Department of Agriculture Bufletin PubUshed monthly by the Department of Agriculture of the State of New York Entered as second-clasa matter March a, igii. at the post office at Albany. N. Y under the Act of June 6, 1900 " ' " ' ^°^^^' ^- Y- OCTOBER, ,9,5 Bufletin 76 The Horse Industry in New York State Istued by the Bofcati of Farmefs* Institutes and Compiled under the Supervision of the Director JOHNA.SEAVERNS TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 9090 013 400 938 l ^';6^V^ STATE OF NEW YORK ^'^^,. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CHARLES S. WILSON, Commissioner Bulletin 76 The Horse Industry in New York State Issued fay the Bureau of Farmers* Institutes and Compiled under the Supervision of^e^D^ctcp^^.j^ ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^^.^^^ ^^ Cummings School of Veterinary Medici Tufts University a »^ ti".'^, CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 9 Evolution and History of the Horse, M. W. Harper 11 Principles of Horse Breeding, M. W. Harper 14 The Standardbred Horse, Carl W. Gay 20 The Arab Horse, H. K. Bush-Brown 27 The Thoroughbred, Lieut. X. C. Shiverick 37 The American Saddle Horse, Elise Castleman Railey 47 The Hunter, Frank S. Peer 57 The Shetland Pony, Julia M. Wade 67 The Welsh Pony, Julia ]il. Wade 68 The Draft Breeds of France, E. S. Akin 71 The Belgian, E. S. Akin 82 The Draft Breeds of Great Britain, E. S. Akin 91 Hackney Breeding in America, Reginald C. ^'anderbilt 104 Coach Horses, DeVoe Meade 110 Asses and Mules, Dr. C. W. Brodhead 119 The Horse on New York State Farms, Dr. ]\I. Hamilton 129 The Best Horse for the Farmer to Breed, J. H. S. Johnstone 134 Care of the Stallion, J. Gelder 141 Care of the Brood ilare and Her Colt, Lowell Roudebush 148 Fall Versus Spring Colts, Edward van Alstyne 155 Training the Colt, H. E. Hopkins 161 The Horses' Feet and Their Care, Dr. C. W. Brodhead 167 Care of Horses' Teeth, Dr. C. W. Brodhead 183 Feed and Care of the Horse, F. C. Minkler 187 Horses at the New York State Fair, Dr. H. S. Wende 193 The Need of a Stallion Law, Dr. W. G. Hollingworth 207 Effects of the Wisconsin Stallion Law, Dr. A. S. Alexander 213 Stallion Enrollment Law, E. S. Akin 215 Community Effort in Draft Horse Breeding, J. L. Edmonds 216 Horse Breeding in the West and East, Forest Henry 221 Glanders or Farcy, Dr. Charles Linch 225 Diseases of the Limbs and Bony Structure, Dr. J. F. DeVine 234 Distemper and Diseases of the Respiratory Organs, Dr. E. L. Volgenau.. 241 Colic and Azaturea, Dr. M. Hamilton 251 Horse Companionship. Frank S. Peer 263 New York State Draft Horse Breeders Club 268 Statistics 269 Index 271 [3] ILLUSTRATIOJSrS PAGE Fig. 1. Seven-eighths Pereheron Colts Bred on Farm of Edward van Alstyne 8 Fig. 2. Green Mountain INIaid in 1S73 20 Fig. 3. Inscription on ]\Ionvmient to Green Mountain Maid 22 Fig. 4. Hambletonian 10 at Twenty-three Years of Age 23 Fig. 5. ilonument Over Grave of Hambletonian 10 24 Fig. 6. Imported Arab Horse, Houran 28 Fig. 7. Three-Year-Old, Cibolo 29 Fig. 8. Cross Between Kentucky Saddle Sire and Pure-Bred Arab Dam . . 31 Fig. 9. Daughter of Deyr 33 Fig. 10. Abdalla Xo. 52 35 Fig. 11. A Good Pair of' TTioroughbred Drivers 38 Fig. 12. Prize-Winning Two-Year-Old 40 Fig. 13. Thoroughljred Shown at State Fair 43 Fig. 14. Golden Flight 46 Fig. 15. Dainty Peanine by Cilolden King 48 Fig. 16. Carolina by Chester Dare 50 Fig. 17. Beechwold Bab by a Son of Highland Denmark 52 Fig. 18. Quicksilver by Boyd Lynn 53 Fig. 19. Geneva C. by Highland Denmark 54 Fig. 20. Eeady for a Cross-Country Run 59 Fig. 21. Typical Farmyard and Old Stone Barn of a Pereheron Breeder. . 70 Fig. 22. Prize Collection of iirdennais Mares 72 Fig. 23. Prize Collection of Pereheron Mares 74 Fig. 24. Pereheron Stallion, Kalot 76 Pig. 2.3. Pereheron Stallions in the Great Four-Year-Okl Class 77 Fig. 26. Pereheron Stallion, Mandarin 78 Fig. 27. Pereheron Mare, Livourne 80 Fig. 28. Belgian Stallions in the Four-Year-Old Class 83 Fig. 20. Indigene du Fosteau, One of the Greatest of Modern Belgian Sires . . ■ • 84 Fig. 30. A Bunch of Belgian Stallion Colts 86 Fig. 31. Belgian Stallions in the Five-Year-Old Class 87 Fig. 32. Reve d'Or, Noted Belgian Stallion 88 Fig. 33. Seventeen Entries of Four Mares Each 89 Fig. 34. Typical Country in Suflfolk. England 92 Fig. 35. Suffolk Stallion. Sudbourne Red Cup 94 Fig. 36. SuflTolk Mare. Sudbourne Marrilass 95 Pig. 37. Clydesdale Stallion, Ciaibstone 97 Pig. 38. Clydesdale Mare. Havistoun Baroness 98 Pig. 39. Shire Stallion. Chuldwick 100 Fig. 40. Shire Mare, Dunsmore Chemie 102 [5] 6 ILLUSTKATIONS PAGE Fig. 41 llackncy Stallion, Irvington Marlboro 105 Fig. 42. Silficld Vi-niis, Hackney Marc, and Four of Her Colts 106 Fig. 43. Hackney Colts in Pasture 107 Fig. 44. Stallion at Mr. DriscolTs Farm 108 Fig. 45. Hackney Stallion, Volunteer Ill Fig. 4(). French Coach Stallion, Palladea 113 Fig. 47. German Coach Mare, Alemania 115 Fig. 48. Cleveland Bay Stallion, Bedlion Fred 117 Fig. 49. Fine Poitou Jack 12(i Fig. 50. A Good Farm Team of Mules 122 Fig. 51. The Same Pair as Shown in Fig. 50, Ready for a Drive to Town. 124 Fig. 52. Type of Mules I'sed by the Oil Companies for Heavy Loads. . . . 127 Fig. 53. Typical Farm Chunk 138 Fig. 54. Desirable Type of Stallion 142 Fig. 55. Stallion Marat, Doing the Work of Two Small Horses 144 Fig. 56. Grade Draft Mares Twelve Years Old in Foal and With Foal. . . 150 Fig. 57. Grade Draft Mare Nine Years Old and Mule Colt 152 Fig. 58. Using the Brood Mare in Cutting Alfalfa 154 Fig. 59. Seven-eighths Percheron Colt 158 Fig. 60. Three-quarter Blood Percheron Mares on Farm of Edward van Alstyne 159 Fig. 61. Bones and Joints of the Horse's Hoof and Leg 170 Fig. 62. Shoes Hand Made for Pathological and Practical Purposes 176 Fig. 63. Shoes Hand Made, etc., (continued) 178 Fig. 64. Head of Horse Showing Jaws and Teeth 184 Fig. 65. Group of Young Belgian Stallions at State Fair 194 Fig. 66. Prize-Winning Percheron Stallion 195 Fig. 67. Grade Champion Belgian Stallion, Richelieu 196 Fig. 68. Six-Horse Team Exhibited at State Fair 198 Fig. 69. Perfection, Winner of Silver Cup at State Fair, 1914 199 Fig. 70. Two-Year-Old Percheron Stallion, Armand 200 Fig. 71. Two-Year-Old Percheron Stallion, Invocation 201 Fig. 72. Yearling Belgian Stallion by Richelieu 202 Fig. 73. Judges at New York State Fair 205 Fig. 74. Percheron Mare and Foal. A Good Type for Community Breed- ing 218 Fig. 75. Bacillus Mallei 225 Fig. 76. Glanders Ulcers or Farcy Buds 226 Fig. 77. Glanders Ulcers of the Nasal Septum .- 227 Fig. 78. Cross Section of Lungs Showing Glanders Nodules 228 Fig. 79. Showing Results of Tests for Glanders 231 Fig. 80. A Neglected Case of Lymphangitis 239 THE HORSE Braced in the sineiry vigor of ihtj hrced. In pride of generous strength, thou stately steed; Thy hroad chest to the battle's front is given, Thy mane fair floating to the winds of heaven, Thy stamping hoofs the jlinty pebbles break; Graceful the rising of thine arched neck. Thy bridle-bits white flakes of foam unlock; From thy moved nostrils bursts the curling smoke. Thy kindling eye-balls bi-ave the glaring south, And dreadful is the thunder of thy mouth; V.liilst low to earth thy curving haunches bend, Thy sweepy tail involved in clouds of sand. Erect in air thou rear'st thy front of pride, And ringst the plated harness at thy side! JOAXNA BAILLIE. J* *!. ^». ^^^ INTRODUCTION "A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! " are the words Shakespeare put in the month of the defeated Richard. This has been the sentiment, if not the exact words, of many a better man before and since. We believe the Psalmist was in error when he said, "A horse is a vain thing for safety, and neither shall he deliver any by his great strength." Both assertions have been disproved again and again. Down through the ages the horse has been associated with man in his savage or semi-savage state, as well as in his most civilized. He has played a most important part as a means of transportation, an engine of war, and as a beast of burden. In all of these there has been interwoven with the intensely practical, a touch of the romantic that has set the horse upon a pinnacle among our do- mestic animals. Were we to give our fancy and pen free rein we might discourse at length of his associations with man in some of the most important events in the world's history. Who can think of Xapoleon in war apart from his milk-w4iite charger, Rams ; or disassociate Paul Revere, on his historic ride, from his steed '^ — Flying fearless and fleet And the spark struck out from the steed in its flight Kindled the land with flame with its heat." Or, what thought of Marcus Whitman on his pilgrimage across the continent to inform the American Congress of the value of the Oregon country, does not l:ear with it the horse that carried him over mountains and through deserts? Time and space would not avail to tell of McCormack riding on horseback from Chicag£> to Palmyra, IST. Y., seeking aid to finance his proposed reaper; of Sheridan at Winchester; as well as a host of other instances where man's best efforts, without the aid of the horse, would be as water spilled upon the groimd. Among the kingdoms in which the horse has been a most im- portant subject, we must not forget the farm. Here, as time and [01 10 Introduction labor grew more valuable, he supplanted the patient ox, and made possible the " winning of the West," before steam and elec- tricity — neither of which have or will altogether supplant this valuable animal — were harnessed for farm purposes. As indicated above, the part he has played would well entitle him to a place among the series of bulletins being issued by the Farmers' Institute Bureau of the New York State Department of Agriculture on stock and crops. Since a publication of this kind must deal with present-day utilities, we feel that at this time in our agriculture the horse should loom large, because of the fearful destruction of these animals on the battlefields of Europe, thousands of them being drawn from this country. The war and its results will prevent importation for years to come. That the horse may be properly esteemed, classified and under- stood as to his breeding, handling and utility, this bulletin has been prepared. We have endeavored to set forth the above con- cerning him in some detail, and from many viewpoints ; yet in simple language, easily to be understood. While designed primarily for the people of our own state, we have endeavored to make it broad enough to be of value to readers everywhere. To this end we have sought contributions from a wide field ; eight difterent states have furnished them. As in previous bulletins from this bureau the compiler has laid tribute on some of his many friends both in and out of the state. His only apology for such — if there need be apology - — is that he might avail himself of their knowledge for the service of others. To all such he woaild here record his thanks and appreciation, which he is certain the many readers will second. Particular mention should be made of Prof. M. W. Harper of Cornell University and ]\Ir. E. S. Akin of Syracuse, who have not only contributed leading articles, but without whose advice and assistance this bulletin would not have been possible. It is sent out with the threefold hope that it may lead to a better appreciation of the horse in New York state's agi*i culture ; a better understanding of his requirements, and hence a better attention to his needs ; and withal an increased income and a decreased outlay from our farms. Edward van Alstyne. EVOLUTION AND HISTORY OF THE HORSE M. W. Hakper Professor of Animal Husbandry, Cornell University, Ithaca. The earlj history of the horse is both interesting and instrnetive. It is interesting because of the marked changes that have taken place in size and conformation. It is instruc- tive because it attbrds a good example of the adaptation of a race of animals to their environment. It shows clearly the influence of selection, whether it be i:atnral or artificial. PREHISTORIC DEVELOPMENT By means of fossil remains, the earlier history of the horse has been worked out farther back into the past than that of any other farm animal. Moreover, the horse was one of the first animals to receive the attention of progressive breeders, his improvement antedating that of cattle, sheep, and swine. This is not strange when we consider the intimacy of horse and man, their constant companionship, and the dependency of man upon his horse in the chase, in the pursuit of his foes, and in escape from his enemies. The prehistoric development of the horse has been thoroughly investigated by the American Museum of Xatural History. The horse family has been traced back without a single important break to the Eocene epoch of the Tertiary period. During this long period, estimated at 3,000,000 years, the animals of the horse family have passed through important changes in all parts of the body, especially in the feet and teeth, adapting them more per- fectly to their environment. Thus the earliest known ancestors of the horse family differed widely from the horse of the pre-^ent time. These ancestors were very small, possibly no larger than the domestic cat. They possessed four complete toes on each front foot and three on each hind foot. The teeth of this early [111 12 The Horse Industry in New York State ancestor were short-crowned and covered with low ronnded cnsps of enamel somewhat similar to those of swine, and differing widely from the long-crowned, rather complicated molars of the modern horse. A nnmber of stages are recognized in the evolution of the horse from this early period to the present, each stage being character- istic with the horse becoming more and more developed toward the present-day type as the times become more and more recent. Some of these stages are especially interesting because of the changes brought about by the changes in natural conditions, show- ing the adaptation of the animal to his environment. Thus with the disappearance of the side toes there was a con- siderable increase in the length of the legs, especially the lower part. The increased length of the lower leg increased the length of the stride without decreasing its quickness, thus giving the ani- mal greater speed. The heavy muscling in the' upper' leg in con- nection with the increased strength at the joints gives the animal greater strength. The increase in the lengih of limb made necessary a similar increase in the length of head and neck in order to enable the animal to reach the ground when grazing. The increase in the length of crown development of the teeth enabled the animal to subsist on the hard grasses of the dry plains, which required much more thorough mastication before they could be used as food than did the softer green foods of the swamps and forests, the horse's early habitat. Such changes in the evolution of the horse adapt him to live in the regions of level, smooth, and open grassy plains. In the beginning the horse was better fitted for forest life, but it has become more and more completely adapted to live and compete with its enemies or rivals under the conditions which prevail on the high dry plains. The increase in size which has occurred during this evolution has depended upon the ability of the animal to secure an abundance of food. This end was provided with the changes in form which enabled the horse to cover larger areas in a shorter length of time. Evolution and History of the Hokse 13 natural causes of evolution It is interesting to note the probably natural cause of the evolu- tion of the horse. During the early Tertiary period much of the western part of the Xorth American continent was not as high above the sea as now. Indeed, much of the country had but re- cently emerged from the Gulf of Mexico which stretched far up the Mississippi Valley. The climate was probably very moist and warm and tropical, as is emphasized by tropical forest trees found fossil often as far as Greenland. Such a climate, with a low eleva- tion of land, would favor the gTowth of dense forests, and to. such conditions of life the animals of the beginning of the mammalian period must have been adapted. During the Tertiary period the continent was steadily rising above the sea level. At the same time other influences were at work rendering the climate continually colder and drier. The coming of a cold, dry climate thinned and restricted the forests and in their place appeared the open grassy plains. The early forest inhabitants were forced to either retreat and disappear with the forests or adapt themselves to life on the plains. Most of the horse's early relatives followed the former course and dis- appeared, while the horse himself followed the latter course, changed with the changing conditions, and the race became as it is today, perhaps the most specialized of animals in its adaptation to its environment. PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING M. W. Harpei? Professor of Animal Husbandry, Cornell University, Ithaca. The development of the modern breeds of the horse dates back abont three centuries when the English began to improve their horses, which resulted in the formation of the present thorough- bred breed of running horses. Most of the early attempts at improvement were for an increase in efficiency of the horse for sport and war. During the eighteenth century, however, much attention was given to horse breeding for economic purposes. To Robert Bakewell we owe much for this movement. About 1Y60, Bakewell assumed the management of the estate on which his father and grandfather had resided at Leicestershire, Eng- land. Young Bakewell conceived the idea that he had only to select the most valuable strains, such as promised the greatest returns to the breeder, and that he should then, by careful atten- tion to progTessive improvement, be able to produce a breed from which he could derive maximum advantage. Bakewell recognized two cardinal principles of animal improvement : first, that similar produces similar, and second, that form bears close relationship to function. Based upon these principles, he origi- nated a system, the application of which has resulted in our specialized breeds of horses. SELECTION In the improvement of our horses, selection plays an all-im- portant part, since it enables us to encourage the production of those horses that meet the demand, and to prevent, in part at least, the production of undesirable animals. Thus in selecting horses for breeding purposes there are four important factors to be considered : first, individual merit or the perfection of the animal as a representative of its race, type, or breed ; second, the pedigree or purity of ancestry, and the probable capacity of the individual to reproduce itself or show improvement ; third, the suitability of the two animals to be mated ; and fourth, breed- ing performance when offspring are available for observation, (14] Principles of Hokse Breeding 15 individuality In selecting breeding horses the perfection of the animals should be carefully considered. Occasionally we give too little attention to this and select an animal on the basis of his pedigree. Such practice often proves disappointing as many inferior indi- viduals are recorded simply because such animals command a good price on the market. PEDIGREE In choosing horses for breeding purposes the purity of ancestry is an important factor, since the capacity of a horse to produce superior offspring will depend largely upon his ancestry. Thus, there are four possible conditions that should always be borne in mind : first, the offspring of a superior individual with a good pedigree is likely to possess merit ; second, the offspring of an inferior individual with a good pedigree may possess merit ; third, the offspring of a superior individual with a poor pedigree is likely to be inferior in merit ; and fourth, in all probability the offspring of an inferior individual with a poor pedigree will be distinctly inferior. MATING To be suitable for mating, the horses should be as nearly alike in general characters as it is possible to select, otherwise the out- come cannot be foretold. When thx? offspring shows good quali- ties the mating is considered a fortunate nick; when there is no resemblance to either parent, but to some near ancestor, it is called atavism; and if to some far removed ancestor, it is called reversion. Some persons are very skilled in selecting animals that mate to advantage, BREEDING PERFORMANCE In selecting mares or stallions for breeding purposes we can obtain a very good idea of the suitability of the animals by an examination of the offspring, if such are available. Thus in choosing a stallion, a careful examination should be made of his get, and, if they are deficient or otherwise unfit, he should be rejected. The same procedure should be followed in selecting 16 The Horse Industry in New York State a mare. This practice may necessitate choosing an animal of some age, bnt it is preferable, as we know for a certainty what to expect of the offspring. PREPOTENCY There is a wide variation among horses in their power to stamp their characteristics upon offspring. When the offspring resem- bles one parent more than the other, the one transmitting it is said to be prepotent over the other parent. Thus prepotency becomes of importance in improvement, and tlie inflnences that tend to produce it in the individual are worthy of careful con- sideration. While many of the factors that influence prepotency are little understood, tliose that do aid and are under the control of man are: first, purity of breeding which favors stability; second, strong constitutional development which strengthens the characters; and third, limited inbreeding which aids prepotency as it streng-thens dominant characters, both good and bad. In breeding horses the prepotency of the stallion is given more consideration than that of the mare. This is due to the fact that the sire is the parent of more individuals than the dam, and not to individual resemblance. This is fortunate, as improvement can be more cheaply secured through a good sire from the mere fact that he is represented in more progeny. Furthermore, since comparatively few males are needed for breeding purposes, they are usually much more carefully selected than are the females, practically all of which are bred. This also favors the prepotency of the stallion. STERILITY Perhaps the horse breeder's greatest difficulty is the failure of his animals to breed freely. The causes which lead to sterility are many, some of which are understood and are more ot less under control ; others — and by far the larger and more serious number — are little known and beyond control. Some of the known and preventable causes of sterility are: first, confinement and lack of exercise ; second, irregular food supply ; third, food lacking proper nutrients; fourth, animals too fat; fifth, close inbreeding; sixth, excessive breeding, particularly with the stallion ; and like causes. To lessen sterility, the breeder should make a careful Peixciples of Horse Breeding 17 study of the conditions likely to produce the ailment, and care- fully avoid them. SOUNDNESS Both sire and dam should be free from all forms of unsound- ness and disease that is hereditary, transmittable, or communi- cable to the oifspring. AVhile absolutely perfect animals can rarely, if ever, be found, and few horse breeders can afford to reject breeding stock for some unimportant defect ; yet, not until both mare and stallion are free from unsoundness can we hope to raise the excellency of our horses to the degree possible as the result of intelligent breeding. Many persons have fallen into the grievous way of considering any broken-down, halt, maimed, blind, or otherwise unsound mare tit for breeding purposes when no longer able to work. It is certainly poor policy to knowingly use unsound breeding animals and thus promote unsoundness in the offspring. BREEDING YOUNG FILLIES Among horse breeders there is much difference of opinion as to the advisability of breeding the two-year-old tilly. It would seem that this practice would depend upon at least three factors, namely, the breed, the individual, and the object sought. As a rule draft-bred mares mature younger than those of the lighter type. Draft fillies at two years of age are often as mature as a light-bred filly at three years of age. Individual mares differ in the way they mature ; a smoothly turned, neat and well-fin- ished one matures much younger than a rough, coarse and growthy individual. Since the feed and care influence the maturing, the filly that is kept growing continuously from birth will mature earlier than one imperfectly cared for and which receives a set-back each winter. FinaDy, if breeding pure-bred animals and the object sought is to improve the strain, the advisability of breeding the two-year- old filly would be questionable. From this it would seem that if one desires to produce draft horses for market, there is no reason why fillies cannot be bred at two years of age if they are well grown and mature, and the owner is willing to feed and care for them properly during their pregnancy. 18 The House Industky in New York State Possibly one reason for so much discussion as to the wisdom of breeding a mare at two years of age is from the fact that a filly at this age breeds with much irregularity. From experience it seems that only about one filly in four will conceive at so early an age. THE PREGNANT MxVRE The management of the pregnant mare should have for its object the feeding of such a ration as will supply her demands for energy, and in addition allow ample nourishment for the development of the foal both before and for a short time after birth, together with such a regulation of the work as will protect the mare from becoming stagnant, tired or injured in any way. The breeder who is painstaking and can accomplish this, will experience little or no difficulty in managing brood mares during and after parturition. There is no secret in raising colts further than the feeding of a moderate amount of nutritious food and providing sufficient exercise to keep the mare and foal in per- fect health. In our attempt to favor the pregnant mare we often subject her to very adverse conditions. Often she is placed in a stall, fed most nutritious foods, and denied exercise, particularly in winter, as w^e are afraid she will slip and injure herself or her foal. Under these conditions she soon stocks up, her legs become swollen and stiff, she takes on fat rapidly, and becomes soft and flabby — all of which serve to increase the difficulty at parturi- tion time. It is much better to keep the pregnant mare at moderate work even up to the day of foaling as this will provide the needed exercise which is so essential to the well-being of both mare and foal. SPRING FOALS Mares breed naturally in early spring. At this season tlipir breeding condition is more readily observed and they conceive more frequently than at any other time during the year. While the spring of the year is the natural breeding season, on many farms it is an inconvenient time because of the season's work, this being the busiest time of year. This often necessitates breed- ing the mare so that the colt will be dropped in the fall. Principles of Horse Breeding 19 Thus, when convenient, the spring is the proper time to breed the mare, being attended by many advantages. The foal comes at a time when it is much more easily managed, the housing is simplified, since, if the weather is warm, the mare and foal may be turned into a small paddock or pasture. The grass the mare gets will serve to keep her in good physical condition and will stimulate the milk flow. This also gives the foal the range of the field and the much-needed exercise, without which no foal can develop endurance. Soon the foal will learn to nibble the grass, which will prove very beneficial, since grass is a very good supple- ment for milk for a nursing foal. If the foal is given a little grain at the same time the dam receives her ration, he will thrive and develop in a manner difficult to equal with a fall colt. FALL FOALS When fall foals are to be raised the mare should be bred so as to foal as soon as convenient after the season's work is done, pro- viding the foal does not come when the flies are so cruelly annoy- ing. To encourage the mare to breed, she should be fed an abundance of nutritious food which should be of a rather laxative nature. She should be blanketed and regularly exercised or mod- erately worked. Her physical condition can be much improved by feeding a moderate amount of succulent food, the object being to make the conditions as spring-like as possible. If the foal comes in the winter it will need extra warm quarters and extra attention. The dam will need milk-producing foods such as clover or alfalfa hay, oats, bran, and a few carrots if possible. She should be exercised regularly. If the breeder has a succulent food such as carrots, and provides sufficient exer- cise for mare and foal, it is possible to raise a winter colt that will be a stroug rival of the average spring colt. The winter colt has one advantage over the spring colt in that he is weaned in the spring of the year and may be turned to pasture where he should thrive, particularly if given a small allowance of grain. THE STANDARDBRED HORSE Carl W. Gay Professor of Animal Industry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. The Standardbred has a peculiar signifi- cance to JSTew York State farmers. America has produced comparatively few breeds of live stock, our demands in milk, meat and power being met bj representatives of foreign breeds that have been transplanted. To be sure some, as the Holstein cattle, may be so successfully bred here as to prac- tically render importation unnecessary. Our supply of pork products is derived chiefly from breeds of our own creation and we think we have developed a saddle horse without a peer in his class, but the only American breeds which have attracted marked attention and demand abroad are Standardbred horses and Merino sheep, both of which have been exported in large numbers. Fig. 2. Green Mountain Maid in 1873 (From " Productive Horse Hushandry ' ' — Courtesy of J. B. Lippincott , Publishers) [20] The Standardbked Horse 21 notable centers of standard breeding It is impossible to divorce in our minds Standardbred and New York State. Not onlv in Orange county the cradle of the breed, figuratively speaking, but the very sentiment for road driving of which the '' light harness " idea was born, had its inception on the improved roads about Xew-York City.- That ideals are essential to successful breeding, and that these ideals are most cherished where greatest Successes have been achieved, is made plain by a visit to that part of New York State made famous by Standardbred ;history. . Na,tin'ally among the older pre-motor-day generation the American trotter is idealized. Goshen, the county seat, has been dubbed " The Lexington of the Xorth " in recognition of the important part it played even after the formative period of the breed, as a centre of light-harness- horse activities. Its^ historic half mile . track and stables where many champions have been trained and quartered, as well as championship honors contested, is directly across- the way from the Court House, and apparently has been an institution of equal rank in the aifairs of the town. The streets are broad, and time was when a lively brush straight away down the street was a com- mon occurrence. (Conversation with old-timers elicits inspiring accounts of this horse or that, his achievement and a character sketch of the man who br-€^d.him. About the countryside, and even in the towns, are monuments in granite to the memory of the most notable horses. Most conspicuous among- these- shafts; are those erected to Green Mountain^ Maid at Stony Ford and Hamble- tonian 10 at Chester. More local color is added to the picture of the history of the Standardbred by the part played by the old race tracks on Long Island and about New York City. The initial performance of Lady Suffolk, Flora Temple and Dexter, as well as many lesser lights, were at Beacon, Union and Fashion courses respectively, while one of the first trotting matches recorded w^as on the Jamaica Road (Long Island) 1824. From southeastern New York, as the original center in which the Standardbred was established and his foundation blood lines laid down, the sentiment for the trotter, and consequently some breeding stock, was carried to Kentucky and especially to Cali- fornia. Philadelphia has always figured more or less intimately 22 The Horse Industry in New York State with New York. During a half century or less Standardbred horses have become most generally distributed throughout every state, and are so firmly established as to meet the strongest oppo- sition from promoters of other breeds for which it is desired to gain a foothold. Fig. 3. Inscription on Monument to Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford — "Greatest Mother of Trotters." (From " Productive Horse Husbandry" — Courtesy of J. B. Lippincott, Publishers.) standardbreds entitled to a place One of the generally accepted policies of the later-day agri- cultural education is to oppose the Standardbred. He is tabooed for the farmer, and treated with the utmost contempt by many who are responsible for an unprejudiced exposition of the merits and claims of all breeds of live stock. We cannot deny some reason for this. Probably lower net profits have been returned to the credit of the farm accounts by trotters than by any other The Standardbked Horse 23 class of animals produced on the farm ; yet draft horses pay well. However, to ignore or to depise the Standardbred is to deny de- served recognition to the horse which has, at least until we have been shown a better way, tilled our fields, furnished our chief means of transportation, mounted our troops, and been the central figure in one of our most popular and liberally patronized sports. And there are yet farmers who find the Standardbred of the riglit type to be of greater usefulness to them than horses of any other type or breed. NOTABLE STRAINS The history of the Standardbred is very well known and little need be said of it here. Every Xew York farmer knows the Fig. 4. Hambletoxiax 10 at Twexty.-Three Years of Age. (From " Productive Horse Husbandry" — Courtesy of J. B. Lippincott, Publishers.) Hambletonian, the Abdallahs, the Mambrinos, the Wilkes and a score of others. However, that these farmers do not fully under- stand how the fabric of the breed is woven in these lines is ex- posed in their frequent reference to a Wilkes or a Hambletonian. There was a time when to be a Wilkes or Hambletonian was some distinction, but the different branches of the family tree have 24 The Horse Industry in New York State begot trotters. ramified into so many twigs that to say that a horse is Wilkes- bred signifies that he is Standardbred and that is about; all. It may, therefore, be worth while to run out some of these family lines. descendants of messenger So far as the Hambletonians, the Wilkes, and the Mambrinos are concerned the focal point is found in Messenger — a gray Thoroughbred imported from England in 1788. While he was a running race horse, many of his sons and grandsons out of the common trotting road mares of that time, became trotters and The most notable of all sons of Messenger was Mambrino, at whom the family tree first di- "v i d e s. Mambrino, sired both Abdallah and Mambrino Pay- master. From the former comes Hamble^ tonian 10 and his 1287 descendants ; while Mambrino Paymaster sired Mambrino (liief, a cousin of Hambleton- ian and progenitor of a blood line known col- lectively as the ]Vram- brinos, which nicked especially well with the get of Hambleton- ian himself. Of the nnmerons sons of Hambletonian fourteen became noted as producing .sires, and George Wilkes was the Fig. 5. Monument over Grave of Hambletox- jrreatest of them all. IAN 10 AT Chester, N. Y. ^ . {From " Productive Horse Husbandry" — Courtcsi, „f J. B. Lip- ^^'^'^ again the trCG pincott, Publishers.) i i j v J* branches and subdi- vides through the sons and daughters of George Wilkes and their succeeding generations, which are almost legion. The pre- potency in this family is remarkable. The Standakdbked Hokse 25 the morgans Other Standardbred family lines not akin are the descendants of Justin Morgan whose best blood comes down through Sher- man Morgan, Black Hawk, Ethan Allen, and, in Daniel Lam- Ijert, is engrafted onto the Ilambletonian stalk, F'anny Cook, the dam of Daniel Lambert being by Abdallah and therefore half sister of Ilambletonian. The more light there is thrown on the ancestry of the early Standardbreds the more credit attaches to Justin Morgan. He is ranked by some authorities along with ^Messenger, they being claimed as the two breed-foundation sires. DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS The present status of the Standardbred is subject to some discussion. While he is primarily a light-harness race horse, the percentage of those bred that make good in this capacity is low, and hardly sufficient in itself to justify the breeding of them to the extent that they have been bred. Harness racing seems to be as popular as ever, but the demand for road horses, misfits in the breeding of race horses, has been more impaired by the general use of motors than has that for any other type of horse. Without an outlet for the ninety-nine, the one hundredth one, that is good enough to race, becomes an expensive proposition to produce. ]S'o one is unwise enough to advocate the breeding of race horses by farmers, but the economic importance of the breed depends as much upon what is to become of the majority of the colts as upon the successful careers of the exceptional few. This is the problem in this breed at present. The high-class road horse or gentleman's driver stands a fair chance to come back, perhaps, but the road horse which serves only as a means of rapid transit can never hope to compete again with the roadster car. There is, however, a practically new field opened up to the good-gaited, well-mannered trotter. For some time trotters have been used in a limited way as saddle horses, but they have been backed chiefly by trotting, not saddle, horsemen. Now riders of much experience have been heard to, say that if more people had experienced the delightful sensation of riding trotting horses more would l)e ridden. The extended trot of the light- harness horse is so distinct from the collected, weight-carrying 26 TiiE HoKSE Industry in New York State trot of the true saddle horse, and they are so different in the way they are set np, that it seems inconsistent to interchange the use of either. Yet there is ample and proper endorsement of the trotter as the horse to ride to warrant his recommendation for such use. Business men who have limited time in which to ride for exercise are especially warm in their commendation. j\luch has been heard of the remount problem of late. The Standardbred has always given a good account of himself in service and appears to be leading in the solution of this problem today, notwithstanding Thoroughbred and Saddle Horse conten- tion to the contrary. If a census of the thousands of horses re- cruited for foreign service in this country the past few months were taken, Standardbred breeding would be found to predomi- nate. This fact does not attest the greater suitability of the Stand- ardbred grades as mounts, but is accounted for by the very good reason that they are available in greater numbers and in more different parts of the country than any other horses that will serve the purpose at all. The country is already stocked with good Standardbred mares. Are they not our greatest asset in the remount contingency ? We, of New York State, hold the Standardbred in highest esteem, for sentiment and state's sake, for the i>iorv that has been his, and we protest against counting him down and out, as some would do, for time to come. THE ARAB HORSE H. K. Bush-Brow:s, Washington, D. C. Secretary-Treasurer, The Arabian Horse Club of America ORIGIN The earliest histories and sculptural records depict the horse, and usually the Arab horse. There is &ome question as to whether this ancient type of horse was first known in Assyria or in Northern Africa. He is sometimes spoken of as the African horse to distinguish him from the Forest horse, which originated in Europe, and is therefore called the European horse. So far as can be determined there are four species of horses : first, the Forest horse from which we have the draft types, commonly called ^'cold-blooded"; second, the Arab horse or hot-blooded horse, from which we have all the light and fleet horses, and the admixtures of these two giving the coach types ; third, the Arctic horse or pony, represented by the Norway horse, the Conamara pony, and the small horse from the Xorth British Islands ; fourth, the Prezwalski horse, recently discovered in a wild state in Central Africa, only a few of which are to be found and these are in zoological parks. ANATOMY The earliest fossil type of horse had five toes and five developed hoofs; he was small, long-bodied with arched back. Then came the three-toed fellow, and finally the one-toed horse as we know him, with the two side toes only in rudimentary form and called the splint bones. These fossil types had one more vertebrae than the modern horses, which peculiarly reasserts itself now in our sometimes finding seven instead of six lumbar vertebrae. The draft t^'pes have the regulation twenty-four vertebrae; still they are further elongated in the body by the thicker padding between the bones, and are from four to eleven per cent longer than they are high at the withers. In contrast to this the body of an Arab [27] 28 The Hoese Industky in New Yokk State a; „ C 'o The Arab Horse 29 horse just fills a square, and ke has one less vertebrae m the back-twenty-tlu-ee instead of the twenty-four connnon to all other horses, even those so closely bred to the Arab as the f l,or- In the evolution of the horse we find, as we go from the ea.lv a„d lower types to the later and higher types, this course ot eyo- ,tion is in L elimination of the extra toes and the shortening Fifi. 7. Three-Year-Old, Ctboeo, Bred by A^-ITA :\I. BAi.omx, Santa Anita, Cal. of the back bv reducing the number of vertebrae, until we arrive at the highest type the Aral) with only twenty-three vertebrae m the back. CAPACITY The relation of proportion and anatomical detail to capacity has alwavs been recognized by the trained eye of men who have lived ^vith horses, but reducing it to mathematical terms is yet to be accomplished. The research which T have made along these lines has been only sufficient to disclose the largeness ot the held that must be cultivated by those who wish to work therein. 30 The Horse Industry in New York State It is accepted as a truism, however, that a long-waisted horse is not a strong or enduring one — that is, long in the loins or lumbar vertebrae. Some of the fossil types had seven or eight lumbar vertebrae. William C'avandish, the Duke of New Castle, in 1654, depicts the horse of that time with seven. This probably was an accidental revision or sport, for the later fossil types had the regulation six common to all modern horses except the Axab which has five, or, if six are developed, only seventeen dorsal vertebrae. This shortness of the back of the Arab sufficiently explains his great weight-carrying capacity and endurance, which, with his extended ribs and deep chest with big trottle and open-nostrils, gives him great lung capacity. It is in the transmission of some of these qualities to his off- spring, the Thoronghbred and Trotter, that we have the speed and endurance of these types. With three centuries of artificial se- lection for special functions of racing we have produced these separate types of horses, but the present stock remains a distinct type by itself, largely on account of the anatomical difterences. HEREDITY In the horse we have the wonderful opportunity for the study of heredity, because of the anatomical difi^erences that exist be- tween the Arab and even his nearest of kin, the Thoroughbred and Trotter. For three hundred years we have, by special selection for capacity, produced our modern types, using the dams of the European horse with the sire of the Arab horse, constantly re- fining and reenforcing from the Arab, until we have in the Thor- oughbred 99 per cent and more of Aj-ab blood ; but with all this selection I fail to find a Thoroughbred skeleton with the twenty- three vertebrae of the Arab. On the other hand, we have the Arab horse bred with religious care by the desert tribes, always tracing their pedigrees from the dam, and for three thousand years they have maintained a pure type with twenty-three verte- brae. These facts have forced me to accept this theory until the con- trary is proved true : that the dam has more control over the pro- The Arab Horse 31 portion and anatomy of the foal than the sire. The investigations I have made so far have g'one to snpport this theory. The details of this research I cannot give in the space allowed for this writing. The pure and intense type will also more surely dominate the characteristics of the foal, and diagonally crossing the warp and woof of inheritance is the law of cross sex similarity so frequently apparent. Thus the son favors the mother's family and the dauo-hter the father's. Fig. S. Cross Bet\™en a Kentucky Saddle Sire and a Pxjre- Bred Arab Dam. To return to the opportunities of horse breeding— we have to find out something by breeding the pure Arab mare with twenty- three vertebrae to the Thoroughbred, the Trotter and Morgan, which are kindred types with twenty-four vertebrae, and, by re- search, discover how many, if not all, of the produce will have twentv-three vertebrae; also what the result would be from the second generation by breeding to each of the original types. 32 The Hokse Industry in New Yokk State future possibilities in heredity My observation leads me to believe we can produce an American Arab oa* Thoroughbred — whichever it may be decided to call the family having the additional size and the anatomy and proportion of the Arab — which, by reason of this increase of size and shortening of back, will be a more enduring and better horse than either of his ancestors. To accomplish results on such lines certain individuals must be selected for anatomical research, and their skeletons preserved in some museum so that those who follow the investigation may do so from generation to generation. It cannot be accomplished by any haphazard or catch-as-catch-cau method. To show the value of continuous careful study, let us review the influence of the Arab on horse breeding of the last few centuries in this country. REVIEW The influence of Arab blood in this country goes back to colonial times when all the importations of race horses to this country had been bred in England, from the ten recently imported Arab sires. The one who had the greatest influence on Anierican horses was Messenger, who was thrice a grandson of Godolphin Arabian and also bred to Byerly Turk, Greyhound, Curwan Arab, and Darley Arabian. He was imported in 1788, and all Thorough- breds, all Trotters, All Kentucky Saddle Horses- — and one may safely say all the horses that are good for anything — carry the blood of Messenger. Scarcely less important was the importation from the desert of the stallion Grand Bashawj who came a few years after Messenger and was mated to his daughters. In ISll he was bred to Pearl, the daughter of First Consul who was herself six times bred to Godolphin Arabian and caiTied the blood of Byerly Turk, Laads Arabian and Darley Arabian. The produce was Young Bashaw who was bred to the descendants of Messenger, and thus produced the families of Andrew Jackson, Long Island, Black Hawk, and Henry Clay, All the Trotters of this country carry the blood of Grand Bashaw and the best of them go back to him on almost every line of ancestry. The Arab Hokse 33 34 The Horse Industry in New York State I have no information of Arab horses tliat may have come to this country between the time of Grand Bashaw and about 1856, when Keene Richards of Kentucky imported quite a number of stallions and mares. His breedings were destroyed or scattered by the Civil War, yet their intlueuce can be traced as important factors in the Kentucky Saddle Horses of today. One of Keene Richards' horses produced the race horse Limestone, and another the dam of Dorsey's Golddust. After the battle of Pittsburgh Landing (Shiloh) General Breckenridge escaped from capture by the federal troops, who were on Thoroughbred horses, by driving two half-bred Arab fillies of Keene Richards that were only gTeen three-year-olds. Umbark was presented to President Van Buren. While -Hon. AVilliam Seward was Secretary of State under Lincoln he was pre- sented with the Arab stallions ALeaneke Hedragi and Siklany. Leopard and Linden Tree were given to General Grant by the Sultan of Turkey, In 1856 Mr. Randolph Huntington imported Xaomi, and in 1893 her daughter Xazli and grandson Ximr. These important importations were followed by others of ]\lr. J. A. P. Ramsdell and Colonel Spencer Borden of Fall River, Mass. In 1893 a large number of high-class Arabs were imported for the World's Fair under agreement that they were to be returned to Assyria, but they were sold for debt, only a few being rescued from oblivion by Peter B. Bradley and Homer Davenport. Descendants of all these horses have figured very prominently in the show ring in many parts of the country, and in the long distance test of 300 miles in Vermont last year, they held first, third and fourth places, second place being given to a ^lorgan horse. In 1906 Mr. Homer Davenport imported the most important and largest bunch of horses that ever left the desert of Arabia. There were some twenty -five mares and stallions, counting the foals at foot and in utero. Their value may be gauged by stating that the Italian Government paid in Assyria $10,000 for the brother of Deyr, one of the horses Davenport brought home. It is too soon to estimate the importance of these horses or the influence that they will have, but, judging by what has been The Arab Hokse 35 Fig. 10. Abdalla Xo. 52. Owxed by X. J. Hess, Xew York City. accomplished, they are going to imjiress themselves ou the stock of this country just as the earlier importations have done. For instance, one of these desert-bred horses, Haleb, "was shown in Rutland in the Class for the best type of ^lorgans, and was given the cup over the Vermont-bred ^lorgan horses. The value of these horses to the American people will be in pro- portion to the intelligence with which they are bred, and it would seem to be the duty of the state experiment stations to take hold of this necessary research breeding in a really scientific spirit, where its pursuit will not be influenced by the whims of individ- ual breeders or be subject to the limitations of one man's lifetime. Heretofore we have been content to accept our types of horses largely from Europe, and continue their studbooks with slavish contentment and gratitude. In spite of this tendency we hav& 36 Thk Horse Industry in New York State demonstrated our capacity to be iudependent by creating the American Trotter, which has gone all over the world, and the Morgan horse, which, for general purposes, has had no superior. The Kentucky Saddle Horse is also a recognized type. With this history before us is it too much to predict that horse breeders should not close the doors of research, and say they know all there is to know about horses and horse breeding? BEAUTY AND INTELLIGENCE There are two essential characteristics of the Arab horse which have intrinsic merit and financial value. They are intelligence and beauty. As the use of electricity and gasoline for motive power relieves the horse of his former position of universal drudge, he returns to his own original position — the companion of man in his pleasure in times of peace, and the salvation of man in time of war. If there ever was the need of considering the maximum ef- ficiency of a war horse, now is the time. The test given last year in France of 1,000 kilometers, under hard military service, showed the Arab-bred horse to be the most enduring; but this has been demonstrated so many times and in so many ways, that it is only a question of how best to use and continue the Arab blood we already have in this country. In addition to attaining these most useful qualities of endur- ance by use of Arab blood, we have also the marked advantage of beauty and intelligence which he possesses, and, if we will fol- low the laws of heredity and carefully record the results, we can improve on the horses we have in any direction of utility and beauty we may desire. At present the state experiment stations would seem to be the means of carrying out such work and divid- ing the many methods of procedure. Let us take up this work in a cooperative spirit of research that we may make the most of this most interesting science. THE THOROUGHBRED Lieutenant N. C. Shiveeick, "Ashantee," Avon, N. Y. ARABIAN FOUNDATION In speaking of horses one often hears the word " thoroughbred " misused. There can be no such thing as a thoroughbred Perch- erou, a thoroughbred Clyde, Shire or other type; ''pure^bred" is the term which should be used, and this term pure-bred may be applied to any type of horse, each of whose parents is pure bred and of the same type — pure-bred Percheron, pure-bred Clyde, etc. Thoroughbred is the name of a distinct type of horse, developed through centuries of breeding and Tacing. All Thor- oughbred horses" trace their lineage through the records of the American and English Studbook back to one of the three great foundation sires, either the Godolphin Arabian, the Byerly Turk or the D'arley Arabian. The Thoroughbred's foundation was Arab, and it might be said that it practically began where the Arab left off. I mean that the Thoroughbred, resting its foundation on the Arab, thence forward until now, has been developed through the science, care and wealth of the most enlightened, wealthiest and ablest nations of the world. TRANSMITS ENDURANCE In developing the Thoroughbred, there has always been the one definite object, namely, to breed an individual gamer, stronger, hardier and more intelligent than his forebears. Thus for cen- turies the one object of Thoroughbred breeders has been to inten- sify in the " get " the best of its ancestors, and in each genera- tion to eliminate minor defects and to cull out the undesirable points or characteristics. Since no other breed has been so fa- vored, it is unintelligent to even suggest that any breed can be considered equal to the Thoroughbred in what we might call racial transmission. Throughout all nature and all activities of natural things, im- provement occurs in consequence of care and selection. Why breed to a Thoroughbred ? Because he transmits more desirable qualities, physical and mental, than does any other horse. This [37] 38 The IIokse Industry in 'New York State The Thorougiibked 39 does not reflect on any one or all of the recognized breeds, as each has its definite function, but, in the general case, the Thoroughbred as a sire will give the fanner better returns than any other breed, due to his athletic ancestors, and the quality of bone, muscle, nerve, blood and intelligence which they have transmitted. The Thoroughbred, pound for pound of food con- sumed, will wear out any other type of horse at the same kind of work. This does not mean to say that the poorest of the Thoroughbreds will kill off the best of the Clydes, Shires or other breeds in heavy farm work, but it means that the best of the Thoroughbreds against the best of the others, or the average of the Thoroughbreds against the average of the others, will cer- tainly deliver a much higher efficiency in proportion to his weight, his food and his care, than any other breed. He will outdo any type of horse, be it at the plow, on the binder, in the hunting field, or in military service. His gameness, toughness and intel- ligence will bring him in the winner. One may have certain very slow heavy work to be done. In this case the weight is required ; hence, use a draft horse — a big, slow-moving, cold-blooded Percheron, Shire, Clyde, or other of their kind. One may want a very fast trotting road horse; then take a Standardbred, and so on in special cases. But where there is need of a general utility horse, — one that will plow today, reap tomorrow, drive to church on Sunday, and one which pulls more, goes farther and gets there faster for the amount of feed consumed — use the infusion of Thoroughbred blood. TRUE TYPE This bears no reference to the weed type of Thoroughbred. The weed is the outcast of the breed. He comes from the patron- age given two-year-old racing, and is the result of the breeding which seeks to produce speed, speed, and more speed, at the ex- pense of wholesome balance. Under the tremendous strain of training for racing during his immaturity, he becomes a victim of arrested development, and the only reason he does not succumb to this forced or too rigorous course is his inheritance of spirit, which can strive against great odds. 40 The Horse Industry in New York State The Thoroughbred in mind is the fnlly-developed survivor of rigorous work and training, whose inherited constitution, stamina and will, carry him on to a full, wholesome development; whose physical points include a big, roomy lung cavity, and a bread- basket affording comfortable space for a properly-working diges- tive apparatus, which indicates that he is a " good doer " or an "easy keeper." This is the type which for years the German Government has bred for army horses. The Germans have paid Fig. 12. Prize-Winning Two- Year-Old. as high as $230,000 for a single Thoroughbred stallion to use in their groat government studs, and now, in the bitterness of war, their breeding policy proves its correctness — the efficiency of their methods in building a war machine. AVith their superior horses, they have made superior marches, attacks, etc., and their horses are of Thoroughbred sires. We have heard no word of Germany suffering from want of horses. Of course they sustain losses from all war causes, but I think future histories will show that their percentage of losses through fatigue, etc., is much lower than the percentage of the Allies' horse-losses from similar causes. The Thoroughbred 41 jnst as past history proves that the Thoroughbreds of the South were immeasurably superior to the cold-blooded, cross-bred horses of the Xorth. Northern cavalry begau to be effective iu the Civil War only when the limited supply of southern Thoroughbreds began to be exhausted. PREPOTE^fCY Prepotency is kno'^ai to intensify in direct proportion to the established purity of an individuaFs ancestors, and the purity of ancestors is manifested by their pedigrees, which means an accurate knowledge of ancestors. We find in the Thoroughbreds, more than in any other breed, the longest line of known ancestors bred from selected performers, and each generation bred to in- tensify the de^'elopment of those qualities most desired in any type of horse, namely, intelligence, gameness, constitution, and ability to perform in proportion to environment. Breeders know that the percentage of uncertainties increases in a geometrical ratio with every outcross, hence when breeding a female of unknown lineage, wisdom prescribes the use of a sire of definitely determined prepotency, and this is necessarily best established in the Thoroughbred. THOROCGHBREDS ARE INTELLIGENT; THEY WILL NOT STAND ABUSE The only objection to the Thoroughbred, as a general-purpose horse, that I have ever heard expressed by farmers is, that they are too hot-headed ; that they require more careful driving and handling than animals sired by an individual of the draft breeds. Fpon consideration of this statement, one must conclude that these farmers desired cold-blooded, low-spirited beasts which would not resent abuse. Animals of gameness will not stand abuse, but neither will they He down when they are tired. Horses, like men, and like other animals which have no fighting spirit and which will stand abuse without resentment, will also quit when their work becomes tiring. They have neither determination to do their work nor the heart to go on to a finish. While the cold-bred horse takes abuse from a brutal driver, and sullenly, half-heartedly plods on, the Thoroughbred makes known that he will not be mistreated. The fanner hears of it 42 The Hokse Industry iisr New York State and has a basis for discharging- a In-ntal employee, and getting in his place a man who will take his employer's interest to heart as well as his own, and who will keep his team doing a full day's work with a light and happy heart. The man who drives his team with cnrses, whipping, jerking and abnsing, keeps them in a mental state which only a slnggard can stand, and the world knows that slnggards are not performers. This does not mean that the pnre-bred drafter is a slnggard; no pure-bred animal is. There may be exceptions, but no class of pure-breds are slug- gards. The pnre-bred drafter, due to his enormous size, has a bullying eifect on a brutal driver, as brutal people are generally not courageous at heart. MANY NOT TRUE TTrOROFGUBREDS Too often opinions are expressed which are founded on some special case, instead of being the outcome of a really comprehen- sive knowledge and due regard for the facts in general. The Thoroughbred does not enjoy the reputation among farmers that he is entitled to, and this is largely due to the fact that, generally speaking, the Thoroughbreds found in American rural districts are outcasts from racing studs — and even Thoroughbreds follow the laws of the universe inasmuch as all cannot be up to stand- ard — while the specimens of draft breeds in our rural districts are usually of the best. Had our government made a practice of selecting excellent Thoroughbred stallions, and through them fos- tering the breeding of horses, the position of the Thoroughbred would be established throughout the land. LESS AFFECTED BY AUTOS OR TRACTORS At this time, with the fast development of farm tractors, many thoughtful people express the belief that the need for farm horses must necessarily decrease, and, if the advance in tractor manu- facture approaches the progress of the automobile, there can be no doubt about it. A motor converts its food into a knowm amount of work. It never eats while idle, whereas the horse must eat daily, work or no work. There are no epidemics of diseases or unknown ailments of motors as is the case with horses. Hence, what is the profitable horse for the farmer of to-day to The Thoroughbred 43 raise? It is the type of horse whose utility cannot be supplanted h\ any machine- — the horse which is in demand and the demand for which is increasing, such as a hunter or a military horse. If he is wanted for farm use he is available, as well as for any other purpose, especially military. VALUE FOR ARMY PURPOSES The present strife in Europe insures a splendid demand for our horses for years to come, as, after the war, Europe will for Fig. 13. Tiiokouuubred Siiowis" at State Faik. a long period be unable to meet its own demands for military horses. All such horses are increasingly valuable as their pro- portion of Thoroughbred blood is greater, whether for cavalry or artillery. In gun horses, intelligence, spirit, speed and gameness as well as size are wanted; hence a horse having a grand-dam of draft breeding and a grandsire and sire of Thoroughbred, is the type most desired, while the cavalry mount is ideally a hunter, 44 The Horse Industry in New York State and a luniter means anywhere from one-half-bred to clean-bred Thoroughbred. The essentials in military horses and hunting horses can be had only from strong infusions of Thoroughbred blood. One may smile at the idea of breeding a draft mare to a Thoroughbred stallion, but it is due to ignorance. That cross may produce an excellent gun-horse, and the second Thoroughbred cross is sure to. Of course there are instances of individuals of all breeds having exactly the qualities generally sought in other breeds, due to the fickleness of nature in cross-bred matings ; but business which depends on exceptions is not business. There is no question but that marvelous performances will be found in badly bred horses, but they are rare, and only foolish people try to get these " sports " by cross-breeding. More good in more cases comes from Thor- oughbred breeding than from any other. All farmers breed some horses — perhaps only one mare, and that may be only every other year. Even so, it is poor business and bad farming if the owner does not breed to get a marketable type of horse. There is no question but that the most salable horse today is the horse suitable for hunting or for military service. The inexpensive autos have destroyed the usefulness of the roadster from an economical standpoint, and similarly the motor-truck in cities and the tractor on farms are crowding out the draft horse. While automobiles are generally said to be replacing horses, one must accept this statement with a qualification as to Thorough- bred horses ; the demand for this type is greater today than ever before. It is constantly increasing, due to the demonstrations of the present war that horses are as necessary today in the conduct of warfare as ever before, and probably more so ; and it will be generations before the enormous loss of the present war can be made up. Then, too, the demand for hunters is greater than ever, and, with the growing popularity of hunting and racing, this demand must grow. It offers a lucrative field for breeders of horses suitable for hunting or for military service, and these, pre- eminently, must have strong infusions of Thoroughbred blood. The Thoroughbred 45 CARE OF FOAL MOST IMPORTANT After the foal arrives, do not turn him out to be forgotten, but see that he has sufficient food to help him grow, and, in the winter, that he has access to shelter for protection against wet and against cold winds. Cold witliout winds probably tends to make well-fed colts hardy horses. Size is attained by care and feeding, and size means increase in selling price. The founda- tion given during the first year gives the youngster a start in growing that cannot be over-estimated. Neglect the weanling, and double the food during the second year will never make up for the vitality lost while struggling through the first winter. 46 The Hokse I:xDusTiiY ix New Yokk State Fig. 14. Golden Flight. THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE Elise Castlemax Railey, Lexington, Ky. DERIVATION The American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association was organ- ized in the city of Louisville April 7, 1891, a number of the lead- ing breeders of saddle horses being present and participating in the preliminary proceedings. The asso- ciation was duly chartered according to Chapter 56 of the Revised Statutes of Kentucky. In article three of the consti- tution and by-laws of the association is found under the heading '* objects," the following: " The objects of the association shall be to collect, record and preserve the pedigrees of saddle horses in America, and to publish such register in such form as shall be adopted by the association, and such other matters per- taining to the breeding, exhibition and sale of saddle horses as may be deemed advisable." In order to establish rules for the registration of animals by breedina; it became necessarv for the directors of the association to select certain great sires and enter them as the source of saddle stock. The intention was to get back to the source, so it was not desirable that the list be a long one. Only progenitors of what were knowTi to the board to be saddle strains of horses were selected for the foundation list. The list originally selected in 1901 comprised the names of seventeen stallions. In 1902 this list was revised, and the names of seven stallions were removed and numbers were set opposite their names. This list of founda- tion sires stood until the annual meeting in 1908 when the names of nine stallions were removed from the register and numbers set after their names. Thus all were eliminated except the great Denmark, and he was made the sole foundation sire of the American Saddle Horse. Quoting from David Castleman, reproduced from " The Ameri- can Saddle Horse :" " In eighteen yeai'^ since the formation of [47] 48 The Hokse I>'DrsTKY in Xew Yoek State this association, it has been fully demonstrated that no horse was worthy to stand by Denmark's side as a foundation sire. Proof of this statement is conclusively given in the iirst volume of the register, for. of the two thousand nine hundred and eighty-one entries, one thousand six hundred and fifty-three — or practically fifty-five and one-half per cent — have direct male trace to Den- mark by Imp. Hedgeford out of Betsy Harrison by Aratus. The fact that the sire of Denmark was imported makes it im- FiG. 15. Daixty Peaxixe by Goldex Kixg (Jut of Betty Hack- ADAY BY Rex Peaxixe. possible that the blood lines which produced him should find large repret-entation in the thoroughbred blood which has gone to make the American Saddle Horse. However, that he sired Denmark places us heavily in his debt." Imp. Hedgeford was a brown colt foaled in 1825, bred by a Mr. Mytton. He was imported by William Jackson and brought to Kentucky where he died in 1840. It is deplorable that we have no accurate description of him other than that he was very beautiful. Mr, John B. Lentz, who was still living in 190.5, re- membered Imp. Hedgeford, and said of him : "He was a horse of wonderful style and beauty, and a great two-ended one." The Amekicax Saddle Horse 4:9 Betsy Harrison, the dam of Denmark, was a bay mare toaled in 1828, and was owned, in 1S39. by Samuel Davenport of Kentucky. Thus Mr. Davenport has the honor of breeding the great Denmark. Betsy Harrison was by Aratus and out of Jenny Cocraev bv Old Potomac. Denmark was a brown colt; a game and consistent four-mile race horse. Individually he is said to have been a horse of great beautv. He has built a monument to himself as a sire of pre- potency never excelled, and as a consequence is the founder of a great breed of horses. Gaines Denmark by Denmark is out of a mare by Cockspur, k-nown as the Stevenson mare, who was foaled on the farm belong- inc to Mr. WiUiam V. Cromwell of Fayette County in 1S51. Gaines Denmark was a coal black horse with both hind ankles white. He is the live wire of the Denmark family. Denmark got other sons of note who produced great Saddle Horses, but their work is insiffnilicant in comparison with the Denmark. It is worthv of note that Gaines Denmark and John DiUard served m the Civil War in General Morgan's command, and these two old stallions set a worthy example of courage and loyalty to many of their descendants who served with them. The four most notable sons of Gaines Denmark were Washing- ton Denmark, Diamond Denmark, Star Denmark and Sumpter Denmark: of these Washington Denmark and Diamond Denmark are of outstanding importance. The two most notable sons of Washington Denmark are King William and Cromwell, and of Diamond Denmark, Montrose and Mark Diamond. King \S il- liam was the sire of Black Eagle, whose dam was Kitty Richards bv Young Eagle, and he by Gray Eagle. Black Eagle was the sire of Black Squirrel: Black Squirrel was the sire of Chester Dare, Hi-hland Denmark and many other famous horses. The daughters of Chester Dare are in the greatest demana because thev invariably transmit the incomparable beauty of the Chester Dare head — the flaring nostril, the breadth between the eves betokening rare intelligence, slightly dished face, and the wellKiarried, beautiful ears. Caroline is Chester Dare's most famous daughter. Chester Dare sired My O^nti Kentucky and he sired Kentucky's Choice and Kentucky's Best. These two beau- 4 50 The Horse Ixdustry ix Xew York State Fig. 16. Carolina by Chester Dare Out of Nellie Black Hawk. tiful black horses are full brothers, both being out of Little Kate by Prince of Denmark, a great-grandson of Washington Den- mark. Chester Dare sired My Dare who sired My Major Dare who is out of Lilly Rosebud and she by Elastic, a grandson of Black Squirrel. To breeders and students of the Saddle Horse, the meanings of the terms " the Denmark Family " and '' the Chief Family " are clearly understood, but to horsemen not familiar with the Saddle Horse pedigrees these terms are confusing. The name Harrison Chief is in the list of sires originally set aside by the board of directors of the American Saddle Llorse Breeders' Regis- ter, but, as I have already written, because of the overwhelming number of Saddle Horses that trace direct to Denmark, he is known as the foundation sire. However, a horse that traces to foundation stock — to any one of the stallions whose names are given in Volume I of the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Register — is eligible to registration. The Americax Saddle Horse 51 The term Chief Family usually means the descendants of Harrison Chief. The sire of Harrison Chief was Clark Chief by Mambrino Chief. Both of the latter horses are in the Trotting Register. They breed back to Imp. ^Messenger, one being his great-grandson, and one his great-great-grandson. Imp. Mes- senger was one of the great Thoroughbreds of his time and is said to have had a trot of unusual action, speed and balance. This he has transmitted with marvelous precision to the eighth generation. Young Bill, now o^\^led by the goverimient, was the champion harness horse of Kentucky ; and Golden Flight, who like Young Bill is by Golden King, is just beginning a career. King, the sire of Golden King (therefore the grand-sire of Golden Flight and Young Bill), and Bourbon Chief, the sire of Bourbon King and Montgomery Chief, are the two stallions descended through Harrison Chief from Imp. Messenger, who have had the most far-reaching influence on the Saddle Horse of today. Bourbon King is the sire of Astral King, Richlieu King, Roose- velt and Bohemian King, who are world famous. Bourbon Chief sires Emily, the ^^'orld"s Fair champion, who is now in her twenty- eighth year, but is cared for as tits her desserts — lives knee deep in clover and blue grass. Emily in her show days had a world of action at the trot, which conies both through her sire's sire, Harrison Chief, and through John J)illard the grand-sire of Delia, Emily's dam. Dillard Dudley, the sire of Delia, goes back on his dam's side to xlratus, the sire of Betsy Harrison who was the dam of Denmark. Bourbon King and Montgomery Chief are full brothers, both being by Bourbon Chief and out of Annie C. iinnie C. is by King; thus she is a granddaughter of Harrison Chief on her sire's side. Her second dam was sired by Kentucky Chief whose dam Betty was by War Dance, a son of Lexington. The second dam of Kentucky Chief was iSJ^ettie by Oceola, and he was a son of Imp. Hedgeford the sire of Demnark, so it can easily be seen that just as all roads lead to Rome, all Saddle Horses lead to Denmark. The question that most often confronts the present-day breeder of Saddle Hors^es is. Have we improved on Gaines Denmark ? The answer has been handled in a masterly way by a horseman of note The Hokse Inuustky i^ New Yoek State The American Saddle Horse 53 in a recent horse paper. His conclusion carefully lead np to and logically explained is : the Saddle Horse of today is an improve- ment on Gaines Denmark only in step. This is due to careful, painstaking, arithmetically correct breeding by selection ; by the Fig. is. Quicksilver by Boyd Lynx, Tracing to Grey Eagle ox His Dam's Side. judicious infusion of the blood of the descendants of the incom- parably beautiful Imp. Hedgeford, and of the descendants of Imp. Messenger — the race horse with the unusual trot — and of Eclipse — the race horse of indomitable courage and splendid bone and substance. So much for the derivation of the American Saddle Horse. 54 The Hokse Industry tn New York State POINTS OF EXCELLENCE AND NOTABLE HORSES The points of excellence of the American Saddle Horse are, that he is the most beautiful horse in the world, tlie most intelligent, the most companionable, the most versatile and the most useful. I shall not go into a list of horses whose names are household words in Kentucky, but, for the benefit of the people of iSTew Fig. 19. Gexeva C. by Highlaxd Denmark. York State, shall mention some of the horses that have made horse show history within its borders : Oriflamme by Black Squirrel, champion and return champion at the Garden ; Patsy McChord by Black Squirrel, champion of the Garden ; Fayette McChord by Chester Dare and he by Black Squirrel ; Elsa by Highland Denmark and he by Black Squirrel ; Geneva C. by Highland Denmark and he by Black Squirrel ; Mayo by Shrop- shire's Kentucky Squirrel and he by Black Squirrel ; Petroleum by Monte Christo, Jr., a grandson of Montrose; Corinne by Red Eagle, a grandson of Black Squirrel ; Dixie by King Lee Rose ; The American Saddle Horse 55 Flashlight by Eureka Lad; Poetry of Motion by Montrose; The Cardinal by Forrest Denmark; Xickel Plate by King Lee Rose; Margaret Tate by Highland Denmark; Beechwold Bab by a son of Highland Denmark ; Gossip by King Chieftain and he by Bonrbon Chief. On her dam's side, too, Gossip goes back to Imp. Messenger, for she is a great-granddanghter of Harrison Chief. From this list, dating from the first Madison Square Garden champion to the present day, the show horses that are most firmly impressed on one's memory are American Saddle Horses. They have a uniformity of type, beautiful head, eye and ear, long neck, oblique shoulders, sharp withers, short back, smooth quarters and the best of legs and feet. In size they vary scarcely an inch. From Oriflamme to Gossip the height is from fifteen hands, one and one-half inches, to fifteen hands, two and one-half inches ; the weight from a thousand pounds to a thousand and fifty. UTILITY The utility of the American Saddle Horse is without limit — to ride for pleasure, in the show ring, to drive either for speed or " step,'' and as a cavalry mount. The peerless I'hlan is a great-grandson of Black Squirrel on Lis dam's side. Uhlan, in his markings, his color, his conforma- tion, and the way in which he carries his tail, is the ideal Saddle Horse. A daughter of Roosevelt recently made a record of 2:16 on the Lexington Trotting Track, after a few weeks' work. CARE From his colthood the American Saddle Horse is associated daily with man. He is taught to eat grain before he is weaned. After he is weaned, during severe weather he is fed grain daily. Receiving the greatest care and daily handling from man develops, to a high degree, his intelligence, and, having no fear of man, he is wonderfully quick to learn. Having blue grass to eat and pure running limestonp water to drink, his blood is pure and his bone strong. There is a quality either in the soil or in the water, or in both, which is of incalculable benefit to our horses' feet. What- 56 The Horse Industry in New York State ever the reasons may he it is a fact that no country in the world SO develops a horse in mind and body, bone and endurance, as this Blue-Grass country. Proof of this statement is found in the fact that seventy per cent of the g:reat horses in this country — runners, trotters, and saddle horses — are reared within a radius of thirty miles of Lexington, the capital of the Blue Grass. THE HUNTER* Frank Sherman Peer, Ithaca, N. Y. Author of Soiling, Ensilage and Stable Construction Leave us the chase, A\liere, in harmony blending, Men of all classes ride on to the end, Men become brothers, each brotlier contending; Every true sijortsman is coimted a friend. HIS CONFORMATION A hunting man is apt to have rather fixed notions as to how a hunter should be built. His ideal is generally the likeness of some good, faithful beast that has carried him with the greatest ease and safety ; which is only another way of saying that a good hunter, whatever he is like, however he is formed, however he is bred, whatever his color, if he suits and fits us, is not a bad horse. There are some points in the conformation of a hunter that can hardly be ignored. Some general rules, mostly with numerous exceptions, it will be well to keep in mind when passing judgment on a horse for cross-country work. brains AND INTELLIGENCE A large brainy head with a broad forehead and mild outstand- ing eyes, is, as far as my experience goes, one of the points to insist upon. Some horses with a thimbleful of brains are made to hunt, but without sufficient intelligence to go with judgment as well as courage. One w^ho possesses mere valor can never attain more than a moderate degree of proficiency. Some fools of horses may be driven through a run, but they do not enjoy it ; they are simply slaves. Deliver me from keeping company with such a one in the hunting field ! Hunting is, or should be, a partnership game, in which you and your friend the horse go out for a day's sport. The more intelligent the horse, the more level-headed, the more capable he is of entering into the spirit of the game, and of enjoying the day's run as well as his master. Tt must be remembered, however, that, besides size * Extracts (by permission of the author) from Cross Country tcitli Horse c 5 -^ The Draft Breeds of France 75 the perch eko.x France perhaps more than any other country takes a hand in the efficient management and control of her great live-stock in- dustry. The government inspection, pensions and ownership must be given much of the credit for the development of the Percheron horse, which is the most important of the heavy breeds of France. While Percherons are found in many other parts of France they are bred more extensively in the Le Perche district, which con- sists of four departments — Orne, Eure et Loir, Loir et Cher, and Sarthe — and is o.nly about fifty to seventy-five miles in extent. The origin of the Percheron, although more or less obscure, was doubtless from the same Flemish source that was the fountain head of all of the draft breeds. As there was no studbook for Percheron horses in France, and no pedigrees of records kept, up to thirty years ago, much that has been written of the early history of this breed may be considered as more or less specula- tive ; the accuracy of some of the traditional Percheron history has occasionally been questioned. To whatever foundation stock the origin of the Percheron horse is due, it is probable that the tastes and ideas of the French breeder, and the feed, climate and class of work required, had a much greater influence in estab- lishing the early type of this breed. The early service for which the Percheron first attracted atten- tion was rapid draft work. The work of haiiling heavy loads long distances at a rapid pace did not recpiire horses of great size so we find the Percheron of eighty years ago weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, but very active and of great endurance. Much credit is due the breeders of Le Perche in meeting the later demands for horses of greater size and power and retaining most of the earlier character and action which had made the breed popular. The improvement of the Percheron in France is due both to public and private methods. Gorejiiniciif ConfroJ Horse breeding is under the direction of the ^Minister of Agri- culture, as are also horse shows held throughout France. Large 76 The Hohsk l.\i>isri;v i.\ Xkw ^Ok'k State government studs arc maintained, and a certain number of the best Percheron stallions are pnrcliased each year. During- the breeding season these stallions are distributed in Le Perclie and other breeding districts, and only a nominal fee is charged for their services. Fig. 24. Peecheeox Stallion, Kalot, First Pkize Font-YEAR-OLD, Paris Show, June, 1914 {Photo hu E. S. Akin. Syracuse, N. Y.) Stallions owned by individuals must be examined by a board of government veterinarians, and only those up to a certain standard and free from moon blindness and thick wind are allowed to stand for service. Those passing inspection are classed as '' approved,'' which carries with it a pension from $50 to $150 from the govern- ment. ''Authorized " and " certified " are two classes which are not pensioned. Exhihitions There are many horse shows held in France each year. The principal event is the government live-stock show held in Paris in June. This show includes all of the French breeds of horses, as well as cattle, sheep and hogs. At the last Paris show there The Draft Bkeeds of Fkance 77 were 1,095 horse entries of which 443 were of the draft breeds. Xext in importance is the Percheron Society Show held in the district of Le Perche for Percherons only. The last shuw was held in the old town of Xogent le Rotrou, Jnly 2 to 5, 19 14, at which there were 433 entries. Classes were for two-, three- and four-year-olds, stallions and mares ; no yearlings are shown. Competition was very keen, especially among the large dealers who arc the principal exhibitors. Fig. 25. Percheron Stallions in the Great Fovr-Year-Old Class, Called Back for Prizes at the Last Paris Show, Jine, 1914. The White Stallion Standing First Won Second Prize and Was Sold to Herman Buyers for .$2,000 [Photo hi/ E. fi. Akin. Si/nicuae. X. Y.) The Percheron breeding industry in France is entirely in the hands of the small farmer who often keeps but one or two brood mares. The few men who are heard of in a large way as snccess- ful exhiliitors and principal sellers to the American trade are not breeders but dealers, depending on the small breeder for the large number which they handle. These dealers buy princi- pally stallion colts as weanlings, and from many exceptionally good mares the colts are usually contracted for a year or more in advance. The long line of pi'ize winners which these fcAV dealers bring out each year show with what accurate judgment these young colts are selected. There are no more keen, earnest, 78 The Hoksk Industky in Xew Vokk State progressive breeders than the French, aud their ability in grow- ing, devek)ping and showing has done nnich for the snccess of the Perclieron breed. The French breeders are also favored bv the rich pastures of Le Perche district. These pastures are among the best in Europe, especially in the valleys and along the rivers and streams with which this section is well supplied. Eavhj J in portatlons The first Percherons Avere imported to Xew Jersey in 1839, but, since this early importation included only a few animals, the breed did not become well established until after the later im- portations in Illinois in 1851. A Percheron stallion colt from Fig. 2fi. Percheeon Stalliox, JMaxdarix, First Prize Two- Year-Old, Paris Show, 19U {Photo hi/ E. S. Akin, Siiracuse, X. Y.) the New Jersey stock was taken to central New York and traces of this blood could be found fifty years later in lerrades of excep- tional quality. From the early importations, which only assumed importance less than sixty years ago, the Percheron has been the favorite drafter, and its distribution has been rapid and widespread. That The Dkaft Breeds of France 79 Percherons outnumber in this couutrj all other breeds combined is due, largely, to the cooperation of the French breeder with the American supporters of their breed in furnishing the type of horse required. In size, color, type and character, the American trade has dominated the development of the Percheron more than any other draft breed, but in catering to the American de-« maud the French breeder has been amply rewarded. Much credit for the early popularity and good start given the breed is due to the enterprise and ability of the pioneer importers and breeders, but the present importance of the Percheron breed may be said to rest solely on its suitability to the needs and requirements of the American people. Among the earliest and mose earnest workers for state-wide im- ])rovement in horse breeding conditions was John W. Akin of tScipio, X. Y., who from 1877 until his death in 1893 was the largest breeder, importer and exhibitor of Percherons in the East. Desirable ( 'hamclerisiics As a clean-legged breed of finish, energy and action, easy- keeping, early-maturing, crossing well with our native mares, the Percheron early found favor with the average American farmer. The demand from the cities for the highest class of draft horses is largely for Percherons. Grades of this breed last longer on the streets than those of any other breed. Another point in their favor is the gray color. While other colors are to be found in the breed, grays were most popular up to twenty-tive yeais ago. In meeting the later demand for blacks it is said that the black Xivernais were used in crossing with the Percheron, which was unfortunate, since grays were soon in favor again. The average Percheron stallion stands I6V2 hands, and ranges in weight from 1,(JU0 to 2,000 pounds. The popular weight for Percheron mares is from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds: in the West mares of lieavier weights are popular. While Percherons are fully up to the draft requirements as to size, they do not possess the bulk or form of the Shire or Belgian. They have a little more ran2;e of good width, a rounded contour, short back closely 80 TlIK llolISK l.NDUSTKV J.N A'eW VoKK StATE coupled, a fairly level top-line, well arched neck, head of me- dium size, small ear, large full eyes somewhat heavily capped, good flat bone free from long hair, feet of medium size, shapely, and of the very best quality of any of the draft breeds. Other distinctive Percheron features are a combination of size, strength, rehnement, quality, and energy, with a most docile tractable dis- position. The typical Percheron is also noted for his superior action. In this breed we find a bold, snappy, airy movement character- istic of no other draft horse. The Percheron has sometimes been Fig. 27. Pebcheron Mare. Livottrne, First Prize Tiiree- Year-Old, Paris Show, June, 1914 (Photo hji E. ,Sf. Akin, f^iiracuse, V. y. ) charged with being too light in bone, and with having short pasterns and steep rump. This ^criticism would apply however more to the earlier type. That the American people have de- clared in favor of the Percheron is shown by the fact that up to May 1, 1915, there were recorded hy the Percheron Society of .\merica, 108,000 animals, the draft breed next highest in num- her having 18,900. All the other draft breeds combined had less than 50,000 animals recorded. Tile Dkaft Uukeds of Fka^"ce 81 Latter-l)((ii ( 'onditions For the past iiftv years horse breeding in Xew York has been stimiihited, and farm horses greatly improved, by the general use of Percheron stallions. Grade Percherons have added much to the farm efficiency and farm wealth of this state. While the breeding of pnre-bred Percherons haS' not been general, and the nnmber of breeders limited, several large Percheron breeding farms have recently been developed, a nnmber of importations made, and many small breeders interested in the past few years. ]\lany of the most prominent men in American licn'se busi- ness have been engaged in impo.rting Percherons, and the breed has been greatly aided and strengthened by the large number of stal- lions and mares of high quality imported each year. For a nnmber of years American importers have secured, principally, all of the ju'ize animals in France, many of them costing from $;5,(l(l() to $4,000 each. There was l,0o5 Percherons imported in lOlo and 1,125 in 1014, the European Avar preventing all ship- ments after August 1, 1014. On account of the heavy drain on this breed for the w^ar pur- poses it is said that the French Minister of Agriculture will pi'o- hibit any shipment of Percherons for two years at least. The war has also made it impossible to hold any of the national or provincial live-stock or horse shows in France this year. What America owes France for the Percheron breed can never be reckoned in dollars, and, while it is to be regretted that im- portations are shut off, this breed is in better shape for fu- ture development in the hands of the American breeder, with- out outside aid, than anv of the other draft breeds. 6 THE BELGIAN E. S. Akin, Syracuse, N. Y. President, Xew York State Draft Horse Breeders' Club Belgium offers an example of the earliest and most successful development of draft horse breeding, and, since remote times, this country has been noted for its good horses. Tt may be said that Belgium furnished the foundation blood for size and bulk in the improvement of all of our draft breeds during their forniu- lative period. The Kingdom is about one-fourth the size of A'"ew York State, with a population of T.nOO.OOO. and consists of nine provinces. Tn eight of these provinces the Belgian horse is bred extensively, the province of Brabant alone having about 50,000 horses, besides much other live stock. ^ Belgium is densely populated, having many cities, towns and villages close together. The country is mostly low, fertile and damp; the climate is mild, without the extreme variations com- mon to this state. By intensive cultivation and the extensive use of manure and phosphoric acid, immense crops are produced, and, by the system of soiling, each acre supports a numlier of horses. These conditions as well as the taste and requirements of the people are especially favorable for the producer of large horses. The Belgian peasants are generally enthusiastic draft horse breeders. However, breeding operations are limited, as their farms are small, averaging about three acres each. Xeverthe- less the (puility and value of their colts are higher than in any other country. On high-priced land, in thickly settled sections, no aiiimals are kept that are not both useful and profitable. Unlike France, Belgium does not maintain any government stud, the development of the Belgium breed since 1865 having been left to private enterprise, aided by government subsidies and prizes to horses of approved excellence. The establishment of the National Society of Belgian Breeders in 1880, under the official name of Le Cheval de frait Behje, marked the beginning of greater improvement and activity in draft horse breeding. In the [82] The Belgian 83 o > .s i C jf ■J. rjr, . [V cc rii ■^ o 84 rilK HoKSK I.NDrsTKV 1 .\ XkW ^'oI.'K S'l'ATK show, pension and inspection system the Belgian government pays ont $850,000 annnally. This system is most complete and effec- tive in stimulating and encouraging draft horse breeding, and has placed Belgium first in the quality and value of her draft horse industry. Each of the nine provinces of Belgium are subdivided by the Belgian association into six districts for horse breeding pur- poses. Kvery October a show is held in oat-h of the fifty-four Fig. 29. '"' Indigene dti Fosteait," One of the Greatest of ^Iodern Belgian Sires. Champion at Brussels, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909. Sold IN 1914, at Twela'e Years of Age, to a Belgian Company, for $10,000. Said to Have Been Shot with His Owner ry German Soldiers districts, and all stallio-ns over three years old must appear for examination .before a committee of five. This committee, which includes one veterinarian, is appointed for each district for four years, their Avork lasting through the month of October. Stallions considered worthy and able to improve the breed are approved. Unworthy horses are rejected, the decision of the committee beiiig final. After inspection, all stallions are shown for prizes, which The Belgian 85 run from $15 to $S*U in value. Any owner not bringing his stallion for examination and show, or having a rejected stalliou, cannot stand his horse for public service or collect any fees. If this regulation is not obeyed he may be fined. This insures the use of sound sires. In ^faroh a similar examination and show is conducted for l)oth stallions and mares that were too young for the October show, and similar prizes are aw^arded. These tw^o shows are to eliminate the undesirables from Belgian breeding stock. There is also a pension system which is both national and pro- vincial. Six national pensions of $1,200 each and tifty-four pro- vincial pensions of $1.")0 each, are offered by the government for mature stallions. The big show of the year is held in Brussels the second Thurs- day in June, and lasts four days. This show is a national and social event and has the enthusiastic support of all Belgian breeders and farmers. It is the largest and most important draft horse shov; in the world, and also the largest show of one breed that is held in Europe. At the 19 11 Brussels show there w^ere !»08 entries. Three types are shown separately — the Ardennais, the low-set Brabacon of sixteen hands, and the taller Flemish over sixteen hands. For each type there are eight classes, — one each for both stallions and mares in two-, three-, four-, and five-year- olds — and from ten to fourteen prizes are provided for each class. There is also a class for champion stallion, champion mare, and for the best four mares owned by one breeder ; also a class for get of sire and for produce of one mare. Competition is keen, most of the classes having from thirty to eighty entries. One especially interesting feature of the last day of this show is a review of the prize winners by the king with his officers and min- isters, lietween three and four hundred prize winners and cham- pions are led before the king who distributes the prizes and medals and congratulates the fortunate owners. The Brussels show is also of great interest, and is well attended by draft horsemen and buyers from Xorth and South America as well as all other European countries. Of the three recognized types of the 'Belgian breed, the Arden- nais are the smallest. They average from 1.400 to 1.000 pounds, 86 Jl. l.NDLsTuv i.\ A'ew York State The Belgian 87 are from 15 to Ki bands liiali, and are very active. They are similar to the French breed of the same name. They are bred in the liilly conntry of northern France and sonthern Belginm. The low-set Brabacon weighs from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds and averages 16 hands in height. The Flemish type, which is especially favored in Belgium, is the largest, weighing 2,000 pounds or more, and measuring ll)l/'2 to IT hands in height. The Belgian is a very low-set, deep, compact-bodied horse, short, in l)ach, well let down in tlaiik, with wide muscular ends. The legs are short, verv lieavv bone, and free from hair ; feet Fi(i. :>1. Bel(uax Stallions ix the Five-Year-Old Class Called Back eor Prizes at the Last Brtssels Show, JrxE, 1914 medium size, rather short pasterns ; head good size, ears small, necks short, thick, and well crested. In color the Belgians are about lifty per cent bays and forty per cent chestnuts of the various shades. The remaining ten per cent are mostly roans. Blacks and grays are not popular in this breed. In action the Belgian shows surprisingly at the trot, flexing the hocks and knees Avell and moving with much spirit and vigor. They. ship better, acclimate more readily, and can put on more weight in a given time, than any other breed. They are very easy keepers, and are easily ])roken and handled. The earlier Belgians were inclined to coarse heads, lop ears, short necks, low backs, short round rumps, coarse crooked hocks, and a general lack of refinement and quality. 88 Tmo HoiiSK I.\i)isri;v i.\ Xi;\\ ^'()l;K Statk Beliiiaus were first imported iibout 1800, and a few scattering; importations were made up to 1H88. 1 have in mind two im- portations made to onr owai farm in 1883-85 under the name of Boulonnais. These horses were not popnlar in New York State, being- too blocky in type. In the past twenty-five years the im- provement in the Belgian has been very rapid. There is no doubt ])ut that the breed has been much modified and refined in accordance with the American demand. The Belgian breeders realized fnlly the importniice of the foreign market and have Fic. ;)2. ■ l!i:\i: i)( )i;." Om: of iiik .Xfosi Xotkd Stal- lions OF THE BeL(41AN BrEED. CHAMPION OVER ALL Breeds at Paris Show, 1898; Also Champion at Brussels Show, ISOS (Photi) hii ]■:. ,s'. .17,-/y/. ^^iinicuac, V. Y. ) worked to correct the existing faults of their hreed and to im- prove their style, symmetry and action. While the impo^rtation of Belgians in anything like large numbers is of comparative recent date, they have shown in this country the greatest percentage of increase, and now rank next to the Pcrcheron in popularity. The Belgian stallion is especially adapted for crossing on common mares lacking weight and character. This cross shows the great- est improvement in uniformity and draft type. The wonderful progress this breed has made in this country may be said to be Tjie Belgian 89 entirely due to their ability tu make good in the hands of the ordi- nary breeder. The importations of Belgians would have been nnich greatei' but for the limited number of horses of this breed in existence, and the prevailing high prices. There is a great demand in Belgium for breeding horses, not only from America but from all other horse breeding countries. Germany and Holland are prominent buyers, and I have seen many stallions of exceptional quality sold to these countries at from $5,000 to $12,000 each. Sweden, Denmark, Bussia, Austria and Australia are also liberal buyers. The liberal prices and pen- sions have a strong tendency to hold the best stallions in I)elgium, FlO. .S3. SEVEXTEE.N E.NTUIES OF Foil! MAKES EaCII ShOWX BEFORE THE King of Belgifm at the l>Asr Buvssels 8uow, .Ji'ne, 1914 (Photo III/ E. S. Akin, Syracuse, y. Y.) and to the credit of the Belgian l)reeders it may be said that no champions, and very few prize animals, are sold to go out of the country at any price, lentil recently Belgian mares have not been imported extensively owing to their scarcity and their high values, but the strong and persistent demand for mares has in- duced importers for the past few years to bring them over in increasing numbers. Several importations, principally of mares, have been made for various breeders in this state from 1012 to 1914. The exhibition and sale of this stock has greatly stimulated and increased Belgian breeding in the East, and it is hoped that 90 TiiK HoKSK IxDrsiKY i.\ Xkw York Statk there will soon be more home-bred colts to supply the demand. Belgians have been the longest and most favorably known in In- diana, Iowa, Illinois and Ohio, but in recent years have been dis- tributed in all O'f the horse breeding states. Since no more I3elgians can be imported, and, in numbers, this breed is comparatively small, it is of the greatest importance that the American breeder use the foundation stock at hand to the best possible advantage. Any future development of this breed in this conntry must be without outside aid. For centuries' the world's battle ground, little Belgium is again sorely stricken by the disaster of war. In the destruction of her great breed of draft horses, the constructive work of generations is lost, the prin- cipal source of wealth of her peasant farmers cut off, and the increasing and lasting benefit of the Belgian draft breed lost to the whole world for \ears to come. THE DRAFT BREEDS OF GREAT BRITAIN E. S. Akix, Syracuse, X. Y. President, Xew York State Draft Horse Breeders' Club The British draft breeds have had a long period of develop- ment. Early history shows that horses were bred entirely for war purposes. From the seventh to the eighteenth century changing conditions of warfare made larger horses necessary, as a result of which the use of small stallions was prohibited, and larger stal- lions were imported from Flanders to ^cross with the British mares. Up to the eighteenth centnry oxen, and horses untit for war purposes, were used for work. After the beginning of this century horses ^ became more important for work and the real de- velopment of the draft horse began. In the latter part of the eighteen century we find two distinct types of cart horses — the hirge, black old English horse which was the result of the Flemish cross, and the Suffolk Punch, which seems to have been developed without outside help or crossing with other foreign or alien blood. In this respect Sutfolks are probably the purest breed of draft horses. The characteristics of this breed have remained prac- tically unchanged for the past hundred years, except for an in- crease ill size. There can be no doubt but that the Scotch and English breeders have made their draft breeds what they wanted them to be and are well satisfied with the results. Although about the same in color and markings, the two prin- cipal British draft breeds are quite distinct in other character- istics, as well as in size. Great credit must be given the breeders of both countries in the uniformity of type of their three draft breeds. The British Government, unlike that of France and Belgium, makes no inspection and pays no subsidies. Personal endeavor and enterprise, with hearty cooperation among breeders, have accomplished results possible in no other country. THE SUFFOLK The Suffolk is one of the oldest of the draft breeds, and is the most scarce. Their color is the most uniform of all breeds, and [91J - 92 TiiK HoKJSE 1.\jjL!»ti;v i.\ A'ew York ialxATE The ])K.\Fr IJkkeds of Great l!i;riAi.\ 03 thev are claimed to be bred and used more exchisivelv for agri- cultural purposes than any of the draft breeds. They originated in eastern England, principally in Suffolk county, from which the breed takes its name. They are also bred in smaller numbers in adjoining counties. The Sulfolk is one of the most distinctive types of drafters known. The color of this breed, which is referred to with nuich pride by the English breeder, is chestnut, which became tixcd nearly two centuries ago. No animals of an}- other color are allowed to be recorded in the Sutl'olk Studbook. All shades from light sorrel to dark liver are classed as chestnut, but the shade nearest to red chestnut, with very little white, is most popular. The facts in connection with the old-time history of the origin and development of this breed seems to be well established, and show that there has been no crossing or mixing with foreign blood — at least since the lieginning of the eighteenth century- — as was the case in all the other draft breeds. The Suffolk breeding districts in eastern England, especially Suffolk county, while small in area, are very fertile and extremely well cultivated. The rich low pastures mostly along the rivers and English chan- nel are well adapted to the development of heavy horses. Some of these pastures are below sea level and are protected by embank- ments. They are very productive and furnish an abundance of feed most of the year. For the future of the Suffolk breed it is fortunate that there were a few wealthy men in Suffolk who became largely inter- ested in the improvement and preservation of this old breed of horses during the past twenty years. These public spirited men have purchased and kept large numbers of the best stallions and mares, working and breeding them on their large estates, and showing them annually at all of the principal fairs, from the local town and county shows up to the Royal, w'hich is the prin- cipal fair of Great Britain. On these estates are kept the cham- pion and prize Suffolk stallions, which are not fw sale at any price. The tenant farmers are allowed and encouraged to breed their mares to these noted sires at a nominal fee. I^early all colts bred on the small farms are sold at weaning time at private sale, or combined public sale. The best of them are purchased by 94 Tiii'; JloKsi; I Mxsri;^- ix Xi:\v \'()uk State the few principal dealers, and are developed on tlieii- lari>e estates for the foreign trade. The export trade has been very large in comparison to the nnniher available, and this breed has had an extremely wide dis- tribntion, having been exported to Germany, Austria, Sweden, and Russia in Europe, and to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Argentine Republic and Canada. SufFolks have been imported and bred in a small way for the past thirty- five years in the United States, but only a few importers have interested themselves in this breed. Fig. 35. Suffolk Stalliox, Srnp.oxnixE Red Cup, Champion at Last Royal Show, Shrewsbfry, Exglaxd, JrxE, 1914. Owned BY Mr. Clark. (Photo hji I". 8. .\k>)i, i4 hands, and in weight from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds, with a few heavier. As compared with the other draft breeds they are lighter in weight, but their endurance and easy-keeping qualities, as well as their docility and uniform good dispositions, make them an ideal horse for the small farmer who wishes to breed horses for his own use rather than for the citv market. The Draft Breeds of Great Britain 05 The Sutiolk lias a very clean leg, showing no more hair or feather than the French breeds. In this respect thev are so radically different from the very hairv-legged Shire horse in the adjoining counties that it is hard for many people to believe that they are both bred in the same small country. The Shire horse breeders hardly consider the Snff'olks at all and refuse to class them as a draft breed. Among the breeders of Snffolks, the shaggy-legged Shire is even less popular. Both are prejudiced and have no ideas or aims in common. Fig. 3G. Scifolk Make, SmnoruxE ^NfAiiuiLAss, Cham- pion AT Last Royal Siioav, Shrewsiury, England, JrxE, 1014. OwxED i!Y ^fi;. C'lark iPlioli, hji K. S. M;ill, Si/rai-ii-^r. \, Y.) The principal restrictions to tbeir more rapid introduction in the United States were the small numl)er of animals of any age available, as well as tlie keen competition among buyers of the various countries, and the high prices, which average somewhat higher than for other draft lu-eeds. ]\Iany of the old-time Suft'olks liad long low backs, crooked Avoak hocks. Hat lu'ittle feet, and were light in l)one compared with size and bulk of top. These very serious faults, somewhat common to the Suffolk up to about 1900, have been largely corrected and eliminated. The present- day Suffolk has probably more size, more (piality, and l)Ottor conformation than at any tinie in the past. 06 Thk Hoksk IxDi'sTuv ix Xkw \'()i;k State Sull'olk hoivses have been imported and sold in Xew York State for a ninnber of years, but oiiJv in the past three years have they been imported to this state in sufficient numbers and of quality to attract the serious attention of the farmers and ])reeders as a practical business proposition. \ believe the Suffolk horse will become more popular in Xew York State each .year, as they are especially adapted to our aiiricnltnral require- ments. THE CEVDESDALE This breed is recognized today as principally the work of Scotch breeders. The. early history of the Clydesdale would show their origin to have been the same as the English Shire, and that the blood of the English draft bi'eeds was derived prin- cipally from the Flanders source. To the old Flemish horse of Belgium the modern dydesdale, as well as most of the other draft breeds, owe their origin. As a starting point for the real improvement of the Clydesdale, credit is now given to. a black Flemish stallion imported from England into Scotland about 1750 by John Patterson of Lochlyoch. T'p to the time when the Clydesdale Horse Society and the Shire Society were formed in 1883, the two breeds had a closer resemblance than now, and there was also more or less crossing, many times with excellent results. Since that time there has been very little crossing and the breeds have in type and size drifted wider apart. The principal dis- tinction between the two breeds, especially in size, have been brought about by the diiierence in the countries where l)red. Bulk or heavy weight in draft horse breeds was developed on, low ground. Scotland being largely a hilly, broken country, a lighter more active breed resulted. Also, the individual tastes of the l)reeders of England and Scotland differ widely, the latter pre- ferring a horse of less weight and one having more quality and action. Clydesdales were at first bred in the valley of the river Clyde in southern Scotland, principally in the county of Lanark. Per- haps the most successful Clydesdale breeding districts at the present time are the counties of Dunfries, Kirkcudbright and Wighton in lower Scotland, and Aberdeenshire in the north. It may be said, however, that now Clydesdales of high quality and ThK Dl.'AKT IjKKEUS OF ( iKKAT UjOTAlA' 97 I'asliiouable breeding are raised in ])ractieally every county of Scotland. Clydesdale improvement and distribution in Scotland lias been made possible by a few men who have been breeders not only in a large way, but have either owned or bred and developed most of the champion stallions and mares of the breed. These men, who are also dealers, buy many of the best Clydesdale stal- lion colts as weanlings. Stallions of all ages are kept on these large estates in sufficient nnmbers to supply the export trade, but the best trade, which is peculiar to Scotland, is the business of leasing stallions. Companies or associations are formed by the Fig. 37. Clydesdale Stallion. Ciaitjstoxe, CiiAMriox at In- diana AXD Illinois State Faiks, l!)14. Owned by Leitch & Sons [I'holn hit llihtrhrniul, Chicaiio, III.} farmers in most towusliips in Scothmd, not to buy stallions but to rent them for the season. Fsually one hundred mares are guaranteed at from $25 to $50 each, and competition is keen for some stallions of exceptional merit and breeding. Tu this way lu-eeding stock is evenly distributed, Clydesdale breeding encour- aged, and uniformity in type maintained. For the past twenty years the efforts of the Scotch breeder have been mainly directed to improve the hocks, feet, length of pastern, quality of bone, feather and action. To obtain these 7 98 The Hoksk l.Nuusxjiv ijs' ^.ew Vuuk State points they have sacrificed much in size of bone, weight and ruggedness of their horses. Of the draft breeds the Clydesdale was among the earliest to be imported into the United States, and in the eighties the Scot- tish drafter was the most important and numerous of the heavy breeds , in our show ring, but the fact that the American and Scotch trade require a different draft type, together with the fact that Clydesdale breeders in the United States and Canada have beaten the Scotchmen at his own game, has practically elim- inated Clydesdale importation. Fig. 38. Clydesdale Mare, Havistotjn Baroness, Cham- pion, Highland Show, Scotland, 1912; International, Chicago, 1912-13. Owned by Fairholme Farms (Photo by H Udehrand , Chicago, III.) Some of the most intelligent and progressive men ever con- nected with the draft horse business have been among the earlier supporters of the Clydesdale. Upholders of this breed are now less in number, but have among them some men of unlimited ■means w^ho are enthusiastic Clydesdale advocates, and are doing much in the agricultural press and show ring to make their favorite breed more popular in the eastern states. Clydesdales have been the Canadian draft breed for the past fifty years. This is only natural in a country so closely in sympathy with British The Draft Breeds of Gkeat Bkitaix 99 ideas and methods. WTiile the Scotch breed is still the pre- eminent drafter, it may be said that the Clydesdale has reached the height of its popularity. The many importations of Percherons, and their larger numbers in the show rings, in the past few years, would indicate the increasing demand for the French breed across the border. ('hamcteristlcs The modern Clydesdale is somewhat lighter in weight than the other draft breeds, ranging from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds— a few are heavier. They average in height from 15-3 to 17 hands. In color, they are chiefly browns and bays, many having more or less white hairs mixed in their coats. There are also some blacks, !-oans and chestnuts. Gray is not a popular color. The abun- dant white markings on fat-e and legs, which often reaches the body in irregular splashes, seem to be favored by the Scotch breeder, also the feather or hair on the legs, which has been some- what reduced and improved in quality. The good qualities of the C^lydesdale from an American stand- point would be their level top, well-sprung ribs, quality of hocks ai-d bone, well-set pasterns, with true straight action at a walk and trot that is remarkable, being surpassed by no other breed. The criticism of a ( 'lydesdale today is their tendency to be light in the body, narrow in chest and loose in coupling. This rather rangy conformation is probably the cause of their slower maturity. They are also not as easy keepers as the closer-made breeds. The breed also lacks in bone and in feet, which are inclined to be flat. From the Scottish breeders' obstinate refusal to cooperate or consider the wants or recpiirements of the American trade it would seem they must have greatly underestimated the limitless room for Clydesdale expansion on this side of the Atlantic. This expansion is only possible when Clydesdale breeders can satisfy the insistent and increasing American demand for a more rugged, draftier horse, having more bone, clean-legged, and the white eliminated from their coats. The future success of this breed in this country depends on the ability of the breeder to change from the Scotch to the American type of draft horse. 100 Tjik lioiJSK l.\DLsri;v lA JSkw Vukk Statk riip; SHIRK As has already been shown the British draft breeds were evolved from the English war horse of early days, crossed with the old black horse of Flanders. With practically the same origin, and, up to a comparatively recent date, a similarity in type and blood, there is now a wide difference in the characteristics of the modern Clydesdale and Shire. To a marked degree the Shire represents the English idea of a draft horse. In attaining the great bulk or size the English breeder has been especially favored. Fig. 39. .Shire Stallion. Cirldwick, C'hampiox at the London SiiiRE Horse Show, 1914 {Courtesy of Sanders Piiblisliino Co., Chicago, III.) The low-lying, rich pasture country of Cambridge and Lincoln- shire is much more favorable to massive growth than is Scotland. In these counties the Shire and the earlier black Lincolnshire cart horse have been chiefly bred. The Shire Horse Society, as well as many very prominent Englishmen, including the late King Edward and the present King, have done much for the Shire horse interests and improve- ment. The Shire Horse Societv has also been verv active in The Draft Breeds of Great Britain 101 promoting' the large shows, of which the London Shire Horse Show is one of the most important. Xext to the Belgian the Shire is the heaviest breed, bnt the latter is larger boned and coarser in build. Generally speaking, the Shire is more massive than the other breeds, but less com- pactly made, standing 161/) to 17 hands in height, and averaging from 1,7(H) to 2,200 pounds in weight. In build they are some- what rounder in body than the Belgians, not so deep, and, like tlie Belgians, are of many colors, ranging from black through the different shades of bay, brown and chestnut to roan and gray, with the same liberal white markings as the Clydesdale. White, soft, silky feather is preferred, and the quantity of hair on the legs seems to be of great importance to the Shire breeder. An abundance of long bushy hair on the cannon bone is associated with great strength, in the mind of the English breeder, and he sometimes resorts to artificial means to increase its growth. DistrihuiioH and Advantages The distribution of the Shire in this country is more restricted than general. There are some sections in the ^liddle West where they are bred almost exclusively, while in many of the eastern states they are almost unknown. This was not always so. There is little do'ubt that the Shire under various other names was im- ported into the eastern states a very long time ago. Tt is said that a strain of horses called the John Bulls in Pennsylvania w'ere probably descended from English stock. Later this breed found its way to Illinois and adj(.>ining states. (characteristics It may be said that the Shire horse has been much improved in quality and action in the past fifty years, and is now more uniform in type. This breed, however, is of a more sluggish temperament, and is not so docile or even in disposition as the other draft breeds. From an American viewpoint it is hard to understand the English tenacity of purpose in carrying out some of their own peculiar fads or fancies in developing the Shire type. Aside from size and bone, in which this breed excels, this type has been established without any regard to the wants or re- (]uirements of the American trade. An enormous amount of hair 102 The Horse Ia'dustrv in ^'e\v Yokk Statk about the legs, with tendency of the bone to be round and meaty, straight pasterns, frequently too much white on face and legs, large size and contour of head, which is more prominent from the lightness of neck,-^seem to be the characteristics of the breed. Some of these points are found in a marked degree in the champion and prize animals of the Englis.h show ring. In diminishing numbers Shires are being imported to America, not of the type fa^^'ored in England, but animals smoother in Fig. 40. — Shire ^Mare, Dxt.vsmore Chemie, C'uami'ion, Loxdox Shire Horse Show, 1914 {Courtcfijl of .SV/Hf/fr.S' PnhJiyJiinfi Co., Chicago, III.) build, with less feather and less white markings. To those who have watched the Shire at our principal shows it is apparent that prize winners as selected by American judges are closer in type to the clean-legged continental breeds. Although there seems to be a growing interest on both sides of the water in what is termed '^ Quality Shire " it will need a more radical change in the British poMcy and effort than we may expect before the Shire interests in this country can greatly expand. The Draft Breeds of Great Britain 103 In different parts of the east Shire stallions of early times were known under the various names of John Bull, Sampson, English Draft, etc. While this early draft blood was valuable, the bene- fit was not lasting, except as it was used in crossing with other draft breeds which followed. About 1850, a breed called the Sampson was known in the central part of jSTew York State. In the early sixties I remember many grade Sampson colts on our own farm that were excellent workers. These horses were mostly blacks, medium in weight, of rather rough open build, with great energy and endurance. The general impoi*tation of Shires does not date back much before 1880. The number im- ported was never great, but more in former years than now. The Shire has made his best record in the middle western states where they have been most successful in producing big, high-priced geldings and farm native mares. The exceptional bulk, frame, strength and bone of the Shire are qualities that are especially valuable. With this breed, size and substance can be obtained with greater certainty and more quickly than with any other draft blood. Grade Shire mares are especially valuable in crossing with stallions of other breeds. Many of the largest and best grade mares and geldings on the western farms at the present time are from this sort of mating. With the future uncertainty of draft horse importations, especially of the continental breeds, Shire importations will probably increase, since this breed will be avail- able in greater numbers than any other after the war. The following figures, as reported by the various registry associations, will show the comparative number of animals of the five draft breeds imported in 1913-14, those recorded and trans- ferred in 1914, and the total number recorded up to May, 1915 : Breeds Suffolk. . . Shire. . . . Clydesdale. Belgian. . . Percheron. Imported in 1913 Imported in 1914 Total No. recorded in 1914 Transfers in 1914 Reco-ded up to May 1, 1915 40 24 86 20 90S 181 56 821 15,761 98 51 680 553 18,900 027 391 3,534 13,947 1,935 1,125 9,364 9,198 108,000 HACKNEY BREEDING IN AMERICA- IvKcaxALi) ('. Vaxderbit/i- President. American JIacUney llorso Society, Sandy Point Farm, Newport . Pv. T. The iniprovcnieiit in the ehiss of Ilack- iievs hred in this eountrv during the past few vears lias l)een so marked that many helieve that we can show as good speci- mens of the l)reed as the best that are imp(3rted from Enghnid. With the exis- tence of the European war and conse- ijuent stoppage of importations, compari- son, for tlie j)resent at least, is useless, and it is to the stock farms of America that the TTackney niu.-t look foi- its future. What will the Hackney of the future be and from what blood will it be produced ^ To answer these questions we must look to our breeders, for upon what they are doing today will depend the results of tomo^rrow. I wish to call attention to the l»lood lines which the ditferent breeders are following and to their own opinions on matters of interest to the lireeder. I shall take, for example, the Pabst Stock Farm, belonging to Mr. Fred Pabst, and situated at Oconomowoc, Wis. ]\[r. Pabst's foundation was secured by an importation in 19(h; of two stal- lions and twenty mares, and in the spring of 1907 he further in- creased his stock by purchasing from Mr. F. 1). Jordan all the Hackneys at his Plymouth Hackney Stud at Plymouth, Mass. Among this lot, which consisted of over one hundred animals of all sizes and ages, were such well-known stallions as Gentleman John, a champion of the Xational Iloi'se Show, and Dilham Prime Minister, probably the best pony sii'C in America at that time, having go^tten such good ones as Lady Dilham and Bit o'Fashion. Later on Mr. Pabst added to his stud Meanwood Majesty, by the celebrated F(u-est King. * Courtesy of The Field: Tlie Advanced Apricnltiiral Publishing Co., Xew York Citv, piiWishers. I104I IIacK.XKY I^KKKDINC I.N AmKIMCA 105 Aiiioiii: tlic l.nMid mures ;ir(": (';iyiit..ii I'liyllis, by Pdlonius and Saiiitlv. l>y Dissenter, nnt of (,)neen of the Sontli, by Clarton Duke ().f Connau-ht. This mare is the dam of Consternation, which was l)red at this farm and is now owned by Miss Long of Kansas City, for whom she won reserve to the ehampionship at the National two years ago. There are also mares by Gentleman John, Lord Denby II, Prince Crcnnpton, and descendants of old Viscountess, champion at New ^'drk in 1S'.>8, as well as Gossip, the dam of the well- known Xorena and Chatterbox. At the present time ^Ir. Pabst's pony sire is Masterpiece, by Lord St. Kitts, which is by Dilham Prime ^Minister and ont of Fig. 41. IIackxfy Si ai.i.iox, IRVI^'(iTO^- Marlhoko. Owned by \V. D. Henry, Irvincto.n Kai:m, Skmckley, Pa. (Coiirtexil nf '• The Firhl.") Ladv Kitty, she by Sir Horace, Kngland's greatest pony sire. The dam of :\lasterpiece is Elegance III, also dam of Lady Dilham. In 1007 Sir Humphrey was added to the stud. This horse won the championship at Olympia. and since .standing at the Pabst Farm has prodnced many promising youngsters. Further addition was made a few years later, when several brood mares 10(> The Hojvse Industry in JS'ew York State HackiS'ey Breeding ix Amejuca 107 were bought from Hon. Henry Fairfax, and were hred to Mi-. Fairfax's Bagthorpe Snltan, l)v Forest Kini:. Later IJaathorpe Sultan was himself bought, and he is now at the head of this stud. That he is a successful sire has been proven bv the number of prize-winners he has gotten, the wheelers of the team Mr. Pabst exhibited last season being among them. There are now over ninety horses at the farm, including brood mares, young stock and horses in training. Last year fourteen totals were raised, many of them by Bagthc-rpe Sultan and out of Sir Humphrey mares. Mr. Pabst makes a point of having his show strinii' consist of horses of his own In-eedino". Fig. 48. Hackxev Colts ix Pasti he at Daxiel .). Dhis- coll's Hackxey Horse Farm, Axrurx, Pa. {Courtesy of '• The Field."' Aside from raising pure-bi'cd Hackneys, Mr. Pabst is inter- ested in crossing Hackneys with horses of other breeds, and is a tirm believer in the excellent results that can, for various objects, be thus obtained. Three 3'ears ago he bred a number oi Hackney mares to a Thoroughbred horse called Dick Burgess, by Sir Dixon and out of a mare by Hindoo, and has a very classy lot of youngsters which he feels sure will be heard from in the hunter and saddle classes. Xot only for these purposes does he consider the Hackney cross invaluable, but he even claims that a iine type of lighter draft horse can be obtained by another cross. Regard- ing this ]\rr. Pabst writes : " T was impressed with the latter fact on one of my visits to Paris, where I had an opportunity to see a large exhibit of the 1()>S TiiK Hkksi: I.NDrsrin in Xkw Youk Statk horse cjillcd tlif Uritcni. This is ;iii fular^rd type of tho Ilnck- iicy, 1111(1 iis ('Xj)hiiii('(l to iiic Wiis hi-cxl hy d'ossiiii;' the Ilitckiicv iiorse to ii (Irjit'ty tyjjc of native iii:ii"(\s. 'I'hoy wore a vcrv uiii- forni lot, I should jndi>,o wcig'hod 1,400 pounds and over, and were as fine in conformation as many of the smaller sized Hack- neys. I felt that the fact that the Hackneys possessed the pre- potency to eoaivey their individnality to sncli a degree in cross- breeding was certainly a big point in tbeir favor." In regard to the rearing of the young stock, special attention is paid to raising them under conditions most favorable to the Fin. 44. One of the Stallions at Mr. Driscoll's TTa( k- XEY Horse Farm, Aibtrx, Pa. iCourteuj of The Field.") development of vigor and stamina, ^^'ith this point in view, they are not stabled the entire year, but, except during the worst months, are turned out, being given access to sheds that pi'otect them from rain and storms. This system also has the advantage of being most economical, as one man can look after from sixty to one hundred animals when managed in this manner. They ai-e fed oats, mixed hay, alfalfa and corn. The brood mares are fed grain sparingly, but the best of hay. The weanlings are halter- broken, preferably before being taken from their mothers, and as yearlings and two-year-olds are wo.rked from four to six weeks with bitting harness, to mouth them. As three-year-olds they are Ha( K.NKY I>REEl)IX(; IN AmEKICA lUU worked in harness for a month or two. so that by the time they are fonr they are ready for the finishing touches. After many years of close association with the Hackney, ]\Ir. Pabst's opinion of it as a generally nseful horse might be of in- terest. He writes : '' I have been nsing Hackneys for heavy harness nse, riding, delivering farm products to the station four miles away in all kinds of weather, and also for lighter farm work, and I don't know of a horse better adapted for general purposes. I have bred trotters for many years and tliey have no stauncher admirer. There is no. better horse for light harness, but I claim and know that the Hackney is second to none for heavy harness use. To dwell upon their show qualities is superfluous, as they have proven their ability to win over every other breed beyond a ques- tion of doubt." COACH HORSES De Voe Meade Tnstnutor. Department of Animal Hushandrv, Cornell University, Ithaca GENERAL DESCKIPTIOX A typical coach horse stands 15-2 to 16 luuids and weighs from 1,000 to 1,250 pounds. He shonld have hii>,]i knee and liock action, which conies from breeding I'ather than from artificial means of de- velopment. He is not required to have great speed nor marked powers of en- durance, but must move fairly fast with much ease and grace of carriage. The coacher must be very fine in quality, smooth and symmetrical in all of his outline, and must carry his head and tail high. The coacher is heavier, smoother and more stylish than the road horse, and must be stylish and aristocratic in his bearing in order that he mav look well in fine harness and draw handsome carriaaes. The knees should be raised high and the feet in their flight should follow the circumference of a circle without pause, hesitation or thrusting foi'ward as they approach the ground. The entire make-up of the coacher should be symmetrical, bold, refined, stylish, and the bearing aristocratic. THE HACKNEY History This breed originated in Norfolk, England, and is the result of crossing the Thoroughbred stallions on native Norfolk trotting mares, the latter being noted for great speed and endurance, par- ticularly under the saddle. The important changes in the de- velopment of the Thoroughbred probably began with the horse known as the Original Shales, foaled in 1755. This horse was undoul)tedly sired hy T)lazp, a son of Flying Childers, and out of [110] Coach Horses 111 a stout Xorfolk mare. Shales was but four generations removed from the Darby A.rabiau. Families that have been conspicuous in the history of the breed are the Fireaways, the Denmarks, and the Danegelds. Dur- ing the past sixty years the blood of Denmark and Danegeld has been of the greatest importance. Leading sires of the present time are Polonius, Mathias, Koyal Danegelt and His Majesty. The Hackney in America dates back to 1822 when James Booth of Boston imported (Jary's) Bellfounder 55, commonly Fto. 4o. Hackxey Stalltox. VOI.rXTEFR known as Imported Bellfounder. Bellfounder was the sire of the Kent mare, dam of Hambletonian 10. The great speed in the Hambletonian family of trotters is regarded as tracing back through Bellfounder. The first Hackney stud in the United States was established at Philadelphia in 1883 by A. J. Cassatt. Recent breeders and importers are F. C. Stevens of Attica, N. Y., Eben D. Jordan of Boston, Mass., and Robert Beith of Bowman- ville, Ontario, Canada. 112 The Hoi.-sk Ixdistk-v i.\ Xkw Vouk State ( 'iKintclcri.sl irs 'Die typical Hackney is a coinpai-atively short-leiiged, compact, .sinoothly-tiiriied, strong-huned liorso of aristocratic mien. The l)reed is characterized hy a full, rounded chest, short hack, hmg level and Kroad I'unip. witli a most ty])i(*al coachy cai'riaiic ot the neck and head. The graceful cari'iage and perfect, symmetrical, lines of the Hackney make him ])reeminently adapted to carrying' tine harness and to drawing handsome rigs in parks or on the boulevard. The action is high, round, (piick, elastic and regular, not only in front but also behind. The hocks are flexed' and extended so as to correspond with the " trap])y "' action of the knees. Recently chestnut with white markings has l)een the color most in demand. Bays, browns. I'oans and blacks are also ac- ceptable. The most desirable height for the Hackney is 15-2 to IT) •'! hands. nmtt/ The Hackney as a breed possesses strong pre})otency and is able to stamp breed and individual characteristics upon its otT- spring. He is. therefore, well adapted for mating with either Standardbred or Thoroughbi-ed mares for 'the purpose of pro- ducing a high-class harness or saddle horse. The mares selected should approximate as nearly as possible the Hackney type and the offspring from the mating may be expected to j^ossess natural, inherent coach action which may be further perfected by shoeing and training. Hejjislralton The Hackney is promoted in the United States by the Ameri- can Hackney Horse Society. Gnrney ('. Gue of o08 West 9Tth St., New York City, is the secretary of this association.* FKEXCll COACH History As the name indicates, this breed originated in France, where it is known as the Demi-Sang, meaning half-blood. This breed is the pi'odnct of a cross between the English Thoroaighbred and fSoc article on the llaeknoy by IJegiiuild \'aii^^«ss.sr Fig. 40. French Coach Stalliox. Paladea. second, approved (U- subsidized stallions, and third, authorized stallions. The French law since 1SS."> has prohibited the public use of stallions not conforming to these standards. Tt is said that Thoroughbreds have not been used in the breeding of French Coach horses since 1840. Characteristics This l)reed is somewhat variable in type. The breed is more rangy in ty]ie than the Hackney, an upstanding graceful, free- movino- horse. Horses of this l)ree(l ranue in luMiibt from 1 r)-2 114 The Hoksk Ixdustry in Xew York Statk to 16 hands and weigh 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. This breed is characterized l.y a good length of black, a long, somewhat arching neck, and a long, wide, level cronp. The trot of this breed is long and powerful instead of high and trappy like the Hackney. The color varies through different shades of bay, brown, aiid black. IJtil The French Coach is suited for the production of large strong and handsome coach, carriage and wagon horses, when mated with mares that are possessed of suitable conformation and quality. Suitable mating with American trotting-bred stock pro- duces a superior class of carriage horse. Registration The French Coach breed is promoted by the French Coach Horse Society of America. The secretary of this association is Duncan E. Willett, Oak Park, 111. GERMAN COACH History The German Coach originated in Germany, especially the north- western part, in the states of Hanover, Oldenburg, \Schleswig- Holstein and in the district of East Friesland. The coach hors^'e breeds of Germany have been formed by mating native mares of Germany with horses imported from the Orient, England, Den- mark, and other important horse countries of the world. The breed is therefore of composite origin. Government supervision of horse breeding in Germany has existed for centuries. Laws were passed prohibiting the use of stallions unless they had passed a satisfactory government inspection. At the present time both the government and agricultural societies promote the intelligent breeding of horses. Animals of special merit are awarded prizes and must be kept in the country for a stated period of time. Characteristics Owing to the conditions existing in Germany several types of German Coach hoisos lun-o arisen. The l)est kiKn\ii types are the Coach Horses 115 Trakelmen, the Hanoverian. Holstein. Oldenburg, and East Friesland liorses. The Trakehnen horse has a good disposition, great endurance and a strong, ch>sely-coupled back and loin. This is the lightest of the German Coach types. The Hanoverian has strong legs, and a good back, which is suffi- ciently strong to carry quite heavy loads. Although used more for draft it is also suitable for saddle purposes. The Oldenburg is the heaviest type. They stand 15-3 to 16-2 hands high and weigh 1.200 to 1,400 pounds. These horses are Fig. 47. Germax Coach Make, Alejiania used for heavy coach and as farm and all-purpose horses, but are not used under the saddle. The Holstein is similar in size and weight to the Hanoverian. Thev have aood legs, are free movers and are suitable both for rid- ing and driving. The East Friesland horse is about the same size as the Olden- burg and is practically the same, since they are bred from Olden- burg sires. In height the breed ranges from 15-8 to 16-2 hands and weighs from 1,350 to 1,500 pounds. The color does not vai-y 1-^^ J 'If: Jl<)i;sK IxDisTiv'v I.N Xkw Youk Statk greatly, hoino. eithei- hay, brown or hlack. Coarseness is not nn- eoninion to the breed. Superior folding of the knees and hocks, which is characteristic of the Hackney, is not a uniform charac- teristic of the German Coach. Ctlllti/ Mated with large, strong, sound mares the liest German Coach horses are likely to produce a large number of useful wagon horses, light expressers and general purpose horses, and a fair proportion of useful coach horses. Befiislrafion The interests of the (Jerman Coach are advanced in United States by the German Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of America. Mr. J. Crouch of Lafayette, Ind., is the secretai'y of this organization, C I.EVE]. AND BAY 1/ istori/ The native home of the Cleveland Bay is in northeastern Eni>'- land. The exact origin of this breed is very obscui'e and nothing is detinitely known regarding it. The Cleveland I]ay was early used for agricultural and general utility purposes. Owing to changes in economic conditions early in the nineteenth centui-y, and again in the latter part of the same, the breed fell into dis- favor and almost went out of existence. The Cleveland Bay in the United States is practically a total failure. There is no promi- nent breedei' advocating the mci-its of the breed, and importations are rarely made. ('haraclcristics The color is always bay, either light or dark, with black legs, mane aud tail. White, except a small star in the forehead or a few white hairs on the heel, is not permissible as it is supposed to indicate foreign blood. The breed ranges in height from 16-1 to 16-3, and in weight tVom 1.2()() to 1,550 pounds. The Cleveland Bay ranks among the largest of the coachers, but it lacks the quality and action of the other coach breeds. The Coach Hokses 117 118 The Horse Lndustkv i.n New V(ihk Staik action is strong iuul powerful but not stylish. Most of the repre- sentatives of the breed lack prepotency f«i j)ro(lucf' (|uality. and larii^ely for this reason they have failed to become popular in America. The Cleveland Bay stallion of the best type and breeding is prepotent in transmitting his color markings and good disposition to his progeny, and when used upon common mares gets a fair proportion of light, active horses for general purpose work. Begistrafion The interests of the Cleveland Bay are advanced by the Cleve- land Bay Society of America. The secretary of this organization is Mr. R. P. Stericker, of Oconoanowoc, Wis. ASSES AND MULES Dk. C. W. Beodhead, Moxtkose, Pa. Farmers' Institute Lecturer THE :\rrLE akd hi>'ny defined Mule The word "mule" signifies a hybrid;, that is, the offspring of animals belonging to the same genus/ and fertile one with the other, but of different species. Mules or hybrids are uS'Ually infertile one with iiiothe]', and are always incapable of pro- j);igat!ng the species indefinitely. As now genera ly accepted, the word mule is used to designate tlie offspring of the jack with the mare. They have been known and bred since the time of remotest history, having been always prized for their longevity, sure-footedness, and ability to labor in ex- treme heat. Hinny The hiuny is the produce of a she-ass bred to a horse. They were called hinnus by the Romans ; hence our name hinny. They resemble the horse more than the ass, just as the nmle, sprung from the mai-e and ass, resembles the male parent most. Hinnies are handsome, round-bodied like the horse, but exceedingly small, and are also said to be slow and more difficult to manage than the mule proper. They have, therefore, seldom been bred, and have generally passed into disuse. THE ASS The wild ass is said to have been indigenous to the Arabian desert and the countries which formed the Babylonian Empire. Those now found in the northern region of India, in the hill country, are said to be so fleet that no horse can overtake them. Four different races seem to be indicated in the Hebrew Scrip- 120 Jill-: H be disappointed in their use. In summer, when a horse would seek the shade, we have seen mules lie prone in the sun and enjoy the heat. For ordinary farm labor and all teaming- purposes, mules become more valuable as we go south of 40 degrees. As we proceed north they become less and less serviceable, and few are found iiL use north of 45 degrees. MILES AKK \OT VICIOUS It is generally supposed that the mule is naturally vicious. This is a mistake. He is resentful and never forgets an injury. If subjected to a long course of ill usage, he at length becomes vicious. On the other hand, no animal is more susceptible to kindness, or will exert himself more strenuously for a kind master. Nevertheless, the mule must have a master — -one firm and yet kind. The mule, as some of our readers probably know, has a perfect means of otfense and defense — his heels. These he knows how to use to far better purpose than does the horse. They are not used, however, except under the impulse of fear or revenge, if treated kindly the mule is at once amiable, tractable and willing to perform any due amount of labor. ()n the other hand, if ill used lie becomes sullen, vicious and often balky in the extreme. BKEEDIXG OF MULES In the breeding of mules, as of all other animals, attention must be paid to the use for which they are intended. If for ])acking in the mountains, small compact mules, such as are bred from small tine JSpanish jacks, are retjuired. These are at once agile and sure-footed. For work on southern plantations medium-sized mules nnist be sought. These are bred from mares of ordinary size, by good-sized jacks. In breeding mules for the road and for heavy teaming, large roomy mares are used. These are served with the largest jacks, and, at three years old, when well matched, command $300 to $600 a span. The treatment of the mares and of the mule colts should be precisely like that of the horse colt and its dam. The colts should be handled when young and should be gently treated and made completely subordinate to the will of the master. At two years 120 The House IrvDusTuy in JSIkw \ (jick State old they may be broken. They should be carefully harnessed, without frightning them, and hitched to a strong wagon, when they will generally move off without much difficulty. Thereafter they may do light work until they are four years old, when they may be put to labor. Their dentition is similar to that of the horse, and the rule for telling their ages is identical with advice for that animal. BREEDING Mules being hybrids may be bred from mares not suitable for breeding horses, as mules are not so liable to take on the defects of both sire and dam, such as ring bone, spavins, and many other hereditary defects. Any young man starting in the farming busi- ness can soon have a good team by using a jack for the sire on such dams as are not fitted for breeding horses, on account of the latter's susceptibility to inherit certain defects, I want to emphasize this point : the better the dam, the better the mule. This holds as good in mule breeding as in that of cattle. It is said that the mule does not need as much care as the horse. That may be true ; but they do respond to good treatment as well as the horse, and will show it quicker and prove their appreciation by their looks and actions. Mules will thrive on coarser fodder than the horse, such as browsing of weeds, berry briars, and many things found in pasture that even cattle or horses will not tt)uch. A good roll every day is as necessary as feed or water, and, when the day's work is done, they want their freedom for a few minutes in a yard where they lie do\\^i and roll and shake themselves. Corn and whole oats make an ideal feed for the mule. Mule colts should be weaned from the mare the same as horse colts, at four or five months of age. CASTRATION Castrating of mules should be done at an early age; one year old is a good time, as they grow up more even fore and hind. It is all the better if done when the colt is running with the mare. If everything is visible there is no more risk with the mule colt than with the horse, but the same precautions should be taken. AsaEs A2sD Mules 127 • 128 liiK ll()i;si.. J.xDi.sTia' i.\ Xkw \'()Kk SrArK ROACHIXG AM) T FJI M NflXfi Koaching and tninining the mane and tail sliuuid be done regu- larly, as it gives them a better appearance, but always leave a nice switch on the tail for tly service. SIK)EI.N(; MULES Mules may be worked on the farm without shoeing. If they are not shod at too early an age the shape of their feet is such that they will grip the earth and not slip, providing the ground is not filled with Hat and sharp stones. The sandy soils, and the river bottom where the stones are round, do not wear of!' the feet, but it is advisable to shoe if they show signs of crimpling when pulling on the road. The mule's feet, being upi'iglit when the colt is l)orn, should not be changed by shoeing, but should be left as natural as possible. Do not cut the heel too much so to get the horse sha])e, as many shoers do. This results in too much pull on the heel tendons from the bottom of the foot, which will cause ankle cocking and stumbling. Kindness should be used in the beginning as they never forget anything, either good or bad treatment. THE HORSE ON NEW YORK STATE FARMS Dr. ]\I. Hamilton, Delhi, jST. Y. Veterinarian and Farmers' Institute Lecturer- ^^gB^^ Since the clearing of the forests by our ^^^mL> forefathers the horse has held a unique If '^'^k position on the farms of jSTew York State. The pioneer settler, often living long- distances from markets, was obliged to haul the products of the farm over long, tedious journeys to exchange them for the necessities of life. To him the horse held second place only to the family circle. The horse removed the stumps, tilled the first acres of virgin soil, carried his children to school, his family to church. ISTaturally the farm boy of today inherits a love and admiration for the horse. His ambition to rear, feed, and intelli- gently train one or more colts is a laudable one, developing self- reliance, self-control and an interest in farm life. The requirements of the horse in the earlier days, when rail- roads were few and the motorcycle, trolley and auto were unheard of, were quite different from those of today. The horse in those days offered about the only means of conveyance for the jSTew York State farmer. Consequently, a horse of medium size, not so large as to interfere seriously with his road work, yet large enough to perform the ordinary farm labor, was considered the ideal or general-purpose horse. The Morgan horse filled this place admirably. STANDAEDBRED AND ROAD HORSES After the Civil "War, farmers of this state became very en- thusiastic over the Standardbred trotting horse. Practically, just one requirement was necessary to make a Standardbred stallion idolized by a whole community, and that was speed. Xo matter how inferior in size and conformation, no matter how sulky and 9 [129] 130 The House TxBrsTKY tx ISTew Yotik State mean of disposition, it was his record as a trotter tliat determined largely whether he should he nsed as a hrceder. ]\Ineh that had been gained through the preceding years to establish an ideal farm horse was lost, for farmers bred their ideal farm mares indiscrim- inately to the stallions that had the most speed. The Standardbred trotting horse of quality is to be recom- mended when bred to mares of his own type. It is poor policy, however, to breed a large farm mare to a little, runty stallion, with nothing to recommend him but speed. The results of this injudicious breeding are seen at the present time in the large number of horses that are inferior in size, color, temperament, soundness and c(Uifonnation. liaising trotters is all right for pleasure, but the average farmer would better wait until the mort- gage is paid and he has a good-sized bank account before com- mencing activity along that line. With the increasing facilities for travel, the road horse is be- coming less necessary; and the demand has increased for the large, strong, active horse of drafty conformation. Moreover, the growing importance of deeper and better tillage of the soil, to- gether with the increasing amount of heavy farm machinery, such as the binder, sulky plow, corn harvester and many others, require horses of weight. VARIABLE WEIGHT FOR TTTE FAR:\r ITORSE Very wide differences of opinion exist among farmers as to what constitutes an ideal weight for a farm team under present farming conditions. Some individuals prefer the mettle, spirit and nervous temperament that is characteristic of small horses; while others choose the strength, docility and dependence of a drafter. Conditions on various farm.s also differ, those having rough, heavy land where nnich plowing must be done requiring heavier horses than farms composed of lighter soils. Moreover, horses vary greatly; and the reader has no doubt owned, or at least known, horses weighing only 1,000 to 1,100 pounds that endure more hard farm work and haul heavier loads than some horses weighing 1,400 pounds or oven more. This is not an argument to prove that the small horse excels the big one on the farm; but it does prove that a small horse of good shape and The Horse on Xew ^'ok'k Statk pAims 131 build is superior to many drafters, especially when the main object of the breeder was to produce a horse of great weight, regardless of qnality. The greatest demand is for horses weigh- ing from 1,100 to l,(iOO ponnds, the most popular weight being around 1,400 pounds when in good working condition. Very often a 1,000-pound horse when shipped from the West will normally weigh only about 1,400 pounds after having been worked for several months. POTXTS OF EXrELT-EXCE As the majority of new horses required to replenish tlie farms of the state each year are imported from other states and then purchased from horse dealers, 1 should like to mention a few points which I consider every farmer should be able to judge be- fore making the purchase. If you are unable to judge the age of a horse, by all means employ a man who can. Thousands of old horses are being shipped into this state each year and sold for high prices to the farmers for seven- eight- and nine-year-olds. The art of burning with a hot iron, or grinding with files little holes on the wearing surface of the front teeth to make them appear like natural cups, and thus deceive the unsuspecting cus- tomer, is being practiced extensively. Xature surrounds the cup with a very thin layer of white enamel. Xice, even cavities or cups not surrounded by enamel should arouse our suspicion of fraud. The horse sliould have a strong, muscular appearance with a certain amount of refinement and quality, indicating that every pound of weight is necessary for his development and usefulness. Of what use is a hundred pounds of extra weight carried on the head and neck or another hundred pounds of unnecessary connec- tive tissue, which predisposes to stocking of the limbs and lym- phangitis '. Plenty of weight in muscle, bone and tendons placed in proportionate amounts in the right places is essential. I'hat is the reason why some of our well-bred smaller types of horses are so powerful. A good sized barrel or alxlomen shows that tlie horse has plenty of room for his dinner and indicates a good feeder. A well-sprung rib, wdiich is one that extends well out froin the backbone and well 132 TiiK lI(»i;sK I.NiusTKV IN New York State down towards the ground, indicates that the liorse has a hirge heart and hmg capacity, as well as ample space for the digestive ap- paratns. Select those with level top lines and short hacks, heavily ninscled over the loins; that is, the muscles hetween the hips and kidneys shonld he hroad and appear full and prominent. A de- pression in front of the hij)s indicates hick of endnrance and weakness of the m.ost serious nature. Many drafters have very steep rumps, but choose those that ai'e more nearly leveh. Many of the hest ones have a strong- dock. The size of the head and neck should be proportionate to the rest of the body. A rather small, lean head, smoothly attached to a well-arched neck gives the drafter a certain amount of style and digiiity that we all admire. Ample width between full prominent eyes and nicely placed ears of medium size signify intelligence and a good disposition, r.ong, sloping shoulders, on account of allowing greater freedom of mo- tion and preventing an undue amount of concussion, are 'much preferred to straight, upright shoulders. This is a very important consideration, especially if we expect a considerable amount of work at the trot. The slope of the pastern (the space between the hoof and fetlock) has an essential bearing on the amount of road work a drafter can perform. Short, straight pasterns, while they may appear stronger, are often the cause of ringbones, sidebones, and various foot lamenesses ; whereas a pastern of moderate length, sloping at an angle of about forty -five degrees, renders the jar or concussion on the parts below much less severe. THE LI.MDS .VXD FF.E'I' The cannons (the bone and tendons between the fetlock and the joint above) should be short and wide in front and extend well- back. They should l)e flat and appear free from all surplus tissue. Hence, the old idea that the round, stocky leg lacks quality is true. It is not the bone or tendons, but an excessive amount of con- nective tissue and a thick skin, that gives it its round ajipearance. As the front feet have to support at least two-thirds of the weight of the body, it is not surprising that the trouble is within or around the foot with 75 per cent of the horses that are lame forward. The quality of the hoof can usually be judged by the quality The Hokse on New York State Farms 133 of the hair around the top of the hoof. Hough, coarse, kinky hair means poor, coarse and In-ittle hoofs : while if the hair has a fine, smooth, glossy texture it indicates that the hoofs are of the same quality and will stand the wear much better. The foot should be of good size with a dense heavy wall that is free from ridges and roughness. The soles should l)e thick and firmly attached to the wall. The frog should be large and wide and extend well down. The bars should be prominent and extend well back. The weakest part of the hind limbs is the hock joint. Un- doubtedly, with TT) per cent of the horses that are lame behind, the trouble is located in or around the hock joint. The entire joint shoTild be large and wide in front, extending well back, and should present a flat appearance, with its irregTilar shape distinctly out- lined and free from puffiness. SLIGHT ^OX-UEKKDITAKY UXSOUXDXESS XOT A BAR TO FARM WORK Often times unsound horses can be used to advantage on the farm. We often reject a horse for some trifling unsoundness, as a splint, wind puft" or wire cut, and accept one that is apparently sound, but with such poor conformation that he is predisposed to unsoundness when put to hard labor. Sound, serviceable horses can frequently bo purchased 25 per cent or more below their actual vahie. City horses that have corns, sidebones, etc., caused from continual concussion on city pavements, often make sound, serviceable horses for farm work. It is not usually economical to l)uy horses that have an incurable lameness, as the pain caused by the lameness makes them hard keepers. Some farmers do not keep enough horses to do their work m season without overworking them. ^^lany farmers, however, keep too many horses, and often are more careful of them than they are of the members of their own family. It is not infrequent to see the children walking to town to an occasional party or to church, while the father has several horses standing idle in the stable. Let the boys and girls take a pleasure trip with the horse occasionally, and you will do more to keep them on the old farm than by any other single thing. THE BEST HORSE FOR THE FARMER TO BREED J. 11. S. JoiiJSSTOA'E, Chicago, 111. Author of " The Jlorse Book " It is beyond doubt that the exportation of so many horses for service in the artillery branches of the British, French and Italian armies will very materially inlluence the demand and supply in our equine trade for many years — perhaps for all time to come during which a horse market may exist on any large scale. It is peculiar, but nevertheless true, that the majority of our most useful horses in town and country have for many years been bred haphazard. Xo one denies that, taken by and large all over this country — on city pavement and in the farmer's field — by far the most useful and generally used type of horse has for a long time been the chunk, weighing from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds. ]\lost of them are and always have been the get of pure-bred draft stallions. Previous to the establishment of the stallion importing business, and the consequent pure-bred draft horse breeding busi- ness in this country, the chunk, as he is universally described today, was not known in North America. To be sure there were stockily built little horses of the same shape and much lighter weight, but they were more on the cob than on the chunk order. When the importation of British and French draft stallions began, there were no large mares with which to mate them. As a result the progeny was of medium poundage, but considerably heavier than the maternal parent stock. As cross after cross of draft blood was added, it became possible to produce horses of real draft size — from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds — but to this day, the same preponderance of chunks exists. Only a very few of the colts begotten by any ton drafter ever exceed the chunk size. Hence it follows that the great bulk of the chunks bred in this country have not been what they had a right to be. Sired by stallions weighing from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, and from [134] The Best House for the Fakmeu to Bkeed 135 ordinary farm luares weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, the resulting foals, if properly fed in their youth, have every right to attain a poundage considerably greater than they have as a rule developed. IMPOETANCE OF PKOl'Eli FEEDING EARLY IX LIFE The American farmer, however, has with few exceptions failed to recognize the necessity for feeding his young horses well during their first two seasons -^ especially during the first. Hence the generalized use of the pure-hred draft stallion has given us the chunk as the commonest of all the horses bred on the farms of this country. Feed is the great determining factor so far as the horse of draft blood is concerned. I was the first to formulate the now well-understood postulate that a horse makes one-half or more than one-half of his ultimate growth during the first year of his life, and hence any breeder who wishes to rear horses of true draft size must not only use the right sort of parent stock, but must have his foals weighing from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds when 365 days old. In just so far as that mark is missed will the animalfall short of being a real drafter. Proverbially averse to feeding their foals grain while sucking their dams, and with any decent liberality during the ensuing six months of cold weather, most foals l^y draft stallions out of common farm mares weigh from 600 to 800 pounds at one year old, and not much more at two years than they should have weighed at one, if true draft size had been the object sought. That is why we have never raised more heavy horses — the farmers have not fed the foals and yearlings so as to develop a sufficient avoirdupois. They have not, in the main, desired very heavy horses either to work on their land or to sell. UNIFORMITY OF TYPE AND SIZE DESIRABLE It follows then that if the great majority of our most useful horses have come to us in this manner, resulting from the use of big stallions on smaller mares and an insufficient scheme of feeding, there is room for an effort to supply this chunk of uni- form shape, size and excellence. Personally I have watched the 136 The IIoksio Industry in New York State inspectors for the British army work over a vast immber of horses of the so-called gumier type. These so-called gunners — really just chunks — have been drawn from the farms of the Middle West — or at least the best of them — and they indicated for the most part the sort of breeding described. As already noted the inspectors' selections have weighed from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, but the pattern has been very largely the same — a close-made, short-legged, strong horse, with good straight action and plenty of bone; in short, a chunk with two good ends, a deep middle and good legs and feet. Style and extravagant action, speed, extra good looks and flesh have brought no premium. Providing the animal filled the bill as to height, weight and general type, he was accepted and paid for with the same amount of money that secured individuals that in former years would have brought from $50 to $75 more on the open market. This foreigii army demand has been a great leveller of prices. It has paid the same for a gelding weigh- ing 1,200 pounds as it has for a mare weighing 1,450 pounds and actually worth twice as much money ; which brings us to the crux of the situation. THE EUROPEAN DEMAND Ever since last August this foreign army demand has been the mainstay of the horse trade. First in the field, the British have been the best and largest consumers. They have insisted on taking none but good horses — high-class chunks with weight and sub- stance, strong bone, perfectly sound, from five to ten years old — sometimes as high as twelve years, — and they have taken them wherever that sort was offered. Naturally they got the most of them in the Middle West, and they have about licked the platter clean. ^loreover, they have taken mares whenever they could get them, which is unfortunate. I know from personal obser- vation and enumeration that more than half of the best animals they have taken have been mares. I have no hesitation in saying that of the entire purchases of gunners during the present year, by the British inspectors, not less than 65 per cent have been females, and of the best half of the entire number bought, not less than 85 per cent have been mares. I do not know whether The Best Horse for the Farmer to Breed 137 sex lias anything to do with it or not, bnt whenever any extra good bunch of accepted gunners has been seen, only a few proved to be geldings. The truth of the matter is that this foreign demand for so- called gunners has swept away a vast number of our best and most useful horses from the Middle West. Tempted by the price otfered on an otherwise very dull horse market, the farmers have let go of their best mares, ranging in weight from 1,200 to 1,500 j)0unds and in age from five to ten years. The lame, the halt and the otherwise unsound we have left with us, also the slab-sided, three-cornered undesirable type of those weights. Far too many of the really desirable shapely chunks have been exported, and more are being sold every day. If the war abroad continues through this year our stock of good chunks bids fair to be depleted. Already it is smaller than it should be. The farmers may be able to get along well enough with the left-overs to do their farm work, but the most of them have been selling from the top and letting go out of the country the class of market horse that is, and always has been, the most readily saleable and relatively the highest-priced of all our work horses, recognized as a distinct class on the market. With them, too, have gone the most of the heavier wagoners, and we might say the best light delivery wagon horses as w^ell, because these lighter delivery horses have been accepted freely for the British and French cavalry services. There is, when all this is understood, no difficulty in answering the question: Which is now the best horse for the farmer to breed i By all means let him turn his attention to supplying a really attractive, compactly-built, wide-ended, deep-middled, short- legged chunk, weighing 1,300 to 1,500 pounds. After the trade has" dropped back into its regular channels at the close of the war now raging in Europe, there will be a greater price in offer for the heavier sorts than for those that weigh between 1,200 and 1,300 pounds. For the draft horse weighing from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds, the field must always remain more or less limited. I believe that it will become more and more so as time passes and the use of heavy motor trucks increases. Besides, not one farmer in a 1.T8 The Horsk Industry in iSTEW York State tliousand should ever essay the breeding of these equine giants. It is a business by itself, to which only a chosen few are called. For the chunk, however, there will be use so long as horses endure among our useful domestic animals. On the farm they can, in sutticient numbers, pull the gang plow, cultivate the corn and do all the other work, while on the road they can haul to market all the load an ordinary farm wagon can carry. In the city a pair of horses weighing 2,800 to 3,000 pounds can do practically whatever a pair is required to do, while throe Fig. 58.— Typical Farm Chunk. of tbem abreast can handle any load that can advantageously be navigated about the streets. In the commoner shapes they do the excavation and other similar rough work. In the higher grades they horse the wagons of the great merchants, and, in short, fill the general urban equine bill. This true, it follows that the farmer who always has for sale a few shapely chunks of the type and weight specified, will always find a ready market. He will be producing, so to speak, standard goods, for which the demand is universal. The more care he The Best House fok the Fak.mer to Pureed 139 takes in mating the parent stock and developino- the yonng things, the higher the price he will receive and the greater the profit he will make. Heretofore the great army chunk has been prodnced haphazard. Xow is the time for the really wise farmer to set his house in order to he able to o.ft'er a better article, more shapely, bred for the purpose, and fed from birth so as to imbue it with that rotundity of conformation that spells a high price. MEDir:\[-ST/ED STAl.I.IOXS DESll.'AP.I.E Moreover, if the farmer will set himself to produce chunks weighing from 1,300 to 1,500 pounds in weight, and will con- scientiously endeavor to raise that sort right, he need not use stallions heavier than 1,700 pounds, and we all know that it is far easier to find a really shapely horse of that weight than of 2,000 pounds or more. Only a few of the strains in the foreign draft breeds have been characterized by gi'cat scale for a long time. Most of these breeds have been made heavier in response to the American demand for the ton horse. This is especially true of the Percheron. Though there have always been very heavy Percherons, the breed as a whole was much lighter thirty or forty years ago than it is today. Some of the most deeply bred of these drafters are not the largest by any means. A medium-sized stallion is usually a prepotent sire. I have never known a great behemoth, no matter how finished he might be himself, to breed well. In any case, what is the sense in using 2.000-pound or heavier stallions to beget chunks weighing from 1,300 to 1,450 pounds from mares of about the latter Aveight, or only a little lighter ? 'Mj idea of the best thing a fanner can do now to insure for himself always a profitable market and a ready dispo.-^al of tlie horses, is to use a shapely stallion weighing not over 1,700 pounds to mares weighing from 1,250 to 1,400 pounds, and then feed his foals properly during at least their first 3G5 days. This is a most important item in the success or failure of the horse breeder. It is the flesh made the first year that puts the rotundity into the equine frame. If it is not made then, that rolling roundness of conformation, so much desired, is never at- tnined in its proper development. In this way I believe the sen- sible farmer can fortifv himself so that no matter which way the 140 The Horse Industry in New York State market goes lie will always 1)0 able to sell his surplus horses at top prices. There is a scarcity of that sort now; it will Lecouie greater as time passes. If, as is confidently believed, Europe will be a heavier buyer than ever after peace is declared, the chunk will bring relatively the highest price, just as it is practically the only market sort in keen, active demand at present. He can be produced as cheaply as even much commoner kinds. The mares will do the work on the farm, and the investment in a stallion quite big enough for the purpose, if the feeding of the" colts is properly done, will not be a heavy one. When business picks up in this country, the first demand on domestic account will be for chunks and good-sized wagoners, both produced after the suggested formula. Foreign and domestic buyers will com- pete for these stocky, useful horses. They will last the longest against the competition of mechanical traction for several reasons, which need not be detailed here, but largely because they are the most useful of their kind. Finally, does it not stand to reason that if, as hitherto, they will return a good profit when produced haphazard and without close adherence to one type, they will, if bred, fed and developed with a fixed object in view, return a considerably larger profit ? There is no ([uestion but that chunks bred to be chunks must be better than those that just iiappen to be chunks because the treatment to which they were subjected prevented them from becoming what they should have been at maturity. Drivers, speed horses, saddlers and drafters may safely be left to the specialists. The farmer will find the pro- verbially safe middle road in breeding high-class chunks w-eighing from 1,'P>00 to 1,500 pounds, the get of shapely, pure-bred, medium- sized draft stallions and the mares he works on his land. CARE OF THE STALLION Jay Gelder Kanona, Steuben Co., N. Y. Stallions, like some people, are almost Innnaii; and. like the favorite son of rich parents, many of them are ruined by so-called kindness. The man who in- vented the solitary confinement box stall method of caring for a stallion was a fool and a twin brother to the inventor of cribbing, lip lapping, stall kicking nuistnrbating, weak foals, sterility, weak joints, brittle hoofs, ruined constitutions, disappointment, loss, etc. Possibly some of these troubles may be inherited, but positively all can be caused for want of proper exercise, care and feeding. T.IGIIT WORK DESIKABLK Teach tlie stallion to work, preferably as a two-year-old — light work, of course. It is all right to use a young stallion for light driving if we can accomplish something by it ; hauling milk to the creamery every m-orning is ideal if the distance is not too great or the load too heavy. The regularity of exercise is desirable, and it is the cheapest way possible to advertise a stallion. Let him step otf at top speed for a short distance on a smooth, soft piece of road — only a few rods at first, enough to expand his lungs and develop his muscles, but never to excess. Never let him jog or shuttle along, for no one loves a loafer ; surplus energy will be used in the active walk, which is the real gait for the drafter. It is difficult to say just how much work a young draft stallion should have, but certainly never enough to fatigue him. Two or three hours in the early morning and the same amount in the late afternoon is ideal, and can often be arranged more profitably than it would appear at first thought. Drawing a smoothing har- row, cultivator, weeder, grain fertilizer, etc., can usually be done profitably with two-year-old drafters. Three- and four-year-old [141] 142 Tjie Horse Industry in TvTkw ^'()RK State stallions can usually do a full day's work if ser\nce is not ex- cessive; l>ut, if rotiuired to make three or four services .a week, a half day's work is all we should ask of them. The same would apply to matured stallions, only the mimher of services could he increased ; however one service a day is enough for hest results ; if second service is allowed they should be about twelve hours apart. STABl.IXG A.\J> FEE I) Stallions should be stabled with other horses, preferably in a well-ventilated box stall with openings so they can see what is I'k.. .11. Desirable Tvim; (ir Si Ai.i.id.x. going on, but far better use a hitch stall than a filthy, unbedded, poorly v^entilated box. It is poor economy and bad business to be too careful of bedding in a horse stable. Oats, bran and good mixed hay — about three-fourths of a pound of gTain and one" pound of hay for each 100 pounds of horse, varied according to the^ condition, work and individuality of each horse ^ is splendid feed for a stallion. However, alfalfa Care oi' riii-: Stallion 143 buvt^r sliouldfflW^*i^^t6^ f^^' ^^^^ ^^''^^^' '^"^ '^^ ^^^^^^ one-lialf of tho is not necessa;^jL ^o 5 for a breeding stallion is about right. Care ,v,v^y '■^'^i^^pPPP^'t to overfeed; coarse timothy hay and corn are boti ifardto digest and carry little protein, and they should be fed sparingly, if at all, to breeding stock. Fresh, pure water is very important and should be given before each feeding; if vv^orking in warm weather, a horse should be al- lowed a drink between meals. A good groom will always water and hx the bed the last thing at night after the horse has finished his evening meal. Salt may be added to grain feed or kept where the stallion can help himself. If necessary to regulate the bowels, feed a little oil meal or give pure linseed oil ; if bowels are too active, reduce the feed and add charcoal to the ration. Avoid all stock foods or concoctions of that nature; far better employ a reliable veterinary. AVOID AX EXCESS OF -FAT Xo one can successfully deny that a Uirge percentage of the stallions sold in Xew York State have proved a poor investment as a commercial proposition, one reason being that few have been sold for their real worth. The demand has been for the corn-fed, stall-fed, poorly-exercised, excessively fat stallion that looks good and weighs heavy, but often proves a shy breeder the first season, and when reduced in flesh to breeding condition is often found disappointing in quality. Don't blame the dealer, however, for as long as buyers want fat and are willing to pay the price, they will get it. It costs a heap of money, time and work to put a stallion in show shape — perhaps a hundred dollars, perhaps one thousand dollars, depending on the age of the horse and how well the work is done, and the buyer pays a fancy price for damaged goods. However, a draft horse should carry some flesh, although they rarely have too much if worked or given plenty of exercise, with oats and bran for their grain ration. A GOOD DRAFT STALLIOX A PROFITABLE INVESTMENT A good draft stallion will pay as well or better than any other live stock in any good farming community, but he should earn his keep at the regular farm work. Beginners should buy a young one • — a vearling, a two-year-old or even a weanling ; he should be of good size, well grown for his age and in good condition. The 144 The Horse Industry in New York State '1 s'lee is not ex- •cs a week, a Cake of the Stallion ' 145 buyer should le sure that the colt has had plenty of exercise. It is not necessary to pay an excessive price for such a colt ; he will grow into money very fast and should pay his keep at two years old, at maturity do the ordinary farm work, and earn a nice profit in the stud each year thereafter. CHARACTERISTIOS OF A GOOD DRAFTER A stallion should have a good crest, bold masculine appearance, bright, full hazel eye, a broad, full forehead, and a strong, wide, wefl-muscled jaw — for the grist mill of the stallion is very important. The depth of body should equal or exceed one-half his lieidit ; the length of (juarter from point of hip to point of buttock and the depth from upper end of shoulder blade to point of shoulder should be about equal, and each should exceed the length of back from shoulder blade to coupling. The sloping shoulder and long, level hip gives the short back and long underline — the .•onformation so much desired — and allows free action. If the ribs extend up and well out from the backbone and carry down- ward, the horse has lots of room inside for lungs, heart and other vital organs. Excessive fat gives this appearance to a flat-sided horse, and is damaging and deceiving. Equally important is the pastern — the mainspring of the horse ; it should have an angle of fortv-five degrees. Straight pasterns mean straight shoulders and the "sidebone"^ and ringbone conformation. Equally as important are the feet — especially the fore feet, as they carry about 60 per cent of the weight. I have known many buyers to foolishly object to a thick sole,^the cushion of all the good or bad things above. 1 )on't let the blacksmith mutilate the sole just because it cuts easy ; the saying, " We must be good to our soul or our soul won't amount to much,'^ applies to the sole of a horse's foot as well. At least two-thirds of the power in pulling is expended through the hock, and no doubt 50 per cent of all unsoundness is at this point- therefore it stands to reason that the hock is one of the most important points in a draft horse sire. The term quality covers a heap of sins in draft stallions, especially in the East. We are led to associate the word with fine, silky hair; clean, cordy leos- well-proportioned bodv; large, bright eyes; beautiful head and 'neck, and a nervous energy sticking out a foot from every 10 14(; TiiK MoirsK Im)istk-v i.\ K kw Wuik 8tatk point, yet properl.y controlled by u level, intellioent disposition. Now, add real size and massiveness to that, and we have the ideal draft horse sire -the kind that is in demand hy the men that know, and don't have to be peddled bv some expert. The flat bone of the leg is in reality ronnd, the cords and tendons uivino- it the clean, flat, desirable appearance. As to size of sire it has been said that 80 per cent of the horse buyers want horses wei.-h- mg 1,000 ponnds or over, and 80 per cent of the horses otfered at our large horse markets are nnder 1,500 ponnds; in other words, 80 per cent of the buyers are after only 20 per cent of the orterings. Twenty years ago nine- or ten-hundred-ponnd horses were considered large enough for eastern farms; now most of our farmers want three or four hundred pounds heavier If a fifteen-hundred-pound sire is the size wanted, he will cost at least one-third less than one weighing 1,800 pounds of the same quality, and in the same condition. Other things being equal the price will advance with size very rapidly in a draft stdlion. How- ever, mere weight counts but little; size of bone, if not too meatv IS a good indication of draft horse size. It should measure from' nine to eleven inches around the smallest part of the cannon bone in front, and from ten and one-half to thirteen inches behind according to size of stallion. He should be of rather ruo^oed build; the rangy drafters have not as a rule proved the best sires A height of sixteen to seventeen hands is about right, and a iiood full flank " bread basket " is essential. INTELLIGENT HANDLING Teaching a young stallion to mount from the left side of the mare is important. Stand the mare with her right side about two feet from a building or board fence to prevent the colt from working around on her right side, as often occurs. Be gentle, but firm. Sometimes if the colt is timid it is necessary to use a halter at first; a bridle with a chain under the jaw will control most stallions. A %-inch rod 8 inches long, with a snap welded in one end and a small ring in the other, and used in place of chain will easily control a headstrong stallion. This, however, must be used by an even tempered man, as a yank might break the stallion's jaw. This generation has inherited many superstitious, silly ideas, Care of tiik Sia 1.1,10. \ 1-i' such as l)leediiiu-, blindfoldinu', dark of the moon, cold water treat- ment, etc., at time of service, every one fiiUy guaranteed to pro- duce a foal. The writer tried them all several years ago with his first stallion, and got ten foals from uinety-six mares bred. This proves that 10 per cent of the mares will breed in spite of, rather than because of, intelligent handling. We now have the best of reasons for believing that mares are more apt to settle if bred during last of heat, and preferably in the late afternoon. Marcs rarelv conceive unless in normal health; even a slight cold or excitement is to be avoided, and when taken to stallion they should be driven or led moderately — never ridden. Three and four vears old are trying times for any horse as the teeth are shed at that age. The mouth should be carefully and reoularlv examined and the old teeth removed as soon .as they become loosened. This is not only profitable, but it is humane ; often indigestion, colic, much sutfering and even death are caused by its neglect. ArvTlFlClAL BKEEDIXG The use of the capsule in breeding two or more mares from one service is practical, but requires good judgment and some experience, lleliable information on artificial breeding can be had from the manufacturers of breeding instruments. CARE OF THE BROOD MARE AND HER COLT Lowell Ivoudebusii, New Kiciimond, Ohio Tlie care of the brood mare sliouJd begin at birth; a mother should have been well nourished all her days. How- ever, she should never be overfed a common condition found even on the so- called stock farms, and one which ulti- mately results disastrously. CV)lthood is the time to lay the founda- tion for motherhood, since the dam is 60 per cent in the breeding and rearing of the horse. The laying of this foundation is not a difficult problem, particularly if the dam is a good suckler. ACJE TO BREED At what age should a mare be bred? Would that one could always tell a good brood mare at sight ! As a rule, a mare should be bred at four years of age, if not sooner. It is best to have the filly fairly well broken, but nof in spirit, before she is bred. KEQUIEEMENTS OF A GOOD BEOOD MAEE What are some of the external indications of a good brood mare? Intelligence, docility, non-irritability, a good suckler, one that does not worry about her offspring, and oaie liavino- a large heart girth. The shape of the head and expression of 'the eyes are good indices of intelligence, docility and vitality. Fig. 56 shows a group of draft mares in foal, with a foal and a yearling. Two years ago two of the three mares were bred to^a splendid jack. The mule colts were sold at weaning time at $75 apiece, and a yearling horse colt was sold for $125. All three are good individuals, free from blemishes, intelligent, docile, do not fret and are good sucklers. [148] Care of the Bkood .Mare and Her ('oet 149 CARE before and AT TIME OF PARTUKITION The mare above all tilings should have pleasant and sanitary snrroundinos. She should also have plenty of exercise in the wav of light but continuous work, or the run of a paddock or pasture A large, roomy box stall will suffice where worked dailv. She should not be trotted on hard roads or be used for horseback riding at any time or anywhere. In her care three general methods obtain: (1) no work at all ■md pasture all the time possible; (2) light work until two or 'three weeks of the supposed foaling time, then the run of a good pasture for ten days; (3) light work until she foals, then ten davs' rest as already indicated. We have tried and seen tried all thi-ee methods, and find but little ditierence. Working now and then is detrimental. For pasture there is nothing so good as Kentucky blue grass. The tvpes of brood mares shomi in Fig. 56 do as much work •IS oeldinos of the same type, except for three weeks of the year. What shall the mare be fed i The same as geldings tor the first six months of pregnancy ; then gradually increase the amount of bone- hair- and muscle-making food. She may be lei crushed oats and corn to which wheat bran has been added and clover or mixed hay -not too much alfalfa. A handful of oil meal once a d-iv will keep her bowels in good condition. Constipation is dangerous in a brood mare, as are also strong purgatives - avoid both Ice cold water late in pregnancy is not desirable. Do not permit her in pasture where the grass is rank. We lost a splendid colt once by letting the dam graze m a patch ot wheat that was convenient to the stable. _ _ When may the foal be expected^ The period of gestation is from 300 to 400 davs; 350 days for a male foal and 340 or a female is a general average. Good symptoms of near at hand foaling are: hirge full udder, teats well filled with waxy secre- tions at ends, and sunken areas at pelvic bones _ Manv farmers neglect to have a suitable stall or place m which the dam can foal with safety to herself and oft'spring. I siou d be large and clean. All litter and material of every sor should be removed, and the entire interior thoroughly washed with a dis- infectant such as cresol, or a carbolic solution. Many colts be- come infected in dirty stalls through the navel. In any event 150 The IIokse Industry in New York State O CO '^ < O O 2g o H H O Si o 3 > H H K H cc Ed K . < O H « 05 H » H O '-' iJ < ^ O O 1/3 Cake of ttie Bhood ^Fake and Her Colt 1^)1 it is wise to tie and disinfect the latter as soon as the cult is dropped. There is no better place for a mare to foal than in a pasture, provided the weather permits, and no other stock is nearby. Watch her carefully, for many dams and foals have died from lack of attention at foaling time, even with normal presentations. Sometimes the foal's head is covered with air-tight membranes and it smothers or suffocates. Wo have known many such cases. If the presentation is abnormal, call a veterinarian at once. Keep the mare and colt quiet for a few hours, and see that the foal sucks. Do not let the udder become caked. In case the colt dies there is nothing better to dry up the mother than camphorated lard rubbed on the udder twice a day. In addition milk her, l)ut not dry, two or three times a day until she is dry. If the mother should die in foaling or soon after, give the foal cow's milk modified by one-fourth water, with a teaspoonful of melted sugar added to a Tnphatic animals raised on low marshy soils. It is con- lined to the fore feet, which are generally broad, with low heels and a wall less upright than is seen in the perfect foot. In the flat foot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole for the reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received on the entire plantar surface, instead of on the wall, as the foot rests upon the ground. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises of the sole, to corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the process is once established. So far as possible, horses with flat feet should be shod with a shoe having a wide web, but a great many of such horses cannot stand the pressure on the coflin bone. In such cases I shoe around the outer edge with a narrow-web bar shoe, just paring the frog and heels enough to give a level bearing, and to keep the frog from turning to one side or the other. The heels of the shoe are then a little higher than the toe, and the foot is kept as narrow and as short as possible. In this way I have been able to greatly improve some very bad cases of flat feet. The walls of flat feet are generally weak, and to improve the foot the nails should be as small as the work of the horse will permit. They should not be driven too high, but so as to get a low deep hold in the hoof. Never let the shoe get loose and crumble the shell off the hoof. Club foot is the term applied to such feet as have the walls set nearly perpendicular. When this condition is present the heels 174 The Hokse Industry in New York State are high, the fetlock joint is thrown forward or knuckles, and the weight of the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are club footed, especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. As a rule special shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels should be lowered as much as possible. The shoe is put on with a long protecting toe-piece slightly turned up, while the heels of the shoe are made thin. Crooked feet is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown outward so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the toes close together. Animals with this de- formity are pigeon toed and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the other being perfect, the liability to interfere is still greater for the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center plane. When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but one foot is so affected the liability to interfere is less than where both feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not so near the center line. Such animals are especially liable to stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. The deformity is to be over- come by such shoeing as will equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlock from interfering. INTRODUCTION OF SHOEING The period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of the horse is uncertain, but it is supposed that Hannibal used artificial coverings for the horses' feet in crossing the Alps with 12,000 horses and 90,000 men on foot 200 years before the birth of Christ. It is also believed that William the Norman was first to introduce it in England, and it is stated that he used iron for that purpose. In some countries other material was used, mostly rawhide. It is sometimes argued that if you do not begin to shoe horses when they are colts you will not need to shoe them at all. That would obtain in some sections of our country, but I assure vou it The Horse's Feet and Their Care 175 is not a success in any part of our state, the land being too stony and hilly. I have seen a number of good colts ruined by running in stony and hilly pastures. They would wear off the heel to such an extent that it caused them to become ankle cocked, and it also elfected the coffin joint on the hind foot. I have in my time shod a number of two-year-olds that became lame from their feet wearing off in the pasture. IMPROVING shoeing Since it is an absolute necessity to shoe horses in this part of the country, let us see if we cannot make some improvement on the manner in which it is being done by most of my fellow crafts- men, especially by those that are shoeing our farmers' horses. In my observation during the last twenty-five years while travel- ing in this and other states, I have given particular attention to the appearance of horses' feet on the streets of our cities as well as on our country roads. I can safely say without successful con- tradiction that 75 per cent of the horses are improperly shod, and that 50 per cent of the horses in our state have their days shortened 25 per cent by improper cutting and haggling of their feet by incompetent persons, who nail iron to their feet — I can- not call it shoeing in any sense. At this point I should like to call attention to the fact that I do not claim to be an expert in shoeing trotting horses. My time is entirely taken up with the study and shoeing of road and draft horses and general purpose horses that are used in our agricul- tural districts. Duty and justice require that as the horse increases in powers of usefulness for all purposes of life, he deserves wiser and better protection than is given him by those who doom him to a life of painful labor or constant lameness. Since a large proportion of the defects in horses' feet originate and are developed by bad methods of farriery, it surely must be of sufficient impo-rtance to every man who values his horse to de- mand better service in the shoeing. At the same time he should be willing to pay a fair price for good work if it is in his power to get it done. Though he may be put to some inconvenience, it will amply pay in the long run. 176 The lioKSE Industky in New York State The Hoese's Feet axd Their Care 177 What farmer would think of going into a ten-acre lot with the old-fashioned scythe when we have the improved mowing machines, or into a field of the same size with such plows as* were used fifty years ago ? All the arts and sciences are fifty years ahead of that of horse shoeing in the farming districts. Do not the same conditions exist today in the majority of the rural shops as did fifty years ago ? The old scythe blade for trimming the feet, the buttress to cut away the heel, the shoe set on an inch or so back of the toe, and the old scythe blade and hammer to cut off the over pro- jecting toe ! Xumber eight nails are used in many cases, when num-ber six are too larga But the shoers are not to blame; it is the fault of the horse owners in not demanding a better class of workmen to shoe their horses, and theiu unwillingTiess to pay a fair price for the work. IMPORTANCE OF BREEDING FROM SOUND ANIMALS The main point I wish to bring to your attention is the treat- ment of the feet of the horse. It has long been an observed fact in breeding that "like begets like"; that is, that the peculiarities of parents are likely to appear in their offspring. It follows then that when parents are chosen, whose form, appearance, etc., are those desired by the breeder, there is considerable probability that their ofi'spring will be similarly characterized. Therefore, the breeder who possesses a high ideal and wishes to realize it, will select as sires of his future stock animals that conform to his ideal. In other words, he will breed only from the best. He may be able to overlook the fact that a sire or dam has not the mane or tail he may desire, but in no case should he overlook a sire or dam with poor feet or teeth. It has been my experience that " like begets like " more in this respect that in any other characteristic, since these parts are brought in action at the beginning of the colt's existence. So the care of these parts should begin before birth. SHOEING COLTS No colt should be put to pasture without having his feet pared and leveled. This should be done regularly every six months from the time the colt is one year old. 12 178 The Hokse Industky in New York State K — 7; ^9-B-l-\ a o >t^'0'0 i f" it; 9 o QJ^ -a c ::j_: ej fe . a, S t/; X ^ - o . ,a c E "j: "5 a^ - o S C § '■«"'>! a- a — L.^ 1* c 'z;^ c O — ,- O K— ^ O S: is I C a'S ■^ _. S.2„-a§«?.t; t- t, jf- oi si r; P "O c era Om 2S o 2 i fe , t:" e s ^ T, P n o O 3 _ a; 4, ^ O-S M .9 " r-l t, Oi c Mn . • c p S ctf c •- o .5 ~ cd '-^- PC c £ E. o g c I > „ - £ g o m +i a 0^ ^ o 3 ^ - 0, o o .5 _, 15 CO 1-1 niZOO & ^" lo' S J ''^ ^ -M C"-" "£ ^!H cs ' a > 0. H >-■ ^ « — r .a 3 ■ °a j: 0.x: a o.; ^^ C^ no; cL-r a'" c J— t. .a ^ oj ce a « K -w a fl +J The Hokse's Feet and Their Cake 1Y9 The balance and action of many colts are impaired before they arrive at an age of usefulness. After a colt once has been shod it should generally be followed up. But let me urge that you have it done by a good sheer — one who has good judgment to do it well and at the same time educate the colt as to what is ex- pected of him. Do not shoe too heavily or with too thick calks. Plate shoes are the best if the work to be done will permit. Do not let the nails be too large or driven too high in the hoof. The best method is not to turn the clinches down at all, but rasp them smooth to the hoof. Under no circumstances let a rasp be rubbed above the nails, or let the hoof be sandpapered,, since this breaks the enamel of the hoof, causing it to become brittle, hard and shelly, which condition will in time bring on quarter and toe cracks. QUARTER AND TOE CRACKS In case of quarter and toe cracks have the bottom of the foot well pared out and all the hard substance of the frog cut away, so as to give elasticity to the bottom of the foot. Then with a hot lance separate the hoof at the coronet, and soften with veteri- nary Petrolina or some other good hoof ointment. TREATING CORNS There are various causes for corns appearing in the foot of the horse, such as leaving the shoes on too long, uneven paring of the foot, uneven shoes resting too heavily on the heels, having the heels pared too low, high toe calks and low heel calks, driving at a high speed down hill, causing the sensitive parts of the heel to be bruised by coining in contact with stones and other hard substances, and standing on hard, dry board floors. Remedy: shoe with low toes and slightly elevated heels; cut out the seat of the corn, and fill the cavity well with hoof ointment and okum. Reset the shoes as often as once in three or four weeks, relieving the pressure on the heel as much as possible at each setting. • I sometimes fire and blister just over the heel, and that starts a new and quick growth of the hoof. Often the heel is cut too low and causes lameness just where the cord runs over the nut bone. If such should be the case it 180 The Hokse Industry in New Yokk State will show itself in this way — the horse will he lame when he first starts off, but will get better as he warms up. Remedy : raise the heel of the shoe and lower the toe. Pack the foot with oint- ment and okum. ANKLE-COCKED HORSES Ankle-cocked horses may be benefited by paring off the toe well, and putting on a shoe having slightly elevated heels calks with the shoe running well back behind. Knee-sprung horses may also be benefited by paring off the toe, raising the heel slightly and feeding from the floor at a level with his feet. CONTRACTION Contraction may be relieved by paring the foot well down and putting on a shoe with the heel bearing slightly convex so as to have a natural tendency to press the heel open. The shoes should be nailed only at the toe, and not farther back than the side quarter. Only six nails should be used. A good ointment should be -applied to hasten the growth aud soften all parts of the foot. FORGING One of the worst troubles caused by bad shoeing — and that most found in horses in the country — is forging or overreaching. This condition may be remedied by putting fair lengthed shoes on both fore and hind feet. The heel calks should be slightly ele- vated, and the toe on the hind foot set back so that the hoof is left to project over the shoe about a quarter of an inch. TREADING ON NAILS In case a horse steps on a nail, or anything penetrates the foot, do not delay in having it cut open so as to let the blood start freely. Cut away the hard hoof and make a good opening and fill with soft okum and ointment. Open it every three or four days until all inflammation ceases ; then there will be slight danger of lockjaw. INTERFERING Interfering in horses may be remedied by properly balancing the foot. Build it up with a thick, long-sided shoe, bringing the The Horse's Feet a^b Their Care 181 toe of the foot straight in line with the body. The inside of the foot should be kept smooth, and the nails should not be per- mitted to come ont of the shoes to twist across the foot, as I have seen done in many p case. This is apt to cause sores that may run into scratches, grease heel, big ankles and lame horses. DO XOT BURN THE HOOF The practice of clipping and burning the hoof is very destruc- tive. Using the language of Prof. Russell : " Burning the sole will in time partially destroy the sensitive laminae and impair the membraneous lining underneath the coffin bone, as well as closing the pores on the horn, causing the hoof to become dry, hard and brittle. It also impedes to a certain extent, as a neces- sary consequence, the healthy growth of the foot and hoof." The advocates of hot-fitting present many specious reasons for the furtherance of the practice. It is alleged that shoes cannot be fitted so rapidly nor so closely by means other than hot fitting, and this is generally true; for by this means the hoof is burned to correspond with inequalities w^hich occur on the surface of the shoes, until the latter is thoroughly imbeded in the horn. On the other hand, this fusing of the horn is in opposition to its right growth and operation, and it is the prolific source of many evils and abuses. The horn, being' a non-conductor of heat, is slowly aft'ected by it. It is said that three minutes burning of the lower face of the sole is necessary to produce any indicatioai of increase of temperature on its upper surface. This is a fallacy, as I have proven many times by operating upon green specimens with soles of varied thickness. The soles of ordinary depth were penetrated by heat when heated shoes were applied for the time specified, and the sensitive sole was found to be scorched. The laminae in their connections with the sole were burned and charred. In the living subject these effects would have brought serious results. My experiments have convinced me that the foot of the horse may in no sense be compared to an inanimate block of wood which may be charred and carved as caprice may dictate. It is filled with life and feeling, and therefore its treatment requires thought, care and skill. The economy of labor attained in the process of hot-fitting will, 182 The Horse Txdustky in New York State I am sure, never coiinterbalaiicc its evil effects. While it is true that more shoes can be fitted in a given time by the hot process than bv the cold, this is no argument against the expediency of the latter. I, myself, never put a hot shoe to the foot so as to leave a mark ; neither do 1 allow my help to do this. A man who cannot fit a shoe to a foot level with the hoof parers — round knife and rasp — is not a fit person to be trusted to handle as delicate a a piece of machinery as the horse's foot. So my advice is, do not let any one put a hot shoe to your horses' feet, as it will surely bring bad results. CLIPS SHOULD NOT BE USED Clipping shoes is another bad habit of our best as well as the poorest horseshoers. It does no good, and in many cases results in harm. In my opinion it does not add to the looks of the foot in any way. A shoe that is perfectly level on a level foot, set on with eight good nails driven in the foot properly, will not come off in a reasonable time. So do not have your shoes clipped unless absolutely necessary. PARING THE FROG I am very often asked the question. Do you pare the frog? My answer is this : I do if the frog needs it ; I use just as much judgment as when paring the hoof. So long as the frog is in good shape I do not deem it necessary, but when it either bears to one side or the other, or becomes hard and does not scale oft' as nature intended, paring is required. I 1 CARE OF HORSES' TEETH Dr. C. W. Brodhead, Montrose, Pa., Farmers' Institute Lecturer The science of horse dentistry has been sadly neglected m the rural districts, and by that lack of knowledge on the part of horse owners mnch of the usefulness of the horse is lost. Xenophon said more than 2,000 years ago, " 'No foot, no horse,'' and at this time I will add, " No tooth, no horse." After forty years of shoeing horses and thirty-six years of caring for the teeth, having in that time been a close observer and investigator, I can safely say that 25 per cent of the economy of the horse is lost in this country by neglecting these two members of the body ; and it is my design to try to give some points that may lead to the better care of the teeth on the part of horse owners. I often hear this remark : " Why, my father always kept horses and he never gave any thought to the care of their teeth." That may be true, but many a horse's days have been shortened by not having such attention. In fact, until the last few years no one was qualified to do anything to horses' teeth ; dentistry was one of the last branches of veterinary science taken up by Ameri- can colleges. Originally, the horse's teeth were perfectly fitted for grazing and grinding, but man has changed the food from soft, tender, juicy grasses to hard, dry, woody, fibrous food, which taxes the teeth more than soft food. There have been many fakes handed down from time to time by " boss men " which many people think are true and do not stop to consider how inconsistent they may be such as telling the exact age of a horse by his teeth, wolf teeth causing blindness, and many other things I might mention. The mare has only thirty-six teeth, as she is minus the canine tushes or bridle teeth, as they are generally called. The male or [183] 184 The Horse Tndtstky of New York State [U: y. a fa o H q M H >, |> Oh I Care of Horses' Teeth 185 stallion has forty teeth. The bridle teeth in most cases show them- selves any time from two and one-half to eight years of age — sometimes in early castrations they may not appear in the gelding ; I have found snch cases. The colt begins to shed the milk teeth at the age of two and one- half years, and should have a full mouth at five years, but that is not always the case. I have many times taken out both the corner incisors and the molars at six years old, and I have known that the horse had been badly kept; hence both body and limb had not fully developed, and the teeth were retarded likewise. The jaws of the horse are peculiar in their makeup, the under jaw being from one and one-half to two and one half inches narrower than the upper jaw and forming what may be called a convex-and-concave surface, as the long points on the upper jaw are outside, pushing against the cheek, and the long points on the lower jaw are inside, pushing against the tongue. Since the sharp points do not break or wear off, they cut the cheeks and tongue and cause sores. This can be remedied by properly floating the long points off", thus giving the teeth a chance to get a full grinding surface. Often when the colt begins to shed his teeth, the shells or milk teeth will be crowded out by the permanent teeth. Owing to the convex-and-concave surface they are fre- quently crowded against the cheek or tongue, causing the same trouble as the sharp points in older horses. They should be taken out to give the new teeth a chance to come in proper line. From many causes, horses will have split or broken teeth, others becoming decayed and hollow. It is necessary to extract such teeth, iind then every year or two the tooth opposite will need to be filed or cut off ; since, if there is nothing to wear against it, it will grow down or up, as the case may be, and wear into the cavity and cause trouble. The teeth on the upper jaw are always growing down and out, while the under teeth are always gi'owing up and out. In the case of a six-year-old the teeth may set in the jaws one and one-half inches, when at twenty they may just hang to the jaw, and at twenty-five many of them may be entirely gone. There are many things to be taken into consideration at this point, since some breeds or horses have better teeth than others ; also, horses grazing or being fed on hay that is cut from low sandy 186 The Hoese Industry in New York State bottoms — especially that land overflowed by rivers or creeks — will show wear on the teeth much faster than those grazing or fed on hay cut from hillsides where there is not much grit or sand in the grass or hay. This holds good as to both the incisors and the molars, A horse that is generally stabled will not show so much wear on the incisors as a horse that is in pasture a good share of his life, for the reason that in the constant nipping close to the earth he comes in contact with more or less stones and grit that are not carried to the molars. In judging a horse for useful- ness I look to the worth of his molars and how badly they are impaired, giving very little attention to the incisors. The wolf or rudimentary tooth is supposed by many to be the cause of blindness. That is not generally true, as it is very rarely that there is enough inflammation to cause impairment of the eye- sight. Many cases that I have examined and treated were caused by the molars crowding the cheek and causing sores and ulcers. This trouble may be relieved by filing off the sharp points, thus removing the cause. The following are a few of the symptoms of conditions that may be remedied by having the teets attended to : staring coat, hide- bound, scouring, slobbering when being driven, dropping par- tially chewed food in the manger, gnawing the manger, running at the eyes, side-lining, tossing the head, periodical balking, spasmodic colic, and many troubles I cannot here mention. Painful mastication and resultant indigestion, the primary cause of most stomach troubles of the horse, are due to defective teeth. Take care of the old horse's teeth and be sure to look well to the colts' teeth during the shedding period, as the horse is subject to the same laws as man, and needs the care of the dentist. FEED AND CARE OF THE HORSE F. C. MiNKLER, New Brunswick, N. J. Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station The feeding of work horses involves not so mnch a scientific knowledge of nu- trition as it does the art of applying com- mon sense methods and observations. Given two men with two teams of work- ing horses and all the feed and rough- age necessary for maintenance and de- velopment : the one who is the mere team- ster will generally utilize twice as much feed, and bring his charges through at the end of the season in a less desirable condition than the practical horseman who loves his charges and watches and feeds them in accordance with practical common sense methods. If the old saying that " a bushel of care is worth two bushels of feed " applies to any line of live stock management, it is applicable to the feeding of farm work horses. Success in the feeding of horses is not the automatic process of putting in so many pounds of feed and supplementing this with so many pounds of roughage, permitting the horse to be his own judge; but rather involves the choosing of those feeds that are useful and economical, and at the same time feeding and selecting such products with proper regard to the indiyidual animal, the kind and extent of the work required, the condition, temperament and adaptability of the man who works and the horses that are worked. A, scien- tifically balanced ration is not essential, for chemists are very apt in certain rations to find food nutrients that the horse cannot find. The spirit or '* feel " of the horse, the expression of his coimte- nance, the condition of his coat and legs, together with the con- sistency, color and odor of the feces, are perhaps of more im- portance to the feeder in determining kinds and amounts of feeds than the lead pencil in the hands of the scientist who feeds his horse from his ofiice desk. [187] 188 The Horse Tndusrry in New York State feeding too much roughage a mistake The most common error, particularly in the feeding of farm work horses, is the feeding of too much timothy hay. In the first place, a horse does not exercise very mnch judgment if he is required to determine for himself the amount of roughage that he is to consume. If, by any chance, he is turned loose in a feed room where there is a bale of hay and a barrel of oats he would feel obliged to eat all of both if it were possible. The same rule applies in case the thoughtless farmer feels generous enough to keep timothy and mixed hay before his horses at all times, carry- ing the impression that, since grain is more expensive than hay, if a horse will eat large amounts of such roughage he will require a smaller amount of concentrates. The reverse is often true. Overloading the digestive system of a horse with a relatively indigestible product results in malnutrition, and invites troubles to the respiratory system which finally wind up with labored breathing and heaves. It must be remembered that a horse's stomach is relatively small, holding only from twelve to fifteen quarts ; and, if a horse is doing hard work, he needs concentrated feeds — the nutrients must be digestible and easily assimilated. He should not be re- quired to subsist largely on roughage products that require so much time and energy in the simple process of mastication and digestion. First, limit all the roughage to one pound per day of average mixed hay to each one hundred pounds live weight of the animal, and feed the bulk of this roughage at night rather than in the morning or during the middle of the day. The grain should constitute the bulk of the morning and noon meal. In the selection of roughage two factors must be considered. First, if alfalfa or clover hay is available, it must be remembered that it is not necessary to feed as much grain. Eight pounds of alfalfa hay will supply quite as many energy units as fourteen pounds of timothy hay. Second, idle horses should be given relatively the same proportion of grain and roughage as working horses, and the amount rather than the proportion should be re- duced on account of the idleness or irregularity of work. It is not difficult to suggest a grain ration suitable for feeding horses that work every day. Feed and Care of the Horse 189 the graix ration Five products, for the most part, should provide the basis of the grain ration — oats, com, wheat bran, oil meal and molasses. Under most conditions, especially those that prevail on the average farm, a mixture of these products is more desirable than any one fed by itself. It is generally believed that so far as the concen- trates are concerned, oats are best adapted to the feeding of hoTses — not only on account of their chemical analysis, but be- cause of their physical composition as well. The relative pro- portions of carbohydrate and protein constitute a well-balanced lation, and it seems that horses fed largely on oats, with an appro- priate roughage, possess more mettle than individuals fed corn in liberal amounts. The one objection to oats is their cost, and very often unscrupulous feed dealers mix barley with the oats when the price of barley will enable them to make this substitution with profit. Such a mixture is less palatable and less nutritious than oats fed alone. Corn is king in the com belt, not only for pigs but for horses as well, and if alfalfa hay is used as a supplement very few ob- jections can be made to this combination. However, the common practice of feeding com and timothy hay in relatively large amounts is objectionable for the simple reason tha4; there is a lack of protein — blood- and muscle^making tissue — in such a combination, and it predisposes the animal's digestive system to improper functionating, and eventually the horse's wearing or working qualities are pennanently impaired. Wheat bran or alfalfa hay should always parallel a ration of corn ; or, if neither of these products are available, oil meal might appropriately be substituted. Wheat bran is always indispensable in a ration for growing animals. Its laxativeness coupled with its ash content suggests itself on every occasion when irregularities prevail ; and, if it is useful for sick animals, it is certainly a safe feed for well ones. Oil meal is perhaps the best conditioner available for feeding horses. The mere fact that perhaps 90 per cent of the con- diment stock feeds that are on the market are oil meal is evidence enough of the value of this by-product as a conditioner or tonic. Molasses has come into use within the last few years, chiefly lUO The House Industky in New Yoki-: State because it is less expensive than corn, and supplies quite as much energy. Pound for pound, its feeding value compares favorably with corn, but this does not mean that it can be substituted pound for pound in the ration. It is clear, however, that in case molasses is selected as a feed for horses it should be purchased in bulk, and not through the agency of mixed feeds. Certainly, molasses has been used to market a great nuuiy products as horse feeds that would not be utilized if the buyer of the feed had a definite knowledge of the particular feed that he was buying. Again, molasses should not be used extensively for idle horses, and in any event not more than three pounds should be fed per day. It is an excellent conditioner, and has the effect of smoothing the coat, when proper grooming accompanies its use as a feed. As suggested above, a combination of the foodstuffs named undoubtedly makes the best feed. \'ariety should be practiced by changing the kinds and amounts of the ingredients ; likewise it is permissible to omit certain feeds at a season of the year when they are expensive or are not available. A very useful combination for work horses doing daily work would be as follows : 200 pounds oats, 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds cracked corn, 50 pounds molasses, 35 pounds oil meal. It would not be practical to mix the molasses with these feeds during the warm weather, nor would it be wise to use this mixture during the coldest winter weather. Molasses might be omitted from the ration during this time, or it could be mixed w^th water — five parts of water to one part of molasses — and either poured over the grain after it is in the feed box or sprinkled over the cut hay in a suitable manger. SALT AND WATER Salt should be kept before the animals at all times. Horses should be watered previous to feeding. There is a difference in opinion so far as this practice is concerned, but it stands to reason that since water does not require digestion, it would be much better to let them have their drinking water previous to feeding, and thus enable the digestive system to work more leisurely in preparing the grain and roughage for assimilation. Feed and Cake of the Horse 191 CARE OF the teeth AXD PARASITES-* At the outset two observations should be made. First, the care- taker should make sure that the horse's teeth are in good condition and free from annoying projections that would lacerate the mouth, and be responsible for incomplete mastication. A float may be used if the trouble is simple ; but, if more complicated, a veteri- narian should be called. He should make, sure that the first step of digestion is properly taken. In the second place, internal parasites or w^orms sap the vitality of the animars system, and destroy in many instances the usefulness of the animal's digestive system. Continued annoyances and discomfort in an animal's digestive system are responsible for ill-temper and nervousness, and it is absolutely essential that the animal be relieved from unnecessary disturbances. An ounce of turpentine to a quart of raw linseed oil for a 1000-pound horse, given on an empty stomach, will oftentimes act as a vermifuge; or, placing in the feed twice daily for five days, a tablespoonful of a mixture made up of equal parts of powdered gentian and powdered ferrous sul- phate will act in the same capacity. In either case, a purge should follow the use of such ingredients in order to make sure that the parasites are eliminated from the system after they have been loosened from the walls of the stomach or intestines. The question of gTooming is of vital importance in the manage- ment of work horses. Xot only should the stalls be roomy and kept in a sanitary condition, but every effort should be exerted to provide comfort for the animals. Regularity of the feeding period as well as of the rest period is essential, and it must be remembered that idle horses require less food units than those working regularly. The most difiicult horse in the world to feed and keep in condition is the animal that is overworked one day and underworked the next. Reduce the feed in half on idle days, and increase the grain ration when the animal is doing severe labor. In this way the caretaker will avoid instances of indi- gestion or the loading up of the system with surplus nitrogenous material, which is responsible for Monday-morning disease or azoturia. " The eye of the master fatteneth his animal " is an * See article on care of the teeth, page 183. 192 The Horse Industry in JMew York State / oft-repeated proverb, and is quoted here only to suggest that even though a ration might be scientitically bahmced and practically compounded, it is fundamental that the feeder of horses watch every sign that suggests comfort or distress if he wishes to have his charges always in bloom and eager for work. HORSES AT THE NEW YORK STATE FAIR Dr. H. S. Wende, Tonawaxda, N. Y. Superintendent, Horse Exhibit, New York State Fair, 1913-14 HOKSE SHOW SHOULD ENCOUKAGE BREEDING OF STATE HORSES SUITABLE FOR THE FARM It lias always been mv belief that the horse show of ■ the State Fair should be condncted with the object of encouraging the production of more and better stock within the borders of the state. After being appointed superintendent of the horse department of the fair in 1913, I consulted Commissioner Huson with reference to the policy to be used in re- gard to Xew York exhibitors. He held the same opinion — that everything possible should be done to make the horse show attractive for resident exhibitors. I do not believe that the horse breeding interests of this state are best served by catering to the professional exhibitors of horses, most of whom are importers rather than breeders and whose stables are shipped from one big fair to another, equipped and con- ditioned in a way to make any competition on the part of the farmer breeder fruitless. This refers mainly to the heavy draft classes. I think the correctness of this last statement was demon- strated by the exhibits in the heavy draft classes at Syracuse in both 1913 and 1914. NEW YORK HORSE MARKET SUPERIOR TO THAT OF ANY OTHER STATE No other state in the Union imports so many horses from its neighbors yearly as does jSTew York. For the last few years about 80,000 horses bred in other states have yearly found purchasers in jSTew York State; the total value of this importation amounts 13 tl931 194 The Horse Ikdustky in New York State o H ^ w •< rr< H 7) rt P3 O m kH 'A ■* H H Oj h-l H w i--< o K > H CC P5 Q Z M w o Q ;'. ^, ij < (K ^ ^ \h O H ti r') c: w O M r/j H lO ril o < H o W (^ HoKSES AT THE XeW YoKK StATE FaIK 195 to between sixteen and eighteen million dollars annually. The books of the two big concerns of East Buffalo — the Crandall Horse Co. and the Bailey Horse Co. — show that during the last tive years their sales of horses have amounted to $25,000,000, an average of $5,000,000 a year. There is no valid reason why at least 75 per cent of this number of horses, which breeders out- side the state furnish, should not be produced on the farms of Xew York. Xo better grazing lands or those adapted to the raising of forage and grain are to be found than those in New Fig. 66. Prize-Winning Percheron Stallion, Shown at New York State Fair, 1914. York State, and in no other state do the farmers have a market for more than 75,000 horses annually right at their doors. Despite these facts, however, horse breeding in this state has been at a low ebb for several years. The farmers make no effort to supply the commercial interests of this state, and it is not far out of the way to say that 75 per cent of them do not raise the horses which they need on their own farm. At the time I was 196 Tjie Hokse Industry in New York State appointed superintendent of the horse department of the State Fair, it was mj opinion that the horse exhibits should be of such a character as to awaken the interest of New York State farmers to the importance of horses as a profitable adjunct to their farm- ing, and after two years experience as head of the horse depart- ment I am more than ever convinced that my conclusions were correct. SPECIAL CLASS FOR NEW YORK STATE HORSES In both 1913 and 1914 special classes were made for horses owned by residents of the state of New York ; the horses entered in these classes were also eligible for entry in the open classes. Fig. 67. Gbade Champion Belgian Stallion, Richelieu. Shown at State Fair How appreciative the breeders of this state were of the encourage- ment extended them may be gleaned from the statement that never in the history of the State Fair had there been so many entries in the Percheron and Belgian classes as in 1914, and that every animal shown in these classes was owned by a resident of New York. Forty-five horses representing nine New York State Horses at the Xew York State Fair 197 owners were shown in the Percheron chisses at last year's fair; it may well be doubted if an exhibit of higher character was made at any state fair held last fall, even where the big professional stables which toured the country were shown. The Belgians, too, were a most notable exhibit, thirty representatives of this breed from the stables of six Xew York State owners being shown. The exliibits of these two breeds by the Adirondack Farms and Heart's Delight Farm were of exceptionally high character, and they furnished an object lesson to the hundreds of farmers who w^atched the judges place the awards — a lesson that will make itself felt in a substantial way in the near future. This proof that Xew York can produce horses of equal quality to those produced in any other state resulted in the purchase of stallions of those breeds by a large number of farmers, during or directly after the fair. These stallions, going to different parts of the state, will stimulate draft horse breeding in a degree not hereto- fore noticeable. 1 cannot forego, in this connection, mention of the instructive exhibits showing the utility qualities of heavy draft horses in business, made by the George Urban ]\rilling Co. of Buf- falo. This firm showed, in the single, double, triple, four-in- hand and six-in-hand hitches, heavy draft horses such as the market in the cities of this state are calling for. In answer to queries made by farmers as to the prices paid for these horses, it was stated that they cost from $275 to $375 each in the open market, solely for business purposes. The lessons demonstrated by this company's exliibit in the breeding classes were driven home in no uncertain manner. LIGHT HARA'ESS HORSES The breeding classes for light harness horses at the State Fair did not attract so many entries as the heavy draft classes, for the reason that the advent of the automobile has, to a very great degree, destroyed the market for road horses. While the Stand- ardbred trotter will ever be bred for turf purposes, it will be principally by breeders who possess a thorough knowledge of the principles of breeding and their relation to the production of speed. More and more this branch of horse breeding will be 198 The Hokse Industry in New York State HOKSES AT THE XeW YoRK StATE FaIK 199 confined to men who will make a specialty of speed horses — men who are able to equip their breeding farms with everything neces- sary for the production and development of that racing qualifica- tion. While few in numbers, the trotting-bred horses shown were bred in most advanced lines. A. R. Gillis of Syracuse, S. C. Pendergast of Phoenix, Lyndon Farm of Syracuse, John C. AJdrich of Bath and John McMahon of Syracuse were the prin- cipal exhibitors, and the exhibits represented the best trotting families of this period of advanced breeding. Fig. 69. Perfection — Winner of Silver Ctjp at New York State Fair. 1914. Best Foal in all Breeds — Belgian Filly Foal Raised at Heart's Delicht Farm, and Sired ry Richelieu saddle iior.ses There is another branch of horse breeding, however, to which recognition has not been extended in the breeding classes of the State Fair — one that promises to become a profitable branch of horse breeding. That is the production of saddle horses. Xever during the last quarter of a century have so many busi- ness men taken to riding as during the last three or four years. 2U0 The Horse Iwdustey in New Yokk State < o HOKSES AT THE ^^KW YoKK StATE FaiR 201 Since the automobile came into general use, walking is rapidly becoming a lost art in the cities. The saddle horse has been found to be the ideal instrument to give the torpid liver a shak- ing up, and to force the lungs to inhale the necessary amount of fresh air to supply the system with its needs. Saddle horses are in active demand and at good prices, and it seems as though it would be a wise act on the part of the State Fair management to give the saddle horse a place when arrang- ing the classes for the next fair. PEKCHEROX In the Percheron classes the outstanding individuals were found in : Merau, a two-year-old stallion of surpassing excellence showm by Adirondack farms, winner in his age class and also in the Champion class ; Mouche, a two-year-old mare from the same farm that won first in her age class and championship ; Incidentei', winner of the first in the class for three-year-old stallions from Heart's Delight Farm, and Coquette of Heart's Deliffht, who won first in the class for three-vear-old mares for the same farm. Fig. 71. Two-Year-Old Percherox Stalliox, Ixvocatiox, Exhibited AT New York State Fair 202 The Horse Industry in New York State The stallion Heristal, owned hy William Luckluini of Church- villc, was another especially i>-ood representative of the breed, winnina, first in the class for stallion fonr years old or over and for stallion and three of his get. Other commendable exhibits in the Percheron classes were made by C. M. Cronse of Syracnse, S. C. Pendergast of Phoenix, James McNamara of Baldwinsville, Carl Amos of Syracuse and J. A. Jackson of Hollev. Fig. 72. Yearling Belgian Stallion Sired by Richelieu BELGIAN In the Belgian classes the championship honors went to Adirondack Farms Major d'Appel, a fonr-year-old stallion of exceptional type, and to Bienvenne, a mare of rare make-np. Argentine, a mare shown by Heart's Delight Farm, was almost the equal of Bienvenne. The last mentioned farm also showed a grand colt in Digiiitaire, winner in the class for stallions one year and under two, and in Urane, a mare of the same age. This farm also showed the winner in the class for stallions three and under four in the Horses at the New Yok'k State Fair 203 splendidly built young horse, Troubadour of Heart's Delight. In the class for stallions two and under three, Adirondack Farms won the honors with Orange de Bruchoin, a very high-class colt. Other exhibitors who showed Belgians of high type and merit were John Clary of Seneca Falls, whose stallion Bicaldo, was second to Major d'Appel; E. S. Akin of Syracuse, Elbert Roos of Walden, and A. C. HirzeLof Syracuse. The Clydesdale and Suffolk breeds also made a commendable exhibit, all being owned by residents of ]^ew York State. CLYDESDxVLE In the Clydesdales the contests were mainly between the ex- hibits from Adirondack Farms and those of Hugh J. Chisholm of Port Chester. In the class for stallions three and under four, Kelvindale from Adirondack Farms was judged superior to Mr. Chisholm's Apollo by a narrow margin ; this horse also won the championship. In the class for mares of the same age Mr. Chis- holm's won first and second with a typical pair, Lily and Rosie Bloom. Wattie Yet, owned by L. F. Empy of Williamstown, won first in stallion four years and over, having no opposition. In the Suffolk classes Adirondack Farms had no opponents, but it would have required high-class representatives of the breed to have robbed some of those shown of the honors they carried oft". draft colts Perhaps one of the most interesting competitions in the draft class during the fair of 1914 was a special class for registered draft colts of either sex and breed, foaled in 1914, for a silver cup offered by Mr. E. S. Akin of Syracuse. Nearly a score of weanlings lined up for the judges to pass on. There was not a colt in the lot that would have been out of place in any show ring- in the country, and there was not a single one but that was an illustration to the attending farmers of the possibilities before them in the way of breeding high-class draft horses to supply the ready and profitable market, which their home state affords for this class of horses. 204 The Hokse Industry in New York State good horses tend to keep the boy on the farm Eight here it may he stated that horse hreediiiii; has an intimate connection with another subject much discussed at present in the agricultural press — that of keeping the hovs contented on the farm. No other way of accomplishing this has been so pro- ductive of the desired results as by getting the boys interested in breeding good stock ; and the fact that nine out of ten boys on the farm take pride in driving a good horse makes horse breed- ing the ideal branch of live stock production to attract their attention and to add to their contentment, at a time in their lives when, unless life on the farai is relieved of some of its monotony, discontent creeps in and they drift away from the farm in the mistaken belief that other lines of work offer better opportunities. NECESSARY i:srPROVE:MP.NTS The greatest immediate need to insure the continued success of the horse department of the State Fair is the erection of modern barns to stable the horses exhibited. Those which have been used during the past several years are unsanitary, and so poorly arranged that it is with the utmost difficulty that the patrons of the fair can see the horses when they are in the stable, with any degree of satisfaction. Modern, sanitary and well- lighted barns would not only add much to the pleasure of the persons who attend the fair to sea the horses with the idea of learning something, but it would also add immensely to the value of the exliibits, and thus attract a constantly growing list of ex- hibitors. Such barns^ too, would of themselves be a valuable edu- cational feature to farmers in a direction which is demanding the attention of everyone who is giving any study -to farming uplift. Another most desirable addition to the exhibition equipment would be a covered show ring, if it were no more than a pavilion. Under present conditions the exhibitors and judges have to work in the direct rays of the hot sun when the weather is good; and, if stormy, the exhibition must be abandoned altogether. The vast opportunities which present themselves to the farmers of this state in the hors'e breeding field are too important to J3ennit this branch of breeding to be neglected by our State Fair, HOKSES AT THE NeW YoRK StaTE FaiR 205 the principal object of which is to encourage agricultural pur- suits and animal husbandry in ever)' direction. In the western states every effort is being made to encourage horse breeding. Draft horse futurities are features of several of the western state fairs and the entrants in those event's are largely owned by farmers who make horse breeding only an adjunct to their farming operations. EUROPEAN war WILL CREATE A SCARCITY In view of the fact that the war in Europe has entirely killed horse breedino- in Belgium, has reduced that industry to small H. S. Allen, Buffalo, X. Y. A. W. Lawrence, Le Roy, N. Y. Fig. 73. Judges at New York State Fair, 1914 proportions in France, and greatly restricted the breeding studs of England and Scotland, I believe that the introduction of futurity events for draft colts, bred by residents of this state would, in a marked degree, increase the interest in horse breeding throughout the state, which is, after all, the principal object of this department of the State Fair. It is claimed by even the casual observer of public affairs that not only will the countries of Europe, which have heretofore supplied this country with stallions 206 The Horse Industuy in New York State and mares of the draft breeds for breeding purposes, be unable to do that after the war conies to an end, but that they will have to come to this country to get breeding stocks to reestablish the breeding industry in those countries. It is even probable that after the close of the war there will also be a great demand made upon this country for horses for commercial purposes, so depleted will the horse stock of the warring countries have become. It is plain, therefore, that the horse breeding industry in this country wi'll enjoy an extended period of unprecedented pros- perity, and it is in the power of the New York State Fair to do much to awaken the farmers of this state to the opportunities draft horse breeding holds for them, by adding to the prize list for horses features which will add to the size and attractiveness of the exhibits in that department by residents of the state. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD JUDGES I should be lacking in appreciation, in speaking of the horse exhibits during the two State Fairs while superintendent of the horse department, if I fail to mention the good work of the judges who made the awards. Ijelieving that there was no necessity to go outside the state to secure competent judges, I engaged the services of A. W. Lawrence of LeRoy and Henry L. Allen, Editor of The Horse World, Buffalo ; and how conscientiously these gentlemen did the work assigned to them during the fairs of 1913 and 1914 may be inferred from the fact that there was not a single protest at either fair, and so far as the officials could learn, there was not a single expression of dissatisfaction heard from any exhibitor. This strengthens my belief that a fair may secure a large number of high-class exhibits and still have the exhibit ruined by the work of incompetent men as judges. THE NEED OF A STALLION LAW De. W. G. HOLLINGWOKTII, UtICA, N. Y. The inquiries of owners of brood mares as to the whereabouts of a pure-blood stal- lion are constantly increasing. They find that the prices paid for suitable horses make colt raising of the right kind a profitable business. The only way to stimulate such breeding is to have an efficient stallion law, through which the scrub stallions will grad- ually be eliminated and be replaced by pure-bloods. Such a law would be educa- tional ; and, if passed by the legislature, the breeding from pure- blood sires would be the topic of discussion in every farming community. This, if nothing else, would be considered a most valuable eft'ect of the new legislation ; it would be educational to all those interested in breeding, selling, buying and using the horse. ■So long as we are satisfied to run along in the same old rut that we have for years, little can be accomplished ; but when we come to realize the importance and need of study, the employment of modern means and the eradication of our faulty conditions, changes for the better will be forthcoming. The farmers' methods and ideas in regard to horse breeding must be improved, and a stallion law would aid materially in this direction. HOW AN EFFICIENT STALLION LAW CAN BE BROUGHT ABOUT All who are interested directly or indirectly should urge the breeding of suitable mares to pure-blood stallions. The stallion laws of the difi^erent states in which such a law has been passed should be studied and their weak points strengthened. If such a law is passed it should be a good and workable one. An efiicient law and a campaign of education would show the farmer in dollars and cents the profit there is in raising colts [207] 208 The Hokse Industry in New York State from such sires as wfll transmit type to their offspring. Our agricultural societies can be a great help by devoting more thoiight to the horse exhibits at their fairs. A sufficient amount should be given in premiums to encourage a friendly rivalry among the farmers in colt raising. They should refuse an appli- cation of entrance to any but pure-blood stallions with certificates of registration. ^Yith the development of agriculture, the demand for the farm type of horse is increasing, and this need is met by a scarcity. Why is there a scarcity ? This is a big question to answer. First of all is the lack of a proper law to eliminate the scrub or grade stallion, the offspring of which are of poor type and unmarketable. It costs no more to raise a colt from a pure-blood sire than from a scrub or grade. We must add the service fee, of course, but the colt from the pure-blood is much more valuable and will bring a higher price. This should be taken into consideration. The horse breeding industry is and has been carried on very unintelligently, and the results have been very unsatisfactory. We have depended too much upon the other fellow. Now this indi- vidual has failed to meet the expectation, and the result is an extremely high price for the popular work horse, and no market, so far as revenue is concerned, for the colt from the stallion with no breeding. To this very individual is due the undesirable state of aff"airs in the breeding operations of this state ; and this con- dition has been augmented by the presence of hereditary un- soundness, lack of discrimination and judgment in mating, and inattention to adequate feeding and suitable sanitary stabling. great opportunity for new YORK STATE HORSES We should realize the advantage of growing our own horses. It is estimated that New York State requires 10,000 horses annually to meet its demands ; and, if we put the average price at $200, which is low, think what that amounts to — $20,000,000 ! And most of that goes out of the state. With our rich pastures and excellent facilities, we should be an exporting instead of an im- porting state — not only of horses but other agricultural products. Of our 214,650 farms, 93.6 per cent, or 200,989, reported domestic animals; 86.7 per cent, or 186,164, reported horses, and The I^eed of a Stallion Law 209 during the last decade there has been a decrease of 38,288 horses. But the value of our horses has increased. The value of our horses in 1910, as compared with that of 1900, was $30,912,000 more — an increase of 66.5 per cent. This should be encouraging to breeders, since it shows a steady advance in the face of the automobile as an efficient competitor. The census also shows how few colts are being raised in this state. In 1910 only 3,613 spring colts were reported, which would indicate that only 1.5 per cent of New York State farmers were interested in colt raising. One reason for this is that many of our good breeding types of mares have been sold to go back into the West. patterx after europeax horse breeders The stallion situation abroad before the present conflict was a monument to the different countries. Each country took pride in specializing in certain breeds in certain localities, and the breeders were stimulated by government and county grants of money. If a certain sire developed certain merit, he had to re- main in the country for a specified time. All horses were in- spected by government veterinarians* and were classed accordingly. This has practically eliminated the undesirable ones, and the farmer finds by this pix)cess that it pays to breed from suitable sires and dams. With conditions as they are at present, and as they will be for some time to come, this country ought to put itself in the position, to Europe that Europe has beerf to the United States. We will have to be the exporter, and there is no reason why we cannot do it. One thing that will help a great deal is satisfactory stallion laws in this and other states. The following is a copy of the Laws of Xew Jersey relative to public service of stallions: LAWS OF NEW JERSEY CHAPTER 212 An Act to regulate the public service of stallions in New Jersey. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the >S7afe of A^ew Jersey : 1. Every person, firm or company standing, traveling or offering for use any stallion or jack in this state shall cause the name, description and pedigree of such stallion or jack to be enrolled by the Stallion Registration JBpard hereinafter provided for, and shall secure a license from said board as 14 210 The IIokse Tndustky of 'New Yoiik State provided in section three of this act. The enrollment and verification of pedigree and the issuing of license certificates shall be done by the Animal Husbandman of the State Experiment Station. 2. In order to carry out the provisions of this act, tlie active members of the Live Stock Commission, namely, the Animal Husbandman of the State Experiment Station, who shall be secretary and executive officer, a graduate veterinarian and a prominent breeder of live stock, shall constitute a Stallion Examining and Registration Board, who.se compensation shall be while en- gaged in personally examining stallions and jacks five dollars per diem and traveling expenses in addition to the regular compensation, as provided for by the law establishing the Live Stock Commission; to pass upon certificate of veterinary examination; to provide, when necessary, for veterinary inspec- tion; to issue stallion license certificates; to make all necessary rules and regulations, and to perform such other duties as may be deemed necessary to carry out and enforce the provisions of this act. 3. In order to secure the license certificates herein provided for, the owner of each stallion or jack shall present his candidate for an examination, to- gether with all necessary papers relative to his breeding and ownership, at the county seat of each county, or such other place and at such times as may be fixed by said board. Three insertions in one or more newspapers in each county constituting a legal notice to the owners of sires. It shall be the duty of this board to personally examine each stallion or jack and determine to the best of their knowledge and belief whether said stallion or jack is free from infectious, contagious or transmissible diseases or unsoundness, and their findings shall be final. Upon verification of pedigree and certificate of breeding (in case of pure-bred stallions or jacks), and providing said stallion or jack has satisfactorily passed said veterinary examination, a certificate shall be issued to the owner. The presence of any one or more of the follow- ing named diseases shall disqualify a stallion or jack for public service, and are hereby defined, as infectious, contagious or transmissible diseases" or unsoundness for the purpose of this act: Cataract; amaurosis (glass eye); periodic ophthalmia (moon blindness). Laryngeal hemiplegia (roaring or whistling). Pulmonary emphysema ( heaves, broken wind ) . Chorea (St. Vitus' dance, crampiness, shivering, string-halt). Bone spavin; ringbone; sidebone; navicular disease. Bog spavin; curb; with curby formation of hock. Glanders; farcy; maladie du coit; utheral gleet; mange; melanosis. Osteoperosis ; canker of the foot; laminitis. The Stallion Examining and Registration Board is hereby authorized to refuse a certificate of enrollment to any stallion or jack affected with any one of the diseases specified and to revoke a previously issued license at any time if upon examination a stallion or jack is found to be so affected. 4. The Stallion Examining and Registration Board is authorized in case of emergency to name a committee in each county, consisting of a graduate veterinarian and a practical horseman whose compensation shall be ten dollars per diem and expenses while making such examinations, who shall examine the various stallions or jacks in said county, and issue to the owner of said animals, under oath, a certificate stating that said animals are free from infectious, contagious and transmissible diseases or unsoundness, as herein defined. The owner shall forward the same, together with all necessary papers, relative to the breeding or ownership of said animals, to the secretary of the examining and registration board, who in turn shall issue the proper certificate. 5. The owner of any stallion or jack used for public service in this state shall post and keep affixed, during the entire breeding season copies of the license certificate of such stallion or jack issued under the provision of section six in a conspicuous place, both within and upon the outside of every stable or building where said stallion or jack is used for public service, at his home or elsewhere. Such copies shall lie printed in iKild-faced and con- spicuous type, not smaller than " long primer," and the words " pure bred " or " grade " must precede the name of the stallion or jack, as the case may be. The Need of a Stallio.n Law 211 6. The license certificate issued after proper examination of the stallion or jack, whose sire and dam are of pure breeding, and the pedigree of which is registered In a stud-hook recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture, shall be in the following form: Stallion Examining and Registration Board. License Certificate of Pure-Bred Stallion. Tlie pedigree of tlie stallion or jack I name) owned by bred by described as follows color breed foaled in the year has been examined at the State Experiment Station by the Animal Husbandman, and it is hereby certified that the said stallion is of pure breeding and is registered in a stud-book recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture. The above-named stallion has been examined by and is reported as free from infectious, contagious, transmissible disease or un- soundness, and is licensed to stand for public service in the state of New Jersey. Signed Animal Husbandman and Secretary of the Stallicm Examining and Registration Board. 7. The license certificate issued after a proper examination for a grade stallion or jack (the term "grade" being herein defined as a stallion or a jack having for its sire or dam a pure-bred individual registered in a stud- liook recognized by the I'nited States Department of Agriculture) shall be as follows : The license certificate issued after proper examination for a stallion whose sire or dam is not of pure breeding shall be in the following form : Stallion Examining and Registration Board. License Certificate of Grade Stallion. The pedigree of the stallion or jack (name) ownea by bred by described as follows color breed foaled in the year has been examined at the State Experiment Station Division of Animal Husbandry, and it is hereby certified that the said stallion or jack is not of pure l)reedirtg, and is, therefore, not eligible for registration in any stud-book recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture. The above-named stallion or jack has been examined by , and is reported as free from infectious, contagious or transmissible disease or unsoundness, and is licensed to stand for public service in the state of New Jersey. Signed Animal Husbandman and Secretary of the Stallion Examining and Registration Board. 8. Every bill, poster or advertisement issued by the owner of any stallion or jack, licensed under this act and used for advertising such stallion or jack sliall contain a copy of his license certificate and shall not contain illustration, pedigree or other matter that is untruthful or misleading. 9. A fee of five dollars shall be paid to the secretary of the Stallion Examining and Registration Board for the examination and enrollment of eacli accepted pedigree, after wliich he shall issue a license certificate in accordance witli the breeding of the animal as above recorded. A fee of two dollars shall be paid annually for the renewal of pedigree certificate and service license. Stallions shall be examined every year until ten years of 212 The lloitsE I.xdistry of New York State ao-e, and after the first examination shall be exempt if ten years of age or over. 10. ITpon the transfer of the ownership of any stallion or jack, licensed under the provision of this act, the license certificate may be transferred by the secretary of tlie board to the transferee upon presentation and surrender of the license certificate and upon the payment of one dollar. 11. Any person who shrll violate any of the provisions of this act shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for ilie first ofi'ense, and to a penalty of one hundred dollars for the second and each subsequent offense. Such penalty shall be recovered in an action of debt at the suit of the Live Stock Commission of the State of New Jersey. AH penalties and fees collected under any of the provisions of this act shall be paid by such Live Stock Commission to the Treasurer of the State of New Jersey. 12. This act shall take efi"ect September first, one thousand nine hundred and eight. Approved April 13, 1908. EFFECTS OF THE WISCONSIN STALLION LAW Dr. a. S. Alexaxbek, M. I). C, AIadisox, Wis.* Senior Professor of Veterinary Science, University of Wisconsin. The effects of the stallion law of Wiscon- sin have been so good that I am snre that a siniihir huv would be equally eifective in the state of Xew York. BENEFITS OF THE LAW A stallion law is not an imposition upon any stallion owner. It does not prohibit the standing of a stallion for public sei*vice if he is sound; it requires that each stal- lion offered for service shall be sound — free from certain serious hereditary and communicable or con- tagious diseases — and shall be correctly labeled as to breeding. This is for the protection of the owner of mares, who will be able, by reading the license certificate of the enrolled stallion, to learn whether the horse is "■ pure-bred/' " cross-bred," " grade '' or '' scrub." Many stallions now accounted pure bred in Xew York will be found to have registry certificates from stud books not recognized as standard, or to have fictitious or even fraudu- lent pedigrees or registry papers. If a stallion law^ w^as passed, such stallions, if permitted to stand for service, would be correctly labeled as grade or scrub as the case might be. A stallion law quickly prevents all fraud in stallion pedigree and registry matters, drives out the notably unsound sires, and in time tends to eliminate grade and scrub stallions. Such has been the eftect of the law^ in Wisconsin, where it is approved by edu- cators, legislators, horse breeders and fanners. THE WISCONSIN LAW The Wisconsin stallion law was drawn up by the writer of this article, was enacted by the legislature of 1905 and Avent into * Dr. Alexander drafted and had enacted the first stallion enrollment law in America. It was enacted in 1905 and went into effect January 1, 1906, in Wisconsin. [213] 214 Tup: Hokse Industry in jSTew Vokk State effect January 1, .15)0(j. That year many stallions were enrolled, and the following year practically every stallion in Wisconsin was on the official list. So wc have made comparisons with the condition in 1907 instead of in 19(3'6 in compiling annual statistics showing the results of the law. The law is enforced by the De- partment of Agriculture of the College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin, in charge of the writer. The forthcoming annual report of the Department of Horse Breeding will show that, despite a somewhat depressed condition of the horse breeding business during the past year, substantial progress has been ma.de in the elimination of undesirable sires. WEEDS OUT SCRUBS In 1907 the percentage of grade and scrub stallions was 65, now it is 41.8, compared with 45 in 1914. Pure-bred stallions now number 1,771, gTade stallions 913 and scrubs 345. Grades numbered 1,019 and scrubs 404 in 1914. Since 1907 pure-bred stallions have increased in 60 out of the 71 counties of the state, decreased in 9 and remained the same in 2 counties. During the same time grade and scrub stallions have decreased in 56, in- creased in 11 and remained the same in 4 counties. In 1907, 11 counties had fifty per cent or over of pure-bred stallions. In 1915 over fifty counties show that proportion. Notable increases of pure stallions since 1907 have been 28 head in Barron county, 26 in Brown, 24 each in Wahvorth and Monroe, 22 in Chippewa and 21 in St. Croix. The most notable decreases in grade and scrub stallions have been 69 head in Grant county, 56 in Dane, 45 in Monroe, 30 each in Brown and ^lanitowoc, 28 in Fond du Lac and 25 each in La Fayette and Trempealeau. INCREASE OF PURE BREEDS Of the draft breeds, pure-bred Percherons number 1,052 ; Belgians, 166; Clydesdales, 74; French drafts, 64; Shires, 46, and Suffolks, 1. Of the light breeds there are 276 Standard- bred trotters and pacers, 17 French coach, 19 German coach, 6 Hackney and 22 Morgans. Registered jacks number 16, and there are also 8 non-standard bred and 5 cross-bred stallions in service. STALLION ENROLLMENT LAW E. S. Akix, SYRAcrsE, N. Y. Since 1912 there has been a strong movement in this state favoring a law to regulate the public service of stallions. Such a law has been freely discussed, and resolutions passed by the New York State Breeders' Association, Xew York State Agri- cultural Society and ]^ew York State Draft Horse Breeders' Club in favor of a rational stallion enrollment law. Government con- trol by inspection and licensing of stallions is not an untried ex- periment. For many years the governments of Belgium and France have required the inspection of all stallions offered for public service, .and have refused license to stallions lacking in soundness, breeding and physical conformation. While the laws of these countries are more stringent than would be possible in this state, they have been the means of creating and maintaining two superior breeds of horses, the Belgian and Percheron. Wisconsin was the first state to pass a stallion enrollment law. Since then some twenty other states, besides Canada, have stallion laws on somewhat similar lines. The following is a brief sum- mary of a stallion enrollment law suggested for H^ew York: 1. The addition of a bureau of horse breeding to the Depart- ment of Agriculture, with a chief in charge appointed for his practical rather than his technical knowledge. 2. The enrollment of all stallions required. 3. Inspection of all stallions, and issuing certificates of en- rollment for stallions not disqualified by incurable, infectious or contagious diseases. 4. All stallions enrolled to be advertised under tlieir true division as pu^-e-bred, g'rade, standardbred, non-standard find scrub; and the condition of soundness indicated. The benefit of such a law would be a knowledge of the number of pure-bred and scrub, sound and unsound stallions in the state. Only by publicity and education can the number of scrub and un- sound stallions be reduced, and the number of sound pure-bred sires increased. The small fee paid by the o^vner of each stallion would cover all expenses of a bureau of horse breeding, which would have charge of the inspection and enrollment, and would tax no other industry for the benefit of horse breeding. [215] COMMUNITY EFFORT IN DRAFT HORSE BREEDING J. L. Edmoxds, Ukbaxa, 111. Assistant Professor in Horse Husbandry, University of Illinois IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY BREEDING Community effort is of fundamental im- poTtance to successful draft horse breeding ; in fact, no other class of live stock breeding- is quite so much benefited bv united effort in breeding operations as is the draft horse. All of our wide and favorably knovv^n Euro- pean and British breeds of drafters attest the truthfulness of this statement. When one considers the relatively small area in those countries which have produced many of the sires used here for breeding purposes, the significance of this statement is still further emphasized. Acquaintance with producing sections in this country indicates that it is true here as well as in foreign lands. Local fairs generally furnish excellent criterions of horse breeding conditions in the vicinity from which they drav; exhibits. These smaller fairs serve well not only to show the important benefits to be derived from community efforts, but also, on the other hand, show as well the kind of horse which is produced where there is altogether a lack of such effort. The production of -■ " top-notchers " demands the use of high-class sires, dams of merit, considerable numbers available for selection, and liberal feeding which is wisely done. These factors are, by all odds, most likely ■ to exist where the right sort of community spirit prevails. OWNERSHIP OF GOOD SIRES IS MADE POSSIBLE Ownership of really good draft sires is not profitable without opportunity to use them on a considerable number of mares at least approximating them in merit. It generally seems to be the case that only such mare owners will pay a high enough service fee to make the o\vning of a high-class draft sire at all remuner- ative to his owner. Some of the best sires have been entirely, or [216] CoMMUXiTY Effort in Draft Horse Breeding 217 nlmost entirely lost to their breeds because of having been sold to individuals or companies who stood them in out-of-the-way neighborhoods which did not possess any good draft mares. This, however, is not so likely to happen now as formerly. Even the good stallion cannot do it all; the dams must be right as well. The practice of selling off all the mares that the horse buyer will take at a good price and preserving the culls for breeding pur- poses, makes for inferiority in the succeeding generations. In the corn belt, the best heavy geldings are produced in those sec- tions where it has been difficult to buy the best of the mares on account of their value being properly appreciated. One section in Illinois, with which the writer is familiar, is justly famous for producing good, big horses, because they have not only used the best sires that could be gotten, but because a concerted effoit has been made by the local horsemen to prevent the good producing mares from being shipped out of that locality. Other sections containing as good or better land, and fully as good sires, have not been so successful beca"'jse of failing to keep the mares that were capable of producing round draft horses of the correct type. NUMBER HIGHLY IMPORTANT The number of draft horses in one community which are similar in type and breeding is an important factor. The selection of the tops from a few good ones is not nearly so efficient in the work of improvement as is the selection of tops from a large number of good individuals. In a progressive breeding com- munity, affording as it does a chance to use choice pure-bred sires, the best of drafters can be produced by the small farmer who does his work with a few brood mares. Furthermore, such a system means cheaper production than can be the case where breeding is conducted on such a scale as necessitates the keej)ing of a large numbers of mares idle. Again, the idle draft mare is not likely to be so regTilar a breeder as is her sister that is regularly worked — with proper judgment, of course — on the land. When the number of sires is such as to enable the mare o-^mer to have the choice of several cood breeding horses with which to mate his dif- ferent mares, he will then have opportunity for the greatest success, provided the mating'is skillfully done. It is well known that even 218 The Horse Industry of New York State Community Effort i.n Draft Horse Breeding 219 many of the best sires can be crossed much more successfully with some mares than with others. Then again, the production of good things in considerable quantity in one locality brings the right sort of buyers, thus making for better prices and a better appreciation of values generally. KXOWLEDGE OF CORRECT TYPE AND EIGHT BI.OOD LINES IS MADE ACCESSIBLE When pure-breds and grades of one draft breed are handled in a community to the practical exclusion of the others, the matter of the right type or correct pattern is a matter of much more general knowledge; and, after a few generations of striving, will be " bred in the bone," so to speak. Furthermore, a knowledge of blood lines is also a matter of easier g'rasp. Such communities can, with success, gradually take up the production of registered stock and grow breeding stock to sell to other communities. The best route by which to reach the production of pure-breds is by the one having been a successful producer, of grades. LIBERAL FEEDING NECESSARY Feeding naturally is of vital importance and has to be con- sidered all along the line. Keeping young stock thrifty and in salable shape at all times makes more for profit than is often realized. Quite frequently the well-fed pure-bred yearling will bring more than a two-year-old which is similar except with respect to feeding. Good breeding will not succeed unless backed up by liberal feeding. ORGANIZATIONS Organizations other than fair associations help much, although they are not absolutely necessary. Good feeling and true public spirit are, however, of basal importance to community work. There are not a few neighborhoods which owe their present high standing, with respect to draft horse j)roductiGn, to the advice and timely effort of a few far-seeing pioneer breeders of good stock. With an increasing number of county organizations and of county agents, the opportunity foi- useful societies for furthering the efforts of the local breeders is measurably increased. It is marvel- ous how much publicity of the proper sort may be had through 220 The House Industry of New Yokk State such channels. As a model might be cited the work of the Taze- well County Illinois Percheron Breeders' Association. What changes will help in local fairs? First, probably, would come a systematic overhauling of classification lists. Those classifications are best which give most prominence to the kinds of horses for which there is the most profitable demand on the market. Such classes are found to be more educational, and, furthermore, give money to the sorts the production of which should be encouraged. It should be needless to argue that at com belt fairs the owner of a valuable pure-bred draft stallion ought to have a chance to win more money than the owner of a light-leg stallion that could not be sold for tw.o "bills" on the market. Then again, a greater number of prizes ought to be pro- vided in classes filled by youngsters. A first and second premium are not nearly enough for a class of fifteen or twenty foals. Superfluous it is to say that the separation of the different breeds and their grades into classes by themselves in so far as is possible, makes for tranquillity. Quite often this could be accom- plished by discarding useless classes. The classification list all through ought to cater to the community specialty if it is worthy of such attention. It would help some, too, if a brief but clear description of what the class called for might be printed in the premium list. In some instances, and at very little cost, better locations could be secured for showing the drafters. Many people are interested, and it should be so arranged that they will have opportunity for observation without being in danger of getting stepped on. A rectangle of level gTound sixty by two hundred and twenty-five feet, or thereabouts, will answer well for quite a show of drafters on hand. iSTow is a good time to start plans for next fall's fair and colt shows. t HORSE BREEDING IN THE WEST AND EAST Forest HexXky, Dovek, Mixxesota Farmers" Institute Lecturer SUPPLY OF GOOD HORSES SMALL In the West, as a whole, there is but a limited supply of really good horses. 'There is a goodly number of work horses for home use, but many of these would not be a desirable kind to put oai the market. There are many reasons for this inade- quate supply of good horses. First, beef and pork have ruled high for several years, and grain has been selling for a good price. Farmers have been, able to secure quicker returns by selling their grain on the market or feeding it oait to hogs and steers, and make quite as good money at a less risk than growing horses for the market, especially when many thought that horses must be lower in price on account of the displacement of many horses in city and country by motor trucks and gas tractors. So far this has not proven true, notwithstanding the fact that many motor trucks and tractors are in use. A really good horse sells just about as well today as at any time in .the past ; the commoner sort are changing hands at a less price. THE AUTOMOBILE CRAZE Another thing that has not added to the horse breeding industry in the West is the automobile craze. It can hardly be called any- thing else. While the automobile is all right in its place, a man cannot be thoroughly interested in horse raising — and he must be if he is to make a success of it — when his head is full of automobiles and automobile appliances. Again, when a man is spending his last dollar for an auto- mobile he is not able to stock up with better mares or sires. In fact, he is often tempted to sell something that he should really [221] 222 The Hokse Ixdistk-y oe New York iS'tate keep to improve liis stock of horses to buv that new model auto that is just one year newer than the one his neighbor owns. There surely has l)een less iiitei'est taken in hoi-se breeding- since the advent of the automobile. A fe.w men are lc\-el headed enough to have looked ahead and anticipated the demand there will be for horses in the near future and will be ready to meet that demand, but these are in the minority. There never was a time when the future looked brighter for the really good horse. the EUROPEAN WAR IS CONSUMING MANY UNDESIRABLE HORSES Hundreds of thousands of the lighter sorts that could not be styled as draft horses have been bought up on foreign orders for use in the armies of Euro|)e. This has been a great blessing for the western horse raiser, for they have taken just the type of horse that is not making the breeder any profit. The supply of horses in Europe was short before the war broke out. Since the struggle began hundreds of thousands have been destroyed — the life of an army horse is at best only a few brief weeks. If the struggle continues, hundreds of thousands of horses must come from America to till the places of those destroyed ; there is no other source to draw from. The entire horse supply of the German Empire before the war was less than 4,000,000 ; that of France was only about 2,500,000, and of the Ih-itish Isles, 3,000,000. Russia had the largest supply of all the warring nations. When the war is over and the soldiers return to the farm, they will find themselves wath less than a half supply of work horses. The fields will have to be tilled, and they must have horses to till them. They will naturally turn to America for their supply — and Europe always buys the best. THE FUTURE BRIGHT FOB HOESE BREEDING Is it not time for the American farmer to grasp the situation and put himself in a position to supply this demand ? Horses that are really good will bring a splendid price — a price that v/ill pay the breeder a splendid margin of profit if he has bred the right kind and grown them economically. HoESE Breedixg IX THE West and East 223 GOOD CARE XECESSAR\ A really good horse must be bred right, fed right and handled right. He cannot l)e neglected while young, and must improve eveiy moment growing it" he is to till the market demand later. One cannot starve money into a draft colt. He must be fed. One thing our best horsemen are learning to do, which lessens the risk in horse raising, is giving the colts plenty of range with a goodly supply of feed winter and summer. A colt should not be closely housed if he is to be keep sound and thrifty. He will stand a great deal of cold after the first winter, if he can get out of the wind, and out of the rain in stormy weather. Our very best horsemen throughout the West, let their colts run on pasture the entire year. In winter they are fed plenty of grain to keep them in good growing condition, and are given clover hay when they cannot pick their roughage. They are never confined in the barn or small yard. Under these conditions they get their regular exercise, keep healthy and are very much less liable to injure themselves. I can show hundreds of our best pure-bred animals in the West that have never seen the inside of a barn since they were weanlings. With this system it costs a little more for grain feed, possibly, but there is far less risk, whicb means nearly as much as the feed bill ; and one gets a better development, which is what he is after. Keep the colt growing, and fatten him only once — just before he is put on the market. NEW YORK SHOULD RAISE ITS OWX HORSES I have always wondered as I have traveled through i^ew York why the farmers did not raise more of their work horses. I have come to this conclusion : that while land was so very cheap in the West and grain also w^as very cheap, making the cost of production so very low, farmers got in the habit of buying from tliB West simply because they could buy cheaper than they could grow their own, which was tiiie in the past. The same law does not hold true today. Land is much higher in the West than in the East, conse- quently it costs very much more to grow a horse there now than it did years ago. There are, in New York State, thon sands of acres of reasonably cheap land that ife- capable of growing splendid pasture grasses. These should be utilized in part by raising horses. 224 The House Imdistuy i\ New Yoim< State There is one thing the eastern farmer should take into con- sideration when he is figuring the cost of his horse. When an animal is bought from the West, there is always an element of risk that has to be figured in the deal, that the eastern farmer has to pay for when he purchases. There is also some risk after the animal is taken to the farm — he has to be acclimated. In other words, he is usually not at his best the first season, and frequently the buyer is not fully satis- fied with his purchase. This could be eliminated by the farmers growing their own horses. Another point that is of still greater moment : for a man to get the greatest possible service from a horse at the least amount of risk, he must be thoroughly acquainted with the animal. He must know his peculiarities, just as one must be thoroughly acquainted with a man to fully appreciate him. o^B beco:mes attached to a horse raised ox the farm Again, one becomes attached to a horse raised on the farm, and will give him better care. The horse, in turn, will be in shape to render moTe and better service. When one goes out and buys a horse on the market he is very apt to think of him and use him as a machine rather than an animal. There is no other farm animal that has such an influence over the farmer and his children growing up as the really good horse raised on the farm. Good horses have kept more than one man on the farm when he has been tempted to move to town. Hun- dreds of boys that have now grown to manhood, were they to give their life history, would say that no one factor had so much to do with holding them on the farm as the horses. The writer is one of these. The good horse is what kept him on the farm when he was tempted to leave — not the horse bought and brought on the farm, but the horse grown on the far.m — the horse his own hands had fed and cared for. If we are desirous of having the boys stay on the old farm, get them a good matched pair of mares of quality. It will do more than any amount of persuasion on our part, and at the same time will stop a big leakage in the operating expense of the farm — buying horses from the West. Jf GLANDERS OR FARCY Dr. Ciiarj.es Li.xcii, Alba.w, X. Y. First Assistant Veterinarian, State Department of Agriculture Glanders, or farcy, is one of the most important diseases of horses. It has long been recognized as a specific infec- tions disease, dne to the growth and de- velopment within the body of the animal of one specific kind of germ or bacteria. It affects horses and mnles principally. Dogs and cats are said to be somewhat susceptible, and may become affected by eating the flesh of glandered horses. Cattle, sheep, swine and goats are almost immune. Men some- times contract the disease, usually with fatal results. Glanders has been known to exist for hundreds of years. It has been fomid to spread more rapidly after wars, due to selling the horses at the close, thus scattering infected animals over the country. CAUSE Glanders is an infectious . disease caused by the hacilTus mallei. While due to a cer- tain distinct organism, there are neverthe- less certain conditions which may be said to predispose the animal to the disease, such as insanitary conditions, dark, damp stables , „ ' -1 • n J" • 1 Fif'- ^^- Bacillus Mal- ancl tauity ventilation — = all lavoring bac- lei, Magntfied 1,050 terial life. Theee conditions, together with Times. overwork and lack of nourishing food, render the animal more liable to contract the disease, if exposed, by lowering its vitality and resistant powers. SYMPTOMS Glanders, like tuberculosis, is often present in an animal with- out showing any noticeable symptoms ; horses may be badly affected and yet appear to be in perfect health. For our purpose 15 [225] 226 The IIokse Industky in' New York Statp: consider the disease to be divided into three chisscs — glanders of the lungs, nose and skin. It must he hoi'ne in mind, how- ever, that these forais merge into each other, and that one or all of them may be present in the same animal at one time. Glanders of the lungs may present no noticeable symptoms for morths that would lead to suspicion. The first thing noticed may be a sudden bleeding from the nose or a discharge of bloody mucous ; some- times a loss of flesh and an unthrifty, run-down condition with a short, dry, hacking cough, accompanied by a slight rise in tem- perature to 101 to 103 degrees F. The animal may remain in this unthrifty condition without any apparent cause for months, and die without showing any definite symptoms. Fig. 7(3. (;la.\iii.i:s I i.ckiis oi: I".\H( y Bids Glanders of the nose usu;illy begins with a watery discharge from one or both nostrils, wliich later becomes thicker and more abundant, and may be streaked with blood. This discharge is odorless, sticky iu character and adheres to the sides of the nostrils. It has a tendency to glue together the long hairs and margins, forming hard, dry crusts. Tf the mucous membrane has a large number of ulcers, the respiration may become wheezing, a sound recognized at once by the experienced veterinarian, which is caused by the swelling of the nasal cavities. Often there is only a dark, reddish color to the mucous membrane. The glands between the jaws (submaxillary) are usually enlarged on the afi'ected side, the swelling being nodular in character and pain- less, adhering to the skin and jaw bone. GrLAXDEKS ()I{ FarCY 227 Glanders nodules, rani>ing in size from that of a pea to a liiekorv nnt, may appear on the skin of the different parts of the l)()d_v. 'rii(>se ]i()dnles tend to hi-eak down and form ulcers, coni- nioidv called farcy buds, and discliarge more or less bloody liquid, leaving a ragged-edged, unhealthy sore, which may heal and leave a bare spot or scar. Iliese ulcers occur mostly on the inside of the hind legs and abdomen, or on the sides of the thorax. There may be swelling of one or both hind legs, with or without ulcers. The inner sides of the fetlock and hock joints are favorite places for them, l»ut they may occur at any point. In acute cases there is usually a high temperature of lOo or 104 degrees F., accom- Fli.. //. (iLANDERS UlCER.S OF THE XaSAL SePTT'.M panied by great prostration, stifl'uess, erection of the hair, loss of appetite, etc. Animals showing suspicious indications of glanders should be examined by the subcutaneous or opthalmic mallein test, or bv some of the blood tests. POST ^rORTEM The most frequent and characteristic lesions in physical cases are nodules, or ulcers, of the nasal passages and skin. These ulcers may be superficial or deep, their edges giving the mucous membrane the appearance of having been gnawed, being ragged and irregular. They are also slightly raised. These most often appear on the septum of the nose, and may be situated so high that 228 The lloi.'si.; I,^|)|■s^I;^■ i.\ Xkw \'<)i;k State Glanders ok Farcy 229 they cannot be seen except on port-mortem- examination. Lesions of the nose are most commonly accompanied by enlargement of the submaxillary glands of the affected* side. On post-morten ex- amination the lungs are found affected, almost without exception. Small nodules are seen, which are gray to grayish-white and firm, and vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a pea. JS'o matter how the glanders germ enters the body, it is likely to find its way to the lungs and form nodules, which are by far the most important lesion of this disease. These nodules may run to- gether and form large diseased areas, which can best be located by paseing the lingers over the lungs with gentle pressure. They feel much like small shot under the fingers, are grayish-white in color, have a yellowish center, and are of a cheesy consistency. These enlargements may reach the size of a walnut and project from the lung, giving it a nodular appearance. Lesions of the skin consist of nodules, commonly called farcy buds, which are described above. White or grayish nodules of cheesy consistency and varying in size may occur in the liver and spleen. The lymph glands are often affected, showing small grayish or yellowish spots on the cut surface. DIAGNOSIS OR TESTS There are a number of tests for the detection of glanders, but the ophthalmic or eye test is probably the most desirable, having the advantage, over other tests of ease of application. This test can be made bv any competent veterinarian. The results are obtained in a comparatively short time, and are usually well marked and definite. Temperatures need not be taken, and the examiner need not remain in constant attendance. Anyone familiar with the subcutaneous mallein test will readily appre- ciate the simplicity of the ophthalmic test method. The procedure consists in dropping two or three drops of ophthalmic mallein inside the lower lid of one of the eyes. It may be put in with an eye-dropper, or it can be readily applied with a cameFs-hair brush. The reaction begins in fi-om five to six hours after ap- plication, and may last two or three days. The best time to make the examination of the eye is from the fourteenth to the 230 TiiE Horse Industry in ]^ew York State eighteenth hour after administration of the mallein. The re- action depends npon the araonnt of inHannnation, discharge and swelling present in the eye. Healthy horses are in no way affected. The suspicions horses can be retested in a few days, nsing the other eye. Tt is recommended by the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry that the results be reported as follows i N. Negative — Eye unchanged. S. Suspicious — Seromucous discharge. Px. Positive — Seromucous discharge with purulent flakes. Pxx. Positive — Distinct purulent discharge. Pxxx, Positive — Purulent discharge with swelling of eyelids. Pxxxx. Positive — Strong purulent discharge with swelling or gluing togetlier_of both lids. The subcutaneous mallein test is similar to the tuberculin test in cattle. Two or three preliminary temperatures are taken ; f rQm two or three c. c. mallein is injected in the side of the neck; temperatures are resumed at the eighth hour after injection, and continued from eighteen to twenty-four hours. In glandered horses there is usually a fever reaction as in tuberculous cattle — a rise from two to four degrees or higher, and sometimes a pairiful swelling from three to twelve inches in diameter appears at the point of injection. There is often a marked constitutional disturbance or physical depression, shown by loss of appetite, dullness and stiffness. Should these all be present it would be considered a characteristic reaction. Cases showing a profuse discharge from the nose, with ulcers and enlarged painless swelling of the glands just inside the lower jaw, or a swollen leg with a chain of farcy buds or ulcers are easily diagnosed. There are other cases, however, in which the symptoms are not well marked, and, since the symptoms of many diseases closely resembles those of glanders, it is doubly difficult to make a diagnosis and the veterinarian is forced to make use of some test. now THE DISEASE IS SPREAD It was formerly believed that this disease was spread directly from the infected to the healthy animal, but it has been found that it is frequently spread by contact with contaminated objects. Glanders or Farcy 231 It may be contracted in a stable where glandered horses have been kept. Pnblic watering troughs and public feeding and hitching letables are thus important in the spread of the disease in districts where it is prevalent. It is probable that when the germs of the disease gain entrance into a susceptible animal, thev pass to the intestines and thence to the blood, and may lodge in the capillaries of the lungs, liver or other organs. When the germs gain en- trance into the body of the slightly susceptible or innnune animal, J'iG. 79. Siiowixc; Reacttox to Optiialmic Test AND SWELLIXI; ON XecK FROM SUBCUTANEOUS IN- JECTION they may be destroyed; but when introduced into a highly suscep-' tible animal, or one with low vitality, the disease is likely to be produced. It is believed that the entrance of the genns into the alimen- tary tract is the most common means of infection. This may occur from the feed and water becoming contaminated by the dis- charge from the nose or farcv ulcers. Once the germs have 232 TriE HoKSE Industry in New York State gained entrance into the body and lodge at a certain point, they begin to mnltiply, and the strnggle begins between the organisms on one hand and the tissues on the otlier. If the invading organ- isms prove the stronger, infection takes place, and the result is the formation of a glanders nodule. METHOD OF HANDLING BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE In a reported outbreak of glanders, if verified, the clearly clin- ical cases are slaughtered, and the mallein test applied to all exposed or contact horses. All positive reactors are slaughtered or isolated. Stables are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. If it is not possible to make a mallein test at once, the common watering trough should be closed and an individual pail fur- nished for each horse. The suspicious and contact animals show- ing negative results at first test are placed under provisional quarantine, furnished with individual pails, the same to be used in stable and on road, and animals held for further retest before being released. If no animals react at the second test, all are released. If reactors are found they are slaughtered and the stables again disinfected. There is a belief that only those animals showing marked clinical symptoms of glanders, as pro- fuse nasal discharge or farcy buds, are capable of transmitting the disease. Such cases no doubt are more dangerous, yet many animals showing no external symptoms may be affected high up in the nasal tract or in the lungs, and still be capable of dis- tributing the disease to healthy animals. These cases are more dangerous than the open cases which can be seen and avoided. DISTRIBUTION Glanders is more prevalent in large cities for a number of rea- sons. Public drinking troughs and hitching and feeding stables, collecting large numbers of horses together, give great oppor- tunity for its spread. The stables in which city horses are kept are often insanitary, with insuflicient light and air, which favors the development of bacterial life, and tends to lower the vitality of the animals. This makes them more susceptible to the disease. Glaxdeks (h; Farcy 233 COXTKOL The control of this disease requires the combined action of the owner, the local veterinarian in reporting ontbreaks, and prompt action on the part of state officials. Jnst so long as glanders is as prevalent as at present, it is verv difficult for the most careful owner of horses and mules to fully protect himself against the disease. Ghuiders may be introduced by purchasing animals suffering from the malady in the latent or hidden stage, or, the horses may become infected from the public driuking troughs. Mangers used in another stable where badly diseased horses have been fed or watered, may be the source of infection. When purchasing additional animals to replace others, they should be promptly mallein-tested. Ordinarily there is but little danger in purchasing young horses from country districts, but it is not wise to purchase old horses from cities, commonly knowTi as " seconds,"' unless they are first mallein-tested by a competent veterinarian. In this way one is able to protect the rest of the horses to a large measure. DISIXFKCTIOX Before disinfecting, give the stable a thorough cleaning. The ceiling and walls should be swept free of cobwebs and dust, and any accumulation of rubbish removed. Decayed wood or man- gers and floors should also be removed. All filth and dirt should be scrubbed from the woodwork, etc., with a hot soda solution. All manure and refuse should be removed and buried or saturated with some good disinfectant. Any of the better disinfectants can be used for this work, but probably either cresol I". S. P. in a three-per-cent solution, or carbolic acid five-per-cent solution will answer as w^ell as any other. The former can be prepared by mixing four ounces of cresol to each gallon of water, the latter by adding six and one-half ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water. They can best be applied with a spray pump. DISEASES OF THE LIMBS AND BONY STRUCTURE Dr. J. F. DeVine, (joslieii, X. Y. Formerly State Veterinarian, Now 'S'ork State Department of Auriciiltiirf The horse, more than any other of our domesticated animals, shares witli his master the liability to accident and in- jur! : ; incident to civilized life. Today we find him under fire on the battle field ; tomorrow he is exposed to mimberless mishaps in the congested streets; even in the rural districts he is not free from dangers in giving service on hard roads or tilling the soil to feed mankind. The purpose of this article is to classify and suggest the care and treatment of some of the most common accidents, injuries and nnsonndnesses (either hereditary or accidental) that are met with under ordinary conditions, with the hope of lessening the suf- fering of man's faithful servant, and mitigating the torturing quackery that still obtains in some communities. LAMENESS MAY COME FKOM IX.UKY OR HEREDITARY WEAKNESS The legs and feet of the horse are important organs, both in his work of hatiling heavy loads and in rapidly conveying his master from one place to another. As a consequence of this, it is generally known that lameness is one of the most common ail- ments of the horse. In some cases lameness or blemishes are not intimately associated with ovei-work or abuse, the animal being born with what is termed a hereditary predisposition. With this predisposition blemishes and unsoundnesses develop from very slight exciting causes. This is true with sidebones, com- monly seen in the heavy horse, and it is equally true in some cases with ringbones, spavins, curbs, navicular disease, etc. [234] Diseases of the Limbs AT«fD Boxy Structukk 235 KNOWLEDGE. XOT WiSDoM, .XEEDKJ) It is not the thonght of the writer to make a diagnostician of. I'nyone by this article, but the article will not have been written in vain if we are successful in disabusing some of the ridiculous teachings and theories that have been forced upon the public for years by the self-styled "• horse doctor," and the doubly-wise lay- man of the past. Like with "hollow horn" and ''wolf in the tail," we have much to undo and then start anew. ' The writer has often thought that humane societies in many in- stances were watching the mouse and letting the lion run ram- pant, when we have been repeatedly called to see the poor lame horse that had been lame perhaps for weeks, getting no better, and rind him suffering with a suppurating corn of the foot, and being tortured by a rowel in his shoulder that the wise " quack " had placed there, knowing of course at once without making any ex- amination, that the '' boss was lame in the shoulder." Similarly we have removed nails from the hind foot after the owner's pa- lience had been exhausted, and the poor animal's whirlbone or stifle blistered and scarred by one who should have been styled " the nuisance of the neighborhood." Lameness is one of the very important branches of veterinary science. Obscure lameness is one of the most difiicult things to locate that the veterinarian has to contend with, and it is ridicu- lously absurd for one not skilled in the knowledge of anatomy and locomotion to think of making an accurate diagnosis. We appreciate that in order to make this article of value to its readers, a methodical review of the extremities laust be made. But it M^O'uld be well to preface such a review with all possible force — that the same principles apply in lameness as in sick- ness. When you are not reasonably certain of what the trouble is, do nothing ; give Is^ature, the goddess of all medicine, a chance. If you must do something, then apply simple remedies, such as Jiot or cold water, poulticing and the like. Never apply blisters, burning liniments, or similar aggravating things, without know- ing positively that they are necessary. Keep in mind that a horse is less liable to be lame in the shoulder than below the knee ; and, notwithstanding the traditions 236 The House IiNdustky in New York State that have bcoii luinded down, horses are rarely himc in the whirl- bone and very rarely in the stille. When one is lame in the stifle or hip, it requires a skilled man to know. Any oiie may guess, but there is a difference between guessing and knowing. The extremities are made up of bones, muscles, tendons, liga- ments and cartilages. Where bending and friction occur, Nature has wisely arranged for an oiling system, and hence we have articular synovia (joint oil) and tendoiwus synovia (tendon oil). These are yellowish, oily or glary secretions which facilitate the play of the joints, and the tendons over the joints and certain points of the bones. There are, of course, other minutiffi concerning the arteries and veins which nourish the parts, and the nerve system which sup- plies sensation and motion, that would be interesting as an ab- stract study, but are not of sufficient practical value to deserve space here. In fact the nerve system of the extremities would not be of interest to the layman excepting under unusual con- ditions, where the removal of a section of a nerve would relieve sensation and attendant pain or inconvenience, all of which would require the advice and skill of a trained veterinarian. TREATMENT OF HEMORRHAGES The blood vessels would be of interest principally when large enough to cause a dangerous hemorrhage occasioned by acci- dent. The rule in all such cases is to apply something clean in the way of cotton or cloth to the wounded parts and then apply a strong bandage over this, making it quite tight above and below the injury if possible; so that in case of a venous hemmorrhage, the bandage or part of the bandage on the side farthest from the heart would be controlled, and likewise the pressure on the side of the wound nearest the heart would control arterial hemor- rhage. Never use cobwebs or dirty material. If it is impossible to bandage the parts, as is sometimes the case when the injury is imder the shoulder or between the hind legs, place a twitch on the horse's nose so as to make him stand quiet, and control the hemorrhage until help is obtained by holding cloths or cotton tightly against the wound. After the animal be- comes quiet the twitch should be removed. Diseases of the Limbs and Boxy Structuke 237 lamexess of the joixts axd muscles The preferable way to review the accidents and ailments oc- curring in the various structures of the extremities would be to take up each set of organs separately and recite the various path- ological conditions met with, but to do this with any detail would preclude the possibility of publishing any other information con- cerning the horse, in a medium-sized bulletin. A physiological, histological and pathological discourse of the bony structure alone would require many pages of dry reading. We will, therefore, content ourselves by mentioning the symptoms and results most commonly associated with periositis (inflammation of the skin of the bone), ostitis ( inflammation of the bone), exostosis (bony growth), and sprains of muscles, tendons and ligaments. Perhaps the simplest way to cover the structures involved would be by regional discussions. Let us begin at the shoulder joint, keeping in mind that we have all the structures mentioned above involved at this joint. Consequently we may have sprained muscles or ligaments and open joint (scientifically known as suppurative synovitis) cuts, bruises, etc. Horses ordinarily are not lame above this joint in the true sense of lameness. It is true that an animal may suffer a fracture of the shoulder blade or have a deep-seated abscess, such as the formation of a fistulous whither or other injuries between the shoulder blades, but there is no joint at the top of the shoulder as we have heard some describe, neither does the shoulder blade play any important part in loco- motion, simply being attached to the anterior sides of the body as a mfeans of support. In treating lameness or injuries of the shoulder, when it is plainly evident that the shoulder is involved, the following rule, which applies to sprains and strains generally, should be followed: Bathe the parts with either very hot or very cold water ; heat when properly applied is more soothing than cold. A very efficient way of applying heat to the shoulders or legs is by what the horsemen term " steaming." The parts are bathed with very hot water, as warm as the hand can endure; a woolen cloth or blanket is wrung out of water equally as Avarm and this is covered by either a rubber, canvas or dry blanket. In this way the heat is forced into deeper structures, and is very soothing. In such cases a mild liniment applied after bathing is often beneficial. 238 TirE HoK'SK Industry in New Yo];k State The foregoing treatment will apply to the elbow joint, but occasionally we have, in addition, the formation of cysts at the point of the elbow, which is known as "• capped elbow " or " shoe boil.'' This condition is caused either by the animal lying on its heel calk en- by biiiiipiiig the har(l floor with its elbow when about to rise. The first thing to do is to remove the cause. If we cannot remove the calk or the hard floor, then the shoe boil should be covered with a thick covering. If it does not subside rapidly with hot applications in three or four days it should be opened and properly treated by a competent veterinarian to avoid the formation of a fibrous tumor. When allowed to go on to a fibrous formation the growth may be enucleated by surgical in- terference. TROUBLES WITH THE LEGS AND FEET The forearm is not so commonly predisposed to injuries as are the parts below the knee ; but in the thoroughbred, the trotter and the hunter we frequently have speedy-cuts affecting the lower ex- tremities of the forearm and involving the knee. These injuries are more generally found in a horse used for speed on circular tracks. Soothing applications are of great value in these cases. An effective way is to use the hot water applications in the day and to cover the parts with a medicated poultice, such as anti- phlogistine, during the night. Beginning with the knee and hock, the horse is more likely to bony, tendonous and ligamentous trouble in the lower leg. We will consider the bony ailments first. They are ordinarily class- ified as splints, spavins, ringbones and sidebones. They are all practically the same in structure — differing only in location — being the result of an inflammatory process, and a deposit of lime salts very similar in their pathology to what occurs in the healing of a broken bone, with a primary callous and a permanent thick- ening of the parts. Ringbones are by far the most serious, owing to the fact that they are apt to involve articulations, and, where they do, ankylosis or stiffening of the joint occurs, resulting in a more or less perma- nent mechanical interference with locomotion. The same treatment is applicable to all these conditions in the early stages, but we find that the splints yield more readily to Diseases of the Limbs a^vd Bony Stkuctuke 239 treatmeut than the others, and ofteu aii ice pack applied for a few days, followed by a mild blister, will relieve the lameness and absorb the splint before the latter becomes truly ossified. RingboiR's and sideboncs are not so amenable to treatment; they are rarely absorbed when they once become evident. We .-honld k(>ep in mind first, last, and always, that when a bony growth lias once become established, snch as a chi'onic spavin or splint, it is j\ist as much ti'ue bono as the limb of a tree is part of Fig. so. a Xi;(;LECTr:i) Cask of LY:MriiAX(;iTis the tree, and we should never countenance the argument of the fakir who tells us he has a substance or mixture that will remove it. When cold a]:)pli('ations. followed by blistering, fail to give relief in the case of spavins, splints, ringbones and sidebones, a veterinarian should be consulted as to the advisability of having the parts fired with a pin-point cautery. Injuries and accidents to the feet proper are extremely common, and early attention of the right character is positively essential. 240 The Hokse Industry in New Youk State Hot applications in the way of hot water and poultices, with mild but eificient antiseptics, are two agents to be kept constantly in mind. To be effective, the antiseptics must, of course, reach the injured parts. In case of puncture wounds by nails or other sharp bodies, the hoof should be softened by hot applications and pared away so as to expose the affected parts for treatment. Peroxide of hydrogen, carbolic acid, iodine, creolin, etc., are reliable agents, the necessary strength of the solution being de- termined by the case in hand. Corns are bruises of the heels, usually due to neglect of shoeing or bad shoeing. The treatment is to poultice the foot and pare away the heel so that it is lower than the frog. Shoe with a bar shoe or rubber pad and repeat this treatment every three or four weeks until the corns have disappeared. Laminitis, or founder, is an inflammation of the sensitive struc- ture {lamina) of the foot. The aniniars front feet should be bound up in poultices and placed in a tub of hot water, and the services of a veterinarian secured at once. LYMPHANGITIS Lymphangitis or Monday morning leg, is an affection appearing suddenly in the form of a swelling, usually affecting the hind leg. Like laminitis it requires early attention. Place the affected leg in a tub or half-barrel, and bathe it constantly with water as hot as the hands can stand, and send for a veterinarian. Never use turpentine, liniments, etc. In lymphangitis, as in laminitis, a veterinarian can accomplish more in relieving the suffering of the poor animal and restoring it to usefulness the ffrst three days than he can in three months after the animal has been maltreated or neglected. DISTEMPER AND DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS Dr. E. L. \^olgexau, Buffalo, N. Y. Before entering upon a discussion of the diseases of the respiratory ap- paratus, let us brietly consider which organs or parts are involved in the function of breathing. In the horse, mouth-breathing is verv rarely seen. The air passes through the nostrils into the nasal chambers and sinuses in the head, where it is slightly warmed, thence past the pharynx, through the larynx, which is situated at the top of the trachea or windpipe. The windpipe, in turn, divides into the bronchi, of Avhicli there are two, one leading to each lung. These bronchi are divided into what are known as the bronchial tubes, which penetrate every portion of the lungs. The entire tract is lined with delicate mucous membrane, which may suffer injury from many causes, giving rise to the various disorders which form the theme of this paper. Some of these causes are : cold draughts on an overheated body ; irritant gases from decomposing manure; hot, badly ventilated stables; over- work or overexertion when the animal is in poor condition ; sudden change of climate and surroundings, such as a change from the farm to the city ; and infection from cars or dealers' stables. DISTEMPER This is an infectious disease, usually of young animals, but may aft"ect horses of any age. One attack usually renders an animal immune to future attacks. Symptoms: Fever, diminished appetite, weakness, rapid pulse and respiration, redness of visible mucous membrane, cough, dis- charge from the nose — at first thin and watery, later becoming thicker, yellowish in color and greatly increased in quantity, with swelling of the submaxillary glands, due to abscess formation. Sometimes we find abscess formations in other superficial glands, J6 f241] 242 TiiK ll()i;sK Ia'j>usti;v ix X kw \'oi;k State and occasionally, in the more malignant form, in deep-seated lymphatics and in internal organs. Distemper nsnally runs a reasonably regular course with a ten- dency to recovery with comparatively simple treatment. ]\Iild eases require nothing further than a mild laxative with soft feed, such as mashes with sliced carrots, apples or potatoes; protection against sudden changes in temperature by blanketing and a lib- eral allowance of drinking water. In more severe cases febri- fuges will have to be given. One-half ounce doses of nitrate of potash and epsom salts in soft feed, or in the drinking water, will be found of marked benefit. When abscess formation is taking place, warm fomentations or poultices may be vised. As soon as fiuctnation is felt, the sup- purating glands shonld be opened at the most dependent part, curetted and washed out with a mild antiseptic solution, followed by the injection of one-half ounce of tincture of iodine or Lugol's Solution. A rest of from one to tw^o weeks, with a gradual return to work will prevent relapse or complications. The complications which may occur are laryngitis, pharyngitis, severe bronchitis and some- times pneumonia. Abscesses may form in the brain, media-stinum or abdominal cavity. Roaring, as a result of severe inflammation of the throat, is occasionally an annoying sequel. Chronic bronchial cough is a frequent complication and calls for special treatment. ^lost of these conditions may be prevented by rational treatment during the acute attack, and the protection of the animal against draughts or a sudden chilling of the body. COKYZA (COIJ) IN THE IIEiU)) Coryza is inliammation of the mucous membrane of the nose and sinuses of the head and eyes. It is very common in young, green horses, and develops shortly after their arrival after having under- gone the ordeal of a long shipment in cars, with the attendant ex- posure en route. Symptoms : Sneezing, fiery red condition of the mucous mem- branes (congestion), discharge from nose and eyes, slight eleva- tion of temperature, with partial loss of appetite and general appearance of dullness. While coryza in itself is not a serious Diseases of the Hesptuatoky Ohcjans 243 disease, it must be constautlv borne in mind that if impropei- treatment is given or the condition neglected, there may be an extension of the inliammatory process to the sinuses of the head, or to the delicate lining membranes of the throat, bronchi or lungs. Many people believe that it is best to keep an animal affected with a respiratory disease at work ; but it is a safe rule to follow that whenever there is fever, indicated by elevation of temperature, the animal should be kept at rest. Fresh air and sunlight are of great importance in the treatment of all respiratory affections, but draughts must be guarded against. Treatment: Laxative diet. Inhalations of steam, slightly medicated by the additiou of a coal-tar antiseptic to boiling water, soothe the irritated membrane, and are always of benefit. These inhalations may be repeated three or four times daily. A^ run at pasture during summer months will aid recovery. During the winter the animal should be wannly blanketed and given a well- ventilated box stall. Medical treatment should be of the simplest kind. The pow- ders advised for the treatment of distemper may be given in the drinking water to stimulate the action of the kidneys and bowels. If this treatment is followed, the discharge from the nose should uraduallv disappear, and the animal entirely recover. Sometimes, however,"^ the nasal discharge instead of drying up becomes thicker and obstinately continues. We then speak of the condi- tion as chronic catarrh or nasal gleet. CHRONIC CATARRH OR XASAL GLEET This is verv apt to occur as a result of exposure or overwork while the horse has been suffering from common cold. There are many other conditions which may have as a symptom a chronic discharge from the nose, some of which are: decayed teeth, pus in the sinuses, disease of the turbinated bones and glanders. A chronic nasal discharge is always a cause for suspicion, and a veterinarian should be called in to make the diagnosis and advise treatment. The treatment will depend upon the cause. If due to a dis- eased molar, the offending tooth should be extracted. Tus m the sinuses must be treated by trephining and irrigation. In fact, the cause must first be discovered and removed before much prog- ress will be made in treatment. Tonics are always indicated, 244 The Horse Industry in New York State either vegetable or mineral. Fowler's Solution in one-ounce dosage twice daily is a convenient mode of administering arsenic, which is a drug of great value in this condition. It will, however' as a rule be wise to consult a competent veterinarian rather than attempt to treat chronic catarrh empirically. OBSTkUCTIONS IN THE NOSE These may be due to polypus or tumors of the lining mem- brane, thickening of the lining membrane itself, or disease of the turbinated bones, due to injury from either external or internal causes. All these conditions call for surgical treatment, so are simply enumerated as factors in the diseases of the respiratory apparatus. INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX AND PHARYNX LARYNGITIS AND PHARYNGITIS These conditions are described together because the parts are closely adjacent, and inflammation of the one is usually accom- panied or complicated by involvement of the other. Symptoms: Difiiculty in swallowing, fever, increased respira- tion, soreness on pressure, cough, redness of visible mucous mem- brane and discharge from nose. If the pharynx is involved, it will be noticed that, when the animal is drinking a portion of the water is returned through the nose. The appetite is usually fairly good; but the pains caused by attempts to swallow fre- quently deter the animal from eating very much. Treatment: Feed light, easily digested food, such as bran mashes, scalded oats, oatmeal gruel or grass in season. Cover with a warm blanket, bandage the legs to equalize circulation, apply liniment to the throat once or twice daily, steam out nos- trils and head as advised for sore throat, and give every two to four hours, in one-ounce doses, a fever mixture composed of equal parts of tincture belhidonna, tincture cinchona, sweet spirits of nitre and acetate of annnonia. The application of a hot kaolin poultice to the throat, well covered by cotton and bandage to re- tain heat, frequently gives prompt relief. If breathing becomes very difficult due to swelling in throat, tracheotomy will have to be resorted to ; but this again is an oper- ation which should not be attempted by a layman. Diseases of the Respiratoky Organs 245 The clirouic cough which sometimes persistently remains after the acute symptoms have subsided may be treated by cough mix- tures, or, if these fail, by iodide of potassium in one drachm doses, ihree times daily in the drinking water, one hour before feeding. A blistering ointment composed of biniodide of mercury, one drachm, and vaseline one ounce, may also be rubbed into the swollen glands and throat. This must be used with caution, however, as it will blister quite severely. ROARIXG Roaring is caused by some obstruction to the free passage of air. It occurs usually as a complication of one of the respiratory disorders. If due to sore throat, the noisy breathing will disap- pear promptly after the cause has been removed. The noise usually accompanies the inspiration, when the air is drawn into the lungs, and only in advanced cases is it heard when the air is expelled. The only treatment which appears to hold out any hope of cure in a chronic roarer is an operation for tbe removal of the lining membrane of two little sacs called the ventricles, situated above and behind the vocal cords. This is an operation of great deli- cacy, and should be attempted only by an expert. BROXCIIITIS INFLAMMATIOX OF THE BRONCHI This occurs in two forms — acute and chronic. The latter may follow the acute fonn, or chronic bronchitis may develop into the acute fonn. The symptoms are: fever; short, dry, smothered and painful cough in the early stages, which later has a tendency to become moist, due to exudation ; wheezing or whistling sounds, detecta- ble when the ear is placed over the trachea and sides of the chest. When exudation has taken place, there are heard what are known as moist rales (giirgling sounds which can be heard very dis- tinctly over the trachea). There is always dullness, increased respiration and pulse, with partial or complete loss of appetite. It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between bronchitis and pneumonia, as a severe attack of the former is frequently com- plicated by involvement of the lung tissue. 246 The Horse Industry in New York State The treatment of bronchitis is not radically different from that of other diseases of the respirjitorv apparatus — that is to say, rest; fresh air; hviiienic siu'roinidiiiiis ; l»hniketiiii>- to protect the animal from dranaht and sndden clianoc in toni|)eratnre ; liijht, easily digested food, and a lil)eral supply of clean drinkino- water, which may be kept constantly before the animal in a pail set in the manger. As medicinal treatment, the fever mixture prescribed for laryn- gitis, continued as long as the temperature remains above nor- mal, should be given with half-ounce doses of nitrate of potash three times daily in the drinking water. As an alterative and Tonic, Fowler's Solution in ounce doses two or three times daily will be found of marked benefit. This may be given in the drink- ing water if prepared without the addition of lavender. Counter irritation in the form of mustard paste applied to the chest and covered with newspapers to protect soiling of the blanket, may be given in many cases ; but severe blistering should be avoided, as the pain and inconvenience suffered as a result of drastic measures more than counteract the beneficial effects derived therefrom. Thorough daily grooming of the body, and friction applied to the leg;s, with bandages to equalize the circulation, fre- {piently have a marked effect upon the temperature and general condition of the animal. When the appetite is capricious, an effort should be made to stimulate the desire for food by giving the animal two or three apples, carrots, two or three ears of corn, steamed or scalded oats, or oatmeal gruel. The return to work should be gradual, since the animal has been suffering from a debilitating disease and overexertion or exposure may lead to serious lung involvement. congestiox of the luxgs By congestion is meant an increased flow of blood to the parts. This is usually induced in the horse either by exhaustion in an animal which has not been accustomed to hard work, or by a sud- den chilling of the surface of the body when the animal is heated. Hard or fast work means increased functional activity, and a DisEAHKs OF THE Respiratoky Organs 247 great portion of the strain indneed by overexertion devolves upon the lungs, which are the essential organs of respiration. It can be readily understood that, when an animal is perspiring and the pores of the skin are open, the capillary blood vessels are engorged. If such an animal is rapidly cooled off, the pores close, the capillaries and blood vessels contract, and the blood is forced in increased volume to some internal organ. This may produce congestion of any internal organ ; but, in an animal which has done hard and fast work, it is most apt to cause congestion of either the lungs or laminse of the feet (founder). The symptoms are usually first oliservcd after the animal has been returned to the stable, and are ushered in by a fit of trem- bling (chill). If this passes by unnoticed, the attention of the o^\^ler will probably first be attracted by difficult and rapid breath- ing. If the temperature of the horse is taken at this time the thermometer will register between lOi and 106 degrees. In the early stages the body is covered with perspiration, which may, however, soon evaporate, leaving the body, legs and ears cold. The pulse is full and hard, and may vary from 80 to 110 per minute. If the hand is placed on the left side of the chest, the heart will be found to be beating violently. Upon placing the ear to the side of the chest, a fine crackling sound will be heard, with marked increase of the respiratory murmur. Treatment: In the early stages, the first effort should be di- rected toward a renewal of functional activity of the skin. If the animal is perspiring he should be rubbed dry with wisps of hay or straw and immediately blanketed. If the weather is warm, the verv^ best place for him is out in the open, where plenty of pure air can be obtained. The legs should be well rubbed with the hand, or mild liniment applied, and then bandaged. Stimulants in the form of alcohol, v/hisky, brandy or aromatic spirits of am- monia well diluted should be given at frequent intervals until relief is obtained. A one-ounce capsule of acetanilid may be given by month, and repeated in tweh'e hours if the temperature remains very high. Treatment, to be of avail, must be promptly, energetically and intelligently carried out, as it must be borne in mind that the condition described is the first stage of inflamma- tion, and, if neglected, will terminate in pneimionia. 248 IIoKSE 1 xitrsTUY i.\ Xkw \'()i;k State r.NEL'MOMA Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs. Two foiTQS are ordinarily recognized as occurring in horses, namely, catarrhal or bronchial pneumonia, and fibrinous or croupous pneumonia. The distinction between these two forms of inflammation de- pends upon the character of the exudate. In the first form, the exudate is of a catarrhal nature, and in the second fonn the fibrin of the blood exudes through the injured blood vessels, co- agulates and plugs the air cells and bronchioles, causing solidi- fication of the lungs. It is for this reason that lungs removed from an animal suffering from croupous pneumonia will not float, the affected portion being of the consistency and general appearance of liver. The early symptoms of pneumonia are those described luider congestion of the lungs, this stage being known as engorgement. Several distinct stages of the disease are recognized and described as : red hepatization, at which time the lungs have the appearance of liver ; gray hepatization, which is the later stage when resolu- tion or breaking down of the exudate takes place and recovery is about to ensue, and the last stage known as the period of resolu- tion when the expectoration and reabsorption of the broken down exudate is well established. Symptoms : During the period of congestion and engorgement, the s\miptoms differ in no respect from those described under congestion of the lungs, as this is really the first stage of pneu- monia. During the stages known as red and gray hepatization, there are symptoms of suffocation, difficult breathing, cough, ele- vation of temperature, partial or complete loss of appetite and evidence of great weakness and prostration. The animal usually remains standing throughout the entire time. If he lies down at all, it is always on the affected side, the purpose of this very evi- dently being to afford more breathing space on the healthy side. When both lungs are involved the condition is much more seri- ous and results are frequently fatal. The lung usually fills up from the bottom, the anterior or posterior lobes being first af- fected. If the chest is tapped with the fingers a dull sound is heard, with increased resonance over the healthy portion of the lung. The respiratory murmur is very much diminished, or altogether absent in the consolidated portion. Diseases of the Kespikatouy Ok(;axs 249 When the inflammatory exudate breaks down, mucous rales are heard. As a rule, the pleura or covering membrane of the lung, and lining membrane of the chest, are also involved, the condition then being known as pleuropneumonia. With pleurisy as a com- plication, there is usually a straw-colored fluid thrown out into the pleural sac, known as pleuritic fluid, and this fluid is found on bo-th sides of the chest at the same level, whether only one or both sides of the lungs are involved. The treatment will depend wpon the stage at which the disease is first seen and the severity of the attack. In the stage of en- gorgement, efl^orts should be directed toward aborting the disease if possible ; but frequently, in spite of every eflort, the disease cannot be stopped at this stage. It imperceptibly goes on to the stage of inflammation which is the cause of the exudate ; this in turn causes the consolidation of the lung tissue. This exudate must be broken up and either discharged from the nose or coughed up, what remains being reabsorbed. This reabsorption, however, never takes place completely, and usually leaves traces of the disease in the form of consolidated areas, new tissue formations and adhesions. Pneumonia is a disease which requires very careful nursing. The animal should be placed in the cleanest and airiest quarters procurable, as it will be found that horses suffering from pneu- monia, particularly in the early stages, usually stand with their heads toward the air. The food should l)e light and easily di- gestible; the water supply clean, fresh and frequently renewed. The body should be covered with a blanket of texture suitable to the season, in order to protect the surface o.f the body against sudden draughts or chills. The legs wnll be found to be cold below the knees and hocks, and should therefore be rubbed with liniment about once a day and covered with woolen bandages evenly applied, in order to equalize the circulation. The body should be carefully groomed daily in order to keep up elimination from the skin. Salines in the drinking water, in half- to one-ounce doses, markedly stimulate the kidneys and favor elimination. While it is not advisable to give an animal suffering from pneumonia drastic cathartics, a half dose of cathartic medicine is frequently indicated, and helps to remove toxic materials from the bowels. 250 'J' HE HoKSE Industry in New York State Following the giving of a cathartic, much benefit is derived from the use of intestinal antiseptics, among which the compound sulphocarholates have served me best, The fever mixture, for which the formula is mentioned under laryngitis, can be given throughout the attack, the period being graduated according to the temperature. In the early stages, while the fever runs very high, it may be given as often as every hour or two, day and night. Liniments applied to the chest are of value, ])ut the use of strong vesicants should be avoided. Mustard pastes are fre- quently applied and are of undoubted value in many cases. Within recent years, bacterins, which are prepared from killed bacteria of the kind usually found present in pneumonia, sus- pended in saline solution, are given hypodermically in the treat- ment of this condition, but their use at present is contined to veterinarians. Recovery in uncomplicated cases usually takes place in about two weeks, after which the animal may be given walking exer- cise if the temperature is nearly normal ; but work should be very gradually resumed and be of a character suited to the weakened condition of the animal, as relapses are frequent and may prove fatal if care is not taken in this regard. In fatal cases, abscess formation and gangrene sometimes occur. In gangrene of the lungs, the inflammation has been severe enough to cause the death of a portion of lung tissue which sloughs away, imparting a highly offensive odor to the breath and a characteristic greenish discharge from the nose. This condition invariably terminates fatally. In closing this article on respiratory diseases, the writer is well aware that he has only superficially touched iipon the various affections usually classed with the disorders of this apparatus. It is not intended to furnish complete information to. enable the layman to treat the more serious affections described ; but is sub- mitted with the hope that something therein contained may be of service, and coaitribute in a small way toward a better under- standing of these common affections of the horse. COLIC AND AZATUREA I)K. M. Hamilton, Delhi. X. V. Veterinarian and Farmers' Institute Lecturer COLIC Colic is a general term often applied to all affections of the digestive apparatns. It is always accompanied by pain, which mav he jnst no.ticeahle, moderate, or very intense. It is a very convenient term for the veterinarian, for he considers his diag- nosis correct, he the tronble in the stomach, ca'cnm, or small or large intestines. \^eterinary writers, however, describe a num- ber of kinds of colic, but a discussion of each in an article of this kind would be far too complicated for the average layman. The horse seems to be predisposed to this disease. In his natural state he ate often and in small quantities, so that his oroans were never overloaded ; and, through the ages of evolution, his digestive apparatus gradually adapted itself to that condition. Xot manv centuries ago man discovered that the horse could be made a useftd beast of burdeu, consequently his environment was changed. Instead of roaming the fields and partaking of his food at pleasure he has been forced to feed less often and in larger amounts. Causes of Colic Anything that arrests or suspends digestion may cause colic. The causes may be divided under two general headings: 1. A diseased or disturbed condition of the animal's digestive apparatus so that he cannot properly digest the food that is given him, be it ever so wholesome. 2. Anything that renders the food difficult of digestion; as, for example, nuisty or moldy feed. Several factors may be included under the first heading : (a) Poor teeth, long teeth or teeth with long corners that cut o.r lacerate the cheek and tongue, induce the horse to swallow his food with as little chewing as possible. This leaves the food in such hard masses that it is rendered less capable of being thoroughly acted upon by the digestive juices. [251] 252 Horse Industry in New York State (b) Ice-cold water and apples, potatoes, roots or ensilage that are frozen, may suddenly chill the stomach and intestines, and canse a suppression of the juices, (c) Extreme fatigiie or exhaustion, especially after a very hard day's work, reduces the power of the digestive organs. There- fore a very tired horse should never he fed his grain at night until he is partially rested. Let him eat hay for a couple of hours, and, instead of making him a present of an extra quart or two of oats for his hard day's work, give a little less than the usual amount. (d) Fast driving and very heavy hauling immediately follow- ing a meal often impedes digestion. (e) Ravenous eaters that bolt their food render the food in about the same condition as a horse with imperfect teeth. (f) Irregular feeding hours. A horse can tell almost to the minute when feeding time arrives. If feeding is deferred for an hour or two hours he becomes uneasy and often paws and neighs for his food, thereby causing a general disturbance of the entire body. (g) Sudden changes in food. We always have more cases of colic at haying and threshing time, when farmers are changing from the old to the new hay and from the old to the new oats. We should always make changes in the ration gradually by mix- ing a small amount of the now oats and hay with the old. If obliged to make a sudden change in the ration better give a smaller amount and add a pinch of salt. The salt greatly aids in checking fermentation and, at the same time, slightly increases the secretions. Under the second heading we may include foods that are hard to digest, or that do. not seem to be especially adapted for the horse when fed in large (quantities, such as rye, barley, buckwheat and beans. Over-ripe, coarse fodders and musty, moldy or par- tially spoiled fodders of any description are especially dangerous for horses. Musty or moldy ensilage is very dangerous. Green foods, as clover and alfalfa, and foods recently harvested, such as new oats, corn and hay, are covered with bacterial growth that causes a rapid fermentation. If taken in large quantities when a horse is not accustomed to them they prove a very fre- quent cause of colic. Wet ground feed that has been left from a preceding meal, if allowed to remain in the feed box, soon Colic and Azaturea 253 sours and proves a source of o-'-eat flan,2;er. Overfeeding mav cause colic, as when a horse is accidentally fed twice or gets loose and finds the grain l)in. A large drink of water immediately after eating may canse colic. The stomach of the horse is so small (holding only six or seven gallons), that a large amount of water is apt to flush out some of the food into the intestines before it has been acted upon by the gastric juice. The system of the horse can ordinarily adapt itself to almost any condition, and many farmers let their horses have practically all their drinking water after eating, and yet they seldom have a case of colic. I believe, however, that many cases of colic are due to drinking too much water soon after eating. Do not scrimp your horses on water ; give it often and in small amounts. I believe if we could divide colics under the following three general classifications as to kind, we could diagnose our cases with a fair degTee of accuracy, and in that way intelligently treat and prevent a much larger proportion of them : 1. Excess of gas in the digestive tract. a. Acute indigestion is the name applied if the fermenting mass is confined principally within the stomach. b. Flatulent colic is the name applied when the fermenting mass has passed along into the intestines. 2. Excess of partly digested food and fecal matter in the di- gestive tract. This condition is often called impaction or ob- struction colic, or constipation or stoppage of the bowels. 3. Conditions which interfere with the nervous mechanism of the digestive tract. This condition is designated as spasmodic or cramp colic. In order to treat a case of colic intelligently we should be able to distinguish with a fair degree of accuracy which one of these conditions we are dealing with. It frequently happens that two, or possibly all three conditions are operating at the same time. Excess of Gas in the Digestive Tract This is by far the most common and fatal of all colics with which the horse is affected. I believe that in the country more horses die directly or indirectly from this form of colic than from all others combined. 254 The Hoksk rxnusniY i.\ New York State Si/iii]>loiiis. 'Dip ])aiii is coiitimions, thouuli more at one time than at another. IJloatinii- is the characteristic symptom. If the intestines are the principal part infected (tlatukMit colic), the hloatini*' is verv prononnced, especially on the rii>'ht side. AVhen the stomach (acnte indig'estion) is the essential seat of the tronhle, it is greatly over-distended with gas and the fermenting mass of food. Yet on acconnt of its distance from the ahdominal wall, and being incased on each side of the ribs, it hardly ever shows from the ontside. Unless a person is somewhat familiar with acnte indigestion it is sometimes rather hard to diagnose. Usnally acnte indigestion occurs soon after partaking of a fnll meal. It is sndden in its onset and gradually grows worse. As the over-distended stomach is in close contact M'ith the Inngs, breathing is greatly inter- fered with, so the horse often sits on its hannches lihe a dog. The nostrils are greatly dilated to facilitate breathing. Occasionally he will make desperate efforts to vomit. Since the stomach of the horse mnst be stretched to a dangerons condition before he can vomit, we always regard vomiting in a horse as a sign of rnptnred stomach. If vomiting of the stomach occurs without rnptnre it affords great relief. As the disease progresses the abdomen enlarges, due to the stomach forcing the other organs backward and also dne to the disturbance in the intestines. Treatment. Acute indi2;estion and flatulent colic, if not too severe, and taken in time, will often respond to some of our simple home remedies. Turpentine, three to six tablespoonfuls, according to size of the horse and severity of the case, given in a pint of raw linseed oil is a good home remedy. One-half to a teacupful of baking soda, given alone, or, better still, combined with one or two tal)lespoonfuls of ginger, is often very effective. Two or three tablespoonfuls of creolin in a quart of water is very good. Salicylic acid in one-half ounce doses is considered a specific for acute indigestion. If a horse is badly bloated never let him throw himself violently on the ground, as he is apt to rupture the stomach or intestine. If he will lie down and remain so, that is ideal, but do not let him be continually lying down and getting up. If necessary take a whip to keep him on his feet, and make him walk around. Very often medicines are of little or no use and the only thing that will save the horse is the prompt use of Colic a.nd Azatikea 255 the stomach pump or the trocar. These two operations should be employed only by veterinarians, but the results are woiu'erful if administered in time. Excess of Paiihj Digested Food and Fecal Matter in the Digest- ive Tract In addition to some of the general causes for colic mentioned above we find that certain specific conditions predispose a horse to this form of colic. Old, worn-out horses, or youni>' horses that are out of condition, are more subject to impaction on account of scanty secretions, loss of elasticity, and lack of nervous tone to the bowels. Horses that are ravenous feeders and big hay eaters — that eat their bedding in addition to their hay — are more subject to this trouble, especially if they are light drinkers. It occurs very fre(|uently during the winter months when, on ac- count of less work for the horse, we feed less grain but increase the amount of coarse, dry, bulky fodders. Horses that are fed large quantities of straw are subject to this form of colic, hence it has been called straw colic. Failure to drink enough water in cold weather, or at any time of the year, is often the essential cause, since a lil)eral amount of water in the digestive tract is absolutely necessary for good digestion and to soften and moisten the excess of dry food. In this way it assists in removing the waste matter from the body. Lack of daily exercise conduces to sluggish bowel action. Symptoms. These may be very slight or entirely absent at first. As the excess of fecal matter may have been accumulating for several weeks the horse is rarely stricken with intense pain at first. The first day or two, and sometimes for a week or more he may show colicky pains, manifested by pawing at intervals, lying down and getting u}), lying down more than ordinarily, or frequently lying out flat with head and limbs extended. There is seldom much bloating, although the abdoaiien often presents a general fullness throughout ; yet the reverse is often the case, especially if the horse has eaten but little, when the a-bdomcn appears puckered up. Sometimes the horse will seemingly pass the ordinary amount of manure, though usually very little or no manure starts, and this is often hard and sometimes coated with a white, slimy mucus. In cases that set in rather abruptly 250 The IIokse JxDrsTKv i\ New Yoi;k State diarrhea often precedes the attack. This condition frequently causes a mistaken dia,2,"nosis. As conditions ^c;row worse the pain continues, though decidedly worse at certain times. He may sit on his haunches like a doi>- to relieve the pressure on the heart and lunijs. The runihle (peristalsis) in the bowels practically ceases, pulse beco.mes rapid aud weak. Stretching' out on all four limbs and making small amounts of urine is a very characteristic symptom. This condition is caused by the over-distended bowel pressing directly on the bladder, causing an irritation and often- times a slight inflammation of the bladder. Farmers are very apt to call this condition kidney or bladder troiible. Kidney and bladder trouble is very rare in horses. Treatment. In mild cases, a change to a laxative diet such as bran mashes, roots, one pound of linseed meal per day or one pint per day of stock molasses, will often prevent or overcome the less severe attacks. In the more severe cases our line of treat- ment must aim to overcome the following conditions : ( a ) Soften- ing of the dry, hard contents of the digestive tract; (b) overcom- ing the paralysis that has been produced by the prolonged over- distension ; (c) expulsion of the contents. The softening of the contents is the first and most important consideration. Induce the horse to drink large amounts of water. This will macerate and soften the contents in the anterior portion of the digestive tract. The only way to make the horse drink is to give him plenty of salt. Give a small pinch on the tongue every little wdiile until he has had a half-pound, or dissolve one-fourth of a pound in a quart of water, and give two or three doses a few hours apart. Rectal injections of warm water are very important as the impaction is very often near that portion of the bowel. When the hand is introduced with the hose or syringe, the over-distended bowel can often be felt, thus confirming our diagnosis. Various drugs are used to overcome the paralyzed condition of the bowels. Fluid extract of nux vomica given three or four times a day in doses ranging from one-half a teaspoonful to one teaspoonful is the safest thing a farmer can give. When very large doses of this drug are given, twitching or jerking of the muscles is sometimes seen. That means that the dose should bo reduced. It should also l)e borne in mind that large doses of iiux vomica often cause abortion in pregnant animals. Colic and Azaturea 257 A good dose of physic to expel the contents should be given early. Veterinarians often give one ounce of aloes if there is no tendency of inflammation of the bowels. One quart of raw lin- seed oil is about the safest physic a farmer can give a horse. Large doses of physic often cause abortion in brood mares, so always tell the veterinarian if the mare is pregnant. Some horses are very subject to impaction, and in such cases the diet of coarse fodder should be restricted and a more laxa- tive one provided, such as an occasional bran mash, a daily feed of roots, a 'pound of linseed meal added to the other grain ration, or a pint or more of stock molasses added to the grain once a day. It is very important that we prevent the brood mare from being constipated by giving a laxative diet, since the dose of physic given for impaction colic is liable to result in either abortion or death. Spasmodic or Cramp Colic This is not so common nor so dangerous as the other two forms. The nervous, high-bred road and saddle horses are more subject to this condition than the quiet, docile drafter. Though we have enumerated most of the causes of colic under our general heading, yet with this form we must lay special emphasis on the action of cold substances in the horse's stomach. This is especially true if the horse is very warm or very tired. Therefore never give a horse a large amount of very cold water when he is heated or very tired. Water that has stood in the sun and thus has been rendered a few degrees warmer is much safer, since spasmodic colic is frequently seen immediately after drinking. Symptoms. Spasmodic colic is very sudden in its onset. The horse stops eating, begins to crouch, kick at his belly, and turn his head toward the side. The pain is usually more or less intermit- tent. It may be intense for a few minutes and then suddenly cease and the horse appear normal. Soon another spasm occurs, however, and the horse is in greater agony than before. The ear applied to the side of the bowels usually detectsi an increased rumble, while in the other forms of colic, the rumble is usually decreased. The pulse is strong and breathing is natural. Treatment. Anything to relieve the spasm is indicated. • A hypodermic injection of two or three grains of morpine sulphate 258 The Hoese Industky in New York State in the neck will usually brinj^ relief. Two or three tablespoonfuls of laudanum, given by the mouth, while not so rapid, generally effect a cure in a few minutes. general conclusions on the treatment and prevention of COLIC Very little has been said in the foregoing article about preven- tion of colic, although it is the essential thing in caring for horses. Since a somewhat lengthy discussion of the causes of colic has been given, it would be but a repetition of what has already been stated to include them again under the subject of prevention. A few suggestions that apply to all forms of colic are offered. When horses are recovering from colic, farmers often tempt them to eat hay or grain. This is wrong. When a horse cannot digest his food, and colic results, he should not have more food, since that aggravates matters and often causes a relapse. Wait at least a couple of hours after all pain has subsided and then feed only a little hay, wheat bran, or possibly a very few oats. Horses that have had long sieges should be fed sparingly for several days. If they do not respond to treatment in a reasonable time a dose of physic should ordinarily be given. Usually about one quart of raw linseed oil is the safest thing for the layman to give. It usually takes from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, and often longer, to physic a horse, so do not make the mistake of repeating the second dose too soon, as it might kill the horse. Rectal injections are very benelicial. Three or four gallons of water heated to body temperature, or even a little warmer if it does not inconvenience the patient, can be injected every hour or two. A cupful of raw linseed oil or glycerine, or even a little hard soap, is often added to the water. A very simple device on the farm is to use a rubber hose and a funnel. Care should bo exercised to see that the hose is well oiled and is inserted into the rectum carefully. If much force is used the rectum may be ruptured. In many cases the farmer does not know which kind of colic the horse has. He perhaps does not see the horse when first taken, and finds him suffering from pain, and, being somewhat nervous and excited, does fairly well if he will call it under the general name Colic and Azaturea 259 colic. In siicli conditions a combination of drugs is indicated. A pint or even a little more of raw linseed oil is practically always good. To this add four tablespoonfuls of turpentine (the turpen- tine is for any gas that may be present or forming), and three tablespoonfuls of laudanimi (the laudanum is to overcome the pain or any spasm of the bowels). Chloral hydrate has the com- bined action of the laudanum and turpentine, and, if used, both of the latter should be omitted. The dose is one ounce, or a level tablespoonful. This should be given in a quart of water, since it is very burning to the mouth. It makes the horse unsteady in his limbs and sleepy. The chloral may be repeated in about forty minutes if there is no improvement, but if repeated, give only one-half the amount. I think chloral hydrate is about the best all-around drug the farmer can keep for colic. There are a score or more of drugs used for colic, and if you have any par- ticular drug or prescription that always cures and never fails by' all means make no change. Veterinarians today treat most of their cases with hypodermics that cause a rapid evacuation of the bowel and removal of gas. They should not be recommended for use by the average lay- man, because in some cases they would do serious injury. AZATUREA BLACK WATER MONDAY MORNING DISEASE This is a disease that primarily affects the well-fed and well- cared-for draft horse. x\mong farmers it is often considered a kidney trouble, owing to the thick, dark, coffee-colored urine, while in some localities it has been called paralysis or spinal meningitis, owing to the partial or complete paralysis of one or both posterior limbs. Cause of the Disease The causes of this trouble are not thoroughly understood, but self-poisoning from the blood is generally considered to be the principal one. The disease attacks the thriving, well-conditioned horse who has remained idle for one or more days without the customary amount of food being decreased. Usually the horse is fat, though this is not always the case. One theory, and perhaps the most plausible one, is that during the days of idleness, the blood becomes charged with albumenoids, 260 The Horse Industry in New York State due to high protein feeding without exercise. A large proportion of this over-rich blood remains in the liver, spleen, etc. Then, when the horse is taken ont, the active exercise increases the heart and Inng action and carries this torpid ])lood throngk the system too fast. As a result the system cannot accommodate itself to this sudden oversnpply and take care of the excess of albumenoids, and so self-poisoning takes place. This is manifested by paralysis and a disturbed nervous condition. Exercise is always necessary for the development of this affection, so that a horse is never stricken in the stable, but on the road when he is being ridden or driven, A horse that is out of condition, with a rough, hide-bound skin, is practically never affected, neither is one that remains idle for long periods. Symptoms Usually when the horse first leaves the stable he feels unusually active and spirited, owing to his previous rest, but before he travels very far — sometimes not more than thirty or forty rods, though usually one or two miles — marked symptoms are ob- served. Horses have been known to travel several miles and be put into a stable and then come down with the disease. About the first noticeable symptom is that the horse suddenly begins to lag, does not drive up, and fails to respond to the whip. In the majority of cases he begins to sweat, sometimes very profusely. The characteristic symptom is the paralysis or loss of control of one or both hind limbs, though occasionally it is the fore limbs that are affected instead of the posterior ones. He begins to get stiff and drag one or both limbs. In the more severe cases, the affected parts are unable to sustain their share of the weight of the body. If both hind limbs are severely affected the horse goes down behind and may sit on his haunches like a dog. The muscles on the affected side along the loins, croup and buttock are dense, rigid, and hard, and can hardly be dented on pressure with the fingers. The rectum and bladder are usually paralyzed. Treatment Stop the animal at once on the appearance of the first symptoms, letting him stand thirty to forty minutes, which is usually long enough to afford time for the system to neutralize Colic and Azaturea 261 and carry off the auto-intoxication. Keeping him perfectly quiet Avith as little movement of the aifected muscles as possible will do more towards recovery than all the medical treatments we can render the animals. If the patient is down and unable to rise, he should be drawn to a near-by barn on a stone boat and made as comfortable as possible by being placed in a box stall, or on the open bam floor. In cases where the horse is down, or stands with difficulty, the services of a skilled veterinarian are needed as soon ?fs possible, as the bladder usually needs to be emptied. The urine has a thick, coffee-like color from whence the disease gets its name, black water. Until the arrival of the veterinarian the patient's suffering can be greatly relieved by applying some form of heat over the rigid muscles of the loins, croup, and thighs. Put a bushel of salt in pans and heat it in the oven ; put it in sacks, and apply to the affected muscles. If hot water is used, care should bo taken to see that the parts are well dried by rubbing with straw or clothes and then covered with, blankets. A pail of hot water to which a cupful of salt is added is very effective. It is very esential that we keep the patient quiet. If he gets uneasy and commences to toss his head up and down and tries to keep changing his position, he will soou end in a speedy death. A tablespoonful of potassium bromide given in a pint of water, and about half that amount repeated every hour or two until the patient isi quiet and assumes a sleepy titttiude, is very effective treatment. Fluid extract of canabis indica can be given in the same way and in the same sized doses as the potassium bromide. Drinking water given every hour in reasonable amounts is recom- mended. Laudanum, though it would quiet the animal, is too constipating to be used. Bleeding, if it can be done at the onset, is one of the quickest ways to relieve the system of the over-rich blood. The rectum should be emptied by hot water injections. A good dose of physic and some medicine to stimulate the kidneys is usually recommended, but their use should be left to the judg- ment of the veterinarian. Prevention Since one attack of this trouble predisposes to others, it is essen- tial that we avoid those things that favor its onset. Regular work every day is the surest way to prevent it. Though the system may 262 The Horse Industry in New York State be rendered in such a condition by high feeding during a period of idleness as to predispose an attack, yet exercise is absolutely necessary to its development. Therefore on Sundays, holidays, and in stormy weather, when the horse does not receive exercise, it is important that we decrease the amount of grain, giving, perhaps, only half the usual allowance. A laxative diet, as a bran mash, on every Saturday night, or a small dose of physic during a period of rest is beneficial. Since horses appear to be more subject to azaturea in the spring of the year, when farmers begin to increase their grain rations and get them into condition for the spring's work, a half to a table- spoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash every Saturday night for several weeks assists greatly in warding off an attack. The driver can prevent the great majority of. cases by making the horse walk the first half mile, and even if the work is severe, let him rest frequently during the first twenty minutes; or, better still, lead him a few minutes by the halter before putting him to severe exercise. Starting the horse in easy when he commences his day's work and letting him warm up slowly is advisable at all times, but it is very important if he has been standing for several days. HORSE COMPANIONSHIP* Fraxk Sherman Peer, Ithaca, IST. Y. Author of " Soiling, Ensilage, and Stable Construction." " When you are hot and thirsty And' you stop to get a drink, Or seek'a friendly shade tree, Do you ever stop to think That horses which have labored In the dust and heat for you, May feel the same as you feel, And would like some water too? It takes but little effort For a man to till the soil. If we compare his labor With the way a horse must moil. The liorse serves well his master, Although oft in need of rest : The man who treats him kindly Is the man he serves the best." I have had a great deal to say about confidence and companion- ship between rider and mount, which I have deckired to be better understood in England than in America. The average Ameri- can seems to look upon a horse as simply a convenience, like the bicycle or the trolley cars — a means by which he may reach his destination sooner and with less fatigue than by walking. He presses a button and the horse is brought to the door, and when he is through with him a groom takes him away again. The horse does not attain to the confidence of his master as he does in England, where he becomes part of the family. There is noth- ing degrading in the idea of companionship with a horse. When one comes to think of it, many men and some women not in- frequently have about them less edifying associates of their omi kind. '^0 man, woman or child was ever the worse for an intimate association with a well-bred horse or dog. It cannot be too much insisted on that this companionship be- tween horse and rider is the very essence of cross-country riding. Whoever has failed to secure the confidence of his mount and his mount's in himself has failed of enjoying the best half of the game. The right sort of man, even if he may hardly be feeling * Extracts (by permission of the author) from Cross Country ivith Horse and Hound, by F. S. Peer. [263] 264 The IIokse Ixdustey in New York State well enough for a day's liiinting, will go out rather than deprive his horse of the pleasure — a bit of self-sacrifice which some- times happens in England, unusual as it may be on the other side of the Atlantic. The love of animals, especially of horses, is born and bred in the English people. Unlike some Americans, they one and all care enough for a horse that has given them a most glorious day's sport to stay at the stable and see him done up properly and fed before they dine themselves. In England the children are brought up from infancy to consider the feelings of all domestic animals. An old favorite mare soon to have a foal is talked over again and again, and the expectant mother has the best of care. Love and respect increase as the eventful time approaches. She is turned out on the lawn in front of the house where the grasses are tenderest and sweetest, and the best of everything is none too good for her. The children divide with her their candy ; the baby is held up and taught to caress and love her. The dear old mare's matronly appearance is never a cause of shame, but a pride ; and when at last she has produced her foal, the entire family, down to nurse and the baby, must all go down to the stable to see it. With such instincts, is it any wonder that Englishmen and Englishwomen love a horse? Is it any wonder that there exists between an English rider and his mount a potent feeling of companionship ? Is it any cause for question why in England and Scotland there are a hundred and thirty- eight packs of hounds ? Xeed one long inquire why this sport has such a powerful hold that it is followed unceasingly through yonth, manhood and old age ? There seems to exist between man and beast a certain force by which the former is able to exert over the latter some subtle influence to which various names such as ^' bond of sympathy " or " an indefinable something " are occasionally given. So far as I am aware, no writer on hunting has attempted to advance any hypothesis which may reasonably account for the source of this power or define its scope and limitations. We hear it said that dogs and horses love certain people be- cause these people love them, and that this love itself explains their control over horses or dogs. ^'All dogs take to me," one person says ; '^ I don't know why it is, but I can make them do almost anything." And, indeed, some persons easily teach a dog Horse Companionship 265 or a cat or a bird a trick which another would require weeks to instruct them in, if he did not fail altogether. Yet, while it is true that a person who loves animals is more likely to train them easily, the power cannot be attributed to love, for often an entire stranger can make an animal do things which the o\\^ier, who loves the creature dearly and is in turn dearly loved, fails to accomplish. One man will take a horse that he has never seen or ridden before through a cross-country run to hounds, and bring him in at the death without exhausting him as much as his owner would, although the latter may be as good ai horseman and lighter in weight. Every hunting field aifords examples of this, which cannot be accounted for by difference of horsemanship. Writers on hunting all agree that some men can make a horse do most incredible things, and attribute this wonderful power of control to " better hands," " better seat," or what not. It must be admitted that a person with very bad hands or a bad seat, or both, may irritate a horse and take more out of him in a run than a man with perfect hands and seat ; but an explanation on this basis does not account for the fact that a better rider and a lighter can come through a run with the better-conditioned horse pumped to a turn, while another man who has ridden the same line brings his horse in comparatively fresh ; or that two such men may change horses in the next run and find the results change too. The fact has been demonstrated so often in every hunting-field that I need not enlarge upon it, except to say we must look further than any theory as to hands and seat, or the power of love, in ex- planation of such phenomena. Most of my readers have doubtless seen, at exhibitions through- out the country, examples of the wonderful control some men have over animals, the wild becoming tame, the nervous quiet, and the vicious tractable under their magic influence. Such things are sometimes explained by the skeptics as the result of " doping." From personal knowledge, however, as a pupil of Earns, and from personal acquaintance with the late Professor Xorris, and since with his son Mr. Stuart Norris, who is following in the footsteps of his illustrious father in the training and exhibition of trick horses, I am positive in saying that there is absolutely no foundation in attributing to this " doping '' theory the wonderful power of control which these men display. 266 The Horse Iistdustry ix New York State Let us see if an attempt to puzzle out or analyze this power will not result in establishing its source. We may start with the assumption that the numerous terms in common use to define this power — charm, gift, personal magnetism, will power, natural instinct — go to show that its existence is recognized beyond doubt or question. An analogous power of control exist- ing between man and man is familiar under the names of hypnotism, magiietism, mesmerism, or kindred mind-power mani- festations. All mind-power manifestation, under whatever name, is, I believe, subject to one universal condition, namely, consent. The resemblance between the terms generally adopted in attempt- ing to describe the power that some men have over their mounts, and the terms by which wo try to describe hypnotism and other mind-power manifestations between men and men, is significant. One set of words applies just as fairly to the power some men are capable of exerting over some other men as they do to the powers which great animal tamers or our peculiarly gifted horsemen have over the animals they bend to their wills. That some men possess this power over animals and are unconscious of exerting it is no proof that the power does not exist. Hypnotism, though old in | essence, is in practice very lately out of its infancy, yet making vast progress. Several physicians of my acquaintance are mak- ing use of it with most satisfactory results, even employing it in place of antiseptics when performing dental and surgical opera- tions. So rapidly has this subject developed of late in the medi- cal world that one of the most successful physicians of today says : '^ Within ten years from now no student of medicine will be considered master of the profession unless he is able to com- mand this power." If this mind power between man and man is the same as that between man and beast, we have probably what may be termed a w^orking hypothesis covering the whole field and reasonably accounting for many otherwise unaccountable things in the way of horsemanship. We noticed, under the subject of mind-power manifestations as between man and man, that the one common factor prevailing in all is consent, which has its parallel in the relatiou between man and beast, called by whatever name. In all hunting coun- tries there is a saying that in order to be successful in horseman- ship one must first get on good terms with one's mount. Getting Horse Compaxioxship 267 on good terms with a horse is merely obtaining his consent to be governed. If these things be true, it brings us to the conclusion that this power emanates from the same source, whether exer- cised between man and man or between man and beast, and the working hypothesis we have set out to establish may be summed up as follows: (1) There exists a mind-power control between man and man; (2) there exists a mind-power control between man and beast; and (3) the power of control is the same in both cases. This brings us to another point purposely omitted until now; namely, that while a person or a horse may be willing to be acted upon, the person seeking to control him must l^e desirous of doing so. In all hypnotic demonstrations there must be harmony, ac- cord, or what the French term rapport. Further, this power, or desire, (1) exists in every person to a greater or less degi-ee; (2) it is, like other faculties of the mind or body, subject to cultiva- tion or development, and, like them, increases with use; (3) its manifestation is in a degree proportionate to the will of the one or the faith or confidence of the other. THE NEW YORK STATE DRAFT HORSE BREEDERS CLUB Realizing that an improvement in horse hreeding conditions in this state conld only be secured by cooperation, concentrated effort, education and publicity, a few draft horse breeders who met at the State Breeders' meeting at Utica, 'N. Y., in 1912, gave their support to this movement. Three annual meetings of this club have been held and the membership now comprises fo.rty-two representative draft horse breeders. This organization has ad- vocated and recommended that horse breeding be among the sub- jects- discussed at the State Breeders' and Farmers Institute meet- ings ; that a rational stallion enrollment and inspection law be passed ; that a liberal classification and premium list be made for draft horses at our State Fair, and have advocated a combina- tion in advertising, buying and selling of breeding stock so far as might be practical. The membership of this club is not re- stricted in any w^ay. The name and influence of every draft horse breeder in the state is desired. This club advocates no one breed of horses and desires to benefit no one set of men or breeders, but is working for state-wide improvement and condi- tions, in the bro.adest and most practical way. The officers of The ]^ew York State Draft Horse Breeders' Club are: President, E. S. Akin, Glens Falls, N. Y. ; Secretary, E. E. Horton, Lester- shire, N. Y. ; Executive Committee, Darwin Rumsey, ISTewfield, X. Y., Dr. J. S. Wilder, Akron, N. Y. and S. A. Ritter, Geneva, N. Y. CLUB MEMBEES SEPTEMBER 1, 1915 Adirondack Farms, Glens Falls Marshall, W., Aurora Akin, E. S., Syracuse Miller, C. L., Xew York Amos, C. L. Sj-racuse Miller, C. P., Byron Andrews, B. B., Weedsport Miller, G. W., Byron Baker, C. H., Mohegan Lake Miner, W. H., Chazy Bennett, C. O., Hilton Newman, A. W., Phelps Chapin, R. E., Batavia Xewman, R. C., Phelps Cooley, A. H., Little Britain Phetteplace, G. E., Norwich Craig, J. L., Ogdensbiirg Quimby, J. G., New York Grouse, C. M., Syracuse Ritter," S. A., Geneva Deni.ison, L. O., Buffalo Rumsey, Darwin, Newfield Doremus, G. S., Merrifield Sisson," G. W., Jr., Potsdam Bold, J. C., Buffalo Stone, G. F., Norwich Foran, John, Merrifield Swain, W. E., Swains Gray, G. F., Lima Tavlor, C. C., Lawtons Harder, E. L., Philmont Virkler, C. F., Lo^\•ville Hillman, W. M., East Bethany Virkler, W. F., Castorland Horton, E. E., Lestershire Ward, F. D-., Batavia Jackson, J. A... Holley Weaver, G. H., Watertown Johnson. A. B., Caledonia Wendt, W. F., Buffalo La Grange, C. C., Slingerlands Wilder, J. S., Akron f26S] New York State Draft Horse Breeders' Club 269 STATISTICS RELATIVE TO HORSES ON FARMS IN NEW YORK STATE (Taken fkom U. S. Census, 1910) Total County number Albany 8,780 Allegany 13,542 Broome 8,672 Cattaraugus 13,888 Cayuga 15,540 Chautauqua 17,363 Chemung 5, 431 Chenango 10,493 Clinton 10,415 Columbia 9, 050 Cortland 7,033 Delaware 12,022 Dutchess 10,945 Erie 20,839 Essex 5,907 Franklin 9. 262 Fulton 4,064 Genesee 12,988 Greene 6,174 Hamilton 816 Herkimer 8,213 Jeft'erson 17, 746 Kings 221 Lewis 8,037 Livingston 13,598 Madison 11,282 Monroe 20,639 ^Montgomery. . . .' 7, 639 Nassau 3,860 New York 383 Niagara 15,510 Oneida 16,252 Onondaga 17,128 Ontario 15,620 Orange 10,723 Orleans 10, 924 Oswego 13,529 Otsego 13,258 Putnam 2,195 Queens 1,914 Rensselaer 9. 666 Richmond 378 Rockland 2,040 St. Lawrence 22, 665 Number Mature Horses Number Yearling Colts Number Spring Colts Value 8,470 255 55 $1,273,692 12,627 810 105 1,839,085 8,238 387 47 1,087.782 13,040 756 92 1,792,192 14. 767 689 84 2,071,776 16,440 831 92 2,288,348 5, 104 277 40 648, 199 10,055 397 41 1,338,033 9,676 690 49 1,310,434 8,827 194 29 1,244,941 6,685 321 27 890,897 11,582 404 36 1,584,680 10. 546 341 58 1,505.709 19,980 728 131 2,891,072 5,534 349 24 779,847 8,580 641 41 1,137,482 3,851 198 15 543,860 12,271 597 120 1,766,628 5, 982 165 27 857,034 783 32 1 126,107 7,868 307 38 1,144,576 16, 70S 892 146 2, 192, 669 221 44,247 7,711 288 38 1,059,416 12. 700 780 118 1,919,251 10,724 509 49 1,468,716 19,675 784 180 3,233.135 7,221 327 91 1, 065, 093 3.817 36 7 759.364 380 3 48,975 14,583 738 189 2,300,416 15,738 470 44 2.363,190 16,373 676 79 2,351,464 14,732 746 142 2. 132,928 10,366 293 64 1,619,266 10, 285 521 118 1,681,456 12.846 629 54 1,682,653 12,673 519 66 1,658,469 2,138 42 15 344,234 1,912 1 1 378,784 9,373 273 20 1,337,347 377 1 73,020 2,008 29 3 318,605 21,235 1,281 149 2,694,836 270 The Hoese Industry in New York State Total County number Saratoga 8, 115 Schenectady 3, 162 Scholiaiie. 8, 237 Schuyler 5,392 Seneca 7 , 879 Steuben 20,506 Suffolk 6,347 Sullivan 7,215 Tioga 6,619 Tompkins 8,120 Ulster 9. 724 Warren 3,221 Washington 10,070 Wayne 15,373 Westchester 5,392 Wyoming 11, 732 Yates 7,270 The State 591. 008 Number Mature Horses Number Yearling Colts Number Spring Colts Value 7,870 217 28 $1, 066, 762 3,045 93 24 428,430 7,919 270 48 990, 987 5,090 270 32 667,213 7,365 414 100 1,039,821 19,226 1,130 150 2,613,884 6,273 66 8 904,696 6,823 321 71 945.919 6,191 382 46 798. 691 7,718 351 51 991.995 9,576 127 21 1,354,656 3,066 147 8 428,997 9,614 423 33 1,337,332 14,590 679 104 2,099,853 5,274 90 28 1,052,720 11,117 551 64 1,586.543 6,851 346 73 984.895 562,310 25,083 3,615 $80,043,302 INDEX A Abdallahs, origin of, 23, 24. Acute indigestion, 253, 254. Akin, E. S., Belgian, The, 82-90. Draft Breeds of France, 71-81. Draft Breeds of Great Britain, 91-103. Stallion P^nroUment Law, 315. Alexander, Dr. A. S., Effects of the Wisconsin Stallion Law, 213, 214. Alfalfa as feed for horses, 188, 189. American Saddle Horse, Mrs. E. C. Railey, 47-56. Anatomy of horse's leg and foot, 168- 173. Ancestry, imjiortance of, in breeding, 15, 41. Ankle-cocked horses, how benefited, 180. Ankylosis, cause of, 238. Arab Horse, The, H. K. Bush-Brown, 27-36. anatomy, 27. capacity, 29, 30. characteristics, 36. foundation of thoroughbred, 37. heredity, 30-32. history, 32-36. origin, 27. Ardennais horses, 72, 73. Artificial breeding, 147. Ass, breeding of, 121-123. history of, 120, 121. Asses and ]Mules, Dr. C. W. Brod- head, 119-128. Atavism in breeding, 15. Automobile in relation to the horse, 25, 44, 221, 222. Azaturea, 250-262. cause, 259, 260. prevention, 261, 262. symptoms, 260. treatment, 260, 261. [271 B Belgian, The, E. S. Akin, 82-90. at State Fair, 202, 203. characteristics, 87. demand for, 89. destruction of by war, 90. develoj^ment, 82. exhibitions, 84, So. government subsidies, 83, 84. importations, 88. types, 85, 87. Best Horse for the Farmer to Breed, J. H. S. Johnstone, 134-140. Bitting, harness, 164. method of, 164, 165. Black water, 259-262. Bony Structure, Diseases of Limbs and. Dr. J. F. DeVine, 234-240. Boulonnais horses, 73. Breeders' Club, Xew York State Draft Horse, 268. Breeding, artificial, 147. Breeding Horses, Principles of, M. W. Harper, 14-19. care of mare, 18. fall foals, 19. individuality, 15. mating, 15. pedigree, 15. jDerformance, 15. prepotency, 16. selection, 14. soundness, 17. spring foals, IS, 19. sterility, 16. young fillies, 18. Breeds of horses, 20-119. American Saddle, 47^56. Arab, 27-36. Ardennais, 72, 73. Belgian, 82-90, 202, 203. Boulonnais, 73. Breton, 72. ] 272 Index Breeds of horses — Continued: Cleveland Bay, 110-118. Clydesdale, 9t)-99, 203. French Coach, 112-114. German Coach, 114-110. Hackney, 104-109, 111-113. Xivernais, 73. Percheron, 75-81, 201, 202. Standardbred, 20-26. Suffolk, 91-96. Thoroughbred, 37-45. Breton horses, 72. Brodhead, Dr. C. \V., Asses and Mules, 119-128. Care of Horses' Teeth, 183-1 86. Horses' Feet and Their Care, 107-182. Bronchitis, 245, 246. Brood Mare, Care of, and Her Colt, L. Roudebush, 148-154. age to breed, 148. care, 149, 151, feed, 149. drying up, method of, 151. period of gestation, 149. requirements, 148. suitable place for foaling, 149, 151. Burning of hoof, 181, 182. Bush-Brown, H. K., The Arab Horse, 27-36. C Capped elbow, treatment for, 237, 238. Capsule, use of, in breeding, 147. Care of Brood Mare and Her Colt, L. Roudebush, 148-154. of Horse, Feed and, F. C. Mink- ler, 187-192. of Horses' Feet, Dr. C. W. Brod- head, 167-182. of Horses' Teeth, Dr. C. W. Brodhead, 183^186. of the StaUion, J. Gelder, 141- 147. Chronic catarrh, 243, 244. Chunk, the farm, 131-140. desirable size, 139, 140. market for, 138, 139, 140. Cleveland Bay horse, 116-118. characteristics, 116, 117. history, 110. registration, 118. utility qualities, 118. Clipping of shoes, inadvisability of, 182. Clul) foot, treatment, 173, 174. Clydesdale horse, 90-99. at State Fair, 203. characteristics, 99. distribution of breeding stock, 97. history, 96. importation to United States, OS. Coach Horses, DeVoe Meade, 110- 118. Cleveland Bay, 116-118. French Coach, 112-114. German Coach, 114-116. Hackney, 110-112. Cold in head (Coryza), treatment for, 242, 243. Colic, and Azaturea, Dr. M. Hamil- ton, 251-262. causes of, 2.51-253. excess of gas in digestive tract, 253-255. excess of undigested food in di- gestive tract, 255-257. flatulent, 253, 254. prevention, 258, 259. spasmodic or cramp, 257, 258. Colt, breaking to halter, 151. care of young, 151-154. feed and care, 152, 153. feeding box, 151. nursing of, 151. shoeing, method of, 177, 179. Training the, H. E. Hopkins, 161-166. treatment of, if mother dies, 151. weaning, 152. Colts, Fall Versus Spring, Edward van Alstyne, 155-160. advantages of fall, 157-159. plan for raising two per year, 160. profit in raising, 155. Index 273 Colts — Continued : spring most i)()pular, 156, 157. value of skim milk for, 160. Community Effort in Draft Horse Breeding, J. L. Edmonds, 216- 220. knowledge of correct type, 219. liberal feeding necessary, 219. number of sires available, 217, 219. organizations, 219, 220. ownership of good sires possible, 216. Congestion of lungs, 246, 247. Contraction, how relieved, ISO. Corn as feed for horse, 189. Corns, treatment of, 179, 240. Coryza, symptoms and treatment, 242, 243. Crooked feet, treatment of, 174. D Dentistry, horse, 183-186. DeVine, Dr. J. F., Diseases of Limbs and Bony Structure, 234-240. Digestive apparatus, diseases of, 251- 259. Diseases of horses, 225-262. azaturea, 259-262. colic, 251-259. distemper, 241, 242. glanders, 22.5-233. of limbs and bony structure, 234-240. of respiratory organs, 242-250. Diseases of Limbs and Bony Struc- ture, Dr. .J. F. DeVine, 234- 240. hemorrhage, treatment of, 236. lameness, causes of, 234, 235. treatment for, 235, 236. of joints and muscles, 237, 238. treatment for, 237. lymphangitis, 240. trouble with legs and feet, 238. Diseases of Respiratory Organs, Dis- temper, and, Dr. E. L. Volge- nau, 241-250. hronchitis, 245, 246. Diseases of Respiratory Organ — Con: congestion of limgs, 246, 247. coryza (cold in head), 242. chronic catarrh or nasal gleet, 243, 244. laryngitis and pharyngitis, 244, 245. obstruction of nose, 244. pneumonia, 248-250. roaring, 245. Distemper, 241, 242. symptoms, 241. treatment, 242. Draft Breeds, of France, E. S. Akin, 71-81. Ardennais, 72, 73. Boulonnais, 73. Breton, 72. Xivernais, 73. Percheron, 75-81. of Great Britain, E. S. Akin, 91-103. Clydesdale, 96-99. Shire, 100-103. Suffolk, 91-96. imported in 1913-14, 103. Draft colts at fair, 203, 204. Draft Horse Breeders' Club, New York State, 268. Draft Horse Breeding, Community Effort in, J. L. Edmonds, 216-220. Draft horses on farms, 129-140. E East, Horse Breeding in West and, F. Henry, 221-224. advisability of raising our own horses, 223, 224. Edmonds, J. L., Community Effort in Draft Horse Breeding, 216 220. Effects of \Yisconsin Stallion Law, Dr. A. S. Alexander, 213, 214. European War as incentive to horse raising, 36, 43, 44, 134, 136-139, 155, 156, 205, 206, 222. Evolution and History of the Horse, M. W. Harper, 11-13. natural causes of evolution, 13. prehistoric development, 11, 12. Exercise, need of, 18, 19, 141, 149, 223. 274 Index F Fall Colts, Versus Spring, Edward van Alstyiie, 155 lliU. advantages of, 157-159. care of, 19. Fairs, need of change in classifica- tion of horses at, 220. Farcy. See Glanders. Farm horse, 129-133. Farmer, Horse for the, to Breed, J. H. S. Johnstone, 134-140. Farriery. See Shoeing. Feed and Care of the Horse, F. C. Minkler, 187-192. care of teeth and parasites, 191. conditions governing amount of feed, 187. grain ration, 189, 190. grooming, 191. inadvisability of too much rough- age, 188. salt and water, 190. Feed for, the brood mare, 149. the stallion, 142, 143. Feet, Horses', and Their Care, Dr. C. W. Brodhead, 167-182. anatomical review, 168-173. change in, 11, 12. faults of conformation, 173. club foot, 173, 174. crooked feet, 174. flat feet, 173. heredity in relation to. 177. shoeing, 174, 177, 178. treatment of conditions, 179- 182. Feet of, farm horse, 132, 133. stallion, 145. Fillies, breeding young, 17, 18. Flat feet, treatment of, 173. Foals, spring, 18, 19, 156, 157. fall, 19, 157-159. Forging, shoeing to prevent, 180. France, Draft Breeds of, E. S. Akin, 71-81. French Coach horse, 112-114. characteristics, 113, 114. history, 112, 113. French Coach Horse — Continued: registration, 114. utility qualities, 114. Frog, paring of, 182. G Gay, Carl W., The Standardbred Horse, 20-26. Gelder, J., Care of the Stallion, 141- 147. German Coach horse, 114-116. characteristics, 114-116. history, 114. types of, 114, 115. Gestation, period of, 149. Glanders or Farcy, Dr. C. Linch, 225-233. animals affected by, 225. cause of, 225. control, 233. diagnosis or tests, 229, 230. disinfection, 233. distribution, 232. how spread, 230, 232. method of handling cases by de- | partment, 232. "1 post-mortem examinations, 227, 229. symptoms, 225-227. Grass, value of, for young foal, 19. Great Britain, Draft Breeds of, E. S, Akin, 91-103. Grooming, importance of proper, 191. Gunner type of horse, 136. H Hackney horse, 110-112. characteristics, 112. history, 110, 112. registration, 112. utility qualities, 112. Hackney Breeding in America, R. C. Vanderbilt, 104-109. crossing with other breeds, 107, 108. improvement of breed, 104. on Pabst Stock Farm, 104-109. rearing young stock, 108, 109. utility qualities, 109. Index 275 Hamilton, Dr. M., Colic and Aza- turea, 251-262. The Horse on New York State Farms, 129-133. Hambletonian, origin of, 23, 24. Harper, M. W., Evolution and His- tory of the Horso, 11-13. Principles of Horse Breeding, 14- 19. Henry, Forest, Hor.se Breeding in West and East, 221-224. Heredity, importance of, 15, 30, 31, 41. in relation to feet, 177. Hinny defined, 119. History of the Horse, Evolution and, M. W. Haiper, 11-13. Hitching, method of, in training colt, 165, 166. Hollingsvvorth, Dr. W. G., Need of a Stallion Law, 207-212. Hoof, burning of, 181. composition of, 172. Hopkins, H. E., Training the Colt, 161-166. Horse, Breeding, in the West and East, F. Henry, 221-224. Principles of, M. W. Harper 14-19. Companionship, F. S. Peer, 263- 267. for the Farmer to Breed, Best, J. H. S. Johnstone, 134- 140. desirable size and conforma- tion, 139, 140. European demand, 136-139. importance of proper feed- ing, 135. uniformity of type and size, 135, 136. market ofi'ered in New York State, 194-196. on New York State Farms, Dr. IM. Hamilton, 129-133. limbs and feet, 132, 133. points of excellence, 131. Standardbred and road horses, 129, 130. Horse Breeding on New York State Farms — Continued: unsoundness not a bar, 132. weights of, 130, 131. Horses, at New York State Fair, Dr. H. S. Wende, 193-206. Belgian, 202, 203. Clydesdale, 203. draft colts, 203, 204. fair should encourage pro- duction of farm horses, 193. importance of good judges, 206. light harness, 197, 199. needed improvement.s, 204. Percheron, 201, 202. saddle, 199, 201. special class for state horses, 196, 197. breeds of. See Breeds of horses. Coach, Devoe Meade, 111-119. Feet and Their Care, Dr. C. W. Brodhead, 167-182. Teeth, Care of. Dr. C. W. Brod- head, 183-186. value of, in New York State, 209. Hot fitting of shoes, inadvisability of, 181, 182. Hunter, The, F. S. Peer, 57-66. adaptability of horses to hunt- ing, 58-60. back, 64. brains and intelligence, 57, 58. conformation, 57. disposition, 65, 66. hips, 63. legs, 64. neck and carriage of head, 60, 61. position of rider, 61-63. proportions, 64, 65. shoulders, 61-63. size, 65. suitability of horse to rider, 58, 66. I Importations of draft breeds in 1913- 14, 103. Individuality in breeding, 15. Interfering, how remedied, 180, 181. Introduction, 9, 10. 276 Index Jacks, breeding, 121-123. Johnstone, J. H. S., Best Horse for the Farmer to Breed, 134-140. Knee-sprung horses, how benefited, 180. ^ Lameness in horses, causes and treat- ment, 234-236, 237, 23S. Laminitis, 240. Laryngitis, 244, 245. Light harness horses at State Fair, 197, 199. Linch, Charles, Glanders or Farcy, 225-233. Lungs, congestion of, 246, 247. M Mambrinos, origin of, 24. Mare, brood, care of, 148-151. age to breed, 148. feed and care, 18, 149. foaling, 149, 151. conditions governing conception of, 147. Market, horse, offered in New York State, 194-196. Mating, suggestions as to, 15. Meade, DeVoe, Coach Horses, 110- 118. Messenger, importance of, in horse history, 24, 3'2. Milk, skim, substitute for mother's, 151. value of, for young colts, 160. Minklor, F. C., Feed and Care of the Horse, 187-192. Molasses as a feed, 189, 190. Monday morning, disease. 259-262. cause, 259, 260. prevention, 261, 262. symptons, 260. treatment, 260, 261. Minday morning leg, 240. Morgans, history of, 24, 25. Motors, influence of, on horse indus- try, 25, 42. Mule, breeding of, 125, 126. castration of, 126, 128. defined, 119. disposition, 125. early history of, 121. longevity of, 123. reaching and trimming, 128. shoeing, 128. value of, for labor, 124, 125. Mules, Asses and, Dr. C. W. Brod- head, 119-128. N Nasal gleet, 243, 244. Need of a Stallion Law, Dr. W. G. Hollingworth, 207-212. New Jer.sey stallion law, 209, 212. New York State, Draft Horse Breed- ers' Club, 268. Fair, Horses at the, Dr. H. S. Wende, 193-206. Farms, The Horse on. Dr. M. Hamilton, 129-133. Nick, what constitute a fortunate, 15. Nivornais horses, 73. Nose, obstruction in, 244. O Oats as feed, 189. Obstruction in nose, 244. Oil meal in feed, 189. Ophthalmic test for glanders, 229, 230. Overreaching, shoeing to prevent, 180. Pabst Stock Farm, Hackney breeding on, 104-109. Parasites, internal, treatment for, 191. Pedigree, importance of, in breeding, 15. Peer, F. S., Horse Companionship, 26.3-267. The Hunter, 57-66. Percheron horses, 75-81. at State Fair, 201, 202. breeding of, in America, 81. characteristics of, 79. early importations, 78, 79. exhibitions, 76. Index 277 Perclieron horses — Continued: government control, 75. origin of, 75. Period of gestation, 149. Pharyngitis, 244, 245. Pneumonia, 24S-250. symptoms, 248. treatment, 249, 250. Pony, The Shetland, Miss J :M. Wade, 67. The Welsh, Miss J. M. Wade, 68, 69. Prepotency, factors influencing, 16. of Ai-ab horse, 41. Principles of Horse Breeding, M. W. Harper, 14-19. Puncture wounds, treatment of, 180, 240. Q Quarter cracks of foot, treatment of, 179. R Railey, Mrs. E. C, The American Saddle Horse, 47-56. Respiratory organs, diseases of, 241- 250. Reversion in breeding, 15. Ringbones, 238, 239. Roaring, cause and treatment, 245. Roudebush, L., Care of Brood Mare and Her Colt, 148-154. Roughage, inadvisability of feeding large amounts of, 188. S Saddle Horse, American, The, Mrs. E. C. Railey, 47-56. care of, 55, 56. derivation of, 47-53. exhibits at State Fair, 199, 201. notable horses, 54, 55. points of exciellence, 54. utility qualities, 55. Salt for horses, 190. Scrub stallions, elimination of, 207, 214. Service of stallion, 142. Shetland Pony, The, Miss J. M. Wade, 67. Shetland Pony — Continued : characteristics, 67. importations, 67. origin, 67. Shire horse, 100-103. characteristics, 101. distribution, 101. importations to America, 102, 103. origin, 100. Shiverick, X. C, The Thoroughbred, 37-45. Shoe boil, treatment for, 237, 238. Shoeing, 174-179. improvement in, 175. introduction of, 174, 175. mules, 128. poor, as cause of defects in feet, 175, 177, 180. to prevent forging, 180. Sidebones, treatment of, 239. Skim milk for young colts, value of, 160. Slanting shoulders in a hunter, 61- 63. Soundness, importance of, in breed- ing, 17. Spavins, 238. Splints, 238. Spring Colts, Versus Fall, Edward van Alstyne, 155-160. advantages of, 19, 157. care of, 19. popularity of, 156, 157. Stallion, Care of the, J. CJeldcr, 141- 147. avoid excess of fat, 143, 145. desirable characteristics, 145, 140. handling of, 146. light work desirable, 141. scrub, elimination of, 207. stabling and feed, 142. Stallion Law, Enrollment, E. S. Akin, 215. Need of a. Dr. W. G. Holling- worth, 207-212. how to bring about an effi- cient, 207, 208. in European countries, 209. 278 Index Stallion Law — Continued: in New Jersey, 2U*J-212. Wisconsin, Effects of, Dr. A. S. Alexander, 213, 214. Standardbred Horse, Carl W. Gay, 20-26. characteristics, 25. history, 21. notable centers of breeding, 21, 22. notable strains, 23-25. on New York State farms, 129, 130. recognition of, 22, 23. State Fair, New York, Horses at, Dr. H. S. Wende, 193-206. Statistics, 269. Sterility, causes of, 16, 17 Structure of leg and foot, 168-173. Subcutanous niallein test for gland- ers, 230. Suffolk horse, 91-96. breeding encouraged by wealthy men, 93. characteristics, 94. color, 93. exportations, 94. importation in New York State, 96. origin, 93. T Teeth, Horses', Care of. Dr. C. W. Brodhead, 183-186. change in formation of, 11, 12, 183. conditions caused by imperfect, 186, 191, 251. filing off of, 185. shedding of milk, 185. wolf or rudimentary, 186. Thoroughbred, N. C. Shiverick, 37-45. care of foal, 45. characteristics, 37-39. foundation stock, 37. intelligence, 41, 42. prepotency, 41. true type, 40, 41. value of, for army purposes, 43. Toe cracks, treatment for, 179. Training the Colt, H. E. Hopkins, 161-166. Training the Colt — Continued : bitting and making mouth, 164, 165. driving with lines, 103, 164. formation of habits, 161, 166. gentling, 163. hitching, 165, 160. methods of, 161, 162. teaching to lead, 162. teaching to stand tied, 162, 163. Trotting breeds, 20-26. V Van Alstyne, Edward, Fall Versus Spring Colts, 155-160. Vanderbilt, K. C, Hackney Breeding in America, 104-109. Volgenau, Dr. E. L., Distemper and Diseases of the Respiratory Organs, 241-250. W Wade, :\Iiss J. M., The Shetland Pony, 67. The Welsh Pony, 08, 69. War, European, as incentive to horse raising, 36, 43, 44, 134, 136-139, 155, 156, 205, 206, 222. Water, dangers of ice-cold, 252, 257. necessity of sufficient, 255, 256. Watering horses, best time for, 190. Welsh Pony, The, i\Iiss J. M. Wade, 68, 69. characteristics, 69. history, 68. in United States, 69. origin, 68. Wende, Dr. H. S., Horses at New York State Fair, 193-206. West, Horse Breeding in East and, F. Henry, 221-224. limited supply of good horses in, 136, 137, 221. price of land higlier, 223. Western horses, supply of, low, 136, 137, 221. Wheat bran as feed for horses, 189. Wilkes strain, origin of, 23, 24. Wisconsin Stallion Law, Effects of. Dr. A. S. Alexander, 213, 214. as means of increasing pure- breds, 214. benefits of, 213. /ebster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine ummings School of Veterinary Medicine at utts University 00 Westboro Road lorth Grafton, MA 01536