent, aud equally i)ro- 
 litic aa tlie old aort. 
 
 PARSLEY. 
 
 Sow this plant iu lines one foot apart, the 
 first sowing being performed in the last week 
 of March, aud the second in the first week of 
 June. The soil should be deep and rich ; and 
 the plants should be thinned out to six inches. 
 As an edging to borders it is very suitable. 
 Perhaps the best variety ia Myatt'a extra line- 
 curled, or the Enfield Market. The turnip- 
 rooted parsley ia treated in the same manner 
 as the common parsley, sowing it in drills in 
 the middle of April, and thinuiug out to four 
 inches from plant to plant. 
 
 PARSNEP. 
 
 The parsnep agrees with a deep and rich, 
 but not recently-manured soil. It may be 
 sown in March, either in drilla a foot apart, or 
 broadcast. It should be thinned out to half 
 a foot from plant to plant. As the parsnep is 
 not injured by frost, it may be taken up as 
 required, or the whole crop may be gathered 
 in October, and pitted like potatoes. The 
 Hollow Crown and Large Guernsey are the 
 sorts most in use. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 A deep, rich, and loamy soil is that in which 
 the pea delights ; but any ordinary garden 
 soil, if dug deep, and well manured, will alibrd 
 fair crops. Nothing is more idle than to 
 study the almost endless varieties of peas ; 
 but we must recommend the following as 
 among the best varieties : — The Champion of 
 England, Mammoths, Knight's Marrow, Epps' 
 Monarch, Ne Plus Ultra, British Queen, 
 Bedman's Imperial, Auvergne, and Kingwood 
 Marrow. Thurston's Keliauce ia also an 
 excellent sort, superior in flavour, and keep- 
 ing green much longer than the ordinary 
 kinds. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 The management of thia root is so well 
 
 known that it Hupcrsodcs the necessity of 
 saying much abi)ut it liero. Wo nuiHt, how- 
 ever, rocoinmend the planting of curly vario- 
 ticH, of which tho crop iu generally positively 
 certain. Tiio Ash-leaved Kidney is good eating, 
 up, at least, to ChriBtinas; and Martin'u 
 Early Olobe is a sure cropper, ripe and ready 
 for use just before tho diaeano makea its ap- 
 pearance in this country. It also possesscB 
 tho excellent property of always eating like a 
 now potato, even as late aa April and May. 
 Autumn planting, nay from the middle of Oc- 
 tober to the end of November, ia recommended 
 for general and main crops. It ia advisable 
 to use whole seta of tubers of a moderate size, 
 putting charred wood-ashes in with each set. 
 This acts beneficially. Earthing up early, and 
 keeping tho ground clear of weeds, are the 
 chief duties to be attended to, never making 
 use of any manure to tho ground, or at plant- 
 ing time. Fresh broken-up ground usually 
 produces very good crops, and mostly free 
 from disease. 
 
 RIIUDARB. 
 
 This root is excellent for tarts and pies ia 
 the early part of the season, before the goose- 
 berry has made its appearance. To have a 
 good supply, set a dozen or more cuttings of 
 the roots, reserving to each a part of the 
 crown or top, on deep rich ground, in rows 
 four feet apart, and three feet distant in the 
 row, taking care to have none less than a yard 
 from the walk, or box edging. The best 
 varieties are the Prince Albert (early), Ean- 
 dal's Prolific, and Myatt'a Victoria. 
 
 THE SAVOY. 
 
 This vegetable delights in a deeply-trenched 
 soil; and the best sorts are — Dwarf Green, 
 Curled, Dark-Green Globe, and Yellow 
 Curled, more delicate than the greens. The 
 celebrated Ulra comes into use in the middle 
 of August ; but the earliest sorts can be sown 
 the second week in March ; again in the middle 
 of April ; and, lastly, in the first week of May. 
 Plant two i'eet and a-half between row aud 
 row, and about twenty inches from plant to 
 plant, with the Dwarf and Early Ulm just half 
 the distance. There are few vegetable plants 
 more generally relished than the Savoy, when 
 properly cooked for the table. 
 
 979 
 
THE TUENIP.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE. [vegetable markow. 
 
 SEA-KALE. 
 
 This fine esculent is little inferior to aspa- 
 ragus, and a great deal more abundant, with 
 less cost. The ground prepared for it should 
 be well manured, and trenched to a depth of 
 three feet. It should also be forked up, and 
 the bottom spit of the trench loosened. Sow 
 the first week in April, thinly upon a bed in 
 an open part of the garden, or in straight 
 lines three feet asunder; the plants in each 
 row to be eighteen inches apart. During 
 August and September, or earlier, should the 
 young plants be in a vigorous state, a little 
 salt and soot, dissolved with manure water, 
 may be applied once a fortnight. The follow- 
 ing spring, about the beginning of April, take 
 them up, carefully shortening the roots to 
 seven inches. Tlieu plant them out in deeply- 
 trenched ground, as already stated, in rows 
 four feet apart, and two feet from plant to 
 plant, placing the crowns of the roots a couple 
 of inches below the surface. 
 
 SPINACH. 
 
 This vegetable is not particular either as to 
 soil or season ; and it makes its appearance 
 early in the spring, when there is no great 
 abundance of culinary plants in the market. 
 It is sown in shallow drills, with a width 
 between each sufficient to allow the hoe to be 
 worked. Sow in the latter end of March, and 
 again in the middle of June, in order to ensure 
 a succession of leaves, the size and succulency 
 of which entirely depend on the richness and 
 moisture of the soil. This is the only vege- 
 table, in common use, that has the male and 
 female flowers on different plants — a circum- 
 stance which gives no trouble in the raising of 
 seed, as it is certain to happen, that, among a 
 considerable number of plants, there will be 
 some of both sexes. 
 
 THE TURNIP. 
 
 Mr. A. Henderson says, that turnips, to be 
 tender and mild, must be grown rapidly, re- 
 ceiving no check of any kind from the day the 
 seed is put into the ground. Tiiey delight in 
 a generous, well-worked soil, abounding in 
 manure, and thoroughly incorporated to'"-ether 
 —filled, in fact, with the vegetable manure of 
 980 
 
 previous years. Under such circumstances 
 the fly becomes unknown, and the flavour is 
 delicious, the bulbs being tender and delicate. 
 Perhaps the row system is the best for garden 
 culture ; and the distance between should vary 
 from two to fifteen inches, and, in the row 
 form, to six inches. Very clean culture, scari- 
 fying and stirring the ground, jvith early 
 thinning, is requisite. The fly must be averted ; 
 and charred ashes, and chimney or charcoal- 
 dust, used in the dry state, is quite a preven- 
 tative for this pest. Sow Early Dutch in a 
 sheltered situation in the middle of March ; 
 the Early Stone monthly, till July, when a 
 good breadth of a hardy sort (say the Orange 
 Jelly) should be put in for winter use. There 
 is another excellent variety, called the Chick 
 Castle Black Stone, for winter use ; and, for 
 this purpose, should be sown about the latter 
 end of July, and middle of August. The 
 American Strap Stone is also very superior in 
 quality and flavour, being quick in growth, 
 and very white and crisp. 
 
 VEGETABLE MARROW. 
 
 This is both a valuable and a profitable 
 vegetable. The celebrated green, long-fruited 
 variety, named Prince Albert, and the long 
 white one, are the best in cultivation. It is 
 better to sow the seed in a gentle hot-bed, or 
 under cover, about the middle of April, when 
 they have four rough leaves. Plant them in a 
 rich soil, and in a warm and sheltered situa- 
 tion, about the third week in May, taking 
 care, at first, to cover the plants over with an 
 inverted flower-pot at night, or other similar 
 contrivance. When hot dung is to be had, 
 about four barrowfuls, buried in the ground, 
 greatly assists them : the earth that is taken 
 out ridge up round the plants. Tiiis will pro- 
 tect them ; whilst the hot dune will be of sreat 
 benefit in giving the young plants a vigorous 
 start ; after which they will require no extra 
 care. In dry weather they require an abundance 
 of water ; and, at the least, once a week, a 
 thorough good soaking of liquid manure, 
 washed in afterwards with clear water — always 
 applied in the evening. 
 
 The pumpkin and the squash are treated in 
 the same manner as the vegetable marrow ; 
 but they are not so generally esteemed. 
 
8TYI E.J 
 
 PRACTICE OF II OKI" I CULTURE. 
 
 [fLOWKR OAIlDHNfl. 
 
 CIIAPTEIl !>:. 
 
 style; BKTTISn FI.OWKR OAHPRKS ; SOIL; «I!AVi:i,-WAI,K.S ; TUB SHRlTHnKIlY ; MOKRH OF PnOPAOA* 
 TION ; rKKK.NMAL I'LANTS ; UIKN-NIAL I'l.ANTS; ANNIAL I'LA.NTH ; TIIK IIVACINTIC; TILIP ; UANLN- 
 
 CULUS ; anemone; naucissu's ; lily; dahlia; otheu florist's fluwkils ; oalknuaii. 
 
 STY LE. 
 The jxroat Coiide, utter spciulltif:; half of t1)e 
 mature manhood of hia life in war, strategy, 
 polities, and intrigue, fell back upon the culti- 
 vation of a flower garden, as bein<T the most 
 delightful of all out-of-door amusemeuta; and 
 there are tens of thousands of men, who, 
 although they have never had the chance of 
 becoming Coiid^s, pass much of their recrea- 
 tive hours in the tending of flowers. It is, 
 therefore, not altogether, as some think, an 
 occupation only suited to employ the leisure 
 of ladies ; although there is no fairer sight than 
 to see a beautiful Proserpine trimming her 
 flowers beneath tl)e golden beams of an early 
 spring or summer morning. The principles of 
 gardening, however, are both vague and evan- 
 escent. "As flower gardens," says Mr. Lou- 
 don, "are objects of pleasure, the principle 
 which must serve as a guide in laying tliem 
 out, must be taste. Now, in flower gardens, 
 as in other objects, there are different kinds of 
 tastes. These, embodied, are called styles, or 
 characters ; and the great art of the designer 
 is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out 
 unmixed with other styles, or with any devia- 
 tion which would interfere with the kind of 
 taste or impression which that style is calcu- 
 lated to produce. Style, tiierelore, is the 
 leading principle in laying out flower gardens, 
 as utility is in laying out the culinary garden. 
 As objects of fancy and taste, the styles of 
 flower g.irdens are various. Tlie modern stvle 
 is a collection of irregular groups and masses, 
 placed about the house as a medium, uniting 
 it with the open lawn. The ancient geome- 
 tric style, in place of irregular groups, em- 
 ployed symmetrical forms ; in France, adding 
 statues and fountains ; in Holland, cut trees 
 and grassy slopes ; and in Italy, stone walls, 
 walled terraces, and flights of steps. In some 
 situations, these characteristics of parterres 
 may, with propriety, be added to or used 
 instead of the modern sort, especially in flat 
 
 situations; such as aro cndospd by high 
 walls ; in towns ; or where the princi{):il build- 
 ing or object ia in a stylo of architecture w Inch 
 will not render these appendages incongruous. 
 Tliere aro other characters of gardens, such as 
 the Chinese, which aro not widely different 
 from the modern ; the Indian, which consist 
 chiefly of walks under shade, in square grass; 
 the Turkish, which abound in shady retreats, 
 boudoirs of roses and aromatic herbs ; and the 
 Spanish, which are distinguished by trellis- 
 work and fountains : but these last gardens 
 are not generally adapted to this climate ; 
 though, from contemplating and selecting 
 what is beautiful or suitable in each, a style 
 of decoration for the immediate vicinity of 
 mansions, might be composed preferable to 
 any one now in use." 
 
 BRITISH FLOWER GARDENS. 
 In Britain two varieties of flower gardens 
 have principally prevailed; one in which the 
 ground is composed of turf, and the pattern, 
 so to speak, exhibits a variety of figures cut 
 out on the turf, and planted with shrubs and 
 flowers: the other when the flower beds are 
 separated by walks, usually covered with 
 gravel, without having any grass whatever. 
 As a matter of course, situation should, in a 
 great measure, determine which of these is to 
 be chosen ; but when the garden is to be viewed 
 from the windows of the house, or any other 
 elevated point from which the whole or a con- 
 siderable portion of the design may be per- 
 ceived at once, preference should be given to 
 the former. Where the surface is irregular, 
 and the situation more distant, and par- 
 ticularly if the flowers are to be taken as the 
 primary objects of interest or admiration, the 
 choice should be given to the latter. The 
 situation of the flower garden must be 
 governed by the nature of the lawns, and the 
 site of the house or mansion to which it 
 ia attached. As to form, the flower garden 
 
 9bl 
 
OEATEL-WALKS.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. [the sheubbebt. 
 
 may take any shape ; but if it is large, its 
 boundaries ought not to be continuously 
 visible. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The soil of a flower garden is one of the 
 principal things to be attended to, as it should 
 be varied in such a manner as to meet the re- 
 quirements of the species of plants designed 
 to be grown in it. For example, earth 
 varying from boggy peat to pure sand, is re- 
 quired for American plants. The best sort is 
 alluvial, or that kind of boggy earth which 
 has been washed away and incorporated with 
 white sand. Peat, cut from its natural bed, 
 and only partially decomposed, is valueless, if 
 not really prejudicial to plants. "In col- 
 lecting soil from the surface of a moor," 
 observes a practical writer on this subject, " it 
 is proper to take no more than the upper 
 turf or sod, with the peat adhering to it, 
 and only from the driest parts of the ground, 
 where, besides the common heath, fescue- 
 grasses occur. When this cannot be pro- 
 cured, a good substitute is found in vegetable 
 mould ; that is, decayed leaves, swept from 
 lawns or woods, and allowed to lie in heaps 
 for a year or two. For the general purposes 
 of the flower garden, a light loamy soil is 
 advantageous ; and where the natural covering 
 is thin, or requires making up, recourse 
 should be had to the surface-earth of old 
 pastures, which, especially when incumbent 
 on trap-rocks, is found to be excellent. It 
 is expedient to have a large mass of this 
 material in the compost yard. The turf, and 
 the surface soil adhering to it, should be 
 laid up in a rough state, in which way it is 
 continually ameliorating by the decomposition 
 of the vegetable matters, and the action of the 
 air." 
 
 GRAVEL-WALKS. 
 
 The principal walks of a garden should 
 never be made narrower than to admit of, at 
 least, three persons walking abreast upon 
 them. It is a very common practice to see 
 gravel-walks so contracted as scarcely to admit 
 of two persons walking arm-in-arm upon them. 
 We would therefore recommend that, even in 
 small gardens, a considerable breadth of walk 
 Bliould be given, not only for the sake of conve- 
 982 
 
 nience and pleasure, but on account of the much 
 better efiect such an arrangement has upon 
 those who contemplate the garden. As a great 
 deal of the neatness of walks depends upon 
 the material of which they consist, gravel from 
 an inland pit is preferable to any other. In 
 the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, this is, in 
 some parts, to be obtained of very good quality; 
 but the gravels of Blackheath and Kensington, 
 in the vicinity of London, have been much 
 celebrated for the beauty of their colours, and 
 have been transported to various parts of the 
 kingdom for the purpose of being applied to 
 the walks of gardens. Where the walks are 
 covered with gravel, hoeing and raking, from 
 time to time, is necessary in summer, to 
 destroy the weeds with which they are apt to 
 be disfigured. After this, or even after they 
 have only been swept, they should be rolled 
 down with a hand-roller, and this repeated as 
 often as the surface is ruffled. Nothing has a 
 greater tendency to heighten the beauty of 
 garden-walks than the operation of frequent 
 rolling. 
 
 THE SHRUBBERY. 
 
 The beauty of a garden greatly depends on 
 the choice which is made of its trees and 
 shrubs, and the mode in which they are 
 artificially disposed. Of the many excellent 
 species of these with which Britain is now 
 enriched, it would be impossible for us to 
 speak, in the space to which we are limited. In 
 this department of horticulture, we can there- 
 fore only mention a few ; but these few will be 
 introduced on the authority of one of the best 
 practical gardeners of the present day. We 
 will, as far as possible, avoid the Latin names. 
 — Besides the Common and the Portugal 
 Laurels, there are other evergreens which merit 
 especial notice, as suitable to be disposed in 
 large masses. Among these we may notice the 
 American Arbor Vitae, and the Chinese Arbor 
 Vitae, which last is well adapted for small 
 compartments. The difierent varieties of 
 Ehamnus Alaternus, and the species of Phil- 
 lyra and Junipers, have long enjoyed favour 
 in the eyes of the admirers of evergreens. 
 "The Sweet Bay," says Mr. Mackintosh, "in 
 favourite situations, rises into a handsome 
 shrub or low tree, and may convey to the stu- 
 dent of the classics, the idea of the Delphic 
 
PEHENNIALS.] 
 
 PRACTICE OF nOKTirULTUKE. 
 
 [annuals. 
 
 Laurel." Beaitlea these there are thoStrawberry 
 tree, the Irish Yew, the Cyprosa, LarustiiiuH, 
 Swedish and Irish Juiiii)L'r3; dilleroiit kinds of 
 Daphne ; the Andrachne, the Broad-leaved 
 Myrtle; the Acuba Japonica, the Ciatus and 
 lleliantheinum. Among the shrubs requiring 
 a peaty or, at least, a moist and eliadv situa- 
 tion, are the Khododondron, the Azelia, the 
 Andromedaa, and several others more recently 
 introduced. Among these, some of the hardy 
 heaths should find a place. Of deciduous 
 ilowering shrubs, there is not a finer object in 
 the vegetable kingdom than the Flowering 
 Lilac, which, from the deliciousness of its fra- 
 grance, and the pendent graces of its foliage, 
 should always find a place in a garden. Of 
 climbing shrubs, the Clematis and Honey- 
 suckle may be first mentioned ; but, indepen- 
 dent of them, it may be observed, that there 
 are numerous varieties of Fuchsia, Escallonia, 
 and Ceanothus, which, when planted against a 
 wall, or even in the open ground, and shaded, 
 in winter, with an occasional covering, convey 
 to us a better idea of the riches of Chilian 
 vegetation, than when they are restricted to 
 the shelves of the green-house. Many roses 
 are also well adapted for walls, such as the 
 varieties of Noisette, Boursault, and the dif- 
 ferent species from China. 
 
 MODE OF PROPAGATION. 
 
 "Nearly all shrubs may be propagated by 
 layers ; some by budding or grafting ; many 
 by separating the roots. In planting, shrubs 
 may be arranged either singly or in masses. 
 The latter method is the most efficient in the 
 production of effect ; but it should not be very 
 servilely adhered to, as it is apt to beget 
 monotony. Some kinds should never appear 
 in masses ; the white Portugal broom, for 
 instance, when so arranged, gives a limy tint 
 to a garden. Perhaps it is better that groups 
 should contain a predominance of one shrub, 
 set off" by a few others of a contrasting figure 
 or colour, than that they should be entirely 
 homogeneous." 
 
 PERENNIAL PLANTS. 
 
 The principal plants employed for floral 
 decoration are the common perennial ilowers, 
 whether strictly bulbous or herbaceous in 
 their character. In planting these, they 
 
 should bo arranged according to their height, 
 
 otherwise matiy of the most charming floweru 
 of lower pri)porti«)n8 will bo entirely loHt sight 
 of. It is essential, therefore, that the lowest 
 plants stand first, or next to the border or 
 margin of the parterre — to bo succeeded by tho 
 next highest, and so on backwards. Tho 
 fiower-pots should present a regular bank of 
 foliage and blossom, ascending gradually from 
 tho front: "but as this might convey an idea 
 of too great precision, a few starinrj plants, on 
 the same principle as those emphjyed in green- 
 houses, should be thinly scattered over tho 
 surface." Most herbaceous or perennial 
 plants are pro()agatod by parting the roots, or 
 by cuttings; but some, most conveniently, by 
 the sowing of seed. For tho names of those 
 showy flowers best adapted to the British 
 climate and garden, we must refer our readers 
 to tho catalogues of practical horticulturists 
 and nurserymen. 
 
 BIENNIAL PLANTS. 
 Plants which have been designated biennials 
 are such as have an existence only of two 
 years, when they wither and decay. Many of 
 them are invested with great beauty ; and by 
 the easiness with which they are propagated, 
 and the rapidity of their growth, they furnish 
 a ready means of ornamentation to garden 
 borders. "Where a very desirable variety is 
 obtained, attention should be directed to the 
 striking of cuttings during the summer, as the 
 only way of continuing it. The end of spring 
 is the proper time for sowing biennials, which 
 is done in beds ; and, in the course of the 
 following autumn, they are generally trans- 
 planted into those places designed for them, 
 and where they are intended to stand. Tho 
 object of this is to enable them to get con- 
 firmed before the winter, that thev may 
 readily shoot into flower in the foUowic 
 summer. 
 
 ANNUAL PLANTS. 
 
 Annuals, besides being easy of culture, 
 possess great beauty and elegance of Ibrm. 
 All that is necessary to be done to have a crop, 
 is only to throw the seeds into the bed or 
 spot where they are wished to grow, and in. 
 due season they will make their appearance aa 
 plants, without care or trouble. They aro 
 
 9b3 
 
THE DTACiNTH.] PEACTICE OF H ORTI C ULTUEE. 
 
 [the ttjltp. 
 
 divided into three classes — the hardy, the half- 
 hardy, and the tender. The first are sown at 
 once in the ground assigned to them ; the 
 second, if wished to succeed well, should be, at 
 first, assisted bj a sliglit hot-bed, and then 
 transplanted into the open air. The tender 
 should be kept in pots, and cherished, as store 
 or green-house plants, which is the treatment 
 more properly belonging to them. It is 
 hardly necessary to remark that the two 
 former may be grown either in patches or in 
 beds, and should be subjected to all the rules 
 which apply to the disposition of common 
 border flowers. Many new annuals have, 
 within a few years, been introduced into this 
 country ; and doubtless, at no distant period, 
 this will be the case with many more. 
 
 FLORISTS' FLOWERS 
 
 The flowers of the practical florist are, as 
 might be expected, certain favourites to which 
 that class of gardeners have devoted a large 
 share of their attention. They comprise the 
 Hyacinth, the Tulip, the Ranunculus, the 
 Lily, Anemone, Narcissus, Dahlia, Auricula, 
 Polyanthus, Carnation, and some others. We 
 will devote a few remarks to each of these. 
 
 THE HYACINTH. 
 
 This flower is originally from the Levant, 
 where it grows abundantly ; and is possessed 
 of great beauty, associated with a delightful 
 perfume. In form, it bears some resemblance to 
 the common harebell ; and in the East it has 
 long been a favourite. It is scarcely credible 
 ■what an enthusiast in particular flowers will 
 give for a single bulb of his favourite. The 
 catalogues of the Haarlem florists were wont 
 to enumerate 2,000 sorts of hyacinths, some 
 of which have been bought at £200 per bulb. 
 They have now, however, diminished in variety, 
 as well as in price ; and are either single, 
 semi-double, or double. A perfect flower of 
 this sort is thus described by Mr. Glenny, in 
 Ilia work on The Properties of Flowers and 
 Plants : — " Each pip or flower should be 
 round, and not ragged. The petals should be 
 broad, thick, and round at the ends, not 
 ]ioiiited, and reflex enough to throw up the 
 centre well. The foot-stalk should be strong, 
 and hold the flower out stiff in a vertical 
 position, and by no means weak, to allow the 
 984 
 
 pip to bang with the face sloping downwards. 
 The foot-stalk should be of a length to make 
 the pips touch, and no more. The pips should 
 be large, and the flowers close on the stem. 
 Double flowers should have the rows of petals 
 above each other very regularly imbricated, so 
 as to throw up the centre. The spike should 
 be bold, round, compact, and pyramidal. The 
 flower should be very strong, and diminishing 
 to a single flower at top. The flower-stem 
 should be very strong and upright, and no 
 part of it should be seen, in consequence of 
 the closeness of the pips to each other. The 
 colours should be bright, clear, and dense, 
 whatever the shade ; and any better approach 
 to scarlet, blue, or yellow, than those shades 
 we now possess, would be highly esteemed." 
 
 The proper soil for the culture of the 
 hyacinth is one that is rich, light, and sandy. 
 The best compost is, perhaps, that used by 
 the Dutch, which consists of one-third of 
 coarse sea or river sand ; one-third of rotten 
 cowdung, without litter; and one third of 
 leaf mould. The natural soil is removed to 
 an extent of, at least, a couple of feet deep, 
 and the vacant space is filled up with the 
 compost, previously well mixed. It is said 
 that these ingredients retain their nutritive 
 properties for six or seven years, although the 
 Dutch do not plant hyacinths in the same 
 place two years successively. In the alternate 
 vears, they plant it with the crocus and 
 narcissus. About the 25th of October is the 
 best time to plant the bulbs. 
 
 THE TULIP. 
 
 This gorgeous flower is, also, a native of 
 the East, and was introduced into Europe 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 The properties of a fine late tulip, as given by 
 Mr. Glenny, are these:— "The cup should, 
 when quite expanded, form from half to a 
 third of a hollow ball. To do this the petals 
 must be six in number; broad at the ends, 
 smooth at the edges, and the divisions between 
 the petals scarcely to show an indenture. 
 The three inner petals should set close to the 
 three outer ones, and all being so close as to 
 show no openings between them. The petals 
 should be smooth, thick, and stiff", and should 
 keep their form well. The ground colour 
 should be clear and distinct, whether white or 
 
THE BAKUNCDHTs.] PKACTlCi: OK 11 ( ) liTI C ULT UK E. 
 
 [rut U.VItLIA. 
 
 yellow. The least stain, even at tlie lower 
 
 I'tul of tl>o petal, would rt'iuler a tulip com- 
 paratively valueless. "Whatever be the ilispo- 
 «itioa of colours or marks upou a tulip, all tho 
 six petals should bo marked aliko ; and be; 
 therefore, perfectly uuifunu. Tiio feathered 
 flowers should have an even, close featlicring, 
 forminfj au unbroken edging all round. If 
 the flower have any marking besides the 
 feathering of the edge, it should be a beam or 
 bold mark down the centre, but uot to reach 
 the bottom of the cup ; tho mark or beam 
 must be similar in all the six petals. Flowers 
 not feathered, and w'ith flame only, must have 
 no marks on the edges. None of tho colour 
 must break through to the edge. Tiie colour 
 of the petals should not descend too close to 
 tho bottom. The height should be from 
 eighteen to thirty-six inches ; the former 
 being right for the outside row in a bed, and 
 the latter for the centre or highest row." 
 
 The proper soil for tulips is similar to that 
 suitable for hyacinths, and the season for 
 planting the same. 
 
 THE R.YNUNCULUS. 
 This flower is from the Levant, where it is 
 in great favour with the Turks. The existing 
 varieties in this country are now mostly of 
 British origin. The properties of a fine 
 double ranunculus are, according to Glenny, 
 the following : — " The flower should be the 
 form of two-thirds of a ball, two inches in 
 diameter, and the upper part of it square or 
 horizontal. The outline of the bloom should 
 form a perfect circle. The petals should be 
 thick, smooth on the edges, and gently cupped ; 
 they should lie close, so that little but the 
 edges should be seen. The flower should be 
 symmetrical to the centre, which should be 
 close, so as perfectly to conceal the seed- 
 vessel. The colour should be very dense, 
 whatever be its hue. If an edged flower, the 
 edging should be well defined, and the marking 
 even and uniform. In no case should tlie 
 ground-colour break through the edging ; but 
 spotted flowers, with one spot on each petal, 
 are allowable. The stem should be strong, 
 and long enough to raise the flower clear six 
 inches above the foliage. Striped flowers are 
 not perfect, nor are flowers speckled at the 
 edges." 
 
 G K 
 
 The ranunculus requires a stronger and 
 moister suil than moHt other floweru. It is 
 generally sown in boxes, iu tho autumn or tho 
 spring ; and no florist's flower iu moro readily 
 propagatod from seed. 
 
 TlIK ANKMONE. 
 
 This beauty of tho flower garden comprises 
 two species, called tho Anomono llortensis, 
 from Italy, and tho Anemone Caronarics, from 
 tho Levant. In a double 8[)ecimen tho stem 
 should bo erect, strong, and not less than nine 
 inches high. The soil and culture are so similar 
 to those of the ranunculus, that it is unneces- 
 sary to specify them. 
 
 THE NARCISSUS. 
 
 This is an extensive genus, which rather 
 belongs to the botanico-florist than to the 
 florist proper. The polyanthus narcissus 
 gives the varieties principally cultivated by 
 florists ; and they succeed best in a rich, light 
 soil, containing a little dung. 
 
 THE LILY 
 Of this flower there are numerous species ; 
 and the old "White Lily, after furui^liing tho 
 poets with so much imagery, has sunk into the 
 humble station of a modest border flower. 
 The Orange Lily, and the Lily Mortagan, may 
 follow its example ; but the Scarlet Turk's 
 Cap is worthy of more care, as being more 
 beautiful and more tender. The Tiger Lily— 
 a splendid specimen — flourishes best in a peaty 
 soil; and the same remark applies to the Lilyi 
 Canadeuse and Superbam, both of which aro 
 magnificent specimens. In tho Lily Japo- 
 nicum and Longiflorum, the genus attains its 
 greatest maguiticence ; but the climate of 
 Britain is unfavourable to them out-of-doors. 
 They must, therefore, be grown in pots under 
 glass. 
 
 THE DAHLIA. 
 
 This splendid flower is a native of Mexico, 
 and was, iu 1789, introduced into this country, 
 but was afterwards lost by our cultivators. 
 There are two species, the Dahlia Variabilis, 
 and the Dahlia Cocciiiea ; but tiie varieties 
 are endless. In 1801, it was re-introduced 
 to this country, and the results have been 
 very favourable to the flower garden, from the 
 
 9bo 
 
CALENDAE.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOKTICULTUEE. 
 
 [calendar. 
 
 magnificence of its appearance. The plant 
 succeeds best in an open situation, and in neb, 
 deep loam; but there is hardly any garden 
 soil in which it will not thrive with manure. 
 Dahlias, however, should not be repeatedly 
 planted in the same spot ; and they generally 
 flower till checked in autumn by the frost. 
 The roots are then taken up, dried, and stored 
 in a cellar, or some other place, where they 
 may be secured from frost and moisture. 
 Old roots often throw up numerous stems, 
 which render thinning necessary. 
 
 OTHER FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 
 It would lead us greatly into detail to speak 
 fully upon Calceolaria, Chelone, Phlox, Pen- 
 testemon, Pansies, Eoses, Cinararias, Lobelias, 
 Verbenas, Chrysanthemums, Picotees, Holly- 
 hocks, Fuchsia, Petunia, &c., notwithstanding 
 all of them enter into the category of florists' 
 flowers. We may observe, however, that the 
 Auricula is a native of the Alps and the Cau- 
 casus ; that the Polyanthus is supposed to be 
 a seminal variety of Primula Vulgaris ; that 
 the Carnation is a native of Germany ; and 
 that the Pink is merely one of its varieties. 
 These are all favourites of the garden ; more 
 especially the Carnation, not only on account 
 of the delightful fragrance of its blossoms, 
 but also for the beauty it possesses. 
 
 CALENDAR. 
 Januaet. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Open weather in autumn is 
 the proper season for planting ; but if it has 
 not then been done, do it now, watching over 
 the roots to protect them from any draughts 
 which may occur in spring. All sorts of 
 fruit trees should, in mild weather, be pruned ; 
 nailing only in fine weather. Any trees which 
 may be infested with insects, should be washed 
 with tobacco liquor, or with soapsuds and 
 flower of sulphur. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Shrubs to be forced 
 should bo taken to the green-liouse or to a 
 warm pit first, to prepare them, and their 
 roots thoroughly soaked, as they are often very 
 dry ; see also that they are not heavily laden 
 with flower-buds, and that they are in proper 
 trim as to training, &c. Hard- wooded plants 
 must have fire-heat during frosty weather ; but 
 it must not rise above 40° at night, and 50° by 
 986 
 
 day. Soft-wooded plants may be kept growing 
 freely, but not at high temperatures. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Sowing of peas, beana, 
 two-bladed onions, coUards, York cabbage, 
 h"orn carrot, and parsneps, may, at any time, 
 be made this month. There is, of course, a 
 certain amount of risk in early sowing ; but in 
 mild and tolerably dry seasons, there is suf- 
 ficient compensation for losses at other times 
 in the earlier production or increased bulk 
 and excellence of the crop. Ehubarbj in the 
 open ground, may be forwarded by covering 
 the crowns with sea-kale pots, or a lot of old 
 boxes. 
 
 Flotoer Garden. — Evergreens should not 
 now be planted, but deciduous trees may 
 be, during open weather. It is a good time 
 to make alterations, and to stack up turf, 
 and mix composts. Tulips and hyacinths 
 require protection from severe frost, but must 
 be allowed as much air and exposure as pos- 
 sible. Those in beds, exposed to the morning 
 sun, should be watered with cold water very 
 early, when the foliage has been frozen in the 
 night. Prepare beds for anemones and ranun- 
 culuses. Eoses may be planted, and after 
 planting, layed out on a heavy mulch of half- 
 rotten dung. 
 
 Febefaet. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Vines should be pruned, 
 and laid in. This should be done only with 
 the ripest of last year's shoots, at a distance 
 of about eighteen inches from each other, and 
 not more than four eyes in length. The walla 
 should be cleared, and the plants nailed up 
 firmly, making use of as narrow shreds as 
 possible. Netting for espalier and wall 
 trees should be prepared, and employed when- 
 ever the buds begin to swell, especially if 
 north-west winds prevail. If strawberry 
 beds be early formed this month, on rich firm 
 ground, they are likely to bear well. Bush 
 fruits should be planted and pruned. Grafting, 
 if the weather be favourable, should be begun ; 
 and scions put into the earth in bunches, 
 with a tally to each, will keep a month, if 
 necessary, and take better than if put on a3 
 soon as cut. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Fire-heat may be 
 used more liberally now; and cinerarias, 
 primulas, and other soft-wooded, early bloom- 
 
CALBHDAE.] 
 
 PItACTICE OF HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [calendar. 
 
 in<^ plants, placed as near the glass as possible, j 
 Abunduiice of water bIiouKI bo given to every- 
 tliiiig that is growing iVoely. llaril-wooded i 
 I'lants, that have been kept dry oil the winter, I 
 very possibly need to bo plunged to tho rim of 
 the pot in a vessel of tepid water, to soften ! 
 the ball of eartli, nnd allow water to pass 
 through freely. Old plants of bedders should 
 be started for cuttings ; and these put in as 
 soon as they can bo taken, iu order that tho 
 bedders may bo brouglit forward iu time to 
 jilant out strong. All store plants from boxes 
 and cutting-pans should be potted oil'. Look 
 to the nnder sides of the leaves of tho cinera- 
 rias, calceolarias, pelargoniums, &c. ; and, if 
 any fly be there, put these together iu a box and 
 fumigate, or fill the house with smoke, and 
 syringe next day. All hard-wooded plants 
 coming into leaf should be freely syringed. 
 Temp. 45° at night, 55' to GO' by da}'. Bot- 
 tom-heat for cuttings, G0° to 70°. 
 
 Kitclien Garden. — Prepare immediately 
 every inch of ground intended for summer 
 crops. Where peas, beans, onions, cauli- 
 flowers, and broccoli are to be put in, the 
 ground must be liberally manured and deeply 
 stirred. Mark out the soil for onions into 
 four-feet beds, and raise the beds six inches 
 above the general level, leaving the surface 
 rough. Choose, for potatoes, ground on which 
 cabbage, broccoli, or celery has been grown, 
 and which was well manured in the preceding 
 year. Make up sloping borders under warm 
 walls and fences, for early horn carrot, onion, 
 radish, lettuce; and to prick out cauliflower 
 and broccoli from seed-pans, &c. Plant, on 
 dry ground, potatoes as soon as possible ; sets 
 should be of moderate size, and with short, 
 stubby, hard sprouts upon them ; when the 
 sprouts are long and white, a sound and 
 abundant crop can hardly be expected. Sow 
 in the open qua7'ters, peas, beans, parsneps, 
 spinach, leeks. Sow on warm slopes, radish, 
 hardy lettuce, cabbage, parsley. Plant po- 
 tatoes, garlic, shalot, chives, onions for seed. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Deciduous trees should 
 be planted without delay. Mixed borders 
 forked over, where it can be done without 
 fear of damaging paionies, bulbs, &c. ; but if 
 these are not tallied, it will be better to leave 
 the borders alone till the plants appear above i 
 ground. Walks, rockeries, edging, roseries, 
 
 peat-beds, and lawns, may all bo formed and 
 planted this month; and llieHOonerthe better. 
 Jlerbaeeous plantrt bIiouUI, nlso, bi? parted and 
 planted. Also ranunculuHea and atiomoues. 
 Sow hardy annuals in pans for planting out. 
 Californian annualn, such as escholtzias, 
 godetias, clarkian, candytufts, nemophilas, 
 vi.-^carias, &c., may bo sown in tho borders 
 where they are desired to bloom. 
 
 Mxncn. 
 
 Fntit Garden. — Cuttings of bush fruits 
 may still bo planted, and grafting should not 
 bo delayed. Pruning and cleaning ought to 
 have been completed some time ago. All tho 
 prunings and clippings of trees and hedges 
 should be burned, and tho ashes used as a 
 top dressing for quarters of bush fruits. 
 Mulch raspberries with half-rotten dung, and 
 they should not be dug between. Plenty of 
 manure should bo laid down between straw- 
 berries. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Tliero must now bo 
 no delay in shifting on all subjects tiiat require 
 increased root-room, for vegetation is fast 
 becoming active ; and if plants make new roots 
 in old exhausted soil, their vigour and their 
 beauty are both deteriorated. Pot gladioli, 
 liliunis, Cape bulbs ; shift ericas ; start 
 fuchsias, and take cuttings. Camellias, which 
 are done flowering, should be started into 
 growth iu a moist atmosphere and genial tem- 
 perature. Plenty of water should be given, 
 alternating with liquid manure, to cinerarias, 
 calceolarias, pelargoniums, and other subjects 
 advancing into bloom. Temp. 50' night, 00° 
 to G5° day. 
 
 Kitclien Garden. — The plots to be sown or 
 planted this month and next, should be 
 manured, and the ground dug pretty deep, 
 and left rough. Should the soil be well 
 drained, the principal crop of potatoes may be 
 planted at once ; but if the soil is damp, it 
 will be better to wait till next month. Plant 
 horseradish in any spare corner, digging the 
 ground pretty deep, manuring the sub-soil, 
 that the roots may come finer. Onion-beds 
 should be marked out, and the soil liberally 
 manured. Prepare for all crops that are to 
 succeed each other, so as to have the ground 
 well sweetened in time to receive them. 
 Sow turnip, long radish, main crop of parsneps, 
 
 987 
 
CALEN^DAB.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 [calendar. 
 
 broccoli, savoy, cabbage, cauliflower, horn 
 carrot, main crop of onions, parsley, leeks, 
 beans, peas, lettuce, spinach, and small salads. 
 Flower Garden. — Herbaceous plants for 
 summer and autumn bloom can now be planted, 
 though it is always better to do so in autumn. 
 Hardy annuals in the borders should be sown, 
 and tallied to each patch : as soon as large 
 enough to handle, thin the patches, and plant 
 out the thinnings wherever necessary, or pot 
 them for blooming in the window. Strike 
 chrysanthemums in heat, for planting out 
 in May. Set dahlias, and take cuttings. 
 Give sufficient air to carnations, pansies, auri- 
 culas, &c. ; and water freely during bright 
 weather. Weak liquid manure should be 
 given once a week. Plant dielytra spectabilis 
 from pots in rich deep loam. Finish planting 
 roses, and stake them at once. Examine 
 tulip beds, and remove, witli a knife, every 
 particle of canker. Keep beds of pansies 
 clean, and peg down the branches at equal 
 distanceSj covering them with soil up to about 
 two inches of the ends of the shoots. Lay 
 down turf, turn gravel-paths, make box 
 edging, and use the roller freely on lawns and 
 walks. Train and trim ivy at the close of the 
 month, reducing the growth on walls, &c., to 
 one regular felt or layer of shoots ; and re- 
 moving all the leaves, so as to esDose those 
 shoots to view. 
 
 Apeil. 
 
 Fruit GarcJen.—Vroteet wall trees from the 
 east winds, and with something that may be 
 easily removed, so that the trees have free air 
 night and day, weather permitting, and be 
 covered with the least possible trouble if the 
 wind shifts to the east or the north. Prunino' 
 and grafting, in the exposed quarters, must be 
 completed quickly. Abundance of water 
 should be given to fruit trees in pots, and the 
 crcliard-house kept in an orderly state. 
 
 Forcing Department — A moderate heat 
 only should be given to general collections, 
 and a strong healthy growth should be pro- 
 moted by the admission of abundance of air, 
 with a view of dispensing with the fires for 
 the season. Many of the less tender things 
 may be transferred to cold pits, to give room 
 for other things that want continued pro- 
 tection to be brougiit to fine plants. Youu'^ 
 988 "" 
 
 stuff fi'om the propagating-house should be 
 potted as fast as rooted, and kept close till 
 started afresh, and then gradually inured to 
 air and light, so as to be vigorous by the 
 middle of May. All tropical plants required 
 for summer blooming should be hastened, and 
 a quick growth promoted, so as to give them 
 as long a season as possible for blooming, and 
 ripening their buds for next year. Average 
 temperature this month. 55° by night, 60° to 
 65° by day. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Sowings may now be 
 made of all leading kitchen crops that are to 
 succeed each other ; and where the work of 
 the last month has been delayed, seeds should 
 be got in early. Windsor, longpod, and 
 Johnson's Wonderful beans may be sown ; 
 Marrow, Auvergne, and dwarf mammoth 
 peas, and a few rows of the earlier sorts to 
 come in before the late peas are ready. 
 Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbages, cauli- 
 flowers, Lorn carrot, Scotch kale, and savoy, 
 for autumn use, should be put in. Among 
 cabbages, Atkin's Matchless, Early York, and 
 Shilling's Queen, and West Ham, are excellent 
 kinds to sow now ; but the principal crop of 
 cabbages should be up by this time, and they 
 should be hoed between when the ground is 
 in a fit state. In ground deeply dug, but not 
 manured, beet should be sown in the second 
 week. The main crop of celery should be 
 sown on a rich warm border, with the surface 
 made light and fine ; sow thin, and merely 
 dust the seed over. Sow also asparagus, let- 
 tuce, onions, radish, sea-kale, and small salad 
 — the two last in drills, one foot apart, and one 
 inch deep for asparagus, and two inches for 
 sea-kale. To raise seedling rhubarb plants, 
 sow about the middle of the month in shallow 
 drills, eighteen inches apart, dropping the 
 seeds in patches, six inches from each other. 
 Potatoes not yet got in should be planted 
 without delay ; and towards the end of the 
 month, scarlet runners and French beans 
 sown. The principal crop of carrots should 
 be planted about the middle of the month ; 
 and there is still time for a crop of parsneps, 
 but they must be sown directly. Slips of 
 kitchen herbs will do any time this mouth, 
 but will root quicker if planted in a rather 
 dry sandy border. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Hardy annuals and pe- 
 
CAIEND.vn.] 
 
 PKACTIt'R OF HORTICULTURE. 
 
 [CALENDAn. 
 
 rtniniala are to be sown early ; and towards the 
 I'ud of the month the more ttnuler Bort8 niny 
 be put into the ground ; but very snmll sei'da 
 of choice plants need not bo sown till next 
 month, as heavy raina may wasli them dnwn 
 into the soil, and eaiiso tliem to bo lost. 
 Perennials may be planted out, and old stools 
 of ehrysanthomiun, lynchnia, phlox, &.C., may 
 be parted. Dahlia roots may also bo planted ; 
 and if the shoots rise before tiie night-frosts 
 are over, they should be protected by inverted 
 flower-pots, and the holes covered with pieces 
 of tile. Tigrida bulbs may be planted two 
 inches deep ; walks should be turned and 
 rolled, and grass-plots dressed. 
 
 Mat. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Plums and pears, and all 
 bush and pyramid fruits, will require to be 
 jnnched in to the third or fourth leaf from 
 the base. Strawberries should have plenty of 
 water. If raspberries have not been mulched, 
 give them at once a top-dressing of half- rotten 
 dung. Do not dig it in. lu the orchard- 
 house renew the mulchings, if needful, giving 
 abundance of water. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Plenty of air ought 
 to be given to hard-wooded plants, and spe- 
 cimen plants in flower should have shade. 
 Allow nothing to form seed, unless seed be 
 specially desired. All kinds of shrubs that 
 are out of shape should be cut back, and kept 
 somewhat close afterwards, to obtain good 
 breaks, so as to bring them into decent shape, 
 and get the wood well ripened for next year's 
 bloom. All soft-wooded plants advancing in 
 growth should be shifted, stopped, and tied 
 out; but if required to bloom shortly, they 
 must not be disturbed, but merely kept in 
 shape, and plenty of water and free ventilation 
 allowed. Continue to strike bedding stock 
 for late blooming. Fuchsias, geraniums, 
 petunias, and verbenas make charming spe- 
 cimens for pot-blooming in the autumn, if 
 struck now, and kept regularly stop|)ed till 
 July. The temperature should not be high 
 for fuchsias especially, which like shade and 
 moisture. Azaleas and camellias that have 
 made their young shoots should have a little 
 more ventilation, to prepare them for the open 
 air next month to ripen their wood. Pelargo- 
 niums out of bloom should be cut in and 
 
 allowed to break before re- potting them, and 
 tho Byringo and fumigator kept in use, uh may 
 bo nccesaary, to destroy tho red Bpider and 
 green fly. Fire-heat nhould bo dinpeijBcd with 
 as far as pos.siblc, beloro clearing and cleaniog 
 out tho hou.io. 
 
 Kitchen QarJen. — Aim now at high culture 
 with all vegetable crops; stir frequently between 
 tho rows with tho hoo, to keep down weeds, 
 and supply an abundance of water and Ikjuid 
 manure. Kows of peas should be staked, and 
 those that are formed well banked up. Thin 
 parsneps and carrots to eight inches apart, and 
 go on transplanting from ueed-beds as fast as 
 the plants areof suflicient size to handle, leaving 
 tho smallest to become more vigorous before 
 removing them. For transplanting choose 
 showery weather, if possible, or else give shade 
 for a few days, and gentle watering. Flat-hoe 
 potatoes, and draw but little earth to their 
 stems. Thin out celery, and make up small 
 beds for the plants on very rich, hard ground. 
 Trenches with about six inches of rotten dung 
 forked into the bottom of each, should now be 
 made 'for celery. Look to seed-beds, and 
 transplant ; well hoe and clear the ground as 
 may be necessary. Sow beans and peas for 
 succession, and savoy for a late crop. Beet- 
 root, broccoli, cabbage, kale, kidney beans, both 
 runners and dwarfs, cucumbers, lettuces, 
 marrows, spinach, and turnips, may now be 
 put into tho open ground for a late supply. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Sowings should be made 
 of all hardy annuals required to succeed those 
 sown in March; and tender kinds, such as 
 asters, zinnias, &c., may now be sown in the 
 open ground. This is a good time to sow 
 hardy and half-hardy perennials of all kinds. 
 Tlie Chinese primula should be now sown 
 for the next spring. Lute-planted roses 
 should have an abundance of water, and the 
 surface mulched ; and similar treatment should 
 be given to hollyhocks and chrysanthemums 
 put out last month. Carnations and picotees 
 should be staked without delay, and their 
 shoots thinned. Part and plant polyanthuses 
 and primroses done blooming, and give themii 
 rich loam and a shady aspect. Koll and mow 
 grass turf frequently, to promote a fine close 
 growth ; and make everything look clean 
 and tidy, which greatly adds to the beauty 
 of the garden. 
 
CALENDAE.J 
 
 PRACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE. 
 
 [CALENDAE. 
 
 June. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Saails are now harbouring 
 ou the stalks, and among the side-shoots of 
 raspberries. Look for them every morning. 
 If large fruit is wanted, thin the blooms at 
 once, and dispense liquid manure. Dis-bud 
 and nail in. Pot trees to have plenty of 
 water; and, if weakly in their new growth, 
 give pretty strong doses of liquid manure at 
 intervals of a week each. Pinch, regulate, 
 and, where the fruit grows thick, thin it out. 
 
 Forcing Department. — If plants in flower 
 are desired to be prolonged in their beauty, 
 a shading of Shaw's tiffany or Haythorn's 
 hexagon net should be used ; the latter will 
 also exclude bees and wasps ; for flowers on 
 which bees have settled, perish sooner than 
 those to which they have no access. Cinera- 
 rias having ceased to bloom, may be propagated 
 by suckers and side-shoots ; if the plants are 
 turned out on a border, and heaped round 
 the collar with sandy loam, they will give out 
 suckers, which may afterwards be slipped off 
 with a portion of root attached. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — By this time the ground 
 will be, for the most part, entirely occupied, 
 and everything in full growth. The hoe must 
 never be idle. Next to keeping down weeds, 
 give plenty of water ; but do not drench to 
 excess plants lately put out, lest a chill should 
 check their growth. Cucumbers, gourds, 
 tomatoes, and capsicums may be put out in a 
 rich soil, giving a sunny aspect to the toma- 
 toes. Manure-water should be freely given to 
 all crops in full growth, especially to straw- 
 berries; but there should be two or three 
 waterings with plain water, to one with liquid 
 manure. Sow beet, cabbages, cauliflower, 
 endive, early horn carrots, Prench beans, 
 lettuces, radishes, spinach, scarlet runners, 
 turnips, and peas and beans. Salad plants 
 should have a shady situation, or they may 
 run to seed. In sowing peas and beans, 
 depend on the earliest sorts at this time of the 
 year, as they are soon off the ground ; but 
 Knight's Marrow and Bed man's Imperial are 
 excellent peas to sow now for late supply. 
 Dress asparagus and sea-kale beds with one 
 pound of salt to every square yard, and give 
 the asp;iragus powerful doses of liquid manure 
 from liorse-dung. 
 990 
 
 Flower Garden. — Newly-made lawns re- 
 quire a little special care at this season. 
 Carnations, pinks, and picotees, may now be 
 propagated by pipings on the north side of a 
 fence, or in pots half filled with sandy loam. 
 Ranunculuses require water frequently ; and 
 beds of valuable kinds must be screened in 
 the same way as tulips, with netting or canvas. 
 Pansies strike readily from short side-shoots; 
 the old hollow stems will also strike, but never 
 become good plants ; the new growth is that 
 to be depended on. Dahlias should be im- 
 mediately staked, if not done at the time of 
 planting, so as to avoid damage to the roots 
 when they have begun to grow. Perennials 
 should be sown for next season's blooming, 
 that strong plants may be obtained. So thin 
 in nursery beds, and prick out the plants in 
 rows as soon as they make rough leaves. 
 
 JULT. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Gooseberry and currant 
 bushes should be kept open in the centre; 
 and leave on the bush-fruits only as much 
 wood as will bear a fine crop next season. 
 Cuttings of gooseberries and currants may be 
 struck now in a moist shady border. Mulch 
 raspberries with half-rotten dung. Strawberry 
 beds should be well attended to. Strong- 
 rooted runners should be taken off to form 
 new plantations, and be pricked out into well- 
 manured beds, pretty close together. After 
 three years, strawberry beds cease to pay, and 
 should be broken up, and the ground trenched 
 for winter crops. 
 
 Forcing Department. — All green-house plants 
 require shifting for late blooming, and they 
 should be grown to a good size before allowed 
 to blossom. Cinerarias for winter blooming 
 must have good culture and shifts as required, 
 and camellias may be shifted if necessary. 
 Ericas generally require to be pruned, and 
 cleared of seed-pods and dead flowers. All 
 the ventricosas should be put into the open 
 air in a north aspect, and sheltered with spare 
 lights during heavy rain. All those with 
 woolly leaves should be put in cold pits, and 
 kept shaded at mid-day. Any not shifted in 
 the spring should be cut in at once, and as 
 soon as they break re-potted. Re-pot leschen- 
 aultias. Every kind of hard-wooded plants 
 may be re-potted now if out of bloom. 
 
CALEXnATT.] 
 
 rKACTicE OF iioiM'icci/rrKi:. 
 
 [CALENDAH. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Clear the ground, and 
 di£» it over at onco, from wliioli early crops 
 have been takon. Brusaela sprouts, kulo, 
 savojs, cabbages, broccolia, &e., bliould be 
 planted out in srrouml dci'ply dug. For wiiilor 
 spinach, seed- bods should uow bo niado up 
 and well manured, and the seed put in with- 
 out delay. In gathering French and runner 
 beans, all should bo taken or none. If seed 
 is desired, a row should be left untouched. 
 Never take green pods and seeds from the 
 same plants. Take up garlic, onions, and 
 shalots as they ripen, and store them for 
 winter. Give asparagus beds plenty of liquid 
 manure. Earth up celery for early use, and 
 plant out the main crop as soon as the ground 
 is ready. Artichokes should be cut down. 
 Hoc between all growing crops, and especi- 
 ally potatoes. Top runners, aud keep them 
 well staked. Sow the last auccession of 
 runners and French beans; also endive, 
 lettuce, peas, radish, small salads, spinach, 
 Stadtholder aud Mitchell's cauliflower, and 
 turnips. High and dry land may be planted 
 with potatoes now, for use early next spring. 
 
 Flower Garden. — The most important 
 operation this month is budding. Out of 
 doors, cuttings of all kinds may be struck; 
 including, besides the bedding of every sort 
 of plant, most kinds of hardy evergreen 
 shrubs, the young shoots of which soon make 
 roots in the sliade. Dahlias want special 
 attention as they come into bloom. Another 
 lot of pompone chrysanthemums should be 
 struck this month, under hand-glasses, to 
 make dwarf plants for the window and green- 
 house in autumn. Layer carnations, picotees, 
 and pinks ; and put pipings of the same iuto 
 a gentle bottom-heat. 
 
 August. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — To keep off the birds, nets 
 should be thrown over the fruit-bushes, and a 
 little shade given to keep a few bunches 
 hanging for a late supply. Nail in all good 
 shoots on wall trees, that they may have the 
 heat of the wall to ripen them. In dry weather 
 gather fruit; and, as a rule, not till quite 
 ripe. Plant strawberries. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Such pelargoniums 
 as have been pruned back and rested, should 
 be re-potted as soon as they have broken 
 
 regularly. Place them in the smalleat potii 
 into wliirh their roolH can bo got, so an to 
 allow of a 8erie:i of shifta till tiiey are onco 
 tnoru in their blooming- potu. Young plantH 
 and green-houao shrubs uhould bo woll liar- 
 di-ned now btforo going to their quartera for 
 the winter. Canielliaa and azaleas should 
 have plenty of sun, and little water. Summer- 
 struck geraniums, achimenea, and fuclisiaa, 
 may bo got into bloom now, in order that a 
 display may bo kept up till Christmas. 
 
 Everything that requires potting should bo 
 so done at once, as all plants get through 
 the winter best when their pots are full of roots. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Brussels sprouts, broc- 
 colis, savoys, Scotch kale, «S:c., ought now 
 to be strong; and wiiero they have been 
 planted between rows of peas, to stand the 
 winter, they should now bo looked over, and 
 every other plant taken out, to make fresh 
 rows if they are crowded. Most sorts of 
 cabbages may be sown in the second week of 
 August ; Eed Dutch, Siiilling's Queen, Sprot- 
 borough, and West Ham, ought to have a 
 place in every garden. Prickly spinach should 
 be sown on slopes in rich soil, and plenty of 
 hardy green Hammersmith and black-seeded 
 cos lettuce. Cauliflower should be got in 
 from the 7th to the 20th, to keep over winter 
 in frames. The summer-sown endive will now 
 be strong enough to plant out on slopes or 
 raised beds. Leeks should be earthed up, 
 and the rows of parsley thinned out, so as to 
 get rid of every plant not well curled. 
 
 Floicer Garden. — Bedding plants should be 
 propagated for stock. Strike verbenas and pe- 
 tunias from tlie points of young shoots ; and 
 strike calceolarias in chopped moss or peat. 
 Herbaceous plants, such as pansies, die- 
 lytras, double walls, double Canterbury 
 bells, double feverfew, and hollyhocks, 
 may also be struck in quantities to keep 
 over winter in frames. Dahlias and holly- 
 hocks should be kept well fastened, and put; 
 stakes to chrysanthemums before their heads 
 get heavy, as a protection against storms. 
 Porapones may still be struck for blooming in 
 pots. Pinks and carnations may be planted 
 out in nursery beds, in well-manured loam. 
 Give plenty of water to chrysanthemums, 
 with occasional doses of strong liquid manure. 
 Pansies may be sown, as may also most hardy 
 
 991 
 
CALENDAE.] 
 
 PEACTICE OF HOETICULTURE. 
 
 [CALEJTDAK. 
 
 annuals, to stand over winter for early bloom- 
 ing next spring. Eoses and fruit trees should 
 be budded in damp, dull weather ; they take 
 best just after heavy rain. In budding on the 
 manetti stock, enter the bud just above the 
 collar, close to the ground. 
 
 Septembee. 
 
 Fruit Garden.— \^hen the pips of apples 
 and pears have become dark in colour, it 
 is usually taken as the signal for harvesting 
 the crop ; but in looking for this sign a sound 
 fruit must be taken, not one that has been 
 pierced by an insect. Have all fruit gathered 
 with care, and stored without bruising. 
 
 Forcing Department.— T\iQ growth of all 
 hard-wooded plants should be well ripened 
 while there is plenty of sun-heat. Bedding 
 plants should be got into small pots as speedily 
 as they make good roots in the borders, or 
 can be spared from the decorative grounds, if 
 worth keeping. Keep the houses gay with 
 amaranthus bicolor, balsams, cockscombs, 
 coleus, fuchsias, gladioli, heliotropes, liliums, 
 and plants with fine foliage. 
 
 Kitclien Garden. — "Winter stock which was 
 sown last month may now be sufficiently for- 
 ward for planting out. The ground from 
 which onions have been cleared is usually the 
 best for cabbages for spring use. Winter 
 spinach should be thinned to six inches from 
 plant to plant ; also the rows of lettuce that 
 are to stand the winter. Celery should be 
 earthed up as the rows require it in dry 
 weather. Sow saladings, and gather seeds as 
 fast as they ripen. Potatoes should be taken 
 up as the tops wither; but carrots and beet- 
 root may remain till the frost cuts off the 
 foliage, no longer. Parsneps may be left in 
 the ground, to be trenched out as wanted for 
 use, unless the space is required, in which case 
 store them in sand. 
 
 Fioicer Garden. — Plant out pinks and car- 
 nations, and rooted cuttings of herbaceous 
 plants. The season has now commenced for 
 planting bulbs, but tulips should not be put 
 into the open ground till next month. This 
 and next month are the best times for strikiujr 
 calceolarias. 
 
 OCTOBEE. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Gooseberries, currants, and 
 raspberries may be moved towards the close of 
 992 
 
 this month ; and new plantations made on 
 ground deeply trenched and manured. Goose- 
 berries and raspberries need a richer soil than 
 currants ; and black currants and raspberries 
 will thrive in more marshy ground than any 
 other of the bush-fruits. Eoot-pruning and 
 planting may be commenced in the last week 
 of the month ; but root-pruning should only 
 be resorted to in cases of over-luxuriant, un- 
 fruitful trees. 
 
 Forcing Department. — House at once what- 
 ever is to be wintered under glass. Chrv- 
 santhemums ought now to be in such bloom as 
 to keep the house gay for a while ; and, as they 
 go off, fuchsias and geraniums, from summer 
 cuttings, should be got into bloom by giving 
 the plants good places and shelter from 
 di'aughts. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — In getting ready for next 
 year's crops, first trench over the ground in- 
 tended for root crops; and choose for potatoes, 
 carrots, parsneps, and beet, plots that have 
 been well manured this year. Plant out the 
 August-sown cabbage ; leaving the weakest 
 in the seed-bed for future planting. Also 
 plant out lettuce in a warm situation ; taking 
 up potatoes, carrots, beets, and parsneps. 
 Earth up celery ; lay cabbages and broccolis 
 that are forward with their heads to the north. 
 Asparagus beds should be forked over, and all 
 litter cleared away. Remove the stems with a 
 knife, and dress the crowns with manure, 
 and a little fresh mould over all. This is the 
 best time to make plantations of rhubarb for 
 next season's produce. Tomatoes, not ripe, 
 should be cut with a length of stem, and taken 
 into a warm green-house, where they will soon 
 ripen. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Chrysanthemums should 
 now be securely staked ; plants in pots 
 trained out, and made neat and tidy, for 
 blooming; give plenty of water. The bulbs 
 to be planted this month are crocuses, crowu 
 imperials, hyacinths, irises, liliums, narcissus, 
 jonquils, dafl:bdils, scillas, and early tulips. 
 For late tulips, next mouth is sufficiently early; 
 and anemones and ranunculuses are best kept 
 out of the ground till February, except in 
 places where autumn planting has been proved 
 to be congenial to them, in which case it is 
 preferable. Herbaceous spring-floweriug 
 plants may be got into the borders, to bloom 
 
CALKN D.VU.] 
 
 PKAOTICE OF IIOliTlCULTURE. 
 
 [CALENUAa. 
 
 at the same time as the bulbs, such asalyssuin, 
 urnbis, aubrietia purpurea, diolytras, ibt-ris, 
 pansios, polyauthusL-s, primulua, wullllowors, 
 &c. 
 
 NoVEMntR. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Prune and plant as weather 
 permits. Prune bush-fruits, and fork the 
 ground over botwoou the rows. Burn the 
 prunings, and strew the ashes over the ncwly- 
 Ibrked surface. Bed and white currants 1 
 should bo cut back to skeletons. Old apple | 
 trees should be scrubbed, if infested with 
 bliglit, with a strong brine, and the holes 
 stopped with a mixture of clay, sulphur, 
 soot, and cow-dung, beaten together into a 
 tenacious paste. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Begonias, camellias, 
 chrysauthemunis, iuchsias, late-struck gera- 
 niums, and salvias, will now contribute greatly 
 to the gaiety of tlie conservatory. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Wherever trenching and 
 digging are required, let it be done without 
 delay. Turf should be stacked, and the 
 clippings gathered for burning, to make 
 dressings of manure for beds and borders. 
 The general work of the kitchen garden is 
 only a continuation of last month. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Get under cover, without 
 delay, whatever is too tender to bear the 
 frost. Get up dahlias, tally, and stow them 
 away, out of the reach of frost, moisture, 
 and heat. Obtain a supply of rose stocks at 
 once, if you intend to graft or bud for yourself 
 next season. Plant in good loam, and stake 
 tbeni securely. Plant bulbs as soon as possi- 
 ble, both in beds and borders. 
 
 December. 
 
 Fruit Garden. — Old fruit trees should be 
 dug round, and a layer of old dung, six inches 
 thick, laid down in a ring, three feet round 
 the stem of each, to improve the sizo of the 
 fruit against next season. Any trees that 
 grow too luxuriantly to bear well, should bo 
 pruned at the roots. Protection to any ten- 
 der fruit trees should be given, and boards, 
 G I, 
 
 in a blope, laid over vino borders to hlulter 
 them from t-xeeMHively cold rains. Strawberry 
 beds may bo made this month; but it is not 
 a fiivourablo period for struwhcrriea. Jiush- 
 fruits Bhould bo planted, potted, pruned, and 
 manured. Gno.HL'berries and ciirrunls may bo 
 lightly forked between, to ainalganmto tho 
 uianuro with tlio Boil ; but raspberries should 
 have three or four inehea of dung, not very 
 rotten, laid over tho piece, and tho soil between 
 them should not bo dug at ail. Orchard- 
 house trees may be pruned ; and it is recom- 
 mended that they bo washed with a solution 
 of eight ounces of Giahurat to a gallon of soft 
 water. 
 
 Forcing Department. — Till after Christmas 
 chrysanthemums will keep this department gay, 
 when tho first lot of forced shrubs, especially 
 azaleas, will be ready to take their place, 
 llard-wooded plants in the green-house must 
 have as much air as the weather will permit, 
 and as little water as possible, from the expec- 
 tation of frost setting in. The thermometer 
 should not descend below .38°. Ericas should 
 have air at every opportunity ; and if forced 
 with other flowering shrubs, must have the 
 coolest place in the forcing-pit, and be very 
 gently stimulated. Greeu-house temperature, 
 40° to 45°. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Plantations of asparagus, 
 horseradish, rhubarb, and sea-kale should be 
 made. Eoots of dandelion, packed together 
 in leaf-mould, and put into gentle heat, will, 
 in five or six weeks, furnish a delicate salad. 
 Early peas and beans should now be sown on 
 warm dry slopes ; and broccoli heeled over, 
 witli their heads to the north. 
 
 Flower Gardm. — Bulbs ought to bo all 
 planted by this time ; but if any remain out 
 of the ground, they should be got in without 
 delay. I'uchsias to remain out all the winter 
 should be cut down, and their roots covered 
 with litter or coal-ashes. Pansies, pinks, 
 and other choice things in open beds, should 
 have a little light litter sprinkled over them 
 in frosty weather, or be protected with canvai 
 on hoops. Protect tulips in the same way 
 
 «JU3 
 
DIVISION XI. 
 
 THE BEE, AND TEE MANAGEMENT OF THE APIARY. 
 
 introductory; interest attached to the bee; functions of bees; numbers in a hive; 
 
 attachment' AND HOMAGE TO THE QUEEN BEE ; THE PASTURAGE OF THE BEE; PRODUCTS OF THE 
 BEE • CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBS ; THE FORMATION OF SWARMS ; THE APIARY ; DIFFERENT 
 SORTS of' hives ; SITUATION OF THE APIARY ; THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES. 
 
 Addison remarks, " shows, by his way of 
 writing, the simplicity, or rather coarseness, 
 of the age in which he lived." But, whatever 
 may be the simplicity or the coarseness of 
 his manner of writing, he has certainly been 
 highly complimentary to the virtues of the 
 bee, if we are to consider that such women as 
 his tenth species could be composed of the 
 forms, qualities, and instincts of that notable 
 insect. If so, we trust that every kind and 
 careful bee-master may have the happiness of 
 falling in with a hee-wife. 
 
 INTEREST ATTACHED TO THE BEE. 
 
 " The bee is little among such as fly ; but 
 her fruit is the chief of sweet things." This 
 is the language of the Scriptures ; and from 
 the ancients this insect has claimed a greater 
 interest than it has done among the moderns. 
 No nation upon earth has had so many 
 historians as this remarkable creature. De 
 Montfort, who drew " the portrait of the 
 honey-fly," in 1646, enumerates the authors 
 up to his time who had written upon the same 
 subject ; and they amount to between five and 
 six hundred. Varro, Columella, Celsus, and 
 Pliny have each given in their contributions 
 to the subject ; and some idea may be formed 
 of the minuteness with which they extended 
 their investigations from a passage in Co- 
 lumella, who, in speaking of the origin of 
 bees, says that Euhemerus maintained that 
 they were first produced in the island of Cos ; 
 Euthronius, in Mount Hymethus ; and Nican- 
 women, nor passes away her time with them I der, in Crete. The subject of the fourth book 
 in wanton di.-<courses. She is full of virtue | of the Georgics of Virgil, is the management 
 and prudence, and is the best wife tliat Jupiter j of bees. Their habits, economy, polity, and 
 can bestow on man." Simonides lived about } government are described with great fidelity, 
 400 years after the siege of Troy ; and, as [ and with all the charms of poetry. In David- 
 994 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Addison, in his 209th Spectator, translates 
 some of the iambics of Simonides, and tells us 
 that this poet was famous in his generation, 
 and that he is the author of the oldest satire 
 now extant. The subject of this satire is 
 woman ; and we find him stating that the souls 
 of one kind of women were formed out of 
 those ingredients which compose a swine ; a 
 second were formed out of the same materials 
 that enter into the composition of a fox ; a 
 third were made up of canine particles ; a 
 fourth were made out of the earth ; a fifth 
 were composed of the sea ; a sixth were manu- 
 factured of the ingredients which make an ass, 
 or a beast of burden ; the cat supplied the 
 materials for a seventh species of women ; the 
 mare with a flowing mane, which was never 
 broken to any servile toil and labour, composed 
 an eighth species of women; the ninth kind 
 were taken out of the ape ; and the tenth, and 
 last, sort were made out of the bee. In 
 reference to this species, Simonides says — 
 " Happy is the man who gets such an one for 
 his wife ! She is altogether faultless and un- 
 blamable. Her family flourishes and im- 
 proves by her good management. She loves 
 her husband, and is beloved by him. She 
 brings him a race of beautiful and virtuous 
 children. She distinguishes herself among 
 her sex. She is surrounded with graces. 
 She never sits among the loose tribe of 
 
THE BEE.] 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF Till- Al'IAliV. 
 
 [the hee. 
 
 son's translfition, the invocation runa — " Next proboBcia almost as lonp; as the body itaelf, 
 
 will 1 si't fortli tho lu'avouly f»irt of neri:il microscopic in its bcvituI parts, telescopic in 
 
 honey. Vouclisafe, INIax'enas, thy reganl to its mode of action ; with a «ting so iniiuitoly 
 
 this part, also, of my work. I will sing spec- sharp, that, wore it magnified by tho same 
 
 tacles to you inarvoUous of minute things ; glass whirh makes a needle's point seem a 
 
 the magnanimous leaders, tho n\aiiners and (piarter of an inch, it would yet itself bo in- 
 
 employmenls, tlie tribes and battles of tho visible, and this, too, a hollow tube ; — that all 
 
 whole race in order. My labour is u[)on an these varied operations and contrivances 
 
 humble theme; but not mean tho praise, if should bo enclosed within half an inch of 
 
 the adverse deities permit one, and Apollo in- length, and two grains of matter ; while, in 
 
 vocated, hear." Virgil, however, in this tho same small room, tho largo heart of at 
 Georgic, has proved himself a better poet than I least thirty distinct instincts is contained, is 
 
 a well-informed naturalist. 
 
 Besides the multitude of authors who have 
 written express treatises on bees, periodical 
 works have been published, confining them- 
 selves entirely to their management and 
 economy ; whilst learned societies have been 
 
 surely enough to crush all thoughts of Atheism 
 and IMaterialism," wherever such opinions 
 may bo held. 
 
 The leading feature in the history of bees, 
 and one which gives them a marked distinc- 
 tion from almost all other insects, is tho dif- 
 
 established with the sole view of conducting ferent kinds into which they are distributed, 
 researches upon this subject. The most dis- and which, to all appearance, constitutes so 
 tinguished association of this kind is the ' many difl'erent modifications of sex. First of 
 iSocjV/e </es -4ie///^5, founded upwards of half a all comes the drone, who may readily be 
 century ago, in Little Bautzen, a village in ' known from the heavy noise which he makes, 
 Upper Lausatia, under the auspices of the and from which he has received his name. 
 
 He is the " lazy, yawning drone" of Shake- 
 speare ; and is, indeed, all over the world, a 
 by-word, applied to those who are more lazy 
 than active — more sleeping than awake when 
 performing any duties that may be assigned 
 them in the several positions they may have 
 been called to occupy in life. " The drone," 
 says Butler, "is a gross stingless bee, that 
 speudeth his time in gluttony and idleness. 
 For howsoever he brave it with his round 
 velvet cap, his side gown, his full paunch, and 
 his loud voice, yet he is but an idle companion, 
 living by the sweat of others brows. He 
 worketh not at all, either at home or abroad, 
 
 Elector of Saxony. The labours of this 
 society have greatly added to the general stock 
 of knowledge on the subject of bees, 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF BEES. 
 Every reader of the Scriptures knows that 
 the Supreme Being has, in many senses, sup- 
 plied the houseless and the wanderer with 
 " wild honey," and " in a piece of honey- 
 comb," and "honey out of the stony rock;" 
 whilst, " a land flowing with milk and honey," 
 has, from the first, been the type of another 
 and a better country. The little honey- 
 maker, too, is, in itself, one of the most mar- 
 
 vellous proofs of the goodness and power of and yet spendeth as much as two labourers 
 
 the Almighty. " "Wise in their government," 
 observes Kirby, " diligent and active in their 
 employments, devoted to their young and to 
 their queen, the bees read a lecture to man- 
 kind *.hat exemplifies their Oriental name, 
 Deburah, she that speaketh.'''' — " That within 
 so small a body," says another writer, " should 
 
 you shall never find his maw without a good 
 drop of the purest nectar. In the heat of the 
 day he flieth abroad, alr*^'*" and about, and 
 that with no small noise, as though he would 
 do some great act ; but it is only for his 
 pleasure, and to get him a stomach; and then 
 returns he presently to his cheer." This lazy 
 
 be contained apparatus for converting the member is distinguished by a thicker body, a 
 
 virtuous sweets which it collects into one 
 kind of nourishment for itself; another for the 
 common brood; a third lor the royal; glue 
 lor its carpentry ; wax for its cells ; poison for 
 its enemies ; honey for its master ; with a 
 
 more flattened shape, a round head, and more 
 obtusely terminated abdomen, within which 
 are contained the male organs of generation, 
 as he is admitted to be the male of the species. 
 The queen-bee is tho next and the most dis- 
 
 995 
 
THE B£E.] 
 
 THE BEE, AND 
 
 [queek-bee. 
 
 tinguished character in a hive. In fact, she 
 reigns over her people. She is — 
 
 " First of the throng, and foremost of the whole, 
 One stands confest the sovereign of the soul." 
 
 Her embrace is said to be fatal to the 
 drones, and her power was acknowledged long 
 before her sex was known. Greeks, Latnis, 
 and Arabs invariably designate her as the 
 king ; and so does Shakespeare. 
 
 The queen-bee is, however, not a king-bee ; 
 and she is said, by an old author, "to differ 
 from the vulgar, both in shape and colour." 
 Her abdomen is of greater length, and she 
 is provided with a sting and two ovaria of con- 
 siderable size. The working bees compose 
 the third class, and are marked by the small- 
 ness of their size, the length of the proboscis, 
 the singular structure of their thighs and legs, 
 and by the seeming want of generative organs. 
 These are now set down as undeveloped 
 females. Mr. Scherach, of Little Bautzen? 
 and secretary to the Lausatian Society, has 
 proved this. It is on these creatures all the 
 laborious duties incident to tlie community 
 devolve. They are the working classes, who 
 construct the interior of their habitation ; 
 explore the fields in search of food and other 
 materials ; bring them to the hive, and apply 
 them to the purposes for which they are 
 adapted. They are also the constant- at- 
 tendants of the queen, whose wants they 
 supply ; besides being the soldiers of the 
 hive, which they defend against the attacks of 
 enemies ; so that their whole lives is a scene 
 of constant and busy occupation, from early 
 dawn till close of day, when the weather and 
 season are congenial to tlieir employments. 
 The lives of the females are chiefly occupied 
 with laying eggs, and conducting the colonies, 
 which, at certain periods, emigrate from the 
 parent hive; so that tlie drones seem to be 
 the only encumbrances upon the state. They 
 bave, however, their uses, as everything in 
 nature has. They perform the important duty 
 of impregnation ; but they perish the moment 
 they hav«! fullilled their purpose. 
 
 NUMBERS IN A HIVE. 
 
 she is entitled by the dignity of her station. 
 The nuniher of labourers, however, vary con- 
 siderably in different hives. In a strong 
 hive there are about 15,000 ; and of drones 
 about one to ten of these. This proportion, 
 though seldom exact, is rarely very much 
 exceeded or fallen short of. According to 
 Dr. Bevan, a single family, where swarming 
 is prevented, will sometimes amount to 50,000 
 or G0,000. A writer observes, upon the 
 strength of a hive, that the drones, even in 
 the spring, seldom compose more than one- 
 thirtieth or one-fortieth of the whole ; and at 
 other seasons there are none to be found in 
 the hive. " In order to form an estimate of 
 the number of bees which can occupy a certain 
 space, Mr. Hunter counted what number of 
 drowned bees could be contained in an ale- 
 house pint, and found it to be 2,1G0; so that 
 if a swarm were to fill two quarts, their 
 numbers would be nearly 9,000. Keaumur, 
 with the same view of -ascertaining their 
 numbers, employed the more accurate method 
 of weighing them. He found that a collec- 
 tion of them weighing one ounce, consisted of 
 330 bees ; and, therefore, that sixteen ounces, 
 or one pound, would consist of 5,376 bees." 
 
 ATTACHMENT AND HOMAGE TO THE 
 QUEEN-BEE. 
 
 The sole province and occupation of the 
 queen of a hive is to lay eggs, which, in the 
 height of the season, she does at the rate of 
 200 a day. If the weather be particularly warm 
 and favourable, she will lay even more than 
 that ; and continue to do so, tliough at a 
 gradually diminishing rate, till the approach 
 of cold weather in October. " So early as 
 February she resumes her labours in the same 
 department, and supplies the great blank 
 made in the population by the numerous 
 casualties that take place between the end of 
 summer and the commencement of spring. 
 Her great laying of the eggs of workers begins 
 generally about the fifth day of her age ; and 
 she continues to deposit eggs of the same kind 
 for the succeeding eleven months ; after which 
 she commences laying those of males." In 
 
 the operation of laying the queen puts her 
 
 In a hive there is usually only one perfect ' head into a cell, and remains in that position 
 
 queen existing at a time, and she receives all not more than a couple of seconds ; after which 
 
 the honour, deference, and affection to which 
 
 996 
 
 she withdraws her head, curving her body 
 
qi-i:f.n'-dee.] the ]\I AN AGEMENT OF TIFK Al'IAliY. [qi'EKit.ijee. 
 
 dowiuvards; inserts her abdomen into tliocell, 
 and turns half round on liersselt*. In a I'l'W 
 Beconii.s the vi;^!; is safely deposited in tlio ci-ll, 
 wlien she witluiraws ber body, and thus pasacs 
 on from cell to cell. Wliilst she ia making 
 this progress she is the subjeet of the most 
 maikod attention of the workers. Thev show 
 their alloction for her by caressing her with 
 
 death of one of the combatants. This mutual 
 enmity is an inborn dispusition with them. 
 No sooner has the tjueeu-bee in o hive thrown 
 off a second swarm, and escaped frotn her own 
 cradle, than she iiurries away in search of her 
 rival, and, with tho moat impetuous eager- 
 ness, uses every exertit)n to destroy her. 
 To rehearse tho many stories which have 
 
 their antennro, and occasionally supplying her been told of the attachment and homage which 
 
 with food from their probosees, " t)n one oc- 
 casion," says the writer of the article on the 
 bee, in the I^^utitralist's Library, " we gave her 
 subjects an opportunity of testifying their 
 courar/c in her defence, as well as their affec- 
 tion and zeal. Observing her laying eggs in 
 the comb next to the glass of the hive, wo 
 gently but quietly opened the pane, and en- 
 deavoured to seize ber. But no sooner did 
 
 the working bees show to their queen, would 
 be endless. One or two must sullice. In 
 the notes to l)r. Evans' poem of The Bees, 
 we find the following affecting anecdote: — 
 "A queen, in a thinly-peopled hive, lay on a 
 iioneycomb, apparently dyijig; six woikerj 
 surrounded her, seemingly in intent regard, 
 quivering their wings as if to fan lier, and 
 with extended stings, as if to keep off in- 
 
 Ihe removal of the glass afford room (while traders and assailants. On presenting tliem 
 shut, it was almost in contact with her back), honey, though it was eagerly devoured by the 
 and before we could accomplish our purpose, other bees, the guards were so completely 
 they threw their bodies upon her, to the absorbed in their mournful duty, as entirely to 
 number of, at least, a hundred, and formed a disregard the proffered banquet. The follow- 
 cone over her of such magnitude, that she ing day, the queen, though lifeless, was still 
 could not be less than two inches distant from surrounded by her guard; and this faithful 
 any part of the surface. We dispersed the , band of attendants, as well as the other mem- 
 mass with our finger, and got hold of her : bers of the family, remained at their post till 
 precious person, and kftpt looking at her for | death came kindly to extinguish both their 
 some minutes before we restored the captive affections and their grief; for though con- 
 to her alarmed defenders. It is remarkable stantly supplied with honey, not a bee re- 
 that this violence was not resented by them : mained alive at the end of the four days." 
 though they coursed over our hands in scores This is an extraordinary instance of bee de- 
 while we kept hold of their mistress, not one votedness ; and, we presume, is not common, 
 individual used its sting. The all-engrossing i We can give, i'rom another writer, an instance 
 object was the queen." The same writer of an opposite kind. It is in the case of a 
 remarks, that bees may be even roughly hive which, having early exhausted its store, 
 handled without danger of being stung when was found, on being examined one morning, 
 they are swarming. Then, being only intent to be utterly deserted: the comb was empty; 
 on securing a habitation for themselves and \ and the only symptom of life was the poor 
 
 their sovereign, they seem incapable of enter- 
 taining, at the same moment, two diflerent 
 ideas, and their natural irritability is not 
 awakened to exertion. There is one striking 
 
 queen herself, " unfriended, melancholy, slow," 
 crawling over the honeyless cells — a sad spec- 
 tacle of the fall of bee greatness. The writer 
 thinks that Marius among the ruins of Car- 
 
 feature in the natural history of queen-bees ; thage, or Napoleon I. at Fontainebleau, was 
 and that is, the hatred which they have for nothing to this. In reference to the homage 
 each other. Queen Elizabeth's to Mary, Queen I which they show their queen, if we are to 
 of Scots, was as nothing to it, notwithstanding believe Sydserff, it would appear, that " when- 
 
 that it stimulated the English lady to take otF 
 the head of her fairer cousin. When two 
 queen- bees in a hive happen to emerge from 
 their cells at the same time, a pitched battle 
 
 ever the queen goes forth to take the air, as 
 she often does, many of the small bees attend 
 upon her, guarding her before and behind. 
 By their sound I have known when her ma- 
 
 takes place, which is only terminated bv the jcsty has been coming forth, and have had 
 
 997 
 
THE BEB.] 
 
 THE BEE, AND 
 
 [the BEB 
 
 time to call persons who bave been desirous 
 of seeiug her." These are human rather than 
 insect cliaraeteristics ; although similar anec- 
 dotes are well attested by other authorities. 
 
 THE PASTURAGE OF THE BEE. 
 
 Eor the pliysiohgy of the bee, we must refer 
 the reader to such works as specially treat 
 upon that branch of the subject, our space 
 being insufficient to enter upon it at length : 
 we must, therefore, confine ourselves to the 
 more practical management of the bee, and 
 such portions of the subject as may be sup- 
 posed to be more desired to be known by the 
 common keeper of a hive or an apiary. In 
 noticing what is necessary to the nourishment 
 of bees, we may observe that their food con- 
 sists chiefly of two kinds — the fluid secretions 
 of vegetables contained in the nectarea of the 
 flowers, and the dust of the autherse, which 
 has been designated by botanists, the pollen ; 
 but which, when collected by the bees, has 
 received a variety of names, such as farina, 
 raw wax, bee-bread, and others. Occasionally, 
 however, we find bees feeding upon other sac- 
 charine substances besides honey, such as 
 honey-dew, treacle, syrup, &e. A large quan- 
 tity of ink has been consumed by writers who 
 have treated of the poisonous eff'ects of some 
 plants, not only upon the honey, but sometimes 
 upon the bees themselves. Every classic 
 schoolboy will be able to recall the narrative 
 which Xenophon gives of the effects produced 
 upon the Ten Thousand, by the honey of which 
 they partook in the neighbourhood of Trebi- 
 zond. The soldiers were affected in propor- 
 tion to the quantities they had taken. Some 
 seemed drunk; some mad; and some even died 
 the same day. This quality in the honey has 
 been referred by Pliny, and some others, to 
 the poisonous nature of the rhododendron, of 
 which there is an abundant crop in those 
 parts. But this is not to be believed ; for it 
 has been found that the honey in this country 
 is not aftVcted in districts whepe the rhodo- 
 dendron abounds ; nor, indeed, is the common 
 bee ever observed to settle on its flowers. 
 
 If we are to nourish or cherish bees, of 
 course the pasturage on which they are to 
 fi!cd ought to be one of our first considerations. 
 Yet we have heard of a man who kept bees on 
 the top of his house in Ilolborn ; and wishiu'^ 
 9Uy ° 
 
 to find out where they pastured, he sprinkled 
 them all with a red powder as they came forth 
 from the hive in the morning. He then set 
 off to Hampstead, deeming it the nearest as 
 well as the best bee-pasture in the neighbour- 
 hood of London; and what was his delight 
 at beholding, amongst the crowds of other bees 
 some of his own, carrying upon their indus- 
 trious persons the marTcs of his own ingenuity, 
 by which they were to be singled out from 
 the others. The apiary of Bonner, a great bee 
 observer, was placed in a garret, in the centre 
 of the city of Glasgow ; and that of Mr. 
 Payne, the author of The Bee-Jceepei-'' s Guide, 
 was placed in the middle of a large town. It 
 is conclusive, then, that the industrial popula- 
 tions of these hives would have to fly over the 
 chimney-tops in order to get to the fields ; 
 and if there was plenty of Dutch clover (some- 
 times called honeysuckle) in them, they would 
 be sure of making a good honey year. This 
 is one of their favourite flowers, the red clover 
 being too deep ; for the proboscis of the com- 
 mon bee is not so useful to it aa it is 
 generally thought to be. There have been 
 made many lists of bee-flowers, and of such 
 as are deemed suitable for planting round the 
 apiary. It has been suggested that mig- 
 nonette, borage, bugloss, rosemary, lavender, 
 the crocus for the early spring, and the ivy 
 flowers for the late autumn, might assist in 
 making up a pretty bee-garden. Pliny recom- 
 mends thyme, apiaster, violets, roses, and lilies. 
 There is no doubt that the prevalent flower 
 of a district will flavour the honey. The fine 
 honey of the Isle of Bourbon will taste for 
 years of the orange-blossoms, from which, we 
 understand, it is gathered ; and, on opening 
 a bottle of it, the room will be filled with the 
 perfume. The same is the case with the honey 
 of Malta. Corsican honey is said to be 
 flavoured by the box-tree ; and honey has 
 been pronounced utterly valueless, from its 
 having been gathered in the neighbourhood 
 of onion-fields. Dr. Bevan suggests that 
 lemon-thyme should be used as an edging for 
 garden-walks and flower-beds, instead of box, 
 thrift, or daisies ; but we think, on the whole, 
 it little matters to the bee what flowers 
 are placed in the garden, as it is too much of 
 a wanderer to confine itself to such an arti- 
 ficial spot. It is in the wild tracta of heath 
 
TOE C0MIJ3.] THE MANAOKMENT OK TIIH Al'lAKV. 
 
 [sWAItMINO, 
 
 and furze, the lime avoduos, the clover 
 
 meadows, and tlio broad acres of beaii-nolda 
 ill which it tinda its delij^ht, aud from which it 
 cuUa the sweets with which it stores its colls. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBS. 
 
 Boos almost invariably commence building 
 their combs from the top, contiuuinu; it down- 
 ward, as far as they have room; and iinishiiig 
 it oil" at the bottom in a somewhat irrej^ular 
 curved line. Each comb possesses a double 
 set of honey-cells, dos-ii-dos, in a horizontal 
 position. These are the receptacles of the 
 eggs which tlie queen lays, and which are con- 
 structed, not with propolis, but with wax. To 
 sustain them iu common straw hives, cross- 
 sticks are employed, round which the labours 
 of the bees are carried on, so tliat the comb 
 is often almost laid in ruins in detaching it 
 from these wooden supports. This circum- 
 stance, however, has, in a great measure, been 
 obviated by fixing a small piece of comb under 
 several removable bars, and inducing the bees 
 to work upon them. Huber, we believe, was 
 the first to accomplish this. He fixed a small 
 piece of comb under each of the bars, exactly 
 parallel. The bees then followed their leader, 
 so tliat any one of the pendant combs could be 
 lifted upon the bar : this again replaced, and 
 the bees once more set to work. This point, 
 from which they commence their operations, is 
 called the guide-comb ; and the hive itself, 
 though somewhat modified, is the same as 
 that of the Greek islands. In constructing 
 the combs, it is observed, in the Naturalist's 
 Library, that the two classes of tcax-icorkers 
 and nurse-lees have tlieir separate and distinct 
 provinces. " That of the former is to supply 
 the rough materials, and attach them coarsely 
 together; and that of the latter to finish aud 
 perfect the edifice. And while these last are 
 occupied in this more refined operation of 
 finishing and polishing, the former, like in- 
 dustrious labourers, are continually bringing 
 forward additional loads of materials. One 
 comb is scarcely begun, or contains not more 
 than two or three rows of cells, when the busy 
 architects proceed to lay the foundations of 
 two others, one on each side of that already 
 founded ; continuing their operations in this 
 manner till they have taken in the whole 
 range of their building ground ; and with such 
 
 diligence do thoy ply their labouru, that in 
 one day they will construct no fewer than 
 4,000 cells. A comb mcaaures, in thicknesH, 
 generally one incii ; and tlio iutorval bctwicu 
 them is about ont'-third of an incli, allordiiig 
 a passage for two bees, back to back, without 
 obstruction or inconvenience. These dimen- 
 sions, however, are varied according to circum- 
 stances." 
 
 Tin: FORMATION OF SWARMS. 
 The breeding season of the bee begins about 
 the end of January, or early in Pi-bruury, and 
 continues throughout the summer with con- 
 stantly augmenting progress and activity. The 
 population, therefore, increases with amaz- 
 ing rapidity ; and the heat of the hive 
 rises to such a degree, as to be frequently 
 above 100". This, doubtless, coupled with 
 the want of accommodation, hastens the 
 swarming, although the jealousy and out- 
 rageously destructive propensities of the royul 
 mother is said to be another of the prin- 
 cipal causes. The commencement of the 
 swarming season is iu spring, as no swarm will 
 ever take place while the weather is cold, or 
 until the hive is well stocked with pggs of 
 every description. The queen, in consequence 
 of the vast number of eggs she has parted 
 with, is now more slender than she was, and 
 better adaped to make an excursion through 
 the air. " Her aversion to the royal brood 
 which she seems to foresee will in no long time 
 become able to dispute the throne w ith her, and 
 the vain attempts she makes to destroy them 
 in the cradle, in which she is invariably re- 
 pelled by the bees who guard them, produce 
 in her a constant restlessness and agitation, 
 which, as Huber represents it, rises to a degree 
 of delirium." This frenzy acts upon the 
 workers ; a tumultuous noise resounds through 
 the hive, and everything gives token of a 
 change. This occurs a few days before the 
 swarm actually takes wing, whilst provisions 
 are being collected in larger quantity by the 
 workers. Mr. Knight, in the Fhilosophical 
 Transactions, gives a curious account of their 
 manoeuvres about this time. In the cavity of 
 a hollow tree, which, by the application of a 
 board, had been fitted up for the reception of 
 the swarms, ho constantly observed, "that 
 about fourteen days previous to their arrival, 
 
 1)09 
 
8WAEMINO.] 
 
 THE BEE, AND 
 
 [the apiaet. 
 
 a small number of bees, varying from twenty 
 to fiftj, were every day employed in examin- 
 log, and, apparently, in keeping possession of 
 the cavity ; for, if molested, they showed 
 evident signs of displeasure, though they never 
 employed their stings in defending their pro- 
 posed habitation. Their examination was not 
 confined to the cavity, but extended to the 
 external parts of the tree above : every dead 
 knot particularly arrested their attention, as 
 if they had been apprehensive of being injured 
 by moisture, which this might admit into the 
 cavity below; and they, apparently, did not 
 leave any part of the bark near the cavity 
 unexamined. A part of the colony which pi'o- 
 posed to emigrate, appeared, in this case, to 
 have been delegated to search for a proper 
 habitation ; and the individual who succeeded, 
 must, apparently, have had some means of 
 conveying information of his success to others ; 
 for it cannot be supposed that fifty bees should 
 each accidentally meet at and fix on the same 
 cavity, at a mile distant from their hive, which 
 Mr. Knight has frequently observed them to 
 do, in a wood where several trees were adapted 
 for their reception ; and, indeed, he observed 
 that they almost uniformly selected that cavity 
 which he himself thought was the best adapted 
 for their use. It not unfrequently happened 
 that swarms of his own bees took possession 
 of these cavities ; and such swarms were, in 
 several instances, followed from his garden to 
 the trees ; and they were observed to deviate 
 very little from the direct line between the one 
 point and the other, which seems to indicate 
 that those bees who iiad formerly acted as pur- 
 veyors now became guides." 
 
 The first settlement of a swarm is, doubt- 
 less, merely a spot, or place of rendezvous 
 anterior to the emigation that is to establish 
 them. If they are not hived they will soon 
 take flight, and in a direct line, for some 
 locality which their instinct has previously 
 marked out as suitable for their accommoda- 
 tion. They have been known to make straight 
 for an old hollow pollard, the only one to be 
 found within a mile or two of the hive. The 
 first swarm is invariably accompanied by the 
 old queen, who, on this occasion, looks out for 
 a fine day, as she has a strong aversion to 
 leaving home in bad or disagreeable weather. 
 I'ur after-awarms, it would appear, she is 
 1000 
 
 not so particular. If the first swarm sends 
 
 forth a colony the same year, it is the same 
 
 queen who places herself at the head of her 
 
 wandering subjects, in the settlement of which 
 
 she takes a truly parental interest. In 
 
 descanting on this part of our subject, a 
 
 writer says, that "there seems to be an 
 
 unerring method by which the exact time 
 
 when the first swarm will leave the hive can 
 
 be determined — their hanginsr from the en- 
 
 F. 
 trance being very fallacious — except by 
 
 watching the genei'al state of things ■within. 
 With the after-swarms, however, there is a 
 most curious and certain sign in the * piping' 
 or ' trumpeting' of the queen and the prin- 
 cesses. About the ninth day from the issue 
 of the first swarm, if another colony is about 
 to leave the hive, this singular duet, in most 
 regular intonation, between the emerged queen 
 and the princess still a prisoner in her cell, is 
 heard ; and extravagant as the account may 
 seem, and confused and embellished as it has 
 been from the times of Aristotle and Virgil, 
 till recent days, it is now the practical sign by 
 which every attentive bee-keeper judges of 
 the time of emigration of the after-swarms. 
 The second swarm is called a 'cast ;' the third, 
 a ' smart ;' and the fourth, a ' pquib.' A swarm 
 from a swarm is called a 'maiden' or 'virgin' 
 swarm, and the honey is reckoned more pure. 
 It seldom, howevei', happens that there are 
 more than two from the same hive, except in 
 some very fine bee-years ; and there are, on au 
 average, two good years in every ten." 
 
 THE APIARY. 
 The objects whicb 0UL,ht to be chiefly 
 attended to in the construction of an apiary 
 are various, and should be constantly kept in 
 the view of the bee-master whilst engaged in 
 the important task of making a domicile for 
 his insects. Tlie first is the security and mul- 
 tiplication of colonies ; the augmentation of 
 their productive labour; the obtaiument of 
 their products with ease and certainty, and 
 with the smallest possible injury to the stock. 
 Besides these primary objects, the apiary 
 should give to its inmates the best possible 
 shelter against moisture and the extremes of 
 heat and cold ; but more especially against 
 sudden changes of temperature. It should 
 also be a principal means of protection against 
 
niV£3.] 
 
 Til E 31 A N A r. !•: M K N r ( ) F T 1 1 l' A V 1 A K V . 
 
 [HITES. 
 
 their enemies, and furnish them with every j and twelve inches in diameter, is applied to 
 facility for the construction of tlicir combs, I the uppermost storfy, maJo faat to tlio hivo 
 and the roarinj:; of their juvonilo brooda. It with a packinj^-ncollo and thread, and care- 
 should, likewise, admit of every part of the ' fully luted. IJeforo it is put on, a piece of 
 combs being occasionally seen, and bo capable clean paper, of the •<aino dimensions as the 
 of being removed when required; and it ' top of tho hive, Hhould bo laid over the barn, 
 
 should be made of materials that are durable. 
 In the construction of hives, nuu-h ingenuity 
 has been, from time to time, exerted by apia- 
 rians, who have laboured to unite, in the 
 gre itest possible degree, all tliese advantages ; 
 
 to prevent the bees from working in the inter- 
 vening »[)aces. 
 
 Besides the above, there is the Crecian hive, 
 as used in the Greek islands, and Bometimes 
 called the Candiote hivo. It is shaped like a 
 
 but success to that extent, so far as wo are flower-pot, and has a flat cover, adapted to the 
 
 aware, has not yet been attained. It would same purpose as that described in WiMman'a 
 
 be impossible, as, indeed, it is unnecessary, for hive, lluish adopted it, with some additit)nal 
 
 us to describe all the diflerent sorts of hives apparatus. There is also Lombard's hive, 
 
 which have been constructed for the bee; but which is, to some extent, a storeycd one, but 
 
 those made of straw, we believe, are generally dillering from others of that kind in having 
 
 preferred, on account of their being less liable its upper Biurey less than half the capacity of 
 
 to over-heating by the solar rays, and likewise the body of tlie hive. Whatever may be the 
 
 of easier purchase, from their lowness of price, merits of these hives, however, a decided pre- 
 
 They also possess the merit of kee[)ing out ference has been given to AVildman's, botli as 
 
 the cold better than other hives of greater pre- regards the material of which it is made, and 
 
 tensions. Of sfraio hives, notwithstanding the the mode of its construction. It is said to 
 
 imperfections of those of the common bell- preserve a constant equability of temperature, 
 
 shape, there are many in use, because they and to enable the operator to practise the 
 
 coat little, and are easily made ; and be- method of partial deprivation. Into the 
 
 cause there is no great skill required in the respective merits of bee-boxes and straw hives 
 
 handling of them. They ought, however, to we will not enter ; but we may briefly describe 
 
 be globularly shaped, having the third of their the hive invented by the celebrated Huber, 
 
 diameter cut away. This would make them and called by him the book or leaf-hive. In 
 
 concentrate, and retain the heat better, and 
 thereby accelerate the hatching of the eggs, on 
 the success of which so much depends. 
 
 DIFFERENT SORTS OF HIVES. 
 "Wildman's storeyed straw hive is, by many, 
 
 the bee volume of the Katuralisi's Library, it 
 is spoken of aa possessing " more valuable 
 properties, taken as a whole, than any other 
 we are acquainted with," It is thus described 
 — " The leaf-hive consists of eight frames, each 
 eighteen inches high (English measure), and 
 preferred to modern hives made on the same ten inches wide inside, having the uprights 
 plan. It consists of two or more storeys, each and top cross-pieces one-and-a-half inch broad, 
 seven inches in height, and ten in diameter, and one inch thick ; so that the eight frames, 
 There is a hoop of about half an inch in when placed close together, constitute a hive 
 breadth in the upper row of straw ; and to eighteen inches high, twelve inches between 
 this hoop are fastened six or seven wooden end and end, and ten inches between back and 
 spars, each one-fourth of an inch thick, and front — all inside measure. The frames are held 
 one-aiid-a-quarter of an inch broad, and half together by a flat slidiug-bar, on each side 
 an inch apart from each other. To these secured by wedges and pins. To the first and 
 bars the bees attach their combs. That eighth of these frames is attached a frame 
 greater steadiness may be given to tiie combs, with glass, and covered with a shutter. The 
 to prevent their being broken or deranged , body of the hive is protected by a sloping 
 when the hive is moved, a rod is run tiirough ! roof, and the entrance is made through the 
 
 the middle of it, in a direction across the bars, thickness of the floor-board la 
 
 or at angles with them. A flat cover of straw, taking honey from this hive, the bee-master 
 worked of the same thickness as the hives, has the whole interior completely under his 
 6 M 1001 
 
THE APIAET.] 
 
 THE BEE AND THE APIAEY. 
 
 [situation, etc. 
 
 eye 
 
 d at his disposal, and can choose what 
 combs besb suit bis purpose, both as to 
 quantity and quality ; taking care, however, to 
 do 80 only at such periods as will leave the 
 bees time to replenish the vacancy before the 
 termination of the summer season. It is also 
 well adapted for artificial swarming. By 
 separating the hive into two halves, the honey, 
 brood-combs, and bees, will, generally speak- 
 ing, be equally divided; and by supplying 
 each half with four empty frames, we shall 
 have two hives (one half empty), equal in 
 number of bees, of brood, and even of stores. 
 One of the new hives will possess the queen ; 
 and if the operation has been performed at 
 the proper time — that is to say, a week or ten 
 days before the period of natural swarming — 
 the probability is, there will be royal brood 
 coming forward in the other ; at all events, 
 there will be plenty of eggs and larvse of the 
 proper age for forming an artificial queen." 
 For descriptions and diagrams of other hives, 
 we must refer the reader to more extended 
 treatises on this part of our subject, and also 
 to the bee volume of the Naturalisf s Library. 
 
 SITUATION OF THE APIARY. 
 
 The " house of bees" should face the south, 
 with perhaps a slight turn towards the east, 
 and should be protected from the north and 
 prevailing winds. It should not be placed at 
 too great a distance from the dwelling, lest its 
 inhabitants become wary of man ; nor should 
 it be too near, lest they feel themselves dis- 
 turbed by him. Its entrance should be 
 crossed by no paths, nor should the homeward 
 flight of the laden bees be intercepted by 
 bushes or high trees. A quiet, retired spot, 
 in low ground, is better than an elevated 
 situation. Dr. Bevan says — " Excepting in 
 peculiarly sheltered nooks, an apiary w'ould 
 not be well situated near a great river, nor in 
 the neighbourhood of the sea, as, in windy 
 weather, the bees would be in danger of 
 drowning from being blown into the water. 
 . . . . Yet it should not be far from a 
 rivulet or spring : such streams as glide gently 
 over pebbles are the most desirable, as tliese 
 afford a variety of resting-places for the bees 
 to light upon. . . . AVater is most im- 
 portuut to them, particularly in the early part 
 of the season. Let shallow troughs, therefore 
 1002 ' 
 
 never be neglected to be set near the hives, if 
 no natural stream is at hand." In the Isle of 
 Wio"ht, the people have a notion that every 
 bee goes down to the sea to drink twice a 
 day; and they are often seen to imbibe of the 
 farm-yard pool, although clearer water may be 
 near. It is thence supposed that a small 
 piece of rock-salt might be of service to these 
 winged insects, on the same principle that it 
 acts favourably upon the bovine stock of the 
 grazier, 
 
 THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES. 
 
 In order to obtain possession of the hoarded 
 treasures of the bee, it was long deemed neces- 
 sary to destroy it. The following simple 
 method, however, has been adopted, as it ia 
 described by a writer in the latest edition of 
 the Encydopcedia JBritannica : — "Uncover the 
 hole in the upper centre of a flat-lopped straw 
 hive or box, and place a glass vessel over it in 
 such a way that no bee can get either in or 
 out, except by the ordinary opening of the 
 lower hive. The glass hive must be covered 
 with an empty hive, or with a cloth, that too 
 much light may not prevent the bees from 
 working. As soon as they have filled the 
 straw hive or box, they will begin to work up 
 into the glass hive." Mr. Thorley made the 
 addition of a glass window to his hives, that 
 he might witness the progress which his bees 
 made ; and which was of some consequence, 
 particularly if one hive was to be taken away 
 before the season was over for their collect- 
 ing honey ; for when the combs are filled 
 with honey, the cells are sealed up, when the 
 bees forsake them, and live mostly in the hive 
 where their operations are carried on. 
 
 Eor the purpose of uniting swarms, and 
 also for artificial swarming, chloroform has 
 been applied with success. It is also used for 
 the purpose of taking the honey from the 
 hive. A quarter of an ounce, placed in a 
 saucer, covered with a perforated card, or with 
 wire gauze, should be placed on the board of 
 the hive, and all apertures carefully closed. 
 In about half a minute the bees will have 
 fallen completely under its influence; and, on 
 the admission of air, after fifteen or twenty 
 minutes have elapsed, they will be restored to 
 their functions, and the capacity of using 
 their wings. 
 
1)1 VISION X I I. 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 ANOtTXr. APPARATrS; Rons; LINES; hooks; AKTIKICIAL FLIES; BAITS FOR ANOLINO ; THE RALMOR ^ 
 THE COMMON KlVini TKolT; THE (JKKAT LAKE TK'iUT; THE «RAYI.IN<i; THE I'IKK FAMILY; THB 
 CAHl' FAMILY ; THE COMMON CARP ; THE BREAM ; THE TENCH ; THE BAKIIEL ; THE (Hill ; THE UA<'E ; 
 THE ROACH; THE BLEAK; THE GUDOEON J THE MINNOW; THE LOACH; THE EEL FAMILY; THB 
 COMMON EEL ; THE PERCH ; CONCLUSION. 
 
 I with fine j)oint9, small pliers, wax and needles, 
 
 ANGLING APPARATUS. I ^3 aH these are necessary to his thoroUL;h 
 
 An angler, to be well equipped, requires to equipment for practising his art with pleasure, 
 
 carry many things about him. The most i 
 
 . . • RODS 
 
 necessary articles consist of rods, lines, reels, 
 
 hooks, baskets, and landing-nets. Besides Numerous are the kinds of rods which have 
 
 these, he must have a stock of different kinds been invented for angling; but, in pureliasing 
 
 of feathers, such as those which are denomi- ! this instrument, the nature of the fishing 
 
 nated hackles, and which are taken from the | intended to be pursued should enter first 
 
 necks and backs of common poultry, as well as into consideration. To show the necessity of 
 
 from the wings of woodcocks, rails, snipes, 
 plovers, grouse, partridges, chicks, and others. 
 He must also carry with him some of the furs 
 of animals. The most useful of these are 
 such as are taken from squirrels, hares, mar- 
 tins, moles, mice, and water-rats. The hackles 
 which anglers hold in highest favour are the 
 duns; but since the introduction of Spanish 
 poultry, black hackles have come into use. 
 Christmas is the most suitable time to pluck 
 the hackles from their owners ; but, inde. 
 pendent of these, the feathers of the peacock, 
 and of other showy birds, are sometimes useful. 
 The sea-trout and the salmon are attracted by 
 
 this, we may mention that there is a special 
 kind of rod for fly-fishing, bottom-fishins:, and 
 a trolling-rod ; there are also the single and 
 double-handed rod, the bag-rod, the cane and 
 the wood, and the walking-stick rod, with a 
 great many more smaller varieties. The 
 general rod, however, is the most convenient 
 for the young practitioner, or for use when 
 travelling in localities where there is no cer- 
 tainty as to the sort of fisli tliat may be taken. 
 According to Colonel Hanker, a trout rod 
 should be about twelve feet tliree inches 
 long, and about fourteen ounces in weight. 
 It must not be top-heavy, nor must it have 
 
 the gaudy plumage of the parrot, and those too much play in the lower p;irt ; but the play 
 of other tropical birds, deeming them, under | should be just in proportion to the gradual 
 the deceptive forms of flies, no doubt, exotic ; tapering, by which there will be very little 
 morsels of great delicacy. Silks are ai.other I spring till after about the third foot of its 
 necessary with which the angler cannot dis- length. It is difllcult to determine the exact 
 pense. The first of these is what is called degree of pliancy which a fly-rod should have ; 
 Barber's silk, which is used double for splicing but a stiff rod is worse than a pliant one, and 
 the top-pieces of rods ; the second is not so never can be used advantngeously. The fly- 
 strong, its use being to fasten on the rings fishers, both of Scotland and Ireland, use more 
 through which the line on the reel runs; the flexible rods than those of England ; and many 
 third consists of fine nettinir silk for dressing of the sportsmen of these countries are fan.ons 
 flies and whipping hooks. Besides these the for their piscatory feats. Christopher North 
 auo-ler should carrv with him a pair of scissors is one example. 
 
 1003 
 
HOOKS.] 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 [aetificial flies. 
 
 LINES. 
 
 The lines of tlie angler are either composed 
 of the gut of the silkworm, or of silk and hair 
 combined, horsehair, cow-hair, and also of 
 Indian and other grasses. They are either 
 purchased or made by anglers themselves ; but 
 the lines of the tackle-makers are generally 
 reputed the best. The hair-line is de- 
 scribed, by Mr. Daniel, as requiring much 
 knowledge in procuring the materials of wliich 
 it is to be composed. The hair should be 
 taken from " a young, healthy, grey, or white 
 stallion," from the middle of the tail, and it 
 should be of "a pale, transparent, water 
 colour." He adds, that hair must not 
 be touched with oil, or it will become hollow 
 and rotten. This, however, is doubted ; but 
 who would take all this trouble, when a better 
 line could be purchased for half the value of 
 even the time it would take to make one our- 
 selves ? Many artists, however, prefer making 
 their own tackle, not with the view of saving 
 time and expense, but from the pleasure which 
 it gives to tish with that which is of their own 
 manufacture. 
 
 The single-hair line is used by many of our 
 best anglers, at bottom, for roach, dace, and 
 other j^.'ze fishing. On the advantages of this 
 sort of line, Mr. Salter, in hvi Angler's Guide, 
 speaks at large; but we may state, that, as a 
 general rule, of whatever material a line is 
 made, if it is not already of the colour of the 
 water usually fished in, it should be dyed to that 
 colour. 
 
 HOOKS. 
 The principal hooks made use of by the 
 practical English angler, come under the 
 denominations of the Limerick, the Kendal, 
 the Sneak bend, and the K.rby. To trace the 
 progressive history of these little instruments, 
 from the primitive simplicity of their invention 
 up to their present perfected state, might be 
 interesting, but it could not be useful. AVe 
 will, therefore, briefly state, that upoa the 
 quality of the material of which they are 
 made, much of the success of the angler 
 depends. Mr. Blaine observes, that " every 
 fish-hook should be manufactured of a proper 
 temper:" by which he means, that it should 
 be capable of resisting all ordinary force 
 lOOi 
 
 applied, without snapping, and be tempered so 
 equally that it will not snap. Each hook 
 should be kept separately in the flannel with 
 which the hook-book should be furnished, 
 whether the hook be giraped, or gutted, or 
 naked. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FLIES. 
 
 To describe all the artificial flies used by 
 the angler would occupy a large space; but a 
 iew of the most popular must not be omitted. 
 Those who wish for a fuller list, may consult 
 the F/i/-ftsJiers Entomology, by Alfred Eonalds ; 
 or Blaine's Eticyclopcedia of Rural Sports. 
 The first we shall speak of is the Black Gnat, 
 which appears about the end of April. It 
 should be made of the light part of the wing- 
 feather of any dun-coloured bird, and should 
 be dressed thick and short. The tail should 
 be of mohair, or black ostrich, which is pre- 
 ferable. Trout, as well as grayling, will 
 occasionally rise to this fly, even so early as 
 February and March. Besides the Black 
 Gnat, there are the Alder, or Eed-fly ; the 
 Dark Dun ; the Blue Dun ; the Black Palmer 
 Hackel; the March Brown, and several 
 others. The wings of this last are formed 
 from the mottled feathers of the tail of a 
 partridge ; the body consists of the fur of a 
 hare's ear, mixed with a little yellow worsted ; 
 the legs are a grizzled hackle. This fly con- 
 tinues to the end of April. According to 
 Mr. Baiiibridge, author of the Fly-Jisliers 
 Guide, this fly may be used during mild 
 weather in Eebruary. It is made from the 
 dull feathers of a mallard's wing ; the body of 
 mole-fur, mixed with a little dark-brown 
 mohair ; and a dark grizzled hackle composes 
 the legs. Salmon often rise to this fly, which 
 may be successfully used early in the morning 
 throughout the fishing season. The Hazel-Jig 
 is famous for May and June fishing, where 
 bushes are plentiful. It is made of black and 
 purple ostrich harl, twisted together ; the 
 wings should be of the light-brown feathers 
 taken from under the wings of a thrush ; and 
 a bluish hackle should be taken for the legs. 
 Some of the flies, as enumerated for April, by 
 Mr. Blaine, are — The Eed Dun, Orange- 
 bodied Dun ; Ashy Dun ; Large Spider, or 
 Crane-fly ; the Oak-fly, and the Stone-fly. 
 Those for May are — The Later Willow-fly; 
 
BAITS."! 
 
 ANGLIXG. 
 
 [trE flALMON. 
 
 the Brifjht-yellovr Dun ; Cream -coloiiroil Dun ; 
 Dun Cat; Green Drake; Grey Drake, or 
 May-fly ; Land-fly ; Wasp-flv ; Wliito ]\Ioth, 
 and Brown ^loth. For Juno — Tlie Oil- 
 fly ; Ej)liemeral lied Spiirness llumble-bfo ; 
 Jia/.t'l-fly (already mentioned); House-fly; 
 Large Blow-fly, and Blue Gnat. For July — 
 The Largo Black Ant-fly; Largo lied Ant- 
 fly, and the Blue-blow. For September —The 
 Golden Dun ; Dark Dun; Alder, or lied-fly; 
 Late Dark-bodied AVillow-fly, and the Cinna- 
 mon, or Fttid Brown-fly. 
 
 In reference to the artificial flies used in 
 salmon-lishing, there are certain writers 
 •who recommend diflerent sorts of salmon- 
 flies ; and among these are Bainbridge ; Sir 
 Humphry Davy, in bis Salmonia ; Taylor, 
 Cajitaiu Williamson, and the Hev. R. Las- 
 celles, iu bis Letters on Sport in j. In this 
 last work, seven flies are enumerated and 
 described as applied to fishing in North 
 Wales ; but to insert them here would occupy 
 too much space. He says, however, that all 
 the salmon flies of K'ortli Wales, with the 
 exception of the wasp and hornet, should be 
 made to imitate dragon-flies, being the only 
 large ones that are seen playing about the 
 rivers there. 
 
 BAITS FOR ANGLING. 
 Baits are numerous, but the best for trout 
 are well-scoured earth-worms. The garden, 
 the dew, and the lob-worms are all of the 
 same species, notwitlistanding that they vary 
 considerably in the points of size, form, and 
 colour, iu accordance with their ages, and the 
 season and soils in which they are found. 
 According to Daniel, there are two kinds of 
 lob-worin — the old, which is Jcnottcd, and the 
 young, which is destitute of knots, and which 
 is sometimes called maiden lobs — as well as 
 red worms. The latter is in highest esteem 
 among anglers. These, with other sorts of 
 worms, are obtained iu fields and gardens, but 
 more abundantly iu such places as contain 
 soil recently mixed with vegetable or animal 
 remains. Another worm, called the brandling, 
 is, from its head to its tail, streaked with red 
 and yellow in alternate circles, but darker at 
 its anterior than at its posterior portion. It 
 is usually found among rotten tan bark, heaps 
 of rich vegetable mould, and old dung-hills. 
 
 The pnhncr-worms, or wool-beds, aro the 
 hairy cnterpillars of certain niotha which fly 
 about iu tho night. They are taken by trout, 
 and aro capable of preservation for many 
 weeks, in a box with damp earth, covered with 
 some of tho bu-^h h-aves on uliicli tho insect is 
 knowa to fi-ed. Jie(>a and wanps are, aliio, 
 bait for the angler. Tho roe of the salmon in 
 greatly praised by Barker, who Hcems to liavo 
 been the flrat to discover its merits as a bait. 
 Pastes, too, are of great value to the ll.ther; 
 among which tho following have been recom- 
 mended as good sorts : — A red paste is made 
 with a large spoonful of fine wheat-flour, 
 moistened with the white of an egg, and 
 worked with the hands until tough. A small 
 quantity of finely-powdered loaf-sugar should 
 be added, with some cotton wool spread over 
 the paste when flattened by the hand. Tl-e 
 cotton sliould be well mixed with it, and the 
 whole dyed with a little vermilion. It will 
 keep good for a week, if a piece of fresh 
 butter be added to it. By omitting the colour- 
 ing matter, white paste may be composed of 
 the same ingredients; yellow, also, using a 
 little turmeric as a colouring. To make a 
 salmon-paste — Take one pound of salmon- 
 spawn, in September or October; boil it about 
 fifteen minutes ; then beat it in a mortar until 
 sufficiently mixed with one ounce of salt, 
 and a quarter of an ounce of saltpetre. Pick 
 out the membrane in which the spawn is con- 
 tained, as it is disengaged from it. After it 
 has been beaten to a proper consistence, put 
 it into gallipots, and cover it over with blad- 
 ders, tied down close, and so preserve it for 
 several months. Minnows are frequently used 
 by anglers as a bait for trout, and the tackle 
 employed is both lighter and finer t!:an that 
 used for the salmon, with a single line of gut 
 at the bottom. With this, very large fish are 
 frequently captured. 
 
 We shall now describe some of the principal 
 kinds of fish, the snaring of which form the 
 chief object of the angler's art. 
 
 THE SALMON. 
 
 This is the king of fresh-water fishes ; and 
 the family to which it belongs is, in an econo- 
 mical point of view, the most important in the 
 eyes of the angler. It embraces the grey 
 trout, salmon trout, common trout, Loch 
 
 1005 
 
BITEB TEOUT.] 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 [lake TliOUT. 
 
 Leven trout, Great Lake trout; the charr, 
 pmelt, grayling, groniad, vendan, poman, pol- 
 lan, and the argentine. It would occupy too 
 inucli space to do more than tbua notice the 
 whole of these ; but some of the principal of 
 the species must be described. The most 
 characteristic feature of the family is the pe- 
 culiar form of the posterior dorsal fin, which 
 is fleshy and adipose, or destitute of rays. 
 The enumeration we have given, however, 
 does not constitute quite one-half of the 
 family, when viewed in relation to Europe. 
 Both America and Africa produce other forms ; 
 but these, to some extent, deviate from the 
 typical structure. The most characteristic 
 members are the most northerly fresh-water 
 fish with which the naturalist is acquainted. 
 According to the opinion of some anglers, the 
 salmon bites most frequently from about six 
 o'clock in the morning to eleven in the fore- 
 noon ; and from three in the afternoon till 
 sunset. The best months are those of March, 
 April, May, and June. Sometimes this 
 noble fish measures four feet in length, and 
 weighs upwards of seventy pounds. The 
 capture of such a pisces is a prize indeed. 
 The most successful bait to take it with is 
 the artificial fly, made in imitation of butter- 
 ilies and dragon-flies of various kinds. At the 
 loot of a strong stream, where there is an 
 eddy or a whirlpool, salmon are most fre- 
 quently found when feeding ; and old 
 Walton observes, that you shall find he does 
 not usually stay long in a place, as trouts 
 will, but covets still to go nearer the spring- 
 head. In trolling with the minnows or other 
 small fish, the foot-lengths ought to be about 
 three yards, and provided with one or two 
 swivels, to prevent the line from twisting, as 
 well as to allow the bait to have free play. 
 
 THE COMMON RIVER TROUT. 
 
 This is the sahno fario of Naturalists ; and 
 although, perhaps, the best known of our 
 fresh-water fishes, it is among the most beau- 
 tiful of the species. It is generally distributed 
 not only throughout Great Britain, but over 
 the whole of Northern Europe, and that, too, 
 '.n such abundance that there is hardly a col- 
 /ection of water of any extent, whether run- 
 ning or stationary, in which it is not to be 
 found. It is pre-eminently the angler's fiah 
 1006 
 
 as it is always open to the temptation of 
 bait, and may be taken by the rod, at almost 
 any time of the year, not even excepting the 
 winter months in favourable weather ; but 
 during the proper fishing season, when the 
 river or lake is in good condition, it is almost 
 certain to aff'ord plenty of sport. It would 
 appear that there are some strange and un- 
 accountable differences to be seen in several 
 of the same species of fish, but more particu- 
 larly in trout. This was observed by Isaac 
 Walton, who says — "I tell you, that you may 
 the better believe that I am certain, if I catch 
 a trout in one meadow, he shall be white and 
 faint, and very like to be lousy ; and as cer- 
 tainly, if I catch a trout in the next meadow, 
 he shall be strong, and red, and lusty, and 
 much better meat. Trust me, scholar," he 
 continues, "I have caught many a trout in a 
 particular meadow, that the very shape and 
 the enamelled colour of him hath been such as 
 joyed me to look on him; and I have then, 
 with much pleasure, concluded, with Solomon, 
 ' Everything is beautiful in his season.' " 
 This fish is generally supposed to rise more 
 freely during gloomy weather, succeeding clear, 
 bright nights ; as, when the moon is clear, they 
 confine themselves to shadowy places. It is, 
 therefore, supposed that in the following day 
 they are hungry, and more ready to snap at 
 bait. 
 
 THE GREAT LAKE TROUT. 
 
 This is the salmo ferox of Natural His- 
 tory, and sometimes weighs two pounds ; 
 though its usual weight is under one. In the 
 first volume of the Naturalist' s Library, it is 
 said that " some varieties spawn about Michael- 
 mas, ascending, for a short way, the rivers 
 that feed their native lakes ; others spawn in 
 the end of December, and deposit their ova in 
 the shallow parts of the lake. The charr 
 occurs in all the three kingdoms, although it 
 is by no means generally distributed. The 
 northern lochs of Scotland yield it in tolerable 
 plenty; it is also found in Orkney, and has 
 been long known in some of the Welsh lakes. 
 As it haunts deep, cool water, and is seldom 
 found at the surface till late in the autum..i, it 
 is not frequently made an object of sport 
 with anglers. In the Cumberland and West- 
 moreland lakes, however, it may be taken 
 
■:i«B«Wjriiiiiiiiiiiiii!iT''Mii;'»uiMiniiiii\WiiiiiliimiilwliwiiniiliJin 
 
THE riKE.j 
 
 AiNGLlNG. 
 
 [tiik cahp 
 
 sometimes in tolerable plenty, by trollinfj, and 
 occasioimlly it rises to a Uy. Tlio dilU'reiit 
 states ami varit'tioa are known in Knf^land ns 
 Case cliarr, (iilt cliarr, lu'ii eharr, Silvor cliarr, 
 &c." Keturninfito tlio Grtat Lake Trout, wo 
 tind it stated, by Mr. Wilson, in his article on 
 " Anf^lintx," in the last edition of the Encyclo' 
 fxediii Bntannica, that " the ordinary lut'lhud 
 of tisliing tor this king of trouta is with a 
 powerful rod, from a boat rowing at the rate 
 of from three to tour miles an hour — the lure 
 a common trout, of from four to eight inches 
 in length, baited upon six or eight salmon 
 nooks, tied back to back upon strong gimp, 
 assisted by two swivels, and tiie wheel-line 
 coarse and f*trong." Yet all this, he adds, is, 
 in the first impetuous eflorts of the tit;h to 
 regain its liberty, frequently carried away for 
 ever into the crystal dejiths of Loch Ane ! 
 
 THE GRAYLING. 
 
 In tlie Salmonica of Sir H. Davy, an opinion 
 is expressed that the grayling has been intro- 
 duced to our rivers; but it is not a common 
 fish in some parts of this island. In the Sal- 
 monica its localities are stated to be the Avon, 
 in Hampshire; the Severn and its tributaries, 
 in North Wales ; the Wye and its tributaries ; 
 the Lug, in Herefordshire ; the Dee, Dove, 
 Trent, and Blithe; the Kibble, Erne, Wharf,! 
 Huinber, Derweut, and Kye, in the north of 
 England ; and in the Esk and Eden, in Cum- I 
 berland, it is also occasionally caught. These | 
 are considered its most northern localities on ' 
 the mainland ; but Lowe affiims that it is 
 very frequent in the Orkney Islands. It has 
 neither been found in Scotland nor in Ireland, 
 notwithstanding that it is common in much 
 colder parts, being abundant in Lapland. Mr. 
 AVilson, also, says that he has killed it readily 
 in Switzerland, with a moor-fowl wing and hare- 
 ear body. 
 
 THE PIKE FAMILY. 
 The representatives of this family in the 
 British favour are the Pike, Garfish, Savory 
 Pike, Half-beak, Flying Fish, and the Great Do. 
 The common pike is designated by Lacep^de 
 as "the shark of the fresh waters;" and by 
 Walton as "the tyrant of fresh waters." 
 The voracity of this fish is enormous ; and one 
 which was kept in the preserve of Eusliy 
 
 Park, ISfr. Jesse tolls us, possessed an appe- 
 tite almost insatiablo. Hi* threw to him o\w 
 morning, otm after anothor, fivi* roach, «'nch of 
 about lour itu-lu's in ItMigtli, four of which he 
 swallowed, kee|)ing the (ilth in iiis mouth for 
 ub tut a quarter of an hour, when it uImo dis- 
 appeared. In this preserve there were eij^ht 
 pike, of about live pounds each ; and, out of 
 800 gudgeons which were counted into the re- 
 servoir, there were, at tlie end of three weeks, 
 hardly any to bo seen, though some barbel 
 and perch probably had tlieir share. The tish 
 is in season from May to Februarv, and is 
 angled tor by trolling with a stnjiig-topped rod. 
 The fresher and cleaner the bait is kept for 
 this fish, whetiier for trolling, snap-fishing, or 
 line-bait, the more likely is the angler to 
 succeed in taking him. The fish delights in 
 the bends of rivers and the bays of lakes, 
 where there is no great depth of water, and 
 where reeds, weeds, and water-lilies are plenti- 
 ful. In trolling for him, it is advisable to 
 keep as far from the water's edge as possible, 
 and to begin by casting close by the near 
 shore, with wind blowing against the bank ; 
 but when the weather is bright, and the water 
 clear, there are some anglers who prefer fish- 
 ing against the wind. It is said that the 
 largest pike ever taken in Britain was done 
 with a peacock-feather fly, in Loch Ken, near 
 Xew Galway. Its weight was seventy-two 
 pounds. According to Mr. Colquhon, the 
 most deadly way of catching the pike is bv 
 set lines; and the best time "is on one of 
 those delicious evenings with scarcely a breath 
 of air, when the shadow of the mountain 
 becomes more imposing on the unrippled 
 loch, and twilight begins to steal over the 
 scene." 
 
 THE CARP FAMILY. 
 This is a numerous family, but it has not a 
 large number of representatives in the British 
 fauna. Among these are the Common Carp, 
 the Bream, the Tench, the Chub, the Barbel 
 the Eoach, the Dace, the Bleak, the Gudgeon 
 the Minnow, and a few others less geni-rallv 
 known in this country. To each of these we 
 will devote a few lines. 
 
 THE COMMON CARP. 
 
 To angle for this fieb, old Isaac smvs a very 
 
 1007 
 
THE BEEAM.] 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 [THE TENCH, 
 
 hrf^e amount of patience is required. In the 
 \\inter months it haunts the broadest and 
 Ipast disturbed parts of rivers, where the 
 bottom is muddy and soft ; but in summer it 
 usually occupies deep holes beneath hollow 
 banks, under the roots of trees, or in the 
 neighbourhood of beds of aquatic plants. On 
 account of its being a wary fish, it is difficult 
 to deceive it when it has " come of age." The 
 best months to take it are May, June, and 
 July ; and the best times of the day are from 
 sunrise to eight in the morning, and from 
 sunset throughout the time of twilight, and 
 onwards through the night. Mr. Daniel says 
 that "three rods may be employed, one with 
 the bait at mid-water, another a foot or less 
 from the bottom, and the third to lie upon it 
 when the line and lead are not discovered, as 
 in the two former. The places intended to be 
 fished in should, the night before, be ground- 
 bated with grains, blood, and broken worms, 
 incorporated togethei- with clay ; the hook bait 
 should be red worms taken out of tan, flag or 
 marsh-worms, green peas, so boiled as to 
 soften, but not to break the skin, and throw- 
 ing some in now and then. "When this bait 
 is used (which should be with one on the 
 hook to swim a foot from the ground), in case 
 of a bite, strike immediately ; a large carp, 
 upon taking the bait, directly steers for tiie 
 oDposite side of the river or pond." 
 
 THE BREAM. 
 
 The carp-bream is called by "Walton a large 
 and stately fish, which thrives best in large 
 pieces of water, and in deep, quiet rivers. It 
 is to be found in the Mole and the Medway ; 
 and also in the Cumberland lakes. In those 
 of Ireland it has been caught of such a size as 
 to weigh from twelve to fourteen pounds. In 
 Scotland it is little known, Lochmaven bein<y 
 its only recorded habitat. May is the time 
 for spawning, when they feel rough to handle. 
 This, however, according to Mr. Tarrell, " is 
 nothing more than a periodical assumption, 
 wliich, as in the other Cypridse, disappears 
 when the season of reproduction is passed." 
 A well-conditioned earth-worm is said to be 
 the best bait for bream ; but wasp-grubs, 
 grasshoppers, and paste made of bread and 
 honey, will all lure them to their destruction. 
 For angling this fish Walton gives very minute 
 1008 
 
 instructions. He tells us carefully to study 
 the selected spot ; advises an abundant supply 
 of ground-bait, and a visit, with fitted tackling, 
 to the water-side, about three or four o'clock 
 in the morning. The angler, however, is not 
 to venture too near the water, as bream 
 " have a cunning sentinel, and are watchful 
 themselves too." Mr. Daniel gives the fol- 
 lowing account of a day's sport in Essex with 
 this fish : — " The weather w as cloudy, and the 
 wind brisk ; there were seven rods used by 
 the party, and very frequently were there 
 biters at them all at the same time. When a 
 fish was hooked, and played at the top, or near 
 the surface of the water, numbers were seen 
 to follow him ; and as soon as the hooks were 
 fresh baited, were alike greedily taken. They 
 averaged at least two pounds a fish ; and of 
 these, from six in the morning till dusk in the 
 evening, some hundredweights were taken." 
 
 .THE TENCH. 
 As an agreeable habitat the tench is said 
 to prefer ponds to rivers, and pits to both. 
 Where it is found in rivers it is mostly in 
 those which are slow and deep ; but in such 
 situations it does not breed so abundantly as 
 it does in ponds. In deep pits, in which clay 
 for bricks has been dug out, it is often plenti- 
 ful, as it likewise is in broad, shallow waters, 
 on muddy bottoms. It is alleged that this fish 
 is possessed of certain sensitive properties, 
 which render it invaluable to other piscatory 
 tribes as a physician. Indeed, in Germany it 
 is called the Dootor-fish ; and hence Boccius 
 affirms that no fish of prey will ever touch a 
 tench. Walton says— "I hope I may be so 
 bold as to tell you that tlie tench is the phy- 
 sician of fishes, and for the pike especially ; so 
 that a pike, being either sick or hurt, is cured 
 by the touch of the tench ; and it is observed 
 that this fresh-water tyrant will not play the 
 wolf to his physician, but forbears to devour 
 him though he be never so hungry." The fish 
 spawns from June till September, and is in 
 best condition from the latter month till the 
 end of May. As bait, small marsh-woi'ms, 
 middle-sized lobs, or the red species found in 
 rotten tan, are recommended. Walton says, 
 " he will bite at a paste made of brown bread 
 and honey, or at a marsh-worm or a lob-worm : 
 he inclines very much to any paste with which 
 
THE CnCB.] 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 [the ndAcn. 
 
 tan is mixed, and ho will blto also at a ainuller 
 worm with his head nipped ofl", atul a Bod- 
 worin put on the hook befiire that worn) ; and 
 I doubt not but he will also, in the three hot 
 months — for in the nine colder ho Btirs not 
 much — bite at a Ihig-worm, or a green gentle; 
 but ean positively say no more of the teneh, 
 he being a lish tliat I have not often angled 
 for; but I wish my honest scholar may, and 
 be ever fortunate when he 6shed." 
 
 THE BARBEL. 
 
 This " bearded fish" (so called from x,..« cirri 
 at its mouth) is pretty common throughout 
 Europe, although it is not known in Scotland. 
 Mr. Jesse tells us that it is an extremely 
 sly fish ; although in the spring, when sup- 
 posed free from observation, it will roll itself 
 about, and exhibit a considerable degree of 
 playfulness. He also remarks, that, in very 
 cold weather, it appears to be in a perfectly 
 torpid state. " They make their hybernaculum 
 amidst tufts of weeds at the bottom of the 
 Tliumes, apparently either asleep or insensible. 
 Indeed, so torpid are they, that they may be 
 taken up by the hand. In very cold weather, 
 the fishermen provide themselves with a net 
 fastened to an iron hoop, having a handle to it, 
 which they place near the fish, and, with a 
 pole, put it into the net, so perfectly inanimate 
 are tliey at this season." The barbel is rather 
 particular in the baits he will take ; they must, 
 therefore, be kept clean and sweet, and be un- 
 tainted with the scent of musty moss. The 
 angling season begins in May, and continues 
 till September; and the best hours are from 
 daylight till tea in the morning, and from 
 four in the afternoon till sunset. 
 
 THE CHUB. 
 
 This fish is common both in England and 
 Wales. It is also found in the waters of 
 Annan, Scotland, and in many parts of the 
 neighbourhood of the English lake country. It 
 is called the Skelly, because of the largeness of 
 its scales. In the deep holes of rivers it is 
 found; and, during the summer months, 
 commonly lies on the water's surface, enjoying 
 the shade of some bush or tree. Timidity 
 ^eing one of its principal characteristics, it 
 sinks to the bottom on the slightest alarm, 
 although it will soon again resume its position. 
 a N 
 
 It will fine nt a fly, and feeds generally oa 
 worms and inspects. The baits employed are 
 beetles, maL'gotH, grasslioppcra, iialinon-roe, 
 &c. It is called by Pennant a coarse fish ; but 
 one of tlto best ways of preparing it for the 
 table is by boiling it with the bcalca on. 
 
 THE DACE. 
 
 This fish is known in some parts of England 
 under the designations of the dure and the 
 dart : it bears a strong resemblance, both in 
 its appearance and habits, to those of the 
 roach. It is gregarious, and frequents the 
 deep waters close by the piles of bridges, or 
 beneath masses of collected foam caused by 
 rapid eddies, or in shady pools. Tliey are 
 taken with the red-worm, brandlings, &c. ; 
 but will rise at a variety of flies. In the 
 Thames, above Ilichmond, as soon as the 
 weeds begin to rot, they will rise freely from 
 the shallows to a grasshopper, used as an arti- 
 ficial fly in hot weather. 
 
 THE ROACH. 
 
 The common roach (Z. rufilus), which 
 Walton designates the icater-shcfp, on account 
 of its simplicity or foolishness. This fish is 
 common to many parts of England, as well as 
 to the ten)perate parts of Europe. It is rarer 
 in Scotland, and haunts still rivers and lakes, 
 confining itself, during the day, to the deeper 
 parts, and, in the night, feeding in the shallows. 
 During the winter it seeks other haunts, and 
 in the months of May and June ascends the 
 shallows to spawn. The proper season for 
 roach fishing in the Thames, where it grows 
 to a larger size than in any other river, begins 
 about the end of August ; and "Walton tells 
 us to fish for it in winter, with paste or gen- 
 tles ; in April, with worms or caddis ; in the 
 very hot months, with little white snails, or 
 with flies under water. In many of the hot 
 months roaches may also be caught thus: — 
 "Take a May-fly, or ant-fly ; sink him, with a 
 little lead, to the bottom, near the piles or 
 posts of a bridge, or near to any posts of a 
 weir ; I mean, any deep place where K>ache8 
 lie quietly;. and theu pull your fly up very 
 leisurely, and usually a roach will follow your 
 bait to the very top of the water, and gaze on 
 it there, and run at it and take it, lest the fly 
 should fly away from him." This is from old 
 
 1009 
 
THE MINNOW.] 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 [the eel. 
 
 Isaac, who further states, that in the Thames 
 many have been taken weighing two and 
 a-half pounds ; and Mr. Jesse mentions that 
 the largest he had known taken, weighed three 
 pounds ; but if we are to credit Mr. Pennant, 
 tlie London fishmongers sometimes see them 
 as large as five pounds. 
 
 THE BLEAK. 
 
 The bleak, or blink, is common throughout 
 England, and abounds in the Thames, and over 
 rivers in the vicinity of London. Libbald 
 says it is a native of Scotland ; but whether 
 this opinion has received due confirmation we 
 are not aware. It is gregarious, swimming in 
 large shoals, and spawning in May, when its 
 scales are rough to the touch. It is a small 
 and active fish, and may be taken with a small 
 red worm, gentles, or a fly. In angling for it, 
 the tackle must be very fine. 
 
 THE GUDGEON. 
 
 The common gudgeon abounds in the Euro- 
 pean continent, as it also does in the southern 
 parts of England. Like many of its compeers, 
 however, it is unknown in Scotland. Its 
 usual length is from five to six inches ; but it 
 is stated by Mr. Pennant, tliat those caught 
 in the Kennet and Cole are three times the 
 weight of those taken elsewhere. The largest 
 he ever heard of was taken near Uxbridge, 
 and its weight was half a pound. The 
 gudgeon frequents the shallows during the 
 hot months ; and before the winter finally sets 
 in, retires into deeper waters. It is angled for 
 near the ground, with a small red worm. 
 
 THE MINNOW. 
 
 This is a pretty little fish, and is common to 
 the continent of Europe, to England, and the 
 southern parts of Scotland. Isaac Walton 
 tells us that this fish is "a sharp biter at a 
 small worm ; and, in hot weather, makes ex- 
 cellent sport for young anglers, or boys or 
 women that love that recreation ; and in the 
 spring they make of them excellent minnow- 
 tansies ; for being washed well in salt, and 
 their heads and tails cut oiF and "gutted, and 
 not waslied after, they prove excellent for that 
 use ; that is, being fried with yolks of ecrt^a, 
 the flower of cowslips, and of primroses and 
 1010 
 
 a little tansie. Thus used, they make a 
 dainty dish of meat." It may be so ; but 
 speaking for ourselves, we are by no means 
 admirers of some of the piscatory dishes recom- 
 mended by the enthusiasm of old Isaac. 
 
 THE LOACH. 
 
 This fish we have often heard called the 
 "Beardie" in Scotland, where it is common, 
 as it is in both England and on the continent 
 of Europe. It has six cirri on the snout, and 
 its nose is destitute of spines. It haunts 
 streams with gravelly bottoms covered with 
 large stones, under which it lurks- It does 
 not often exceed four inches in length, and it 
 feeds upon worms and aquatic insects. It is 
 very prolific, spawning in the spring. It is 
 considered a nutritious food for man, and is an 
 excellent bait for eels. 
 
 THE EEL FAMILY. 
 
 Of this family there are given, in the Natu- 
 ralisfs Library, eleven species as the repre- 
 sentatives in British fauna. " When it is 
 stated," says the writer on fish in that work, 
 " that the type or most characteristic repre- 
 sentative of this family is the common eel, 
 one of the most familiarly known of our native 
 fishes, little more need be added to convey an 
 idea of the general appearance of the species. 
 Diflering considerably from each other in the 
 details of their structure, they possess in 
 common, a long, narrow, serpent-like body, 
 which, owing to the conformation of the ver- 
 tebral column, is extremely flexible; the greater 
 part of the body surrounded by a low, nearly 
 continuous fin ; scales so minute as to be, for 
 the most part, almost invisible, and the surface 
 frequently invested with a slimy mucus. The 
 cseea are wanting ; but all have an air-bladder, 
 which sometimes assumes a very peculiar 
 form." The common eel being the type, we 
 will confine ourselves to a brief notice of it. 
 
 THE COMMON EEL. 
 
 The sharp-nosed eel is regarded as the 
 common one, although the hroad-nosed is in 
 many parts equally abundant. It is found in 
 all the fresh waters of this country ; and, with 
 the exception of the Arctic regions, and a few 
 of the rivers, such as the Wolga and some of 
 
THE prnrir.] 
 
 ANGLIXn. 
 
 [C05CLr8IOlf. 
 
 the tributaries of the Dumibe, wliich Imvo tlu'ir 
 Bourot' ill vi'py colli rt'i^ioiis, abinimla tliroii<;liout 
 Europe. It also Dci-urs in Asia, in tho great 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean, niid iu ^forth 
 America. Strictly spoakini;, it ia a fresh-water 
 fiah, iu which it can pernianenlly Bubaist. 
 Its habits aro nocturnal, and tiie larj;eat and 
 finest aro usually cauglit with niglit-linea. 
 They give little amuaeinent to anglers accus- 
 tomed to the more eleuiant branches of their 
 art, as they are a troublesome iish, and from 
 their great tenacity of life, and their tortuous 
 motions, often destroy tho tackle of tho 
 lisher. 
 
 TIIE PERCH. 
 This is the last fish we shall hero notice. 
 "When it attains to three pounds iu weight it 
 is considered of a large size. It thrives well, 
 both in lakes and rivers, in the latter of which 
 it prefers the sides of the streams to the 
 more rapid parts of the current. It is very 
 common in temperate climates, and generally 
 abounds throughout Europe. In the sOuth of 
 England, AVales, Ireland, and in the lowlands 
 of Scotland, it is common. Mr. Selby says 
 that it is a rare fish in tiie north of England, 
 and still rarer in the northern parts of Scot- 
 land, being met with only sparingly in the 
 lochs north of the Forth ; and, in several in- 
 stances, when found in these localities, its 
 introduction can be traced to no remote period. 
 " In all the almost countless waters," he adds, 
 *' of the northern counties, it is wanting." It 
 
 is gregarious in its liabitH, and is angled for 
 with H worm or minnow. In the winter it is 
 very abateiniou^, but in tho Buiniurr it is a bold 
 biter. AVIumi the weatluT in cool and cloudy, 
 with a rullliiig breeze from tho aouth, perches 
 will bito tho whulo of the day. The be»t 
 fishing-houra, towarda the end of ppring, aro 
 from seven to eleven in tho morning, and from 
 two to six in the afternoon. In warm and bright 
 Bumnur weather, a good time ia from («unri«o 
 till six or seven in the morning, and from aix. in 
 the evening till aunsct. 
 
 In closing this, tho last divi.sion of ErnAL 
 Life, we think wo cannot do better than quote 
 the following lines, from a fishing poem nearly 
 two centuries and a-half old, and respectfully 
 recommend them to the perusal of the angler. 
 
 •* The lofty woods, the forests wide and loni^, 
 
 Adorn'd with leaves and branches fresh and green, 
 In whose cool bowers the birds, with many a song, 
 Do welcome with their quire the summer's Queen; 
 The meadows fair, where Flora's gifts among. 
 Are intermixed with verdant grass between ; 
 The silver-scaled fish that softly swim 
 Within the sweet brook's crystal watery stream. 
 
 " All these, and many more of His creation. 
 
 That made the heavens, the Angler oft doth see; 
 
 Taking therein no little delectation, 
 
 To think how strange, how wonderful they be 
 
 Framing thereof an inward contemplation, 
 
 To see his heart from other fancies free ; 
 
 And whilst he looks on these with joyful eye, 
 
 His mind is rapt above the starry sky." 
 
 THE EKr. 
 
NDEX; 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 THE HORSE. AND MODEUN VETEUI- 
 NAKY rUACTlCE. 
 
 OFll^rnr* IN OKStnAL— 
 Al)^^^in:lIl, U»', Iti. 
 Ar.'ibi.in, th.'. IS. 
 AmiUCiUi, North, 48. 
 „ 8uulb, -l-t. 
 
 Birb, 13. 
 hiiiish, 41. 
 Canadian, 49. 
 Circu.-sian, 34. 
 r).iiiisU, 3S. 
 Dc-iTt, la. 
 Ku'vpiian, 10. 
 rio'mish, 38. 
 J'loiich, S9. 
 Gallowayii, 54. 
 Cii rmaii, oi). 
 11 ickiicy, the. 92. 
 Uuuicr, Ibf, i*i>. 
 
 „ Coiidiiioninp the, 116. 
 Horse, Cavalry, the, 103. 
 „ Coach, U8. 
 „ Lady's, 97. 
 „ Draught, 103. 
 ,, Maua^cemcnt of, 104. 
 ,, Piirchasiiiij of, 15J. 
 „ Skeleton of, 173. 
 
 E.xaniininff thi', l.'iO. 
 „ Zi>oloi;ieal clas>ili.' itiou of, 176. 
 „ 15re.iking-in of. Hi. 
 „ Breeding of, 13S. 
 „ Castration of, HG, 242. 
 „ Choosing of, 1 iti. 
 , Jud-.'iug of, by leeth, 170. 
 '„ Riding, 147. 
 „ Leaping, 153. 
 ,, Early history of, 1. 
 „ Native state of, 42. 
 „ Training the, 335. 
 „ Diti'erent systems, 335 to 345. 
 „ Restiveness of, 335. 
 ,, Supposed degeneracy of the, 5G. 
 Indian, 1. 
 Irish, 41. 
 Italian, 40. 
 Lapland, 37. 
 Norwegian, 38. 
 Nubian, 18. 
 Persian, 25. 
 Ponies, 54. 
 Portuguese, 41. 
 Russian, 34. 
 Spanish, 41. 
 Swedish, 30. 
 Toorkoman, 31. 
 Turkish, 31. 
 Rack Its — 
 
 .\Uce Hawthorn, 83. 
 Arabian, Darley, 70. 
 „ Godolphin, 70. 
 „ Wellesley, 71. 
 Bay Walton, 78, 
 Headsman, 84. 
 Jieeswing, S3. 
 Cnilders, Bleeding. 72. 
 
 „ Flying, 71. 
 Eclipse, 74. 
 Escape, 79. 
 Governess, 84. 
 lliu'hflycr, 79, 
 King Herod, 72. 
 Mask, 73. 
 Pot-8-os, 78. 
 Economy of the Stable— 
 Air, 10.5. 
 i-arlcv, 132. 
 Beans, 133. 
 Bread, 135. 
 Carrots, 135. 
 Clover, 134. 
 Exercising, 113. 
 Floor, the, 106. 
 Grains, 133. 
 Grass— Rye, 134. 
 
 „ Turning out to, 136. 
 Groominif, 103. 
 Light, 106. 
 Litter, 188. 
 Lucerne, 134. 
 Manger, tlic, 107. 
 Manger- feeding, 130. 
 Oats, 132. 
 Peas, 134. 
 Physicking, 137. 
 Potatoes, 135. 
 Rack, the, 107, 
 Bhoeirg, 311). 
 Stall, the, 1U7. 
 
 Tarcv 1)1. 
 •I I 
 
 Disk 
 
 Wiiiisui, Etc.— 
 . Joa. 
 
 if. is:'. 
 
 -uf. Jll. 
 
 .uut uf, 218, 240. 
 
 J(ilnt«, noundi In the, 100. 
 
 h:.i).. ^v ""-V 
 
 h 1 in the, IU8. 
 
 .11 tlM, 214. 
 
 1, . , .. .a the, 237. 
 
 Bin-, .W'.i. 
 
 Bladd< r. infl^<mniatlon in, 228, 301, 3ui. 
 
 1'.! . :. -I M.uiuro of, IbJ. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 B, i.aiou in the, 2iO. 
 
 Itluody uuiir, '-'10. 
 BoK-«paviti. lOi!. 
 
 B ■■-"', i77. 
 
 V '.. \'^'>. 
 
 1 .1 .;...n in the, 208. 
 
 Bi. .'.. -^i'J. 
 
 Broken wind, 273. 
 Bruises, 2:^6. 
 Capped hock, 197. 
 Catarrh, 21)8. 
 Chest, dropsy in, 208. 
 CofHn-joiiit, hprains of the, 250. 
 Couiuion inllannnaiion, 2U3. 
 Consiimptiiin, '2'J'i. 
 Cough, chronic, 271. 
 Crib-biting, 233. 
 Cropping, 3:i7. 
 Curb, spniins of the, 251. 
 Diabetes, 23!). 
 Diarrhoea, 23.'. 
 Digestion, 2'.t4. 
 Dislocation, 184. 
 Docking, 3:;4. 
 Dropsv, 234. 
 Eye, of the, 199. 
 „ Cataractin the, 285. 
 „ Epilepsy in the, 280. 
 ,, Oulta Serena, 206. 
 
 Intiammation in the, 204. 
 „ Muscles of, 199. 
 Farcy, 192. 
 
 Fetlock- joint, sprains of the, 250. 
 Fevers, 261. 
 
 „ Common, 263. 
 „ Inflammatorv, 263. 
 „ Malignant, 206. 
 „ Symptomatic, 267. 
 Fistulous withers, 220. 
 Foot, Canker in the, 317. 
 „ Contraction of, 308. 
 „ Corns in the, 304. 
 ,, False-quarter in, 318. 
 „ Giogginess, 311. 
 „ Inflammation in the, 306. 
 „ Over-reaching of, 316. 
 ,, I'uniiccd, 312. 
 ,, Tiinctured, 315. 
 ,, Quiuorin, 316. 
 „ Sundcrack, 314, 
 „ Thrush in, 313. 
 Fractures, ISO. 
 
 Elbow, of the, 182. 
 „ Head, of the, 180. 
 
 Pastern-bone, of the, 184. 
 Ribs, of the, 180. 
 „ Snank-bone, of the, 182. 
 
 Spine, of the, 181. 
 „ Thigh-bone, of the, 183 
 
 Glanders, 275. 
 Grease, 186. 
 Gun-shot -wounds, 214. 
 Head, Dropsv in the, 235. 
 „ Wounds in the, 208. 
 Hernia, 214. 
 Uide-tjound, 191. 
 Hydroiihobia, 302. 
 Inflammations, 252. 
 
 Applications of, 260. 
 „ Bladder, of, 301. 
 
 „ neck of, 302. 
 „ Eve, in the, 204. 
 
 „ Uiart, of, 297. 
 
 Intestines, of, 299. 
 „ Kidnevs, of, 301. 
 
 „ Liver, of, 300. 
 
 „ Phlegmon, 254. 
 
 ,, Proximate causes of, 255. 
 
 ,, Remote causes of, 254. 
 
 „ Symptoms of, 250. 
 
 „ Termination of, 257. 
 
 ,, Treatment of, 257. 
 
 Int-stines, disease in the, 227. 
 Jaundice, 231. 
 
 Ihc, 231. 
 
 17. 
 
 -M. 
 
 .ain of thp, 351. 
 .n of the, 247. 
 1 the, 237 
 
 h|)i.iiiij ii; tjuiier.-il, 245. 
 Siuggen, Mad, 2H0. 
 
 ,, btomiicb, 288. 
 Ptifli-bone, dihlocuUou of, 181, 251. 
 Siranj.'lo!t, 222. 
 htrangurv, 241. 
 String-halt, 280. 
 Suifeit, WJ. 
 
 SvnOlCAI. Ol'F.llAT10!«8 — 
 
 Bl-iding, 3J7. 
 Blistering, 334. 
 Bnincholoiny, 322. 
 Cropping, 327. 
 Firing, 333. 
 Neurotomy, 322. 
 Nicking, 325. 
 CEsopbaguloray, 322. 
 Purging, 328. 
 Sutures, 216. 
 Swellings, 196. 
 Tendons, 211. 
 Thick wind, 272 
 Thorough-pin, 197. 
 Ulcers, 218. 
 Vegetable poisons, 303. 
 Veins, 212. 
 Vives, 223. 
 AVarbles, 226. 
 Vans, 191. 
 Windgalls, 196. 
 Worms, 229. 
 Wounds, 206. 
 
 VETERINARY DEPARTMENT, Ott 
 MEDICINES AND THEIU USES. 
 
 Acidum arsenicum— .Arsenic, 347. 
 
 Adcps— Hog's lard, 349. 
 
 Alcohol, 349. 
 
 Alkanet root, 350. 
 
 Anlhemis— Camomile, 349. 
 
 Armenian bole, 350. 
 
 Barbadoes tar, 357. 
 
 Black pitch, 358. 
 
 Blistering tiy, 351. 
 
 Camphor, 350. 
 
 Capsicum berries, 351. 
 
 Caraway seeds, 351. 
 
 C.istile soap, 359. 
 
 Common salt, 359. 
 
 Common turpentine, 360. 
 
 Copaiba, 352. 
 
 Croton seeds, 352. 
 
 Euphorbium, 353. 
 
 Extract of catechu, 351. 
 
 Extract of deadly nightshade, 353. 
 
 Fox-glove leaf, or digitalis, 353. 
 
 Gentiana, 354. 
 
 Gmger root, 361. 
 
 Gum-arabic, 346. 
 
 Horse aloes, 349. 
 
 loiiine, 355. 
 
 Kino, 356. 
 
 Leaf of Aconite, or Monk'fl-hooo, 348. 
 
 Lime, 356. 
 
 Linseed, 356. 
 
 Liquorice root, 354. 
 
 Muriate of ammonia, sal-ammoniac, 349. 
 
 Muriatic acid— Spilils of salts, 347. 
 
 Myrrh, 356. 
 
 Nicotiana, 356. 
 
 Nitrate of silver— Lunar caustic, 350. 
 
 Nitrate of potash— Nitre, 358. 
 
 Nitnc acid— Double aquafortis, 347. 
 
 Oak bark, 359. 
 
 Oil of tar, 357. 
 
 Oil of turpentine, 357. 
 
1014 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Olive oil, 35G. 
 
 Opium, 3.57. 
 
 Oxide of zinc, 361. . 
 
 Oxymuriate of mercury— Corrosive sublr 
 
 mate, 353. 
 Prepared chalk. 351. 
 Prussic acid, 48. 
 Quicksilver— Mercury, 355. 
 Rectified spirits of wine, 360. 
 Bed 8aunders-wood, 359. 
 Salt, 359. 
 
 Semivitrificd oxide of lead, 358. 
 Sinapis— .Mustard, 3G0. 
 Soft soap, 359. 
 
 Strong acetic, or pyroli^ncous acid, .347. 
 Subacetate of copper— Verdigris, 352. 
 Suhlimed sulphur, 3C0. 
 Submuriate of mercury— Calomel, 555. 
 Sulphate of antimony, 350. 
 Sulphate of copper— Blue vitriol, 353. 
 Sulphate of iron— Copperas, 354. 
 Sulphate of zinc— 'White vitriol, 301. 
 Sulphurated oil, 357. 
 Sulphuric acid— Oil of vitriol, 348. 
 Superacc'tate of lead— Sugar of lead, 358. 
 Kupcr-sulphate of alum and potash, 348. 
 Tar, 358. 
 
 Tartariscd antimony— Emetic, Tartar, 350. 
 Venice turpentine, 360. 
 Wax, 3(i0. 
 
 AVhite hellebore root, 360. 
 Yellow resin, 359. 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 THE DOG. 
 
 Of Dogs in Gexkral— 
 
 African, the, 3!)4. 
 
 Anecdotes of, 382. 
 
 Dingo, the, 392. 
 
 Dohle, the, 393. 
 
 Dub, the, 393. 
 
 Esquimaux, the, 395. 
 
 History of the, 379- 
 
 Mackenzie Kiver, the, 396. 
 
 Origin of the, 365. 
 
 Varieties of, 392. 
 
 Wild, the, 372. 
 
 Wold, the, 396. 
 Domestic, 397. 
 
 American, the, 402. 
 
 Bull, the, 403. 
 
 Collie, the, 399. 
 
 English Terrier, 401. 
 
 Harlequin, the, 4U2. 
 
 Lurcher, the, 403. 
 
 Maltese, the, 402. 
 
 Prairie, the, 402. 
 
 Skye Terrier, 400. 
 
 Turn-spit, 401. 
 Hounds, 403. 
 
 Beagle, the, 424. 
 
 Blood, the, 423. 
 
 Dalmatian, the, 436. 
 
 Deer, the, 410. 
 
 French, the, 436. 
 
 Irish, the, 405. 
 
 Italian, the, 436. 
 
 Newfoundland, the, 408. 
 
 Pointer, the, 432. 
 
 Portuguese, the, 435. 
 
 Retriever, the, 443. 
 
 Russian, the. 435. 
 
 Setter, the, 437. 
 
 Spaniel, Water, the, 441. 
 
 Spanish, the, 436. 
 
 Talbot, the, 422. 
 SiiooTiNO Dogs, 446. 
 
 Self-hunting dogs, 510. 
 Tkainino Docs, 447. 
 
 Barbct, the, 467. 
 
 Blenheim, the, 459. 
 
 Calabrian, the, 465. 
 
 Cocker, the, 459. 
 
 Esquimaux, the, 465. 
 
 Hare, Indian, the, 465. 
 
 King Charles, the, 460. 
 
 Labrador, the, 464. 
 
 Lion, the, 467. 
 
 Kewfoundland, the, 461. 
 
 Pomeranian, the, 465. 
 
 Poodle, the, 467. 
 
 Scilly, the, 467. 
 
 Springer, the, 459. 
 
 Water, the, 466. 
 Mastiffs, 467. 
 
 Alpine, the, 469. 
 
 Ban, the, 471. 
 
 British, the, 4G3, 
 
 British bull, the, 470. 
 
 Cuban, thr, 468. 
 
 Pug, the, 47). 
 
 Thibet, the, 469. 
 
 Diseases — 
 
 Canker in the ear, 480. 
 Costiveness, &c., 488. 
 Distemper, the, 483. 
 Madness, dumb, 479. 
 Mange, the, 487. 
 Rabies, 473. 
 Worms, the, 481. 
 Yellows, the, 482. 
 
 VETEEINAKT DiiPARTJIENT, 488. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 
 SHOOTING, Etc. 
 
 Deer-stalking, 607. 
 
 Bustard, the, 564 
 Fen Birds, 505. 
 
 Bittern, the, 566. 
 
 Coot, the, 576. 
 
 Cormorant, 584. 
 
 Curlew, 577. 
 
 Godwit, 571. 
 
 Golden plover, 574. 
 
 Gray ,, 575. 
 
 Herons, 5G7. 568. 
 
 Knot, the, 570. 
 
 Landrail, 572. 
 
 Lapwing, 573. 
 
 Moor-hen, 575. 
 
 Plovers, 573. 574, 575. 
 
 Redshank, 570. 
 
 Reeve, 569. 
 
 Ruflf, 569. 
 
 Water-rail, 575. 
 
 Wheatear, 572. 
 Grouse, 533. 
 
 Black, 630. 
 
 Localities of grouse, 536. 
 
 Ptarmigan, 531. 
 
 Red, 533. 
 
 Wood, 530. 
 
 Gun, the, 490, 521. 
 
 I?reech-loadmg, 497. 
 Bursting of, 496. 
 Calibre of a, 495 
 Caps, 506. 
 Cleaning, 499. 
 Elevating, 494. 
 Gun-stock, 493 
 Length, 495. 
 Lock, the, 497. 
 Parts of a, 498. 
 Percussion, 495. 
 Powder, 501. 
 Range, 496. 
 Recoil, 496. 
 Remarks, general, 521. 
 Rifle, the, 507. 
 Shot, 501. 
 Target, 521. 
 Wadding, 506. 
 Weight, 49.5. 
 Moors, tiik, &c., 510. 
 Courtesies in, 510. 
 Hints rrspectiug, 516. 
 Manners in, 512. 
 Partridge, the, 541, 544. 
 Partridge-shooting, 542. 
 Pheasant, the, 546. 
 Pheasant-shooting, 549. 
 Summary, 511. 
 Pigeons, 595. 
 
 Pigeon, Breeding, 599 
 „ Common, 595. 
 „ Passenger, 598. 
 ,, Shooting, 599. 
 Quail, the, 552. 
 Rabbits, 606. 
 Ring-dove, 597. 
 Rook-shooting, 594. 
 Stock-dove, 596. 
 Turtle-dove, 598. 
 Sea-Fowl, 578. 
 
 Cormorant, the. 5S4. 
 Dun-bird, the, 588. 
 Gull family, 579. 
 Lake-shooting, 592. 
 Mute swan, .582. 
 Petrel, the, ,579. 
 Siberian goose, 533. 
 Swan family, 580. 
 Sw.an-goose, 582. 
 Teal, 590. 
 Widgeon, 589. 
 Smat.t, Birds, 600. 
 
 Common starling, the, 602. 
 Fieldfare, the, 603. 
 Lark, the, 604. 
 Missel thrush, 604. 
 Red-wing, 602. 
 Snipe, the, 560. 
 Snipe-shooting, 502. 
 Thrush, 603. 
 Woodcock, the, 5:*' 
 
 DIVISION IV. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Cattle, Wild and Tame, 611. 
 
 Patriarchal ages, 613. 
 
 Urus, the, 611. 
 
 Zebu, 615. 
 Aurochs, the, 625. 
 
 Africa, of South, 632. 
 
 America, of, 626, 634. 
 
 Britain, of, 627. 
 
 Maremme, of, 628. 
 
 Moldavia, of, 631, 
 
 Ox, musk, 626. 
 
 Portuguese cattle. 629. 
 
 Russian cattle, 630, 
 
 Southern Pacific, of, 635. 
 
 Spanish cattle, 629. 
 
 Switzerland, of, 631. 
 Persian Oxen, 618. 
 
 Anoa, the, 622. 
 
 Arnee, the. 622. 
 
 Buffaloes, 622, 624. 
 
 Gazal, the, 618. 
 
 Gour, the, 620. 
 
 Gyall, the, 619. 
 
 Yak, the, 821. 
 British Breeds, 636. 
 
 Aberdeen, 048. 
 
 Alderney, 945. 
 
 Argyleshire, 647. 
 
 Ayrshire, 648. 
 
 Cheshire, 639. 
 
 Chillingham Park, 636. 
 
 Cow of Yorkshire, 644. 
 
 Devonshire, 640. 
 
 Dotiiestic cattle, 638. 
 
 Dorsetshire, 639, 
 
 Durham, 642. 
 
 Galloway, 648. 
 
 Gloucester, 641. 
 Hereford, 641. 
 Highland Scot, 647. 
 Kerry, 639. 
 Kyloe, 646. 
 Leicestershire, 638. 
 Milk-yielding breeds, 601. 
 Shropshire, 641. 
 Sussex, 642. 
 Breeds of France, 650. 
 Cattle, 652. 
 
 Breeding of, 652. 
 Feeding of, 603, 669. 
 Measurement of, 688. 
 Plague, the, 689. 
 Rearing, 672. 
 Dairy, the, 675. 
 Butter, 675. 
 Cheese, 675. 
 Milk, 083. 
 Milking, 681. 
 Agricultural Associations, 651. 
 Diseases, 684. 
 
 ,, IN Calves, 686. 
 Kemediks, 684. 
 
 DIVISION V. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 Foreign Breeds, 691. 
 
 African, the, 695. 
 
 Alpacca, the, 697. 
 
 Argali, the, 691. 
 
 Corsican, 692. 
 
 Cretan, the, 694. 
 
 Iceland, the, 697. 
 
 Llama, the, 697. 
 
 Merino, the, 699. 
 
 Persian, the, 696. 
 
 Saxon, the, 700. 
 
 Sha, the, 092. 
 British Breeds, 702. 
 
 Bamborough, the, 711. 
 
 Berkshire, the, 712. 
 
 Black-faced, the, 712. 
 
 Cheviot, the, 717. 
 
 Cotswold, the, 709. 
 
 Dartmoor, the, 710. 
 
 Dorsetshire, the, 713. 
 
 Exmoor, the, 711. 
 
 Hardwick, the, 721. 
 
 Kentish, the, 705. 
 
 Leicester, the, 707. 
 
 Lincolnshire, the, 706. 
 
 Norfolk, the, 717. 
 
 ^lycland, the, 719. 
 
 Shropshire, the, 720. 
 
 Southdown, 715. 
 
 Teeswater, 704. 
 
 Welsh, 720. 
 
 Wiltshire, 715. 
 Sheep, 728. 
 
 Breeding of, 728. 
 
IMJliX. 
 
 1011 
 
 FalUnuiK ' f. '37. 
 Manaic'iix'ni '•(> 737. 
 Ki-ar:ii>; of, ;iS. 
 I. 741. 
 
 BUua. :4.'. 
 
 Coslruliuii, 746, 
 Kiiirrba'a, 74'J. 
 l)>M-merT. 749. 
 Kiiol-rot, 74b. 
 (iiirKet, 74i>. 
 Mi'diciiios, 750. 
 I'liiluriliiin, 744. 
 rueiin-nil fj'viT, 744, 
 Ufiiu-ilies, 744. 
 lloi, 74t>. 
 cab, 748. 
 hnccp-pox, 747. 
 Slurdy, 749, 
 
 DIVI.SION VI. 
 
 rui>. 
 
 KoRKioM Varirtik* of, 7o9. 
 
 CQinese, the, 701. 
 
 Domcsiic. origin of, 7.')^, 753. 
 
 Ftoiich, 7C0. 
 
 Ni-ii|)olituii, 760. 
 
 \V.>sit)hiilian, 759. 
 Uuii sii Brkkds, 752. 
 
 Ueiifordshirc, the, 767. 
 
 Herk.<hirc, the, 7' 5. 
 
 t ni'^hirc, 767. 
 
 Cumberland, 769. 
 
 Eni;lish hog, orijjinal of, 769. 
 
 E>sex hog, 769. 
 
 I'.xiiiict nice. 771. 
 
 Gloucestershire. 7r>8. 
 
 Hampshire, 764. 
 
 Herefordshire, 7fi'<. 
 
 Leier,<tershire. 768, 
 
 Lincolnshire, 768. 
 
 Norfolk, 768. 
 
 Korihampionshire, 768, 
 
 Old Iri.h hosr, 771. 
 
 Orkney breed, 770. 
 
 Shropshire breed, 769, 
 
 Suffolk, 766. 
 
 8u5se.x, 769. 
 
 Uil;.shire, 7r8. 
 
 YorKshire, 706. 
 Manaokmknt of the Hoo, 755. 
 
 Breeding, 775. 
 
 FaUeiiing, 775. 
 
 Feedwijf, 775. 
 
 Piggeries, 774. 
 
 Po.nts of a nig, 772. 
 
 R-aring, 775. 
 
 Sliuffhtering, 787. 
 Cum.NO, 737. 
 
 Bdcua, Hampshire, 790. 
 „ Yorkshire, 789. 
 
 Hams, Westiihalian, 789. 
 
 Irish modes, 791. 
 
 Scotch modes, 790, 
 DisKASF.j, 793. 
 
 Apoplexy, 793. 
 
 Castration. 794. 
 
 Catarrh, 794. 
 
 Colic, 794. 
 
 Creaking?, 794. 
 
 Di.irrhfloa, 795, 
 
 KpilepsT, 795. 
 
 Fever. 7',i5. 
 
 Foul skin, 798. 
 
 Heavings, 798. 
 
 Intiamraation. 798. 
 
 Jaunc'.i'O, 79^. 
 
 Leprosy, 79S. 
 
 Lethargy, 799. 
 .Mange, 799. 
 .\I.-..>Uv;, 800. 
 Murrain, 800, 
 Parturition, 800. 
 Quinsv, 801. 
 Ribie«, 801. 
 Sr>a\ing, 802. 
 Spleen, 803. 
 Staggers, 802. 
 Surfeit, 802. 
 Tetanus, 902. 
 Tumours, 803. 
 Ubuici.nes, S03. 
 
 Cochin, SIS. 
 iMrn.Huc duck, 873. 
 I> Mil. .tie fowl, oiitfin of, sol 
 11 I 1 i-.tii! grvrr. ST4. 
 lliirking, thr, H|n 
 Kowli>, vurioua, ivtS. 
 (iame fowl, h.'O. 
 <iuinea hin, f>70. 
 H.»nhurgh. HI4. 
 Malay fowl, 833. 
 MuRcovrdiick, 873. 
 IVa-fow'l, 871. 
 n,.i-.,,m, li.e. R7I. 
 r ■! - 1 \\\i: h.'J. 
 S .•• I f.iwU, H40. 
 Sp iii;.-h, 8:l. 
 TotiloukV KooKp, 874. 
 Turkey, the, b68. 
 Stock. S43. 
 
 (liMo^mg of, 843. 
 Ktfgs MM. 
 Fattening, 895. 
 Feeding, fris. 
 ILitehing. 8,^3. 
 }Iousing, 866. 
 liiler-breedine, 8.^3. 
 Po .Itry-houM-', 878, 879. 
 Sellii p of eggs, 857. 
 
 DiSKASKS, 8^0. 
 
 Aecident.H, 880. 
 
 Asthma, 880. 
 
 Consumption, 880. 
 
 Corns. 880. 
 
 Costiveni S.S. 980. 
 
 Diarrhoea, 880. 
 
 Fever, 8H0. 
 
 Gout, 880. 
 
 Indigestion, 880. 
 
 Inflammations, &c , 800. 
 
 Moultimr. soo. 
 
 Parasite, 832. 
 
 Pip. 8S3. 
 
 Treatment of diseases, S80. 
 
 Ulcers, 883. 
 
 DIVISION VIII. 
 MODr.R.N ENGLISH F.\RMIXG. 
 
 Agricultural education, 888. 
 Agricultural Society, Royal, "^94. 
 Artificial fattening,'893. 
 Chemists, 897. 
 Drain I ge, 895. 
 Fecuniiitv of weeds, 886. 
 Geologists, 898. 
 Green crops, 899. 
 Labour, its necessity, 88,5. 
 Leicester, Earl of, 892. 
 Lines of communicati'm, h«i. 
 Port.ible manures, 897. 
 Rotation of crops, 8i)l. 
 Smithtield Club. 889. 
 Turnip crops, S;>9. 
 Young, Arthur, 891. 
 
 DIVISION VII. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 ▼*ai»:TTR» or Fowr,, 814. 
 Bantam, the, 83'J. 
 Black, East India duck, 89S. 
 Call-duck. 873. 
 Chinese, 375. 
 
 DIVISION IX. 
 
 MACHINERY OF THE FARM. 
 
 Agricultural progress, 900. 
 Asphalting apparatus, 902. 
 Axles, 902. 
 
 Barley hummeller, 902. 
 Carts, 903. 
 Chaff-cutters, 994. 
 Cheese-presses, 90*. 
 Chums, 905. 
 Clod-crusher. 905. 
 Com screens, 906. 
 Cultivators, 906. 
 Drills, 908. 
 Elevators, 908. 
 Farm railways, 908. 
 Grubbers, 909. 
 Harrows, 909. 
 Horse-hoes, 911, 
 Horse-rakes, 912. 
 Manure distributors, 919. 
 Mills, 913. 
 Ploughs, 914. 
 Potato-diggers, 916. 
 Rollers, 919. 
 Root-washer, 919. 
 Back-barrows, 919. 
 Sacrifices, 909. 
 Steaming apparatus, 920. 
 Steam cultivator, 920. 
 Steam-engines, 921. 
 Tumip-cutt'Ts, 922. 
 Waggons, 9113. 
 Weed extirpators 021, 
 Wheels, 902. 
 
 Ma 
 
 ('tiimE' 
 
 , 902. 
 
 
 |lr.-..k 
 
 .nif. Wi. 
 
 
 (■..rn- 
 
 ii.i.s: 
 
 iJU, '.»o7. 
 
 
 ih,- 
 
 .,u-. MU 
 
 
 M .\, 
 
 ■\'>. 
 
 
 .M ... ; 
 1; .;■ 
 
 • k', '.114. 
 
 
 h .1. 1 
 
 ,•. wo. 
 
 
 w.u-i 
 
 iiik', 'jji. 
 
 
 Wlniii 
 
 >»iiig, u:3. 
 
 DIVISION X. 
 
 HORTlCL'LTIMJfc 
 
 Alclnoiit, of. 927, 
 4'\rui, of. 927. 
 EiiM. of the, U.S. 
 Eden, of, U.'O. 
 Greece, of, 928. 
 lle^perldes. of, 929. 
 I aiTt<9, of, 927. 
 Niiinuch, of, 930. 
 HomJM. of, 9. '9. 
 V..:.'eiable gardens, 02tt 
 Windsor, of. 932. 
 Fruit Gakhkm — 
 
 Ageit (if plants. 9.50. 
 
 Almond-tree, '.'''.2. 
 
 Apple*, 9)6, 9.)N. 
 
 Apricot, the, 9.'<4. 
 
 Area, disliibution of, 940. 
 
 Ulo-Kom, tlie, 952. 
 
 BudilinK. 944. 
 
 Bulbs, propagating by, 943. 
 
 Cherrv-tree, 950. 
 
 Chcsnut, 962. 
 
 Cranbcrrv, 901. 
 
 Currant, 9.0. 
 
 Cuttings, propngatine br, 947. 
 
 Distances in pluuimi;, 95U. 
 
 Espaliers, '.'.IJ. 
 
 Fig-tree, '-'H. 
 
 Forcme. 903. 
 
 Form of a garden, 935. 
 
 (iarden, points and plan of, 934. 
 
 Gnoseberrv, the, 9C0. 
 
 (iraftinir, 944. 
 
 Grape-vine. 953. 
 
 Hazel-nut. the. 9G2. 
 
 Hot-houses, 939. 
 
 In-arthing, propagating by, 947. 
 
 Instruments, scic-ntiHc, 967 
 
 l.ayeis, propagating by, 944. 
 
 Leaves, propair.ilinij by, 948. 
 
 Medlar, the, 9.19. 
 
 MeU.n-ground, 9)0. 
 
 Mulberry, the 9^;o. 
 
 Observaiions, pieliminarr, 930. 
 
 Ort"^<-ls, prop :ii;a'.ing by, yi3. 
 
 Peach, the, 955. 
 
 Pears, storini: of, 956. 
 
 Pear, the, njti. 
 
 Planting, 941, 951. 
 
 Plants, sorts of, 950. 
 
 Plum, the, 955. 
 
 Quince, the, 960. 
 
 Raspberry, the, 961. 
 
 Runners, propagating bv, 943. 
 
 Seeds, propagating by, 942. 
 
 Service-tree, the, 900. 
 
 Shelter of a garden, 938. 
 
 Situation of a garden, 936. 
 
 Size of a garden, 935. 
 
 Slips of a garden, 938. 
 
 Siips, propagating by, 943. 
 
 Soil of a g.irdcn, 9.''.ii. 
 
 Strawberry, the, 901. 
 
 Structures, vegetable, 912. 
 
 Subk'ct, treatment of, 94:'. 
 
 Suckers, prcpagating by, 913. 
 
 Training, 951. 
 
 Walls of a garden, 937. 
 
 Walnut, the, 9i'2. 
 
 Waste supply, 935. 
 
 FOKCINO (iMtOk.N — 
 
 Air, 908. 
 Boiler, the, 966. 
 Cherry-house, the, 971. 
 Cucumbers, 972. 
 i ig-hou.se, 971. 
 Heat, Rrtitlcial, 965. 
 Heat, solar, 968. 
 Ileatin?, niode^ of, '<6, 
 Hot-houses, 961. 
 Liitht, 903. 
 Mcioiiry, 072. 
 Resting, 903. 
 Vinery, 971. 
 VEOKTAni.K GAwnwt— 
 Angelica, 973. 
 Artichokes, 973. 
 Asparaens. 973. 
 Bean-s, 974. 
 
1010 
 
 Beet, 974. 
 Broccoli, 974. 
 Brussels sprouts, 975. 
 Cabbage, 975. 
 Cardoons, 975. 
 Carrot, 975. 
 Cauliflower, 975. 
 Celeriac, 979. 
 Celery, 976. 
 Chervil, 976. 
 Cress, 976. 
 Parsley, 979. 
 Parsnep, 979. 
 Peas, 978. 
 Potatoes, 979. 
 Rhubarb, 979. 
 Savoy, 979. 
 Sea-kale, 980. 
 Spinach, 980. 
 Tuinips, 980. 
 Vegetable marrow, 980. 
 Flowkr Gardkx— 
 Anemone, the, 985. 
 Annual plants, 984. 
 Biennial plants, 984. 
 British flower garden, the, 981. 
 Calendar, 986. 
 Dahlia, the, 985. 
 Gravel-walk;), 982. 
 
 I^'DEX. 
 
 Hvaeinth, the, 984. 
 Lily, the, 985. 
 Narcissus, the, 985. 
 Perennial plants, 9S4. 
 Propagation, modes of, 984. 
 Ranunculus, the, 985. 
 Shrubbery, the, 983. 
 Soil, 982. 
 Tulip, Uie, 984. 
 
 DIVISION XI. 
 
 THE BEE, AND THE MANAGEMENT 
 OF THE APIARY. 
 
 Apiary, the, 1000, 1002. 
 Bee, interest attached to, 994. 
 Construction of combs, 999. 
 Destruction of, 1002. 
 Formation of swarms, 999. 
 Functions of the, 995. 
 Hives, numbers, -996, 1001. 
 Pasturage of, 998. 
 Products of, 993. 
 Queen-bee, attachment to, 996, 
 
 DIVISION XII. . 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 Ang-ling apparatus, 1003. 
 
 Artificial flies, 1004. 
 
 Baits, 1005. 
 
 Hooks, 1004. 
 
 Lines, 1004. 
 
 Rods, lOOJ. 
 
 Fish— 
 
 Barbel, the, 1000. 
 
 Bleak, the, 1010. 
 
 Bream, the, 1008. 
 
 Carp, common, 1007. 
 
 Carp fam.lv, 1007. 
 
 (hub, the, "1009. 
 
 Dace, the, 1009. 
 
 Eel, common, 1010. 
 
 Eel family, 1010. 
 
 Grayling, the, 1007. 
 
 Gudgeon, 1010. 
 
 Loach, 1010. 
 
 Minnow, 1010. 
 
 Perch, the, 1011. 
 
 Pike family, 1007. 
 
 Roach, 1009. 
 
 Salmon, 1005. 
 
 Tench, 1008. 
 
 Trout, common, and Great Lake, 1006. 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 THOROUGH-BREDS (Frontispiece). 
 
 
 THE DOG. 
 
 
 TILE REST IN THE GLEN (Vignette). 
 
 
 THE GAMEKEEPER'S FIRESIDE 
 
 PAGB 
 
 366 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 46 
 51 
 
 THE WARRENER 
 
 FOX BREAKING COVER 
 
 382 
 414 
 
 THE RACE (DONKEYS) 
 
 MARE AND FOAL 
 
 GREYHOUND AND HARE 
 
 EXERCISING HOUNDS 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 RACE-HORSE 
 
 65 
 
 THE NURSERY 
 
 
 
 THE STRUGGLE 
 
 71 
 
 SETTER AND GROUSE 
 
 456 
 
 THE WINNING-POST 
 
 .... ,, 
 
 SPANIEL AND PHEASANT 
 
 460 
 
 MASTER OF THE HOUNDS (THE HUNTER) .. 
 GOING TO MARKET 
 
 90 
 101 
 
 SHOOTING. 
 
 
 IMPROVED STABLE FITTINGS 
 
 IN THE PADDOCK 
 
 IN THE STABLE 
 
 CLEARING THE FENCE 
 
 OSTEOLOGY 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE HORSE 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 
 
 104 
 120 
 ,> 
 154 
 156 
 158 
 164 
 
 THE SHOOTING PARTY 
 
 THE LUNCHEON 
 
 GROUSE SHOOTING 
 
 „ „ (SECOND VIEW) 
 
 ROOK SHOOTING 
 
 THE HERONRY 
 
 490 
 
 510 
 
 530 
 
 594 
 i» 
 
 DENTITION 
 
 AGE OF THE HORSE 
 
 170 
 172 
 
 FARMING. 
 
 
 SKELETON OF THE HORSE 
 
 ... 174 
 
 HARROWING WITH OXEN 
 
 884 
 
 FRACTURES 
 
 180 
 
 THE COW-HOUSE 
 
 n 
 
 THE VISCERA, Etc 
 
 298 
 
 
 
 THE HOOF AND RINGBONE 
 
 314 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 
 FEET AND SHOE" 
 
 320 
 
 TROUT-FISHING 
 
 lOOS 
 
 N. Y. 
 
Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine 
 Cummings Schoo! of V;..; ;;r:iry Medicine at 
 Tuits University 
 200 VVsstboro Road 
 North GraftonJvlA 01 535 
 
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