AE SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS ■ KELLNER TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 9090 013 400 953 »>r c>«? . 24,189 .. „ . 15,891 From these figures it is found that in the whole maize and bran series 501 lbs. of food were neces- sary to make 100 lbs. increase of body weight, whilst with the meal only 471 lbs. were essential, so that 6% more maize would be needed if the whole grains were fed. Whether it would be profitable to grind the maize would depend upon the price of it and of the pigs, as well as upon the cost of grinding. Pigs that have not been accus- tomed to feed on whole grain from a young state are easily upset, and may suffer serious digestive troubles if the corn is given unground. 140 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS 2. The moistening of food with cold water just before feeding helps to ensure consumption of hard unpalatable materials and allows of the different materials being well mixed. It also prevents the fine particles of meal being blown about, as well as the injury which the dust might cause to the respiratory organs. It has been shown experi- mentally that simply moistening the food has not the least influence upon its digestibility, but where it is left to soak for some time in cold water the effect is somewhat different. If the amount of water soaked up is so much that the drinking- water is reduced 25% of what it would be if the food were taken dry, then a slight depression of protein digestion results. An excessive consump- tion of water is also for other reasons (p. 101) to be avoided. 3. The cooking, scalding, or steaming of food has for its object the softening of hard material, and the rendering of the whole more palatable and more easily masticated. When hot water or steam are used injurious moulds or animal parasites are killed, but there is naturally no guarantee that injurious products of decomposition or poisonous substances will be rendered harmless. Cooked, scalded, or steamed food is usually given warm and so brings a certain amount of heat into the animal body, which, where a meagre ration is being fed, or where the stable is cold, may serve PREPARATION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 141 a useful purpose. Food treated in this way is not more digestible ; rather the opposite, for in experi- ments with steamed meadow hay and scalded wheat bran the crude protein was less digestible. It was found in fact that whilst 46 % of the crude protein of the hay and 77 % of that in the bran were digest- ible the amount sank in the steamed hay to 30%, and in the scalded bran to 70-74%. These differ- ences are still more pronounced where superheated steam is allowed to act upon the food. According then to these observations the above methods should never be employed where sound, palatable, and easily digestible food is given. Treatment with hot water or steam may be of service with chaff containing rust spores, diseased plants, mouldy fodder, etc. etc., and may render some parts of the food available. It should not be forgotten either that in this way weed seeds and spores of fungi are killed and so prevented from again finding their way to the field in the dung. Some food-stuffs like potatoes are more valuable when cooked or steamed, as will be mentioned later, but such treatment yields a tasteless, relaxing diet, which is most suitable for pigs. Fattening cattle and dairy stock may also get cooked food, but young or working animals should only be given small quantities. In any case Care must be taken that such food does not cause more water to be brought into the body than is necessary, for exces- 142 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS sive quantities of thin gruel-like foods cause weak- ness of the digestive organs (p. 101). Horses and sheep thrive best when the ration is in dry form, but in some cases, e.g. when feeding potatoes, fiozen and damaged roots, diseased straw, musty corn, etc., cooking or steaming may fitly be employed. With cattle it is somewhat different, for they do well on steamed coarse fodder, or on other foods which have been prepared in this way. For pigs, cooked or steamed food is the principal article of diet, and it has been shown that the increase of live weight is then greater than when the same food is given in crushed or ground form. As a rule such preparation of the food is carried somewhat too far, for it should be reserved for those materials which are difficult of digestion in the crude state, or which show unpleasant after-effects. In all cases par- ticular care should be taken that the mangers are scrupulously clean. 4. The roasting of food-stuffs is very seldom done owing to the losses in digestible nutrients, but occasionally where a food has become musty or mouldy, or otherwise attacked by fungi, it may be usefully employed. Roasting also serves to destroy the unpleasant-tasting substances in horse chestnuts and lupine seeds. 5. Feeding-stuffs are sometimes steeped in water in order to get rid of some soluble constituents which are objectionable. Potatoes, for example, are cut PREPARATION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 143 into thin slices and put into a cask with a double bottom and tap, then covered with cold water which after standing 6-12 hours is drawn off. In this way the greater part of the acrid substances are got rid of without loss of nutrients. Potatoes con- tain about 3 % of material soluble in cold water. Good results are obtained by steeping lupine seeds, which contain a bitter principle with poison- ous properties, in cold water, for otherwise only small quantities are eaten by stock. Lupine seeds are very liable to cause distension and affect the milk, either reducing the quantity or giving it a bitter taste, etc. To get rid of these bitter substances the lupines are soaked for 24-36 hours in cold or lukewarm water, then boiled for an hour, and finally washed well with cold water, the water being changed every 6-12 hours. Where convenient the final washing can be done in a stream, the seeds being placed in baskets or sacks. As lupine seeds after treatment are very slippery and difficult to chew, it is ad- visable to crush them before feeding. This method of preparing lupine seeds would probably prevent lupine sickness, which from time to time is pre- valent (see under " Grains "). In the process of steeping the ripe seeds lose 12-20% of dry matter, mostly nitrogen-free extract substance, whilst unripe seeds lose up to 30%. T44 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS 6. The heating of straw with soda lye under pressure. This process has for its object the solution of part of the incrusting material, which decreases the digestibility (p. 14). For the treatment of 200 lbs. of straw it is advised to take 40 gals, of water and 4-8 lbs. of caustic soda, and heat the whole in a boiler under a pressure of 60-80 lbs. to square inch for six hours. On cooling, the material can be fed without further treatment to cattle or sheep, both of which eat it readily. When the mixture has been heated for a sufficiently long time under pres- sure it loses its alkaline properties, for so much acid is formed from the straw that the soda lye is neu- tralised. Ammonia has also been tried in place of the soda lye, for it would have the advantage of being re- coverable by distillation. The organic matter of oat straw which had been treated by this process with soda lye showed a digestibility coefficient of 56-60-5, whereas in the original straw it was only 42% " The above process, which is patented, is still only in the experimental stage, so it remains to be seen if it will be possible to use it in actual practice. 7. The heating of fodder with dilute hydrochloric acid and neutralisation of the acid with soda diminishes the digestibility, particularly the protein, and as the process is costly it has no advantages. PREPARATION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 145 8. The malting of grains and the preparation of sweet mashes. The preparation of green malt for feeding pur- poses is not to be recommended, for the germination of the grain causes considerable loss of easily digestible nutrients. It has been observed that from 100 kilos of barley 2-5-3 kilos of starch were lost during four days' germination, whilst after nine days the loss reached 5-6 kilos. The proteins were also decomposed, and in the first period of germina- tion 20-30% were changed into non-protein sub- stance. Seeds such as those of the lupine, which have an unpleasant taste, are not improved by germination, so that in cases of this kind no benefit results from " malting." Sometimes a sweet mash is prepared from potatoes with the help of small quantities of malt (0-3-0-5 lb. per 100 lbs. potatoes), and this when freshly prepared is readily eaten, and with good results. It is very apt, though, to cause scouring when it has stood for some time and become sour. Such sweet mashes should always be used quickly, for otherwise the spores of yeasts in the air can cause them to undergo alcoholic fermentation and to have an objectionable effect upon the animal (p. 119). Very good results are obtained with calves and young pigs from a sweet mash prepared in the following way according to Liebig's directions. For each calf take 3J quarts of milk, 3-J- quarts of L 146 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS water, 10 oz. of wheat flour, 10 oz. of ground malt, and i oz. potassium bicarbonale. The method of preparation is as follows. The flour is boiled with the water and half of the milk to form a porridge, and when this is cold the other half of the milk, in which the potassium bicarbonate is dissolved, is added, and the ground malt stirred in. The mix- ture is then allowed to stand for half an hour in a warm place, then once more boiled and sieved through muslin. Lately saccharified starch has been recommended as an addition to skim milk in the rearing of calves ; further particulars regarding this will be found in the third part of this volume. 9. The predigestion of food by gastric or pan- creatic juice has been tried on waste meat and fish products, blood from slaughter houses, milk and waste dairy products. This is an entirely useless process, for the above products require no pre- digestion, being easily digested by a normal animal, and the process takes place better in the body than outside of it. It is certainly no accident that the proteins as a rule enter the digestive apparatus in an insoluble form. Even where they are in a fluid state, as in milk, they are curdled in the stomach in order to be gradually digested (p. 23). Healthy animals do far better without artificial digestion of their food, and sick ones require profes- sional treatment, not the undiscerning use of any artificial nutrient. PREPARATION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 147 10. The preparation of food by fermentation. Ground cereals, feeding meals, bran, etc. are some- times made into a dough, then raised by means of a little sour dough, and after twenty-four hours or so are fed. The object of this is to improve the flavour, but there is not, as a matter of fact, any advantage, rather a disadvantage, for the diges- tibility of the food-stuff is thereby diminished. An experiment with wheat bran showed that before fermentation 75*5% of the organic matter was digestible, whilst afterwards only 67-3%. Similarly with the crude protein, of which 82-2% was digestible in the original bran, but afterwards only 79-1%. Scalding, boiling, or steaming are less trouble- some processes and are better suited for the purpose than is the fermentation method. 11. In the preparation of sour food by fermenta- tion, chopped straw or hay, chaff, green fodder, roots, and sometimes distillery waste are used. All these substances are well mixed, the mangels and potatoes having been previously sliced, a little salt added and then enough water or distillers' wash to make a mixture from which the liquid does not drain away when it is squeezed in the hand. The whole is then made into heaps about three feet wide and two feet high, well beaten down and covered with straw, upon which boards and stones are laid. Fermentation soon begins, depending 148 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS upon the temperature of the place in which the heap is made, and after about forty-eight hours the material is ready to be used. The object of such a process is to improve the flavour of food substances, which otherwise would not readily be eaten. As fermentation is always accompanied by loss of nutrients such concentrated foods as oil cakes, ground corn, bran, etc. should not be used. In years when it is necessary to feed a lot of straw, the above-mentioned fermentation process provides a welcome change. The fermented fodder has a pleasant fruit-like smell, and is best suited to grown cattle ; if given to cows it is apt to impart an un- pleasant taste to the milk, particularly if it has lain for some time or has not been cleanly prepared. 12. The manufacture of feeding loaves. For this purpose the various feeding flours, ground corn, and leguminous seeds, bran, flesh, and hsh meals, and blood meal are used. Sometimes also old bread, milk, whey, molasses, potatoes, chaff, chopped hay, etc. The dough made from some such suitable material generally gets an addition of salt, sometimes also a little flavouring, such as aniseed, and after being raised by sour dough, or yeast, is baked. If the materials chosen give a sufficiently light loaf the fermentation may be dispensed with. As such loaves are apt to become mouldy, it is preferable, if they have to be kept for some time, PREPARATION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 149 to make them into a kind of biscuit. Such pre- parations are practically never used except in the case of fodder for army horses during a campaign. The loaves are said to be an excellent substitute for oats, but if they are bought and not home-made care must be taken that the materials of which they are made are not merely rubbish. CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION OF THE FEEDING-STUFFS (i) Green fodder and hay. THESE consist of the parts of plants growing above ground which have not yet completed their growth, and so contain considerable quantities of chlorophyll. Their value depends upon — (a) The age of the plant, as is seen from the following examples, which give the composition of various plants at different stages of growth. I. Meadow grass harvested from plots which corresponded to one another on the same meadow on 14 May, 9 and 26 June. The first crop was about equal in food value to green fodder, the second crop, cut at the usual time of hay harvest, corresponded to a meadow hay harvested under favourable conditions. The third crop was over- grown, the stems of the plants being very coarse. The composition of the three varieties of hay reckoned upon the same percentage of water — 15% — was as follows — 150 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 151 1 Crop. % 2 Crop. % 3 Crop. % Water. - i5-o 15-0 15-0 Crude protein 16-1 9*5 7-2 Crude fat . . 2-9 2-3 2-3 Crude fibre . 21-0 29-6 32-4 Nitrogen-free extract . 37'3 36-8 36-9 Mineral substances . 77 6-8 6-2 Pure protein 10-5 8-0 67 Amides 5'6 i-5 o-5 The latter in percentage f crude protein . 34-8 15-8 6.9 2. Red clover in second year of growth, harvested on 9, 17, and 23 May, 19 and 26 July, and 23 August. 1. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. Flowers Flowers Flowers not hardly notice- In In full d evelopcd. noticeable able. flower. bloom. Ripe. In the fresh plants — Water . 88-0 88-2 871 77-5 773 65-2 Dry matter . I20 xi-8 12-9 225 227 34-S In the dry matter — Crude protein 29-2 245 231 214 17-3 170 „ fat . 50 56 5-2 55 44 5-1 ,, fibre . 20-9 246 22-2 256 371 395 Nitrogen-free extract 35-6 33-2 383 38-4 32-9 311 Crude ash n-3 121 1 1-2 9-1 8-3 7-3 Pure protein . 17-5 172 15-5 160 136 150 Amides . 117 73 7-6 5-4 37 20 The latter in percen- tage of crude protein 40-1 298 32-9 252 21-4 II-8 These tables show very well -some of the similar- ities which are found in most fodder plants. The figures for red clover show that the amount of 152 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS water in fresh plants decreases with growth, whilst the dry matter increases, also that the components of the latter alter in certain directions. During the development the amounts of crude protein, proteins and non-proteins, and also the mineral substances regularly decrease, whilst the crude fibre increases. In the early stages of growth the plant takes up a lot of nitrogenous food and converts it gradually into protein, whilst at a later period the production of nitrogen-free substances predominates. The higher the plant grows so much greater are the demands made upon the supporting powers of the stem, and it becomes richer in crude fibre. For this purpose a part of the nitrogen-free extract is converted into crude fibre, and in it from the time of flowering chemical changes take place which result in the formation of incrusting materials, which make the fibre woody. After flowering there is also a movement of nitrogenous and nitro- gen-free substances from the green organs of the plants to the seeds and fruits, whereby the percent- age composition of the stem and leaves in crude fibre is increased. In the case of root crops the materials formed during the first year in the green parts of the plant pass into the roots, or tubers. As the degree of lignification stands in a certain relation to the digestibility of fodder plants it is clear that the older plants must contain a smaller quantity of digestible material than do the younger. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 153 This has been repeatedly shown, and a good ex- ample is furnished by the three crops of meadow grass whose composition was given on page 151. The digestibility trials were with sheep, and the following figures were obtained — Percentage quantities of Digest bility coe fficients. digestible substa nces. I St and 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd Crop. Crop. Crop. Crcp. Crop. Crop. Crude protein • 733 721 555 u-8 6-8 40 ,, fat 654 51-6 433 19 1-2 i-o ,, fibre 795 657 611 167 19-5 19-8 Nitrogen-free extract 757 619 557 28-2 22-S 205 Organic matter 75-8 643 57-5 586 50-3 453 Pure protein . 591 667 51-9 6-2 53 35 Amides . 100 100 100 5"6 i-5 °-5 The latter in percen- tage of pure protein — — — 47-5 22- 1 125 Similar experiments to those with meadow grass have been carried out with red clover. Three portions of a well-grown field of clover were chosen, the first plot cut on 20 May, when the green in- florescences were just visible, the second on 7 June was in full flower, and the third on 20 June when two- thirds of the flower heads had lost their colour. All were well harvested in spite of some rain, and a digestibility trial gave the following figures, which are reckoned on the assumption that the hay in each case contained 16% water.* v. * In these experiments the non-protein nitrogenous substances in the food were not determined, for at that time this group of substances was not thought to be so generally distributed as it is now known to be. 154 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Digest ibil ty ties c f digestible Co mposition. coefficients. nutrients. Lots. "* Lots. Lots. i. 2. 3- 1. 2. 3- 1. *• 3- Water . 160 160 l6-0 — — — Crude protein 164 137 III 709 650 58-8 u-6 89 65 „ fat . 19 24 2-4 580 64-4 6o-2 11 15 14 ,, fibre . 213 236 242 50-6 46-6 39-8 108 no 96 Nitrogen-free extract 359 37-8 406 70-2 68-4 66-3 25-3 259 270 Pure ash 8-5 65 57 — — — — — — Organic matter 75-5 77-5 78-3 646 610 568 48-8 47-3 445 Percentage quanti- With those plants which are cultivated for hay, and where it is desirable to preserve as much of the digestible nutrients as possible, it is seen from these investigations that the best time for harvest is usually during the first half of the flowering period. If the grass is cut earlier, although the percentage amount of digestible material may be higher, the total quantity is still small. A food richer in nutrients but of less value is obtained when the harvest is taken some time after flowering. The balance of profit seems to lie with the early harvest, for then the quality is superior although the quantity suffers. (b) The nutritive value of the fodder plants depends also to a certain measure upon the variety. Between the various cultivated forms of one and the same species of plant great variations are observed. These manifest themselves in many ways, the chief being the difference in time of growth, the weight of produce and the formation of stem DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 155 and leaves. As the leaves are considerably more nutritious than the stem, those fodder plants which have the most leaf in the same weight of produce are to be preferred. (c) The distance apart at which the plants are placed is also important, for usually there are stronger stems and fewer leaves where plants grow wide apart. Thin sowing gives then coarser fodder than thick sowing, and the latter is to be preferred, both on that account and because of the greater yield. (d) Soil and manuring have very great influence on the nutritive value of fodder. This is particu- larly noticeable in meadows and permanent pastures, where in the struggle for existence only those plants survive which are under conditions where they can obtain their nutrition. The differences in moisture and temperature of the soil, the presence in it of lime or acids, all tend to favour the growth of one or more varieties of the natural flora. The result is that on the one hand clovers, vetches, and sweet grasses may flourish, whilst other conditions bring forward rushes, horse-tails, or plants that grow well on a sour soil. Only radical methods of cultivation, such as draining, irrigation, liming, plentiful manur- ing with potash or phosphoric acid can effect any alteration ; the sowing of other seeds is quite useless unless the conditions are altered in some of the above ways. As regards the influence of manure 156 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS upon the composition of the fodder plants, it is well known that a plentiful addition of nitrogenous fertilisers, where the supply of nitrogen is otherwise sufficient, tends to improve the growth and to raise the percentage of protein and nitrogenous sub- stances of a non -protein nature in the plant. This is particularly the case with the grasses and with many other plants which do not belong to the order of the Leguminosae. Plants of a richer nature, such as oats, barley, rye, and wheat, contain, for example, 16-4% crude protein in the dry matter at the beginning of flowering, as against 10-4% found in the ordinary grasses. As a rule the crude fibre also increases after plentiful nitrogenous manuring, whereby the nutritive value of the fodder is somewhat reduced ; very luxuriant plants are usually more fibrous and less palatable. Practical experience has also shown that the feeding value of such fodder is not particu- larly high, a good example being afforded in the hay made from irrigation meadows. One very noticeable effect of manuring is seen where manures of a similar nature are repeatedly put upon meadows possessing otherwise good soil conditions. Some particular varieties of plants are in this way stimu- lated, whilst others disappear. Repeated annual applications of sulphate of ammonia particularly favour the growth of some grasses at the expense of clover, vetches, etc. On the other hand, a DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 157 potash-phosphate manure, without nitrogen, tends very largely to induce the valuable leguminous plants. The causes of this are to be found in the special requirement of the two classes of plants ; grasses need nitrogen, whilst the Leguminosae can get their supply of this element from the atmosphere provided they have sufficient potash and phos- phates. If more mineral substances are at the disposal of the plant than it requires for growth, it nevertheless takes up some of the excess, a circumstance which is of great importance as regards the supply of lime and phosphoric acid to domestic animals. (e) The weather conditions during growth in- fluence not only the quantity, but also the com- position of the fodder plants. In wet years the plants usually contain more water and grow to a greater height. The stem, which is rich in crude fibre, thereby increases at the expense of the more valuable leaves, and a coarse food less palatable and nutritious is the result. A period of drought, on the other hand, causes the plants to be shorter and more compact, with small leaves and stems, which quickly lignify. If the drought is long- continued the entrance of mineral substances into the roots is prevented, and so the fodder is poor in lime and phosphoric acid, and may give rise to diseases of the bones. (/) The fodder plants have a different effect in 158 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS production, according to whether they are fed green or as hay. In the latter case a considerable portion of the nutrients is always lost by respira- tion, crumbling, fermentation, etc., and there is extra energy required for the work of mastication and digestion (p. 88). It therefore follows that the green fodder has more feeding value than the hay prepared from it ; this quite apart from the expense of hay-making. When it is possible to use the food in a green state, it is preferable to do this and not to limit the green feeding unless there are special reasons. Fodder plants can be fed to all domestic animals, but there are limitations depending upon the kind of fodder and the species of the animal. First of all a sudden change to green food should be avoided. Further, owing to the large quantity of water in the green plant, relatively large quantities have to be consumed which is often burdensome to the animal and apt to lead to an ugly distension of the belly. Draught oxen and high-class horses require to be limited in the amount of green food which they get. Caution is also necessary on account of the large quantities of gas which are formed in the stomach when such fodder is being fed, and this is particularly the case when the grass, clover, etc. has been wet by dew or rain, or left so long in a heap that it has begun to heat. In this respect clover is the most dangerous of these green foods and is very apt to cause dis- DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 159 tension. Following upon these general statements a short description of the various green foods and hay may be briefly mentioned here.* 1. Fodder from pastures and meadows. The value of the food obtained from natural grass lands depends in the first place upon the plants which have become established in any par- ticular soil. Viewed from the practical standpoint these plants may be divided into (a) grasses, (b) clovers, (c) plants belonging to other families. Amongst the grasses, such examples as rye grass, meadow grass, meadow oat-grass, timothy, meadow foxtail, brome grass, etc. are noted for their palat- ableness and other valuable properties. In opposi- tion to these are sedge grasses, rushes, sedges, etc., which diminish the feeding value considerably. The clovers and vetches are almost all reckoned amongst the best fodder plants, whilst amongst the herbs are a lot — burnet, thyme, scabiosa, . etc. — which give a valuable fodder. A fodder which contains a large quantity of sweet grasses and clovers is more valuable than one com- posed largely of those grasses which flourish on poor or acid soils. The reason of this is not so much to be sought in the actual differences in chemical * In the description of the several food-stuffs the author has refrained from giving particulars as to their composition and digesti- bility. Tables I and II in the Appendix show the differences in composi- tion more clearly than could be done in words. The reader is par- ticularly recommended to look through these from time to time. i6o SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS composition, for both types of grass contain about the same amount of nutrient substances. It is rather that in the one case the fodder is palatable, although digestibility trials would perhaps show that the coarser grasses are not so well digested on account of the higher percentage of silica which they contain and which doubtless acts as do the incrusting materials in the crude fibre of hay or straw. Further, it must be noted that the sharp particles of the coarse grasses have an irritant effect, often indeed cause injury to the mucous membrane, and thereby diminish the food meta- bolism in the animal. In order to maintain a compact growth of plants in permanent pastures care has to be taken that the development of the stem shall not take place. As animals grazing on the pasture also bite off certain plants very completely, the flora has an entirely different character to that of meadows in the same position. English and Italian rye grasses, timothy, cock's foot, dog's tail, and the different fescues have proved themselves good lasting varieties for permanent pastures, whilst amongst the clovers, the red, and, on dry soil, the yellow varieties are also very successful. As the leaf surface upon which the formation of fresh organic matter depends never reaches the extent in pasture plants that it does in meadow plants, the weight of the harvest from the former is often 30-60% less than from the DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 161 latter. Pastures, however, yield a very nutritious fodder ; it has been found in ioo kilos dry matter, from the grass of good pastures, that io-6 kilos of digestible protein were present, and the starch value of the fodder was equivalent to 60 kilos. These are figures which approach those got from many grains. Meadow grass at the time when it is usually fed in a green state is generally somewhat more developed, and therefore is poorer in protein and richer in crude fibre and nitrogen- free extract substances than pasture grass. Meadow hay shows the greatest differences in composition of any natural fodder. On the one hand, where the grass is cut late and the weather is unfavourable, a hay may be got which in nutritive value is below that of good straw. On the other hand, a fertile, low-lying meadow may yield a hay, particularly if the grass is cut early, which equals pasture grass in feeding value. The best hay is got from sunny, moderately moist mountain and alpine meadows, for there the plants are short and close together and mingled with aromatic herbs. Such hay is distinguished not so much by the large amount of protein it contains, as by its tenderness, aroma, and exceptional palatableness, etc. The hay from damp forest meadows or sour soils has the opposite properties, for it is composed, for the most part, of coarse, tasteless grasses. Irrigation meadows yield a hay M 162 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS which, although rich in protein, is coarse stemmed and lacks aroma, so that it usually requires to be mixed with some good hay before animals will take any quantity of it. Good hay ought to be made from tender, leafy plants, chiefly the sweet grasses and clovers cut at the commencement of flowering, and should possess a pleasant smell and be free from mud and dust. The hay from the aftermath is also to be reckoned amongst the good varieties, if harvested in favour- able weather, but it is usually below good meadow hay as regards palatableness and aroma. Often at the time of harvesting the aftermath cool, rainy weather is prevalent, so that it suffers more than the first crop on account of the large quantities of soluble substances it contains, and which are washed out. 2. Seed grasses, such as rye grass, timothy, cock's foot, along with clover, give according to their age a fodder which is usually less palatable, but as nourishing as meadow hay of the same age. The same applies to cereals such as rye, wheat, oats, or barley, which are sometimes used as fodder. 3. Green maize in comparison with other fodder plants is fairly rich in water and poor in protein, but owing to the large amount of sugar (4-6%) which it contains, it is readily consumed. As young green maize contains up to 90% of water and in addition grows quickly, it is advisable not to cut it DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 163 too soon ; the best time is from the beginning to the end of the flowering period. Sorghum (Kaffir corn), which is allied to maize, has a less coarse straw, and may be cut several times in the season. It is richer in sugar than maize and when quite young it contains, like young linseed, a substance which gives rise to the poisonous prussic acid in the stomach, whereas later the sorghum is non-injurious. 4. The clovers, like all Leguminosse, are char- acterised by a high percentage of crude protein, which before flowering can be as much as 30-34% of the dry matter. Considerably more non-protein nitrogenous material is found in the crude protein than in the grasses (p. 151). The digestibility of the crude protein and of the nitrogen-free extract substances is in general slightly higher in the clovers than in the grasses, whilst the reverse is the case with the crude fibre. Red clover, up to the time of flowering, is usually used as a green food. At a later stage when used for the same purpose, it is not nourishing enough to be the sole food of animals and is then generally made into hay. The second crop of red clover is usually richer in crude protein and crude fibre, but somewhat poorer in nitrogen-free extract. On account of its heating properties red clover should only be fed in limited quantities to horses and sheep, but it is very suitable for grown cattle. 164 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Pregnant animals and young stock should not get more than half their coarse fodder in the form of clover, which is further credited with causing a yellowish, badly coloured meat, with an inferior flavour when given as green food to pigs. Lucerne stands in many ways very close to the clovers, both as regards palatableness and the quantities to be used, only it is on an average richer in crude protein. As it tends to get woody even before flowering it is best to cut it at the be- ginning of that period, which may be done without fear of loss, as several crops can be taken. The after-growth following the first and second crops is, like the red clover, richer in crude protein and crude fibre, but poorer in nitrogen-free extract sub- stances. Sainfoin is another leguminous crop which in its different periods of growth somewhat resembles red clover; it should be cut early on account of its strong after-growth. Incarnate clover, an annual variety, gives when cut early a fodder similar to red clover, but it lignifies very quickly from the time of flowering. Bastard clover, also called Swedish clover, and still more white clover, retain their tender proper- ties for a longer period and can, therefore, be left standing until the end of the flowering period. The same applies to serradella. 5. The kidney vetch contains the lowest amount DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 165 of protein amongst those fodder plants that will be mentioned here. It lignifies slowly, and like serra- della is remarkable for growing well on sandy soil. Owing to its astringent taste, it is not readily eaten in the green state by horses. The different varieties of vetches when cut young yield a fodder very rich in protein, but which, however, quickly become woody. The above-mentioned plants can be placed alongside red clover as regards their palatableness and suitability for animals, but they all, with the ex- ception of incarnate clover, sainfoin, and serradella, have a heating action, the vetches particularly. Lupines are often not cut until their side branches are in flower and the main stem has formed seeds, but sometimes they are cut before flowering in order to get two crops. Fodder from lupines has always a heating effect, and in some years all parts of the plant — seeds, straw, chaff — contain a deadly poison. This is a protein-like substance probably due to the action of some fungus which, favoured by the conditions of weather, emigrates to the plant. As the poisoning is generally fatal, it is very advisable to make a feeding test for a few weeks on some valueless animal (a rabbit), in order to judge if the material is safe to use as food. If the lupine fodder is shown to be poisonous, there is nothing to be done but to steam it for 4-5 hours, at a pressure of 60-80 lbs. to the square inch, in order to destroy its poisonous properties. Simple scalding, or the 166 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS conversion into brown or sour hay, is not sufficient to render it harmless. Lupine fodder serves princi- pally for feeding sheep, which take it readily, whilst horses and cattle, to which in any case only small quantities should be given, do not accustom them- selves to it very quickly. Where large quantities of lupines are fed the quality of the milk is very apt to suffer. White mustard after flowering quickly becomes woody, and must on that account not be left later than the flowering period before being fed. Another reason for feeding the plants at that time is that the seeds when eaten form mustard oil in the stomach, which is injurious. In order that this crop may be fed at the right stage of growth it is best to sow portions at different times. It is principally fed in moderate quantities to dairy stock, sheep, and young cattle. Buckwheat, which is generally cut at the height of the flowering period, should be fed preferably to cattle. In some years the use of it tends to cause sickness, particularly in sheep and pigs. 6. The leaves and tops of the sugar beet and the mangel wurzel give a very watery food, the dry matter of which, however, is rich in protein, low in crude fibre, and contains a large percentage of soluble mineral substances, amongst which oxalic acid (3-4% of the dry matter) is found. This acid may be consumed in small quantities without any DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 167 ill effects, but increased amounts cause symptoms of poisoning and may lead to death. Generally oxalic acid undergoes partial fermentation in the first stomach of the ruminants, but in pigs and horses this preventative arrangement fails. It is, therefore, advisable to give some carbonate of lime (precipitated chalk) along with the beet tops to render the oxalic acid insoluble ; a similar addition should also be made when sour fodder or silage are fed. On an average a quarter-pound of chalk may be given to 250 lbs. of leaves. Mangel or beet leaves have, in any form, a loosening effect on the bowels, and should, therefore, be given along with straw or hay. A third of the total ration of a dairy cow might be composed of these leaves, whilst a fattening bullock could be given more. The earth which often adheres in large amounts to the leaves and heads should al- ways be washed off. Generally, the greater part of the mangel leaves are made into sour fodder, but lately machinery has been erected for the purpose of drying this valuable food (p. 135). Up to the present, however, the adhering soil has generally not been sufficiently removed before drying, and that has led in some instances to a partial charring of the material. The dried leaves, when properly prepared, have a^ feeding value equal to moderately good meadow hay. The leaves of carrots, kohl-rabi, and turnips do 168 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS not possess any properties injurious to health, nor does cabbage, which is highly prized for feeding milch cows. The haulms of potatoes should not be used as fodder ; they are very indigestible and contain a powerful poison — solanine. In case of necessity they may be made into sour fodder, but they are best not used. 7. Fodder from leaves and twigs. The leaves of the ordinary foliage trees dried in July or August give an inferior fodder about equal to poor meadow hay, but which, in cases of necessity, is worth feeding. Some leaves, e.g. beech, oak, alder, hazel, contain a lot of tannin, which causes them to have a con- stipatory effect if eaten in large quantities. The leaves of the poplar, willow, and maple make the best fodder, whilst the needles of the pine and fir act injuriously upon the digestive and urinary organs. The leaves and twigs of the yew contain a deadly poison. Brushwood, cut in winter, has very little value indeed as fodder, the woody fibre being hardly digested at all; the twigs of the acacia and the poplar are usually the best. Sawdust is only very slightly acted upon by the digestive juices, and diminishes the value of the rest of the food (p. 90). DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 169 (2) Chaff and straw. During the maturation of a plant the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances are transferred from the green portions of the plant to the seeds, as has already been noticed (p. 152). At this time the stems, haulms, etc. undergo lignification, and after the ripening of the fruit there remains but little protein, fat, and nitrogen-free extract in the straw or chaff, the quantity varying with the completeness of ripening. A good example of this is seen in the following analyses of oat straw at three different periods of ripening — Nitrogen- Crude free Crude protein. Fat. extract. fibre. Ash. Unripe . . IO-I i-9 50-6 29-4 8-o Ripe . . 4'9 1-2 4 8'6 37'8 7'5 Over-ripe • 4'3 i-4 36-9 49.8 7-6 If the passage of substances from the stem and leaves is entirely or partially prevented in any way, as when the plant is laid by hail, rain, wind, or other causes, or by drought, then a more nutritious straw is obtained, as the above figures show. In consequence of such conditions, the protein content of cereal straw, which as a rule is only 2-3%, can rise to 6% and more. Continued wet weather, on the other hand, causes the formation of a straw poor in protein and rich in crude fibre. Manuring has also a distinct, although usually 170 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS small, influence upon the composition of the straw, particularly that of the cereals. The nitrogenous manures are the most important, and raise the percentage of protein in the straw. In experiments carried on for six years on barley straw, the average amount of crude protein, when only mineral manures were used, was 2-88%, but a manure containing a large quantity of nitrogen with a medium amount of minerals raised it to 3-94%. In the straw itself the nutrients are unevenly divided, the lower parts of the stem containing more woody tissue and less protein than the upper. Similar differences are also seen between the lower and upper leaves, whilst the ears are richest in protein and poorest in crude fibre. Those portions of the straw which are nearest to the seeds are the most valuable for feeding, so it is sound practice to allow sheep to pick over the straw intended for litter, for they will eat the nutritious portions, which are almost equal to good meadow hay. 1. The straw of the cereals belongs to those fodders which are very poor in protein and rich in crude fibre. The lignification often goes so far that 80% of the digestible nutrients in winter wheat straw is required to furnish energy for the work of mastication, digestion, etc. (p. 8j), whilst with rye straw there is probably even less available for the animal. The shorter the period of growth, DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 171 the better the straw is, so that spring sown cereals give a more valuable feeding straw than do the autumn sown. Oat, barley, and spring wheat straws are of about equal value, and barley straw is often preferred for feeding milch cattle without any special reason being given. Autumn sown straw, on account of its smaller nutritive value, is generally used for litter, either before or after sheep have picked it over. Straw that has grown and been cut along with other plants — weeds, clover, etc. — has a higher feeding value than straw from well-cleaned fields. After lying for a long time straw, like other coarse fodders, loses its aroma and brightness, becomes crumbly, dusty, and flavour- less, and is then best given as chaff mixed with soft food. 2. Straw from leguminous plants is considerably more nutritious than cereal straw, and can equal good meadow hay, or fairly good clover hay, in feeding value. As a rule leguminous straw is coarse stemmed, less palatable, often attacked by moulds and liable to cause constipation. This is especially the case with the straw from vetches, beans, and peas, which sometimes causes sickness similar to that noticed after feeding with lupines (p. 165). A tenderer and more palatable straw is got from lentils and serradella.. Leguminous straw can only be fed as subsidiary food to cattle and sheep ; horses do not eat it readily. I 172 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS 3. Rape, flax, buckwheat and similar plants give a straw that in outward properties resembles coarse leguminous straw, and which is used in the same way. Buckwheat straw can cause the buck- wheat sickness (p. 166). 4. Chaff is principally the straw-like husks of the seeds, which often contain a lot of silica along with broken leaves, twigs, imperfect grains, etc. It is usually richer in nutrients than the straw of the same plant, but may contain a lot of rubbish, such as sand, earth, dust, weed seeds, spores of fungi, etc., all of which should be removed as far as possible before feeding. Amongst the varieties of cereal chaff that of oats and non-awned barley is the most valuable, then comes wheat chaff, whilst that of rye is only slightly digestible. Rice and millet chaff are the least valuable and contain a lot of woody fibre, and silica. Chaff from awned cereals is best not fed at all, for the sharp awns bore into the mucous membrane of the digestive apparatus, and may give rise to inflammation. Sometimes, too, a fungus (Actinomyces bovis), which is found on cereal straw, causes the formation of abscesses in the throat and stomach. Scalding and steaming, which kill the fungus, prevent this, for if the awns enter the mucous membrane they do not then introduce the living fungus, which is the cause of the disease. The chaff of leguminous seeds — peas, vetches, beans, lupines — is about equal in feeding value to \ DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 173 ordinary red clover hay ; the chaff from lentils and clover is more valuable, whilst the husks of peas, beans, and vetches approach ordinary meadow hay in value. Rape, mustard, buckwheat, and linseed give a chaff which is richer in fibre and more indigestible than cereal chaff. The husks of many foreign fruits — earth nuts, coffee beans, etc. — are of no value as food, as is seen on p. 117. Caution must always be exercised in feeding chaff, for there is hardly another feeding-stuff in which so much that is dangerous can collect. The rubbish in the chaff ought to be sifted out, and if weed seeds, spores, etc. are there the chaff ought to be scalded, or steamed. (3) Roots and tubers. Roots and tubers are all characterised by the amount of easily digestible carbohydrates — starch, sugar, pectin substances — which they contain. A considerable portion of the crude protein (30-70%) is not in the form of proteins, but is present as amides. The crude fibre is, without exception, very low, as is also the fat. Amongst the mineral substances potash and soda predominate, whilst lime and phosphoric acid are only present in small quantities. On account of the high percentage of water which roots and tubers contain they are liable to cause a weakening of the digestive organs unless some 174 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS other dry matter is given along with them. It is well to restrict the amount of roots or tubers to £- j- of the total dry matter in the ration, and up to this point they have a very beneficial effect on fattening and milch cattle, and in smaller quantities on young stock also. Roots are less suitable for horses which have to work at a rapid pace, for they tend to cause softness and liability to sweat, but slow-working animals may be given moderate quantities. Foals ought only, from time to time, to get a few mangels. Sheep which are fed con- tinuously on such watery food are rather liable to sickness and disease, but pigs do very well on large quantities of roots and tubers. On account of their cooling and slightly purgative action, mangels, etc., are useful in preventing torpidity of the digestive organs and constipation. As a good deal of soil adheres to roots and tubers, it is advisable to wash them before they are given to the animals. I. Plants similar to the beet all contain con- siderable quantities of sugar, the dry matter of the mangel as much as 60%, the carrot and kohl- rabi 50%, and turnips 50-60%. The members of the beet family are also distinguished by con- taining a large amount of pectin substances which are very digestible, but starch is absent except in the case of the carrot. They also agree in having a high percentage of non-protein nitrogenous sub- DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 175 stance in the crude protein : in the mangel 60% in round numbers, and in the carrot and kohl-rabi 40%. It may be noted that under the same conditions all the varieties of the beet agree in that with in- crease in size of the individual roots the water in- creases and the dry matter decreases. Variety has also an influence upon the weight of individual roots, as have also the soil, the weather, the distance of plants apart, and the manuring. The further the plants are from one another, the heavier the soil, and the richer the manuring with nitrogenous manures, so much larger do the single roots become, and so much less the percentage of dry matter. With an increase in the proportion of water comes an increase in the quantity of crude protein, par- ticularly of non-proteins, in the dry matter, whilst the percentage of sugar decreases. The stripping off of the leaves of beets or mangels increases the percentage of water and also diminishes the crop. Mangels are a particularly good food for dairy stock, and can be given to cows in quantities of 40-60 lbs. per head per day. Fattening cattle may have as much as 100 lbs. per day, whilst young, or working, animals should only get moderate quanti- ties. Pigs, according to their age and weight, may have 4-20 lbs. If sugar beets are used, then a less quantity should be given on account of the larger amount of 176 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS dry matter which they contain; the daily rations given above may be reduced by about one-half. Carrots are valued for the effect which they have on the general health, and they are said to be a pre- ventative of glanders, intestinal worms, inflamma- tion of the digestive organs, as well as being useful against the heating action of the food when a change is made to winter feeding. Horses should not be given more than 20 lbs. of sliced carrots per head per day, dairy cattle up to 60 lbs., fattening bullocks up to 80 lbs., and young animals a less proportion. They may form one of the chief articles of diet for pigs, and should be given either cooked or steamed. Kohl-rabi is fed much in the same quantities as carrots, but it is best to restrict the daily ration of the dairy cow to 20-30 lbs., for otherwise the milk and butter acquire the taste of the kohl-rabi. This is not due to the passage of the flavouring material of the food into the milk in the body, but to the action of bacteria which are present on the kohl- rabi, and get into the milk during milking. If the milking is done in a clean place where the animals have not been fed, and if the cows are kept clean, this objection to the otherwise excellent food is removed, and larger quantities may be fed. Turnips contain the most water of all roots, and should only be used as a subsidiary food for cows, fattening cattle, and pigs. In the case of dairy cows not more than 20-25 lbs. should be given, for DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 177 this food tends to flavour the milk and butter in an objectionable way. 2. Potatoes. Starch is the chief constituent of the dry matter of potatoes, and it is this which forms the bulk of the digested material. Crude pro- tein and fat are only present in small quantities, and 40% or so of the former is in the form of non-protein nitrogenous substances. A poisonous material " solanine " is a regular constituent of all parts of the potato plant, the tubers containing about -i gram in 1 kilogram. Although this poison does not increase when the potatoes are stored, or when they decompose, it passes in considerable quantities into the young shoots when the tubers germinate, so that the sprouts may contain as much as 50 grams per kilogram. This means that the young sprouts should not on any account be used in feeding. Increase of the solanine to three times the original amount was also noticed when the potatoes were placed in the light and allowed to go green on one side. Scabby potatoes do not, however, contain more solanine than sound ones, but it has been found that heavy dressings of nitrogenous manures cause the amount of this poison to increase. The composition of potatoes depends upon the same conditions as it does in the case of mangels, etc. After wet weather, liberal nitrogenous manuring, early harvest, etc. the tubers are watery and poor 178 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS in starch. Large quantities of kainit produce the same effect, whilst 40% potash salts reduce the dry matter very little or not at all. There is on all sides a certain dislike to feeding raw- potatoes, due to the fact that they possess a peculiar acrid taste and increase the flow of digestive juices in the stomach and intestines. They are also thought by some to cause colic, purging, distension, lame- ness in young cattle, and abortion in pregnant ones. There is no doubt that when raw potatoes have been fed either for a long time or in large quantities, some of the above-mentioned disturbances have been observed, but if the daily supply is not too large, and some other suitable food is also given, attention being paid to observe any injurious effects, then they may be used. Cattle are the least sensi- tive to raw potatoes, and a fattening ox may be given 50 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight, cows in milk 25 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight, and dry cows in the last stages up to 40 lbs. The potatoes must be sliced and added gradually to the daily ration, also when they have to be dis- continued this should be done by degrees. Along with them some soothing food, such as oil cake (linseed, sesame, cocoa-nut), and a good supply of coarse fodder is necessary. Feeding stuffs which have an irritant effect on the digestive organs — rape cake, malt coombs, molasses, silage — should not be fed at the same time. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 179 Sheep can take raw potatoes almost as well as cattle, and should be given up to 25 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight ; when fattening they may get up to 40 lbs. Horses are more easily affected by raw potatoes, but small quantities, 3-5 lbs. per head per day, have a beneficial effect on the general condition. Slow-working horses can, when under careful super- vision, be given up to 12 lbs. per day for each 1000 lbs. live weight. It is always important to feed only sound, ripe tubers, not those that have sprouted, and to give them and withdraw them gradually. Pregnant animals and young stock generally had better not be given raw potatoes. For pigs, cooked or steamed potatoes are one of the most common foods, but raw potatoes are not suitable for these animals. Potatoes when boiled or steamed are a tasteless, non-irritant food, but even in this form they can easily upset the digestive organs. The water which drains away from the potatoes after boiling should not be used, and salt should be added to the potatoes to make them more palatable ; cattle can take more of the boiled, or steamed tubers, than the raw ones. Of the other methods of preparing potatoes for food mention may be made of soaking (p. 143), making into sweet mash (p. 145), or into sour fodder. Recently various ways of drying potatoes have 180 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS been tried, and a material which keeps well and promises to have a great future has been prepared. The digestibility (see Table II of Appendix) and the effect of the dried potatoes is excellent, whatever the method of drying. Where the potatoes are dried directly by the fire gases, they are first cut into slices, whereas when they are dried by steam they are steamed and then passed between rollers heated by steam, and pressed into thin flakes. When moistened and mixed with chopped hay, or straw, the dried potatoes are readily eaten by horses and cattle. Sheep take them dry, whilst for pigs it is best either to scald them or soak them in water, skim milk, or whey. 3. The tubers of artichokes are closely allied to potatoes in composition, but instead of starch they contain other carbohydrates — lsevulin and inulin — and slightly more water. Owing to the restricted quantities in which they are grown they are usually only a supplementary food. Large quantities cause purging and make the milk watery. (4) Grains and seeds. The composition of grains and seeds is influenced chiefly by the condition of ripeness at the time of harvesting. In the stream of materials which flows to the growing seed, it is found that at the beginning there is more nitrogenous and mineral DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 181 matter and less nitrogen-free extract than at a later stage. Unripe grains contain, therefore, more crude protein and mineral substances, and less carbohydrate than ripe ones. Thus it was found that the dry matter in maize varied in composition according to the state of ripeness. Crude protein . Mineral substances 20th August. . 26-6 . 57 3rd September. i7'3 3-o When ripe. 127 i-9 Nitrogen-free extract • 55-6 71-6 78-6 The amount of protein substance in the crude protein was also subject to variation according to the ripeness of the grain, for in the 26-6% crude protein on 20 August there were n -2% proteins and 15-4% non-proteins, whilst the 127% crude protein in the ripe grain contained 10-9% proteins and only 1-8% non-proteins. The nitrogen-free extract is also subject to variation during the formation of the seed. In the dry matter of maize, the grains being still milky, there were found 8-6% cane sugar, 6-i % glucose and laevulose, and only 48-9% starch. In the ripe grain the sugar had almost disappeared, whilst the starch had risen to 64-3%. Thus it is seen that alongside the movement of substances to the ripening seed there are also chemical changes taking place, both in the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous ingredients. Nitrogen- free extract. Crude fibre. Ash. 66-o 12-5 5'5 68-8 n-8 4-o 182 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS When the normal ripening of the seeds is hindered, or prevented, then they are not only small, but have also the properties of more or less unripe grains. This is clearly seen where the crop is laid by wind, rain, or hail, or where it is attacked by disease. Drought also has the same effect, for it causes too early ripening. In the dry matter of oat grains grown on the same field it was found that the following differ- ences in composition were obtained — Crude protein. Protein. Amides. Fat. Badly laid 13-2 107 2-5 2-8 Not laid io-8 io-o o-8 4-6 Even when no apparent obstacle has hindered the formation of the seeds, it is still found that some are small and others large. When during bad weather the grain sprouts in the fields, the opposite effects to those observed during ripening are found to result. First the materials in the grain are changed — protein into amides, starch and fat into sugar — and these pass into the young shoot and root. At the same time, a portion of the nitrogen- free substance is destroyed by the respiration of the young plant which has sprung from the grain. A loss of 15% or more of valuable food material can be lost according to the extent to which germina- tion has taken place. As germinated seeds such as malt contain a powerful sugar-forming ferment DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 183 they can be used for the conversion of starchy material into sugar. In addition to the changes in composition of the grain due to the time of harvesting, there is the influence of the soil, manuring, etc. Where the crop has been thinly sown the plants are generally stronger, but the lateral shoots do not develop so well, and only small flat grains are obtained. Thin sowing, as a rule, gives grain richer in protein and carbohydrates, and poorer in fat than that from thick sowing. Strong soil and plentiful manuring, with nitrogenous manures, give grains of higher protein content. In the case of barley it was found from tests extending over six years that on un- manured plots the protein was 9-8%, whilst after heavy manuring with nitrate of soda it rose to 12-5 %. In another experiment on oats on the unmanured soil, they contained 77% crude protein and 3-8% fat, whilst where nitrate of soda was used, the pro- tein rose to 10-5% and the fat fell to 2-9%. If there is a lack of water, as often happens on a light soil, then the grains are somewhat richer in protein than those grown on heavy soils, which retain water better. The richer the grains are in nitrogen the more do they tend to become " hard," or glutinous. It has already been seen (p. 130) that when cereal grains are stored changes are found in the amount of nutrients in the grains. When buying ground cereals care must be taken i8 4 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS to see that they contain all the parts of the grain, and that there has been no withdrawal of flour, or the addition of foreign material, both of which must be regarded as falsification. Often under the name of ground corn, by-products from the manufacture of flour, groats, barley are sold, and they contain a large amount of the husks or seed coats. Coarsely ground barley, oat and pea meals are often little more than bran. Sometimes waste products from other grains — husks and chaff of all sorts, stone nut meal, precipitated chalk, clay, earth, sand, marble dust, etc. — are added to the meal. Against such adulterations the analysis of samples from each consignment is the only remedy. With regard to the preparation of grains for feeding, they are usually either coarsely or finely ground, or crushed, or soaked in water, as has been previously described (p. 138 et seq.). (a) Cereal grains. Of these oats are the most used for feeding, par- ticularly to horses, young stock or male breeding animals. As regards palatableness and effect oats are the best of the cereals, and on this account they are used as concentrated food for that most sensitive animal the horse, and they are seldom replaced by any other cereal, at any rate only partially. Oats, on an average, contain 14-1% DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 185 crude protein, 7-6% crude fat, 74% nitrogen-free extract, with only 2-2% crude fibre and 2-1% ash. The husks of the oat, on the other hand, have only the value of straw (p. 117). The percentage quantity of husk, which varies between 20-35% and averages 26% of the whole grain, is therefore an important characteristic in judging the value of the grain. All the attempts which have been made to dis- cover to what special substance, if any, the excellent properties which oats possess are due, have up to the present been unsuccessful. Horses fed on freshly harvested oats have frequently been found to suffer from colic, purging, etc. and to be very liable to tire and sweat. It should be a rule to let this grain lie for 2-3 months before giving it to horses. Barley comes next to oats in its properties as an animal food, and in southern countries it is the only concentrated grain food used. In Central and Northern Europe it has not succeeded in dis- placing oats, for it has been noticed that its effect on the energy and stamina is less valuable than the latter. It is not advisable to replace more than one-third, at most one-half, of the oat ration by barley, and it should be given either crushed or steeped. Barley is more suitable for dairy or fattening cattle, to which it is given, as are other cereals, in a ground state either moistened or not. 186 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS The principal use though is in the feeding of pigs ; the pork and bacon from barley-fed swine are of unexcelled quality. Where the pigs are under three months old, oats are, however, preferable. There does not appear to be any marked differences between the various awned barleys and the amount of chaff, which is between 7-17%, average 11%, determines in the first place the feeding value. Rye and wheat, on account of the price, are only used to a slight extent for feeding animals. Some- times the small misshapen, or sprouted, grains are given. Rye is considered to serve rather for the production of energy than for fattening, but is liable to upset the digestive organs. In a fresh condition it is the most dangerous of all the cereals. It may be given whole, after being cooked, to horses, but not to the extent of more than half their corn ration. Draught oxen get 4-6 lbs. and sheep, at most, J lb. per day. Fattening pigs should have the rye ground and then given either dry or scalded, as a supplementary food with potatoes, mangels, etc. Fresh wheat is also dangerous, and on that account is best used for fattening cattle and pigs, to which it is given either ground or crushed. Maize is a very good food and seldom causes disturbances of health. Horses may have half their corn ration in split, or coarsely ground, maize, without diminishing their efficiency, or causing any other drawbacks. Maize is also admirably suited DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 187 for draught oxen, fattening bullocks and pigs, and can also be given in considerable quantities to dairy stock, if the making of butter is not the main object ; otherwise only smaller amounts must be given, or the butter will be too soft. Pigs which are being fattened may have half the ration composed of maize, particularly in the first half of the fattening period. Where large quantities are given, the bacon tends to become oily and the flesh soft, points which will be considered at a later stage. For foals maize can only be considered a supple- mentary food, and as it is very hard it ought to be coarsely ground or soaked in water before being fed. Millet is rather costlier, its nutritive value about that of oats, and on account of the small size of the grains must only be given in a ground form. Buckwheat (p. 166) is slightly less nutritious than oats, and is most suitable for fattening cattle and pigs, or for draught oxen ; it is less useful for horses, and not at all good for young stock. Owing to the hardness of the grain it must be ground or soaked. (b) Leguminous seeds. These take the first place amongst the grains, because of the amount of protein they contain. Generally the percentage of fat is not more than in cereal grains, but some — soja beans- and lupines — have a considerable quantity. Some of the seeds of 188 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS leguminous plants, such as the gorse and the Java bean(Phaseolus lunatus), are poisonous, and the latter has been the subject of numerous investigations. It has been found that when the crushed seeds are stirred in water, or come in contact with the digestive juices, the very poisonous prussic acid is formed, under the action of an enzyme. This acid can be got in small quantities from some of the vetches ; the ordinary fodder vetch also contains a little. The climate and weather seem to have a great influence upon the formation of those substances which yield prussic acid. All the leguminous seeds, when insufficiently ground or improperly prepared, tend to cause dis- tension and constipation. When given in large quantities they cause thickening of the blood, and in this respect vetches are the worst, then come peas, whilst field beans least of all. On this account caution should be exercised in the use of leguminous seeds, particularly with horses, and they should be reserved principally for hard-working animals of coarse breeds. For them ^-J, at most \> of the corn may be given in this form, but much depends upon the amount of work done. Draught oxen and fattening stock of all species, particularly pigs, are well suited for a diet of leguminous seeds, the meat from the latter animals being then excel- lent. Vetches are said to react unfavourably upon the taste and quality of the milk, but recent DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 189 investigations have not upheld this view. In the rearing of rapidly growing foals, weak calves, lambs, and young pigs good results are often seen when peas or beans are added to the food. The leguminous seeds are given, either ground, crushed, or soaked ; the seeds of serradella, which are used in the same way, are reported to be a very satisfactory food. Lupine seeds, of whatever variety, contain sub- stances with a very bitter taste, and these diminish the appetite of animals and also enter into the milk and butter. Sheep eat the seeds in the natural state the most readily of any animals. After the re- moval of the bitter principle (p. 143), which should always be done, they yield a food which is suitable for all kinds of animals. Horses may be given up to 10 lbs., fattening oxen up to 18 lbs., cows up to 8 lbs. of the wet, non-bitter seeds, which are best fed in crushed form, mixed with chopped hay or straw. (c) Oily seeds. These are seldom used as food on account of their high price. An exception is made in the case of linseed, which, when crushed and stirred with hot water, gives a mucilaginous mass with a par- ticularly salutary and soothing effect. Linseed, or flaxseed, is used principally for feeding calves, or for its sedative action when the digestive igo SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS organs are inflamed. It can also be used for feeding sickly animals, but is often successfully replaced by the cheaper linseed cake. Of the other oily seeds use is sometimes made of those of rape, colza, hemp, sunflower, etc., and the properties of them and of the cake prepared from them will be discussed later. All oily seeds should be crushed before being fed. Beech mast, which is also fairly rich in oil, con- tains a poison that is injurious to some animals (horses), and should, therefore, only be given in moderate quantities to grown pigs and fattening cattle. Acorns and horse chestnuts are most valuable for the fattening of pigs and oxen, but owing to their astringent taste they are not always readily eaten. When given fresh they should be crushed, when dry they may be ground. (5) By-products from flour mills. In the manufacture of human food from the seeds of the cereal and leguminous plants, a large number of by-products are obtained, both in the preliminary preparation and in the process of grinding. In the refuse from the cleaning machines there are, in addition to casual impurities, non-fertile and broken grains, small stones, earth, sand, mouse droppings, as well as various weed seeds, rust spores, particles DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 191 of straw and wood, in fact rubbish of all sorts, the greater part of which is quite unfit for food. Al- though the broken and worthless grains of the sort which is being cleaned and many of the weed seeds can be quite well used as fodder, there are other seeds which cannot. Some of these, such as ergot, corn cockle, charlock, darnel, yellow rattle, cow wheat and rust spores often cause serious injury by poisoning, and in some cases death has been known to result. Such weed seeds are further to be avoided because they pass into the dung, and are brought again to the field, where they later cause more weeds to grow, or else breed fungi to attack the plants again. After the corn has been cleaned, it is heated, the husks and seed coats removed and the grain ground. Only the bran and feeding meals should come into use as feeding-stuffs, but some millers seem to consider that they have the right to add the ground rubbish obtained in the preliminary cleaning, and in extreme cases even buy rubbish for the purpose of adulteration. A list of the materials which have been ground up with bran or feeding meals with the object of deceiving the buyer would be almost interminable, and it is only necessary to mention such substances as sand, clay, lime-dust, chalk, gypsum, marble, mill sweep- ings, stone-nut, olive and date kernels, dried potato pulp, maize sterns, millet seed husks, 192 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS earth-nut shells, chaff from rice and oats. All the above-mentioned have at times been used, and when carefully ground and mixed with the bran, or meal, deceive the eye of the customer, and give a big profit to the seller. Whoever wishes to escape such fraud and not injure his cattle and fields should always demand pure, unadulterated bran, or feeding meal, and not use anything that has not been tested for purity and absence of adulterants. It may be noted here that the less perfectly the corn is ground the richer the bran is in flour, and so of higher food value. The brans from wheat and rye are known to the trade under various names, according to the fineness and the way in which the process of milling is carried on. The feeding meals, which are also sold under various names, are the last portions of flour ob- tained during milling. Usually from cleaned rye 20-25% bran and 5-10% feeding meal are got, whilst from cleaned wheat the total amount of bran is 20% and 5% of feeding meal. The by-products, or refuse, from the grinding of barley or oats are more numerous than those from wheat or rye, owing to the husks, which cause the refuse to differ very considerably, according to the method of husking and grinding. Barley, which is principally made into pearl barley, groats, etc., yields, as by-products, a bran which contains DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 193 only a little flour, and also barley meal, which contains varying amounts of husks. The refuse from barley is one of the most adulterated food- stuffs; more than 50% of all consignments contain foreign substances, indeed it has happened that barley meal has been made up of 70% ground oat husks, and 30% of powdered chalk, and not a trace of barley. In the preparation of groats and other foods from oats, the husks are separated from the grain and then sold as oat bran, which of course they are not. The further treatment of the oat grain gives oat feeding meal, which consists of the ends of the grain, particles of flour, and the plant hairs. Sometimes, as is preferable, the hairs are separated and they, along with the husks and some meal, are sold as " oat cleanings," or " oat-dust feed." Owing to the varying quantities of husks the valuation of the refuse from barley and oats is very difficult without an exact analysis being made. Amongst the refuse materials from other grains may be noted millet feeding meal, or " millet polish," which is that portion of the grain left after polishing the skinned grain. This material is often sold falsely under the name of ground millet, and it may or may not contain the husks. Rice meal, or rice polish, obtained from the pre- paration of cooking rice, ought not to contain large quantities of ground husks, although they are often 194 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS mixed with the meal. The so-called rice bran, like oat bran, is not rightly named, for it consists chiefly of ground husks and some damaged rice. Maize also gives a bran and a feeding meal; the former is sold under the name of Homco or hominy feeding meal. In the preparation of leguminous seeds for human consumption, various by-products are ob- tained, according to whether the seed coats are retained or not. As a rule these products are very digestible, and they are sold under various names. Bran and feeding meals belong to that class of substances which, when fed in quantity for a length of time, have a weakening effect on the digestive organs. They are more suitable for fattening pur- poses than as food for working animals. On account of the loosening effect of wheat bran, it is used for milch cows, but it tends, as do rice meal and millet meal, to cause the butter to be soft. Rye bran causes the butter to have a coarse, dry flavour, whilst the leguminous seeds and their by-products tend to make the butter hard. For horses bran and feeding meal are only suitable as a supplemen- tary food. In the fattening of swine, feeding meals are largely used, but in some cases the bran from rye, buckwheat, peas, and in a less measure wheat, is also fed. Rice meal, otherwise very suitable for feeding pigs, tends to give a soft bacon, as do also the waste DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 195 products from millet. For young stock feeding meals are particularly suitable, and are given in the form of warm mashes, gruel, etc. (6) Residues from oil mills. The materials used in the manufacture of oils are, as a rule, first freed from foreign substances by means of sieves or winnowing machines. If the seeds are large they are then husked or shelled and broken up in a crushing or grinding machine. The material so prepared is subjected to great pressure between cloths, whereby the greater part of the oil flows away. Another method of obtaining the oil from the seeds is by extraction with carbon bi- sulphide, petroleum ether, or benzine, in a suitable apparatus. The residual material, whether pressed or extracted, is ground up again and the pressure or extraction repeated, sometimes also for a third time. When the oil is extracted by pressure, the residues are considerably richer in oil than in the extraction process, where often only 2-3% is left. The best oil cakes are prepared by the old or pressure method, and these when ground are sold as oil cake meals. The material left after extraction — " new process " — is sometimes made into cake, but more generally sold as meal. Linseed-cake meal is therefore different to linseed meal, and generally contains more oil. The residues from the oil mills, like all feeding- ig6 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS stuffs in the form of cakes or meals, are liable to be adulterated, and not only is the rubbish left after cleaning added, but use is also made of those adulterants mentioned under milling refuse. Valu- able oil cakes and meals are not infrequently mixed with the cheaper poppy and rape cakes, and even poisonous substances, such as castor bean meal and charlock seeds, are sometimes added. Cakes that have become mouldy or otherwise damaged are occasionally reground, heated, and pressed again into cakes. Many residues from oil mills, particularly those from palm- and cocoa-nuts, easily become rancid and in this condition cause inflammation of the digestive organs or damage the quality of the milk and butter. Mouldy and rotten oil cakes are a most dangerous food, because, being rich in protein, they undergo decomposition, with the formation of very poison- ous substances similar to those found in putrefying flesh. Oil cakes are broken into small pieces before being fed, and they, like oil meals, are given dry, mixed with other food-stuffs, to horses, cattle, sheep, or else slightly moistened and given a short time before the usual feeding time. Undamaged oil cakes and meals do not need to be cooked or scalded for feeding pigs. Cotton-seed meal is found in many different qualities in commerce, the chief differences being between that made from seeds, the hulls of which DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 197 have been removed (decorticated) and that where the hulls and seeds are all ground together (un- decorticated) . The seed from which the decorticated cotton cake or meal is made comes principally from the United States and is often freed from impurities, such as stones, pieces of iron, cotton fibre, etc., in the ports where it is imported and then is sold as a purified product. The meal made from unhulled seeds comes from Egypt and India, and possesses a smaller nutritive value on account of the larger amount of hulls (about 50%). Good fresh cotton-seed meal ought to have a bright yellow colour, a nutty flavour and a pleasant smell. Milch cattle ought not to get more than 2 lbs. per head per day, horses the same quantity, draught oxen up to 4 lbs., fattening cattle 5 lbs., whilst fattening sheep may be given J— | lb. Caution should be exercised in using this feeding-stuff, for it has been known to affect the animals injuriously in some cases. As a rule cotton-seed meal causes severe and sometimes fatal sickness amongst pigs, so they and also young and pregnant animals ought not to get any. It is not the hulls and cotton fibre that cause the injury, as was previously thought, for in the countries where cotton is grown, the hulls are fed in large quantities without any ill results. Earth-nut cake and earth-nut meal are also sold in various forms. The best product is made from SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS hich hav ■ sh . and on account of the high quality of the oil, the nuts .\re carefully shelled and the brown skin removed, rhen comes the M German " meal made from well- cleaned and skinned nuts, and finally the " Mar- seilles " variety, which is a less carefully prepared product, and usually contains fc-3% of sand. Good earth-nut cake and meal should have a ft, bean-like taste and a sweet smell ; the colour van : s betwee n gi e yish-wh ire and reddish-brown . In cer.er;.! this is a palatable and satisfacl ry food, but lately i : s s of disturbance of the digestive organs, violent colic, and even death by is : ning have been not: ced, f v. c : inferior material was DertainJy not the cause. In some cases, but not by any means in all, the cans was proved to be castor-oil meal (p. 204). Milch and fattening cattle may be given up to 4 lbs. per head per day, horses up to 3 lbs., fattening to and pigs from i-i|- lbs. and young stock smaller quantities in proportion. Sesame cake is made from various coloured, unhulled seeds :: several varieties of the sesame plant. The sakes are an excellent feed, and in digestibility and palatableness they closely re- .ble linseed cake ; like them they have also a lative action on the digestive :r£;ans. Although tend to cause softness of the butter they are a highly prized food for dairy cattle, and they have DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 199 also be y successful for fattening stock, draught oxen, and horses. Sesame cake is given in quantities similar to earth-nut meal, and owing to the fact that it soon becomes mouldy and rancid, it should be carefully stored. Cocoa-nut cake and meal are both made from the fleshy f : r turn of the cocoa-nut after the oil has been cted nd have a colour that varies between bright red and brown. They have a nut-like smell and taste, and are readily eaten by all classes of animals. It is preferred to feed them to dairy stock, for they are said to increase the quantity of fat in the milk, and about 4 lbs. per head [ r fey may be given. The butter and the bacon from animals fed on cocoa-nut cake or meal tend to be harder, and in this respect resemble those from palm-nut cake, as will be mentioned directly. In spite of the very favourable effect on other animals cocoa-nut cake, or meal, is generally limited to milch cows on account of the high price. Palm-nut cake, made from the husked fruit of a species of palm by pressure, is a greyish-white sub- □ x ir.terspersed with dark particles which are the remains of the husk. This cake has not a veiy pronounced flavour, and is usually fed in the dry state, for if moistened with water stock do not eat it readily. The same applies, to palm-nut meal, which contains less fat. as it has been subjected to faction. These by-products from the palm-nut 200 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS are used in the first place for feeding dairy cattle, and, like the cocoa-nut cake, they are said to im- prove the fat contents of the milk, but to cause the butter to be hard. The corresponding effect is seen in the bacon of pigs fed on this material. Cows are given up to 5 lbs. palm-nut cake per head per day, but other animals only get it when the price is low. Both the cake and the meal easily become rancid on keeping. Linseed cake. The residues from linseed, in the form of cake or meal, have a favourable action on the digestive organs. When treated with hot water they ought to form a mildly acting mucila- ginous food. Before the oil is extracted, the crushed seeds are sometimes heated with steam, which causes the mucilaginous part of the seeds to swell, and then dried again. This gives a material that does not swell up again when heated with warm water. The linseed by-products are used in the same way as linseed itself, particularly as dietetic substances for animals reduced in flesh, and for young stock at the time of weaning. They are further used to counteract the irritating properties which some foods have upon the alimentary canal, and for this purpose they are often given in the form of warm gruel. Pigs fattened largely upon linseed preparations yield an oily bacon and soft, tasteless flesh ; linseed cakes cause this more than do the extracted meals. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 201 Rape and colza cakes and the meals made from them have the peculiarity of yielding a pungent, volatile oil — mustard oil — when moistened with water. This may cause many unpleasant symp- toms and diseases of the digestive and urinary organs, abortion in cows, loss of flesh, are said to be the results when much of this food is given. The milk from cows fed on rape cake is also said to have an unpleasant taste, and to have an effect on the health of infants, or calves, to which it is given. European rape and colza seeds and their by-pro- ducts are thought to be preferable to some foreign varieties, cakes made from Indian seed having frequently been proved to be injurious to the health of animals. Although these properties of the different kinds of rape seed require further investigation, it is only right that the origin of the seeds in " rape cake " should be given in each case, particularly as the Indian seed is cheaper than the European. On account of the smell of mustard, which rape cake gives when moistened, it should always be fed dry, otherwise it may not be eaten. Milch cows should not get more than 2 lbs., fattening and draught oxen up to 4 lbs., and sheep less than i lb. Rape cake is not suitable for young stock on account of the obstinate scouring which.it sometimes causes. Pigs ought only to get J lb. per day, otherwise the bacon is apt to be oily. A material called " rape 202 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS cake meal," consisting of ground weed seeds (char- lock, polygonum, corn cockle, etc.), is sometimes offered for sale. Sunflower-seed cake and the meal made from it are usually prepared from seeds that have been imperfectly skinned and cleaned, and so seed coats and earth are common. Sunflower-seed cake is very useful for cows, and is said to influence the amount of fat in the milk favourably ; it is also of considerable value in fattening bullocks and sheep, and it is said to improve the " tallowy " flavour of fat meat. The bacon of pigs is not affected by it, at least not favourably. Sunflower-seed cake possesses an extraordinary hardness, and is difficult to break into suitable pieces. It has the advantage though of keeping for a long time without going mouldy. Poppy-seed cake. After the feeding of animals with this by-product they have been observed to be remarkably slow and sleepy, and this has been attributed to a small quantity of opium. Good ripe poppy seeds do not contain any of this poison, or at least only traces, but in the unripe seeds and the capsules small quantities are found. For this reason it is not advisable to feed this otherwise palatable cake to young stock, neither to pregnant or suckling animals. Horses also are better with- out it, and its use should be restricted to fattening stock — bullocks or sheep. This food is also said DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 203 to diminish the amount of fat in the milk, and also to affect, adversely, the taste, colour, and ease with which the cream is separated. In any case 2 lbs. per head per day is quite enough for cows. Poppy- seed cake is not very durable. Hemp cake. The waste products from the hemp which come into commerce as cake or meals are often badly adulterated with leaves, stems, sand, and earth. The extraction of the oil has also to take place at a high temperature, so the cakes are often burnt, and on account of the moisture which they take up tend to become mouldy. Hemp cake, like poppy cake, is credited with containing poison- ous substances, so that it is advisable to restrict the use of it to grown male animals. Good undamaged hemp cake is a suitable food for working horses, which may be given 3 lbs. per day, fattening cattle can stand 5 lbs., and fattening sheep up to 1 lb. ; cows also ought not to get more than 1 lb. per head per day. The following residues from oil works occasionally come into the market, but generally only in small quantities. Beech-nut cake, the properties of which closely resemble those of the unpressed beech mast (p. 190). The seeds of False flax (Camelina sativa) ace sometimes made into cake, which has an acrid, un- palatable taste, resembling onions and mustard. It flavours the milk, butter, and even the flesh un- pleasantly, and is said to cause abortion. 204 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Castor-oil seed cake, which can only be used after being heated, for otherwise a poisonous albuminoid material which it contains can cause death ; it is always dangerous. Almond cake, a very prized and palatable food for dairy stock and for other animals. Amongst the rarer foods are the residues of the caraway, aniseed, coriander, and fennel seeds, which are left after the oils have been separated by distillation. As in the manufacture the seeds are not pressed, or extracted with any fat solvent, the oil originally present in the seeds finds its way almost entirely into the residues, which are very good for feeding to cows and fatten- ing animals. (7) Residues from the manufacture of starch. The waste products from starch factories which can be used for food vary according to the crude material employed. The chief substances from which starch is got are potatoes, wheat, rice, and maize. When the starch has been washed out of the macerated potatoes there remains the pulp or fibre, which is a very watery material liable to acid fermentation and putrefaction, and can be utilised either in the moist or dry state. The fresh pulp is a watery tasteless food which may be given to fattening bullocks or pigs, also to dairy stock, but is not suitable for horses or sheep. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 205 Fattening animals may be given up to 65, cows up to 50, and pigs up to 20 lbs., whilst less of the dry pressed pulp, which often contains slaked lime, is naturally required. This food is given in a boiled state to pigs, other animals get it raw, but slightly warmed. The dry ground pulp, which contains lime, is given in quantities of 6-8 lbs. to horses and fattening stock, and 5 lbs. to cows with- out any drawback ; young animals ought only to have it as accessory food. The juice from the potatoes, which only contains 0-2-0-6% of dry matter, quickly goes bad, and is not worth feeding. In the old-fashioned fermentation process for the manufacture of starch from wheat, the starch was freed from the husks, germs, and gluten, and afterwards was purified by means of centrifuges or settling. According to the newer methods the flour alone is used, not the whole grain, and the starch is separated by means of sieves, leaving as by-product a very pure, sweet gluten. The waste products mentioned contain a lot of water, and soon undergo decomposition. In the fresh state they are fed to oxen, cows, and pigs, but the gluten is the only material to be dried as a rule, and it is too dear for cattle, food, just as maize and rice gluten are. Rice which is to be used for making starch is soaked in dilute caustic soda, which dissolves to a 206 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS large extent the protein substances. The undis- solved portion, after being washed almost free from starch, consists principally of husks, germs, and starch, and is called rice slump, which can be fed either fresh, pressed, or dried, like the wheat slump. The dissolved protein is precipitated by hydro- chloric acid, or by a stream of carbon-dioxide gas, and is then sometimes dried and ground ; it is the rice gluten. Various by-products from the manufacture of starch from maize are used as cattle foods. The grains of maize are usually soaked in water con- taining a little sulphur dioxide, and then, by means of machinery, the outer horny parts and germs are separated from the flour, and all is then stirred up with water. The germs which collect on the surface are used for the preparation of oil, and after pressing give maize-germ cake. From the sediment the starch is separated by means of sieves, and the husks, mixed with the gluten from the further purification of the starch, are dried and give gluten feed, as it is generally called. All these by-products are used in the same way as maize itself, only in smaller quantities, and they have given good results. The germ cake or meal is a very palatable food, and only affects the bacon or flesh of pigs if large quantities are given. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 207 (8) By-products from the manufacture of sugar. In the preparation of sugar from beets two im- portant foods, beet slices and molasses, are ob- tained. The beet slices, or diffusion slices, as they are sometimes called, are the material which is left after the extraction of the sugar by soaking the sliced beets in water. They contain only a small amount of sugar, and can be fed either pressed or impressed in the fresh state, or else made into sour fodder or dried. According to the recent method of Steffen, the limited extraction of the beets yields a product called sugar slices, which in the wet state still contains 9% of sugar, and is generally dried before being used as food. In the drying of both sorts of slices furnace gases are chiefly used, although during the past few years steam has been introduced for the purpose. There is no difference in the feeding value of the products dried by either method, but the slices dried by steam have a better appearance, and are in smaller pieces. Further, they are never charred, and they swell considerably in water. Beet slices, either fresh or made into sour fodder, have given very good results with fattening bullocks and dairy stock ; the quantities fed are 60-80 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight for the former class of 208 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS stock, and for the latter not more than half these quantities. There is a danger in feeding large amounts of this material to cows, unless concen- trated food rich in protein and fat is given, that a hard white butter of bad flavour will result. Horses which are either not working, or only to a slight extent, may occasionally be given small quantities of the slices. Pregnant animals and young stock ought only to receive moderate quantities of the fresh slices. Serious cases of illness have been noticed where animals have been fed with the beet slices that have undergone decomposition, but dried slices very seldom cause any disturbance. Fattening stock may be given 10-15 lbs. of the latter, cows 6-10 lbs., draught oxen 10-14 lbs., calves according to their age 1-5 lbs., pigs 1J-4 lbs. It is advisable to soak the beet slices either in hot water, dilute molasses, skim milk or whey, before giving them to pigs. The sugar slices (see above) may be fed in the following amounts to stock: cows 6-8 lbs., bullocks 10-12 lbs., draught oxen 8-10 lbs., horses 4-6 lbs., and fattening pigs 3-4 lbs. It is to be remembered that the material is poor in bone-forming mineral substances. Molasses. This is the residual product left from the manufacture of sugar from beet juice. The chief component is cane sugar or saccharose, which DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 209 forms 63-71% of the dry matter, and in liquid molasses is about 48%. There is' only about 0-5% of protein in the nitrogenous substances of mo- lasses, the rest being amides, which, according to investigations, have no feeding value. The ash of molasses is very rich in potash, almost entirely free from phosphoric acid, and contains only a little lime. In general the method of manufacture and purification of ordinary molasses has very little influence on its composition. Where the molasses is specially treated to obtain as much sugar as possible, it is found that the final product has dry matter to the extent of 72-80%, of which 12-17% is the rather rare sugar raffinose, which is found to the extent of only 2-4% in ordinary molasses. The value of molasses is almost entirely in pro- portion to the amount of carbohydrates it contains. Beet molasses is a thick dark brown liquid, with a characteristic smell, and contains a varying quantity of water (15-5-32%). The percentage of water determines largely the keeping properties of the molasses, for dilute molasses somewhat readily becomes sour, and is then worthless. Be- fore using molasses it should be mixed with warm water, and then poured over the dry food, and well mixed with it. Scouring sometimes follows the use of molasses, and this is generally ascribed to the salts which it contains, but it is more likely due to the sugar being given in a dissolved form p 210 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS (p. 145). By gradually introducing molasses into a ration it is possible to avoid this, and as molasses is such a very valuable material in preventing colic in horses, or diminishing the severity of an attack, it should never be forgotten by those who keep these animals. Moderate quantities only of molasses should be fed; per 1000 lbs. live weight horses may get 3 lbs., cows 2 J- lbs., draught oxen 3-4 lbs., fattening bullocks and sheep 4 lbs., and fattening pigs 5 lbs. Animals in an advanced stage of pregnancy are said to show a tendency to abortion when molasses is fed. The difficulty of handling such a material as molasses has led to the commercial making of mix- tures with it and some dry food. At the commence- ment the manufacture was limited to beet pulp, and this gave with the molasses an excellent and durable food, but now other materials have been employed. The feeding value of these mixtures is most easily determined where there is only one other food besides the molasses, e.g. dried grains, palm-nut meal, cocoa-nut meal, wheat bran, etc. In such mixtures as these the amount of molasses varies from 50-70%. The palm-nut and cocoa-nut meals which are used in this process have been usually extracted with some solvent, and are not simply ground cake meal, for the latter do not soak up the molasses so well, on account of the oil which they contain. A molasses feed made with DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 211 straw has given good results, and can be prepared by the feeder himself, whilst molasses bread made with bran, coarse flour, or feeding meal and mo- lasses, and then baked, has also been successful. The cheapest and most desirable way of using molasses still remains to dilute it with hot water, and mix it with the food before feeding. Unfortunately, the manufacture of molasses feeds did not stop with those substances named, but a whole host of the most varied waste products, digestible and indigestible, mouldy or unsale- able, have been employed as a basis. Thus there reappear in these foods all those adulterants which have been mentioned under brans and oil cakes, and in addition such rubbish as leather, which, although it raises the percentage of protein,, is quite indigestible. Peat is also a worthless substance which no animal will touch unless it is sweetened with mo- lasses, but when made into peat molasses it is eaten just as other mixtures of rubbish and mo- lasses are. The buyer of molasses feeds should reject those preparations which are sold under a proprietary name, or are known to contain worth- less materials, and buy only those which have some good food material as the basis. Indefinite names ought to be a sufficient^ warning that if the true description were given there would probably be little chance of a sale being effected. 212 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Even when two known materials are used for soaking up the molasses it is a disadvantage, for it is then very difficult to determine the proportion of these two, and it is almost certain that the cheaper will predominate. It is only possible to guard the buyer of molasses feeds from fraud when the relation between the molasses and the other sub- stance can be determined by a chemical analysis. Molasses feeds should be bought with a guarantee for the amount of molasses, water, protein, and fat which they contain, as well as information as to the dry material used. The amount of water is of great importance; more than 20% in ordinary mixtures, and 25% in peat molasses is excessive, for on storing such mixtures they are very liable to ferment, whereby the greater part of the sugar can be destroyed. It is often claimed in advertise- ments that the mixture of molasses with some other material produces results when used as a food quite superior to the two substances when separate, but this is not true, for the components have ex- actly the same effect, whether they are fed singly or mixed. The residues from sugar factories, which consist of impure sugar, have been repeatedly tested ex- perimentally for feeding purposes. This feeding sugar is generally mixed with coal dust, bran, oil-cake meal, or some other material (to prevent it being stolen for human consumption), and may DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 213 be given to horses, if gradually introduced into the ration, in quantities of 5-6 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight per day, without impairing the efficiency of the animal. Feeding sugar is not suitable for ruminants, owing to its less powerful effect as a food, and it is still doubtful, in spite of many in- vestigations, whether it is useful for pigs. Whether the preparation of sugar for feeding purposes is profitable, or whether it would not be better to leave the sugar in the beets and use these, has not yet been satisfactorily decided. (9) Residues from fermentation processes. Amongst the residues from the breweries and distilleries are found several substances, such as malt culms, brewers' grains, and various distillers' and brewers' wastes, which are sometimes called slumps. Malt culms or coombs ought to have a bright colour, for if they have been dried too much they are less digestible. Damp, mouldy material is often dried a second time, and then becomes dusty, and has a darker colour, and this is sometimes bleached with sulphur dioxide, which serves also to get rid of the musty smell. Malt coombs are particularly rich in non-protein nitrogenous substances (6-8%), and also contain a fair amount of sugar (12-13%). They are par- ticularly prized as food for milking cows, which 214 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS may be given up to 6 lbs. per head per day, either moistened or scalded. In the same manner and quantities they are given to draught oxen and fattening bullocks, whilst working horses may be given 6 lbs., and sheep up to \ lb., of the dried coombs. Fattening pigs can take up to 2 lbs., foals according to their age \-2 lbs. dry, and calves up to 4 lbs. scalded. Animals that are pregnant or suckling should only have small amounts, for the malt coombs are said to cause abortion and, in the case of the calves, scouring ; young pigs have also been upset by this food. It is possible that a slightly poisonous substance, " Hordenin," which has been recently discovered in the coombs, may cause these disturbances of health. Brewers grains are the waste products left after the mashing of barley or some similar starchy material, such as maize, rice, potatoes, etc. They can be fed either fresh or dried, and amongst the latter the lighter, less strongly heated, and there- fore more digestible samples are to be preferred. Good dried brewers' grains ought to be free from particles of carbon, and they should have a pleasant smell, resembling fresh bread. When they are stirred with warm water they ought not to have a sour or musty smell. When fresh, even when still warm, brewers' grains are a very palatable and useful food, but they easily become sour and DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 215 mouldy, and are then injurious. Milking cows may be given 20-40 lbs. per head per day. Fattening bullocks and pigs can take up to 25 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight ; but for horses and sheep they are only to be regarded as a supplementary food, because of the large amount of water they hold. When the grains are dried horses may be given half of their corn ration in this form, the quantity to be fed to cows and fattening bullocks is not more than 6 lbs., fattening sheep up to 1 lb. per day; pigs are not able to satisfactorily digest dried grains. The grains from distilleries are very similar in method of preparation and use. Distillery waste, sometimes called distillery slump, is quite different from brewery or distillery grains. When the mashed grain has fermented, and the liquid not been drawn off, there is left, after the distillation of the alcohol, a material which con- tains everything but the fermented carbohydrate. During the fermentation the yeast, which is rich in nitrogenous matter, increases, and at the same time certain amides are formed into protein, so that distillery waste contains more of this than did the crude material. In unfermented mash made from potatoes there was found in one case only 55% crude protein, whilst the material left after dis- tillation of the alcohol contained 72%. As the protein of the yeast is digestible the slump becomes more valuable by its presence, but as the 216 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS raw material used in the distilleries differs so much it is only to be expected that the nutritive value of the by-products will also vary considerably. The best distillery waste is got where cereal grains are used in the manufacture of the alcohol, then comes that from potatoes, and lastly that from molasses, which, owing to the large amount of salts which it contains, is hardly fit for food. Of whatever origin the distillery waste may be, it is very advisable to feed it in a fresh warm condition, and to keep the vessels and troughs in which it is put in a clean state ; otherwise the material rapidly becomes sour, and causes injury to the health of the animal. Fattening cattle may be given up to 60 litres (1 litre = if pints), cows 40 litres, fattening sheep and pigs 2-3 litres per head per day. Horses which are doing moderate work may have 10-15 litres. Hard-working horses, breeding and suckling animals, as well as young stock, had better not re- ceive any of this material. Potato slump acts like raw potatoes, and may cause colic, diarrhoea, abortion, as well as giving rise sometimes to a peculiar cough and sores on the legs. When grain slumps are used for feeding the above-mentioned diseases are observed to a much less extent, and, therefore, these by-products can be given in larger quantities than those from the manufacture of potato spirit. Amongst the dried slumps the following may be DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 217 mentioned : (1) Hungarian or French maize slump, of a dark colour, and containing a lot of husk ; it is generally mixed with chalk before being dried. (2) American maize slump, of a lighter colour, and got from more or less perfectly husked grain ; it often contains oat husks, and, having been dried in partially exhausted chambers, does not possess the pleasant aromatic smell of the dark Hungarian slumps. (3) Grain slump of American origin, made from maize and rye. And (4) Rye slump made from rye, sometimes with and sometimes without barley malt. What has been said as regards the buying and use of dried grains, as well as the quantities to be used, applies equally well to dried slumps, which resemble them closely. (10) Feeding-stuffs of animal origin. In this class of substances come cow's milk and the by-products from the manufacture of cream, butter, and cheese, as well as some materials made from the flesh, blood, bones, and even the whole bodies of animals. Milk, the chief food material of young animals during the first periods of life, is composed of water, protein substances (casein and .albumin), fat, milk sugar, and mineral matter. Along with these are also found small and usually unimportant 218 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS quantities of urea, lecithine, cholesterine, citric acid, etc. When milk is placed under the microscope it is seen to be composed of a clear liquid, in which a great number of tiny drops of fat are present. The fluid form of the nutrients and the finely divided condition (emulsion) of the fat ensure the complete accessibility of the digestive juices to all the constituents of the milk. It is true that the proteins of the milk are acted upon shortly after ingestion by an enzyme in the gastric juice, and curdled, but the curd is in such a form that it offers no resistance to the process of digestion (p. 146). Investigations with sucking calves have also shown that only 2-3% of the ingested dry matter of the milk passes into the faeces (see Part III, Chapter VI). When a comparison is made of the composition of the milk of various animals, considerable differ- ences are seen to exist between the quantities of the organic and also the mineral constituents. In cow's milk, for instance, the average composition is 2 -9% casein, 0-5% albumin, 3-4% fat, 4-6% milk sugar, 07% ash, which contains 26% phos- phoric acid. The milk of the mare has 1-3% casein, 07% albumin, i-i% fat, 5'9%milk sugar, 0-4% ash, which contains 32% phosphoric acid. From such differences it is easy to see that cow's milk when used as food for the young of other species cannot be as beneficial as the milk of the animal's own mother. DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 219 Colostrum (first milk, beastings) is a fluid which is yielded by the cow at the birth of a calf, and for several days afterwards. It is a yellow, or yellowish brown, liquid of a viscid nature, with a salty taste and a peculiar smell. Compared with ordinary milk, colostrum is richer in dry matter, particularly in protein substances, which coagulate on heat- ing ; it contains also more mineral substances, but is poorer in milk sugar. The action of the colostrum is slightly purgative, and this property is very valuable in the case of young animals, from which it should not be withheld. Some 5-10 days after the birth of the calf the milk of the mother gradually returns to its normal condition. It has been already noticed in describing the feeding-stuffs of vegetable origin that sometimes after using some of them the milk acquires proper- ties which, although they may be quite non-in- jurious, nevertheless make it unsuitable for rearing young animals. Many poisons and medicinal sub- stances, such as copper, lead, iodine, salicylic acid, etc., it has been repeatedly proved can in some measure pass into the milk. Such milk, as well as that which comes from animals that have been forced to eat suspicious or poisonous plants, ought not to be given to calves, and the same applies to the milk from cows which have partaken of fodder that has been damaged by mud or fumes, bran mixed with sweepings, or other unsuitable food. 220 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Sour milk often causes severe and even fatal scouring in young stock, but faulty (blue, yellow, salty, bitter) milk, if boiled, can often be used with- out any bad results ; it is best, though, to give it to older animals. Milk from animals suffering from contagious or infectious diseases (tuberculosis, foot and mouth disease, etc.) is the best carrier of infection to other animals, but if the milk is heated to about 190 F., or, better still, boiled for a few minutes, the danger is removed. Separated milk from efficient separators does not usually contain more than -05—2 % of fat, whilst the skim milk from the old process of skimming still retains -75-1 % of fat. What has been said previously regarding whole milk applies equally to separated or skim milk, save that the smaller quantity of fat means a less nutritive value. The use of separated milk, and also of whole milk, is discussed in Part III of this book. Butter-milk, according to the method of butter- making, has the properties of either sweet or more or less sour separated milk, and contains on an average •4—5 % fat. Sour butter-milk, like sour separated milk, is best used for fattening pigs ; calves and young swine are not able to make much use of it dur- ing the first few weeks of life, and even later only moderate quantities, always boiled, should be given. Whey which is left after the coagulation of the DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 221 casein of milk by rennet is, as its composition shows, a very watery food, which it is advisable to feed in a boiled condition to fattening pigs ; for delicate animals sour whey is not suitable. Meat meal is a by-product obtained in the manu- facture of extract of meat, by Liebig's method, in South America. In this process fresh, healthy meat, freed as far as possible from bones, sinews, and fat, is chopped up, and then put to soak in warm water. The residue which remains after extraction is mixed with mineral salts (potassium chloride, sodium phosphate, and calcium salts), then dried thoroughly and ground, and becomes the Liebig's meat meal. In some places the flesh of sheep or horses is used. Adulteration of the meat meal is seldom practised, but occasionally dried glue, cartilage, also leather and bone meal, are found. Meat meal is an ex- cellent means of raising the protein in a ration, and it is principally used in feeding swine. Young pigs may be given |- lb. to 1 lb. per head per day, begin- ning with the lowest amount and gradually in- creasing the supply. Calves also do well on this food, and grown cattle may be given up to 2 lbs. per day ; neither the milk nor butter is damaged by the meat meal. Sheep obstinately refuse to take this preparation. Recently there has arisen a competing material in the shape of a meal made from the carcasses of 222 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS dead or poisoned animals, refuse from slaughter- houses, spoiled, preserved, or pickled meat, rotten fish, and waste flesh of all kinds. The carcasses, etc., are heated with superheated steam in large drums containing revolving knives, and the heating and mincing continued until a dry powder is left. Glue and fat which are drawn from the drums are obtained as by-products. It cannot be denied that in this process all is done that it is possible to do to destroy the germs of infection and to prevent a subsequent contamination with such germs. This " carcass " meal has already been in use a few years, and no injurious effects have so far been reported; unfortunately it is not infrequently sold as Liebig's meat meal, and at the price of the latter. Compared to this the carcass meal leaves much to be desired, for, in consequence of the bones, and remains of food and dung, it is poorer in protein. In conse- quence also of the heating which the carcass meal has undergone, it is less digestible and richer in non- protein nitrogenous substances than the meat meal. Horses, oxen, and sheep either refuse to eat it or else do so reluctantly, but swine consume it readily. Fish meal is a food manufactured from fish, or fish refuse, by heating the material with superheated steam to free it as far as possible from fat, and then drying, grinding and sifting the resulting powder. A fish meal richer in fat is also made from unsound fish by a process similar to that used in the preparation of DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 223 the carcass meal. The composition of the material varies considerably, owing to the varying pro- portions of bones and heads that it contains, and there is always present, as in carcass meal, a large quantity of phosphate of lime. Fish meal is used in the same way as meat meal, particularly for feeding pigs and poultry. It is said to have no effect upon the milk, but a meal which con- tained a lot of oil would certainly not be as suitable as one free from oil. The flesh and bacon of pigs tend to become oily where such a meal is used. Blood meal. By drying and grinding blood from the slaughter-houses, a good food material which is readily eaten by all animals is obtained, and it can be used in a similar manner to meat meal. It is also used as an addition to feeding loaves and biscuits, also for mixing with the poorer molasses feeds. Phosphate of lime for feeding purposes is a material which is known under several names, and is a by-product in the manufacture of glue from bones. In order to separate the glue-yielding substances from the mineral material the bones after cleaning are broken up and treated with hydrochloric acid, which brings the phosphate of lime into solution along with lime and phosphoric acid. By the addition of milk of lime to the solution, a white powder which when dry contains on an 224 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS average 37-38 % of phosphoric acid is obtained. This powder is the phosphate of lime used for feeding purposes, in which 90 % of the phosphoric acid ought to be soluble in ammonium citrate. The phosphate of lime is valued according to its content of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid. Often the pro- duct is very damp, and therefore less valuable ; sometimes in it are found dangerous quantities of arsenic, soluble calcium salts, or sulphurous acid, which latter is now used in some places instead of hydrochloric acid for dissolving out the mineral matter from the bones. It is necessary to be cautious in buying phosphate of lime for feeding purposes, for not seldom less valuable materials, such as bone meal or bone ash, are sold, instead of the precipitated phosphate of lime. The phosphoric acid in the last product can be utilised to the extent of 50-60 %, whereas the animal is not able to assimilate more than 13-14 % of the phosphoric acid in the two former products. (11) Cattle powders. In spite of the many scientific investigations which have been carried out on the nutrition of animals, no means have yet been discovered whereby the digestive power of a healthy animal can be increased or its ability to produce flesh augmented. The failure of competent men to DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 225 succeed in this direction has not prevented dozens of manufacturers of cattle powders and similar preparations from claiming, without any investi- gation, that they have been successful. The greater the ignorance of these people the more persistently do they push forward their so-called discoveries, which serve only to obtain other people's money. For of what are these powders largely composed ? Only quite ordinary substances as a rule, such as common salt, Glauber's salt, bicarbonate of soda, charcoal, powdered sulphur, bone-ash, etc. In order that these powders may smell or taste like a chemist's shop they are mixed with all sorts of rubbish from the manufacture of drugs with a little fennel, aniseed, gentian root, locust bean, etc., accord- ing to whatever is most convenient. Testimonials as to the favourable effect of the powders are naturally not forgotten, but the value of such testimony is well known, for often a packet of the powders is bought simply to get rid of a persistent seller, and the next time when the man appears with a ready-prepared testimonial the former buyer is glad to sign it so as to be left in peace. Even so-called experts who have never conducted an investigation on the question of animal nutrition can be suborned by high remuneration for this, as for any other fraud. It is therefore the urgent duty of all those who enjoy the confidence of their fellow- workers to Q 226 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS warn those who are less acquainted with these matters of their true nature. A healthy animal is much too complete to require any artificial assistance, and sick animals are not to be cured by any quack remedies. PART III THE FEEDING OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS UNDER THE CONDITIONS USUALLY FOUND IN PRACTICE CHAPTER I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS — EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS IN PRACTICE INVESTIGATIONS on the metabolism of material and energy in animals have shown that animal heat, muscular energy, and body fat can arise from proteins as well as from fats and carbohydrates, and that a liberal supply of nitrogen-free nutrients allows of the food protein being reduced to a certain quantity without detriment to the utility of the animal. This many-sidedness which the animal possesses in dealing with its nutrients and the margin which is thereby allowed in the composition of the ration is of great importance in practice. If the cost of raising and procuring digestible protein was about the same as it is for digestible carbo- hydrates, it would be of little importance whether slightly more proteins were given than necessary, for these substances are without exception able to perform the functions of carbohydrates and fats. But as at the present time protein matter is very considerably dearer than carbohydrates, it is 229 I 230 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS essential to be as economical as possible in the use of the former, and to limit the quantity as far as is practicable. It thus becomes necessary to find what this limit is for the different species of animals, and the purposes for which they are kept. Fats and carbohydrates can replace one another both in the production of energy and of heat, and i part of fat in a mixed ration can perform the func- tions of 2-2 parts carbohydrate. A limit, however, is placed upon the amount of fat in the food of domestic animals, for more than i lb. of fat per iooo lbs. live weight often diminishes the appetite, and upsets the digestion in full-grown herbivora, although young animals can generally take larger quantities. In addition to this the fat of the food often has a prejudicial effect upon the body, or milk- fat, as has already been noticed, and attention will also be drawn to this point later. For these reasons the amount and kind of fat in the food require particular attention. Amongst the other constituents of the food to be considered are, in addition to the mineral matter, the nitrogenous substances of a non-protein nature, whose effect in the production of fat and energy is included in the " starch equivalent " of the feeding-stuffs. In view of what has already been said (p. 65), it is not correct to reckon these substances as proteins. It would, in many cases, be a matter of indifference whether, in the calcu- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 231 lation of a ration, the crude protein (proteins+ non-protein nitrogenous substances) or proteins alone were reckoned, but if the food were rich in amides, it is possible that the animal would not get sufficient proteins if the crude protein only were used in the calculation. In order to quickly and conveniently see the relation between crude protein and the various nitrogen-free substances, it has been for some time the custom to employ the " nutritive ratio " which gives the amount of digestible nitrogen-free materials of the nature of carbohydrates which falls to 1 part of digestible crude protein. The digestible portions of the nitrogen-free extract and of the crude fibre are similar in their percentage compo- sition and heat value to the carbohydrates (p. 69) ; the fat, however, is a more concentrated nutrient, and on combustion uses 2*44 times as much oxygen as do the carbohydrates. Formerly the amount of oxygen consumed in the combustion of a material was taken as a standard of its value in the production of heat and as a nutrient, so that to calculate the digestible fat as carbohydrate it was multiplied by 2-44, and the amount added to the nitrogen-free extract substances. To calculate, for example, the nutritive ratio of oats, which contain 8-o % crude protein, 4-0 % fat, 44-8 % nitrogen-free extract, and 2-6 % crude fibre, all of which are in a digestible form, the sum of the carbohydrates would be 232 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS 44-8-f-2-6+4.0X2-44=57-2 %. To this 57-2 % car- bohydrates fall 8-o % crude protein, from which the nutritive ratio (8-o: 57-2) = !: 7*15 is calculated. A nutritive ratio of 1 : 5-6 is termed a medium one, 1 : 2-4 a narrow one, and 1 : 8-12 a wide one. According to recent investigations the factor 2 -44 for the conversion of fat into carbohydrates is not correct, and is better replaced by the number 2-2. If the calculations are made with proteins instead of crude protein, the following difference would be found in the case of oats: 44-8+2-6+4X2-2 = 56-2 %, and as the oats contain 7-2 % proteins, there would be 56-2 % carbohydrates to 7-2 % proteins, which gives an " albuminoid ratio " (as it is called) of 1 : y-8. In the construction of feeding rations attention has to be paid to other points besides the digestible protein and the starch equivalent, and one of these is the suitability of the food for the animal. As has been seen in Part II, there are some species which are only able to take small quantities of some particular feeding-stuff, or perhaps none at all. The palatableness of a food must also be studied, especially in a fattening ration where large quantities are given. It should be a rule in constructing such a ration to unite in it as many different foods as possible, particularly concentrated foods. The ad- vantages of this method are numerous ; if, for ex- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 233 ample, one of the foods is not above suspicion, then the amount which finds its way into the daily ration is so small as to have no bad effect, whereas a larger quantity might cause injury. It is further important not only to draw the foods which contain chiefly starch or sugar from various sources, but also to give the nitrogenous portion of the ration in as many different forms as possible. Some foods are digested principally in the stomach, others in the small intestine, whilst others again undergo the chief digestion in the large intestine. A mixture of several food-stuffs therefore spreads the work of digestion over various parts of the digestive tract, and for this reason such a ration is more suitable than one made from large quantities of a single material. A satisfactory ration must further be adjusted to the size of the stomach and intestines, for if it occupies too little space the animal will not be satiated, even though it gets sufficient nutrient material, and so it will be in a restless and unsatis- factory condition. On the other hand, a ration should not be too voluminous, for the danger then is that all is not eaten, and so fattening does not proceed. An idea of the amount of food to be given can be gathered from the feeding standards in Table III of the Appendix, where the daily supply of dry matter is calculated per 1000 lbs. body weight. These figures, like others of the same 234 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS nature, are not, of course, to be strictly followed, but they are meant to indicate whether larger or smaller amounts of coarse fodder are necessary. Variations of 10 % and more in these data are not of great importance, provided the animals are gradually accustomed to the changed food. The supply of home-produced food-stuffs will determine, in the first place, whether a more or less voluminous food is chosen. When fodder is scarce it is often difficult to find substitutes, and recourse to such little-used materials as potato-tops, gorse, heather, even sawdust, has to be had in order to provide the animals with the necessary bulky stuff. A mixture of ground peat moss free from sand with diluted molasses has proved to be a suitable sub- stance in such cases. Compared with the large losses which a reduction in the stock of cattle brings at the time of a scarcity of food the drawbacks associ- ated with the use of indigestible materials pass into the background. Whenever a change of food is made it should be gradual, even an increase in the volume can cause dis- turbances if suddenly made, for the natural expansion of the digestive tract is limited. When the increase is gradual, the digestive organs expand by the growth of their walls, but for this time is necessary. In the use of new concentrated foods caution is also necessary, for every food has its peculiari- ties, particularly in its action upon the nervous GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 235 system. Against disturbing effects of this nature, and even against the most powerful poisons, the body produces substances of an antitoxic nature, and can even withstand deadly doses of arsenic, morphia, ricinine, etc., if by their very gradual introduction time is allowed for the preparation of the corresponding antidote. If the body, how- ever, is suddenly given large quantities of these injurious materials, it suffers from the action of the poisons. For this reason a new feeding-stuff should not at once be fed in full quantities, but the daily supply increased so that 4-7 days are taken to reach the full amount. A gradual change is also necessary in passing from stall- to meadow-feeding and vice versa, so also when green fodder, roots, silage are introduced into the ration, or when a change is made in the concentrated food. When new hay or oats are substituted for old, when feed- ing with molasses begins, or even when the food is altered the change must be gradual. The greater the difference between the new food and the old the longer should the transition period be. The custom of dividing the daily ration into several meals is entirely sound from the point of view of the food metabolism in the body, for the heat which is produced during and after feeding is divided more regularly over the day and night, and so is better utilised. The production value of the nu- trients is also greater when the food is spread over 236 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS a certain space of time ; this has been proved in fattening experiments, when the same quantity of food was given at once and where it was divided into several meals. The capacity of the digestive organs, and the behaviour of animals free to eat when they wish, point to the division of the ration into three, or at most four meals for full-grown animals, and four to six for young ones, as being the most natural. When large quantities of fodder are given at one time portions are very liable to be thrown about and to be trodden under foot. Regularity in the times of feeding plays a not un- important part in the comfort and well-being of the animal. By a suitable admixture of tasty foods with those that are not so readily eaten the appetite of the animal is maintained to the end of the meal, and so the ration is fully consumed. With ruminants and horses it is usual to first give coarse or green fodder, and then the mixture of chopped hay or straw or roots and concentrated food. This ensures the consumption of each portion of the ration before the next is begun. Finally some long hay or straw for the animal to eat at leisure should be given. The order in which the food is fed can be altered according to taste, so long as the chief end — a complete consumption — is attained. Mention has already been made (p. 94) of the necessity of an addition of salt to the food, and the daily need of a cow of average weight is f— ij oz., GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 237 for a horse |-i oz., sheep or pig -J— J- oz. ; and this is best sprinkled over the food, as animals are apt to '- take too much when a lump of rock salt is given them to lick. If materials which are difficult of digestion have to be given in large quantities, then the supply of salt may be increased to 2\ oz. for cattle, and \ oz. for pigs and sheep ; more than these quantities should not under any circumstances be given. As regards the watering of animals, it is preferable to let cattle have as much water as they will take after the first portion of the dry fodder has been eaten; horses should be watered before being fed, otherwise portions of the concentrated food (oats, barley, etc.) may be washed from the stomach into the intestine, and so not properly digested. When horses are overheated or have been without water for a long time care should be exercised, and they should only be allowed to drink l when they have cooled down, and the respiration and pulse are again normal. Such heated animals may be given some hay moistened with water, and then each quarter of an hour more water can be poured on to the hay. Sheep, pigs, and young animals do best when they have an unlimited supply of water at their disposal. A suitable ration, care being exercised in the choice of the individual foods and in the total bulk, punctuality in feeding and watering, cleanliness of the manger and drinking vessels, adequate grooming, a well-ventilated stable 238 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS or stall of medium temperature with clean bedding, are the chief points essential for success in feeding domestic animals. A great deal of the work of investigation which has been done in agricultural practice, it is safe to say, has entirely failed in its object, because the methods of research have been faulty. It is therefore not out of place to mention here the chief rules to be followed in experiments which are being carried out in practice. The conditions under which a feeding experiment is performed must be so arranged that every chance of accident is ex- cluded. In the first place care must be taken that the individual characters of the animals used in the investigation do not disturb the observations — one of the most important conditions. If only a few animals are used this influence cannot be rightly judged nor can allowance be made for it. In scientific investigations the conditions are in many ways more favourable, for there, owing to the examination of all parts of the metabolism, a much more complete control is possible. A con- scientious investigator does not, however, remain satisfied with a single animal when he believes he has made any discovery, and refrains from publishing the result until it has stood the test of repetition. People who have not had a regular training, and are not thoroughly versed in one or the other methods of investigation, attempt GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 239 difficult problems, and do not hesitate to give to the world their unripe results clothed in a scien- tific dressing. In time the valuelessness of their conclusions is recognised, but the distrust that they have sown is not so easily uprooted. The practical man, no less than the scientist, whose aim is directed to the laws of nutrition, has to work on a broad basis if he wishes to make clear some of the points which interest him in the feeding of his cattle. He must first of all use a number of animals, in order to get rid of individual peculiarities, and ought to choose ten, even better fifteen or twenty, animals for each section. It is only the continued repetition of an experiment with other animals which will yield a satisfactory answer to the question under examination. He who begins a great deal finishes little, and this holds true also with the investigations under consideration. If it were wished, for example, to test ten feeding-stuffs one after another in a continuous experiment it is certain that the results would be of doubtful value, for the condition of the animals would vary according to the kind and quantity of the food used in the experiment. Nobody will suggest that a lean animal behaves as does a fat one when each gets the same food, nor an old animal as a young one. Continuous investigations on the same animals in which the food is changed periodically are, 240 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS therefore, not free from objections, and the results are more reliable when the trials are carried out upon groups of animals at the same time. Here also the chief condition is that the groups which are to be compared with one another should be equiva- lent at the beginning of the investigation as regards race, age, sex, live weight, etc., of the animals, in fact, one group must be the counterpart of the other. When such groups have been arranged, a preliminary trial must be made to see if they behave similarly on the same food. Should differ- ences be observed changes must be made in the groups until a close agreement is found, afterwards the food to be investigated may be given. Investigations, then, are of two kinds, those conducted in periods and those in groups ; the former have only a limited use, for the animals change in condition, especially young and fattening cattle, and so the conclusions are not reliable. With milking cows, though, this method can be used, and mention will be made of it later. With regard to the kind and quantity of the food used in the trial it is impossible to give any general rules, for each investigation has different objects. Where a feeding-stuff is being tested the total quantity of food must not be too large, because with excess the nutrients in different rations would not show any difference at all. If the object is to see how varying quantities of protein in the food GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 241 act, the starch equivalent of the rations under comparison must be kept the same, as must all other conditions, except on the one point which is being tested. Further, a chemical and micro- scopical examination is also essential, for it is only by these means that the nutritive value of the food-stuff can be judged. In very many cases, whether the investigations are concerned with fattening, working, or breeding stock, the live weight is the most important, and often the only means of judging of the action of the food. Owing to the considerable differences in weight, due to irregular excretion of dung and urine and to the unequal consumption of drinking water, it is not enough to weigh the animals every fourteen days or so, but the weighing must always be done on three con- secutive days at exactly the same time, and pre- ferably before the first meal. The length of the experiment ought also not to be too short with fattening and working animals ; the minimum should be two months, and it is even better to take a longer period, particularly in feeding groups of animals, which ought to be carried on until ready for the butcher. Important manifestations, such as loss of appetite, cessation of growth in young animals, diminished staying power in working animals, often only appear after the investigation has been in progress for a length of time. All other conditions, such as temperature of the 242 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS stall, supply of salt, bedding, grooming, number of meals, etc., must be kept the same in each group or each period. The care which according to the above is essential in the carrying out of an investigation may seem to some to be exaggerated. It is only those who know from experience how changeful an animal is, and have critically studied the reports of in- vestigations in practice, who cannot doubt that the most strict care is essential in conducting such investigations. He who does not or will not con- sider these demands to be necessary had far better not undertake investigations, for he will only succeed in increasing the huge number of valueless results. CHAPTER II MAINTENANCE RATION FOR OXEN AT REST THE feeding of working oxen at rest in the stall is the simplest of the tasks which the owner of cattle has to undertake. The animals to be dealt with are practically sexless, little subject to nervous influences, and except for the slight growth of hair, hoofs and horns, do not increase in size, nor do they perform any utilisable work. The chief aim, then, is to feed such resting animals so that the body does not need to supply any of its substance for the production of energy, and that, on the other hand, there shall be no excess of food to be made into body fat. According to some of the older observations which were confined to the digestible nutrients of the food and the protein metabolism, it was possible to keep oxen at rest in the stall on the following daily rations, calculated per iooo lbs. live weight, without loss of weight. i-o lb. rape cake o-5 h ob „ o-6 „ 243 I. 12-6 lbs. oat straw 25-6 lbs. mangels 2. 14-2 „ 26 ,, clover hay 3- 130 »» „ 37 >, 4- l 33 n r ye straw 3-8 ., 244 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS The temperature of the stall, which, as has pre- viously been seen (p. 52), also has an influence upon the consumption of nutrients in an animal on a low diet, because of the heat given off from the body, was kept fairly high in these investigations (54~68°F.). It must also be remembered that at the time of these experiments — some forty years ago — the varieties of cereals which were grown gave a more digestible straw than those cultivated at the present time. On the above rations a slight increase of tissue took place, which sufficed for the growth of hoofs and horns and for the renewal of the hairy covering. Whether an increase in body fat also took place was not proved, but in any case the body weight of the experimental animals underwent no change for a long time. More exact investigations which were later carried out with the help of the respiration chamber gave the following results per day and per 1000 kg. (1 kg. =2*2 lbs.) live weight. INSUFFICIENT FOOD. Digesti ble nutrients. Addition (+) '"« \—jvi Nitrogen-free Starch extract and equiva- Body Ox Protein. Fat. crude fibre. lent. Flesh. fat. No. kg. kg- kg. kg. g- g- III. o-35 O-IO 6-17 4«oo ~ 51 + 139 IV. o-34 O-IO 6-o8 3-96 - 57 + 45 B 0-28 0-I2 6-63 4'52 -144 -172 c 1 0-42 02I 6-58 4«6o - 6 + 1 Average o-35 0-13 6-37 4.28 - 65 + 3 MAINTENANCE RATION FOR OXEN 245 01. Digest: 1 r r i\^ii^n ± ible nutrients. r \j\ji-r. Addition (+) or loss ( - ) of r Nitrogen -free Starch extract and equiva- Body Ox Protein. Fat. crude fibre. lent. Flesh. fat. No. kg- kg. kg. kg. S- Z- V. 0-6o 0-07 6-45 5.04 4- 48 + 235 VI. O.57 0-07 6.3I 4.64 + 26 + 263 20 0-65 20 6.78 576 - 7 + 158 A 0-56 0-18 6-62 5-44 + 66 + 227 C 2 0-54 0-28 7-26 5-04 + 161 + 37 Average 0-59 0-20 6-68 5-20 + 59 +184 When the figures for the animals which were in- sufficiently fed are compared with those obtained when the food was sufficient, it is seen that the sum of the digestible nutrients had less influence upon the equilibrium of the animal than had the starch equivalents or values of the whole rations. Thus in a maintenance diet attention has also to be paid to the value of the nutrients. If, for ex- ample, the ration given to ox A, which consisted of 8-5 kg. meadow hay, were replaced to the extent of one-half by potatoes and rape cake, then, instead of 7 kg. digestible nitrogen-free nutrients (including fat), there would only have been 6 kg., but this would have sufficed. For full-grown oxen which have not to perform work and are kept at a temperature of 54-60 F., it suffices for maintenance to give 0-5 kg. digestible protein, and 5-2 kg. starch equivalent. As, how- ever, in practice it is not advisable, owing to the individuality of the animals, to restrict the feeding to the absolute minimum, it is preferable to reckon 246 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS per day 0-6-0-8 lb. digestible protein, and 8-9-5 lbs. digestible nitrogen-free nutrients (including fat) with a starch equivalent of 6-o lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. With these figures the dry matter of the ration can oscillate between 15 and 21 lbs. This standard ration assumes that primarily coarse fodder will be used, and that any deficit in protein will be made good by small additions of oil cakes, distillers' waste, brewers' grains, etc., and a lack of carbohydrates by roots or tubers or their by- products. Such rations contain a sufficient quantity of mineral substances, for investigations on this point have shown that the daily consumption of 50 g. phosphoric acid and 100 g. lime per 1000 kg. live weight sufficiently meet all requirements. As the larger animals of 1000 kg. (2200 lbs.) give off less heat than do the smaller ones (p. 53), it is necessary on a maintenance diet to pay attention to this, for there is not then the excess of heat as when on a production ration. Calculated per body surface, the following weights of food are to be given per 1000 kg. when the single animals weigh : 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800 kg., starch equivalent: 7-70, 7-00, 6-50, 6-io, 5-80, 5-55 kg. The maintenance ration for animals which only weigh 300 kg. is, therefore, 28 % greater per 1000 kg. than for animals of 800 kg. As regards the require- ments of animals for protein, their size has no noticeable influence. CHAPTER III THE MAINTENANCE RATION FOR SHEEP — THE PRO- DUCTION OF WOOL IN addition to the material and energy which every animal requires for maintaining life, there is in the sheep a further demand for material for the production of wool, and this being of a protein nature, requires protein for its formation. It is, therefore, clear that sheep require more food pro- tein than do full-grown oxen at rest in the stall. The greater sensitiveness of sheep and the liveliness of their movements, as well as the greater extent of body surface, all point to the increased needs of this species for nitrogenous nutrients, as com- pared with resting oxen, even though the wool of the former protects them from loss of heat. Amongst the first investigations carried out on the maintenance food for sheep was one series with two 4j-year-old wethers of a coarse- wo oiled Hanover breed. The animals had an average weight of 47*9 kg., including 2-4 kg. wool, and they were given daily per 1000 kg. live weight (without wool) 25-96 kg. meadow hay, which contained in digestible 247 248 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS material 1-04 kg. protein, 0*32 kg. fat, 6-28 kg. nitrogen-free extract substance, and 3-93 kg. crude fibre, the total starch equivalent being 9-66 kg. On this ration there was a daily gain of 144 g. flesh, 325 g. body fat, and 209 g. wool, which is altogether equal to a starch value of i-88 kg. If there had been no gain of wool, flesh, or fat, the animals would have found enough food in 778 kg. starch equivalent per 1000 kg. naked body weight. In another experiment with a half-fat English cross-bred sheep which weighed 64-9 kg. with its wool, and without 62-4 kg., the daily ration was 550 g. meadow hay, and 440 g. coarsely ground maize. Calculating the ration upon 1000 kg. naked body weight, it would contain o-8i kg. protein, 0-40 kg. fat, 7-05 kg. nitrogen-free extract substance, and 1-37 kg. crude fibre, together with a starch value of 11-24 kg. The production, which was ascertained by means of the respiration apparatus, yielded by this ration was 71 g. each, flesh and wool and 785 g. body fat, which means a starch value of 3-28 kg. If this portion of food which has served for the purposes of production is sub- tracted from the total quantity given, there remains 7-96 kg. starch value for the simple maintenance of the animal. Mention might perhaps be made here of the relation between the nutrients given and the pro- duction which was observed in the above two MAINTENANCE RATION FOR SHEEP 249 experiments. The amounts digested per 1000 kg. naked body weight were : — With meadow hay 1*04 kg. protein and 10*94 kg. carbohydrates. With meadow hay and maize o*8i kg. protein and 9*30 kg. carbohydrates. That is, less nutrients when hay and maize were given than when hay alone. In spite of this, the production on the hay ration was considerably less (325 g. body fat) than when maize was also given (785 g. body fat). This is again a good proof of the differences in the feeding value of the digested materials and of the correctness of reckoning ac- cording to starch values. In both cases for main- tenance alone there was required practically the same starch value — 778 kg. or 7-96 kg. — as com- pared with 5 -2 kg. for the ox. From the results of all the investigations which have been recorded up to the present it may be said that maintenance of life and the production of wool are assured if sheep of the larger breeds are given per 1000 lbs. body weight a daily ration con- taining 1 lb. digestible protein together with 8-3 lbs. starch equivalent, but the smaller breeds must have slightly more, viz. 1-2 lbs. protein, and 9-0 lbs. starch equivalent. There is further the question of the influence of food on the growth of the wool. It is known that in human beings who have to subsist for a con- 250 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS siderable time on insufficient food, or who may even be starving, the growth of the hair and the beard does not entirely cease. The formation of hair or wool does, however, most certainly diminish when , through improper nutrition the body weight sinks below a certain amount. This may be seen from an investigation where two groups of twelve sheep were taken and one group fed on meadow hay and ground beans for four months, the weights at the beginning being 46-50 kg. and at the end 46-55 kg. The second group were fed on oat straw and mangels, and their weight, which was 46-1 kg. at the begin- ning, sank to 44-1 kg. during the four months the experiment lasted. The first group during the experiment made 9-12 kg. of roughly washed wool, which contained 5-99 kg. pure wool, and the second group, which were underfed, yielded only 7-02 kg. of roughly washed wool, of which 4-58 kg. was pure. Similar results were shown in another experiment, where the following figures per day and per 1000 kg. live weight were obtained : — in. Increase in body weight 0-79 kg. Growth of wool . . 0-16 „ Growth of wool expressed in percentage of weight of fleece . . . 0-306% 0-292% 0-293% 0-237% As is seen in sections III, I, and IV, the growth of wool does not always suffer when the body weight diminishes ; but when, as in section II. I. IV. II. 0-42 kg. 017 kg. 1.05 kg. 0-15 » 0-15 » 0-13 „ MAINTENANCE RATION FOR SHEEP 251 the decrease of weight passes a certain limit, then the yield of wool is less. As wool can only be formed from protein, it is most probable that of those rations which do not suffice for the main- tenance of the animal, those which contain sufficient protein will have the least unfavourable influence upon the wool, and this has been confirmed in numerous investigations. If, on the other hand, more food is given than is necessary, the production of wool is not thereby increased to any extent. The mean figures ob- tained in seven experiments with a bare maintenance diet and in fourteen experiments with a feeding ration, were, in the first case, 141 g. of wool= 0-273 % of the weight of the fleece, at the end of the in- vestigation, and, in the second case, 141 g. wool= 0-286 % of the weight of the fleece. In another experiment with lambs five months old, one group were given meadow hay and oats, and weighed in the beginning 25-4 kg. per head, and at the end of nine months 46-25 kg., the animals being then fat. The other group were given meadow hay only, and the average weight of each lamb was 25-0 kg. at the beginning, and 36-15 kg. at the end; the uncleaned wool weighed 2-69 kg. as compared with 2-18 kg. uncleaned wool from the animals which had -received hay and oats. To sum up, then, the growth of wool only suffers 252 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS when, in consequence of insufficient food, the live weight of the animal steadily decreases. Very rich feeding, though, does not, on the other hand, cause a greater growth of wool than when a suf- ficient maintenance ration is given. With regard to the feeding-stuffs which may be used, care should be taken not to give an excess of watery foods, for these are not good for sheep. Roots and tubers, on this account, are only used as subsidiary foods, and the main diet is composed of the different varieties of hay and straw, and the lack of protein made good with small quantities of oil cakes, lupines, dried grains, dried distillers' waste, etc. Full-grown sheep only require very small amounts of bone-forming mineral substances, for it has been found that two-year-old wethers which had ceased to grow and weighed 55 kg. only required 0-57 g. lime and 0*05 g. phosphoric acid, which quantities are to be obtained from the usual rations. CHAPTER IV THE FATTENING OF FULL-GROWN ANIMALS THE changes which the composition of the bodies of domestic animals undergoes have been ascertained directly by the analysis of whole animals and single parts of them. For this purpose the following were used : — Two oxen of 4 years of age, one of which weighed 558-8 kg., and was partially fat, and the other weighed 6437 kg., and may be regarded as being fat. Four sheep of the Hampshire Down breed : (a) Lean, 1 year old, and 44-3 kg. weight. (b) Half fat, 3J „ „ 477 „ (c) Fat, ij- „ „ 577 „ (d) Very fat, if- „ „ 108-6 ,, Two pigs of the same breed, one of which was lean, and weighed 42-6 kg., and the other had been fat- tened for ten weeks, and weighed 83-9 kg. One fat Durham calf, 8-9 weeks old, and weighing 117-4 kg. One lamb, 6 months old, and 38-3 kg. in weight. 253 254 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS These ten animals were analysed 18-24 hours after the last food was given, and the percentage com- position is shown below : — Contents of stomach Nitrogenous Mineral Dry and intes- matter. Fat. substances. matter. Water. tine, moist. Ox, half fat . 16-6 I9.I 4-7 40'3 5I.4 8-2 „ fat . 14-5 30-I 3-9 48-5 45-5 6.o Sheep, lean 14-8 I87 3-2 367 57-3 6-o „ half fat 14-0 23-5 3*2 407 50-2 9-1 „ fat . 12-2 35-6 2-8 50-6 43-5 6-o „ very fat io-8 45-8 29 59-6 35-2 5-2 Pig, lean 13-7 23-3 2-7 39-7 55'i 5-2 „ fat . 109 42-2 i-7 54-7 4i-3 4-0 Calf, fat . 15.2 14-8 3-8 33-8 63-0 3-2 Lamb, fat 12.5 28.5 2-9 437 47-8 8.5 According to these figures the increase of body substance during fattening had the following com- position : — Nitrogenous matter. Fat. Mineral substances. Dry matter. Water. Ox Sheep Pig 7-7 7-i . 7-8 66-2 70.4 63.I i-5 2-3 0.5 75-4 79-9 71-4 24-6 20-1 28-6 Average 7»5 66-6 1-4 75-6 24-4 In considering the above figures it must not be forgotten that they deal for the most part with either young animals or those which have scarcely completed their growth. Still, it is clearly shown here that the increase of body substance on fattening is composed at least of two-thirds of fat, a quarter of water, and only to a very small extent of nitro- FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 255 genous substance. The greater part of this last goes to increase the amount of blood, and only the residue is used for the formation of flesh. With animals of an advanced age which are not in a very low condition, but moderately well nourished, there is very little gain in flesh to be reckoned upon after fattening. The microscopic examination of the muscle fibres of young and old animals has shown this (p. 62), and the chemical analysis carried out on grown animals at different periods of fattening has confirmed it. In order that the differences in the condition of flesh and fat can be recognised during fattening, a number of sheep 2f years old were taken and divided into groups, one being killed and examined at once, another after 2 J, and the third after 6J months' feeding. The results showed that the animals contained the following amounts of flesh per head : — Group I. Group II. Group III. 11-891 kg. . . 11740 kg. . . 12-123 kg. which is in the proportion of : — 100 : 99 : 102 There was thus no increase in flesh to be noted as the result of fattening. On the other hand, the quantity of fat per animal was : — 5-406 kg. . . 15-077 kg. . . 19-019 kg. which may be expressed thus : — - 100 : 279 : 352 From which it is seen that when grown animals in 256 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS tolerable condition are fattened, there is no notice- able increase in the amount of flesh, but principally large quantities of body fat are formed. As the proteins in the food do not take part in the con- version of the nitrogen-free food constituents (fat-f- carbohydrates) into body fat (p. 79), there is no reason why animals during fattening should be given much protein matter. It might be con- cluded from this that in a fattening ration no more protein was necessary than in a maintenance ration, a view which, however, is not correct. The large rations which are given during fattening cause a heavy drain upon the glands which secrete the protein-containing digestive juices. If only 0.6 lb. digestible protein per 1000 lbs. live weight were given to animals which were being fattened, a large portion of the non-nitrogenous nutrients in the ration would not be digested. For the proper utilisation of the food, not more than 8-10 parts of digestible nitrogen -free material ought to be given with each part of digestible protein, as was mentioned on page 39. If it is possible to obtain a supply of cheap food rich in protein, the nutritive ratio (p. 231) may with advantage be narrowed down to as low as 1-4. To give more nitrogenous material than this would, for the reasons already given (p. 62), be a mistake, and in practice ought never to be done. In fattening grown animals there is thus a con- FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 257 siderable margin left in the quantity of digestible protein which may be fed. If the animals at the beginning of the fattening period are in moderate condition, a commencement may be made with the wide " nutritive " or " albuminoid ratio." It is different though when lean, worn-out ani- mals are put aside to be fattened, and it is then advisable to give a ration richer in protein, so that the fibres of the flesh develop and are able to store up large quantities of fat. For 2-4 weeks the ration should be moderately rich in protein (1 : 6), but not too large, whilst afterwards the quantity of food may be increased until the full fattening ration is being given, the amount of protein being slowly diminished. A large number of investiga- tions have proved that with the very moderate quantity of protein given above excellent results can be obtained. With regard to the supply of fat in the food, it must first of all be remembered that this is the most concentrated form of nitrogen-free nutrients, and that with cattle it yields 2-2 times as much in body fat as do the carbohydrates. It is, then, advisable where intensive fattening is being carried out to increase the fat as much as possible. When oils in quantities of about 1 lb. are given per 1000 lbs. body weight, the appetite and digestion of ruminants suffer as a rule. Also when foods rich in fat are fed, the same disturbances are some- s 258 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS times noticed when the ration contains more than ij-lf lbs. digestible fat. The latter quantity may therefore be regarded as the limit, and only exceptionally should as much as i lb. fat per iooo lbs. live weight be given to ruminants. Pigs are able to take more than this, and young animals when fed on milk also have the ability to consume large quantities of fat — more than 2 lbs. — without disturbance to health. By means of various investigations (p. 76) the proof has been given that some oils and lats can be partially stored up as body fat, and so alter the properties of the latter, a fact which possesses practical importance. The body fat of ruminants, which arises chiefly from the carbohydrates, pos- sesses a hard, tallowy consistency which may be much improved by feeding certain oily foods if the animal is intended for the butcher. An experi- ment with four groups of fattening lambs which received a basal ration of hay, straw, and beet slices showed that when 6- 16 kg. maize and 6-63 kg. of sunflower-seed cake were added to the basal ration an excellent quality of meat, with soft fat, was obtained, whereas the addition of 10-58 kg. of crushed peas and 1-19 kg. of wheat husks gave a very poor product, the fat being hard and crumbly. Where the addition was n 75 kg. of wheat husks and 4-69 kg. rape cake the fat was moderately soft, and the same result was got from 373 kg. FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 259 earth-nut cake and 10-57 kg. of coarsely ground barley. The nature of the bacon is also influenced by many other foods. In the following Table the quality of the product obtained when the foods in question were given alone or mixed is expressed with the help of figures ; 1 and 2 denote a good bacon, 3 somewhat soft, 4 and 5 a bad sample, too soft. Fractions of the whole numbers are also used to give more exact expression. I. II. Cereals .... i-5 Cereals only . . 1-2 Mangels i-7 ^-l cereals and ijr-f sun- Carrots .... i-5 flower seeds . 2-2 Turnips .... i-6 0— | cereals and i-| sun- Cereals (rye and barley) i-3 flower-seed cake . 34 Wheat bran . 2-8 § cereals 1 palm-nut cake i-o Barley .... 1-4 3 55 S 55 1-2 Maize .... 2.7 III. Cereals only . 1-4 Maize up to 60 kg. body weight, afterwards barley . i-6 55 55 /O )5 55 55 55 . 2-0 SO ■7. i 55 55 OU 55 J> )> )5 ' J Maize only • 27 According to these experiments, and also to practical experience, it is known that both pigs and ruminants have harder bacon, or fat, when grains rich in carbohydrates and poor in oil (rye, barley, peas, beans, lentils) are given. Also, too, with potatoes and mangels and amongst the oil cakes, palm-nut and cocoa-nut. A soft, in some cases oily, fat is obtained from sunflower-seed cake, 260 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS linseed cake, rape cake, rice, peas, maize, wheat bran, oats, and from fish or meat feeding meals rich in fat. For cattle, an improvement in quality of the meat is obtained by giving those foods which tend to soften the fat, whilst for pigs the opposite is necessaty. The temperature of the surroundings has also a powerful influence upon the nature of the body fat. Wild animals exposed to much cold have a fat which is more oily than that of tame animals, whose fat does not melt at such a low temperature. This was well shown in the case of three young pigs of the same breed, one of which was put in a place the temperature of which was 30-35 C, the second and third were kept at a temperature of about freezing point, the third pig being, however, sewn up in a sheepskin — wool inside. The three ani- mals were fed in an exactly similar manner, and after two months it was found that the second animal had a much softer fat than had the other two pigs. A warm sty, therefore, assists in pro- ducing a firmer bacon. The quantity of non-nitrogenous nutrients (ex- clusive of fat) which are to be given will depend principally upon whether the fattening is to be slow or rapid. It should not be forgotten though that very large supplies of food are not utilised so well as more moderate rations. In a series of experiments with sheep, it was FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 261 found that when the rations contained 16.5, 18.9, and 21 -3 kg. digestible nitrogen-free substances, with in each case 3-5 kg. of digestible protein, the daily increase in weight was 3-557, 3763, and 2789 kg. respectively. In another series of experi- ments, also with sheep, in which 5-2 kg. digestible crude protein was combined with 18-1, 207 or 23-3 kg. of nitrogen-free extract substances, the gains in weight were 4-062, 3*873, and 3-695 kg. — all being calculated per 1000 kg. live weight per day. Even when, along with large quantities of nitrogen-free extract, the amount of crude protein was increased, the gain in weight was less than with moderate rations. With fattening oxen a very satisfactory daily gain of 2-35 kg. was obtained when only 17 kg. protein and io-6 kg. digestible non-nitrogenous material, which altogether had the starch equiva- lent of 10 kg., were fed. Overfeeding should there- fore be avoided. (1) The fattening of grown ruminants. In the fattening of full-grown cattle it may be taken that, exclusive of the concentrated food and of roots, about 10-15 lbs. of coarse fodder per 1000 lbs. live weight should be given. Such a ration would contain 25-30 lbs. of dry matter, of which the digestible constituents would be at most i-6 lbs. protein, 0-7 lb. fat, and 16-0 lbs. 262 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS nitrogen-free extract substances and crude fibre, together with a starch equivalent of 14-5 lbs. When less coarse fodder is given, the ration may be decreased to a starch equivalent of 12 lbs. for cattle, and still produce a daily increase of 2 lbs. per 1000 lbs. of the weight at the commencement of the fattening. There is a very large choice of feeding-stuffs suitable for fattening ruminants, and in cases where foods are equally palatable and suitable, the digestibility and percentage of water which they contain ought to be considered. Everybody knows that with cereal straw, chaff and similar fodder, no increase of weight worth mentioning can be ob- tained. If these substances are included in large quantities in the fattening ration there is not room enough in the limited capacity of the animal for the more easily digestible and profitable foods. Where intensive fattening is being carried on these less valuable food-stuffs must be limited, and under some circumstances not more than 5-10 lbs. of the coarse fodder per 1000 lbs. live weight need be given to maintain the appetite of the animal. Good meadow or clover hays, which otherwise give an excellent product when the animal comes into the butcher's hands, are seldom used as the chief fodder, for their value in fattening is not sufficiently high where large quantities are given. It is otherwise with the young plants from good FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 263 pastures, the nutritive value of which, it has been seen, approaches that of the best feeding-stuffs, and in particularly favoured districts they serve as the only material used in fattening. Even on the best pastures it is advisable to give the animals some hay before they go to the pasture, particu- larly when they first begin to go out, for otherwise the hasty eating of the palatable green food to which they are not accustomed easily causes dis- turbances of the digestive functions. The amount of fodder to be got from the pastures and its nutri- tive value will determine what additions, if any, of subsidiary food are necessary. As a rule, it is not possible to finish the fattening of cattle on the pastures, so a period of stall feeding usually has to follow. Sheep, too, are generally only partially fattened on the pasture, and then finished under cover on a full ration. Pasture feeding, as a rule, is cheaper than stall feeding, even when special care is taken to watch the animals and to systema- tically eat off the grass, for the labour is so much less. It must not be thought though that the food got from the pasture is more profitably utilised than that given in the stall. The increased move- ments of the animals, the conditions of weather, etc. all result in a larger quantity of nutrients being required for maintenance than when the feeding is indoors and the animals are practically at rest. On the other hand, in the open the appe- 264 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS tite is usually greater, and larger quantities of food are eaten. Where green fodder is given in the stall, the same degree of fattening can be reached as with dry food, only the rations must, of course, be supplemented by other foods according to the nutritive value of the green food. Where the green plants (clover, lucerne, vetches, serradella, etc.) are rich in protein the addition should be in the form of cereal grains or maize, rice meal, dried beet slices, or other carbohydrate or fatty foods, whereas in the opposite case the protein-content can be raised to the neces- sary degree by means of oil cakes, dried brewers' grains, ground leguminous seeds, etc. In most cases the process of fattening is carried out by first using whatever hay or straw is to be obtained from the farm, as well as the cheaper roots (mangels, carrots, turnips, kohl-rabi). Where the price of potatoes, beet slices, molasses, lupines, brewers' grains, potato pulp, etc. is low these should also be chosen, and any deficiency made up with suitable concentrated foods. Information with regard to the preparation and use of these feeding- stuffs, as well as the most suitable quantities to give, has already been given in Part II. When choosing a food, the amount of water which it contains must also be taken into account. The consequences of a too abundant supply of water have already been noticed (p. 101). Where it is FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 265 necessary to feed watery foods, such as beet slices, distillery waste, brewers' grains, potato pulp, mangel tops, etc., a suitable quantity of dry food should be given at the same time. Attention must also be paid to the palatableness of the food, and molasses diluted with water and poured over food that has not a very good taste assists the appetite considerably. Common salt can also be used for the same purpose, particularly when large quanti- ties of beet slices, potatoes, potato pulp, or other tasteless foods have to be fed. Rapid fattening is cheap fattening. The correct- ness of this is at once seen when it is remembered that that part of the ration which serves for main- tenance has no influence upon production. The longer, therefore, the fattening lasts, so much more will the amount of food be that has to be used for maintenance. Where there is no reason for using a lot of food of little value, a better ration of higher starch equivalent would be more profitable than a more restricted one. Plentiful bedding, so that the animal can lie down in comfort, is also important, for exact experiments have shown that metabolism is almost a third greater when an ox is standing than when he is lying down. The temperature of the stall should rather be lower when fattening is being carried on than when feeding for other purposes. Stock receiving large fattening rations generate 266 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS almost twice as much heat as they do on a main- tenance diet, and therefore if the temperature of the stall is high they have difficulty in getting rid of this excess of heat ; they then generally eat badly and drink too much water. It is for reasons of this nature that fattening is more difficult in summer than in winter, but even in the latter period the stall should not be allowed to sink below 10-15 C. (50-60 F.), except, perhaps, when a lot of poor food of low starch equivalent has to be fed, as, for example, in the United States, where often ripe maize plants (straw and cobs) are used. The shearing of fattening animals is also some- times of advantage, and for the same reasons as those mentioned under the temperature of the stall. As many investigations have shown, shear- ing does not cause a direct increase of flesh or of fat, but by facilitating the loss of heat from the body causes the appetite to be maintained. It thus acts as a preventative of overheating of the body, which easily arises through rich feeding and a warm stall, and which would lead to the intake of an insufficient amount of food. In the colder periods of the year shearing is only of advantage when very intensive fattening is being carried on in a place where the temperature is fairly high. When, on the contrary, the ration is only a medium one and the stall temperature low, there is no advantage gained by this operation. FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 267 The action of the fattening ration makes itself manifest by an increase in live weight, which, how- ever, is not maintained at the same level from the beginning to the end of the fattening period, but, as a rule, diminishes in the course of the process. This is because the animals need a larger amount of food the heavier they become. Each extra pound of weight raises the quantity of food re quired for the maintenance of the animal in its improved condition, and this amount is the greater the nearer the animal approaches the finished condition. Exact experiments carried out with the help of a respiration apparatus have shown that fat animals require almost twice as much food to maintain 100 lbs. weight gained during fattening, as to maintain 100 lbs. of a lean animal. For this reason the costs of production are raised very considerably towards the end of the fattening period, and where this is continued for a long time it may happen that, for an increase in live weight of 1 lb., more than twice as much food must be given as at the beginning of the period. As many consumers also object to meat which is overladen with fat, it is advisable not to carry the fattening of ruminants too far. From what has been said above, it follows that the maintenance requirements per 1000 lbs. live weight of fattened animals are greater than for thin animals. Investigations on this point were 268 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS carried out first of all with twenty fat sheep which weighed together 1160-5 kg. at the end of the fattening time. They each received for 2\ months a daily ration of 1-25-1-50 kg. aftermath hay, and later 1-5 kg. meadow hay. During this time they lost no weight, and after the 2j months' feeding with hay they weighed 1166-5 kg. ; nor when they were killed did they seem to have lost any of their fat. Similar results were got when two fat oxen were fed for 47 days on hay alone. More exact investigations with the respiration chamber have shown that fat oxen can be maintained in their fat condition when for each 1000 lbs. live weight only 1-1-5 lbs. digestible protein and a starch equivalent of 7-9 lbs. are given. If fat animals have to be kept for some time before they can be sold, the fattening ration should be very gradually broken off and the above main- tenance ration substituted. Here, as also during the fattening period, it is of great advantage to weigh the animals regularly. (2) The fattening of grown pigs. At the age of i-ij years, pigs of the more quickly growing breeds which are then practically full- grown and have ceased to put on flesh, require, as do full-grown ruminants, only a moderate supply of protein. This fact, which has often been ob- served in practice, received full confirmation from FATTENING OF GROWN ANIMALS 269 experiments in which the respiration chamber was used. Pigs of 14-18 months when fed on rice, which is very deficient in protein (albuminoid ratio 1 : 137), gained daily 48-0 g. flesh per head, and when they were given meat meal and whey, which to- gether had an albuminoid ratio of 1:2-4, they only gained 45-1 g. The supply of protein in the food can also here be limited to that sufficient to ensure digestion of the food and to furnish the small increase of flesh which takes place during fattening. Diminution in the way in which the food is utilised by pigs is not observed even when the albuminoid ratio is as wide as 1 : 12 (p. 39), so that if animals in moderate condition are to be fattened it is sufficient if they get ten parts of carbohydrates (including fat) to one part of protein. When the pigs are in poor condition it is wise to increase the amount of protein by 25-30% for a few weeks at the beginning of the fattening period. The quanti- ties of food constituents which it is best to give will be mentioned later. The amount of fat in the food ought to be kept fairly low on account of the undesirable effect which foods rich in fat have upon the quality of the bacon. On the other hand, the non-nitrogenous portion of the ration can be con- siderably greater than is the case with cattle or sheep, as the pig has greater power of digestibility in this respect. As the fattening advances, and in 3-4 months it can be completed, it is good practice 270 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS to gradually diminish the rations, but only so lar that the animals are always completely satisfied. In Table III of the Appendix information relative to the rations can be found. CHAPTER V THE FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS IF a comparison is made between the kind of nutrients and the production of fat or energy in the domestic animals no fundamental difference is to be found. Just as the body fat (p. 77) is derived principally from the carbohydrates of the food, so it is with the muscular energy (p. 107). Fat also plays a considerable part, but the proteins have only a very limited share in the process; in fact, neither in the production of fat nor of energy from nitrogen-free substances are they . of great importance. From this it follows that it is not accessary under ordinary circumstances to give working animals very large quantities of protein. It is sufficient, as it also is with fattening animals, to let the supply of protein be such that the com- plete digestion of the food is assured (p. 39), and for this an albuminoid ratio of 1 : 8-10 is enough. Exceptions to this are such animals as have not yet completed their growth and those which have to perform a lot of work in a short space of time. 271 272 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Racing and driving horses which have to work at a very rapid pace require large quantities of oxygen, and as the carrier of this is in the blood it is essen- tial to maintain the latter at a certain level, and for this purpose a plentiful amount of protein in the ration is needed. For the ordinary work of draught horses, the albuminoid ratio above is ample ; in fact, investiga- tions with cab horses have shown that the animals can be preserved in excellent condition when the ratio is as low as i : 21-28. Fat can be given in the food of working animals (oxen and horses) in larger quantities than is the case with fattening cattle, for the muscular exer- tion helps to maintain the appetite, which otherwise tends to diminish. Further, too, the fat does not throw as much work on the digestive organs as does an equivalent quantity of carbohydrate material. A draught ox can be given up to 1 lb. digestible fat for each 1000 lbs. live weight without any in- convenience. The quantity of carbohydrates in the ration depends generally upon the work which the animals have to perform and upon the food value of the constituents of the ration. As the heat generated in the body cannot be transformed into work, the digestible nutrients of those foods from which much heat arises directly, do not yield as much energy as the " full- value " nutrients (pp. 57 and 91). FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS 273 (1) The feeding of draught oxen. It has already been seen (p. 109) that men, dogs, and horses are able to convert, in round numbers, a third of the utilisable energy of their food into work. There is not much likelihood of error if the same proportion is assumed to take place with the ox. If the daily work of a draught ox is known, it is not difficult to calculate how much digestible protein matter and starch equivalent are required for this amount of work. From previous considera- tions (p. no) it may be taken that 1 g. starch value is able to perform 533 mkg. work, so that if 2,400,000 mkg., which is considered an average amount of work for 1000 kg. live weight, be taken the starch equivalent would have to be 4-50 kg. To this must be added 5-20 kg. starch equivalent for the maintenance of the animal (p. 245). The ration of oxen performing medium work must therefore contain a starch equivalent per 1000 lbs. live weight of 97 lbs. and 1-4 lbs. digestible protein, the latter under ordinary circumstances sufficing for the complete digestion of the food. If food-stuffs rich in protein have to be used, then double the quantity of protein can be given without any danger. In Table III of the Appendix will be found further details relative to the rations for different kinds of work. With regard to the sort of food to be given, it must first of all be remembered 274 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS that the mass of food inside the animal is a weight which must be carried about and tends to diminish the amount of work which can be done. For this reason it is advisable to restrict the quantity of coarse fodder, which on account of its indigesti- bility is a considerable burden to the animal. A lot of coarse fodder also requires a longer time for its consumption and rumination, and so shortens the working period. . It must further be remembered that very watery food has a lowering tendency and causes sweating, so that in general dry feeding is preferable to wet feeding, and when there is a shortage of green fodder, mangels, turnips, etc. these should prefer- ably be given to the milking stock. Draught oxen, even if they are only performing light work, cannot be kept on coarse fodder alone, although it may be of the best quality, and this in spite of the large capacity which these animals have for bulky food. Some addition of protein food must be given in order to obtain a ration correspond- ing to the standard. Suitable mixtures can be got from coarse fodder with moderate additions of roots ; potatoes, if the price is low, are to be preferred to mangels. Instead of such roots, fresh or dried beet slices can be used, and the deficiency in protein made up by the addition of oil cakes, refuse from distilleries or breweries, ground cereal grains or leguminous seeds, molasses, etc. FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS 275 The previous descriptions of the food-stuffs, to- gether with the feeding standards given in the Appendix, supply all the details necessary for making up the rations. During work the animals ought to have short periods of rest in order to prevent the excessive fatigue which would raise the metabolism con- siderably (p. 111). The length of time which an ox should be allowed to rest at midday has already been mentioned (p. 34), and it should be a rule to give a longer rest in the hot periods of the year. This is then particularly necessary, both to give time to overcome fatigue and also to admit the rise of body heat, which follows a meal, to be dissipated. The best plan is to begin work earlier in the morning in summer and to cease somewhat later in the evening than during the cooler part of the year. (2) The feeding of horses. In order to know what nourishment to give to a horse which is performing a certain amount of work, it is necessary to find out what is required for maintenance. Investigations on this point have been carried out in three different ways. In one series of experiments omnibus horses were used, and one-third of the working ration was given to animals at rest in the stable. On this diet the animals lost weight ; they 276 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS weighed on an average 545 kg. each at the beginning, and after 30-48 days the weight had fallen to 518 kg. After this, half the working ration was given, and the average weight after 25-33 days rose to 553 kg. A third of the working ration was, therefore, too little, whilst a half was too much. Then another lot of horses were taken, and on T \ of the working ration an almost perfect equilibrium was established, there being after 30-48 days only an average gain of 8 kg. The -fa of the working ration which was fed consisted per head per day of 1250 g. hay, 2500 g. wheat straw, 1250 g. oats, 1875 g. maize, 625 g. field beans, and 166 g. wheat bran, all together having a starch equivalent of 3254 g. per 500 kg. live weight. In a second experiment, with cab horses, the weight remained stationary (433 kg. per horse) when the animals were kept for about two months at rest in the stall on a ration composed of 940 g. hay, 508 g. straw, 1772 g. oats, 380 g. beans, 1308 g. maize, and 260 g. maize cake, together with a starch equivalent of 3364 g. per 500 kg. live weight. In a third series of experiments with meadow hay, to which in some cases straw and corn were added, the maintenance requirements were on an average 3312 g. starch equivalent. The mean of these various experiments, then, shows that for 500 kg. live weight horses need 3-3 kg. starch equivalent for maintenance, so that an FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS 277 animal of that weight performing daily two million metrekilograms of work would need to get 7-05 kg. starch equivalent. As 1 kg. starch equivalent equals 533 mkg. work, two millions mkg. would use 375 kg. starch equivalent, to which must be added 3-3 kg. for maintenance (see above), making the total 7-05 kg. The following figures show what is the daily work of a horse working eight hours a day and at a rate of 4 km. per hour. Live weight, kg. . . 300 400 500 600 700 Draught energy, kg. 45 56 67 78 89 Daily work expressed \ in millions of mkg. J '44 i-8o 2-l6 2-52 2-88 For the above work the following starch equiva- lents in kg. are necessary : — For the work . . 2-70 3-38 4-05 4*73 5*40 For the maintenance 1 of the animal . J 2 '35 2 ^ ^° ^3 4-13 5.05 6-22 7-35 8-46 9.53 Light horses perform slightly more work in pro- portion to their weight than do heavy ones, for a 300 kg. animal will do for an average day's work 4-80 million mkg. per 1000 kg. live weight, whilst a 700 kg. horse will only do 4-11 million mkg. With the food it is the opposite, for each one million mkg. requires a starch equivalent of 3-51 in the case of the horse weighing 300 kg., whilst for the 700 kg. horse only 3-31 kg. are necessary. It is on the above facts that the feeding standards for 278 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS light, medium, and heavy work, given in Table III of the Appendix, are based, and these standards, it has been proved, are covered by the food given in many establishments where large numbers of horses are kept. Naturally, what in actual prac- tice is termed medium or heavy work differs very considerably. As a rule, those rations which have been found to give good results are continued, and it is only, for example, when the price of oats is very high, or when other reasons make it impera- tive to introduce some other feeding-stuff into the ration, that a recalculation is made. In such cases Table I of the Appendix gives all the necessary data for the calculation. In this table the estima- tions of the starch equivalents are calculated for ruminants, but it has been shown that they can serve equally well for horses. It has been found by means of eighteen separate experiments with different foods how much work the starch equiva- lent of the various rations was able to perform, and the results have agreed very closely with the theory. The horses in these tests had to turn a braked capstan, and the work was gradually increased until the animal began to lose weight. If ioo be taken as the observed maximum of work, it was found that the figures obtained by calculation from the starch equivalents in the several cases varied between 96-5 and 103-1, the average of which is 99-8. It is thus possible to use, until FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS 279 something better is discovered, the starch equiva- lent as a measure of the work in calculating rations for horses. With regard to the form which the food shall take that is to be fed to working horses, it must first be remembered that the coarse fodder must be decreased the greater the call upon the animal is. The smaller capacity of the digestive organs of a horse compared with that of a ruminant indicates at once that the more voluminous foods — hay, straw, green fodder — must be cut down in the case of the horse. The burden of these badly digested materials, the disturbance of respiration through too large a volume of food, and the relatively small amount of nutritive matter which they contain, is the reason why usually less than 20 lbs. coarse fodder are given per 1000 lbs. live weight — generally, in fact, less than 15 lbs. and sometimes even less than 10 lbs. The supply of coarse fodder can only be totally suppressed for a very short time, for otherwise, even if a good supply of oats be given, the appetite diminishes and the digestive organs become upset. The coarse fodders most useful to give to horses are meadow and grass hay, lucerne, sainfoin and clover hay, also the straw of summer and winter cereals, above all oat, barley, and wheat straws. In some large stables where fodder has to be bought, the practice of feeding oat or wheat straw instead of hay has been followed 280 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS for some time, for the number of cases of colic was observed to be greater the more hay was given. The difficulty of knowing whether the whole of the hay is sound, when large quantities are bought, may just as well have been the cause of the sickness. In Middle and Northern Europe and in North America oats are the chief food given to horses, whilst in more southerly countries barley and maize take the first place. Oats, without doubt, are the most suitable of the grains, then barley and finally maize. The latter has come much more into use during the last ten years amongst those who keep large numbers of horses. Maize is said to somewhat diminish the vivacity of the animals and to cause them to sweat, but recent/ investigations have shown that the substitution of it for oats did not impair the efficiency of military horses. Cavalry and artillery horses which were given maize as the only corn food were able to per- form the same work as those on oats without the least falling off. Similarly with omnibus horses, where the experiment was continued for a long period and the greater part of the oats replaced by maize, there was nothing found to the disadvantage of the maize. For large horse-owners and in farm practice it would almost certainly be more profitable to substitute maize for some, if not all, of the oats, when the price of maize is not too high. As is FEEDING OF WORKING ANIMALS 281 seen from the tables in the Appendix, maize has a higher starch equivalent than oats. Barley can also take the place of oats, but it must be remembered that this grain varies a good deal in composition, and so care should be taken to choose good samples. Small, hard grains of barley easily pass undigested through the animal, and cannot completely replace an equal weight of oats. Rye is sometimes also used as food for horses ; it is preferable to cook it and to give 1 part to 2-3 parts of oats. Wheat seems to be less suitable for horses ; it is sometimes given to breeding stallions, but, like buckwheat, it causes irritation of the skin, and this can greatly inconvenience the animal. Amongst the Leguminosae field beans in quantities of 1-2 lbs. fitly find a place in the ration, and par- ticularly so if an extra effort has to be made, or if continuous hard work is being done. Oil cakes — linseed, palm-nut, cocoa-nut, sesame, maize germ — and meals made from these are given in quanti- ties of 1, at most 2 lbs. per day per horse. Mo- lasses and its mixtures with brewers' grains, maize germ cake, palm-nut meal, chopped straw, etc. are all excellent for horses, and may be given in quanti- ties up to 3 lbs. per day to horses, which are thereby kept in better condition for work as well as in improved health. Most of the other ordinary foods are only used in a supplementary manner 282 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS for the horse ; particulars as to these have already been given in Part II of this book. With working animals, and particularly with the highly-strung horse, all that tends to load the diges- tive organs ought to be shut out from the diet, and also those food-stuffs which make the animal take more water than it would under normal feeding conditions. Care should be taken that the food is of the best, and anything that is musty or has been attacked by moulds or fungi should not be given. Any food either that contains injurious substances even in a small degree ought not to be fed. Horses ought to have a rest of 2-2J- hours in which to eat and digest their food in peace, and this gives them a chance of resting before the work is begun again. What it is essential to know about watering has already been mentioned (p. 237). CHAPTER VI THE FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS FOR BREEDING OR FATTENING A FULLY grown animal is practically in a state of permanence, and gives out exactly as much as it takes in. During fattening, in spite of the most liberal feeding, there is only very little, if any, protein or mineral matter added to the body substance, the increase being almost entirely fat. With a growing animal, on the contrary, when it receives sufficient food there is a regular gain in its nitrogenous and mineral components. There is no cessation in the development of the organs of grow- ing animals, not even when as much is taken in as is given out, for in such a case some of the organs would grow at the expense of the others, a condi- tion which naturally could only be maintained for a certain time. When the rate at which young animals lay on flesh and mineral substances is considered, it is easy to understand how some have thought that the maintenance requirements are less during growth than later, and that with young cattle the 283 284 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS food has greater productive value. Investiga- tions carried on from several standpoints have, however, taught that the metabolism in the young body is at least as much and perhaps more than when growth has ceased, but that the protein and mineral substances in excess of maintenance re- quirements can be utilised to a much greater extent for the development of the growing organs. The complete investigations of the daily income and output of a 2-3 weeks old sucking-calf weighing 50 kg. gave the following : — In the food 8093 p. milk 7 l ' 2 & In the dungfi iM ■;• ,, ,, urine S370g „ „ breath -9455 carbonic mid . . Decomposed Stored in the body 6 2 "2 '3 "5 63-5 16-8 t< 237 o'5 78-5 , 5 -8 42-2 •o 42*2 E- 39** 2*2 IO"2 26-8 8- 48-8 •9 1 1 -6 257-6 209*8 R. 62 r6 27-4 33'o o 4"S The daily increase was thus 925 g., of which 379 g- were dry matter and 566 g. water. Only very small quantities of the ingested milk passed into the faeces, and of the digested proteins 72-6% were stored in the body, and only 27-4% were decomposed. Thus it is seen that the growing animal possesses an extraordinary power of in- corporating the proteins which are offered to it, FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 285 and this it only loses gradually. As with the protein, so also with the mineral substances which are necessary for the formation of the import vital organs. In the above case the sucking-calf retained 53% of the total ash of the milk which it consumed. Of the phosphoric acid 72-5% pt in the body, of the lime as much as 97%, and of the other mineral substances (potash, soda, oxide of iron, magnesia) 20 40%, of which chlorine was the I only 4%. Lime and phosphoric acid were, there- fore, retained to a much larger extent than the other substances, in the case of the lim r : only 3% ing into the excreta According to this H almost seems as though the milk of highly bred cattle was too poor in this material, which i important for the making of bone. The eag with which calves eat mortar, chalk, or other lime- COntaining substances, points to the milk being deficient in this respect and I bility of giving some precipitated chalk to animals of this kind. With regard to the food metabolism after weaning, investigations with lambs (Southdown — Merino cross) from the 5-24 monl ilts noted below. The ration which was given kept the animals in good condition and they de- veloped satisfactorily, digesting the following quan- tities per head per day : — 286 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Live weight. g- 23 Di< jested material. Age. 5-6 Protein, g- 79 Carbo- hydrates. g. 376 Fat. g. 16 7-9 30 86 427 17 10-12 35 82 429 19 13-15 39 81 445 21 16-24 47 73 492 24 The storage of mineral matter per day and per head was : — Age, m jnth. 5-6 Live weight. kg. 23 Potash. g- 2-04 Soda, g. 0-84 Li ire. g- i-56 Magnesia g. 0-12 Phosphoric acid. g- 1-09 7-9 30 2-89 1-05 2-00 0-32 1-65 [0-12 35 3*05 o-8i i-8i 0- 3 8 2-50 £3-15 47 2-65 072 2-07 o-35 3-14 Potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, according to the above, are retained in about the same quanti- ties at the various ages, whereas the phosphoric acid is held back in the body in increasing quanti- ties. Owing to the demand of growing animals for mineral matter this point should have special attention in feeding, for a lack of these substances, particularly of lime and phosphoric acid, brings serious results (p. 96). It must further be remem- bered that the animals are not in a position to make use of all the mineral matter in the food. From FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 287 two investigations with calves of 5-6 months of age, it was found in one case that only 42 % of the lime of the food was utilised, and of the phosphoric only 46% ; in the second case, 51-54% of the lime and 56-65% of the phosphoric acid. The two last mentioned numbers may be taken as the maximum, for in a further series of experiments in which precipitated phosphate of lirne was added to the food the animals did retain a little lime and phosphoric acid in their bodies, but it should be remarked that the food itself was deficient in these two substances. From what has been said, it may be taken that animals should have in their ordinary food about 2-3 times as much lime and phosphoric acid as they store in their bodies. Milk, however, is utilised in a higher degree, as has already been noticed. In the rearing of young stock the direction which the animals will take later ought not to be over- looked. If they are to be fattened, then, even before their birth they are helped by giving the mother a liberal diet, and afterwards they should also be treated well in the matter of food. Male animals intended for breeding should also get a more liberal diet, without being allowed to grow too fat, than those animals intended for the production of wool or meat or for^ draught purposes. The first principle should be not to hinder the development of the animals by a lack of food, for 288 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS what is lost in the beginning can never be regained. Owing to the sensitiveness of young domestic animals, every care should be taken to prevent any injurious influences. The food given whilst the animal is getting set, and also afterwards, ought to be of the best quality. Untried feeding-stuffs, or artificial ones which are certain to be offered, ought not to be tried. Even in the preparation of the food for young stock it is best to remain by the usual practice and to divide the ration into several meals (p. 235). It is far better to give 2-3 more meals than to force the animal to overeat itself through getting food too seldom. All that has been said regarding the care and treatment of the animals applies even more to young stock. The stall should be well ventilated, dry, light, and clean, and in winter the temperature ought to be kept about 15-18 C. (60-65 F.), and in summer there should be some provision for moderating the heat. Draughts, cold, and damp are often the only causes of failure. A regulated amount of exercise in the open air is of the greatest benefit during development, for it is only when the limbs are used that the muscles and bones mature satisfactorily. Movement in the open air, best of all a long soj ourn at grass, prevents "the too early formation of fat and ensures a tough, strong constitution. The resistance to disease is FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 289 also strengthened in this way, and other properties which make the animal valuable for the purposes for which it is being reared are fostered. If a suitable pasture is not to be had, then shift must be made with any place that will serve as a sort of play-ground. (1) The feeding of calves. At first it will be enough to let the calves have the colostrum (p. 219) from the mother, which causes the removal of the pitch-like contents of the intestines. After this whole milk is the chief food, and if the calves are allowed to suck, the udder is seldom completely emptied; there remains a por- tion of the milk which many cows obstinately hold back, and as they are not then milked dry the yield diminishes. If the calves as soon as possible after birth are fed by hand the above disadvantage is avoided, and there is also the advantage of being able to measure as much milk as is needed to each calf, and also avoid the troubles of weaning. Scrupulous cleanliness of the drinking vessels, careful measurement of the quantity of milk, and punctual feeding are absolute necessities if success is to follow. The quantity of milk to be fed depends upon the body weight and the purpose for which the calves are intended. If they are later to be used for milk production or for draught purposes they should 2qo SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS get daily \- J- of their live weight in whole milk, and the purely-milk period should be limited to four or at the least three weeks. Calves which will later be fattened or are being kept for breeding should be given rather more milk — J- J- their live weight, and should not be weaned for six weeks. Warm fresh milk should always be used, for when cold it is apt to cause scouring. In order to escape tuberculosis boiled milk has often been used, but it is said that the animals reared with this do not do as well as those on raw milk. Experiments on this point have, however, shown that hardly any difference exists, for the quantities found to give i kg. live weight increase were 10-82 litres of boiled milk, 10-45 htres boiled milk and salt (2 g. per litre), and 1 1 -ii litres of raw milk. With properly measured milk supply and good attention to the calves 10 litres (2J gals.) of milk give on an average 1 kg. (2-2 lbs.) increase of live weight. The weaning of calves from a milk diet must be done very gradually, the whole milk being re- placed by equal quantities of separated or skimmed milk, which is best boiled and given in a lukewarm state. Not more than % litre of whole milk should be replaced daily. As in this way a considerable quantity of fat is withdrawn from the animals, it must be replaced, and this is best done by the addition of linseed, 25-30 g. (1 oz.) to \ litre (1 pint) skim milk. Oatmeal and later linseed cake, as well FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 291 as cocoa-nut, earth-nut, and palm-nut cakes, may be given, also barley and pea meals, malt coombs, and small quantities of bran, whey, etc. The lack of fat can also be made good by some suitable oil (20 g. earth-nut oil per litre) which should be beaten with the hot separated milk by means of a whisk until no drops of oil are to be seen. An excellent substitute for whole milk is found in Liebig's recipe (p. 145), which is also suitable for those calves that cannot digest the mother's milk. Good results have been got from the addition of saccharified starch to the skim milk. If commer- cial extract of malt is used for the saccharification the following quantities have been found to give a suitable preparation : 500 g. (18 oz.) potato starch stirred with \ litre (1 pint) cold water, and then 3£ litres (6 pints) almost boiling water gradually added. This gives a stiff paste, which should be allowed to cool to 50-60 C. (125-140 F.), and then 50 g. (2 oz.) malt extract stirred in ; after standing half hour the drink is ready. Finely ground malt (about 2 oz.) can naturally be used instead of the extract, only then the liquid ought to be drawn off through a sieve before being fed to young calves. Instead of starch or flour it is possible to use wheat or rye feeding meals with good results. The use of such saccharified foods with skim milk in place of whole milk can be begun when the calves are foui weeks old, and the 14-16 pints whole milk replaced 292 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS by 10 pints whole milk and 5 pints of the liquid just mentioned. In the fifth week the whole milk should be reduced to 5 pints, and to it should be added 10 pints skim milk and 5 pints of the sacchari- fied solution. From the sixth week on the ration per head and per day would consist of 16 pints of skim milk and 5 pints of solution. According to observations made on twenty-two calves aged 4-36 days for a period of half a year, the daily increase of weight per head was on an average 1-05 kg. when potato starch and extract of malt were given. The favourable effect of the saccharified solution depends partly upon the change of the starch into dextrine and maltose, whereby digestion and re- sorption is facilitated, and partly upon the muci- laginous nature of the dextrine which acts like linseed or linseed cake upon the digestive organs. Newly born calves have only a simple stomach, and so in early life they have to be provided with easily digestible nourishment. The formation of the fore stomachs only begins later, and the process is considerably helped if, as early as a week after birth, a small but gradually increasing quantity of tender, palatable meadow hay is given. If the time for weaning has come the milk should be withdrawn a pint at a time and some other warm drink substituted; at the same time, more meadow hay should be given up to 3 or 4 lbs. Along with this, about the end of the third month, finely FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 293 pulped or crushed mangels or carrots may be given, and with them finely chopped straw, crushed oats, ground barley or peas, oil-cake meal, malt coombs. At the proper time the hay may be replaced by grass, the best form being a pasture with plenty of sweet grasses ; clover should be avoided for a time. In the period after weaning the young stock must always be better fed, for the withdrawal of the milk easily puts the animals back, their growth at the time being very rapid. From the 4-6 months onward the calves can take more coarse fodder and mangels, and after the end of the first year they do best on the same kind of food as grown cattle. As the skeleton of a year-old calf contains on an average 7700 g. lime (17 lbs.) and 7000 g. (15J lbs.) phosphoric acid, the daily addition would be 21 g. lime and 19 g. phosphoric acid. The daily ration must, therefore, contain 40-60 g. (iJ-2 oz,) of each of these materials to fully meet the demands. When calves are being fattened only sweet milk is used as a rule, for if other foods (hay and corn) are given the meat loses its taste and also its bright colour. The best quality of meat is got when milk alone is used, and sometimes eggs are beaten up in it. As a partial substitute for whole milk it is usual to give separated milk, or a mixture of this with whey, and other substances, such as earth-nut oil, saccharified starch, etc., to make up the deficiency 294 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS in fat. Good results have also been obtained with mixtures of i oz. rice meal and i-ij oz. crushed linseed, or with about 2 oz. maize meal to each quart skim milk. Buckwheat flour is said to have the best effect on the quality of the flesh. All these added materials are best borne if they are boiled, steamed, or saccharified before being fed. (2) The feeding of lambs. The weaning of lambs begins, as a rule, 3-4 weeks after birth, and only those intended for breeding purposes are allowed to stay longer with the mother. In order to accustom the lambs to take solid food they are separated after the time given above for some 6-8 weeks, but only in the daytime. Then by gradually reducing the opportunity which the animals have of sucking the mother they are com- pletely weaned. During the time of separation good tender meadow hay should be given, and later also crushed oats as well as a supply of good water. In this way it is possible to accomplish the weaning in about three months, from which time on good meadow hay, together with crushed oats, coarsely ground peas, mild oil-cake meals, etc., are the chief food. Lambs, like other young stock, do best when they are gradually accustomed to being on the pasture. The daily requirement per 100 head of lambs FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 295 up to completion of weaning is about 20 kg. (44 lbs.) hay and 6 kg. (13 lbs.) corn for the lighter breeds, and about 30 kg. (66 lbs.) hay and 7-5-10 kg. (16- 20 lbs.) corn for the heavier breeds. After the withdrawal of the mother's milk the amount re- quired up to the end of the first year is about 50 kg. (i-i^- cwt.) hay and 10-20 kg. (22-44 lbs.) corn. In the second year each 100 sheep will need daily 1-1^- cwt. hay and 22-33 lbs. corn, together with some mangels and also some straw to pull. Where the animals are on the pasture a small amount of hay and corn should also be given. Watery food, of whatever kind, which contains more liquid than the sheep naturally take (p. 101) is not readily eaten by them, and if constantly given is not as well borne as with other species. Roots and watery by-products, as also gruels and drinks, can only be used as subsidiary food in the rearing of these animals. On account of their rapid growth lambs need a more concentrated food than do calves, and the feeding should be according to the purpose for which the animals are intended. Where the lambs are to be fattened and killed the food should be richer than where the production of wool is the main object. Information relative to the size of rations, etc. can be gathered from the standards given in Table III of the Appendix. Lambs about 4-5 months old are found to take 296 scientific feeding of animals up daily 2-5-3-8 g. lime and 2-0-4-1 g. phosphoric acid per 50 kg. live weight. To cover this need the food per 200 lbs. live weight should contain 1 oz. lime and 1 oz. phosphoric acid ; these quanti- ties are, as a rule, contained in the ordinary ration for lambs. (3) The feeding of growing pigs. With regard to the feeding of young pigs there is not, unfortunately, any investigation which throws light upon their requirements, and so the experience of practice has to be relied upon. Ex- perienced breeders allow those pigs which are in- tended for breeding purposes to suck for 6-8 weeks, whereas those which are to be fattened may be limited to 4 weeks. Weaklings may be allowed to go on for as long as ten weeks. When only 2-3 weeks old the young pigs begin to gnaw and eat other food, which is an indication that some whole barley, wheat, or crushed oats should be given. They should also have from this time onward some charcoal, coal, earth, or sand given to them daily. In consequence of the rapid growth of the young pigs the mother is soon unable to feed them sufficiently, so from the third week on whole cow's milk, after being boiled and diluted with an equal quantity of water, is given in a lukewarm state. As the composition of sow's and cow's milk differs, FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 297 and the latter tends to cause scouring in young pigs, it should be slowly introduced into the diet. The quantity at first should not exceed ^ litre (l pint) , and it may be gradually raised to about 1 litre (if pints), but not more. If separated milk is used, then the addition of some saccharified starch food, as described previously (pp. 145 and 291), is advis- able. The milk and the corn, which is given in increasing quantities, supply, as a rule, all the phosphoric acid required, but there is often a deficiency of lime which must be made good by the addition of precipitated chalk to the food; by degrees, J-J oz. may be given. When the young pigs are capable of taking a sufficient amount of food they should be accus- tomed as quickly as possible to the use of those foods which they will have after weaning, and the mother's milk gradually withdrawn. After weaning, the whole milk is replaced by degrees by skim milk, which should be boiled and fed in a luke- warm state, but not necessarily diluted. If the pigs are intended for breeding purposes they may be given skim milk and crushed corn (barley, oats, or wheat) up to three months old, or ground peas and beans instead of the corn. From the third month onward pulped mangels, boiled or steamed potatoes, finely ground maize, tender green fodder and, above all, young clover may be introduced into the ration, and the skim milk withdrawn if the 298 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS development need not be particularly rapid and perfect. The young boars should always be rather better fed than the young breeding sows, and from the com- mencement of sexual maturity, which usually begins at eight months, up to the end of the growing period they ought to have a food richer in protein. This can be made up of green fodder or mangels, and oats or coarsely ground beans. When the growing period is over the boars should be kept in good condition, but not allowed to grow fat, and a daily addition of I lb. coarsely ground rye is sufficient concentrated food. The young females intended for breeding purposes should be fed less intensively from their 5-6 month, so from that time they get more green food and roots with larger quantities of chaff and less ground corn. These animals do the best if allowed to run out to grass, and as that is one of the cheapest ways of keeping them it may be begun at the fifth month. The most valuable pastures are those with red clover, and 2 J acres of this ought to keep 25-40 pigs for about 120 days. Fallow or stubble land, harvested potato or mangel fields, and waste land can also be used if the pigs get some suitable food before leaving the sty and on their return. Such an exercise ground though, which merely allows the animals to move about in the fresh air, is a poor substitute for pasture. This sparer diet FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 299 prevents the deposition of fat and should be con- tinued until the animals are sexually mature. When they are pregnant they should get increasing quantities of coarsely ground oats and barley. When pregnancy is far advanced the sows may be given some wheat bran and linseed cake, and as these have a loosening tendency upon the bowels they are of benefit. At this stage a richer diet is necessary not only to secure proper develop- ment of the young, but because at the time of the first farrow the sows are not fully grown. Similarly, during the suckling period extra food is needed to furnish milk. Young pigs which from the age of 4-6 months are being prepared for the butcher are fed similarly to those intended for breeding purposes, and the aim should be to get well-developed flesh not over- burdened with fat. Animals destined for this purpose may be given a ration with more protein than is given to those kept for breeding. The feeding of pigs on which fattening only commences when they are fully grown, say ij years old, is different, for there a coarse, solid meat with a firm layer of bacon is wanted. In the rearing of these animals they should be given from the time of weaning a ration richer in protein, and this can be done by feeding along with separated milk such foods as roots, rye bran, ground maize. After the fifth month they may be given in addition other 300 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS materials, such as whey, wheat bran, beet slices. Later, potato pulp and corn, or potato slumps, feeding meals, green maize or other green food and chaff may be given. At suitable periods of the year these animals also find the best and cheap- est nourishment on the pastures. Most of the food-stuffs which are used for rearing swine — milk, cereal grains and, above all, potatoes and mangels — contain only a small quantity of lime. By the use of green food, leguminous seeds, etc. and by pasturing this scarcity is lessened to some extent, but still it is often noticeable in the malformation and disease of the bones. It is, therefore, advisable to let the pigs have some carbonate of lime in the form of precipitated chalk from the first week they are born. The quantity must be regulated according to age and size, and will vary from 5-12 g. (J— \ oz.) per head per day. Phosphate of lime or its surrogate (p. 224) will then only be needed when the ration is composed chiefly of those foods which are poor in phosphoric acid (p. 97). As the body of a full-grown pig contains in all 1-15% lime and i- 10% phosphoric acid, and as after a year's fattening an average specimen will have gained about 120 kg., the total increase in this^time will have been 1-35 kg. lime and 1-32 kg. phosphoric acid, which is a daily addition of 3-8 and 37 g. respectively. If it be assumed, as is probable, for 1 g. of these materials to be stored in FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 301 the body about 3 g. must be present in the food, then the daily amount required is in round numbers 12 g. (^ oz.) each of lime and phosphoric acid, but on a milk diet less than half this quantity. It is thus possible to estimate whether a ration contains sufficient of these nutrients, and what addition of phosphate of lime is necessary if there is a deficiency of phosphoric acid. As regards the fattening of young pigs, a large number of investigations have taught that the protein in the ration must be kept at a fairly high figure. In one series of experiments with pigs of the Yorkshire breed, which weighed 57-60 kg. (125-130 lbs.) each, the daily increase of weight over a period of 90-95 days was : with maize, 0-465 kg. (1 lb.) ; with barley, 0-665 kg. (i"5 lbs.) ; with maize and separated milk, 0-735 kg. (i-6 lbs.) ; and with barley and separated milk 0-745 kg. (1-64 lbs.). The total increase of weight with maize alone was 45-0 kg. (99 lbs.), and with barley and separated milk 70-5 kg. (155 lbs.) — a remarkable increase which must be ascribed to the extra quantity of protein. The pigs, it is true, would become fat on the maize, which is poor in protein, but they would never reach the perfect develop- ment which is assured by a more nitrogenous diet, and — what is very important from the financial side of the question — they require considerably more food for an increase of 100 lbs. than when 302 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS sufficient protein is given. This holds particu- larly for quick-growing breeds which begin to be fattened at an average weight of 80-100 lbs. The carbohydrates must also be kept at a reasonably high amount for young fattening pigs. At the beginning of the fattening period the pigs can eat very large quantities of food daily, up to 44 lbs. dry matter per 1000 lbs. live weight, but later the appetite diminishes, and towards the end the daily amount is generally not more than 25-30 lbs. All these circumstances are taken into account in the feeding standards in the Appen- dix (Table III), which are designed for rapid fattening of the large, rapidly growing breeds, and assure a daily increase of 0-6-07 lb. during the whole course of the fattening. The most intensive fattening is achieved when the animals are given very digestible food mixtures. The higher the digestibility of the whole diet the greater is the amount of active nutrients that can be given to the animals, and the better the increase of weight proceeds. Indigestible feeding-stuffs, such as dried grains, old green fodder, refuse from cereals containing a lot of chaff, not only bring less flesh- and fat-forming material into the body, but also, owing to the room taken up by the undigested matter, prevent larger quantities of digestible nutrients from being fed. On the other hand, ground cereal and leguminous seeds, maize, buck- FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 303 wheat, feeding meals, potatoes, meat- and fish- meal, waste products from the dairy are amongst the most suitable feeding-stuffs. Dried beet slices and bran are digested by pigs to the same extent as by cattle, but they do not have the same value in production as do the full-value (p. 90) nutrients. If the ration is composed of very digestible foods, then some bran, chaff, or husky barley refuse should be given at the same time so as to assist the expul- sion of the faeces. Very large quantities of pro- tein, much in excess of the feeding standards, favour foot-halt. Experience has taught that many feeding-stuffs have an influence upon the quality of the meat and particularly so upon the bacon. This influence is much more marked in the colder periods of the year, as has already been mentioned (p. 260). The feeding-stuffs which have the greatest effect in this direction are above all maize, most oily seeds and rich oil-cake meals, rice meal, oily fish meal, distillery waste, brewers' grains. If these materials, however, are given in moderate quantities, at the most one-third of the total concentrated food, or if they are replaced during the last third of the fattening period by other foods, the effect is greatly or entirely diminished. The same advice applies to very watery roots, fresh beet slices, waste pro- ducts from the manufacture of alcohol or starch, or refuse from the dairy. None of these should be 304 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS given in large quantities during the last four or five weeks of fattening, or even earlier than that, for the tissues ought to have time to get rid of the excess of water before the animal is killed. With those foods which tend to give a soft oily bacon, it is advisable to feed at the same time some palm-nut or cocoa-nut cake meal, either of which tends to correct the softness. When feeding with maize satisfactory results have been got from a mixture of 80 parts maize meal and 20 parts palm-nut cake meal. Cotton-seed meal has frequently been the cause of fatal illness to pigs, and must therefore be used with the greatest possible caution. Roughly ground lupines also act poisonously and lead to cramp and death, but when they have been freed from the bitter principle, which must be thoroughly done, they are a good fattening food. Meat meal, which is very suitable as an addition to a diet deficient in protein, allows of the consumption of large quan- tities of steamed or boiled potatoes, but it has the disadvantage of easily causing diarrhcea, and there- fore should only be given to young animals in quantities of 50-100 g. (2-4 oz.), or by very gradual increase up to 250 g. (9 oz.). A more detailed description of the other feeding- stuffs is to be found in the second part of this volume. The preparation of food for pigs is often carried FEEDING OF GROWING ANIMALS 305 too far, for it is not essential that everything should be converted into a thin gruel. The boiling or steaming should be restricted to potatoes, hard grains, and chaff, or to those foods which contain injurious spores of fungi, etc. Where by-products from the distillery, brewery, or starch manufactory are being used, and they are not quite fresh, they may also be cooked in some way, and the same applies to milk and all waste material from the dairy. Grain should be given either coarsely ground or crushed, whilst feeding meals may be mixed with the coarser parts of the ration. When food is made into a gruel it should not be too thin ; the best consistency is that of a thick porridge, and it should be cooled to below the body temperature. Special care must be taken to keep the feeding- troughs and vessels clean. The daily ration should be divided into three meals for young pigs, and they should be given regularly and punctually. The sty should be moderately warm, dry, clean, and well ventilated; an excess of heat destroys the appetite and can prove as dangerous as a cold sty. CHAPTER VII THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE (i) The formation of milk. WHEN the constituents of milk are considered, it is seen that amongst them are some — as, for instance, casein and milk-sugar — which are not found in any other of the tissues or fluids of the body. This fact proves that the milk is not already formed in the juices that flow to the udder, but that it must be separated in the milk glands and pass from them to the cavities of the udder. Milk, therefore, is not a simple excretory product like urine, which is simply filtered from the blood in the kidneys, but it is a substance formed from the fluids of the body by chemical changes in the milk glands. The material which is brought to the mammary gland is utilised first of all to build up certain cells which on completion are wholly or partly destroyed. These products of decom- position are milk, which in this way may be re- garded as a fluid organ. It follows that milk is not directly formed from the blood because of the 306 THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 307 richness of the ash in potash and its poorness in soda, for the ash of blood, on the contrary, contains much soda and only a little potash. In the cow the mammary gland, which is covered with fatty tissue and folds of skin, consists of two portions which are separated from one another by a wall of muscular tissue which runs parallel to the long axis of the body. Each of these halves possesses a grape-like shape and is composed of a great number of smaller or larger flaps, which are traversed by small branching ducts. These snfatf ducts unite to form wider ones, which finally open into a broad passage which empties into the milk cistern — a large hollow space lying above the teats. If the small ducts above mentioned are followed into their finest capillaries they are found to end in tiny sacs or alveoli, which compose the small flaps. The alveoli are furnished with a delicate homogeneous membrane on which a single layer of so-called epithelial cells lies. A dense network of the finest blood and lymph vessels surrounds the outer walls and supplies the epithelial cells, from or in which the milk arises, with the necessary material. Numerous nerve fibres imbedded along- side the blood capillaries regulate the activity of the alveoli. The alveoli, therefore, are that portion of the mammary gland in which the materials form- ing the milk undergo conversion. Whether the alveoli are partly or entirely destroyed and then 3o8 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS grow again, or whether they remain intact, has not been proved. Milk is therefore a product of the mammary gland, and it is upon the development and productiveness of this organ that the extent to which the quantity and composition of the milk can be influenced by other factors — particularly the food — depends. (2) The influence of the constitution of the animal upon the formation of milk. (a) Breed and individuality. The development of the mammary gland, like any other organ, cannot be increased separately by any kind of feeding, but is to a certain extent heredi- tarily fixed. Therefore it arises that between the several breeds and individuals considerable differ- ences in the quantity and composition of the milk are to be found. The natural breeds of cattle not bred for the production of milk only give some 400-500 litres (88-110 gals.) of milk per annum, in which, though, the percentage of solid substances is high. The cultivated breeds have, however, been gradually raised to an extraordinarily high pitch as milk producers. Cows which annually give more than 5000 litres (1100 gals.) milk with more than 3 % of fat are nowadays not rare. Definite informa- tion regarding the milk yields of the various breeds is not easy to give, on account of the variety of con- THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 309 ditions. It may be said, though, that in general the Dutch, Oldenburg, East Friesland, etc. cattle give a greater quantity of milk poorer in fat and solids than such breeds as the Simmental, Shorthorn, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, etc. The individual animals of the various breeds also behave very differently : for example, eighteen Dutch cows which had been bred in East Prussia were kept under observation during the whole period of lacta- tion, and between the best and worst yields the following differences were noticed : — Total milk yield . . 2230 — 4702 kg. . Proportion, 100 : 202 „ amount of fat. 74-4 — U9'3 » • » IO ° : 201 Percentage of solids 10-56— 12-86 % . „ 100 : 122 „ fat . 2-63- 3.81 „ . „ 100 : 145 In addition to the differences which are observed between cows, there are also the variations in the daily yield which are often observed with the same cow, and which in some cases may be as much as 3-4 kg. milk, as well as differences in the percentage of fat. The same cow may one day give milk with 2-8% of fat, and the next day 3-9% without any explanation, except the peculiarity of the animal, being possible. The individual relations also show themselves in the alterations which a change of food makes in the quantity and contents of the milk. In one series of experiments with fifteen cows, where some of the carbohydrate portion of the ration was replaced by 310 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS fat (rye feeding meal by rice feeding meal) without any change being made in the more active portions of the food, it was found that — One cow gave 1-85 kg. more milk and 29 g. more fat Another „ „ 2-24 „ less „ „ 66 „ less „ „ „ „ o-oi „ more „ „ 21 „ „ „ » j> » 0-71 „ „ „ „ 6 ,, „ ,, Observations of this kind, which anybody can make in practice, show how extraordinarily changeable is the influence of individuality upon the production of milk. They teach also how deceptive are the results of experiments carried out upon a small number of animals. (b) The period of lactation. The formation of milk, which begins at the time of calving, does not always remain at the same level, but in time decreases until, usually some time before the next calving, no more milk is formed and the cow is dry. Here also the individuality of the animal gives very variable results. With many cows the yield of milk increases for several months after calving, remains for some considerable time at the highest yield, then falls quickly or slowly and remains for a period at that level ; but here again no universally applicable rule exists. Generally in the course of lactation the percentage quantity of dry matter and fat increases, but to this also there are plenty of exceptions. THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 311 (c) The age of the cow. The general capacity of the more highly developed animals increases during the first period of life, then remains for some time at the same level and after- wards begins to diminish. It is the same with the milking capacity of cows, and observations have shown that the yield of milk increases up to about the time of the fifth or sixth calf, whereas the average percentage of fat in the milk remains con- stant up to that time and for several years longer. Great differences are shown though in the behaviour of individual cows. (3) The influence of other factors on the formation of milk. (a) The frequency and manner of milking. There can be no doubt that the passage of the milk from the alveoli to the milk cistern is easiest and most rapid when the udder is empty. When the udder is more or less filled there is a damming of the small ducts leading from the alveoli, and the pressure acting upon the alveoli hinders the separa- tion of milk. From this it would be thought that more frequent milking would increase the yield of milk, but there are other factors to be considered. Many circumstances point to a considerable portion of the milk only being formed in the alveoli under the stimulus of milking. It has been computed 312 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS by measurement of the ducts that the whole of these, together with the cavities of the udder, have a capacity not greater than six pints of milk, whereas at a milking often more than twice this quantity is got. According to this a portion of the milk must certainly only leave the cells of the alveoli during milking. Be that, however, as it may, the fact remains that the time between successive milkings has a con- siderable influence upon the milk formation. In an experiment where the cows were milked after different lengths of time, it was found that the milk obtained per minute was as follows : — With intervals of 12 hours 5-29 g. milk per min. ,, „ „ 6 M 6«8 3 „ „ >> .1 4 „ 8. 5 8„ „ )> „ 2 >l 9'25 >> „ ,, , ,,651 riins. 10-15 ,, ,, , ,, „ 50 „ 1-4 » » The shorter, then, the interval between the times of milking, so much greater, up to a certain point, was the quantity of milk obtained. Where milking was performed each hour the yield fell suddenly, from which it may be assumed that the otherwise favourable stimulus gave rise to pain if repeated too frequently. In general the extra amount of milk which can be got by frequent milkings is very much overestimated, for although considerable THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 313 differences are often observed with shorter intervals between the milkings, they are often not applicable to practice. As has been proved, the holding capacity of the milk cistern accommodates itself in time to the amount of milk which the animal can give, and so there ceases to be any considerable damming of the milk. From practical experience it has been shown that milking three times a day only gives 6-7% more milk than milking twice. Whether this increase in the amount of milk will repay the cost of the extra milking, carriage, etc. must be answered for each case separately. With freely milking cows which give good yields and where the milk can be sold to advantage, it may be possible to milk four times a day with profit, but under ordinary circumstances twice, or at most three times, is usually enough. Frequent milking has an influence also upon the composition of the milk in that the milk is richer the shorter the time that has elapsed since the previous milking. The very numerous investiga- tions which have been carried out on morning, midday, and evening milk leave no doubt on this point. When, for example, a large herd were milked at 4 in the morning, then at 12.30 p.m., and in the evening at 7 p.m., the following results were obtained : — The morning milk . . 11-51 % dry matter, and 2-79% fat „ midday „ . . 11*79 „ n n 3'°S » » „ evening „ . . 12-44,, „ „ 3-76,, » 314 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS If the milk is collected in different lots, it is found that each successive portion is richer in solid matter than the one before. In one experiment, where six portions were collected separately successive, they contained the following quantities of fat : 170, 176, 2-10, 2-54, 3-14, and 4-08%, whilst in the mixed milk 2-55% fat was found. Similar results were also got for the percentage amount of dry matter. As cause of this phenomenon, it is assumed that, owing to friction, the globules of fat in the milk move more slowly along the very narrow ducts leading from the alveoli than do the constituents which are dissolved in the fluid of the milk. The manner of milking has a very consider- able influence upon the yield of milk, as is well known, so that a clever and experienced hand is of much value in milking. (b) Performance of work by cows. As every kind of work done by an animal is associated with a corresponding utilisation of material, the influence of work on the milk yield of a cow will depend largely upon the amount of food it has at its disposal. If the ration does not suffice for the full supply of milk as well as for the work, then under all circumstances it is the milk yield that will suffer, and this has been repeatedly proved. When, for example, a cow was made to THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 315 turn a capstan for four hours in the morning and again for the same time in the afternoon, the milk decreased in quantity by 4-5 kg. as a result of the exertion. The milk constituents also suffered, for there were 601 g. less dry matter given, 173 g. less protein, 184 g. less fat, 251 g. less milk-sugar, and 30 g. less ash or mineral matter. Where the same cow did lighter work of the same kind — less than two hours — the effect was the opposite, for the yield of milk was favourably influenced, there being the following increases in the constituents : 128 g. dry matter, 29 g. protein, 44 g. fat, 16-2 g. milk-sugar, and 8 g. ash, whilst the quantity of the milk was greater by 40 g. Moderate exercise in the open, with the avoidance of unfavourable in- fluences of weather, is, as has often been shown, of considerable benefit to the secretion of milk, and therefore ought not to be neglected. A daily stay of two hours in the fresh air has a very beneficial effect on the health of the cows. The feeling of comfort and well-being has a greater influence upon the production of milk than in almost any other direction. A moderate amount of work on a suitable diet does not, therefore, need to entail any diminution of production. It is true that the quantity of milk may be reduced, but it is then of better quality, so that generally as much dry matter and fat are obtained as when the animal is at rest in the stall. 316 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Where the work is fatiguing the milk is also poorer in water and richer in dry matter, particularly in fat. Often under these conditions the quantity of milk sinks so low that, despite the increased con- centration, there is a considerable loss of each con- stituent of the dry matter, as the figures previously noticed will show. Hard work and a large milk yield cannot be combined, but the use of the cow for light work, provided the ration is correspond- ingly improved, can be carried out without lessening the quantity of milk or fat. (c) Other influences : treatment and care. The great extent to which the secretion of the milk depends upon the well-being of the animals is seen from an experiment in which ten cows were not groomed for fourteen days. When daily grooming with brush and currycomb was in opera- tion the total milk yield was 2087 kg., but when this was in abeyance only 2007 kg. were obtained. In the first case the milk contained 1177% dry matter and 2-99% fat and in the second 11-44% dry matter and 3-14% fat. Everything that upsets the cow — rough handling, insufficient litter, a cold stall, and similar disturbing factors, all act unfavourably upon the production of milk. THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 317 (4) Methods for ascertaining the effect of food on the secretion of milk. On account of the powerful influence which the individuality of the animal exercises upon the pro- duction of the milk in general (p. 308), and the effect which change of food also has (p. 309), special care has to be taken in feeding experiments to eliminate individual influences by the use of a large number of animals. Further, the frequent and irregular jumps which the yield of milk makes in course of the period of lactation (p. 310) must also be taken into account and be guarded against in the same way, viz. by taking a number of ex- perimental animals. If the quantity and composition of the milk remain constant for some time when the food is unchanged, it would not be difficult to estimate the effect of different kinds and quantities of food upon the milk production. The natural changes, though, which take place during the period of lactation require that in each investigation these must be separately ascertained. To do this there are two ways, which may here be shortly described : (a) The period system. The use of this method of investigation assumes that the natural changes in the milk of a large number of cows proceed regularly, and that if 318 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS three periods of equal length are taken, and the results in the first and third periods, where the same food is given, are recorded, the second period during which the added food is given can be calculated. An example will best serve to make this clear Let it be assumed that it is to be proved whether the addition of 0-5 kg. of a certain feeding-stuff to a ration causes the yield of milk to increase. For the investigation twenty healthy cows are chosen, and these are fed in the first and third periods with the original ration, and in each case for a month. If, now, the daily weighing and exam- ination of the milk during the last twenty days of each period show that in the first period 15-38 kg. of milk with 3'05%=46o, g. fat were given daily by each cow, and that in the third period only 14-65 kg. milk with 3*i2%=457 g. fat were got from each cow, the natural decrease in this time is 0-73 kg. milk and 12 g. fat. As between the middle of the first and the middle of the third period forty days elapsed, the daily decrease is 18-25 g- milk and 0-30 g. fat. The middle of the second period in which the added food is given is seen to be separated from the middle of the first and third periods by twenty days, and 15-015 kg. milk with 463 g. fat would, therefore, have been obtained if no addi- tion had been made. As, however, the milk was x 5"35 kg. and the fat 480 g., the daily increase of production due to the addition was 0-335 kg. milk THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 319 with 17 g. fat. Between the preliminary and final periods there are sometimes two, three, or more periods with different food-stuffs interpolated, and the calculation of the results is carried out in exactly the same manner as in the above example. It is best before and after each period with a differ- ent food to again have a period with the original ration (basal ration), e.g. in periods 1, 3, 5, 7 to use the same food, and in periods 2, 4, 6 to feed the ration which is to be compared with the basal ration. A factor which can influence the result, and is not always to be avoided in this kind of investigation, is the change in the condition of the animals under the influence of the various kinds of food. If, in the above example, the average weight of the animals underwent much alteration in the second period, this change would make itself apparent in the yield of milk in the third period, and the calcula- tion of the natural decrease in the flow of milk would be incorrect. This source of error is avoided by the adoption of the next method — (b) The group system. In its main features this kind of investigation has already been mentioned (p. 240). In each of the comparative groups ten cows are placed, and all the groups are then given the same food in order 320 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS to find out whether the several groups give the same quantities of milk of equal fat content. If this is not the case the animals must be rearranged or fresh ones introduced until perfect agreement between the several groups is attained. If, for example, maize and coarsely ground corn are to be compared regarding their influence upon milk production, then both these feeding-stuffs must be given in the basal ration, and three groups of cows are necessary. If the agreement of these groups is settled the real experiment begins, and for a month all three groups are given the basal ration. Then follows another period of thirty days, during which the three groups are fed differently, group A receiving only the ground corn in place of the maize, group C maize instead of the corn ration, and group B the maize-corn ration unchanged. In the third period, which again lasts thirty days, a return is made to the same rations which were given in period i. In an investigation of this kind, where equal quantities of maize and corn were compared with one another, there was given, along with constant quantities of other feeding- stuffs, the following quantities per head per day : — ist Period. 2nd Period. 3rd Period. A, B, and c. a. B. c. A, B, and c. Corn . . 1-09 kg. 2-12 i-o6 — 1-03 Maize . . 0-89 kg. — 1-06 2-12 1-09 THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 321 The daily average of milk per head in the last twenty days of each period was (in kilograms) : — Groups. A. E. C. 1st period . . 13-80 13-80 13-80 2nd or maize period 1175 11*85 l*"55 3rd period . . 10-65 10-65 I( >65 The analysis of the milk for its percentage com- position showed there was no difference at any time between the three groups. Naturally in these investigations, whether they be carried out accord- ing to one or the other method, the other properties of the milk (smell, taste, churning properties, nature of butter) must be noticed, and the live weight of the- animal regularly recorded. (5) The effect of food on the milk production. (a) General considerations. As milk is practically only changed mammary gland substance, it depends largely upon the develop- ment and activity of this gland what proportion of the nutrients flowing to it are converted into milk. There is, however, a limit to the development of the mammary gland as there is to all other organs, and adaptation and heredity determine this : The individuality and breed of the animal and the condi- tion of the mammary gland, as influenced by the Y 322 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS period of lactation, have the greatest effect upon the milk yield. The food, along with other factors, plays a less important part, and only exerts an influence within the limits of the capacity of the mammary gland. It is upon the food, though, that the efficiency of the gland very largely depends. In the above sentences a large number of the relations between food and milk production find an explanation. The mammary gland is most active shortly after the birth of the calf, and it is here that the greatest latitude is left for the action of the food. Later, when the gland from natural causes loses more and more of its activity, the most liberal feeding cannot maintain the milk yield at its former high level. Too much food in the second half of the lactation period, therefore, causes the deposition of fat, and when the mammary gland is fat its capacity is reduced. From the part p^ed by the mammary gland in the process of milk secretion, it is easily explained why the food, as will be seen later, has such a slight influence upon the composition of the milk. The animal organs one and all have a very constant composition; the lime of the bones cannot be re- placed by the other similar alkaline earths (barium or strontium oxides and magnesia), nor the potash in the organism by the very analogous soda. Fur- ther, the protein substances in the blood cannot be replaced by others of a similar kind, nor can the THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 323 components of the mammary gland alter. An organ like the mammary gland which is always of the same composition, can, therefore, when it liquefies, only yield products which are characterised by great similarity. So an exp]anation is afforded of why the proportion which the constituents of milk bear to one another cannot be appreciably altered by the food. (b) The effect of the quantity of food on the milk secretion. When a change is made from a liberal to a scanty diet the lacteal gland, as a rule, does not immediately accommodate itself to the quantity of food, but remains for a shorter or longer time at the old level. In this case a greater or less portion of the milk is formed from body substance (flesh and fat), and the cow may lose weight to the extent of 1 cwt. or more without the yield of milk undergoing any noticeable diminution. As a rule, though, there is a rapid fall in the quantity. It was noticed, for example, that a cow on a heavy ration (23 lbs. clover hay, 38 J lbs. mangels, and 8 lbs. coarsely ground barley, per 1100 lbs. live weight) gave 30J lbs. of milk with 3-46% fat; whereas after being fed for a month on a poor ration (9 lbs. clover hay, 44 lbs. mangels, n lbs. barley straw) the animal only gave 20 lbs. of milk with 3-50% fat. A second cow which 324 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS was fed in the same way gave 26 lbs. of milk with 3-92% of fat on the first ration, but on the poor one only i8|- lbs. of milk with 3-80% fat. Calculated upon the basis of milk with 12% dry matter and neglecting the natural decrease in yield, there were 10 J- and 7! lbs. less milk respectively on the poorer ration. If, on the other hand, the change is made from poor food to richer by several large additions, the yield of milk increases where the ration is rich in protein and the cows are good milkers, in propor- tion to the extra nutriment. In an experiment with crushed beans it was found that the addition of 3 lbs. gave a daily in- crease of 2 lbs. of milk, and when 6} lbs. of beans were given there were 5J- lbs. more milk; with another cow the increase was ij and 2\ lbs. respectively for the above amounts of beans. In a further experi- ment with malt coombs, where 2 and 4 lbs. were added, the increase in milk was if lbs. and 2f lbs. respectively, and in another case -66 and -8o lb. respectively. In both experiments the cows which gave the highest increase were those which without the added food gave the most milk (26 lbs. and 26^ lbs. daily), the cows with the smaller increase for the extra food only giving i6|- lbs. and 12 lbs. The more freely milking a cow then is, the greater, as a rule, is the increase of milk which will follow an extra supply of food. This increase has, of course, a THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 325 limit, and it is shown that from a certain stage the quantity of food required to produce a given in- crease of milk must be more and more, until finally a point is reached where, in spite of large additions to the ration, no extra milk is obtained. If the milk yield be raised by the use of more food, it is the last quart that requires the most nutriment for its production. How far the yield of milk can be raised cannot be stated beforehand, it can only be found by direct observation. (c) The effect of food-protein on the production of milk. As milk contains a lot of protein substances, milch cattle must always have a sufficient quantity of this material in the ration if the tissues of the body are not to be used for the formation of milk. All the investigations in which foods rich in protein have been compared with those poor in this material have shown the powerful influence which the former exercise upon the yield of milk. If the allowance of protein in a ration is diminished, then, although there may be a sufficiency of non-nitrogenous material, the quantity of milk decreases rapidly, as, for instance, in one observed case from 97 kg. to 7-65 kg., or in another from 13-4 kg. to as little as 8 -45 kg., the condition of the cows falling off at the same time. As a rule, no influence of the food- 326 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS protein upon the percentage amounts of protein or fat in the milk has been observed. It is only when the body is much reduced in protein that the milk becomes poorer in fat and more watery. The amount of digestible protein which is essential for the production of a given quantity of milk depends to a certain degree upon the non-nitrogen- ous nutrients in the food. Just as fat and the carbohydrates can diminish protein metabolism in the formation of flesh (p. 72), so can they also act in the production of milk. It is possible, in fact, by a plentiful use of carbohydrates, to so reduce the metabolism of the food-protein in cows that no more is decomposed than the animals require for the maintenance of life. This saving can go so far that all the digestible protein substance above that needed for maintenance (0-5 lb. per 1000 lbs. live weight, p. 245) can be utilised for the formation of milk without any call being made upon the protein of the body. Such a result is possible, not only when moderate yields of milk are got, but when the amount is as high as 32 lbs. per head per day. This fact, which has been proved from many sides, does not justify the protein content of the milk being taken as a measure of the protein to be given in the food. As far as is known, it does not conduce to a vigorous activity of the mammary gland to supply it with only as much protein matter as is THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 327 secreted in the milk; a certain excess is necessary in order to counteract the weakening which the gland experiences as the period of lactation ad- vances. If the supply of protein in the food were limited to that which appears in the milk the natural decrease in the milk yield would most certainly be more rapid than if a food richer in protein were fed. It is advisable, then, to reckon for each 10 lbs. of milk -55—65 lb. digestible protein in addition to that which the maintenance of the animal demands. (d) The effect of non-protein nitrogenous substances. Many substances of this nature, such as aspara- gine and ammonia, can, as investigations have shown (p. 66), raise the increase of flesh in rumi- nants. This is very probably due to the influence of bacteria in the partly digested food which con- vert the non-protein substances into proteins, and these are digested in another part of the intestine. In the same way these substances can naturally be utilised for the production of milk. Experiments on this question were first made with asparagine, and afterwards also with the nitrogenous sub- stances extracted from young grass. The results showed that no definite effect upon the formation of milk can be ascribed to the non-protein sub- 328 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS stances, and that they do not by a long way attain the influence of the protein, even when a sufficient quantity of nitrogen-free material is present in the ration. If the food, as in some investigations was the case, contained more protein than the animals needed, it would be immaterial whether the excess were replaced by non-protein nitrogenous sub- stances or not, for the replacement of proteins by compounds of this nature can only have an influence on the formation of milk when, before the substitution, no excess of protein is present. Investigations on this point have only so far been tried with ammonia, which, combined with acetic acid, was fed to the animals. It was found that ammonia could be as completely utilised for milk formation as are the proteins, provided a sufficiency of nitrogen-free substances was present. It was noticed, though, that thereby more carbo- hydrates were used, which may be explained by assuming that in the formation of proteins from this material other food constituents must be utilised at the same time. In this way the re- placement of 168 g. of digestible protein by an amount of ammonia which had the same quan- tity of nitrogen as the protein was possible, and without, as it proved, any change being made in the percentage composition of the milk. There are then nitrogenous substances of a non- protein nature which can, where there is plenty of THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 329 carbohydrate material, maintain the milk yield at the same level as do digestible proteins. Probably these substances are converted by the help of bacteria in the partly digested food into protein. Before it is possible to satisfactorily answer the questions which arise out of the above-mentioned observation, it will be necessary to test the effect of a large number of substances rich in amides in the same way as has been done with ammonia. (e) The effect of non-nitrogenous nutrients. It has been previously stated that with a food rich in nitrogen-free substances and poor in protein all the proteins that are not required for the main- tenance of the animal can be transformed into milk proteins. As milk contains in addition to the protein large quantities of fat and milk sugar, these constituents must be formed from the digested fat and carbohydrates. Milk fat, like body fat, can be made from the carbohydrates of the food, as many experiments with cows to which a ration artificially freed from fat was given, have proved. In one case, for example, during an experimental period of fourteen days, the quantity of digested fat was 2- 18 kg., and that portion of fat which could arise from the decomposed protein (p. 65) was at most 1778 kg., so that in all a maximum of 19-96 kg. fat was available for the milk. As 37-65 kg. fat 330 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS were extracted from the milk, there must have been at least 17-69 kg. of milk fat, and all the milk sugar formed from the carbohydrates. The nitrogen-free extract substances, then, supply the mammary gland with material for the produc- tion of milk fat and milk sugar. These two com- ponents of the milk can, it is true, probably be formed from the protein of the food, but as the amount of this is not as a rule excessive, there is not likely to be much available surplus after the proteins of the milk have taken what they require. Should there be a lack of non-nitrogenous material in the ration there must, in the course of time, be a decrease in the formation of milk. In the begin- ning, it is true, the body fat would be a substitute for the lack of carbohydrates, and would have to supply material for the formation of milk fat and milk sugar. After the gradual using up of the body fat a falling off in the milk yield is to be inevitably expected. The nitrogen-free nutrients have, further, another indirect influence upon the secretion of milk in that they greatly diminish the consumption of protein (p. 72). This fact is of great practical importance, for by feeding large amounts of carbo- hydrates (mangels, molasses, beet slices) the quantity of concentrated food can be profitably reduced. The effect which is exercised by the fat of the food upon the amount and properties of the THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 331 milk fat requires special notice here. The older investigations on this subject led to very varying results ; at one time there was found to be an in- crease in the milk fat and at another a decrease, whilst in many cases no effect at all was noticed. Ten series of experiments carried out on the same lines in different parts and with cattle of various breeds — there being almost 200 cows under observa- tion — have given a trustworthy reply to this im- portant question. The plan of these experiments was to feed a constant basal ration in each series, and then add to this at one time a rice meal rich in fat, and at another time rye meal and enough potato starch to make the starch equivalent of each food mixture the same. In one ration there was 1 kg. digestible fat per 1000 kg. live weight, and in the other an equivalent quantity of digestible carbo- hydrates and very little fat. The average results of the ten experiments showed that with the food rich in fat there were 0-31 kg. =27% less milk and 13 g.=37% less fat obtained than with the food poor in fat — differences which are so small that they hardly come into consideration. In separate cases the individual peculiarities of the cows were very striking, as has been seen in an experiment previously quoted (p. 310). There were also considerable differences in the several groups, and if the results are arranged according to the changes in the milk yield and several groups 332 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS put together, the following figures are obtained. The plus sign denotes an increase and the minus sign a decrease as compared to the effect of the food poor in fat. Quantity of milk. Per cent. Percentage of fat. Weight of fat. Per cent. 3 groups . -7-2 + 0-28 +i-o 3 -2-6 — 0-02 -3'2 4 u +o-6 — 0-26 -7-6 Average . —27 —37 Therefore the percentage fat composition of the milk has not changed under the influence of the ration richer in fat. Where, however, the yield of milk diminished the most (7-2%) the percentage amount of fat in the milk rose by almost -3 %, and conversely where the quantity of milk was small the percentage of fat fell by -26%. In the inter- mediate series there was a slight decrease in quantity (2-6%), but no change in the percentage fat com- position of the milk was observed. The above investigations, therefore, bring a very satisfactory explanation of the anomalies found in the older experiments, and the conclusion may be drawn that more than -J- lb. food fat per 1000 lbs. live weight brings no advantage, and it is sufficient if the daily ration of a cow contain -5—6 lb. of fat per 1000 lbs. live weight. For sheep and goats the THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 333 food may contain more fat (up to lib.). Without exception it has been shown in these experiments, as in the older ones, that the food fat has a power- ful influence upon the properties of the milk fat. It has, indeed, been long known that certain fatty foods render the butter soft, whilst others tend to harden it, and advantage has been taken of this to improve the milk fat by feeding certain oil cakes. The more a certain fat predominates in the ration, so much more do the properties of the butter fat approach those of the food fat. In the feeding of sesame, cocoa-nut and almond oils, it has been noticed that the butter fat which was obtained behaved on chemical analysis like a mixture of butter with the various oils. Similarly, in the experiments just recorded with rice meal the fat of the milk was found to be soft and greasy and to possess properties quite different to those of the fat got from the rye meal feeding. These peculiari- ties are only observed to take place gradually ; the complete change may require as much as 2-3 weeks. Thorough investigations have shown that those com- ponents of the food fat which otherwise are not found in the body, e.g. linoleic acid or phytosterin, do not pass into the milk. The only change in the milk fat is that of the proportion between those liquid and solid fats which under normal conditions take part in the formation of milk. However much of any fat may be given in the 334 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS food, it is not possible to produce a butter which will in all respects resemble the food fat. The mammary gland is apparently unable to work up those fats which are foreign to the body. The carbohydrates also are not without influence upon the composition of the butter. It has been observed that towards autumn the butter from cows on pasture has behaved like a mixture of margarine and butter when chemically examined, and that feeding with mangel tops has the power to remove this drawback. Following upon this observation, it was discovered that the improve- ment must be ascribed to the sugar in the mangel tops, and that sugar-containing foods, as well as sugar itself, have the power of increasing the amount of compounds of volatile fatty acids (glycerides) in the butter. (/) The so-called specific effects of the food-stuffs. Alongside the effect which ordinary foods of good quality exercise through the nutrients which they contain there are, according to very prevalent views, other powers which affect the produc- tion of flesh or milk for good or ill. It certainly cannot be denied that when a feeding-stuff agrees with an animal it can increase the nutritive value, and also that the palatableness not only influences the consumption, but also the food value, particularly THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 335 with animals like milch cows, which are easily affected by nervous impulses. It has, in fact, been proved that under certain conditions substances which are particularly agree- able to animals — as, for instance, fennel, aniseed, the scent of aromatic hay, etc. — have a favourable influence upon the milk yield. In experiments with goats and milch sheep the effects of two rations with exactly the same nutritive value have been compared. In one case the ration was partly composed of very good meadow hay, whilst the other was an artificial mixture of straw, starch, gluten, oil, ash of hay, etc., and was a very tasteless food. The result of the experiments showed that in no case was it possible to obtain the same yield of milk from the second ration as was got from the ration containing the meadow hay. When a small part of the mixed food was replaced by fennel, aniseed, or malt coombs, or when an extract from hay, or the volatile essential oils dis- tilled from hay, were added to the unpalatable ration a distinct rise in milk production was achieved ; sometimes even the milk yield was equal to that from normal food. Amongst those substances tried the only one which failed to show any advantage was fenugreek. When, however, the above-mentioned substances were added to the ration containing meadow hay no benefit at all was noticed, for the aromatic components of the hay were sufficient. 336 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Under ordinary conditions, where the food-stuffs are not tasteless, insipid, and without smell, then the addition of 4 or 5 lbs. of good meadow hay makes the effect of the above-mentioned spices nil. A very large number of experiments with these different substances, either alone or mixed, have proved this as well as with other materials, such as caraway, coriander, fenugreek, sweet calamus, and gentian roots, goat's rue, jaborandi leaves, and other drugs, flowers of sulphur, antimony sulphide, preparations of iron, phosphate of lime, sodium bicarbonate, common salt. Many of the above alter the properties of the milk, imparting to it a foreign smell or taste, or make it unsuitable for cheese- making, whilst some few, if given without care, cause digestive disturbances. Fennel is of assist- ance in case of obstinate retention of milk, but under normal conditions the above-mentioned sub- stances have no beneficial influence. A good meadow hay is and remains the best spice. Many feeding-stuffs are said to raise the percentage of fat in the milk, and on this point very numerous experiments have been made, the results of which have, however, been most varied. For example, with palm-nut meal it was found in five of eleven cases that the effect was beneficial, in one case it was unfavourable, and in the remaining five neither favourable nor unfavourable. In seven experi- ments with cocoa-nut cake four were favourable, THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 337 one unfavourable, and the other two had no effect one way or the other. With cotton-seed meal one trial was favourable, another unfavourable, and the third showed no effect upon the milk yield or the percentage of fat. These contradictions can hardly be explained in any other way but by the extraordinarily different behaviour of the animals towards the various foods (p. 310). Without ex- ception, in these investigations, too small a number of cows were used, and so the influence of individu- ality was not equalised. In contrast to the above- mentioned observations, there have been other ex- periments in which not less than 200 cows have been used in each case, and still no specific action of the food-stuffs that have so far been tested has been detected. Here a mixture, half oats and half barley, both coarsely ground, was fed, and the effect of this was compared with (1) ground maize, (2) a mixture of oil cakes (J rape, J palm-nut, J- sun- flower-seed), (3) wheat bran, (4) crushed wheat, (5) a mixture of wheat bran and palm-nut cake with molasses, (6) mangels. In none of these extensive series of experiments was the replacement of the ground cereals by the other foods attended by a change in the percentage amount of fat in the milk. The yield of milk certainly did rise when the mix- ture of oil cakes took the place of an equal weight of the ground cereals, but this must be ascribed to the greater quantity of protein in the former (p. 325). 338 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Whilst it may be conceded that there are perhaps certain feeding-stuffs which favourably influence the production of milk fat, no conclusive proof has as yet been furnished in a single case. (g) The effect of foodstuffs injurious to health. All injurious foods, even when the quantity which is consumed does not lead to any apparent injury to health, are liable to reduce the quantity and fat contents of the milk. An earth-nut meal, for example, which contained small quantities of castor-oil meal, reduced the milk yield in a herd of cows by i%, although only in a few cases was the health appreciably affected. A similar effect has been observed in the case of poppy-seed cake, which probably contained traces of opium. The unfavourable influence which many damaged food- stuffs have upon the milk yield may probably be due to the presence of substances injurious to health (p. 118). The prejudicial effects of injurious foods are much more pronounced with milking stock than with fattening or working cattle. (6) Food for Mitch Cattle. From the statements already made and from the results obtained from well-conducted associa- tions dealing with the testing of milk, it may be said THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 339 that for the production of 10 kg. (22 lbs.) of milk 0-55-0-65 kg. (ij-ii lbs.) protein and a starch equivalent of 2-0-2-7 kg. (4-^-6 lbs.) are necessary in addition to the nutrients required for the main- tenance of life (p. 246). In the daily ration 0-5-0-6 lb. of digestible fat may be given per 1000 lbs. live weight without any unfavourable effect (p. 332). The amount of food must naturally be regulated according to the yield of milk, for a cow giving 40 lbs. of milk a day will, of course, require more nutrient than one giving 16 lbs. If all the cows are fed alike, as is so often done, and the quantity of food arranged for the average yield of the herd, there will be some cows getting too little and others too much food. Both cases act against the pro- duction of milk, for if the animal is starved the mammary gland is weakened and the natural decrease of milk is accelerated, which is injurious to the milking capacity of the calves which follow ; whilst if the mammary gland becomes fat its pro- ductive power is also diminished. Therefore it cannot be too strongly insisted that the feeding should be individual — that is, the cows in a herd should be divided into, say, five groups, according to the yield of milk, and fo&d proportionate to the amount of milk should be given. It is not at all necessary to place the animals of the same group near to one another ; all the cows may be given the same basal ration, but the mixture of concen- 340 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS trated foods should be measured according to the production of each group.* Regular test milkings to ascertain the yield of each cow must, of course, be undertaken. The quantity of food should be so measured that the cows neither get thin nor fat, but remain in good condition. In Table III in the Appendix are given food standards which are most useful in this respect. The yield of milk from a certain point onward does not keep pace with the extra supply of nutrients, but for the production of the last quart of milk a greater amount of food is necessary than below this point. For this reason two numbers are given in the feeding standards, the smaller one applicable when the profit on the milk is low, and the larger one when it is high. Nothing stands in the way of an increase of protein above the standards ; only seldom, though, will it be necessary to use more of this, the dearest of nutrients, than is prescribed in the standards. In those cases where the cows are not to be used further for breeding, but to be milked dry and fattened, the food must be regulated according to the milk when the yield has reached 7-10 pints; only in the last 3 or 4 months need the food be made up to a fattening ration by the addition of * R. Geissler, who first described this method, advises, for example, that cows giving 8-9 pints of milk should have 1 measure of concen- trated food, whilst those giving 11-14 pints would get 2 measures. The number of measures can be marked on the boards which stand near each cow, giving particulars of breed, age, etc. THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 341 carbohydrate material. If the fattening were begun earlier, then not only would the milk yield suffer, but the quantity of food used would also be more. Pregnant cows require a slight addition of diges- tible protein matter for the development of the calf, and the quantity may be approximately cal- culated from the weight of the newly born calf. A calf weighing 40 kg. contains about 8 kg. protein, and for the formation of this the mother must be given about n kg. protein in the food during the last 5 or 6 months of pregnancy — that is, 60 g. per day, although with the bigger breeds 100 g. are necessary in any case, though the daily addition to the ration is very small. The nitrogen-free nutrients do not require to be increased, for calves at birth contain less than 1 % fat. With cows heavy in calf a reduction of the coarse fodder during the last 2 or 3 months is advisable, because the weight of such food when partially digested presses on the internal organs, and can in some cases cause a miscarriage. Straw should only be given in very small amounts during this time, and the best coarse fodder is hay (10 lbs. per 1000 lbs. body weight). Foods with a heating or constipating effect should also be avoided. When a cow is dry a ration which contains J lb. of digestible protein and a starch equivalent of 6 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight is sufficient. 342 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS If in drawing up feeding standards for milch cattle the " value " or " quanti valence " (p. 90) of the food-stuffs is taken into account, the following considerations must be noted. First of all it is clear that the energy required for the work of mastication and digestion, and also losses due to fermentation and putrefaction, must be the same in male and female animals of the same species. Many observations made by those whose work is the control of milk supplies, and also experiments carried out on food-stuffs of different " values," have shown that calculations based on the starch equivalents are also correct for milking stock. In an experiment with 24 cows, for example, there was the same amount of digestible nutrients always given, but in the first and last periods of the experi- ment one part of the nutrients was replaced by mangels, in the second period by dried beet slices, and in the third by beet slices made into silage. The starch equivalent of the mangels was 2-00 kg., of the dried beet slices 2-35 kg., and of the silage 2-65 kg., and it was found that the milk yields stood in the same relation, namely, the dry slices gave per day per head 0-95 kg. more milk than the mangels, and the silage slices 172 kg. more, the fat contents of the milk remaining unchanged. In another experiment, a leguminous straw which was rich in crude fibre was compared with clover hay, and there was also here an increase of -51 kg. THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 343 milk in the case of the fodder with the higher starch equivalent — the clover hay — although both rations contained the same amount of nutrients. Other investigations with milch sheep and goats confirm the statement that calculations with starch equivalents are sound and correct. As cow's milk contains on an average 7-4 g. mineral substances, amongst which are i-8 g. lime and 1 -5 g. phosphoric acid, it is necessary that the food should supply these amounts if the body is not to be depleted of them. Further, as only -J- to \ of the lime and phosphoric acid in the ration can be utilised (p. 287), there would be in the case of 20 kg. milk per 1000 kg. live weight no less than 70-110 g. lime, and 60-90 g. of phosphoric acid required in the food. If to these numbers there be added the maintenance requirements (p. 246) of 100 g. lime and 50 g. phosphoric acid, the total require ments for the above quantity of milk will be 200 g. lime and 140 g. phosphoric acids, or 3-J- oz. and 2-J- oz. for 20 lbs. of milk per 1000 lbs. live weight. Higher yields of milk require proportionately larger quan- tities of mineral matter. Generally the requirements of the body and the milk are amply met by the supply of mineral sub- stances in the food, particularly when good meadow hay, clovers, or good green fodder are given. With those food-stuffs poor in lime and phosphoric acid (p. 97) the addition of phosphate of lime must be 344 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS resorted to, or if there is only deficiency of lime precipitated chalk will do. If there is a continued lack of lime and phosphoric acid, diseases of the bones (p. 96) arise, and at the same time the quantity of these substances in the milk diminishes. In the case of a goat which was kept for 42 days on a ration very poor in phosphoric acid, the ash of the dry matter sank from 9-96 to 9*57%, the lime from 0-215 to 0-197%, the phosphoric acid from 0-306 to 0-223%. In general the mineral contents of the milk are extraordinarily invariable with ordinary food, and attempts to increase the amount of phosphoric acid, lime, magnesia, potash, soda or chlorine in the milk by feeding these sub- stances in a suitable form were quite unsuccessful. During the warmer portions of the year the cows are on the pasture, and this has, according to very general opinion, a favourable influence upon the quantity and quality of the milk. The moderate amount of exercise in the fresh air which is obtained on the pastures only decreases the yield of milk, as has been shown (p. 315), to a very slight extent, sometimes not at all, and leads to the secretion of a milk richer in dry matter and fat. As the animals have the opportunity of consuming a relatively large quantity of grass, which on a good pasture may equal many cereals in nutritive value, the yield of milk may not only not be diminished, but more and richer milk obtained than when stall THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 345 feeding was being followed. The good result of being at grass is not in consequence of a better utilisation of the food, but due to more and richer nourishment. Unfortunately, under the usual con- ditions of pasturing there is a waste of food material, in that much more protein substance is consumed than is necessary. Even when the green fodder is fed in the stall there is often more used than is needed — as, for instance, when stock are given as much young clover as they can eat. When, there- fore, cows are on good pastures, or when they are getting young clover, they should also be given some straw; on the contrary, when the grass is poor some concentrated food is necessary. The quantity of straw which is to be given with the clover will vary according to the age of the latter, for the older the clover plant becomes the less straw will be required, until at the time of flowering no such addition is required, owing to the changes in the nutrients of the plant (p. 151). Similarly with the leaves of roots such as mangels, sugar beet, or carrots, the vegetable portion of which possesses a fairly narrow albuminoid ratio, there is generally some dry food given to prevent scouring, which otherwise easily takes place owing to the salts of organic acids in the leaves. Liberal feeding with the leaves of the sugar beet, which is often done during and after the harvesting of the beets, has the same effect as with good pasture or clover 346 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS feeding, and gives a milk richer in dry matter and fat because of the quantity of protein in the food. On account of the beneficial effect of green fodder, and also from economic reasons, it is usual to take care that green feeding is not interrupted during the summer, and that it is carried on as late as possible into the autumn. Green maize, sorghum, spurry, different grass mixtures, white mustard, buckwheat, and in the spring grass, cereals, rape, etc. play an important part along with clover in summer feeding in the stall. When winter feeding begins the place of the green fodder is taken by mangels, beets, beet slices silage, sometimes, also by small quantities of pota- toes, which, along with sound hay and straw, ground corn, and by-products such as bran and oil cakes, go to make up suitable rations. When a milk rich in fat is wanted, the use of palm-nut cake, cocoa-nut cake, and the meals made from these is recommended, for by their use an increase of J-% milk fat has been observed. As in the production of milk not only the quantity but also the quality of the article has to be con- sidered, some attention must be paid when choosing the food-stuffs to see that nothing is used which will harmfully affect the taste and properties of the milk and butter. It is well known that all musty and mouldy foods spoil the taste of the milk, and more particularly that of the butter, THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 347 and that this bad effect can continue for some time after the damaged food has been stopped. The same is the case when spoiled silage or green fodder which has lain too long in thick rows or heaps is fed, and also with wet, decomposed foods such as brewers' grains, distillery waste, beet slices, etc. Lack of care in keeping the mangers or other feeding vessels clean is also a cause. In all these cases bacteria undoubtedly play a part ; either they cause some decomposition in the food with the formation of substances which, after passing into the body, affect the taste of the milk or butter, or, as is more probable, the bacteria themselves get into the milk and there impart to it the unpleasant flavour. The taste of milk and butter is also affected disadvantageously if too much poor straw is fed, or if the coarse fodder contains any of the varieties of garlic. Large amounts of roots of all kinds, fresh or sour beet slices, potatoes, distillery waste, bran that contains corn-cockle, rape cake in quan- tities more than 2 lbs. per head per day, have all an unfavourable effect upon the milk. The residues from the manufacture of linseed oil if used too freely cause the milk and butter to taste of the oil, and if the drinking water is bad it can also destroy the flavour of the butter. Foods which improve the taste of milk are good meadow grass, carrots, oats, and rice meal. In practice it is found that some food-stuffs make the 348 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS butter hard and tallowy, and such are pasture grass in autumn, grasses from sour soils, either green or in hay, over-ripe green fodder, hay that has been harvested too late, straw of various kinds, mangels, kohl-rabi, leaves of sugar beets and mangels, beet slices, potatoes, ground peas and vetches, palm- nut and cocoa-nut meals, linseed and cotton-seed cakes. Butter is often too soft when the following have been fed : crushed oats and maize, wheat bran, rice meal, rape, sesame and sunflower-seed cakes. The effect of these feeding-stuffs depends naturally upon the quantities which are used and is not always apparent, particularly when the influence of the other foods in the ration acts in the opposite direc- tion. In any case, a butter which is too hard may be improved by feeding with some rape cake, rice meal, or ground maize, whilst one that is too soft may be hardened by means of palm-nut or cocoa- nut cakes. When a large quantity of very watery food has been used for some time a poor, thin milk may be obtained. Thus it was noticed in the case of a ration which, as regards the nutritive value, left nothing to be desired, but which was composed of 50 litres (n gals.) potato slump, 21 kg. (46 lbs.) wet brewers' grains, and 40 kg. (88 lbs.) mangels, that the milk of the whole herd only averaged 2-10 and 2-45% fat, whereas the animals had previously THE FEEDING OF MILCH CATTLE 349 given milk of normal composition. As has been shown by numerous investigations, the percentage amount of water remains very constant in milk in spite of great differences in the quantity given in the food. Only under special circumstances, details of which are not understood, is a very watery milk secreted, but it is probably due to the weakening of the organ by continued use of foods containing a large percentage of water (p. 101). APPENDIX APPENDIX TABLES FOR THE CALCULATION OF RATIONS Method of using the Tables TN making up rations care must first of all be J- taken that the foods which are to compose the ration are such as are suitable for the animals for which they are intended, and that they have already been successfully used in practice. Each food which it is proposed to use in the ration should then have its nutritive value ascertained, for which purpose the contents of (a) crude nutrients, (b) digestible nutrients, (c) starch equivalent should be determined. If the food-stuff after analysis possesses a different composition to that given in Table I, then, with the help of Table II, the amount of digestible nutrients must be calculated. For this purpose the digestibility coefficients of materials of a similar kind are used. It would be quite wrong if the coefficients for grass were applied to clovers, even though the analyses of both were similar. 2A 353 354 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS In Table II no digestibility coefficients are given for pure protein, but nevertheless numbers can be calculated ; it is only necessary to subtract the amount of amides from the digestible crude protein. To find what quantity of amides are present the digestible protein shown in column 12 of Table I is subtracted from the digestible crude protein given in the same Table (column 7). The digestible nutri- ents in the food-stuff are then the basis for the calculation of the starch equivalent. It is : — 1 part digestible protein . . =0*94 parts starch equivalent 1 part digestible fat in the coarse fodders, chaff, roots, and their by-products . . =1*91 „ „ „ In grains and their by-products, exclusive of oily seeds . = 2"i2 „ „ „ In oil seeds and oil cakes . =2*41 „ „ „ 1 part digestible nitrogen-free extract substances and crude fibre together . = roo „ „ „ If the nutrients of the particular food-stuff can be regarded as of " full value," which can be seen by reference to the data in Table I regarding similar or allied foods, then all that is necessary is to add together the equivalents, as shown above, of the three groups of nutrients, and obtain the total starch equivalent. If the value of the food is shown by Table I to be less than 100, a deduction depending upon the different feeding-stuffs has to APPENDIX 355 be made. In the case of roots and tubers, grains and industrial by-products, use is made of the number expressing the " value." If, for example, the starch equivalent of rape cake is wanted, and the analysis is 36-5 % crude protein, 8 % fat, 25-8 % nitrogen-free extract, and 11-5 % crude fibre, and the digestibility coefficients for the digestible substances being, according to Table II, 29-6 % crude protein, 6-3 % fat, 19-6 % nitrogen- free extract, and 0-9 % crude fibre. As, accord- ing to Table I, there are 4-4 parts of amides in 33-1 parts crude protein, there will be 4-8 % amides in the 36*5 % crude protein in the rape cake. The 4-8 % amides are to be regarded as perfectly digestible, and if they are deducted from the 29-6 % digestible crude protein which the cake contains, there is left 24-8 % digestible proteins. 24*8 % digestible proteins x 0*94 = 23-3 % starch equivalent 6-3 „ „ fat x 2-41 = 15-2 „ „ „ 2C5 „ „ nitrogen-free ex- tract + crude fibre x roo = 20*5 „ „ „ Total . . 59/0 % starch equivalent If the nutrients in the rape cake were of full value, the sum obtained above would represent the starch equivalent ; but the value of rape cake, according to Table I, is only 95 %, so 5 % has to be deducted, which leaves the starch equivalent of rape cake at 56-0 %. When dealing with the 356 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS coarse fodders (hay and straw), it is advisable not to make use of the value number, but to deduct 0-58 from the starch equivalent, as calculated above for each per cent of crude fibre (not the digestible, be it noted) in the food. Chaff is treated in the same way, a deduction of 0-29 being made for each 1 % crude fibre. With green fodders the starch equivalent depends also upon the amount of crude fibre ; where the amount in the green fodder is 16 % and more, a deduction of 0-58 starch equivalent ; whereas, if the amount of crude fibre is 4 % or less, the deduction is only 0-29 starch equivalent. For intermediate quantities of crude fibre a proportionate deduction has to be made : e.g. 0-34 for each per cent crude fibre in green fodder where the total is 6 % ; 0-38 where the total is 8 % ; 0-43 where it is 10 %; 0-48 where it is 12 % ; and 0-53 where it is 14 %• Two typical cases are shown below. Spring cereal straw contains, according to Table I, the following digestible nutrients : — ro % protein x 0*94 . . . .= 0*94 % starch equivalent 0-4,, fat xi-Qi . 076,, „ „ i8'5 „ nitrogen-free extract! 6x ro = 39 -6o M „ 2 vi „ crude fibre . .J ' J * " " " 4i'30» n n Deduct 39 % crude fibre x 0*58 22.6 „ „ „ 187% starch equivalent APPENDIX 357 For green cock's-foot grass in flower there are, according to Table I, the following amounts of digestible nutrients : — i "o% protein xo*94 .... =0^94% starch equivalent 0-4,, fat xi'9i . . . . =076,, „ „ 9-5 „ nitrogen-free extract 1 - « 43 „ crude fibre . . / I 3 5X l ° "U* »i » Deduct 7 "3% crude fibre x 0*36 2*6 „ „ „ I2"9% starch equivalent Without any serious error the calculations can be simplified by reckoning 2-2 starch equivalent for 1 part digestible fat in all food-stuffs. After finding the amount of digestible protein in the foods which are to compose the ration and the starch equivalents, Table III must then be turned to in order to find in what proportions the foods must be used. As some of the feeding-stuffs have almost certainly been grown on the farm, it must first of all be decided what quantities of hay, straw, mangels, etc. can be spared for each branch of stock per head per day, so that the supply is enough for the time during which this particular ration is to be fed. Suppose that for cows weighing 1000 lbs. and giving 20 lbs. milk, there are, after deducting straw for litter, 30 lbs. mangels, 8 lbs. meadow hay, 10 lbs. straw available ; also that brewers' grains are cheap, and 25 lbs. may be given. From 358 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS Table I it is seen that the four feeding-stuffs contain : — Starch 30 lbs. mangels 8 „ hay 10 25 straw . brewers' grains Dry equiva- matter. Protein. lent. lbs. lbs. lbs. 3-6 0-03 1-89 69 0*30 248 8-6 OIO i-88 5'9 o-88 3'i8 25-0 According to the feeding standards, Table III, there should be given 25*0 i"*i 175 9'43 10-5 0-44 1 "07 A feeding-stuff which will serve to make the ration up to the standard is then sought, and it is calculated what quantity is necessary for the purpose. In this way a large number of suitable foods or mixtures are found, as, for example, those given below : — Protein, lbs. Starch equivalent. lbs. w 2 lbs. extracted rape meal . 0-48 ro6 (*) 1 lb. linseed cake . 1 „ wheat bran . ■} 0- 3 7 viS M 1 „ barley bran . | „ cotton-seed meal } 0'42 1-13 M 1 „ dry maize slump | „ earth-nut meal } 0*42 ri8 W 1 „ field beans . 1 „ rape cake } 0*42 1-28 The small differences from the feeding standards, which are seen above, are absolutely unimportant, for in no case can the nutritive value of a food-stuff APPENDIX 359 be measured without likelihood of a small error. The calculation may, in fact, be made with crude protein, if the feeding-stuffs composing the ration are not very rich in amides. Generally the cheapest amongst the foods which will serve to supplement the ration is chosen, and it is best to regard the market price in doing this, for the nutritive values of foods, as given in tables, are the average for whole countries at some particular time, and may not apply when the ration is being made up. In no case, though, are the standards in Table III to be treated as cast-iron ; they are meant to enable the feeder to start with a well-tried average ration, and then he should find out what is most suitable for his own requirements. 360 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS W < •sq[ ooi J3d ;ua[BAinba ipjBjg upjojd 3[qi}S3ihQ ^P. •(ooi = 3niBA ipj) MtpJA •sqns pBjjxa ^p •}BJ sptuo ^ •upjojd apor) ^ ■qsy s •9jqg spnr) ^9 •sqns loujjxs 33jj-uoSoj;i>j; •}V} 3pilJ3 •ui3;ojd 3pnJ3 •j3;baV ^p V 9 T" T" T 1 9 s ^V 1 9 ^ 7 1 " ^ 9* 0\0 pnfOH a poco 6 ^t-inO N HT W M C« M M «6 o h m Tf On co \Q N fo^O fool ft fo t(- fO CT\ to M O f^ **" M T" T 1 *P *P \6 ik^o M CI u->\0 00 vo ^ 6 ""i^O N fOKO^ ro po r}-vo "«t Tj" Tfr tJ- rfCO M rj- rj- O o O O O o o o o o o CO «/-! o Ti- in ^ o N^"tJ-K>a>o h - M N ro M N w 1-1 HH M o M I-. 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>Ovt\ N vo c» CO vooo co co co ^■^^■Ooo t^CJ NNH00 11 y> 7"> ^ ^ V^°P T*" 9 O Tt"6 >i vo co m fonh o vo £>» r^oo co rfco NM O t>* ""tf- Ov Ov vo 0\vO COCO CO vo tnoo OO^oO^oONO^oio KNOiO O ^^O O OCOION ^J" O vo 00\0\NOOO»-iO-'0« i OnO O O t^ChO O KO\OvO\fO Ov ON * 6 pel O cj 5 8 mo 378 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS •sqj ooi jad .3 O N C\fONOO n -^ o * ■* 6\ o **■ 6\ ^ 6nvo "~> •nia;ojd ajqiisaSiQ c ■-- vo w vo m fooo coco aa ^3 6 fO ^ ro ro ro ro 6 6 *(ooi = aniEA n n J) OOO | oooooo ooo 1 oooooo a 'B 3 C I be 5 •sjqg apnJ3 -"9 o^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •sqns ;o«j}X9 99JJ-U9S0J^I>J ^9 . I | | vo vo K O On On 1 1 1 1 ^^V*^^ •jej gprur) \p O y^N -jj-oo N m oo in MHfiionOOMOO •ui9;ojd 9priJ3 ^9 1 3 P o •qsy vp ^l op O oo oo oo t>.vp oo w 6\fo« 6 6 6 6 6 6 fori n •9jqg 9priJ3 "-9 s - 1 1 l£l II 1 1 1 •sqns }DBi}X9 99JJ-U92oj;i^I -o I | | O vo vp in. On On •;ej gpniQ M vo N "tf-oo CN M 00 N N h roNPOO 6 h 6 6 •uphold 9pnJ3 ^9 o^ vorJ-romioO O O O O ^VO N Cn In. ON VO Tf N In. tvVO i 51 ! VO CO Tf 00 00 •sqns ;obj;x9 ^o O »WH 00 w t>. ^vo^ 33jj-aa§oj;i^[ t^ VO 1 ^ In. tN, vo t^ vo t^ 00 fo vo •JBJ apitT) >P tfl S> NVO Tj" fO vr> N "» ^<» ° O cO^> Tf VO VO t^ t^ O ^ ON VO ^J- vo On 00 Ov •uigjojd apnr) VO *> O VO 00 >-> m vo ^N f* tN. ^ tN. LO t^\0 t^vo VO ^4 t^ VO , ^" otub§jo IN. ON *>- o vo«^° vo CO t^vo O « oo^vA vo vo •suoi;b§us9Aui 9}EJBd9S Tf N Tt CD a o • ' 'in GATION IN ANTS. DDER AN p < « w a p 13 "a +J une . . nning Octo clover, kid .fal en rt > rt a. H ! C/) S3 EX, in J begi (red . CO fa bo 1-4 SZ5 | t— 1 5? W fa CO M to a> B9 CO a : H bo u n 4H . o rt 0) ojd 6 ' "ci bO rt O ^ O e a o t3 - 0) S d „ d ; M on X rt fa 0) « S 1 £fa 3 3 HO < 380 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS •3jqg apiuo £i •sqns }0Bi;x3 •jbj spiUQ •niajoad spruQ oiub2jq •SUOpB3pS3AUI 8|6JBd3S jo jaquin^ •s;jos jo jaquiriM w °? 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' "> CO 1 '* to CO fo V^N 7^00 ^Tj- *0 h^> o <0 00 O «"> <"0*O On *> rfoo . -, "O VO «m ""j*" "1 tx^O t^vo ^ t^ vn vu *j-> vn tv -rf ^ 6 c ' - **» n \u 1 00 N Y^ N ~ - VO xt- N N « N n - ^3- O o\ M t^ ^j- vr> N ~ ~ " - cs - - - - •H - CS \r> ro Is. fO N to - H.S * CO c.a o g CO : ^ tn ^h .^ * nl ^C c« $2 d ^H CD Ol3 . r--Q fl 2 '5 0) >C/) C/3 C/3 u en a) CD -^ '§ 7^ d O o ^3 3 CU < W a) T3 o eu ...... 'C c d ' 5 fi S gi '. I- i i i f I b « : : : : : - i - J ^ en c3 ■H >, +3 CO 03 r* 90 CD „, ^5 41 H -3 S, tJ a o a 8 ^ « O pq « pq £ 384 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS •djqg spiUQ £$ •sqns iobjjxs ^ 89JJ-U9§0J}I]si O •iei spnjQ •apjojd J*pnJ3 ^5 •SUOI}EgTiS3AUI ejejEdas jo aaqranM •si JOS p jaquin>i VO fO t^ 7 w N - o N 1-1 •-• tN. ro On u-.vo ^ m r° owo w u-> O\oo f»O0 to O 9* N ^ y °M Nro o\ T) ' MH ' oto,t ^ Tl ' H o\^o\ vo o» Tf 00 <^\D ^ m Tt- A. Tfr ro I vo OnVO ^00 00 o^ O VO ►- T 5 "^ ON ON - m v ,° fOMD T 5 e» ^J- O\V0 VO r^ "*vO M >vo *^ "1 VO I VO CO. 3^ 43 w CM 3 O 1 O .d .0? £ O 13 * s ai o3 3 a) *•? O ~2~9- un I M inm Q Ttw-, ON I ON r+- 'VO ^2 o tow r^>-< N Y^ On *j-> 0\ I O I ON.L ON ON vn 1-1 rx »-• N v ^i ^A ^oo ON Ov °° •H- vo ° ° -*■ O \O^N?M.nHOHHHfO^H ^ iU ^ r^ ^ <^ ' t^. ON ON I ON '00 CO CO o\ m o vo 1 1 1 CO Tj- O o2 8 <* On - Tt- ON 9> O co O U"! i-r, VO 9 1 n 9* 1 1 1 ONCO 00 1 CO 1 VO CO ' O CN.CO 1 VO m VO ir, CO J, 00 CO °^ °^0 . CO in cn. IN. CO ON O "* tN. <*■ 8 VO ^J- O^ M m ?^ N O VO ^ *>-* N °° m \T b> ~ On O vJN -. ON oo 00 ll. ^4r t>» co K ^voco ^ ^co^ ^co ^° X T X CO °^ ^00°° Tf 10 VO VO u-> 00 CO CO CO O 3 N «t ON On r>. 10 ^V tN. <*^~ O 3 ? 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U O P . <£ Q ' ** O • o 5 41 Ph * 3 w C o • J ■ o « S 13 , >, +J 4-> 2 tainin ed dr Ided ed dr Ided irink Oj CO CO 1 5- T a a > 2 c/ C C a e con ran, i e, sea ran, i e, sea as « our . from a c 1 a ) 43 rC o „ J M ,£2 S -° B-° £ ;<* s r 3 - CD -*h i + c ! 1 !i ) c j c 1 H- 2 : :^5 J !«fi 3 8 TABLE II 387 <0 ~ I O I "^ I 'tM h I I NW| O I OO I hY'ON i^ t^ N.vo C\ o ChOO ^ Os .00 t^'^D'KO •*t tx ^ o ^ vc " O ^ O °? w VO f vo °? "^00 ?'• 00 § tx. Tl- 00 2 Os MD ^. 00 t^ 00 ro 00 co 9 s rf 9 1 ^ ^^ o\ S* 00 ' OS J, ON^l.c^A c^ -^- co ■ coco ^tx J, tx^ in. in. vo VO Ivo -1 '00 ,' 00 00 >0 to CO M to Tj-t^NM O *> CO <^ tx O ON *> ON IN. <* O « °? N ^^^cI. t ^^^^ 0000 ON^oo^^4l-^0 V0 4^0 vOOs vn tx. 00 vo ^O ^n VO fo On 00 - T^vo ^00 ON ? N ** W « t)- TfHH CO M tt M Cn O " 1 tx M Tt CO N m m vr> M "-> <+ H^O rj- tx \j~> - 1 N M rfr 5 « T3 IS J) • w £g ^) 0> >> 2 c jG . IH pq cu S3 : 3 C/3 9? T3 s « J d^ CO 1 O 1 in 1 ft °° ON. ^O t-x 1 0\ On 00 ^ 00 O >n t-xNO ^O t^ o O O ?> O O O o O O O O •JBJ spnr) ^9 m >* ro CO' in tx M N O co Tf mco f^ o^ on 1 o | On 1 <*no CO O I On | On 1 On OnCO On OnCO On 1-1 CO -t- co vo On On CO C\ CO On r^ O rv. ro ts. 8 In, CO «fr •uis;ojd apruo ^•9. 00 co co O *+ 1 9» in 1 On 00 °° N ^N On O O "frOO m O t^ On On in ro in NO co CO t^ CO r-x t^ -+ ts, O O «* NO in •ja^Bra ^-9 CO CO O 00 m O co°° O K. H On O™ in tN.VO 0\N h n oiubSjO o^ t>. ON ts. O in 00 4 t-v vO On °° in NKN invo »n t>» N. U" CO O CO t>. •stioijbSi}S3aui a;EJBd3s H * O t^ C*5 ro in fO t}- tJ- t}- rt M rf jo joquinft M M 1-1 •s-)jos jo aoquin^ fS K ro •* « N ro T3 . IH O ro Vh 03 73 B T3 G a O cd H +-> (1) s .. -d OT -d ff •d CD 6 53 •d ra 0) d G ro a) ro eed cake m anisee fennel corian caraw; G +-> £ G ake er-s fro: d u en G 3 CD O O g +> w G a e G 1 ro O O U c C c p. 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MM O o3 ea CO Is en O i— i CD o u g g> q=l.S s § -8'B rQ r^ 09 (D 8 "« en en m n. en O TABLE II 39i ffooOiO ON r-^oo now h 00 ■ o o r I 0\M^NP) wOO N I I I VO VO 00 OnVO On -sh m <^ c On G\ On On 0\cq O\oo 00 III! OOnOVOoocn)t)-OnNOn moo VO I N'trONUNNNCO "t tJ-oO t\00 CO I moo wNO m rj- O O 1 VO O OMO mfOH ►* ro fO OnVO N N ^O t^in u-> u-> cn t-^oo 00 VO ^co On 00 mo c^oooo OnO t^vo co On r^ On in O O in 00 n m too ^MhOOKNOO^MOmONN^ On On On On 00 CO On 00 tN. X On On 00 O VO O 00 t^ On ^toc O 00 0\NO\ NNMMMinONMON N w CN N CN N t-t N N M Tj-00 00 vo >-' fn N VO 2 rt -. 11 +-* to ci be P O «J ftS -a ^ : «3 bo P C/3 e a p o O CO en P 03 cJ _, CD CD _, P cx,o d g R - CD 03 ^ ft C? : : rt CD ri 5 ^ V CD P Id M 392 SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF ANIMALS 1 9 C< co tN ro •3jqy 9prtJ3 lO ON VO N (S 0\ tN ro b\ N ro 1 M 1-1 M 1-1 •*M tfl M ro u^OO In m m VO CO Ifl jQ 6 6 6 o 6 6 6 6 6 o a 1 ri 1 1 IN. IN m M 0) N 01 CI N n c -t-» . . . CO CO to w a> £ £i ^5 43 Ih o O O O o O o o * • • O o o .2 w J • • • M u u 1-1 -a 'd OJ o OJ o M a> . . Ch ft e- • a £ M O „ to to CO 9> > J a I H ;d O a 2 to 2 O <* < 'J3 bo o a) "3 U O a bo 2 t3 "fl '£> "& '^ '>, ., rt ■+-( JM M ^ ^ el T3 M O d d o 1 faC 1 1 JO he 1 fc/j E o bo 4J 4^ +J o +J 'S +J '53 4-> "oj a, o V-i O £ U * U ^ o ^ be bo : «J > o 13 > 4d o > h Q fe <^ S § 1 " N to 4 TABLE III 393 m O O 00 fON O O O O ~ VO Os ~> to VO cs ^n Os

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J_ _L . 1 ^ g,fl**^*g w ro xinvo 1 A INDEX Abomasum, 19 Absorption of nutrients, 26 Acid, lactic, 25, 39, 81, 127 Acorns, 190 Adulteration of feeding meals, 191 oil cakes, 196 Age of animal, influence upon digestion, 33 cow, influence upon milk production, 311 Air-dried material, 4 Albumin, 5 Albuminoid ratio, 232, 257 Albuminoids, 3 Albumoses, 23, 24, 59 Alcohol in distillery waste, 215 silage, 127 sweet mashes, 145 Alimentary canal, length of, in animals, 26 Almond cake, 204 Amides, 8 Amino acids, 8 Ammonium acetate, effect on milk production, 328 effect on protein meta- bolism, 66 Animal heat, 41 Animals, composition of bodies, 254 Artichokes, 180 Artificial digestion, 30 — drying of feeding-stuffs, 135 Ash, 15 Asparagine, 8, 65 — and fat formation, 68 — influence on protein meta- bolism, 66 Availability, determination of, 30, 379 Available energy of food, 49, 109 B Bacon, influence of food 011,304 Bacteria, action of, in diges- tion, 21, 24, 37, 87 — and non-protein substances, 67 — in silage, 127 Barley, 185, 192 — for horses, 281 — for pigs, 186, 299 — meal, 193 Bastard clover, 164 Beech mast, 190 — nut cake, 203 Beef, feeding for, 256 Beet leaves, effect of feeding, 345 oxalic acid in, 167 — molasses, 208 — silage, 129 — slices, 207 Bile, 23 Blood, necessity of good supply, 272 — meal, 223 Body fat, determination of in- crease, 46 397 398 INDEX Body fat from carbohydrates, 77 from food fat, 74, 82 protein, 82 Body heat, loss dependent upon surface, 53 — temperature, 41 — tissue, determination of in- crease, 44 Bomb calorimeter, 48 Bones, diseases of, 97 Bran, adulteration of, 191 — effects of, 194 on butter, 348 Breed and milk yield, 308 Brewers' grains, 214 dry, 215 Buckwheat, 166, 187 Butter fat, effect of food on, 333 Buttermilk, 220 Butyric acid formed by bac- teria, 25, 127 Cabbage, feeding value of, 168 Calf, Liebig's recipe for food of, 145, 291 Calorie, definition of, 48 Calves, feeding of, 289 — weaning of, 290, 292 Cane sugar, 14 in mangels, 135, 174 in molasses, 208 Carbohydrates, 14, 83 — influence on butter fat, 334 Carcass meal, 222 Carrots, leaves of, 167 — value of, 176 Castor-oil seed cake, 204 Cattle powders, 224 Cellulose, composition of, 13 Cereal grains, 184 Cereals as fodder plants, 162 Chaff, 172 Chemical examination of food- stuffs, 3 Chlorine, effects of deficiency, 95 Chopping of straw, 137 Clover, influence of age, 153 Clovers, composition of, 163 Coarse fodder, experiment with, 85 for horses, 279 Cocoa-nut cake, 199, 304, 348 meal, 199, 348 Coefficients, digestibility, 29, 279 Colostrum, 219, 289 Common salt, effects of, 95, 236 Composition of animal bodies, 254 Condiments, influence on di- gestibility of food, 40 Contamination of foods, 118 Cooked food, value of, 141 Cotton-seed cake meal, 196 effect on pigs, 197, 304 Cows, and milk yield, 308 Crops for silage, 125 Crude ash, 16 — fat, 1 2 — fibre, 12 and fat production, 88 increase in wet weather, 157 value as food, 80 Crushing of grain, 138 Cutin in crude fibre, 13 Diffusion slices, 207 Digested nutrients, the supply of energy from, 42 Digestibility coefficients, 29, 279 — depression of by carbo- hydrates, 36 — depression of by oil, 38 — depression raised by pro- tein, 38 — determination of, 27 — influence of age on, 33 — trials, methods of con- ducting, 27 Digestion, artificial, 30 INDEX 399 Digestion, defective, 33 — effect of work upon, 34 — extent of, 3 1 — influence of quantity of food upon, 35 — influence of mixing of food upon, 36 — influence of species of ani- mal, 32 — of one-sided rations, 36 — processes of, 2 1 Digestive power of different breeds, 32 individuals, 33 Distillery grains, 215 — waste or slump, 2 1 5 Dried blood, 223 — brewers' grains, 2 1 5 — slumps, 217 Drought, effect on plants, 157 Dry matter, 4 Drying of samples of food- stuffs, 4 Durability of food-stuffs, 120 Dynamic energy, 57 Earth-nut cake and meal, 197 Energy from fat, 107 nitrogen-free nutrients, 106 isolated nutrients, no protein, 104, 106 starch, 107, 273 — metabolism, 48 — required for performance of work, in — sources of, 104 — total, no — units of, 48 — used in mastication and digestion, 57, 87 Ensilage {see Silage) Enzymes in digestive juices, 21 — properties of, 22 Epithelial cells in mammary gland, 307 Ether extract, 12 Excretion of waste products, 43 Exercise, benefits of, 298, 344 Fasting metabolism, 51 Fat, amount to be fed, 257, 272 — determination of increase in body, 46 — from cane sugar, 80 — from carbohydrates, 77 — from crude fibre, 80 — from protein, 64, 82 — heat value of, 70 — in food, 257 — influence on digestibility of food, 38 — influenced by food, 258 — in fasting, 54 Fats and oils, 10 carbohydrates, 77 Fattening of grown animals, 254 ruminants, 261 — ration, 256 Feeding, insufficient, 55 — loaves, manufacture of, 148 — of draught oxen, 273 — of horses, 275 — standards, 392 Feeding-stuffs, full-value, 90 Field beans, 188, 281 Fish meal, 222 Flavour of milk, 176, 346 Flesh, composition of, 46 — increase of, 44 Flour mills, by-products from, 190 Fodder damaged by fumes, 118 fungi, 118 moulds, 119 — frozen, 119 — mastication of green, 88 — plants, influence of variety, 154 of soil and manuring, 155 Food, extra required for fat animals, 267 400 INDEX Food fat, influence upon body fat, 76 influence upon secretion of milk, 321 Food for milch cattle, 338 — preparation for pigs, 305 — nutrients, 43, 83 Foods, utilisation of complete, 82 Food-stuffs, effect of injurious, 338 — that damage milk, 346 — that improve milk, 347 Frequent milking, effect of, 313 Fruit sugar (see Levulose) Full-value feeding-stuffs, 90 Gaseous products formed dur- ing digestion, 25 Gastric digestion, 23 Gastric juice, 23 Gelatine as food, 61 Glucose, 14 Glutamine, 8 Gluten feed, 206 Glycerine, 10, 11 Grain, composition of, 180 — falsification of ground, 184 — influence of soil and manur- ing, 183 — losses on storage, 131 — sprouting of, 182 Grape sugar (see Glucose) Grass, influence of age, 150 Green food, care in use of, 158 — maize, 162 Grinding grain, 1 38 Group system in experiments on cows, 319 Growth of wool, 249 H Hay, 150, 161 Hay-making, 122 Heat generated in fattening, 265 — loss of body, 52 — values, 48 Heating water for animals, 103 Hemp cake, 203 Henneberg's number, 65 Homco, or hominy feeding meal, 194 Hordenin, 214 Horse chestnuts, 190 — inferior digestive power, 3 1 Horses, feeding of, 275 — maize for, 280 — oats for, 280 Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 23 heated with straw, 144 Incarnate clover, 164 Incrusting material, 13, 14, 144 Indian corn (see Maize) Insufficient feeding, 55 Internal work of body, no Intestinal juice, 24 Intestine, bacteria in, 24 Investigations in groups, 240, 319 periods, 240, 317 Iron in food, 98 Java bean, poison in, 188 K Kidney vetch, 164 Kohl-rabi, 176 — leaves, 167 Labour, hard, and nitrogen ex- cretion, 105 Lactation, period of, 310 Lactic acid, action on digesti- bility, 39 and fat, 8 1 in digestion, 25 in silage, 1 27 Lactose, 14 Lambs, feeding of, 294 — weaning of, 294 Leaves and twigs as fodder, 168 Lecithine, 8, 98 INDEX 401 Leguminosae as fodder crops, 163, 165 Leguminous seeds, 187 Levulose, 14 Liebig's recipe, 145 Lignin in crude fibre, 13 Lime, effect of deficiency, 96 — in feeding-stuffs, 98 — phosphate of, 223 Linoleic acid, ^^2 Linseed, 189 — cake, 200 Lipase in gastric juice, 23 Loss of heat from body, 52 Losses during keeping of man- gels, 134 storage of grain, 131 — in making hay, 125 Lucerne, 164 Lupine plants as fodder, 165 poison in, 165 — seeds, 189 steeping, 143 M Magnesia, in animal body, 96 Maintenance ration, 58 for oxen at rest, 246 for sheep, 249 influence of body surface, 246 Maize, 186 — for horses, 186, 280 — for pigs, 187 — germ cake, 206 Malt, 182 — coombs, 213 Malting of grains, 145 Mammary gland, 307 Mangel tops, 166 Mangels, food value of, 175 — losses on storing, 1 34 — properties of, 1 74 Manyplies, 19 Marsh-gas fermentation, 25 Mashes, sweet, 145 Meadow hay, 161 — grass, 161 Meals, feeding, 192 Meat meal, 221 Metabolism, definition of, 43 Methods of investigation in milk production, 317 Milch cows, feeding of, 306 Milk, 217 — composition of, 218 — formation of, 306 — sugar, 14 — yields, 308 Milking, influence of frequency of, 311 Millet, 182 — polish, 193 Mineral hunger, 59 — substances, 1 5 metabolism of, 94 in milk, 343 Moistening of food, 140 Molasses, 208 — feeds, 210 adulteration of, 211 water in, 212 — way to use, 211 Muscular energy, sources of, 104, 106 Mustard, white, 166 N Narrow and wide rations, 232 Nitrogen equilibrium, 61 Nitrogen-free extract, 14 — nutrients as source of mus- cular energy, 106 diminish consumption of protein, 330 effect on metabolism, 69- 72, 330 effect on milk produc- tion, 329 injluence upon compo- sition of butter, 334 Nitrogenous substances (see Protein) Non-protein nitrogenous sub- stances, 7, 8 402 INDEX Non-protein nitrogenous sub- stances, effect on digesti- bility, 39 effect on protein me- tabolism, 65 effect on fat metabol- ism, 68 effect on milk produc- tion, 327 Nutrient, definition of a, 43 — material, methods of in- vestigation, 44 Nutrients, effect of, in food, 84 Nutritive ratio, 231, 257 Oat cleanings, 193 — feed, 193 — grain, composition of, 182, 185 — husks, 117 — straw, 1 7 1 Oats, 184 — for cows, 2,2,7. 34^ — for horses, 185, 280 — stimulating principle in, 214 — substitution of maize for, 280 Oil cake, adulteration of, 196 feeding of, 196 old and new process, 195 — meal, 195 — mills, residues from, 195 Omasum, 19 Organic acids in food-stuffs, 1 5 — matter, 16 Osteo-malacia, 97 Palmitic acid, 10 Palm-nut cake, 199 meal, 199 Pancreatic juice, 24 action of, 24 Passage of food through animal body, time required, 27 Pasture, benefit of, 298, 344 — grasses, 160 Pasture, importance in feeding pigs, 298 — influence of, on milk, 344 Peas, 188 Pentosans, composition of, 1 * Pepsin in gastric juice, 23 Peptones, 23, 24, 59 Period of lactation, 310 Period system in experiments on cows, 317 Permanent pasture grasses, 16c Phaseolus lunatus, 188 Phosphate of lime, 223 Phosphoric acid, deficiency, gt in feeding-stuffs, 98 Phytosterin, 333 Pig, power of digestibility, 32 Pigs, fattening of, 269 — feeding of growing, 296 — weaning of, 297 Plant, mineral substances in, 17 Poison from cotton seed, 197 lupine plants, 165 Poppy-seed cake, 202 Potash in animal body, 94 molasses, 209 Potato slump, 216 Potatoes, composition of, 177 — cooking of, 179 — dried, 180 — feeding of, 178 — steeping of, 142 Predigestion of foods, 146 Productive ration, 58 — value of nutrients, 86 Protein as source of muscular energy, 104 — crude, 7 — equilibrium, 61 — hunger, 59 — influence upon digestibility, 38 metabolism, 59 milk production, 325 — part played in fasting by, 54 — pure, 7 Proteins, the, 5 Prussic acid, 163, 188 Psalterium, 19 INDEX 403 Ptyalin, in saliva, 22 Putrefaction of food in intes- tine, 87 Q Quantity of food and milk production, 323 R Rape cake, 201 meal, 202 Rations, calculation of, 354 — maintenance, 245, 248 — production, 256 — size of, 233 — narrow and wide, 232 Red clover, 163 Rennet in gastric juice, 23 Replacement of nutrients, 230 Respiration, increase due to excess of protein, 63 — calorimeter, 49 — chamber, 46 — collection of products of, 47 Reticulum, 19 Rice gluten, 206 — meal, 193 — slump, 206 Roasting of food-stuffs, 142 Roots, composition of, 173 — feeding of, 174 — and tubers, losses during storage, 132 Rumen, 19 Rumination, time required for, 34 Ruminants and non-protein, 66 Rye, 186 — for horses, 281 Sainfoin, 164 Saliva, composition of, 23 — secretion of, 1 8 — work performed by, 22 Salt in animal body, 94 — supply of, 236 Sawdust, effect on digestion, 86, 90 Seed grasses, 162 Separated milk, 220 Serradella, 165 Sesame cake, 198 Shearing of fattening animals, 266 Sheep, composition of body of, 254 — feeding-stuffs for, 252 — maintenance ration for, 245 Silage, 125 — crops, 125 — quantities to be fed, 128 Silo, character of losses in, 128 — construction, 126 — filling and covering, 126 Size of body and loss of heat, 53 Skim milk, 220 Slicing of roots, 137 Soaking food, 140 Soda, in animal body, 94 Soja bean, 187 Solanine, 177 Sorghum, 163 Sour fodder, 125 preparation of, 147 — milk, 220 Specific effects of food on milk, 334 Spurry, 346 Stall, temperature of, 265 Standard rations, 392 Starch as food for bacteria, 37 — energy from, no, 273 — equivalent, 92 — formation of fat from, 8 1 — residues from manufacture of, 204 Steaming of food, 146 Stearic acid, 10 Stomacb of ruminant, 19 Straw, chopping of, 137 — food value of cereal, 170 of leguminous, 171 — treatment under pressure with soda lye, 144 404 INDEX Steeping of potatoes in water, 142 — of lupines in water, 143 Storage of cereal grains, 130 — of meals, etc., 132 — of roots and tubers, 132 Sugar as food for bacteria, 37 — feeding of, 212 — from protein, 64 — beet as food, 175 leaves, 166 slices, 207 Suitableness of food, 232 Summer feeding of cows, 344 Sunflower-seed cake, 202 Swedish clover, 164 Sweet mashes, 145 — mash for calves, 145 Table for calculation of ra- tions, 353 Tallow, 1 1 Temperature during fasting, 54 — in hay-stack, 124 — influence of surroundings, 153 — of body, 41 — of stall, 52, 244, 265 Thermic energy, 57 Total energy, 57 Trypsin, 24 Tubers, losses during storage of, 132 Turnips, 176 Turnip leaves, 167 U Unit of energy, 48 — of work, 109 Urea, 43 Urine, waste products in, 43 Utilisable energy of nutrients, 48, 109 Utilisation of complete foods, 82 — of digested nutrients, 41 — of energy in animal body, 109 Vermicular movements of in- testine, 20 Vetches, 165 W Waste products, composition of some, 117 in respiration, 43 oxidisable, 43 Water, 1 — effects of excess of, 10 1, 2^4 — in feeding-stuffs, 4 — of vegetation, 101 — in body, uses of, 99 — warm drinking, 1 02 Watering of animals, 237 Weaning calves, 290, 292 — lambs, 294 Weather, effect on fodder plants, 157 Weed seeds in grains, 191 Weeds, injurious effects of, 120 Wheat, 186 Whey, 220 Wide and narrow rations, 232 Winter feeding of cows, 346 Wool, influence of food on, 249 — production of, 247 Work, effect upon digestion, 34 ■ — influence upon milk pro- duction, 314 Working animals, feeding of, 271 WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD. PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH Wei; leririry Medicine afy Medicine at 336