' i ¥ / To the Horse-shoers of Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Soeietv for the Prevention or Cruelty to Animals desire to call the attention of all Horse-shoers to the valuable English essa.v of G. Fleming. The, believe it will prove useful ,o all engaged in the business, and they hope it will have a careful perusal. As we cannot give a cop.v to each Blacksmith and Farrier, ma.v we ask that it be passed from one to another until all in the town have read it. Jc-ly. 187a FEAXK B. FAT, Secretary. Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University 200 Wesiboro Road North Grafton. MA 01536 PRACTICAL HOE8E8HOEINQ. BY G. FLEMING, F. R G. S., M. A. I., Etc., PRESIDENT OF TIIE CENTRAL VETERINARY MEDICAL SOCIETY ; MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SURGEONS ; VETERINARY SURGEON, EOYAL ENGINEERS ; AUTHOR OF " TRAVELS OX HOBSEBACK IN MANTCHU TAETABY," " HORSESHOES AND HORSESHOEING," " ANIMAL PLAGUES," "BABIES AND HYDROPHOBIA," ETC. WITH TWENTY-NINE ILLUSTRATION'S. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY. 1872. >_ v PEEFATOEY NOTE. It is a painful reflection that the advance of civiliza- tion seems ever to be accompanied by an aggravation of certain evils; and in no instance is this more marked than in the terrible amount of suffering unnecessarily endured by the Horse. This animal, preeminently the most useful to man, is the one upon which is inflicted, either wantonly, or through sheer ignorance, or thoughtlessness, the greatest amount of cruelty. The records of all humane societies show that, of prosecutions for cruelty to animals, an overwhelming majority refer to the Horse ; and of these, a large proportion are for working-horses while suffering from lameness, in one form or other. So frequent are such cases, that observers have concluded that its preva- lence must result from some specific cause, and, not un- naturally, attention has thus been directed to the various modes of management practised in relation to the horse's foot, to the manner of shoeing, and, in particular, to the way in which the hoof is prepared for the shoe. Convinced that very much suffering results from im- 4 PKEFATORY NOTE. perfect knowledge of the Anatomy of the Foot, and of the true functions of its various parts, and from conse- quent malpractice in its treatment, especially in the ap- plication of the shoe, the use of which is needed solely to prevent the undue waste and wear caused by severe labor over hard, rough, and unyielding roads, the com- mittee of the Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cru- elty to Animals offered, in July, 1869, a series of prizes for " the best and most practical essays on Horseshoeing, in connection with the comfort and soundness of the Horse." By August, 1870, upward of forty essays were sent in. These were submitted to Prof. Williams, Princi- pal of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Mr. W. Robert- son, M. R. C. V. S., Kelso, and Mr. B. Cartledge, M. R C. V. S., Sheffield, Examiners of the Royal College of Vet- erinary Surgeons, and Mr. J. C. Broad, M. R. C. V. S., London, by whom, after a very patient and careful ex- amination, the prizes were awarded : the first to Mr. George Fleming, for the treatise now in the hands of the reader ; the second to Mr. T. D. Broad, M. R. C. V. S., Bath ; and the third to Mr. George Armatage, M. R. C. V. S., late Secretary of the Central Veterinary Medical Society, London. A large proportion of the essays exhibited much thoughtful care in their preparation, combined at once with scientific knowledge and practical acquaintance with the subject in hand; and it has been most gratifying to find so general a concurrence among the writers in their utter condemnation of the common but unscientific and irrational practice of paring away the sole and frog as a PREFATORY NOTE. 5 necessary preparation for shoeing. The unanimity ex- hibited on this most important point sinks into compara- tive insignificance all differences of opinion on minor points. The committee are thus able confidently to rec- ommend the following pages as a clear and able exposi- tion of the views, not only of the author of one of the best and most exhaustive works on the subject, but also of very many of the most enlightened veterinary surgeons of the day. H. S. A. L. Hat, V. P., Late Secretary Scot. Soc. t P. C. A. Edinburgh, February, 18*72. CONTENTS. PAGE Prefatory Note 3 Importance op the Art . 9 Anatomy of the Horse's Foot .12 The Hoof 19 The Wall • . . .19 The Horny Sole 21 The Horny Frog 22 TJie Coronary Frog-Band or Periople 23 Growth of the Hoof 29 Shoeing 34 Preparing, the Hoof • • . 3*7 Levelling the Wall . 38 Slwrtening the Wall 39 Paring the Sole t . 45 Paring the Frog 50 Opening-up the Heels ......*. 51 The Shoe 53 Weight 54 Calkins 57 Size .59 Objects to be attained 60 Pattern of Shoe recommended 62 8 CONTENTS. The Shoe — continued. PAGE Varieties of Shoes 69 Material ^0 Nail-holes *70 Applying the Shoe *76 Hot and Cold Fitting 18 The Nails . 81 Driving the Nails 81 Conclusion of the Operation . . . . . . . 82 Rasping 83 Laying down Clips 86 Various Methods op Shoeing 90 Winter Shoeing 95 Shoeing of Defective Limbs 99 General Management of the Horse's Foot .... 101 Streets and Roads 103 Instruction of Farriers 105 PEACTIGAL HORSESHOEING. IMPORTANCE OF THE ART. It requires but little observation and reflection, one would think, in order to arrive at the conclusion that the art of " Horseshoeing " is not only an important one, so far as civilization and the ordinary every-day business of life is concerned, but that the successful utilization of the horse, together with its welfare and comfort, in a great measure depend upon the correctness of the principles on which its practice is based, and the mode in which these principles are carried out by the artisan. For proof of this we have but to glance at the immense traffic in our great towns and cities, in which the horse figures so prominently, at the same time remembering that, without a defence to its hoofs, this invaluable ani- mal would be almost — if not quite — valueless, in conse- quence of the hardness of our artificial roads, and the great efforts demanded from him ; or, studying the anat- omy and functions of the limbs and feet, to call to mind how these are wonderfully calculated to serve most essen- tial purposes in locomotion and weight-sustaining, and how necessary it is, at the same time, that their natural adaptability be as little as possible thwarted or annulled by the interference of man in his endeavor to protect or aid them. 10 PEACTICAL HORSESHOEING. From the earliest ages, the horse's foot and its envel- op, the hoof, have been looked upon by horsemen as the principal region of the animal's body to which care and attention should be directed ; as, when these become in- jured or diseased — no matter how perfect and sound the other parts may be — the quadruped's services are dimin- ished or altogether lost. Consequently, the preservation of these in an efficient and healthy state has ever been the aim of those who valued the horse for the immense advantages his services were capable of conferring on mankind; and, in later years, those who have been moved by the sacred impulse of humanity toward the lower creatures have not forgot- ten how much the noble animal may suffer from unskilful management of its feet, through the neglect or ignorance of those who have the special care of these organs. At a very early period in the domestication of the horse, and particularly in Western regions, it must have been soon discovered that at certain seasons, on particu- lar soils, and especially when called upon to perform any great amount of travelling and load-carrying, the horn composing the hoof underwent an amount of wear greater than Nature could compensate for, and that the living sensitive structures within, becoming exposed and irrita- ted by contact with the ground, gave rise to pain, lame- ness, and inability to work. To guard against this serious result, the ingenuity of man must have been severely tested in devising a suitable and durable protection for the ground-surface of the hoof ; and, among the many contrivances proposed, the most notable, and by far the most valuable, has been the de- vice of nailing a plate of metal to the outer margin or wall of the hoof. The antiquity of this invention' is very great ; and it is probable that for many centuries the shoe was considered IMPORTANCE OF THE ART. H as nothing more than a simple defender of the hoof from the damaging effects of attrition, and occasionally as an aid in securing the animal's foothold during progression on slippery ground. As time advanced, however, and the services of the horse became increased a hundredfold by the application of this ingenious and simple expedient, the sciences of an- atomy and physiology began to embrace the horse in their domain ; and, crude as they were at first, it is to be feared that, when they were extended to the investigation of the structure and functions of the foot, the useful and comparatively harmless protection of early days'was made subservient to the most varied and fantastic theories, and it must be admitted that for many years horseshoeing, so far from proving a boon to horse-owners, and a preserver of horses' feet, has been far from yielding the benefits its scientific and reasonable application should afford ; indeed, it would be no exaggeration to assert that the predomi- nating principles and practice of this art have been emi- nently destructive to horses, and a source of great loss to their owners. These principles were founded on a misconception of the functions of the foot, and of the part assumed by the hoof in locomotion ; and their speedy popularization was due to the fact that they were congenial to the whims of fashion, and were deemed essential to the improvement of Nature: commending themselves to unreasoning and unreasonable minds like the fashions of cropping horses' and dogs' ears, cutting, nicking and docking tails, and other cruel fancies of depraved tastes. The amount of injury inflicted by an unscientific method of shoeing may be very much greater than a cur- sory inquiry would lead one to believe. To those experi- enced among horses, and who have directed their atten- tion closely to the subject, the proportion of animals 12 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. whose utility is directly or indirectly impaired by im- proper treatment of their feet must appear excessive, when compared with the other causes of inefficiency. In- deed, maladies of the feet and limbs, due, more or less, to faulty shoeing, form a very large percentage of the cases usually met with in veterinary practice. An art, therefore, which has so much influence for good or evil, so far as the usefulness and comfort of the horse are concerned, surely deserves the serious study of all those who are interested in that animal. A good sys- tem, founded on the teachings of anatomy and physiology, and perfected by daily experience, must prove of immense benefit to horse and owner ; while a bad system, conduct- ed in ignorance or carelessness, cannot but bring about pain and speedy uselessness to the animal and loss to the proprietor. ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. One of the primary considerations for those who have the shoeing and management of the horse's foot, should be the acquisition of a knowledge of its structure and functions in health : not a profound knowledge, certainly, such as the scientific veterinarian requires, but sufficient to enable them to understand the situation, relation, text- ure, and uses of the parts of the organ with which they have more particularly to deal. If the artisan does not possess this knowledge, is it possible that he can practise his handicraft to advantage, or minister effectually to the varied requirements of this organ ? It must be admitted that he cannot do so ; and it is from neglect of this funda- mental consideration that so much improper and vicious shoeing prevails, and that so many horses are crippled and prematurely worn out. By the majority of farriers the foot of the horse is looked upon as little, if any thing, ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 13 more than an insensible block of horn which they may- carve and mutilate with impunity and as suits their fancy, and for which nothing more is necessary than the attach- ment, by an unreasonable number of nails, of a clumsy mass of iron that may not only be unsuitable for its re- quirements, but positively injurious to it and the other parts of the limb. The art of farriery in this country has never received a scientific development, but has ever been a mere affair of routine and tradition. Such should not be the case ; and allusion is only made to this matter here in order to urge most strenuously the necessity for far- riers being properly instructed in the elements of their Tig. 1.— Section of the Horse's Foot.— a a, Skin of leg: bbb, extensor tendon of foot; c, its insertion into the foot-bone; d d, capsular ligament of joints; d' d', flexor tendon of foot inserted into sole of foot-bone (s) ; e e, flexor tendon of pastern inserted at / into the small pastern bone, i ; g, shank or large metacarpal bone ; h, large pastern bone; 7c, navicular bone; Z, foot or pedal bone; m, ligaments of na- vicular bone connected with deep flexor tendon ; n, sensitive laminae, dovetailing with horny lamina?, ri ; o, plantar cushion ; p, coronary cushion ; q, horny frog; r, wall of hoof ; t, sensitive membrane of frog and sole ; u, the face of the navicular bone over which the flexor tendon plays— the seat of navicular disease. art, and made to comprehend as much as may be required of the construction and functions of the very important organ upon which they are destined to exercise their skill. 14 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. The horse's foot may be said, for practical purposes, to be intended not only as an organ of support and de- fence (or offence), but also as that part of the limb in which the efforts created elsewhere are concentrated, and as the instrument through which propulsion and progres- sion may be mainly effected. It is also largely endowed, in a natural state, with the sense of touch, which enables the animal to travel with safety and confidence on rough as well as even, and on soft as well as hard ground. When we come to examine it in a methodical and careful manner, we find that it has for its basis the last three bones of the limb — the small pastern, navicular, and coffin or pedal bone. The latter is more particularly the foundation of the foot, and is the nucleus on which the hoof is moulded, and which in shape it much resembles. At its highest point in front, the large extensor tendon of the foot is inserted, and in the middle of its lower face or sole is implanted the powerful tendon which bends or flexes the foot ; these tendons are the chief agents in pro- gression. An elastic apparatus surrounds them and a portion of the pedal bone, and the whole is enveloped by a membrane that attaches the hoof in the closest possible manner to its outer surface. .Into each of the wings or sides of the bone (for it is crescent-shaped, the horns ex- tending backward on each side) is fixed a large plate of cartilage that rises above the hoof, where it may readily be felt, and which has important relations with its fellow on the opposite side, as well as with other elastic bodies admirably disposed to sustain weight, prevent jar, and insure that lightness and springiness which form so strik- ing a feature in the horse's movements. The navicular bone is a narrow piece, placed transversely between the wings of the coffin bone, and is intended to throw the flexing tendon farther from the centre of motion, and thus increase its power ; the tendon plays over its posterior or ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 15 lower face, and this disposition, together with the rela- tions established between it and the pedal bone through their connecting ligaments, and the bend the tendon makes in passing over it, cause this part of the foot to be one particularly liable to disease, and one especiaUy deserv- ing of attentive study. The elastic apparatus of the foot consists of (1) the lateral cartilages just mentioned; (2), a prominent ring or cornice surrounding the upper border of the pedal bone usually known as the " coronary-substance," but which might be more aptly designated the " coronary cushion" ; this fits into a corresponding concavity in the inner and Fig. 2.— Horse's Foot divested of its Hoof.— a a, Perioplic ring; & &, perioplic or coronary fissure ; c c c, coronary cushion covered with villi; d d, white zone; f./f, vascular laminae terminating in villi, g. upper margin of wall of the hoof, and, besides acting as an elastic body or cushion, performs the important func- tion of secreting this wall or crust of the horny envelop ; (3), a triangular body — the plantar cushion, known to farriers as the " fatty " or " sensitive frog " (to distinguish it from the horny frog which immediately covers it), ad- mirably disposed between the wings of the coffin bone, with a view to protect and sustain the flexor tendon dur- ing its efforts, as well as to diminish concussion by its own resiliency and by the connection it has with the elas- tic cartilages. From its position at the back part of the foot, and the importance of the parts it covers, this portion 16 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. of the elastic apparatus derives much interest, and must not be overlooked by the farrier. Besides the elastic apparatus of the foot more immedi- ately in connection with the pedal and navicular bones, we have the wonderful arrangement of living membrane enveloping these parts, whose office appears to be the se- cretion and attachment of the horny box we designate the "hoof;" to it large quantities of blood are conveyed by the ultimate ramifications of the arteries proceeding to the foot, and from it by a complex distribution of veins aris- ing from these ultimate arterial divisions, to the great venous trunks that pass up the limb. The terminal twigs of the sensory nerves of the foot are also freely and wisely distributed in its substance in the form of exceedingly fine filaments, which endow the organ with a sufficient sense of touch to enable it to perform its varied functions with safety and precision. A peculiar and striking disposition of this membrane can be observed around the front and sides of the pedal bone, when the hoof has been removed by steeping the foot for some time in water. This dispo- sition consists in the elevation of the membrane into par- allel vertical leaves, which extend from the coronary cush- ion to the lower border of the bone, and to a certain dis- tance within its wings. These leaves, which resemble in appearance those on the under side of a mushroom, are known as the "vascular" or "sensitive larnime," and number between six and seven hundred; their chief use seems to be to afford a wide and close attachment for the wall of the hoof, within which, through their agency, the pedal bone is, as it were, suspended ; so that the relations between bone and hoof are not so rigid as if they were di- rectly united to each other. These laminae are exceeding- ly vascular and sensitive, and when they become inflamed through bad shoeing, excessive travelling, or other cause, the horse suffers the most excruciating pain, and in a ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 17 large majority of cases the chronic inflammation that re- mains produces serious alterations in the structure and formation of the hoof, leading to more or less lameness and diminished utility. Besides entering into the formation of these leaves, this membrane covers the other parts of the foot within the hoof, as a sock does the human foot, and endows it with a high degree of vitality and secretory power ; it overspreads the coronary and plantar cushions, as well as the sole of the pedal bone, and its surface in these parts is thickly studded with myriads of tufts or " villi," which give it the appearance of the finest Genoa velvet. These Fig. 3.— Sens i t ive Sole of Hobse's Foot. — a, Cartilaginous bulbs of the heels, cov- ered by sensitive membrane ; &, inflexion of the coronary cushion ; c, middle cleft or lacuna ; d d, plantar laminae ; e, limit between the coronary cushion and plantar laminae; ff, branches of the plantar cushion; g g g g, termination of the laminae in villi; h 7i, sensitive membrane of sole covered with innumerable fine tufts or villi ; «", prolongation of the coronary cushion into the lateral lacuna. minute processes vary in length from one-eighth to more than one-fourth of an inch, and are best observed when a foot, from which the hoof has just been removed by mace- ration, is suspended in clear water. Examined with the microscope, they are found to be merely prolongations from the face of the membrane, each composed of one or two minute arteries, which branch off into an exceedingly fine net-work, and end in hair-like veins ; a nervous fila- ment has also been traced into the interior, so that these 18 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. tufts are not only vascular, but also sensitive. They play an essential part in the formation of the hoof, and their relations to that covering must not be neglected by the farrier in his treatment of it. This is all that need be said at present with regard to the anatomy of the living parts of the horse's foot ; we have referred to it merely to show that this organ is not a crude block of insensitive matter, but a most wonder- fully-constructed apparatus, possessed of qualities which are not to be found in any other part of the body. In constructing the foot of this noble creature, Nature sought to do more than merely protect the extremely delicate and exquisitely sensitive structures contained within the hoof from injurious contact with the ground. This re- doubtable difficulty is comparatively insignificant in com- parison with the other portions of the task she set her- self. It was necessary that the lower extremity of the limb of such a glorious creation as the horse, should be an organ endowed with the acutest sense of touch for the in- stantaneous perception of the consistence and inequalities of the ground over which it moved ; and, while it pos- sessed this quality in a high degree, it was also indispen- sable that it should be gifted with the properties of resist- ance, pliability, and lightness to the extent necessary for the support and progression of the body, in addition to the rigidity essential to impulsion, the elasticity and sup- pleness needful to avert reactions or jar, and the durabil- ity and rapidity of renovation demanded by incessant wear. Here we have a combination of requirements whose simultaneous existence in one organ might almost be deemed incompatible, so opposite do they appear : in« sensibility with a delicate sense of touch ; resistance with lightness, rigidity with elasticity, and suppleness with durability. THE HOOF. 19 THE HOOF. The "hoof" plays no small share in rendering the horse such a complete animal as it is ; and, as this is the portion of the foot which comes more immediately under the care and manipulative skill of the farrier, its study should be a little more detailed and minute, perhaps, than that of the internal structures. For convenience and sim- plicity in description, it has been divided into " wall " or " crust," " sole," " frog," and " coronary frog-band," or " periople." It is essential that the shoer should under- stand the structure, nature, and uses of these parts. The Weill of the hoof is that oblique portion which covers the front and sides of the foot from the coronet to Fro. 4. — Profile of a Five-year-old Front Hoof that had never reen shod ; ex- ternal Face. — Angle of wall at toe 51°; a a, frog-band or periople; b, wall; c, toe, between whicb and d is the "outside M or "inside '' toe or "mammilla," and be- tween e and / the " outside " or " inside " heel. the ground, and is suddenly inflected or bent inward at the heels, toward the middle of the sole to form the " bars," which are merely prolongations of its extremities ; it constitutes the circumference or margin of the hoof, is the part of the horny box that is intended more especially to come into contact with the ground, and is that on which the iron defence rests, and through which the far- 20 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. rier drives the nails that attach it. The inner face of its upper edge is hollowed out into a somewhat wide concav- ity, which receives, or rather in which rests, the coronary cushion ; this concavity is chiefly remarkable for being pierced everywhere by countless minute openings which penetrate the substance of the wall to some depth ; each of these perforations receives one of the " villi " or minute tufts of blood-vessels already mentioned as prolonged from the face of the membrane covering the interior of the foot. Below this concavity, which receives a large share of the horse's weight, the wall is of about equal thickness from top to bottom ; on the whole of its inner surface are ranged thin, narrow, vertical horny plates, in number corresponding to the vascular laminae, between which they are so intimately received or dovetailed — a horny leaf between every two vascular ones — that in the living or fresh state it is almost impossible to disunite without tearing: them. The inner face of the lower mar- gin is united in a solid manner to the horny sole through the medium of a narrow band of soft, light-colored horn, situated between the two, and which we may call the " white line " or " zone." The outer surface of the wall is generally smooth and shining in the natural healthy state. The dimensions of the wall vary in different situations ; in front it is deepest and thickest, but toward the quar- ters and heels it diminishes in height and becomes thin- ner ; at its angles of inflection — the points of the heels — it is strong. Its structure is fibrous ; the fibres pass directly parallel to each other from the coronet to the ground, each fibre being moulded on, as it is secreted by, one of the minute tufts of blood-vessels lodged in the cavity at the coronet. Microscopically, the wall is composed of minute cells, closely compressed, and arranged vertically around each fibre, and horizontally between the fibres. A THE HOOF. 21 point of much practical interest is to be found in the fact, that the fibres on the surface or outside of the wall, are very dense, close, and hard : so dense, indeed, that the wall of an unmutilated hoof looks like whalebone ; but to- ward the inner surface they become softer, more spongy, and easily cut. The Homy Sole is contained within the lower margin of the wall, and is a concave plate covering the lower face of the pedal bone. In structure it is fibrous like the wall, the fibres passing in the same direction, and formed in the same manner by the tufts of vessels projected from the membrane which immediately covers the bone. These tufts penetrate the horn fibres to some depth, and, as in the wall, maintain them in a moist, supple condition, such as best fits them for their office. The sole is thickest around its outer border, where it Fig. 5. — Peaxtar Surface of left Foee Hoof of a Ftve-year-old Hoese that iiad never been shod. — a a, glomes or heels of the frog ; &, median lacuna or " cleft " of the frog ; c c, branches of the frog ; d d, heels, '" angles of inflexion,'' or " but- tresses " of the wall of the hoof; e e, lateral lacunas or spaces between the frog and bars ; ./'/, inflexions of the wall or " bars ; " g, body of the frog ; /*, outside quarter of the hoof; i, inside quarter of the hoof; j, point of the frog; Jc, sole; 1 1, commis- sure, " white line," or line of junction between sole and wall ; m n, mammilla ; o, toe. joins the wall; thinnest in the centre, where it is most concave. A notable peculiarity in this part of the hoof, and one which distinguishes it from the wall, is its ten- 22 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. dency to break off in flakes on the ground face when the fibres have attained a certain length ; the wall, on the contrary, continues to grow in length to an indefinite ex- tent, and, unless kept within reasonable dimensions by continual wear or the instruments of the farrier, would in time acquire an extraordinary distortion. The horn of the sole, for this reason, is less dense and resisting than that of the wall, and is designed more to support weight than to sustain wear. The " Horny Frog " is an exact reduplication of that within the hoof, described as the sensitive or fatty frog. It is triangular, or rather pyramidal in shape, and is situ- ated at the back part of the hoof within the bars ; with its point or apex extending forward to the centre of the sole, and its base or thickest portion filling up the wide space left between the inflexions of the wall. In the mid- dle of the posterior part is a cleft, which in the healthy state should not be deep, but rather shallow and sound on its surface. In structure, this body is also fibrous, the fibres pass- ing in the same direction as those of the other portions of the hoof; but, instead of being quite rectilinear like them, they are wavy or flexuous in their course, and pre- sent some microscopical peculiarities which, though inter- esting to the comparative anatomist, need not be alluded to here. The fibres are finer than those of the sole and wall, and are composed of cells arranged in the same man- ner as elsewhere in the hoof; they are formed by the villi which thickly stud the face of the membrane covering the sensitive frog. The substance of the horny frog is eminently elastic, and corresponds in the closest manner to the dense, elas- tic, epidemic pads on the soles of the feet of such animals as the camel, elephant, lion, bear, dog, cat, etc., and which are evidently designed for contact with the ground, the THE HOOF. 23 support and protection of the tendons that flex the foot, to facilitate the springy movements of these creatures, and for the prevention of jar and injury to the limbs. In the horse's foot, the presence of this thick, com- pressible, and supple mass of horn at the back of the hoof, its being in a healthy unmutilated condition, and permitted to reach the ground while the animal is stand- ing or moving, are absolutely essential to the well-being of that organ, more especially should speed, in addition to weight-carrying, be exacted. The fro sr, like the sole, exfoliates or becomes reduced in thickness at a certain stage of its growth ; the flakes are more cohesive than those of the sole. It must be remarked, however, that this exfoliation of the sole and frog only takes place when the more re- cently-formed horn beneath has acquired sufficient hard- ness and density to sustain contact with the ground, and exposure to the effects of heat, dryness, and moisture. The " Coronary Frog-Band" or " Periople" is a con- tinuation of the more superficial layer of the skin around the coronet and heels, in the form of a thin, light-colored band that descends to a variable depth on the outer sur- face of the wall, and at the back part of the hoof becomes consolidated with the frog, with which it is identical in structure and texture. It can be readily perceived in the hoof that has not been mutilated by the farrier's rasp, extending from the coronet, where the hair ceases, to some distance down the hoof; it is thickest at the com- mencement of the wall, and gradually thins away into the finest imaginable film as it approaches the lower cir- cumference of this part. When wet it swells and softens. and on being dried shrinks, sometimes cracks in its more dependent parts, or becomes scaly. The fibres composing it are very fine and wavy, as in the frog; they likewise spring from villi which project 24 PEACTICAL HORSESHOEING. from the true skin immediately above the "coronary cushion." The use of this band would appear to be twofold : it con- nects the skin with the hoof, and thus makes the union of these two dissimilar textures more complete, its interme- diate degree of density and its great elasticity admirably fitting it for this office ; and it acts as a covering or pro- tection to the wall at its upper part, where this is only in process of formation, and has not sufficient resistance to withstand the effects of exposure to the weather. The greatest thickness and density of the band correspond to the portion of the .wall in which the villi or vascular tufts are lodged, and here the horn is soft, delicate, and readily acted upon in an injurious manner, by external influences. Thus far, then, we have rapidly glanced at the anatomy and uses of the various parts entering into the composition of the horse's foot, and its horny box — the hoof. It may be necessary, before we pass to the con- sideration of the latter, as a whole, to allude to the struct- ure and uses of that narrow strip of horn, whose pres- ence every farrier or veterinary surgeon is cognizant of, but whose character and functions have been strangely left out of consideration by all anatomists hitherto. I re- fer to the " white line " or " zone," the slender inter- mediate band that runs around # the margin of the sole, and connects that plate of horn so closely to the wall as to make their union particularly solid and complete. When preparing the border of the hoof for the reception of the shoe, this part is easily distinguished by its lighter color (in a dark hoof), and by its being softer and more elastic than either the sole or wall, between which it is situated. It would appear to be secreted by the villi which terminate the lower end of the vascular laminas, and the horny leaves of the wall are also received into its substance — a circumstance that renders the junction 01 THE HOOF. 25 the two more thorough. I think there can be no doubt that the principal use of this elastic rim of horn placed in such a situation, is to obviate the danger of fracture to which the inferior part of the hoof — particularly the sole — would be liable, if the junction between the hard and comparatively inelastic sole and wall was directly effected without the interposition of such a body. It may be noted, that it is through this soft border of horn that gravel and foreign matters usually find their way to the sensitive parts . of the foot, and there excite such an amount of irritation as to lead to the formation of matter, and cause much pain and lameness ; an accident which the older farriers termed " gravelling." In viewing the horse's hoof as a whole, and in the un- shod state, we find that it presents several salient charac- teristics, the consideration of which ought to dominate or serve as a guide in framing rules for the observance of far- riers in the practice of their arL The first of these is the direction in which the wall grows in a healthy condition. Viewed as it stands on a level surface, the hoof may be said to be somewhat conical in shape, its upper part being a little less than its base ; and although, geometri- cally, its shape may be described as the frustum of a cone, the base and summit of which have been cut by two ob- lique planes — the inferior converging abruptly behind to- ward the superior — yet the circumference of the hoof does not offer that regularity which this description might im- ply ; on the contrary, in a well-formed foot, we find that the outline of its inferior or ground border, is notably more salient on the outer than the inner side, giving it that appearance which has been designated the " spread." A cone being intersected by two planes oblique to its axis, and not parallel to each other, gives a good idea, nevertheless, of the obliquity which forms so marked a feature in the hoof. The degree of obliquity of the front 2 26 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. part or toe, and of the ripper surface, varies with the amount of growth ; but where this has been counterbal- anced by a proper degree of wear, it will be remarked that this obliquity corresponds to the inclination of the pastern-bones immediately above the hoof, when the horse is standing. It will be obvious that this inclination also varies with the breeding of the animal, and the conformation of the limbs; so that no definite degree can be assigned. But it must be pointed out, tha£ giving the angle of 45°, as is done in almost every treatise on shoeing and the anatomy of the foot, is a grave error. Looked at in pro- file, a hoof with this degreee of obliquity would at once be pronounced a deformity — the slope is too great (Fig. 6) ; and if the farrier were to attempt to bring every foot Fig. 6. he shod to this standard, he would inflict serious injury, not only on the foot itself, but also on the back tendons and the joints of the limbs, Careful measurement will prove that the obliquity of the front of the hoof is rarely, if ever, in a well-shaped leg and foot, above 50°, and that it is, in the great majority of cases, nearer 56°. The sides or " quarters " of the wall are less inclined — though the outer is generally more so than the inner ; while the heels are still more vertical, and the inner may even incline slightly inward. Viewed in profile, the posterior face of the hoof THE HOOF. 27 will be observed to have the same degree of slope as the front face. In height, the heels are usually a little more than one-half that of the toe ; both heels are equal in height. These features, as will be seen hereafter, are sufficiently important to be constantly remembered. The other char- acteristics are to be found on the lower or ground face of the hoof — the most important, so far as the farrier's art is concerned. In a natural condition, the whole, or nearly the whole of this face comes into contact with the ground, each part participating more or less in sustaining the weight thrown upon the limb. On soft or uneven soil, the entire lower border of the wall, the sole, bars, and frog, are subjected to contact ; Nature intended them to meet the ground, and there to sustain the animal's weight, as well as the force of its impelling powers. But on hard or rocky land with a level surface, only the dense, tough crust and bars, the thick portion of the sole surrounded by them, and the elastic, retentive frog, meet the force of the weight and movement ; and, in both cases, not only with impunity, but with advantage to the interior of the foot, as well as the limb. The horn on this face is, as has been said, dense, tough, and springy to a degree varying with the parts of which it is composed; while its fibres are not only admirably disposed to support weight, secure a firm grasp of the ground, and aid the movements of the limbs, but are also an excellent medium for modifying concussion or jar to the sensitive and vascular structure in their vi- cinity. The whole circumference of the wall meets the ground, and from the disposition of its fibres, the arrangement of the cells which enter into their composition, and its rigid- ity, it is admirably fitted to resist wear and sustain press- ure. It projects more or less beyond the level of the sole, 28 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. and the space measured between the white zone within it and its outer surface gives its exact thickness. This is a fact not without interest to the farrier in the operation of attaching the shoe by nails, as these have to be driven only through this dense horn — which in good hoofs cannot be said to much exceed half an inch in thickness — and in pro- portion to its thinness is the necessity for carefulness and address on his part, in order to guard against wounding or bruising the sensitive textures. The sole is more or less concave from its junction with the wall ; nevertheless, even on moderately firm ground, a portion of its circumference, which is generally the thick- ness of the wall, takes a share in relieving the latter of pressure. This is also a fact to be borne in mind. In soft ground, the whole of its lower surface is made to aid in sustaining the weight and prevent the foot sinking. But it must be noted that the pressure of the lower face of the pedal bone on the upper surface of the sole can never be very great, else the sensitive membrane between them would be seriously injured. This injury is prevented by the coronary, and, to a lesser extent, by the plantar cush- ion, which largely retard the descent of the bone on the floor of the horny box. The frog, on both hard and soft ground, is an essential portion of the weight-bearing face. In the unshod, healthy foot it always projects beyond the level of the sole, and seldom below that of the wall at the heels ; in- deed, it is found, in the majority of hoofs, either on a " level with the circumference of this part, or beyond it, so that its contact with the ground, is assured. Hence its utility in obviating concussion, supporting the tendons, and, on slippery ground, in preventing falls. In pulling up a horse sharply in the gallop, or in descending a steep hill, the frog, together with the angular recess formed by the bar and wall at the heel of the hoof, are eminently GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 29 serviceable in checking the tendency to slip ; the animal instinctively plants the posterior portions of the foot ex- clusively on the ground. Dark hoofs are generally the best; they owe their color to the presence of minute particles of black pig- ment, which contains a notable proportion of iron, and are somewhat resisting and indestructible. A good hoof should have the wall unbroken, its outer face smooth and even ; the angle at the front not less than 50° — the lower or ground face of the front hoof should be nearly circular in outline — the sole slightly concave at the circumference, deeper at the centre ; the border of the wall ought to be thick, at the toe, gradually thinning toward the heels, but at the inflexion or commencement of the bar a strong mass of horn should be found ; the bars should be free from fracture, and the frog moderately developed, firm and solid. The hind foot should possess the same soundness of horn, though it differs from the fore hoof in being more oval in outline from the toe to the heels ; the sole is also more concave, the frog smaller, and the heels not so high. The horn is usually less hard and resisting — a circum- stance perhaps due to the hind feet being more frequently exposed to humidity in the stable than the fore ones. GROWTH OF THE HOOF. In any treatise on shoeing, the growth of the hoof can- not be left out of consideration, as on it the foot, in an unshod condition, depends for an efficient protection, while without this process the farrier's art would quickly be of no avail. In its unarmed state, the hoof being exposed to con- tinual wear on its lower surface, from contact with the 30 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. ground on which the animal stands or moves, is unceas- ingly regenerated by the living tissues within. We have already referred to the special apparatus which is more immediately concerned in this work of regeneration, and pointed out that the wall with the laminse on its inner face * is formed from the coronary cushion at the upper part of the foot ; the sole from the living membrane cov- ering the lower face of the pedal bone ; and the frog from the plantar cushion. It has been also mentioned that this dead horny envelop, instead of being merely in juxta- position with this exquisitely sensitive secretory mem- brane, is everywhere penetrated to a certain depth on its inner face (with the exception of the portion of the wall covered with the horny leaves) by multitudes of minute processes named villi, which are not only concerned in the growth of the horn-fibres, acting as moulds for them, and endowing the hoof with that degree of lightness, elasticity, and toughness, which are so necessary to its efficiency, but also make this insensitive case a most use- ful organ of touch. The growth of the horn takes place by the deposition of new material from the secreting surface ; this deposi- tion is effected at the commencement or root of the fibres ; where the horn is yet soft, and its incessant operation causes these fibres to be mechanically extended or pushed downward toward the ground in a mass. Once formed they are submitted to no other change than that of be- coming denser, harder, less elastic, and drier, as they recede farther from the surface from which they origi- nated. So regular is this growth, generally, in every part of * It is generally stated that the horny leaves are formed by the sensi- tive ones, with which they are in such close union. That this is an error, the microscope, physiology, and pathological experience, abundantly tes- tify. GROWTH OF THE nOOF. 31 the hoof, that it would appear that the secreting mem- brane is endowed with an equal activity throughout. But, though this equality in the amount of horn se- creted over so wide a surface is an undoubted fact, yet it must not be forgotten that, under the influence of certain conditions, the growth or descent of the corneous mate- rial may be effected in an irregular manner, either through a particular portion of the secretory apparatus assuming a more energetic activity, or being hindered more or less in its function. For instance, the way in which the foot is planted on the ground has a most marked influence, not only on the amount of horn secreted, but also on that subjected to wear. When the superincumbent weight is equally distrib- uted over the lower face of the hoof, the foot may be said to be properly placed as a basis of support to the limb. But when, through . mismanagement or defective form, this base is uneven — one side higher than the other, for example — the weight must fall on the lowest part to a greater degree than the highest ; thus causing not only disturbance in the direction of the limb and its move- ments, but considerably modifying the growth of the horn. This growth is diminished at the part subjected to most pressure — in all probability from the smaller quan- tity of blood allowed to be circulated through the secre- tory surface ; while to the side which is subjected to the least compression, the blood is abundantly supplied, and the formation of horn is consequently augmented. This is a fact of much importance and practical interest in far- riery, as it demonstrates that any irregularity in the dis- tribution of the weight of the body on the foot has a pre- judicial effect on the secreting apparatus of the organ, and, as a result, on the form of the hoof. When the weight is evenly imposed on the foot, this 32 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. apparatus, being uniformly compressed throughout its extent, receives everywhere an equal quantity of the horn- producing material. It is the same with the wear of the hoof. A just dis- position of the weight is a necessary condition of the regularity of wear. While the animal is standing on un- shod hoofs, the wear of horn is slight ; it is in movement that it becomes increased, and this increase is generally in proportion to the speed, the weight carried, nature of the ground, and whether its surface be wet or dry. Each portion of the lower face of the hoof — wall, sole, bars, and frog — should take its share of wear and strain ; but it will be readily understood that this cannot be properly effected if the weight is thrown more upon one side than the other ; that part which receives the largest share will be subjected to the greatest amount of loss from wear, and this, with the diminished secretion of horn, will tend to distort foot and limb still more. In a well-formed leg and foot the degrees of resistance of the different parts of the hoof are so well apportioned to the amount of wear to be sustained, that all are equally reduced by contact with the ground, and the whole is maintained in a perfect condition as regards growth and wear. The amount of growth, even in a well-proportioned foot, varies considerably in different animals, according to the activity prevailing in, or the development of, the secreting apparatus ; and in this respect the operations of the farrier, as we will notice hereafter, are not without much influence. It may be laid down as a rule, that the horn grows more rapidly in warm dry climates, than in cold wet ones; in healthy energetic animals, than in those which are soft and weakly ; during exercise, than in repose ; in young, than in old animals. Food, labor, and shoeing, also add GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 33 their influence ; while the seasons are to some extent con- cerned in the growth and shape' of the hoof. In winter it widens, becomes softer, and grows but little ; in sum- mer it is condensed, becomes more rigid, concave, and resisting, is exposed to severer wear, and grows more rapidly ; this variation is a provision of Nature to enable the hoof to adapt itself to the altered conditions it has to meet : hard horn to hard ground, soft horn to soft ground. In this way we can account for the influence of locality upon the shape of the foot. On hard, dry ground, the hoof is dense, tenacious, and small, with concave sole, and a little but firm frog ; in marshy regions, it is large and spreading, the horn soft and easily destroyed by wear, the sole thin and flat, and the frog an immense spongy mass which is badly fitted to receive pressure from slightly hardened soil. In a dry climate, we have an animal small, compact, wiry, and vigorous, travelling on a surface which demands a tenacious hoof, and not one adapted to prevent sinking ; in the marshy region we have a large, heavy, lymphatic creature, one of whose primary require- ments is a foot designed to travel on a soft yielding sur- face. Change the respective situations of these two horses, and Nature immediately begins to transform them and their feet. The light, excitable, vigorous horse, with its small vertical hoofs and concave soles, so admirably dis- posed to traverse rocky and slippery surfaces, is physically incompetent to exist on low-lying swamps ; while the un- wieldy animal, slow-paced and torpid, with a foot perfectly adapted to such a region — its ground face being so exten- sive and flat that it sinks but little, and the frog developed to such a degree as to resemble a ploughshare in form, which gives it a grip of the soft, slippery ground — is but indifferently suited for travelling on a hard, rugged sur- face. In process of time, however, the small concave hoof expands and flattens, and the large flat one gradu- 34 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. ally becomes concentrated, hardened, and hollow, to suit the altered physical conditions in which they are placed. The degree of health possessed by the horn-secreting apparatus at any time has also much to do with its activ- ity in generating new material. When its blood-vessels become congested or contracted from some cause or other, its function is in a proportionate degree suspended, and the hoof grows in an irregular manner, and may be altered in thickness, texture, and quality. In the ordinary conditions of town work and stable management, I have observed that the wall of a healthy foot — its chief portion, so far as farriery is concerned — grows down from the coronet at the rate of about one- quarter of an inch per month, and that the entire wall of a medium-sized hoof has been regenerated in from nine to twelve months. The process of growth can be greatly accelerated and exaggerated by irritating the surface which throws out the horn material. Thus a blister, hot iron, or any other irritant or stimulant applied to this part, will induce not only a more rajrid formation, but one in which increased thickness is a marked feature. SHOEING. In the foregoing pages we have considered the foot of the horse in a natural condition, as perfectly adapted for the performance of most essential functions : as a basis of support while the animal is standing, and, in ad- dition, as a powerful propelling instrument during pro- gression. We have also pointed out that the hoof which envel- ops it, like .a huge finger-nail, is admirably constructed and endowed as an aid and protection to this organ, its SHOEING. 35 utility mainly depending on the texture and arrangement of the horny matter of which it is composed, and the peculiar disposition of this in fibres of variable density, size, and elasticity. But these qualities of the hoof, it was again remarked, are intimately dependent upon the manner in which the horn-secreting surface performed its office ; as if this be- comes diminished, weakened, or unable to supply suffi- cient material to compensate for undue wear, the protect- ing case soon ceases to guard the living tissues within from injury. In a natural state, when the equilibrium between growth and wear is destroyed, and the latter takes place in a rapid and unusual manner, the animal is compelled to rest until the worn hoof has recovered its proper thick- ness ; for acute pain results when the living parts are ex- posed, or when the wasted horn is insufficient to guard them against being bruised by the ground. In an artificial condition, when the horse is employed on hard roads, broken ground, and in a humid climate, to carry and draw heavy loads at different degrees of ve- locity, and forced to stand on stony pavements during resting hours, his hoofs are unable to meet the many se- vere demands imposed upon them. The wear more than counterbalances the growth ; and, therefore, it becomes an absolute necessity, if the animal is to be continuously and profitably utilized, that an artifi- cial protection, sufficient to meet the exigencies of the case, be employed. The lower border of the wall ig, as we have mentioned, the part most deeply concerned in resisting wear and strain in the unshod state, as on it the stress chiefly falls ; it is, consequently, the portion of tub hoof that suffers most severely from undue wear, and that which alone re- quires protection. 36 PRACTICAL HOKSESHOEING. This fact must have "been brought prominently before the primitive shoers thousand of years ago, as the earliest specimens of shoes yet discovered are narrow, and in width do not much exceed the thickness of the wall. To guarantee this from wear was to increase the value of the horse a thousandfold, and the simply- wrought, narrow rim of iron, boldly and securely attached to the hoof by a few rudely-shaped nails, was sufficient for the purpose. Rut having fastened on this light metallic armature, and allowed it to remain fixed to the hoof for a lengthened period, it would soon be discovered that the balance be- tween growth and wear was again disturbed, but this time in favor of growth ; for the wall being removed from con- tact with the ground, and the rate of growth continuing as in the unshod state, the hoof, instead of becoming di- minished as before, now became abnormally overgrown and caused inconvenience. Then the shoe required to be taken off, and the superfluous growth either removed by instruments and the shoe replaced, or the animal made to travel without the iron defence until it was again needed when the hoof had become too much worn. Such was horseshoeing, in all probability, in early times, and such it is at the present day where utility is not sacrificed to stupid theories or foolish practices. The evils attending the usual methods of shoeing are, as has been said, very serious and glaring ; and the chief of these do not so much depend upon the faulty conforma- tion of the shoe — though this is, in the majority of cases, not to be exempted from blame — as upon the treatment the hoof receives before and after the application of that article. To illustrate these evils, and to show how unreason- able the modern art of farriery is, as well as how it should be practised, we will commence with the foot of the un- shod colt, and, in the simplest words at our command, in- PREPARING THE HOOF. 37 dicate the ordinary procedure in applying shoes to its hoofs for the first time, pointing out, at each step in the process, what is wrong and what is right, and giving reasons for the adoption of the principles which ought to guide the farrier in this most important operation. PREPARING THE HOOF. We will premise that the young horse about to have its hoofs armed for the first time is tolerably docile, and that its tranquillity is not likely to be severely disturbed by the strange manipulations to which its limbs are to be subjected. For many months previously, its attendants have had this ordeal in view, and in handling it have not forgotten to manipulate its legs and feet quietly and gently in something the same fashion that the farrier is likely to do — even going so far in the lesson as to tap lightly on its uplifted hoof, as if nailing on the shoe. The young creat- ure is intelligent enough to perceive that in this no harm or punishment is intended, and it soon becomes familiar with the practice. The farrier who shoes a young horse for the first or second time should be a patient, good-tempered man, and an adept in the management of horses and handling their limbs. If the operation is to be performed in a forge, there should be as little noise of hammers or glare of fires as possible — every thing ought to be conducted quietly steadily, and with kindness. Harsh treatment, or unskil- ful handling, should be severely reprehended, and all re- straint or contention ought to be dispensed with — at any rate until gentleness and patience have been diligently em- ployed and have failed. If accustomed to companions, it should have one or two horses beside it in the forge. [n describing the construction of the foot, we referred 38 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. to the shape of a well-formed hoof. We will presume the animal before us — like nearly every unshod horse — has hoofs of this description. The first step, usually, in the preparation of this part for the shoe is to level and shorten the lower margin of the wall, pare the sole and frog, and open up the heels. These details may not be carried out so fully in the first shoeing as subsequently, but we will note them as they are commonly practised during the horse's lifetime. Levelling the Wall is an important operation, which but few artisans rightly understand or care to do properly. It has been stated that unequal pressure on one side of the foot — one side of the wall being lower than the other — is not only injurious to the whole limb by the undue strain it imposes on the joints and ligaments, but that it tends to deform the hoof and modify the growth of the horn. It is, therefore, most essential that both sides of the hoof be of equal depth, in addition to the whole lower margin of the wall being level ; and to make them so, the rasp should be applied to this border in an oblique man- ner, across the ends of its fibres, to bring them to the same length. A good idea of the necessary reduction to be effected on either side will be derived from an inspection of the limb from the knee or hock downward when placed firmly and straight upon the ground. Any deviation of the hoof to the inside or outside — most frequently it is the former — can be readily detected by looking at the leg and hoof in front. The ground surface of the foot should be directly trans- verse to the direction of the pastern, and it is in maintain- ing or restoring this relation that care and skill are re- quired. If the pastern is perpendicular to the shank-bone, and the two sides of the lower margin of the foot are di- PREPARING THE HOOF. 39 rectly transverse to the line passing down from these, then the wall has only to be lowered equally on both sides, if it be too high. It must be remembered, in levelling both sides of the lower surface of the hoof, that the difference of a few frac- tions of an inch between them will cause considerable, and perhaps very hurtful, oscillations of the weight thrown on the limb. A properly-instructed farrier should be able, at a glance across the upturned foot, to discover whether it is tolerably level. In Fig. 7 I have shown what is meant by a prop- Fig. 7. erly-levelled hoof, the dotted line a a being directly trans- verse to the vertical line 5, and the distance from a to c of one side being equal to that from a to c of the other. Shortening the Wall. — Reducing the wall to proper dimensions is another important matter in connection with the preparation of the foot for the shoe. We have seen that the natural and moderate wear of the unshod hoof is compensated for by the incessant downward growth of the horn, and that this process of wear and regeneration main- tains the proper dimensions and just bearing of the foot. But on the application of the shoe a barrier is at once op- posed to the wear, while the growth is not interfered with ; consequently, the hoof continually increases in length and obliquity — a change which causes derangement in the dis- position of the weight on the lower part of the leg and foot, and other inconveniences. 40 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. In speaking of the growth of the horn, it was remarked that in health this took place in a regular manner over the whole surface. It seems rather contradictory, there- fore, to assert that the hoof increases in obliquity — ap- pears to grow faster at the toe than the heels — when, if this statement was correct, their increase in length should be always the same. In the unshod hoof this lengthening of the toe is not observed ; it only occurs in one that has been shod, and is to be accounted for by the fact that the shoe, not being nailed back so far as the heels, is, every time the foot falls on the ground, pressed against the horn at these parts, and so great is this downward friction or pressure that, after a time, not only is the hoof consider- ably worn, but the face of the shoe is also deeply chan- nelled at corresponding points. Owing to the shoe being firmly fixed around the toe, there is no play at this part, and hence the apparent inequality in growth between the front and back of the hoof — a circumstance more observ- able in the fore than the hind foot, from the heels of the PREPARING THE IIOOF. 41 former being more under the centre of gravity, and so having a greater weight to sustain. The pastern and foot form part of a lever that extends from the fetlock to the ground and supports the weight of the body. The strain comes perpendicularly from the shoulder to the fetlock (Fig. 8, a, c) ; but thence to the ground it passes along the pastern and foot (c, d) — the extremity of the lever — and these are inclined more or less obliquely forward ; hence the charge imposed on the limb has an incessant tendency to increase this obli- quity by bringing the fetlock nearer the ground (b). To resist this tendency, however, we have the two flexor ten- dons, and the powerful suspensory ligament at the back of the limb, which support this joint and maintain its angle. But it will be readily understood that the longer and less upright this lever is, the greater is the strain and fa- tigue thrown upon the tendons and ligament. Though an oblique pastern may look graceful, and make the horse's step more elastic and agreeable to the rider, yet, when the degree of obliquity exceeds that intended by Nature, great risk is incurred of injury to the supporting apparatus. Hence the necessity for maintaining the hoof at its normal angle — a necessity, however, which can never be met, except at the moment when the animal is newly shod ; for no sooner is the equilibrium restored be- tween the front and back of the hoof and the shoe fast- ened on, than it begins to be disturbed again. This in- convenience is inevitable, from the very nature of the means we adopt to defend the foot from injury. On the other hand, the suspensory apparatus is less severely taxed, as the lever is short and vertical : or, in other words, as the pastern and hoof are upright. But this, though relieving the tendons and ligament, throws the weight too directly on the bones ; consequently the 42 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. jar to these and the whole limb is great, and even dan-, gerous ; while the back parts of the foot are unduly strained to relieve them. It must be, then, very evident, . that levelling and bringing the ground-face of the hoof to the necessary length — equal on both sides from toe to heel, and justly proportioned in depth at toe and heel — is no trifling mat- ter, as the soundness of the limb and ease in progression are concerned in the operation. Excessive length or ob- liquity of hoof strains back tendons and ligament; a hoof long at the toe and low at the heels (Fig. 9, a b) increases the obliquity ; on the contrary, when the heels are high and the toe of the hoof too short (Fig. 9, c, • 74 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. if they are resorted to, their injurious action should be averted by employing a toe-piece of the same height. For the race-horse the narrowest iron rim is sufficient, provided it is strong enough not to twist or bend. The present form of shoe is not objectionable. For hunters, hacks, and harness horses, a shoe of the modified pattern I have described is well adapted ; even the ordinary hunting pattern, but without the calkin on the hind-shoe, is infinitely preferable to that used for hacks and harness horses. Another excellent form of shoe, introduced by Staff Veterinary Surgeon Thacker, and which has been in use for some time at Woolwich on riding and harness horses, deserves to be mentioned here. It is broader in the cover at the toe than the heels (Fig. 17) ; at the toe it is slightly Fig. 17. curved upward, to remove it from the greater amount of wear occurring at this part, and also as a safeguard against horses' stumbling. This curve also acts as a clip to prevent the shoe moving backward. The foot-surface is quite flat, and rests on the sole and wall (Fig. 17). The ground-sur- face (Fig. 1 8) is bevelled somewhat like the hunting or modi- fied shoe I have described, with the intention of protecting the heads of the nails from too much wear, and offering no line or cavity whereby a stone can lodge or become wedged. The cover or " web " of the shoe is gradually brought very THE SHOE. 75 narrow at the heels, its outer rim corresponding exactly with the crust, and the ends of the branches terminating at Fig. 18. the heels of the foot, thus offering protection to the crust only, and without presenting any surface to be trodden upon or allowing the least suction in heavy ground. The nail-holes are in the centre of the web, and are di- rected cutward, by which the nails pass obliquely across the fibres of the wall and secure a good hold, without ap- proaching the sensitive parts too closely. Three-fourths of an inch is supposed to be the height necessary to drive the nails. There are two small clips — one on each side of the cur- vature at the toe — and these not only support the dimin- ished number of nails, but require that the farrier fit the shoe to the circumference of the foot. The smallest-sized nails should be invariably used, and fitted into each nail- hole before applying the shoe — the shoe to be light and made of good material. This pattern, like the modified shoe I have proposed, is suitable for either fore or hind feet. It may be mentioned that, with the exception of the two side-clips at the toe, this "shoe is nearly identical in shape with that recommended by Colonel Fitzwygram in his excellent work on Shoeing. 76 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. APPLYING THE SHOE. The foot having been duly prepared, and the form of shoe decided upon, the next step is to apply the shoe to the hoof, and retain it there by nails. In ordinary practice the wall of the foot has been only partially diminished, the remainder of the task being left until the shoe has to be fittOfl. This causes the farrier to have a very imperfect idea of the proper shape or size of the hoof, and he therefore prepares a shoe which he guesses is about the size, though in nearly every case it is too small ; and, moulding it according to his fancy, he proceeds to adjust the foot to it. This is done by cutting more or less deeply into the wall at the toe, to make the shoe appear long enough by embedding the clip deeply in its substance, or "letting it back," as it is termed. The consequence is, that when the shoe has been nailed on, the basis of support of the limb is abnormally diminished, a large portion of the wall of the hoof — its strongest por- tion — projects beyond the shoe in front and at the sides, and this is afterward carefully removed by the rasp, to the great injury of the most essential portion of the hoof. In every respect, the foot is made to fit the shape of the shoe, and as this is generally prepared with a view only to neat- ness or the traditions of routine, the organ suffers, to jxlease the fancy or fashion of the unreasoning artisan. By our method, the horn having been reduced to proper dimensions, the shoe is now made to exactly fit the hoof, and to follow the outline of its lower face. The part of the hoof intended to be protected by the iron rim lias been made as level as possible by the rasp, aided a very little, perhaps, by the knife ; the surface of the shoe destined to rest on this horny bed has also been made perfectly level and smooth, particularly at the clip or ' APPLYING THE SHOE. 77 clips, and it is to be correctly fitted. The farrier should so mould the shoe that it be an exact reproduction in out- line of the circumference of the hoof. To make it appear so when applied, it may be necessary to remove a little of the wall at the part corresponding to the clip, merely to make the fit more accurate and not allow any portion of the shoe to project unduly beyond the horn. The length of the shoe will vary with the uses to which the horse is put. For racing, hunting, and other purposes in which the hind limbs are carried forward to an extreme degree in propelling the body, the branches of the fore-shoe must on no account extend beyond the inflexion of the wall, otherwise the shoe is liable to be torn off" by the hind-foot, and the horse thrown down. The end of the branch should also be carefully rounded off and bevelled (as in Fig. 13), so as to leave nothing whatever by which the hind-shoe might catch it. With harness and draught horses this extreme care in shortening and bevelling the heels is not so necessary ; indeed, in the heavier and slower-paced animals, it is fre- quently advantageous to allow the shoes to be rather longer at the heels than the hoof itself. As a rule, then, the shoe ought to be wide enough at the toe, quarters, and heels, to support the entire thick- ness of the wall, but yet not so wide or long as to en- danger the opposite limbs by striking them, or run the chance of being torn off by the other feet treading upon it ; and it should not interfere with the frog, or prevent that organ from playing its part in the physiology of the foot. The adjustment of the shoe to the exact circumference of the hoof is usually efiected at the same time as the fitting together of the two surfaces of iron and horn which are to remain in contact. To render both accu- rate, the horse should always be shod at a forge. A ham- 78 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. • raer and anvil are necessary to mould the heated shoe to the requisite shape ; and it is. almost, if not quite, impossi- ble to obtain a perfectly true and solid adaptation of the upper face of the shoe to the horn on which it is to rest, within any reasonable time, unless it be fitted to the hoof in a hot state. ^Uot and Cold Fitting. — For very many years the two systems of fitting horseshoes in a cold and a heated con- dition to the hoofs have been extensively and severely tested, and the result has been that cold fitting is, as a rule, only resorted to when circumstances prevent the adoption of the other method, or when the owner of a horse, imagining that the hot shoe injures the foot, incurs the risks attending a bad fit to guard against his imagi- nary evil. It is needless, in a brief essay like the present, to enter into a relation of the observations and experiments which have established the undoubted and great superiority of what is termed " hot " to " cold " fitting. These will be found noticed at some length in a work recently published by me, entitled " Horseshoes and Horseshoeing." It may be sufficient to state that the evils supposed to result from fitting the shoes hot to the hoofs are purely chimerical. It is true, when the sole is excessively mutilated, should the farrier keep the heated shoe too long in contact with it, injury would doubtless follow, but this accident is so exceedingly rare as to be scarcely ever known, even in forges where shoeing is performed in the most objection- able manner. The ill effects imagined to arise from hot shoeing can easily be traced to the operation of other causes, not the least of which is the fashion of paring the lower face of the foot. The chief objections to cold shoeing are the want of solidity, the foot being made to fit the shoe, and* the pro- cess being more difficult and expensive. APPLYING THE SHOE. * 79 The defective solidity is patent to every one who has had any experience in the matter. It is impossible to level the ends of the horn-fibres so accurately that they will all rest evenly on the surface of the iron ; so those which are most prominent soon giving way to pressure, the bed of the shoe is altered, and this, becoming loose, is either lost, or we have projecting clenches. And even should the fibres be made perfectly level, wet softens them, causing them to become pulpy and shorter, by which means the seat of the shoe is impaired and the nails lose their firm hold of the wall. Ample experience on active service, as well as that gathered at home during peace, has demonstrated the instability resulting from cold fitting;. Owing to the increased trouble and loss of time in- curred by this method in attempts to make the shoe fit somewhat accurately, but few farriers can afford or are willing, to resort to it. Hence, when it is practised, if the shoe is at all like the foot, it is put on, and rasp and knife insure the hoof being made to fit it. This proceeding is very injurious. In hot fitting we have none of these objections. The shoe is very readily adapted to the foot ; it is more equal- ly applied, and rests solidly on the hoof, so that the nails are not broken or displaced by the shoe becoming loose ; in fine, there is a more intimate contact between the iron and the surface of the horn. The very fact of burning or fusing the ends of the fibres insures a solid durable bed which cannot be obtained otherwise, as this destroys the spongy absorbent properties of the horn and renders it eminently calculated to withstand the influence of moist- ure. The effects produced on horn by tl^p hot iron have been compared to those of fire on pieces of wood whose ends have been superficially carbonized before being buried in the ground. Every one knows that this opera- 80 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. tion contributes to the preservation of the wood by pre- serving it from the action of humiditv. Horn is a very slow conductor of heat, and it requires a very prolonged application of the hot shoe to affect the hoof to any considerable depth. Three minutes' burning of the lower face of the sole has been found necessary to produce any indication of increase of temperature by the thermometer on its upper surface. It is never required that the shoe should be applied longer than a few seconds. The hot shoe, in fusing the horn with which it comes in contact, imprints itself like a seal in melted sealing- wax, and in this way the two surfaces of foot and shoe exactly coincide ; while no matter how expert the work- man may be in using his tools to level the horn in a cold state, he can never do it so quickly or so completely as may be done by making an impression with the heated shoe, and consequently establishing between the lower margin of the hoof and the shoe an exact coaptation. It may be added that, when the surface of the horn has been softened by the action of caloric, the nails enter it more readily, the clips and inequalities are more easily embedded, and when it recovers its habitual consistency after cooling, the union between it and the metallic parts which are in contact becomes all the more intimate be- cause of the slight contraction that follows the expansion produced by the heat. Under these conditions, the horn contracts on the shanks of the nails, and retains them most securely. All the highest veterinary authorities who have studied the subject are unanimous in recommending hot fitting in preference to cpld ; the latter is only justifiable when it is impossible to adopt the former. The red-hot shoe at once disposes of those inequalities which cannot be discovered, or removed by tools; and it shows the workman at a glance the bearing of the shoe on the hoof, as well as the APPLYING THE SHOE. 81 imprint of the nail-holes. Without being reheated, any alteration can be readily and at once effected in moulding the shoe to the shape of the two. The whole surface of the shoe intended to be in con- tact with the horn should be distinctly impressed on the contour of the hoof, so as to insure the closest and most accurate intimacy between the two ; and this carbonized surface should not be interfered with on any account, ex- cept by the rasp, which is only to be employed in remov- ing any sharpness or inequality on the extreme edge of the wall that may have been caused in fitting. It is necessary to bear in mind that the shoe should be fitted at a red heat. Its application then need only be very brief, and it is far more effective in producing a solid level surface ; it ought not to be applied at a black heat. Should the margin of the hoof not be sufficiently levelled by the rasp before the application of the hot shoe, a slight contact of the latter will show the inequalities, and these may then be removed by rasp or knife. On no occasion ous;ht the shoe to remain longer on the hoof • than is necessary to produce a solid, perfectly level sur- face. The Nails. — The shoe having been made to fit the hoof exactly, is cooled and finished with the file. It is then ready to be attached to the hoof by nails. These should not be unnecessarily large, as is too often the case, but well proportioned to the size of the shoe. The heads should only be sufficient to fill the nail-holes when sub- jected to two or three smart blows of the hammer, and the shanks thin. It is scarcely necessary to add that the nails, like the shoe, should always be made of the best iron. Driving the Nails. — In driving the nails into the hoof, every one should be made to pass through sound horn. It is a mistake to place them where the wall is broken or 82 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. perforated by previous nails, as this only makes bad worse; and care should be taken to direct each nail so accurately that it may make its exit at the desired point in the face of the wall at once. Careless or unskilful driving of the nails necessitates their being withdrawn several times be- fore they are properly implanted, and as each nail, how- ever carefully it may be placed in the wall at the first at- tempt, is a source of injury by splitting asunder and per- forating the fibres, it follows that when several attempts have to be made the injury is proportionately increased. A short thick hold of the wall is better than a long thin one. If possible; no more horn should be included within the grasp of the nail than is likely to be removed at the following shoeing. By this means the wall is con- stantly maintained sound. A foot allowed to grow strong in the manner I have described, will suffer no inconvenience in having the nails driven tightly into the shoe and hoof after they have been placed in the wall. Where the hoof is thin, as at the quarters and heels of the fore-foot, smaller and more slender nails must be, used, and these must be less tightly driven. The toe nails should be first hammered home firmly, then the quarter and heel nails lightly. Every nail should form a part of the shoe, and the head should barely project above it ; when all are solidly disposed, they must be tightly " drawn up " at the ends (the points having been twisted off previously) by means of the hammer and pincers, using the same graduated degree of force as in driving them home. Conclusion of the Operation. — Nothing then remains to be done but to bend down or " clench " the portion of nail so drawn up on the face of the wall. This should be accomplished by shortening the fragment to a proper length by the rasp, so as to leave just enough to turn AITLYING TnE SHOE. 83 over; the rasp also removes the small barb of horn raised in drawing up the nail, but without making a notch, and then the clench is laid down evenly. No more rasping or cutting should be allowed on any pretext whatever. Rasping. — Very different to this treatment is that practised in nearly every forge, where the front of the hoof is rasped most unmercifully as high as the coronet. Indeed, in the majority of books on farriery it is recom- mended that, though the wall ought not to be rasped above the clenches, this must be done below them ; evi- dently ignorant of the fact that nearly as much, if not more, harm is done by this operation below than above these rivets. Those who study what I have said concerning the structure of the wall of the hoof will readily enough un- derstand the amount of injury inflicted on the foot by this rasping. Over the whole external face of this part there appears to be spread a fine translucent horn, which looks like a varnish, whose office in all probability is to prevent undue drying of the hoof and consequent brittleness. Imme- diately beneath this are the dense resisting fibres of the wall, which are intended to resist wear, and are best adapted to support a shoe, through the medium of the nails ; in fact, they are the fibres which ought to perform this duty, as beneath them, toward the inside of the wall, the horn rapidly becomes soft and spongy, and more like the pith of a rush. In consequence of the farrier having neglected to re- move a sufficient amount of horn from the lower margin of the wall, when preparing the foot for the shoe, or hav- ing nailed on a plate too small for its natural circumfer- ence, a large piece of the solid material projects beyond the shoe, particularly in front and at the sides. This is 84 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. torn away by the rasp, after the clenches have been laid down ; and when this has been done what do we see ? The wall of the foot, instead of coming down from the coronet to the shoe in all its integrity and evenness of slope, as soon as it reaches the clenches is chopped ab- ruptly downward, giving the foot a stump or club-like appearance, and greatly diminishing the extent of its bear- ing surface. The greatest evil, however, is the loss of the strong tough horn, whose presence is so necessary to pro- tect the lower margin of the hoof and afford support and hold to the nails. In consequence of its removal, these have nothing to retain them but the thin pellicle of soft horn remaining, and this being so weak, and exposed to influences it was never intended to encounter, quickly dries up, shrivels, becomes brittle, and cracks or breaks away in flakes. Then we have a hoof deprived of its hom, and in as un- natural a condition as can well be imagined ; it has been so barbarously mutilated as to require the greatest care next shoeing to place the nails in a shred of sound horn ; the operation of rasping and curtailment being repeated each time increases the evil, and should a shoe chance to come off on the road 1 — an accident, it may be inferred, extremely likely to happen — great damage will be done to the pared sole, and the thin, brittle, slit-up wall, and in all probability, after a few yards travelling, the animal will be lamed. The morbid desire to make fine work of shoeing, when the horse was first shod, ends in the greatest amount of skill and labor being required to continue it, and keep the animal to some extent fit for service, though with de- formed feet, seriously damaged horn, and perhaps great suffering. The truth of this can be verified by a casual glance at the hoofs of almost every horse that passes us in town or APPLYING THE SHOE. 85 country — though perhaps it is most conspicuous in town- shod horses. One of the most serious results of this excessive mu- tilation of the lower part of the wall is the production of a chronic form of laminitis, marked by slight subsidence half-way down the front of the foot and to a less degree at the side, with an abrupt rounded protrusion of the part that is always exposed to rasping. This deformity, which causes pain and altered gait in the majority of cases, arises from the irritation caused to the sensitive parts within by the removal of their natural protection, but more particularly from the fact that the nails, to retain the shoe, must be driven through a sufficient amount of the soft horn, and this brings them so near the living parts that they press upon them to such a degree, as to set up an acute or subacute inflammation that leads to this deformity and its attendant lameness. Cases of this description will be found to be by no means uncommon among the horses in our streets, and for many years I have been able to trace the evil effects of the practice irom their commencement until the animal was a hopeless cripple. When the coachman, groom, or farrier's fancy causes the rasp to be carried above the clenches to the top of the hoof, then of course the injury is greatly aggravated. The thin semi-translucent horn that extends in a some- what wide, whitish-colored band around the upper part of the foot, is chiefly intended by Nature, I think, to protect the fibres of the wall from the effects of external physical influences, such as heat and dryness, while they are being secreted, or so immature as to be incapable of resisting: these influences — for it will be remembered that the wall is formed at the coronet, and this covering guar- antees not only the integrity of the newly-made horn- tubes, but also maintains the secreting vessels that enter 86 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. them in a healthy condition, and competent to supply- fresh material for wear. The destruction of this band, and the rasping of the fibres beneath it, is detrimental to the healthy secretion of the wall-fibres, and leads to the same result that par- ing the sole was shown to do : shrinking of the horn- tubes containing the tufts of vessels, wasting of these, a diminished supply of horny material in consequence, and a thin brittle wall that scarcely appears to grow down at all in depth or thickness, and barely allows a shoe to be attached to it. Sandcrack and other diseased conditions of this part of the hoof are mainly due to this cause. After applying the shoe in the manner we have de- scribed, and laying down the clenches evenly on the wall of the hoof, no more requires to be done, unless perhaps it be to round a little more the edg;e of the narrow shreds of horn, that may project on each side of Ihe clip, and thus prevent their liability to split. The angle of the face of the hoof should never be interfered with after the shoe is nailed on, but should be the same fnpm top to bot- tom as in the natural state. This is a matter of great importance. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the preservation of the horn of the hoof in its integrity. No amount of rasping or artificial" treatment can give the hoof the beautiful polish it has in its natural state. Layiyig down Clips. — At this stage, it is usual to ap- ply the clip or clips more exactly and evenly to the. hoof before completing the operation of shoeing ; and even this apparently trifling matter demands care. With gradu- ally decreasing blows of the shoeing hammer, each clip should be applied close to the hoof, commencing at the bottom, where it springs from the shoe, and ascending to its point. Clips should never be driven tight into the hoof; this is injurious and may induce disease. APPLYING THE SHOE. 87 When, in due course, the period arrives for re-shoeing — usually in a month or five weeks — the hoofs require to be reduced to their normal dimensions; the rules we have laid down for guidance are to be followed out in the most scrupulous manner. The old shoe is to be gently re- moved from the foot by carefully cutting away the clench- es with the buffer ; the pincers are then to be inserted toward the heel, between the hoof and shoe, and the lat- ter prized steadily upward from and across the foot. When by this means the nails have been sufficiently sprung, they may be withdrawn one by one. Particular care must be taken that no clenches or broken nails re- main in the hoof, as these are likely to turn the points of the succeeding nails into the living parts of the foot. Such then, on the one hand, is shoeing as it is usually practiced, to the great injury of the horse ; and, on the other hand, shoeing as it ought to be performed, so as to maintain the comfort and efficiency of this noble and in- valuable animal. It will be observed that no claim is here made to any wonderful novelty or discovery in the way of a shoe that will answer every purpose, and keep every horse wearing it in a state of health. Such an invention must be left to those whose practical experience is of the most limited character, and who fancy that the evils of shoeing are concentrated in the metal plate alone. It may be sufficient to say, in this place, that, so far as the comfort, utility, and well-being of the horse are concerned, the preserva- tion of the foot in health by abstaining from mutilating and deforming it with knife and rasp, is of the -highest importance. If this be done, the shoe most appropriate for certain purposes demands some attention, but is really a matter of minor consideration. Preserve the hoof intact and strong, and the animal will travel long and soundly in a very uncouth foot arma- 88 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. ture ; pare and rasp it according to " improved princi- ples," and the most labored, expensive, and artistic device in the form of a shoe will not prevent discomfort, un- soundness, disease, and premature uselessness. At an early period of my professional career, I was much dissatisfied with the results of shoeing as it is prac- tised in ordinary forges, and with the unreasonableness of the fashion of depriving the foot of its natural and most efiicient protection, and was soon led to perceive that a vast majority of the horses so treated soon became de- formed and lame in their feet ; while some of the diseases occurring higher up in the limbs were likewise due to this cause. The rational method here inculcated was then adopted, and now for very many years the only preparation the foot has received for the shoe has been levelling the wall, in conformity with the direction of the limb and foot, and removing as much of its margin as will restore it to its natural length, leaving the sole, frog, bars, and heels in all their integrity. Such has been the treatment of the hoofs of the horses under my care in various parts of the world, and in far more trying circumstances at times, so far as shoeing is concerned, than are likely to occur in the regular work of towns ; and so strong were the hoofs, as a rule — such solid blocks of horn did they appear, that when a shoe was, by some rare chance, lost on a journey, there was no danger whatever to be apprehended from marching the horse ten, twenty, or even thirty miles, without it. Horses have never been pricked in nailing, and foot diseases, it may be said, have been all but un- known. The roughest roads and the sharpest stones can be travelled over with impunity. Nearly every hoof might be taken as a model, and be pronounced as perfect as before the animal was shod many years previously. This abstinence from paring and rasping, it will be APPLYING THE SHOE. 89 seen, very materially lessens the time and labor required in the ordinary method ; indeed, nothing can be simpler than the conservative principle of shoeing, and this sim- plicity can be effectively carried into practice with one- half the instruction and toil required for the popular mode. Other methods of shoeing have been devised from time to time, and may be briefly referred to here. To diminish the weight and permit a portion of the pos- terior part of the foot to come in direct contact with the ground along with the frog, a three-quarter shoe is often applied — the portion of iron extending from the inside quarter to the point of the heel being cut off, and the shoe at this part thinned a little. The horn left unprotected is never interfered with. This is an excellent shoe for sad- dle and carriage, and even draught horses, which may be employed on the worst roads while wearing it. For feet that have suffered very much from the effects of rasping, and paring, and which are liable to have bruised heels (or corns), its use is attended with the greatest benefit. The same may be said of " tips " or half-shoes. An unreasonable prejudice appears to exist against the use of these light, short plates ; but, if they are applied in appro- priate cases, there can be no doubt whatever that they are entitled to a far larger share of attention than they have yet received. Their very limited employment hith- erto may have arisen from the imperfect manner in which they have been used. They protect those parts of the wall most exposed to damage by wear, extending around the toe and reaching no farther than the quarters ; while the heels and frog, when left unpared and unrasped, are strong enough to meet all demands made upon them, at the same time they are not deprived of their physiological functions. In addition to these considerations, the diminution in 90 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. the weight of the shoe is a matter of some importance. Of course, the three-quarter shoe and the tip are only re- quired for the fore-feet ; the hind-feet shoes, so long as they are level, are not over heavy, and do not wound the opposite limbs, may be of the ordinary pattern. On this difference between the management of the fore and hind foot we cannot too much insist. The fore-foot is particu- larly disposed to disease and injury ; the hind-foot is won- derfully exempt. So much is this the case, indeed, that the proper management of the first is all important, while the other requires but little attention. The reason of this is due to the fact that the horizontal body, and long, heavy neck and head of the horse, cause the largest proportion of the weight to fall upon the front pair of supporting columns, and, through them, upon the feet : the fore-limbs are those most concerned in supporting weight, the hind ones in propelling the body forward. Hence the necessity for allowing as much of the lower face of the fore-foot as possible to come in contact with the ground ; and hence the prevalence of disease in it when improper shoeing limits its points of contact to the narrowest dimensions. Various Methods of Shoeing. — Another form of shoe is that commonly known as the " bar shoe " — a ring or annular plate of metal which increases the surface of con- tact by resting, to a large extent, on the frog, and allow- ing that important body to participate in weight-bearing ; in this way it also relieves the heels when these are weak or injured. It is a very useful shoe, but the additional weight given to it by the bar, and the extra strain on the nails retaining it to the hoof, are drawbacks. To apply a shoe in such a manner as to allow the frog to receive a due amount of pressure, has always been the aim of those who have made the horse's foot an object of careful study. Even with the ordinary shoe, if it be not too thick nor garnished with calkins, the frog, if unmuti- APPLYING THE SHOE. 91 iated, in the large majority of cases will rest upon the ground for nearly the whole of its length, and sustain beneficial wear. Nearly every one of the horses at pres- ent in my charge, though shod with the army regulation shoe — a very defective model- — have their frogs in this condition ; while all the private horses wearing the modi- fied shoe I have described, exhibit the frog resting for the whole of its length and breadth on the ground. But this object, with others of importance, is perfectly attained in what has been designated the "periplantar shoe and method of shoeing," introduced by Veterinary Surgeon Charlie r, of Paris. Leave the hoof entirely in a natural condition, so far as frog, sole, and wall, are con- cerned, and imbed a narrow rim of iron, no thicker than the wall, around the lower circumference of the foot — that exposed to wear — like the iron heel of a man's boot, and we obtain an idea of what the periplantar method of shoe- ing really is. The principle of this method of shoeing is, physiologi- cally, perfectly correct. Knowing that the horse's foot is admirably constructed to perform certain definite functions, and that the hoof in ordinary condition is designed to act as the medium through which the most important of these are carried out, but that its circumference is liable to be broken away and worn when nudely exposed, we have only to substitute' for a certain portion of this perishable horn an equivalent portion of more durable metal, and the hoof is secured from damage by wear, while its natural functions remain unimpaired. This novel method of shoeing has attracted so much attention, and has in many instances proved so beneficial and worthy of adoption, so far as my experience goes, that I venture to describe, as briefly as possible, the way in which it is carried into execution in the forge. The sole and frog, as well as the bars, are left unpared. 92 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. The crust or wall is bevelled off at the edge by the rasp, and by means of a special knife with a movable guide * a groove is made along this bevelled edge to receive the shoe. This groove is made a little shallower than the thickness of the sole, and slightly narrower than the thick- ness of the wall, not extending beyond the white line sep- arating the sole from the wall (Fig. 19). Fig. 19. Into this groove is fitted the shoe. This is a narrow, but somewhat deep band of iron (or, as now, a mixture of iron and steel, narrower at the top than the bottom, and forged in such a manner that its front surface follows the slope of the foot. It is perforated by from four to six oval nail- holes of small size, and if necessary may be provided with a clip at the toe. Its upper inner edge is rounded by the file, to prevent it pressing too much against the angle of the sole, and the ends of the branches are narrow and bevelled off toward the ground (Fig. 20). The nails are very small, and have a conical head and neck (Fig. 21). They must be of the best quality. * A knife of this kind which I invented, is manufactured and sold by Messrs. Arnold & Son, Instrument Makers, West Smithfield, London. APPLYING THE SHOE. 93 It is best to fit the shoe in a hot state, as it must have a level bed and follow exactly the outline of the wall. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. After it has been fitted, it is advisable to remove, by a small drawing-knife, a little of the horn from the angle of the groove in the hoof, to correspond with the rounded inner edge of the shoe. This insures a proper amount of space between the latter and the soft horn at the margin of the pedal bone. In strong hoofs, the shoe is almost entirely buried in the groove ; but in those which have the soles flat or con- vex, with low heels, it is not safe to imbed it so deeply. The application of the hot shoe in fitting should not ex- tend beyond a very few seconds. The shoe is nailed to the hoof in the ordinary manner (Fig. 22). For saddle and light carriage horses, I have usually found four nails — two on each side — for each shoe sufficient. These should be placed wide apart at the toe and^rather close to the heel (Fig. 23, er, b). Every nail must be driven in sound horn, otherwise the shoe, being so narrow, may get the branch bent out, and nothing more is needed than to lay the clenches down evenly on the wall. No rasping is required. "When the shoe is attached to the foot, we then perceive that a portion of the sole and 94 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. bars, and the whole of the frog, meet the ground as in the unshod state (Fig. 23). Fig. 22. The great advantages of this method of shoeing con- sist in its simplicity, when farriers have been made to un- derstand it ; its placing the hoof in a natural condition, so far as its ground-face is concerned ; the small number and cu Fig. 23. size of the nails required to retain it ; the lightness of the shoe, and the security it gives to the horse in progression. WINTER SHOEING. 95 Since its introduction by M. Charlier, I have tried this method on a large number of horses of various sizes, and which have been employed for hunting, road, carriage, t draught, and am perfectly satisfied that it is a valua- ble accessory mode of defending and preserving the hoofs and remedying their diseases or defects. It cannot be ap- plied indiscriminately to every foot, and to make the groove in the hoof and fit the shoe accurately, requires some care. When the horn and metal are combined in this way, it is somewhat astonishing for how long a period a very light rim will sustain wear even on hard roads. I have not tried the shoe on the hind-feet, because I do not think it so well adapted for them ; as before men- tioned, the front-feet only demand all our attention. WINTER SHOEING. In such a variable climate as ours, it is not an easy matter to provide, economically and successfully for the occurrence of frost and snow during the winter months, so far as shoeing is concerned. Some winters are so mild, that there is no necessity for making any difference in the shoe, while others are so severe, and the roads are cov- ered with ice for such a long period, that special appli- ances must be resorted to if the services of horses are to be made at all available To be generally useful, these appliances must be cheap and simple. The quickest, cheapest, but at the same time least durable of these, is the "frost-nail." This is nothing more than the ordinary horseshoe nail, with its head flat- tened gradually to a thin edge. Two or three of the nails are withdrawn from each side of the shoe, and replaced by the frost-nails. The heads may be flattened in differ- 96 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. ent directions according to circumstances. Sometimes the heads are of steel, when of course they are more last- ing. For short journeys, frost-nails are useful and easily available ; but as they only last for a brief period, and as their frequent renewal injures the hoof to some extent, they are only to be used when the services of the horse are not likely to be in great demand for any length of time, or when the frost promises to be very transient. They are best adapted for saddle and carriage horses. To prevent injury to the hoof, and at the same time to obtain all the advantages of frost-nails, I have often, in the winter season, had extra holes punched in the shoes — one at the extremity of each heel, and one on each side of the toe. These nail-holes were large, and were stamped so obliquely outward, that the frost-nails, when the occa- sion required them, could be passed through them and lapped firmly over the edge of the shoe without interfer- ing with the hoof. They may be made altogether of soft steel, the heads alone being tempered. I have found this plan most convenient and effective, as the hoof and shoe are not disturbed, and the nails can be renewed as often as may be necessary. The usual plan is to remove the shoes from the hoofs and give them sharpened calkins, and it may be toe-pieces also sharp. This is not a good fashion if it has to be often repeated, as the hoofs are damaged by the frequent nail- ing, the horses are apt to be lamed, and the shoes to be- come loose. It is for the time being, however, Very effec- tive. "When the calks and toe-pieces are only made of iron, and if the ground be not covered with a sufficient layer of snow to protect them to some extent, they soon become blunted, and the shoes then require to be taken off and the process repeated. To remedy this, if time permits, it is an excellent plan to weld in the calkin, or toe-piece, or on the face of the shoe, a piece of steel (Figs. WINTER SHOEING. 97 24, 25 a), which, when sharpened and tempered, lasts a very considerable time. :_.:. :.,:_■_ .... .. — -or Fig. 24. Fig. 25. In sharpening the calkins, regard must be had to their situation — that on the outside heel may be flattened across the branch of the shoe (Fig. 26), but that on the inside must be drawn as much as possible from the outer margin of the branch (Fig. 27), in order to avoid treads and wounds to the opposite foot. uiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiMiiiiiiiJiiii i Fig. 26. Fig. 27. As a rule, it is better that toe-pieces of the same height as the calkins be used on all shoes, to keep the foot and limb from being injured. The Canadian shoe, made of steel, concave on the ground-surface, with the concavity forming a sharp edge on the margin, is very useful when there is a thick layer of ice with snow. But perhaps the most useful and expeditious method of making the horse useful on ice-covered roads, is by the adoption of the screw studs. For these, each new shoe at the commencement of the winter has a circular hole punched at the heels, and another at the toe. This is screwed, and into it is fitted, for ordinary wear, a flat- headed stud (Fig. 28), which is turned in with a wrench. These studs last for some time, and preserve the shoe 5 98 PKACTICAL HORSESHOEING. from wear — when worn nearly to the level of the shoe, they are removed and replaced by new ones. Should Fig. 28. Fig. 29. frost set in suddenly, the flat-headed studs have only to be removed by the groom when the horse is required, and sharp steel ones substituted. This can be done in a few minutes. The usual shape of the- sharp stud is that of a wedge, the screwed portion being much smaller than that pro- jecting beyond the shoe. This is a faulty conformation, which leads to the stud frequently working itself loose and falling out, or breaking off at the neck, leaving the screwed portion in the shoe. For some years I have remedied this defect by em- ploying steel frost-studs of a conical or pyramidal shape, and having the portion screwed into the shoe as thick as that projecting from it (Fig. 29). This pattern is not at all liable to turn round and fall out on meeting the ground ; while, being the same thickness throughout, there is no check at the screw to weaken the stud ; con- sequently it does not break if carefully forged and tem- pered. Of all the appliances designed to enable horses to travel safely on ice, without taking them to the forge, or requiring the services of the farrier, none have stood the test of trial so satisfactorily as this screw stud. I have experimented with all the recent inventions, but have found them either too complicated or expensive, not fit SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS. 99 for severe work, or else only adapted for shoes of one pattern. SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS. Shoeing is a powerful auxiliary in the hands of a com- petent farrier for remedying the natural defects which are not unfrequently observed in the position of the limbs and feet of horses; while with the scientific veterinary surgeon it is no less a most potent aid in curing or pallia- ting certain maladies or deformities of a special character. Perhaps the most frequent defects the farrier has to contend with, are turning out or turning in the toe of the foot ; both of which are not only unsightly, but are productive of more or less injury to the limb from the unequal manner in which some of its parts have then to sustain the weight of the body. To rectify the leg or foot when the toe turns outward, the hoof should be levelled as before described, the mar- gin of the wall at the outside toe and back nearly to the quarter being well reduced and rounded. The clip is to be drawn up nearer to the inside than the middle of the toe ; the shoe to be fitted close to the outside and quar- ter, but the inside, from the quarter to the heel,- should be more full than usual. In the course of several shoeings, by this reduction of the wall at the outside of the hoof and the fitting of the shoe, a most noticeable improve- ment will be effected. When the toe is turned inward, precisely the reverse treatment must be followed : the inside toe must be re- duced, the clip of the shoe formed nearer the outside toe, and the shoe itself fitted close at the inside toe, but wide at the outside. In both cases the shoes ought to be of the same thickness throughout. 100 PKACTICAL HOKSESHOEING. " Cutting," or striking and wounding the inner side of the leg with the opposite foot, is sometimes a cause of much annoyance. It may be due to weakness, fatigue, or to a sudden change in the manner of shoeing ; in which cases it is only temporary. But it may also arise from malformed limbs or faulty action, and these defects may be so exaggerated as to be scarcely, if at all, remedied by shoeing alone. The usual part of the hoof with which the horse strikes the opposite limb, is the inside toe or quarter. Whichever of these regions it may be, the hoof must con- tinue to be levelled at right angles to the direction of the pastern, and a shoe equally thick throughout applied, the only difference between it and the ordinary shoe being the removal of a portion of the iron from the margin at a point corresponding to the portion that causes the injury to the opposite limb ; or the shoe, instead of being nar- rowed in the branch at this part, may be straightened, so as to lie within the hoof. No nails are to be inserted here ; they may be placed in front of, and behind the striking portion — at the toe and heel. The hoof, after the appli- cation of the shoe, may then be reduced at the quarter with the rasp, to diminish its convexity, and thus avert " cutting " or striking. The periplantar method of shoeing is well adapted for horses that " cut." Some horses have the awkward habit of lying like a cow with one or both fore-legs doubled up at the knee, and the elbow resting on the heel of the foot. Should the ordinary shoes be worn, it almost inevitably follows that the ends of the branches pressing upon the elbow will cause the formation of a large unsightly tumor, which may in time become an abscess or ulcerate. The preven- tion of this is in the hands of the farrier, who has only to shorten and smoothly round the extremities of the shoe, GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 101 so as to keep them within the hoof. Most frequently it is the inside heel, in which case a three-quarter shoe at once remedies the evil. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. After what has been said with regard to the manage- ment of the horse's foot in shoeing, there is but little to add concerning its general treatment ; as shoeing influ- ences more or less, for good or for evil, the general con- dition of that organ, and renders its ordinary manage- ment either a matter of much or of trifling moment. When it has been robbed of its horn by the farrier, and brought to such an artificial and abnormal state as we have indicated, then its preservation in any thing like a healthy or efficient condition is a matter of no small difficulty, and appears sometimes to demand very curious and often by no means reasonable practices on the part of the groom. The most common are : applying to the face of the wall tar, oil, fish-oil, or advertised mixtures of various kinds to make the horn grow, prevent brittleness, cure diseases, etc. ; and to the sole plates of leather, bolsters of tow steeped in tar, filthy applications of cow-dung, mud or clay, and other matters. It is scarcely necessary to say that to the unpared and unrasped hoof these are not only unnecessary, but some of them even positively hurtful. Oil, for instance, not only renders the wall brittle, but loosens the nails; while cow-dung, from the ammonia it contains, destroys the frogs. The unmutilated hoof is easily kept in health. All it requires is keeping cool, and moistening occasionally 102 ' PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. with cold water during hot weather or after severe exer- tion. When a journey has been long continued and severe, the horse should not be immediately put into a stable, but ought to be walked gently about until the circulation of blood in the feet has had time to accommo- date itself to the altered conditions of rest. By this means laminitis (inflammation of the feet) is averted. In washing the hoofs a water-brush should not be employed, but a soft sponge, with a view to prevent the translucent horn on the front of the wall being destroyed. The sides and cleft of the frog may be cleaned out occasionally with a blunt picker, though if sound this is scarcely required. Nothing more is needed, so far as the every-day stable management of the foot is concerned, except to caution the groom against cutting away the hair immediately above the coronet, as this acts like a thatch in preserving the frog-band at its commencement from the effects of perspiration and moisture. Much harm is done to horses' legs and feet by the somewhat cruel custom of keeping them, while in the stable, constantly tied up in one position in stalls with sloping floors. This fashion is not only entirely opposed to the animal's natural habits — for the horse loves to move about and change his attitude — but the limbs and feet, more especially the front ones, are, instead of being rested, greatly fatigued ; and this brings about alterations which may be none the less serious because they are not immediate in their effects. A loose box, even if no larger than a stall, with a level floor, is infinitely preferable, and by all means to be commended to those who place some value on the sound- ness of body, eyesight, and limbs of their horses, as well as on their comfort. STREETS AND ROADS. 103 STREETS AND ROADS. The roads over which horses travel have also much influence for good or evil on the condition of the feet and legs. In the majority of the towns and cities in Great Britain, it would most certainly appear that considerations for the safety, comfort, or efficiency of the thousands of horses in daily use were altogether lost sight of or neg- lected in constructing the public thoroughfares. Masses of the hardest and closest-grained stone are laid down in most streets in such a fashion, that they seem as if purposely designed to afford an insecure foothold, and prevent the horse's strength being profitably utilized. These paved streets — always a source of danger to the animals — while hindering them from employing their force to the best advantage, are also particularly injurious to the legs and feet, from the incessant efforts made to maintain a footing. More especially is this the case in wet weather, when they are covered with greasy mud, and in summer when their dry smooth surface becomes leaded. It is needless to say, that no kind of metal de- fence to the hoof will for many days insure a firm foot- hold on such roads ; and nothing but a metal defence has ever been found suitable to the horse's foot. Every device has been tried to meet the demands for travelling with safety on such paved streets, and none have proved successful. Nor is it at all likely that future inventions will meet these demands ; the basaltic or gra- nitic surface, perfectly smooth, and offering a most insecure surface for fixing the foot during movement, -is not at all adapted for horse traffic. From the durability of these roads, they may be, to those who have to pay for their construction and mainte- nance, more economical than others on which horses can 104 PEACTICAL HORSESHOEING. journey with ease and without risk of falling down; hut they are far from "being economical to those whose carriages and wagons traverse them. A portion of the horse's mo- tive power is devoted to maintaining his foothold, and the fear induced by this insecurity operates against what re- mains being applied as profitably as it ought to be. So that less is gained in the economy of construction and du- rability, and in the easier traction of vehicles, than is lost in the injury done to the horse's extremities, and the waste of power required to maintain the equilibrium. Even more injurious to feet and limbs is the barba- rous, slovenly, and stupid method prevailing in this coun- try of repairing macadamized roads — or what are intended for them — by depositing a heap of angular stones in a loose, rugged layer of uncertain depth, and compelling horses and carriages to travel over them until they are imbedded in a very irregular manner in the soil beneath them. Such a practice is hot only extremely short-sight- ed on the part of those who make or repair roads in this manner — as these roads can neither be durable nor very serviceable — but also deserves the severest censure as most cruel and destructive to horses. Not only is the labor in drawing a carriage over such a surface immense- ly increased, and the horse's strength thereby expended, but the unstable footing afforded by the loose masses of stone throws a great strain in every direction upon the' legs and feet, and not unfrequently the animal is thrown down and gets seriously injured or blemished for life. If the hoofs chance to be pared and rasped according to the groom or farrier's " improved principles," then the consequences are greatly aggravated. Legislation should be appealed to, to put an end to such a disgraceful method of road making or mending, which is only worthy of the most uncivilized country. INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 105 The best mode of constructing and repairing our public thoroughfares and highways, with a view not only to economy, but to the safety and comfort of horses, is a matter that deserves serious attention. Taken in connection with our subject, it is one that cannot be overlooked. We may preserve and defend the horse's foot to the best of our ability in our forges and stables, but if the roads over which he travels are not adapted to his employment, our exertions on his behalf can only be partially successful. INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. The foregoing instructions relative to shoeing are, in substance, those which I have been in the habit, for sev- eral years, of laying before the farriers in the different regiments in which I have served, and with an amount of success which amply rewarded me for the trouble I took to see that they were carried into practice. Not only have my own duties been considerably lightened in the greatly diminished number of lame and unserviceable horses, but the labors of the farriers have been considerably abbre- viated and simplified, and by their being able to under- stand the reasons for acting as I desired, their intelligence was awakened, and they took an interest in carrying out my views. In our army this is not always the case. The subject of farriery is often looked upon much as it is in civil life — as a matter that concerns the farrier only, and tradi- tion and routine extensively prevail. In saying this, however, I do not intend for a moment to insinuate that the army veterinary surgeons are averse to giving their attention to a most important, though it may appear a minor, part of their duty. On the contrary, many of them 106 PEAOTICAL HORSESHOEING. do so, and with the greatest advantage to the service ; but there is not the same encouragement offered either to veterinary surgeons or farriers in this respect as there is in Continental armies. In the French army, for instance, there are schools and professors of farriery, the most nota- ble of these being at the cavalry school of Saumur. In these, the farriers are regularly trained to a uniform and approved system before being posted to different regi- ments, and direct encouragement is given to these men by the institution of competitions, in which the most suc- cessful are rewarded by medals and gifts of money. But not only does the French Government bestow some care in the advancement of farriery in the army ; it also stimulates competition and improvement among the civilian farriers. So late as the 28th, 29th, and 30th of April last (1870) there was a concours of " marechalerie " at Valence, divided into two sections — a civil and a mili- tary — presided over by two special juries composed of eminent veterinary surgeons and professors. At this concours, not only were models of shoes and shod hoofs exhibited, but the farriers — civil and military — were tested in the various operations of farriery on the spot, by shoeing saddle, carriage, and draught horses, draught and pack mules, and oxen. A large number of gold, silver, and bronze medals, as well as a considerable sum of money, were given away. These concours cannot but effect much good, by at- tracting attention to this very important subject, and en- couraging good workmen. In Belgium there are also concours, and, if I remember aright, farriers who attend them receive instruction from properly-qualified veterinary surgeons, who are author- ized to grant certificates of proficiency. In both countries, as well as in Germanv, the students at the veterinary schools are taught the principles and INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 107 practice of shoeing, and this instruction is of great value to them in after-life. It is scarcely necessary to say that in this country nothing of the kind is attempted. The Government does nothing to improve or encour- age veterinary science in any way ; hence the low state of this important branch of medicine and rural economy in Britain, and hence the enormous losses she has sus- tained for so many years. Hence, also, the degraded and barbarous condition of farriery, even in our cities and towns. With the exception of, on very rare occasions, the distribution of a prize or two at some local agricul- tural show to farriers, who imagine that paring and rasp- ing, and a fantastically wrought piece of iron, constitute the acme of shoeing, the subject is thought unworthy of notice. Even at the veterinary schools during my ma- triculation, it was dismissed in a brief lecture of an hour, and then pathological shoeing was chiefly referred to. Nothing of the principles or practice was ever taught. When the Veterinary Colleges are so indifferent to a matter so closely related to the comfort and efficiency of the horse, we cannot wonder that veterinary surgeons, as a rule, and farriers, take but little interest in shoeing. The remedy for this, of course, should be, in the first place, applied to the teaching schools. The anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot, its management in health and disease, and the principles and practice of shoeing, ought to be thoroughly inculcated. It would be most advantageous if, when this course Ywis adopted, farriers could be prevailed upon to attend, and, after due examination as to their competency to prac- tise their art in a rational manner, they were to receive certificates of proficiency as in Belgium — these certificates carrying with them similar advantages to those that the diploma of surgery confers upon the surgeon. 108 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. In default of this, veterinary surgeons properly quali- fied for the duty, and possessing the necessary conve- nience and opportunity, might be induced to receive and instruct apprentices in farriery, granting them authorized certificates when judged to be fit to practise the art. Agricultural meetings should also be made the means of instructing farriers in shoeing, and of stimulating com- petition in the districts in which they are held. Of course it is a sine qud non that the instructors and judges should themselves understand the subject thoroughly. These are the only means by which, I believe, the art of farriery can be improved in this country, where nearly all improvement is left to private enterprise. A profound knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot is not absolutely necessary to the farrier. What I have sketched out on these subjects in this essay, I have generally found sufficient to enable my farriers to com- prehend the character of the organ they were called upon to protect and preserve, and this much was easily taught them in a short time. I have always had more difficulty in making them unlearn their unreasonable practices than acquiring those which were novel, though easier ; and my chief antagonists in all improvements have been the igno- rant grooms and coachmen — the lovers of well pared and rasped hoofs, oiled or blacked like a boot ; hot stables ; physic ; bearing-reins ; blinkers ; cruppers ; powerful bits ; and every thing, in fact, unnatural and injurious to the horse. THE END. Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University 200 Westboro Road North Grafton, MA 01536