C:^^^ 
 
 j-^ i 
 
TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 
 
 3 9090 014 532 770 
 
London Lon^ an* C and other Pi-tjprietors . 
 
BLAINE'S OUTLINES 
 
 OF 
 
 THE VETERINARY ART; 
 
 OR, 
 
 A TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND CURATIVE TREATMENT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 AND, SDBOEDINATELY, OF THOSE OF 
 
 NEAT CATTLE AND SHEEP. 
 
 TLLUSTBATED BY SUEGICAL AND ANATOMICAL PLATES, 
 
 SIXTH EDITION, 
 
 REVISED THROUGHOUT, AND CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED, 
 
 BY THE INTRODUCTION OF MANY IMPORTANT SUBJECTS BOTH IN THE FOREIGN AND 
 
 BRITISH PRACTICE OF THE ART, 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.CV.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE'S M3UTH," &c. Sec. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, AND CO. ; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. ; HAMILTON, ADAMS, 
 AND CO. ; WHITTAKER AND CO. ; HOULSTON AND CO. ; H. RENSHAW ; 
 J- CHURCHILL ; H. G. BOHN ; R. GRIFFIN AND CO. ; AND S. HIGHLEY. 
 EDINBURGH : MACLACHLAN AND STEWAUT. 
 
 1854. 
 
SF 
 7M5 
 
 l«5H 
 
 LONDON : 
 GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, 
 
 ST. John's square. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The Proprietors of Blaine's Veterinary Art, being desirous to 
 keep the Book even with the knowledge of the day, have 
 entrusted it to a gentleman of professional standing for re- 
 vision ; how much has been done to it the changed aspect 
 of the Work fully testifies. Sheets of antiquated opinions 
 have been removed, while several new articles have been 
 added ; the pages have been printed in a larger and a more 
 elegant type ; new copper-plates have taken the place of the 
 old ones ; and several wood-cuts have been distributed 
 through the text, to illustrate the anatomical division of 
 the treatise. The whole, they now trust, assumes so im- 
 proved a character as to render it deserving of the patronage 
 which the time, labour, and expense, devoted to the new 
 edition, entitles them to expect. 
 
 Paternoster Row, 
 May, 1854. 
 
 A 2 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The Editor of the new edition of Blaine's Veterinary Art 
 has small occasion to remind the public of his labom'S ; the 
 altered appearance of the Book will alone testify how much 
 has been done to it. 
 
 He, however, may with pride point to the copper-plates, 
 brilliantly executed by H. Adlard, Esq. ; while no one 
 acquainted with the nicety and firmness of pencil requisite 
 for anatomical delineations, but will at once recognize the 
 artistic handhng of W. Bagg, Esq., in the original drawings. 
 
 Now that his labours are finished, and the Book upon 
 the eve of publication, the Editor feels there is some reason 
 for pride ; though, at the same time, some cause for regret 
 at the omissions and defects which, on a close inspection, 
 he is conscious may be detected in it. 
 
 For any objection that may be taken to the punctuation 
 of the anatomy he is, of course, alone responsible ; semi- 
 colons being in this portion of the work introduced more 
 frequently than is calculated to please the general reader. Of 
 this he is fully aware. But having presided over an anato- 
 mical school he studied to suit the convenience of those to 
 whom this section especially appeals, so that they might re- 
 peatedly look from the book to the subject before them, and 
 still have some sHght license for such frequent interruptions. 
 
 7, London Street, Norfolk Square, 
 May, 1854. 
 
INTEODUCTION. 
 
 If the animals domesticated by man be essentially necessary 
 to his comfort and convenience, no apology need be offered 
 for attempting to reduce into a system the art of preserving 
 them in health and removing their diseases ; which practice 
 must be founded on an intimate acquaintance with the 
 structure, functions, and economy of such creatures : these 
 acquirements, therefore, form the groundwork of what is 
 called the Vetermary Art. 
 
 The deplorable state of this art in Great Britain has, 
 until lately, been animadverted upon by every one who has 
 written on the subject ; the principal cause of which appears 
 to have been the total abandonment of every rule by per- 
 sons of proverbial ignorance. The value of animals, par- 
 ticularly of the horse, is a theme that has exercised the 
 attention of thousands; nevertheless the preservation of 
 their health has long been consigned to the groom, as the 
 treatment of their diseases has devolved on the maker of 
 their shoes. The study was regarded as beneath the station 
 of educated men, and the practice as derogatory to the cha- 
 racter of a gentleman. 
 
 But, at length, mankind becoming wdser are disposed to 
 receive this study among the liberal arts, and to regard the 
 profession of it as no longer incompatible with the pre- 
 tensions of the scholar. The establishment of a Veterinary 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 College has tended much to this change ; and the benefits 
 derived from the excellent practitioners who have emanated 
 from that institution, have further added to the dignity and 
 importance of the new art. There are, however, persons 
 desirous to obtain information on the subject who cannot 
 apply to this source ; and there also are others, who, having 
 enjoyed those advantages, still wish for a condensed treatise, 
 to revive in their memories the fleeting remembrances of 
 former instruction. Among the first are such farriers as are 
 sensible of their own defects, and anxious to repair them, 
 but who cannot leave their homes : for these persons former 
 publications have hardly been directing-posts. 
 
 Too many of the class colled farriers, however, even yet 
 are not willing to trouble themselves with learning, nor 
 to acknowledge that they need it ; hence they obstinately 
 maintain, that nothing is necessary but what is already 
 known ; that theirs is purely a mechanical art, learned by 
 imitation, and that it descends in perpetuity from father to 
 son. We even, to our regret, find one of their body boldly 
 combating against improvement in the following terms : — 
 " Whatever may be written by those newfangled farriers 
 of the advantages resulting from a minute knowledge of 
 anatomy, nothing in their practice has proved its utility." 
 Fortunately, however, for the horse, the well-informed now 
 think very differently ; they are fully aware that to the 
 study of anatomy and physiology we are indebted for our 
 improved methods of treating diseases. By dissections 
 many important errors have been detected. We now are 
 aware that the gangrenous state of the lungs, wdiich the 
 older farriers attributed to chronic disease, is the simple 
 effect of active congestion. The different diseases of the 
 bowels, notwithstanding their anomalous symptoms, are 
 likewise illustrated. We have been enabled to make the 
 
INTRODUCTION. Vll 
 
 important distinction between spasmodic and flatulent colic. 
 It is also from the same sources, that we have been taught 
 many bowel complaints are the effect of strangulation, 
 introsusception, and hernial displacements. From these, 
 likewise, we now recognize the disease called molten grease 
 to be no mechanical melting of the animal fat, but a dysen- 
 teric attack on the mucous surface of the intestines. 
 
 To what but anatomy and physiology do we owe our 
 present acquaintance with the diseases of the feet ? And if 
 the services we require of the animal are such as to prevent 
 our conquering all of them, we yet have greatly miti- 
 gated the sufferings of the animal. We now avoid torturing 
 the shoulder, as the seat of almost every lameness which 
 occurs. We are also enabled to relieve the horse from the 
 agony consequent upon navicular disease by neurotomy. 
 To an acquaintance with the anatomy of the eye it is that 
 we no longer attribute ophthalmia to an enlargement of the 
 haw. This knowledge has prevented us from cruelly de- 
 priving the horse of a necessary organ, as a remedy for an 
 imaginary disease. Have anatomy and physiology, there- 
 fore, taught us nothing ? 
 
 The subject-matter of the Veterinary Outlines have 
 been divided into Four Natural Parts. The first of these 
 comprises what may be termed the collateral branches of 
 the art, as the history of the horse, &c, &c. 
 
 The second division of the work is occupied by an anato- 
 mical description of the several parts of the body. 
 
 The third division of the work is allotted to the practice 
 of the veterinary art, or to the curative treatment of each 
 disease. 
 
 T\\e fourth division is dedicated to the Veterinary Materia 
 Medica, or the chemical and pharmaceutical nature of drugs. 
 
Viii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 To the whole is added a copious Index, by which means 
 subjects otherwise disjointed may be drawn together into 
 one point of view ; and by aid of which the reader will 
 be readily enabled to find any subject he wishes under the 
 term that is familiar to him. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Was first sown in Greece ; next nurtured in Rome— Languished during the 
 
 dark a^-es Revived in the sixteenth century — Aided by the translation 
 
 of the writings of Vegetius— The succeeding age still further cultivated 
 
 it The eighteenth century marked by veterinary writings of acknow- 
 
 ledo-ed merit, and by the establishment of the fii-st public school of the 
 art— The subsequent march of veterinary science may be legibly traced 
 in the works of the many eminent authors who have since written on it . I — 4 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Our first improvements were coupled with the arts of the menage borrowed 
 from France and Germany — The early writings on the subject were 
 mostly translations from the French — The English school was stimulated 
 by the works of Sollysel, towards the middle of the last century ; Great 
 Britain also began to furnish native writers and eminent practitioners- 
 History of the Veterinary College— A short sketch of the more promi- 
 nent English writers on the subject 4 — 6 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 
 
 St. Bel makes two attempts to found a Veterinary School— He is appointed 
 professor— Review of his deserts— Messrs. Coleman and Moorcroft ap- 
 pointed to succeed him — Medical Committee established — Review of 
 Coleman's character— Succeeding professors up to the present time— Her 
 Majesty grants a Charter to the Veterinary Profession . . 6—11 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 / THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Whether Job had horses, discussed — Change of breed induced by altera- 
 tions in National customs — Comparison made between horse and dog — 
 The external conformation of the horse — The teeth as indications of the 
 age — Also to be depended upon in other animals — Exterior conforma- 
 tion continued — The Colours and Markings of Horses . . . 11 — 50 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 THE CONDITION OF HORSES. 
 
 The Conventional Term of Condition, its real meaning — Morbid Condition 
 — System of getting a Horse into Condition— Injury of purgatives as 
 promoters of condition ........ 51 — 53 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 STABLING OF HORSES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Stable itself — Summerinof of Hunters — Summering at grass — Food of 
 Horses — Grooming — Exercise ....... 55 — 59 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. THE BONES. 
 
 Description of Plate I. — The Composition of Bones — Bones of the Skull — 
 Of the Face — The Posterior Jaw — Anatomy of the Teeth — ^Bones of the 
 Trunk — The Vertebrae — Pelvic Bones — The Coccygeal Bones— Bones of 
 the Thorax : Costae or Ribs, Sternum — Bones of the Anterior Extremities — 
 Scapula or Shoulder-blade Bone — Humerus or Real Arm — Radius and Ulna 
 ■ — Carpus or Knee — Metacarpus or Cannon — Small Metacarpals or Splint 
 Bones, Suff'raginis or Pdstern, Lesser Pastern and Foot Bones — Bones of 
 the Posterior Extremities — The Femur or true Thigh Bone — Patella or 
 Stifle — Tibia or Leg Bone, and the Fibula — Tarsus or Hock Bones — 
 Mechanical Structure of this latter assemblage — Metacarpal, Coronary, 
 and Coffin Bones — The Mechanism of the Skeleton considered . 59 — 90 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE, 
 
 Cartilages Articular — Non-articular, Attached and Unattached — Peri- 
 osteum, Medulla or Marrow, Connecting and Capsular Ligaments ; Syno- 
 via 90—92 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 OF MUSCLES. 
 
 Description of Plate II. — Muscles, their Structure and Functions — 
 Voluntary and Involuntary — Tendons, Aponeuroses, Fascias — Mus- 
 cles of the Head and Neck — Of the Trunk and Abdomen — Muscles 
 of the Anterior Extremity — Of the Posterior Extremity — Description of 
 Plate III. ..." 92—118 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 OF BURS^ MUCOSA. 
 
 Organs of Anti-attrition, as Mucous Capsules and Mucous Sheaths to the 
 Extensor and Flexor Tendons . . . . . . . 118, 119 
 
 SECTION XL 
 
 OF ARTERIES AND VESSELS. 
 
 Description of Plate IV. — The Vessels of the Body — Arteries, their Struc- 
 ture and Function — Uses of Absorbents — The Pulse, and its vari- 
 ous indications — Mean Pulsations per minute — Differences under varied 
 circumstances — Where most conveniently felt in the Horse — Variations 
 a guide to our judgment in Disease — Distribution of the Arteries — An- 
 terior Aorta — Furnishes the Fore Extremity — Carotids — Supply the Head 
 — The Posterior Aorta — Distribution to the Trunk and Hind Extremity 
 — Pulmonary Arteries. 
 
 Veins. Structure and Functions — The Anterior Cava — The Posterior 
 Cava— The Vena Portse 119-149 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 OF THE NERVES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Description of Plate V. — The Brain — The Cerebral Nerves — The Spinal 
 Nerves — Distribution of the Spinal Nerves — Nerves of the Fore Extre- 
 mities — Of the Hinder Extremities — Physiology of the Nervous Sys- 
 tem 149—166 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 OF GLANDULAR STRUCTURES. 
 
 The Structure, Functions, and Distribution of the Glands — Their Division 
 into Foliiculose, Glomerate and Conglomerate Masses . . 166 — 168 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS VISCERA. 
 
 Teaches the Knowledge of the Viscera of the Body and its Coverings — 
 The Common Integfuments — The Hair — The Cuticle and Cutis — Sense 
 of Touch — Adipose Membrane and Fat — Subcutaneous Muscles — Panni- 
 culus Carnosus. 
 
 Of the Head Structurally — Description of Plate VI. — The Outer Ear 
 — The Inner Ear — Sense of Hearing — The Eye, Anatomj' of — Physio- 
 logy of Vision — The Nose — Physiology of Smelling — The Cavity of the 
 Mouth — Its Muscles, Lips, Gums, Bars, Palate, Palatine Arch, and 
 Tongue — Physiology of Tasting — The Cavities of the Pharynx and 
 Larynx — Functions of Mastication and Deglutition — Glands of the Head : 
 the Parotid, Submaxillary and Sublingual, as Salivary Glands — The Nock, 
 anatomically considered — Trachea and CEsophagus — Description of Plate 
 VII. 
 
 Anatomy of the Chest : Its Pleurae, costal, pulmonic, and mediastinal 
 — The Diaphragm — The Heart : its Auricular and Ventricular Cavities, 
 and Valvular Apparatus ; Physiology of its Agency in the Circulation of 
 the Blood — The Lungs; Physiology of Respiration — Nature and 
 Properties of the Blood ; Aeration of it in the Blood ; becomes the 
 source of Animal Heat — Description of Plate Vill. 
 
 Anatomy of the Abdomen: Abdominal Regions — The Stomach; Phy- 
 siology of Digestion — The Intestines — The Economy of the Intestines — 
 in continuing the Digestive Process — The Liver — The Pancreas and 
 Spleen, the Renal Capsules and Kidneys — Anatomy of the Pelvis — The 
 Bladder — Physiology of the Urinary Secretion — The Male Organs of 
 Generation — The Female Organs — Description of Plate IX. . 168 — 250 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 reproductive system. 
 
 Physiology of the Work of Generation — Qilstrum or Heat — Generative 
 Act — Conception and Pregnancy, Gestatory Period of the Mare, Par- 
 turition or Foaling — Lactation or Suckling — The Foetal Colt and his 
 Organization ; the Foetal Circulation ; Descent of his Testicles and Evo- 
 lution of his Form to the Adult Period — Anatomy and Physiology of the 
 Foot — Structure and Economy — External Parts — Internal Parts— De- 
 scription of Plate X 250—266 
 
XU CONTENTS. 
 
 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE, &c. &c. 
 
 FAKE 
 
 Of Disease generally 2G9— 271 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF PURE FEVER. 
 
 Simple Fever in Horses — Diffused or General Inflammation in Horses — 
 Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in the Horse — Symptomatic Fever — Pur- 
 pura Haemorrhag-ica — Fevers of Horned Cattle — Dropping: after Calving 
 — Garget or Inflammation of the Udder in Cows — Hoose, Cough or Cold 
 in Cattle — Influenza or Epidemic Catarrh in Cattle — The Vesicular Dis- 
 ease in Cattle, or the Epidemic of 1841-4-2 .... 271 — 299 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MADNESS, OR PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN IN HORSES. 
 
 Madness, Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain — Mad, Sleepy, and Sto- 
 mach Staggers — Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Luns-s — Pleurisy — 
 Pleuro-Pneumonia — Inflamed Lungs in Neat Cattle — In Sheep — Inflam- 
 mation of the Heart — Inflammation of the Muscular Coat of the Intes- 
 tines — Inflammation of their Mucous Surface, or Dysenter}- — Peritonitis, 
 or Inflammation of the Outer Coat of the Intestines — Inflamed Bowels 
 in Neat Cattle — Inflammation of the Ijver — In Neat Cattle — Inflamma- 
 tion of the Kidneys — Hoematuria in Cattle — Inflammation of the Bladder 
 — Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder — Inflammation of the Womb 299—341 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 
 
 Simple Catarrh, or Common Cold — Sore Throat — Bronchitis — Roaring — 
 Chronic Cough — Thick Wind — Broken Wind — Glanders — Farcy — Dy- 
 sentery— In Cattle 341—374 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
 
 General Considerations of the Nervous System — Phrenitis — Apoplexy — 
 Megrims — Paralysis, or Palsy — Spasm — Tetanus, or Locked Jaw — 
 Stringhalt 374—385 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic — Colic in Horned Cattle — Chronic Indigestion — Acute 
 Indigestion, or Stomach Staggers — Hove, or Blown in Cattle — Lampas 
 — Worms — Parasitic Animals in Cattle — Costiveness — Diarrhoea — Ditto 
 in Cattle — Scouring in Calves — Crihbiting — Morbid Displacements of the 
 Intestines — Hernia — Reduction of Strangulated Hernia— Hernia Con- 
 genital — Involutions, Strictures, and Invaginations of the Intestines 385 — 407 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE GLANDS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jaundice — Yellows— In Cattle and Sheep — True Red Water in Cattle — 
 Haematuria, or Bloody Urine — Profuse Staling . . . 407 — 412 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN CIRCUMSCRIBED CAVITIES. 
 
 Hydrocephalus Internus, or Dropsy of the Head — Hydrothorax, or Dropsy 
 of the Chest — Operation of Paracentesis Thoracis — Hydrops Pericardii, 
 or Dropsy of the Pericardium — Ascites, or Dropsy of the Belly 412 — 417 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE. 
 
 Anasarca — Water Farcy — CEdema of the Extremities, or Swelled Legs — 
 Ecchymosis, or Extravasation of Blood — Emphysema, or Extravasation of 
 Gas 417—422 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CALCULUS, OR STONY CONCRETIONS. 
 
 Calculus Concretions — Intestinal Calculi, or Stones in the Intestines — Uri- 
 nary, or Stone in the Kidneys — Vesicular, or Stone in the Bladder 422 — 425 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL POISONS. 
 
 Rabies or Madness — The Bites of Venomous Reptiles — Vegetable Poisons 
 — Mineral Poisons. 
 
 Principles and Doctrine of Local Inflammation — Characters of Local 
 Inflammation — Adhesive Process — Suppurative Process — Gangrene 425 — 436 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 WOUNDS. 
 
 Surgical Treatment of Wounds generally — Particular Wounds — Of the 
 Head — Of the Neck — Of the Chest — Rupture of the Diaphragm — 
 Wounds of the Abdomen— Wounds of Articular and Bursal Cavities, 
 or Wounds of the Joints generally — Wound into the Knee Joint particu- 
 larly — Knees Broken without penetrating the Joint— Wounds of the 
 Arteries — Of the Veins — Inflammation of the Veins . . 436 — 454 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 
 OF ABSCESS. 
 
 Acute Abscess — Strangles — Warbles 45.5 — 459 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCFKATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ulcerative Process — Individual Ulcerations : Poll Evil — Fistulous Withers 
 — Salivary Fistiilae — Of the Parotid Gland .... 4j9— 400 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SPRAINS, OR STRAINS. 
 
 Membranous and Ligamentary Injuries called Strains or Sprains, considered 
 generally — Shoulder Strain — Strain of the Flexor Tendons, or their liga- 
 mentous Connexions — Overreach — Rupture of the Suspensory Ligaments 
 • — Rupture of the Back Sinew — Strain of the Fetlock Joint — Sprain of 
 the Ligaments of the Femur — Of the Patellae or Stifle — Bruises — Rheu- 
 matism Acute and Chronic — In Cattle — Sitfast — Indurated Elbow- 
 Point 466—478 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF ENCYSTED SWELLINGS. 
 
 Varix, or Blood Spavin — Windgalls — Distended Bursa), called Bog 
 Spavin— Thorough-Pin— Capped Hock 478—481 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 Considerations of these Injuries generally — Particular Fractures: of the 
 Skull— Of the Face— Of the Jaw-Bone— Of the Ribs— Of the Pelvis— 
 Of the Vertebrae — Fractured Bones of the Extremities — Of the Scapula 
 —Of the Humerus— Of the Radius— Of the Femur- Of the Til)ia— Of 
 the Olecranon — Of the Cannon before and behind — Of the Pastern 
 Bones — Of the Navicular Bone — Of the Patella — Dislocations — Patella 
 or Stifle Bone 481—488 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BONES. 
 
 Caries of Bones, commences b}' Inflammation — Exostosis — Particular Exos- 
 toses : Splint — Spavin — Curb — Ringbone — Exostosis of the Coffin Bone 
 —Anchylosis 488—497 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 
 
 Simple or Common Ophthalmia, or Inflammation of the Eye — Specific or 
 Periodical Ophthalmia — Cataract — Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena — Ex- 
 crescences, &c. on the Eyes ....... 497 — 507 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 . DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Grease — Small-pox among Sheep — Swelled Legs — Mallenders and Sallen- 
 ders — Warts — Mange— Hidebound 507 — 522 
 
CONTENTS, XV 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE FEET 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Founder or Inflammation of the Feet — Acute Founder — Chronic Founder 
 — Shoeing of Horses — The Pumiced Foot — Navicularthritis — Corns — 
 Thrush — Sandcrack — Foot pricked l)y a nail — Tread or Overreach — 
 Quittor — Canker — False Quarter 522 — 560 
 
 OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 The necessary Restraints employed on such occasions — The Trevis — 
 Casting — Slinging — Veterinary Obstetrics, or the necessary assistance 
 rendered in difficult Foaling — Embryotomy — Castration — By Cauteriza- 
 tion — The French method — By Ligature, &c. — Lithotomy — Tracheo- 
 tomy — Esophagotomy — Neurotomy — Periosteotomy — Division of the 
 Flexor Tendons — Amputations : Of the Penis — Docking — Firing — Blis- 
 tering — Rowelling — Setons — Blood-letting — By the Arteries — By the 
 Veins, or Phlebotomy — The Physicking of Horses — The Use and Abuse 
 of Purgatives — Diuretics 561 — 607 
 
 THE VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA . . . 009— 660 
 
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. 
 
 Plate I. 
 II. 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 VII. 
 VIII. 
 IX. 
 X. 
 
 to face page 60 
 Frontispiece 
 117 
 119 
 149 
 175 
 209 
 224 
 250 
 2G5 
 
 ■x^.- 
 
OUTLINES 
 
 OP 
 
 THE VETERINARY ART. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 
 
 Man, who is ever ready to change surrounding objects 
 to his advantage, would not, probably, be long without 
 subjecting to his use such animals as his reason led him to 
 suppose would prove most useful, or his experience had 
 noted were the most tractable. This is said, supposing 
 the horse ever existed in a state of perfect freedom — of 
 which fact there is no decided testimony. The herds of so- 
 called wild horses existing in Asia and America are tame 
 animals that have either broken loose, or are private pro- 
 perty turned out to breed and graze where pasturage is 
 plentiful and stabling expensive. It would appear probable 
 that the ass was first perfectly broken to the use of man ; 
 nor was it until, as we learn from Genesis, chap, xlvii., 
 that, with the herds of asses, horses also were sent to 
 Pharaoh, which Sir Isaac Newton computes to have been 
 1034 years before Christ, about which time the renowned 
 Erictheusa appears to have been employed in taming and 
 breaking the horse to the use of man. But animals, when 
 forced to obey the desires of an exacting master, could not 
 long continue in perfect health ; hence their owners were 
 soon led to search for such remedies as their small stock 
 of information pointed out : thus veterinary medicine must, 
 in some degree, have been coeval with the possession of the 
 animals in question. The early practice of it was, how- 
 ever, without doubt, mingled with the general manage- 
 
 B 
 
Z HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 
 
 ment, and what little was then known probably existed 
 among; those professing the art of human physic. When the 
 early Egyptians had trained the horse to the purposes of 
 war, his health may be supposed to have become an object 
 of solicitude. From the Egyptians the Grecians received 
 the knowledge of the management of the horse ; and with 
 them we know it flourished. Chiron, surnamed the Cen- 
 taur, pursued both human and brute medicine. Homer, 
 who flourished 900 years before Christ, celebrates the 
 training of the horse in the Greek courses ; and Xeno-- 
 phon, the renowned warrior, poet, and philosopher, wrote 
 a treatise on equitation, which contains ample evidence 
 how much the study of this valuable animal vvas in repute 
 among the most distinguished characters of his day. Hip- 
 pocrates, also, the most celebrated physician of early times, 
 wrote a treatise on the curative treatment of horses ; nor 
 did he disdain, in common with the eminent human prac- 
 titioners of those times, to practise indiscriminately on the 
 horse and his rider. 
 
 When Rome had snatched from Greece her honours and 
 her arts, the horse also was taken with the rest ; and a 
 host of Latin authors on subjects connected with the 
 animal sprung up, the names of whom would swell our 
 pages. As a rustic writer, Columella deserves our mention ; 
 the rest we pass over till the age of Vegetius, who flou- 
 rished about 300 years after the birth of Christ, and whose 
 writings concentrated within themselves all that had been 
 collected by former veterinary authors of the empire. 
 A long night of darkness succeeded the irruptions of 
 the barbarous nations. During this time, however, iron 
 shoes, before but partially tried, became more generally 
 used ; and by an association only to be excused by the 
 state of the times, the treatment of the diseases of the 
 horse became the province of the shoeing-smith ; while the 
 medical assistance required for other beasts was gained 
 from goatherds, shepherds, &c. 
 
 The ancient and honourable name of Veterinarius (whence 
 veterinarian) sanctioned by the classics of the Augustan 
 age, became lost in the more humble appellative of farrier, 
 derived solely from the metal on which he worked ; and 
 for a long period (happily now on the decline) the igno- 
 
HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 3 
 
 ranee of the shoer and the meanness of his title remained 
 indissoluble. 
 
 The sixteenth century, famed for the revival of learning 
 and the encouragement of art, fostered also the subject of 
 our present discourse : among its patrons may be noted 
 Francis the First, who ordered the Constantine collection 
 to be translated from the original Greek into Latin ; from 
 which it was soon afterwards rendered into Italian, German, 
 and French, and thence became dispersed over Europe, 
 About the same time, the works of Vegetius were translated 
 into the popular European languages ; and from this 
 period we may date the gradual improvement of the art. 
 
 During the seventeenth century, the veterinary art con- 
 tinued to advance, and numerous publications on the 
 subject w^ere contributed by various hands ; among which 
 we may notice Ceesar Fiarchi's Italian treatise on horse- 
 manship, in which is introduced the most rational mode 
 of shoeing then practised. Neither should we omit to 
 mention the Infermita, &; suoi remedii, del Signoi' Carlo 
 Ruini, published in Venice, 1618 ; from which Snape, 
 Gibson, as well as most of the early French authors, have 
 copied their anatomical plates. In 1654, the Grand 
 Mareschal Frangois, a meritorious work, said to be com- 
 posed by many hands, appeared. In the latter end of this 
 century, the art received a very great addition from the 
 elaborate work of Sollysel, whose attention was drawn to 
 the subject from his situation of riding master ; and as the 
 practices of this school were at this time in great repute, 
 it followed that the treatment of the diseases of horses 
 became very much confined to the professors of this art. 
 It will not, therefore, excite our wonder that almost all the 
 treatises on veterinary medicine of this time are found 
 united with systematic equitation ; and although, as regards 
 Sollysel, the cause was not injured, yet generally it may 
 be considered, that to this union of arts, practised by 
 persons not medically educated, may be attributed the 
 small progress made by veterinary medicine. 
 
 The eighteenth century produced numerous writers on 
 the subject, and was destined to w^itness important im- 
 provements in the art. In 1761, France set the notable 
 example of establishing, under royal patronage, a public 
 
 B 2 
 
4 A CONCISE HISTORY 
 
 veterinary seminary at Lyons, having the celebrated Bour- 
 gelat for its professor : his medical and anatomical works 
 were numerous, and are well known. In 1766, a second 
 public school was opened at Alfort, near Charenton, in the 
 neighbourhood of Paris, and others subsequently at Stras- 
 burgh and Montpellier : establishments of the same kind 
 have likewise since been organized in almost every European 
 country, as Vienna, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dresden, Leipsic, 
 Prague, Munich, London, Hanover, Naples, &c. &c. In 
 Russia, also, a veterinary school was founded, over which 
 Mr. Blaine was invited to preside. 
 
 As a contemporary with Bourgelat lived the elder La 
 Fosse, a name that will ever be respected in the annals of 
 veterinary medicine. La Fosse made numerous improve- 
 ments and discoveries, which he usually comniunicated in 
 the form of memoirs to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 
 Paris. In 1754, he had collected these into one volume, 
 which w^as quickly translated into other languages, and 
 diffused over Europe. 
 
 The French revolution for some time disturbed the 
 course of veterinary improvement ; but the calm which 
 succeeded employed the talents of many eminent veteri- 
 narians ; and the names of Chabert, Flandrin, Gilbert, 
 Vicq-D'Azyr, and Huzard, stand conspicuous on this list. 
 From that time to the present, the writings on the vete- 
 rinary art have become numerous in every country, but 
 more particularly in France, and it follows that, in the 
 course of our labours, many of the most popular will be 
 quoted. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 A CONCISE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 The healing art, as applied to a curative treatment of the 
 diseases of our domesticated animals, was, in England, even 
 longer buried in gross ignorance than either in France or 
 Germany ; and when, at length, emulation had excited us, 
 our early attempts were more the effects of an imitation of 
 our French and German neighbours, than native improve- 
 ments of our own. It, however, worked a favourable 
 
OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 5 
 
 change among us ; for although the medical treatment of 
 horses particularly had not yet emerged from the hands of 
 those immediately about the animals, still, as the teachers 
 of equitation were much more enlightened than either 
 blacksmiths or grooms, the medical practitioner necessarily 
 became educated on better principles. The riding school 
 gave place, towards the close of the seventeenth century, to 
 horse-racing and hunting, which again threw the care of 
 the health of the horse back to the currier of his hide and 
 the shoer of his heels ; and this sera witnessed only feeble 
 and occasional efforts to rescue the valuable art of curing 
 his diseases from ignorance and barbarity. 
 
 Blundeville, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, appears 
 to have been one of our earliest veterinary writers. His 
 work, which was chiefly a compilation from ancient authors, 
 was fettered with his attachment to the ridins: school. 
 Subsequent to him appeared Mascal, Martin, Clifibrd, and 
 Burdon. About this time also lived the celebrated Gervase 
 Markham, whose Treatise on Farriery, though empirical 
 and absurd, went through numerous editions, and became 
 the guide of the practitioner of that time. The reign 
 of James I. produced little original writing, but several 
 translations from the Italian, German, and French. In 
 the time of Charles II. appeared The Anatomical Treatise 
 on the Horse, by Snape, farrier to his Majesty. The plates 
 are copies from Ruini and Saunier. His descriptions are 
 likewise taken from these authors ; and where he deviated 
 from them, he made the human body his guide and went 
 wrong. In the reign of George I. SoUysel's celebrated 
 work was translated by Sir William Hope from the 
 French, which tended to combat many of the errors at that 
 time prevalent. About the middle of the last century, the 
 art experienced still further improvement by the labours of 
 Gibson, wdio was originally surgeon to a regiment of 
 cavalry ; from which situation it is probable he was first 
 led to turn his attention to the diseases of the horse, and by 
 which he was, at length, enabled to present the best treatise 
 on farriery that had appeared in the English language. 
 
 As a contemporary with Gibson lived the celebrated and 
 eccentric physician Dr. Bracken, a man of considerable 
 erudition, a sportsman, and a wit of a peculiar cast ; his 
 
b THE HISTORY OF 
 
 works have been as much admired and read for the pecuhar 
 style in which they are written, as for the real information 
 they contain. 
 
 Bartlet, who was a successor to the two former, was 
 hkewise a surgeon : he formed himself on the model of 
 Gibson and Bracken, and he gave the sum of their treat- 
 ment in a much more compendious and practical form. He 
 likewise benefited the art by translating La Fosse's im- 
 provements and discoveries : but Bartlet is to be noticed 
 principally as a copyist and compilator, for he brought 
 forward little of his own, except a cruel and absurd altera- 
 tion in the mode of nicking. 
 
 To him succeeded Osmer, who was also initiated a 
 human surgeon, but afterwards practised as a veterinarian in 
 Oxford Street. His Treatise on the Lamenesses of Horses, 
 with an improved mode of shoeing, is most deservedly 
 esteemed, and his practice was adopted with some slight 
 alterations, by the late Mr. Morecroft. He first commented 
 upon La Fosse's method, and pointed out the excellence of 
 his mode of treating the feet ; at the same time showing 
 that the short shoe was inadequate to the support and 
 protection of the foot in the present improved and hard 
 state of our roads. The practical part of this treatise on 
 lamenesses is likewise excellent, and will hand his name 
 down as one of the early contributors to the success of the 
 art. The next luminary in the veterinary horizon was Clarke, 
 of Edinburgh, the king's farrier for Scotland, whose excel- 
 lent Treatise on Shoeing and the Diseases of the Feet was after- 
 wards followed by a work on the Prevention of the Diseases 
 of the Horse generally ; these succeeded the publication of 
 the engravings of the Muscles of the Horse, by Mr. Stubbs, 
 the professional horse painter, who, to high excellence in 
 his art, added a very considerable knowledge of the general 
 anatomy of the animal. 
 
 SECTION HL 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 
 
 The period of the establishment of a National School 
 will ever remain a memorable epoch to the veterinary 
 
THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 7 
 
 amateur, as being that from which the principal improve- 
 ments in his art are to be dated. Charles Vial de St. Bel 
 first published proposals for founding a veterinary school in 
 the year 1788 ; but the plan meeting with no support, he 
 returned to France. This gentleman was professionally 
 educated at the Royal Veterinary College of Lyons, and, as 
 w^e are told, afterwards became junior assistant at Alfort. In 
 1790, he made a second visit to England, which proved 
 more successful ; for, on again renewing his proposals, they 
 were noticed by the Agricultural Society of Odiham, in 
 Hampshire, the members of which, convinced of the utility 
 of such a measure, proposed to form an institution, called 
 The Vetermary College of London, and to appoint St. Bel 
 to the professorship ; Mr. Blaine being engaged as his assist- 
 ant. It was in February 1791, that the first organized 
 meeting of the supporters of the society took place at the 
 Blenheim Coffee House, Bond Street, at which time many 
 new subscribers enrolled themselves. His Grace the Duke 
 of Northumberland condescended to become the president ; 
 and such Vvas the general opinion of the importance of the 
 subject to the country at large, that vice-presidents and 
 directors offered themselves from among the most dis- 
 tinguished characters for rank and talent. A house was 
 next taken for the purposes in view at St. Pancras. Pupils 
 were received to board with the professor ; and Mr. Blaine 
 was also located there as translator and anatomical demon- 
 strator. To him it was, however, a matter of surprise 
 that the concern succeeded to the extent it did ; so totally 
 inadequate to such an undertaking was St. Bel. That he 
 was enterprising and ingenious no one will deny ; he was 
 also indefatigable in promoting the interest of the establish- 
 ment, which indeed involved all his future prospects ; but 
 that by his knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and 
 pathology of the horse he was fitted to become the veterinary 
 professor, no one of those who most strongly supported 
 him can iDelieve. His writings and his practice bear out 
 this opinion ; his election to the chair could have alone 
 arisen from a wish that such a school might be established ; 
 and it could only have occurred because no other person 
 then in the kingdom was better able to undertake its 
 management. 
 
8 THE HISTORY OF 
 
 In March 1792, it was resolved, that a temporary stabling 
 for fifty horses, and a forge for shoeing, should be built near 
 the house taken for the college ; but the completion of 
 which the Professor was hardly permitted to witness, for he 
 was attacked with an illness in August, 1793, which proved 
 fatal in about a fortnight. 
 
 On the death of St. Bel, the public attention w^as of 
 course engaged in considering on whom the vacant pro- 
 fessorship would devolve ^ some ej^es were directed towards 
 Mr. Blaine ; many more to Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, who, 
 however, refused it. Mr. Morecroft, then in practice as a 
 veterinary surgeon, was unquestionably the most eligible 
 person. Mr. M. was originally a student of human medi- 
 cine ; but he had lately studied veterinary practice in the 
 French schools, and was considered to possess extensive 
 information on the subject. Mr. Coleman, a medical pupil 
 of the Borough hospitals, who had much distinguished 
 himself by some physiological inquiries, and by some experi- 
 ments on the diseases of the eyes of the horse, was brought 
 forward likewise ; although his attention had never, I 
 believe, reached beyond that point. The fitness of Mr. 
 Morecroft was, however, so nicely balanced by the interest 
 of Mr. Coleman, that it was determined to unite them in 
 the professorship ; since, with the practical knowledge of the 
 one, and the investigations of the other, every thing was to 
 be hoped from the association. Unfortunately for the 
 institution, Mr. Morecroft, finding that he had quitted a 
 profitable concern for one which held out little prospect of 
 gain, soon seceded ; and Mr. Coleman, who now applied 
 himself to fill up by his own talents the loss of his colleague, 
 was appointed sole professor. The general establishment, 
 also, at this time received some important alterations ; in 
 proof, a theatre for the delivery of lectures, with a dissect- 
 ing-room and museum, were erected. A medical committee 
 of assistance was also appointed, consisting of the most 
 distinguished medical practitioners in London, by whom the 
 pupils were to be examined, and, if found to have acquired 
 a sufficient knowledge of the art, certificates were to be 
 granted them. Pupils were now admitted to the practice 
 of the institution, which, from the erection of a very exten- 
 sive infirmary, and the encouragement it had received from 
 
THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 9 
 
 the subscribers, had become a considerable field of medical 
 observation. 
 
 A regular course of lectures was delivered throughout 
 the season ; and dissections were also carried on, in which 
 the pupils had the benefit of the instruction of the pro- 
 fessor or his assistant. These advantages were received for 
 twenty guineas, paid by each pupil on his entrance. It also 
 shoiild not be omitted in this place to note, that, by the 
 liberality of the distinguished characters who composed the 
 medical committee, the pupils were admitted to their lec- 
 tures gratis, and this spirited example was afterwards 
 followed by several other professors of human medicine. 
 It would be inexcusable, also, if this description proceeded 
 without a tribute to that active promoter of every branch 
 of the healing art, Mr. J. Hunter. Veterinarians will ever 
 remember with gratitude how much they were indebted to 
 him for his zealous promotion of this establishment. The 
 country at large, in fact, fostered it as a rising plant ; in 
 proof of which, the British parliament annually voted a sum 
 for its support : and, as an inducement to young men of 
 education and respectability to become students, George 
 III. granted the rank of commissioned officers to such 
 veterinary surgeons as might be appointed to regiments. 
 Under such encouragement the increasing business of the 
 colleii;e soon required additional teachers. Mr. Sewell was 
 appointed assistant professor ; and, subsequently, Mr. 
 Morton has been added to the list of active and useful 
 instructors. 
 
 Since the above was written Mr. Coleman has been 
 gathered to his fathers, and in this place we may now fairly 
 consider his title to the reputation he has enjoyed. His 
 eloquence in the lecture-room captivated the young gentle- 
 men w^ho were his listeners ; and the views which he 
 expounded, they, for the most part, zealously adopted : 
 nor was the experience of a life aiterward suflicient to dis- 
 enthral them from their infatuation. Coleman's fame also 
 reached far beyond the theatre or the school at the head of 
 which he presided. He made an ample fortune in conse- 
 quence of the public estimation in which he was held. No 
 man enjoyed so many offices, or w-as so servilely consulted 
 on every occasion. Though surrounded by men of un- 
 
10 THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 
 
 doubted, and even far greater ability, not one of them, 
 while he lived, rose to be his rival ; though, now that he is 
 dead, the meanest amongst them ranks as his superior. 
 The fact was, Coleman enjoyed great fluency, with much 
 cunning, and consummate worldly ability ; to these he 
 owed the position which he held, and the emoluments he 
 acquired. When viewed calmly as a professor and a veteri- 
 narian, he becomes small indeed. While yet Coleman lived, 
 the establishment over the welfare of which he presided, 
 fell from being held high in the public estimation into utter 
 insignificance and positive stagnation ; it lost a place which 
 it may be very long before it regains. He invented nothing 
 that did not prove an egregious failure ; he wrote nothing 
 that is now esteemed an authority ; he did nothing for the 
 art ; he accomplished every thing for himself, and the 
 nature of his ability is shown in nothing more than the firm 
 manner in which he managed to make not only the public, 
 but the profession believe in his imposture. 
 
 After Coleman's death, Mr. Sewell took the place of 
 head professor ; which post he, until a recent period, re- 
 tained, though he had long retired from the exercise of all 
 its active duties. 
 
 Mr. Spooner has now been appointed head professor of ana- 
 tomy, physiology, pathology, shoeing, surgery, and practice ; 
 Mr. Simonds has been added to the staff, and has been 
 instituted lecturer upon the anatomy, physiology, and 
 pathology of the ox, sheep, and dog, together with the 
 operations which the accidents and diseases of these animals 
 may require ; Mr. Morton retains his old post, for which 
 he is eminently qualified, as lecturer on general chemistry 
 and veterinary materia medica. 
 
 Any one looking at the Veterinary College, will perceive 
 it has not greatly improved since Coleman's death. One 
 professor (Mr. Simonds) has been added to the establish- 
 ment, but another (Mr. Sewell) has been snatched from all 
 participation in its active duties. Thus the medical stafi" 
 remains virtually the same, though nominally enlarged, 
 while the school has experienced the loss of Coleman's 
 dulcet notes, whicli had the power to gild the wrong. 
 
 To amend such a state of things, and introduce renewed 
 vitahty into the dormant profession, her present Majesty was 
 
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 1 1 
 
 pleased to grant a charter to the veterinary body at large, 
 who were in it recognized as forming a Royal College of 
 Veterinary Surgeons, in contradistinction to the Royal Vete- 
 rinary College or School which already existed in Camden 
 Town. The veterinary profession were, by this charter, 
 empowered to examine, and grant diplomas to, the future 
 members of their own body ; but this newly created autho- 
 rity deprived the established schools of privileges which 
 they had hitherto enjoyed ; and, therefore, on the enact- 
 ment being made known, the schools became the most 
 violent opponents to the chartered body. Mutual conces- 
 sions have, however, seemingly put an end to the inimical 
 feelings of the professors, and we now may hope for some of 
 those advantages from the charter which were originally 
 contemplated by the Messrs. Mayor, to whose exertions the 
 profession chiefly owe the obtainment of the grant. 
 
 We cannot conclude this sketch of the state of the vete- 
 rinary art among us, without adverting to the advantages 
 likely to accrue to it from the establishment of a Veterinary 
 School in Edinburgh, having at its head an able and zealous 
 teacher in the person of Mr. Dick. We heartily wish him 
 all the success which his apparently judicious method of 
 pursuing his course of instruction merits. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The early history of the animal is so mingled with that 
 of man that we in vain endeavour to separate the two. 
 Whether the horse ever existed in a perfectly wild state 
 there is no fact to prove, though incontestable authority 
 establishes that the animal once was in far less jDcrfect sub- 
 jugation to its master than at present. 
 
 It has been assumed that the horse was reduced to a state 
 of domestication at a period comparatively late in the history 
 of the world. The proof of this is rashly conjectured to be 
 contained within the Holy Scriptures. No horse is men- 
 tioned as associated with the patriarchs, and therefore it is 
 held that none then lived under the dominion of man. 
 This is by no means a sequitor. The patriarchs were 
 
12 THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 wholly pastoral. With their mode of life the horse might 
 not have been compatible. It can prove no more than that 
 the horse is not, in the earHest records, to be found together 
 with flocks and herds any more than the same animal is at 
 the present day. But it is argued that Job, who is described 
 as an earthly prince, " the richest man of all the East," did 
 not possess a single horse. This also is by no means proved. 
 Such ample property, in flocks and herds, would to one man 
 be rather a pest, without equal means to defend them. Had 
 Job one half the animals he is described as owning, he must 
 also have had a large tract of land on which to pasture them. 
 Flocks and land necessitated soldiers to defend them, yet 
 not a single soldier is mentioned among Job's retainers, 
 nor a single arm spoken of as among his property. 
 
 How is this omission to be accounted for ? Were those 
 days blessed with ignorance of armies ? This cannot be 
 believed, for the captains are spoken of, and in the same 
 passage the horse is mentioned. But the animal is alluded 
 to only in connexion with men trained to warfare. He was 
 evidently not then associated with the uses of peace. Those 
 who attentively peruse the description of the horse given in 
 the book of Job will at once perceive that it is a fierce, 
 half-broken creature, of which the poet speaks. The pas- 
 sage has been much admired, but no one could now long be 
 possessed of such an animal without deeply repenting when 
 he had acquired it. It was a semi-wild brute, employed 
 only in the deadliest strife ; and as Job is then described, 
 a man surrounded by the good things of this life, and 
 basking in the sunshine of peace, of course neither captain 
 nor horse are introduced as constituting part of his pos- 
 sessions. 
 
 The Romans are described to have exported horses from 
 England after Julius Caesar first invaded the country. 
 This, to people who assume the docility of the beast must be 
 represented by the refinement of the man, may appear pre- 
 posterous. But the two states are by no means co-existent. 
 A nation may be far advanced in civilization, as the Chinese, 
 and yet the animals in their possession be comparatively 
 mean or worthless. That the horses in Julius Caesar's 
 army were not possessed either of uncommon power or 
 dociUty, is proved by that general often gaining a battle 
 
OF THE HORSE. 13 
 
 through dismounting his cavalry, and causing them to act 
 as infantry. That the British horse was better trained, and 
 even more highly domesticated, is shown by the description 
 Julius Ccesar gives of his services in battle, and it doubt- 
 less was to secure these that the breed was exported to 
 Rome. 
 
 With regard to what the English horse then was we 
 decline to conjecture, only ample evidence exists to demon- 
 strate that the creature which the Romans possessed was 
 not nigh to perfection. The sculptor's art could not reader 
 it near the point of modern requirements, and the sculptors 
 of Rome were not more than those of modern times fet- 
 tered by the facts with which they were surrounded. 
 
 Numerous changes are supposed to have taken place in 
 the English breed, but these will be best understood by 
 crediting the animal with a power of mutation equal almost 
 to the desire of its master. Differences might have been 
 induced, but no great improvement in the breed of horses 
 could have possibly taken place so long as men were cased 
 in armour. The weight of the rider then necessitated a 
 certain build in the horse, and the charger of chivalry was 
 as different from the charger of a modern crack regiment as 
 two animals possibly could be. In James the First's reign 
 the actual change, or substantial improvement in the national 
 breed of horses, commenced slowly to take place. Men 
 then first began to disuse armour, and with lighter weights 
 more attention could be paid to positive points, as they 
 are now esteemed. This alteration however was very gradual. 
 The introduction of a single horse, or even of a thousand 
 horses, cannot affect the breed of an entire kingdom without 
 time being allowed. 
 
 The change has been going forward even to the present 
 time. The squire of a few years back did not ride in a 
 carriage and four because of sheer pomposity, but because 
 a less number of horses could not pull his heavy vehicle 
 along the heavier roads at the rate which he desired to be 
 propelled. Most people of fifty years old can recollect the 
 old thick-legged, hairy-heeled coach-horse, which is now 
 no where to be found ; lighter vehicles and better roads 
 having created a nobler animal. So prints of even mode- 
 rate age portray a far heavier hunter than could now be 
 
14 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 discovered present in any field. The cause is obvious. 
 Better drainage and higher cultivation has rendered the 
 country easier to cross, and, simultaneous with this im- 
 provement, a more agile description of hunter has been 
 adopted. It is not therefore any one man, or number of 
 men, who has directed or influenced the change, which 
 has been swayed chiefly by the customs of a nation. 
 
 The racecourse, as supplying the means of improvement, 
 has been of immense use in the national amelioration of the 
 breed of horses. It however begins to languish, showing 
 by this circumstance that its usefulness is nearly accom- 
 plished. Under its influence the sturdy breed of animals 
 appears to be departing. These were so useful, so gentle, 
 so sure, and so enduring, that we cannot lose them without 
 regret. 
 
 Many persons will speak of the intelligence of the horse 
 as superior to that of the dog; we see nothing in the 
 animals to warrant even the remotest comparison between 
 them ; the horse is the servant, the dog is the companion 
 of man. The position each holds is sundered, and all that 
 can be said is, that each is gifted with qualities which will 
 fit it for the situation it is destined to fill. It is well known 
 that horses reared by hand can rarely be thoroughly broken 
 in. The familiarity established in early life appears to be 
 remembered in after years, and the creature which has been 
 the pet refuses to become the patient drudge. 
 
 Gentlemen who lavish too much kindness on a horse they 
 ride or drive generally live to repent of their weakness. 
 Over the horse it is imperative to exercise what is termed a 
 "firm hand." Every necessary must be supplied; every 
 want anticipated ; but fondness must be indulged in a fashion 
 which convinces the animal that receives it there is a whip 
 near at hand. Many stories are told of the Arab in the 
 tent, but we must be excused if we treat all such as fables. 
 No horse is so vicious as the Arab. In the Indian army 
 their ferocity constitutes one of the difficulties of the march. 
 In England we have seldom looked upon an example of a 
 genuine gentle Arab. We wish it were otherwise. The 
 beauty of the animal, joined to its small figure, invites you 
 to caress it, but rarely have we been able to gratify the 
 feeling with perfect safety. And there are stories about 
 
THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 15 
 
 the manner in which horses are managed in Arabia, which 
 account Mly for the evil disposition of the breed. Ill 
 treatment to the horse is always remembered. Its memory 
 is excellent, and an injury is never forgotten. A single act 
 of barbarity may change the disposition of the creature, 
 and knowing this circumstance, we can easily comprehend 
 why the Arab horse is generally an enemy to peace. 
 
 The dog, on the other hand, is a creature educated by 
 fondness. The animal of this species, a stranger to its 
 master's eye or hand, which passes away its life chained to 
 a kennel, soon becomes an untamed brute. But the dog 
 kindly treated is thereby improved ; he looks for, and he 
 answers to affection. He cannot be harmed by any amount 
 of judicious attention. He is the very opposite of the 
 horse ; the one animal is injured by the demonstration 
 which aids the development of the other. 
 
 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The horse's body, like that of the human form, when ana- 
 tomically considered, is divided into head, neck, trunk, and 
 extremities. The parts which enter into the formations of each 
 have different scientific designations ; and though experience 
 has proved that there is a form best adapted to the gene- 
 rality of horses, yet the same unerring monitor teaches that 
 by such rules no man can pick out the best animal from a 
 given number of horses. So much depends on nervous 
 excitement, or spirit and endurance, which is not to be 
 known by any exterior conformation ; the actual trial alone 
 can decide the point, 
 
 A good form seldom covers a bad horse, yet very good 
 animals are generally notoriously ugly creatures. Hark- 
 away was a peculiar example of this truth ; a more ungainly 
 beast never crossed a lady's path, but a better horse never 
 entered the racecourse. When, however, judging of exte- 
 rior conformation, the breed, age, and condition of the 
 animal has to be fairly considered. The horse of one year 
 old, or more correctly speaking the yearling, provided he 
 has height and bone which shall hold forth no promise to 
 the trainer's eye, may nevertheless pass all before him on 
 attaining his fourth year, or may turn out a regular clipper 
 upon gaining his sixth year. 
 
16 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION 
 
 Horses are not fully furnished so as to develop to ad- 
 vantage every point until their youth has entirely passed, 
 or until the animal has reached his prime, or eighth year ; 
 then the animal that has been properly nurtured will be 
 ready to render its master a long train of willing service. 
 But most horses die before the attainment of eight years, 
 and all horses which have reached that point are condemned 
 as aged, or put on one side, as having performed their most 
 valuable services. The horse, doubtless, is more full of 
 spirit, grace, and beauty at his fourth year ; but this is no 
 excuse for cruelly torturing the animal, by putting it to the 
 extent of its powers at such an early period of its existence, 
 and thus rendering it a cripple for the remainder of its life. 
 
 To give any determinate figure for the horse would argue 
 folly. He who desires a good, useful, honest horse will do 
 well to buy the best looking of the group out of which he 
 makes his selection ; but he who wishes for an extraordinary 
 creature, and can afford to disregard spirit or temper, may 
 safely buy the ugliest brute he can clap his eyes upon. The 
 above directions, however, supposes the person thus directed 
 to be fully acquainted with that which constitutes beauty and 
 deformity in the horse. 
 
 The head is important. For the light horse some ap- 
 proach to the blood-head is desirable. The forehead high, 
 the eyes wide apart, the nostrils and the mouth large, the 
 muzzle small, and the cheek, or hinder part of the jawbone, 
 deep, and wide apart. But for long slow work, and heavy 
 draught, the very reverse of all this is even to be sought 
 for. The forehead low, the eyes close, the nostrils and 
 mouth small, the muzzle large, and the cheek shallow. Of 
 course these last are only to be judged by comparing them 
 with the more beautiful head of the blood-horse, and neither 
 are to be taken in an absolute sense. 
 
 The setting on, or putting on, of the head is next to be 
 considered ; and the difference between the good and bad 
 in this particular will best be understood by attentively 
 studying the w^ay in which the heads of the gentleman's 
 riding-horse, or, better still, of the thorough-bred racer, and 
 of the ordinary cart-horse, are joined to the neck of the 
 animal. The head of the heavy creature is fixed upon the 
 neck as though it were jobbed upon a stick ; the neck has 
 
OF THE HORSE. 17 
 
 little or no bend, certainly less play, and the head is pro- 
 truded as though the unfortunate horse were afflicted with 
 a stiff neck. On the other hand, the head of the blood- 
 horse is full of play ; it requires small force in his rider to 
 draw the chin towards the chest. The motion is elastic ; it 
 has all the ease and grace of a lady's hand ; and the neck, 
 which joins the head, has all the freedom and beauty of line 
 to be detected in the most captivating woman's wrist. 
 
 The ears are not to be overlooked. One ear forward, and 
 the other carried backward, is a good sign of endurance, 
 when the liorse is on a journey, for it shows the animal is 
 attentive to every thing passing around him. Both ears 
 laid backward, in the stable or elsew^iere, upon the approach 
 of a stranger, is generally a sign of vice. This statement, 
 however, is not to be applied universally, as the action may 
 be the result of nervousness or timidity. Where it is 
 displayed, however, the stranger had better speak to the 
 groom before he ventures to approach. Any unnatural 
 degree of activity in the ears denotes blindness. If the 
 ears are altogether stationary the animal may be suspected 
 of deafness. After all, an easy motion, neither restless nor 
 sluggish, is to be wished for, and the ears should be rather 
 small than large ; and above all things they should not fall 
 down on one side, or be in any degree lopped. 
 
 The eyes should be very particularly attended to in an 
 exterior examination of a horse : the globe should be full and 
 prominent, wdth a thin surface of eyelid. When it is small, 
 or sunken within an orbit and surrounded by much mem- 
 branous substance, or a swollen lid, such an eye is found more 
 prone to inflammation than the former one. It is prudent, 
 however, to guard against too great a convexity of the globe, 
 which now and then does actually exist, and probably renders 
 the horse shortsighted. The eyes should always be ex- 
 amined in the shade: no better situation can be chosen 
 than that the head of the horse be pointed outwards, but 
 that his eyes remain half a foot within a stable door. The 
 light now falling directly on the eye, will enable every defect 
 to be readily seen. Viewed in front, the depths of the eye 
 should be first looked into : the position of the looker should 
 be then changed, and it should be viewed sideways, still 
 from within the stable, which will much assist to ascertain 
 
 c 
 
18 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION 
 
 the critical clearness of the parts immediately on and within 
 the surface, and its freedom from central white specks. 
 
 The cornea, or transparent part of the eye, ought to be 
 perfectly clear throughout its whole extent of surface. 
 Sometimes it will appear so on a slight inspection, but, 
 when more attentively examined, opaque milky lines may 
 be seen crossing its surface. In other cases nearly the 
 whole may be clear, except the extreme limits, which will 
 be found surrounded by a well-defined opaque line : when 
 such an appearance exists, it bespeaks the remains of former 
 inflammation, and a great danger of recurrence. It might, 
 however, be proper to remark, that an accidental blow, as 
 the stroke of a whip, may leave an opaque speck or line 
 without any liability of recurring inflammation ; but then 
 the effect, in such cases, will seldom be found at the 
 circumference. Not only must this exterior glassy covering 
 of the eye be examined, but the attention should be likewise 
 directed to the deeper parts within the pupil, the appear- 
 ance of which, in a moderate light, should be perfectly 
 transparent. In a strong light it should exhibit a lively 
 bluishness ; but if, in a moderate light, it appears turbid or 
 milky, there has been inflammation, which will probably 
 again recur ; but if a speck or line of white more conspi- 
 cuous and deep-seated than the rest should appear, in such 
 case a cataract has already began to form. In other 
 instances, again, though the internal eye should not appear 
 opaque or milky, yet it may exhibit a glassy greenishness, 
 which is a proof of the existence of a most destructive 
 affection, called, by the farriers, glass eye : but, properly, 
 gntta serena. The existence of this may be proved by 
 observing whether the iris, or the curtain forming the 
 pupil, contracts and dilates ; that is, when the hand is 
 placed over a sound eye for a little time, the iris will dilate 
 so as to increase the size of the pupil to admit more rays ; 
 but, on the removal of the hand, will again contract and 
 lessen the pupil, to exclude them. This does well enough 
 for an off-hand or primary trial ; but before the aniuial is 
 purchased, or a decisive opinion delivered, the horse should 
 be placed in a darkened stable for some time, and then the 
 eyes be examined by means of a candle ; when it will be 
 easily observed whether the iris has dilated, and after a 
 
OF THE HORSE. 19 
 
 minute or two the pupil may be observed to contract ; that 
 is, supposing the eye to be free from disease. A blind 
 horse, moreover, usually carries his ears as though alarmed, 
 in quick changes of direction, and hangs back on his bridle 
 or halter, lifting his legs up very high ; in fact, he presents 
 every indication that a person blindfold would do. When 
 the iris, or moving curtain that immediately surrounds the 
 pupil or opening into the eye, is of a lighter colour than 
 brown, such horses are said to be luall-eyed ; but, however 
 it may detract from beauty, it no farther affects the eye. 
 In some horses, the transparent cornea is small in its cir- 
 cumference, in which case the animal shows much of the 
 luhite of the eye. It is of consequence to distinguish such 
 instances from others, in which, though the opaque or lohite 
 coat may be of its natural dimensions, yet from the greater 
 contraction and dilatation of the eyelid, more of it is seen. 
 In the former case, it is evident that the white of the eye 
 shows itself in a greater degree, merely from a small super- 
 fices of transparent cornea. This is the natural form of the 
 organ, and can have nothing to do with the temper : but, 
 in the latter instance, a large appearance of white may be 
 viewed as an indication of a vicious disposition ; for extra- 
 ordinary motions of either the eyes or ears, and particu- 
 larly where they act in unison, are indications of the 
 passions of the animal. If a horse be suspicious, he 
 generally looks out for opportunities to revenge former 
 injuries, or to repel new imaginary attacks ; and the re- 
 tro verted direction of the eye, in which, of course, much of 
 the ivhite is seen, is merely intended to guide the blow he 
 meditates. 
 
 The face comprehends the part betw^een and below the 
 eyes : a spot of white or star in the forehead is deemed a 
 beauty, but much white is a blemish. If white extends 
 down the face, it is termed a Maze ; and, when continued 
 into the muzzle, it is called hlaze and snip. If, with a star, 
 white begins below the place of the star, and is then carried 
 downwards, it is called a race. Thus, when a stolen horse 
 is described, these distinctions become useful ; and, in regi- 
 mental accounts of the marks of horses, they are particu- 
 larly attended to. Such an advertised horse is said to have 
 star, race, and snip white, while another has a hlaze only. 
 
 c2 
 
20 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION 
 
 All the lower part of the head, including the nostrils and 
 lips, is called the muzzle. The darker the colour of this 
 part, the more is the horse esteemed. Very dark brown 
 horses are, however, an exception to this, for, in them, the 
 muzzle is generally of a tan colour, which is also prized. 
 The general contour of the face in our best horses is either 
 that of a plane, or very slightly curved inward, but not 
 equal to that of the native barb : our worst breeds arch 
 outwards. The facial straight line is found on many, per- 
 haps on most, of our esteemed racers, and of our well-bred 
 hunters. 
 
 The lips themselves should be thin and compact, or firm ; 
 when hanging loose and pendulous, they bespeak age, slug- 
 gishness, debility, or bad health ; and it is of more conse- 
 quence than is usually supposed, that the mouth should be 
 of sufficient extent. If too small, it is unfavourable to 
 beauty ; but what is worse, it is inconvenient for the well 
 placing the bridle. A wide open nostril is not only requi- 
 site to form beauty in the lower part of the head, but it is 
 certainly conducive to free respiration or good wind. 
 
 The channel, among horsemen, is the hollow that is 
 formed between the two branches of the posterior jaw ; 
 internally it lodges the tongue, pharynx hyodeal bone, and 
 part of the larynx ; more exteriorly are placed glands, ves- 
 sels, and fat. It can hardly be too wide, as upon its 
 width depends much of the beauty of the head ; within it 
 are lodged organs of vital importance to respiration, and 
 with width of channel the head is nearly certain to be well 
 set on the neck : but, on the contrary, if it be too narrow, 
 it becomes a still greater defect, both in the riding and the 
 carriage horse ; for in this case it will prove painful for the 
 horse to bend his head inwards, or to rein in to the bridle, 
 either in riding or driving. 
 
 The neck should form from the head to the withers an 
 elegant curve, while its under surface ought to be but 
 gracefully incurvated near to the channel, and should join 
 the chest, by an easy flow of line, rather above the point of 
 the shoulders. In point of length, it is of consequence that 
 the neck be duly proportioned : a long neck is generally a 
 sign of weakness throughout the frame. When, on the 
 contrary, the neck is too short, the head is frequently ill- 
 
OF THE HORSE. 21 
 
 placed. No neck can be too loaded with flesh, as flesh is 
 muscle of which no horse can have too much, provided 
 other parts have it in a like degree. It is evident that 
 short necks cannot be reined up without danger of suflbca- 
 tion ; and it is seldom that a short-necked horse is speedy, 
 though we have seen some excellent trotting-horses with 
 obvious short necks. In stalhons thickness of neck is to be 
 expected as ^distinctive sexual mark. Short-necks, when very 
 obvious, have one disadvantage. The horse of this confor- 
 mation cannot lower his head sufficiently to get a full meal 
 when turned out to grass. Now and then the neck is 
 arched downwards, which is called ewe-necked. When the 
 deformity is considerable, it prevents the head from being 
 carried in its true angle ; instead of which, the nose, from 
 being projected, upwards and forwards, has occasioned such 
 horses to be called star-gazers ; to remedy which, it is usual 
 to draw down the head by a martingale. It may not be amiss 
 to mention, that, in the purchase of a horse, it is prudent to 
 observe whether the upper part of the neck bears any marks 
 of a tight collar having been worn : when such an appear- 
 ance does exist, it commonly arises either from a strap 
 worn to prevent the action of cribbiting, or such a horse is 
 apt to unloose himself from the halter, which is almost an 
 equal defect. A large prominent wind-pipe is considered 
 desirable ; and a point which will seldom be found to dis- 
 appoint, though little noticed among horsemen, is a free 
 pendulous cord or fleshy band proceeding from the upper 
 part of the throat to the part of the channiel which joins the 
 neck. 
 
 The 7nane crowns the neck throughout its whole extent : 
 in front of the head it is called the foretop. Its intention 
 evidently is to act as a whisp to drive away the flies from 
 the forehead, which part is much exposed and has no muscle 
 wherewith to shake off" insects. In stallions, the mane is 
 generally thick and long ; a white one, exhibited some years 
 ago, was several feet long, and was carried in a bag. It is usual, 
 wdien it is wished to thin the mane and tail, to wrap a tuft 
 of the hair around the fingers, and pull it out by the roots ; 
 but this mode prevents its laying well, and disposes some 
 horses to resist. In my. own stable I have found that the 
 
22 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 frequent use of a three-pronged angular Iron was the best 
 means of keeping the hair thin, and assisting it to lay well. 
 
 CONFORMATION OF THE BODY AND LIMBS. 
 
 In proceeding to a description of the external conforma- 
 tion of the trunk and members of the horse, are we to 
 regard him as the type of an important genus ? or are we 
 to examine his frame with a view to his adaptation for some 
 one of the numerous purposes to which mankind apply him ? 
 It is in this latter way that the purchaser of a horse would 
 most likely proceed ; but it is by general principles that the 
 author can best accomplish his purpose, being well aware 
 that it is by an extended view of the whole that the indi- 
 vidual purposes can be best exemplified. Whatever may 
 be the services required of the horse, strength and safety 
 are indispensables : the degrees of these qualities may re- 
 latively vary, according to the work he is employed in, but 
 each of them is, in every instance, requisite. Power is the 
 result of muscular contractions acting on organs adapted for 
 motion. The safety, generally, is connected with the degree 
 of perfection in the form and direction of the limbs, united 
 with a just proportion of their lengths. 
 
 The withers are formed from the long spinous processes 
 of the first dorsal vertebrae ; and as, conjointly with the 
 muscles originating from them, they act as levers in elevat- 
 ing the fore parts generally, it is evident that any increase 
 of their height is an addition to their power. It is thus 
 that horses with high withers usually elevate their legs con- 
 siderably in action, which is unquestionably favourable to 
 the safety of their progression : this form is also considered 
 as an agent in the quickness of motion ; for, as we usually 
 raise every part we wish to throw forward, so the elevation 
 of the fore quarters allows the hinder to act with greater 
 advantage. It is, however, evident, that to a just appre- 
 ciation of the form of the withers we should consider the 
 immediate services of the horse. In the hackney, the light- 
 ness of his carriage, the safety of his footing, and the readi- 
 ness with which his saddle remains in its proper situation, 
 render their height invaluable. To the hunter, in addition 
 to the above, we may add the advantages which result from 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 23 
 
 these lengthened levers in the action of leaping. The racer, 
 on the contrary, is found to perform his wonderful exertions 
 without any remarkable height in his withers : in Eclipse 
 they were very low, and they are so in the majority of our 
 racing fillies and mares. Reasoning on general principles, 
 which seldom lead us into error, we should not consider 
 great height in these parts as essentials to the speed of the 
 racer. The gallop of full speed is but a succession of 
 bounds, and all animals remarkable for their rapidity in 
 this motion are found low before and high behind ; that is, 
 they are furnished with long muscular hinder extremities 
 exhibiting angular proportions acting on fore extremities, 
 which are comparatively inert as to the propelling power. 
 To the draught horse, low withers are peculiarly advan- 
 tageous, and he can better apply his powers by approximat- 
 ing his fore quarters to the ground ; for as all drawing is 
 but throwing the w^eight of the body beyond its centre, or 
 into the collar, so, the greater the weight the animal carries 
 before, and the nearer he approximates this centre, the more 
 advantageously he acts. 
 
 The shoulder extends obliquely forward, from a little 
 below the withers to what are called among horsemen the 
 point of the shoulders ; but which point is formed by the 
 articulation of the shoulder-blade with the true arm-bone. 
 The shoulder is apt to be confounded with the withers, 
 which often leads to much error in justly appreciating the 
 power and operation of the fore quarters. The withers may 
 be high, at the same time that the shoulders may be narrow, 
 straight, and altogether badly formed. The shoulder, to be 
 perfect, should be muscular, but by no means heavy with 
 extraneous cellular matter, for it is by the muscles of the 
 shoulder that the action of the fore limbs is principally 
 effected : it is, therefore, of much consequence that the 
 muscular markings and prominences should be strong. 
 Immense muscular power is also necessary for the sus- 
 pension and connexion of these parts ; the shoulder in the 
 horse not being connected with the trunk by any liga- 
 mentous union, but wholly by a muscular fibre. Large 
 fleshy masses unite the broad expansive shoulder-blade by 
 its upper and inner surface to the ribs and withers, while 
 other powerful muscles below suspend it, as it were, from the 
 
24 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 chest ; by which admirable contrivance perfect elasticity is 
 preserved. The uneasy seat we experience when riding on 
 or near the croup of the horse, where the hinder limbs are 
 connected with the body by a ligamentous and bony articu- 
 lation, will illustrate the difference between the elasticity 
 of the one connexion and the other. When the body is 
 propelled forward, its tendency to the centre of gravity is 
 counteracted by the fore extremities, which being the true 
 props or supports of the trunk then receive the mass : had 
 the shoulders, therefore, been articulated like the thighs, 
 the machine at every motion would have experienced a 
 powerful and hurtful shock, if not an absolute dislocation ; 
 but, formed as they are, the strong muscles of these parts 
 receive and sustain what the hind quarters have thrown 
 upon them. This connexion, it may likewise be observed, 
 is not rendered strong by the power of these muscular masses 
 alone, but also by the geometrical situation of the scapulae 
 or shoulder-blades themselves, which being approximated 
 above, form a kind of partial arch, receiving the trunk 
 within the entrance of its arms : consequently the greater 
 the force applied, either by gravitation or impulsion, the 
 nearer will these segmental portions be approximated, and 
 the more will their capability of supporting the weight 
 thrown on them be increased. 
 
 The motion the shoulder enjoys is confined by the nature 
 of its articulation to the perpendicular backwards, or to a 
 kind of swinging action, to as great an elevation as the 
 muscles will admit of forw^ards ; and these extensions being 
 commonly uniform, it will be at once evident that the more 
 oblique, long, or deep the shoulder is, the greater number 
 of degrees it will be able to run through. It is therefore 
 easy to comprehend why obliquity, breadth, and length of 
 shoulders are favourable to the safety of action by elevating 
 the limb, to the elasticity of action by increasing the spring, 
 and to the celerity of action by enlarging the angle. 
 
 Mares have very commonly low foreheads, both as regards 
 the height of their withers and the extent and obliquity of 
 their shoulders : to counteract this, and to regulate the 
 angles, an increased obliquity is very commonly observed in 
 the whole limb downwards ; or, as it is familiarly expressed, 
 they stand with their legs well under them, which is a merit 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 25 
 
 rather than a defect, if not carried to the extreme. This, 
 however, is ordained for wise purposes ; for by such a posi- 
 tion of their fore extremities the pelvis is raised higher, and 
 the foal thereby becomes more conveniently placed, and less 
 likely to be ejected. Few rules can be laid down for ob- 
 servance in the exterior conformation of the horse that are 
 of so general application, as that a short and upright 
 shoulder, particularly if united to an inclined direction of 
 the whole limb backward, is a sure mark of an unsafe pacer, 
 and commonly, though not so universally, of a slow one 
 also. Thus, by a slanting position of the shoulder-blade 
 in one direction, and of the true arm-bone in the other, 
 both elasticity and speed are gained ; while the perpendicu- 
 larity of the parts below, as of the arm, generally so called, 
 or upper part of the fore leg, and of the canon, give 
 columnar support. 
 
 The part between the points of the arras or shoulders is 
 called the breast, chest, or counter ; and our judgment of its 
 form must be regulated by the variety in the animal. In 
 the saddle-horse, it should be only moderately wide : when 
 very confined, the lungs have not sufficient room for 
 expansion, or otherwise they must press backwards and 
 interfere with the stomach ; and we do actually find that 
 narrows-chested horses have seldom a good digestion, and 
 consequently are seldom durable. On the contrary, when 
 the breast is too wide, particularly when it projects and 
 hangs over, the fore legs are apt to incline backwards : such 
 a horse must be weighty, and consequently unsafe as a 
 roadster in his mode of going. This form, however, is 
 peculiarly favourable to the draught horse, particularly for 
 those employed to move heavy loads. 
 
 The elboiv of the horse, like that of man, is formed of the 
 olecranon, but in the animal is applied to the chest ; conse- 
 quently the true arm of the horse, speaking comparatively 
 with the human anatomy, is contained in the space between 
 this and the shoulder points. The elbow should by no 
 means incline inwards, or it will confine the action, force 
 the toe outwards, and sometimes occasion cutting. If it 
 incline outward, which is less common, it is unsightly, and 
 gives the toes an inward determination, and a rolling 
 gait in the trot. It should, therefore, stand on a level 
 
26 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 parallel ; as its Inclination backward is usually regu- 
 lated by the degree to which the shoulder-blade inclines 
 forward. 
 
 The fore -arm, usually called the arm of the horse, cannot 
 be too large, wide, and muscular ; a small fore-arm is an 
 indication of w^eakness. All animals intended for rapid 
 progression have this part long likewise : — the knee of the 
 greyhound is but three or four inches from the ground ; — but 
 though its length is favourable to speed, it is not found to 
 add to the ease of the rider ; and thus horses for cantering, 
 or for the paces of the riding-school generally, are preferred 
 with short fore-arms. 
 
 The knee of the horse corresponds with the human wrist. 
 Like the joints generally, it cannot well be too large, for by 
 means of its extent the muscular and ligamentous connexion 
 is increased, and the stability of the limbs in proportion 
 augmented : by this form also the tendinous insertions have 
 their power increased. The knee should be carefully ex- 
 amined, to see wdiether the skin has been broken by falls ; 
 and great caution is necessary in this, for the hair sometimes 
 grows so w^ell over the scar as to leave it hardly discernible. 
 Horse dealers likewise hide the blemish by blackening the 
 part. It does not, however, follow that a mark or scar 
 always indicates a stumbler ; and persons are too apt to 
 forget, that the safest horse may by an unavoidable accident 
 fall ; and the circumstance will not influence his future 
 manner of going, unless the cicatrix should be of such 
 extent as to interfere with the motion of the joint : if, 
 therefore, the arm and fore-arm be strong, the fore-hand 
 high, and the horse show good action, he should not be re- 
 jected wholly for an accidental blemish, which is no un- 
 soundness. 
 
 The canon or shank follows the knee, and the perfection 
 of its form throughout is important. As here are no fleshy 
 masses, but almost purely tendinous matter, and as the bone 
 itself is sufficiently solid, so it is not the circumference, but 
 the breadth of the part, that is requisite to form a good 
 shank. An attention to the osteology will show, that there 
 is an especial contrivance behind the knee to give an ad- 
 vantageous insertion to some of the flexor tendons. When 
 this bony projection behind the knees, called the trapezium. 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 27 
 
 stands well out, the advantages are greatly increased ; for 
 not only do the muscles act meclianically to greater advan- 
 tage, but the flexor tendons likewise have their powers much 
 augmented ; which explains why a horse tied in under the 
 knee, as it is called, soon becomes strained, the legs get 
 bowed or arched, and totter on the slightest exertion. 
 Dealers frequently assert that such a horse was foaled so ; 
 and it may be true that the colt was born badly formed, but 
 that circumstance does not render the consequences likely 
 to ensue the less awkward. It may be considered as a rule 
 admitting of few exceptions, that hardly one horse in fifty 
 reaches eight years old with straight legs and sound pasterns. 
 The tendons themselves, which are the back sineivs of horse- 
 men, should moreover be continued downwards, so as to 
 give a surface of great width to the leg, but which should 
 be thin posteriorly : the mass of sinew itself should, how- 
 ever, be considerable, and as hard to the feel as iron. In 
 blood-horses this form is particularly observed ; on the con- 
 trary, in the cart-horse the back sinews are seldom propor- 
 tionally so large, and more seldom are they so well placed. 
 These important tendons should stand wholly distinct and 
 clear from the knee to the fetlock : when any thickening is 
 observed in their course, some injury has been received. 
 If the swelling appear nearer to the bone than the tendon, 
 particularly if it be on the inner side, it betokens a splint. 
 When a splint is situated forward, and evidently distinct 
 from the tendons, it frequently occasions no future incon- 
 venience ; but when it appears to extend itself inwards and 
 backwards among the ligaments and tendons, it irritates 
 these parts, occasions inflammation, and ends in an enlarged 
 callous swelling. When the flexor tendons and their sheaths 
 are swelled, and rounded, as it were, into one mass with the 
 bone, leaving no distinctive marks between the one and the 
 other, still greater mischief, probably, has at some time hap- 
 pened. Either some of the ligaments have become rup- 
 tured, or such a relaxation has taken place from strain and 
 subsequent inflammation as will always keep the limb weak. 
 To detect lesser enlargements of the tendons and liga- 
 ments, the eye alone should not be trusted, particularly in 
 hairy-legged horses ; but the hand should be deliberately 
 passed down the shank before and behind. The inner and 
 
28 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 under surface of the knee should also be examined in pur- 
 chasing a horse ; when, if either an enlargement or a scar 
 appear, it arises from what is called the speedy cut, or blow 
 giv^en to the part by the foot of the opposite side when it is 
 elevated high in fast trotting horses. A sore scabby erup- 
 tion within the bend of the knee sometimes exists, particu- 
 larly in cart or other low bred fleshy-legged horses. These 
 eruptive appearances are called mallenders, and render the 
 horse objectionable, inasmuch as they prove frequently ob- 
 stinate against healing. 
 
 The next part below the canon or shank is the past em. 
 Among horsemen, the articulation between the pastern and 
 shank is called the fetlock joint : but, properly speaking, 
 the fetlock is only the posterior part of the joint of the 
 pastern, from which grows the foot lock of hair. When 
 the pastern is very short and upright, the limb is deprived 
 of much of its elasticity, and such horses prove uneasy 
 movers : they are also unsafe, for the pastern being so 
 nearly in an upright position, requires but a small resistance, 
 or slight shock, to bring it forwards beyond the perpendi- 
 cular, in which case the weight of the machine, uniting with 
 the impetus, brings the animal down. Nor are these the 
 only attendant evils : this formation tends also to an early 
 deterioration of the parts ; for the ends of the bones being 
 opposed to each other in a more vertical direction, receive 
 such a jar or shock at each progressive movement, as 
 gradually deranges the part, producing an overshot joint, 
 absorption of the cartilages, and thickening of the liga- 
 ments. When, on the contrary, the pasterns are too long, 
 they are frequently too oblique likewise, and must then be 
 also proportionally weak ; though, from the increased elas- 
 ticity occasioned by this formation, such horses are com- 
 monly pleasant and easy in their paces ; and, by the exten- 
 sion given, they must also be more speedy, particularly in 
 the gallop. The soft swelling at the side of the canon, 
 called wind galls, need not here occupy any farther notice 
 than to remark, that although they bespeak undue exertion, 
 yet that, in themselves, unless they are so large as to prove 
 injurious by their pressure, they are not very important. 
 Cutting of the pastern joints, when dependent on a faulty 
 formation of the fore limbs, as when they naturally approxi- 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 29 
 
 mate too much inwards, or otherwise when the toes are 
 directed too much outwards, are either of them a serious 
 evil. Cutting is, however, frequently brought on by debiUty 
 and emaciation ; hence lean, jaded, and tired horses, will do 
 it at times, which under other circumstances will go free and 
 not "'interfere.'' For the same reasons, many horses cut 
 before they become strong and furnished that never do it 
 afterwards. 
 
 T\\efeet are next to be considered, and much more fuss 
 was formerly made about the foot than is thought necessary 
 at present. A foot, either too large or too small, is defec- 
 tive. The mule-footed blood-horse is in this respect as 
 faulty as the heavy animal reared on the fens of Lincoln- 
 shire. The horn of the large-footed horse is weak, and by 
 battering upon hard roads, or harder stones, generally be- 
 comes, before he has been long at work, what is called 
 pumiced. Small feet may be natural, but the horn is apt 
 to become too hard and unyielding. They are more Hable 
 to be found too small than too large ; though in horses bred 
 in low marshy situations, as Lincolnshire and Cambridge- 
 shire, the hoofs are often of a larger size than ordinary ; 
 and however convenient this may prove to the animal while 
 moving on the quaggy surface of these marshy districts, 
 they are very unfit for speedy and light movements in more 
 dry situations. Such horses go heavily, and stumble ; and 
 as the horn of which these enormous feet are formed is 
 always weak, so, by use on hard roads, the anterior or front 
 part falls in, and the sole, or under surface, projects out- 
 ward, reducing it, at last, from a concave to a convex figure : 
 such feet are then called pumiced. A foot should be of a 
 proper obliquity ; display a sufficient expansion at the heels, 
 and have a due quantity, not a superabundance, of horn, 
 with a healthy frog. When the foot shows a deficiency of 
 horn, the heels, quarters, and soles must, of necessity, be 
 weak, and tenderness in going prove the consequence. 
 
 The heels should be particularly attended to ; they must 
 be of a fair width, and the frog firm, yet pliable. Thrushes 
 are always strong objections to a horse, inasmuch as the 
 animal having them is not safe to ride, and the thrushes 
 themselves necessitate medical treatment. But when the 
 complaint accompanies a ibot already smaller than it was 
 
30 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 originally, when the heels are, in the smith's language, 
 wi7-ed and drawn in, and the whole circumference of the 
 hoof is perhaps encircled with rings, reject such a horse, 
 let him go as he will, for he cannot long remain sound. 
 When a horse's foot is held up, the sole should present a 
 concave surface ; if it be less concave than natural, that 
 sole is weak, and will not bear much pressure ; and it is 
 more than probable it will continue lessening in concavity 
 until it becomes a plane, when every subsequent shoeing 
 will endanger the laming of the animal. White feet are by 
 some people thought to be objectionable on this account ; 
 they being considered particularly liable to become flat in 
 the sole. Corns are another evil to which horses' feet are 
 very liable ; and, unless the shoes are removed during the 
 examination of a horse, it is not easy to detect them : though, 
 when the foot is well picked out, if a corn has been of long 
 standing, some marks of former cuttings out will probably 
 appear under the heel of the shoe. Another very serious 
 complaint is a brittleness of hoof, which may be generally 
 detected by the marks of the fragile parts detaching them- 
 selves from every old nail-hole. This kind of foot, particu- 
 larly in hot weather, breaks away, till there is no room for 
 the nails to fasten, when the horse, of course, becomes useless. 
 In an examination of the foot, the eye should also be directed 
 to the wearing of the shoe: if it be unequally worn, particu- 
 larly if the toe be worn down, such a horse is probably a 
 stumbler, and does not set his foot evenly on the ground, 
 either from defective feet or some more serious reason to be 
 named hereafter. 
 
 On a review of the conformation of the fore extremities, 
 it may be remarked, that, although the hinder limbs appear 
 to be more particularly concerned in the quickness of the 
 progression, yet that upon a proper form and a true direction 
 of the various component parts of the fore limbs must de- 
 pend the elasticity, ease, and safety of the movements. 
 Viewed anteriorly, the legs should stand rather widest at 
 the upper part, inclining a little inwards as they approach 
 the ground. Viev.-ed laterally, they should be seen to stand 
 in a direct line downwards, neither forwards nor backwards ; 
 and the toe should naturally place itself under the point of 
 the arm or shoulder. If the foot stands beyond this, but 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 31 
 
 which is very seldom the case, the action will be confined ; 
 such a horse, however, generally treads fiat, even, and safe. 
 When the foot stands behind the vertical line, the defect is 
 more considerable ; for it makes the forehand heavy, and 
 inclines the animal to fall ; and as, in general, the conse- 
 quence of such formation is a want of extent and obliquity 
 in the shoulders, so it tends to detract from the speed. 
 
 The carcass or trunk comprises the ribs, belly, loins, 
 flank, and haunch. The ribs form the chest of the horse, 
 which should be wide upwards, and as much deepened 
 below as possible, affording what is popularly termed great 
 depth in the girth. The capacity of the chest is dependent 
 on its form more than its mere external measurement ; for 
 two horses shall be measured, and shall yield the same 
 apparent dimensions, yet one shall have much larger lungs 
 than the other. It is, therefore, not depth alone in the 
 chest that is required, but sufficient breadth also. This 
 form increases the surface of attachment for the muscles, 
 and very materially assists respiration. Posteriorly, the ribs 
 should form the body as much as possible into a circular 
 figure, that being of all others the most extended, and the 
 best surface for absorption ; thus barrelled horses, as they 
 are called, are justly preferred ; for a circle contains much 
 more than an ellipsis of the same circumference. But when 
 the chest is too straight and flat, the belly is also small ; 
 hence neither can the blood absorb its vital principle from 
 the air, nor the lacteals sufficiently extract the chyliferous 
 juices from the food which passes into the intestines. 
 Horses, therefore, with these defects, are neither long- 
 winded nor lasting in their exertions. As less nutriment is 
 taken up by the lacteals, so less is eaten ; thus also these 
 horses seldom are good feeders ; and as weakness is the result 
 of deficient nutriment, hence they are what is termed washy, 
 that is, easily purged, whereby an additional cause of ex- 
 haustion exists, from the too early passing off of the food. 
 Nevertheless, it must be remarked, that these sort of horses 
 sometimes prove better workers than one would expect, 
 and are conunonly spirited and lively. A knowledge of the 
 advantages gained by size in the belly is what constituted 
 Mr. Bakewell's grand secret in the breeding of cattle : he 
 always bred from such as would be most likely to produce 
 
[V2 CONFORM A'lION OF 
 
 tliis fonn. well knowiuL:: no ollior wnnild fnttoii so advnn- 
 tapHMislv. 
 
 'V\\c hark coinnuMicrs iVoin the withers. It should not 
 he too loiiu', as such a form is unt'avourahle to streni;th : 
 U)n<;-haeki'(l horses are, however, jjlcwsaut to the rider, 
 because the action aod re-action are more considerable in a, 
 loni;- than a short hack, and conse(|iiently the sprint; greater 
 in the one than the othci'. I>ul what such hoi-ses i;ain in 
 ease they lose in strcMii;th; holh tlu' h:;aments and tissues 
 beint;- loni;cr, nuist act to -;reater disa(lvanlai;c\ WIumi the 
 back is too short, such horses, by havim;- their extrcMuitics 
 too much ai)i)ro\imated, usually oviMivach. i'hc hack 
 may be curved inwards or outwards ; when inwards, it is 
 termed holloir, or saddlc-hdckcd, and presents a formation 
 uo[ favomahle to strength ; but as tlie counterpoise is 
 Ivcpt up hv other curves, so the crest is generally uood : 
 such horses ride pleasantly, and connnonly carry consider- 
 able carcass, sometimes, indeed, too nuich. When the 
 cui-vc is outwards, the horse is said to he roach-backril, 
 which tbrm tenils to prevent liberty in action, lenders him 
 imeasy in his j)aces, and, from the approximation of his ex- 
 tremities, he will also otten ovcrri^ach ; and, as a niH-essary 
 consi'(iuence of' this form of the spine, the niH-k and head 
 ari> somctimc^s carried low. A sbort-backi^d hoise is in 
 consiik>rahle recjuest with manv jiiM'sons ; but when tlu> hack 
 is too short, theiv is seldom great speed, tor the hind legs 
 cannot he brought sutliciently undcM- llu> body to jiropel the 
 mass forwai'ds. 
 
 The loins oceui)v the attention ol" all good judgi^s in tlu'ir 
 consideration ol" a horse, and tor any jmrpose they can 
 bardl) be too broad. The hack (>xten(ls to the posterior rib, 
 and whci'e the hack ends, tin- loins ht^gin. Sometiujcs, this 
 junction ol ilu' hack and loins piesents an iiulnitation, as 
 though the union was incomplete. 'I'his may be ccMisidi-rcd, 
 in si)me degree, as a. defect, inasnuich as it dc^prives the 
 ])art of powertul attachments, and such horses are said to 
 hv IhkIIi/ loinrd. The strength of the loins dc^pends on the 
 length of the transverse processes of the lund)ar vertchr;e, 
 which should be long, that there ma\ he an extensive 
 surface for the attachment of the musck's of tlu> hack : the 
 nuiscles tlRMuselvcs should also be powerful on eacdi side, 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 33 
 
 giving width to the loins, and seeming by their enlarge- 
 ment, as it were, to swallow the baek-bone. When the 
 protuberances of the haunch-bone are very prominent, the 
 horse is called ragged hipped, which is only injurious to 
 the appearance, except in cases where it seems to arise 
 from a paucity of muscle to fill up the intervening spaces. 
 From the loins to the setting on of the tail, the line should 
 be long and very slightly rounded ; bv which means, also, 
 the distance between the hip and the point of the buttock 
 will be considerable. This formation is pecuhar to the 
 improved or blood breed, and in every point of view appears 
 the most perfect ; for it affords a very increased surface for 
 the insertion of the most active and powerful muscles in 
 the horse. And though the large rounded buttocks of the 
 cart-horse would at first sight bespeak superior strength ; 
 yet, when he comes to be viewed attentively, it will be 
 found that the rounding of the sacral line or croup, the 
 low setting on of the tail, and the small space between the 
 hip and buttock, produce a decreased extent of surface, 
 compared with the broad croup, wide haunches, and deep- 
 spread thighs of the blood-horse. 
 
 The flank is the space between the ribs and the haunches, 
 which part, when too extensive, indicates, except in mares^ 
 great weakness in the loins, and too great length in the 
 back. A hollow flank is the consequence of shortness in 
 the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra^ which 
 occasions a want of room for the attachment of the large 
 muscles of the loins. When the flank rises and falls in 
 respiration quicker than ordinary, particularly if the horse 
 be at rest, it betokens either present fever or defective 
 lungs. Should it arise from present fever other symptoms 
 will also be apparent, as heat, dulness, and disinclination 
 to feed : but when the horse appears otherwise in health, 
 and yet heaves at the flanks more than natural, particularly 
 if the weather be moderate, and the stable not hot, it is 
 probable that such a horse is thick winded. If the inspira- 
 tion of the air appear to be performed readily, but the 
 expiration with difficulty,— and the flank, in expelling it 
 seems to be much exerted, or as it were at two efforts, 
 such a horse is broken winded. His cough, which should 
 then be tried, will be found hollow, hard, and, as it is 
 
 D 
 
34 CONFORMATION OF 
 
 termed, hacking. If no quickness in respiration appear, but 
 on trotting or galloping a sonorous noise be heard, it is 
 called roaring ; and though it constitutes no present disease, 
 yet it is the remains of a former affection ; for it even now 
 interferes with speedy action, and, in law, renders a horse 
 unsound or returnable. 
 
 The tail, in the improved breeds of horses, is set on 
 high, which is the natural consequence of length in the 
 hinder quarters. It should, however, neither seem to be 
 swallowed up by the buttocks, nor yet to start out ungrace- 
 fully from the end of the back-bone, but should form a 
 graceful curve with the croup. 
 
 As the fore extremities may be considered as especially 
 designed to receive and sustain the weight of the body, 
 so the hinder extremities may be regarded as the essential 
 propelling organs : since these last, having less to support, 
 are flexed into considerable angles, — which angles are ope- 
 rated on by masses of muscles of immense power. It is 
 also a curious but wise provision in the mechanism of the 
 limbs, that their angles should be reversed ; for, while the 
 scapula, or shoulderblade, inclines backward, the ilium, 
 or haunch-bone, is directed forward. (See Plate I. skel.) 
 The inclinations of the humerus or arm, and of the femur 
 or thigh are equally reversed ; and, in a slighter degree, the 
 same is observable in the corresponding bones immediately 
 below ; by which arrangement the trunk is suspended equally, 
 instead of falling backward or forward, as might have hap- 
 pened, had all the angles been in one direction. That the 
 hinder extremities are principally concerned in progression, 
 is again evident from the attention that nature pays to the 
 strength in all cases where great speed is required ; for let 
 the animal be ever so lightly framed in other respects, 
 yet great power will be always displayed in its hinder parts. 
 Thus, in blood-horses, which are derived in part from the 
 eastern breed, not only are the loins wide and the croup 
 long, but, viewed from behind, these horses will be found 
 wider in the thighs than even in the hips : and of all the 
 distinctive marks between the high and the low-bred horse, 
 this is the most striking and characteristic. A good judge, 
 under every disadvantage, immediately discovers a poi-tion 
 of breeding by this appearance of power in the muscles of 
 
THE BODY AND LIMBS. 35 
 
 the thigh alone. The greyhound offers us also a corrobo- 
 rative instance of a similar form and intention. 
 
 The real thigh of the horse, like the true arm, is so con- 
 cealed by muscles, as not generally to be known by that 
 name ; but a view of the skeleton will readily point out 
 its true position. It will be found, as has been noticed, 
 reversed in its angle of inclination to that of the real arm, 
 to which it corresponds, but descending downward lower, 
 also with a greater inclination, by which elasticity is 
 gained, and the acuteness of the angle resulting there- 
 from rendered greatly favourable to the power of action. 
 This bone being able to pass beyond the perpendicular 
 backward, also assists these intentions, particularly when 
 the croup, hips, and thighs, are well furnished with muscle 
 
 The whirl-hone, among jockeys, is the articulation of the 
 thigh-bone with the pelvis, or bone of the haunch : it is a 
 very strong joint, and but rarely dislocated. 
 
 The stijie corresponds to the knee of the human being ; 
 consequently the part below it (with reference to human 
 anatomy) ought to be called the leg, but is usually known 
 by the name of the thigh. For the reasons before mentioned, 
 the true leg of the horse should be strong and muscular ; 
 it should likewise make a considerable angle with the thigh, 
 forming a direct line under the hip or haunch. Its length, 
 as is seen in all animals destined for much speed, should 
 be considerable, and its supply of muscle great : whenever 
 that portion of limb between the stifle and hock is thin, 
 seemingly long, and but indifferently furnished with muscles, 
 that limb cannot be strong. 
 
 The hock, as it is called by horsemen, forms the joint 
 between the true leg and the canon, and may be considered 
 as one of the most complex and important joints of the 
 body : its figure should be broad and wide ; for, in propor- 
 tion as the point of the hock extends itself beyond the 
 other bones, thereby increasing the depth of the joint, so 
 the tendons inserted into it act with a longer lever, and 
 thus with a great increase of power. 
 
 This joint is subject to several diseases, which are pre- 
 judicial in different degrees, and therefore require different 
 degrees of attention. When, on examining a horse, a soft 
 
 d2 
 
36 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 puffy swelling is discovered within the bend, it is termed 
 a hog spavin ; which is the consequence of too large a 
 secretion of joint oil, thereby distending the sac of the 
 joint. A mucous capsule above and behind the hock also, 
 at times, becomes enlarged, and is then called thorougkpin. 
 At the back, likewise, of the joint the ligaments are liable 
 to extension or other violence, when the part, instead of 
 exhibiting a straight line from the point of the hock down- 
 wards, presents in this case a curved surface, accompanied 
 with heat and tenderness, which is called a curb. The 
 inner part of the joint at its bend or ply is subject also to 
 a similar scabby eruption to that of the fore legs, called 
 sellenders. To detect the existence of hone spavin, the 
 hocks should be attentively viewed from behind, when any 
 enlargement in the place of spavin, may be easily detected. 
 From this enumeration, it will be evident that a strict ex- 
 amination of the whole joint is very necessary in the pur- 
 chase of a horse. In the consideration of the parts below 
 the hock, what has been said of the fore extremities applies 
 equally to the hinder. 
 
 OF THE TEETH, AS CHARACTERIZING THE AGE. 
 
 As it is necessary to obtain some marks whereby w^e 
 can ascertain the age of the horse, the ingenuity of man 
 has employed itself in noticing those changes in the organs 
 which are most readily observed, and the least liable to 
 variation. The teeth, as a part of the bony structure, 
 have been happily seized on for this purpose. We shall 
 here consider the teeth as indices of age only ; reserving a 
 more general sketch of their anatomy and physiology, as 
 masticatory organs, for a future opportunity. It is well 
 known that the usual indications of the age of the horse 
 are commonly derived from certain marks in the incisor 
 teeth, and principally from those of the lower or posterior 
 jaw. These ynarks consist in a funnel-like cavity in each 
 of these teeth ; each is also covered over with two coats, 
 one, the outer one, of a brown tough substance called 
 crust a petrosa, and an inner one, which is very brittle and 
 hard, called enamel. As these coatings of the tooth reach 
 its nipping edge, they pass over the plane surface, and then 
 
OF THE TEETH. 37 
 
 dip down to line the funnel-like cavity in its centre. This 
 central hollow thus formed, and thus lined, becomes very- 
 dark within by incrustation ; and, therefore, as long as this 
 oval cavity remains, so long a striking mark continues : 
 but when, by constant attrition, the cavity has been worn 
 away, such horse is said to have ' lost his mark.' 
 
 The duration of the mark, however, is in a great measure 
 determined by the thinness or thickness of the lining 
 membranes or outer coats : as in proportion as these are 
 of less substance, of course the cavity is deeper and endures 
 the longer. The wear of the teeth is also in some measure 
 influenced by the food ; and in cases where the enamel 
 and crusta petrosa are very thick, every mark or hole may 
 be lost by the sixth year, but then the rim of enamel, en- 
 closing a brown plug of the darker membrane, shows where 
 the mark should have been. The crusta petrosa and 
 enamel which, when the tooth is cut, are developed upon its 
 table or biting surface, soon by attrition become worn away, 
 and then the bone or ivory (which forms the great sub- 
 stance of the tooth) is laid bare between two layers of the 
 membranes, one covering the exterior, and the other lining 
 the small cavity in the centre of the table. The bone or 
 ivory being softer than the enamel, wears away faster, and 
 thus leaves two ridges on the table, biting or nipping 
 surface, one of which surrounds the central cavity, and 
 the other embraces the outer surface ; but both serve to 
 raise prominences for the double purpose of cropping the 
 food and holding it between the teeth when necessary ; and 
 by which also the teeth become a more terrible weapon of 
 offence. 
 
 The horse, as is wtII known, has two sets of nipping and 
 grinding teeth, a temporary and a permanent set. On the 
 outset we shall treat only of what are called the nippers 
 among horsemen, and incisors by naturalists. At birth, or 
 sometimes about a week or ten days after birth, the foal 
 has two front nippers above and below, which seem to fill 
 up almost the whole of the mouth. The little jaw enlarges, 
 however, so rapidly, that about the third or fourth week 
 the middle nippers also find room to appear, and, with this 
 complement of temporary or milk teeth, this sportive and 
 interesting animal frolics about, until towards his ninth 
 
38 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 month, when he becomes furnished with two corner nippers 
 above and below. In very forward colts, the dentition 
 partakes also of the early evolution, and thus these corner 
 nippers, known among breeders as the shell teeth, will 
 sometimes appear as early as the eighth month ; but in cold 
 situations, with a spare supply of generous milk, they are 
 occasionally kept back mitil two or even three months 
 later. The animal has now its full ' colt's mouth ' of 
 nippers ; and the completion of the process occurs most 
 opportunely at a time when its wants, from increased 
 growth, become greater, and its maternal supplies less ; 
 the milk of the mare beginning about this time to de- 
 crease. 
 
 This early or temporary set of nippers, as might be ex- 
 pected, differ from the permanent or horse teeth by being 
 altogether smaller and whiter, and also by having a well- 
 marked neck to each, which ends in a more pointed and 
 slender fang ; and they also have several very fine grooves 
 or furrows on their outer surfaces. They are slightly 
 rounded in front, and hollowed towards the mouth : the 
 cutting surface of each of these also rises into a sharp edge 
 in front, which fits it for tearing up the grass. But these 
 earlv teeth being less durably framed than those which are 
 to follow, soon show the marks of even the early attrition 
 they meet with. Before twelve months the teeth, there- 
 fore, show considerable wear, and all closely meet on their 
 biting or nipping surfaces. 
 
 The molares, or grinders, although they do not yield 
 such definite characters of the age, may be usefully em- 
 ployed as auxiliaries. The foal is usually born with a 
 certain number of grinders already protruded above and 
 below. Two always appear together, and we believe the 
 third is not so frequently synchronous with the two former. 
 At a period varying between eleven and fourteen months 
 a fourth grinder is added, which is the first permanent, 
 and constitutes the fourth of the future row of permanent 
 grinders. It may, therefore, be considered, that a full 
 yearling colt or filly will have six nippers well up ; and 
 when twelve months old it will usually have four grinders on 
 each side, above and below. Before the completion of the 
 second year, the second permanent grinder is added, and 
 
OF THE TEETH. 39 
 
 forms the fifth of the row. Between the second and thh'd 
 years, the first two milk grinders fall out, and are replaced 
 by the first two of the row of the permanent grinders ; and 
 between the third and fourth year, the third temporary 
 grinder is shed and the sixth permanent grinder cut, so 
 the colt has a full set of permanent molars when four 
 years old. 
 
 To pursue our dental characteristics of the age, we must 
 now take up the permanent or horse nippers, and which 
 are those most important to the purposes of the breeder, 
 the seller, and the buyer. We must first observe, that, 
 although constitutional peculiarities will occasionally in- 
 terfere with uniform dentition, and although the evolution 
 of the teeth may be hastened or retarded by an early or a 
 late foaling;, yet, by common consent among us. May is 
 presumed to be the birth-month of every horse ; and, 
 notwithstanding these circumstances, this understanding 
 answers all the usual purposes of commerce. Far other- 
 wise is it with the veterinarian, who must look much 
 closer, as on his judgment very weighty decisions will often 
 depend. 
 
 The appearance of the permanent set of nippers may, in 
 brevity, be thus stated : — The front, at from two years to 
 two years and a half. The middle, from three to three 
 years and a half. The corners, from four to four years and 
 a half; while the tushes may appear at any period after 
 the second or before the filth year. The colt, after the 
 attainment of five years, assumes the name of horse ; the 
 filly is also transformed into a mare at the like period : 
 both are now adults, and are, without hesitation, applied 
 to the purposes intended for them. 
 
 The horse's tusks, tushes, or canine teeth, are four, one 
 on either side of either jaw. When the tush is at its full 
 growth, it assumes a slightly incurved cone-hke form, 
 having internally furrows, which arising from the base, 
 extend upwards and meet, leaving a triangular eminence 
 between. The tush is not unfrequently examined as a 
 criterion of the age ; and some persons place much de- 
 pendence on the presence or absence of its point, and 
 the degree of its curvature, as well as the distinctness 
 of its furrows : although these appearances are liable to 
 
40 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 variation, yet the veterinarian would do well to accustom 
 himself to an examination of the tushes, as it occasionally 
 happens that he can only take a very hasty glance at the 
 mouth of some animals ; but there are few that will not 
 allow the finger to be passed between the lips. In the 
 evening also, or in very dark stables, the tush will often 
 afford a useful, though not a positive indication as to the 
 sex of the animal, mares generally having no tushes. 
 
 Making the nippers our principal guides, we proceed to 
 remark that, during the period between the fifth and sixth 
 years, the cavity in the front nippers wears away; and thus 
 a horse is said to have lost his mark at six. The close 
 observer will, however, yet be able to discover a central 
 discoloured depression, and a prominent ridge of enamel 
 around it, with an intervening part occupied by what has 
 been already called the bone of the tooth. 
 
 At seven, similar appearances have taken place in the 
 middle nippers, which have now lost their mark also. 
 
 At eight, the mark, or rather the cavity, is obliterated 
 from the corner teeth likewise, and in jockey language the 
 horse is now aged. 
 
 The marks, however, are very uncertain guides, being 
 subject to numerous variations, hardly ever alike and never 
 to be absolutely trusted. The mouth, indeed, ceases to be 
 a certain guide after the fifth year, though the age may be 
 told with tolerable accuracy up to the sixth year, when all 
 the teeth are fully up or close together. 
 
 It must, however, never be lost sight of, that the de- 
 scriptions which have been given of dentition throughout 
 are best understood, — indeed, can only be justly appre- 
 hended, by considering that it is not by simple wearing 
 away of the upper surface, and consequent decrease of 
 the column of the tooth, that the indicatory changes 
 in their appearances take place, particularly in the pro- 
 tracted periods of life, but by a disposition in the teeth to 
 shoot upwards to meet the continual deterioration going 
 on ; by which a gradual exposure of their under surfaces is 
 made far heloiv the original depth of the central cavity pro- 
 ducing the ynarh. It must, also, not be forgotten, that as, 
 on a view of the figure of a tooth throughout its whole 
 extent, the fang will be found to vary much from the free 
 
OF THE TEETH, 41 
 
 portion, so it is readily explained why the figures of senile 
 teetli are so unlike those of more early periods. The fangs, 
 as age advances, are actually protruded into the mouth, 
 and the tables, or biting or nipping surfaces of these, for 
 the most part, are nearly or quite square, while the teeth 
 themselves, at this advanced period, are projected forward 
 or presented almost horizontally from the gums. 
 
 It will also strike the reflecting mind, that attention to 
 the later character will become even more important than 
 om* yielding to old but erroneous impressions of age, as it 
 stands in the horseman's vocabulary ; as this gives place to 
 conviction, analogy, and experience, that which the jockey 
 calls age, as connected with the natural powers and dura- 
 tion of the animal, is removed by at least twelve years ; for 
 premature age in the generality of horses is brought on by 
 too hard and too early work. 
 
 Impressed with a conviction resulting from experience, 
 that what is called age in the mouth is often combined with 
 youth in the limbs, the practical judge, instead of refusing 
 such an offer when it occurs, hails it as a boon ; for 
 the reputed age has produced only the best effects, by 
 condensing the solid parts of the frame, and rendering them 
 capable of continued exertion. Such age is usually accom- 
 panied by a steadiness of temper and disposition that 
 teaches the horse to employ his powers judiciously, be- 
 cause the animal is certain to have been gently used in 
 his youth. 
 
 The truly senile horse will be seen with eyes sunken, 
 sometimes dim, and eye-pits hollow ; the lips will be thin 
 and pendulous, the under or posterior often extremely so. 
 The anus, not wedged up by interstitial matter as hereto- 
 fore, and not sufficiently retracted by its muscles, projects 
 much. The grey horse becomes white, and the darker 
 colours become intermixed with grey, particularly about 
 the head. The bony processes in every part of the body 
 stare out, and give a rigidity of appearance which well 
 accords with the actual state of the body. So much greater 
 is the absorption of parts now than their increase, that even 
 the diseased deposits of more youthful times, as windgalls 
 and bony exostoses, are lessened, or their outward indica- 
 tions disappear altogether. The mouth also will present 
 
42 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 some appearances which deserve attention. The upper 
 corner nipper is frequently sawed, as it were, into two parts 
 by the action of the lower, which in turn loses its outer 
 edge also in the wear. The whole of them become yellow, 
 are covered with tartar, and stand wide apart from conden- 
 sation and approximation to their roots. 
 
 The cautious veterinarian, when called on to give a 
 professional opinion, must however not form his judgment 
 principally on the appearances afforded by the teeth. 
 Under this view, it is imperatively necessary for him to 
 take into his account all such circumstances as are likely to 
 mislead the judgment : the principal of these are, the 
 irregularities of dentition, and the arts of breeders, dealers, 
 &c. Although, as already observed, the age of all horses 
 is dated from the 1st of May, yet we know that they are 
 occasionally dropped in December even, and we have seen 
 others which were said to be foaled in July. These differ- 
 ences must, of course, influence the dentition much, and an 
 early foal will thus have what is called a forivard mouth. 
 When such a one is either reared by an expert breeder, 
 or falls into the hands of a professed jockey, he takes care 
 to make this circumstance turn to account, by converting 
 these few months of difference into a year. Neither is the 
 time of birth the only means of early or protracted dentition. 
 Warm sheltered situations, with a liberal supply of generous 
 milk, and a pasturage so luxuriant as to allow early 
 browsing in the foal, will hasten the evolution of the teeth, 
 as the absence of these will retard it. In some instances, 
 constitutional anomalies present themselves : the middle 
 and corner nippers have been delayed two, three, and even 
 four months beyond the usual time ; in which, and similar 
 cases, the judgment can only be directed by an inspection of 
 the grinders, which seldom participate in the irregularity. 
 
 The front nippers usually fall at two years old ; and the 
 veterinarian, in examining a colt in July, which had been 
 foaled December or January two years and three or four 
 months ago, and finding that the subject of his examination 
 had already two permanent nippers in front tolerably well 
 up, without examining further, would state the age as rising 
 four, instead of just two and a half; which would be the real 
 age according to all fair rules of reckoning. It is evident, 
 
OF THE TEETH. 43 
 
 however, that a closer examination would detect this judg- 
 ment was not quite in accordance with established signs ; 
 for if the colt were really four years old, the age the 
 breeder intended to make him appear, the middle nippers 
 should have undergone considerable attrition ; the corner 
 temporary teeth would also show the effects of wear ; 
 neither of wdiich appearances would, in the present instance, 
 occur. Further examination into the mouth, in such case, 
 may likewise show, that although the colt or filly has already 
 five grinders, yet that the first of them are of the milk set, 
 and the posterior one only belongs to the permanent or 
 horse set. The difference however is not very easily told 
 between the temporary and permanent grinders, though the 
 size, supposing the animal submits to such an examination 
 as will permit of a careful comparison, is some guide. 
 
 A fraud, comparatively very common, is that of passing 
 off a four-year old for one of five years, particularly w^here 
 the colt is a promising and somewhat early one. This 
 however is only a fraud inasmuch as the seller passes off a 
 colt for that which it is not. When however the teeth say 
 five, other developments generally declare the same, and a 
 year of youth and actual service is a positive gain to the 
 purchaser. The idea that dealers can hasten the growth 
 of the permanent teeth by punching out or drawing the 
 temporary ones is now wholly disbelieved in. A man may 
 retard, but he cannot hasten growth by cruelty ; the more 
 any animal suffers the less it grows. 
 
 We now have to speak of positive deceptions practised 
 on the teeth of the horse : thus, wlien a dealer becomes 
 possessed of a horse whose teeth bear more actual marks 
 of age than either his limbs or spirit, it is an object worthy 
 his attention to give such teeth a more youthful appearance. 
 The principal part of this art consists in the operation 
 called bishoping (supposed to be derived from a man of 
 that name, one of its earliest or most expert practitioners), 
 which consists in the making an artificial cavity in the 
 upper surface of the nippers, by means of a sharp hard 
 tool, and rendering the cavity permanently black with a 
 heated pointed instrument : but the strokes of the graver 
 detect the imposition, and the two inner grooves of the 
 
44 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 tushes cannot be restored by similar means ; nor can the 
 aged position and appearance of the tables of the teeth be 
 affected by this artifice. 
 
 The judgment formed from the teeth, though generally 
 to be depended on when these frauds have not been 
 practised, is yet liable to some error from other causes 
 than these. Some horses living wholly on grain, and very 
 early worked, will occasionally be found to have gained on 
 others which have fed principally on succulent matter. In 
 those which champ much on the bit, this variation may be 
 very considerable, and make a full year's difference between 
 them and others. It remains again to remark, that a too 
 strict adherence to the teeth-marks very frequently leads 
 those who are only moderate judges into very great error in 
 another way ; which is, that of frequently causing them to 
 reject the most useful and valuable horses without these, 
 marks, as being supposed past their work. Nothing is 
 more fallacious than this : the commonly received indices 
 of the age grant an assurance that the animal has not 
 passed a third of its natural life ; nor one half of the time 
 in which he is perfectly useful, and fully capable of answer- 
 ing all the purposes for which he was intended. It is 
 only in a country like our own, where these generous crea- 
 tures are so early put to labour, and so unremittingly 
 forced to pursue it, that this mark is so much attended to. 
 A subordinate attention only should be paid to the appear- 
 ance of the teeth, if a horse appear what is termed fresh 
 and sound ; that is, if all his organs be capable of their 
 several functions, the Timbs being firm, and exhibiting no 
 appearance of too early, too great, or too long continued 
 exertion. The early ruin of English horses is not only to 
 be attributed to the excellence of the roads and the calls of 
 business, which urge our horses onward, but it is equally 
 to be laid to the account of their being worked before the 
 maturity of the system is perfected, or the motar organs 
 completely evolved. The premature exertion forces nature 
 into artificial means of strengthening the debilitated organs ; 
 hence the cavities between the tendons and their sheaths are 
 destroyed : parts take on a bony structure, whose original 
 formation was cartilaginous, as the lateral cartilages of the 
 
OF THE TEETH. 45 
 
 feet, and the articular processes of the vertebrcie ; a greater 
 quantity of ossific matter is deposited on tlie surface of 
 some bones than is natural, forming splints, spavins, ring- 
 bones, &c. : and to counteract the unnatural waste, other 
 secretions are likewise preternaturally augmented, producing 
 windgalls. But where horses are suffered to attain their 
 full growth, and the complete evolution of their stamina, if 
 they are afterwards put to full exercise, not altogether 
 inordinate, they become competent to the exertions expected 
 of them, and reach old age sound and vigorous. Many 
 good judges will not purchase a horse for hunting earlier 
 than eight years old, and regard him only in his prime at 
 ten or twelve. It is too little considered, that the period 
 of a horse's life, with moderate care and good usage, is 
 protracted to twenty-five, thirty-five, and forty-five years ; 
 and an instance lately occurred of a horse dying at fifty. 
 The accounts of their being vigorous and strong at thirty, 
 and thirty-five, are very numerous ; and nearly as frequent 
 as activity in men of eighty and ninety. A gentleman at 
 Dulwich, near London, has three monuments of three 
 horses, who severally died in his possession at the ages of 
 thirty-five, thirty-seven, and thirty-nine. The oldest, it is 
 to be remarked, was in a carriage the very day he died, 
 strong and vigorous ; but was carried off in a few hours by 
 spasmodic colic, to which he was subject. At Chesham, 
 in Buckinghamshire, there was a horse of thirty-six years 
 old, who exhibited no symptoms of debility, nor any ex- 
 ternal signs of age. It was remarkable, with regard to this 
 four-footed Nestor, that when an unusual hard day's work 
 was required, he was always chosen, as never failing in what 
 was expected from him. A horse named Wonder, belong- 
 ing to the riding-school at Woolwich, may be quoted as 
 living to forty years. 
 
 Mr. CuUey, in his Observations on Live Stock, mentions 
 a horse he knew which lived to the age of forty-seven 
 years, having during the greater part of that time a ball in 
 his neck, received in the battle of Preston, and which was 
 extracted at his death : for, judging him at four years at 
 the time he received the wound (and it is probable he was 
 more), he must, at his death, have been fortv-seven. But 
 
46 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 even these venerables were mere babies to the barge-horse 
 of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, who was well known 
 to have been in his sixty- second year when he died. 
 
 It is true, that these are not very common instances ; 
 yet it is not the natural economy of the animal which makes 
 them so rare, but their early application to full exertion, 
 and the unremitting continuance of it, whereby their race 
 has begun frequently before they are three years old ; before 
 five, their utmost speed is exerted after the hounds in 
 winter, and as hackneys against time in the summer ; at 
 seven, blind, foundered, and spavined, they gallantly shine 
 in the mail or stage ; at eight, they falter in the fish cart ; 
 and, before ten, worn out with disease and inanition, their 
 reputed old age gains them an honourable exit at the 
 slaughter-house. 
 
 Hence it must be at once evident how small a propor- 
 tion of a horse's natural life is eight years ; and yet this 
 past, the majority of persons begin to consider him as aged, 
 and unfit for service. The more we see and observe of 
 horses, the more we shall be astonished at the want of 
 attention and consideration this evinces. A long acquaint- 
 ance with these animals has induced us to draw the 
 following comparisons between their ages and that of man ; 
 that is, at these several periods of comparison, the consti- 
 tution of horses and man may be considered as in an equal 
 degree of perfection and capability for exertion. Thus, 
 the first five years of a horse may be considered as equiva- 
 lent to the first twenty years of a man ; or thus, that a 
 horse of five years may be comparatively considered as old 
 as a man of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man of 
 fort}'^ ; a horse of fifteen, as a man of fifty ; a horse of 
 twenty, as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five, as a man of 
 seventy ; of thirty, as a man of eighty ; and of thirty- 
 five, as a man of ninety. So far from this comparison 
 being too much in favour of the horse, we are disposed 
 to think it too little. Horses of thirty-five years of age 
 are as common as men of ninety, provided it be taken 
 into the account that there are twenty human subjects for 
 every horse ; and, unquestionably, a horse of forty-five is 
 less rare than a man of a hundred and ten. 
 
OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE. 47 
 
 OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 In the ox, the age is most frequently judged of bj^ the 
 horns, as offering a more convenient point of observation 
 than the teeth. But as the horns are the subject of much 
 trickery, and as some breeds are now hornless, it is not im- 
 portant that we should be justly informed of the indications 
 of age by them. The dentition of horned cattle has been 
 more neglected than that of the horse ; and the scientific 
 breeders, who have learned to mould the form of these 
 animals at their will, have failed to inform themselves on 
 so simple a matter as the successional changes in the 
 bovine teeth. On the contrary, they have copied each 
 other's errors from Buffon downward ; until, in the present 
 day, some of our highest authorities are not within twelve 
 months of the correct periods of the displacement of the 
 one set and the appearance of the other. 
 
 A calf, either at birth, or very soon after, is found to 
 have two middle incisors in the lower or posterior jaw ; 
 neat cattle having, as is well known, none above. In a 
 fortnight, two others appear alongside of the first. The 
 third week usually produces two more ; and by the fourth 
 or fifth week from birth, there is an addition of two others, 
 making the complement of milk incisors (eight) complete. 
 
 These teeth will present a surface convex externally, and 
 somewhat concave within ; the portion above the gum will 
 be covered with enamel, and which will slant upward from 
 the internal to the external surface of the tooth, forming 
 an edge of considerable sharpness. The only indication 
 of advancing age will be the wearing down of these sharp 
 edges, and the appearance of the bony substance of the 
 tooth beneath. Even at a month the centre teeth are a 
 little worn. At two months the enamel will have been 
 slightly worn off the edge of the four centre teeth. At 
 three months, from the six centre ; and at four months, 
 the corner teeth will likewise be considerably worn. From 
 this period these teeth decrease in size in the order of their 
 appearance, until two years old, when the two middle ones 
 are pushed out by those of the permanent set ; and thus 
 a two-year old steer or heifer will have two large middle 
 
48 OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 incisors pushing up, and six dwindled ones remaining. At 
 three years old there are four of the old and four of the 
 new set ; but the older will seem to be almost hidden by 
 the others. When the beast is four years old, there will 
 be found six permanent broad incisors, and two shrunken 
 ones of the milk set, wdiich latter sometimes do not dis- 
 place themselves so readily, but, on the contrary, form a 
 species of wolves-teeth, and annoy the animal much, unless 
 they are extracted. It is at five years old that the animal 
 may be said to be full-mouthed ; for at this period, whether 
 it be steer or heifer, the eight incisors will be all up, though 
 they will not appear equally grown until six years old. 
 
 The horns of cattle also yield indications of age thus : — 
 At three years the horns are smooth, and by the fourth 
 year, two small circles extending round the bases appear. 
 The growth of the horn impels this circle forward, and 
 another horny cylinder, similarly terminated, appears 
 annually as long as the animal lives. The horny ac- 
 cretion converts these circular extremities into annular 
 joints or horny rings ; and thus, by allowing three years 
 for the point of the horn, and an additional year for 
 each ring, the age is obtained. To frustrate this judg- 
 ment, it is not uncommon to shave or rasp the horns : 
 but the mouth, by the foregoing rules, will yield a just 
 indication. 
 
 In sheep, also, the age is judged of by the teeth. The 
 second dentition commences between the first and second 
 year, but by the second year, the middle permanent incisors 
 of the under or posterior jaw (for they also have none 
 above) are up. At three years they have four of these 
 broad teeth, as they are called ; at four, six of them are 
 fully evolved ; and at five years, the two others are up, 
 which makes them full-moiithed. The sheep's teeth, as the 
 animal advances in years, becoming divested of their enamel, 
 blacken, shrink in volume, and, where circumstances occa- 
 sion these animals to be allowed to become very old, they 
 loosen, and prove almost useless. The teeth of goats 
 follow similar laws, and their age is indicated by the same 
 appearances. 
 
 The horns of sheep "and of goats are not changed, but 
 
THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES. 49 
 
 appear the first year ; and as they also gain a horny ring 
 every year, so, by adding one year for the end and one for 
 each ring, the age is indicated in the horned breeds. 
 
 THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES. 
 
 The colour of horses, being derived from their hairy 
 covering, is necessarily very varied. Numerous conjec- 
 tures have been entertained as to what was the original 
 colour of this animal: but the inquiry has not been attended 
 with success ; for the horse is seen to perform all his 
 functions under any tint ; though fancy, and perhaps expe- 
 rience, has appropriated particular constitutional properties 
 and mental qualities to some hues more than others. The 
 various colours of horses would seem to be truly original and 
 inherent ; for such of them as have, from a state of domes- 
 tication, been suffered again to run wild, have retained the 
 colour they carried with them, although their form has 
 altered, and submitted to the agencies of climate. Neither 
 have the horses of different couniries, according to the 
 accounts of travellers, exhibited any individual characteristic 
 hue. The horses of the East are not darker than those 
 of the North ; on the contrary, we have white Arabians, 
 and we procure the darkest breeds from the north of 
 Europe ; while in Russia bright bay is as common a colour 
 as any other. Geographical distribution is not, however, 
 wholly without its influence on the hair ; for our heavy 
 breeds, drawn from the northern parts of Europe, are very 
 frequently black ; but a full blood black horse is seldom met 
 with. Age has hkewise a powerful effect on the tinting of 
 the hair ; that of the colt alters many shades ; in some 
 cases it becomes much lighter, and in others altogether 
 much darker, as the adult period arrives. But the altera- 
 tion in them which takes place between the time of full 
 growth and that of old age, is invariably from a darker to a 
 lighter hue. 
 
 The colours of the parents, among horses, appear to be 
 nearly divided in the offspring ; to which adherence in the 
 propagation of the external covering, we are indebted for 
 the endless variety of shades found among them. It was 
 probably to add to the personal beauty of this animal, that 
 in many the mane and tail are either much lighter or much 
 
 E 
 
50 THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES. 
 
 darker than the short hair of the body ; which variation 
 tends greatly, in the painter's language, to reUeve and throw 
 up the body-hue. If nature, in these varied markings, had 
 personal beauty really in view, as from analogy we may 
 suppose, it would then be natural to conclude that the 
 original horses all had it ; as a contrasted tint of mane 
 and tail is common to some colours more than to others ; 
 but these varieties will not afford any conjecture to be 
 thence drawn as to the hue prevailing among the primo- 
 genitors of the genus. Besides these contrastings of colours, 
 we may add those markings frequently met with, such as 
 the dark dorsal stripe of some breeds, as well as the band- 
 ings or stripings common on the legs and arms of others, 
 of the duns particularly. The humeral cross stripe is 
 principally found on the ass ; faint traces of it, however, 
 are now and then seen on some horses, but which, like 
 some other anomalies, may be rather considered as minute 
 links of assimilation to other more remote members of the 
 genus. A still more usual marking is found on the joints, 
 which are in many horses several shades darker than the 
 rest of the body, and in some others altogether black. The 
 dappling in the grey, the bay, the brown, &c., may be 
 regarded as intended, like the spots of the tiger and pan- 
 ther, to add to the beauty of the animal, and cannot be 
 considered as arbitrary deviations from nature, gained by 
 domestication or crossings in breed. 
 
 On this subject it may be observed, that there is a sen- 
 sible difference between the markings imprinted by nature, 
 and those which are added by artificial agencies in opera- 
 tion since the subjugation of this animal. The former 
 please every eye, and they never offend : whereas such as 
 appear to be the consequence of cross alliances, or other 
 effects of domestication, however custom may have forced 
 on us the adoption, yet most of them are found to prove 
 unpleasant to the eye. Piebald horses are displeasing to 
 most; and few can ever become reconciled to the tiger-spotted. 
 Extensive markings of white on black horses offend all. 
 
CONDITION OF HORSES. 51 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 CONDITION OF HORSES. 
 
 Condition is a term generally understood, but hardly ever 
 applied in its strict signification. In the mouths of the 
 trainer, the gentleman, the stableman, the dealer, and the 
 carter, it is used with strict propriety when appealing to 
 the animal each in his own sphere has to deal with. But 
 taken beyond this sphere, each will pronounce the horse 
 the other prizes out of condition. Yet the word so often 
 used, and in the mouth of everybody, must have some 
 meaning. Condition implies the highest possible state of 
 positive health compatible with the purposes to which man 
 seeks to put a horse. It is a state of health so fine, that 
 it borders on disease, and animals kept in condition for any 
 length of time (unless admirably tended) are apt to be 
 attacked by disorders. 
 
 The trainer, to attain condition, endeavours to promote 
 the absorption of every particle of loose tissue or of fat ; to 
 have the muscles and tendons in their highest working 
 order ; and the nervous system in a state of energy which 
 too often disappoints the hopes of him who induces it. 
 This is, on the race-course, called perfect condition. 
 
 The gentleman likes to behold his hunter much in the 
 state of the lacer, only, as the animal has to endure every 
 vicissitude of weather, and is expected to carry its rider for 
 a day rather than for a few minutes, he can permit, 
 perhaps, a slight quantity of flesh which w^ould be deemed 
 superfluous in the racer. This, in the gentleman's opinion, 
 is excellent condition. 
 
 The stableman likes the horses under his care to carry 
 a fair quantity of flesh, to be gay, but not too sprightly, to 
 have glossy coats, and altogether to appear after a fashion 
 that may captivate his mistress' eye ; and this when 
 brought about is, to his mind, admirable condition. 
 
 The dealer loves to behold his stock so fat, as to be 
 unfit for long or even actual work, but fat enough to render 
 the body round, so as to conceal every defect. Fed up to 
 the point of excitement, but, like drunkards, unable to 
 maintain it long. Very fresh for the few minutes they are 
 
 e2 
 
52 CONDITION OF HORSES. 
 
 taken out of the stable to be shown, but with lungs that 
 would hardly permit them to frolic for a longer period. 
 With their coats blooming, their manes and tails nicely 
 combed, and with their hoofs freshly oiled. This, in his 
 judgment, is absolute condition. 
 
 The carter wishes his horse to carry as much fat and 
 flesh as possible, thereby to increase his w^eight, and enable 
 the animal to pull heavy loads. To obtain the means of 
 doing this he employs various nostrums, and not unfre- 
 quently cribs from his master's granary. When he beholds 
 his teams fat to repletion, he, with pride, pronounces them 
 to be in beautiful condition. 
 
 Thus condition in horses, though applied in different 
 senses, yet, when properly considered, means always the 
 same thing. The horse is intended, by the word, to be in 
 an unnatural or forced state, up to the requirements of an 
 arbitrary master's will ; but, when carried to extremes, not 
 in such a condition as is altogether fairly compatible with 
 the creature's enjoyment of existence, or directly equal to a 
 state of health which promises prolonged life. 
 
 With so artificial a state, no matter to which sort of 
 condition the horse be subjected, any sudden change is 
 likely to interfere. There is no practice more foolish than 
 that of suddenly turning a horse into a field, in order that 
 he may support life upon grass. It is true herbage may be 
 the natural food of the animal, but the horse of our stables 
 is not in a state of nature. In his free state the animal 
 does no work, neither, it may be said, does he wdien turned 
 out to grass. This, at first, may appear very true, but the 
 hardest of all work is any exercise we are unused to. The 
 editor of this edition has seen a countryman sweat over a 
 letter for half a day, and at the end of the time the man 
 has only spoiled several sheets of paper. So also he has 
 witnessed a lawyer perspire, when positively doing nothing in 
 a garden. Then the horse turned into a field has to do that 
 which it is not used to perform. In the stable its food is 
 brought to it, in the field it has to walk for its living ; thus 
 there is a total change of habit by the day, and at night, 
 instead of a warm stable, with a good bed and plenty of 
 clothing, he has to lie dowai perhaps on the damp grass, 
 with the heavens above him, and nothing to cover his 
 
CONDITION OF HORSES. 53 
 
 shivering bodj^ Then there are the flies to be taken into 
 the account ; yet, not to mention these pests, there is the 
 diet ; the horse in the stable eats only hay and oats ; a com- 
 paratively small portion of which suffice for his sustenance ; 
 when turned to grass he is taken away from such stimu- 
 lating diet, and compelled to march many a mile before he 
 can collect enough of watery herbage to satisfy the cravings 
 of nature. 
 
 Let no man who has an animal that is worth stable pro- 
 vender turn such a horse out to grass. It is an old and 
 unfounded notion that grass is the natural food of the horse. 
 We know nothing of the wild animal, and therefore cannot 
 say what it did or did not eat ; it is certain many horses 
 can exist upon the growth of the field, but then very many 
 cannot ; and how is the master to decide which will and 
 that which is unable. 
 
 The loss of a horse is a serious sacrifice, not to mention 
 the disappointment when the mind was fixed on its improve- 
 ment. Any change is inimical to condition ; an increase or 
 change of food ; mowburnt or musty hay ; kiln-dried or new 
 oats ; any alteration in the water the horse is accustomed 
 to drink ; scarcity of, or too much water ; excess of warmth 
 in the stable, and too much clothing : excessive exertion or 
 want of exercise ; cramming upon or after a journey ; too 
 hard a burst or too long a check ; in short, any thing what- 
 ever which -endangers the high state of excitability to which 
 the animal has been brought will throw the animal out of 
 condition, as it is termed. To keep up perfect condition is 
 a most difficult task : it requires all the master's and the 
 groom's utmost attention ; and when maintained for any 
 period, as a general rule, it certainly tends to shorten life. 
 
 MORBID CONDITION. 
 
 This simply means that the horse is suffering from some 
 immediate disease, or that he is the victim of the lingering 
 effects of a disorder, the active symptoms of which have 
 subsided. In such a case no rule of treatment can with 
 propriety be laid down, but the animal must be subjected to 
 those measures that apply to his peculiar state ; ample direc- 
 tions for which will be given hereafter. 
 
54 CONDITION OF HORSES. 
 
 GETTING A HORSE INTO CONDITION. 
 
 Turning a horse out to grass is like taking an alderman 
 from his customary diet to place him on pauper food. All 
 the evil we should expect in the one case we see in the 
 other : the belly enlarged ; the body swells ; the skin be- 
 comes hard, coarse, or stares. All these signs announce 
 the lowering of the system, but, if any further proof be re- 
 quired, the weakness of the animal is shown when it is 
 either ridden or driven. It very soon becomes covered with 
 a lather, as it is termed, in contradistinction to a natural 
 sweat. 
 
 The straw-yard is not much better. If the horse be not 
 debilitated by innutritions food, in these places he usually 
 suffers from semi -starvation. The entire system is bad, and 
 requires to be changed. 
 
 But, when a horse is taken up from grass he ought to be 
 put into as cool a stable as possible ; no clothing at first is re- 
 quired ; a pail of water, kept constantly full, should be placed 
 in his manger ; his food should consist of oats mingled with 
 bran ; two bran-mashes daily for the first week ; then one for 
 the next week ; no hay should be allowed at first, but carrots, 
 cut small and mixed with bran, ought to be placed in the 
 manger. On the following week a portion of moistened 
 hay may be allowed, and some of the carrots withdrawn ; 
 more oats may be given, and a bran-mash withheld ; some 
 covering at night should also be allowed, minding, however, 
 that it is thin at first, and gradually increased. All the 
 while the grooming should be double the usual quantity : 
 the horse may, with advantage, be dressed night and morn- 
 ing ; at first gently, then with the utmost strength, using 
 the curry-comb as freely as the animal can endure it. 
 Plenty of exercise at the same time is essential, starting 
 with a walk, and as the horse improves, augmenting it into 
 a trot, and even a gallop ; but nothing like a sweat under a 
 pile of clothing should be admitted. The horse that cannot, 
 by the gentler means, be got into condition is not worthy of 
 the trouble which the process necessitates. Not a particle 
 of physic of any kind, unless the animal be really diseased, 
 should be given, under the notion of getting up the belly, 
 and reducing the flesh. It is not flesh it is desired to 
 
STABLING OF HORSES. 55 
 
 remove, but a dropsical habit it is wished to amend. The 
 bowels do not contain too much nourisliment ; but dropsical 
 effusion, originatmg in weakness, has taken place. It is not 
 generally known, but it is perfectly true, that a horse can 
 be purged into the very state which the utmost want of 
 condition can represent. Perhaps, however, rather than 
 have all the trouble of getting an animal into condition, 
 after it has been turned to grass, it is the better and the 
 cheaper plan, though probably one which the groom who 
 loves idleness and excitement may not altogether approve, 
 to keep the horse at home, and never to allow him to sink 
 so low as to require so much labour to get him into condi- 
 tion again. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 STABLING OF HORSES. 
 THE STABLE ITSELF. 
 
 Stabling of every description is an evil. It is impossible a 
 stable should be so built that it will allow the animal one 
 half the freedom he enjoys when loose out of doors. Most 
 stables are built so as to aggravate their inseparable cruelty. 
 The flooring slants from the manger to a gutter, which runs 
 at the horse's heels. Now, if horses be in a field, and at 
 rest, they will always be seen standing upon a piece of 
 ground that declines in precisely the opposite direction. 
 The fact is, our modern stables throw the stress upon the 
 back sinews or flexor tendons, and thus prepare many an 
 animal for the injury he afterwards unexpectedly experiences. 
 Nor is this all : the stall is perfectly at variance with the 
 habits of the horse; he is evidently gregarious, or lives 
 among crowds of his fellow-creatures ; the stall dooms him 
 to solitude, and the groom sits behind to see he does not 
 put his nose over the divisions, only to look at a comrade. 
 In many stables the stall is so small that the horse cannot 
 turn round ; he can lie down perfectly at ease in very few ; 
 yet, there he stands, looking at a bare wall, with the stress 
 upon his back sinews, for a period varying from twenty to 
 twenty-three hours during the day. The horse, in any 
 condition beyond the dominion of man, is necessitated to 
 
56 STABLING OF HORSES. 
 
 walk, in order to crop the heritage on which he exists ; 
 when under human protection, he changes a hfe of cease- 
 less activity for one of all but continuous stagnation. Is 
 it to be wondered then that the sinews often fail ? Or is 
 it a cause of complaint against nature, that the feet and 
 legs so often oblige man to allow his wretched servant to 
 remain idle ? The foot is the most valuable part of the 
 horse ; but, to preserve the foot, continued motion is im- 
 perative. This is denied ; a condition the very contrary is 
 enforced ; and then man, in his presumption, blames nature 
 because the foot of the horse is so often the seat of disease. 
 
 Loose boxes are better than stalls. But in these the 
 injury is only lessened, not removed. The horse has a 
 loving heart bestowed upon him. He must love something. 
 Lambs, dogs, cats, goats, fowls, &c., every creature he is 
 permitted to see, by turns have become the object of his 
 affections. Mr. Blaine records, that horses have defeated 
 the utmost efforts of man to get them into condition when 
 a companion has been taken away from the next stall, or 
 when the animal has been stabled alone. Bales, after the 
 fashion of military stables, are to be preferred to wooden 
 partitions, unless they be made much lower than at present. 
 The stall should be made a few feet wider than is the custom 
 to build it. The floor should slant from behind towards 
 the middle, where the gutter may be placed, and then be 
 gently raised and afterwards incline towards the manger. 
 A notion is abroad, that the present flooring carries off the 
 urine of the mare, but were stables paved in the manner 
 we advocate, they would equally carry off the urine of 
 geldings. The point in dispute is surely, then, in our 
 favour. 
 
 Most stables, moreover, are kept much too warm. Not 
 that any are heated by means of a stove or fire, but the 
 animals doomed to reside within them are made to breathe 
 the same air over and over again, until it becomes hot, and 
 smells so strongly of ammonia, as to sting the eyes and take 
 away the breath of the stranger who unexpectedly enters 
 them. This is not warmth ; but foulness, filth, and abomi- 
 nation, which should immediately be abjured. Let a stable 
 be freely ventilated ; it cannot have too nmch air at any 
 period of the year ; its inhabitants and the shelter of the 
 
STABLING OF HORSES. 57 
 
 walls will always make sufficient difference, especially when 
 the mode of ventilation is considered. The air must never 
 blow directly upon the horses, but the ventilation should be 
 above their heads, for foul air always has a tendency to 
 ascend. If this plan were followed, the stable would range 
 from 40° to 50° in winter, and from 60° to 70° in the 
 summer ; but the most violent draughts are better than 
 foulness. If the proprietor therefore, on entering his stable, 
 detects any stench, he had better order the horses out to 
 exercise, and while they are absent have every door and 
 window thrown wide open. After this has been done once 
 or twice, the groom will take care the stable is always 
 sweet, let the master enter when he may. 
 
 Every stable should be thoroughly drained, not into a 
 neighbouring cesspool, but to such a distance as will preclude 
 any effluvia escaping into the building. Likewise all dung and 
 litter ought to be carried far aw^ay from the place twice a day. 
 This of course imposes extra work on those who are not 
 very fond of employment, but our business here is to point 
 out that wdiich ought to be done, and not to please idlers. 
 
 The manger and hay-rack are best low, as the last 
 especially, being in this position, enables the horse to reach 
 his food without raising his head and thereby injuring the 
 vessels by maintaining an unnatural position, and likewise 
 prevents any hay-seed from falling into the animal's eyes. 
 For the last reason the place ought to be thoroughly ceiled, 
 lest any dust or litter fall down from the loft above, the hay in 
 which is likewise kept free from contamination arising from 
 ammoniacal fumes, which always have a tendency to ascend. 
 
 The loose boxes ought to have their sides smooth, no 
 nail or projection of any kind should be permitted, as the 
 animal is apt to tear itself against such substances. When 
 designed as substitutes for stalls, it is sufficient to have the 
 partition close halfway up, and the remainder formed of open 
 rails, whereby the horses are enabled to see one another, 
 and much of the dulness of their lives is removed. Every 
 box ought to be drained by means of a centre grating. 
 
 It is a question much disputed whether the litter should 
 be removed or not during the day-time. In the great 
 majority it is entirely taken from the fore, and but a small 
 portion left under the hind feet ; and this method seems to 
 
58 STABLING OF HORSES. 
 
 be so good as to admit of no improvement as a general 
 rule, though of course individual cases will require varieties 
 in treatment. 
 
 While in this place it may be as well to mention sum- 
 mering hunters. Mr. Blaine thus speaks of the effects 
 of turning out : " But a more critical examination of 
 the subject, and the collation of facts, will perhaps set the 
 matter in rather a different point of view. It has long been 
 observed that a horse that has been stabled for many years, 
 and then turned out to grass, seldom thrives ; on the con- 
 trary, he usually loses flesh and condition, although the 
 pasture in which he is placed may be of the most luxuriant 
 kind. It has been noticed also, by intelligent trainers, that 
 race-horses, after being turned out, never again fully recover 
 that speed they had previously exhibited. It is likewise 
 equally remarked on, that in hunters which have been com- 
 pletely summered abroad, it has been found very difficult, 
 and often impossible, to restore them to their full condition 
 until much of the hunting season has passed by." 
 
 There are gentlemen, however, who imagine they are 
 acting with great generosity towards the animal which has 
 carried them w^ell through the hunting season, when they 
 determine their dumb servant, after the fatigues of the field, 
 shall enjoy a long rest in a loose box during the summer. 
 Can there be any greater folly than this? Let any man try 
 it upon himself. A rest of six months or more is an 
 impossibility. It is positive stagnation, and the poor horse 
 which is forced to undergo it must feel rejoiced when the 
 hunting season even once more commences. 
 
 A better plan is to stable the horse ; to endeavour to 
 maintain as far as possible the condition at which he has 
 arrived ; to hack him gently, taking him for a slow ride 
 daily, and choosing shady lanes with grass on either side 
 for the exercise ; never to remove the shoes under the idea 
 of freeing the feet, but to keep on that which the animal 
 has become accustomed to. Mr. Blaine bears evidence to 
 the advantage of some such plan in the following words ; 
 and he is a writer whose veracity has never been questioned. 
 
 " It is said that the Earl of Plymouth first tried the plan of 
 summering his hunters altogether within the stable, with 
 little variation in their treatment ; by which it is asserted 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 59 
 
 their condition was fully preserved, and that, by this means, 
 his horses entered on their hunting season in full ' wind, 
 speed, and bottom.^ Others, to avoid this extreme, have 
 soiled their hunters in the stable, or have given carrots ; 
 and some have gone a step further, and have pursued the 
 in-door summering, not in stables, but in loose boxes. 
 Still, in all these cases, regular exercise is required, or the 
 feet must suffer, or the horses are apt to become pursive, 
 thick-winded, roarers, or broken-winded ; but be it remem- 
 bered that, if such exercise is too severe, then the wear on 
 the limbs continues the deterioration which the hunting 
 season had brought on." 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. THE BONES. 
 
 Bones are the hardest, and in a state of health the most 
 insensible, substances in the entire body ; they sustain the 
 soft parts, and form the base of the frame. They are com- 
 posed of earth, gelatine, nerves, vessels, and membrane. 
 The membrane appears first formed, into which a gelatinous 
 fluid, that afterwards becomes cartilage, is deposited ; it 
 next becomes vascular, and gradually the arteries pour out 
 within the centre of each bone the earthy matter, until the 
 whole is completely consolidated. This consolidation does 
 not take place in all the bones until the full growth of the 
 animal ; neither are the stages of osseous evolution alike in 
 each bone ; those becoming soonest ossified whose use could 
 be least dispensed with. The bones of the horse are much 
 harder than those of man, and consequently stronger. The 
 deposit of earthy matter, and the consequent consolidation 
 of their substance, appears to be hastened by any thing that 
 permanently quickens the circulation, thus occasioning a 
 more speedy separation of the earthy parts from the blood : 
 it is thus that the inhabitants of warm climates come to 
 perfection sooner than those of the northern regions. But 
 by preternaturally hastening the earthy deposit in the bones 
 we check their growth ; thus, horses early and severely 
 worked, never arrive at their full size. 
 
 The earthy matter of bones is continually changing by 
 
60 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 means of the absorbents, which remove it, and the arteries 
 which replace it. Its quantity also depends on the wants 
 of the animal and the stimulus applied : in the full -bred 
 horse, therefore, the bones will be found more solid than in 
 the bulky lower-bred varieties. Most cylindrical bones are 
 hollow, and are lined by a membrane, called the medullary, 
 or membrane of the marrow : the bones have also an exter- 
 nal periosteum, or outer covering. The medullary cavities 
 have the effect of diminishing the weight of bones without 
 weakening them, and at the same time are of service in sup- 
 plying cavities where nature can store away her superabun- 
 dant fat for a time of need. Bones, though furnished with 
 blood-vessels and nerves, have in health little sensibility, but 
 during disease they inflame, and then become acutely sensi- 
 tive. The varieties in the form of bones have occasioned 
 their division into cylindrical, fiat, short or long, and irre- 
 gular. They are furnished with cavities and eminences : 
 the cavities, in all excepting long bones, are small, and 
 lined with a medullary membrane, which secretes only in 
 these places a reddish fluid ; they have, also, pits, furrows, 
 notches, holes, sinuses, &c. ; the eminences are long and 
 short, to which tendons are attached through which the 
 muscles move the bones as by means of levers. Bones arti- 
 culate with each other by joints ; either like to a cup and 
 ball ; held loosely together by ligaments as a hinge ; bound 
 together more tightly by cartilage and ligament ; inter- 
 mingled, or fixed closely together by notches. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.— THE SKELETON. 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 A, The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one piece ; B, the 
 lower jaw ; a, the incisor teeth ; b, the tushes ; c, the 
 molares, or grinders ; d, the peak formed by the extremities 
 of the nasal bones ; e, the zygomatic spine, to the bottom 
 of which the masseter esternus takes its origin; /, the orbit; 
 g, the cavity above the orbital arch ; h, the pole ; i, the 
 zygomatic arch ; j, j, the styloid processes for the attach- 
 ment of the muscles ; k, the joint formed by the upper and 
 lower jaws ; /, the meatus auditorius, or opening to the 
 internal ear. 
 
THE HEAD NECK THORAX LOINS, &C. 61 
 
 THE NECK. 
 
 C, C, marks the extent of the cervical vertebrse ; D, the 
 dentata ; m, the atlas; n, the wing* of the atlas; o, the 
 large superior spine of the dentata ; p, the body of the 
 dentata ; q, the inferior spine of the dentata ; s, s, s, s, s, 
 the superior spines of the five remaining cervical vertebrae ; 
 r, r, r, r, r, the oblique processes of the five last cervical 
 vertebrae ; u, u, u, u, u, the transverse processes of the same 
 bones ; t, t, t, t, t, the inferior spines of the five last cervical 
 vertebrae. 
 
 THE THORAX. 
 
 V, V, the cariniform process of the sternum ; w, iv, w, iv, 
 w, w, w, the costae or true ribs ; y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y, 
 the ribs as distinguished from the costse ; x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, 
 the cartilages by means of which the ribs are attached to the 
 sternum ; z, 2, z, z, z, z, z, the heads of the ribs ; 1,1,1,1,1, 
 the superior spines of the first five dorsal vertebrae, the 
 fifth being generally the longest spine in the body ; 2, 2, 2, 
 
 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, the superior spines from the sixth to the thir- 
 teenth, towards which they slope downwards; the thirteenth 
 is generally the most upright spine in the dorsal region ; 
 
 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, the last five of the superior of the back spines, 
 w^hich have an inclination forwards. 
 
 THE LOINS, OR LUMBAR REGION. 
 
 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, the superior spines of the lumbar region, 
 thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided inclina- 
 tion forwards ; 5, 5, 5, 5, the projecting transverse pro- 
 cesses of the loins. 
 
 THE SACRUM. 
 
 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, the superior spines of the sacrum leaning 
 decidedly backward, thus leaving a large space between the 
 points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spine, at which 
 place occurs the great hinge of the back ; 8, 8, 8, 8, the 
 bodies of the sacral vertebrae. 
 
 THE TAIL. 
 
 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, the cocygeal bones. 
 
62 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 THE PELVIS. 
 
 E, the ossa innominata, consisting of three bones upon 
 each side ; a, the iUum ; b, the pubis ; c, the ischium : the 
 three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of 
 the thigh bone ; 9, 9, the inferior spines of the ihum ; 10, 
 the superior spine, which partly covers the first sacral spine ; 
 c, c, the ischiatic spines, 
 
 THE THIGH AND STIFLE JOINT. 
 
 F, F, the femurs ; d, the round head of the bone ; e, the 
 short neck of the femur ; /, the great trochanter ; g, the 
 small external trochanter ; h, the small internal trochanter ; 
 i, i, the sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate ; 
 J, J, the posterior condyles of the femur ; k, k, the anterior 
 trochlea over which the patella glides ; G, G, the patellas : 
 the interarticular cartilages of the stifle joint, as well as the 
 cartilages tipping the dorsal lumbar sacral spines, and the 
 superior margin of the blade bone or scapula, are necessarily 
 omitted in this delineation, which is admirably drawn from 
 a macerated skeleton. 
 
 THE TIBIA AND FIBULA, OR LEG BONES, AND THE HOCK JOINT. 
 
 H, H, the tibias ; I, I, the heads of the bones ; m, m, the 
 fibulas ; n, n, the inferior head of the tibia ; /, /, the hock 
 joint ; 0, 0, the astragalus ; p, p, the calcis forming the 
 point of the hock. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR SHANK BONES. 
 
 K, K, the canons, metatarsals, or shank bones ; L, L, 
 the splint bones. 
 
 THE BONES OF THE PASTERNS, AND FEET, OF THE POSTERIOR 
 
 LIMBS. 
 
 M, M, the sessamoids ; N, N, the large pastern bone ; 
 0, 0, the smaller pastern bone ; p, p, the pedal bones. 
 
 BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY. 
 
 Q, the scapula or blade bone ; a, the superior margin 
 whence the cartilage has been removed ; b, the spine of the 
 scapula ; c, the anterior fossa of the scapula ; d, the poste- 
 rior fossa ; e, the shallow cup which receives the head of 
 the humerus : the cartilage, which is situated around the 
 
THE SKULL. 63 
 
 margin of this cup, and which serves to deepen it, has been 
 destroyed by maceration ; /, the tuberosity terminating the 
 spine of the scapula, whence the flexor brachii originates. 
 
 R, the humerus or arm bone ; g, the head of the bone ; 
 h, the smooth cartilaginous and synovial pulley over 
 which the tendon of the flexor brachii plays ; i, the external 
 trochanter of the humerus ; j, the inferior head of the 
 humerus ; k, the pit into which the ulna is received ; S, S, 
 the ulna, the top of which is termed the olecranon. 
 
 T, T, the radius ; I, the head of the bone ; m, the inferior 
 head of the bone. 
 
 U, U, the carpus or knee joint, consisting of two rows of 
 bones ; n, the trapezium, which give security to the great 
 flexors, and attachment to several of the lesser flexors of 
 the fore leg. 
 
 V, V, the canon or shank bone ; o, o, the head of the 
 bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee ; 
 W, W, the splint bones ; p, the inferior head of the canon 
 bone. 
 
 X, X, the sessamoid bones ; Y, Y, the large pastern bone ; 
 Z, Z, the small pastern bones ; P, the pedal or coffin bone. 
 
 BONES OF THE HEAD. 
 
 The head consists of two portions : one is simple, and is 
 merely the lower jaw {skel. B), which, in a prepared skeleton 
 of the head, is loose, and freely separates from the other 
 part. The top portion is more complex, and consists of 
 many pieces. At the back part of the skull {skel. h) is 
 the pole ; towards the sides are the cavities for the eyes 
 {skel. f) ; more forward are the openings, with long pas- 
 sages, for the nostrils {skel. d) ; and below is the roof of the 
 mouth, with half of the teeth {skel. a, b, c). 
 
 THE SKULL. 
 
 Several bones enter into the formation of this last-men- 
 tioned part, each of which have distinct anatomical names, 
 but, as all of them speedily become one mass, it will be 
 better if we consider this portion of the framew^ork as a 
 whole. The bones, however, are not united at the time 
 of birth ; w hence it is assumed that nature formed the skull 
 of several bits, to assist the expulsion of the foal from the 
 
64 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 womb. As these separate portions are originally soft, and 
 upon even slight pressure can be made to overlap. Within 
 the skull is contained the brain, and to hold this important 
 organ safely, seems to be its principal use. The hair and 
 skin covers the outside of the head ; next a layer, deep and 
 broad, of muscle laps over the sides of the skull, the bones 
 of which there are double, each consisting of two layers ; an 
 outer layer, which is soft and spongy, like common bone, 
 and an inner layer, which is hard and smooth, like ivory or 
 glass. There is an imperfect cavity between these two 
 layers, termed diploe, and then, internally, come three 
 membranes and some fluid before the brain is reached ; so 
 the reader will perceive how thoroughly this organ (the 
 brain) is protected within the skull. 
 
 Behind the skull will be observed a large opening {Plate 
 VI. n), which is for the passage of the medulla oblongata, or 
 substance which unites the spinal marrow and the brain. On 
 every side of the skull will be perceived openings, some very 
 small and others of considerable size ; the larger are to admit 
 of the passage of veins, which carry blood from the brain ; 
 the smaller ones are for the entrance of arteries, which carry 
 blood to the brain, and to give egress to the nerves, which 
 bestow sense or motion on the whole head, and also upon 
 some other parts of the body. 
 
 Yet, as the division of the skull gives attachment to vari- 
 ous muscles, it may be as well to mention the more promi- 
 nent of their peculiarities, for the sake of a better under- 
 standing hereafter. 
 
 The cranium is said to be composed of twelve bones, four 
 pairs, which make eight bones, and four single bones, which 
 complete the twelve. The pairs are the squamous and the 
 petrous temporal, the parietal, and the frontal. The single 
 bones are the os triquatrum, the ethmoid, the sphenoid, and 
 the occipital. 
 
 The OCCIPITAL BONE (single) is situated partly at the 
 bottom, and directly at the back of the skull. It has two 
 surfaces, an external and an internal. The external we will 
 consider first. Right at the back of the head is the large 
 hole of the skull, called the foramen magnum {Plate VI. n). 
 Projecting from the bottom of the foramen magnum, so as 
 to form part of the base of the cranium, is the basilar 
 
THE SKULL. 65 
 
 process of the bone ; and upon each side of this is a ragged 
 hole, called the foramen lacerum basis cranii. Upon either 
 side of the foramen magnum are a couple of proiectino- 
 smooth bodies, termed the condyles, which fit into and 
 articulate with the atlas. A little before, but on either side 
 thf e condyles, are two small holes, known as the 
 condyloid foramina, out of which come the lingual nerves. 
 Near to these are two downward projecting knife-shaped 
 pieces of bone, spoken of as the styloid processes {Skel j j) 
 Above the foramen magnum is a high and sharp continuation 
 ol bone, which forms the pole {Skel h), and from which a 
 sharp line, spoken of as the ridge of the occiput, descends 
 upon either side. 
 
 The internal surface presents the upper part of the 
 basilar process, upon which reposes the medulla oblon2;ata 
 and the pons varoH. 
 
 The PETROUS TEMPORAL (a pair) are the hardest bones in the 
 whole body, owing to their closer texture. Upon the ex- 
 terior is a canal, seeming to lead to the interior of the skull 
 Ihis IS the meatus auditorius or opening to the internal ear 
 {^kel. /), and along the bottom of this canal is stretched, 
 during life, a fine membrane. At the anterior portion 
 of Its interior surface is another styloid process for 
 the attachment of muscles; and behind this is a bulbous 
 projection for the mastoid cells of the internal ear ; upon 
 the internal side of this mastoid process, is a small flat sur- 
 face to which the large horn of the os hyoides is attached. 
 
 rhe SPHENOID BONE (single) is not very unhke a bird. 
 We have two wings, a body, and two legs, looking forward, 
 but not a head. It has two surfaces, an external and an 
 internal. External surface. The body is convex, and receives 
 several muscles. To the legs, also, muscles are attached. 
 1 he wings are flat and smooth ; upon them are two fora- 
 mina, the sphenoidal and the pathetic. With regard to 
 the internal surface. Upon the body rests the cruca cereri 
 and pituitary gland, together with the cavernus sinuses ; 
 its wmgs form imperfect foramina for the superior maxillary 
 nerve, the optic nerve, and the third pair of nerves, to- 
 gether with the orbital, the internal maxillary, and the 
 supra orbital arteries. 
 
 The ETHMOID BONE (single) consists of a body, two 
 
 F 
 
66 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 wings, neck, and appendages. The body, which is some- 
 what concealed, being hollow because of the ethmoid 
 sinuses {Plate Yll. f) , which are cavities within it; upon 
 the wings are parts of the optic, and the lateral nasal fora- 
 mina. Towards the nose are two fine flat pieces of bone, 
 pierced by numerous holes ; these are the cribriform plates, 
 that give passage to the Olfactory nerves. In front of these 
 grow, within the nasal cavities, a spongy formation, termed 
 the ethmoid cells {Plate VII. e) . The internal surface is 
 smooth, and between the two cribriform plates is a slight 
 projection of bone, termed the crista galli, which gives 
 attachment to the falx cerebri. 
 
 Os TRiQUATRUM (single) is an angular-shaped bone ; 
 smooth upon its outer surface. It joins the occipital bone, 
 and lies before it ; being in the middle or upon the top of 
 the skull ; its inner surface is indented for various sinuses, 
 and from it proceeds a projecting piece of bone, called the 
 tentorium {Plate VII. h), which divides the cerebrum from 
 the cerebellum. 
 
 Parietal bones (a pair) are situated upon the sides of the 
 skull. Externally they are smooth and convex, being 
 covered by the temporal muscles to which they give origin ; 
 internally they are concave, and indented by the convo- 
 lutions and the arteries of the brain. 
 
 Squamous temporal (a pair) are in front of the petrous 
 temporal. External surface. Projecting pieces of bone upon 
 the outer sides are called the zygomatic processes. The 
 orbital arches rest upon part of these processes ; upon the 
 inferior borders are the glenoid cavities for articulating with 
 the lower jaw, near to which are the mastoid processes. 
 The internal surface is smaller than the outer, being trenched 
 upon by the parietal bones. 
 
 Frontal bones (a pair). External surface. These bones 
 form the arches of the orbit ; the arch is pierced by the 
 supra orbital foramen, and the under part of the arch is 
 hollow for the lacrymal gland ; the frontal also forms half of 
 the lateral nasal foramen ; it enters into the composition of 
 the top of the nose. The internal surface is divided into 
 two parts ; one belongs to the nose, the other to the cra- 
 nium. The external and internal plates of the bone sepa- 
 rate, and thus form the frontal sinuses {Plate VI. and 
 
THE ORBITS ^THE FACE. Q7 
 
 VII. d), which are strengthened by several minute pillars 
 running from one plate to the other. 
 
 THE ORBITS 
 
 Are in the horse merely bony rings, one on each side ; not 
 osseous cups, as in man. The reader, however, at a glance 
 will perceive the place in which the eye should be situated, 
 and he will also discover numerous holes which serve the 
 purposes we have already alluded to ; save one placed near 
 the lower edge of the orbit, which allows of the secure loca- 
 tion of an important vessel called the lacrymal duct. The 
 bones of the face and of the skull unite to form the orbit, 
 which has no distinct bone allotted to it. 
 
 The orbit is composed of eight bones, yet the two orbits 
 are formed by only fourteen bones ; because the ethmoid and 
 sphenoid, which are both single bones, enter into the forma- 
 tion of each orbit. 
 
 The bones which enter into the composition of the orbits 
 are the sphenoid, squamous temporals, ethmoid, and frontals; 
 the lacrymal, malar, palatine, and superior maxillaries ; thus 
 four come from the face, and a like number from the cra- 
 nium. The cup of the orbit is chiefly made up by the 
 ethmoid, sphenoid, palatine and squamous temporals. The 
 rim of the orbit consists of the frontals, the lacrymals, the 
 malars, and the superior maxillaries. 
 
 THE FACE. 
 
 The face is principally formed by the protrusion of the 
 nose, which in this animal is carried so far as to form by 
 far the largest portion of the head. It has two large open- 
 ings (the nostrils), divided by a cartilaginous wall {Plate 
 VI. a), the septum; within the nasal passages are two 
 bones rolled round, and composed of very fine osseous net- 
 work ; upon these lie the vascular and highly sensitive 
 membrane of the nose, within which resides the sense of 
 smell (Plate VII. a, h). The nose, however, does not extend 
 from the skull to the most forward point of the head ; 
 behind the passages of the nostrils are situated several 
 comparatively large, vacant spaces, termed the frontal facial 
 (Plates W. and\\l. d), and maxillary sinuses. The use 
 of these spaces is not very well understood. Two things, 
 
 f2 
 
68 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 however, are cei-tain ; that they aid the voice and add to 
 the characteristic beauty of the countenance. Of the latter 
 fact every body can judge, and with regard to the first it 
 may be proper to state that the foal in whom these spaces 
 are absent squeaks when he attempts to neigh. 
 
 The face consists of nine pairs of, and two single bones ; 
 the pairs being the inter-maxillary 1, superior maxillary 2, 
 nasal 3, lacrymal 4, malar 5, palatine 6, pterygoid 7, infe- 
 rior turbinated 8, superior turbinated 9 pairs, or 18 bones; 
 the single bones being the vomer 1 , and the inferior maxillary 
 2, making 20 bones in all. 
 
 1 . These bones will demand but brief notice. The inter- 
 maxillary contains the superior incisor teeth, and is pierced 
 by a hole, through which runs the terminations of the 
 palatine artery ; this hole is called the foramen incisivum. 
 
 2. The SUPERIOR maxillary bone is the largest bone of 
 the face ; it forms the largest portion of the palate, has a 
 division of its plates posteriorly, by which division the 
 maxillary sinuses are formed, holds the molar teeth of the 
 upper jaw, and is externally marked with a prominence 
 called the zygomatic spine {Plate I. e), from which the 
 external masseter muscle has its origin. 
 
 3. The NASAL BONES compose the most forward and 
 uppermost portion of the nostrils ; they both come to a 
 sharp peak in front {Skel. d), and behind their plates divide, 
 forming sinuses which are continuous with those of the 
 frontal bone. 
 
 4. The MALARS form a portion of the rim of the orbits, 
 and give rise to the levator labii superioris muscles. 
 
 5. The LACRYxMALS also enter into the rim of the orbits, 
 and have a small spine upon their facial surface for the tendon 
 of the orbicularis muscle to originate from. Upon its 
 orbital surface there is a slight depression near to the outer 
 side, for the origin of the inferior oblique muscle, and a 
 hole for the commencement of the lacrymal duct. 
 
 6. The PALATINES form the most posterior border or ter- 
 minating arch of the palate, and their wings enter into the 
 composition of the orbit. 
 
 7. 8. The SUPERIOR and inferior turbinated {Plate 
 VII. a and h), are situated within the nasal cavity, in the 
 situations which their names imply. 
 
THE LOWER JAW. 69 
 
 9. The PTERYGOID are two thin plates of bone, placed 
 behind the palate bone, and at the base of the cranium. 
 
 1. The LOWER JAW {SkeL B), or inferior maxillary, is 
 sufficiently described in other parts of this work. 
 
 2. The VOMER lies upon a groove upon the upper surface 
 of the palatine portion of the superior maxillaries, and is itself 
 deeply grooved for the reception of the cartilaginous nasal 
 septum {Plate VI. a), the entire bone being within the nose. 
 
 THE LOWER JAW. 
 
 The mouth is formed by the two jaws conjointly (Plate 
 VII. c), and in each is fixed an equal number of teeth, viz. 
 six grinders on either side, or twelve in each jaw {Skel. c) ; 
 two tushes in each jaw, or four in both {Skel. b) ; six nippers 
 or incisors in each jaw, or twelve in the two {Skel. a), making 
 altogether forty teeth. The lower jaw constitutes the base 
 of the mouth, and on the outer side of it are placed several 
 glands which pour forth a large quantity of saliva during 
 the time the animal is eating. The use of this fluid thus 
 emptied upon the food which is being masticated between 
 the teeth is to render it moist, so that it may ultimately 
 become a soft mass, and be in a state fit to be swallowed. 
 Within the large branches of the lower jaw are contained 
 the tongue, the fauces, the pharynx, the hyoidal bone or bone 
 of the tongue, part of the larynx, and some glands, the use 
 of all and each of which, for none are useless, we shall have 
 to point out in their proper places hereafter. 
 
 The upper jaw, beside containing half of the teeth, forms 
 the top of the mouth, on which are formed certain indenta- 
 tions running from side to side, the projecting parts being 
 termed the bars {Plate VII. i). From the middle of the 
 upper jaw hangs down the soft palate {Plate VI. /, and Plate 
 VII. I), which constitutes the back of the mouth. The soft 
 palate rests upon the posterior part of the tongue {Plate 
 VI. e). Being attached to the upper jaw shghtly forward, as 
 w^el] as in a crescentic form, it slopes backward to its resting 
 place ; thus situated it forms a barrier to any substance 
 passing into the mouth which is ejected by the stomach ; 
 but allows any thing to pass W'ith perfect ease which may 
 be propelled from the mouth towards the stomach. The 
 sides of th^ movith consist of flesh which, on its inner surface, 
 
70 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 is lined with a very rough skin, having its points facing back- 
 ward ; thus serving to aid the palate in retaining whatever 
 substance may have entered the mouth to be masticated. 
 
 The front of the mouth is formed partly by the teeth and 
 partly by the lips, the upper of which is the prehensile organ 
 in the horse, as by means of this he is able, when feeding 
 off the ground, to gather the grass together in sufficient 
 quantities for a bite ; to turn over the hay in his rack ; and 
 even nicely to select certain portions as well as to reject 
 others. The lips also are the principal seat of feeling in the 
 animal, a fact apparently wtII known to man, as he selects 
 this part on which to apply that torturing instrument — the 
 twitch. 
 
 On the side of the upper part of the head, behind the 
 place where it is connected by a joint with the lower jaw, is 
 a small projecting canal, which is the opening to the internal 
 ear (Skel. l) ; but as this organ, as well as its outward ap- 
 pendage, belongs to another part of our subject, we must 
 at present do no more than allude to them. 
 
 THE TEETH. 
 
 The substances which enter into the formation of tooth are 
 bone, enamel, and crusta petrosa. These three are perfect 
 when the tooth enters the mouth, and lay one under the 
 other. The crusta petrosa is the outer covering, of a dark 
 colour and tolerable thickness. It was formerly mistaken for 
 tartar, covering and dirtying the teeth ; but that it is not 
 tartar is shown by its always covering young teeth, and 
 being absent from the fi*ont of old horses when the attrition 
 consequent upon gathering the food has worn it off; there- 
 fore whiteness in teeth is no sign of youth in the horse. 
 The crusta petrosa is a dark, tough, and highly organized 
 substance, covering the whole of the fang, and following 
 the enamel wherever it bends or dips into the windings upon 
 the table of the tooth. 
 
 The enamel lies next under the crusta petrosa, and con- 
 sists of a thin layer of very brittle unorganized and crys- 
 talline substance ; it principally coats the crown of the 
 tooth, being very thin up the fang, which it only partially 
 envelops. 
 
 The main bulk of the tooth consists of bone, which is 
 
THE TEETH. 71 
 
 tough, and of a yellowish colour, not so dark as the crusta 
 petrosa, but much darker than the enamel, which last is 
 perfectly white. It has an opening at the point, or bottom 
 of the fang, which leads to a cavity that contains the vessels 
 and nerves that nurture the substance of the tooth, as well 
 as endow it with feeling. 
 
 Now, when we properly consider the services to which 
 the horse's teeth are put, viz. to nipping off and grinding 
 up the food, the use of these three substances is perceived. 
 The enamel, which is brittle as glass, yet being firmly en- 
 closed between two tough substances, is preserved from 
 chipping or breaking ; but being protected acts with the 
 efficiency of steel. It is usually the least worn of the 
 three materials that enter into the composition of the tooth, 
 projecting comparatively far beyond them, 
 
 A tooth is divided into fang, neck, and crown. The fang- 
 is placed in the jaws, and fixed firm into certain cavities in 
 the bones of each jaw ; whence it is propelled upward into 
 the mouth as age advances, the lower part of the cavity 
 closing up as the fang enters the mouth. The fangs then 
 form the teeth of very old horses ; upon this the enamel 
 being in parts deficient, and where it exists very thin, we 
 can easily see a reason why the teeth of old horses, com- 
 posed almost entirely of crusta petrosa and bone, should 
 appear yellow or discoloured. 
 
 The neck is that part of the tooth which narrows as it 
 meets the gum, the point of narrowing being termed " the 
 neck.'" There is no neck to be discovered in the perma- 
 nent, but it is well marked in the temporary teeth. 
 
 The crown is that part of a tooth which can be seen by 
 a spectator upon opening the mouth. Thus, as age pro- 
 gresses, and part of the fangs are pushed into the mouth, 
 every portion of a fang so projecting from the gum becomes 
 the crown of a tooth. 
 
 The teeth of the horse have been thought to be endowed 
 with growth to meet the wear of years ; so undoubtedly 
 they are, but not to the extent that has been imagined. 
 The chief loss of substance is supplied by the cavity in 
 which the fang is situated becoming more shallow, and thus 
 pushing down, or lifting up, the tooth into the mouth. 
 
 The double teeth of the horse perform the office of 
 
72 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 grinding, and are placed on either side of the jaws, rather 
 to the back of the mcuth. The same substances enter into 
 their composition as form the nippers. Thus the bone, being- 
 yielding, gives way under the grinding process, and by its 
 action becomes indented. The crusta petrosa, being soft, 
 also is carried off, save where it clings to the side, as a pro- 
 tector. The enamel being very hard, and between both, 
 projects above either, and thus keeps the surface sharp, or 
 admirably adapted to perform its office. 
 
 Six molars are placed close together, on either side of 
 each jaw ; then there is a vacant space, then a tush on 
 either side of each jaw ; then another space, and then six 
 incisors ; thus the teeth of the horse do not, like the 
 teeth of man, form a continuous line, but occur as it were 
 in patches, and in this manner the teeth of the great 
 majority of the brute creation are placed in their heads. 
 
 The use of the tushes Mr. Percivall, in our opinion, 
 rightly conjectures to be as weapons of offence. Mr. Per- 
 civall's judgment is, however, much contested by some 
 writers, who appeal to the worn state of the tushes in age 
 as proof conclusive of the unsoundness of that author's 
 decision. But the wear is consequent on the bit introduced 
 into the horse's mouth, which the animal could hardly be 
 supposed to possess, in any state of nature they may please 
 to imagine. Did these gentleman objectors ever observe 
 the tushes in a stallion kept for service ? If so, they must 
 at once relinquish their ideas of these teeth not being long 
 enough to be used as weapons of offence. The horses kept 
 for this purpose scarcely ever have a bit put into their 
 mouths, and the tushes become of exceeding length. The 
 animal, as it at present comes into our possession, may not 
 use the tushes as weapons of offence, but then it has been 
 so domesticated, that we need not wonder if very many of its 
 habits are entirely forgotten or abandoned. 
 
 It now becomes our duty to speak of the manner in 
 which the temporary teeth are removed, and the permanent 
 projected into the mouth. This takes place by absorption. 
 The harder substance, in the living body, seems to yield and 
 be governed by the softer : thus the bones of the skull are 
 regulated, as to their size and dimensions, by the magnitude 
 of the brain ; the extent of the ribs is subservient to the 
 
THE BONY TRUNK. 73 
 
 size of the lungs ; and the very tooth itself, in spite of its 
 hardness, gives way before the pressure of the newly formed 
 organ, which as yet is incapable of doing any work, never 
 having seen the light. As the new tooth shoots up the 
 fang of the incisor is absorbed, and when it is entirely re- 
 moved of course the crown falls out of the mouth, leaving 
 a vacant space, which the new organ is destined to fill. 
 It is otherwise with the molars. When the fang of the 
 molar is absorbed, the temporary tooth does not fall 
 out, but the absorption is continued to the crown, a 
 great portion of which also is removed, leaving the grinding 
 surface as a protection to the new tooth. When this 
 grinding surface is, by the process of absorption, reduced 
 to great thinness, and the permanent molar is well up, or 
 into the mouth, the covering of the old tooth falls off, and 
 there is a new member fully formed and ready to supply 
 its loss. 
 
 The reason of this is very apparent. A horse with four 
 nippers can gather enough food to support life ; but serious 
 ills would occur if a molar were absent, even for a single 
 day. The continued presence of the more important teeth 
 is thus provided for. 
 
 The horse has been said to cut his teeth with ease, but 
 Mr. Percivall, in his lately finished work, entitled " Hippo- 
 pathology," records cases where the animal has been seri- 
 ously affected during the process of dentition. Nothing is 
 easier than to conclude those who are dumb undergo no pain ; 
 but any man, with proper feeling, has only to look into the 
 horse's mouth, at the time of shedding the teeth, and to 
 behold the swollen, inflamed, and bleeding condition of the 
 gums, to be convinced that Mr. Percivall's is the truer 
 statement. 
 
 THE BONY TRUNK. 
 
 The osseous structure of the trunk comprises the neck, 
 the back, the haunch, the ribs, and the breast bones. 
 
 The neck consists of seven, the back of eighteen, the 
 loins of six, the top of the pelvis, or sacrum, of five, and 
 the tail, generally, of from thirteen to eighteen vertebrae, 
 or distinct bones ; the whole forming what is termed 
 the spine. The spinal bones are divided into different 
 
74 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 parts, on account of the varieties they possess ; but thej'- 
 have some characteristics in common, each being composed 
 of a spongy body, and parts protruded therefrom, called joro- 
 cesses. These processes often unite to form a hollow, through 
 which the spinal marrow is transmitted : they also furnish 
 surfaces of articulation with each other, as well as by their 
 bodies anteriorly and posteriorly ; by their means the sur- 
 faces of attachment are increased, and the strength of the 
 spinal chain is thereby rendered very great. Though but 
 little motion is allowed between any two of these bones ; yet 
 the flexibility of the whole spine is considerable ; by which 
 wise contrivance the spinal marrow, nerves, and blood- 
 vessels, are not liable to compression. 
 
 The neck bones, or cervical vertebrae (see Skel. C, C) are 
 the largest of the spinal chain. Their spinous, or upward 
 projecting processes {Skel. s, s, s, s, s) are indistinct ; but on 
 each side of the body a considerable prominence branches 
 out into two transverse processes (Skel. u, u, u, u, u) : at the 
 common base of these is seen a foramen for the passage of 
 the vertebral arteries and veins. Each vertebra likewise is 
 indented posteriorly, into which hollow, the most forward 
 part of the body, the next vertebra fits ; and from the sides of 
 each bone, before and behind, a piece is wanting, which defi- 
 ciency is termed the notch; and when the bones are together 
 these notches in one, meet those of another bone, and thus 
 is formed a circular hole, or foramen, through which the spinal 
 nerves emerge. The bones are united together by articular 
 cartilages, dense capsular ligaments, and all the appendages 
 of a joint. Above the arch, where the spinal marrow is 
 protected, are several oblique articulating processes {Skel. 
 r, r, r, r, r). It will be evident, from the strong means 
 employed for the articulation of the bones of the neck, not 
 only by the round head and corresponding cavity, but more 
 particularly by their oblique processes, that no dislocation 
 can easily take place between any of these vertebrae ; for 
 when such an accident does occur the animal inevitably dies 
 from the compression of the spinal marrow, which accident 
 is usually called breaking the neck. 
 
 The back, or dorsal vcrtehrre, are eighteen {Skel. I to the 
 last 3). These bones do not essentially differ from each 
 other except in the length of their spinous processes, which 
 
THE BONY TRUNK. 75 
 
 in the first twelve is considerable, for the purpose of giving 
 a long lever to the shoulder muscles. It is these processes 
 that give height to the withers ; and as they are covered 
 with muscles that act powerfully, so their length is 
 of great consequence to progi'ession. Their four oblique 
 processes are small, as well as their transverse. They arti- 
 culate with each other by their anterior and posterior sur- 
 faces, and by their oblique processes : each also articulates 
 with two ribs, one upon either side. As they advance they 
 increase in size, and are pierced by the spinal canal equally 
 enlarged. Between each is interposed a substance of the 
 mixed nature of cartilage and ligament, which is most com- 
 pressible at its sides, permitting the motion of the spine, 
 and forming, by the solidity of its centre, a fulcrum, or pivot, 
 for the bones to move on. This interposed substance loses 
 its elasticity in the old horse, and becomes nearly converted 
 into bone ; to which we may attribute that stiffness in old 
 horses when attempting to rise after lying down ; and the 
 want of that springy gait which is felt when upon the back of 
 the young horse. 
 
 The bones of the loins, or lumbar vertebras (Skel. 4, 4, 4, 
 4, 4, 4), have somewhat larger bodies than the bones of the 
 back, and broader spinous processes. Their transverse pro- 
 cesses bear no comparison to those of any other vertebrae ; 
 being extended out to supply the place of the ribs, and to 
 afford attachment to the muscles of the back : the last 
 unites with the sacrum (Skel. 5, 5, 5, 5, 5). 
 
 With the loins, the true vertebrae end ; and here it may 
 be as well to speak of the peculiarities appertaining to them. 
 The head and first bone of the neck have very free motion, 
 principally upwards and downwards, as when the horse 
 tosses his head. The joint formed by the next bone of the 
 neck with the first has likewise a very easy movement, but 
 it is chiefly towards either side, or rotatory, as when the 
 animal shakes his head or looks round about it. The re- 
 maining neck bones move very freely altogether, though 
 but slightly upon one another ; they come into play whenever 
 the horse turns his head to one side or to the other, as 
 likewise when he raises the head upward, or bends it 
 downward. 
 
 The bones of the back have the least motion of all ; their 
 
76 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 function being to confer strength (for which purpose they 
 are very short, and very closely locked together), and to 
 permit of the motion of the ribs. 
 
 The bones of the loins have more motion, particularly 
 the last, which is rather loosely articulated with the first 
 bone of the sacrum. This gives to the horse a facility of 
 rearing up ; an act which he could never perform, were the 
 last lumbar vertebrae as firmly fixed as most of the other 
 bones of the spinal column. 
 
 The spinal column serves to hold and to safely lodge the 
 spinal marrow, there being holes in the sides of the bones 
 which admit of the passage of the spinal nerves. The bones 
 already referred to are termed true vertebrae, because they 
 have all the processes and uses belonging to the most perfect 
 of these bones. The rest, to be mentioned hereafter, are 
 termed false, because one or more of the processes are 
 wanted, and their functions are limited. 
 
 The top of the pelvis, or the sacrum {Skel. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6), 
 is in the very young foal composed of five pieces of bone ; 
 but long before the animal becomes an adult the bones are 
 united, and the whole then consists of one piece. In this 
 latter view we choose here to regard it as one bone ; for 
 there are other bones in the body, the pieces of which are 
 not united till after the sacrum, and yet by anatomists these 
 last are considered to form one bone. The sacrum, then, 
 which constitutes a continuation of the spine, is composed 
 of irregular vertebree, because the spinal marrow does not 
 descend so far as this bone, but only nerves travel along its 
 internal canal ; because it is gifted with less motion than 
 true vertebrae, and because also it is deficient in some of 
 the processes and articulations. 
 
 We said it had less motion. It has no lateral motion, 
 though it is able to be elevated at its front part consider- 
 ably ; and for this reason forms a true synovial joint with 
 the haunch bone. 
 
 The haunch bone, or rump bone, or basin, or pelvis, 
 named ossa innominata (Skel. E), is said to be formed of 
 six bones, for the like cause as the sacrum is said to con- 
 sist of five. We here, however, choose to regard it as one. 
 It is one solid piece, of almost a circular form ; but open 
 before and behind, and at the top, into which last place the 
 
THE BONY TRUNK. 77 
 
 sacrum fits. Before articulating with the forward part of 
 the sacrum its most anterior portion constitutes the pro- 
 jecting hip of the Iiorse (Skel. 9, 9). A Httle lower, and 
 more backward than the joint of the spine {Skel. 10) , lies the 
 cup for the reception of the head of the femur, or the round 
 bone, as it is termed by jockeys {Skel. d) ; and its hinder- 
 most part projects backwards, forming the points of the 
 rump {Skel. c, c). The interior of this bone contains im- 
 portant organs ; within it are held the rectum ; the urethra 
 of the male, and the vagina of the female ; a portion of the 
 bladders of each, with the womb of the mare. All of these 
 are vital organs ; for on the proper performance of the 
 functions of each life itself depends. 
 
 It is as well, having stated our own views, to describe 
 those entertained by most anatomists. The ilium is the 
 most forward, broadest, and highest portion of the innomi- 
 nata {Skel. a). It has two spines ; a superior, which lies 
 close to the sacral spine, and an inferior, somewhat more 
 forward than the last {Skel. 9, 9). The ilium, and all the 
 other bones composing the haunch, are supposed to meet 
 about the cup of the round bone {Skel. d). The pubis {Skel. 
 h) forms the floor of the pelvis, and the ischium is the most 
 posterior portion {Skel. c, c). Its two projecting promi- 
 nences being designated the spines of the ischium. 
 
 To complete the spine there remain the tail bones to be 
 enumerated {Skel. 7, 7, 7, &c.). These at first bear some 
 resemblance to vertebrse, but ultimately dwindle to very 
 thin and short round pieces of bone, like to little pieces of 
 hollow stick. They, however, possess one peculiarity ; the 
 two bones in apposition do not fit one into the other by means 
 of a shallow cup and ball joint, but each meets the next by 
 a rounded kind of projection, and nothing can be imagined 
 better calculated to facilitate perfect freedom and play of 
 action than two balls meeting together. Hence, we can 
 easily comprehend how the tail is enabled to be switched 
 about in every direction without fear of dislocation. 
 
 The neck always consists of seven bones. In animals 
 with the longest and the shortest necks this holds good ; 
 the number of bones forming the neck of any animal is 
 never more than seven. Creatures of the sloth species used 
 
78 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to be thought to have eight neck bones, but that which was 
 once considered the eighth bone of the neck is now re- 
 garded as the first bone of the back, only varied in forma- 
 tion, to enable the animal, which passes its life hanging 
 pendulous from trees, to freely turn its head so as to see 
 what takes place below it, or upon the earth. The number 
 of bones which form the other compartments of the spine 
 are not fixed ; indeed bones, as a general rule, are subject 
 to constant variations, as the instances of born-deformities 
 sufficiently testify. 
 
 The chest is composed of part of the spine, of the back, 
 of the ribs, and the breast bone. 
 
 The breast bone is composed of sev^eral pieces of bone 
 embedded in the cartilage ; the latter material, however, 
 preponderating. To it the lowermost parts of most of the 
 ribs are attached, and in form it is something like the keel 
 of a slftp, being rounded in front, or turned upwards, and 
 having a ridge projecting along its centre the entire length 
 {Skel. V, v). Its posterior portion is flattened and expanded 
 like to the tail of a fish. This expanded portion serves to 
 receive several of the abdominal muscles, and is well shown 
 in (Plate y III. I). 
 
 The ribs are narrow and semicircular pieces of bone, at- 
 tached above to the spine of the back, and below to the breast 
 bone. They are, however, not composed of bone through- 
 out ; but the lower portion is formed of cartilage. The eight 
 first ribs are termed costse or " true ribs " {Skel. w), because 
 each has a distinct insertion into the breast bone ; the re- 
 mainder are called false ribs {Skel. y), because they only are 
 connected with the breast bone through one another. The 
 central rib is the longest, but the last is gifted with the 
 freest motion. The posterior edge on the inner surface of 
 each has a groove within which the vessels and nerves are 
 protected. The bottoms of the ribs are attached to the 
 breast bone by means of ligament, excepting the first rib, 
 which on account of its possessing more motion than 
 any other of the true ribs has a synovial articulation. 
 All the ribs form synovial joints with the spine of the back 
 {Skel. z, z, z, z) , and each is gifted with motion which takes 
 place forward and outward ; the true ribs being more imme- 
 
THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 79 
 
 diately moved forward, and the false ribs more directly- 
 urged outward ; but both moving in both directions during 
 respiration. 
 
 THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 These extremities bear but little resemblance to the 
 human arm, particularly in those quadrupeds, as the horse, 
 who have a limb ending in a single hoof, toe, or phalange : 
 in those with several toes, the resemblance is much nearer, 
 till in the fore extremities of the ape they differ little but in 
 the thumb, which forms a bad antagonist to the fingers. It 
 appears a very wise provision of nature, to have given a 
 colt very long limbs at birth, that the form of parts might 
 not be afterwards much altered ; but, at the same time the 
 hinder ones are by much the longest ; because, were the fore 
 equal to the hind, the young animal would have been too 
 much elevated from the ground, and rendered incajDable of 
 grazing, or even of sucking conveniently. 
 
 The shoulder-blade or scapula (Skel. Q) is a broad and 
 rather triangular bone, applied to the outside of the ribs, so 
 that its apex reaches downward between the first and second 
 ribs, and a portion of its base as far back as the seventh. 
 It is, therefore, situated obliquely, with its broadest extremity 
 above, and its narrowest extremity below. Its internal 
 surface is slightly hollowed and smooth ; its external is 
 divided into two unequal portions by a projecting ridge or 
 spine (Skel. h). Its anterior edge, as it continues down, 
 contracts inwards, and ends in a blunt rounded extremity 
 (Skel.f). Its superior surface is furnished with a consider- 
 able cartilage, covered with strong ligamentous fibres ; by 
 means of which the surface of muscular attachment is much 
 increased : yet with little addition to either weight or bulk, 
 and without the liability to fracture which would have been 
 incurred had the cartilage been bone. The posterior edge 
 of the scapula inclines inwards, and ends in its neck, the 
 bulging part immediately below the neck presenting a 
 shallow cup to receive the head of the arm bone {Skel. g). 
 The projecting ridge or spine divides the outer surface into 
 two unequal portions, of which the hindermost is the largest 
 {Skel. d and c). 
 
 The arm hone or humerus {Skel. R) is strong, short, and 
 
80 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 very unlike the same bone in man. It extends from what 
 is called the point of the shoulder to the elbow, forming an 
 angle with the scapula. At the anterior part of the upper 
 extremity it stretches out into a round head ; having about 
 it a circular indentation for the insertion of the capsular 
 ligament of the joint, which it forms with the apex of the 
 shoulder bone. The most forward part of the extremity is 
 usually termed the point of the shoulder, and over this 
 part there plays a very strong tendon which aids in the 
 motion of the lower limb. This tendon, almost of a carti- 
 laginous hardness, is flattened out, effectually preventing 
 any dislocation of this joint. The body of the humerus 
 presents an external tuberosity, for the insertion of muscles : 
 proceeding downwards, it terminates in two rounded bodies 
 that are termed condyles {Skel.j), which are received into 
 articular cavities in the superior extremity of the radius {Skel. 
 I) , and allow of the limb being bent and straightened. In the 
 front of this extremity is a cavity to receive the protube- 
 rances of the radius, in the greatest flexions of the fore arm; 
 and behind there is a very deep depression for the recep- 
 tion of the bone of the elbow {Skel. k), when it is again ex- 
 tended. 
 
 The fore arm is composed of two bones, the most forward 
 of which is called the radius {Skel. T, T), and the most 
 backward the uhia {Skel. S, S). These are separate in the 
 young subject, but become so intimately united in the old 
 horse, as to be by some, and without any great impropriety, 
 described as one bone. In common parlance, the site of 
 these bones is known by the terms arm and the elbow. The 
 radius is the long cylindrical bone giving the chief support 
 to the body, and having two nearly equal extremities {Skel. 
 I, m). The superior end is flat, and receives into its arti- 
 cular depressions the condyles of the humerus : it presents 
 anteriorly tuberosities for the attachment of muscles, and 
 posteriorly a surface for the ulna. Its body is slightly 
 bent anteriorly {Skel. T), and its inferior extremity (see 
 Skel. m) is furnished with eminences, covered with cartilage, 
 which articulate with the first bones of the knee or carpus 
 {Skel U). 
 
 The knee or carpus {Skel. V) must be the same with the 
 wrist in man. In most of the articulated skeletons there 
 
THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 81 
 
 are seven principal carpal bones; in the recent subject, when 
 the horse is carefully dissected, there is always found an 
 osselet of the shape and size of a pea, situated behind 
 the trapezoid, with which it is articulated. With this, 
 the knee consists of eight bones : the upper articulates 
 with the inferior extremity of the radius ; and the low-er with 
 the superior of the cannon and the two small splent bones. 
 Six of the eight bones are to be seen from the front ; ranged 
 in two row^s ; of which the top one is the thicker ; each row 
 being composed of three bones. Tlie three upon three, how- 
 ever, do not join both in the same place ; but have articula- 
 tions similar to bricks in a wall ; that is, the two uppermost 
 are joined upon the middle of a solid bone beneath. Each 
 of these row'S have free articular surfaces, both above and 
 below ; as though they composed but one bone, being smooth 
 and plentifully lubricated by synovia. Their motion, also, 
 is greater in one direction ; the rows being capable of such 
 separation as allows the heel to touch the fore arm. Turn- 
 ing to the hind part of the knee, we can see two additional 
 bones. The very small pea-like one, situated against the 
 lower row ; and a large rounded square bone {Skel. n), arti- 
 culating with both rows ; and projecting out a considerable 
 distance from the other bones of the knee. The reason of 
 this projection is to afford leverage for the hold of tendons 
 through which muscles exert their power ; and likewise to 
 afford a shield or protection to the back sinews or flexor 
 tendons, which pass between this bone and the others of 
 the knee. 
 
 The reason for forming the knee of so many distinct 
 bones is very apparent. Concussion is lessened by a divi- 
 sion of parts ; a fact well known to man, who hangs out 
 sand and cotton-bags to break the force of cannon balls, or 
 take off the concussion of the blow. This result is mate- 
 rially aided by the synovia, or fluid between the different 
 rows ; and hence we find the effects of concussion below 
 rather than above the knee. The bones, moreover, though 
 bound closely together by means of ligaments, and each 
 individually fixed, nevertheless, as a whole, admit of con- 
 siderable lateral motion. Thus a powerful wrench, to which 
 the foot in progression is exposed, may take place without 
 dislocation. 
 
82 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The shank, or metacarpal region, consists of one large 
 and two small bones, which last are known by the name 
 of splents. The cannon is a plain cylindrical bone {Shel. 
 V and K), having its two extremities rather enlarged, the 
 superior of which articulates with the second row of the 
 knee {Skel. U) : posteriorly its head is indented into two 
 surfaces, receiving the two splents, one upon either side. Its 
 inferior surface is formed into two condyles {Skel.p) ; divided 
 by an eminence, with which it articulates with the great pas- 
 tern {Skel. Y) and the sessamoid bones {Skel. X), in a manner 
 that preserves the utmost freedom of flexion and extension ; 
 yet denies any lateral motion which would have detracted 
 from the necessary strength of the joint. The splents are 
 placed one on each side of the posterior part of the cannon ; 
 each having a superior articulating surface uniting it with 
 the carpal bones, and likewise a synovial articulation with 
 the upper extremity of the cannon. As they proceed 
 downwards they taper ; and are less closely bound by a fibro- 
 cartilaginous union (that is, by a union composed partly of 
 cartilage, partly of ligament) ; terminating at about two- 
 thirds the length of the cannon bone, by an unattached 
 button-like extremity. 
 
 The purpose of this mixed union of fibro-cartilage, is to 
 allow of motion ; though, at the same time, to hmit it. It, 
 however, gives such play as renders the rider conscious of 
 elasticity in the animal's motions upon wdiich he is mounted. 
 Any extra weight, is very apt to put this connecting 
 substance to the stretch ; when it inflames ; becomes vas- 
 cular ; hot, and painful ; and is ultimately converted into 
 bone, which gives the name to the part ; the bony forma- 
 tion being called a splent, and the small bones being like- 
 wise so termed. The inner splent bone is more liable to 
 the disease than the outer ; and for two supposed reasons, — 
 firstly, as is said with much plausibility, because it is more 
 under the centre of gravity; and, secondly, because it 
 receives the entire weight of one of the lower row of the 
 bones of the knee ; and hence is more likely to be driven 
 downwards, or put upon the stretch. 
 
 The large pastern hone {Skel. Y) is the first of an oblique 
 pile, which terminates the extremities of the horse. The 
 great pastern bone is cylindrical, and inclined obliquely for- 
 
THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 83 
 
 ■\Yard (see Skel.) . Upon its length and obliquity the ease and 
 elasticity of the motion of the animal greatly depend : never- 
 theless, when these properties are very considerable, it must 
 require a corresponding effort in the tendinous and liga- 
 mentous parts to preserve it in its situation ; hence very long- 
 jointed horses are weaker, and more liable to become strained 
 than others. Its superior surface receives the greater part 
 of the inferior surface of the cannon : posteriorly it articulates 
 with the sessamoids ; and interiorly with the small pastern. 
 The body of the bone is much smaller than its extremities. 
 
 The sessainoids {Skel. X) are two small w^edge-shaped 
 bones, situated at the point of the fetlock, exactly behind 
 the inferior head of the cannon ; and also articulating wdth 
 the back of the upper part of the great pastern bone ; to 
 both of which they unite very closely, fitting into depres- 
 sions suited to their prominences. With the cannon the 
 connexion is very close ; by means of a ligament, through 
 which, and by the nature of their situation, they support a 
 portion of the stress and weight of the body imposed upon 
 these bones. They are placed side by side ; with their 
 thinner portion pointed upwards, and their thicker and 
 more obtuse part downward ; by which latter they are firmly 
 attached to the pastern bone by strong fibres, as well as by 
 the suspensory ligament. Between and behind them a 
 hollow is left, through which the flexor tendons slide with 
 freedom and partial security. 
 
 The use of these bones is more important than, from 
 their size, a casual observer might be disposed to think. 
 Their strongest attachment is to the great pastern bone ; 
 their w^eakest to the suspensory ligament. But then they 
 are very closely united to the cannon bone, and the liga- 
 ment before named ; pressure from behind, from the flexor 
 tendons, also serves to force them into, and to keep them 
 in their right places. They can move downward, because 
 their connexions admit of motion in that direction ; but only 
 to a certain distance ; because the connexion to the sus- 
 pensory ligament prevents it ; and because the flexor tendons 
 pressing on them behind hinder them from descending very 
 low. The force which displaces them, or causes them to 
 descend, is the cannon bone ; when in progression it is 
 thrown backward. In horses, with very oblique pasterns, 
 
 g2 
 
84 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 part of the cannon bone always rests upon the sessamoids ; 
 and we can readily understand how such a formation must 
 contribute to weakness ; as well as to the grace of the 
 animal's paces, and the ease of the rider. Horses, with 
 very erect pasterns, hardly ever have the sessamoids de- 
 pressed by the cannon bone ; hence we can account for 
 their want of elasticity, as well as danger to themselves, 
 when put beyond a walk. 
 
 The lesser pastern, or coronet hone (Shel. Z), receives the 
 great pastern ; its largest extremity being placed below. 
 The eminence on the top of this bone is received into the 
 depression at the bottom of the large pastern. Upon its 
 sides are two projections ; which are intended to receive the 
 ends of the perforatus tendon. Its lower articulating sur- 
 face is very large ; showing it has a vast extent of motion. 
 It rests upon the coflfin and navicular bones ; and as the last 
 is another moveable bone, yielding to weight ; and as the 
 coronet bones in horses with long pasterns have neces- 
 sarily greater motion than those with short ; we can further 
 understand the reason for those quahties which such a con- 
 formation would bestow. 
 
 The coffin bone {Skel. P) is a very peculiar one. In shape 
 it corresponds with the hoof; which, with its appendages, it 
 almost fills : in structure it is very porous ; having its bony 
 fibres perpendicularly placed so as to give it a rough linear 
 appearance. When viewed in front, an eminence is seen at 
 the upper part ; to which the tendon of the extensor pedis 
 is attached : its lateral parts are not so high, but pro- 
 ject farther back ; and form two lateral processes, which are 
 always distinct, and are called its wings. Upon the inner 
 surface of these wings is a groove for an artery, which 
 forms a semicircle within the substance of the bone, and 
 sends off branches to the internal and external parts. 
 Above the wings are concavities which receive the two side 
 cartilages of the foot. Around the outer surface of the 
 coffin bone are placed the sensible laminse ; w'hich are very 
 firmly attached to the roughened exterior. The inferior 
 surface of the coffin bone is concave, for the reception of 
 the sensible sole ; and though this part is far from smooth, 
 yet it is by no means so rough as the other parts of the 
 same bone. The porous nature of the coffin bone answers 
 
THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 85 
 
 three intentions : First, it gives lightness as well as solidity 
 to the foot. Secondly, it affords protection to the nerves 
 and vessels which ramify within its interior ; and which could 
 not travel on the outer surface without suffering serious 
 pressure from the great weight of the horse. Thirdly, it 
 gives ample hold to the various structures covering its 
 exterior ; and thus bestows strength and durability to the 
 entire machine. 
 
 The nut, the shuttle, the quiltor, or the navicular bone, is 
 situated behind the coffin bone, between the two wings. Its 
 upper surface is continuous with the articulatory surface of 
 the coffin bone. Its lower surface rests on the perforans 
 flexor tendon ; which tendon also rests upon the insensible 
 frog ; which again has the sensible frog and the tough and 
 flexible horn of the external fi'og on its lower side. Its 
 motion is downward ; and in this direction it would appear 
 to be amply protected. By its upper surface it helps to 
 sustain the vast weight of the animal ; yet between it and 
 the coronet bone there is only synovia to break the force. 
 Nor does it require any thing more ; however much to the 
 contrary it may appear to the inexperienced reader ; for to 
 the force from above it is yielding. The upper surface of 
 the bone is never injured ; but the lower surface driven 
 further downward whenever the coronet bone travels back- 
 ward, — the inferior surface though, as it would seem, amply 
 protected by the synovial capsule ; by the perforans tendon ; 
 by the sensible frog ; by the insensible frog ; and by the 
 tough horny frog, — is the situation of one of the most 
 terrible and fatal scourges that horse-flesh is heir to, viz. 
 navicular disease ; because, in this direction, the bone is 
 propelled against and bruised by any inequality of the 
 ground. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 These differ much from the anterior ; not only in the 
 strength of the parts generally, but in the length and direc- 
 tion of the bones entering their formation. 
 
 The femur, or thigh hone {Skel. F), is the largest, thickest, 
 and strongest in the body. It is, however, short in the 
 horse, as compared with that of most other animals : its 
 surface exhibits eminences, and indentations for the attach- 
 
86 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ment of the most powerful muscles. From its upper ex- 
 tremity extends the neck {Skel. e), supporting the rounded 
 head {Skel. d), by which it is articulated with the pelvis. 
 Within the head is a cavity, giving origin to -djlat ligament, 
 which retains the hcEid of the bone in its situation : below 
 the head is inserted the capsular ligament. Upon the 
 middle of the inner side of the bone is a small eminence, 
 called the internal trochanter {Skel. h). Immediately in 
 front, and slightly behind the head of the bone, is a large 
 eminence, known as the great trochanter {Skel.f) ; below it 
 is a small projection, named the small external trochanter 
 {Skel. g). The use of each and of all these projections is 
 to give greater surface for attachment, and thus aid the 
 action of muscles. The lower end of the bone has two 
 large round surfaces or condyles {Skel. j). The stijle hone 
 {Skel. G) glides over the front of two prominences, called 
 trochlea {Skel. k). Behind the bone, above the condyles 
 previously mentioned, there is an indentation that affords 
 origin to the gastrocnemei muscles {Skel. i) which form the 
 calf of man. 
 
 The stifle hone, ov patella {Skel. G), belongs to the class 
 of sessamoid bones, and is the largest in the body. This 
 order of bones are of a loose cellular structure ; having a 
 quantity of ligamentous fibre running through their interiors, 
 or mixed up with their bony material. They are of much 
 utility ; as they serve to aid motion ; and in the horse are, 
 save the patella, always found favouring the flexion of the 
 limbs. The stifle bone is of an irregular shape ; its outer 
 surface is roughened, for the insertion of numerous liga- 
 ments and tendons ; its inner surface articulates, or glides 
 over the front of the lower part of the femur ; its upper 
 border is connected with a powerful tendon, given off by a 
 muscle called the rectus ; and from its lower surface, which 
 is narrow or pointed, arises a muscle which serves to extend 
 the limb, — the flexor metacarpi magnus. So, on every side 
 that can bear attachment of a tendon, the patella, which is 
 not of more than the size of a man's palm, is connected 
 with muscles, or the organs of motion. Indeed the hind 
 leg cannot be moved in any direction without the stifle 
 changing its position. 
 
 The tibia {Skel. H) is a large bone, situated within that 
 
THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 87 
 
 part which is properly the leg. It is of a long and triangular 
 shape ; connected on the outer side with a mere representa- 
 tive of a bone, which in the horse is not altogether absent, 
 called the fibula {Skel. m) . Of course the tibia has two ends. 
 The top, or upper surface (Skel. I), has two slightly hollow 
 places, divided by a ridge ; upon which hollows the two semi- 
 lunar cartilages of the stifle joint repose. Its bottom, or 
 lower surface {Skel. n), presents three eminences; between 
 which the two projecting parts of one of the bones of the 
 hock exactly fit. The parts thus fitting present rather 
 more than one-third of a circle; and of course admit of 
 extensive motion. The projecting portions on the lower 
 surface, upon the inner and outer parts, present two pro- 
 minences ; which are perfectly natural, though by the igno- 
 rant often mistaken for bone spavin. The most forward 
 part, just above the low^r surface of this bone, lies imme- 
 diately under the skin ; hence it is very liable to be 
 fractured. In situ it will be found placed obliquely back- 
 ward, as the femur is obliquely forward ; forming with that 
 bone an obtuse angle. The superior extremity presents an 
 anterior flat protuberant surface, for receiving the patella. 
 
 The Jibula {Skel. m) appears more designed to keep up 
 that beautiful connexion which we observe throughout ani- 
 mated nature, than for any great use in the machine. It 
 is attached by a synovial surface to the superior part of 
 the tibia ; being placed with its base upwards and its 
 point directed below ; reaching a third of the length of the 
 tibia, to which its lower point is attached. 
 
 The tarsus, or hock {Skel. /), is a most complex and im- 
 portant joint ; and though it consists of several bones, 
 these are so intimately united as to appear a solid mass. 
 The astragalus, or knuckle bone, presents a very irregular 
 figure {Skel. o). Its upper and anterior surface is pulley- 
 like ; having two remarkable partially circular risings, sepa- 
 rated by an intermediate depression ; which risings arti- 
 culate with tlie lower end of the tibia. Posteriorly it has 
 several surfaces of attachment with the calcis {Skel. p) ; 
 receiving the eminences of that bone into considerable de- 
 pressions : and in other places it is closely connected to 
 other bones articulating with the great cuneiform, the 
 cuboid, and others. 
 
88 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The OS calcis is placed nearly behind the joint ; into 
 the point of which bone the tendon of the gastrocnemius 
 internus muscle is inserted : the longer therefore this pro- 
 cess is, the longer is the lever this muscle has to act upon ; 
 and a very slight increase or diminution in the length of 
 this bone must enlarge or lessen the power by which the 
 motion of the joint is effected. It is by tendons that the 
 lower part of the limb is moved ; having been bent by the 
 muscles misnamed extensors, by such means the angle be- 
 tween the cannon and the tibia is enabled again to open. 
 The calcis is placed so as to rise from the joint, rather 
 externally ; and this formation leaves a space on the inner 
 side for the flexor tendons of the foot to pass protected from 
 pressure ; the calcis anteriorly articulates with the depres- 
 sions of the astragalus. 
 
 The remaining bones are more wedge-like ; and principally 
 serve to increase the surface of attachment. The large 
 cuneiform, or great wedge-like bone, is placed under the 
 astragalus, and articulates withtt: posteriorly its internal, 
 as well as part of its inferior surface, articulates with the 
 cuboid : it has likewise, posteriorly and inferiorly, a small 
 surface of attachment with the little cuneiform. Imme- 
 diately behind this, on the outer side, appears the cuboid, 
 resting inferiorly on the external small splent, or metatarsal 
 bone {Skel. L), and part of the cannon {Skel. K) : it has 
 likewise a surface of attachment with the great cuneiform. 
 The lesser, or inner cuneiform, is situated more posteriorly 
 on the inner side ; its principal portions articulate with the 
 great cuneiform superiorly ; and with the cannon as well as 
 the internal small splent, or metatarsal bone, inferiorly. 
 The cuneiform medium is seen in front of the hock, articu- 
 lating by its superior cartilaginous surface with the great 
 cuneiform, and inferiorly with the head of the cannon, or 
 great metatarsal. 
 
 The bones of the hock are not so nicely placed for 
 description as those of the knee ; the entire joint appears 
 more irregularly bound together. A student would con- 
 clude it possessed but little motion. Such, however, is not 
 the fact ; in truth, it is endowed with more movement than 
 the more symmetrical knee. The motion between the astra- 
 galus and tibia is alone equal if not superior to that of the 
 
THE POSTERIOR METATARSALS, &C. 89 
 
 whole knee. Then between the inferior bones, of which 
 there are two imperfect rows, there is a kind of rotatory 
 grinding movement, that allows the animal to move the 
 limb to a certain degree outward ; for if horses swung their 
 hoofs in very quick action, nearly as close as they are 
 placed, they would then be sadly in danger of cutting ; and 
 from the superior power of the hind muscles, of cutting very 
 severely ; especially as the speed prevented any great care 
 being taken in directing the foot. The lower part of the 
 hock, for the same reason as was alluded to when discussing 
 the knee, receives the principal shock when the foot reaches 
 the ground ; in consequence of this it is often the seat of 
 incurable lameness ; and even more often is united by bony 
 junction to the great cannon bone. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR METATARSALS, CORONARY, AND COFFIN BONES. 
 
 These bones have so much general resemblance to those 
 of the fore extremities, that I shall only point out the par- 
 ticular variations which occur in them. The large meta- 
 tarsal, or cannon bone {Skel. K), is longer, and altogether 
 larger than that of the anterior extremity ; it is articulated 
 above with the lower part of the hock, and below with the 
 great pastern and sessamoids {Skel. Mand N). The external 
 small 7netatarsal {Skel. L) is considerably larger than the 
 internal ; articulating superiorly with the cuboid, and late- 
 rally with the cannon. The great pastern bone is longer ; 
 and its situation is less oblique, which constitute its prin- 
 cipal differences. The sessamoids of this limb are two ; and 
 do not differ from those already described. The coronary 
 hone (Skel. 0), resting more on the coffin, and less on the 
 navicular bones here than in the anterior limb, shows that 
 the leg has a more extended movement than the fore limb ; 
 the hind, especially in the gallop, being brought far under, 
 as well as propelled a great distance behind the animal. 
 In the coffin bone {Skel. P) the articulation is deeper ; the 
 reason of which appears to be, that, as a horse has fre- 
 quently to support his whole weight on his hinder extremi- 
 ties, so it was necessary that these bones should be opposed 
 to each other in a more direct line, whereby they acquire 
 
90 OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE. 
 
 strength ; the loss of elasticity thus occasioned is, however, 
 amply made up by the formation of the hock. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE. 
 
 The appendages to bone consist of cartilages, periosteum, 
 medulla, ligaments, and synovia. 
 
 Cartilages may be divided into four kinds : articular, inter- 
 articular, non-articular, and temporary. Considered gene- 
 rally, cartilage (familiarly called gristle) is a smooth, minutely 
 fibrous, white, elastic substance ; less hard than bone ; 
 and when in health having no vascularity. 
 
 Articular cartilages furnish the extremity of every bone in 
 which there is much motion ; being in form of a layer, which 
 is thickest at the point of extreme pressure. By these 
 means the bones slide easil}?^ on one another ; and the elas- 
 ticity of the interposed cartilage prevents the effects of that 
 concussion which must otherwise take place between two 
 such inelastic bodies as bones, being driven forcibly to- 
 gether. 
 
 The non-articular cartilages may be divided into the at- 
 tached and unattached. Attached cartilages are such as are 
 placed on the ends of bones not articulated ; as the point of 
 the hip ; sides of the foot ; edges of the orbits, &c. They 
 are likewise interposed between bones immoveably joined 
 together. The cartilages of the ribs are of this kind ; and 
 afford flexibility to parts that would otherwise have but 
 little. The division of the nostrils is an attached cartilage ; 
 serving the purpose of bone. The unattached cartilages 
 serve to sustain parts without adhering to any bone ; those 
 of the ears and larynx are familiar instances, A variety 
 exists, which may be named fibro-cartilaginous, from its 
 partaking of the properties of both cartilage and ligament ; 
 such are those between the splent bones, &c. The tem- 
 porary cartilages are those of which the ends of bones are 
 formed in young animals ; they become very vascular ; that 
 they may be the more easily converted into bone as the 
 other organs become fully ossified. There are but six 
 
OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE. 91 
 
 inter-articular cartilages in the horse's body ; two between 
 the articulations of the lower jaw ; and two within each of 
 the stifle joints. They are peculiar only for their situation ; 
 and in no way differ from other substances of the same 
 description. The powers of life in cartilages, though small, 
 yet are fully evinced by their liability to take on inflam- 
 mation ; and to ossify, which disposition appears more com- 
 mon and universal in those of the horse species than of any 
 other known animal ; there being very few cartilaginous 
 parts in him that have not been found partially converted 
 into bone ; either by age, or the stimulus of great exertion, 
 &c. ; from which we readily perceive why stiffness and 
 want of elasticity are the consequences of these states ; from 
 the elasticity of the cartilages decreasing. The ulceration 
 of cartilage, from its slight vascularity, is necessarily very 
 slow ; as we witness in its attack on the navicular bone ; 
 and in the lower bones of the hock ; but from the stimu- 
 lating effects of the atmosphere this ulceration proceeds 
 much quicker at the ends of bones, where an opening into 
 the joint has been made. It is not ascertained that true 
 cartilage is ever reproduced ; but a cartilago-Hgamentous 
 substance is substituted sometimes by healthy granulations. 
 
 The periosteum is a general investing fibrous membrane to 
 bones ; receiving different names as it covers different parts ; 
 that investing the skull being called pericranium, &c. The 
 uses of the periosteum appear to be to act as the medium 
 whereby vessels are assisted in the ingress and egress to 
 part of the bone ; and also to afford attachment to tendons. 
 Periosteum, in a healthy state, has no sensation ; but, like 
 some other parts, wlien diseased it becomes very sensitive. 
 
 The medulla or marrow is a soft fatty matter, deposited in 
 the interior of bones ; particularly of the long ones, by means 
 of little membranous sacs, which do not communicate, or 
 the marrow would gravitate ; and which, as keeping the 
 unctuous matter distinct fi'om the bones, convinces us that 
 the use of this oil is not that of preventing brittleness in 
 them. The medullary vessels secrete the marrow within 
 these cells ; which secretion, being in itself wholly in- 
 organic, confutes the foolish notion of the exquisite sensi- 
 bility of the marrow. 
 
92 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Ligaments are dense, white, fibrous substances, of gi'eat 
 tenacity ; either cord-hke as tendons, or expanded into 
 more flat layers. Under still greater tenuity, ligament 
 becomes a common membrane in every part of the body, 
 under the name of fascia ; but it is more particularly appro- 
 priate to bones ; hence it is generally described with them. 
 Ligaments have usually but little inelasticity ; when however 
 they are of a yellow colour they are highly elastic ; as witness 
 the ligament of the neck ; the ligamentous substance cover- 
 ing the abdominal muscles, &c. Some of them partake of 
 the nature of cartilage, and are hence called cartilaginous 
 ligaments ; being hard and little vascular. 
 
 The synovia is a fluid popularly, but erroneously, termed 
 joint-oil; for it is not unlike the white of an egg, and is 
 secreted by the fine membrane lining the interior of joints. 
 Its lubricating use is very great ; for without it, the attrition 
 between the articulated ends of bones would painfully inter- 
 fere with motion : but by this slippery medium they readily 
 slide over each other, without pain or difficulty. This fluid 
 may be secreted in undue quantities ; and then forms dropsy 
 of the joint ; which is not, however, frequent in the horse, 
 excepting in the hock-joint, when it is called bog spavin. 
 Bursal dropsy, under the name of wind-gall, is sufficiently 
 common. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II. 
 
 THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE ; SHOWN BY DEPRIVING THE 
 ANIMAL OF HIS SKIN, AND THE GREATER PART OF THE 
 PANNICULUS CARNOSUS. 
 
 1, Levator anglioris ; 2, levator labii superioris ; 3, re- 
 tractor labii superioris ; 4, zygomaticus ; 5, caninus ; 6, 
 buccinator ; 7, retractor labii inferioris ; 8,8, the tracheal 
 portion of the panniculus carnosus, which, reflected over the 
 masseter externus muscle, ultimately extends to the mouth, 
 and there forms the retractor anglioris ; the portions turned 
 back in the engraving denote whence the thin muscle has 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 93 
 
 been dissected; 9, the orbicularis occuli ; 10, the tempo- 
 ralis; 11, II, the orbicularis oris; 12, 12, 12, the levator 
 humeri, showing the manner it is associated with and acts 
 upon i, the fascia covering the fore leg; 13, the splenius, 
 covered by fascia ; 14, the parotid gland and the abductor 
 conchse ; a, the trapezius ; b, the latissimus dorsi ; c, the 
 postea spinatus ; d, the antea spinatus ; e, the teres ex- 
 ternus ; /, the scapula ulnarius ; g, the caput magnum of 
 the triceps extensor brachii ; h, the caput medium of the 
 triceps extensor brachii ; j, the pectoralis magnus ; k, k, k, 
 k, k, the serratus magnus ; /, /, the obliquius externus abdo- 
 minis and its yellow elastic fascia ; m, the gluteus maximus ; 
 n, the gluteus externus, deprived of its fascia, which braces 
 the gluteus maximus ; o, o, o, the three heads of the triceps 
 abductor tibialis ; p, the biceps retractor tibialis ; q, the 
 tensor vagina ; r, the fascia of the hind leg ; showing how 
 it is acted upon by the muscles of the haunch. 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscle is that part in an animal we term flesh, in dis- 
 tinction from skin, cartilage, bone, membrane or fat, &c. ; 
 and the phenomena it exhibits are so universal, that it pro- 
 bably exists in every living creature ; though we are not able 
 to detect it in some animals. Muscles appear composed 
 generally of reddish bundles of fibres laid alongside of each 
 other ; divisible into lesser fibres of the same figure. When 
 a mass of these bundles is connected together into a deter- 
 minate form, it is then called a muscle : and as the motions 
 of an animal are very various ; and the circumstances under 
 which they are brought about equally so ; the peculiar shape 
 these motive masses take on is very different. Muscular 
 fibre not only exists in determinate masses, but it appears 
 to be spread over almost the whole of the body ; and it has 
 been very judiciously remarked that our ideas of it are pro- 
 bably much too limited. 
 
 We have said muscles are red ; so the external and part of 
 the internal, forming the vast majority of the body, decidedly 
 are of this colour ; but there exists within the abdomen 
 another kind of muscle, which is not only without colour, 
 but wholly removed from the influence of the will. These 
 muscles are found forming the middle coat of the sto- 
 
94 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 mach, intestines, bladder, uterus, &c. They are purely of 
 a white hue ; and are put in motion entirely by mechani- 
 cal means, that is by the amount or condition of their con- 
 tents. Of this last description of muscle we shall have to 
 speak more at length when discussing the various organs to 
 W'hich it appertains. 
 
 That which is, however, generally understood by a muscle, 
 is a distinct body, having- a determinate action. The vascu- 
 larity of muscles is extreme ; and their power is connected 
 with the blood which circulates w^ithin them ; for when de- 
 prived of a part of it, they become weak ; and if it be 
 wholly lost, they will die, or lose all their force. On the 
 contrary, by exertion, which is but another term for increased 
 vascularity, since motion forces more blood into them, they 
 enlarge in size, in strength, and colour. Thus a limb which 
 has lost its feeling, and is freed from the control of the will, 
 may by continued artificial motion be made to retain its 
 original hue and bulk. From the extreme vascularity of 
 muscles, their powers are very great ; they are also plenti- 
 fully supplied with nerves and absorbents. They sympathize 
 greatly with other parts ; and other parts with them ; thus 
 if a muscle be greatly injured, the head, stomach, heart, 
 bowels, &c. are disordered ; and if another important struc- 
 ture be hurt the muscles assume a disordered condition : 
 few persons, during severe illness, being disposed to move 
 W'ith alacrity. Nevertheless muscles possess their peculiar 
 faculty ; which is to contract or shorten, and thereby pull 
 closer any loose part into which they or their tendons may 
 be inserted. During contraction, they become thicker and 
 harder ; and alter their shapes, but do not increase in bulk. 
 This power is dependent on the will in muscles, which are 
 termed voluntary ; and in the involuntary on appropriate 
 stimulus, as light to the iris. This obedience to the action of 
 stimuli has been called their irritability ; and exists for some 
 time after death. If, however, the nerves going to voluntary 
 muscles are pressed upon or tied, they lose their power 
 of motion, or become incapable of obeying the commands 
 of the will : hence it w^ould appear, that nervous influence 
 is the proper stitmilus, for the performance of their inherent 
 functions, to voluntary muscles. Neither can the will force 
 the muscles to contract beyond the capacity of their physical 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 95 
 
 powers ; and hence, after exertion, they become fatigued, 
 and at last powerless. 
 
 Voluntary muscles are to be found composing the chief 
 substance of the arms, legs, back, mouth, &c. They have 
 points which are called their origin, or from which they are 
 anatomically said to take their rise ; also other points with 
 which their substance, or the tendons springing from them, 
 are connected ; which are called their points of insertion. 
 The point of origin is generally some bone of somewhat a 
 fixed character ; and that of insertion also a bone, but one 
 that can be moved with more or less ease. It is by moving 
 this last that their power or utility is displayed ; sometimes, 
 however, both insertion and origin are equally moveable ; 
 and then they cannot draw one towards the other, but force 
 the two closer together, by contracting or lessening the 
 space between them. Voluntary muscles have usually 
 antagonists ; whereby the perpetual tendency to contraction 
 is counterbalanced. The muscular masses are commonly 
 invested by a cellular or membranous covering ; which in 
 some instances is very dense, called /«5cm ; whereby they are 
 bound down and assisted in their action. 
 
 There is another kind of muscles denominated mixed ; 
 that is, such as the muscles of respiration ; over which we 
 can exercise a certain, but not an absolute control. Thus 
 we can hold our breath for a limited time ; but by no effort 
 of which he is capable can man prevent his breathing 
 altogether. 
 
 Tendons. — These hang from or form continuations of 
 muscles ; they are almost all of them fixed into the 
 periosteum of bones, which they help to pull ; thus serving to 
 lengthen the muscle, and allowing its action to be asserted 
 at a distant point, without necessitating an increase in 
 either the bulk or weight ; which would have been impera- 
 tive, had the muscle been in substance extended to the 
 point that a comparative small tendon can reach with ease. 
 They are of a firm glossy nature ; and of an almost metallic 
 lustre ; perfectly insensible when in health ; but causing the 
 most intense pain when inflamed. They possess great 
 strength. During life, however, the tendons snap before 
 the nmscles ; after death the muscles always yield the first. 
 
96 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 They have but little vascularity, and hence are not readily 
 absorbed ; consequently the necessity of releasing pus when 
 beneath fascia, which is nothing but expanded tendon with 
 another name. A certain degree of pulling is necessary 
 for their well being ; but any tension beyond this creates 
 pain, and tendons, when distended or sprained, are accom- 
 panied with exquisite torture ; therefore we are assured 
 tendons are possessed of vitality ; as their granulating and 
 ultimately joining when divided further convinces us. They 
 are of various forms ; and the substance of which they are 
 composed is called cellular tissue, which is largely distri- 
 buted throughout the body. 
 
 Levator humeri {Plate II. 12). 'Arises from the mastoid 
 process of the petrous temporal bone ; from the wing of the 
 atlas; from the posterior of the dentator; from the transverse 
 processes of the third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae ; 
 and the lower portion of the ligamentum nuchse. Is inserted 
 into the humerus ; to gain which it passes between the flexor 
 brachii and humeralis muscles, being also connected with the 
 brachial fascia. Action : we have named the origins and 
 insertion, but this muscle has no fixed point. When the 
 head is fixed it will draw the anterior extremity forward ; 
 when the legs are fixed one muscle contracting will pull the 
 head to that side, or both muscles acting will curve the neck 
 downward. 
 
 Latissimus dorsi {Plate II. h). Origin : by fine tendons 
 from the fascia lumborum, and the ligamentum supra spi- 
 nalis ; and as far forward as the third dorsal spine. In- 
 sertion : into the inner side of the humerus, by tendon, 
 which joins that of the teres internus muscle. Action : to 
 retract the humerus, and aid in bracing the muscles of 
 the back. 
 
 Trapezius {Plate II. a). Arises partly by tendon, partly by 
 fibre, from the summit of the second, extending as far back 
 as the fourteenth dorsal spine. Insertion : by tendon into 
 the spine of the scapula. Action : this muscle is very 
 useful in drawing the scapula upwards and backwards ; and, 
 therefore, must be a powerful assistant in progression. 
 
 Rhomboideus is one muscle, though generally described 
 as two, a longus and a brevis. Arises from the ligamentum 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 97 
 
 supra spinalis, as far forward as the third cervical vertebrae ; 
 and as far backward as the fifth dorsal ; and is inserted into 
 the inner surface of the cartilage of the scapula. Action. 
 It aids the serratus magnus, as well as keeps the cartilage of 
 the scapula close to the trunk. 
 
 Serratus magnus {Plate II. k). Origin. From the trans- 
 verse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh 
 cervical vertebrae ; from the entire length of the first, second, 
 third, and fourth ribs ; and into diminishing surfaces of the 
 fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs. Insertion. Into the 
 cartilage and venter of the scapula. It is that portion only 
 of this muscle which goes to the eighth, seventh, sixth, and 
 fifth ribs and digitates with the external oblique. Action. 
 To move the scapula in progression ; and also to enlarge the 
 chest, by drawing the true ribs forward and outward when 
 standing still. 
 
 OF the anterior extremity. 
 
 SuBSCAPULo-HYOiDEUs (Plate III. /i). Originates: ante- 
 riorly, by fibre from the spur process of the os hyoides. 
 Inserted : posteriorly by fine tendon to the inner side of 
 the shoulder. Action : to draw the os hyoides dowmwards ; 
 and to a slight extent to aid in pulling the shoulder forward. 
 The muscle passes between and over important parts, divid- 
 ing the jugular vein from the carotid artery ; and covering 
 the par vagum, sympathetic, recurrent, and phrenic nerves, 
 besides lymphatics and conglomerate glands. 
 
 ScAPULO-ULXARius {Plate III. 1. Plate 11./. Fig 1.5). 
 Originates : by tendon from the olecranon ; and is inserted 
 into the posterior angle of the scapula. There is another 
 muscle inferioiiy situated, which usually is cut off with the 
 scapulo-ulnarius ; though it is distinct. Action. To flex the 
 scapula upon the humerus. 
 
 Teres externus {Plate II. e) . Arises: from the spine of the 
 scapula ; and is inserted into the small trochanter, upon the 
 humerus. There is likewise an additional muscle, usually 
 separated with the teres externus. Action. This muscle 
 acts with the teres internus serving to flex the scapula 
 upon the humerus. 
 
 Teres internus {Fig 1.3). Originates : from the poste- 
 rior angle of the scapula ; to be inserted into the body of 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 OF TIIR MUSCLES. 
 
 the humerus, upon the inner side. Action. It is described 
 with the foregoing rnuscle. 
 
 Antea spinatus (Plate 11. d. Fig 1.1). Origin. From 
 the anterior fossa of the scapula ; a small portion of the 
 cartilage of the scapula ; and the neck of the coracoid pro- 
 cess of the bone. To be inserted into the head of the 
 liumerus ; the capsular ligament ; and the bursal mem- 
 brane of the flexor brachii. Action. To draw the scapula 
 forward upon the humerus ; and also to extend the humerus, 
 when it is flexed upon the scapula. 
 
 PosTEA SPINATUS (P/«^e II. c) . Originates: from the car- 
 tilages and the posterior fossa of the scapula ; and is inserted 
 into the capsular ligament ; and outer tubercle of the 
 humerus, by tendon — undeiiieath which there is a bursa ; 
 — it gains the ridge extending from the trochanter of the 
 humerus. Action. To oppose the foregoing muscle. 
 
 FIG 1. 
 
 INSIDE OF THE SCAPULA. 
 
 1, 1, The antea spinatus. 
 
 2, Subscapularis. 
 
 3, Teres iuternus. 
 
 4, Caput magnum of ti'iceps ex- 
 
 tensor pedis. 
 
 5, Seapulo-ulnarius. 
 
 G, A distinct muscle, without a 
 
 name. 
 7, A portion of the caput medium. 
 8, 8, Humeralis. 
 9, Caput parvum. 
 
 10, Coraco humeralis. 
 
 1 1 , Flexor bi'achii. 
 
 SuB-scAPULARis (Fig 1.2). Origin. From the venter 
 of the scapula to the neck of the bone ; and to the cora- 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 99 
 
 coid process of the scapula. Insertion. Into the capsular 
 ligament ; and into the inner tubercle of the humerus. 
 Action. To prevent the abducting power of the antea mus- 
 cles. Acting' singly it would slightly adduct the humerus. 
 
 These last three muscles are copiously intersected by fascia, 
 which endows them wdth endurance ; as well as enables them 
 to act in the place of ligaments to the shoulder-joint. 
 
 Triceps extensor brachii (has three heads) : — Caput 
 MAGNUM {Plate II. g. Plate III. 2. Fig 1.4). Arises: from 
 the posterior margin of the scapula ; from a ridge extending 
 along the neck of the bone, upon the outer side ; and from 
 the capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. Insertion. 
 Into the posterior of the olecranon. 
 
 Caput medium {Plate II. k. Plate III. 3. Fig 1.7). 
 
 FIG 2. 
 
 deep-seated muscles in- 
 side OF the HUMERUS. 
 
 1, The coraco humeralis. 
 
 2, Humeralis. 
 
 3, Flexor brachii. 
 
 4, Caput parvum of the triceps ex- 
 
 tensor brachii. 
 
 5, Minimus. 
 
 Origin. From a ridge upon the outer side of the humerus. 
 Insertion. Into the outer part of the olecranon. 
 
 Caput parvum {Fig 2.4). Arises : from the body of 
 the humerus. Inserted : into the inner side of the olecranon 
 
 H 2 
 
100 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 by tendon common to the three heads. Action of the three 
 heads. These muscles are much used in draught, in pushing 
 the body against the collar ; or in forcing the fore leg under 
 the body. Between the point of the olecranon and the 
 tendon common to the three heads there is a bursa mucosa. 
 
 HuMERALis {Fig \ . 8 ; Jig 2 . 2; Jig S . 2). Origin. 
 From the inner and upper side to the radius ; whence it takes 
 a spiral course, to be inserted into the posterior part of the 
 head of the humerus. Action. To pull down the humerus ; 
 to raise the radius ; and to co-operate with the flexor brachii. 
 
 Anconeus {Fig 3.3), Origin. From the inner side of 
 the ulna. Insertion. To the sulcus behind the inferior head 
 of the humerus ; and to the capsular ligament. Action. To 
 co-operate with the triceps extensor brachii ; and to guard 
 the capsular ligament. 
 
 CoRACO HUMERALIS {Fig \ . 10 ; ^'^ 2 . 1). Origin. By 
 tw^o heads from the body of the humerus ; and by the tendon 
 common to the teres internus and latissimi dorsi. Insertion. 
 Into a small bulb, upon the inner side of the coracoid pro- 
 cess of the scapula. Action. To pull the scapula erect ; 
 or to extend the humerus. 
 
 ScAPULO HUMERALIS MAJOR {Fig 3 . 1). Origin. From 
 the upper part of the body of the humerus. Inserted. Into 
 the neck and posterior margin of the scapula. Action. To 
 flex the humerus or scapula. 
 
 ScAPULO HUMERALIS MINOR. Origin. From the neck of the 
 scapula, by tendon. Inserted. Into the head of the humerus 
 upon the outer side ; and to the capsular ligament. Action. 
 To aid the major ; and to guard the capsular ligament. 
 
 Minimus {Fig 2 . 5). The smallest muscle in the body of 
 the horse. Origin. From the posterior of the neck of the 
 scapula, hisertion. Through the substance of the humeralis, 
 into the posterior of the humerus, near the neck of the bone. 
 Action. To protect the posterior of the capsular ligament. 
 
 Flexor brachii {Plate III. 5. Fig \ . 11; Jig 2 . 3). 
 Origin. From the coracoid process of the scapula, by strong 
 tendon. Insertion. By flattened tendon, to the inner side of 
 the upper head of the radius, underneath the lateral ligament. 
 
 This muscle forms a cartilaginous joint with the trochlea 
 of the humerus ; and has a synovial membrane to facihtate 
 its movements. Near to the insertion of the flexor brachii 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 101 
 
 it sends off an auxiliary tendon to the extensor raetacarpi 
 magnus. Action. To draw the scapula forward ; and through 
 its auxihary tendon to raise the fore arm. 
 
 The muscles of the arm, which remain to be dissected, 
 are characterized by having fleshy belhes, terminating in 
 long tendons ; most of them having distinct fascial sheaths ; 
 all the more important originating from the lower head 
 of the humerus. They are divided into extensors and 
 flexors : four extensors and seven flexors. An eighth 
 flexor, answering to the pronator teres, has been described 
 by Dr. Knox of Edinburgh ; but, never having been able 
 to find that muscle, I conclude it is sometimes encountered, 
 yet is not invariably present. 
 
 FIGS. 
 
 DEEPEST-SEATED MUSCLES AT 
 THE BACK OF THE HUMERUS. 
 
 1, The scapulo-humeralis major. 
 
 2, Humeral is. 
 
 3, Anconeus. 
 
 Extensor metacarpi magnus {Plate III. 0. 16). Origin. 
 From the ridge extending from the outer condyle of the 
 humerus, by tendon, which is likewise common to the ex- 
 tensor pedis. Insertion. To the anterior of the upper head 
 of the cannon bone, by strong tendon. 
 
102 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 This muscle receives a tendon from the flexor brachii ; 
 which ultimately joins the Extensor Pedis ; and runs to its 
 insertion. Near to the extremity of the radius, the tendon 
 of this muscle is crossed by that of the Extensor metacarpi 
 obliquius. 
 
 Extensor pedis {Plate III. 7) . Originates : from the outer 
 side of the humerus. Insertion. Into the os suffraginis ; 
 the OS corona; and the coronal process of the os pedis. 
 Action. To co-operate with the extensor metacarpi magnus ; 
 to extend the leg and foot ; and to counteract the influence of 
 the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus. 
 
 Extensor suffraginis {Plate III. 9) . Arises: from the head 
 of the radius ; and from the junction of that bone with the 
 ulna. Inserted: into the head of os sufli'aginis by long 
 tendon. Action. To co-operate with the pedis in the ex- 
 tension of the leg ; and also to incline the pastern joint 
 outwards. 
 
 Extensor metacarpi obliquus {Plate III. 8). Origin. 
 From the middle of the posterior margin of the radius. 
 Insertion. To the posterior of the knee, by tendon, which 
 can be traced to the pisiform bone. Action. To brace down- 
 ward the other extensors ; and to aid in extending the meta- 
 carpal bone. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi internus {Plate III. 13). Origin. 
 From the condyle of the humerus. Insertion. To the back 
 of the head of the inner splent bone. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi medius {Plate III. 14). Origin. From 
 the inner condyle of the humerus ; and by a slip of fibre 
 from the side of the ulna. Insertion. Into the trapezium. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi externus {Plate III. 10). Origin. 
 From the external condyle of the humerus by tendon. In- 
 sertion. To the trapezium, by half its tendon ; and by the 
 other half to the outer splent bone. 
 
 Action of the flexor metacarpi: the three contract in 
 unison, and serve to flex the radius ; helping to bend the 
 knee. 
 
 Flexor pedis perforans et perforatus {Plate 111. 11. 
 15) arise: by tendon, fi'om behind the inner condyle of the 
 humerus. The fleshy belly, however, soon divides into two 
 halves ; from each of which proceeds a separate tendon. 
 These tendons, for distinction, are called the perforans and 
 the perforatus. 
 
OF THE MUSCLES, 103 
 
 Insertion of the perforatus tendon : which below the knee 
 is the posterior of the two. Into the sides of the os corona, 
 by a division of its substance. 
 
 Insertion of the perforans tendon. Into the inferior and 
 posterior of the os pedis. These tendons, in their pro- 
 gress, receive two bands or accessory ligaments ; which 
 prevent them, when put on the stretch, distressing the 
 muscular fibre. The superior originates from the posterior 
 and inferior of the radius ; and goes to both the tendons. 
 The inferior comes from the bottom row of the knee bones, 
 and the head of the large metacarpal bones ; and goes almost 
 entirely to the perforans. 
 
 There may also be seen above the knee ligamentous 
 bands, uniting the perforans to the perforatus. 
 
 The perforans and perforatus tendons. The perforans 
 originates from the smallest muscular belly. After the two 
 have received the superior accessory ligament, they pass 
 through the synovial space at the back of the knee ; the 
 perforans here being grooved for the reception of the per- 
 foratus. Above the knee the perforans also receives the 
 tendons of the accessory flexors ; and thus, increased in 
 bulk, comes forth below the knee the most anterior of the 
 two ; the perforatus being semicircular for the protection of 
 the perforans. About the upper third of the large meta- 
 carpal bone the perforans receives the inferior ligament. 
 In this position the tendons journey to the fetlock joint ; 
 where the perforatus expands, and embraces the perforans 
 all round. The sheath thus formed is synovial within and 
 without. Without for gliding upon the sessamoid bones; and 
 within for the free passage of the perforans. This sheath is 
 continued a short distance, when the perforatus divides, 
 going to either side of the os corona. The perforans, after 
 it emerges from the sheath, proceeds above the elastic frog 
 to below the navicular bone, to be inserted into the sole of 
 the OS pedis. There is a synovial capsule between the 
 lower surface of the navicular bone and the upper surface 
 of the tendon ; the joint so formed being the seat of navicular 
 disease. 
 
 Flexor ulnarius accessorius {Plate III. 12). Origin. 
 From the inner side and lower border of the ulna. Inserted. 
 Close to the trapezium, into the perforans, by long tendon. 
 
104 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Flexor radialis accessorius. Origin. From the middle 
 of the hind surface of the radius. Inserted. Into the per- 
 forans by long thin tendon, on a level with the os trape- 
 zium. 
 
 Action of the perforans and perforatus with the tivo acces- 
 sory muscles. They flex the cannon ; bend the pastern ; 
 and curve backwards the foot, which they assist in raising 
 from the ground. 
 
 NECK AND BREAST. 
 
 Pectoralis transversus. Origin. From the fascia upon 
 the inside of the arm. Insertion. Over the cariniform pro- 
 cess of the sternum ; where it joins its fellow, and has a 
 certain degree of motion. Action. To adduct and to retract 
 the limb. 
 
 Pectoralis anticus. Origin. From the anterior half of 
 the cariniform process of the sternum ; and from the body 
 of the sternum ; and cartilages of the first four ribs. In- 
 sertion. Into both sides of the scapulo-humeral joint ; and 
 into the tendon covering the antea spinatus. Action. To 
 draw the shoulder back ; or, the leg being fixed, to pull the 
 body forward. 
 
 Pectoralis magnus {Plate II. J). Origin. From the 
 yellow aponeurosis of the external oblique ; from the ensiform 
 cartilage ; from the cariniform process ; and from the fifth, 
 sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs. Insertion. Into the inner 
 tubercle of the humerus ; and by tendon, which unites wath 
 that of the coraco-humeralis, into the coracoid process of 
 the scapula. Action. To co-operate with, but to act with 
 more activity than, the pectoralis anticus. 
 
 The great use of the pectoral muscles is to aid the mus- 
 cles of the haunch in the propulsion of the trunk. Their 
 blood is supplied by the external pectoral artery, and by 
 branches coming from the internal artery. The nerves are 
 twigs originating from the intercostals. The veins empty 
 into the axillary root. 
 
 Splenius {Fig 4 . 1. Plate II. 13). Origin. By fine 
 tendon, common also to the complexus major, from the 
 anterior six dorsal spines. Insertion. Into the ligamentum 
 colli ; into the occipital ridge, by tendon, common also to 
 the trachelo mastoideus ; into the petrous temporal bone ; 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 105 
 
 and wing of the atlas ; as well as into the second, third, 
 fourth, and fifth cervical transverse processes. Action. One 
 muscle contracting would draw the head to that side ; both 
 would curve the neck, and operate in the rapid movements 
 to raise the head. 
 
 FIG 4. 
 
 THE NECK, WITH THE LEVA- 
 TOR HUMERI REMOVED, 
 
 1, The splenius. 
 
 Trachelo mastoideus (Plate III. 3). Origin. From the 
 transverse processes of the first two dorsal vertebrae ; and 
 the oblique process of the last cervical vertebrae. Insertion. 
 Into the temporal bone and wing of the atlas; by tendon, 
 which is common also to the splenius. Action. — Separate 
 action. To turn the head, or bring it to one side. Combined 
 action. These muscles might be regarded as continuations 
 of the longissimus dorsi. They will fix the neck in rearing 
 and leaping ; or assist in raising and keeping steady the 
 head. 
 
 CoMPLEXUS MAJOR (Plate III. 2). Origin. By tendon, 
 common also to the splenius, from the anterior six dorsal 
 spines ; and by tendon, likewise shared by the longissimus 
 dorsi, into the transverse processes of the same dorsal ver- 
 tebrae. Insertion. Into the occiput ; and into the last six 
 cervical vertebrce. Action. To aid the ligamentum colh in 
 supporting the head. Its thick short, intersected, muscular 
 
106 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 fibre endowing it with strength and endurance for that pur- 
 pose. One acting would co-operate witli tlie splenius, and 
 draw the head to one side. 
 
 Erector capitis major (Fig 5.1). Oriyin. From tlie 
 superior spine of the dentator. Insertion. Into the posterior 
 of the occiput. Action. To toss the liead into the air ; or to 
 move tiie occiput upon the atlas. 
 
 Erector capitis minor (Fig 5.1). Origin. From the 
 rudimental spine of the atlas. Insertion. Into the occiput, 
 immediately above the condyle ; and to the capsular liga- 
 ment. Action. To elevate the head ; and to guard the cap- 
 sular ligament. 
 
 FIG 5. 
 
 DEEPER-SEATED MUSCLES OF 
 THE NECK. 
 
 1, Erectores capitis. 
 
 Ty J Small muscles of the vertebrte. 
 
 4, Scalenus. 
 
 5, Sterno-thyro-hyoideiis. 
 G, Rotator capitis posterior. 
 
 7, Rotator capitis anterior. 
 
 8, Stylo maxillaris. 
 
 9, Depressor capitis major. 
 
 The substance running along the back 
 of the neck, and having waving lines 
 proceeding from it, is the liga- 
 meutum nuchse. 
 
 Rotator capitis anterior (Fig 5.7). 
 
 the anterior margin of the wing of the atlas 
 
 Origin. From 
 Insertion. 
 Into the occiput ; and also into the petrous temporal bone. 
 Action. To incline the head, to a limited extent, upon one 
 side. 
 
 Rotator capitis posterior (F/^ 5 . 6). Origin. From the 
 spine and arch of the dentata. Insertion. Into the upper 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 107 
 
 surface of the wing of the atlas ; and to the capsular liga- 
 ment of the odontoid process. Action. To rotate the head ; 
 and to guard the capsular ligament. 
 
 Sterno maxillaris (Plate III. 5). Origin. From the 
 cariniform process of the sternum. Insertion. Into the 
 angle of the lower jaw. Action. To bend down the head ; 
 and to curve the neck ; it also may aid in opening the 
 mouth, though, from its position, it cannot do so with 
 much activity. 
 
 Sterno-thyro-hyoideus (Plate III. 6. Fig 5.5). 
 Origin. From the cariniform process of the sternum ; about 
 the middle of the trachea the muscle becomes tendinous ; 
 from this tendon it divides into two heads. Insertion. Into 
 the spur process of the os hyoides by one head ; and by the 
 other head, into the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. Ac- 
 tion. To regulate the downward motions of the larynx ; and 
 to pull downward the os hyoides. 
 
 Scalenus (Plate III. 10. Fig ^^ . 4). Origin. From the 
 middle of the first rib. Insertion. Into the transverse pro- 
 cesses of the fourtli, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical ver- 
 tebrae. Action. To depress the neck ; or to draw the first 
 rib forward. 
 
 LoNGUs COLLI. Origin. From the transverse processes, 
 bodies, and inferior spines of the first six dorsal, and last six 
 cervical vertebrae. Insertion. Into the inferior spines of all 
 the cei'vical vertebrtie, by tendinous cords. Action. To bend 
 downward the neck. 
 
 Depressor capitis major (Fig 5.9). Origin. From the 
 transverse processes of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth cervical vertebras. Insertion. Into the base of the 
 cranium, by tendon. Action. To depress the head, both 
 powerfully and rapidly. 
 
 Depressor capitis minor. Origin. From the inferior of 
 the atlas. Insertion. Behind the former muscle, into the 
 base of the cranium. Action. To aid the major. 
 
 Rotator capitis internus. Origin. From the inferior 
 surface of the wing of the atlas. Insertion. Into the styloid 
 process of the occiput, upon the inner side. Action. To 
 rotate the head upon the atlas ; and to antagonize the rotator 
 capitis anterior. 
 
 There are also several minute muscles around the cervical 
 vertebrae, which serve to move one bone upon another ; and 
 
108 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 also answer the purpose of ligaments, holding the bones 
 firmly together. These, however, are only sought by the 
 matured student — and even by him are seldom made out. 
 They may be considered as altogether unfitted for those into 
 whose hands the present work is intended to pass. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY. 
 
 Tensor VAGINA (PZa^e II. g-). Origin. From the anterior 
 spine of the ilium. Insertion. Into the small external tro- 
 chanter of the femur ; into the fascia of the haunch ; and 
 into the patella. Action. To advance the leg ; by drawing 
 forw^ards the femur, and upwards the patella ; as w^ell as to 
 render tense the fascia of the haunch. 
 
 Gluteus externus {Plate II. 7i). Origin. From the 
 second spine of the sacrum, and from the anterior spine of 
 the ilium. Insertion. Into the small external trochanter of 
 the femur; and into the fascia covering the gluteus maximus. 
 Action. To draw^ the femur forw^ard ; and to brace the fascia 
 covering the gluteus maximus. 
 
 Triceps abductor femoris (Plate II. o). Originates 
 from the second and third sacral spines. Insertions. Ante- 
 rior head. Into the outer side of the patella. Middle head. 
 Into the aponeurosis, wdiich connects it with the other two 
 heads ; into the tibial fascia ; and into the superior of the 
 tibia. Posterior head. Into the outer side of the gastrocne- 
 mius tendon ; and into the fascia of the tibial region. 
 
 By releasing from the point of origin, the following 
 additional attachments to this muscle wall be discovered : — 
 
 Additional origins. From the second, third, fourth, and 
 fifth transverse processes of the sacrum ; from the transverse 
 process of the first coccygis ; from the sacro sciatic liga- 
 ment ; from the great trochanter ; from the tuberosity of 
 the ischium ; and from the posterior of the small external 
 trochanter of the femur. A bursa will be found between 
 the tendon of this muscle and the great trochanter. 
 
 Action. To steady the body ; and raise the anterior of 
 the sacrum ; when the feet are firmly fixed, as in leaping. 
 The three heads do not simultaneously contract ; but 
 this powerful muscle is in motion, abducting and retracting 
 the limb the whole time during progression. It is also 
 energetically used in kicking. 
 
 Gluteus maximus {Plate II. m) . Origins. From the sur- 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 109 
 
 face of the longissimus dorsi ; from the last two lumbar 
 vertebrce ; from the dorsum of the ilium ; and from the sacro 
 sciatic ligament. Insertion. Into the great trochanter ; and 
 by a slip of muscle into the body of the femur, as low down 
 as the small external trochanter. Action. When the legs are 
 fixed, it aids in raising the anterior of the body ; also, in pro- 
 gressing, it serves to abduct and to retract the femur ; and 
 is actively employed in kicking. 
 
 Biceps rotator tibialis {Plate 11. p. Fig 6 . 5). Ori- 
 gins. Superior head. From the last two sacral spines ; and 
 from the first coccygis. Inferior head. By tendon, which is 
 common also to the posterior head of the triceps abductor 
 tibialis. 
 
 Insertion. Into a roughened tubercle, upon the inner 
 surface of the tibia, by long tendon ; — beneath this tendon 
 will be discovered two bursee. 
 
 Action. To co-operate in rearing and leaping ; also to 
 flex and rotate the tibia. 
 
 FIG 6. 
 
 THE INSIDE OF THE THIGH. 
 
 1 , The vastus internus. 
 
 2, The sartorlus. 
 
 3, The gracilis. 
 
 4, The caput magnum of the triceps 
 
 adductor temoris. 
 
 5, The biceps I'otator tibialis. 
 
 6, The rectus. 
 
 7, Tlie femoral artery. 
 
 Sartorius (Fig 6.2). Origin. Partially bifid supe- 
 riorly ; from the psoas fascia ; from the transverse process 
 of the last lumbar vertebr?e ; and from the brim of the 
 pelvis. Insertion. Into the inner side of the body of the 
 
110 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 tibia ; and connected with the fascia that passes over the 
 vasti internus muscle. Action. To brace the vasti and rectus 
 fascia ; to extend the leg co-operating with the gracilis. 
 
 Gracilis {Fig 6 . 3). Arises. From the symphysis pubis, 
 a portion of its tendon arising from the head of the pec- 
 toneus muscle. Inserted. Into the inner and superior part 
 of the body of the tibia. Action. To flex and adduct the 
 limb. 
 
 Triceps adductor femoris {Plate III. 5), Almost three 
 distinct muscles ; which, under the name of heads, share one 
 common name. Large head. Origin. Bifid superiorly ; 
 from the last sacral spine ; from the first os coccygis ; from 
 the sacro sciatic ligament ; and from the inferior of the 
 tuberosity of the ischium. Insertion. Into the inner con- 
 dyle of the femur ; the patella ; and the head of the tibia. 
 
 Middle head. Origin. From the tendon derived from the 
 symphysis pubis, ofi:' which the gracilis was dissected. In- 
 sertion. Into the inferior, and inner side of the femur. 
 
 FIG 7. 
 
 INSIDE OF THE THIGH (deejy- 
 
 1, Iliacus. 
 
 2, Pectoneus. 
 
 3, Caput parvum of the triceps ab- 
 
 ductor femoris. 
 
 4, Ischio femoi'alis. 
 
 5, Obturator externus. 
 
 Small head {Fig 7 . 3) — origin. From the tendon derived 
 fi'om the symphysis pubis. Insertion. Into the inner side 
 of the femur. 
 
 Action of the three heads. In rearing or leaping they 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. Ill 
 
 would raise the fore part of the trunk ; in progression, 
 they retract and rotate the femur ; also they adduct the 
 limb. 
 
 Isciiio FEMORALis {Fig 7.4). Origin. From the inferior 
 surface of the ischium. Insertion. Into the inner side of 
 the body of the femur, just above the small head of the 
 tricep adductor. Action. To complete the retraction of the 
 hind extremity, when the inherent contractility of the more 
 powerful muscles has been exhausted. 
 
 Pectoneus (Fig 7.2). Origin. By tendon, which meets 
 that of the muscle from the opposite side, from the brim of 
 the pelvis. Insertion. Into a ridge upon the inner side of 
 the femur. Action. To raise the femur, as well as to 
 adduct the bone. 
 
 Vasti tnternus, exteknus, and rectus {Plate III. 6, 7) 
 cannot be distinctly separated into three fair muscles. The 
 RECTUS arises by two tendons ; the superior of which springs 
 from the dorsum of the ilium, and has a bursa between it 
 and the bone. The inferior comes from the venter of the 
 ilium. The two tendons unite near the border of the bone. 
 Insertion. Into the superior angle of the patella, by a mass 
 of tendon. 
 
 Vastus externus (Plate III. 6). Origin. From the lower 
 tubercle of the great trochanter ; and from the outer sm-face 
 of tlie femur. Insertion. Into the superior of the patella ; 
 and the inferior of the rectus muscle. 
 
 Vastus internus {Fig 6 .1). Origin. From the neck of 
 the femur ; and the entire inner surface of the bone. In- 
 sertion. Into the upper surface of the patella ; and into 
 the inner surface of the rectus ; but to a less extent than 
 the vastus externus. Action of the three heads. To bend 
 the femur ; but more particularly to raise the patella, and 
 so advance the limb. 
 
 Ilio FEMORALIS. Origin. From the dorsum of the ilium, 
 by tendon, between which and the bone there exists a small 
 bursa. Insertion. By tendon, into the antero-superior of 
 the femur. Action. To assist in the flexions of the femur ; 
 and to guard the capsular ligament. 
 
 Psoas parvus. Origin. From the necks of the last three 
 ribs ; from the last three dorsal ; and from all the lumbar 
 
112 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 vertebrae. Insertion. Into the tubercle on the brim of the 
 pelvis. 
 
 Psoas magnus. Origin. From the angles of the last 
 three ribs ; and from the transverse processes of the lumbar 
 vertebrae. Insertion. By a tendon, which is common also 
 to the next muscle, into the internal trochanter of the femur. 
 
 Iliacus {Fig 7. I). Bifid superiorly. Origin. By the 
 larger head: from the anterior spinous process, and the 
 venter of the ilium. By the small head : which lies between 
 the two psoas muscles ; from the venter of the ilium. In- 
 sertion. By tendon, common also to the psoas magnus, 
 from which the iliacus cannot be fairly separated ; into the 
 internal trochanter of the femur. Action of the three heads. 
 To roach the lumbar vertebrae; and in galloping, con- 
 jointly with the abdominal muscles, to draw the pelvis 
 forward ; and to place the hind leg well under the body 
 during violent motion. The three are also in use in 
 more moderate action ; but then their power is less 
 marked. They are likewise of great service during copu- 
 lation. 
 
 Gluteus internus {Plate III. 9). Origin. From the 
 sacro sciatic ligament ; and the roughened elevation above 
 the acetabulum. Insertion. Into the inferior tubercle of the 
 great trochanter ; and into the capsular ligament of the hip 
 joint. Action. To protect the capsular ligament; and to 
 keep close the head of the femur. 
 
 Obturator externus {Fig 7.5). Origin. From the 
 brim of the obturator foramen ; from the membrane cover- 
 ing the opening ; and a small portion also from the tendon 
 common to the gracihs and abdominal muscles. Insertion. 
 Into the sulcus behind the great trochanter ; and into the 
 ridge extending from it by tendon. Action. To flex the 
 femur. 
 
 Pyriformis. Origin. From the first transverse process 
 of the sacrum ; and the venter of the ilium. Insertion. The 
 tendon of the muscle leaves the pelvis, and winds over a 
 synovial groove upon the border of the innominata. Having 
 gained the exterior of the pelvis the tendon is joined by that 
 of the obturator internus ; and into this common tendon are 
 inserted some of the fibres of the gemini. The tendon is 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 1 13 
 
 ultimately fixed into the sulcus, behind the great tro- 
 chanter. 
 
 Obturator internus. Origin. From the floor of the 
 pelvis, covering the obturator foramen. Insertion. Winds 
 over the bursal sacro ischiatic notch, by tendon, which joins 
 that of the pyriformis ; to be inserted into the sulcus, behind 
 the great trochanter. 
 
 Gemini. Origins. By tendon, from the sacro sciatic notch ; 
 and from the tendon common to the pyriformis and the ob- 
 turator internus. Insertion. Into the sulcus, behind the 
 great trochanter ; and into the capsular ligament. Action. 
 The gemini would guard the capsular ligament ; the three 
 muscles last named would rotate the head of the femur, 
 pointing the toe of the foot outwards. 
 
 Extensor pedis posterior (Plate 111. 10. 13). Origin. 
 From the outer side of the inferior head of the femur, by 
 tendon ; also by slips of fibre, from the head of the tibia. 
 
 Insertion. Into the coronal process of the os pedis, by 
 long tendon. 
 
 The tendon by which this muscle originates is combined 
 with one which passes to the flexor metatarsi magnus. 
 The tendon by which this muscle is inserted into the os 
 pedis begins about the inferior third of the tibia ; and 
 passes through three annular ligaments ; one above the 
 hock, which is common also to the flexor metatarsi magnus ; 
 another at the inferior of the astragalus ; and a third inferior 
 to the hock, which also binds down the extensor pedis acces- 
 sorius. The accessory tendon joins that of the extensor pedis, 
 about one third down the cannon ; where they meet, some 
 muscular fibres from the last annular ligament become in- 
 serted into them. 
 
 Action. To extend the foot ; aiding also in the flexion of 
 the hock. 
 
 Extensor pedis accessorius, or peroneus {Plate III. 11). 
 Origin. From the head of the fibula ; from the fascial sheath 
 of the flexor pedis ; and the sheath of the extensor pedis. 
 
 Insertion. Into that of the extensor pedis, one third 
 down the cannon. The fibres of its tendon can be traced 
 as low down as the os suffraginis. 
 
 Action. To aid the extensor pedis. 
 
 Flexor metatarsi magnus {Fig 8. 3). Origin. From 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES, 
 
 the inferior of the femur, by tendon ; which also passes over 
 the entire length of the muscle, and is common also to the 
 extensor pedis ; and by fibre, from the head of the tibia. 
 Insertion. By the numerous divisions of its tendon into all 
 the bones of the hock joint ; excepting the tibia ; astragalus ; 
 magnum ; and outer splent. 
 Action. To flex the hock. 
 
 FIG 8. 
 
 OUTSIDE OF THE LEG, NEARLY 
 DEPRIVED OF MUSCLES. 
 
 1, Popliteus. 
 
 2, Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 3, Flexor metatarsi magnus. 
 
 4, The tendon common both to the 
 flexor metatarsi and extensor pedis. 
 
 5, The groove in which the extensor 
 pedis played. 
 
 Plantarius (Plate III. 9). A small loose band of muscular 
 fibre. Origin. From the head of the fibula. Insertion. Into 
 the calcis, by a long tendon, concealed within the tendon of 
 the gastrocnemius externus. Action. To brace, or keep in its 
 proper place, the tendon of the gastrocnemius externus. 
 
 Gastrocnemius externus {Plate III. 8. 14). Bijid ante- 
 riorly. Origin. Outer head. From a ridge extending upwards 
 from the outer condyle of the femur. Inner head. From the 
 inner edge of the sulcus ; above the outer condyle of the 
 femur. Insertion. Into the point of the calcis, by tendon, 
 common to both heads. 
 
OF THE MUSCLES, 115 
 
 Gastrocnemius internus. Origin. From the sulcus, 
 above the outer condyle of the femur. Insertion. Into the 
 OS calcis ; and becoming the perforatus tendon, after it has 
 passed the point of the hock, resembles that of the fore leg ; 
 being inserted into the sides of the os corona. 
 
 Action. The external is the principal motor agent ; the 
 internal possesses scarcely more power than is necessary to 
 adapt its tendon to the motion of the limb ; but this want is 
 supplied by the connexion between the tendons. They are 
 the chief retractors of the lower part of the leg ; and upon 
 their power the propulsive energy of the horse mainly de- 
 pends. Much of the beauty of the animal depends also 
 upon their endurance ; as the horse that has the gastrocnemii 
 tendons cut through instantly falls to the ground. A bursa 
 will be found between the two tendons ; and another between 
 the external tendon and the skin. 
 
 Flexor pedis perforans [Plate III. 12). Posterior 
 origin. From the hind and outer part of the head of the 
 tibia ; from underneath the fibula ; also from the posterior 
 border of the same bone ; and from the strong ligament 
 extending from it. 
 
 Insertion. Its tendon resembles the perforans of the fore 
 leg ; excepting that it extends obliquely across the back 
 of the tibia, passing from the outer to the inner side ; its 
 tendon passing over the calcis, through the theca, at the 
 back of the hock. Immediately below the hock it is joined 
 by its accessory tendon ; and lower down receives the liga- 
 mentous band, which originates from the lower bones of the 
 joint, and the head of the great metatarsal bone. From 
 this point it resembles the same tendon in the fore leg; 
 being inserted into the os pedis, under the navicular bone. 
 
 Action. To co-operate with the gastrocnemii tendons, in 
 retracting the metatarsal bones; but also to flex the pastern. 
 
 Flexor pedis accessorius (Plate III. 15. Fig 8. 2). 
 Origin. From the outer and posterior part of the tibia ; and 
 from the fascial sheath of the perforans. It soon becomes 
 tendinous ; its tendon passing through the synovial sheath 
 at the back of the hock, to gain its insertion into the tendon 
 of the perforans. 
 
 Action. To assist the flexor pedis perforans. 
 
 PoPLiTEUs {Plate III. 18. Fig8 .1). Origin. From the 
 
 i2 
 
116 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 posterior of the upper head of the tibia. Insertion. Into 
 the capsular ligament ; and by tendon into the outer con- 
 dyle of the femur. 
 
 Action. To guard the capsular ligament ; and to rotate the 
 femur. 
 
 LuMBRici. A pair of these poorly developed muscles 
 belong to each leg ; and are the only muscles below the knee 
 or hock. Their pale fleshy heads are not always found ; 
 but when they are present they terminate in long tendons, 
 which run to the pad at the back of the fetlock, 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ANUS. 
 
 Sphinctor ani {Plate III. 2). Encircles the opening to 
 the anus ; and enters within it for the depth of four or five 
 inches. It has neither origin nor insertion. Action. To close 
 the anus ; it being a very bad symptom when, during disease, 
 this muscle relaxes. 
 
 Retractor ani inferior. Bijid posteriorly. Origin. Os 
 innominata, above the origin of the gluteus internus. In- 
 sertion. Into the rectum ; both heads mingling with the 
 fibres of the sphinctor ani, upon the lower surface. Action. 
 To retract the anus ; puUing it downwards, after the passage 
 of the dung. 
 
 Retractor ani superior. Origin. From the inferior of 
 the sacrum. Insertion. Mingles with fibres of the sphinctor 
 ani, upon their upper surface. Action. To co-operate with 
 the inferior retractor ; pulling the anus upwards. 
 
 Levator ani consists of two slips of red muscular fibres. 
 
 muscles of the tail {Plate III. 4). 
 
 Compressor coccygis. This muscle can be divided into 
 three distinct layers. Origin. From the superior border of 
 the OS innominata. Insertion. Into the inferior of the first 
 coccygeal bone ; and into the next three bones of the tail. 
 
 Besides this, the tail is generally described as consisting 
 of four muscles : a levator, which elevates the tail ; a pair 
 of curvators, which turns the tail to either side ; and a de- 
 pressor, which lowers the tail. But the firmness with which 
 the tail can be held down by the horse is owing to the de- 
 pressor, assisted by the compressor and other muscles. 
 
 The four muscles of the tail originate in a tendinous 
 
IiQndoii;I,o,agman d-C? sjid otl^^r :>oprietOT'3 
 
OF THE MUSCLES, 117 
 
 sheath, as far forward as the last lumbar veitebrse ; and are 
 inserted into all subsequent bones, even to the last coccygis. 
 Other muscles, belonging to particular parts, will be found 
 mingled with the description of such structures. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III. 
 
 THE SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES, TAKEN FROM THE BODY 
 OF THE HORSE, SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE MUSCLES WHICH ARE 
 MORE DEEPLY SEATED. 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 a, the buccinator ; b, the caninus ; c, the retractor labii 
 inferioris. 
 
 1, 1, the orbicularis oris; 2, 2, 2, the complexus major; 
 3, 3, the trachelo mastoideus ; 4, 4, the subscapulo hyoi- 
 deus ; 5, the sterno maxillaris ; 6, 6, the sterno thyro 
 hyoideus ; 7, the jugular vein ; 8, the carotid artery, with 
 the eighth pair, and sympathetic nerves ; 9, the trachea ; 
 10, the scalenus. 
 
 THE FORE LIMBS. 
 
 1, the scapulo ulnarius ; 2, the caput magnum of the 
 triceps extensor brachii ; 3, the caput medium of the same 
 muscle ; 4, the anconeus ; 5, the flexor brachii ; 6, the ex- 
 tensor metacarpi ; 7, the extensor pedis ; 8, the extensor 
 metacarpi obliquus ; 9, the extensor suffraginis ; 10, the 
 flexor metacarpi externus ; 1 1 , the perforans and perforatus ; 
 12, the ulnarius accessorius ; 13, the flexor metacarpi in- 
 ternus ; 14, the flexor metacarpi medius ; 15, the perforans 
 and perforatus ; 16, the extensor metacarpi. 
 
 THE TRUNK AND BACK. 
 
 A, the scapula ; F, F, the longissimus dorsi ; G, the 
 spinalis dorsi ; a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, the intercostals ; 
 b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b, the superficialis costarum ; c, c, c, c, c, 
 the rectus abdominis ; d, d, d, d, the transversalis abdominis ; 
 e, e, e, the obliquus internus abdominis ; /, the hollow in 
 the longissimus dorsi, which part of the gluteus maximus 
 once filled. 
 
 HAUNCH AND HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 C, the ilium ; D, the ischium ; E, the tibia ; 1 , the sacro 
 
118 OF BURSiE MUCOSAE. 
 
 sciatic ligament ; 2, spliinctor ani ; 3, depressor coccy- 
 gis ; 4, the muscles of the tail ; 5, 5, the triceps abductor 
 tibialis ; 6, the vastus externus ; 7, the rectus ; 8, the 
 gastrocnemius muscles ; 9, the plantarius ; 10, the extensor 
 pedis; 11, the peroneus ; 12, the flexor pedis perforans ; 
 13, the insertion of the gracilis; 14, the gastrocnemii 
 muscles; 15, the flexor pedis accessorius ; 16, the course 
 of the perforans tendon, inside the os calcis of the hock 
 joint ; 17, the insertion of the gastrocnemius externus into 
 the point of the hock ; 18, 18, the popliteus muscles ; 19, 
 the extensor pedis. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 OF BURS^ MUCOSA, 
 
 Tendons of great length are usually furnished with sheaths, 
 within which is secreted a glairy, slippery fluid, of a similar 
 nature with synovia ; by means of this they are enabled to 
 slide over the bones, or other structures, with great ease. 
 At the extremities of the tendons ; also between them and 
 at the points of bone ; wherever the parts are liable to 
 pressure or friction, these little bladders or sacs, filled with 
 synovia, form distinct structures ; they are called ynucous 
 capsules or hurs(S mucosa;, being composed of dense cellular 
 tissue, whose internal vascular surface is lined by a synovial 
 membrane. From injury, or other causes, this membrane 
 becomes at times inflamed ; and, when resolution of such 
 inflammation is not effected, coagulable lymph is thrown 
 out; which not being always again absorbed, remains between 
 the tendons and its sheath ; occasioning distention and 
 often lameness, from the obstruction it offers to the freedom 
 of motion ; therefore, we are at no loss to account for the 
 gorged sinews in hard-worked horses ; nor for the stiffness 
 they occasion. The mucous capsules, at the extremities of 
 the tendons, also are extremely liable to become distended ; 
 and bursal disease receives very different names according 
 to its situation ; as ivindgalls at the fetlock ; thoroughpin be- 
 hind the hock ; and capped hock at the point of the joint. 
 These diseased accumulations appear to be brought on by 
 undue exertion of the parts : after which, any motion appears 
 
OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 119 
 
 to act as a stimulus to increase their size, and to disease the 
 synovial secretion within. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 OF THE VESSELS ; OR OF ARTERIES, VEINS, AND ABSORBENTS. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV. 
 
 THE ABDOMEN, DEPRIVED OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 A, The posterior aorta, near its termination ; B, the posterior 
 cava ; C, C, the ureters ; £>, D, the kidneys ; E, the renal 
 artery ; F, the renal vein ; G, the stomach ; H, the duo- 
 denum tied ; /, the splenic artery ; J, the liver ; K, the ante- 
 rior mesenteric artery. 
 
 OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 
 
 The arteries are canals originating from the ventricles of 
 the heart by two trunks, the aorta and the pulmonic ; 
 whose subdivisions are destined to supply the whole body 
 with blood. Considered generally, arteries are long tubes ; 
 which by reason of their numerous bifurcations become 
 smaller as they proceed to the extreme parts. However, 
 the extremities of the arteries, though so much smaller 
 than the original trunk, nevertheless, if put all together, 
 w^ould contain ten times as much as the parent vessels. In 
 their course an especial regard is observed towards their 
 safety ; hence they are mostly deep seated ; and invariably 
 pass on the inner sides of the limbs, or on the side that is 
 flexed. They appear equally guarded against accidental 
 pressure or tension, by passing over the bending surface of 
 a joint ; and where they are situated in soft parts, liable to 
 extension, as in the tongue, the arteries pursue a serpentine 
 or very crooked course. Their being thus convoluted, 
 however, answers another end than saving them from being 
 stretched ; as the arteries, before entering the brain and the 
 testicles, are to be seen winding about in various directions ; 
 the intention of which construction is to prevent the blood 
 from being urged too violently upon such important organs. 
 All arteries are composed of three different coats or cover- 
 
120 
 
 OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 
 
 ings, united to form one elastic tube : the external coat is of 
 condensed cellular tissue ; whose elastic powers are so con- 
 siderable, as to preserve the cylindrical form of the principal 
 canals when empty. The middle coat consists chiefly of yellow 
 elastic tissue; and the internal coat is serous tissue, or 
 similar to synovial membrane. By their elastic power' the 
 arteries are capable of being distended : by this likewise 
 they can adapt themselves to a smaller quantity of fluid 
 than usual. It is by this elasticity, which operates longi- 
 tudinally as well as circularly, that, in cases of injury, the 
 divided ends of an artery retreat within the cellular sub- 
 stance around, and thus close its orifices. When this con- 
 traction is prevented byapartial division only, the hajmorrhage 
 continues ; but even the entire division of the punctured 
 vessel is not generally effective in arteries of the first, second, 
 or third magnitude. The elastic powers appear in dissimilar 
 proportions in difierent horses, as in different men ; from 
 which arises some constitutional phenomena in the indi- 
 viduals of each species ; giving to some a greater disposition to 
 haemorrhage and inflammation, which is called a sanguineous 
 temperament. The elastic coat appears to exist in greater 
 proportion in the horse than in the human being. To this 
 cause it is probably owing, that acute inflammations of the 
 vital organs, in the horse, run through their stages so much 
 quicker, than similar affections in our own race. To this 
 power it is to be attributed, that a horse can bear the divi- 
 sion of a much larger artery without danger than a man. 
 
 Arteries, in their different courses, send out branches, 
 which freely join with other branches sent out by other 
 arteries ; in consequence of this circumstance we are able 
 to deprive the horse of large and essential vessels; the 
 small arteries which have united with others then enlarging, 
 and thus carrying on the circulation. Most arteries termi- 
 nate by means of their capillary branches in veins ; we 
 know this, because we can empty the arteries, by drawing 
 the blood from the venal trunks ; and because injection 
 forced into the arteries, in many instances enters the veins ; 
 but is prevented from so doing if the fluid used be of a 
 coarse description. A more scarce termination of arteries 
 is in cells; from which veins arise to take it up again, as 
 m the spleen, &c. Difl'erent parts ai'e more or less plenti- 
 
OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY, 121 
 
 fully supplied with arteries according to their nature : 
 secreting organs have usually large trunks, as the kidneys, 
 spleen, &c. Arteries are likewise themselves furnished with 
 arterial and venal branches ; for the nourishment of their 
 tubes. They are chiefly supplied with nervous energy by 
 the sympathetic system of nerves ; which accounts for their 
 being little endowed with feeling. It also renders easy of 
 explanation their being possessed of eccentric powers ; such 
 as directing more blood to the face, as in blushing ; and 
 driving more blood to a part, as in local inflammation ; while 
 their action in neither case can be controlled by the will. 
 
 The evident use of the arteries is to convey the blood 
 from the heart to the different parts of the body ; thus 
 keeping up the vital principle in these parts, by being the 
 bearers of nutriment and heat. An intimate knowledge of 
 their functions, and a w^ell -grounded acquaintance with their 
 situation, is therefore essentially necessary to the veterinary 
 surgeon. 
 
 As the use of the arteries is to convey the blood from 
 the lieart ; so the heart itself appears to be the first, but not 
 the only agent exerted in its propulsion through the vessels. 
 And as the force of the heart decreases with distance ; so 
 there is, at last, a column pressed on in almost a continuous 
 stream, by the force from behind : thus when a very small 
 artery is divided, there is a regular flow, with scarcely any 
 jet : this, however, only takes place in their minutest 
 branches. We thus see why there is no pulsation in the 
 veins ; they receive the blood from the arteries in one equa- 
 ble stream. Pulsation is a certain sensation caused by the 
 artery ; which, from various experiments, is found to arise 
 from its being alternately in a state of distention and relaxa- 
 tion. It appears that, when the ventricles contract, and 
 force the blood into the arteries, the pressure of the fluid 
 occasions a distention of their coats : when the ventricles 
 cease to act, and become contracted, the impetus against 
 the sides of the vessels ceases ; and now the coats of the 
 arteiy contract also, and lessen its size. 
 
 Absorbents are distributed to every part of the body ; it 
 is true we cannot see them, neither are they to be traced, 
 save by the very finest of liquid injections ; but their 
 
122 OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 
 
 existence is known with certainty, because their effects are 
 perceived. Thus the hardest part of bone is removed by a 
 natural process, or absorbed. Inorganized cartilage is like- 
 wise taken away ; to allow the arteries and veins to enter, 
 and bone to be deposited when ossification ensues. 
 
 Absorbents are very minute, thin-coated, transparent 
 vessels, having numerous valves, like to veins ; they are 
 spoken of as deep-seated and superficial ; but as the differ- 
 ence of position is accompanied by no difference of struc- 
 ture, we shall here regard them as of one kind. Every 
 absorbent conveys the materials it takes away from various 
 parts into the blood ; with which their contents mingle, and 
 ultimately become blood ; or they are emitted with the excre- 
 tions. In starvation it is by means of the absorbents that 
 the marrow is carried out of bones ; and the fatty matter 
 from other places in the body, and emptied into the blood ; 
 which in this manner helps to support, or keep alive, the 
 subject starved. It is thus that it is accounted for why a 
 fat animal is longer dying from starvation than one that 
 is thin. 
 
 Certain absorbents, which take up the nutritive portion 
 from the food within the intestines, are called lacteals ; be- 
 cause the substance they abstract is at first white, like to 
 milk ; otherwise they are the same as common absorbents ; 
 all of which enter and pass through one or more of the 
 little reddish bodies, called absorbent glands. Of what use 
 these glands are remains to be discovered ; but they doubt- 
 less promote some change in the fluid contents of the ab- 
 sorbent vessels ; they also serve to mingle what the vessels 
 contain ; for if two or three absorbent branches enter a 
 gland, only one is seen to leave it ; which one must convey 
 away the materials the others brought ; as the glands them- 
 selves do not appropriate, or enlarge, or fatten, upon the 
 contents of these vessels. 
 
 The functional effects of this system are abundantly active 
 in the constitution at large ; we are certain that the various 
 organs of the body are continually changing, wholly or 
 partially. It appears to be the office of the arteries to 
 build up new parts, and to repair the waste of others ; but 
 the old ones must be first of all pulled down and removed 
 
OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 123 
 
 by absorption ; which is least active at youth ; equal with the 
 arteries in middle life ; and predominates in age. By this 
 wonderful power the roots of the temporary teeth are ab- 
 sorbed ; that their crowns may give way : by this also the 
 gubernaculum testis, having fulfilled its office, is absorbed ; 
 and the thymus gland is likewise removed : it is thus car- 
 tilage is taken up, to make room for a bony deposit when 
 the animal approaches maturity. By the absorbents the 
 fluids as well as solids are continually changing ; being taken 
 up and carried back, but always in a fluid state, into the 
 mass of blood. It is by them that the dead parts are 
 separated from the living in sloughing and ulceration. By 
 the superficial absorbents, even gases are received from 
 without ; the water held in suspension by the atmosphere 
 is thus taken in ; hence grazing horses require little or 
 no water ; more especially if not exposed to the heat of 
 the sun, whereby evaporation or exhalation is promoted. 
 The functional office of the absorbents is most important 
 also in the preservation of life under casualties. Long fast- 
 ing is thus borne ; their capability of displacing the animal 
 oil or marrow from the bones, and the fat from the body 
 generally, is here employed to make up the want. Hyber- 
 nating animals live during their torpidity by a slow absorp- 
 tion of the adipose matter ; thus it is found in the instance 
 of the torpid bear, that, however fat he may enter his 
 seclusion, he returns lean and emaciated. 
 
 To our acquaintance with the power of the absorbents 
 the practice of medicine is greatly indebted ; and although 
 we own few means of lessening absorption, we fortunately 
 have many of increasing it. Mechanical friction is the 
 most active and universal agent in stimulating the absorb- 
 ents ; as the hand-rubbing of horses sufficiently proves. 
 Pressure also increases their action ; thus we bandage 
 the swollen legs ; we girth the bodies of our horses, to 
 promote absorption of the interstitial fluid. Exercise, by 
 swelling the muscles, produces pressure ; and thus exercise 
 will remove swelled legs, and promote absorption generally. 
 Blisters likewise exercise an influence over absorption. 
 A still stronger stimulant is iodine ; which is especially 
 useful in enlargement of the glands. Purgatives and diu- 
 retics, and whatever tends to lower the pulse, promotes 
 
124 OF THE PULSE. 
 
 internal absorption ; for by offering an impediment to the 
 circulation ; removing the contents of the intestinal canal ; 
 and increasing the urinary secretion ; an absence is caused 
 in the materials for building up, which the absorbents 
 endeavour to repair by removing other parts. 
 
 OF THE PULSE. * 
 
 The momentary increase of capacity in the artery, 
 whereby its diameter is enlarged, is called its pulse ; and 
 the more or less frequent are these dilatations, so is the pulse 
 quicker or slower. The circulation of the blood in animals 
 being usually in the contrary ratio to their bulk, i. e. it is 
 tardy in the large, and quick in the small, has given to 
 every kind of standard pulse. Thus, between the largest 
 horse and the smallest pony, there is a difference of from 
 six to eight beats in a minute ; the greater number of course 
 being in the more diminutive animal. In the adult horse it 
 may be stated to range between thirty-six and forty ; in the 
 colt it will be found sixty at birth ; but it gradually decreases 
 as the animal attains the adult standard. This variation 
 between the young and adult pulse is, however, less de- 
 pendent on their relative sizes, than on w^eakness of the 
 system, and the greater irritability at the early period. 
 
 There are also other causes of individual variation in the 
 pulse of horses of the same size. The constitutional pecu- 
 liarities of some animals occasion a departure from the usual 
 standard pulse : in the irritable horse it is commonly five 
 or six more per minute than in the mild one : and in some 
 blood animals this is peculiarly the case. A low bred 
 sluggish horse is commonly below the standard of his size. 
 In stabled horses the pulsations are always more frequent 
 than in those abroad ; and it is accelerated in a degree 
 corresponding with the heat of their dwelling ; the nature of 
 their clothing ; and the stimulating properties of their food. 
 Desire, impatience, and fear, all raise the pulse. 
 
 The pulse is important, as it affords us our best criterion 
 of the state of the system. The pulse affords us a ready 
 indication of a quickened or a tardy state of the circulation ; 
 but w^ere our information to stop here, it would be limited 
 indeed ; and the pulse w^ould then prove but an indifferent 
 guide. There are various conditions of the pulse besides 
 
OF THE PULSE. 125 
 
 its number to which we should attend : these may be cha- 
 racterized by the familiar terms of strong, hard, soft, wiry, 
 oppressed, small, quick, frequent, slow, regular, and irre- 
 gular ; to become familiar with which requires nice discri- 
 mination and habits of close attention. 
 
 The arteries being universally diffused ; and their action 
 being uniform throughout ; it follows that the pulse may be 
 examined on any part of the body ; but it can certainly be 
 no where so conveniently, nor perhaps no where so advan- 
 tageously, felt, as in the submaxillary artery (see Fig 9 . c), 
 when that vessel crosses the lower jaw. Having detected 
 this artery ; enclose it within the fore and middle fingers, 
 the thumb resting without ; while the index and median 
 fingers, between them, pursue the inquiry into the state of 
 the circulation ; now by one, now by the other, pressing the 
 tube with various degrees of force against the bone. 
 
 A strong and full pulse, indicating forcible contractions 
 in the heart ; with a proportionate quantity of blood forced 
 into, and propelled onwards, by the arteries, is present in 
 the horse under temporary excitement ; but is seldom found 
 to accompany any morbid state into which he falls. The 
 full pulse which accompanies disease in the horse has always 
 some confined vibratory hardness ; though, occasionally, it 
 may be encountered without hardness in the first stages of 
 influenza. A hard pulse vfith. incYeased frequency is charac- 
 terized by its feeling to the fingers like a cord vibrating 
 under them ; and not like the full undulations of an over- 
 charged vessel. This hard pulse accompanies most exten- 
 sive membranous inflammations ; and is the usual attendant 
 on the early periods of most abdominal diseases. It forms 
 the best characteristic between incipient peritoneal inflam- 
 mation and spasmodic colic or gripes ; for in gripes, although 
 after a few hours' continuance there is often a hardness in 
 the pulse ; it is always accompanied, when purely spasmodic, 
 with a degree of fulness also, unknown in peritoneal inflam- 
 mation. A hard and fidl pulse is common to extensive 
 disease of parts not immediately essential to life ; as of the 
 cellular membranes; muscles; skin; &c., when they are suffi- 
 cient to affect the constitution. It accompanies the early 
 stages of bad catarrhal affections ; and occasionally of pneu- 
 
126 OF THE PULSE. 
 
 monia also ; but in catarrh it usually exhibits more frequency 
 than in pneumonia. The wiry pulse is a very important 
 modification of the hard ; in which last the sensation is con- 
 tracted from that of a vibrating cord to that of a jarred 
 wire ; whence its name of wiry, thready, &c. It is com- 
 monly accompanied by increased frequency ; and is often 
 present in the protracted stages of abdominal inflammation ; 
 and in some few it accompanies them from their outset. 
 It appears to be the common consequence of the hard and 
 full pulse ; and frequently succeeds to it in the secondary 
 stages of inflammatory aflections. The oppressed pulse is 
 also a modification of the hard pulse ; and is common to 
 the active stages of inflammation of the lungs. 
 
 A small pulse is usually present in all cases of great de- 
 bility ; and is invariably attended with increased frequency. 
 When it is Yevy quick, small, and thread-like, it shows that 
 the debility is extreme ; and prognosticates a fatal termina- 
 tion of the existing disease : when this pulse varies in its 
 regularity, and intermits, it is even more certainly a fatal 
 prognostic. 
 
 A quick pidse may denote irritability of the system ; but 
 more commonly is attendant upon weakness. When pro- 
 duced by irritability, it seldom exceeds twenty beats more 
 than the natural standard ; and it likewise has a strength 
 proportioned to its speed : when it is caused by weakness, 
 it is usually from seventy to more than the most patient 
 observer can count. It is a bad sign when it reaches the 
 last-mentioned height ; and the utmost skill and perse- 
 verance are then required to prevent a fatal termination. 
 
 A slow pulse may be occasioned by pressure on the brain ; 
 from the eflfect of accidents ; or from congestion, &c. It 
 may also be brought on through the medium of the stomach ; 
 by various substances taken in. White and black hellebore ; 
 aloes ; digitalis ; and whatever creates nausea, decreases the 
 frequency of the pulse. But, unfortunately, in the horse 
 our means of exciting this sensation are usually limited to 
 such matters as are in themselves sources of great irritation. 
 The pulse may be also diminished in its frequency by cold ; 
 but at the same time it is apt to be increased in strength. 
 We must likewise bear in mind that a simple alteration in 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 127 
 
 the frequency is not all that is necessary to a beneficial 
 end ; we should render the pulse soft also, without which a 
 slow pulse may retain its fatal character. 
 
 A soft pulse opposes little resistance to the fingers ; but 
 seems to allow a due volume of blood to flow through it 
 without labour or interruption. This pulse is frequent at the 
 decline of inflammatory affections ; and usually shows the 
 cessation of the disease. Suppuration, as a termination of 
 inflammation, produces it ; and when pus forms, a soft 
 pulse is generally the consequence. 
 
 A regular pulse is occasionally found when disease is pre- 
 sent ; but it is usually under such circumstances of an altered 
 character. A regular pulse, with a proportionate fulness, is 
 one of the strongest marks of health ; as an irregular one 
 usually betokens acute disease : irregularity in it may, how- 
 ever, exist without acute symptoms ; and may depend on 
 organic affections or peculiarities in the system. Irregularity 
 in the pulse, in most cases, is a mark of irritability ; and it 
 may characterize debility. In inflammation of the heart 
 there is usually a peculiar irregularity in the pulse, with 
 extreme oppression and smallness. An irregular pulse in 
 fever shows great danger ; it also accompanies the fatal ter- 
 minations of all inflammations. The worst cases of pleu- 
 ritis and pneumonia commonly present it before the close ; 
 and in certain cases a very singular irregularity is present, 
 from a large quantity of serous fluid formed within the 
 chest ; in which, besides its intermission, the pulse appears 
 as though undulating through a bladder of water. This 
 pulse should be particularly noticed ; as, when once it be- 
 comes familiar, along with other signs, it affords an unerring 
 guide to the state of the patient. 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 The aorta {Fig 13 . 1), the principal vessel of the arterial 
 system, rises perpendicularly from the top of the left ven- 
 tricle of the heart : having proceeded about two inches, it 
 divides into two branches, opposite the fifth dorsal vertebra ; 
 one of which is carried forwards to furnish the head and 
 fore extremities ; the other proceeds backwards, to be dis- 
 tributed to the body and the hinder limbs. These divisions 
 form the anterior {Fig 9.1) and posterior aorta (Fig 13 . 4) ; 
 
128 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 but previous to this division, the original trunk has given 
 off a pair of small arteries immediately at its origin, called 
 the coronaries ; which supply the heart itself with blood 
 {Fig 13 . 3). 
 
 FIG 9. 
 
 THE THORAX, DIVIDED TO DISPLAY THE BRANCHING OF 
 THE ANTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 a, The left carotid. 
 
 b, The riglit carotid. 
 
 c. The submaxillary. 
 
 d. The inferior labial. 
 
 1, The anterior aorta. 
 2, 2, The arteria innominata. 
 
 3, The anterior intercostal. 
 
 4, The dorsal. 
 6, The posterior cervical. 
 
 6, The vertebral. 
 
 7, The axillary. 
 
 8, The common carotid. 
 
 9, The inferior cervical. 
 
 10, The external pectoral. 
 
 1 1, The internal pectoral. 
 
 e, The coronarj' labial. 
 /, The superior labial. 
 (7, The buccLuator. 
 h, The facial. 
 i, The false nostril. 
 j. The posterior masseter. 
 k, The temporal. 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 129 
 
 The anterior aorta is continued single unto between the 
 second and third rib ; where it divides into its right and left 
 branches, called arteri(B mnominatfE (Fig 9.2). The left 
 division supplies the dorsal to the back ; and (Fig 9 . 4) 
 one branch, which penetrates between the first and second 
 ribs, under the name of posterior cervical, to afford nur- 
 ture to the neck {Fig 9.5): afterwards, passing towards 
 the first rib, it gives off the left vertebral. The vertehrals 
 (Fig 9 . 6) are two important arteries : they are given off 
 opposite the first ribs ; and pass under the transverse process 
 of the last cervical vertebra ; and are continued upwards 
 through the foramina at the base of the transverse processes 
 of the remaining six of these vertebrae. As they pass, they 
 send off small branches through the lateral notches in the 
 vertebrae to the spinal marrow ; likewise to the muscles 
 of the neck. Approaching the head, they give a branch, 
 wdiich usually passes through a foramen in the wing of the 
 atlas to communicate with the external carotid {Fig 11 . 4) . 
 After they have made a number of inflections, apparently 
 to retard the circulation, they join branches, and form 
 the basillary artery, that runs along the base of the medulla 
 oblongata {Plate V. Fig 2). 
 
 After the vertebrals the innominatae, give off the internal 
 and external pectorals, which go to the breast {Fig 9 . 10, 11): 
 w^hen, bending its course over this rib, it takes the name 
 of axillary {Fig 9.7). The right division of the anterior 
 aorta is much larger, as well as longer, than the left. In 
 its course, having furnished some considerable branches 
 w^hich mainly correspond with those given off to the left 
 side, it becomes the common carotid {Fig 9.8); which 
 directing itself forwards divides into the right and left caro- 
 tids {Fig 9 . a, b. Plate VIII. h). 
 
 The axillary artery {Fig 10 . a), as furnishing the whole 
 of the fore extremities with blood, must be deemed very 
 important. The trunk of the vessel curves over the first rib, 
 to reach the innermost side of the fore limb. After having 
 pursued its course for a short distance it gives branches to 
 the scapula, and becomes the humeral. The humeral artery 
 descending along the internal surface of the humerus, gives a 
 considerable branch to the flexor brachii ; as well as others to 
 the scapula {Fig \0 . b,c, d, e, g, i, i, i) : here also it often 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 parts with a branch, the external thoracic, which ramifies over 
 the ribs ; behind the fore leg, in the seat of the spur vein. 
 The humeral artery having arrived at the anterior part of the 
 
 FIG 10. 
 
 THE INSIDE OF THE FORE LEG. 
 
 a, The axillai'y. 
 
 b, The humeral thoracic. 
 
 c, The internal thoracic. 
 d) The dorsalis scapulae. 
 e. The subscapularis. 
 
 /, The external thoracic. 
 g, The humeral. 
 
 h, Branches to the triceps extensor 
 brachii. 
 
 i, Branches to the flexor brachii. 
 j, The spiral. 
 k, The ulnars. 
 I, The radial. 
 m, The radial medullary. 
 n, The small metacarpal. 
 0, The large metacarpal. 
 
 bone, near to the inferior articulation of the humerus, makes 
 a fresh division, giving off considerable branches; one of which 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 131 
 
 passes between the ulna and radius (Fig 10 . k). The radial 
 artery (Fig 10 . /, I), which proceeds downwards, to nurture 
 the flexor muscles ; sends off a branch to nourish the 
 medullar of the radius (Fig 10 . m) ; and another near the 
 knee, called the small metacarpal artery (Fig 10 . n). The 
 main trunk is then continued downwards under the mus- 
 cles, behind the radius ; then passes within the arch of the 
 trapezium; and becomes the metacarpal artery (Fig 10 . o, o) ; 
 which continues down under the nerve upon the inner 
 side of the leg. At the lower part of the cannon it divides 
 just above the fetlock into the two plantar vessels. The 
 ulnar arteries (Fig 10 . k, k) go to the joint and muscles 
 about the bone ; while the spiral, sent off a little above the 
 ulnars (Fig 10 . j), is mainly distributed to the extensors of 
 the limb. 
 
 The two arteries, which are formed by the ultimate 
 division of the metacarpals, are called the plantar arteries ; 
 and each of them passes upon the side of the pastern bone. 
 When they reach the foot they are at the back of it ; and 
 each sends a branch to the fatty frog ; while the main trunks 
 pursue their course along the inner surface of the wings of 
 the coftin bone ; to unite with each other, and form an arte- 
 rial circle within the substance of the bone of the foot. From 
 the arterial circle thus formed are sent off various small 
 twigs ; which penetrate the porous coffin bone, and then bend- 
 ing downward unite and form the circumflex artery ; which 
 runs round the margin of the bony sole, to which blood from 
 the circumflex artery is transmitted. Of course there are 
 small branches also sent to nourish every part through which, 
 or near to which, the arteries run ; but from the fear of ren- 
 dering our description too complex, we have omitted very 
 much, which the reader, probably with justice, would con- 
 sider mere dry detail. 
 
 The carotid, common trunk (Fig Q . 8), arises from the 
 right arteria innominata, and even this vessel sometimes 
 divides into two portions. Each carotid is a very long 
 vessel, whereby the strong action of the heart is counter- 
 acted ; and the head of the horse is less liable to congestion 
 than man's, in whom these vessels are so much shorter. 
 As it approaches the head, it divides into what are termed 
 the external (Fig 11.7) and internal carotids (Fig 11 . 6), 
 
 k2 • 
 
132 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 and ramus anastomoticus (Fig \\ .5). As the internal 
 carotid enters the skull : on account of the tortuosities which 
 the vessel makes before the entrance is gained, its contents 
 cannot be too much accelerated ; nor by this contrivance can 
 rarely accidental pressure deprive the brain of its functions. 
 
 FIG 11 
 
 THE HEAD, WITH A PORTION OF THE LOWER JAW REMOVED, SO 
 AS TO EXPOSE THE ARTERIES BENEATH. 
 
 1, The left carotid. 
 
 2, The thyroideal. 
 
 3, The laryngeal. 
 
 4, The vertebral. 
 
 5, The ramus anastomoticus. 
 
 6, The internal cai'otid. 
 
 7, External carotid. 
 
 8, The submaxillary divided. 
 
 9, 9, A branch sent to the cheek of 
 the horse. 
 
 10, 10, The ranine. 
 
 11, The mental. 
 
 12, The internal massetei'. 
 
 13, The ascending pharyngeal. 
 
 a, The posterior maseeter divided. 
 
 b, The posterior auricular. 
 
 c, The anterior auricular. 
 
 d, The temporal. 
 
 The external carotid artery {Fig 11 . 7 ; Jig 12 . 1, 1) first 
 bends downwards behind the angle of the jaw {Fig 12) ; 
 then, crossing the large membranous opening of the fauces, 
 it is directed under the parotid gland towards the hindmost 
 part of the branch of the jaw. The branchings of the ex- 
 ternal carotid are : the parotideal ; the posterior and anterior 
 auricular s {Fig 11 . b, c) ; which last give off a branch to the 
 internal ear ; the temporal {Fig 9 . k ; Jig II . d); the poste- 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 133 
 
 rior masseter {Fig 9 . j) ; the submaxillary {Fig 9 - c ; fig 
 11 . 8) ; beside which it sends off a large and important 
 trunk, called the internal maxillary {Fig 12 . a) ; which, in 
 its turn, sends off deep temporal twigs {Fig 12 . h) ; then the 
 artery dispenses fine branches to the eye {Fig 12 ./) ; the 
 soft palate {Fig 1 2 . c) ; the ear, and the articulation between 
 the lower and upper jaw ; as well as giving rise to a large 
 trunk called the inferior maxillary {Fig 12 . d). This last 
 vessel enters the bone of the lower jaw, together with the 
 nerve, and nourishes the teeth ; and emerges through the an- 
 terior maxillary foramen, to unite with the inferior labial 
 artery {Fig 9 . d). 
 
 Tlie terminating branches of the internal maxillary are : — 
 
 The supra orbital {Fig 12 . e) ; which passes through the 
 foramen, upon the bony arch of the eye, and disperses upon 
 the forehead. 
 
 The ocular {Fig \2 . f) are a bunch of arteries which, 
 springing from the base of the orbit, are expended upon the 
 appendages of the eye. 
 
 The lateral nasal {Fig 12 . /?), which enter the brain ; and 
 having joined the anterior cerebral leave the cranium with 
 the olfactory nerves, and disperse upon the nasal membrane. 
 
 The infra orbital {Fig 12 . g), which enter the canal of that 
 name, to nourish the bone and the upper molar teeth ; and 
 appears again upon the side of the face ; through the ex- 
 ternal infra orbital foramen, to unite with the facial artery 
 {Fig^.h). 
 
 The palato-maxillary {Fig 12 . i) ; which is the largest 
 division of the internal maxillary, enters the palatine 
 foramen ; appears upon the bony palate, along which it runs ; 
 ultimately uniting with its fellow ; and passing through 
 the foramen incisivum, at the back of the superior incisor 
 teeth ; having emerged from which, it once more divides 
 {Fig 12 . j), being expended upon the lips. It supplies all 
 the parts along which, or near to which, it passes. 
 
 The submaxillary artery {Fig 9 . c ; fig \2 . 3, 3) proceeds 
 forward ; passes over the inferior border of the lower jaw ; 
 where it is merely covered by the skin and panniculus, as it 
 runs along to the anterior margin of the external masseter 
 muscle ; and close to the molar teeth becomes the facial {Fig 
 9 . h) ; and also sends off the inferior labial {Fig 9 . d). 
 
134 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 Previous to this division are given off the ascending 
 pharyngeal {Fig 11 . 13); which often sends ofT twigs to 
 the soft palate, and to the larynx. 
 
 The submaxillary also gives off small branches to the in- 
 ternal masseter, and to the parotid gland. 
 
 The lingual, almost equal to the parent trunk in size, but 
 is very short. And gives rise to 
 
 The ranine {Fig 11 . 10); and a branch to the cheek of 
 the horse (F?'^ll . 9, 9, 9). 
 
 The ranine is much the largest of the above two ; and 
 takes a serpentine course among the muscles of the tongue. 
 
 FIG 12. 
 
 THE HEAD, WITH THE LOWER JAW, THE ARCH OF THE ORBIT, AND 
 THE ZYGOMATIC PROCESS, REMOVED TO LAY BARE THE DEEPER 
 SEATED ARTERIES. 
 
 1, The external carotid. 
 
 2, The temporal divided. 
 
 3, Tlie submaxillary divided. 
 
 4, The internal masseter divided. 
 
 5, The posterior masseter divided. 
 
 6, The anterior auricular divided. 
 
 7, The posterior auricular divided. 
 
 8, The ramus anastoraoticus. 
 
 9, The occipital. 
 
 10, The internal carotid. 
 
 a, Tiie internal maxillary. 
 
 b, The deep temporal. 
 
 c, Twigs to the soft palate. 
 
 d, Inferior maxillary, divided where it enters 
 
 the foi'amen maxillary infers. 
 c, The supra orbitaiium. 
 /, The ocular, 
 r/. The iufra orbital, partly concealed by tiie 
 
 eye. 
 h, The lateral nasal. 
 i. The palato-maxillary. 
 j, The branches fi-om the palato-maxillaries, 
 
 after they have anastomosed, and passed 
 
 through the foramen incisivum. 
 
 The mental {Fig 11 . 11) runs between the branches 
 of the lower jaw; nourishing the mylo hyoideus; the internal 
 masseter ; and the gums of the lower jaw. 
 
 To the anterior of the masseter branches, one large, and 
 two or three small ones, are also supplied from the mental. 
 
 Inferior labial runs near the lower border upon the outer 
 
ARTERIES OF THE BRAIN. 135 
 
 side of the inferior maxillary, close with the retractor labii 
 inferioris muscle. It also supplies the under lip ; within 
 which it unites with its fellow of the opposite side. 
 
 It gives rise to 
 
 The buccinator arteries. 
 
 A branch, which runs to the angle of the mouth ; and 
 there divides into the superior and inferior coronary arteries, 
 which nourish the upper and the under lips {Fig 9 . e) . 
 
 The facial artery (Fig 9 . h) ascends in front of the mas- 
 seter ; having reached the termination of which, it divides 
 and expends itself on the front of the face. 
 
 It generally sends blood to the external masseter muscle ; 
 buccal twigs; and the superior labial {Fig 9 .f,f); and a 
 branch which runs to the false nostril, and to the upper hp 
 {Fig 9 . i) ; all its branches freely join those of neighbouring 
 arteries. 
 
 The ramus anastomoticus {Fig 12.8) proceeds upwards, 
 underneath the parotid gland ; below the styloid process it 
 turns and gets under the wing of the atlas ; where it unites 
 with the vertebral. It gives off 
 
 The occipital {Fig 12 . 9), which ascends to the crest of 
 the occiput. This last sends off a long twig, which goes 
 through the foramen lacerum basis cranii to the dura mater, 
 as w^ell as nurtures other parts. 
 
 The i7iter7ial carotid {Fig 12 . 10, 10 ; /(/. 1 1. 6) crosses 
 the extremity of the os hyoides, and by a tortuous course 
 reaches the cranium, through the foramen lacerum basis 
 cranii. 
 
 ARTERIES OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 The vertebrals, upon entering the cranium {Plate V. Fig 
 2 . 1,1), unite with the inferior spinal artery {Plate V. Fig 
 2.2); and ultimately form one trunk, called the basilar 
 {Plate Y. Fig 3) ; which, when formed, gives off branches 
 right and left to the cerebellum (PZ«ie V. Fig 2. 4). Having 
 then proceeded to the front of the pons varoli the basilar is 
 divided into three trunks, by giving off the right and left com- 
 municating arteries of the basilar {Plate V. Fig 2 . 6, 6) ; 
 which join the transverse posterior {Plate V. Fig 2 . a), 
 within the cranium ; where for the present we must leave 
 them. The middle communicating artery {Plate V. Fig 
 
136 THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 2 . 7) also connects the basilar with the posterior transverse 
 {Plate V. Fig 2 . a) ; which, beside giving off several branches, 
 transmits two large trunks, called the right and left laterals 
 {Plate V. Fig 2 . c, d) ; and these, uniting with the ante- 
 rior transverse artery, form the circulus arteriosis, at the 
 very base of the brain {Plate V. Fig 2 . a, b, c, d). 
 
 The internal carotids, having entered the cranium, unite 
 with the circulus arteriosis, at the base of the crura cerebri ; 
 which gives off, just afterwards, the ophthalmus, or central 
 artery of the retina {Plate V. Fig 2.9,9). These last, how- 
 ever, do not in any two subjects appear to originate exactly in 
 the same place. The circuhis arteriosis sends off two large 
 trunks; named the middle cerebrals (Plate \. Fig 2 .11, 
 11) ; after which, directly in front, it dispatches one trunk, 
 called the anterior cerebral {Plate V. Fig 2 . 12) ; and this 
 subsequently dividing, forms the right and left anterior cere- 
 bral {Plate V. Fig 2 . 13, 13). Thus the brain is amply 
 supplied with blood ; but whoever inspects the plate so often 
 referred to, must be struck with the very tortuous or crooked 
 course which one and all of these vessels take. The reason 
 of this is obviously to check the impetuosity of the arterial 
 current ; but, notwithstanding all the care nature takes to 
 prevent it, cases of congestion do occur. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 This large and important vessel {Fig 13.4. Plate IV. A) 
 furnishes blood to all the parts of the body, save the head, 
 neck, and fore limbs. It curves upwards and backwards, 
 inclining in its course to the left side of the vertebrae ; and 
 supplies all but the first four or five ribs. In the thoracic 
 passage of the aorta it gives off the bronchial {Fig 13.5); 
 the oesophageal {Fig 13 . 6, 6) ; and the intercostals {Fig 
 13.7); and as it enters the abdomen between the crura of the 
 diaphragm, it leaves the phrenic {Fig 13 . 8). The coeliac 
 {Fig 13 . 9) is often the first true abdominal branch of the 
 aorta, and, in most instances, is the common trunk of the 
 splenic {Fig 13 . a); gastric {Fig 13 . b) ; and hepatic {Fig 
 13 . d) arteries. The gastric divides into two branches; one 
 of which spreads its ramifications over the lesser curvatures 
 of the stomach, upon the upper surface ; and the other joins 
 the splenic, and becomes the left gastric. The hepatic 
 
THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 137 
 
 artery forms a considerable branch of the coeliac : in its course 
 to the liver it gives a branch to the duodenum ; as well as one 
 which supplies the pyloric extremity of the stomach. The 
 splenic in its course sends blood to the pancreas ; and then 
 runs between tlie spleen, and the great curvature of the 
 stomach ; being in this place called the left gastric, which 
 unites with the gastric, enclosing the stomach as in a sling. 
 
 FIG 13. 
 
 THE LENGTH OF THE POSTERIOR AORTA EXPOSED. 
 
 1, Tlie aorta. 
 
 2, The pulmonary arteiy. 
 
 3, The left coronary. 
 
 4, The posterior aorta. 
 
 5, The left bronchial. 
 (i, The oesophageal. 
 
 7, The intercostals. 
 
 8, The left phreuic. 
 
 9, The coeliac. 
 
 a, The splenic. 
 
 b, The gastric. 
 
 c, Arteries derived from the gastric. 
 
 d, The hepatic. 
 
 e, The anterior mesenteric. 
 /, The renal. 
 
 g, g. The spermatics. 
 
 h. The posterior mesenteric. 
 i. The lumbar arteries. 
 j. The left external iliac. 
 k, The left internal iliac. 
 I, The right external iliac. 
 »B, The circumflex artery of the ilium. 
 n, The profunda femoris. 
 0, The epigastric. 
 
 The mesenteries , anterior and posterior {Fig 13 . e, A), are two 
 considerable branches given off from the aorta : the posterior 
 being generally the last vessel emerging from the aorta; the first 
 leaves the parent trunk, directly after the cceliac. The anterior 
 is distributed to the mesentery and small intestines ; giving a 
 small branch to the pancreas. The posterior furnishes most 
 of the large intestines ; excepting a portion of the rectum. 
 The mesenteries anastomose freely with each other by a 
 particular branch ; and surround the intestines, so as to 
 form a network of vessels. The emulgents, or renals, are 
 
138 THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 given ofF between the two mesenteries (Fig \S ./. Plate 
 IV. E) ; and are very considerable trunks. Arising at 
 right angles from the aorta, they at once reach their appro- 
 priate kidneys; giving off in their passage branches to supply 
 the renal capsules. The spermatics {Fig 13 . g, g) follow 
 next in order ; parting from the main trunk, about midway 
 between the origin of the renals and the division of the 
 aorta. These are peculiar for being the longest arteries, in 
 proportion to their diameters, in the body ; and also for 
 travelling a greater distance in a straight line ; as well as for 
 giving off no branches ; the generality of arteries being 
 much convoluted, and sending off numerous twigs. These 
 vessels, in the male, pass down the abdominal rings, to join 
 the spermatic chords ; and in the female, go to the ovaries 
 and Fallopian tubes. The lumbar arteries (Fig 13 . i) are 
 usually five or six pairs ; which arise from the superior 
 part of the aorta ; being distributed to the spinal canal 
 and lumbar muscles. 
 
 The iliac arteries. — When the aorta has arrived to about 
 the fifth lumbar vertebra, it first gives off the two external 
 ihacs ; and in about three quarters of an inch more, the 
 trunk divides finally into two larger divisions.— The internal 
 iliacs are so called from their pelvic situation and distribu- 
 tion {Fig 14 . i). The first to notice is the artery of the 
 bulb {Fig 14 . j) ; sometimes given off before the iliac divi- 
 sion, but always near it. It bends itself within the pelvis, 
 furnishing the prostatic gland in the male ; and vagina in 
 the female ; after which it proceeds to the bulb of the penis ; 
 or to the vagina. The gluteal {Fig 14 . 7i) is also a branch 
 from the internal iliacs ; and going through the sacro-sciatic 
 notch, supplies the gluteal, and some of the neighbouring 
 muscles. The lateral sacral {Fig 14 . o), likewise originating 
 from the same trunk ; sends off the peroneal {Fig 14 . p) ; 
 which supplies a gluteal branch ; the flexors of the thigh ; 
 and the anal muscles with part of their blood. The middle 
 sacral {Fig 14 . ^) is like the lateral, given off by the internal 
 iliac ; and both commonly travel to the end of the tail ; the 
 middle however being the smaller within the pelvis. The 
 obturator {Fig 14 . Z) often follows next ; the main trunk 
 of which traversing the pelvis, ultimately passes through 
 the obturator foramen to the muscles of the haunch ; before 
 
THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 139 
 
 it quits the pelvis it gives off the innominata {Fig 14 . m) ; 
 which goes to the extensor muscles of the thigh ; then divides 
 into the pubic, ischiatic, and internal piidic {Fig \5 . n,o,p) ; 
 by which last the organs of generation in both sexes are 
 furnished. 
 
 FIG 14. 
 
 THE TERMINATION OF THE AORTA IN THE TWO ILIACS, WITH THE 
 NUMEROUS BRANCHES THAT SPRING FROM THOSE VESSELS 
 WITHIN THE TRUNK. 
 
 h. The remains of the foetal umbiUcal arteries. 
 I, The obturator. 
 m, The arteria innominata. 
 n, The gluteal. 
 0, The lateral sacx'al. 
 p, The peroneal. 
 
 q, A brancli to the back of the thigh. 
 r, A gluteal branch. 
 s, Continuation of the lateral sacral. 
 t. The middle sacral. 
 
 a, The abdominal aorta. 
 
 b, The spei-matics. 
 
 c, The posterior mesenteric. 
 
 d, The external iliac. 
 
 e, The circumflex of the iUura. 
 
 f, The profunda femoris. 
 
 g, The epigastric. 
 h, The femoi-al. 
 
 i. The internal iliac. 
 
 /, The arteries of the bulb. 
 
140 
 
 THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 The external iliacs (Fig 14 . ^) travel more externally ; 
 but having gamed the brim of the pelvis, they proceed one 
 on each side down the iliac muscles ; in which course each 
 
 FIG 15. 
 
 INSIDE OF THE HIND LEG. 
 
 a, The external iliac. 
 
 b, The profunda femoris. 
 
 c, The epigastric. 
 
 d, The femoral. 
 e, The inguinal. 
 
 /, Large branch to the stifle. 
 
 q, Branch to the ti-iceps abductor femoris, 
 
 i, Popliteal branches. 
 j, Anterior tibial. 
 k, Posterior tibial. 
 I, The obdurator. 
 m, The ai'teria iunominata. 
 «, The pubic. 
 0, The ischiatic. 
 
 h. Branch to the posterior border of the p, The iutei-nal pudic. 
 gastrocnemii. 
 
 gives off twigs to the psoas and abdominal muscles ; the cir- 
 cumflex artery of the ilium {Fig 14 . e) being the first large 
 branch of the external iliac. It advances across the loins, and 
 
THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 141 
 
 gives off a tube to the traversalis abdominis ; and another 
 that proceeds forwards, chiefly to supply the other abdominal 
 muscles. The arteria profunda femoris {Fig 14 .f; fig 15 . b) 
 also comes from the external iliac, at the termination of the 
 main trunk ; and dives amongst the thickest of the thigh ; 
 before which, however, it gives off the epigastric artery {Fig 
 14 . g ; fig 15 . c) ; which runs along the border of the 
 rectus muscle, to unite with the internal pectoral artery. 
 
 FIG 16. 
 
 THE OUTSIDE OF THE HIND LEG. 
 
 a, Gluteal branches. 
 
 b, The arteria inuomiiiata. 
 
 c, The anterior tibial. 
 
 d, The metacarpal. 
 
 The femoral artery {Fig 15 . d), passing out of the abdomen, 
 descends along the internal side of the femur, to about the 
 
142 THE PULMONARY VESSELS. 
 
 middle of the bone ; where proceeding obliquely, it gains the 
 centre of the thigh ; and is continued down behind that bone. 
 Pursuing its course, the femoral artery at length reaches 
 the sulcus at the back of the stifle ; to which last it 
 sends numerous small arteries, called the pophteals (Fig 
 15 . i). In its course the femoral dispatches the inguinal 
 {Fig 15 . e) ; which last proceeds to get between the vastus 
 internus and rectus ; giving off branches to all the parts 
 through which it passes. The femoral artery subsequently 
 sends blood to all parts of the thigh ; the twigs by means 
 of which it does so having no name ; and upon reach- 
 ing the stifle divides into the anterior {Fig 15 . j) and 
 posterior tibial {Fig \5 . k) arteries. The j^osterior tibial 
 artery is continued down the posterior of the tibia. The 
 anterior tibial {Fig 16 . c) forms the other division of the 
 femoral ; and runs obliquely to the external inferior part of 
 the tibia; passing between that bone and the fibula, the 
 artery then takes its course between the extensor muscles. 
 It here winds round the outer side of the hock ; and de- 
 scending along the cannon bone changes its name to the 
 metatarsal artery {Fig 16 . d) ; which is continued down 
 between the large and the small metacarpal bones. It thus 
 gains the superior part of the sessamoid bones; when it bifur- 
 cates into the two pastern or plantar arteries ; following a 
 similar distribution with those of the fore extremities. 
 
 THE PULMONARY VESSELS. 
 
 The pulmonary artery {Fig 13 . 2) unlike the generality of 
 similar tubes conveys venous blood from the right side of the 
 heart ; and the pulmonary veins carry arterial blood back to 
 the left auricle. This is their striking peculiarity or chief cha- 
 racteristic. The passage of the blood through these vessels 
 is termed the minor circulation. The pulmonary artery is a 
 trunk of five or six inches in length ; given ofl' from the right 
 ventricle of the heart : immediately after which it divides into 
 the right and left branches ; the right being more consider- 
 able than the left, in conformity with the additional lobe of 
 the right lung. Each of these branches is divided upon 
 its entering the lungs into others ; which being subdivided 
 ramify throughout the substance of the lungs. From the 
 minute distributions of the artery, the blood is received into 
 
THE VEINS GENERALLY. 143 
 
 capillaries ; by which minute tubes it is conveyed to the pul- 
 monary veins ; when the recipient branches increasing ulti- 
 mately unite into four, five, and occasionally six principal 
 trunks ; which all terminate in the left auricle of the heart. 
 
 THE VEINS GENERALLY. 
 
 Veins correspond wdth arteries in their common office of 
 caiTying the blood ; but with this difference ; that the arte- 
 ries distribute their blood from the heart to every part of 
 the body : whereas the veins bring back the blood from the 
 parts the arteries had carried it to, and restore it to the heart. 
 The veins may, therefore, be considered as canals arising 
 from minute tubes, called capillaries ; distributed over every 
 part of the body ; veins becoming larger, terminate in the 
 heart. Their coats are thin ; but tenacious and elastic. 
 Their number and calibre are greatly superior to that of the 
 arteries. We find them distributed in two orders ; a super- 
 ficial and a deep-seated, which communicate freely with each 
 other. The superficial order run immediately under the 
 skin ; the deep-seated accompany the arteries. As a guard 
 against obstruction, as in the jaws, their coats sometimes 
 enlarge into reservoirs {Fig 17 ./). The want of solidity 
 and resisting power in veins is compensated by internal 
 membranous projections, which form valves. A valve 
 appears to be a duplicature of the lining coat of the vein ; 
 raised into two and sometimes three folds : of these, one 
 edge adheres to the inner side of the vein ; the other is 
 free. By this formation the blood passing towards the 
 heart, keeps the valves continually open ; but when, by 
 pressure, the fluid is stopped in its course, the valves being 
 pressed backward, expand, and prevent its return. Valves 
 are not distributed equally throughout the venous trunks : 
 in some vessels, where the blood has to traverse upward, or 
 against gravity, they are numerous ; in others they are 
 entirely wanting. They are found in veins of the extremi- 
 ties, excepting the feet ; there are but few in the viscera ; 
 nor are there any in parts w^here the blood has to drop as it 
 w^ere into the heart. A good example of this is the jugu- 
 lars {Fig 17 . a) ; in which the valves are placed looking 
 towards the heart ; so that when the horse stands with 
 his head elevated, the blood only has to fall through the 
 
144 
 
 OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA. 
 
 vessel, the valves not acting ; but when the animal feeds 
 from the ground, and the blood has to ascend against 
 gravity, the valves are of service, and come into full ope- 
 ration. 
 
 FIG 17. 
 
 THE VEINS OF THE HEAD AND FACE. 
 
 a, The jugular. 
 
 b, The submaxillary. 
 
 c, The labial. 
 
 d, The facial. 
 
 e, The tempoi'al. 
 
 /, The sinus, or pouch, within the masseter 
 
 muscle. 
 g, The posterior masseter. 
 h. The parotideal. 
 i. The auricular. 
 j, The occipital. 
 
 Of the origins of veins, one is from arteries, which 
 have previously terminated in capillaries ; and likewise 
 from large cavities or sinuses. Veins are furnished with 
 arterial blood from the vasa vasorum, given off by the 
 nearest arteries ; which blood is returned by minute venae 
 venarum into the nearest veins. The blood within the 
 veins is returned' to the heart in a regular flow ; at least no 
 pulsation has ever been satisfactorily detected within them. 
 
 OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA. 
 
 All venous trunks eventually terminate in the anterior 
 and posterior cavce {Fig 1 8 . «, k) ; in both of which, other 
 veins also terminate. In this detail we shall commence a 
 
OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA. 
 
 145 
 
 description of the veins as vessels terminating in the heart ; 
 and bringing the blood to the centre of circulation, to be 
 thence purified. 
 
 FIG 18. 
 
 
 //"'/fl'/l" 
 
 THE TERMINATIONS OF THE CAVAS IN THE HEART ; RIGHT SIDE. 
 
 a. The anterior cava. h. The anterior intercostal. 
 
 h. The jugular. i, The inferior cervical, 
 
 c, The vertebral. j, The vena azygos. 
 
 </, The axillary. h. The posterior vena cava, divested of its 
 
 e, The internal pectoral. covering of pleura. 
 
 /, The external pectoral. I, The phrenic sinuses. 
 (7, The dorso cervical. 
 
 The anterior cava empties its contents into the right 
 auricle : opposite to the first rib it receives four principal 
 trunks ; two of which are the axillaries, and two of which 
 are the jugulars ; besides these the internal and external 
 pectorals empty themselves also into the anterior cava, 
 opposite to the first rib {Fig \S . d, e,f). Subsequent to 
 this it receives the dorso cervical and vertebral veins with 
 the anterior intercostal ; then the vena azygos {Fig 18 . j) ; 
 which passes on the right side of the dorsal vertebice, 
 and receives the blood from all the posterior intercostals ; 
 all pour their blood into its channel {Fig 18^. h, g,j, c). 
 
 The axillary is a principal trunk, which, having passed 
 over the first rib, assumes the name of the humeral ; and is 
 joined by the external thoracic or spur vein ; as well as 
 vessels from the scapula and its muscles. 
 
 The humeral descends towards the posterior part of the 
 humerus, where it takes the name of radial ; previous to its 
 
 L 
 
146 OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA. 
 
 doing which it is joined, near to its upper extremity, by a 
 large trunk, called the ulnar. It is also united with a large 
 vein, towards its low^er extremity, termed the spiral ; and 
 these accessions increase the bulk of the humeral. Just at 
 the point where the vessel loses the name of humeral, a 
 large vein unites with the radial, to swell the bulk of the 
 lower end of the humeral ; and this additional vein is called 
 the superficial brachial. All those vessels pass by the title 
 of superficial brachial, wdiich may be seen v/ith the naked eye, 
 from above the knee to the point of the shoulder, swelling over 
 the bodies of the extensor muscles. Just behind the knee the 
 superficial brachial unites with the radial ; which last, exactly 
 posterior to the joint, forms a venous circle ; ultimately be- 
 coming the internal metacarpal, to divide above the fetlocks, 
 into the two plantars ; which are immediately concerned in 
 bringing the blood from the fore feet. 
 
 These vessels originate from the capillaries, in which 
 arteries terminate ; and bring back the blood to, or end in, 
 the heart. 
 
 The jugulars, one of the principal divisions of the anterior 
 cava, run down one on each side of the trachea. The main 
 trunk arises from the foramen lacerum basis cranii ; w^hence 
 it soon after appears at the back of the jaw. In this situation 
 it receives several branches ; the most remarkable of which 
 are three vessels from the ear {Fig 17) ; a large trunk (the 
 temporal) {Fig 17 . e), originating in front of the masseter 
 muscle ; where it springs from a junction with the facial 
 {Fig ]7 . d) ; wdiich chiefly follows the course of the artery ; 
 receiving the blood of the labial {Fig 17 . c). From the 
 junction of the facial and the temporal grows the submaxil- 
 lary {Fig 17 . b) ; which takes the course of the artery in 
 the first instance ; and ultimately joins the jugular, at what 
 is generally termed its division into two parts. The sub- 
 maxillary is that portion which proceeds toward the channel 
 of the lower jaw^ ; and between it and the temporal are 
 numerous communicating trunks. These are necessary, 
 lest the blood should either be stayed in its course, or the 
 vessels containing it be burst, through the strong contrac- 
 tions of the powerful masseter muscle, which is employed 
 during mastication. As a further protection against such 
 an accident, within the substance of the masseter muscle, a 
 
VEINS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 147 
 
 vein dilates, becomes varicose or more properly speaking, 
 forms a sinus {Fig 17 ./) ; capable of containing a large 
 quantity of blood. 
 
 VEINS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 The blood from the hind foot is returned by the plantar 
 veins ; which at the fetlock become the metatarsals. The in- 
 ternal metatarsal upon approaching the joint gets in front of 
 the hock ; though afterwards it curves upward and takes a 
 course above the tibia, under the name of the vena saphena 
 minor. This last vessel joins the femoral above the stifle 
 joint. In front of the hock numerous venous twigs origi- 
 nate ; which, increased by branches sent by the external 
 and internal metatarsal veins, become the anterior tibial 
 upon the outside of the leg ; which curves upward to the 
 top of the fibula; when, after passing under the head of 
 that bone, it becomes the femoral. 
 
 The internal metatarsal sends a branch to the front of 
 the hock ; the main trunk, under the name of the vena 
 saphena major, proceeds over the inner side of the calcis ; 
 to be continued upon the upper side of the tibia, near to 
 the bone ; when, having passed at the back of the stifle, it 
 proceeds directly to the flank ; after which it curves back- 
 wards, being increased by several fine twigs, and empties 
 itself into the femoral. The vena saphena major, on its 
 approach to the gastrocnemius muscle, gives off a trunk 
 termed the posterior tibial ; which pours its contents into 
 the femoral, just above the stifle ; shortly after this the 
 femoral obtains another branch, the vena saphena minor ; 
 which, however, a little way prior to its junction sends off 
 a trunk, that ascends through the muscles of the thigh 
 to pass through the obturator foramen, and join the femoral 
 within the pelvis, under the name of the obturator vein. 
 The femoral terminates in the external iliac ; which, after 
 receiving the abdominal veins, runs close to the spine into 
 the common iliac ; a very short but thick trunk. 
 
 The pudic veins ultimately end in one trunk, which 
 empties into the ischiatic ; and this last vessel pours its blood 
 into the internal iliac ; which being so very short soon ends 
 in the common iliac. The lateral sacral, which receives the 
 sacro spinal, also ends in the internal iliac. The common 
 
 l2 
 
148 THE VENA PORTtE. 
 
 iliac receives the circumflex veins, and then blends with 
 the posterior vena cava. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR CAVA, 
 
 The posterior cava runs along the lumbar region, in- 
 clining to the right side {Plate IV. B) of the spine ; when 
 about to leave the loins it receives the two spermatic veins ; 
 and immediately after the lumbar veins by one trunk pour 
 their contents into the larger vessel ; close to these last the 
 right {Plate IV. F) and left renal vessels, of a large size, 
 empty their blood into the parent receptacle ; which shortly 
 afterwards passes through the top of the liver. The vena 
 cava, as it passes through the liver, is pierced by numerous 
 holes upon its lower surface ; which holes permit the re- 
 turn of the blood from the hepatic veins. Having quitted 
 the liver the vena cava passes through the right fora- 
 men of the diaphragm ; and while going through this, the 
 blood from the venous sinuses of the diaphragm is poured 
 into it. These are the last vessels that communicate with 
 the posterior cava ; which afterwards runs within its own 
 investiture of pleura to the right auricle {Fig 18 . k), where 
 it is joined by the anterior cava ; which travels above the 
 heart {Fig 18 . a), till having reached its hindermost part, 
 it bends or dips downward to gain the right auricle. 
 
 THE VENA PORT/E. 
 
 This vessel arises from the stomach, the pancreas and 
 intestines, &c. by capillaries ; when having ended in one 
 common trunk, it enters the liver as such a little above the 
 hepatic duct. Within the substance of the liver it again 
 divides and subdivides, and thus once more terminates in 
 capillaries ; from which last originate the hepatic veins that 
 empty their blood into the posterior vena cava. The vena 
 portte then is peculiar for originating by capillaries, running 
 by branches to one common trunk, and then dividing to 
 terminate in capillaries. It is the only vein that has 
 capillaries at both extremities; other veins originate by 
 capillaries, but terminating by means of a large trunk 
 within the heart. Besides this, the vena portae has another 
 peculiarity; it goes to the liver for secretion. All other 
 veins carry away blood only after the secretion has been 
 
•***w<,»!ss*«ii*iija,»;s; 
 
 .r 
 
 if. 
 
 IC,<J^ 
 
 ,/w^. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 =0 ,^p^-i'^^-^ 
 
 "%:• 
 
THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 149 
 
 extracted from it. That the vena portie does go for secre- 
 tion, the distribution of its capillaries, twining around the 
 minute ends of the biliary ducts, sufficiently proves. More- 
 over, the hepatic artery is not large enough to furnish all 
 the bile. This artery is not in communication with the 
 parts which would enable it to secrete : it nourishes the 
 substance of the liver ; the coats of the vena portee ; and 
 the tunics of the hepatic ducts ; but when it has done this, 
 the blood it contained is expended ; and its venous blood is 
 brought back by hepatic veins, and mingles with that of 
 the vena portse. It is the mouths of these veins, which, 
 penetrating the posterior cava as it passes along the top of 
 the liver, give the coats of the vessel the appearance of 
 being pierced by numerous holes. 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 NEUROLOGY. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V. 
 
 THE BASE OF THE BRAIN, SHOWING ITS NERVES AND ARTERIES. 
 
 Fig 1 . — The brain, shoicing the origin of the nerves : 
 A, A, the hemispheres of the cerebrum ; 1, 1, the first pair, 
 or olfactory nerves, which confer the faculty of smell ; a, the 
 sinus, or cavity within the olfactory nerve, exposed ; 2, the 
 second pair, or optic nerves, upon the healthy state of which 
 vision is dependent ; b, the decussation, or rather, junction 
 of the optic nerves ; c, the corpus albicantium, or pituitary 
 gland ; d, the infundibulum, leading to and joining the 
 corpus albicantium at the base of the brain ; e, e, the crura 
 cerebri ; 3, the third pair, or motores oculorum, which go 
 exclusively to the eye for motion ; 4, the fourth pair, or 
 pathetic nerves, which chiefly proceed to the superior 
 oblique of the eye for motion ; /, the pons varolii ; 5, 5, 5, 5, 
 the flfth pair of nerves, or the first pair of mixed nerves, 
 being distributed principally about the head for motion and 
 sensation ; although from these spring the gustatory nerv^es, 
 or nerves of special sense. The subject from which this 
 brain w^as taken had the fifth pair of nerves unusually de- 
 veloped ; 6, 6, the sixth pair, or abducens, proceeding prin- 
 cipally to the abductor muscle of the eye for motion ; 7, 7, 
 
150 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 
 
 7, 7, the seventh pair, or auditory nerves ; being the second 
 nerves of a mixed character which have originated from the 
 base of the brain. This pair, however, are only motor and 
 special; and do not include the sentient, as did the fifth 
 pair. They consist of two distinct branches. The portio 
 mollis goes to the internal ear, for the special sense of 
 hearing ; the portio dura supplies the muscles of the face 
 with motion ; and hence is spoken of as the facial nerve. 
 
 8, 8, a third nerve of mixed character, named the pneumo- 
 gastric, principally connecting the brain with the functions 
 of organic life, presided over by a distinct set of nerves, 
 called the sympathetic. It divides into three branches : — (1) 
 the glosso-pharyngeus, proceeding to the tongue and pha- 
 rynx; (2) the pneumogastric, distributed to the larynx, 
 thorax, and abdomen ; and (3) the spinal accessory (the 
 small nerve seen to join it coming from the spinal marrow), 
 which ramifies upon the neck ; 9, 9, the lingual, conferring 
 motion upon the tongue; 10, 10, those which are called 
 the tenth pair do not belong to the cranial nerves, but 
 really are the first spinal ; g, the medulla oblongata ; h, h, 
 the anterior lobes of the cerebrum ; i, i, the posterior lobes 
 of the cerebrum ; j, j, the small middle lobes of the cere- 
 brum ; k, k, the cerebellum. 
 
 Fig 2. — The arteries of the hrain : 1, 1, the vertebrals ; 
 2, the inferior spinal, about to become a single vessel ; 3, 3, 
 the basilar, giving off" transverse branches on either side ; 
 4, 4, the posterior cerebellar ; 5, 5, the anterior cerebellar ; 
 6, 6, right and left communicating arteries, connecting the 
 basilar with the circulus arteriosis ; 7, the middle communi- 
 cating artery, connecting the basilar with the posterior trans- 
 verse artery ; 8, 8, internal carotids ; 9, 9, the ophthalmics ; 
 10, 10, the posterior cerebral ; 11,11, the middle cerebral ; 
 12, the anterior cerebral, dividing into, 13, 13, the right 
 and left anterior cerebral ; a, b, c, d, represents the circulus 
 arteriosis, or circle of Willis ; formed by the carotids, which 
 divide into, a, the posterior transverse ; &, the anterior 
 transverse ; c, the left lateral ; and d, the right lateral com- 
 municating arteries. 
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 
 
 At the head of the nervous system stands the soft white 
 and reddish mass contained within the cavity of the skull, 
 
THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 151 
 
 called the brain. Of its membranes or meninges, the dura 
 mater is the most external ; performing the double office of 
 a support to the brain, and an internal pericranium to the 
 bones, unto which it strongly adheres by numerous filaments. 
 It forms several folds or prolongations ; such as the falx 
 which divides the cerebral lobes : other expansions form 
 sinuses to receive the blood returned from the interior of the 
 brain ; and it is prolonged to line the orbits, and likewise 
 cover the spinal marrow. The memhrana arachnoidea ap- 
 pears a very fine serous membrane, in connexion with the 
 internal surface of the dura mater ; and after investing every 
 vein or artery that runs to or from the organ, it is reflected 
 over the free surface of the brain itself. The arachnoid is in 
 contact with nothing but itself; and here, as in every other 
 case, a serous membrane forms a closed sac, and facilitates 
 motion. With regard to its forming a closed sac ; the arach- 
 noid accompanies the spinal marrow out of the cranium ; but 
 is not reflected over the nerves which emerge from that canal, 
 or are given off by the brain. With respect to its faciU- 
 tating motion ; the brain, during life, constantly moves, and 
 may be seen to pulsate in the forehead of an infant. 
 
 The arachnoid is held close to the surface of the brain, 
 over the convolutions of which it is reflected. 
 
 The pia mater is nothing more than cellular tissue ; which, 
 entering into the substance of the brain, holds its convolu- 
 tions together ; as well as forms the sheath of every nerve 
 that emerges from the organ. 
 
 The substance of the hrain, by a natural division, divides 
 itself into two portions (see Plate V. Fig 1 . a,k). The 
 cerebrum is the first and largest portion (see Plate V. Fig 
 1 . a, a) ; its external or cortical part is of a pale dull red 
 colour; and is indented by convolutions. The interior and 
 larger portion, called the medullary, is white ; and is after 
 death more tenacious than the cortical substance. On 
 separating the hemispheres {Plate V. Fig 1 . a, a) the 
 corpus callosum appears of a glistening white tint. The 
 centrum ovale is nothing more than the greatest quantity 
 of medullary matter which can be exposed at a single cut ; 
 w^hich must be made just above the corpus callosum, re- 
 moving the top of the hemispheres. Two cavities of an 
 oblong form, one upon either side of the corpus callosum, 
 are called the lateral ventricles ; and extend throughout the 
 
152 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 
 
 length of the cerebrum. These ventricles contain a very- 
 small quantity of fluid ; which is perfectly clear. 
 
 The cavities communicate with each other by a canal situ- 
 ated behind the foi'nix ; which is no more than another name 
 given to a portion of the corpus callosum, which projects 
 within the lateral ventricles. Upon laying open the ventricles, 
 the vascular web, or plexus choroides, is seen. The lateral 
 ventricles are prolonged anteriorly by curved projecting 
 hollows, communicating with the olfactory sinuses. Under 
 the more forward portion of the corpus callosum is a semi- 
 transparent substance ; being composed chiefly of two layers 
 of the serous membrane of the ventricles ; it is called the 
 septum lucidum. By the sides of the septum are two bulging 
 bodies ; which when divided present a streaked appearance ; 
 and are therefore termed the corpora striata. Behind these 
 are other and lighter coloured substances ; whose edge, 
 waving or forming a curved line, is named the tenia 
 semicircularis. The wdiite substances themselves are called 
 the hippocampi majores ; and are very thin. Upon lifting 
 up the fornix, or white arch which connects the hippocampi 
 wdth the anterior wall of the ventricles, will be seen a com- 
 munication between the two ventricles ; it being perhaps 
 better discovered directly between the two choroid plexuses ; 
 spoken of as the foramen of Munro. The plexus choroides 
 are enveloped in a fold of the serous membrane of the ven- 
 tricles ; within this, and connecting the two, is a certain 
 portion of cellular tissue or pia mater. 
 
 By cutting directly down the centre of the brain the 
 student will gain the third ventricle ; and will behind it 
 behold a small dark coloured body called the pineal gland. 
 In front of the third ventricle is a small hole leadinir down- 
 wards, spoken of as the foramen commune : by gently in- 
 serting a probe in the direction of, but under the pineal 
 gland, a communication will be discovered leading to the 
 fourth ventricle under the cerebellum ; which is termed the 
 iter a tertio ad quartum ventriculum. Raise the cere- 
 bellum ; and directly behind the cerebrum lies the fourth 
 ventricle : just above the opening which leads to it are four 
 small bodies called the nates and testes, or corpora quadri- 
 gemini ; and guarding the opening from the third to the 
 fourth ventricle is a portion of pendulous membrane, spoken 
 of as the velum interpositum. 
 
THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 153 
 
 These are the main particulars of the interior of the brain ; 
 the anatomy of which consists only of a quantity of hard 
 words, to which it is hoped future investigations may attach 
 a meaning and a use. 
 
 Turn up the brain now to its base. The soft masses ex- 
 tending anteriorly and looking like a prolongation of each 
 hemisphere, are the first pair of nerves or olfactories {Plate 
 V, Fig 1.1) going to the nose, and conferring the sense 
 of smell. They are peculiar for having sinuses within them 
 {Plate V. Fig 1 . a), and also for not taking on the cha- 
 racter of nerves till they reach the sieve-like plate of the 
 ethnoid bones ; when they divide into a vast number of 
 very fine nerves. The next pair are the optic, and go to 
 the eye for sight {Plate V. Fig 1.2). They are behind 
 the olfactory, and come from each hemisphere to meet in 
 the middle, and there unite {Plate V. Fig 1 . &). They 
 are peculiar for taking out of the cranium a layer of dura 
 mater, also for having an artery within their centres — the 
 ophthalmic {Plate V. Fig 2 . 9) ; as well as for their decus- 
 sation ; for if the right eye goes blind the optic nerve 
 withers, and in that state can be distinctly traced to the 
 left hemisphere. 
 
 The cerebellum, or little hrain, rests upon the tentorium 
 or bony process given off towards the interior of the cra- 
 nium by the os triquatrum. The tentorium, however, is only 
 partly formed of bone ; and partly of reflections of the dura 
 mater. It is placed immediately behind the cerebrum, which 
 it divides from the cerebellum. It is supposed to be of use 
 to prevent the brain being shaken in animals that leap much. 
 The cerebellum when divided displays the white matter ar- 
 ranged in an arborescent manner ; which is called the arbor 
 vitce. The dura mater, beside forming processes, also enters 
 into the composition of sinuses. The sinuses at the top 
 and back of the brain are first one above, and another at the 
 bottom of the falx, called the superior and inferior longitu- 
 dinal sinuses. These two are connected at the bottom by 
 the straight sinuses ; into which the veins from the interior 
 of the brain empty themselves. These sinuses discharge 
 their contents into the two lateral sinuses, which empty 
 themselves into the jugular veins. 
 
 The ophthalmic veins empty themselves into the ophthal- 
 
154 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 
 
 mic sinuses ; between which from side to side there are two 
 channels of communication running around the corpus 
 albicantium, called the circular sinuses. Continuous with 
 the ophthalmic sinuses are the inferior sinuses ; between the 
 two of which a branch of communication is named the 
 transverse sinus. The inferior sinuses discharge into the 
 lateral, which empty into the jugular vein. 
 
 Besides these there are other sinuses at the base of the 
 brain. A large reddish body lies behind the optic nerves ; 
 which is known as the pituitary gland or corpus albicantium ; 
 and the white substance that connects it to the brain is 
 spoken of as the infundibulum {Plate V. Fig I . d), being 
 nothing more than a hollow portion of the very white 
 matter forming the fornix. At the back of the corpus 
 albicantium is seen a broad white band ; crossing the very 
 commencement of what should be the spinal cord, if it 
 were continued so far, and forming the crus or legs of the 
 cerebellum {Plate V. Fig 1 . e, e). The broad white band 
 is the pons varoli {Plate V. Fig 1 . /) . From this two white 
 streams (the crura cerebri), which seem to flow from the 
 before-mentioned white band, come two strings. These are 
 the third pair of nerves, the motores oculorum {Plate V. Fig 
 1 . 3, 3) ; which go entirely to the eyes for motion. Look now 
 a little higher up, and more backward than the root of the 
 third pair ; there will be seen a white thread, which existing 
 upon either side of the front of the pons varoli, forms 
 the fourth pair, motor nerves ; the pathetic going to the 
 superior oblique of the eye {Plate V. Fig 1 . 4, 4). From 
 the sides of the pons varoli, but not very high up or far 
 backward, are seen a couple of large roots, the par tri- 
 gemini ; the fifth a very mixed nerve {Plate V. Fig 1 . 5, 5). 
 The sixth pair of nerves are situated just behind ; and a little 
 below the fifth pair, and go principally to the abductor 
 muscles of the eye, being hence called the abducens {Plate 
 V. Fig 1 . 6, 6). Upon the posterior part of the brain, 
 behind the pons varoli, is placed a seventh pair of nerves ; 
 consisting of two parts, a portio mollis and a portio dura 
 {Plate V. Fig 1 . 7,7). The portio mollis being a nerve of 
 special sense, and going to the internal ear for hearing ; 
 and the portio dura being a motor nerve ; and as such dis- 
 tributed over the face. The eighth pair arise posterior to 
 
THE NERVES. 155 
 
 the seventh by numerous filaments ; being increased by an 
 accessory nerve from the spine {Plate V. Fig 1 .8,8); and 
 are of a very compound description ; consisting of three 
 separate nerves : the glosso pharyngeus going to the tongue 
 and pharynx; the pneumogastric distributed to the chest 
 and abdomen ; and the spinal accessory, bestowing its chief 
 action upon the neck before and behind. The ninth pair are 
 like distinct numerous white strings ; which ultimately unite 
 to form one nerve, and run to the tongue for motion {Plate 
 V. Fig 1 . 9, 9). These are all the nerves giving off within 
 the cranium. That which is mentioned as the tenth pair, 
 being in fact the first spinal nerves. 
 
 The medulla oblongata {Plate V. Fig 1 . ^) is formed by 
 the continuation of the substances of the brain, and by two 
 pillars from each side ; each pillar being composed of three 
 bands : proceeding backward to the edge of the foramen 
 magnum of the occipital bone, it takes the name of spinal 
 marrow, and runs onward ; as will be shown presently. 
 
 The arterial trunks enter the skull in a very con- 
 voluted manner; and anastomose freely with each other 
 within the substance of the brain. The blood is returned 
 by small veins ; which pour it into the sinuses, and these 
 empty their contents into the jugulars. 
 
 The structure of the brain is fibrous. It is not in 
 itself an organ of great sensibihty ; on the contrary, some 
 portions of it, as of the cerebrum, are nearly insensible : 
 nor is the destruction of a small quantity of it neces- 
 sarily fatal. It can bear gradual pressure even to the 
 absorption of half its bulk ; as is seen in hydatids on 
 the brains of sheep ; but a slight sudden pressure, as of 
 apoplexy, destroys its life. Nothing is known of its 
 functions ; excepting that the cerebrum confers volition; that 
 the cerebelkira bestows command over muscular motion ; 
 and that the corpora quadrigemina are the roots of the 
 optic nerves. 
 
 THE NERVES. 
 
 The nerves are white fibrous cords, sent off either from 
 the cranium or spinal canal ; the ramifications of which nerves 
 are distributed to all parts of the body ; being enveloped in a 
 resistant membranous sheath called neurilema, to give them 
 
156 THE NERVES. 
 
 firmness. Thirty-six pairs of spinal nerves are given off 
 from the medulla spinalis by appropriate vertebral fora- 
 mina. 
 
 The cerebral nerves. — The first pair, or olfactory nerves, 
 are very large continuations of the substance of the cere- 
 brum ; and have a vacancy or sinus within their interior. 
 They appear to be formed of both the cortical and medul- 
 lary portions of the brain ; and take their origin from the 
 anterior of the organ {Plate V. Fig 1 . 1, 1), to be passed 
 out of the cranium by the very numerous foraminpe in the 
 cribriform portion of the ethmoid bone ; after which they 
 divide into filamentary twigs ; which traversing the ethmoi- 
 dal holes, are finally ramified over the surface of the pitu- 
 itary membrane ; by which its exquisite sensibility of smell 
 is furnished. However moisture is essential to this sense, 
 which departs when the nostrils are perfectly dry. There 
 is a connexion between this nerve and the muscles of respi- 
 ration ; as sneezing after taking snuff sufficiently proves. 
 This sympathy, which has been long known, has lately 
 been very aptly termed reflex action ; because the irritation 
 of a sentient nerve is carried to the brain or to a ganglion, 
 and thence reflected to a motor branch. 
 
 The second pair, or optic {Plate V. Fig 1.2), arise from 
 four eminences proper to them, called corpora quadrigemina ; 
 which are situated behind the lateral ventricles. In their 
 progress forwards they issue posteriorly to the third pair of 
 nerves ; and unite anterior to the pituitary gland ; as that 
 body was formerly called, from its being imagined to be of 
 glandular structure (which it decidedly is not) ; in order to 
 supply the nose with moisture. Having joined together 
 they subsequently separate ; and leave the skull by their 
 proper holes in the cranium, each being enclosed in a 
 sheath furnished by the dura mater ; proceeding with the 
 ophthalmic artery to enter the orbit; when, penetrating the 
 globe of the eye, the nerve is expanded into fine network ; 
 and is called the retina, to which we are indebted for the 
 special sense of vision (see the Eye) . 
 
 The third pair, or motores oculorum {Plate V. Fig I . 3, 3), 
 are small, and arise from the crura cerebri ; being behind the 
 second pair : they accompany a branch of the fifth pair 
 out of the skull into the orbit; and, dividing into various 
 
THE NERVES. 157 
 
 branches, are distributed to the muscles of the eye for motion 
 only. 
 
 The pathetici, or fourth pair {Plate V. Fig 1.4), are 
 nerves which take their origin near to the junction of the 
 cerebrum with the cerebellum : they are chiefly sent to 
 the superior obhque muscles of the eyes ; and are called the 
 pathetic, from their supposed power of turning the eyes 
 upwards ; which these muscles cannot do. They are the 
 smallest of all the nerves of the brain. 
 
 The pars trigemini, ov fifth pair {Plate V. Fig 1.5), are 
 large and very important nerves ; having extensive com- 
 munications. They escape by numerous filamentary twigs 
 from the pons varoli ; and pass over a ganglion immediately 
 afterwards. The sentient fibres travel over the top of the 
 ganglion ; and the motor filaments pass beneath it. Having 
 done this they unite as a compound nerve having both 
 feeling and motion ; and in one large cord, speedily sepa- 
 rate, forming three principal branches. First, the ophthal- 
 mic ; which divides into the supra-orhitar ; the lachrymal ; 
 and a lateral nasal branch ; whose destinations we need 
 not follow, seeing their names already signify them. The 
 second, or anterior maxillary branch ; which is the largest 
 of the three divisions of the nerve, proceeds to the face by 
 the infra-orbital foramen ; where it gives off branches ; first 
 parting with a twig to the inner canthus of the eye ; another 
 along the tuberosity of the upper jaw bone ; and two or 
 three more which ramify within the palate ; posterior parts 
 of the mouth ; and among the upper teeth. — The larger 
 division, communicating wdth the portio dura, proceeds in 
 a straight course ; and divides into small and numerous 
 branches upon the upper lip. The third division of the 
 pars trigemini is the posterior maxillary, or the nerve of 
 mastication. It sends ofl' pterygoid branches as soon as it 
 emerges from the cranium ; after this it gives the gustatory 
 for taste to the tongue (a nerve of special sense) ; numerous 
 twigs to the throat ; after which it parts with a buccal 
 nerve to the membrane of the mouth ; and then enters the 
 posterior foramen of the lower jaw, distributing a dental 
 nerve to the lower teeth ; and a medullary nerve to the 
 bone itself; going to the under lip, when it comes forth 
 upon the outer side of the jaw near the symphysis. Of the 
 
158 THE NERVES. 
 
 three branches of the fifth nerve the ophthalmic is the most 
 motor ; and the superior maxillary the most sentient. The 
 inferior maxillary is of a mixed character ; presiding over a 
 particular function (mastication) ; and giving off a nerve of 
 special sense (the gustatory for taste) . 
 
 The sixth, or abducent pair {Plate V. Fig 1 .6,6), arise 
 filamentary, to be chiefly given to the abductor muscle of 
 the eye, being purely motor. 
 
 The seventh pair, or auditory {Plate V. Fig 1 .7, 7), 
 nerves, consist of two portions : that called the portio 
 mollis, enters the auditory foramen in a soft pulpy form, and 
 is distributed to the internal ear. The portio dura, which 
 composes the other branch, detaches a considerable twig 
 to the corda tympani : leaving the internal ear by the spiral 
 canal in a firm cord, it parts with branches to the inner 
 and outer parts of the ear : the main trunk then having 
 first furnished the parotid gland, and, being enlarged by 
 uniting with a branch from the maxillary of the fifth, next 
 passes over the hindermost part of the posterior jaw, con- 
 tiguous to the temporal artery ; and divides, its branches 
 diverging into the pes anserinus ; distributing muscular tw^igs 
 for motion about the face ; and joining the superior maxil- 
 lary upon the upper lip. 
 
 The nervus vagus, or pneumogastric or eighth pair {Plate V. 
 Fig 1 . 8, 8), arise from the edge of the medulla oblon- 
 gata, in disgregated fibres ; and speedily divides into three 
 nerves. The first of these is the glosso pharyngeus ; which 
 is principally distributed to the tongue and pharynx. The 
 nervus vagus then proceeds down the neck in the sheath of 
 the carotid artery. Having reached the anterior aorta it 
 gives off the two recurrent nerves. The left recurrent 
 winds round the posterior aorta; and then changes its course, 
 going back again to become the inferior laryngeal nerve. 
 The right recurrent leaves the nervus vagus as it passes the 
 first ribs ; and without encircling any vessel, proceeds at 
 once to the larynx. The nervus vagus, now left alone, pro- 
 ceeds to supply the viscera of the chest and abdomen wdth 
 sensation ; blending with the various ganglia of the sym- 
 pathetic system. The nervus vagus is a mixed nerve ; but its 
 sentient branches predominate. It supplies the larynx with 
 motion- and it also gives it its exquisite sensation. It is 
 
THE SPINAL NERVES. 159 
 
 the nerve which conveys to the brain the sense of pain, 
 which accompanies complaints of the chest and abdomen. 
 It is joined by another nerve called the spinal accessory ; 
 which not being a true cranial nerve we have put in a 
 paragraph by itself. 
 
 The spinal accessory nerves (Plate V. Fig 1 . 8, 8) derive 
 their origin from filaments given off by the fourth and fifth 
 spinal nerves. As they enter the skull, they join the eighth ; 
 when emerging thence each divides into two branches ; 
 one of which pierces the sterno maxillaris, and can be 
 traced within the interior of the muscle as low as the 
 sternum : the other slants off across the neck, and can be 
 ibllowed as low down as the trapezius muscle. 
 
 The ninth, or lingual pair {Plate V. Fig 1.9), take their 
 origin from the corpus pyramidale ; and both pass along the 
 branch of the posterior jaw to gain the root of the tongue ; 
 and seem thus to be peculiarly appropriate to its locomo- 
 tion, as the gustatory are to the function of taste. 
 
 The tenth pair, or suboccipitals (Plate V. Fig 1 . 10, 10), 
 are a pair of the spinal nerves. They arise from the com- 
 mencement of the spinal marrow ; and are distributed to the 
 muscles of the head and neck. 
 
 THE SPINAL NERVES. 
 
 The spinal marrow gives off the spinal nerves in pairs : 
 the names and number of each spinal nerve corresponding 
 with the vertebrse themselves. Hence there are seven cer- 
 vical, eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, and Jive sacral nerves. 
 Each spinal nerve owns a double origin by filamentary 
 bundles ; one coming from the upper, and the other proceed- 
 ing from the under, division of the spinal cord. The fila- 
 ments of the upper origin are sentient ; that is, they convey 
 sensation only to the brain ; and the filaments of the lower 
 origin are entirely motor ; that is, they carry from the brain 
 to the muscles the influence which enables them to contract 
 upon the mere wish of the individual. The two filaments, 
 each originate separately ; and each being gifted with such 
 opposite powers, are upon the point of leaving the spinal 
 canal when they encounter a ganglion. The superior fila- 
 ments, as might be supposed, pass over this ganglion ; and 
 
160 THE SPINAL NERVES. 
 
 the inferior go underneath it ; both being adherent to the 
 gangUon as they pass it. Having got by the ganghon, the 
 character of the nerves has been changed ; the sentient have 
 become partly motor ; and the motor partly sentient. There 
 is no longer a nerve of a pure character to be found ; bat 
 each travels hereafter as a sentient and a motar nerve, or 
 one of a mixed nature. Therefore, if we want to look for 
 pure sentient or pure motor nerves, we must seek them near 
 to their origin, from the spinal marrow ; and before they 
 have passed the adjacent ganglion. 
 
 The cervical nerves are seven upon each side ; and are 
 chiefly distributed to the muscles of the neck. 
 
 The phrenic nerve is formed of filaments from the fourth, 
 fifth, sixth, and seventh cervicals ; and from general gan- 
 glionic twigs of communication from the sympathetic : it 
 passes into the chest near the axillary artery ; when, having 
 gained the tendinous portion of the diaphragm, it is spread 
 over the whole substance of that organ. 
 
 The eighteen dorsal pairs are given off by the notches at 
 the extremities of each dorsal vertebra ; in the same manner 
 as the cervical pairs, but these last are less considerable. 
 They furnish the intercostal and dorsal muscles with con- 
 tractility, and with sensation. Besides this the first four 
 are larger than the others, and unite with the last few cer- 
 vical, to supply the fore extremity with nervous energy. 
 
 The lumhar nerves are given ofiT from the loins, in the 
 same manner as the former ; they, however, are larger ; 
 having more to do. They give feeling and motion to the 
 sides of the abdomen ; and it is some of these, together 
 with several of the last dorsal, which are seen dividing the 
 transversalis abdominis into sections ; after having done 
 which, and having pierced the other abdominal muscles, they 
 enter the panniculus and expend themselves upon the skin. 
 They also give strength and sensation to the lumbar mus- 
 cles. They also supply the psoas muscles ; the iliacus 
 muscle ; send off the spermatic nerve ; as well as the crural, 
 which sends twigs to the psoas and iliacus ; to the vasti and 
 rectus ; and a large quantity of filaments to the gracilis ; 
 beside twigs to all the muscles inside of the thigh beyond all 
 this. 
 
THE NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 161 
 
 The spinal marrow does not more than touch the ante- 
 rior of the sacrum ; consequently the lumbar portion has to 
 supply the sacral nerves, and this necessity we shall here- 
 after see is amply provided for. 
 
 The sacral nerves are numerous and large ; they form 
 plexuses, which are derived chiefly from the lumbar, partly 
 from the sacral nerves ; from one of these comes forth 
 the gluteal, which, accompanying the artery, goes to the 
 muscles of that name. The lumbo-sacral nerves likewise 
 send off a nerve called the obturator, as well as supply all 
 the surrounding parts with motion and sensation. The 
 sciatic nerve, which is by very far the largest nervous cord 
 in the body, arises from a lumbar plexus, and pierces the 
 sacro-sciatic ligament, to get at the back of the femur. 
 We must, how^ever, here for the present leave off, to give 
 attention to the nerves of the anterior limb. 
 
 THE NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The humeral plexus is formed by the last five cervical, 
 and the first four dorsal nerves. By the union of their 
 twigs a considerable bunch is formed, to which the name 
 is given of the humeral plexus. From this bunch com- 
 pound filaments are sent to all the neighbouring parts. 
 The only nerves that we shall here notice, are firstly the 
 spiral which winds round the humerus, and devotes itself 
 to the extensor muscles of the fore limb. 
 
 The radial nerve proceeds to the inner side of the ulna, 
 supplies the flexor muscles, and below the knee becomes 
 the internal metacarpal nerves. The ulna runs downwards 
 also to the flexor muscles, along the course of which it 
 travels, and below the knee assumes the name of the ex- 
 ternal metacarpal nerve. 
 
 The metacarpal nerves journey down the leg upon the 
 edges of the tendon perforatus, giving off a communicating 
 branch with one another when about two-thirds the length 
 of the bone. At the pastern they become the plantar 
 nerves. 
 
 The plantar nerves, situated to the rear of the plantar 
 arteries, penetrate the back of the foot : each in its pas- 
 sage detaches a branch immediately to the lateral cartilages ; 
 a more posterior branch to the elastic frog; and one to 
 
 M 
 
162 ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA, 
 
 furnish the laminae. The main trunk then penetrates the 
 coffin bone posteriorly with the principal division of the 
 plantar artery, to be, like that, distributed over the sensi- 
 tive surfaces of the pedal bone. 
 
 THE NERVES OF THE HINDER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 We have seen that some of the muscles of the haunch 
 and thigh are supplied with feeling and motion by the 
 sacro-sciatic nerve ; which nerve principally divides into the 
 anterior, the posterior tibial, and into popliteal twigs : the 
 posterior tibial and principal branch, passing between the 
 fleshy portions of the gastrocnemii, gains the hock, where 
 it travels to one side of the perforans tendon, and sepa- 
 rating, forms the two metatarsal nerves. The popliteal, 
 which consist of a great number of fine twigs, go princi- 
 pally to the muscles at the back of the stifle joint, and to 
 the joint itself. The anterior tibial proceeds towards the 
 extensor muscles in front of the thigh ; when, having reached 
 the artery bearing the same name, it travels with it to the 
 middle of the cannon ; when leaving it, and passing over the 
 fetlock joint, it spends itself on the surface of the pastern. 
 
 The internal and external metatarsal nerves pursue a course 
 similar in the hind to those of the fore extremities, so that 
 it is unnecessary to proceed with them further. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA, AND OF 
 THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
 
 The spinal marrow has its length decided by the length 
 of the tail. Thus, in baboons, it only just emerges from 
 the dorsal region ; in the horse it advances to the begin- 
 ning of the sacrum ; and in the kangaroo, and some monkeys 
 with prehensile tails, it extends even to the coccygeal bones. 
 The order of the red and white matter is opposite in the 
 spinal marrow to that which is displayed in the brain ; that 
 is, in the brain, the red substance is the exterior of the two, 
 whereas, in the spinal marrow, the white is externally, and 
 the red substance is internally situated. Though the spinal 
 marrow is anatomically said to travel along the spinal canal : 
 neither the marrow nor the canal are of one size throughout, 
 but the cavity enlarges as its contents become more bulky. 
 This it does in proportion to that which it has to supply, 
 
AND OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 163 
 
 and the activity of the parts by which it is surrounded. The 
 head and neck being in constant motion, the spinal marrow 
 within the cervical region is of the medium size ; however, 
 as it approaches the fore extremity, that is, about the last 
 three cervical and the first four dorsal vertebrse, it gradually 
 and considerably enlarges. Then within the dorsal region it 
 becomes the smallest of all ; but, gaining the lumbar, from 
 which the huge hind limbs are supplied, it grows larger than 
 ever, and there it terminates in the horse. Animals with a 
 short spinal marrow have a w^ell-marked cordae equinee, or 
 hanging bunch of nerves, from the extremity of the spinal 
 marrow, supposed to resemble a horse's tail. In those with 
 a longer spinal marrow the similitude is less marked ; and 
 in those with this part longer still, the most distant likeness 
 is hard to detect. 
 
 The spinal marrow receives the same coverings as the 
 brain ; or the first having three membranes, these are also 
 continuous over the last organ. There is no difference 
 in their position. In each the dura mater is external ; the 
 pia mater internal; and the arachnoid, or a serous membrane, 
 holds the middle place ; and in each their structure is the 
 same. There is, however, this difterence : the dura mater 
 is not, in the spinal, fixed to the canal, or to the bone ; but 
 upon its outer surface is found a quantity of fat. Then the 
 arachnoid does not lie close upon the spinal marrow ; but is 
 raised far from it by a limpid fluid, as clear as distilled 
 water, which is situated within the cells of the pia mater. 
 Besides this, however, the spinal marrow is peculiar for 
 having several fine ligaments, which run obliquely from the 
 bone ; and a straight ligament, which is continuous through 
 its entire course. They are situated — the straight ligament, 
 W'hich is termed the membrana dentata — within the sheath, 
 and between the true motor and sentient nerves ; and the 
 oblique (which have received no name) are external, and 
 belong particularly to the dura mater. Their use will be 
 referred to hereafter. 
 
 The ganglia. — Wherever there is found the red and white 
 nervous matter mingled, there is a ganglion. The brain is 
 only a large ganglion ; with this difterence however, that, 
 unlike the rest, it is able to take cognizance of the sensation 
 conveyed by the nerves with which it is in connexion. 
 
 m2 
 
164 ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA, 
 
 Ganglia feel like hard knots, of a minute size upon nerves ; 
 but their substance is in fact as soft and pulpy as that of 
 the brain itself. The feeUng of hardness is owing to a very 
 dense covering of neurilema, which acts to each as a tiny 
 cranium. The ganglia are the centres of reflex motion : 
 that is, a sentient nerve is tickled, say of the bottom of the 
 foot, and the feeling is carried to a ganglion ; thence it is 
 transmitted to the nerves that set us laughing. The feeling 
 may be painful, but nevertheless we cannot help ourselves 
 but laugh. This is called reflex action, when a motor or 
 sentient nerve is excited ; and in consequence of this a dif- 
 ferent nerve, or opposite set of nerves, are called into action. 
 The gangha likewise presides over the sympathetic nerve ; a 
 nerve which is independent of the brain ; and by the con- 
 tinued health of which we may live long and yet exist quite 
 unconsciously. 
 
 The sympathetic nerve. — This nerve presides over secre- 
 tion ; and is the centre of those functions which are necessary 
 to life ; as the brain is the centre of all acts under the con- 
 trol of volition. Thus, a man may will he shall not feel 
 hungry, and the will may in some degree master the sensa- 
 tion ; but at length the sympathetic nerve exerts its power, 
 the abstinence becomes painful, and the sense of pain is 
 conveyed to the brain by the eighth pair of nerves. The 
 sympathetic is most obvious in the abdomen, where it forms 
 numerous plexuses ; of which the solar is the largest. From 
 these plexuses it twists round the arteries ; and by these is 
 conveyed all over the body, or wherever the blood travels ; 
 and where does it not ? Wherever the vital fluid exists the 
 sympathetic is known also to be. Beside this, the numerous 
 ganglia from which it derives independence of action, 
 answer the end of little brains, and are distributed through- 
 out the body. They are discerned even within the brain 
 itself; and fresh discoveries render us uncertain where they 
 do not exist. The sympathetic is essentially the nerve of 
 organic life; that is, it presides over secretion, excretion, 
 nutrition ; and all those functions which, independent of the 
 brain, are imperative for the preservation of existence. It 
 is well seen along the neck, where it travels within the 
 sheath of the carotid artery ; better within the chest and 
 abdomen, as a well defined line below the ribs, upon the 
 
AND OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 165 
 
 bodies of the vertebree. It is in constant communication 
 with the spinal nerves, consequently, when other nerves are 
 potent, the sympathetic may be present. 
 
 Of nerves. — Nerves are white glistening threads, every 
 where to be found throughout the body. Nerves are of 
 three kinds, motor, sentient, and special. A motor nerve 
 conveys motion only, and is incapable of feeling. A sen- 
 tient nerve transmits sensation to the brain, and is incapa- 
 ble of conveying motion from it. A special nerve endows a 
 part with one sense, and one sense only. It may go to the 
 eye for sight, as the optics do, but, if compressed or pinched, 
 they feel no pain, and are incapable of motion ; the organ 
 then appears to emit a flash of light ; thus, people speak of 
 their eyes flashing fire, when they run against any thing in 
 the dark. The four orders of nerves rule the body. The 
 sentient render us cognizant of pain ; the motor make the 
 limbs move in obedience to the will ; and the special endow 
 certain parts with particular faculties ; while the sympathetic 
 nerve, over which the brain can exercise no control, regu- 
 lates all the functions which go on continually without our 
 knowledge, but are essential to the prolongation of life. 
 
 Structure of nerves. — Nerves are composed of very minute 
 filaments, bound up in a sheath of pia mater, or cellular 
 tissue, called neurilema. They receive nmch blood in pro- 
 portion to their size ; though they never become red. Hence 
 we may infer the importance of the blood, since it is sent 
 to nerves ; but no nerves are sent to the blood, though 
 many may be distributed to the tubes by which the blood 
 is conveyed. A nerve never terminates ; it passes around a 
 part, and joins another sheath, but it does not appear to 
 end. When cut, nerves have the power of reunion ; even 
 though a piece be taken away. It is disputed whether true 
 nervous filaments are reproduced ; but something is formed 
 which answers their purpose, since by it is carried on all 
 their functions. There is no immediate physiology attached 
 to the brain, or to nerves, worthy of being inserted in this 
 place. Books are written on such subjects ; but all they 
 assert beyond first principles is open to objection, if not to 
 decided refutation. Special nerves terminate in fine bulbous 
 extremities ; and though we have spoken of pure motor and 
 
1G6 OF GLANDS, 
 
 sentient nerves, such however are only to be fonnd within 
 the cranium, or spinal canal. All those distributed over 
 the body are of a mixed character ; that is, the sentient 
 and motor are mingled together. 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 OF GLANDS. 
 
 Glands are vascular secretory bodies distributed over the 
 animal frame. They are of various sizes ; some being very 
 large, as the liver, and others small, as those whose secre- 
 tions lubricate certain portions of the skin, and are called 
 sebaceous. Their figures are varied, and their situation un- 
 determined ; some being deep-seated, or within cavities, 
 while others are altogether superficial. Glands are divided 
 into glohate, and conglomerate ; they likewise receive indi- 
 vidual names, according to their office, as ladwymal, sali- 
 vary, &c. The follicular are but small glandular bodies, 
 larger glands being composed of a number of follicles ; and 
 are variously disposed, appearing either as sebaceous or 
 mucous. The sebaceous are situated near the surface of 
 the body, and produce a semi-solid substance resembling 
 suet ; which serves to facilitate motion, or to prevent friction. 
 Mucous glands are usually situated in cavities and canals ; 
 as those of the nostrils, fauces, and urethra ; but in many 
 instances they are not very evident, and the perspiratory 
 may be viewed as a kind of altered mucous gland. Both 
 sebaceous and mucous glands are very small, often con- 
 sisting of a blind sac, with a duct. 
 
 Globate glands are oval vascular bodies, receiving lym- 
 phatic vessels at one side, and permitting the exit of the 
 same lymphatics, though less in number, at the other ; 
 but these glands are destitute of any excretory trunk, and 
 are peculiar to the lymphatic system. 
 
 A conglomerate gland is a body composed of several dis- 
 tinct parts, or lobuli, having numerous excretory ducts ; 
 which may unite to form one trunk common to the whole : 
 instances occur in the parotid and pancreas, the liver and the 
 kidneys. The glands of young subjects are larger than 
 
OF GLANDS. 167 
 
 those of older ; and from the alteration which takes place 
 in the kidney and thymus gland, we see that some change 
 really does take place in their size during life. The 
 nerves of glands are small, and their sensibility is not con- 
 siderable. 
 
 Glands have absorbents, which in some instances, as 
 those of the liver, are very large. Their bloodvessels, 
 both arteries and veins, are usually of a proportionate size ; 
 but the magnitude of the vessels is increased when the 
 amount of secretion is considerable, as in the kidneys. In 
 its passage through glandular bodies, the blood is found to 
 be retarded by means of the capillaries being convoluted 
 around the minute ends of the ducts. All glands secrete 
 from the arterial blood, except the liver, which separates the 
 bile from venous blood. Among the phenomena that these 
 bodies present, a sympathetic property is a marked one. 
 The sight of food stimulates the salivary glands. The 
 sympathy of the kidneys with the skin is very considerable ; 
 and, when either becomes greatly excited, the secretion of 
 the other diminishes. In summer, when the skin is in full 
 action, and the blood pours out its aqueous particles 
 in great plenty, little urine is made ; but in winter the 
 reverse takes place. As the circulation through a gland is 
 increased, so is the secretion enlarged likewise ; hence under 
 the first stages of inflammation glands secrete more, because 
 the circulation is quickened ; but in the latter stages of it, 
 and when the circulation becomes almost stagnant, the 
 secretion is lessened, or totally stopped. The individual 
 glands will be described with the parts to which they more 
 immediately belong. 
 
 The physiology of secretion is but little known. Those 
 procured from one liquid (the blood) are so different ; as 
 urine, semen, bile, saliva, &c., that their evident distinctions 
 cannot fail to excite our wonder and stimulate our inquiries. 
 Glandular secretion has been supposed to depend on the 
 previous existence of the secreted matter within the blood, 
 and the glands only to separate these component par- 
 ticles. But the blood, it has been answered, possesses 
 the same chemical properties throughout the body ; and 
 drawn from whatever secreting organ it may be, it is the 
 same. Nevertheless, the elementary principles of all these 
 
168 THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 
 
 may exist in the blood in a latent state ; for to secrete 
 does appear to be a living act of the glands themselves. 
 The sap of trees owns the same chemical properties, yet 
 forms, by medium through which it passes, either wood, 
 bark, leaves, blossoms, or fruits. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 OF THE COVERING OF THE BODY, AND OF THE VISCERA. 
 THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 
 
 Under the name of skin, exterior parts are bestowed on 
 animals to secure them from injury, and to protect them 
 from cold. These components are the cuticle, or insensible 
 skin, and the cutis, or sensible skin ; and connected with 
 these, are the adipose, cellular membranes, and the panni- 
 culus carnosus. Wliile outside of all are seen hair and 
 hoofs ; the former of which we shall first notice. 
 
 The hair. — Each hair is a little tube, whose bulbous end 
 arises within the cellular web immediately attached beneath 
 the cutis, or true skin : it penetrates the cuticle, and ap- 
 pears exteriorly of indeterminate lengths, figures, and sizes. 
 Thus those of the mane and tail are large and long ; those 
 above the eyes and around the muzzle are stronger, but of 
 diminished length ; while those which extend over the body 
 generally are very short and fine. Each hairy tube is formed 
 of an external coat, derived from the cuticle, within which 
 the horny substance is enclosed. The horny portion is so 
 disposed as to form each hair into an elongated cone. Age 
 is accompanied by a change in the colour of the hair, from 
 a darker to a lighter tint ; the hair which arises after a 
 wound is usually white ; which can be accounted for only 
 by considering the part to be in a state of debility, and to 
 have lost the power of secreting the colouring matter. 
 The inclined position of the hair admirably adapts it to the 
 purposes of protection for which it is designed. This posi- 
 tion sometimes becomes disturbed, partly by a derangement 
 in the vascular bulb of the hair ; and in a greater degree 
 from a derangement in the skin itself; originating in a sym- 
 
THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 169 
 
 pathetic communication between the outer covering of an 
 animal and the internal parts. The hair is kindly allowed 
 to sympathize with the wants of the body generally, and it 
 grows even thick and curled in some very cold countries. 
 In the Orkneys, the horses retain theii' long hair all the 
 year, and English horses taken there do the same. But 
 with us, as the coat falls off (the mane, tail, and fetlocks, 
 being permanent), so the animal presents a fine short coat 
 in the spring ; which is succeeded by the ample shelter 
 of the winter covering. We have proof there is a sympa- 
 thetic effect between the skin and constitution, from w^hat 
 takes place in horses that are constantly immured in hot 
 stables : in them, the body not needing any increase to 
 the covering, the summer coat either remains ; or, if it be 
 changed, it is for one with the same length of hair. Most 
 stimulating substances have the effect of promoting the 
 change of coat, whether it be heat or physic ; and, aware of 
 this, idle grooms give their horses spice and other stimulants 
 to quicken their moulting. The general growth of hair ap- 
 pears to require considerable powers of the constitution ; 
 thus horses at the time of moulting usually have an increase 
 of pulse, dry mouth, and other shght febrile symptoms. As 
 the hair appears to be a production of the true skin, so, if 
 by any means the skin itself becomes destroyed, the hair is 
 not reproduced ; thus in blisters, when properly applied, the 
 cuticle only is raised : but if the blistering matter act very 
 strongly, and the cutis be destroyed, a permanent baldness 
 is the consequence. 
 
 Hair is a long protruding substance, in structure not un- 
 like to a cane ; being covered externally with a glistening 
 dense material, and being of a spongy interior, having a canal 
 through its centre. It withers as it projects. It is of itself 
 not sensitive, yet it conveys feeling very speedily. The horse 
 has hairs that appear to be of three different kinds, but all 
 are of the same structure. Those that cover the body ; 
 those that hang down fi-om the mane or tail ; and those that 
 are placed about the nose and eyes, all are alike ; all have 
 the same structure externally, and all originate by bulbous 
 vascular extremities, situated beneath the cutis. 
 
 The cuticle is a firm insensible covering to the true skin. 
 The substance of the cuticle is by no means equally thick 
 
170 THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 
 
 in every part : on some its quantity is considerable, as on 
 the back and extremities ; and on otliers it is very thin, as 
 over the hps, &c. It is much increased by pressure. Over 
 the knees, the points of the elbows, and hocks, it becomes 
 likewise much increased from this cause, or by the animal 
 constantly rising and lying down. Within the fore arm, 
 and on the inner side, behind the cannon, it produces a 
 substance not unlike horn, which grows to a considerable 
 length, and falls away in scales. The cuticle is a secre- 
 tion of the cutis, and adheres firmly to the numerous papillae 
 of its matrix. The cuticle may be separated by maceration 
 and by boiling in the dead subject ; in the living, by frictions 
 and stimulants, as blisters. It covers the skin throughout 
 its whole extent, except at the hoofs, which it is probable 
 are themselves only a species of cuticle, and hair assuming 
 another form. The cuticle is also continuous with the epi- 
 thelium, or outer covering of mucous membrane, with 
 which it blends at the eyes, nose, mouth, and anus. The 
 cuticle is perforated by the perspiratory ducts ; and by 
 sebaceous glands, opening within the tubes that shelter the 
 bulbous extremities of the hairs. Through the perspiratory 
 orifices, the insensible perspiration passes off; and through 
 the sebaceous glands, the cuticle is furnished with an unc- 
 tuous substance which keeps it soft and pliant. Blisters ap- 
 plied, irritate and inflame the true skin, and occasion so 
 great a deposit of serum underneath, that, the cuticle being 
 impervious, the external covering is raised by its pressure 
 in bladders. The insensible skin is speedy in its repro- 
 duction, forming itself anew in a very short time after its 
 removal from a healthy surface. 
 
 The rete mucosum is nothing more than the first secretion 
 of the cuticle. The cuticle is secreted in minute ovoid 
 bodies, that in their new state contain a certain quantity of 
 pigment. This pigment is lost as the secreted cuticle is 
 pushed upwards ; while the particles, from being ovoid, be- 
 come more and more flattened, till, upon reaching the sur- 
 face, they have become quite flat, quite colourless, and fall 
 off, as scales, or scurf. 
 
 The cutis, or true skin, is a very highly organized mem- 
 brane, whether we regard its vascularity, sensibility, or the 
 intimate reticulation of its fibres. Its density of structure 
 
SENSE OF TOUCH. 171 
 
 will be apparent when we view it as leather. It is not 
 equally thick in every part of the body ; but, like the cuticle, 
 is most dense in the parts most exposed ; as may be seen in 
 the extremities, particularly over the fetlocks, knees, and 
 hocks ; as well as over the back, belly, and some parts of 
 the head : it is also much more loose and flexible in some 
 parts than in others, to admit of motion. It is connected 
 internally, with the cellular and adipose membranes beneath 
 it ; and wherever it is so connected it is more loose, in pro- 
 portion to the amount of cellular tissue dividing it from the 
 muscular substance : in some parts it is thrown into folds, to 
 admit of instant action, as behind the fore legs. Its outer 
 surface is garnished with numerous papill?e, which are small 
 eminences extremely sensitive, lying under the cuticle, which 
 they secrete in a fluid state ; and wherever the skin is most 
 sensitive, these papillae are found most extensive. The cutis, 
 like the cuticle, is perforated by numerous openings, which 
 are the mouths of ducts. The cutis is elastic, as we know 
 by the effects of pregnancy, in wdiich it becomes greatly 
 distended ; yet soon recovers its former dimensions. The 
 bloodvessels, nerves, and absorbents of the cutis are most 
 abundant. 
 
 SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 This sense principally resides in the skin, which is uni- 
 versally affected by many external circumstances, as those 
 of heat and cold, dryness and moisture. But it is by some 
 particular parts, as the lips, that horses attempt particularly 
 to distinguish objects ; and in these it is observed, that 
 the cutaneous nerves are more numerous, and the cuticle 
 much thinner. The irritabihty of the skin is frequently 
 very great : that mixed sensation between pain and pleasure 
 called tickling is an instance of its susceptibility. 
 
 Adipose membrane, or fat, forms a considerable portion of 
 the body of most animals ; but it cannot in the horse be 
 regarded as a complete investment, since many parts are 
 without it, as the eyelids, ears, sheath, and some parts of 
 the extremities. It appears composed of a membrane, so 
 disposed as to form cells, neither the number nor the size 
 of which are the same in all parts of the body. In the 
 mesentery, omentum, and about the kidneys, they are large 
 
172 SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 and numerous, and their contained matter is of rather a 
 solid consistency : on the surface of the body these cells are 
 smaller ; and in some of the bones, where the medullary 
 juice is nearly fluid, they are veiy small. The adipose cells 
 do not appear to communicate ; which forms a very essential 
 difference between this tissue and the general connecting 
 cellular membrane. 
 
 The fat is an unctuous juice that is secreted or poured 
 into the cells of the adipose membrane ; at first in a fluid 
 form, from which, in particular places, it gradually becomes 
 of a firmer consistence. It appears in greater quantity in 
 some parts of the body than in others ; forming in the ab- 
 domen suet, while that over the surface of the body, and 
 within the bones, it is semi-oleaginous, and in some almost 
 approaches to oil. Fat is wholly unorganized, having 
 neither nerves, arteries, veins, nor absorbents ; and however 
 much it may be involved by general acute disease it cannot 
 itself originate any disorder. 
 
 The uses of this substance appear to be several : it may 
 be considered as a guard to parts, and its distribution 
 strengthens this opinion : hence it is found covering the 
 nerves and bloodvessels, especially such as are in the neigh- 
 bourhood of hard parts, and liable to pressure. It fills up 
 most depressions, and thus adds much to beauty : this is 
 instanced in the eye- pits, which in young horses are filled 
 up with this substance : it is useful also in lessening 
 that irritability of the cutaneous nerves so remarkable 
 in young animals ; and for which reason we find most 
 of the adeps in early life distributed exteriorly ; while that 
 of older subjects is placed mostly within the cavities of 
 the body. In quadrupeds of all ages, the omentum is very 
 plentifully supplied with it ; but in some more than in others ; 
 in the horse it is proportionally small, and the quantity of 
 abdominal fat generally is in him very limited, as it is in 
 most animals destined for extraordinary speed. Even the 
 kidneys of the horse are but sparingly furnished with adeps. 
 In well fed oxen the fat fills up the interstices of the muscles, 
 and is placed in the cancelli of bones, where it is generally 
 termed marrow. The most important of the uses of the fat 
 to animals, however, is to form a depot for the support of 
 the constitution under the accidental want of nourishment : 
 
SENSE OF TOUCH. 173 
 
 hence much fatigue produces a rapid absorption of it. It is 
 from this cause that animals who fast long, from the highest 
 state of obesity become wholly lean and impoverished : 
 thus the hybernating bear, who enters his wintry habitation 
 surrounded with an immense quantity of adeps, leaves it in 
 the spring greatly emaciated ; having been supported during 
 his torpidity by the absorption of animal oil, and not, as is 
 ^oilgarly supposed, by sucking his paws ; which probably are 
 only wrapped around his nose, but never enter his mouth. 
 Animals living a life of rest appear to have a tendency to 
 form fat, but not in an equal degree ; for, in addition to in- 
 action, there must also be a certain disposition to lay 
 on fat. A particular form of body is favourable to its 
 accumulation, of which the circular carcass is the best 
 example. 
 
 Cellular membrane forms the innermost layer of almost 
 every part of the body. Its cells freely communicate with 
 each other throughout the whole body ; a fact well known 
 to butchers, who blow up the newly killed calf from anyone 
 point, until not only the surface, but even the viscera, be- 
 come distended by the air. This cellular structure is exem- 
 plified, likewise, by the emphysematous distention which 
 follows wounds of the lungs ; from which particular injuries 
 these cells have a disposition to inflate. Cellular membrane 
 is a more general substance than is supposed, for even liga- 
 ments are but a modification of it ; nor are aponeuroses, or 
 tendons, in any way dissimilar. We already know that it 
 exists in different quantities, in various structures, but enters 
 into all parts. It is the general connecting medium between 
 distinct parts ; it unites the skin to the body ; it enters into 
 the interstices of muscles ; it connects filamentary sub- 
 stances, and holds together the granulated : it is also 
 vascular and elastic. Anasarca has its seat within its cells ; 
 and its uses are various. Feeble as it seems, cellular tissue 
 holds the various structures together. By it nerves are 
 retained in cords ; by it arteries are confined ; by it muscles 
 are bound up ; and by it freedom and independence of 
 motion is secured. It is always most loose and abundant 
 where the action is most extensive or most frequent. 
 
174 OF THE PANNICULUS CARNOSUS. 
 
 OF THE PANNICULUS CARNOSUS, OR SUBCUTANEOUS MUSCLE. 
 
 Providence having denied hands to horses, has given 
 them, instead thereof, a cutaneous muscle ; which having an 
 intimate attachment to the integument, and being extended 
 nearly over the whole body, enables them to corrugate the 
 skin ; thus to shake off dust, and perform other purposes 
 necessary for their convenience. In the mammalia with 
 short hair, it is, by the extent of its attachments, capable 
 of very powerful and diffused operations. Its centres are 
 usually muscular, and its terminal attachments often apo- 
 neurotic ; by which, as either or any of these become the 
 fixed point, the action of the whole may be changed at 
 pleasure. On the head and face this muscular expan- 
 sion wall be found thin, but strong ; being there called the 
 retractor anglioris, it extends over the cheek, stretches 
 itself downwards to the lips, and loses itself in the labial 
 investments. It is entirely wanting upon the forehead, 
 which is in a measure protected by the forelock. On the 
 inferior portion of the neck it is evidently muscular ; being 
 strongly developed over the windpipe, but deficient in 
 those parts to which the mane might, in a state of nature, 
 be thought a protection. 
 
 The panniculus carnosus of the body extends from the 
 anterior edge of the scapula, and downwards to the upper 
 part of the arm ; but is continued lower by the union of 
 its aponeurotic expansion, which carries the corrugating 
 action along the leg. In proceeding over the sides of 
 the trunk, it may be said to be truly fleshy ; but the 
 attachments it sends upwards to the spine are most of 
 them semi-tendinous ; as those it sends downwards to the 
 median line of- the abdomen are principally aponeurotic. 
 In the region of the flank it radiates, but is continued by a 
 strong aponeurotic expansion into the groin, partly covering 
 the penis ; and is then continued inwards, to unite with the 
 fascia of the inside of the thigh. Posteriorly it becomes 
 much stronger, ultimately blending with the fascia lata. 
 It is almost wanting upon the haunches, a part which the 
 tail was obviously designed to protect. The fleshy pannicle 
 is very plentifully supplied throughout with nerves ; dis- 
 tributed to it in very considerable branches, and many of 
 
ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 175 
 
 which penetrate it to cuter the skin. A very large nervous 
 bundle enters it from under the shoulder, and it receives 
 one or more twigs from between each rib : it is likewise as 
 well supplied with bloodvessels fi'om the intercostals and 
 neighbouring parts. Therefore its general living powers 
 are very considerable ; and these are further aided by the 
 length of its muscular fibre, which enables it to act instan- 
 taneously, and with irresistible effect. A horse, by the 
 spasmodic power of this muscle alone, can sometimes shake 
 off the harness, which the ingenuity of man has been 
 exerted to fix upon him. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. OF THE HEAD GENERALLY. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI. 
 
 THE RIGHT DIVISION OF THE HEAD A LITTLE TO THE LEFT OF 
 THE MEDIAN LINE. 
 
 a. The septum nasi, or cartilaginous wall which sepa- 
 rates the nostrils. The Schneiderian membrane is still 
 upon the cartilage, consequently the ramification of the 
 vessels are faithfully delineated ; &, the cerebrum ; c, the 
 cerebellum ; d, the frontal and facial sinuses ; e, the tongue ; 
 /, the soft palate, showing its pendulous condition as well 
 as its inclination backwards ; g, the fauces. The lines 
 crossing this part denote the courses taken by the food and 
 air as they enter the stomach or lungs to nourish the 
 body ; showing, likewise, that these cross each other ; h, 
 the bag of the pharynx ; A, the opening of the nostrils ; 
 i, the epiglottis ; j, the larynx ; /c, the oesophagus or gullet ; 
 /, the trachea ; m, the spinal marrow, covered by the arach- 
 noid : part of the dura mater or outer covering of the 
 spinal cord may be seen immediately above, in a line which 
 weaves anteriorly ; n, the spinal marrowy in its passage 
 through the foramen magnum, divested of its coverings ; 
 0, the tooth-like process, whence the second cervical ver- 
 tebrtc is called the dentata ; p, the cup of the atlas, into 
 which the process of the dentata fits. 
 
176 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 THE EAR. 
 
 The ears are formed of an inner and outer part. The 
 form of the outer ear is very wisely adapted to the various 
 habits and manners of the animal. The external ear in the 
 horse presents a most advantageous form for catching the 
 slightest sound ; it is moveable ; and hearing appears to be 
 the only double sense that is equally true when the organ of 
 one side alone is used ; for the horse is commonly seen with 
 one ear directed forward and the other backward. The 
 hair, within the tube, is long and fine, and guards it from 
 the attack of insects, and the entrance of dust or dirt ; 
 hence the clipping of this hair may prove very prejudicial : 
 the inside of the ear is also furnished with a peculiar kind 
 of gland, which secretes a whitish substance. 
 
 The cartilages of the ear are three. The concha is that 
 conical body which gives to the ear its figure ; it is covered 
 by the skin and muscles. This cartilage is attached to the 
 cranium, through the annular cartilage, with which last it is 
 connected through ligamentous union. Within, and at the 
 base of the concha, is the annular cartilage ; a small move- 
 able body, whereby the external cavity, around which the 
 cartilage is placed, is rendered more tortuous. The angular 
 cartilage is situated upon the forehead ; upon which it is 
 moved, and with it the other cartilages are connected. 
 
 Muscles of the ear. The cartilages are moved by 
 muscles, of which there are several, as the following descrip- 
 tion will sufficiently prove. 
 
 Attollens maximus. Origin. From a central line upon 
 the forehead ; from the frontal fascia ; and from the frontal 
 arch. Insertions. Into the triangular and conchal cartilages. 
 Action. To adduct the concha, and draw the triangular 
 cartilage upward and forward. This muscle may be sepa- 
 rated into several layers. 
 
 Attollens medius. Origin. By two heads from the zygo- 
 matic arch. Insertion. Into the angular cartilage, its dor- 
 sum, border, venter, and anterior angle. Action. Acting by 
 itself to draw the triangular cartilage downward and for- 
 ward ; acting with the maximus to render the angular 
 cartilage firm. 
 
 Attollens inferior. Origin. From the centre of the 
 
THE EAR. 177 
 
 forehead. Insertion. Into the hind and lov/er part of the 
 concha. Action. To adduct the ears. 
 
 Anterior conch/e. Origin. From the top of the angu- 
 lar cartilage and the temporal fascia. Insertion. Into the 
 interior of tl^e concha. Action. To assist in rotating the 
 ear, and to hold its opening forward. 
 
 REcru.s coNCH/E. Origin. From the top of the angular 
 cartilage. Insertion. Into the inner side of the concha. 
 Action. To adduct the ear, and incline its opening back- 
 ward. 
 
 Internus conchte. a pair of decussating muscles. 
 Origin. From the bottom of the angular cartilage. Inser- 
 tion. Into the lower and hind part of the concha. Action. 
 To rotate the ear, and incline the fissure backward. 
 
 Abductor concha. Origin. From the surface of the 
 parotid gland. Insertion. Below the fissure into the concha. 
 Action. To abduct the ear. 
 
 Profundus conchte. Origin. Back of the meatus audi- 
 torius. Insertion. Near the root of the concha into its 
 inner border. Action. To slant the ear forward. 
 
 Connectores conchve. Two small slips of fibre upon 
 the concha, passing from one border to another, near to 
 the termination of the fissure. Action. To diminish the 
 size of the opening to the ear. 
 
 Circulatores conch.e. a circle of fibres also passes 
 round the surface of the concha, near to the middle. Action. 
 To keep the point of the cartilage erect, and with the con- 
 nectores to diminish its opening. 
 
 Retrahens superior. Origin, From a white line at 
 the back of the pole. Insertion. Into the back of the 
 concha. Action. To draw the ear backward ; both acting- 
 would incline the ears outward. 
 
 Retrahens medius. Origin. From the back of the pole. 
 Insertions of the outer head. Into the outer and lower part 
 of the concha. Of the inner layer. Into the lower border 
 and inner surface of the concha. This might be well 
 divided into two muscles. Action. To rotate the ear, and 
 also to incline it backward. 
 
 The meatus auditorius is in part bony, and in part carti- 
 laginous ; the outward extremity being furnished with car- 
 tilage. The inside of the ear is said to be lined with 
 
 N 
 
178 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 common skin ; which, however, in this part assumes an 
 altered appearance, and becomes still more fine and attenu- 
 ated as it lines the meatus auditorius, across the bottom of 
 which it is stretched. This skin has upon it several fol- 
 licles, to secrete the w^ax of the ear. The membrana 
 tympani is the covering of a cavity called the tympanum 
 of the ear; over which this delicate membrane is expanded, 
 and by which the inner is separated from the outer ear. 
 The tympanum is a portion of the internal cavity, being 
 irregularly spherical. It contains four small bones, which 
 are named, according to their supposed resemblances, 
 incus, malleus, stapes, and orbicularis ; by whose move- 
 ments it is conjectured the impressions received by the 
 membrana tympani are regulated ; and which impressions 
 receive further modifications within the more interior parts. 
 These bones are moved by muscles, which it w^ould here be 
 a waste of time to describe, as the ear of the horse is beyond 
 those delicate remedies by which deafness is relieved. The 
 internal ear presents several openings ; as those of the 
 mastoid cells, the Eustachian tubes, and the communication 
 between the cavity and the labyrinth. The mastoid cells 
 are small irregular cavities in the substance of the mastoid 
 processes, of the petrous temporal bone ; fined by a fine 
 membrane, and communicating with each other, having a 
 common entrance near the Eustachian canal. The Eusta- 
 chian tube is an opening at the upper and anterior edge of 
 the hollow of the tympanum, forming a duct wdiich is in 
 part bony, and in part cartilaginous ; extending from the 
 tympanum to the guttural pouches {Plate Yll. j), at the 
 posterior part of the nasal cavity. 
 
 The guttural pouches {Plate VII. j) are large and empty 
 sacs, whose use is not known ; and whose size is by no 
 means equalled in other quadrupeds : but in the horse they 
 are opposed to each other, being connected only by trans- 
 parent cellular tissue. Each is closed by a valvular open- 
 ing, which separates it from the nose ; and each seems 
 to be nothing more than a bladder of mucous membrane 
 placed within the centre of the horse's head. They may 
 have some influence upon the voice ; but the principal ser- 
 vice to us at present appears to be to fill up a space wdiich 
 else would be left vacant, and thus to keep up that beauty 
 
THE EYE. 179 
 
 which nature preserves throughout the higher order of her 
 creatures. 
 
 The fenestra ovalis is an opening between the tympanum 
 and the vestibule. The fenestra rotunda is situated in- 
 feriorly to this, and is the entrance to the mastoid cells. 
 The vestibule is a cavity immediately beyond the tympanum. 
 The semicircular canals are three bony canals, which com- 
 municate with the vestibule ; and the cochlea is a partially 
 double spiral canal, within the opening into the vestibule 
 and into the tympanum. These spiral convoluted canals, 
 partially divided from each other by a fine membrane, are 
 filled with a thin fluid, to perfect the undulations com- 
 municated by the tympanum. The nerves of the inner and 
 outer ear are furnished by the portio mollis of the seventh 
 pair. Blood is furnished to the organ, both internal and 
 external, by means of the carotids ; which blood is returned 
 by the jugulars. 
 
 SENSE OF HEARING, 
 
 The collision of elastic bodies produces phenomena which 
 are called sounds ; thus a tremulous motion communi- 
 cated to the surrounding medium extends in all directions, 
 and at length reaches the external ear whose form is 
 admirably adapted to receive a large portion of these sono- 
 rous waves ; which are then reflected from the cartilaginous 
 sides of the concha, till they reach the bottom of the outer 
 ear. Impinging upon the ear-drum, they force it into similar 
 oscillations ; which being communicated to the fluids in 
 the spiral channels of the inner ear, finally act on the 
 acutely sensitive expansion of the auditory nerve, and pro- 
 duce those sensations we call hearing. 
 
 THE EYE. 
 
 The eyes of the horse are not situated, as in the human, 
 directly in front of the face ; but have a more lateral aspect, 
 to increase the field of view. Each eye may be divided into 
 eye and appendages. 
 
 The eye, which we shall first describe, is situated in a 
 cavity formed by several bones, and called the orbit. Within 
 this cavity, the globe, surrounded by its moving agents or 
 muscles, rests on a quantity of fatty matter, serving to give 
 
 n2 
 
180 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 prominence and beauty to the orb ; while the orbits them- 
 selves are lined by a periosteum furnished by the dura 
 mater. 
 
 FIG 19. 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE EYE. 
 
 9, The retina. 
 a, The tunica vorticosa. 
 h, The secreting membrane of the cho- 
 roid. 
 c, The pigmentum nigrum. 
 e, The tunica Jacobi. 
 /, The expansion of the optic nerve. 
 g. The arterial tunic of the retina. 
 
 The black spots upon either side of the 
 
 pupil, at the corpora nigra. 
 The thin lines denote the course of a 
 
 ray of light. 
 The large lighter space is the tapidum 
 lucidum. 
 
 0, The optic nerve. 
 /, The ophthalmic artery. 
 
 1, The aqueous humour. 
 
 2, The crystalline humour and lens. 
 
 3, The vitreous humour. 
 
 4, The hyaloid membrane, which secretes 
 
 the vitreous humour. 
 
 5, The capsule of the lens, kept in its situa- 
 
 tion by the hyaloid and aqueous 
 membranes. 
 
 6, The aqueous membrane, which secretes 
 
 the aqueous humour behind the 
 cornea. 
 
 7, The sclerotic coat. 
 
 8, The choroid coat. 
 
 The humour of the eye, upon which the round shape 
 of the globe mainly depends, are three in number ; the 
 aqueous, which is most forwardly situated (Fig 19 . 1). 
 The crystalline, which occupies the middle place {Fig 19 . 
 2) ; and the vitreous, holds the most backward or deep- 
 seated position {Fig 19.3). Of the three, the vitreous 
 is by very far the largest. The aqueous is the next in 
 amount, though able to bear no comparison with the 
 vitreous ; and the crystalline is the least in quantity. In 
 density, the crystalline is by very far the most dense. The 
 aqueous and vitreous being equal in this respect, and in 
 the physical qualities resembling the clearest water. But 
 why then is one called the vitreous ? Because some of the 
 
THE RYE. 181 
 
 old observers imagined it resembled molten glass ; which at 
 first sight it does appear to be somewhat like. When the 
 sclerotic, the choroid, and the retina are cat through, the 
 vitreous humour does not flow out like water, which we 
 have asserted it to be ; but hangs as a thick clear jelly from 
 the incision. And why is this '? Because the cavity of the 
 vitreous humour is lined with a fine, clear, and perfectly 
 transparent membrane, which is formed into cells {Fig 19). 
 Each of these cells, which is rather minute, constitutes a 
 closed sac ; and in this little bag, without an opening, the 
 water is contained. The reader can now understand why 
 the vitreous humour would appear dense, without actually in 
 this particular exceeding the aqueous humour. 
 
 The use of the humours is to distend the globe of the 
 eye ; or to keep the sac formed by the sclerotica and the 
 cornea continually on the stretch, or always of a globular 
 form. 
 
 The aqueous humour fills a cavity, bounded anteriorly 
 by the cornea, and posteriorly by the crystalline lens (see 
 Fig 19). This limited space is divided into two chambers. 
 The anterior chamber is by far the largest, and consists of 
 all that space between the posterior of the cornea and the 
 anterior of the iris. There is, however, a small dark space 
 between the back of the iris and the front of the crystalline 
 lens, which is termed the posterior chamber. When a 
 puncture is made through the cornea so as to let out the 
 aqueous humour, the cornea is corrugated, or thrown into 
 various minute and irregular folds. Yet this cornea, the 
 shape of which appears to depend upon the pressure of the 
 aqueous humour from behind, is a very compound sub- 
 stance. If it be cut out from its situation, and taken 
 between the points of the finger and thumb, it w^ili be dis- 
 covered to be laminated ; because one part will be felt to 
 slide upon another. It consists of several minute layers, 
 as many as fifteen ; though it is not thicker than a sixpence. 
 It is also composed of two distinct parts. The most for- 
 ward of which is fibrous, and the most posterior elastic. 
 This last part is so elastic, that if freed it will maintain its 
 original form, and assume no other. 
 
 The crystalline lens (Fig 19 . 2), or humour, is retained 
 
182 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 in its capsule (Fig 19 . 5), which encircles it. A certain 
 water, or liquid, is said to surround the crystalline lens ; 
 hut this is found only some time after life has departed, 
 and is not present immediately after death. The lens itself, 
 when considered independent of its capsule, is organized. 
 We know this, because it undergoes change ; because ves- 
 sels are seen entering into its substance in disease ; also 
 because the crystalline lens itself can be absorbed, and bone 
 deposited in the space a crystalUne lens once occupied. It 
 is convex both before and behind, or on each of its sides ; 
 though more convex on one side than the other. Tlie 
 crystalline lens is lamellated in structure, and is more dense 
 as the centre is approached. Its use is to refract the rays 
 of light still more than the cornea and the aqueous humour 
 have done ; and to transmit them thus refracted to the 
 vitreous humour, which likewise brings them closer to- 
 gether (see Fig 19). 
 
 The vitreous humour {Fig 19 .3) is all that w^e have 
 said ; but besides this it has an artery which runs along its 
 centre to the crystalline lens, which it nurtures (Fig 19 . /). 
 This artery likewise supplies the membrane of the vitreous 
 humour with blood for secretion. Besides the parts we 
 have spoken of, there are others named the canal of Petit, 
 &c., which do not exist in a perfectly fresh eye, but require 
 maceration, &c. for their development. Of such fanciful 
 structures, therefore, we shall take no notice. 
 
 The coats of the eye. — The conjunctiva is a fine, delicate, 
 transparent and mucous membrane which lines the internal 
 surface of each eyelid, and is reflected from thence over 
 the anterior part of the globe of the eye : being thus 
 reflected, freedom of motion is allowed, yet the eye is amply 
 secured within the orbit ; and the entrance of any foreign 
 substance beyond the point where the membrane folds is 
 completely prevented. The conjunctive coat, where it is 
 opposed to the pupil, is transparent ; too fine to allow of 
 demonstration, so that it may unchanged admit of the 
 visual rays ; and here, therefore, although it be not entirely 
 deprived of vascularity, it does not allow, when the organ 
 is in health, of vessels circulating, sufficiently large to be seen. 
 That portion which lines the eyelids, on the contrary, is 
 
THE EYE. 183 
 
 more highly vascular ; does receive red blood, and forms a 
 secreting surface to defend these parts from the irritation 
 of the tears. 
 
 The sclerotica {Fig 19 . 7) is the outermost of the more 
 complete investments of the globe ; and is likewise the 
 thickest and strongest ; forming all the posterior and larger 
 part of the globe ; the smaller and the more forward por- 
 tion of the sphere consisting of the cornea. The cornea 
 {Fig 19 . 6) , as part of a tunic, it extends over the anterior 
 portion of the bulb of the eye ; being distinct from that 
 portion of which the larger and posterior part of the globe 
 is composed. The cornea, in fact, is that transparent por- 
 tion which the spectator looks through when he observes 
 the eye of a living horse. The convexity varies much in 
 different subjects ; by which the focal distance is adapted to 
 the viewing of near or more distant objects. In man, the 
 focal distance of the eye is less than a foot ; thus his 
 cornea is considerably more convex. But the horse has to 
 see objects from the ground ; in him, therefore, the con- 
 vexity is less, and the focal distance of his eye is probably 
 some feet. The cornea in every animal is organized ; not 
 highly sensitive ; but capable of repairing injuries of a size 
 and importance almost exceeding belief. Its reparative 
 powers are very active ; and though less organized than 
 most parts, yet in the speed of restoration it comparatively 
 exceeds all others. 
 
 The iris. — This moveable curtain is situated within the 
 eye, near to the cornea ; to which it corresponds in outward 
 shape, being attached to the ciliary ligament, that helps to 
 unite the cornea to the sclerotica. The colour of the eye 
 depends on the iris ; being wholly governed by a black pig- 
 ment, secreted at the back of the iris, and called the uvea : 
 the office of this pigment is to absorb all rays of light 
 turned upon it. Wall-eyed horses have none of this pig- 
 ment ; therefore their vision must be deficient ; the human 
 eye is commonly grey, black, or blue : in the horse it is 
 usually brown ; from the deep colour of the pigment being 
 partially visible through the iris. The space between the 
 inner circumference of the iris is usually termed the pupil ; 
 the size of which necessarily increases or decreases as the 
 
184 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 iris contracts or dilates. The colour oi' the pupil is de- 
 pendent upon the quantity of light admitted to the bottom 
 of the eye ; being blue or green in a good light ; and per- 
 fectly black in a bad one. At the margin of the iris are 
 seen some little globular bodies or bags containing a 
 black pigment {Fig 19) ; the largest of which are attached 
 to its upper margin. These bodies are called the corpora 
 nigra, and appear designed to stifle a portion of the rays 
 when the sun is too powerful ; which, in a contracted 
 state of the iris, they are able to do by almost filling up the 
 remaining opening, so as to admit but little light ; though a 
 crevice may serve for sight. The iris, therefore, it is 
 evident, is a very important part, for by its actions vision 
 is in a great degree regulated. It is stimulated to contract 
 by the excess of light ; and consist of two orders of muscu- 
 lar fibre. One is circular, and serves to render the pupil 
 small. The other radiates from the margin of the iris 
 towards the centre, and answers the purpose of enlarging 
 the pupillary opening. Light is the stimulus which causes 
 the circular order to contract ; also relaxes the straight 
 order of fibres to which darkness supplies energy, as light 
 stimulates the circular ones. 
 
 The choroid coat {Fig 19 . 8) is a secreting membrane, 
 spread over the internal surface of the sclerotic; and the ciliary 
 processes are plaits or folds of it attached to the ciliary liga- 
 ment. The pigment {Fig 19 . c) is distributed over the greater 
 portion of the internal surface of the choroid coat ; but is 
 deficient on a part named tapidum lucidum. The tapiduni 
 lucidum is of a green appearance, and has a metallic lustre ; 
 it occupies rather the upper portion of the internal membrane 
 of the choroid {Fig 1 9) . Its use is to collect the stray rays of 
 light, and by reflecting them to the opposite retina, to enable 
 the horse to see when feeding off the ground during the night ; 
 as the use of the pigment is to absorb all rays of light that 
 touch it, and thus render vision single, distinct, and clear. 
 The pigment and the tapidum lucidum, therefore, form one 
 coat. The secreting membrane constitutes another ; but 
 besides these two, there is a third called the vena vorti- 
 cosa {Fig 19 . a), which is placed most outward, being 
 immediately underneath the sclerotic. This last of the 
 
THE EYE. 185 
 
 three coats of the choroid merely consists of a number of 
 veins, which take a very tortuous course ; and are therefore 
 imagined to represent an aqueous vortex. 
 
 The retina {Fig 19 . 9). — The last and most important 
 expansion of the eye is the retina ; so called from the net- 
 like structure of its nervous layer : it consists of three coats. 
 The first is membraneous, being designed to keep the pigment 
 from falling upon the nerve (Fig 19 . e). The second 
 tunic is composed of a net- like expansion of the optic nerve ; 
 which enters the eye at its most backward part ; and upon 
 the healthy condition of this nerve that vision depends 
 {Fig 19 ./). The optic nerve does not enter the sclerotic 
 coat directly in its centre ; but rather to one side ; and its 
 expansion extends almost to the attachment of the iris. 
 The root of the optic nerve can be well seen with the naked 
 eye when the horse stands in a good reflected light ; and it 
 has been mistaken for a cataract. The third is arterial ; 
 the small vessels, which form it, being supplied by the 
 central artery of the retina {Fig 19 . I). 
 
 The muscles of the globe of the eye are seven : four of these 
 are termed recti, or straight, and perform the offices of 
 elevation, depression, abduction, and adduction; and are in- 
 dividually named elevators, depressors, abductors, and ad- 
 ductors accordingly. The four arise from the bottom of the 
 orbit, and are inserted into the anterior part of the sclero- 
 tica ; the elevator being on the top ; the depressor at the 
 bottom ; the abductor to the outside ; and the adductor on 
 the inside of the eye. They are all inserted by tendons, and 
 these tendons run to the edge of the cornea, forming the 
 white of the horse's eye, and constituting the tunica albu- 
 genia. Two others of the seven muscles are termed the 
 obliquus major and minor. The first of these arises from 
 the inner and posterior portion of the orbit ; and passes ob- 
 liquely through a cartilaginous ring, which is lubricated with 
 synovia, at the anterior and outer side of the supra-orbital 
 foramen : then returning, its tendon passes under the ab- 
 ductor tendon, to insert itself into the side of the globe ; 
 this, therefore, can partially rotate the eye. The obliquus 
 minor arises from a little posterior to the nasal duct, and 
 inserts itself beneath the abductor muscle. Use. To rotate 
 the eye partially downward. The retractor oculi forms the 
 
186 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 seventh muscle ; and is peculiar to quadrupeds ; being a 
 large and powerful bundle of fibres, which arising from the 
 bottom of the orbit, envelop the optic nerve ; and insert 
 themselves around the posterior middle of the sphere. This 
 muscle acts on the globe of the eye by very forcibly drawing 
 it within the bottom of the orbit ; by which means it 
 partially protects it from injury. The cartilago nictitans is 
 situated at the inner or inferior corner of the eye ; having 
 a distinct fasciculi of muscular fibres running to it from 
 the depressor oculi. It is familiarly called the haw ; and 
 has been excised under the idea of thereby curing spe- 
 cific ophthalmia. It is protruded by the pressure forward 
 of the fat behind the eye, whenever the action of the 
 retractor muscle draws the organ within the orbit ; and 
 is replaced partly by the pressure of the eye ; partly by 
 the fat ceasing to act as a propeller ; and partly by the con- 
 traction of the bundle of fibres before mentioned. From 
 this description, it will be readily seen that this organ 
 acts as a third eyelid. When any foreign substance gets 
 into the eye, the irritation thereby occasioned causes a 
 copious flow of tears ; which wash the body to within the 
 reach of the cartilago nictitans, and at the same time loosens 
 its hold upon the conjunctival membrane, covering the cornea. 
 Then pain occasions the retractor muscle to act repeatedly 
 and forcibly ; which propels the little shovel of a cartilago 
 nictitans suddenly and frequently over the eye ; by which 
 motion it effectually takes up and removes any particle that 
 may be within the reach of its action. 
 
 The eyelids. — The lids are a species of curtain placed 
 before the eye, and exist as an upper and a lower, formed so 
 as to adapt themselves to the globe. The superior is the 
 most considerable ; the lower, in the horse, has but little 
 motion : the corners where they unite are termed canthi ; 
 one of which is the external ; and the larger the internal is 
 also less angular, and furnishes an attachment to the muscle 
 of the orbicularis oculi. The thin cartilaginous rims which 
 form the edges of the eyelids, are each pierced by some little 
 holes ; which pour out a sebaceous matter from the meibo- 
 mian glands : the upper lid is most furnished with hairs, 
 which are not placed in one, but in several small rows ; 
 most abundant on the outer angle, in which direction the 
 
THE EYE. 187 
 
 eye most requires a shield : the under has a few long hairs, 
 placed below its marginal edge. The horse has no eye- 
 brows ; unless we reckon as such the few straggling long 
 hairs above the eyes. The muscles of the lids are three ; 
 one surrounding the whole orbit, a sphincter, termed 07'bi- 
 cularis, which shuts the eyelids ; the others are termed 
 levator palpehrce superioris, internus and externus. The 
 externus arises from the frontal bone and fascia, and is in- 
 serted into the upper lid, blending with the fibres of the 
 orbicularis. The internus arises from the bottom of the 
 orbit, to be inserted into the upper lid, by a tendon, which 
 becomes very tine and much expanded, as it proceeds for- 
 ward, to be fixed into the margin of the upper eyelid. These 
 muscles, in all their diversified movements, are much assisted 
 by other fascial muscles. The lachrymal gland is a conglo- 
 merate body, lodged within the conjunctiva at the upper and 
 outer part of the orbit ; in a fossa above the external angle, 
 and in immediate connexion with the frontal arch ; its several 
 lobuli, together, send out eleven to thirteen little ducts, 
 which penetrate the conjunctiva, and pour out the saline fluid 
 known as the tears. The lachrymal gland can be stimulated 
 by brutality to a more than an ordinary supply of the tears, 
 which then flow over the cheek : the ordinary supply passes 
 off by an opening termed puncta lachrymalia ; being guided 
 there by a groove formed by the junction of the eyelids, with 
 a protuberant dark-coloured body, situated between the in- 
 ternal angle of the palpebrse, termed caruncula lachrymalia ; 
 which is covered with an intermediate structure, between 
 mucous membrane and true skin. Thus directed, the tears 
 are carried into the lachrymal duct ; and so pass into the 
 nose by the ductus ad nasum. It has been much disputed 
 whether the horse has a lachrymal sac or not. If by a sac 
 is meant a dilatation of the nasal duct, as large in proportion 
 as the human lachrymal sac, then decidedly the horse has 
 none; but if, by the horse having no lachrymal sac, it is 
 meant that the nasal duct in the horse is of one size through- 
 out, then those who make such an assertion are assuredly 
 WTong. The horse has a well-marked enlargement of the 
 duct, where the sac should be ; and this we presume to view 
 as the horse's lachrymal sac. The vessels of the eye are 
 arteries, from the external and internal carotids : the external 
 
188 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 parts being furnished from the maxillary ; and the internal by 
 the ophthalmic, and some branches that penetrate the scle- 
 rotic coat ; and the veins return their blood to the sinuses 
 within the cranium, so to the jugulars. The optic nerve 
 enters the orbit, and, piercing the globe, forms the retina, 
 having the arteria centralis retina given off from the brain 
 within its centre : the eye receives nervous influence also 
 from the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth nerves ; of 
 which the fifth alone endows it with sensation. The second 
 is a special nerve of vision ; all the rest are for motion. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE, OR THE FUNCTION OF VISION. 
 
 Light is the appropriate stimulus to the functional pur- 
 poses of the eye ; enabling it to take cognizance of the 
 figure, colour, and distance of bodies. The visual rays, in 
 this climate, shoot rectilinearly through space : but when 
 they pass through denser media, they do not preserve this 
 rectilinear course ; but are bent in a degree equal to the 
 density of the medium through which they pass. This 
 bending of the rays is called their refraction : the tendency 
 of which is to bring them to ti focus ov focal point ; to which 
 point all luminous rays reach, sooner or later, according to 
 the increased or diminished density of the medium they 
 have to pass through ; upon which property most of the 
 phenomena of vision depend. This premised, it will become 
 evident that the visual rays meet with several different re- 
 fractions, or bendings, in passing through the eye. Their 
 course through the cornea and aqueous humour must form 
 their first refraction ; that through the crystalline lens will 
 be the next, the powers of which, as a refracting medium, 
 must be great ; and in their further course through the 
 vitreous humour, and the repeated folds of its membrane, 
 they must undergo a still farther bending ; till they meet in 
 a point on the retina : thus forming a cone, the basis of 
 which will be the surface of the cornea, and the apex the 
 retina. The rays of light fall upon an object, or upon 
 several objects. They are thence reflected in such a form 
 as conveys to the spectator a sense of colour upon entering 
 the eye ; they are so refracted that a perfect image, though 
 infinitely small, is painted upon the retina. 
 
 Amidst the wonderful number of objects that present 
 
THE NOSE. 189 
 
 themselves to the eyes of the animal, it appears as thou2;Ii 
 care was taken, that he should have the means of principally 
 collecting such only as are connected with his views or pur- 
 suits. The form of the visual organ is such that no con- 
 fusion exists from an indiscriminate admission of rays ; thus 
 only such enter as are suited to this convergency ; or, if 
 any others do penetrate, they become lost in the pigmen- 
 tum nigrum. It is therefore to be understood that the rays 
 which the refracting power of the humours is able to con- 
 centrate, meet upon the retina in a point ; or in a very small 
 circle, within which the object is painted ; and that the mind 
 takes cognizance of it through the medium of the optic 
 nerves. As the eye must necessarily require to have avast 
 variety of objects painted upon it, whose distances are 
 widely different ; so there must be some optical adjustment 
 of the powers of the part, to enable it to effect a distinct 
 vision of all objects remote or near. On this subject we have 
 first to consider that the outer coat of the eye is formed of 
 a yielding material ; such as is disposed to be moulded into 
 a variety of shapes, by the pressure of the muscles which sur- 
 round it. The eye likewise, not being fixed in its place, is 
 likely to be retracted, or drawn back, by the muscle specially 
 formed for this purpose ; as well as to be urged forward by 
 the pressure of the fat behind the organ. Were it not for 
 some adjustment of the optical organs, the rays reflected 
 from objects very near the eye would fall behind it ; and 
 those from very distant ones would, from being almost 
 parallel, meet together before the retina. The mechanical 
 adjustment of the focus, it must be observed, is also assisted 
 by the iris ; which lessening the opening of the pupil when 
 we look at minute objects, only permits such rays to pass 
 as penetrate towards the centre of the lens ; by which they 
 will be very much refracted ; but when the eye regards dis- 
 tant objects, the iris becomes dilated ; and the rays are then 
 received through the edges of the lens, whereby their refrac- 
 tion is diminished. 
 
 THE NOSE. 
 
 In brute animals, the organ of smelling is most essential ; 
 as it forms one of the means by which they judge of good 
 or evil : consequently we cannot be surprised that the nose 
 
190 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 of quadrupeds is very differently formed from our own. In 
 the horse, the nose constitutes a very considerable portion 
 of the head ; having two exterior communications with the 
 air, called nostrils, and an interior opening to the fauces. 
 The openings of the nostrils are limited anteriorly by the 
 nasal and intermaxillary bones. Immediately above the 
 arch of the palate, which is situated interiorly, the nose 
 communicates with the frontal sinuses, by a species of flap 
 or valve ; through which a probe can be easily thrust, but 
 which must admit but little air into the sinuses. The nose 
 is divided in the middle by the septum narium {Plate VI. a) ; 
 which is cartilaginous ; and rests in a bone named the vomer, 
 that is grooved for its reception. 
 
 The frontal sinuses {Plate VI. ; Plate VII. d, d) are 
 formed by the separation of the two tables of the frontal 
 bones. There is usually a bony partition which forms them 
 into two equal portions, and other bony prolongations are 
 seen still further subdividing these spaces : these sinuses 
 communicate superiorly with the nasal cavities, and are lined 
 by a continuation of the same membrane. The frontal 
 sinuses freely communicate with the nasal and the maxillary ; 
 each of which are thus named because formed by divisions 
 of those bones. 
 
 The highly vascular and sensitive expansion called the 
 pituitary memhrane lines the whole nasal fossae throughout 
 all their compartments. It is a portion of the great mucous 
 track, which begins at the eyes, nose, and mouth ; extends 
 to the lungs, stomach, and intestines, and terminates at the 
 anus. It is furnished with a mucus secreted throughout 
 the whole extent of its surface; whereby the surface is always 
 kept pliant, soft, and susceptible ; and it is reflected over the 
 superior and inferior turbinated bones {Plate VII. a, h), 
 as well as the cartilaginous septum {Plate VI. a) ; by this 
 mucus likewise insects are prevented from penetrating into 
 the lungs. The evident use of the pituitary membrane ap- 
 pears to be a medium for the expansion of the olfactory 
 nerves, whereby the effluvia of different substances are 
 ascertained. 
 
 Ductus ad nasum. — The puncta lachrymalia are the open- 
 ings to a canal within the lachrymal bone, called the nasal 
 duct; which is continued from the eye, between the turbinated 
 
THE NOSE. 191 
 
 bones, and terminates by an opening within the nostril, where 
 it may be easily seen. This duct carries off the superfluous 
 saline fluid, secreted by the lachrymal gland ; but being 
 lined with the pituitary membrane, in glanders it often be- 
 comes obstructed ; by which the lachrymal fluid is forced 
 over the face ; and, as the ulceration proceeds, purulent 
 matter at length flows out at the puncta lachrymalia. In 
 inflammations of the eye, the puncta likewise becomes so 
 inflamed as to be impervious for a time ; hence a horse in 
 this aftection is commonly observed weeping. 
 
 The common integuments are spread over the upper lip, 
 but without its usual accompaniment, viz. adipose mem- 
 brane ; it is likewise furnished with fine hair to the edges of 
 the nostrils. The integument also is turned for a slight 
 distance up the nostril ; being, where it exists, distinctly 
 marked by its colour, which is very different from that of 
 mucous membrane. By an inflection of the integument, a 
 well known pouch is formed upon the external side of each 
 nasal cavity, called the false nostril. The purpose of these 
 blind pouches, called false nostrils, is to allow the true nostril 
 to contract or enlarge, without disfiguring the face ; thus 
 serving to guard that beauty of form which, throughout crea- 
 tion, nature so jealously protects. The openings of the nos- 
 trils are guarded by cartilages on each side ; two being a conti- 
 nuation of the inferior turbinated bones {PlateYll. 6) , besides 
 central ones are attached to the peaks of the nasal bones. 
 These cartilages are directly acted upon by the dilatator 
 narium ; the dilatator nari lateralis ; the dilatator nari infe- 
 rior ; and the contractor nari, which last is a triangular 
 bundle of fibre, first pointed out by Dr. Knox of Edinburgh, 
 arising from the inside of the intermaxillary bone. Beside 
 the muscles just named, the nose is further influenced by 
 fibres sent from the levator anglioris, and the retractor labii 
 superioris. The muscles of the nose usually act synchro- 
 nously ; and are in a great degree of an involuntary character. 
 The dilatator narium, by its power over the nasal cartilages 
 being attached to each, approximates the nostrils, and 
 elevates the superior borders of both. The inferior dilatator 
 enlarges the opening by contracting inferiorly ; the opening 
 at the same time being forced laterally, by the retractor 
 labii superioris, and centrally by the contractor nari. Thus, 
 
192 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 simultaneousl}^ is the edge of the nostrils drawn in opposite 
 directions; and of course the opening is enlarged ; while the 
 lateralis and the accessories serve to dilate the anterior of 
 the nasal cavity. The blood to the nostrils is principally 
 supplied by branches derived from the facial and the lateral 
 nasal. The nerves being derived from the first, fifth, and 
 seventh pairs. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE NOSE. 
 
 The DILATATOR NARi LATERALIS. Arises. From the external 
 surface of the upper part of the intermaxillary bone : and is 
 inserted into the cartilaginous continuation of the inferior 
 turbinated bone. 
 
 Dilatator nari inferior. Arises. From the inferior 
 border of the intermaxillary bone. Inserted. Into the upper 
 surface of the nasal cornu. 
 
 Contractor nari. Origin. From the inner side of the 
 intermaxillary bone. Insertion. Into the cartilaginous con- 
 tinuation of the inferior turbinated bone. 
 
 Dilatator narium. A bundle of fibres, stretching from 
 cartilage to cartilage of the nose. 
 
 the physiology of the nasal organs. 
 
 Comparative anatomy shows that the sense of smell 
 is in most animals placed at the entrance of the respira- 
 tory organs ; by wdiich they are made subservient to both 
 purposes of breathing and smelling ; and by the same means 
 are rendered as w^ell voluntary as involuntary agents ; for 
 the action of respiration will carry all the effluvia from bodies, 
 whether sought for or not, against the sensitive pituitary 
 membrane. The herbivorous tribes smell vegetable mat- 
 ters, and have an abhorrence of all fleshy odours. In all 
 the vertebrated animals, the parts connected with the organ 
 of smell are, like the parts composing the other organs of 
 sense, double. The cognizance taken of the volatile portions 
 of bodies continually flying off from them, and impressed 
 on the sensitive surface of the internal nostrils, is trans- 
 mitted by the nervous expansion of the olfactory nerves to 
 the brain ; where it produces the sensation we understand 
 by the name of smell. 
 
CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 193 
 
 THE CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 This cavity in the horse forms all that extensive opening 
 from the level of the e^^e to the incisor teeth. The mouth 
 is composed of external and internal parts ; the external 
 are the lips and cheeks ; the internal are the gums, the 
 bars, the teeth, the alveolary edges, the palate, and the 
 tongue. The lips form parts of the mouth, and are two in 
 number ; an upper and lower ; each being composed of 
 fleshy masses which extend around the opening to the 
 mouth ; but principally a circular one is apparent, forming 
 the orbicularis oris : the rest are composed of the nume- 
 rous muscles that influence the various movements of the 
 mouth and lips. 
 
 The RETRACTOR ANGLiORis (Plate II. where it is shown 
 turned back) is a portion of the panniculus, and as such has 
 a general action, but no special power over the mouth. The 
 ZYGOMATicus (Plate II. 4) runs from the zygomatic process 
 to, and is the true retractor of, the angle of the mouth. 
 The LEVATOR ANGLIORIS (Plate II. 1) which draws the 
 mouth upward and backward, pulls the upper lip also in 
 the same direction ; and at the same time partially expands 
 the nostril ; arises from near the inner canthus of the eye ; 
 and is inserted into the angle of the mouth, and into the 
 cornua of the nasal cartilages ; forming a loop anteriorly, 
 through which passes the retractor labii superioris. 
 
 Retractor labii superioris (Plate II. 3) pulls back- 
 ward the side of the upper lip ; and also dilates the false 
 nostril. Originates. From the upper jaw upon the outer 
 side, and just before the termination of the zygomatic spine. 
 Inserted. Into the false nostril, and blends with the muscu- 
 lar fibre of the upper lip. 
 
 Levator labii superioris (Plate II. 2), a pair of well- 
 defined muscles, one on either side of the face ; joining in 
 a common tendon, which at length expands and goes to 
 the upper lip ; originating from the junction of the supe- 
 rior maxillar and molar bones. The two would obviously 
 elevate the upper lip ; or one would pull the lip to one 
 side. To the lower lip there are the retractor labii 
 iNFERioRis (Plate II. 7), a well-marked muscle, originating 
 near to the margin of the lower jaw ; and going by tendons 
 
 o 
 
194 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 to the substance of the under lip. This muscle would pull 
 backward the under lip. Orbicularis oris (Plate 11. 11), 
 a sphinctor, of use to close the lips. Its fibres encircle the 
 opening of the mouth. Levator labii inferioris serves 
 to draw upward, and to render firm the under lip. Origi- 
 nates. From the incisor alveolars of the lower jaw. Inserted. 
 Into the rudimental chin of the horse. 
 
 Whoever studies the forementioned muscles will find 
 ample cause for the varied movements of the lips ; more 
 especially when he considers that the anatomist deals only 
 with a dead body, and thus makes an entire muscle act at 
 once to determine its action ; whereas it is not unnatural to 
 imagine that in a living state muscular fibres do not all act 
 at once, but each has a separate and distinct movement ; 
 whereby the motions of the lips would be varied and mul- 
 tiplied almost beyond the power of human calculation. 
 
 The lips of the horse are to that animal the prehensile 
 organ, as any one may ascertain who observes a horse feed 
 at grass. The food is then collected with the lips ; and so 
 accurate is the sense of touch which resides in them, aided 
 by the smell, that all poisonous plants are rejected, and 
 only the nicest morsel chosen. The most sensitive part in 
 the body of the horse is the upper lip ; a fact unfortunately 
 too well known to grooms and farriers, who on every 
 occasion place a twitch on the tender part, and by screwing 
 it tight render the animal afraid to move. 
 
 The arteries which supply the internal parts of the mouth 
 are the inferior and superior maxillaries, after they pass 
 through the foramina in the upper and lower jaws. The 
 facial artery, — a portion by the lateral nasal, — the infra 
 orbital, &c., so that they are amply supplied with blood. 
 Their nervous sensibility and sense of touch is imparted by 
 the superior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve. The 
 motion is derived from the portio dura or facial nerve. 
 
 Now let us investigate the interior of the mouth. The 
 gu7ns are formed of a very vascular compact and elastic 
 substance completely surrounding the neck of each tooth ; 
 and, as this substance is also adherent to the periosteum, 
 so it supports the teeth firmly in their situations {Plate 
 VII. c). They are far more vascular than sensitive, and 
 appear to be formed by cellular tissue amply supplied with 
 
CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 195 
 
 blood vessels. Over this the outer membrane (called the 
 buccal), covering the other parts within the mouth, is re- 
 flected ; only to protect the gums, during the mastication of 
 hard substances, it is here furnished with a cuticle of con- 
 siderable thickness. The membrane just alluded to (the 
 buccal) is reflected all over the interior of the mouth ; being 
 continuous with that which enters the lungs and abdomen, 
 and is part of the great mucous track. When we say the 
 gums are deficient in sensibility, those parts are alluded to 
 only as in a healthy state. When diseased they become 
 highly sensitive. 
 
 The palate of the horse is spoken of as hard and soft. 
 The hard palate {Plate VII. i) is that part touched and 
 felt by the tongue. The soft palate {Plate W.f; Plate 
 VII. I) falls down behind the tongue, and divides the 
 mouth from the fauces. 
 
 The hard palate is highly vascular, and is principally 
 formed of condensed cellular tissue. It is covered by a 
 portion of that thick insensitive buccal membrane which 
 envelops the gums. It is marked across from side to 
 side by curved projecting lines, whicli are called the bars 
 {Plate VII. i). The convexity of these curves point for- 
 ward ; but the projecting edge of rather more than the 
 anterior half looks backward, and that of the remainder 
 faces forward. The use of these formations {the bars) is to 
 keep the food within the mouth ; as but for their existence, 
 from the pendent position of the horse's head, it would be 
 very likely to fall out, an accident which now rarely hap- 
 pens. 
 
 The tongue {Plate VI. e) is that large fleshy body, for 
 the residence of which the cavity of the mouth appears to 
 be formed. It is covered by (the buccal) mucous mem- 
 brane, the same as shields the gums and envelops the 
 palate. The very top of the tongue has papillic, or emi- 
 nences upon it ; which indeed are upon the whole of the 
 superior surface of the organ, only of smaller size, ante- 
 riorly and laterally. It is free at its foremost end ; but 
 only for a small distance, being then bound down to the 
 bottom of the mouth by a fold of the lining membrane, 
 which is termed the frenum. It is principally composed of 
 muscular fibre and glandular substance, with which, how- 
 
 o 2 
 
196 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 ever, some fat is generally intermixed. The tongue is fixed 
 at its base to the most forward portion of the os hyoides, 
 to which many of its muscles are attached. The muscles 
 of the tongue will not account for all the motions of that 
 organ ; that is, if we give to muscles no other property 
 than that accorded to them by the generality of anatomists, 
 viz. contraction. How are we, according to this version, 
 to account for an organ formed almost wholly of muscular 
 fibre, being propelled out of the mouth, or elongated and 
 turned in various directions. We know by feeling the arms 
 of men, but more so by feeling the limbs of animals when 
 spasmodically affected, that muscle, when contracted, can 
 become almost of the firmness of metal or of bone. May 
 not a texture, which has the powder of assuming this pro- 
 perty of rigidity, be also capable of dispensing wdth bone ; 
 and be gifted with a faculty of extension as well as contrac- 
 tion ? Grant this, which assumption the tongue appears to 
 necessitate, for its rightful interpretation, and the entire 
 difficulty is conquered. 
 
 This subject of the protrusion of the tongue is little 
 understood. Muscular fibre, however, must act upon every 
 substance, whether it be bone or not, with which it is in 
 contact. Thus much glandular matter and some fat inter- 
 mingling with the muscles of the tongue ; and such sub- 
 stances being pliable, but not compressible it is easily 
 understood how pressure might make them assume another 
 form, and become long, wdiereas they were originally broad. 
 The HYO GLOSsus BREVis, wliicli appears always to act with 
 its fellow^ at the back of the tongue, has no lateral motion. 
 
 The LONGUS is the main agent in retracting it ; when one 
 muscle alone acts the tongue w^ould be drawn to one side. 
 The LONGUS is likewise the means by which the tongue is 
 curved downwards. The muscle which twines the tongue 
 upwards is the genio hyo glossus, whose fibres run from 
 the front of the os hyoides to the point of the low^er jaw. 
 
 The BREVIS, aided by its accessories and the lingualis, 
 pulls downward the back of the tongue ; thus forming a 
 vacuum which draws water wuthin the mouth, or performs 
 the office of suction. The reason of so many muscles being 
 crowded together for the motion of the tongue, is the 
 extent of surface to be moved ; the power required to move 
 
CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 197 
 
 it ; the singular movements to be performed ; and the small 
 space left for the development of muscular fibre. When 
 all the muscles simultaneously contract the tongue is pro- 
 truded, as we cannot put out our own tongues without 
 being conscious of an effort. When the brevis alone con- 
 tracts, the tongue is drawn partially backward, though pro- 
 bably other muscles aid this action. 
 
 The tongue is a double organ, and all of its muscles 
 except one exist in pairs. If the fibres of these muscles be 
 traced to their destination, they will be found to decussate ; 
 those of the right, terminating upon the left side of the 
 tongue. The muscles of the tongue consist of five pairs, 
 and a small single one. The genio hyo glossus (a pair) 
 lie immediately between the branches of the lower jaw 
 from the junction of which it proceeds in a direct line 
 to the spur process of the os hyoides. The insertion of its 
 fibres is into the top of the tongue. Hyo glossus longus 
 {a pair) arise by fine tendon from near the joint, formed 
 between the two horns of the os hyoides ; and extend to 
 the tip of the tongue, their muscular fibres being inserted 
 into the sides of the tongue. Hyo glossus brevis {a pair) 
 arise from the body of, and the spur process of the os hyoides ; 
 into the top of the tongue, extending from the velum 
 palati as far forward as the last molar tooth. Accessories 
 {two pairs) . The anterior springs from the large horn of the 
 OS hyoides, and blends with the anterior fibres of the brevis. 
 The posterior originates from the membrane upon the side 
 of the tongue, near its base ; and is inserted into the upper 
 and internal part of the brevis. The lingualis (single), a 
 small band of muscular fibre, originating from the most 
 forward part of the body of the os hyoides ; and is inserted 
 into the upper part of the tongue close to its root. 
 
 The nerves which go to the tongue are the lingual, or 
 ninth pair for motion. The gustatory, or branch of the 
 fifth pair, which confers the sense of taste ; and the glosso 
 pharyngeus, of which the glossal branch goes to the tongue ; 
 but its precise service is not yet accurately determined. 
 We ask, may it not go to confer sensation? 
 
 The arteries are derived from the submaxillary branch of 
 the carotids, and the blood is returned into the jugular. 
 
198 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH AND THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 Taste appears to be derived from contact with the large 
 papillae at the back of the tongue. Taste does not exist 
 there is every reason to conclude, when the mouth and 
 food are perfectly dry ; but then it is difficult to have the 
 mouth in such a state as to preclude the possibility of 
 saliva being secreted ; and with regard to food, even the 
 captain's biscuit contains much moisture. Yet liquids are 
 tasted much sooner than solids ; which last are not gene- 
 rally relished, until by the process of mastication they have 
 been thoroughly moistened with sahva. Thus moisture 
 can either be taken in with the food, or be contributed by 
 the glands proper to the mouth after the food has been 
 taken in ; for in one way or the other fluid must be mingled 
 with the substance eaten before taste can exist. The 
 tongue, which is the organ of taste in most vertebrated 
 animals, possesses an exquisitely modified sensibility, and 
 in brutes is endowed also with a salutary instinct. In man, 
 civilization, by heightening the intellectual, has weakened 
 the instinctive powers, if they ever existed. Taste w^as 
 given to brutes to regulate their other senses ; thus there 
 are few plants or substances whose application to the 
 tongue produces an agreeable effect but are proper 
 for food. It must, however, be confessed, that the dis- 
 criminating quality in brutes, with regard to food, is greatly 
 assisted by their sense of smelling : the horse will not touch 
 water from a greasy bucket ; and his refusal takes place 
 before he has had time to ascertain the true cause. Nature 
 stimulates her creatures to take food by a double motive, 
 — the pleasure of taste and the pain of hunger. 
 
 The soft palate, or velum palati {Plate W. f ; Plate VII. 
 Z), is nothing m^ore than an expanded uvula, which adheres 
 to both sides at the back of the mouth. The fixed point 
 whence it originates is the arch of the palate bone, which 
 terminates the hard palate. From this arch it inclines 
 backward till its free edge rests upon the epiglottis, one of 
 the parts of the larynx. Slanting in this direction it is 
 easily raised by any substance coming from the mouth ; but 
 is only the firmer closed by any thing attempting to egress 
 from an opposite direction. The air has not body sufficient 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH. 199 
 
 to raise the velum palati ; whence the horse expires and 
 inspires through the nostrils, save in coughing. That act 
 being a spasmodic effort, the muscles, independent of the 
 will, simultaneously contract when those situated within 
 the soft palate are exerted, lift the velum palati, and the 
 breath is sent through the mouth. 
 
 The soft palate is formed by much glandular substance 
 with a small quantity of muscular fibre, which is rather 
 pale in colour. The muscles moving the soft palate are 
 two. The LEVATOR PALATI {single), situated in the middle 
 of its substance ; and the depressors of the soft palate {a 
 pair), each consisting of a disgregated bundle of fibres de- 
 veloped upon the lateral and internal portion of the mem- 
 brane. The action of the last named pair of muscles is to 
 depress the soft palate, or hold it in its place, resting upon 
 the epiglottis. The levator palati is the much more power- 
 ful muscle ; hence we can understand why, when a horse 
 is much pushed, or approaching to the final termination 
 of life, and nature, striving to prolong existence, causes all 
 the muscles to be spasmodically contracted, the velum 
 palati is frequently raised, and the animal breathes through 
 his mouth. 
 
 The sides of the mouth (for as to cheeks the horse can- 
 not be said to possess any) are composed of two muscles, 
 with gland, integuments, &c. The caninus, which is the 
 exterior of the two. Origin. From a glistening tendon, 
 arising from the inferior maxillar, near to the coronoid 
 process. Insertion. Into the inferior border of the superior 
 maxillar as forward as between the molar teeth and the tushes, 
 and into the same part of the upper margin of the lower jaw. 
 
 Buccinator. Origin. By tendon, from the superior 
 border of the lower jaw, near the joint ; and from the tube- 
 rosity of the superior maxillar, near to the velum palati. 
 Insertion. Into the inferior border of the upper, and the 
 superior border of the lower jaw, and by tendon into the 
 angle of the mouth. 
 
 The fauces {Plate VI. g) are a part at which several 
 structures meet. They have no distinct anatomical exist- 
 ence ; yet it is found convenient to apply this name to a 
 kind of neutral ground, formed by many different parts 
 joining one another, but properly belonging to none in par- 
 
200 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 ticular. Thus behind the velum palati, prior to the com- 
 mencement of the pharynx, there is a space which is usually 
 the seat of" sore throat. From this place it can easily affect 
 the mouth ; whence dry mouth is one of the symptoms. It 
 likewise can readily affect the lining membrane of the nos- 
 trils ; hence copious nasal defluxions are always witnessed. 
 It is situated immediately above the larynx ; wherefore 
 cough is generally heard when sore throat is present ; and it 
 directly communicates with tlie pharynx, and thus a diffi- 
 culty in swallowing is experienced. Further, heaviness and 
 pain in the head are accompanying symptoms during sore 
 throat ; and as the fauces lead to the Eustachian tubes and 
 guttural pouches, the affection of either one or the other is 
 sufficient to account for this indication. 
 
 There are eight distinct parts open from or into the 
 fauces. The guttural pouches {Plate VII. k) are two. The 
 Eustachian tubes are two also, and two with two make four. 
 Then there are the pharynx {Plate VI. h), the larynx 
 {Plate VI. j), the mouth {Plate VII. I), and the nasal cham- 
 bers {Plate VII. n), both of which have but one common 
 opening, making altogether eight. The reader, however, 
 may be inclined to say. You told us there were two 
 nasal chambers ; how comes it, therefore, there are not two 
 openings into the fauces ? Because the septum nasi, or 
 cartilaginous division (see Plate VI. a), does not extend so 
 far posteriorly as to reach the fauces, whence the two cham- 
 bers enter the fauces by a single opening. 
 
 The larynx {Plate VI. j), w^hich is the commencement of 
 the windpipe, opens within the fauces, and forms a kind of 
 cartilaginous box ; which is composed principally of five 
 pieces, so connected wdth the branches of the os hyoides as 
 to have very small lateral motion ; but an extensive one 
 above and downw^ards. The os hyoides was purposely 
 omitted in the Osteology, that its relative situation might 
 unite with its description. It consists of five bony portions 
 articulated together. The body very much resembles a 
 common spur ; the short prong being inserted into the root 
 of the tongue ; and the semicircular portion or body of the 
 bone embracing the larynx. From the posterior ends of its 
 body spring two other short pieces of bone running upward ; 
 and joined to these but also proceeding upward are two 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH. 201 
 
 longer pieces of bone ; there being a synovial joint between 
 each of the different parts, which always describe angles 
 one upon another. 
 
 The laryngeal cartilages are, the thyroid, cricoid, the two 
 arytenoid, and the epiglottis. The cricoid cartilage is the 
 lowest in position, and in form resembles a thick ring. 
 Part of it is inserted within the thyroid cartilage, and the 
 two arytenoids rest upon its uppermost and most backward 
 portion. The thyroid cartilage, the most considerable of 
 the five, being thought to resemble a shield, has a promi- 
 nence running downward over its front. The epiglottis is 
 connected with its highest and most forward point. The 
 arytenoid are two small tibro-cartilages, uniting together at 
 the back of the opening to the larynx : their inferior sur- 
 face rests upon the superior surface of the cricoid cartilage, 
 and their superior extremities form a kind of point, which is 
 curved backwards. The epiglottis is a very elastic body, 
 composed principally of yellow fibrous tissue, attached to 
 the anterior portion of the thyroid cartilage by a strong 
 ligament. In shape it somewhat resembles a leaf which 
 has been bent downward, and its termination thus forms a 
 point which is curved, in the direction we have stated. 
 
 The larynx gives insertion to a great number of muscles, 
 being covered by them both within and without ; its 
 motions are consequently much more varied than man can 
 satisfactorily account for. The epiglottideus is a single 
 muscle connected wuth the hyoides ; and is inserted into 
 the inferior portion of the epiglottis, which it pulls back or 
 stretches open. The other laryngeal muscles act in pairs : 
 the crico-thyroid(Bi draw the larynx downwards, after it has 
 been raised in deglutition, by the action of the hyo-thyroidcci. 
 The crico-arytenoidcei lateralis and posticus arytenoidceus 
 are muscles appropriated to their specified cartilages ; by 
 means of which the cavity of the larynx is altered in its 
 figure and dimensions. In consequence of the effect pro- 
 duced upon its internal ligaments, the sounds of the voice 
 thereby become variously modulated. The thyroid bodies 
 are situated one on each side of the cricoid cartilage, and 
 are larger in the young than the old subject ; but their 
 functional purpose is unknown. The membrane lining the 
 
202 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 larynx is the most sensitive of any throughout the body. 
 A grain of salt, or even a drop of water, getting upon it, 
 causes the most sudden and violent spasmodic coughing. 
 The reason for its being made thus sensitive is that it may 
 serve as a guard to the lungs. It is placed on the top of 
 the windpipe ; therefore no foreign body can enter with- 
 out our being immediately informed of the danger. This 
 membrane is thrown into folds, thus forming sacs, spoken 
 of as the ventricles of the larynx ; and it also covers liga- 
 ments, extended across the cavity, for the purposes of voice, 
 and named the cordse vocales. The arteries of the larynx 
 are derived from the carotids, and the veins empty them- 
 selves into the jugulars. Their nerves are furnished by the 
 recurrents and the superior laryngeal, both of which are 
 derived from the par vagum, or eighth pair. 
 
 Uses of the Larynx. — The variations of sound emitted 
 by the voice of quadrupeds appear to be governed principally 
 in the number and form of the laryngeal sacs. There 
 are usually three of these ; one of them is seen under the 
 vault formed by the anterior boundary of the thyroid carti- 
 lage, having its aperture near the root of the epiglottis. 
 The other two are oblong sinuses contained between the 
 lateral parietes of the glottis and the thyroid cartilage ; and 
 are covered in a great measure by the arytenoidei muscles. 
 In the horse these lateral sacs are very long and wide, and 
 are not unlike the usual ventricles of the glottis. The aper- 
 ture of the outer cavity is very large in the horse ; in the 
 ass the opening into each of the three sacs is a small hole, 
 and the anterior sac forms a bag-like cavity. In the mule 
 these organs differ, but their anatomical formation is in 
 general blended between the horse and ass. Neighing ap- 
 pears produced by expirations, as are most of the vocal 
 tones from the horse. The vibrations produced by the 
 resonance of different sized cavities, assisted by the tremors 
 of the cartilages of the nostrils, produce the compound 
 sounds which are emitted. Knuckering, as it is termed, is 
 only a lesser neigh, with shorter, deeper, and less forcible 
 tones, expressive of affection and joy. The horse has one 
 acute sound, produced by the act of inspiration, which 
 usually expresses either play or lust ; but in most other 
 
THE GLANDS OF THE HEAD. 203 
 
 instances, sound in the horse is produced from expirations ; 
 nor does it appear that the tongue or teeth are much con- 
 cerned in the modulations of his voice. 
 
 The pharynx is a funnel-shaped bag, having the large end 
 forward. This bag is lined with mucous membrane, upon 
 the outer side of which are well-marked muscular fibres ; 
 and is held fast against the superior and the posterior of the 
 larynx by three pairs of constricting muscles, named the 
 anterior, middle, and posterior. The first arises from the 
 OS hyoides ; the second from the thyroid cartilage ; and the 
 last from the cricoid cartilage ; and all meet their fellows 
 upon a tendinous line at the back of the pharynx. The 
 dilators of the pharynx are numerous. The hyo pharyngeus 
 SUPERIOR arises from the inner side of the large horn of the 
 OS hyoides ; and goes to the posterior of the bag. Hyo pha- 
 ryngeus INFERIOR springs from the lower part of the large 
 horn of the os hyoides ; and goes to the posterior of the bag. 
 One of these muscles pulls upw^ard the others, sideways and 
 downward. The tensor palati arises from the styloid pro- 
 cess of the petrous temporal bone ; and, passing over a syno- 
 vial pulley on the pterygoid bone, is inserted, by expanded 
 tendon, into the anterior of the bag of the pharynx. Stylo 
 pharyngeus. From the styloid process of the petrous tem- 
 poral bone. To the most anterior part of the pharyngeal bag. 
 This last is a single muscle. 
 
 The dilators are excited into immediate action by the 
 pressure of the morsel against the velum palati ; and then 
 pulling all at the same time, and in different directions, they 
 hold the bag of the pharynx open ; and when the food has 
 entered these muscles relax, and the constrictors one after 
 the other come into action, thus compelling the morsel into 
 the cesophagus. 
 
 the glands of the head. 
 
 These are mucous and salivary, with the glandular sub- 
 stance that secretes the w^ax of the ears. The salivary 
 glands secrete the fluid we call saliva ; and are three upon 
 each side of the head, the parotid, the submaxillary, and 
 the sublingual. The parotid {Plate 11. 14) is a considerable 
 body ; situated upon each side, in the hollow formed by the 
 articulation of the head with the neck, stretching around 
 
204 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 from the root of the ear to the throat. It is distinctly 
 lobular, its lobes being connected by cellular membrane ; 
 and from each of its lobes ramifies an infinity of minute 
 tubes, which finally unite into one common trunk, and 
 thus empty the secretion of the gland into the mouth. 
 The parotid duct thus finally formed quits the gland, 
 passing along the inner surface of the jaw ; crosses the bone, 
 in company with the submaxillary artery, and pierces the 
 side of the mouth, near to the third molar tooth ; forming 
 a bulbous rising at its termination. 
 
 The submaxillary^ though much smaller than the parotid, 
 are still considerable glands, occupying the lower part of the 
 spac^, termed the channel; a great portion of them being 
 under the parotid gland. The ducts penetrate the buccal 
 membrane, a little anterior to the lingual frenum, by orifices 
 proper to each, which project up in nipple-like risings. 
 
 The sublingual glands are smaller, but far more numerous, 
 than the submaxillary ; and are placed along the under part 
 of the tongue, where, from their lobular form, they become 
 easily detected. They pour out their secretion by little 
 orifices, which may be traced on each side of the mouth. 
 The labial glands are placed under the common membrane 
 of the mouth, on the inner surface of the lips, and are small 
 secreting bodies. The buccal glands are found on each side 
 of the mouth. Follicidose and mucous glands are distributed 
 over the interior of the mouth, the surface of the tongue, 
 and soft palate. There are also the lymphatic glands common 
 to the head, the principal of which are the maxillary. These 
 are situated in the channel towards the superior part. 
 
 The uses of the salivary secretion appear to be to moisten 
 the food, thereby enabling such as is dry to be more readily 
 swallowed. It has, however, functional properties of other 
 kinds, and contains, without doubt, living principles of 
 action, as well as mechanical : by changing the matters 
 taken into the mouth, it commences the work of diges- 
 tion. At all times it is useful, likewise, by moistening the 
 mouth and fauces, thereby keeping them in a constant state 
 of susceptibility. From some experiments made, it would 
 appear that the quantity of saliva furnished by the parotid 
 ducts alone, during the process of eating, is more than a 
 quart per hour. The saliva is also of use in entangling air 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION. 205 
 
 within its bubbles, and thus conveying a certain portion of 
 the atmosphere, or of oxygen and nitrogen gases, to the 
 stomach. Salivary glands, moreover, to maintain their 
 health, require to be pressed by the adjacent muscles ; 
 pressure being as necessary to the health of a gland of this 
 description, as food is to the support of the body. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION. 
 
 When a horse grazes, he first places with his lips a tuft 
 between the teeth ; when, elevating his chin, the sharp 
 edges of the under incisors become applied to the grass, 
 and cut it through, while at the same time the upper in- 
 cisors help to nip it off. Oxen and sheep, wanting upper 
 nippers, wrap a tuft of grass round with their tongue, and 
 then apply it to the under incisors, by which it is held fast, 
 while a movement of the head tears the grass up ; and thus 
 we find that they are obliged always to carry the chin for- 
 ward in collecting their grass. When a quantity of herbage 
 is thus gained, it is carried by the tongue and muscles of 
 the cheeks to the upper part of the mouth, to encounter 
 the action of the molars : the matter being conveyed from 
 side to side, to be placed in the most favourable direction 
 for perfect mastication, by means of the tongue. During 
 this process, it continues to be mixed with the salivary 
 tluid, from the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublin- 
 gual glands, which pour out their secretions, excited by the 
 pressure of the surrounding muscles. 
 
 The vegetable mass having been thus completely masti- 
 cated, is placed at the back of the tongue ; when by the 
 pressure of that organ towards the palate it is squeezed 
 against the velum palati. The soft palate readily yields to 
 force coming from the mouth. The morsel is at the same 
 time driven against the epiglottis, which by its own elas- 
 ticity released from the downward pressure of the velum 
 palati, is raised, and covers the opening to the larynx. 
 The food is thus propelled into the fauces. Then the 
 larynx, protected by the epiglottis, rises and urges the 
 mass into the pharynx ; the contractors of which transmit it 
 to the oesophagus ; the muscular coats of which, contracting 
 as it descends, ultimately lodge it within the stomach. The 
 mouth remains closed during the act of swallowing, that 
 
206 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 these muscles may find a fixed point. The deglutition of 
 liquids is not very different. The biievis and other muscles 
 of the tongue draw it downward, whereby a tendency 
 towards a vacuum is formed : to counteract this, the water 
 is by atmospheric pressure forced into the mouth ; when the 
 entire agency which operated in the case of a solid is called 
 into action, the raised velum palati closing the opening to 
 the nostrils, and thus preventing the liquid from returning 
 by that passage. 
 
 MUSCLES OF MASTICATION. 
 
 Stylo maxillaris {Fig 14 . 8). Orujin. From the styloid 
 process of the occiput. Insertion. Into the angle of the 
 lower jaw. Action. To assist in gaping, and widely opening 
 the mouth. 
 
 JVIasseter externus {Plate II. 8). Origin. From the 
 inferior of the zygomatic arch and spine. Insertion. Into 
 the external surface and inferior border of the lower jaw. 
 Action. To powerfully close the mouth. 
 
 Temporalis {Plate II. 10). Origin. From the superior 
 sides of the cranium and interior of the zygomatic arch. 
 Insertion. Into the coronary process and border of the 
 lower jaw. This muscle cannot be fairly separated from 
 the masseter externus. Action. To firmly close the mouth. 
 
 Masseter internus. Origin. From the superior maxil- 
 lary and sphenoid bone. Insertion. Into the inner surface 
 and inferior border of the lower jaw. Action. To firmly 
 close the mouth, 
 
 Pterygoideus. Origin. From the pterygoid process, 
 and from the sphenoid bone. Insertion. Into the lower 
 jaw below the joint. Action. To rotate the jaw, or give to 
 it that circular motion which is observed when the horse is 
 masticating. 
 
 Mylo-hyoideus. Origin. From the alveolar edges of 
 the lower jaw. Insertion. By a central tendon into the 
 spur process of the os hyoides. Action. To draw the bone 
 forwards, and to raise the tongue. 
 
 DiGASTRicus. Origin. From the substance of the stylo- 
 maxillaris. Insertion. To the inner side of the lower jaw, 
 as forward as the third molar tooth. Action. To open the 
 mouth, aided by the stylo-maxillaris and the weight of the 
 
OF THE HEAD AND NECK GENERALLY. 207 
 
 lower jaw. There are two fleshy belUes to this muscle, one 
 at either end, divided by an intervening tendon ; which 
 plays through a synovial loop upon the sides of the body of 
 the OS hyoides. 
 
 Genio hyoideus. Origin. By tendon from the symphy- 
 sis of the lower jaw. Insertion. Into the spur process of 
 the OS hyoides by tendon. Action. To draw forward the 
 OS hyoides. 
 
 Hyoideus magnus. Origin. From behind the large horn 
 of the OS hyoides. Insertion Into the side of the body of 
 the OS hyoides by tendon, which forms the loop the digas- 
 tricus plays through. Action. To raise the body of the os 
 hyoides, and with it the larynx. 
 
 Hyoideus parvus. Origin. From the border of the 
 large horn of the os hyoides, near to its lower articulation. 
 Insertion. Into the body of the lesser cornu, and into the 
 body of the os hyoides. Action. To raise the lower cornu 
 of the OS hyoides. 
 
 Stylo hyoideus. Origin. From the styloid process of 
 the occiput. Insertion. Into the large horn of the os 
 hyoides. Action. To pull the large horn backward, down- 
 ward, and outward. 
 
 No one can have attentively read the description of the 
 foregoing muscles, or have any idea concerning them, but 
 must have seen the much greater power of those wdiich 
 close, than those which lower, the jaw. The difference 
 is such as to admit of no comparison ; hence during 
 tetanus, when all the muscles are spasmodically affected, 
 the mouth is locked, not because the feebler muscles that 
 lower the jaw escape from morbid contraction, but because 
 these can offer no opposition to the powerful and enduring 
 masses which shut fast the cavity. 
 
 Another fact must strike every one ; that is, the large 
 number of muscles which go to the os hyoides, and there- 
 fore indirectly to the larynx. Yet the last organ is spoken 
 of by most teachers as though it were fixed ; while its situa- 
 tion is as loosely pendent, and its motor power as multi- 
 farious, as that of any part in the entire body. 
 
 OF the head and neck generally. 
 The common integuments of the neck and face are similar 
 
208 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 to those of the other parts of the body. Upon the crest, or 
 upper margin of the neck, is a line of flowing hair, called 
 the mane ; and on the top of the forehead is a tuft of hair 
 termed the forelock. 
 
 The cervical ligament, or ligamentum nuch(B (see Fig 14), 
 is a very strong, partly ropelike and partly an expanded or 
 a clothlike substance ; which is principally placed be- 
 tween the head and the body, as a support to the head ; 
 but extends all along the dorsal spines, even to the com- 
 mencement of the tail. The muscles of the neck are very 
 strong : but muscles, if constantly kept in action, tire ; 
 Nature has, therefore, given a yellow elastic fibrous sub- 
 stance, to support the weight of the head, and take the 
 stress from the muscular fibre, but permit of the freest 
 motions of the head. It is strongly attached, by its anterior 
 extremity ; to the posterior part of the occipital bone ; 
 passing over the first cervical vertebra, without attaching 
 itself to it, but being intimately connected with the spinous 
 processes of all the rest. The muscles of the neck operate 
 on the head ; and many of the fleshy masses moving the 
 neck, originate on the shoulders. 
 
 The trachea, or windpipe {Plate VI. /), is a large canal 
 which arises from the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and 
 extends down the anterior part of the neck into the thorax : 
 it is composed of upwards of fifty annular cartilages, which 
 taper from their front, terminating in mere slips ; having 
 at their extremities a strong muscular band, which unites 
 their substance in the form of numerous circles, but does 
 not fix tlieir form or position. This muscle extends the 
 whole length of the trachea, and is present on every part of 
 the cartilages ; only it becomes very thin, and somewhat 
 difficult to detect upon the anterior portion of the tube. 
 The numerous cartilaginous rings forming the trachea are 
 connected at their edges to each other by strong elastic 
 ligaments : thus rendering the trachea perfectly flexible. 
 Externally it is united to the surrounding parts by cellular 
 substance ; internally it is lined by a mucous membrane, 
 the secretion of which defends it against the irritating effects 
 of varieties in the temperature. About the third or fourth 
 dorsal vertebra, it divides into two branches or bronchiee ; 
 the principal di\'isions of which again divide, before they 
 
\ 
 
THE LEFT DIVISION OF THE HEAD. 209 
 
 have proceeded far ; and these divisions separate again and 
 again, until the tubes become very numerous, but very 
 minute, ending in very small cavities, termed the air-cells 
 of the lungs. 
 
 The oesophagus {Plate VI. k) is the continuation of the 
 funnel-like cavity of the pharynx. It is a muscular mem- 
 braneous tube, leading from the pharynx to the stomach ; 
 it takes a course, inclining a little to the left side, and 
 to the posterior of the trachea, which it surmounts near 
 the head. It then penetrates the chest, and passes along 
 the dorsal vertebrae within the layers of pleurae ; and ulti- 
 mately pierces an opening in the diaphragm, to terminate 
 in the stomach. Its coats are, first, a copious cellular one. 
 Its second coat is muscular, and made up of two strata of 
 fibres, an external longitudinal and an internal circular. 
 The inner coat is cuticular and wrinkled into folds ; but 
 has upon it a distinct layer of longitudinal muscular 
 fibres, that it may adapt itself to the expansion or contrac- 
 tion of the tube : this cuticular portion extends over one- 
 half of the stomach. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII. 
 
 THE LEFT DIVISION OF THE HEAD, SEPARATED BEFORE THE 
 MESIAN LINE IS ATTAINED. 
 
 a, The superior turbinated bone, covered with the 
 Schneiderian membrane and its ramifying vessels ; b, the 
 inferior turbinated bone in the like condition ; c, the mouth 
 and gums of the lower jaw ; d, the facial and frontal 
 sinuses ; e, the ethmoid cells ; /, the ethmoid sinuses ; g, the 
 cavity of the skull, deprived of the brain and its mem- 
 branes ; h, the portion of the bony triquatrum which sepa- 
 rates the cerebrum and the cerebellum (see Plate VI.) ; i, 
 the bars upon the roof of the mouth ; j, the guttural pouch, 
 formed of merely mucous membrane, which shows the 
 various adjacent structures through its sides ; k, the open- 
 ing into the fauces of the guttural pouches ; I, the soft 
 palate (see/, also Plate VI.) ; m, a portion of the lacerated 
 submaxillary gland ; n, the opening of the nostril into the 
 fauces ; 0, the spinal canal ; p, a mass of confusion, 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 VISCERA OF THE CHEST. 
 
 Owing to the division of the muscles, the pharynx has 
 fallen down and concealed the larynx. 
 
 FIG 20. 
 
 A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX, SHOWING THE THREE 
 SEROUS SACS WITHIN THE CAVITY. 
 
 The dark substance surrounding the outside indicates the flesh, and the ichlte body at the top 
 
 is the Tcrtebrce. 
 
 B, B, The ribs. P, The pericardium. 
 
 E, The sternum, and the cartilages of F, The fibrous layer of the pericardium. 
 
 the ribs. By tracing the finer white line the reader 
 
 PC, The pleura costalis. will discover there are three sacs in 
 
 PL, The pleura pulmonaris. this figure. A mediastinum is formed 
 
 L, L, The lungs. in the centre, where they meet. 
 
 H, The heart. 
 
 VISCERA OF THE CHEST. 
 
 The pleurcB (Fi rj 20 . PL . PC).— When the chest is 
 opened, a smooth polished membrane is seen, covering its 
 internal surface, and investing its contents. Each side of 
 the chest has its particular pleura, or serous membrane, 
 which is distinct from that of the other. There is, besides, 
 a third serous membrane within the chest, which covers 
 the heart, and lines the pericardium or heart bag (Fig 20 . 
 
VISCEPx-A OF THE CHEST. 211 
 
 P). The junction of two pleiirre by means of cellular tis- 
 sue constitutes a mediastinum (see Fig 20) . Each side of 
 the chest has its distinct pleura, and the third for the heart 
 lies between the two. The third, however, is but very 
 small when compared with the other two ; consequently 
 there are spaces between the two pleurae where they meet, 
 and each such place is called a mediastinum. The medias- 
 tinum is of use in affording egress and ingress to various 
 tubes running to the viscera of the chest, or to that of the 
 abdomen, as well as to various glands necessary to nutri- 
 tion. The pleuree are serous membranes ; and as such 
 secrete a halitus or fluid, and it is their purpose to favour 
 motion. The pleura on each side of the chest being soft 
 and smooth can take various forms, just as a bladder when 
 fresh will cover the hand, and insert itself between the 
 fingers if pressed upon. The serous membrane on each 
 side of the chest is reflected over the insides of the ribs ; 
 thence on to the anterior of the diaphragm ; upon the ver- 
 tebrae and sternum ; hence ascending and descending they 
 form mediastinums, or are connected to one another by 
 cellular tissue. Then the lungs bulge out, and force the 
 inner side of the serous bag against the opposite side of the 
 sac, the two surfaces being in apposition ; for a serous mem- 
 brane, in its nature can only bear the touch of itself or its 
 secretion. The pleura reflected over the ribs is called the 
 costal pleura {Fig 20 . PC) ; that over the lungs the pul- 
 monary pleura {Fig 20 . PL) ; that which covers the front 
 of the diaphragm the phrenic pleura. The mediastinums 
 are four in number. The anterior and the superior ; the 
 middle and the inferior. The anterior contains veins, arte- 
 ries, nerve, and absorbents, going to and from the heart, 
 the trachea or windpipe, and the thymus gland or the 
 remains of it. The superior mediastinum contains the 
 vena azygos and the thoracic duct ; the posterior aorta and 
 the oesophagus ; the par vagum and sympathetic nerves. 
 The middle mediastinum contains only the heart and peri- 
 cardiac sac, or heart bag and its fluid. The inferior me - 
 diastinum holds nothing ; as the posterior vena cava is said 
 to pass through no division of this sort, but to have a fold 
 of jDleurato itself: a fact which anatomy corroborates. Of 
 the three serous sacs, that which holds the heart is very 
 
 p2 
 
212 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 
 
 much the smallest. Of the two remaming pleurae, the left 
 is the smaller ; because there is an extra lobe to the right 
 lung, and the right pleura having consequently to make room 
 for the largest contents. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 
 
 Lateralis sterni. Origin. From the body of the ster- 
 num, and the cartilages of the fourth and fifth ribs. In- 
 sertion. Into the first rib. 
 
 Superficialis costarum {Plate III. b), by fine aponeu- 
 rosis from the ligamentum supra spinalis of the back and 
 loins. Insertion. Into the anterior margin of the fifth to 
 the twelfth ribs ; and into the posterior borders of from the 
 twelfth to the eighteenth ribs. 
 
 Transversalis costarum. Origin of the superficial ten- 
 dons. From the first lumbar vertebrae. Origin of the deep- 
 seated tendons. From the transverse process of the seventh 
 cervical vertebrae. Insertion of the superficial tendons. 
 Passing over the last three ribs into the posterior borders 
 of the fifteenth and all anterior ribs, reaching to the trans- 
 verse process of the seventh cervical. Insertion of the deep- 
 seated tendons. Passing over the first two ribs into the 
 inferior margin of the third and all posterior fibs, reaching 
 to the transverse process of the first lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 LoNGissiMus DORSi {Plate III. F). Bifid posteriorly. 
 Origin. From the transverse processes and ligamentum 
 supra spinalis of the sacral and lumbar regions, and as far 
 forward in the dorsal as the eleventh vertebrae. From the 
 transverse processes of all the remaining vertebrae ; and to 
 the tendon of the complexus major. Inserted. Into the 
 bottom and margin of both spines of the ilium ; into the 
 transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae ; and into the 
 ribs, as well as into the last four, but sometimes five cer- 
 vical vertebrae. 
 
 Spinalis DORSi {Plate 111. G). Origin. From the tendon 
 covering the longissimus dorsi ; and from the anterior twelve 
 dorsal spines. Inserted. Into the last four cervical vertebral 
 spines. 
 
 Intercostals (PZa^e III. «). Internal and external. Ori- 
 gin. External, from the posterior border of each rib. In- 
 ternal, from the anterior border of each rib. Insertion. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 213 
 
 External, into the anterior border of each succeeding rib. 
 Internal, into the posterior border of each rib before. ^ 
 
 Sterno cost ales. Origin. From the hgament in the 
 centre of the superior surface of the sternum. Insertion. 
 Into the bone and cartilage of the second to the seventh 
 ribs. The muscles are within the chest, and covered by 
 the pleurse. 
 
 All these muscles are so blended that it is unsatisfactory 
 to speak of them separately, therefore we prefer to allude 
 to their actions in another place. 
 
 First, to speak about the diaphragm and intercostals, 
 which are more especially muscles of respiration, and to 
 which all the others are accessories, used on particular 
 occasions ; though some, as the longissimus dorsi, are only 
 used in cases of extreme distress. 
 
 The diaphragm or 77iidriff {see Fig 21), is a most im- 
 portant muscle, and, like the heart, is, during life, in con-^ 
 stant action. It is a broad, thin, and tendinous expansion 
 in the middle, having fleshy or muscular sides ; it is so 
 situated as to form a complete division between the thorax 
 and abdomen; its upper part, opposed to the back, ex- 
 tends posteriorly till its crurae are under the loins, and 
 even reach the sacrum ; while the anterior part is attached 
 to the hindmost part of the sternum. In a state of rest, it 
 is anteriorly convex, and posteriorly concave ; the surface 
 opposed to the thorax being covered by the pleurse, and 
 that towards the abdomen by the peritoneum. From some 
 pecuharities in the disposition of its fibres, it is sometimes 
 described as two muscles ; the great and little diaphragm. 
 The anterior or larger portion arises by distinct fleshy fibres 
 from the ensiform cartilage of the sternum ; from the in- 
 ternal surface of the cartilages of the eighth, and all the 
 remaining ribs, excepting the last two. From these ori- 
 gins, the fibres are directed like radii from the circum- 
 ference {Fig 21 . 2, 2, 2) to the tendinous centre of a cir- 
 cle ; which is perforated by a hole, a Uttle inclined to the 
 right side, called the foramen dextrum {Fig2\ . 7), and 
 furnishing a passage for the vena cava. — The lesser portion 
 of the diaphragm fills up the space close to the spine {Fig 
 21 . 3, 4) ; arising by two different portions from the six- 
 teenth dorsal, and from all the lumbar vertebrae, and are called 
 
214 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 
 
 crura ; between which an interval is left for a transit of the 
 aorta {Fig 2\ . 5), the vena azygos, the thoracic duct, and 
 sympathetic nerve. Between the two, and rather to the left 
 and centre, is situated a third opening, formed by the decus- 
 sation of the fibres of the crura, through which pass the 
 oesophagus and the par vagum nerve {Fig 21 . 6) . 
 
 FIG 21. 
 
 THE DIAPHRAGM. 
 
 1, 1, 1, The cordiform, or tendinous 
 
 portion. 
 
 2, 2, 2, Tlie great muscle. 
 
 3, The left crus. 
 
 4, The right crus. 
 
 5, The aorta, piercing the left or 
 
 superior opening. 
 
 6, The oesophagus, coming through 
 
 the middle opening. 
 
 7, The inferior, or right foramen, 
 
 for the vena cava to pass 
 through. 
 
 8, The sacro-lumbalis muscle. 
 
 Vessels and nerves of the diaphragm. — The aorta, in its 
 passage between the crura, gives a branch or tw^o to this 
 muscle; besides which, it receives other rami from the 
 arteries of the ribs and the pectorals. Its veins, or sinuses, 
 are much larger than its arteries ; to obviate the effects 
 of pressure during its motions, being formed flat without 
 valves ; and finally pour their contents into the vena 
 cava, being the last veins that empty into that trunk. 
 The phrenic nerves arise from filaments given from the 
 fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervicals : other small 
 branches are likewise given off from the surrounding gan- 
 glia, which, uniting with it, tend to make it an organ of 
 
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 215 
 
 extensive visceral sympathy, as well as an important agent 
 in respiration. It is indeed a muscle of the chest, there 
 being but two occasions when its action favours the abdo- 
 men, and then the other muscles of the chest do the 
 same ; that is, daring straining, to expel the foeces or 
 foetus. In cattle, during the propulsion of the morsel into 
 the mouth, which takes place in rumination, a very gentle 
 effort is perceptible when respiration is suspended, and the 
 diaphragm is inactive. The diaphragm is only partially a 
 muscle of voluntary motion. 
 
 Action of the intercostals and diaphragm. The inter- 
 costals, internal and external, cross one another, their fibres 
 running in opposite directions, and being mingled with 
 much tendinous structure, whereby they gain endurance. 
 Each would draw the ribs more closely together, conse- 
 quently the whole acting simultaneously could but perform 
 that action more energetically. The contraction of the 
 intercostals enlarges the cavity of the thorax ; and nature, 
 to prevent a vacuum, sends the air through the nostrils 
 into the lungs. But the air thus received is not sufficient 
 for the perfect expansion of the lungs ; wherefore the ribs 
 stop when they have gained their full extent, become fixed 
 points, and the diaphragm begins to operate. This last 
 muscle, which was relaxed, and bulging into the thorax, 
 now contracts ; becomes more level, or pushes the abdominal 
 viscera back, and bulges less into the chest. By the 
 retraction of the diaphragm the thorax is still further 
 enlarged, and the quantity of atmosphere now received 
 perfectly expands the lungs. When the lungs are thus 
 inflated, the air within them renders the pressure of the 
 atmosphere without the chest inoperative ; but in a 
 short space the breath taken in becomes unequal to this 
 purpose, and the pressure from without is severely felt. 
 The abdominal muscles contract, draw downward the ribs, 
 push forward the viscera, driving back the diaphragm, and 
 thus lessen the cavity of the thorax ; they expel from the 
 lungs the inspired air, which by this time is highly car- 
 bonized. 
 
 Action of the iviuscles of the back. These are spoken 
 of in connexion with the muscles of respiration, because 
 the two are found to be connected. It is impossible to 
 
216 THE HEART. 
 
 leap with empty lungs. The inspiration is full, being neces- 
 sary, not only to fill a large cavity with gas, and thus 
 lighten the body, but to render the ribs fixed ; so enabhng 
 the muscles connected with them to act with more enere;y. 
 In this the gluteus maximus operates {Plate II. in). The 
 muscles proper to the thigh contract, and by this means 
 render firm the pelvis, though at the same time the hind- 
 most part of the sacrum is drawn slightly downward. 
 Upon these fixed points the longissimus dorsi {Plate III. F), 
 the spinahs dorsi {Plate III. G), the superficialis costa- 
 rum {Plate III. b), the transversalis costarum, &c. contract ; 
 and acting together with the gluteus maximus, in the first 
 plac^e draw close the upper part of the ribs and the spines 
 of the dorsal vertebr?e, rendering the horse hollow backed ; 
 then raise the trunk upon the natural hinge of the ver- 
 tebrse, or the back upon the sacrum (see Skel.) ; between 
 the which there is an obvious space, and the spines of 
 which abruptly incline different ways. The whole mass of 
 contractile power now comes into play ; the forward mus- 
 cles of the back drawing up the neck at the same time, and 
 the body is raised. The hinder feet then give a spring, 
 and the leap is made ; after which the muscles thus vio- 
 lently used as suddenly relax, and expiration takes place. 
 
 The nerves which supply the pleurae are derived from 
 the intercostals and phrenic, the par vagum and sympa- 
 thetic. The pleurae have no sensation when in health, but 
 like most parts w^e are unconscious of when they are well, 
 they become acutely sensitive in disease. The aiteries are 
 very small, and are given off" from any of the neighbouring 
 trunks ; and the veins, which are also extremely minute, • 
 empty themselves into the adjacent veins. 
 
 THE HEART. 
 
 The heart is covered by a double fold of a serous sac, 
 which secretes about an ounce of clear liquid. Like all 
 serous membranes it is closed, touching nothing but its 
 secretion or itself, being favourable to motion. To un- 
 derstand this, let us again suppose we hold in our hand 
 a soft, flexible bladder, twice as large as the heart itself, 
 w^hich has no opening ; we then take the heart, and for- 
 cibly indent the bladder with it. The bladder adheres to 
 
THE HEART. 217 
 
 the heart, from the point to the root of the vessels. But 
 this occupies only a part of the bladder. The rest is brought 
 down towards the sternum, and then up again to join the 
 point whence it started. This serous sac is externally covered 
 by a white fibrous membrane, which is continuous with 
 the cellular investment of the vessels, and is reflected over 
 the serous layer down to the sternum ; the whole being 
 within the pleurae, and called the pericardium. 
 
 The heart. — This important organ is a hollow involun- 
 tary muscle, or pulsating sac, divided into four principal 
 cavities. Invested by its sac, it is situated obliquely; its 
 base being on a line with the dorsal vertebrae, and its point 
 directed to the left of the sternum between the eighth and 
 ninth ribs {Plate VIII. D). It presents four cavities, two 
 inferior or ventricles, and two superior or auricles. Each 
 ventricle opens by two spacious orifices : one of which com- 
 municates with the auricle or upper cavity ; the other forms 
 the mouth of a large artery. There are an auricle and a 
 ventricle upon each side of the heart ; or one lower and 
 one upper cavity upon the left, and the same upon the 
 right ; or, more properly, one anteriorly and one posteriorly 
 situated. The cavities are separated by a fleshy division, 
 like to the party wall between two houses, called a sep- 
 tum. The light ventricle has within it fleshy pillars, called 
 carnea columiKS, from which proceed tendinous cords, or 
 the cortina tendinea, attached to the three valves between 
 the right auricle and ventricle, which answer the purpose 
 of keeping each cavity distinct ; the left or posterior ven- 
 tricle, although altogether longer than the right, reaching to 
 the very apex of the organ, is, notwithstanding, less capa- 
 cious, but altogether of much greater substance. The 
 auricles are separated from each other by a septum, though 
 externally they appear altogether one cavity, with indented 
 edges. The right auricle is irregularly rounded, and has 
 two large openings for blood, which are the entrances of 
 the vena cavas. The left auricle is considerably more 
 muscular, though its size is less : it receives the pulmonary 
 veins, usually from three to five in number, and it has also a 
 common opening with the ventricle. The substance of the 
 auricles is both membranous and muscular, and they are 
 also furnished with a few tendinous and fleshy cords to 
 
218 THE ACTION OF THE HEART. 
 
 strengthen them, which are spoken of as the muscuh pec- 
 tonati. The valves are strong membranous appendages ; 
 and there are valves also to the commencement of each 
 artery, as well as between the auricles and ventricles on 
 each side. The valves to the pulmonary artery and the 
 aorta are called semilunar ; the arterial trunk being indented 
 behind each of the three flaps. The indentations are named 
 the sinus valsalvae. Upon the central portion of each flap 
 may be felt a little rounded body, known as the corpuscula 
 arantii. The use of these valves is to prevent the regurgi- 
 tation of the blood. The aorta never being quite empty, 
 when the ventricle dilates, there is a tendency to suck back 
 the amount of blood retained within the vessel ; but the 
 attempt to enter the ventricle pushes down the semilunar 
 valves, and shuts out its ingress, the corpusculi arantii 
 securing the middle space, which would be naturally left 
 between three semicircles essaying to close a circle. The 
 valves upon the right and left auriculo ventricular openings 
 have different names. That on the right consisting of three 
 flaps, being termed the tricuspid, and that of the left formed 
 by two flaps, being called the mitral. The heart is fur- 
 nished wdth blood for its own individual support by the 
 coronary arteries {Plate VIII. n. Fig 13 . 3), which is re- 
 turned by the coronary veins. Its nerves are gained from 
 the cardiac plexus, principally formed by the par vagum 
 and sympathetic nerves. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACTION OF THE HEART, AS THE 
 GRAND AGENT IN THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 The circulatory round of the blood is a vital action per- 
 formed by the heart. The round of the blood is divided 
 into the pulmonic and the general circulation. 
 
 The pulmonic circulation. — The blood of the two cavas is 
 poured into the right auricle when that cavity dilates. It 
 is sent into the right ventricle wJien the right auricle con- 
 tracts. The right ventricle urges it into the pulmonary 
 artery [Fig 13 . 2), from w4iich tube it is prevented return- 
 ing by the valves at the origin of the vessel. By the divi- 
 sions of the pulmonary artery within the lungs the blood is 
 carried to the air cells ; and in the capillaries of the vessel 
 it is changed from venous into arterial blood, or becomes 
 
THE LUNGS. 219 
 
 oxygenated. After the blood has been revivified, or made 
 arterial, it is brought back to the left auricle by the pul- 
 monary veins. Thus much of the motion of the blood is 
 termed the pulmonic circulation. The peculiarity of the 
 pulmonic circulation is that arteries carry venous blood, and 
 veins are the means of conveyance for arterial blood. 
 
 The greater, or general circulation. — We have traced the 
 blood into the left auricle, into which it is poured upon 
 the dilatation of that cavity. The left ventricle dilating, 
 and the left auricle contracting the blood, is urged into the 
 lower cavity upon the left side. From the left ventricle it 
 is driven into the aorta ; thence into the right and left 
 aorta ; so into the various vessels and their capillaries, to 
 nourish the different parts of the body. Having performed 
 this office, it is returned from the capillaries by the veins, 
 and ultimately by the two cavas into the right ventricle of 
 the heart. It appears that the contraction and dilatation 
 of the two ventricles take place at the same instant ; and 
 that at the same time that the blood is driven fi^om the left 
 ventricle into the aorta, the right ventricle impels it into 
 the pulmonary artery : and as the period at which the left 
 auricle receives the pulmonary blood is the same with that 
 in which the right auricle receives the blood of the cavas ; 
 so it will be evident that the relaxation of the ventricles 
 and the contraction of the auricles are simultaneous. These 
 alternate contractions and dilatations of the heart are called 
 its systole and diastole. The contraction of the ventricles, 
 or its systole, pressing the blood into the pulmonary artery 
 and the aorta ; it follows, therefore, that when the heart 
 is in a state of contraction, or systole, it is at this period 
 we feel what is termed their pulsation. Thus it will appear, 
 that the two nominal circulations form but one direct round 
 of transmission through the body. The nerves of the heart 
 are principally the parvagum and sympathetic. 
 
 THE LUNGS. 
 
 The cavity of the chest is occupied by two soft and 
 slightly elastic masses, called lungs {Plate VIII. B, C). In 
 a state of distention they completely fill the parieties of the 
 thorax, to which their figure is exactly adapted (see Plate 
 VIII.). The lungs have a distinct division into a right and 
 
220 THE LUNGS. 
 
 left mass ; each of which presents deep fissures, partially 
 dividing its substance into what are called its lobes {Plate 
 VIII. /, g) . The right and largest lung presents four lobuli 
 {Plate VIII. h), the left three only. As already described, 
 the pleura first lines the thoracic cavity, and is then re- 
 flected over the lungs ; the lungs during life are in constant 
 motion, enlarging as the air is inspired, and diminishing as 
 it is expired ; whence we perceive the use of a serous mem- 
 brane within the chest : a second reflection from each lung 
 by a union of the membrane, forms an imperfect septum or 
 incomplete division ; the two lungs towards their centre 
 partially meeting, and being there only separated by a cel- 
 lular division. The colour of the lungs varies : in the 
 colt they present a pink hue ; in the adult horse they are 
 darker ; and in very old subjects they have a greyish cast 
 and granulated appearance. Internally they are always 
 dark in colour and spongy in texture ; being formed from 
 the ramifications of the bronchiee, which terminate in air- 
 cells ; and the bloodvessels which accompany them, all being 
 held together by an intervening cellular substance. 
 
 The hronchicB are formed from the bifurcations of the 
 trachea (Plate VIII. A). They are composed of many 
 pieces of cartilage, connected together by fine ligament 
 {Plate VIII.) ; the cartilages becoming almost imperceptible 
 as the tubes grow more fine, or approach the air-cells. The 
 right and larger branch of the bronchiee given to the right 
 lung, quickly divides into three trunks. The left, which is 
 the longer, from the necessity it has to stretch itself under 
 the posterior aorta, divides into two principal trunks. The 
 bronchiae are lined throughout by the mucous membrane 
 continued from the larynx and trachea, furnishing a moisture 
 that loads the expired air or breath. The extreme ramifi- 
 cations of the bronchiae, as has been previously stated, end 
 in minute air-cells ; over whose surfaces are spread, in ex- 
 quisite minuteness, the capillary ramifications of the pulmo- 
 nary arteries, whose trunks accompany the bronchipe to the 
 lungs side by side. The pulmonic veins receive the blood 
 from the surface of the cells, whence it is by these last 
 vessels returned. The lungs are themselves nourished by 
 their appropriate arteries {FigVd . 5), whose blood is re- 
 turned by bronchial veins. Their nerves are furnished from 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS. 221 
 
 the cervical ganglions, consisting of branches from the sym- 
 pathetic and the par vagum ; but, except under inflamma- 
 tion, these organs are not endowed with sensibility. Lym- 
 phatics are very plentifully distributed over them, and have 
 been successfully injected. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS IN RESPIRATION, AND 
 AERATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Respiration. — The foetal colt subsists by juxta-position 
 between its own organs and the maternal, through the 
 medium of the placenta ; and it is by these secondary 
 means that its blood becomes partially aerated, for its 
 quiescent state would render perfect aeration injurious ; but 
 as soon as separated from the mother, an awful change 
 ensues. The foetus has hitherto reposed upon the softest 
 of all couches, which has been rendered more luxurious by 
 a temperature of a hundred degrees. Here it has slumbered 
 into life, when it is all at once awakened by the withdrawal 
 of the fluid within which it has rested. It is then squeezed, 
 and punched, and thumped by the violent contractions of 
 the uterus. It is next forced suddenly into a temperature 
 of say fifty degrees, or one half of that which it has been 
 used to ; when all at once the umbilical cord, which has 
 hitherto supplied it with breath, or enabled it to perform a 
 function similar to breathing, snaps, and the pains of suffo- 
 cation are undergone. It is under such circumstances the 
 little being makes a spasmodic struggle for life ; and the 
 lungs, hitherto passive, by a natural impulse are roused 
 into action : the muscles of the chest enlarge the cavity ; 
 the air rushes in, and the animal now breathes. The dis- 
 tention of the chest is a very important feature in respira- 
 tion, and is effected by an increase of several diameters ; 
 by the elevation of the ribs, and by the agency of the dia- 
 phragm. This last-named muscle in a state of rest is 
 convex towards the breast, and concave towards the abdo- 
 men ; but when its muscular fibres contract, it becomes 
 plane-like, which forcing backwards the abdominal viscera, 
 necessarily enlarges the thoracic cavity. The air re- 
 ceived into the lungs expands their cells, by which also the 
 blood finds a ready passage through their capillaries. The 
 lungs thus filled, an uneasy sensation stimulates them to 
 
222 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NATURE 
 
 expel their contents ; the diaphragm relaxes, and the ab- 
 dominal muscles contract, and the contents of the abdomen 
 are forced forward : the intercostal muscles also cease their 
 expanding action, and the capacity of the chest is diminished, 
 by which the air is forced out of it. The necessity there 
 exists for air or breath to support life causes the muscles to 
 act once more ; the lungs again expand, and in this manner 
 respiration is carried on ; both these actions, under ordinary 
 circumstances, being repeated about eight times per minute. 
 There is, indeed, a certain proportion, between the action 
 of the heart and that of respiration ; the pulse throbbing 
 about 4^ times to every breath inhaled and exhaled. If 
 more blood be sent to the heart by the stimulus of exercise, 
 &c., the respiration will be also accelerated : thus, in quick 
 motion, or great exertion, there is panting or quick breath- 
 ing ; the air being suddenly expelled, and as quickly in- 
 spired, that no obstacle may be offered to the passage of the 
 blood. 
 
 We have spoken of the intercostals, the diaphragm, and 
 abdominal muscles, as the respiratory muscles, and un- 
 doubtedly they are the chief agents in breathing. There 
 are, however, auxiliary muscles, w^hich, if they were here 
 recounted, would be but seldom read ; as the mere list of 
 names would necessarily be without interest. Suffice it 
 then to state, that ev^ery muscle, going to or arising from 
 the ribs, is more or less concerned in respiration. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE 
 
 BLOOD. 
 
 In essential characters, blood is the same in all animals : 
 it is invariably red in the higher orders, though the intensity 
 of its hue varies with circumstances ; the principal instance 
 of which is that afforded betw^een the venous and arterial ; 
 while it is, in the former, almost purple, it becomes, in the 
 latter, of a bright scarlet colour. — The specific gravity of the 
 blood is very differently estimated, it being subject to in- 
 crease and decrease at different times. Disease and emacia- 
 tion make it lighter, while in the contrary states, it is found 
 to be heavier. If water be estimated at 1000, the specific 
 gravity of blood may be reckoned at 1050; from which it 
 may, however, be increased to 1120. Venous blood is 
 
AND PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD. 223 
 
 heavier than arterial, as 1052 is to 1049 ; but, as before 
 observed, these data vary. — The temperature of the blood in 
 the horse is about 100; and in the ox, 102; but various 
 circumstances tend to increase or decrease it. Arterial 
 blood is usually one or two degrees warmer than venous. 
 Some diseases reduce the heat of the blood, and inflam- 
 mations are also supposed capable of augmenting it. The 
 quantity an animal contains, in proportion to his bulk, has 
 been endeavoured to be ascertained : but the results have 
 been various. Very fat animals are found usually to have 
 proportionably less than lean ones ; and in those in a state 
 of close confinement, the quantity is found to be smaller 
 than in the wild. A medium sized horse has lost forty-four 
 pounds. — The chemical property of the blood is an im- 
 portant subject to the medical student. It appears to be 
 variously compounded, but is most distinctly separable into 
 two parts ; the one solid and red, called the clot ; the other 
 fluid and slightly tinged with yellow, termed the serum ; or, 
 it is divisible into serum and crassamentum. The process 
 which separates them is termed coagulation. The coagulum, 
 or crassamentum, is found to be composed of two parts : 
 that to which it owes its colour is called its red globules ; 
 the other component, or that which gives consistence and 
 adherence to the red particles, is known by the names of 
 coagulable lymph, or fibrin. The red particles are con- 
 nected with the strength of organs ; and parts subjected to 
 the greatest exertions, as muscles, are fullest of them ; for 
 as muscles are more or less highly coloured, so have they 
 proved stronger or weaker. From known facts, one would 
 infer that the red globules are longer in forming than the 
 other parts. The ^'&rm forms the other portion of the clot, 
 and appears to be the most important part of the vital fluid. 
 After the perfect abstraction of the serum and red particles by 
 maceration, the fibrin will be left white, tough, and fibrous ; 
 bearing in general aspect, as w^ell as chemical characters, 
 a close resemblance to muscular fibre when deprived of its 
 connecting membranes and colouring matter. It appears to 
 be that part of which all the solids of the body are imme- 
 diately framed : it forms the callus of bones, and can become 
 organized whenever extravasated. It spontaneously coagu- 
 lates, is soluble in alkalies, but insoluble in water, oils, or 
 
224 THE CONTENTS OF THE THORAX. 
 
 ardent spirits ; it yields salts by incineration. . Spontaneous 
 coagulation is not so rapid in the horse as in man, in whom 
 it is completed in seven or eight minutes ; whereas it com- 
 monly requires more than twenty hours to set the blood of 
 the horse. 
 
 The fluid basis of the blood is serum : it serves to dilute 
 it, and it forms about four-sevenths of the whole. It is 
 slightly saline, and less putrefactive than the coagulum. 
 It remains fluid in those degrees of heat between 30 and 
 1 60 degrees Fahrenheit : with a less heat it freezes ; in a 
 greater it partially coagulates. It appears chemically com- 
 posed of albumen, gelatin, saline matter, and a considerable 
 quantity of fluid which drains from it, called the serosity. 
 Serum appears not only the fluid base of the blood, but it 
 also dilutes all the secretions : when morbidly increased, 
 it gives rise to dropsy. The blood, therefore, is con- 
 sidered as a compounded fluid made up of these several 
 parts, and which, considered as an aggregate, is the most 
 essential component of an animal. All parts of the body 
 are formed of it ; and all parts of the body can be resolved 
 again into it, by means of the absorbents ; hence we must 
 conclude that there is a very intimate connexion between 
 the solids and the fluids ; whence Mr. Hunter, and many 
 subsequent physiologists, have been led to consider both 
 as governed by the same laws, and as identified with each 
 other in living properties. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII. 
 
 THE CONTENTS OF THE THORAX. 
 
 A, the trachea ; B B, the right lung ; C C, the left lung, 
 both lungs being deprived of their mediastinums ; D, the 
 heart ; a, the oesophagus, or gullet ; b, the common carotid 
 artery, dividing into the right and left carotids ; c, the 
 right vertebral artery ; d, the recurrent nerve of the right 
 side ; e, the par vagum and sympathetic nerves of the right 
 side, journeying in company down the neck. The enlarge- 
 ment perceptible upon the nerves, marks the situation of 
 the cervical ganglion on the sympathetic ; ff, the anterior 
 lobes of the right and left lung ; g g, the posterior lobes of 
 the right and left lung ; h, the small extra lobe of the right 
 
J 
 
 ^tf« 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 225 
 
 lung. The portion of lung occupies the space between the 
 inferior mediastinum and the posterior cava ; i i, &c. the first 
 seven of the costse, or true ribs, divided ; jj, the remaining 
 ribs ; where the letters are placed would be the posterior 
 lobes of the lungs ; A:, the cartilages of a few of the ribs, and 
 of the sternum sawn through to expose the contents of the 
 chest ; /, the ensiform cartilage of the sternum ; m, the 
 skin dissected back ; n, the coronary artery of the heart, 
 which has been deprived of the outer layer of pericardium. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN GENERALLY. 
 
 The external parts of the abdomen are the common 
 integuments ; the abdominal muscles ; the parts of genera- 
 tion in the horse, and the mammae in the mare. The 
 internal parts are the various viscera and their appendages. 
 The abdominal cavity, when its contents are removed 
 {Plate IV.), presents an extensive oval vault, bounded 
 anteriorly by the diaphragm ; posteriorly by the bones of 
 the pelvis ; superiorly by the vertebrae ; laterally by the ribs 
 and muscles of the belly ; and interiorly by the abdominal 
 muscles. This cavity, for the convenience of anatomical 
 and surgical description, is divided into imaginary compart- 
 ments or regions. 
 
 The epigastric region (centre, right and left) includes the 
 anterior third of the abdomen. Minor divisions have dis- 
 tinct names ; and the two sides of the epigastric region are 
 set down as the right and left hypochondriacs. The central 
 third of the belly forms the umbilical region : the lateral 
 parts of the umbilical region are also termed the lumbar 
 regions. The hypogastric region extends behind an imagi- 
 nary line, drawn from the anterior spinous process of the 
 ilium upon one side, to the same bone upon the opposite 
 side of the animal ; and admits of lateral divisions into the 
 right and left iliac regions, intersected by a middle portion, 
 known as the pubic region; consequently the term hypo- 
 gastric is only general, and the subdivisions are in it entirely 
 forgotten. The central portion of these regions is divided 
 by a white line called the linea alba. 
 
 The relative situation of the viscera within the regions 
 
 Q 
 
226 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 may be thus stated : — the large intestines occupy the in- 
 ferior of the abdomen, as well as a considerable part of its 
 sides. The caecum {Plate XL A) rests its large blind 
 end within the right hypochondriac, behind the origin of the 
 colon (Plate XL B), lying upon the linea alba. The point 
 of the ceecuni being curved forward until it reaches the 
 region mentioned ; and it is usually the first of the intes- 
 tines to protrude, upon opening the abdomen of the horse. 
 When the large intestines are removed from the abdomen, 
 the small intestines {Plate XL D), which in a natural state 
 lie above and behind the large, come entirely into view ; their 
 situation is within the two last regions, and partly within 
 the first division of the abdomen. The stomach {Plate IV. 
 G) will be found to occupy the left hypochondriac, and 
 partly the epigastric regions. The liver {Plate IV. J) is 
 attached to the diaphragm in the epigastric, and two hypo- 
 chondriac regions, though but a small portion of it is within 
 the left hypochondriac. The renal capsules and kidneys 
 {Plate IV. D) occupy the lumbar regions : and the bladder, 
 with the parts of generation, occupy the pubic and hypo- 
 gastric regions in the mare and horse. 
 
 The peritoneum is a strong dense serous membranous 
 lining to the abdomen, as well as an investiture and support 
 to its contents, facilitating their movements as they glide 
 upon or over one another. It also secretes a vapour, and 
 thus, like the pleura, favours motion and prevents friction ; 
 the vapour vanishing, and dryness being present at the com- 
 mencement of inflammation, then the motion of its contents 
 is accompanied with intense agony. It may be traced from 
 its anterior connexion with the diaphragm, whose posterior 
 or abdominal surface it partially covers, on to the liver. 
 Without being over minute, it is sufficient to say it passes 
 over all the contents of the abdomen, from the diaphragm to 
 the pelvis, covering only a portion of the uterus, the bladder, 
 and the rectum. In the male it penetrates down the abdo- 
 minal rings ; invests the spermatic chords and the testicles, 
 as well as lines the scrotum. Its folds also form ligaments, 
 as those of the liver ; and act as supports to particular parts, 
 as the mesentery to the intestines ; within the duplicature 
 of which run arteries, veins, nerves, absorbents, as well as 
 are located numerous small glands, through one or more of 
 
OF THE ABDOMEN GENERALLY. 
 
 227 
 
 which each lacteal passes. Besides the mesentery which 
 supports the small intestines, there is a mesocolon. Which 
 latter fulfil the same offices as the mesentery. The omen- 
 tum consists of a delicate duplicature of peritoneum, de- 
 rived from its reflections, between which fat is deposited. 
 Its use is to favour the motion of the various abdominal 
 contents one upon another ; and it is possessed of very 
 low vitality, bearing to be cut or torn with impunity. It 
 arises from the stomach, and is the caul of the butcher. 
 The peritoneum is possessed of great strength as well as elas- 
 ticity ; facts well authenticated by the different shapes which 
 the abdomen assumes when tucked up, and when distended 
 by flatulent colic. 
 
 FIG 22. 
 
 THE REFLECTIONS OF PERITONEUM. 
 
 LP, The lai'ger cavity of the perito- 
 neum. 
 SP, The smaller cavity of the perito- 
 neum. 
 D, The diaphragm. 
 L, The liver. 
 SS, The stomach and spleen. 
 C, The colon, supported by MC, the 
 
 mesocolon. 
 /, The ilium, supported by the me- 
 sentery, formed of two layers of 
 peritoneum. 
 
 R, The rectum, supported by the meso- 
 colon. 
 
 Q, That portion of the rectum which is 
 covered only by condensed cellular 
 tissue. 
 
 B, The bladder. 
 
 0, The omentum, formed by th« union of 
 the two peritoneums. 
 
 P, The oesophagus indicated. The lower 
 P re])resents the investiture of the 
 hepatic duct, which goes to the duo- 
 denum. 
 
 By tracing the white lines the student may learn the reflections of pei-itoneum, and 
 ascertain the existence and precise situations of the lesser and larger cavity. 
 
 q2 
 
228 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 THE OMENTUM, 
 
 The omentum consists of folds of the peritoneum. One 
 cavity is spoken of as the large peritoneal sac {Fig 22 . LP) ; 
 the other as the lesser peritoneal sac {Fig 22 . SP) . The 
 larger peritoneum floats over part of the anterior surface 
 of the liver {Fig 22 . L) ; thence upon the posterior surface 
 of the diaphragm {Fig 22 . D). From this over the abdo- 
 minal muscles. Afterward upon the anterior portion of 
 the bladder {Fig 22 . B). Hence to the spine, whence it 
 descends to form the mesocolon {Fig 22. MC), and to 
 encircle part of the rectum {Fig 22 . R). Having done 
 this it proceeds forward, constitutes the mesentery, and 
 supports the small intestines {Fig 22 . I). After which it 
 covers part of the colon {Fig 22 . C) ; and then floating 
 loose in the abdomen constitutes one layer of the omentum 
 {Fig 22 . 0) which joins the stomach, over a portion of 
 which this peritoneal layer is reflected {Fig 22 . SS) ; and 
 then goes to the posterior part of the liver, from which 
 place it winds round to unite with the peritoneum upon 
 the anterior portion of the liver, from which point we 
 first set out. The lesser peritoneal sac is reflected 
 from the top of the liver {Fig 22 . L) to the crura of the 
 diaphragm {Fig 22 . D) over the pancreas ; it then descends, 
 constituting one side of the mesocolon (Fig 22 . MC) , and 
 covering part of the intestine, floats loose, forming the 
 inner layer of omentum {Fig 22 . 0) ; whence it joins the 
 stomach, a part of which, together wdth the spleen, it over- 
 lays {Fig 22 . SS) ; to be thence reflected to the top of the 
 liver, the point at which this description commenced. 
 "Within these duplicatures, adipose nodules are dispersed. 
 In the ox and in the sheep also, the folds inclose the four 
 stomachs and part of the duodenum : but in the horse their 
 extent is small ; besides it has attachments to the great cur- 
 vature of the stomach, which it does little more than cover, 
 as well as to a portion of the colon, to which it is also ap- 
 pended. The horse, therefore, is not subject to epiplocele. 
 The uses of the omentum are to facilitate the peristaltic 
 action, or to allow the abdominal viscera to glide over each 
 other without friction : it likewise serves as a store-house 
 for fat, against a period of starvation, during which the 
 adipose matter would be absorbed. 
 
THE STOMACH.. 229 
 
 THE STOMACH. 
 
 This important alimentary bag is remarkably small in 
 the horse. Its situation may be described as being imme- 
 diately behind the liver, its principal portion occupying the 
 left hypochondrium ; and a smaller part the epigastrium, 
 with its pyloric (Fig 23 , P) orifice stretched n cross the 
 spine to the right side. It has two surfaces ; one is pos- 
 terior, and the other anterior. It has also two openings 
 (Fig 23 . P.K). The smallest, within the left hypochondriac, 
 is the termination of the oesophagus, and is called the car- 
 diac opening (Fig 23 . K) : the larger, toward the right, 
 is termed the pyloric opening (Fig 23 . P) , and marks the 
 commencement of the duodenum. Its curvatures are, a 
 large one, to which the spleen is attached ; which curvature 
 extends from opening to opening (Fig 23 . from /l to P) ; and 
 
 FIG 23. 
 
 THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE, LAID OPEN. 
 
 CC, Tlie cuticular portion of the lining IC, The cardiac opening to the stomach, 
 mucous membrane. with the ojsophagus. 
 
 W, The villous portion of the mera- P, The pyloric opening from the sto- 
 brane. mach. 
 
 a smaller, formed directly between its openings. The stomach 
 is formed of three general investing coats. The first or 
 outer coat is elastic, and of much strength, being formed of 
 a reflection of peritoneum. The second, or middle coat, is 
 composed of white muscular tibre, which exists in two 
 distinct and separate layers. The longitudinal and most 
 
230 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 external appears to be a continuation of the outer one 
 of the oesophagus, strengthened by additional fibres ; 
 which, spreading over the lesser curvature, carry them- 
 selves obliquely around the stomach ; where they conspi- 
 cuously form themselves into a kind of vortex encircling the 
 central part of the fundus. The inner layer, and the more 
 abundant, is not quite circular in its direction, but slightly 
 oblique, intersecting the course of the longitudinal fibres ; 
 it is very thick and strong around the oesophageal extre- 
 mity ; it altogether exhibits so much structural speciality, 
 as to warrant a conclusion that it was purposely placed 
 there to prevent the return of the food. 
 
 The inner surface of the stomach is composed of mucous 
 membrane. This membrane, as it extends over the interior 
 of the viscus, assumes two characters ; the one being hard, 
 and called cuticular {Fig 23 . C) ; the other, being soft, 
 having numerous fine projections like the pile of velvet, 
 and is termed villous {Fig 23 . F) . 
 
 The cuticular coat is a prolongation of that which, com- 
 mencing with the mouth, extends down the oesophagus, is 
 continued over nearly the first half of the stomach, and 
 ends abruptly by a sort of sudden termination, which sepa- 
 rates it very distinctly from the villous coat. From the 
 pharynx to its termination, the mucous lining membrane is 
 phcated, to admit of distention : thus the plicse of the 
 oesophagus are continued into the cardiac orifice, and in a 
 less regular manner also over the cuticular surface of the 
 stomach. The cuticular covering is whitish in colour, and 
 is perforated with secretory mucous openings ; whence a 
 mucous secretion, necessary to perfect digestion, is poured 
 out. It is to this coat of the stomach that hots are so fre- 
 quently found adhering, and which they sometimes pene- 
 trate ; though these parasites also attack the other parts. 
 
 The villous portion commences from the termination of 
 the cuticular part. It is at once soft, vascular, and ex- 
 ceedingly fine in its texture : and, when attentively examined, 
 presents innumerable villi, or projections, which probably are 
 the minute ramifications of the bloodvessels, by which the 
 solvent gastric fluid is secreted. The surface of the villous 
 coat is likewise furnished with waving folds, by which it 
 suffers no injurious pressure when the stomach is filled ; but 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 231 
 
 can easily accommodate itself to the elasticity of the other 
 investitures. The villous rugee diminish towards the duo- 
 denum ; and at the pylorus they unite with some muscular 
 fibres to form a valvular apparatus, which prevents the 
 return of the food. The villous portion of the stomach 
 secretes the gastric juice, and within it chymification is 
 performed ; a fact which is proved by ruminants, having 
 stomachs wholly cuticular, in which the digestive process 
 does not go forward ; and by many animals having entirely 
 villous stomachs, in all of which perfect digestion is accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The stomach, as a secreting organ, is very plentifully 
 supplied with blood from gastric, splenic, and hepatic 
 trunks ; which, with the exception of their main branches, 
 proceed in a tortuous direction, to avoid distending the 
 organ ; and, in accordance with the same end, the gastric 
 veins w^hich return the blood possess no valves to impede 
 its progress towards the vena portse. The nerves are sup- 
 plied by means of the par vagum, or eighth pair, and like- 
 wise from the sympathetic nerve, or ganglionic system. 
 The par vagum endowing it with the necessary feeling, the 
 sympathetic giving to it organic life. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 
 
 Digestion may be characterized as that power whereby 
 substances wdiich are received into an animal body lose their 
 own properties, and become endowed with those necessary 
 to support the constitution of the creature that imbibes 
 them. To restore the tone of parts, rest is required ; and 
 to repair waste, food becomes necessary ; while hunger 
 and thirst stimulate animals to take in solid and fluid 
 aliments. That the stomach is influenced by the blind 
 longings of inorganic life is proved by the fact, that the 
 mere mechanical distention of a draught of w^ater w^ill, for a 
 time, satisfy the sensation of hunger ; but simple distention, 
 not satisfying an instinctive desire, instead of affording relief, 
 it only adds to the general prostration : it is probably by its 
 distending properties that food taken partly invigorates long 
 before perfect chylification has taken place. This fact is how- 
 ever better established by no man having absolute power to 
 quicken or delay his desire for nourishment. The mere 
 
232 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 want of food does not dissipate immediately the strength ; 
 but the body can for some space support itself, and desire, 
 though felt before, be actually forgotten ; thus the inani- 
 tion of a hunter long employed in reaching a distant 
 cover is no bar to his after-exertions in the chase. The 
 moment he hears the well-known sound, he receives a 
 temporary supply of nervous energy ; which acting on his 
 irritability, produces renewed muscular exertions : but the 
 chase over, a double prostration is the consequence ; for the 
 nervous impulse being expended, it often happens that the 
 stomach is sympathetic with the general frame, and the 
 horse becomes " too tired to eat." 
 
 Thirst differs from hunger principally by its impelling us 
 to receive liquids instead of solids. The instinct, which is 
 independent of reason and superior to the will, calls for 
 fluids often not required for repair : it is true perspiration 
 will produce thirst ; and that diuretics will do the same, 
 but these are artiflcial not natural causes. Drink is also 
 instinctively sought for no cause save that of fickle appetite, 
 induced by long indulgence, which cannot be reckoned 
 among life's necessities. Stimulated, therefore, by the 
 sensations of hunger and thirst, animals seek for matters to 
 which they are instinctively directed by their senses of smell 
 and taste. 
 
 The mastication, insalivation, and deglutition of the food 
 have already been noticed. To the saliva, however, by no 
 means is usually given its full merit as an important agent 
 in the digestive process. When we consider the quantity 
 secreted, the chemical nature of the fluid, its remarkable 
 affinity for oxygen, and that a complete mastication inva- 
 riably produces a direct change in the qualities of the food, 
 it would be most unphilosophical to regard it as a mere 
 diluent. The masticated aliments received into the stomach 
 become subjected to the further action of the gastric fluid, 
 the produce of the secreting surface of the villous division 
 of the stomach. The true gastric juice is possessed of a 
 solvent power, which is shown in a remarkable manner by 
 the food being dissolved by its action. 
 
 The ordinary process is after this fashion with the horse. 
 The masticated vegetable matter is first deposited in the 
 cuticular cavity of the stomach ; whence it is propelled for- 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 233 
 
 ward by muscular contractions of the organ, from left to 
 right, towards the pylorus ; being, however, so turned and 
 contorted in its passage, that every portion of the insali- 
 vated mass becomes first macerated with the cuticular 
 secretion, and then receive the solvent gastric juice. It is 
 thus that a mass of matter undergoes the chymifying pro- 
 cess within the stomach, after which it is hurried onward 
 to be converted into chyle, within the intestines. 
 
 Vomition. — A structural peculiarity in the stomach of 
 the horse remains to be noticed ; by which, in all ordinary 
 cases, the animal is denied the power of vomition. The 
 whole of the alimentary canal in that animal exhibits 
 uniformity of intention, unfavourable to vomition. The 
 soft palate closes all return of the contents of the stomach 
 by the mouth ; and consequently if vomition were to occur, 
 the rejected mass must come out by the nostrils. The next 
 structural impediment may be observed in the oesophagus ; 
 which, by having a different arrangement of its muscular 
 fibres, to that of ruminants, evidently proves that regurgita- 
 tion forms no part of the natural economy of the horse. The 
 obliquity of its insertion, the number, strength, and direc- 
 tion of its fleshy layers, must form a sufficient bar to all 
 ordinary tendency of the aliments to return. And the 
 superior resistance offered by the greater volume of mus- 
 cular fibre around the cardiac extremity, must, in all cases, 
 effectually prevent it. The dog and cat, which vomit 
 rather freely, have the muscular fibre much the thickest at 
 the pyloric orifice. Were the equine and the canine sto- 
 machs handed to a person perfectly ignorant of anatomy 
 or physiological discussion, his sense of touch would be 
 sufficient to decide the matter, so very marked and obvious 
 is the difference. Added to the above reasons, though not 
 of much force, is the circumstance of the horse's stomach 
 being situated far from the abdominal muscles ; this pre- 
 vents these last from directly acting upon the digestive 
 bag in that animal, but certainly cannot prevent their action 
 being felt through the pressure of surrounding parts. 
 
234 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 THE INTESTINES. 
 
 The remainder of the ahmentary canal is continued from 
 the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the anus ; forming a 
 long tube, whose varying dimensions have occasioned it to 
 be divided into the large and small intestines, botli of which 
 are very well marked in the horse (see Plate IX. ; compare 
 A, B, C with jD). The length of the tract ranges between 
 twenty-seven and thirty yards ; of which proportions the 
 small intestines occupy from twenty to twenty- two yards, 
 and the large from seven to eight. It is not easy to give a 
 determinate place to the intestines, either individually or 
 generally ; the large, however, may be said to occupy all 
 the anterior and inferior portions of the abdomen ; and the 
 small to range above in the space not already occupied ; 
 both occasionally shifting their positions by reason of the 
 peristaltic motion. They are, however, greatly prevented 
 from an unnatural displacement, by membranous produc- 
 tions of the peritoneum ; which forms bands, that at dif- 
 ferent parts serve to fix portions of the intestines. The 
 first intestinal coat is derived from the peritoneum, which 
 receives the tube between its layers ; at once protecting it, 
 and affording a medium for the transmission of its vessels, 
 and a moistened surface whereupon to move. The second, 
 or muscular coat, presents organic muscular fibres ; by 
 the contraction of which the peristaltic action is per- 
 formed, the longitudinal slightly shortening them, and the 
 circular diminishing their diameter. Of these two coats of 
 muscular fibre, the circular is much the most powerful, as 
 is proved by the intestines always being found contracted 
 in cases of violent death. The inner tunic of the intestinal 
 canal is mucous or villous, and is very vascular and sensi- 
 tive ; its villi presenting an increased surface for the mucous 
 secretion, as well as more space for the ramification of the 
 terminations of the capillaries and lacteals : but it presents 
 no valvulpe conniventes, as in the human, their place being 
 supplied by the increased length of the tract. 
 
 The duodenum {Plate IV. H), the first portion of the 
 small intestines, commences from the pyloric orifice of the 
 stomach. It hangs loose and pendulous upon the right 
 side, being attached to the concave surface of the liver ; 
 
THE INTESTINES. 
 
 235 
 
 from which making a turn, it becomes fixed to the ver- 
 tebree, and then takes the name of jejunum; but as in this 
 course its length is nearer twenty inches than twelve, it is 
 evident that duodenum is an improper term for it in the 
 horse. It is larger in circumference than the other small 
 intestines, and more vascular ; but it is peculiarly remark- 
 able for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts obliquely 
 penetrating it, which they sometimes do by one common 
 orifice, but often by distinct ones, about five inches from the 
 commencement of the intestine. The jejunum gains its name 
 from being commonly found empty, and is attached :o the 
 mesentery, which follows its circumvolutions ; the line of 
 division between it and the ihum is only imaginar/. A 
 portion of the ilium occupies part of the ihac region, whence 
 it derives its name : it presents no peculiarities of structure ; 
 but its circumvolutions are all connected by the fclds of 
 the mesentery : it terminates in the csecum. 
 
 The large intestines differ widely from the small in struc- 
 ture and appearance as well as in size ; having thei? large 
 volume puckered up by muscular bands into distinct com- 
 partments which lodge the alimentary contents, and pre- 
 vent their too hasty egress. The caecum, or bUnd gut as it 
 is called, is the first of them. In this the ilium terminates, 
 protruding itself some way within the cavity, which pre- 
 vents the return of the contents of the csecum. From ihis 
 locality part of the csecum projects forward nearly tlree 
 feet, and chiefly reposes upon the umbilical portion of the 
 linea alba. It usually approximates to the right side of the 
 abdomen, and appears immediately on opening the perto- 
 neum. It interposes between the ilium and the coon, 
 dividing one intestine from the other. The head, or part 
 of tlie gut, within wdiich the ilium terminates, and the cdon 
 takes its rise, is commonly near to the diaphragm md 
 liver. The horse has no appendix vermiformis. Throigh 
 the peritoneal covering, we observe three or four muscilar 
 longitudinal bands, reaching from its extremity along the 
 outer side of the intestine ; between these bands the c«ats 
 of the intestine are plaited up, and form cavities caled 
 cells. From this gut being frequently found with a an- 
 siderable quantity of water in it, it has been conjecturec to 
 be a receptacle for fluid, and fluid only; but it is lot 
 
236 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 always furnished with water, for soHd ingesta as well as 
 fluid is found within it. 
 
 The colon originates from the csecum in the right hypo- 
 chondriac, whence it reaches across the abdomen into the 
 left iliac ; though this end floating free has no absolutely 
 fixed position. Having reached the left side it makes its 
 sigmoid flexure, or bends upon itself to proceed back again, 
 and so terminate in the right hypochondriac, where the 
 continuation of the intestine assumes the name of the rec- 
 tum. It is connected one part to the other, that is, from 
 the csecum to the sigmoid flexure ; but it is perfectly free 
 at its other side, so that without destroying the integrity of 
 the pai'ts, the colon might trail upon the ground. It is of 
 different dimensions; thus after it has commenced it 
 enlargss, and towards its termination it takes on its greatest 
 magnitude, and at this place commonly loses its muscular 
 bands. 
 
 The rectum is the continuation of the colon, and passes 
 backwards under the lumbar region to the anus. Its sub- 
 stance is thicker than that of the other intestines ; and 
 has a longitudinal muscular band upon its either side ; by 
 these it is puckered into cell-like depressions, to prevent a 
 too frequent expulsion of the faeces. The rectum is rather 
 loosely suspended from the spine and sacrum by a detachment 
 of :he peritoneum, which is here called mesocolon: yet 
 the peritoneum does not invest the whole of the rectum, but 
 lea\es it as it approaches its termination ; the place of the 
 pertoneum being supplied by cellular membrane. The 
 anu\ is opened by the force of the peristaltic motion, and is 
 shul by a muscular band around the extremity of the gut, 
 calhd the sphincter ani. 
 
 %e mesentery and mesocolon. — These great folds of 
 menbrane are simply prolongations of the peritoneum, 
 witlin the turn of which the intestines are enclosed : these 
 inveting folds, uniting at the superior part, form appa- 
 rently a single membrane, called mesentery, and which con- 
 seqiently has two smooth surfaces. Such peritoneal pro- 
 longations are very useful ; for they not only invest the 
 intetines, and give them their outer covering, but they in 
 some measure keep them within their situations, and fur- 
 nisl a medium through which they receive their blood- 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTESTINES. 237 
 
 vessels and nerves : the lacteals and numerous globate 
 glands are also situated within these membranous folds. 
 The origin of these folds of peritoneum is from the spme, 
 and is of small extent ; but it is so fi-amed, that, as it pro- 
 ceeds, it expands, and is enabled to follow the whole of the 
 intestines through their course ; branching out like a fan, 
 from its small beginning at the duodenum to its ample 
 termination at the small intestines. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTESTINES AND SOME OF THE 
 
 VISCERA. 
 
 The intestinal canal receives the pulpy mass of the chyme 
 in a partial state of digestion ; but this becoming mixed in 
 the duodenum with the pancreatic and the biUary fluids ; 
 further changes take place in it : chyhfication is by these 
 accessions more perfectly advanced, and the chyle more 
 completely animalized. The mass is continually propelled 
 onward by the creeping muscular contractions of the intes- 
 tinal tract, called their peristaltic motion. This motion is 
 not altogether uniform, either in direction or duration ; on 
 the contrary, it sometimes acts inversely ; occasionally it 
 halts altogether, and often is irregularly agitated. That 
 this propelling force may not huriy the contents too fast, a 
 cellular arrangement exists, evidently intended to delay the 
 chylous mass within the intestines till the whole of its nutri- 
 tive parts are taken up. The powers of the horse requiring 
 a very complete chyhfication, he is furnished with a long 
 and large alimentary tract. The chyle is separated from 
 the mass by the agency of the lacteals ; which vessels 
 directing their course through the mesentery, deposit their 
 contents in the chylous receptacle, by which it is conveyed 
 to the jugular or axillary vein, and mingled with the blood. 
 The intestines own a high degree of irritability, which in 
 their natural state produces vital phenomena ; and in their 
 deranged state causes some of the most fatal diseases. The 
 stimuli of the intestines are various ; food is the most ordi- 
 nary, and it is generally supposed to have its activity in- 
 creased by the biliary secretion. Exercise is also a natural 
 stimulus. The apphcation of particular substances u'ritates 
 them greatly, and are thence called purges. 
 
238 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 THE LIVER. 
 
 The liver (Plate IV. J) is so bulky and ponderous a mass, 
 that there seems great wisdom in placing it in the centre of 
 the body. Anatomically its larger part is situated in the 
 right hypochondrium ; a smaller portion in the left (see Plate 
 ly.), and its centre in the epigastrium; in circumference 
 it is between two and two and a half feet ; thick towards the 
 middle, but thinner at the edges. It is divided into two 
 large and several smaller lobes ; which are again further sub- 
 divided by indentations, the principal of which separates the 
 two large lobes, and is called the great fissure : within this 
 may be seen the remains of the foetal umbilical vein ; while 
 a smaller indentation, seen about the centre of the concave 
 surface, forms an opening for the portse. By its convex 
 surface the liver is attached to the diaphragm by cellular 
 tissue and peritoneum, which last being reflected over it, 
 sustains it. Numerous lymphatics run over its surface ; and 
 the bloodvessels pass within its sheath called Glisson's 
 capsule. Ghsson's capsule is a thin membrane, formed of 
 white fibrous tissue, and situated immediately beneath the 
 peritoneum. The principal bloodvessels of the hver are the 
 vena portee, which carries to the gland the venous blood 
 fi'om the intestines; vena hepatica, and arteria hepatica, 
 which last is concerned directly in the nourishment of the 
 liver. Its nerves are derived from the hepatic ganglion, 
 which is principally composed by branches derived from 
 the sympathetic and par vagum. 
 
 Vena porta hepaticce .—The circulation of the venous 
 blood in the liver presents a remarkable speciality, as may 
 be gained by what follows. The numerous veins of the in- 
 testines all terminate in one common trunk, which enters 
 the liver as the vena portse. This venous trunk, after it 
 has pierced the liver, branches ofl" once more in every direc- 
 tion to be ramified throughout the substance of the gland ; 
 it necessarily performs the office of an artery, being dis- 
 tributed to the liver for secretion. The blood being circu- 
 lated through the substance of this viscus, and acted on 
 within it, is poured from the terminations of the vena portce 
 and hepatic artery, into the hepatic veins, which empty their 
 contents into the posterior cava by numerous branches. 
 
THE PANCREAS. 239 
 
 Hepatic duct. — In the glandular capillaries some great 
 change goes on, by which a fluid substance is separated 
 from the blood. The biliary pores appear to end in small 
 tubes, which unite to form the hepatic duct ; or, in anato- 
 mical language, the pori biliari end in the tubuli biliari, 
 which, by their union, form the ductus hepaticus. As it 
 parts from the liver, it accompanies the hepatic artery, and 
 passing below the vena portarum, it terminates in the duo- 
 denum, about five inches from the pylorus. The liver of 
 the horse, has no gall-bladder ; whence the bile has been 
 thought to be constantly flowing into the small intestines ; 
 when the animal lives off" grass, and is feeding the major 
 portion of his time, it may be all very well to suppose the 
 constant supply of food requires a constant supply of the 
 hepatic juice ; but what becomes of this theory of a con- 
 tinuous flow with the horse that is manger-fed, with whom 
 eating is a very brief affair ; may not the bile be stimulated 
 by the motion of the stomach and intestines, as the saliva 
 is by that of the jaws ; and when food is not present either 
 not be secreted or stored up within the biliary ducts, and 
 within the dilatation commonly observed near to the termi- 
 nation of the main duct ? The foregoing is merely suggested, 
 not by any means insisted upon. 
 
 THE PANCREAS. 
 
 The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, of a very irregular 
 figure, lengthened out into three processes, which extend it 
 across the spine, between the stomach and left kidney. Its 
 superior surface is applied to the roof of the abdomen, and 
 its inferior to the great curvature of the stomach ; it is also 
 connected with the omentum, liver, spleen, and duodenum. 
 From its substance small tubuli collect into one common 
 duct, which penetrates the duodenum, sometimes imme- 
 diately wath, and sometimes distinct from, the biliary duct. 
 Its use has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but it is 
 very like a salivary gland in structure ; in which particular 
 it also resembles the thymus gland, butchers being in the 
 habit of selling this last-named gland and the pancreas, in- 
 discriminately, as sweetbreads. 
 
240 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 THE SPLEEN. 
 
 The spleen, or milt, is a viscus of a soft structure, but 
 without an excretory duct ; its colour is a reddish brown, 
 but both its hue and its size are variable. In shape it 
 resembles an acute triangle. Its texture is spongy, and 
 consists of erectile tissue ; it is so tender, that were it not 
 for its peritoneal covering, it would be liable to be torn by 
 the slightest cause. By its upper convex surface it is at- 
 tached to the left extremity of the stomach : inferiorly it 
 rests on the abdominal viscera. It is plentifully supplied 
 with bloodvessels, absorbents, and nerves ; particularly the 
 two former : but its use is altogether conjectural. It is 
 seldom idiopathically inflamed, although so eminently vas- 
 cular ; but its erectile tissue has subjected it to rupture, and 
 to a species of scirrhous enlargement : it has also been 
 found ossified to a considerable extent. 
 
 THE RENAL CAPSULES. 
 
 These are two irregularly-shaped bodies, situated each 
 in front of a kidney. Their size in the young subject is 
 very considerable, but lessens remarkably as age advances ; 
 internally they seem composed of two substances, one a 
 dirty yellow-coloured compact vascular part ; another more 
 pallid, less in quantity and more spongy in texture, from 
 which in the young colt a fluid may be pressed out. They 
 derive their blood generally from the emulgents, and occa- 
 sionally from the aorta ; their nerves are gained from the 
 renal plexus, but their functional purpose is wholly un- 
 known. 
 
 THE KIDNEYS. 
 
 The kidneys are two glandular bodies, situated in the 
 dorsal and the lumbar regions, at the superior part of the 
 abdomen ; the right being generally the most anterior ; the 
 left being pressed backward by the spleen. The kidney 
 bean, so named after these parts, serves to give a pretty 
 exact idea of their shape ; but which is by no means uni- 
 form in every horse. The central notch offers an entrance 
 to their vessels, and an outlet to their veins and ducts. They 
 are sustained in their situation by cellular investiture by their 
 
THE KIDNEYS. 241 
 
 vessels, and by the peritoneum, which passes over their in- 
 ferior surface, or over the fat which may cover them. Tiie 
 kidneys lay upon the top of the peritoneum, and conse- 
 quently are without the abdominal sac ; they are conglome- 
 rate glands ; and when cut into present two distinct portions. 
 The cortical or outer part is of a dull dark red, of a granular 
 structure, which dips into the other substance ; the cortical 
 mass may be regarded as the convolutions of the emulgent 
 capillaries, around the minute terminations of the urinary 
 ducts. The second substance, called the medullary part, is 
 lighter in colour than the last, and presents a vast number 
 of radiating tubes, which collect into minute cones or 
 papillfE. These papillee are clothed by a mucous membrane, 
 which is cup-shaped, and continuous with the lining mem- 
 brane of the tubes ; each is called a calyx. The calices point 
 into canals, or grooves, continuous with the pelvis of the 
 kidney, and named the infundibula. The pelvis, into which 
 the infundibula lead, is nothing more than an enlargement 
 at the beginning of the ureters, situated without the kidney. 
 The urine then is secreted from the capillaries of the emul- 
 gent arteries, coiled round the minute ends of the renal 
 ducts ; whence it passes into the tubuli uriniferi, or tubular 
 portion of the kidneys, to flow towards the calices ; from 
 which it falls into the infundibula. By the infundibula it is 
 passed to the pelvis, thus into the ureters, and so into the 
 bladder. The arteries of the kidneys are so large as to be 
 supposed to carry one-eighth of the whole blood of the body 
 (see Plate IV. E) to these comparatively small organs. 
 The large trunks of the arteries emerge from the aorta, 
 immediately behind the anterior mesenteric artery {Fig 
 13 ./) ; the left is much shorter than the right, from the 
 inclination of the aorta to that side (Plate YV . A) ; each 
 trunk penetrating its kidney by two or three divisions (Fig 
 13 ./). The emulgent veins {Plate IV. F) arise from the 
 capillaries of the artery, and follow the direction of that 
 vessel. The nerves of the kidney are furnished from the renal 
 plexus, formed by the par vagum and sympathetic nerves ; 
 its lymphatics are to be seen accompanying the veins. 
 
 The ureter {Plate IV. C) passes out at the posterior 
 part of its appropriate kidney, is continued backwards, 
 inclining towards the bladder ; when, becoming connected 
 
 R 
 
242 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 with the hgamentum latum, it travels with it to the 
 upper part of the bladder ; and finally inserts itself at 
 some distance from the other within that viscus, piercing 
 the coats obliquely, and running between them for a short 
 distance ; this mode of entrance performing the office of a 
 genuine valve. 
 
 THE BLADDER. 
 
 This is a membranous and muscular sac of a pyriform 
 shape under distention, in which state it stretches beyond 
 the pubis, and may be then felt in the belly. It will con- 
 tain several quarts of urine, but is usually stimulated to 
 an early evacuation. It is surmounted by the rectum in 
 the horse, and the vagina in the mare. The bladder is 
 attached to the parietes of the pelvis by the peritoneum, 
 which forms its lateral ligaments ; the peritoneum being 
 superiorly reflected from the bladder over a part of male 
 rectum and female vagina. The bladder has three tunics : 
 the outer consists partly of peritoneum, which is to be seen 
 only over its fundus and part of its body ; the other portion 
 being covered by dense cellular tissue. The middle is the 
 muscular coat, whose fibres, longitudinal and oblique, adapt 
 it for uniform and complete contraction. The internal 
 lining membrane is villous, from the vascular surface of 
 which a mucus is secreted, to defend the organ from the 
 irritation of the urine. At its posterior part the bladder is 
 obliquely pierced by the ureters in the manner stated. 
 The neck of the bladder, which is surrounded by yellow 
 elastic tissue, terminates in the urethra. The arteries of 
 the bladder are derived from the minute branches given off" 
 by the internal iliacs ; its venal trunks return their blood 
 into the internal iliac veins ; and the nerves are given from 
 the sacral and abdominal plexuses. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 
 
 Urine may be considered as a separation from the blood 
 of its fluid part ; the separating office being effected by 
 the agency of the kidneys ; which organs therefore appear 
 united in function with the skin, and with the exhalant 
 bronchial surface, in aflfording outlets to the superfluity of 
 the vascular system. But of these three excretions, that 
 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 243 
 
 of the urine is the most compound, holding in suspension, 
 in addition to its other chemical constituents, a remark- 
 able one, termed urea. Urine in colour is yellow, of a 
 lighter or deeper tint ; at times it is transparent ; at 
 others turbid in the extreme ; its odour is peculiar, some- 
 times offensive : and its specific gravity is somewhat greater 
 than that of water. The phenomena attending the forma- 
 tion and ejection of urine are numerous and important: 
 one of the most interesting of these is the rapidity of its 
 formation after liquid aliments have been received; and 
 the very early detection in the urine of matters taken into 
 the stomach. The regularity of the urinary secretion is a 
 notable phenomenon ; it is always going on, as well when 
 sleeping as when waking. The complete distention of the 
 bladder occasions an instinctive attempt at evacuation ; but 
 the act remains partly under the influence of the will, and 
 is much regulated by habit. The expulsion of the urine 
 from the bladder is thus accounted for — 
 
 The neck of the bladder is composed of yellow elastic 
 tissue. To this the long order of muscular fibres are attached. 
 Distention excites the muscular fibres, which are of the white 
 or organic kind, into action; the bladder having urine 
 within it, more or less, according to its irritability, when 
 the muscular fibres contract. The obUque diminish the 
 diameter of the organ; while the longitudinal muscle, 
 attached to the neck, pulls up the fundus near to the open- 
 ing ; and at the same time drags the elastic tissue, which is 
 the natural cork to the organ and would of itself remain 
 firmly closed, violently apart. The urine thus released, and 
 forced out by the energetic contraction of its muscles, 
 enters the urethra, and thence is discharged upon the 
 ground. 
 
 The oblique entrance of the ureters into the bladder, 
 these ducts passing for some distance between the layers of 
 muscular fibre before they enter into the organ, acts in both 
 directions as a perfect valve. When the bladder is relaxed 
 there can be no pressure upon its sides, therefore the urine 
 enters freely, and has no disposition to return ; but so soon 
 as the bladder is full, or becomes distended, pressure is 
 made upon its sides, and thus the further entrance of urine 
 is prevented ; while the perfect closure of the orifice effec- 
 
 r2 
 
244 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 tually stays the fluid from returning upon the kidneys. 
 Less urine is formed in summer than winter; for when 
 perspiration has robbed the blood of its watery particles so 
 little urine is passed, as to have led to a supposition that a 
 dangerous obstruction existed. It is also to be observed, 
 that, in our present state of veterinary knowledge, we are 
 not able to obtain many pathognomonic hints from the 
 various modifications of urine. It is true that, when puru- 
 lent, we are aware that ulceration is present in some of the 
 passages ; and when ropy, that mucous abrasion exists in 
 the same. When the urine is tinged with blood, w^e attri- 
 bute it to lesion of the minute vascular texture of the kid- 
 neys ; and that this does not more often happen is much 
 to be w^ondered at ; recollecting that these organs are situated 
 immediately within the sphere of action of the psoee muscles, 
 whose contractions, under heavy weights, must be con- 
 tinually exposing them to pressure. No observations will 
 be made on the components of sequine urine; but little 
 wonder will be felt on learning that the animal is occa- 
 sionally the subject of urinary calculi. 
 
 THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 
 
 The parts in the male are most of them external; on 
 the contrary, in the female, they are principally internal ; 
 but in both they are connected with the urinary organs, by 
 which one structure is made to answer two purposes. — 
 The scrotum, containing the testicles, is formed by the 
 integuments of the abdomen : outwardly it is smooth, thin, 
 and scantily supplied with hairs; it is next to the skin 
 enveloped by cellular substance, and then by a muscular 
 layer, called dartos, while its substance is divided by a 
 septum, marked by a raplie or external Hne of division 
 that completely separates the scrotal cavities. 
 
 The testicles occupy the scrotum, and are two glan- 
 dular bodies, which are first formed within the abdomen. 
 Internally it is lined by a reflection of peritoneum derived 
 from the abdomen, and called the tunica vaginalis reflexa, 
 which as life progresses is drawn into the scrotum. The 
 coverings of the testicle are, first, a complete external one 
 of peritoneum, which is continued up the cord, and is 
 called the tunica vaginahs; then a partial one from the 
 
THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 245 
 
 cremaster, which is no more than a shp given off by the 
 internal obUque abdominal muscle. The tunica albu- 
 ginea is the first true testicular coat, being of a white 
 fibrous or tendinous nature, and enclosing the gland as 
 Ghsson's capsule does the liver. In the centre is situated, 
 like to the middle pith of an orange, a portion of fibrous 
 texture called the mediastinum testes ; from which proceed 
 certain layers dividing the gland into separate portions, like 
 to the quarters of the fruit just alluded to. These divisions 
 run from the centre towards the internal surface of the 
 tunica albuginea. The third coat of the testes is a tunica 
 vasculorum, being the nutrient tunic of the gland from which 
 vessels run into each of the divisions. Within the divisions 
 the contents are the same, so that the description of one 
 will serve for all. These spaces are filled with the convo- 
 lutions of the extreme ends of the duct, within which the 
 semen is secreted, and which are called lobules. The 
 upper portions of these convolutions become imperfectly 
 straight, and are spoken of as the vasa recta. The vasa 
 recta communicate with tubes which run at right angles, 
 but are still very minute. These last tubes are known as 
 the rete testes, which ultimately become external, and 
 then assume the name of the vasa efferentia. The vasa 
 efferentia end in numerous convolutions ; and in that 
 form constitute the epididymis, which at length leads to 
 the vas deferens. The testicle is white, firm, and externally 
 smooth. 
 
 The vasa deferens, or excretory duct of the testes, joins the 
 spermatic cord, and proceeding with it into the pelvis, by 
 means of the abdominal rings, finally gains the lateral and 
 superior surface of the bladder, to terminate in the urethra, 
 either alongside or within the opening of the seminal vesicle. 
 The vesicula seminales are situated one on each side of the 
 neck of the bladder, immediately behind and contiguous to 
 the termination of the vas deferens : these membranous 
 sacs, which contain a peculiar mucous secretion, have large 
 excretory ducts, that terminate also in the urethra, close to 
 the opening of the vas deferens. The prostate glands are 
 irregular in their number: comparative anatomists quote, 
 sonfe two, some three, and others four prostatse, so inde- 
 terminate are their appearances. The lesser prostates, 
 or Cowper's glands, are two smaller glandular bodies, 
 
246 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 of the size and shape of a chestnut, situated near 
 the greater, and almost lying upon the spines of the 
 ischium. Both the larger and lesser prostates open by 
 numerous outlets into the urethra. There is no doubt 
 whatever that the secretions of all the parts we have just 
 named are assistants to the seminal fluid, but in what 
 degree or in what manner is not known. 
 
 The spermatic cord consists of a covering of peritoneum, 
 the vas deferens, the cremaster muscle, arteries, veins, 
 nerves, absorbents, cellular tissue, and a slight fibrous coat 
 beneath the peritoneum, continuous with the tunica albu- 
 ginea testes. It begins at the internal abdominal ring, 
 passes through the inguinal canal, emerges through the 
 external abdominal ring, and is inserted into the posterior 
 part of the testicle. 
 
 The penis is a firm body, two feet in length. The sheath, 
 which incloses it from view, is formed of the common in- 
 teguments, continued loosely from the scrotum to the 
 umbilicus, and marked in the middle during this course 
 by a raphe ; forming altogether a very extended envelope. 
 The outer fold of the sheath owes its bulk to a ring of 
 ligamentous substance, which is useful in keeping the 
 orifice open and firm : from this the reflected integuments 
 become thinner and more vascular, and are again reflected 
 over the glans penis, forming its prepuce. The sub- 
 stance of the penis is chiefly composed of two portions : 
 each of which are alike in structure, both being formed of 
 erectile tissue. The last tissue is flaccid, and occupies little 
 space when not erected ; but when the animal is under 
 sexual excitement, it becomes distended with venous 
 blood, and is then much increased in bulk, and very firm. 
 One of these bodies occupies the inferior portion of the 
 penis, or is situated beneath the urethra ; the other fills a 
 place superior to the urethra, or on the top of the organ. 
 At the extremity there is a bulb which appears distinct, but 
 which anatomy proves to be continuous with the lower 
 portion of erectile tissue, and which altogether is called the 
 corpus spungiosum. The upper division is named the 
 corpus cavernosum. 
 
 The urethra is the canal, which is continued through the 
 body of the penis from the bladder to the point of the 
 organ. That portion encircled by the two prostate glands 
 
THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 247 
 
 is termed the prostatic part of the urethra ; after leaving the 
 prostates, till it reaches the corpus spungiosum and caver- 
 nosum, it is known as the membranous portion of the 
 urethra ; all the remaining part being called the muscular 
 urethra. The reason of this last name is, because under 
 this last division of the duct runs a well-marked muscle, 
 attached to the corpus cavernosum upon either side, and 
 passing beneath, and in close connexion with, the urethra. 
 The name of this muscle is the " accelerator urin<^ ;" its use 
 being to speed the passage of any fluid through the duct. 
 The most posterior parts of the corpus cavernosum are 
 spoken of as its crura, to which, proceeding from the lower 
 surface of the points of the ischium, come two muscles to be 
 inserted, called the erectores, and their purpose is obvious, 
 being implied in their name. The urethra, underneath the 
 crura, is sometimes termed the bulbous portion, because in 
 this particular place it is largest. 
 
 The urethra throughout its course is highly sensitive and 
 vascular. It is a mucous membrane, and by its plentiful 
 secretion is protected from the effects of the urine ; along 
 its course are several slight prominences, which lead to small 
 mucous glands ; these prominences are called lacunae, being 
 the mouths to ducts. The external orifice of the urethra 
 is known as the meatus urinarius. The arteries of the penis 
 spring chiefly from the pudic, the artery of bulb, and the 
 pudendal ; the veins seem to have no settled name. The 
 nerves arise from the lumbar, and from the sacral plexuses. 
 
 THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 
 
 The perceptible parts of generation in the mare consist of 
 the labia majora or labia ; the labia minora or vulva : the 
 clitoris and the meatus urinarius, to which some add the 
 beginning of the vagina ; but as we prefer to describe parts 
 as a whole, we omit the last structure. 
 
 The genital opening of the mare is surrounded by two full 
 folds of projecting substance, without hairs, but covered by 
 a dark coloured skin. These are the labia, or labia majora, 
 and they are principally composed of fat and loose cellular 
 tissue ; within these are situated another fold, but of a 
 much more moist and vascular appearance. The last are 
 the labia minora, or vulva, and are much thinner and more 
 
 R 4 -*- 
 
248 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 delicate than the former. They are joined together, that 
 is, the vulva of one side of the hody is united to the vulva 
 of the other hy what are termed commissures, the interior 
 of which changes its appearance after repeated foldings. 
 The vulva extend downwards, and surround the clitoris ; 
 and within the vulva, and the part last named, is to be dis- 
 covered another fold of membrane called the nymphse. 
 The two last are studded W'ith mucous glands. 
 
 The clitoris is a small projecting body at the bottom of 
 the vulva, surrounded by the nymphee. The clitoris con- 
 sists of erectile tissue, a thin layer of which also extends 
 through the vulva and the nymphse, being prolonged up the 
 posterior chamber of the vagina. The clitoris is likewise 
 provided with muscles attached to the points of the ischium, 
 and called the erectores clitoris. A sphincter muscle is also 
 to be found within tlie substance of the labia, wdiich muscle 
 is known by the title of the sphincter vagiuce. 
 
 The vagina is a canal running from the vulva to the neck 
 of the uterus : it lies between the bladder and the rectum. 
 Near to the middle of the canal the internal lining mem- 
 brane is constringed ; and thus the vagina is divided into 
 two chambers. A posterior or external, which is the most 
 vascular, and the sides of which are covered by erectile 
 tissue ; and an anterior or internal, wdiich leads to the neck 
 of the uterus. Within the vagina, upon the floor of the 
 canal, and just past the vulva, is to be felt by the inserted 
 finger a small projecting fold of membrane, w^iich marks 
 the entrance to the short urethra of the female. The 
 erectile tissue of the vagina is covered externally by a sub- 
 stance resembling the dartos in the male. The mucous 
 lining membrane is thrown into various folds, which seem 
 in some subjects to proceed in no positive direction. 
 
 The uterus is a rounded body, having two horns or 
 wings ; one projecting forwards and upwards from either 
 side ; they are lined internally with mucous membrane, which 
 is thrown into various folds. Next to this is a thick layer 
 of white muscular fibre ; and beyond this is a cellular layer, 
 which is thin, and connects the organ to the peritoneum, 
 which forms its last covering. 
 
 At the extremity of the horns, or wrings, are two ducts 
 called the Fallopian tubes. They are small when they spring 
 
THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 249 
 
 from the uterus, but much larger at their free extremities ; 
 being there somewhat after the resemblance of the end of 
 a French horn, which they still further resemble from being 
 convoluted. The horn-like extremity is furnished with a- 
 fringe called the morsus diaboli, one portion of which is 
 attached to the ovaries, the rest being free. The other 
 pieces of this fringe are in violent motion during the act, 
 and therefore catch the ovum as it falls from the ovaries, 
 and convey it to the tubes. The internal lining membrane 
 of the tubes is continuous with the mucous membrane of 
 the uterus, and is thrown into longitudinal folds, wdiich 
 suggests it is liable to distention. The next coat of the 
 tubes is continuous with the muscular coat of the uterus, 
 which invites inquiry as to why a muscle was placed into this 
 position if not to force something downward ? They are 
 situated within the folds of peritoneum which form the 
 broad ligaments of the uterus, and wherefore we are prompted 
 to ask is the outer investiture elastic, if not to permit the 
 passage of some substance ? The opening of the free end 
 of the Fallopian tubes into the cavity of the abdomen, is the 
 only known instance of a mucous membrane leading into a 
 serous sac. 
 
 The ovaries, like the testes, have three coats ; an outer 
 one of peritoneum ; a middle one of white fibrous tissue ; and 
 an internal one which is vascular. They also somewhat 
 resemble the testes in shape, but here all similitude ceases. 
 Their interior is cellular. Within the cells are numerous 
 seeds of future eggs, which as they approach the surface 
 become matured ; and when the act is being performed burst 
 the coats of the ovary, and are carried down the Fallopian 
 tubes. Wherever an ovum has escaped a corpus luteum 
 is established, wdiich consists of a yellow spongy mass, 
 filling an empty space where once existed the ovum. The 
 arteries of the female parts lately described are those named 
 the spermatic, the uterine, the pudic, and the bulb. The 
 veins are the pudendal, the spermatic, and the uterine. 
 
 The nerves are derived from the lumbar and the sacral 
 plexuses. 
 
 Tlie mammary gland. — This is placed in front of, and 
 inclining to between, the hind legs. It consists of two 
 quarters in the mare, each of which are composed of a bag 
 
250 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
 
 and teat. The teat has a coating of muscular substance 
 resembling the dartos in its nature ; while the main sub- 
 stance of the bag is made up of vessels for supplying blood, 
 and carrying it away again ; or of tubes or ducts for 
 carrying off the secretion. The ducts are lined by mucous 
 membrane reflected inward, and continuous with the integu- 
 ment ; the mammary gland being essentially a conglomerate 
 one. The milk is secreted into the minute glands, which 
 unite and unite again, till by an uncertain number of 
 branches they empty into ampulae, or dilatations ; whence the 
 milk is carried away by other ducts which communicate with 
 the tubuli lactiferi, which terminate at the point of the teat, 
 but whose number appears not to be fixed in the mare. 
 
 The arteries are derived from the epigastric and the 
 femoral. The veins principally empty into the vena saphena 
 major and femoral trunks. The nerves are given off from 
 various adjacent sources. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX. 
 
 THE ABDOMEN LAID OPEN. 
 
 An incision has been made through the linea alba and the 
 w^alls of the cavity reflected back ; thereby affording a full 
 view of the intestines. Of course this proceeding has slightly 
 changed their exact relative situations ; but they are still 
 sufficiently true to enable the reader to form a tolerably 
 accurate idea of their positions when undisturbed. 
 
 A, The coecum, having its blind extremity pointing down- 
 ward ; B, the colon originating and terminating in the right 
 hypochondriac region ; C, the rectum, showing one of its 
 two muscular bands, and the cell-like structure of this in- 
 testine also being prominently exhibited ; D, the small intes- 
 tines occupying the upper and posterior portion of the 
 cavity. Only a few of these last come into this view. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 
 
 That the great work of propagation might not be left to 
 chance, all animals are irresistibly impelled to it by the 
 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 251 
 
 sensation of lust, called, in quadrupeds, heat. The desire of 
 the mare is vulgarly called horsing, and is known by vascular 
 changes in the generative organs, and by some nervous ex- 
 citement in the system generally : the vulva swell, and are 
 highly reddened ; staling is excited more frequently, and is 
 followed by the ejection of a whitish mucous matter from 
 the vagina, in stable language called the heats : sometimes 
 it is slightly bloody. The usual period of the heat in the 
 mare is between April and July ; it occasionally appears in 
 the former month, but in healthy subjects is seldom pro- 
 tracted until the latter. It is sometimes scarcely marked in 
 aged, hard-worked, or emaciated mares ; and it often con- 
 tinues the whole summer in barren mares, who will, some 
 of them, admit the horse whenever he is put to them. 
 
 The male appetite is constant, but not uniform : low feed- 
 ing, cold weather, and absence from the effluvia of mares, 
 greatly mitigates it ; but during the season of female oestrum 
 it rages with uncontrolled force. The irritability of the 
 stallion at this time is well known, and his impatience of 
 restraint bespeaks the ungovernable nature of his desires : 
 even the ass, which proverbially dislikes to touch water, will 
 swim wide rivers to prosecute his amours. These effects 
 are, without doubt, produced by the absorption of the semen, 
 which produces its peculiar influence on the sensorium, and 
 thence is transmitted to the sexual organs. The generative 
 functions of the horse, therefore, consist in elaborating a 
 fecundating fluid, called semen. The generative functions 
 of the mare impose on her the necessity of receiving the 
 generating male secretion. 
 
 Copulation is the immediate act by wiiich the generative 
 functions are mutually accomphshed. By a peculiar sym- 
 pathy present in the male system, the erectile substances 
 of the penis become distended with blood poured in from 
 the pudic vessels, and retained there by spasmodic con- 
 striction, aided probably by pressure of the excited muscles. 
 In this state it enters the vagina ; the testicles, drawn up by 
 the crem asters ; the acceleratores and levatores are alike 
 spasmodically and sympathetically convulsed ; and an emis- 
 sion of semen follows. The mare is also affected by a 
 venereal orgasm, but of less manifest intensity : and although 
 her frame is agitated, her actions are rather passive than 
 
252 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
 
 active ; and it is, perhaps, to stimulate her into increased 
 energy, that he is seen to seize her by the neck with his 
 teeth, while he powerfully embraces her with his fore 
 extremities. 
 
 The cupidity of dealers often tempts them to administer 
 to their stallions stimulants, in order to force the per- 
 formance of an act which is in its nature exhaustive and 
 emaciative. Farcy and glanders are too frequently the con- 
 sequences of this foolish system. 
 
 Conception and pregnancy. — Conception follows, and most 
 mares require copulation but once in order that they may 
 conceive ; which being accomplished the heats, as they are 
 termed, cease, and the animal will afterwards refuse the 
 horse. As the heat recurs at intervals of eight or nine days ; 
 it is usual at those periods to try the mare, by showing her 
 the stallion. 
 
 Impregnation is brought about by means of the semen 
 acting upon the ovum ; but whether the effect is produced 
 by actual contact or by sympathetic influence, has not yet 
 been ascertained ; although the balance is much in favour 
 of the actual transmission of the impregnating fluid through 
 the uterus and oviducts to the ovarium ; which is rendered 
 more probable by the circumstance that the ova of the 
 multiparous animals never reach the uterus, but are retained 
 in the cornua. One of the turgid ovarial vesicles bursts its 
 outer coat, which is received within one of the Fallopian 
 tubes, and conveyed into the uterus, to which it is after- 
 wards found to be universally adherent. A layer of effused 
 lymph is thrown out over the entire surface of the uterus 
 and its connexions : this effusion becomes organized, and is 
 separable into two layers : that layer which is attached to 
 the surface of the womb is called the tunica decidua uteri ; 
 the other, and which becomes reflected over the ovum, was 
 thence named tunica decidua reflexa. When the ovum 
 gradually develops the lineaments of the foetal colt, it will 
 be found surrounded by the reflected portions of the cho- 
 rion ; within which is an inner and finer expansion, called 
 the amnion. Between the amnion and the chorion, in the 
 latter periods of pregnancy, there becomes developed a third 
 membrane, named the allantoid. 
 
 The placenta. — From the attachment of the outer mem- 
 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 253 
 
 brane originates an indirect influence between the parent 
 and offspring. In this the uterine arterial branches termi- 
 nate ; hence the nutrient branches which nourish the ovum 
 originate. The foetal vessels do not communicate with, 
 or even touch, those of the mother. The finest injection 
 cannot pass from one to the other ; but those of the foetus 
 run close to those of the mother, extract oxygen from them, 
 w^hich partially oxygenates the blood of the fcetus ; perfect 
 oxygenation not being required to support its dormant life. 
 The vessels pass from the foetus near to the uterine arteries 
 of the mother ; through the agency of two umbilical arte- 
 ries and a vein, that occupy a membranous rope, which, 
 when full grown, is nearly three feet in length, an inch in 
 diameter, and is called the umbilical cord ; this, in addition 
 to these vessels, gives passage also to the wachus, the whole 
 being enveloped in a reflection of the chorion. In the early 
 periods of gestation the investing foetal membranes are by 
 far the larger portion of the uterine contents ; towards the 
 middle period the foetus and membranes are nearly equal, 
 but in the latter months the weight of the young animal 
 greatly preponderates. The liquor amnii, in which the 
 foetus floats, maintains the same proportion to the placenta. 
 It remains to remark on the increase of the uterus ; which, 
 from being completely hidden W'ithin the pelvis, advances 
 its fundus beyond its cornua, nearly to the epigastrium ; 
 when at length, becoming painfully distended, it essays to 
 rid itself of its burthen by powerful contractions. 
 
 Description of memhranes forming the placenta. — The mem- 
 branes forming the placenta are three, which, beginning the 
 description from the outside, consist of the chorion, the 
 allantoid, and the amnion. The amnion must be a mucous 
 membrane, though it is very like a serous one ; it imme- 
 diately incloses the foetus, and contains a fluid, its secretion, 
 called the liquor amnii, within which the unborn animal 
 floats. The allantoid lies between the amnion and the cho- 
 rion ; it is pecuHar for containing sacs, with which the 
 urachus communicates. These sacs are filled with the con- 
 tents of the foetal bladder, and the young one's bowels are 
 at birth always full of a yellow pultaceous mass, called 
 meconium. These things suggest that the arterialization 
 of the blood, no more in foetal than in extra uterine existence, 
 
254 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
 
 is the sole support of life. The urachus, which leads 
 from the fundus of the unborn's bladder to the allantoid 
 cells or sacs, snaps at birth, and that part which is retained 
 by the foal dries up, and becomes the long ligament of the 
 bladder. The chorion, which is the most vascular of the 
 three membranes, as well as the most outward, in the mare 
 is intimately connected with the inner mucous lining of the 
 uterus of the mother. This connexion is formed by nume- 
 rous minute vascular projections upon each, which exactly 
 fit into one another ; those developed upon the chorion of 
 the foetus precisely suiting little spaces left upon the much 
 thickened, and very much more vascular, lining of the gravid 
 uterus of the parent. 
 
 Fcetal circulation. — It has been shown that the placenta 
 owns a maternal and a foetal portion, in which distinct cir- 
 culations are carried on. In both the arteries terminate in 
 capillaries which end in veins. It is evident, therefore, that 
 the blood received, after having circulated through the foetal 
 body, and having given out its nutritive principles, must 
 return venoiis to the placenta, through the umbilical arte- 
 ries ; which, in this case, carry venous blood, as the umbi- 
 lical veins bear blood of a more arterial character. Thus, 
 therefore, the placenta forms the true foetal lungs ; and 
 the likeness is further heightened by the arteries carrying 
 venous blood, and the vein bringing back arterial blood, 
 as in the true pulmonic circulation. The umbilical vein, 
 it w^as just now stated, carries arterial blood, w^hich it de- 
 rives from the placenta: having travelled up the um- 
 bilicus, it leaves the umbilical cord, and proceeds to the 
 vena portse, there to deposit its contents. From the liver 
 the blood, mingled with the venous blood from the in- 
 testines, is passed into the vena cava, and thence to the 
 right auricle ; but it does not wholly enter the right ven- 
 tricle, as in the adult horse ; a part of it escapes through 
 an opening in the septum of the heart, called the foramen 
 ovale, which hes between the right and left auricles ; the 
 blood brought by the posterior cavse is consequently partly 
 poured into the left auricle, whence it is prevented from 
 returning by the Eustachian valve : this opening begins to 
 close up as soon as birth takes place, and respiration is 
 estabUshed. The remaining and smaller portion of the 
 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 255 
 
 blood is suffered to proceed, as in the adult, into the right 
 ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary artery ; where 
 occurs another structural impediment to the passage of the 
 foetal blood. The pulmonary artery communicates with 
 the posterior aorta, by means of a lateral branch, which 
 looks, as it were, a continuation of the arterial trunk. This 
 branch of free communication takes the greater portion of 
 the blood, sent by the right ventricle up the pulmonic 
 artery, into the posterior aorta. The small portion of blood 
 which passes through the collapsed lungs is returned by the 
 pulmonic veins into the left auricle ; where, uniting wdth 
 that which had escaped through the foramen ovale, both 
 enter the left ventricle, and pass into the aorta ; the major 
 part being sent up the anterior aorta, and the rest in the 
 posterior aorta, uniting with that received by the ductus 
 arteriosus, the whole becomes distributed over the body in 
 the usual manner. The umbiHcal arteries (Fig 14 . /c) of the 
 foetal colt are very considerable vessels, derived from the 
 internal ihacs, immediately after their origin : in their pas- 
 sage, each towards its appropriate side of the bladder, they 
 approximate and join the urachus, proceeding togetlier 
 as a part of the umbilical cord. The umbilical vein, after 
 birth, dries up, and is converted into a ligament of the 
 liver. 
 
 Descent of the testicles. — It is necessary, before we describe 
 this interesting process in the foetal economy, that we say 
 something of the construction of the track by which these 
 organs reach the scrotum. The abdominal rings, for there 
 are an outer and an inner, as there are two ends to the 
 straight and limited inguinal canal, are situated within the 
 fleshy walls of the abdomen. The walls of the abdomen 
 are mainly formed of four pairs of large muscles, whose 
 central line of union forms the linea alba, which is seen 
 about its middle, perforated by the umbilicus or navel. 
 The obliquus externus is the most external of these, and 
 arises from the anterior spine of the ilium, and from the 
 fascia lumborura, to be inserted into the posterior border 
 of the fourteenth hindermost ribs. It is externally covered 
 by a yellow elastic ligament of some substance, and in- 
 feriorly meets its fellow at the linea alba. From its inser- 
 tion (see Plate II. 1 1) its fibres are directed obliquely down- 
 
256 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
 
 wards and backwards. One portion of the tendon, or 
 aponeurosis, by which it terminates, goes to the pubis, 
 while the stronger part proceeds to the inside of the 
 thigh. The separation here pointed out in mares shelters 
 the round ligament ; but in horses allows the passage of 
 part of the inguinal canal, and helps to form the outer 
 abdominal ring. The internal abdominal ring, and a por- 
 tion of the canal, intersects the transversalis abdominis, as 
 well as the internal oblique muscles. 
 
 The foetal situation of the testicles is immediately behind 
 the kidneys, whence they eventually make their way 
 into the scrotum. When situated within the cavity of the 
 abdomen they are enveloped by peritoneum, and are each 
 of them attached to a ligamentous substance of a pyramidal 
 shape ; whose base adheres to the testicle, while its apex is 
 continued through the abdominal rings, to be fixed to the 
 bottom of the scrotum. This ligament, which is termed 
 gubernaculum testis, attains its full growth before birth ; 
 after which period, it begins to contract and shorten itself; 
 but, as it cannot draw the scrotum within the rings, nor free 
 itself from the testicle, it therefore draws downward the 
 gland, surrounded by its peritoneal covering. This progress 
 is carried on gi^adually ; but when the testicles have been 
 drawn to the abdominal ring, it is evident they must there 
 meet with some obstruction ; for the peritoneum, afterwards 
 brought down by the testicle at this period, lines the entrance 
 to the ring. The testicle having, by the contraction of the 
 ligament, been forced down the canal, lines it with peri- 
 toneum, and forms the internal coat to the scrotum. This 
 lining of peritoneum has nothing to do with that which 
 covers the testicles ; that remains upon the gland ; but the 
 extension of the peritoneum also brings with it a covering 
 for the cord. The gubernaculum having fulfilled its office 
 becomes absorbed. Nature, in her economy, refusing to 
 keep any thing which is of no service. By this means an 
 open communication is formed with the scrotal cavity, and 
 which remains free during life ; the horizontal situation of 
 the horse's body preventing frequent protrusion of the 
 abdominal contents through the ring. 
 
 The gestatory term is generally considered to range be- 
 tween eleven and twelve months ; these periods forming the 
 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 257 
 
 extreme limits ; but, according to other observations, in 
 582 mares, the shortest being 78 days before the expiration 
 of 12 months, the longest 58 days after the full term had 
 passed, making the extraordinary difference between the 
 two extremes of 13G days, or 4 months and 16 days be- 
 tween the births of two animals of the same species. 
 
 Parturition or foaling. — The premonitory symptoms of 
 foaling are a sudden enlargement of the udder ; sometimes 
 milk may be expressed from the teats ; and when such is 
 the case, provided it does not alarm the mare, she should 
 always be milked ; the vulva protrude, and become vascu- 
 lar ; and when the act has commenced, the tail is erected ; 
 a shyness, a restless shifting and change of place, with 
 some heaving of the flanks and some acceleration of the 
 pulse, are also usually present. The painful contractions 
 of the uterus now call in the aid of the abdominal muscles ; 
 deep inspirations are made, to enable the diaphragm to 
 assist in forcing the uterine contents backwards, by which 
 the mouth of the womb is dilated, and the attachment 
 of the chorion is separated. As the propelhng efforts be- 
 come more violent, the hind legs are set wide apart : the 
 membranes now protrude in the form of a bladder ; which 
 bursting, the liquor amnii floods down, and often brings 
 with it the young one, particularly in large roomy mares, 
 who have had several foalings. At other times the act is 
 more protracted, and the head, \vith the fore legs, are more 
 gradually protruded into the vagina ; when, after several 
 severe efforts, more or less protracted, the foal is born, and 
 its descent to the ground commonly ruptures the umbilical 
 cord ; the afterbirth occasionally accompanies the foal ; 
 and when this is not the case, the whole often comes away 
 very soon after, or may be long and dangerously delayed. 
 
 Lactation. — As soon as the foal comes into the world, it 
 is interesting to observe how soon it begins to suck ; which, 
 however, with a weakly foal, it may occasionally be prudent 
 to assist it in doing, by supporting it to the teats. The 
 first milk, instead of being prejudicial, is beneficial ; as by 
 its purgative qualities it brings away the contents of the 
 foetal alimentary canal. Sometimes the mammae refuse their 
 office, or do not yield sufficient milk ; or a mother may die : 
 
 s 
 
258 THE COLT. 
 
 it is consolatory to know that under such circumstances 
 foals have been successfully brought up by hand. Cade 
 and Milksop, both excellent racers, were thus reared ; and 
 either cows' milk, or that of asses, may be employed for 
 the purpose. Should that of cows be found to become 
 sour, it should be boiled ; or it may be medicated by having 
 sugar and starch added to it. The udder of the mare does 
 not generally become distended with milk until the fourth 
 day ; in which state it continues to yield its secretion until 
 the nippers of the young one enable it to browse the more 
 tender grass ; when its secretory store dries up, and the bag 
 resumes its ordinary dimensions, 
 
 THE COLT, AND THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HLS ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Unlike the young of many other animals, the colt is not 
 born helpless ; but, on the contrary, its aptitude and its 
 organs for locomotion are already developed, and it is 
 capable of performing many of the common phenomena of 
 life with dexterity and ease ; to enable it to do which, its 
 organization exhibits some specialities worthy of notice. 
 
 At what time do the testicles first appear in the colt? — 
 There are great anomalies in the scrotal lodgement of the 
 testicles. However, they are seldom, if ever, found at the 
 bottom of the scrotum, until eleven or twelve months have 
 expired ; but yet high-breeding, and particularly high-feed- 
 ing, will hasten the descent five or six weeks, in the same 
 manner that it produces other marks of early development. 
 But it is equally certain that they do make a partial appear- 
 ance in the upper portions of the scrotal bag within a few days 
 after foaling, and in some cases the animal is even foaled with 
 them already there. From that position they are, by the in- 
 creasing strength of the cremaster muscle, again drawn up, 
 sometimes only to the edge of the ring, but more often to 
 lodge themselves between the inner and outer rings, where 
 they remain three or four months. 
 
 The effect which the presence of the testicles has on the 
 masculine character is, evidently, a portion of our present 
 physiological inquiry. The permanent descent of the tes- 
 ticles has a great effect on the exterior form ; it has a cor- 
 responding one also on the character : it is, however, prin- 
 
THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 259 
 
 cipally in reference to the latter that we castrate ; and as 
 we inchne to regulate the form between the masculine or 
 the feminine character, so we castrate early or late. 
 
 Puberty in both horses and mares takes place, if they have 
 been well fed and housed, as early as the fifth year : neither 
 does it appear that the mare is more early in this respect 
 than the horse. Before that period, the change of the tem- 
 porary for the permanent set of teeth is confirmed ; but all 
 those characters commence in the male which are to dis- 
 tinguish him from the female after this period. 
 
 The adult period in both sexes may be considered as the 
 sixth year, when the height of the animal is complete ; and 
 it is between the fourth and fifth year that the colt andjilly 
 are translated into horse and mare in the breeders' vocabu- 
 lary. 
 
 Temperament is not confined to man, but is extended to 
 all our domestic animals, and to none more than the horse. 
 
 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
 
 FOOT. 
 
 The foot of the horse presents a mechanism admirably 
 adapted to the habits of the animal ; for in the horse that 
 complexity of structure, exhibited in the numerous pha- 
 langes of other quadrupeds, is found united in one (see 
 Skel.). From the various circumstances to which we sub- 
 ject this creature, such as keeping him in stables, riding 
 him upon hard roads, and the attachment of iron shoes, 
 the feet become peculiarly susceptible of disease. At birth, 
 the horny parts of the feet are found less evolved than 
 most other of the external organs ; were they more per- 
 fected, their hard surfaces might injure the mother: at this 
 early period the pasterns are long and upright, and instead 
 of the extremities ending, as in the adult, in a broad ex- 
 tended base, they are pointed in front, and present only 
 the rudiments of a frog. The bones immediately belonging 
 to the foot are two, the coffin and the navicular (see Plate X. 
 Fig 1 . d and e) : the little pastern, or coronary bone, 
 which articulates with both, is also partly hidden within 
 the hoof. The coffin hone {Plate X. Fig 1 . d) corre- 
 sponds in shape to the anterior part of the hoof : in front it 
 
 s2 
 
260 THE ANATOMY AND 
 
 presents an eminence, to which the extensor pedis tendon is 
 attached {Plate X. ; see Fig 1 . /) ; its sides stretch back 
 into two lateral processes or wings, to the upper surface of 
 which are fixed the lateral cartilages {Plate X. ; see Fig 2 
 . b and c) : its superior surface presents two articular cavi- 
 ties, and its lower is vaulted, and to it is attached the per- 
 forans tendon {Plate X. ; see Fig \ . g) ; while its exterior is 
 covered by the sensitive laminae. It wall be seen to be of a 
 loose texture, with small bony ridges extending from above 
 downwards, favouring the attachment of the sensitive 
 laminae. The navicular bone {Plate X. Fig \ . e ; Fig 2 
 , e) , which in shape is supposed to resemble a boat or shuttle, 
 embeds itself between the wings of the coffin bone, to which 
 it is attached. 
 
 The small pastern bone {Plate X.. Fig I . c), articulates 
 with the coffin and with the navicular bones, to both of 
 which it is united by the capsular and other ligaments. 
 The lateral cartilages are externally convex, and internally 
 slightly concave, their upper surface stretching superiorly 
 beyond the confines of the hoof {Plate X. Fig 2 . b and 
 c) . The lamincB are vascular, and sensitive productions ; 
 possessed of that elasticity which belong to all living matter ; 
 situated round the surface of the coffin bone, and between 
 every two lies their secretion in the shape of a horny lamina, 
 which constitutes part of the inner wall of the hoof {Plate 
 X. Fig 2 . h; Fig 4 . b). The extensor j^edis tendon 
 passes in front of the os corona into the anterior eminence 
 of the coffin {Plate X. Fig 1 ./), and the flexor perfo- 
 rans tendon affixes itself to the posterior of the bony sole 
 {Plate X. Fig I . g). The elastic frog is situated next to 
 this {Plate X. Fig 1 . h ; Fig 2 . a), on which, and on the 
 flexor tendon, the navicular bone rests. The sensitive frog 
 and sole lie under the coffin bone and elastic frog, the horny 
 sole and frog covering them interiorly : while the hoof 
 generally covers the whole of the sensitive parts of the foot 
 {Plate X. Fig 2 . i). 
 
 The hoof is a horny envelopment, secreted from a con- 
 tinuation, although altered state of the cutis (see the con- 
 tinuous white line in Plate X. Fig 1), exactly as the 
 human nail is formed from that which is termed the quick : 
 it is distinctly composed of fibres parallel with each other, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 261 
 
 and held together by a glutinous horny exudation which is 
 removed, and the fibres separated by maceration. Inordi- 
 nate heat and dryness will partially do the same in the 
 living hoof, as we know by what are called sandcracks. 
 The wall of the hoof is divided into two layers, an external 
 and an internal. Taking up a black hoof which has been 
 freed from all its adherent parts, it will be found to be white 
 within ; and this white part will hkewise be found to be much 
 less hard than, and about a quarter the thickness of, the 
 coloured portion (see Plate X. Fig 2 . h). The hard black 
 external layer of horn is secreted by the coronet (see 
 Plate X. Fig I . k; Fig 4 . a) ; the internal white and soft 
 layer is secreted by the sensitive laminse, and it is thrown 
 into projections which exactly fitted into the folds of the 
 secreting surface (see Plate X. Fig 4 . b). The wall is 
 also divided into toe, heel, and quarters (see Plate X. 
 Fig 4 . €,f, g). The quarters are the lateral parts of the 
 walls ; the more forward and thickest portion of horn is 
 called the toe ; the more backward and thinnest, the heels 
 (Plate X. Fig^ . d). In the usual formation of feet, 
 the inner side of the hoof is observed to be weaker than 
 the outer ; and, as the inner side receives most weight, 
 this proves the care taken to secure elasticity in the horse's 
 movements. The horn yields to pressure, and the thinnest, 
 of course, yields most. The density of the hoof materially 
 decreases as it approaches the heels, evidently to favour 
 the descent of the elastic frog, which likewise favours elas- 
 ticity of motion. The superior marginal part of the hoof 
 is softer and thinner than the rest ; and if our eyes be 
 directed inward, we shall perceive an indentation called the 
 coronary ring, within which the coronary ligament once 
 reposed ; the thin and soft part is horn just secreted, and 
 in a single layer; whereas where the horn is thicker, the 
 coronary ligament is more bulky, for the horn is secreted 
 in several layers. 
 
 To finish our description of the hoof, we must turn our 
 attention posteriorly ; where we shall find the laminse in- 
 flecting themselves abruptly inwards and downwards, form- 
 ing what are termed the bars ; which are nothing more than 
 continuations of the horn of the heels, stimulated and 
 thickened by pressure (see Plate X. Fig 3 . /) . So also 
 
262 THE ANATOMY AND 
 
 the frog is little else than an adaptation of the coronet 
 turned downward, and forced to bear a certain amount of 
 weight {Plate X. Fig S . g; Fig 4 . c) . 
 
 The horny sole is not so brittle as the crust ; it is thicker 
 at the circumference, where it unites with the outer wall of 
 the hoof, than it is towards its centre. Its concavity enables 
 the foot to retain its situation upon the ground ; while it 
 forms an arch which yields by its elasticity, thus affording 
 an admirable spring. The horny frog is the triangular 
 portion that fills up the natural excavation of the sole (see 
 Plate X. Fig 3 . a). This horny fi'og swells out, but not so 
 much in general cases as to extend beyond the level of the 
 outer surface of the crust ; it however is sufficiently promi- 
 nent in every healthy foot as to receive secondary pressure. 
 An inferior view of the foot will show that the frog (see 
 Plate X. Fig 3 . white line between a and h) presents a 
 distinct mark of separation between it and the other part, 
 which is called its commissure; wherefore connexion is 
 principally kept up by an internal prolongation of the 
 secretive substance of the coronet (see Plate X. Fig 
 S . g). The horny frog is intimately connected to the 
 sensitive frog, of which last it is indeed the secretion. 
 The frog is divided, or indented with a deep fissure, which 
 is called its cleft (see Plate X. Fig 3 . e), within which 
 are numerous sebaceous glands. It is these glands, when 
 diseased, which pour forth a stinking fluid which rots 
 the horn, and is known by the name of thrush. The 
 sensitive part of the secretive frog is covered by the elastic 
 
 Horn is enthely unorganized, and when once divided 
 can never again unite like flesh. It does not bleed when 
 cut. It has no feeling when a knife is drawn across it. 
 It has none of the properties of living substance, and con- 
 sequently cannot be expected to possess the reparative 
 function that appertains to hving matter. Horn, although 
 a secretion, and as such pretty much the same, is not all 
 of the like hardness. The horny frog is the least hard, 
 and the most pliable ; the horny sole ranks the next in 
 these qualities. Then come the horny heels ; afterwards 
 the quarters and bars ; and lastly, as the most hard, the 
 toe. The inner crust is throughout softer than the outer, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 263 
 
 but both crusts are originally secreted in a fluid state, and 
 subsequently become of the requisite consistency. 
 
 If we take an extended view of the matter, and call in 
 the aid of comparative anatomy, we shall be led to con- 
 sider the uses of the frog as of a mixed nature. Eminently 
 simple in form and structure, it combines even more than 
 the qualities possessed by the tendo-cartilaginous balls at 
 the posterior part of the feet of the digitated tribes, as 
 dogs, cats, &c. It is more dense in structure, to resist the 
 weight imposed on it ; yet more truly elastic, to enable it 
 to preserve its own integrity under the increased pressure 
 of so large an animal; and to transfer the shock of motion 
 more uniformly over the limb. It is peculiar also in being 
 united at its apex ; but it is wisely disunited by its cleft at 
 its posterior portion, where it can best act on the yielding 
 walls of the hoof. This union, or separation indeed, arises 
 from the frog being formed of a continuation of the coronet 
 (see Plate X. Fig Z . g ; Fig 4: . c). The frog claims, 
 likewise, importance as a natural wedge, to prevent slipping 
 and sliding on smooth surfaces. It is reasonable also to 
 suppose, that it forms a valuable antagonist to the down- 
 ward and backward direction of the internal parts of the 
 foot ; and in this way it may offer a point of solid support 
 to the flexor tendon, and an important protection to the 
 navicular bone ; it also most unquestionably acts very 
 favourably in promoting the expansion of the hoof. 
 
 The bars (see Plate X. Fig 3 . b b). — We have already 
 fully explained that the crust of the hoof does not termi- 
 nate at the heels, as a superficial observation might lead 
 one to conclude ; but that having gained the heels, it turns 
 inwards and forwards {Plate X. Fig 3 . h b), decreasing 
 in extent, and laying itself on each side of the frog. 
 
 THE INTERIOR OF THE FOOT. 
 
 The part that presents itself when the hoof is removed, 
 is the sensitive or fleshy sole (see Plate IX. Fig 3 . c) ; 
 which is a vascular expansion covering a considerable 
 portion of the under surface of the coffin bone, and ex- 
 tending beyond its posterior part, but leaving a triangular 
 space for the vascular expansion of the sensitive frog 
 (see Plate X. Fig 3 . a). As the sensitive sole passes 
 
264 THE ANATOMY AND 
 
 behind the coffin bone it becomes thicker, and attaches 
 itself to the inferior cartilages. The sensitive sole upon 
 its upper surface is of a ligamentous nature, but the 
 underneath is vascular ; and from it is secreted the horny 
 sole. The vascularity of this part renders it very suscepti- 
 ble of inflammation. The sensitive frog presents a very 
 curious structure of ligamentous and tendinous expansions 
 above ; but covered underneath by a horny coating, 
 corresponding in shape to the sensitive frog, and secreted 
 from it. It lies in an interval within the sensitive sole, 
 attached by its point to the inferior surface of the coffin 
 bone, with its heels expanding posteriorly ; being a con- 
 tinuation of the secretive coronet, and attached to the 
 cartilaginous substance, imited with cellular and fluid mat- 
 ter. The lateral cartilages (see Plate X. Fig 2.6, c) , 
 one to each side, are fixed into a groove, upon the upper 
 surface of each wing of the coffin bone. Independent of 
 their bony attachment, they are also retained in their situa- 
 tion by means of ligamentous fibres, and by lateral con- 
 nexions. They are externally convex, internally they are 
 concave ; highest in the centre, but thinner and smaller 
 towards the extremities : their inferior portions pass under 
 the wings of the coffin bone, and unite with the semi-car- 
 tilaginous substance of the elastic frog. The lateral car- 
 tilages are partly within and partly without the hoof; 
 are covered at their lower portion by the coronary liga- 
 ment, which, by being extended over them, prevents their 
 too great dilatation. To the low^er part of their external 
 surface the laminae gain an attachment ; and within their 
 internal portion is lodged the substance forming the upper 
 and posterior part of the elastic frog (see Plate X. 
 Fig 2 . «, h). The uses of these cartilages, as before ob- 
 served, are considerable, and divested of them the coffin 
 bone appears but small, compared to the hoof that en- 
 closes it ; but, increased by the attachment of the car- 
 tilages, the whole is made more proportionate, equally 
 useful for support as though they were altogether bony, yet 
 yielding and elastic. The cartilages themselves appear 
 particularly intended to operate in expanding the upper 
 horny portions of the hoof; and they also assist in the 
 preservation of the cavity of the coffin joint. 
 
WSagg. ainat.del. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 265 
 
 Tlie sensitive lamin/c (see Plate X. Fig 4 . h). — In de- 
 scribing the hoof, I observed that its internal surface was 
 Hned with numerous horny lamellae. The subjects of our 
 present inquiry are, on the contrary, highly sensitive and 
 vascular. The whole circumference of the coffin bone is 
 covered with these sensitive leaves, each of which is received 
 between and firmly attached to two of the horny laminae of 
 the hoof (see Plate X. Fig 2 .h). It is, therefore, evident 
 that the surface of attachment between the hoof and the 
 internal parts must be in an extraordinary degree strong. 
 A partial observer of the foot of the horse would be led to 
 suppose that the sole endured the weight of the animal ; 
 which opinion would be erroneous ; on the contrary, we 
 find the sensitive sole can bear httle continued pressure, 
 though its elasticity and form enable it to bear a momentary 
 force. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X. 
 
 FOUR VIEWS EXEMPLIFYING THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF 
 
 THE "Foot. 
 
 Fig. 1 . The pastern and foot divided through the centre. — 
 a, The cannon bone ; h, the large pastern bone ; c, the small 
 pastern bone ; d, the pedal bone ; e, the navicular bone ; 
 /, the insertion of the extensor pedis tendon into the coro- 
 nary process of the pedal bone ; g, the insertion of the flexor 
 pedis perforans, passing under the navicular bone, to gain 
 insertion into the sole of the pedal bone ; h, the elastic frog ; 
 i, the horny frog ; j, the hoof; U, the coronet. 
 
 Fig. 2. The hoof sawn offhelow the coronet. — a, The elastic 
 frog ; & 6, the posterior portion of the lateral cartilages ; c c, 
 the anterior portion of the lateral cartilages cut through ; d, 
 the flexor pedis perforans tendon, running under the navi- 
 cular bone, but above the elastic frog ; e, the navicular bone, 
 the anterior portion of which has been divided ; /, the supe- 
 rior surface of the pedal bone, showing the indentations for 
 the reception of the prominences at the inferior extremity of 
 the small pastern bone ; ^, in the separation of the hoof a 
 removal has taken place of the coronary process, which con- 
 sequently projects above the horny box in the living subject ; 
 h, the interweaving of the sensitive and of the horny or in- 
 
266 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 
 
 sensitive laminae ; the dark lines representing the sensitive 
 laminae, and the white the homy laminse, which form the 
 inner wall of the crust ; i, the outer wall of the crust, con- 
 sisting of dark horn. 
 
 Fig. 3. The sensitive parts exposed — the sole of the foot 
 shown after the horn has been removed. — a, The sensitive 
 frog ; b, the sensitive bars ; the white line between the bars 
 and frog representing the part of the foot which secretes the 
 horny commissure that unites the bars and frog; c, the 
 sensitive sole ; d, the heels ; e, the fissure of the frog'; //, 
 the reflection of the sensitive laminee forming the bars ; g, 
 the reflection of the coronet forming the frog. The spo'no-y 
 substance, represented to the left of the spectator, be- 
 tween '„ and b, show that the subject whence this drawing 
 was taken was only saved by death from an attack of 
 canker. 
 
 Fig. 4. The sensitive lamina exposed by removal of the 
 horny box. — a, The secreting coronet; b, the sensitive 
 laminee ; c, the reflection of the coronet going to form the 
 sensitive frog; d, the reflection of the sensitive laminae 
 going to form the sensitive bars ; e, the toe ; /, the quarters ; 
 g, the heels. 
 
THE 
 
 PRACTICE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE ; 
 
 A DESCRIPTION 
 
 CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND MEDICAL TREATMENT 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE; 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED, 
 
 A MORE CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THOSE OF NEAT CATTLE 
 AND SHEEP. 
 
OF DISEASE GENERALLY. 
 
 Disease is a morbid affection of a part or of the whole of 
 the body, whereby the exercise of some of its functions is 
 altered or suspended. The causes of disease are various ; 
 some of them are evident, others are obscure. We call the 
 cause remote when it can only be guessed at or surmised. 
 It is termed predisposing when inherited, or the conse- 
 quence of a particular formation ; thus small carcassed horses 
 are prone to constitutional diarrhcea, and those with oddly 
 formed hind legs are said to be predisposed to curb. There 
 are also proximate or exciting causes constantly acting in 
 the production of disease ; thus a horse, violently heated 
 during hunting, plunges into a river, and inflammation of 
 the lungs follows. Here the violent action of the lungs 
 had predisposed them to become diseased ; but the cold 
 bath was the exciting cause of the disorder. A nipping 
 wind, with sleet, blows on cattle purposely fed high for 
 sale ; they take a cold, for they had been hitherto not ex- 
 posed to so frigid a temperature. Here the excessive feed- 
 ing predisposes, and the cold excites the malady. 
 
 Diseases for many centuries were principally attributed to 
 an affection of the fluids or humours of the body, and this 
 theory was termed the humoral pathology. The blood then 
 was the favourite agent which diseased the entire body ; but 
 by advanced knowledge we now comprehend that the blood, 
 though apparently a fluid, contains no inconsiderable portion 
 of solid particles, and also that gas, fluid, and solid are but 
 names for diflerent states which any form of matter may 
 under favourable circumstances assume. There are now 
 living physiologists who reject entirely the fluids, and attri- 
 bute every thing to the solids, and these, for the reasons 
 stated above, are as far wrong as their predecessors. The 
 bone, which is the most solid substance in the body, is 
 deposited and absorbed in a fluid state ; which instance may 
 serve to show how both systems are united by nature, since 
 
270 OF DISEASE GENERALLY. 
 
 the framework of the whole carcass is known to exist in 
 two separate conditions. Diseases, however, vary in ap- 
 pearance according to the part attacked : thus phrenitis is 
 the consequence of morbid vascular action of the brain, and 
 enteritis depends upon the like state within the substance of 
 the intestines ; but phrenitis and enteritis are diseases very 
 dissimilar in their symptoms. Each disease, moreover, is 
 liable to individual peculiarities dependent on the immediate 
 state, age, and temperament of the object attacked. 
 
 The systematic division of diseases is termed nosology, 
 the simplest arrangement of which is the alphabetical. 
 Anciently, diseases w^ere divided according to their dura- 
 tion, and this laid the foundation for the acute and the 
 chrome ; but which subjected the founders to call in the aid 
 of the subacute, for those which ranged in the intermediate 
 spaces. It has also been attempted to arrange diseases 
 simply according to the parts of the animal frame ; which 
 suits well with the plan of uniting the anatomical, physio- 
 logical, and pathological considerations together. At the 
 present time there is an evident disposition to disregard all 
 systematic or arbitrary arrangement of natural causes and 
 effects. Men are now rather inclined to view each disease 
 as a perfect whole in itself, which, though connected with 
 the affections of other structures, is not necessarily joined 
 to one more than to another. Any system, however, which 
 may serve to smooth the path of the student is so far of 
 service but no further. 
 
 The division of diseases into epidemic, endemic, sporadic, 
 and specific, is still acknowledged. Epidemic diseases are 
 such as prevail generally at a particular time among all ages 
 and kinds of our domestic breeds of animals, spreading as 
 though they were imbibed with the air. Of this form of 
 disease the affection so lately fatal among cows is an in- 
 stance ; as the foot lameness which attacks our cows, sheep, 
 and pigs is also an example. Endem ic diseases are those which 
 confine their attacks to a certain locality ; as the glanders, 
 which was confined to certain badly ventilated stables, sadly 
 illustrates. Sporadic diseases stand in opposition to the 
 two former, and are a very extensive class, comprehending 
 all such as affect particular constitutions or ages : thus 
 strangles becomes a sporadic disease. Specific diseases are 
 
OF PURE FEVER. 271 
 
 snch as are peculiar to a particular class of animals : thus 
 the majority of diseases are specific ; as being peculiar to one 
 description of animal does not prevent something of the 
 same kind being common to another. 
 
 To a proper knowledge of the management of diseases 
 we consider the cause, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and 
 cure. The cause is frequently involved in obscurity ; at 
 other times a moderate portion of attention will discover 
 it ; while in some instances it is evident at once. The 
 symptoms of a disease are the effects which it produces ; 
 thus an inflamed brain, being productive of delirium and 
 redness of the eyes, makes delirium and redness of the eyes 
 a symptom of inflamed brain : but this does not hold good 
 with regard to results caused by disease ; for death is fre- 
 quently a result of this disease ; only death is not a symptom 
 of, but a termination to, an inflamed brain. From the 
 symptoms we form our diagnostic of the disease, that is, we 
 judge of its present state; being masters of which, we are 
 enabled to form a prognosis, or opinion of its probable ter- 
 mination. The cure forms the most important part, and 
 frequently consists in attempts to assist Nature in her 
 efforts to produce a natural remission of the disease. If 
 these efforts are wanting, we endeavour to promote artificial 
 ones, or we attempt to resist the effects of the disease, or 
 tendency to die. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FEBRILE DISEASES IN QUADRUPEDS, 
 OF PURE FEVER. 
 
 The existence of pure fever was by Coleman and his disci- 
 ples denied to ever occur to the horse. This opinion was 
 formed without due observation, though both in man and 
 in animals fever far more frequently is witnessed as a 
 symptom of disease than alone. To have fever it is 
 necessary to endure a cold stage, followed by a hot one. 
 The cold stage with horses creates the difficulty. The 
 animal's skin being covered wdth hair, the temperature of 
 its body is not easily ascertained. However, a staring coat, 
 
272 OF PURE FEVER. 
 
 without other signs, usually begins most disorders ; and 
 this staring coat alone would justify us in concluding that 
 the cold stage were present. The peculiar mode of stand- 
 ing, and the blowing kind of breathing, are moreover each 
 characteristic of the sensation of cold. When the heat 
 commences, or the warm stage supervenes, other symptoms, 
 with equal force, declare the change which has taken place. 
 The horse appears in a state of dejection, and sweats on 
 every exertion, however trivial. His extremities, in all 
 probability, are cold at the onset. The pulse, before slow, 
 and its stroke feeble, becomes quick and at length throb- 
 bing. Breathing is quickened, and the dejected animal 
 looks around as though he implored relief, yet is watchful 
 and sleepless. His thirst is in most cases urgent, but his 
 appetite is diminished. He stales little, his urine is high- 
 coloured, and the dung he voids is hard and in small balls. 
 Fever, when first observed, is often promptly treated by the 
 abstraction of blood. But this method, though often suc- 
 cessful, is no less imprudent. It leaves the animal weak, 
 and retards his perfect recovery. A better plan is to give, 
 when the staring coat alone is witnessed, the following- 
 drink : — 
 
 Nitrated spirits of ether (sweet nitre) four ounces. 
 
 Acetate of ammonia eight ounces. 
 
 Water one pint. 
 
 If this does not succeed in a quarter of an hour, the drink 
 may be repeated, and thus continued till the coat is smooth, 
 or other symptoms are exhibited. 
 
 Supposing the fever to have gone on to the warm fit, a 
 quickened pulse is generally imagined to demand immediate 
 venesection. But a quick action of the heart portrays 
 bodily v/eakness, and the following drench will answer the 
 end desired much better : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Water one pint. 
 
 And this may be repeated at intervals of a quarter of an 
 hour, till the recovery is confirmed. 
 
DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 273 
 
 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION IN HORSES, &C. 
 
 Inflammation is a diseased state of the capillaries. Some 
 authors have regarded these vessels as in a condition of 
 excitability, but if contractility be a sign of life, the re- 
 verse must argue a loss of vitality. During inflammation 
 the dimensions of the capillary vessels are enlarged ; in con- 
 sequence more blood passes through them ; to make up the 
 demand for more blood the heart's action is increased, and 
 more is propelled through the body. The blood passing- 
 through the capillaries gives forth caloric, and hence the 
 inflamed part is hot. The increased quantity of the fluid 
 distends the capillaries, and causes them to press with force 
 upon the nerves, hence the part is enlarged and tender ; the 
 quantity of red blood traversing an inflamed part causes it 
 to be red, hence redness is one of the symptoms of inflam- 
 mation. However, the horse being a thick-skinned animal, 
 and its skin being covered with hair, the last sign is not 
 usually perceptible in him ; but when it is situated in a thin 
 and naked membrane, as that of the nostrils or of the eyes, 
 we are then made sensible that colour is not wanting to 
 characterize inflammation in the horse. 
 
 Inflammation is divided into diftused and local. Diffused 
 inflammation is aggravated fever. Local inflammation is 
 beheld when a part is injured, and inflammation, confined to 
 the spot which has been hurt, ensues. 
 
 Inflammation is further characterized as acute and chronic. 
 The acute kind is best illustrated by abdominal inflamma- 
 tion ; which is sometimes so acute, or quick and active, as to 
 run its course and terminate in death within nine hours 
 from the commencement of its attack. Chronic inflamma- 
 tion is aptly shown in the diseases to which bones and liga- 
 ments are subjected ; which, though painful, are usually a long 
 time before they either yield to medicine or destroy the life. 
 
 Inflammation is further spoken of as healthy and un- 
 healthy. It is of the healthy kind when a horse receives a 
 gash upon any part of the body, and the lips of the wound, 
 upon being brought nicely together adhere, and through 
 inflammation repair the injury ; or when the wound granu- 
 lates, and throws out pus, and by this kind of inflammatory 
 process restores the loss of substance. It is witnessed, of 
 
 T 
 
274 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 the unhealthy description, in the majority of tumors, as well 
 as in all sinuses or pipes ; which last throw out a sticky glary 
 fluid, very unlike healthy pus. 
 
 When the inflammation has lasted a longer or shorter time 
 it terminates ; and the terminations to inflammation are six : 
 namely, resolution, adhesion, suppuration, eff*usion, gangrene, 
 and mortiflcation or death ; omitting all mention of ulceration 
 and sloughing, neither of which can terminate inflammation, 
 though both are recorded as performing such an office. 
 
 Resolution occurs after diffused or general inflammation, 
 and means when the diseased condition is resolved, or cleared 
 away or ended. This, of all terminations, is the one most 
 to be desired, as it restores the body to a state of health. 
 
 Adhesion is when a wound has been inflicted, and the 
 bleeding having ceased, the divided surfaces is then sticky. 
 If brought together in this state they adhere, or are glued 
 firmly together. This adhesion takes place through the 
 fibrine thrown out by the divided vessels. This fibrine is 
 glutinous in its nature, and will hold the parts together 
 until the vessels penetrate its substance, and it becomes a 
 part of the living body, or is converted into cellular tissue. 
 There are also internal adhesions, which are by no means 
 so desirable as that just referred to. 
 
 Suppuration ensues upon all torn wounds, or when the 
 flesh is bruised as well as cut. Suppuration may throw oflf 
 a portion, the integrity of which is perfectly destroyed ; or 
 it may proceed, and gradually fill up a cavity by means of 
 granulations, which are little bodies of a highly sensitive 
 and vascular nature secreting pus. The suppuration may 
 take place into a kind of bag, or closed sac, when an abscess 
 results. The commencement of suppuration is attended 
 with much pain, and pus appears to he sent forth after 
 much labour, or at vast expense to the system. 
 
 Effusion is when the inflamed part takes on the process 
 of throwing out fluid, and is seen in dropsy, within internal 
 cavities. 
 
 Gangrene occurs when the vitality is nearly conquered 
 in a part; and this termination affords the latest, though it is 
 a very desperate chance to the veterinary surgeon ; for if it 
 goes on but one stage further, the structure is broken up, 
 vitality is lost, and mortification with death ensues. 
 
DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 275 
 
 There is another termination classed among the endings 
 of inflammation, but which we cannot view as lawfully 
 belonging to the list. It is named metastasis, and means 
 the change of place, or removal of inflammation from one 
 part to another. This evidently is not a termination, but a 
 change in situation. It is well seen in inflamed lungs. 
 The practitioner leaves his patient very bad at night ; he 
 comes next morning expecting to find the animal dead, but 
 is surprised to discover him apparently quite well. He is 
 rejoiced, but his eye accidentally rests upon the feet; the 
 horse stands oddly. An examination takes place, which 
 shows the animal has inflammation of the feet. The disease 
 has left the lungs to settle in the feet, and this change of 
 locality is called metastasis. 
 
 The liability to these various terminations of inflamma- 
 tion is not the same in all parts of the body ; on the con- 
 trary, some are more prone to one, and others to a different 
 kind. Deep-seated parts, and the gi^eat serous cavities of 
 the body, appear peculiarly liable either to the adhesive 
 effects of inflammation, or to that modification of it which 
 produces effusion. The adhesion here implied entirely 
 differs from that already alluded to. It is seen when a 
 lung adheres to the walls of the chest, or one intestine to 
 another, and is always the result of inflammation. Effusion 
 really means dropsy, or w^ater poured forth upon the cessa- 
 tion of inflammation within the cavities of the abdomen or 
 chest. 
 
 Ulceration used to be reckoned among the termination 
 of inflammation, but it, like sinuses, is the consequence of 
 a chronic kind of inflammation which is not now under con- 
 sideration : it is the result of unhealthy or imperfect in- 
 flammation, and its cure chiefly depends upon our being 
 able to excite active inflammation in the part affected. 
 
 The causes of inflammation are said to be predisposing 
 and exciting, remote and proximate ; the points, however, 
 where one ends and the other begins, are by no means easy 
 to define. Such occasional causes which act by their out- 
 ward effects as stimulants, we can readily comprehend : but 
 the more remote agencies we are at a loss to explain. In- 
 flammations, and febrile affections generally, were wont to 
 be attributed to the effect of cold. Modern pathologists 
 
 T 2 
 
276 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 have been led to consider this as erroneous. But it is pro- 
 bable that in attempting to prove too much, jas is usually 
 the case, they prove too little ; for daily observation of 
 plain facts convince us tliat the application of cold, under 
 various forms and circumstances, is an active agent in the 
 production of inflammation. The predisposing cause is, 
 however, of the most consequence, and to this the gene- 
 rality of people pay little attention. Few persons think at 
 all about an agency, which though fatal in its ultimate 
 result, is followed by no immediate effect. The predispo- 
 sition, however, once established, any circumstance may 
 become the exciting cause ; but because this last is nearer 
 to the effect, it attracts the attention, and fixes the observa- 
 tion of the great majority of horse-owners. 
 
 The treatment of general or diffused inflammation. — In 
 attempting the reduction of diffused inflammation, whether 
 existing in the form of inflammatory fever, or in the inflam- 
 mation of some vital and important organ, the first remedy 
 formerly employed was bleeding. The practitioner was so 
 confident in this resort, that he drew blood with the 
 same complacency he would extract beer from a barrel, and 
 quite as often, even supposing him to be very fond of the 
 exhilarating beverage. In the present day, however, either 
 the character of disease has changed, or it is perceived the 
 practice alluded to was founded upon a mistaken basis. 
 Horses could not now bear the loss of half that quantity of 
 vital fluid, which is on good authority believed to have 
 been formerly taken from them. Many an animal now, 
 having influenza has been bled into hydrothorax. Many 
 an animal has been so reduced by repeated bleedings, that 
 he has ultimately sank, not from the disease, but in conse- 
 quence of the measures pursued for its reduction. Bleeding 
 had better now be entirely put out of the means of cure ; 
 for any disturbance of the circulation is easier and more 
 safely equallized by the administration of a stimulant, than 
 only apparently tranquillized by the abstraction of a fluid, 
 of which the animal very rarely has a drop too much. 
 
 Purgatives, in the human subject, form the next active 
 agent in combating arterial excitement ; but there are some 
 peculiarities in the structure and functions of the horse, 
 which render these medicines less eligible than in man. To 
 
INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 277 
 
 produce active purgation in the horse is to cause great 
 irritation, and to destroy much more of the powers of the 
 constitution than under some circumstances can he spared. 
 It also requires so great time to effect it, that our de- 
 pendence on it is lessened. 
 
 Diaphoretics and nauseants are by some veterinary sur- 
 geons thrust down the animal's throat, as though a horse 
 w^hich was seriously ill was determined, if it w^ere not pre- 
 vented by physic, to devour all before it. Of this we may 
 be certain, that in every inflammatory state the appetite is 
 lost. The return of a desire to feed is to be looked for 
 and hailed as a symptom of recovery, not prevented as 
 though it were an actual danger, and demanded physic to 
 delay its return. Diaphoretic are all nauseants, and w^ere 
 they not, are very weakening. The quantity of tartar 
 emetic administered to an animal in disease is often suffi- 
 cient to injure the texture of the stomach. These medi- 
 cines are given without rhyme or reason, simply because 
 something must be done. The inflammation may by such 
 means be reduced, but so Is the animal at the same time, 
 and a long loss of services with a long course of tonics is 
 the consequence, even if the life be not destroyed. 
 
 Diuretics also affect the strength, which is always weakened 
 in disease, and therefore these agents are to be avoided. 
 
 Diluents are of no use to the horse, as the animal in 
 sickness will partake of no form of sustenance. A pail of 
 chilled, or rather warmed water, should however be placed 
 in the manger, and changed several times during the day. 
 
 Every horse, in almost every state of disease, should be 
 placed in a loose box, the air of w^hich should be free and 
 cool. Draughts are to be avoided, neither should the wind 
 blow upon the animal, but the current of air ought to be 
 constant, and the clothing hght. Rugs are improper, and 
 a sheet is at such a time sufficient. All noise or excite- 
 ment should be suppressed, and the sick horse be made as 
 comfortable, and kept as quiet as though a Christian, and 
 not an animal, w^re suffering. 
 
 EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER, OR INFLUENZA, IN HORSES. 
 
 This fever purposely heads the description of diseases, 
 as being one of the most frequent which attacks horses. 
 
278 INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES, 
 
 With regard to its cause, it is more honest to confess our 
 ignorance, than to talk largely about atmospheric influence, 
 of which we know nothing : though excessive fatigue, par- 
 ticularly on young horses, and more so during a variable 
 spring, when heat and cold, drought and moisture, quickly 
 alternate, may have something to do in generating the dis- 
 order. It is decidedly epidemic in its nature ; is more fre- 
 quently encountered in spring than in autumn ; more often 
 in autumn than in summer ; and in winter more rarely than 
 in either of the other quarters of the year. 
 
 The influenza or distemper, as it is occasionally called, 
 is singularly prevalent in some seasons ; and although 
 it exhibits general characters in common, yet the epi- 
 demic of one year will be marked with some particular 
 symptoms wdiich will not appear in the epidemic of the 
 next. Horses of large cities and crowded towns are more 
 obnoxious to it than those of the country ; and in the 
 country, those are most liable to be attacked which are 
 most confined. It has been disputed, whether it be con- 
 tagious or not, and both thd negative and affirmative 
 may be maintained with some show of reason. In some 
 seasons it exhibits little or no contagious characters ; in 
 others it is apparently infectious, particularly among young 
 horses. 
 
 It is of great consequence to distinguish this complaint 
 from pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs; for, if bleed- 
 ing and other parts of the depletive system, which are 
 usual in pneumonia, be carried too far in this, the conse- 
 quences nearly always are dropsy of the chest. To an 
 attentive observer even, such a mistake is likely to hap- 
 pen ; even the defluxion from the nose, and its tendency 
 to become purulent, is exhibited too late to prevent the 
 mischief; the tenderness and swelling of the submaxillary 
 glands, with the early prostration of strength which gene- 
 rally accompanies the disorder, rarely sufficiently early 
 characterize influenza ; the pulse is by no means to be 
 depended upon ; and although often small and frequent, yet 
 it often has the wiry, oppressed, and indistinct feel usual in 
 pneumonia. 
 
 Catarrhal symptoms. — The disease occasionally com- 
 mences with a rigor, or shivering fit, which is frequently 
 
INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 279 
 
 not observed ; to this succeeds increased lieat, with hurried 
 respiration. At the period, however, when the veterinary 
 surgeon is generally called in, the true nature of the symp- 
 toms few can venture to determine. There is, however, 
 one sign which will justify caution ; this is a yellowness of 
 the membrane of the eye ; and in a day or so a serous 
 defluxion from one or both nostrils ensues, which become 
 quickly heightened in colour ; the eyes themselves appear- 
 ing at the same time heavy and moist. The serous exuda- 
 tion from the nose, however, soon loses its thin character, 
 for cough comes on, and the discharge becomes purulent. 
 All mucous surfaces have a tendency to sympathise with 
 one another ; therefore in influenza, not only may the dis- 
 ease extend to the interior of the air cells of the lungs, but 
 it almost invariably affects the lining membranes of the 
 great digestive canal and generative organs. Sore throat 
 is a very frequent accompaniment to the complaint, which 
 shows itself by a difficulty in swallowing. The hay which 
 is taken is chewed, or ' quidded,' as it is termed ; then 
 falls out of the mouth. The disease extending itself makes 
 the cough more harsh, dry, and frequent. From the 
 tumefaction about the rima giottidis, the cough is often 
 almost incessant, as well as deep and sonorous ; it is fre- 
 quently so painful as to occasion much impatience and 
 violent stamping in the horse during the eftbrt. In its 
 progress throughout the extent of the nasal membrane it 
 often affects the frontal sinuses, in which case the head is 
 pendant, the eyelids are nearly closed, and even shght 
 appearances of coma present themselves. The general 
 affection makes it very common for the submaxillary glands 
 to become much tumefied, extremely tender, and on rare 
 occasions to suppurate. The same tendency likewise pro- 
 duces tumours in various parts of the head, which greatly 
 protract the disease. In some instances also pendulous 
 swellings appear on the chest, belly, or legs ; but which 
 often prove critical, and announce the termination of the 
 disease in dropsy of the chest. The pulse varies in dif- 
 ferent subjects and under different modifications of the 
 disorder : it is, however, quickened in all instances, and the 
 breathing is usually accelerated in the same proportion; 
 but it is only occasionally that the pulse is full or hard. 
 
280 INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 
 
 A remarkable prostration of strength soon follows the sup- 
 purative process. Thus about the third or fourth day, 
 after pus has exuded from the nose, the horse, on being 
 moved from his stall or box, will usually be found much 
 weaker than the violence of the acconipanying symptoms 
 would give reason to expect. 
 
 As the purulent discharge becomes confirmed and in- 
 creases in quantity, the disease grows milder, and all the 
 symptoms may be expected to abate. The cough and 
 soreness of throat will lessen, the pulse moderate, the heat 
 of the body will become equable, the countenance more 
 lively, and the horse will now probably be disposed to eat 
 some favourite food. The dung, which has been before 
 dry and in small quantities, and the urine, which has been 
 also spare and high coloured, return to their natural states, 
 and the horse recovers gradually, but seldom rapidly. The 
 disease, how^ever, does not always take this favourable 
 turn ; on the contrary, by injudicious treatment, or by the 
 violence of the attack, or by a translation of the inflauima- 
 tory action, the respiration sometimes becomes greatly dis- 
 turbed, occasioning much heaving at the flanks ; the legs, 
 ears, and muzzle become cold, the pulss is found greatly 
 quickened, and the weakness excessive. The nasal mem- 
 branes now often look in some parts livid, and in others of 
 a fiery red : the discharge from them also is tinged with 
 streaks of blood. In these cases, unless relief be speedily 
 obtained, the pulse will proceed to falter, cold sweats ap- 
 pear, and the animal often sinks on the fifth, sixth, or 
 seventh day. In other cases, these fatal symptoms are not 
 so rapid ; but, eventually, the horse becomes emaciated, 
 and dies after ten, twelve, or fourteen days. Very fre- 
 quently, also, wdien the inflammation has extended to the 
 lungs, serous effusion pours forth, as in pleurisy, and 
 suffocation closes the scene. In some instances a partial 
 recovery takes place ; but the horse remains thick winded, 
 or he proves a roarer, or he becomes altogether broken 
 winded ; which several terminations are more fully detailed 
 in Pneumonia. 
 
 Causes. — It is better to confess these are unknow^n, 
 rather than by a laboured and pretended explanation to 
 endeavour to conceal our ignorance. 
 
INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 281 
 
 Prognosis. — This will altogether depend upon the stage 
 at which we are called in, and the measures w'e intend to 
 pursue. If before the nasal discharge appears, and w'e 
 mean to adopt mild remedies, our opinion may be favour- 
 able. Even if the discharge has appeared, and the horse 
 has not been tampered with, we may promise a desirable 
 issue. But if the animal has a forlorn aspect, a quick and 
 feeble pulse, and numerous swellings about the body, at 
 once declare an adverse judgment ; or if you mean to use 
 energetic measures, you may safely prognosticate the horse 
 will die, no matter at what stage your services may be 
 required. 
 
 Treatment of the Influenza or Catarrhal Fever. — This 
 complaint was formerly very destructive, as all the accounts 
 left us by old practitioners sufficiently testify. It has, 
 however, under modern treatment, been stripped of very 
 much of its terrors. The chief thing to be remembered by 
 the veterinary surgeon is, that influenza is a simulating 
 disease, and that the animal labouring under it w^ould be 
 killed by one half of the means lawfully pursued to eradi- 
 cate other disorders. Old writers mention a mahgnant 
 catarrhal fever, in which the body was edematous, the 
 breath foetid, and all secretions and excretions offensive ; 
 but it may be doubted whether the malignant catarrh they 
 speak of w^as not simple influenza, made to assume a 
 typhoid or putrid type, by the bleedings, purgings, blister- 
 ings, sweatings, diuretics, nauseants, &c. &c. in which they 
 indulged. 
 
 If the pulse be quick and feeble, the membrane of the 
 nose deeper than usual, the mouth clammy, and the lining 
 of the eye of a yellow tint, the practitioner must be cau- 
 tious. The other symptoms may declare pneumonia, lami- 
 nitis, laryngitis, bronchitis, enteritis, or any other form of 
 disease, but he must entirely disregard them. He must 
 run every risk, upon the hazard that influenza may be 
 lurking beneath the obvious symptoms. Let him give the 
 drink composed of sulphuric ether, laudanum, and cold 
 water, and leave the horse for an hour : at the expiration 
 of the period he will return, and if the disease be influenza 
 the horse may be a little better, or at all events no worse. 
 He will then retire, leaving another drink of the same kind, 
 
282 SYiMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES. 
 
 and directing it to be administered at night. The next 
 day, and the next, he will repeat this drench, administering 
 with it a scruple of calomel. The powder he will shake 
 upon the tongue, and then wash it down with the drink ; 
 and this he will persevere wdth till the character of the 
 pulse changes, becoming more quick, and so weak as hardly 
 to be felt. Thereupon he w^ill discontinue all medicine, 
 and order the horse a quart of the best London stout, night 
 and morning. The cure altogether seldom lasts a week 
 under this mode of treatment, and the recovery is not only 
 soon accomplished but perfect. 
 
 With regard to stabling during the height of this com- 
 plaint, a stall is every bit as good as a loose box, for the 
 horse that has influenza will take no kind of exercise. He 
 should not be moved from the stable where he stands, as 
 loss of a companion has aggravated the complaint. The 
 stable doors and windows should be left open, and the 
 animal have light summer clothing put upon him. A good 
 bed should be under him, and a pail of good whitened 
 water, or thin gruel, placed in his manger : this last should 
 be changed twice every day, although it be not touched. 
 Silence should be maintained as much as possible, near to 
 and about the animal prostrated by this disorder. Influenza 
 renders horses extremely nervous, and the slightest noises 
 seriously affect them. So soon as the strength of the com- 
 plaint has subsided, a loose box may then be of advantage. 
 His drink may be made rather thicker ; carrots chopped 
 fine, and fresh grasses should compose his only food for the 
 few first days, then a few crushed and scalded oats may be 
 allowed ; and at any time give any kind of provender, rather 
 than the horse should consume his bed. Good wholesome 
 stimulating food is, after all, the best tonic ; and plenty of 
 this, with a quart of the best London stout morning and 
 evening, will soon leave the horse none the worse for having 
 had influenza. 
 
 SYMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES. 
 
 By this is to be understood those general febrile appear- 
 ances which often accompany local inflammations ; that is, 
 when any one or more organs are extensively deranged, 
 and the vascular system is violently disturbed by the injury. 
 
SYMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES. 283 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that fever, in this instance, is not 
 to be regarded so much a disease as a s^^mptom ; and such 
 it is to be considered in practice ; nevertheless, it sometimes 
 runs so high as to supersede all other symptoms, wearing 
 away the strength of the animal, so as to render him unable 
 to struggle with the real injury. It is the most frequent 
 fever of horses ; because it is attendant upon all serious 
 hurts and attacks. 
 
 When the veterinary surgeon is visiting an animal suf- 
 fering from any disease or injury, it is always a bad symp- 
 tom when defluxions or excretions suddenly stop ; the eye 
 brightens ; the pulse becomes much stronger, but not much 
 quicker ; the nasal and visible membranes grow red and 
 dry ; the mouth gets hot, and the horse exhibits excitability, 
 which is shown by bis being attentive to every shadow, 
 and starting at every sound. This is symptomatic fever, 
 and a little blood may then be taken. This is best done by 
 an assistant, the principal standing apart to note the effect 
 produced by the abstraction ; and so soon as he remarks 
 the animal display any change, such as gaping, or becoming 
 evidently less excited, to command the operation to cease. 
 All food must be removed except a bran mash and chilled 
 water, both of which may remain in the manger. Either 
 of the following may be given immediately : — 
 
 Linseed oil one pint. 
 
 Cliloriform one drachm. 
 
 Powdered Barbadoes aloes three drachms. 
 
 Extract of gentian three drachms. 
 
 All noise must be suppressed, all strangers forbidden to 
 enter the stable ; none must approach the animal but the 
 groom it is accustomed to, and he must move as quietly as 
 possible. If in twenty-four hours the bowels have not 
 acted, six ounces of the solution of aloes, with one ounce 
 of sulphuric ether, and a pint of cold water may be given, 
 and ten grains of aconite (Wolfsbane) in powder be shaken 
 on the tongue, four times a day. These measures must 
 be continued ; for symptomatic fever is the first step in the 
 horse towards tetanus. All disturbance by backracking, &c. 
 must be strictly avoided ; and whatever is resolved upon 
 must be accomplished as quickly and as quietly as under 
 the circumstances is possible. 
 
284 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 
 
 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 
 
 This is generally a very fatal disorder in the horse. 
 There is only one known case of cure upon record, and 
 that one occurred in the practice of Mr. Gowing, of 
 1, Stucley-terrace, Camden Town; which, by the kind per- 
 mission of that gentleman, we are enabled to give in the 
 words of him by whom the treatment was conducted. 
 
 "On Saturday, March 12, nine o'clock a.m., 1 was re- 
 quested to visit a brown cart mare, the property of — 
 Gladdish, Esq., at his wharf, Camden Town. 
 
 " The history I received upon my arrival was, that they 
 supposed she must have been cast in the night, as there 
 were some enlargements upon the face and lips, also under 
 the jaw. Serum was oozing through the skin of a straw 
 colour in places, and also in other parts of a bloody cha- 
 racter : the near fore, and hind leg, were enlarged, or swol- 
 len to some extent. The case is evidently one of purpura. 
 I now informed the proprietor that it was a disease which 
 might end in death, and I had no doubt the mare's suffer- 
 ings would considerably increase ; that the depositions or 
 enlargements would become more extensive ; that there 
 would probably be hccmorrhage, which might take place in 
 other parts, and speedily prostrate the animal. I requested 
 that she should be removed to my infirmary, which was 
 acceded to, the distance being about half a mile, which she 
 accomplished with difficulty ; her pulse was seventy-eight, 
 and feeble ; I ordered her sp : tether nit : 5ij., with liq : ammo : 
 acce : 5viij., and to be repeated in an hour. The enlarge- 
 ments about the head and legs to be douched with cold 
 
 water, by the means of a double action pump, which was 
 constantly kept playing upon the swollen parts, for an 
 hour. I thought this produced a beneficial result, as the 
 swellings seemed to diminish. She was now rubbed dry 
 and placed in her box, but in less than thirty minutes the 
 depositions became larger than before. I ordered her a 
 ball composed of aloes Barb : Siijfs., hyd. chloridi 9j. : crot : 
 ol:gt:j. 
 
 " Three o'clock, p.m., repeat the pumping as before. 
 
 " Six o'clock, P.M., the sweUings are considerably in- 
 creased. 
 
PURPURA HiEMORRHAGICA. 285 
 
 "Nine o'clock, p.m., the pulse 110; head and legs still 
 becoming larger, and she presents in reality a most pitiable 
 appearance. White water was offered her, and sloppy mash 
 placed before her. 
 
 " Sunday, March 13. The depositions about the nose 
 have become slightly reduced : the mare appears thirsty. 
 Ordered whatever fluids she will drink should be given to 
 her ; Ibss. carbonate of iron, in two pails of water ; and 
 allow her what she will take in the shape of diet ; pulse 
 100 to 105. 
 
 " Second visit. The head and face swollen more, and the 
 difficulty of breathing greater. 
 
 " Monday, March 14. Legs more enlarged ; head, chest, 
 and face, about the same as yesterday ; will eat a mouthful 
 of hay, but with difficulty, as the effusion about the head 
 prevents the masticatory process. She has purged twice ; 
 order her four ounces more of the ferri carb : in water, of 
 which she partook freely. The pulse taken at the temporal 
 artery is very feeble and quick. 
 
 "Tuesday, March 15. The fseces have become again 
 firm ; the cathartic ball as before ; pulse, as near as I can 
 take it, about 100; the mare still takes a little hay. The 
 head has become somewhat reduced ; she consequently can 
 feed a little better ; but the enlargements are increased about 
 the chest and legs, more particularly inside of the thighs, 
 the effusion extending up to the mammae ; still the mare 
 appears cheerful ; she turns in her box, although with diffi- 
 culty ; blood still oozing through the skin. 
 
 " I am now determined to try the effects of turpentine ^iv., 
 to be beaten up with the yolk of an egg, and to be given in 
 gruel. The conjunctival membranes are injected, and have 
 a scarlet appearance, approaching the colour of vermillion. 
 Diet continued as before. 
 
 " Wednesday, March 16. The tongue has become con- 
 siderably enlarged, so as to prevent the mare from feeding ; 
 she has bitten the end, and there appears such a loss of 
 vitality, that I am fearful it will take on a sphacelated 
 condition ; deep scarifications to the tongue, and order 5iv. 
 of turpentine to be given in gruel, as before ; she has 
 passed her faeces during the night ; urinates freely, the 
 kidneys being acted upon by the agent. The turpentine 
 was also repeated the last thing at night. 
 
286 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 
 
 "Thursday, March 17. The tongue much more en- 
 larged, so that she cannot feed ; she is continually laying 
 hold of the manger, and then resting her lips and tongue 
 upon it, which apparently seems to afford relief to her 
 sufferings ; she cannot get the tongue within the mouth ; 
 the kidneys acting freely, the turpentine perceptible in the 
 odour upon entering the box ; scarifications, and fomenta- 
 tions ; the tongue to be slightly manipulated, at intervals, 
 and placed if possible within the mouth ; she cannot take 
 any thing ; will make the attempt, but has not the power 
 of deglutating, in consequence of the enlarged state of the 
 tongue, 
 
 " Six o'clock, P.M. There is now a perceptible difference, 
 the legs being reduced, also the chest and face ; but she 
 cannot yet retain the tongue in the mouth. I once more 
 scarified the tongue, gently manipulated it, and steamed the 
 head with bran in a bag. 
 
 " Friday, March 18. The tongue can be used more 
 freely, appears lively ; picks a little hay, which evidently 
 gives her pain, as the tongue is very sore ; she retains the 
 hay in her mouth for a second or two, and then drops it ; 
 eats a few moudifuls of mash ; the swellings have become 
 larger under the abdomen, and there is a ditticulty of giving 
 any fluids by the mouth ; order 5iv. of turpentine in gruel, 
 as an enema ; the mouth and tongue to be gargled fre- 
 quently, with a weak solution of the chloride of lime ; she 
 has dunged, and urinated, but not so freely as before. 
 
 "Ten o'clock, p.m. The mare has eaten some mash, 
 and drank three parts of a pail of water ; order the mouth 
 and tongue to be gargled ; some mash, and whitened water 
 to be placed before her. She urinated while I w^as present ; 
 very high-coloured, and also some coagulated blood in it. 
 
 "Saturday, March 19. The tongue is in an improved 
 condition ; feeding better ; but clots of blood still passing 
 from the bladder, and the urine of a dark coffee-like ap- 
 pearance. It is evident that some of the renal vessels have 
 yielded. Omit the turpentine, and order one ounce of the 
 ferri sulph : in water ; this she took voluntarily ; the en- 
 largement under the belly not reduced ; the parts again are 
 scarified. 
 
 "Sunday, March 20. Still improving. Order the ferri 
 sulph : in w^ater as before ; her taste is now returning, as, 
 
PURPURA HyEMORRIIAGICA. 287 
 
 after emptying half the pail, it was evident that she knew 
 there was something in it besides water ; but it was again 
 offered to her when thirsty, and she took the remainder. 
 
 " Monday, March 21, Improving. No medicine ; there 
 is foetor from the tongue and mouth. Order the gargle as 
 before, and to be used two or three times a day. There is 
 some appearance of sloughing of the integument in several 
 parts, such as under the jaw, legs, and belly. 
 
 " Tuesday, March 22. The separation of the skin has 
 taken place. The integument has fallen off, leaving sur- 
 faces of a pale unhealthy character. Ordered the parts to 
 be dressed with chloride of lime in solution. Liberal feeding 
 with malt mashes, and medicine to be discontinued. 
 
 " Wednesday, March 23. She is not improving so fast 
 as I should wish. There is evidence of gi'eat debility ; reels 
 in her walk ; also the depositions under the chest and belly 
 not wholly absorbed ; the granulating surfaces of the wounds 
 still bear a pale appearance, denoting a want of power in the 
 system. A malt mash to be given ; also an additional feed 
 of corn allowed ; and a ball composed of ferri sulph : 5iij., 
 ex : gent : 5ij., pulv : zingibi 5j., pulv : capsisi gr : x., to be 
 continued daily. This treatment was continued until April 3, 
 when the wounds were filling up with new matter, and as- 
 suming a healthy character ; allow her four feeds a day, and 
 all further medicinal treatment discontinued. 
 
 ''Remarks. — I think the recovery of the mare depended 
 principally upon the action of the turpentine. It is an 
 agent, in such a disease, that I in future shall place my 
 principal dependence upon ; but, if given at all, it must be 
 administered in large and repeated doses, as its action and 
 the state of the patient requires. The enlargements about 
 the nose and hps were so extensive as to give those parts 
 the appearance of being the largest portion of the head. 
 In consequence it assumed a curious aspect, and a person 
 sent by the owner compared her head to that of the hippo- 
 potamus, only larger in comparison with the animal. The 
 hind extremities were of enormous size ; the inner part of 
 the thighs were of such magnitude that they touched each 
 other, so as entirely to exclude the sight of the mammse." 
 
288 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 The fevers of neat cattle have many absurd, though, 
 under some points of view, expressive names, as Hoose, 
 Distemper, Black quarter, Joint felon, Quarter evil, Quarter 
 ill, Shewt of Blood, Joint murrain. Striking in of the blood, 
 Black leg, Blain of the tongue, S)C. S)C. In some years these 
 febrile affections rage as epidemics, either from too luxu- 
 rious pasturage, or it seems sometimes through a sudden 
 removal from a meagre to a more nutritious feed ; hence 
 they are very common among the droves brought from 
 the north into the luxurious southern, midland, and western 
 districts. Fever is sudden in its attack, and rapid in its 
 progress, in its early state presenting highly inflammatory 
 appearances, which are very apt to degenerate into a low 
 and putrid type. The first symptoms usually betrayed are 
 general stiffness of the limbs ; a dull heavy countenance ; 
 red eylids and nostrils ; pulse sometimes quick and hard, at 
 others not much altered in number ; breathing accelerated 
 and sometimes difficult, evinced by the open mouth and 
 outstretched head ; stools either in balls or slimy, and 
 usually of a drier consistence than natural. It is often 
 attended with great stupidity and disinclination to move, 
 but occasionally there is much restlessness ; debility comes 
 on early, particularly in the hinder quarters ; and by the 
 second day the animal can only remain standing for a short 
 time. Rumination and inclination for food cease ; the 
 breath emits a foetid exhalation, and frequently on the 
 second day a critical deposit takes place, which terminates 
 the inflammatory action. This deposit, in some animals, 
 proves to be an universal diffusion of bloody serum tlu'ough- 
 out the cellular membrane ; in others, tumours form on the 
 joints, or on the back or belly. From the putrid tendency 
 in some instances, a quantity of gas is likewise let loose 
 within the cellular membrane, which produces a crackling 
 under the skin when pressed upon by the hand. The secre- 
 tions are stopped, and the mouth, &c. emit a horrible foctor. 
 Under which symptoms, unless speedily relieved, the animal 
 sinks. 
 
 Wood-evil, pantas, and moor-ill, may with propriety suc- 
 ceed the above. Variable symptoms, however, will, without 
 
FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE. 289 
 
 doubt, mark each of these diseases ; but their grand febrile 
 characteristics will bear similar features, and the diseases 
 will require a treatment based on their degree of morbid 
 malignancy, the ages and strength of the animals attacked, 
 and the organs principally affected. It is not the local 
 names that should be attended to by the practitioner ; nor 
 can the localities themselves, as woody districts or the open 
 moors, have such decided power over these disorders as are 
 stated. The herbage of the lowlands, particularly in wet 
 seasons, may somewhat vary the symptoms ; but the more 
 important indications will remain, and similar treatment 
 must for every case be persisted in. A cold wet season has 
 much influence in engendering these diseases : nor, from 
 what we have seen of them, is marsh miasmata without a 
 powerful influence thereon. Thus it is, that in the lofty 
 moorlands of the north they prevail equally as in the lower 
 and moister grounds of the south. 
 
 The Treatment. — This disease has so great a tendency to 
 run into the typhoid stage, or to assume the putrid cha- 
 racter, that though it be detected at the very earliest period, 
 yet blood must be withdrawn with extreme caution ; 
 perhaps the venesection had better be let alone, as all the 
 blood in the animal's body will be wanted hereafter. A mild 
 purge, consisting of two ounces of gentian, ten ounces of 
 Epsom salts, one ounce of sulphuric ether, one ounce of 
 the solution of chloride of lime, and one ounce of ginger, 
 or rather the tincture of ginger (if it can be procured) , with 
 a pint of cold water, may be horned down the beast's throat 
 immediately. 
 
 For sheep, one-tenth of the above may be administered. 
 
 If this does not answer to open the bowels in four hours, 
 or at furthest six — for animals in this condition, if they are 
 going to do so, will respond to medicine quicker than in 
 health — give a cow half a pint of linseed oil and half a drachm 
 of chloriform, or to a sheep one-sixth the quantity ; con- 
 tinue to repeat this last dose so often as the period recurs. 
 
 When the disease first shows itself in the mouth slit up 
 the bladders upon the tongue, extract the glutinous con- 
 tents, and rub the sore place left with borax and honey ; or, 
 if nothing else be at hand, a little tar and salt, or yeast and 
 salt, may be put upon the exposed surfaces. 
 
290 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 The murrain, or pest, is but the latter stage of the above 
 disorder, probably aggravated by wrong treatment. The 
 person who undertakes to master a case of this kind must 
 therefore not be idle. The body must be protected, and the 
 skin kept warm by the best means ready to the hand ; but 
 the beast must not be loaded with clothing. This is more 
 essential if any pustules should appear upon the surface of 
 the body. These last should be freely opened, and well 
 rubbed with the application hereafter to be mentioned. If 
 there is any crackling under the skin, or any part of the 
 body appear to have lost its power of contraction, and to 
 feel cold, let it be slit up, and the wounds, as well as the 
 skin, freely rubbed with the wash named below. 
 
 WASH FOR FEVER IN CATTLE. 
 
 Chloride of zinc two drachms, two scruples. 
 
 Strong solution of oak b.ark one pint. 
 
 Tepid water three pints. 
 
 This is to be applied to all raw surfaces ; the borax and 
 honey, tar or yeast and salt, being only named in case the 
 wash has to be brought from a distance, as time is valuable 
 in this disorder. 
 
 When swellings appear about the joints these may be 
 well and repeatedly rubbed with the following embroca- 
 tion : — 
 
 Tincture of cantharides four ounces. 
 
 Liquor ammonia half a pint. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums four ounces. 
 
 Soap lees, or solution of soap two quarts. 
 
 With the above external applications, which are to be 
 almost constantly employed, the following injection is to be 
 thrown up at least once every two hours, or better still 
 every hour : — 
 
 Yeast half a pint. 
 
 Solution of chloride of lime a qnarter of a pint. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Cold linseed tea a pint and a half. 
 
 If expense be a consideration the sulphuric ether may be 
 omitted from the above ; but of course the medicine is im- 
 proved by its addition. While the above is being tried the 
 following may be given by the mouth every hour : — 
 
 { 
 
 Solution of chloride of zinc one ounce. 
 
 Solution of oak bark one ounce. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Or, chloriforni one drachm. 
 
 Linseed oil half a pint. 
 
DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE. 291 
 
 After the first dose the oil and chloriform may be with- 
 drawn, and its place supplied by good linseed tea ; the oil 
 being again added as needed, at intervals of six hours each. 
 
 By an energetic pursuit of these measures the proprietor 
 may hope to save some of his stock ; but no earthly skill 
 will probably be able to snatch from death every animal 
 that is attacked. The disease, when mastered, will however 
 leave the beast very weak. Boiled food, linseed tea, and 
 tonic medicine twice a day, will all be required for its ulti- 
 mate recovery. 
 
 It will be necessary, during the ravage, to remove the 
 diseased cattle from the healthy ; these last should have their 
 pasture changed so often that at length one may be found 
 on which the stock are exempt. If none such is to be 
 found on the farmer's own land, he will act prudently to 
 hire a portion at a distance, and of an opposite character 
 to his own. To this last the healthy cattle may be very care- 
 fully driven ; the diseased animals being taken to the home- 
 stead, and there placed in a dry shelter. Here they must 
 remain until they are perfectly recovered ; the house in 
 which they have been located, and every thing they have 
 used, be washed with a liquid formed of a scruple of chloride 
 of zinc to a pint of water. 
 
 One-sixth of the above quantities is proper for sheep of 
 the full size, and less in proportion to their diminutive 
 stature. 
 
 DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE. 
 
 This name, which represents the disorder, is given to an 
 affection which cows are subject to. Short horns, good 
 milkers, and animals in high condition, or stuffed just about 
 the calving time, are the most exposed to its attacks. Young 
 cattle escape from it ; the fourth calf being usually the 
 earliest time when it commences. 
 
 Symptoms. — The animal is quiet in his house and feeding, 
 when it suddenly leaves off, stares about, and the respiration 
 is hurried for a few minutes. This over, the animal appears 
 to regain its consciousness, and falls to feeding again. It 
 again stops, and again commences eating, which may take 
 place an indefinite number of times. At length the beast 
 drops, attempts to rise, and then remains quiet ; or has the 
 
 u2 
 
292 DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE. 
 
 head thrust out or turned round to the shoulder, or raised 
 quickly up, and then dashed violently down again. After a 
 time hoven commences ; the entire abdomen swells, and the 
 animal dies without any dung having passed. 
 
 Prognosis. — It is unfavourable if the head be dashed 
 about, the milk lost, and sensation even to pressure upon 
 the eye quite gone. It is good if the purgative medicine 
 acts speedily ; if the milk is still in the udder ; if sensation is 
 retained ; if the animal moves, but keeps her head still, and 
 if the beast appears to be at all conscious of what is passing 
 around her. 
 
 Treatment. — First order the calf to be removed ; then, if 
 the cow be still up, extract so much blood from the milk 
 vein as makes an obvious impression, and then give a strong 
 drench ; if down, order the animal to be well trussed-up on 
 either side with straw, and have a man constantly watching, 
 and the shed kept moderately warm. 
 
 DRINK FOR DROPPING AFTER CALVING. 
 
 Epsom salts one pound. 
 
 Powdered gentian four ounces. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums one ounce. 
 
 Warm water a quart. 
 
 Repeat half of this every six hours, till a copious motion 
 is obtained, when very often the cow will rise and walk. 
 If the medicine, however, does not act, repeat the half 
 doses at the periods stated ; or change it for half pints of 
 linseed oil, to which half a drachm of chloriform is added. 
 At the same time be attentive to the drawing of the udder 
 thoroughly thrice a day ; if no fluid be obtained, have 
 the teats gently stroked six times daily, as the return of the 
 milk is one of the best symptoms. Rub in a stimulating 
 oil, to which one-fourth its quantity of liquid ammonia 
 is added, all over the spine, from the pole to the root of the 
 tail ; and, watching the effect of the application, cover the 
 whole with warm sheep skins, which must be changed every 
 twenty-four hours, or oftener as they demand it, supposing 
 the blister not to rise. See that the animal be carefully 
 propped up with clean straw, and be raised rather higher 
 forward, so that the urine and dung may not pollute her. 
 Whenever hoven appears insert the flexible probang, to 
 withdraw the gas, and use the same instrument to inject 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS. 293 
 
 some thick gruel, made warm with ginger, if all appetite be 
 lost. Withdraw the m'ine by means of a catheter, and do 
 all in yom' power to ameliorate the condition of your unfor- 
 tunate patient. 
 
 There are two forms of this disease : one is simple para- 
 lysis of the hind extremities, and is attended wdth small 
 danger ; the other consists of an effusion of blood upon the 
 brain, or spinal marrow, and calls for the most active mea- 
 sures, which however are rarely successful. When the 
 bowels are fully emptied, the following may be given thrice 
 daily : — 
 
 Sulpliuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Acetate of ammonia four ounces. 
 
 Solution of chloride of zinc two ounces. 
 
 Cold water a quart. 
 
 This disease might in a great measure be anticipated, 
 would the proprietor draw the udder so soon as it fills. 
 To this milkmen are very averse ; it is true the cow, in 
 a state of nature, could not have the udder drawn until the 
 calf is born, but the domesticated cow is not in a state of 
 nature. Man has made her a mere milking machine, and 
 it is but fair that man should relieve her of that which is 
 the consequence of his act. To purging and blood-letting 
 before calving we shall say nothing, having had proof 
 of their inefiicacy, and being violently opposed to such 
 measures. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER, OR GARGET, IN COWS. 
 
 This subject may with much propriety follow dropping 
 after calving in cattle. It is certainly not a very uncommon 
 complaint, but as it usually attacks cows with the largest 
 udders, and the best milkers, so it deserves our notice. It 
 is also frequently met wdth after calving, when the evil 
 practice is followed of allowing the milk to accumulate 
 for several days before the time of parturition. There is a 
 disease called weeds in Scotland, which greatly resembles 
 true garget, only it is not so much to be dreaded in its 
 results. 
 
 Both require the same measures for their relief Garget 
 is likewise very annoying in attacking fatted cows, or animals 
 nearly fit for the butcher, if such, as is frequently the case, 
 
294 INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS. 
 
 yield a little milk. The inflammation in this case is almost 
 entirely to be traced to the excessive feeding, and the same 
 cause is most probably at work when the disease comes on 
 immediately after calving. 
 
 The first symptom to be remarked is loss of appetite and 
 rumination, — standing apart, — dry muzzle, — hot root of 
 horns, &c. These signs, however, only denote the constitu- 
 tional disturbance, but attention is soon directed to the part 
 inflamed by the very peculiar walk and mode of standing, or 
 of lying down ; all of which are so effected as to allow the hind 
 legs to press in the least possible degree upon the diseased 
 gland. In whatever attitude the cow may be found she gene- 
 rally changes it with reluctance, and sometimes blows even 
 will not induce her to alter it. If she have a calf by her side 
 the little one must be removed. In all cases a small quan- 
 tity of blood should be taken from the milk vein ; then a 
 brisk purge administered, composed of Epsom salts l^ib, and 
 half doses afterwards to be given every six hours until it 
 acts freely. A canvas, made to pass under the udder having 
 holes cut for the teats, should be fastened on the loins, in 
 order to take off part of the weight of the diseased glands. 
 Within this canvas hay steeped in hot water, or chaff or 
 bran likewise made hot, may be placed, and they will 
 answer better than any fomentation. Or if the cow be a 
 favourite, and situated near to a town, a piece of spungeo- 
 piline may be procured, soaked in warm water, and applied 
 to the part. If, in a day or so, fomentations appear to do 
 no good, those applications must be discontinued, and the 
 following liniment should be rubbed at least six times a day 
 into the udder. 
 
 Soap lees, or solution of soaj) half a gallon. 
 
 Strongly camphorated spirits one pint. 
 
 Liquor ammonia (fortis) one pint. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums a quarter of a pint. 
 
 In the mean time the animal itself must not be neglected. 
 After the physic has acted, the following may be given in 
 good gruel : — 
 
 Aconite (wolfsbane) half a scruple. 
 
 Nitre one drachm. 
 
 These should be rubbed well together, and may be shaken 
 dry upon the cow's tongue. If the milk (for the glands must 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS. 295 
 
 all this time be assiduously drawn) prove mingled with blood 
 and matter, the liniment should be discontinued, and the 
 foUowmg ointment rubbed in instead : — 
 
 Iodide of lead a quarter of a pound. 
 
 Good lard two pounds. 
 
 If, how^ever, all our efforts should fail, and the milk 
 should entirely cease, and a thin watery exudation drop 
 from the teat ; the veins upon the diseased quarter become 
 small and hard ; the part changing to a white or blueish 
 aspect, and at the same time feeling cold, a free incision, 
 the whole length of the udder, immediately over the place 
 thus affected should be made, and the mortified quarter 
 allowed to drop out. The wound, and the vacancy left, 
 may be dressed w^ith chloride of zinc and water, of the 
 strength of two scruples of the salt to the pint, and it will 
 heal speedier than would be imagined. 
 
 Sometimes the gland suppurates ; abscesses are formed ; 
 when these point or come with a slight protuberance to the 
 surface, and are soft to the touch, when such is the case, 
 the abscesses should be opened by plunging a sharp pointed 
 lancet into the centre of the forward point, and cutting- 
 outward. 
 
 After the cow has lost a quarter she requires supporting 
 with nourishing food and tonics. She will afterwards tax 
 the best care that can be given. 
 
 One means of preventing garget is to thoroughly draw 
 the udder every night and morning, no matter whether the 
 cow give much milk or little, whether she be fattening, on 
 the eve of parturition, or in any other condition. 
 
 Another preventive is, never to allow a stranger to at- 
 tempt the milking. Cows have a strange power of with- 
 holding the greater portion of the meal of milk, when one, 
 to whose presence they are unaccustomed, attempts to draw 
 them. At all events, observe the dispositions of the animals 
 in your shed, and never permit a stranger to attempt the 
 milking of a cow which has a nervous, excitable, or easily 
 alarmed constitution. 
 
296 EPIDEMIC CATARRH IN CATTLE. 
 
 HOOSE, COLD, COUGH, INFLUENZA, OR EPIDEMIC CATARRH, 
 
 IN CATTLE. 
 
 There is one cause given in most books which treat of 
 cattle, to account for all their diseases, and accordingly we 
 find it in many set down as the reason for influenza. Fat 
 cattle, certainly, are not exempt from the disorder, but the 
 editor has found poor, exposed beasts, the most liable to be 
 attacked. There is no known cause for the disease. We 
 do not know how to check it, or how to encourage the 
 spread of it. It is, therefore, entitled an epidemic, and 
 supposed to consist in something peculiar in the air. This 
 is a very convenient explanation under which to conceal 
 our ignorance. 
 
 Lean cattle, much exposed, are the most liable to be 
 attacked by, though no description of beast is altogether 
 free from, the ravage of this complaint. The animal is first 
 seen to neglect its feed ; to look dejected, and altogether to 
 present a very rugged appearance. Shortly afterwards, 
 some part or parts of the body begin to swell. It may be 
 one, or all four legs. The eyes, the glands under the jaw\ 
 &c. &c., in short any one of these, or all together, may 
 begin to enlarge. They are seldom very tender, though of 
 course the animal does not relish to have them handled. 
 The weakness is excessive. The cow can hardly stand 
 or crawl, and a sense of uneasiness forbids it to be quiet. 
 The nose takes to running at first a clear fluid, which 
 shortly grows thicker, because of white bodies floating 
 about in it, and then takes on the purulent stage. 
 
 Such, with the signs of general constitutional disorder, 
 is a description of the influenza. Much force has been 
 laid upon the cough, but though usually, it is not always 
 present ; and when it is, being loud at first, it quickly 
 becomes suppressed and sore, the pain it occasions causing 
 the poor beast to stamp with the fore foot. 
 
 The practitioner called into such a case first feels the 
 pulse, which he finds weak and quickened, indicating the 
 presence of debility. He next looks up the nostrils, which 
 he 6nds inflamed if he be called in early, or clogged with a 
 copious purulent discharge, if his patient have suffered long. 
 Ropy saliva may be hanging from each side of the mouth, 
 
VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42, 297 
 
 and the lips and inside may be ulcerated. He then obliges 
 the cow to move a pace or two, and she will stagger in her 
 efforts to progress. His mind is made up. It is a case of 
 influenza, and he therefore proceeds with caution. 
 
 Treatment. — The terrible accounts left us of this disease 
 were most likely either produced by utter neglect, or caused 
 by wrong measures pursued for its relief. The modern 
 practitioner refuses to bleed; the strength cannot bear it ; 
 and likewise to purge, for excessive purgation and death 
 are commonly the result of exciting the bowels into action. 
 If the beast be out in a field, he gently gets her under 
 shelter, which he renders warm, placing a good bed of straw 
 under the animal, and a pail full of thin gruel in her man- 
 ger, with a hot bran mash before her. These, though she 
 has touched neither, he orders to be changed thrice daily ; 
 viz., morning, noon, and night. He shakes half a drachm 
 of calomel powder upon the tongue, and gives the following 
 drink night and morning : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether an ounce. 
 
 Acetate of ammonia eight ounces. 
 
 Tincture of ginger two ounces. 
 
 Cold water a P'^t. 
 
 This is the only medicine he ventures to give during the 
 violence of the disorder ; so soon as it has abated, and the 
 pulse become faster and very weak, he leaves it off, and 
 gives in its stead a quart of warm, not hot, ale into which 
 has been stirred half an ounce of tincture of capsicums. 
 
 In this disease the practitioner will do well to inform the 
 proprietor that every thing depends on attention and good 
 nursing. These two things are even more essential than 
 medicine, for many an animal will survive that has not been 
 taking a particle of physic, but has been assiduously tended 
 during its sickness. 
 
 VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42. 
 
 This disease attacks cattle, sheep, and swine. It was 
 formerly regarded with much terror, which has of late 
 years considerably abated. Its characteristic symptoms, 
 besides those of general constitutional disturbance, which 
 are always first exhibited, are vesicles appearing upon the 
 mouth, teats, and feet of cattle ; and upon the feet of sheep, 
 
298 VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42. 
 
 or the teats of ewes. The animal first appears strongly 
 averse to feed or walk much ; and, if a cow, she is resist- 
 ful during milking. Then follows smacking, loud and un- 
 mistakable smacking, of the lips : taking up of the fore foot 
 and shaking it. If the udder about this time be observed, 
 little bladders will be seen upon it, and the same vesi- 
 cles will be upon the outside and inside of the mouth, 
 and larger ones upon the tongue. The horn between the 
 claws will also appear sapped, and bulging out. These 
 bladders or vesicles, and swollen horn, will ultimately 
 burst, and a highly vascular, or very irritable surface will 
 be exposed. Recent authors mention complications of 
 this complaint ; but either the treatment has improved, or 
 the disease has of late abandoned much of its virulence, 
 for none are now to be met wath. 
 
 Treatment. — As part of this disease affects the feet, in 
 the first place get the animal under shelter, with plenty of 
 clean straw beneath it. Then cut off the cuticle from those 
 places where the vesicles have burst, and also pare away 
 the horn wherever it is detached ; but be careful to remove 
 too little' rather than too much. With regard to medical 
 measures, so much debility quickly follows this disease, 
 that both bleeding and purging are out of the question. 
 Moderately thick gruel may be placed before the beast, 
 which will sometimes drink freely. Boiled carrots or tur- 
 nips may likewise be put in the manger. Both of these 
 must be repeatedly changed, although neither are touched. 
 The sore places upon the feet, mouth, and teats, may be 
 gently dabbed several times in the course of the day, with 
 a piece of soft rag wetted with the following lotion : — 
 
 Chloride of zinc one draclim. 
 
 Pure water a pint and a half. 
 
 Nothing by the mouth is to be given, excepting a stimu- 
 lating and soothing drink, which may thus be formed, and 
 administered once every day : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Water a pint. 
 
 Nothing more is necessary for a perfect cure in most 
 instances ; when complications do appear, they must be 
 treated as directed in other parts of this work. Every 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 299 
 
 possible means must be tried by gentleness and frequent 
 attempts, with an enduring- patience, to drain the udder 
 thoroughly. The cow will resist much, but all depends 
 upon this act being well performed. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MADNESS, OR PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 
 
 IN HORSES. 
 
 When this springs from blows, causing inflammation or 
 abscess of the brain, all medical measures are useless. It 
 is better to order the horse which is thus injured to be 
 immediately shot, than to hazard any kind of hopeless 
 treatment. If, however, this advice be rejected, the medi- 
 cines should be such as are calculated to check most violent 
 and speedy inflammation ; and further than this, we have 
 no recommendation to submit to the reader. The time for 
 adopting measures intended to relieve the injured animal, 
 is during the comatose stage, that usually precedes the 
 violent one, which last, when it has once commenced, sets 
 all remedial treatment at defiance. 
 
 MAD STAGGERS, SLEEPY STAGGERS, STOMACH STAGGERS. 
 
 It was common to consider these as distinct diseases ; 
 but morbid anatomy and a more extended field of observa- 
 tion have taught us that they are only modifications of one 
 aflection. The sleepy staggers of farriers is usually but the 
 first stage of mad staggers. It is true it does occasionally 
 run its course, either fatal or otherwise, under the first 
 form, but it is much more frequently the precursor to the 
 last. 
 
 The symptoms will vary as the attack is more or less 
 acute, or as its approaches are slow or sudden. When slow, 
 it is ushered in by a loss of the usual attention to objects 
 around, and an accompanying drowsiness, which increases 
 into lethargy; the appetite at first is rather interrupted 
 than lost. When the attack is sudden, the horse is at once 
 found with his head hanging between his legs, or rested in 
 the manger, or forced against that or the walls of the stable ; 
 or if it occurs at grass, he is often found thus resting his 
 
300 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 head against a tree, or pacing around it ; his eyeHds are 
 hkewise partially closed, and when elevated, the pupil is 
 seen dilated, and around it increased redness and vascu- 
 larity of the conjunctival coat ; likewise of the nasal mem- 
 branes. Stubborn costiveness is also present, and almost 
 invariably the pulse is below its natural standard. The 
 breathing is slow, laboured, and evidently sleepy in the 
 early stage ; stertorous breathing only occurs in extreme 
 cases. These lethargic appearances sometimes increase 
 rapidly ; the horse occasionally falling down, sleeping with 
 food in his mouth ; and when roused, relapsing into stupor 
 until nervous excitement is totally suspended ; and the 
 animal dies in two, three, or four days, or may live to the 
 sixth or seventh ; or the disease may give way to a natural 
 or to an artificial cure. The post-mortem appearances of 
 such as die in this state or stage of the disease show the 
 cerebral membranes, usually turgid with blood throughout 
 all their envelopments ; the plexus choroides more particu- 
 larly so ; and the stomach greatly distended with undigested 
 food, and partially inflamed. 
 
 The 7nad staggers occasionally makes its appearance 
 without the former stage being prominent or observable ; but 
 in the majority of cases the lethargic state is followed by 
 phrenitic symptoms of more intensity : the pulse rises ; 
 there is much watchfulness and irritability of manner ; occa- 
 sionally stamping of the feet, and a delirious look. The 
 mouth is hot and dry ; the nasal and conjunctival mem- 
 branes are much heightened in colour, and the breathing is 
 greatly quickened : as the disease advances the pulse is 
 full and frequent ; sometimes it is peculiarly hard and 
 irregular, scarcely remaining the same for an hour to- 
 gether : the horse bounds from side to side ; delirious fits 
 occur, which make it dangerous to approach him ; the 
 violent convulsions wdiich suddenly seize him rendering it 
 not uncommon for him to rear and strike out his fore feet 
 with great violence ; or he will sometimes in so doing fall 
 backwards, in which state he will lie sweating at every 
 pore, apparently with the intensity of the pain he suffers : 
 small hard dung-balls are forced out at such times, or a 
 small quantity of highly coloured and sometimes offensive 
 urine is expelled ; from which he may experience slight 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 301 
 
 relief, and he will rise again to renew the same scenes, 
 until exhausted by the irritation. 
 
 Phrenitis may he mistaken for the phrensied symptoms 
 apparent in the rabid malady : but the following observa- 
 tions will sufficiently indicate the difference between the 
 two. In the rabid phrenitis the symptoms evidently be- 
 token, not only a frantic, but a decidedly mischievous dis- 
 position, which prompts him purposely to attack every 
 thing living and dead : all around him suffers ; rack, stall, 
 and manger, are all laid prostrate. In the true staggers 
 nothing of this kind appears ; the horse is wild, and beats 
 himself about, and endangers every thing around him, but 
 not by premeditated design: on the contrary, he simply 
 labours under spasmodic contraction of his muscles, which 
 force him into violent efforts ; he rears, plunges, falls pros- 
 trate, or kicks, from mere excess of pain. 
 
 Post-mortem examination will not unfrequently present 
 an altered structure in the cerebral mass itself. Mr. Per- 
 civall notices his having seen a remarkable yellowness of 
 the substance of the cerebellum. In some instances, par- 
 ticularly where death has early succeeded to a very violent 
 attack, the cerebral pulp has been tinted with an inflamma- 
 tory blush; the membranes, but particularly the plexus 
 choroides, have also been intensely vascular.^ In protracted 
 cases, and especially where serous effusion has taken 
 place, the whole cerebral mass has been found more pale 
 than natural, as well as soaked and tender with serosity. 
 It is remarkable that in all instances which have been 
 examined, there has been abdominal affection also. The 
 stomach either being distended with food, or violently in- 
 flamed ; the inflammation extending down the intestines. 
 Sometimes the stomach is found ruptured, and a portion of 
 its contents within the abdominal cavity. 
 
 The cause is, in every instance, the allowance of an 
 undue quantity of food, or the too tempting quality of the 
 pasture, which induces the horse to eat too much. This 
 disease was frequent in the agricultural districts formerly, 
 but since the introduction of the nose-bag it has now be- 
 come, happily, very rare. It is now not unusual among 
 the horses which draw the London night cabs, a long absti- 
 nence in them creating an uncontrollable appetite. 
 
302 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 No prognosis can be pronounced upon merely seeing the 
 horse. The condition is one of extreme danger, and every 
 thing depends upon the susceptibiUty of the animal to the 
 action of medicine. 
 
 The cure of stomach staggers. — This is far easier talked 
 about than accomplished. The sluggish stage, however, 
 affords the only hope of doing good. From the known 
 congestion of the brain, it would seem indicated, to the 
 general notion, to abstract blood largely ; but after such a 
 bleeding, as in this case alone could be of service, the horse 
 very probably would never afterwards be of any use to his 
 master, even though its life were saved. The veterinary 
 surgeon is wanted to restore active health, and not to save 
 life ; and he, therefore, does wisely, who lets the fleam or 
 lancet rest in his pocket. The blood in the body, more- 
 over, if all of it were drained, would leave a congested 
 brain behind it, as animals bled to death sufficiently show ; 
 and the blood is required to restore that vital activity, on the 
 return of which the only hope of cure depends ; while its 
 sudden abstraction might remove present pressure, and 
 enable the brain to act without restoring it to tranquiUity. 
 
 The medical attendant, therefore, does not bleed. He 
 places his main hope in counter-irritants and in purgatives. 
 He administers six ounces, or even eight, if the horse be 
 large and in working condition, of solution of aloes, blended 
 with an ounce of extract of gentian. Next, he applies a 
 cloth, saturated wnth liquor ammonia, diluted with only 
 half its quantity of w ater, to the abdominal surface ; and 
 obtains four men, w^ith rather dull noses, to hold a blanket 
 or blankets, several times doubled, over the cloth whereby 
 it is kept close to the part. Warm sheep skins, as soon 
 as they can be procured, are to be placed all along the 
 spine. A pint of turpentine, in strong soap and water 
 (about a gallon), is to be thrown up as an enema. The 
 feet are to be well rubbed with oil of cantharides, rendered 
 more mild by the admixture of thrice its quantity of sim- 
 ple oil, and then to be closely bandaged up as high as 
 possible. In four hours, one-third of the former quantity 
 of the physic may be given by the mouth, or if the 
 horse should be likely to fall when the head is raised, the 
 tube of a human stomach pump may be passed through 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 303 
 
 the nostril into the pharynx or oesophagus, and thus the 
 physic be administered. However, sulphuric ether one ounce 
 should be added to the physic. In four hours afterwards, a 
 pint of Unseed oil, in which a drachm of chloriform has been 
 mixed, may be tried. If that produces no change in another 
 four hours,' it may be repeated. The next four hours having 
 expired, a scruple of croton seed may be placed upon the 
 tongue, followed by an ounce of sulphuric ether, in a pint 
 of cold water. Then the various substances may be tried 
 over again. 
 
 The ammonia, used as a blister, is to be repeatedly 
 observed, to mark its action; otherwise, it may dissolve 
 the skin, instead of blistering the belly. It must, on no 
 account, be retained longer than a quarter of an hour ; but 
 re-applied, as well as the feet again stimulated, and the 
 enema administered with every dose of physic. 
 
 This treatment is to be pursued till the physic seems 
 to have worked some good. But how is this to be ascer- 
 tained, as it is impossible to purge a horse in less time 
 than sixteen hours ? Why, by the countenance : when 
 that brightens ; when the blister rises ; when all the symp- 
 toms abate, and the general aspect appears improved, then 
 we are justified in doubling the periods between the doses, 
 and reducing the strength of the physic by one-half ; also 
 to discontinue the bUster to the abdomen, and liniment to 
 the feet ; and to let the glysters consist of mere soap and 
 water. Hopes may then be entertained, but to confirm 
 them the bowels require to act, and the purgation that 
 ensues to be regulated ; directions for doing which will be 
 given hereafter. 
 
 Oxen and sheep are occasionally objects of a phrenitic 
 attack, which is called by graziers, farmers, &c., as in 
 horses, fever of the brain, frenzy, staggers, &c. ; in which 
 there is little difference in appearance, consequence, or 
 necessary treatment. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 Inflammation of the lungs was long a great stumbling- 
 block to the practitioners of the old school ; the devastating 
 effects on these organs, seen in such as had died of it, being 
 usually mistaken for the effects of some chronic affection 
 
304 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 of a rotting tendency. A more extended acquaintance with 
 the art has taught us the true nature and progress of 
 the disease ; but it appears also to have produced a con- 
 viction in the minds of many veterinarians who wavered on 
 the subject, that pleurisy, independent and distinct from 
 inflammation of the lungs, may and occasionally does exist 
 in the horse ; and that therefore, in a systematic point of 
 view, it is proper to consider the various chest affections 
 under distinct heads ; to which also may be added that of 
 pleuro-pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs and pleura 
 existing at one and the same time ; as no one will deny that 
 this is by far the most usual form of disease. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE LUNGS, OR 
 PNEUMONIA. 
 
 When we consider how totally we have removed the horse 
 from a life of nature to one of art, in which the lungs, more 
 vascular than any other organs, are subjected in an extra- 
 ordinary degree to the extremes of exertion and temperature, 
 we cannot be surprised that they should in a great measure 
 form the seat of acute inflammation. 
 
 Causes. — The predisposition may be looked for in consti- 
 tutional plethora, occasioned by high feeding, hot clothing, 
 stabling with high temperatures, and by accelerated exercise ; 
 all which render the lungs more susceptible to congestion, 
 and less able to resist the effects of it. Among the various 
 causes alternations between heat and cold are probably the 
 most common ; and we have the more reason to believe 
 that it is the alternations themselves which provoke the 
 disorder, as we find that horses bear the extremes of both 
 heat and cold, in different countries, with seeming im- 
 punity. Heat suddenly applied may be supposed to 
 heighten the circulation generally, and produce conges- 
 tion immediately within the lungs. Cold suddenly applied 
 may act instantly also by driving the blood from the skin 
 to the deeper-seated organs. A very fertile source of it is 
 also occasioned by inordinate exercise, as regards quick- 
 ness of progression, which wears out the vital activity of 
 the lungs ; thus it frequently follows severe runs in hunt- 
 ing ; and thus also horned cattle, which are unused to any 
 motion, are liable to it, when they, in a high state of con- 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 305 
 
 dition, travel great distances to markets or fairs. A cause 
 is observed to particularly operate in some seasons : cold 
 moist spring seasons are often marked with pneumonic 
 attacks, which rage in an epidemic form. 
 
 Symptoms. — This disease sometimes attacks the horse 
 very suddenly, and he exhibits, with one or two shivering 
 fits, the excited breathing which is symptomatic of the 
 complaint ; at others, it steals on, and is almost unobserved 
 for two or three days ; but whether the approach be sudden 
 or retarded, the general functions will appear disturbed. 
 One that first shows itself is the unequal distribution of 
 heat ; the legs and ears being much colder than the other 
 parts of the body. The coat stares ; the horse loses his 
 appetite ; is evidently uneasy, and occasionally looks gently 
 round towards his chest. In the early stages the nasal 
 linings look paler than usual ; but as it advances they be- 
 come of a leaden hue ; and although the general surface of 
 the trunk may vary in its temperature, the extremities, 
 as the legs, ears, and tail, and sometimes the muzzle, 
 are found uniformly cold. Cough is by no means a 
 pathognomonic symptom ; many cases are without it ; 
 but when it does exist, it is at first short, dry, and 
 frequent, and becomes eventually heavy, thick, and painful ; 
 occasionally some mucus with bloody striae is thrown up in 
 coughing, particularly when the bronchii participate in the 
 affection. The respiration becomes disturbed as soon as 
 the disease is formed ; the first febrile attack will hurry it, 
 but, the exacerbation of that over, it becomes simply 
 laboured. The local inflammation having pervaded the sub- 
 stance of the lungs, thickened the lining membrane of the 
 tubes, and lessened the calibre of the air cells, respiration 
 now becomes permanently quickened ; the flanks are found 
 to heave, and the breathing is carried on with labour and 
 irregularity ; the inspirations being delayed to retard the 
 pain produced by the distention of the chest, while the 
 expirations are more hurried to relieve it from distress. 
 The cavity is, however, no sooner emptied, than a new 
 source of distress, in the stagnant condition of the heart, 
 forces the horse to renew the breathing. The state of the 
 pulse is variable in this disease, according as the lungs or 
 the pleura bear the greatest share in the complaint. It is, 
 
 X 
 
306 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 however, almost always quickened, sometimes to 100 even, 
 from the irritative state of the aortic system ; it is also in 
 most well-marked cases small and oppressed, the pulmo- 
 nary congestion preventing the free passage of blood through 
 the lungs. We have, however, occasionally found it mode- 
 rately full and bounding, dependent probably on the mem- 
 brane being more diseased than the substance of the 
 lungs. The horse is now seen to look more anxiously 
 round to his trunk ; the whole body also seems stiff and 
 sore : partially elevating the head occasions great pain, 
 and he is altogether disinclined to move ; on the contrary, 
 he stands fixed with his head extended forwards ; his nos- 
 trils outstretched ; his fore legs somewhat apart but forward ; 
 and he seldom if ever lies down, or if he does, he rises 
 again quickly. The chest, if tapped with the hand, emits 
 a dead sound ; while the ear applied to the side of the chest 
 will detect a dull but more urgent murmuring. As the 
 complaint increases, the pulse becomes still more oppressed 
 and irregular, so as to present, at the region of the heart, 
 nothing but the faintest flutter ; the legs, ears, and muzzle, 
 feel still more intensely cold, although partial sweats may 
 visit the carcass. The nostrils change to a still more livid 
 hue, and the air they expire is chill. The mouth now 
 becomes cold and pale ; convulsive twitchings affect the 
 breast, neck, and face ; the teeth grate, and death ensues 
 earlier or later, as the disease has been more or less rapid ; 
 occurring sometimes as early as the second or third day, 
 but more often between the third and seventh, being also 
 sometimes prolonged to the fourteenth or fifteenth. 
 
 The terminations of pneumonia are more varied than in 
 most other complaints : I'esolution is that most to be de- 
 sired ; in which the symptoms gradually subside, either 
 spontaneously, or aided by the curative treatment. Con- 
 gestion is the termination to be dreaded ; which sometimes 
 suffocates the patient on the fourth or fifth day, by filling 
 up the air cells with grumous blood. In the epidemic 
 pneumonia, w^here a considerable degree of malignance is 
 occasionally present, instead of blood, the air cells often 
 become choked with serosity. 
 
 Gangrene is not a frequent termination of true pneu- 
 monia; the irritation or the congestion usually destroys 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 307 
 
 the animal before the tissues are completely broken up. 
 The grumous black blood effused into the air cells has 
 been mistaken for a gangrenous state; but which state 
 rather belongs to those cases which are marked with 
 typhoid symptoms. It must here be observed, that, 
 although rare, a gangrenous state of a portion of the lungs 
 is occasionally present in pneumonia. Suppuration is 
 sometimes one of the sequelse to pneumonia ; in cases of 
 which there is also a deceitful remission of the symptoms, 
 but not so great as in hydrothorax ; it is further marked 
 by an irritating cough, a purulent discharge from the nose, 
 with a hard, hurried, and an irregular pulse. In these cases 
 a speedy termination follows by suffocation, or a more 
 protracted one, in which the animal dies emaciated. Hepa- 
 tization is also not an uncommon termination ; in which 
 the substance of the lungs becomes so blocked up and 
 solidified as to make them, contrary to the usual state, 
 sink in water. When the condensation is only partial, the 
 affections called thick wind and broken wind are the con- 
 sequence ; or an increased irritability of the lungs them- 
 selves, or of the mucous membranes of the bronchii and 
 trachea, may be left, which subjects the horse to a long- 
 continued or permanent cough. It is also the parent of 
 the tuberculated condition, which ends in phthisis pulmonalis 
 or glanders. 
 
 On the subject of symptoms, it remains to guard the 
 practitioner against mistaking pneumonia or inflammation 
 of the lungs for such other affections as it may be con- 
 founded w^ith ; as with influenza, bronchitis, or other dis- 
 eases of the mucous membranes. In influenza, the extre- 
 mities do not continue invariably cold ; the distress of 
 countenance is not so great ; sore throat is commonly pre- 
 sent ; the breathing, though quickened, is less laborious, 
 and the pulse seldom oppressed. The cough in influenza 
 is generally deep, sonorous, and very painful : a weakness, 
 not corresponding with the violence of the symptoms, is 
 very early seen in influenza ; and though the lining of the 
 nostrils may be inflamed in influenza, it is seldom so much 
 so, as to present a purple hue. The principal necessity 
 which exists for making a careful distinction between the 
 two diseases, arises from its not being found prudent to 
 
 x2 
 
308 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 push the treatment so far in influenza as in pneumonia ; 
 for if the two should be confounded, and the milder be 
 treated as the severer case ought to be, then it is a thousand 
 to one but disease of the chest supervenes, hydrothorax 
 sets in and brings the mistaken disorder to a termination. 
 Inflammation of the lungs has also been mistaken for colic, 
 from the horse sometimes expressing considerable uneasi- 
 ness, and often looking round to his sides ; but in colic the 
 horse evinces acute pain, by stamping with his fore feet, or 
 kicking at his belly with his hinder legs : by turns, he lies 
 down and rolls, and then suddenly rises, appearing quite 
 well for a certain space, during which he will fall to eating ; 
 while, on the contrary, in pneumonia, he never lies down, 
 but stands stupidly quiet, except now and then, when he 
 may look at his trunk, but without any of the impatient 
 indications of pain, or intervals of perfect ease : it may 
 also be added, that in inflammation of the lungs the pulse 
 announces danger from the beginning, while in colic it is 
 at the commencement of the healthy character. From 
 pleurisy it will be more difficult to distinguish pneumonia ; 
 but true pleurisy is seldom if ever marked with the op- 
 pressed pulse ; but, on the contrary, with one hard, full, 
 and less increased in frequency, at least in the early stages. 
 Further distinctions may also be drawn from the greater 
 pain manifested in pleurisy, by the twitchings in the fleshy 
 panicle which covers the muscles, and by the sharp man- 
 ner in which the breath is exhaled ; as also by the absence 
 of the inflammatory tinge of the pituitary membranes, 
 they not being a continuous portion of the affected organ, 
 as in pneumonia. 
 
 Post-mortem appearances. — These, like the symptoms and 
 terminations, vary, being, like them, dependent on circum- 
 stances connected with the nature and duration of the 
 attack. When the disease is severe, it destroys within the 
 first three days. The cellular texture of the organ will be 
 then found choked with dark venous blood, and irregular 
 spots or patches of inflammatory colouring on the surface : 
 if protracted longer, other parts may have been involved in 
 the disease ; there will then be superadded adhesions to the 
 pleurae, with increased interstitial fluid mixed wath masses 
 of coagulable lymph ; the substance of the lungs, when cut 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 309 
 
 into, ejects a sero-sanguineous frothy fluid ; or it sometimes 
 pours out a purulent matter. In the fatal cases of hepati- 
 zation, lymph appears diffused through the cellular texture, 
 solidifies and glues up the bronchial ramifications, and gives 
 to the lungs the granulated aspect of the liver, with its 
 weight, consistence, and incapacity to float in water. 
 
 The prognosis must be formed from the progress the 
 disease has made, and the intensity or mildness of its symp- 
 toms ; when some warmth can be restored to the extremi- 
 ties by friction ; when the nasal linings do not approach a 
 livid tint, and the horse can bear to be turned, or does not 
 obstinately maintain a standing posture, but on the contrary 
 shows an inclination to lie down ; if his blisters rise or his 
 rowels maturate, we are warranted in oftering hope to the 
 owner, and more particularly if the disease does not increase 
 in intensity by the fourth day. But if the breathing con- 
 tinues very laborious, if rattling in the throat comes on, 
 with partial cold sweats, and an intermitting or irregular 
 pulse, a fatal termination may be expected. It is always a 
 most unfavourable sign when the blisters and rowels remain 
 inert ; and we hardly remember to have seen a horse recover 
 where such has been the case : it bespeaks at once the 
 intensity of the inflammation, and the diminution of vital 
 power. 
 
 The treatment of pneumonia must be prompt. The old 
 practice was to extract blood immediately upon entering 
 the stable. The first blood-letting was to the amount of 
 two gallons at least ; the second of one gallon, and two, or 
 even more, subsequent withdrawals of half or three quarters 
 of a gallon each ; thus, at all events, four gallons of blood, 
 or more, were taken away. A full-sized horse has but 
 eight gallons of blood in his body, and one moderately 
 fat has not that amount. Here, however, the veterinary 
 surgeon withdraws half the blood from the poor horse's 
 body, under the impression that the animal's disease an- 
 nounced it had too much of that fluid, to regulate the quan- 
 tity of which is the care of the whole system. After this, 
 he used to look upon the subsequent signs of excessive 
 debility as natural results. 
 
 The antiquated notion about a horse having too much 
 blood is now in a great measure exploded ; many excellent 
 
310 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 practitioners do not bleed at all ; but if you resolve to take 
 any, watch the animal ; never mind the pulse at this time ; 
 and at the first sign of change, though it be ever so slight, 
 pin up the vein, and on no account repeat the experi- 
 ment. 
 
 The next point to be considered is counter irritation, 
 and most practitioners blister both the sides largely, choos- 
 ing for their agent cantharides, which is uncertain and slow 
 in its action. Against blistering it is urged that it acts as 
 a stimulant ; for that is the very thing we avoid, in order 
 to enable the horse to throw off the disease. But then as 
 to the sides being the place. This is getting very close to 
 the seat of the complaint, and appears to be quite as likely 
 to extend its action as to prove a derivative. Besides, one 
 of the signs of improvement in inflammation of the lungs 
 is the animal lying down, which during health it always does 
 upon its sides. The rendering of these parts sore seems 
 to be opposing an obstacle to the animal resuming the 
 recumbent attitude. The better plan would be to reject 
 cantharides, and spare the sides. A more active vesi- 
 catory, and a safer place for its action can be found. We 
 proceed to have the hair clipped from off the entire length 
 of the back ; then we take liquor ammonia, diluted with four 
 times its amount of cold water ; and witli this we thoroughly 
 saturate the place from which the hair has been cut. We 
 next cover the part with cloths several times folded, to pre- 
 vent the ammonia from evaporating. This needs to be 
 watched, but will often raise a blister in ten minutes, 
 whereas cantharides rarely has any effect before the next 
 day : the ammonia is likewise more certain than the Spanish 
 fly, and is altogether to be preferred, as in inflammation of 
 the lungs in the horse there is no time to be lost before 
 remedial measures are adopted. 
 
 While this is doing, we procure four men if possible, and 
 place one at each leg, to rub the part with their hands as 
 hard and as long as they can. Four thick woollen band- 
 ages are then produced, and one wound gently, not tightly, 
 round each leg. A hood is then put upon the animal's 
 head, but the whole of the body left uncovered. 
 
 The next thing is to procure a cool loose box, not a cold 
 one, but a cool loose box, and to have the horse gently led 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 311 
 
 into it ; and then to look about and observe that no draughts 
 blow directly upon his body ; this being ascertained, pro- 
 vided the weather be favourable, the door and windows may 
 be left open throughout the day. 
 
 All this accomphshed, you may order the following drink 
 to be prepared and administered : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Ext. of belladonna a drachm. 
 
 Tincture of aconite two drachms. 
 
 Cold water a pint and a half. 
 
 Rub down the belladonna in a little of the water. Then 
 mix with the other ingredients. The aconite (Wolfsbane) 
 should be of the strength of a drachm to an ounce. If 
 stronger or weaker, make the due allowance, so as to have 
 but the virtue of the fourth of a drachm in the drink. 
 
 The above drench, to those who allow their minds to be 
 controlled by names, will appear a strange mixture. Sul- 
 phuric ether is called a powerful stimulant, yet it has not 
 been proved to have any influence over the pulse, to 
 which, however, it certainly communicates character or 
 tone. Laudanum is a decided sedative ; but as the brain 
 is here unaffected, it certainly does lose that property 
 when blended with sulphuric ether. Its action is in some 
 mysterious manner rendered more mild. Belladonna is 
 also called a sedative, but it has a wonderful influence over 
 the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, and over 
 the lungs themselves. Aconite is almost the only drug we 
 know of which can, in a decided manner, lessen and im- 
 prove the pulse. Yet, according to the general practitioner, 
 here we have blended four powerful sedatives with one 
 powerful stimulant. So much harm is done by christening 
 or arranging medicaments. 
 
 Should the foregoing be rejected, either of the following 
 may be employed : — 
 
 Tartar emetic (in the form of the antimonial 
 
 wine of the Dublin Phar.) one drachm. 
 
 Digitalis, made into a decoction one drachm. 
 
 Nitre two drachms. 
 
 Cream of tartar three drachms. 
 
 Mingle with a pint of warm water and give ; or the an- 
 nexed may be tried : — 
 
 Powdered wliite hellebore ten grains. 
 
 Powdered ipecacuanha half a drachm. 
 
312 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 Make the last prescription into a drink, with half a pint of 
 thick gruel. Either of the above drinks is to be given four 
 times daily at the commencement, and to be gradually 
 lessened as the disease abates. 
 
 Great caution is required, in giving a horse with inflam- 
 mation of the lungs any thing in the shape of a drink. 
 Time and patience accomplish wonders. Lower the horse's 
 head the moment it begins to cough. This last direction 
 is most important, and should not be neglected ; or the 
 horse may fall dead from the fluid having fallen upon the 
 lungs, which the examination after death is certain to dis- 
 close. The best plan is to proceed with firmness, and yet 
 gentleness, dividing the drink into four portions if neces- 
 sary, and allowing the animal to take its time over each. 
 
 All food should be removed. No trouble should be ex- 
 pressed because the horse does not eat. The animal, with 
 inflammation of the lungs, generally has no disposition to 
 feed, or if the inclination remain, it should not be gratified. 
 Starvation is one of the most active means of cure, and 
 one of the surest agents in cutting short the complaint. 
 The horse will lose more flesh in one day from the wasting 
 effects of the disorder, than he can in seven days from 
 actual abstinence. Warm mashes, not hot, however, may 
 be placed in the manger, because in inflammation of the 
 lungs it is dangerous to give any physic, lest the bowels 
 sympathize, and the animal perish. Two ounces of Epsom 
 salts may be dissolved in every pail of water, which should 
 be repeatedly changed, and placed continually before the 
 horse. Enemas of simple soap and water, in conjunction 
 with backracking, may also be tried, in order to excite the 
 bowels into action. 
 
 If debility should appear, all tartar emetic should be 
 withheld. If, in spite of this, the weakness increase, the 
 horse may have linseed tea made thick, placed before it, with 
 two quarts of stout per day. The aconite, likewise, should 
 be withdrawn, and attention paid to the legs, rubbing them 
 whenever they are cold. In extreme cases, brandy and 
 ammonia are admissible. 
 
 When the disease abates, which it generally does in 
 forty-eight hours, the care must not lessen ; for the disease 
 is likely to recur, or remain in a chron'c stage as thick or 
 
PLEURISY. 313 
 
 broken wind, or even to degenerate into glanders. It is 
 apt to involve other structures in its progress, as the 
 pleurae, when the symptoms will be somewhat confused, 
 being between pleurisy and pneumonia. In such a case, 
 the terminations may be either those of inflammation of 
 the lungs, or of the pleura. 
 
 It is a bad sign when the flanks heave, and the horse's 
 head is put out of the window ; and a much worse one, when 
 the head is withdrawn and the eye becomes amaurotic ; 
 when the animal keeps walking round and round his box ; 
 and breaking into partial sweats, sometimes raises its head 
 and neighs, proving he is delirious, and in imagination an- 
 swering the call of his species. In this last case be certain 
 death is not far off". 
 
 PLEURISY. 
 
 Pleuritis, as a distinct disease, will not occupy very 
 much of our attention, as the treatise on pneumonia em- 
 bodies most that is practically necessary to note in it. 
 Speaking of the causes of pleuritis, one is external violence, 
 particularly of punctured wounds, which injure the costal 
 pleurte without disturbing the integrity of the lungs ; as is 
 not unfrequent when the injury is inflicted by a blunt in- 
 strument entering in a slanting direction, as a goad or a 
 cow's horn. In such a case, the aflection may continue 
 confined to one side only, but in most others it extends to 
 both sides, though not always in an equal degree. It may 
 be occasioned also by any of the causes which produce 
 pneumonia : exposure to wind, rain, or snow, we believe to 
 be one of the most common among these ; and it occurs 
 far oftener from this last cause, than from those which 
 have been dwelt upon at greater length. 
 
 The symptoms, like those of pneumonia, make a rapid 
 attack, or they do not arrive at their intensity for three, 
 four, or five days. The respiration is generally sharper 
 and quicker, but not more full. The breath makes a saw- 
 ing noise. The exhalation is sudden, the ribs being allowed 
 to fly back with a sort of jerk. Cough is here more in- 
 variably present than in simple pneumonia, which, a priori, 
 might not be expected ; but it is short, suppressed, and 
 painful : sometimes the horse stamps, as in the cough of 
 
314 PLEURISY. 
 
 influenza or bronchitis. The skin also has a con'iigated 
 appearance after the cough. The nostrils are dilated, as 
 in pneumonia, to aid the diflicult respiration ; but the nasal 
 membranes are but little tinged. It is particularly charac- 
 terized by the pain which pressure on the sides produces. 
 The pulse is usually hard, full, and but slightly accelerated, 
 until the constant pain has weakened the system. From 
 this detail of symptoms, as well as from what has already 
 appeared in the account of pneumonia, the distinguishing 
 marks between pleurisy and inflammation of the substance 
 of the lungs may be gained. If the symptoms quoted do 
 not become aggravated by the fifth or sixth day, a favour- 
 able termination may be expected ; but if, on the contrary, 
 the pulse becomes much quickened, small or wiry, and in- 
 distinct, and great restlessness with irregular sweating come 
 on, it wuU prove fatal, and the post-mortem examination 
 will detect indications of severe hydrothorax. 
 
 Hydrothorax, or serous effusion within the cavities of 
 the pleura, is either acute and rapid, or rather gradual. 
 In the former it occurs from the third to the fourteenth 
 day ; the pleurae secrete a serous fluid, and pour this forth 
 in a diseased quantity, until it fill one or both cavities, 
 the animal dying from suffocation. This termination is 
 usually betokened before death by a yellow serous discharge 
 from the nose, without foetor, and may always be detected 
 by placing the ear to the side : the pulse in these cases is 
 irregular, but the general symptoms are so little intense as 
 frequently to deceive the practitioner. The less acute kydro- 
 thorax frequently does not occur until the third or fourth 
 week, and sometimes even a longer period from the pleu- 
 ritic attack, and is even more deceptive than the other ; 
 for it seldom commences until there has been for a con- 
 siderable time, perhaps two or three weeks, an apparent 
 remission of all the inflammatory symptoms ; and it is 
 only by an aural examination, aided by the eye and touch 
 of the experienced observer, that any remaining disease 
 can be detected. To such a one the disposition to eff'usion 
 will manifest itself; the pulse will give a peculiar vibratory 
 stroke, with some hurried irregularity ; and as soon as only 
 a moderate portion of fluid is collected, it may be felt by 
 means of the hand applied to the region of the heart, which 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 315 
 
 will then evidently convey the sensation of a pulsatory 
 stroke through a watery medium. A smart rap also given 
 by an assistant on one side of the chest will produce to a 
 hand, held on the other, an undulation similar to that 
 received from a tap given to a bladder filled with water ; 
 and if the like experiment be at the same time made on 
 the sides of a healthy subject, a still more satisfactory proof 
 may be obtained. The hydrothoracic state of the chest 
 may be also suspected from the staring look and harsh feel 
 of the hair, as well as fi^om a yellow serous discharge from 
 the nostrils usually present, at first thin, but afterwards 
 thicker and glutinous. Any sudden exertion also alarms 
 such a horse ; he avoids turning, and resists holding his 
 head up from fear of strangulation, by altering the direct 
 course of the trachea. In this state he will continue, with- 
 out much variation, to eat, and will thereby deceive his 
 attendants : at length, however, he will be suddenly seized 
 with aggravated symptoms, which though seldom so acute 
 as at first, yet hurry the poor brute out of the world very 
 suddenly, he falling down dead. 
 
 The treatment does not differ from that of pneumonia in 
 any other particular, than that we may here call in the aids 
 of mild purgatives and diuretics, with the addition of full 
 sedatives. 
 
 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, THE LATE COMPLAINT AMONG CATTLE. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia has destroyed its hundreds of thou- 
 sands. At first it was much misunderstood ; and formerly 
 was treated by bleeding, blistering, sedatives, purging, and 
 setoning. The remedies were very energetic. But between 
 the force of the disease and the power of the cure the 
 animal died. The means of restoration became quite as 
 fearful as the complaint, till the owners grew desperate, 
 and resolved to have no doctor at all within their sheds. 
 By this resolution they were considerable gainers. Fewer 
 animals were lost. Deaths, though still frequent, were not 
 half that number they were at first ; and those that did die 
 cost nothing for being killed by physic. Thus all ways the 
 proprietors gained by getting rid of veterinary surgeons. 
 But, upon his dismissal, the true mode of treatment was 
 discovered by the veterinary surgeon, which in the bustle 
 
316 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 of administering medicine, with the symptoms under his 
 eyes, he had never found out. Gentlemen then began to 
 consider whether heaving flanks, panting and painful cough, 
 were really the commencement of the disorder. They now 
 had time to review their former proceedings, and to find 
 out they had been quite wrong. In the quiet of their 
 studies they found leisure to recal, and to ponder over the 
 symptoms ; and when the cattle were absent, they found 
 out that they had attempted to relieve the disorder, only 
 after it had become confirmed. The first stage during 
 which the complaint was easiest to attack, and most readily 
 to be conquered, they had entirely neglected ; and this led 
 them to reflect upon the nature of the disorder which, though 
 they still regarded as febrile, they now were content to view 
 as typhoid, and even putrescent in its later stages. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia is a disease, in the first stages of a 
 remarkably active character, but soon becoming virulently 
 typhoid. It has no set beginning. There is no first chord 
 struck, like to the overture of a Christmas pantomime, in- 
 variably the same, and always forcible, but the first stage 
 steals upon us, and can come from every possible point. 
 With young stock at grass, it is frequently announced by 
 constant battles or by precocious desires. Bulling out of 
 season is no unusual sign with cows in the shed. The ani- 
 mal, from being remarkably quiet, may in the first stage of 
 pleuro-pneumonia become restless and excitable, striking 
 at her neighbours with her horns, or jumping about at the 
 slightest sound. Often the owner is surprised by an un- 
 common yield of milk, but more often he is disappointed 
 by an evident falling off in the quantity given, especially in 
 the morning. Heat of the skin, and warmth at the base of 
 one of the horns, is no unusual commencement ; neither is 
 coldness of the parts about the tail, and particularly of one 
 or more teats, with heat, or even tenderness, of the bag. 
 A refusal to eat commonly is the first symptom, but not 
 usually a ravenous and unscrupulous appetite is the same. 
 Some cows suddenly grow very picky or nice in their feed- 
 ing ; others become quite the reverse, and they will gobble 
 up filth : in short, any change in the customary habits 
 or ordinary behaviour of an animal, when pleuro-pneumonia 
 is known to be abroad, should be immediately attended to. 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 317 
 
 If the beast be excited, let a vein be opened, and blood 
 taken till a change is produced. The pulse here is no 
 guide. The animal itself must tell us when to stop. 
 When its excitability is lost ; when from being furious, it 
 has become tame ; when there is a marked alteration from 
 that which was, to something else, then, though only the 
 first spurt has been taken, enough has been abstracted ; pin 
 up immediately ; the animal cannot bear the loss of much 
 of the vital fluid ; she is in no condition to stand a drain 
 upon the system, and the less blood produces the effect we 
 desire the better. Let the veterinary surgeon, therefore, 
 keep his eye upon the beast, while any bungler may strike 
 a vein, which if the abstraction of blood is warranted at all, 
 will swell up as large as a cart rope. It is of a size then 
 rather to throw stones at, than to poke at with a fleam. 
 
 In the second, or inflammatory stage, all excitement 
 vanishes. The strength rapidly fails. The cough is now 
 certain to be constant. We did not mention the cough 
 among the first symptoms, because it is not invariably pre- 
 sent, and if present, it has no character during the early 
 stage. But now every thing becomes characteristic, so that 
 a child, or even a blind man, could accurately point to the 
 beast having the disease. The cough is short and distress- 
 ing ; evidently painful ; but often against the will of the 
 animal, emitted four or five times in succession, after which 
 the poor cow is ready to fall. The eyes are protruded and 
 glassy ; often suffiised with tears. The conjunctiva is red- 
 dened, attesting the state of the other mucous membranes. 
 The nostril looks inflamed. The muzzle is moist, and 
 often water, as clear as any drawn from a well, drops oflf its 
 surface. The appetite is fickle. The beast will repeatedly 
 pick the nicest morsel of hay, but after its having been 
 chewed, the quid drops from the mouth. Green meat is 
 invariably refused ; hay is preferred. There is no thirst. 
 The breath is hot, short, quick, and catching. The flanks 
 heave, and the appearance is marked by evident signs of 
 acute distress. If the hand be now run along the back, 
 the wretched creature grunts ; so she often does between 
 each breath, and always upon being turned in the stall. 
 Now the pulse can be felt quick ; a grating sensation is 
 imparted to the hand, if placed against the side ; and the 
 
318 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 ear, even more readily than the hand, can detect the symp- 
 tom. In certain places the bellows' murmur of health is 
 entirely lost, and in its place there may be no sound per- 
 ceptible, or an unhealthy crepitation may be audible. If 
 both lungs be effected the animal endeavours to lay down, 
 being well-nigh incapable of longer standing ; but her en- 
 deavours to rest, though frequent, are of very brief dura- 
 tion. Should the beast, however, remain down for any 
 time, be certain then that only one lung is affected, and 
 the diseased side of the chest is low^ermost. The duration 
 of this stage is uncertain, but in longer or shorter space the 
 symptoms change. The tears cease. The eye brightens. 
 The visible mucous membranes assume a leaden tinge. 
 The breath is drawn with difficulty. Often respiration is 
 stopped for a short period, and then suddenly commenced 
 with energy, but almost immediately subdued into its former 
 quick, but short, and comparatively quiet method. The 
 coat now is very unthrifty. If it be tried along the margin 
 of the neck, or at the end of the tail, it will sometimes 
 come out by handfuls. Food, as before, is taken, but 
 rarely swallowed. Hoven may in this, or in the preceding 
 stage, have appeared. Water is declined, although from 
 the symptoms thirst must prevail; but probably liquids 
 are refused from their being the cause, when imbibed in 
 large quantities, of difficulty in breathing. From the mouth, 
 constantly a thick ropy mucous hangs. The tongue is 
 seldom retained within the lips ; and in this state the 
 animal may remain for a week, or only a few days, or for a 
 month. 
 
 The last stage to the non-medical man is very deceptive. 
 The eyes, to a superficial observer, become more cheerful. 
 The breathing evidently less painful. The cough not so 
 frequent ; but blood and various substances are brought up 
 with the cough at times. The animal is inclined to feed, 
 but she may show a marked preference for dung and urine, 
 though sometimes she will take a mouthful of hay. The 
 hay is masticated with a relish almost too violent to be 
 perfectly natural ; but upon attempting to swallow, it sticks 
 in the gullet, and if not speedily removed with the probang, 
 the beast w^ould die hoven. The breath now stinks. The 
 action may be wild, but during it the animal may fall. 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 319 
 
 The tongue ultimately swells. Light is lost. The cow 
 obstinately stands in one place, and in one position, and 
 ultimately sinks to die suddenly. 
 
 Such are the main features of this fearful disorder, which, 
 since it has been better understood, has appeared as though 
 it became of a milder character. A beast might, however, 
 during the severest times have two, or even three attacks, 
 and ultimately survive and do well. There is one marked 
 peculiarity about the disease. The cow never entirely loses 
 her milk ; it may be reduced to half a pint, but the half 
 pint is to the last to be obtained. The bowels are always 
 irregular ; but if the disease begin with purging, the case 
 generally terminates the sooner. If the cow be in calf, 
 abortion is a very bad sign ; but should the foetus be re- 
 tained, the youngster will be born with the disease from 
 which his mother has recovered, and he will assuredly die, 
 almost in his birth. 
 
 If the disease be detected in the first stage, should the 
 animal be abroad, let it be brought home, but with the 
 utmost care ; and if at home, let the shed in which it stands 
 be made scrupulously clean. Remove every thing of a 
 dirty, foul, or putrid kind. Scrape and wash the walls. 
 Damp in this disease is not desirable, but it is infinitely less 
 to be dreaded than tainted air. Having made clear the 
 place in which the beast is to reside, let her enter it; 
 though, if the animal be already in the shed, do not remove 
 her ; as the one that stands next to her is not more likely 
 to be taken, although she should die of the complaint ; and 
 cows are proved to pine, and thus aggravate the disorder, 
 when placed by themselves. Withhold all food, even 
 though the animal be inclined to feed, w^hich generally they 
 are not disposed to do. It is not that which goes down 
 the throat that does good, but that which is converted into 
 chyle alone nourishes the system. We should be very glad 
 could food be appropriated, but in this disorder nothing is 
 digested, and whatever is swallowed remains in the rumen 
 to decay. Decaying vegetable matter sets free much gas, 
 and hoven is one of the worst symptoms, especially in the 
 latter stages. Unfortunately, the appetite is often ex- 
 traordinary towards the commencement of this affection, 
 and the consequence is (nothing being digested) a loaded 
 
320 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 stomach ; which makes the breathing still more distressing. 
 After death, the rumen is mostly found crammed with 
 stinking, undigested food, and the effect even upon this 
 almost insensible compartment of the stomach, is shown by 
 its lining membrane peeling off as the mass is emptied out. 
 
 The examination made after death generally displays 
 both sides of the chest, and the heart bag, full of fluid of a 
 bloody tinge. Loose flocks of lymph, about two inches in 
 length, adhere to the inside of the ribs, the outside of the 
 lungs, and the anterior surface of the diaphragm. The 
 lymph is of a dirty straw colour ; it likewise lines the 
 heart bag, and sticks to the outside of the heart itself. 
 The blood within the body is darker than usual ; and occa- 
 sionally the cellular tissue is injected, especially upon the 
 surface of the frame. The characteristic appearance which 
 marks the complaint is, however, found within the lungs. 
 These, when cut into, are of various tints, from the palest 
 pink to the darkest modena. Their variegated aspect 
 pleases the surgeon as well as surprises him, especially 
 when he first cuts into the lungs, for then the colours are 
 very bright, and the distinction between them very marked. 
 Between these hues travel eccentric whitish lines, taking 
 no definite course, or being of no definite thickness ; but 
 running here and there, and being of all imaginable breadths. 
 It is this difference of hues, divided by numberless whitish 
 lines, which has gained for the lungs the term of marbled ; 
 a word that very well prepares the imaginative spectator for 
 the sight which he will behold. Added to all which, we 
 have said the air tubes and cells are plugged up with a thick 
 frothy mucus ; and whoever sees the organs of respiration 
 in such a state requires nothing further to make him com- 
 prehend the cause of death. 
 
 With regard to medicinal measures, these must be very 
 gentle. Every caution is necessary to husband the strength ; 
 and active measures will not always check the disorder. 
 During the first stage the symptoms merely denote general 
 irritability, and the treatment required is merely such as 
 will check that which the symptoms suggest. If the loss 
 of a very small quantity of blood will produce an effect 
 upon the disposition, something may be suspected as lurk- 
 ing behind the irritability ; but if the animal endures a full 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 321 
 
 bleeding before the symptoms succumb, we may hope they 
 portend nothing but what they at the first glance suggest. 
 Nevertheless, if pleuro-pneumonia be in the locality, do 
 not depend too much upon this sign ; neither is that which 
 is termed a full blood-letting prudent, wherefore proceed 
 with the greater caution. Shake a drachm of calomel, 
 blended with two drachms of opium, upon the tongue of 
 the animal, and leave it to be licked down at leisure, as 
 the beast has no power to spit it out again. Three hours 
 after this give the following drink : — 
 
 Epsom salts half a pound. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Liquor ammonia acetatis six ounces. 
 
 Aconite (in powder) one scruple. 
 
 Cold water one pint. 
 
 If this has not operated in six hours, repeat the physic ; 
 and after the lapse of another six hours give another dose, 
 only this last time administering half the quantity of Epsom 
 salts, and add one ounce of powdered gentian root ; in 
 another six hours, once more repeat this last drink. 
 
 Let nothing more but repeated drinks, composed of 
 sulphuric ether one ounce, laudanum one ounce, cold water 
 one pint, be given, till the pulse become stronger, till the 
 cough appears, and the entire symptoms change. With 
 the earliest indication of this alteration, new medicine must 
 be administered ; then exhibit the following mixture thrice 
 a day, which must be persevered with during the con- 
 tinuance of the active stage : — 
 
 Extract of belladonna half a drachm. 
 
 Aconite (in powder) one scruple. 
 
 Emetic tartar one scrujtle. 
 
 Nitre one drachm. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Cold water one pint. 
 
 Rub down the belladonna with a little of the water ; dis- 
 solve the emetic tartar and the nitre in a little more of the 
 same liquid ; then mix, add the other ingredients, and give. 
 
 Should the disease continue, and the pulse grow weak, 
 with the other signs of the third stage having supervened 
 become evident, withdraw the nitre and tartar emetic. A 
 pint of good ale, blended with half an ounce of extract of 
 gentian, may now be added to the other components, in- 
 stead of the former weakening agents. The ale, it is 
 
 Y 
 
322 FLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 true, we would rather dispense with, but every thing now 
 depends upon keeping up the strength, which we must endea- 
 vour to accomphsh even at some risk. Should the bowels 
 have continued costive, repeated half pints of linseed oil, 
 with each of which half a drachm of chloroform is blended, 
 and in each of which a scruple of camphor must also be 
 dissolved, should be administered at intervals. 
 
 Every thing now depends upon cleanliness. A dung- 
 heap near the cowhouse ; putrid matter or stagnant water 
 near the building ; a foul drain, or even a rotten thatch, 
 will defeat the very best of medicinal remedies. The farmer 
 is too apt to terminate all his own exertions, when he 
 whom the tiller of land calls a doctor is in attendance ; 
 whereas this is the precise period when he should most 
 bestir himself, as without the proprietor's supervision the 
 veterinary surgeon only leaves directions to find they have 
 been neglected ; and only sends " physic" to discover it has 
 been put upon one side or thrown away. In pleuro-pneu- 
 monia, the owner's inspection, or that of his wife — if he 
 have a kind, open-hearted partner, who will freely of her 
 own accord undertake the nursing — is of every import ; 
 since the veterinary surgeon has often been reproached 
 with the loss of an animal, for the death of which, could 
 facts be ascertained, the farmer would be condemned as 
 the rightful culprit. The attendance upon the animal 
 must now be constant, but should be so given as not to 
 disturb or excite her. Every thing must be done gently ; 
 with feeling for the really distressing situation of the beast, 
 but with the utmost caution and perfect silence. 
 
 The better appearance of the creature ; her altered and 
 even cheerful aspect ; her readiness for exertion, which on 
 narrowly watching her, will, however, demonstrate her 
 greater weakness ; the entire absence of any thing like 
 pulse at the jaw ; the strange smells that are perceptible 
 about the beast ; the cessation of cough, and a bloody, foul 
 exudation from the nostrils, with a partial inclination for 
 food, will bespeak the gradual starting up of the fourth 
 and last stage of the disorder. Solids, probably, would be 
 retained within the rumen, therefore fluids alone are worthy 
 of reliance. Now withdraw the belladonna, and the aco- 
 nite as well as the emetic tartar, and the nitre from the 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 323 
 
 drink ; to which add one quart, instead of one pint, of 
 sound ale ; half an ounce of laudanum, and six ounces of 
 the liquor ammonia acetatis, and give the whole as a 
 drink. Let there be no hay or straw near or under the 
 animal : notwithstanding her weak state and desire to feed, 
 she must lie even upon the bare stones. Were there any 
 substance she could attempt to eat at hand, she would 
 seize it perhaps with avidity ; masticate it with eagerness ; 
 but in her attempt to swallow it, her strength would sud- 
 denly fail ; the morsel would probably stick in the gullet, 
 produce hoven, occasion confusion, frighten the cow, and 
 do all the injury we are careful to avoid. She may be 
 anxious to get loose, but keep her tied up ; her efforts to 
 free herself will soon subside. Should she become hoven 
 in this disorder, you must pass the probang ; and down the 
 tube, when it has entered the stomach, pour a dose of 
 chlorate of potash, dissolved in water (see Hoven). If the 
 foetor prove offensive, give a scruple of the chloride of 
 zinc, dissolved in a pint of water, which may be repeated 
 as often as it is required. Double the quantity may also 
 be mixed with some flour and water, to be used as injec- 
 tions, if any stinking diarrhoea accompany the later stage ; 
 and cloths, saturated with the solution of the chloride of 
 zinc, should be hung about in various parts of the house. 
 The same liquid may be of service to sprinkle any part of 
 the cow's body upon which any soil may have fallen, the 
 dirt being first cleanly washed off. 
 
 The return of the cough. The re-appearance of pain, as 
 denoting a return to consciousness ; the revival of the 
 pulse ; in short, the restoration of the symptoms of the 
 third stage, though in a softened form, will denote amend- 
 ment. After this, every thing will depend upon the farmer 
 himself. For a short period the last drink, with the addi- 
 tion of half an ounce of extract of gentian, must be con- 
 tinued, and then mineral tonics gradually substituted. 
 Nothing must be done suddenly ; nor if the symptoms that 
 have been recorded are properly observed, will any violent 
 change be necessary, however much so these directions, 
 compressed for the sake of brevity, may seem to direct. 
 Of the mineral tonics, the sulphate of iron in two drachm 
 doses is the best. It may be dissolved in water, with 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 INFLAMED LUNGS IN SHEEP. 
 
 which half an ounce of the extract of gentian has been 
 rubbed down, and thus compose a drink. No ginger, 
 though that stimulant is justly a favourite, must be given, 
 for fear of recalling the inflammation, which we have too 
 much reason to dread has not been entirely subdued. The 
 food must not be too large in quantity, but of the most 
 digestible kind. 
 
 INFLAMED LUNGS IN NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Horned cattle are also subject to pneumonia, but not by 
 any means in an equal degree with horses. Cowleeches 
 and graziers call the complaint rising of the lights, and it 
 has also other provincial names unnecessary to be noticed 
 here. Various causes may occasion it ; as exposure to in- 
 clement weather, over- driving from fairs, &c., in which the 
 vicissitudes of temperature they undergo, acting on their 
 plethoric state, distend the pulmonary tissues. We have 
 also seen it in calves. The symptoms are the same as in 
 the pneumonia of horses : we know of no difference, but 
 that the mouth is moistened by a discharge, and held con- 
 stantly open to assist the breathing. It must also be 
 observed, that the low type is apt to prevail in all their 
 diseases ; and that, from the increased volume of their 
 aortic system, their inflammations hurry to their termina- 
 tion, be it bad or good, sooner than those of the horse. 
 Hence it is more common for pneumonia to end in gan- 
 grene in cattle than in horses. The treatment differs in no 
 respect. It may also be remarked, that structural pecu- 
 liarity in the alimentary track makes it proper to give all 
 cattle medicines in a liquid form. 
 
 INFLAMED LUNGS IN SHEEP. 
 
 Few of the writers about cattle notice this disorder 
 as a disease affecting sheep ; but it may be seen well 
 marked, and in these animals also its origin could be clearly 
 traced to exposure to inclement weather. The first ap- 
 pearance is loss of appetite, which is soon succeeded by a 
 fixed stare ; the head is elevated in the air ; the mouth 
 opened ; the flanks heave violently ; the conjunctival and 
 nasal membranes are much injected, and a fluid distilled 
 from the nostrils, mucous in some, and purulent in others. 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. 325 
 
 They are occasionally seized with fits, will fall backward, 
 and when recovering from it the teeth may be heard to 
 grate together. The post-mortem exhibits the substance of 
 the lungs highly inflamed ; in some the w^iole of the lobes, 
 in others those of one side only, are affected ; but wherever 
 the inflammation reaches, that part is condensed almost 
 into a solid mass by the congestion ; some of the air cells 
 also contain pus : the costal and mediastinal pleurae were 
 little affected. The liver is also sometimes slightly in- 
 flamed. If seen early, bleed the sheep to a small extent ; 
 and, as soon as it can be procured, a drink may be given, 
 composed of nitre one drachm, and tartar emetic one 
 scruple. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. 
 
 This disease is very rare in the horse : but combined 
 wuth pneumonia and pleuritis, particularly with the latter, 
 it is not so uncommon, Mr. Blaine saw two cases, which 
 were both of them uncombined with pericarditis or inflam- 
 mation of the heart-bag and with pleurisy ; both termi- 
 nated by serous effusion into the pericardiac bag. Mr, 
 Percivall has also met with cases of carditis, but all of them 
 combined ; and he notices that he found the pericardium 
 coated with lymph, and in one instance thickened into a 
 semi-cartilaginous substance. The symptoms in the cases 
 which fell under our own notice differed so little from those 
 present in pneumonia, that we considered them as such, and 
 treated them accordingly. There is, however, one symptom 
 characteristic of inflammation of the heart : the throb or 
 beat of the organ is very loud, and there is also a pecu- 
 liarity in the pulse. It is marked by oppression, as in 
 pneumonia ; but superadded to that, a peculiar wiry yet 
 fluttering feel is observable, totally distinct from any other ; 
 and, above all, it is markedly intermittent, or the continua- 
 tion of the beats is every now and then stopped for a short 
 time. The countenance and manner were also marked by 
 an expression of anxiety and alarm ; but acute pain did not 
 appear present. The treatment of carditis, thus combined, 
 would in no respect differ from that of pneumonia, except- 
 ing that digitalis is to supply the place of belladonna ; but 
 were we assured of its true character, we should blister and 
 
326 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 rowel the under surfaces of the chest ; we might push the 
 nauseants to their full extent, and purge the bowels. But 
 no treatment is likely to do more than to prolong life and 
 increase the owner's cost. Medicine has yet to discover a 
 cure for inflammation of the heart, or to tell us how a 
 being thus afflicted can be restored to working health. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. 
 
 If by the above term we are to understand an inflamma- 
 tory attack on the mucous surface of the stomach, wholly 
 exclusive of inflammations produced by poisons or acrid 
 substances admitted within it, or of that consequent on 
 mechanical distention, called stomach staggers, it may be 
 regarded as an unheard-of disease in the horse. However, 
 it is sufficiently common from the exempted causes, and 
 every case is attended with great danger, though unmarked 
 by any characteristic symptom. It cannot be easily dis- 
 tinguished in its severe stage from twist of the intestines, 
 stone in the bowels, &c. The symptoms of distention, and 
 the mode of treating it, have already been detailed. The 
 symptoms from poisons are, so far as they are noted, ex- 
 treme distress and restlessness, a loathing of food ; for if 
 any thing be given by the mouth it creates increased pain 
 a long time afterwards. The animal breaks out into cold 
 sweats, lies down and quickly rises again, as in inflam- 
 mation of the bowels ; becomes early and greatly prostrated 
 in strength, and has a pulse usually quick and much op- 
 pressed. There may be purging, and generally is, though 
 the opposite state may also exist. The signs are also mate- 
 rially shaped by the nature of the substance swallowed. 
 The treatment will depend on timely detection of the 
 true cause. Our tests, however, are of more use to find 
 out the reason of death, than to save life. The general 
 treatment consists in a rejection of blood-letting, the admi- 
 nistration of plenty of gruel, starch water, chalk and water, 
 and abundance of opium. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 Inflammation of the bowels, or the red colic of farriers, 
 involves either the peritoneal or muscular portion of the 
 intestines ; or it has its seat in both these portions, but is 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 327 
 
 more frequently located in the latter than in the former. 
 Observations on a great number of cases will also show 
 that the villous coat is not unfrequently a participator in 
 the affection : in fact, the abdominal inflammations in the 
 horse, as well as the thoracic, seldom exhibit exact lines of 
 demarcation ; but are very liable to stray by continuity, 
 and even by contiguity ; hence we have some characteristic 
 symptoms or signs ; many more which are mixed and in- 
 definite ; and some altogether irregular in all acute visceral 
 affections. There are, however, sufficient grounds for a 
 general division of the inflammations of the bowels into 
 enteritis, or that which principally affects their middle coat, 
 and is generally accompanied by costiveness ; and that 
 which primarily attacks their villous surface, and is pro- 
 ductive of diarrhoea or dysentery. Between these states 
 there is a sufficient mark ; but between inflammation and 
 spasmodic colic the distinctive lines are familiar only to the 
 experienced observer. When the gripes, or fret, as spas- 
 modic colic is called among farriers, attacks a horse, it is 
 usual and useful to give him powerful stimulants, active 
 motion, and strong friction, all which would be extremely 
 baneful in the red colic. A careful distinction should 
 therefore be made between the two diseases, which may be 
 readily done by attending to the characteristic marks of 
 each, as particularly detailed in spasmodic colic. 
 
 The causes are various : the application of cold is cer- 
 tainly among the number ; as washing when hot, or plung- 
 ing into a river ; the drinking of cold water has likewise 
 produced it, though more frequently this occasions spas- 
 modic colic. Neglected costiveness, or retention of im- 
 pacted faeces ; improper feeding, dry food, and little water, are 
 also causes : worms likewise may, now and then, bring it 
 on ; or it may be produced by neglect after clipping for the 
 winter season ; or by metastasis, or the translation of the 
 inflammatory state of one set of parts to another. Spas- 
 modic colic neglected or improperly treated is not an 
 unfrequent cause, and calcareous concretions always occasion 
 it before they produce death. 
 
 The Sijmptoms. — It is known sometimes to commence by 
 a shivering fit, to which succeeds heat of skin, restlessness, 
 loss of appetite ; the mouth being particularly hot, and dry ; 
 
328 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 the inner membranes of the eyelids, and the hnings of the 
 nostrils, being rather redder than natural. As the inflamma- 
 tion advances the pain increases, so as to force the horse to 
 lie down and get up again frequently ; yet, unless the pain 
 be very acute, he seldom rolls on his back or remains sta- 
 tionary there ; but, as he will occasionally do so in particular 
 cases, this should not be considered as a criterion between 
 this disorder and gripes. He will kick at his belly, stamp 
 with his feet, scrape his litter or stall with his hoofs, and 
 look wistfully round towards his sides. The pulse in most 
 cases is frequent, as 90 or 100, and invariably very hard, 
 small, and wiry. The breathing is accelerated : the belly is 
 sometimes painful to the touch, which never occurs in colic : 
 it is also hot to the feel, and the pain, instead of remitting 
 as in colic, is constant ; the extremities being cold, while the 
 surface of the body is often warm. The bowels are usually 
 constipated, and if any dung be evacuated, it is small, hard, 
 and in dry masses. The anus, if examined, will be found 
 very hot ; and if the hand be obtruded up, it will be felt 
 sometimes even internally inflamed ; it also, in many 
 cases, quivers with the intensity of the general aflfection. 
 Frequently, towards the later stage, there is some tympa- 
 nitis or distention of the belly, which much aggravates the 
 general tenderness evinced on examination. The urine is 
 painfully evacuated in small quantities, and very highly 
 coloured ; sometimes it has much mucus suspended in it. 
 In the progress of the disease these symptoms increase in 
 intensity : the distress of the horse is expressed by his 
 groans, his violent eflforts to change his position, as if to fly 
 from his malady ; while perspiration, partial or general, 
 breaks out, and is then succeeded by a chilly state, with 
 muscular twitchings ; the pulse becomes more and more 
 hurried, intermittent, and at last nearly imperceptible : the 
 respiration is as quick and irregular as the pulse, and 
 occasionally interrupted by a convulsive sigh. The vital 
 powers are now fast ebbing, and the animal sinks after a few 
 feeble struggles, or he parts with life with more violent con- 
 vulsive movements. 
 
 Post-mortem examination of these cases presents inflam- 
 matory marks, sometimes confined, sometimes general. In 
 most cases the. large, but in a few the small, intestines are 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 329 
 
 the principal victims ; the external surface of the affected 
 parts is generally heightened in colour : sometimes the red- 
 ness is intense, at others it assumes a purple hue, as the 
 approach to gangrene is nearer or farther off; and occa- 
 sionally it is black or nearly dissolved, when fully esta- 
 blished : in some cases an internal hsemorrhage from the 
 inflamed vessels has filled the tube, particularly of the smaller 
 intestines, with blood, and all the diseased bowels will be 
 much increased in weight. 
 
 The Prognosis. — If the costiveness be early removed ; if 
 the pulse become softer, more full, and less frequent ; if the 
 pain remit ; if the heat of the body and extremities appear 
 equal, it will terminate favourably. But if the costiveness 
 remain obstinate, or otherwise a voiding a black fcetid 
 matter appear ; or should the costiveness readily yield, but 
 violent purgations of watery, slimy offensive ejections ensue ; 
 if the pulse become more quick, and wavers also ; if the 
 extremities continue invariably cold, the danger is great. 
 And when added to these, if there be a peculiar earthy, 
 cadaverous smell from the mouth, with cold sweats, delirium, 
 and extreme debility, and particularly if the belly become 
 more and more tense, the termination will almost to a cer- 
 tainty be unfavourable ; and as soon as the pain ceases in 
 such a case, gangrene may be known to have commenced. 
 
 The treatment in enteritis should be singularly prompt 
 and active, as inflammation of the intestines has run its 
 course and terminated fatally in eight hours. Bleeding 
 must be the first remedy adopted, but no quantity can be 
 stated to which amount blood may be taken. The vein 
 must remain open till the animal evinces that some effect 
 has been produced, and then pinned up. The bleeding may 
 be known to have a salutary effect by the pulse becoming 
 softer and fuller. As soon as the bleeding is over, proceed 
 to back-rake, to remove any hardened dung that may 
 obstruct the passage, which, if suffered to remain, would 
 infallibly aggravate the complaint, and which indeed in 
 many instances is the cause of it : the distressing strangury 
 that sometimes accompanies the red colic is also frequently 
 produced by the pressure of hardened excrement, as by 
 a renal participation in the inflammatory affection. It 
 is not the dropping a few balls of hardened dung, nor 
 
330 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 the passage of some thin glairy matter, which shows that 
 no obstruction exists : on the contrary, when these are pre- 
 sent, a most obstinate costiveness may yet remain farther 
 up in the canal; and a flow of thin fseces may escape bv 
 a groove formed by the side of the obstructing portion Jf 
 dung, as has happened when very large feecal accumulation 
 has taken place within one of the pouches of the colon 
 Unless there be evidently a free passage throughout the 
 whole canal, it is always proper to back-rake ; for it must 
 not be lost sight of, that costiveness in true enteritis is 
 always present, and when not its cause, is always its most 
 aggravating symptom ; and until it be removed, a resolution 
 of the inflammation cannot take place. It is also necessary 
 to bear in mind, that the state of the bowels being such as 
 not to render it prudent to give strong purgatives, the 
 case IS beset with difficulties. Injections of thin gruel 
 or of warm water, may be afterwards occasionally exhibited' 
 Ihe quantities composing the clysters should be very con- 
 siderable, so as to penetrate beyond the rectum, and to enter 
 It possible, the colon and caecum, which intention can be 
 best fulfilled by the injecting syringe. Tobacco clysters 
 liave likewise proved beneficial. 
 
 _ The next indication is to raise a brisk external inflamma- 
 tion over the belly, to lessen thereby the internal affection • 
 and in this case the cantharides are not quick enough in 
 their action : but a more speedy determination to the skin 
 may be gained by applying— firstly, a cloth saturated with 
 hquor ammonia, diluted by four times its amount of water 
 and retaining it in its situation by means of a blanket several 
 times doubled, and held by four men with not very fasti- 
 dious noses. This form of blister, however, requires to be 
 constantly watched, as else it may dissolve the skin After 
 wards a fresh sheep skin may be laid upon the back and 
 Joins. With regard to medicine by the mouth, in the first 
 place give three ounces of solution of aloes, and an ounce of 
 extract of gentian, with a pint of cold water. At the same 
 time admmister half a drachm of calomel, with a drachm of 
 opium, made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle 
 Ihe ball may be repeated every hour, till the symptoms 
 abate, when the calomel may be diminished to a scruple • and 
 shortly afterwards given at wider intervals, till it is gradually 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 331 
 
 discontinued. If the symptoms do not amend in three 
 hours and a half after the first drink, give a pint of linseed 
 oil, blended with a drachm of chloroform, and continue the 
 enemas. The calomel and opium is to be persevered in 
 throughout the disorder, till the horse either gets better and 
 the case terminates. After the attack has ended, the bowels 
 will be closed for some time, and they must be allowed to 
 remain in that state, rather than resort to mashes or to 
 physic, which at this time are too apt to start up undue 
 purgation. The diet should be spare. It should consist of 
 grasses, roots, boiled potatoes, good gruel, but nothing hard, 
 like oats, hay, or chaff, &c. The temperature of the stable 
 should also be moderate ; the same care should be bestowed 
 on equalizing the circulation as prescribed under pneumonia, 
 bv rubbing the extremities, proper clothing, and a loose 
 wTll-httered box ; and as it leaves, like inflammation of the 
 lungs, a hability to recurrence, let not the animal be worked 
 or exposed. The horse, after some time, may be as capable 
 of work as ever he was, if not put to it too early. 
 
 DYSENTERY, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS SURFACE OF 
 THE INTESTINES. 
 
 As the former affection consists of an inflammatory at- 
 tack on the middle coat of the intestines, this latter is 
 usually an affection of their internal surface ; having for its 
 cause irritations applied in various ways ; as by translations 
 of obstructed perspiration; the continued use of certain 
 aliments ; but more particularly the administration of hu- 
 proper purging medicines, either as to quantity or quality, 
 by which such irritation is brought on as ends in inflam- 
 mation. It is commonly accompanied with purging, 
 whereas the former is almost always associated with cos- 
 tiveness ; neither is the pain so acute in dysentery, con- 
 sequently the horse seldom expresses his uneasiness by 
 rolling or stamping ; the pulse is also quick and small, but 
 is seldom very hard, even from the beginning. However 
 uro-ent may be the symptoms, and whatever the pulse may 
 denote, no blood must be withdrawn in this disorder ; for it 
 is inflammation of the mucous membrane, and after all we 
 can do to support the horse, he will hardly have strength 
 to get through the attack. Stimulants should, however. 
 
332 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 be applied to the bowels, as in inflammation of the intes- 
 tines, properly so called ; the stable and the clothing also 
 should be warm, and means should be taken to keep up 
 the circulation in the extremities by hand-rubbing and ban- 
 daging. The following drink may be given every two 
 hours : — 
 
 Prepared chalk one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum two ounces. 
 
 Liquor potasspe one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of catecliu lialf an ounce. 
 
 Tincture of ginger one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums two drachms. 
 
 Water one pint. 
 
 Throw up frequent injections of rice water, and have a 
 pail of thin cold gruel in the manger, which, however, 
 should be repeatedly changed, though most likely the 
 poor animal will drain it almost as fast as it can be pre- 
 pared. 
 
 PERITONITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE OUTER COAT OF 
 THE INTESTINES. 
 
 This disease is very similar to enteritis. The distinguish- 
 ing characteristics are : the horse is more full of pain from 
 the commencement of the attack. He suffers almost as 
 much as during an acute fit of spasmodic colic. The paw- 
 ing, rolling, kicking at the belly, is more continual than in 
 enteritis. The breath is sharper. The eye more wild, the 
 mouth more clammy, and altogether the symptoms more 
 aggravated. The pulse is full, and more throbbing. The 
 fgeces are passed in small hard lumps, mingled with much 
 slime of a thickish consistence, which covers the dung. 
 Violent purgation does not generally appear when the cos- 
 tiveness gives way. Towards the end the horse experiences 
 a remission of pain. He becomes more tranquil, and alto- 
 gether seems better. The belly then begins to swell, but it 
 is not pushed out evenly from all parts. The enlargement 
 takes place at the inferior part only, the extra weight of 
 which appears to hang heavily upon the loins. Gradually 
 the enlargement increases. If it be smartly hit on one 
 side, and the practitioner place his hand upon the other, 
 water may be detected, and the animal dies ultimately suf- 
 focated by the weight of the fluid forcing the diaphragm 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 333 
 
 into the chest, thus preventing that cavity from expanding. 
 The period for the duration of the disorder is, however, 
 generally longer than in enteritis. 
 
 The treatment is much the same as for enteritis. The 
 only difference is, that the animal will lose more blood 
 before he displays any symptom of uneasiness. We may 
 also be more bold with purgatives. The three ounces of 
 solution of aloes may be increased to five, the pint of oil 
 enlarged to a pint and a half, and if this produces no signs 
 of its having acted on the bowels, it may even be repeated 
 when another three hours and a half has elapsed : all the 
 other measures are alike in both cases. 
 
 INFLAMED BOWELS IN NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 This disease is not unfrequent among kine. The enteritis 
 of horned cattle presents symptoms which do not materially 
 differ from those displayed by horses ; neither in all essen- 
 tial particulars is any variation in the proper treatment 
 necessary. There is, however, one material distinction, the 
 bowels are never wholly costive, but small portions of liquid 
 fseces are ejected with much straining. Opening the bowels 
 freely, however, is essential. The disease mainly depends 
 on the clogged or hardened state of the ingesta in the 
 many-plus, and this must be got rid of The drink pre- 
 scribed for horses may be given, only substituting a pound 
 of Epsom salts for the aloes. This may even be repeated. 
 If the double dose does not act, give half a pound of sul- 
 phur, and half an ounce of cream of tartar, with an ounce 
 of sulphuric ether. If that, after being again tried, has no 
 effect, next try linseed oil one pint and a half, with a 
 drachm of chloroform ; and this likewise may be repeated ; 
 for the bowels, at all expense, must be forced open. In 
 the mean time, give half a drachm of calomel, and a drachm 
 of opium, every hour ; stimulate the belly, &c. ; in fact, the 
 other directions may be taken from those which have already 
 been given for the horse, under the head of Enteritis. 
 
 The injiamed purging state is likewise not unfrequent 
 among cattle ; and derives its origin less from any exteiyial 
 irritant than from a diseased condition of the natural ex- 
 citer of the bowels — the bile ; to which disease they are 
 found pecuharly liable. The curative plan must be the 
 
334 INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 
 
 same as just detailed, with this exception, that the external 
 stimulants need not be so hurried on, or so general. More- 
 over, one dose of purgative medicine is ample. The opium 
 and calomel need only be administered thrice per day, and 
 then carefully watched, for salivation is to be much feared 
 when created in cattle. If the purgation continues after 
 this purgative, and two or three doses of calomel, try some 
 of the astringent drinks, one of which will be found at the 
 end of the article of Dysentery in the horse, and others 
 under the heads of Rot in cattle. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 
 
 Acute hepatitis is not a frequent occurrence in veterinary 
 practice, for the liver of the horse is but seldom primarily 
 affected with inflammation ; though, w^hen other great 
 abdominal inflammations take place, then this gland often 
 participates ; in which cases the only difference shown by 
 the symptoms is a yellow tinge in the conjunctival, nasal, 
 and buccal membranes. 
 
 The chronic or torpid state of the disease which is very 
 common among high-fed, and slightly-worked carriage and 
 brewers' horses, may be unsuspected till the animal is sud- 
 denly seized with gripes, or otherwise shows signs of 
 being seriously ill. These symptoms are caused by the 
 rupture of the fibrous case of the liver, called Glisson's 
 capsule, and the escape of blood into the peritoneum or 
 serous covering of the huge gland. It is then almost too 
 late to try calomel. A few days' quiet, and a dose to open 
 the bowels, will be all that can be ventured ; and the horse 
 is returned to its owner, with a caution to work him gently 
 and feed him sparingly for the future. Such cautions, 
 how^ever, are rarely long attended to. Nevertheless, the 
 peritoneum stretches, and at the same time thickens in 
 substance, containing, and at the same time restraining, the 
 fluid that is poured into it. Another rupture in time takes 
 place, and the same measures are repeated ; however, the 
 peritoneum at last gives way. If the rent should be large, 
 the animal may suddenly fall dead. If small, he is sent to 
 us apparently labouring under a severe fit of colic, but the 
 dilated pupil, the inabiUty to bear the head lifted up, and 
 the tinge of all the visible membranes declare the truth ; for 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 335 
 
 the examination after death exhibits the true cavity of the 
 abdomen, full of thin black and unhealthy blood, 
 
 INFLAMED LIVER IN NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Store cattle and young stock, turned upon rich pastures, 
 are most subject to this disorder, though occasionally it 
 will attack milch cows, kept much within the shed of a 
 London dairy. It however always comes in the chronic 
 form, and usually combined with other diseases. The 
 animal seems dull, stupid, staggers, or falls about as it 
 walks ; while the secretion of a milch cow is discoloured, 
 and of a ropy consistence ; the visible membranes and skin 
 being markedly yellow. Give a mild purge if the bowels 
 are loose, and a strong one if the bowels are costive. Then 
 give a scruple of calomel, with twice its amount of opium, 
 each day. But be careful of salivation. When the gums 
 seem tender, give a purgative and tonics, with good food. 
 The following tonic will serve the purpose : — 
 
 Iodide of potassium a scruple. 
 
 Quassse one ounce. 
 
 Ginger half an ounce. 
 
 Oak bark one ounce. 
 
 Grains of Paradise, in powder two drachms. 
 
 Form into balls, with a sufficiency of treacle and linseed 
 meal, and give morning and night. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS IN THE HORSE. 
 
 This, as a primary disease, is not a very common complaint 
 among horses ; but by its fatal tendency, it becomes an 
 important subject. Small as these organs are, they are 
 very essential to life, and the quantity of blood passing 
 through them is very great ; therefore, we cannot wonder 
 at their aptitude to inflame, nor the great derangement 
 that inflammation occasions the machine. 
 
 The causes are exposure to cold ; standing in the rain ; 
 water dripping on the loins we have known bring it on ; 
 a heavy awkward rider by his motions, or even the action 
 of the psoee muscles in great exertion, may bruise the 
 kidneys ; and occasionally it may be caused by metastasis 
 of inflammation. Mow-burnt hay, musty or even kiln- 
 dried oats, in common with other diuretic substances, which 
 under the name of staling or urine balls, are such favour- 
 
336 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 
 
 ites with every groom, may produce it. It may terminate 
 in resolution, suppuration, or gangrene. 
 
 Symptoms. — Dull appearance ; pain expressed by looking 
 at the flanks ; urine made frequent and in small quantities, 
 with much effort or groaning ; often red or bloody, and as 
 the inflammation increases almost wholly suppressed : still 
 attempts are made by the bladder to evacuate, and the 
 mucous secretion from the organ and urethra only are 
 pressed out with much pain. Pulse at first rather hard, 
 frequent, and somewhat full ; but, as the disease advances, 
 it becomes smaller, oppressed, and intensely quick. The 
 animal stands with his legs wide apart, as though going 
 to stale, and shrinks when the loins are pressed. If it ba 
 an entire horse, the spermatic glands are alternately drawn 
 close to the belly, and pendulous or relaxed. To dis- 
 tinguish it from inflammation of the body of the bladder, or 
 from spasm of the neck of that organ, the horse should be 
 examined by passing the hand up the rectum ; when, if the 
 inflammation exists in the kidneys, the bladder, whether it 
 contain any thing or not, will not be hotter than the sur- 
 rounding parts, or more tender : but should the affection 
 be confined to the body of the bladder, it will be surely 
 found empty, but very hot and painful to the touch : if 
 again spasm of the neck of the bladder, as sometimes hap- 
 pens, should be the seat of the disease, no heat or tender- 
 ness will be felt, but the bladder will be found distended with 
 urine. The horse shows much disinclination to move, and 
 when forced out straddles as he progresses. 
 
 The treatment must be directed to the equalization of 
 the arterial action. Back-rake ; throw^ up frequent clysters, 
 consisting of cold water, in every gallon of which one ounce 
 of sulphuric ether, and one ounce of crude opium, are dis- 
 solved ; both with a view to promote a soluble state of 
 bowels, and to act as a fomentation to the inflamed organs ; 
 and if any costiveness be present, give a purgative without 
 any diuretic substance intermixed. It should, because aloes 
 contain resin, consist of linseed oil a pint and a half, in 
 which a drachm of chloroform is mingled, and one half of 
 this may be repeated in six hours, if the animal display no 
 improvement. It will be prudent also to endeavour at 
 exciting an external inflammation on the loins. The use of 
 
HGEMATURIA IN NEAT CATTLE. 337 
 
 Spanish flies are here questionable, from an alleged disposi- 
 tion in them to stimulate the kidneys. Turpentine, for the 
 same reason, should not be applied ; but no such fear pre- 
 vents the use of liquor ammonia, in the manner before 
 directed, when treating of enteritis : neither can any objec- 
 tion be formed to the application of a simple mustard poul- 
 tice, which may be renewed every two hours ; and, if a 
 newly-stripped sheepskin be laid upon the place the liquor 
 ammonia or mustard poultice has occupied, the activity of 
 each will be increased. Without any attempts at actual 
 diaphoresis, which would increase the action of the heart 
 and arteries, we should attempt to moderately determine 
 the blood to the skin and the limbs by clothing, friction, 
 and bandaging up the extremities ; as well also by consi- 
 derately nauseating the stomach with white hellebore. Dilu- 
 ting liquors are among the best means of lessening inflam- 
 mation, for which reason a pail of tepid gruel should be 
 kept constantly in the manger. These cases, however, gene- 
 rally last some time, during the whole of which the efforts 
 should be continued, and exertion only relax as death, from 
 known and well-marked signs, appears certain. 
 
 HEMATURIA, OR SO-CALLED RED WATER, IN NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Red water, which is the cowleech's and grazier's name 
 for what is now usually considered as the consequence 
 of inflammation of the kidneys, is much more common 
 among horned cattle than it is among horses : while, in 
 some cases, it has been observed to be accompanied by an 
 aft'ection of the bowels also. Graziers attribute it to low 
 damp situations. Or the eating of particular herbage is 
 very generally assigned as a cause, which by the acrid quali- 
 ties are supposed to injure the secreting structure of the 
 kidneys. It is also known to follow great alternations of 
 temperature in a marked manner : in some instances it has 
 been attributed to drinking impure water, particularly that 
 which is found in peat mosses. 
 
 The symptoms and treatment of inflamed kidneys do 
 not differ from those observed in the horse : the urine, at 
 first almost suppressed, soon in cattle becomes bloody, 
 whence its name of red water : and as the disease advances, 
 particularly if it terminates fatally, the urine becomes 
 
 z 
 
338 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 darker, almost of the colour of venous blood. The treat- 
 ment consists in giving sugar of lead, or acet. plumbi, two 
 drachms twice a day. Should this fail, the sulphates of 
 zinc, of copper, or of iron, may be tried, and at the same 
 time a seton applied over each loin. Balls made of cam- 
 phor one drachm, opium two drachms, are said to have 
 been beneficial. 
 
 If the disease is produced from over-driving, and blows 
 over the loins, or follows calving, some hopes may be held 
 out to the proprietor. But in cases of all kinds the food 
 should be changed, and the animal may have water, in 
 which sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, one drachm to the 
 gallon, has been mixed ; but in chronic or mysterious cases, 
 it is safer to introduce the owner to some neighbouring 
 butcher. 
 
 Sheep now and then have red water also, both of the 
 acute and the more chronic kind : housing, and feeding on 
 any sweet root, as carrots, parsneps, or in default of these 
 upon turnips, form the best means of cure, with the occa- 
 sional use of one-sixth of the medicine recommended for 
 cattle. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, OR CYSTITIS. 
 
 Inflammation of the bladder is said to be, but not proved, 
 to be more common among mares than horses ; but of all 
 the causes of this affection, none can compare with the 
 powerful diuretics in general use with every stable man or 
 groom. The symptoms are frequent, nay, continual, emis- 
 sions of small quantities of urine, voided with much strain- 
 ing, during which the dung commonly is passed. The 
 bladder will be felt by the greased hand passed gently up 
 the rectum, hot, tender, and contracted into a firm sub- 
 stance of about the size of a cricket ball. 
 
 The treatment is the same as for nephritis, and equally 
 as urgent ; every precaution pointed out, when treating of 
 inflammation of the kidneys, should be rigidly adopted ; in 
 addition to which, warm water, in every gallon of which a 
 quarter of a pound of gum arable, and an ounce of crude 
 opium having been dissolved, may be injected into the blad- 
 
SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 339 
 
 der, by means of Reid's pump, with the elastic catheter 
 attached to it. 
 
 SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 Sometimes the neck of the bladder is spasmodically 
 affected, and this is said to occur more fi^equently to horses 
 than to mares. It is to be distinguished from inflammation 
 of the kidneys and the bladder, by the urine being for the 
 most part retained, and the horse making frequent ineffec- 
 tual efforts to stale ; while the true character of the affection 
 is discovered by passing the hand up the rectum ; the blad- 
 der will be found distended : often the distention may be 
 felt in the front of the pubes. The retention of urine, 
 however, is the principal symptom, although in spasm of 
 the neck of the bladder, there may be a small quantity of 
 urine evacuated at different times : for after the bladder is 
 distended, there will be, by the force of the accumulation, a 
 few drops now and then squeezed out. But in this disease 
 the frequent or copious staling will not take place, whereas 
 in the previous disease it will be continual. The causes of 
 this complaint we are in the dark about ; but it may be 
 reasonably supposed that the spasm of the part is occa- 
 sioned by morbid irritation, and our opinion of the probable 
 termination must depend on our capability of emptying the 
 distended bladder, and recovering the lost tone of the organ. 
 Every effort must be made to accomplish this, or the animal 
 may perish under irritation ; he may sink through gangrene 
 of the distended bladder supervening, or he may, as he 
 usually does, die of the rupture of the bladder, in conse- 
 quence of the kidneys continuing to secrete urine, but the 
 spasm offering an obstacle to its emission. Attempt there- 
 fore to accomplish the ejection, by introducing the hand up 
 the rectum, and gently pressing the fundus of the bladder for- 
 wards, which may force open the neck. If this fail, the 
 urethra must be opened by a catheter. In a mare, the 
 catheter may be easily passed up, and the water drawn off; 
 but, in the horse, to effect this, a flexible catheter must be 
 introduced, and gently guided forward. When a horse is 
 aftected with spasm the penis is generally much retracted ; 
 but with a little patience, aided by a handkerchief wrapped 
 round the hand, inserted up the sheath, this may be over- 
 
 z2 
 
340 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. 
 
 come. The part is then given to an assistant to hold 
 firmly, while the practitioner inserts the point of the cathe- 
 ter, which he pushes forward with his right hand, while he 
 places his left beneath the anus, in order to turn the tube 
 by manipulation when it shall have reached the perineieum. 
 The rest is straightforward work, only be careful to make 
 steady continued, rather than sudden or violent pressure. 
 After the urine has been evacuated, inject a gallon of cold 
 spring water, with which an ounce of tincture of gall nuts . 
 has been mixed ; and if this last is, at the time, or shortly 
 afterwards ejected, no fears need be entertained about the 
 lost tone. If it is not cast forth, draw it oft\ and inject an- 
 other gallon, and continue till the bladder freely contracts. 
 At the same time you may give a clyster, composed of two 
 quarts of cold water, with two ounces of sulphuric ether, 
 and the same quantity of laudanum, which may be repeated 
 for three times. Mild food and good water, both procured 
 from a new source, is all that is required to perfect the 
 cure, excepting it may be thought proper to give a dose of 
 physic upon recovery. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. 
 
 We know that the womb is liable to become inflamed 
 by participation with extensive abdominal inflammations. 
 When the disease is so universal as to involve this part, 
 the case must be hopeless ; and we therefore shall abstain 
 from giving any directions as to treatment. We know, 
 however, that inflammation occasionally attacks mares 
 after abortion ; after difficult foaling also, when injudicious 
 eftbrts have been made to produce delivery ; in which cases 
 the animal never recovers from the prostration into which 
 the act of labour has cast her. The general signs of 
 intense fever are exhibited. The animal appears wild or 
 delirious. She blows much ; and the young one by her 
 side is entirely neglected. A dark fluid, having a strong 
 smell, drains from the vulva. These are most dangerous 
 cases, nor are we able from the exhausted state of the 
 patient, to adopt all the measures we might think of. A 
 mustard poultice, however, followed by a sheepskin, may 
 be placed upon the loins, and an ammoniacal blister applied 
 to the belly. A gallon of tepid water, in which half an 
 
INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 341 
 
 ounce of crude opium, and half an ounce of tincture of 
 arnica is mingled, may be injected into the womb every 
 two hours ; and if the stench is very offensive, five grains 
 of chloride of zinc may be added, while warm clysters are 
 thrown up the rectum, that they may act as fomentations 
 to the part. If the bowels are at all costive, a laxative ball 
 may be administered, after which two drachms of calomel, 
 and one drachm of opium ; to be followed every hour 
 with half a drachm of calomel, and a drachm of opium. 
 Wolfsbane or aconite is the best sedative, and may be 
 given in ten-grain doses four times a day. The practi- 
 tioner need not fear the activity of the measures recom- 
 mended. The case speedily terminates, or the animal 
 becomes better, when the severity of the treatment can of 
 course be ameliorated. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 
 COMMON COLD. 
 
 Influenza, or catarrhal fever, as an epidemic, has already 
 occupied our attention at p. 277. The direct cause of com- 
 mon cold is some accidental alternation between cold and 
 heat, when it finds the constitution partially or generally, 
 from certain causes, incapable of resisting its effects. In 
 very young horses it frequently ends in strangles, and when 
 its symptoms assume a more than ordinary intensity, it 
 becomes influenza. A simple attack on the Schneide- 
 rian membranes, known as a common cold, first shows 
 itself by a thin watery secretion from the nose, and from 
 the eyes also in some cases. The lymphatic glands become 
 inflamed, tumefied, and tender ; symptomatic fever follows 
 the inflammatory action ; and the tendency observed in 
 mucous surfaces to take on the formation of pus without 
 ulceration begins, after two or three days, to show itself; 
 first by a coagulable deposit of lymph in a flaky form, and 
 next by a regular flow of yellow muco-purulent matter 
 from the nose : some cough is also usually present. In a 
 few days these appearances vanish, and the horse is con- 
 
342 BRONCHITIS. 
 
 valescent. The treatment is veiy simple. Extra clothing, 
 and a warmer house, will in general effect a cure. Occa- 
 sionally a cathartic ball, with mild, soft food, may be neces- 
 sary. In more severe cases, balls composed of common 
 tar and linseed meal, or a drink of linseed tea, in which has 
 been stirred an ounce of ipecacuanha wine, may be given 
 twice a day when the cough is annoying. 
 
 SORE THROAT. 
 
 To the above symptoms of common cold there are often 
 added those which betoken sore throat ; in which cases the 
 inflammation has extended itself to, or perhaps primarily 
 attacked, the mucous surfaces of the pharynx and the 
 upper part of the larynx. The mouth is hot, but at 
 first dry : there is an evident disinclination to eat, or to 
 swallow what is masticated : he therefore ' quids' his hay, 
 i.e. lets fall the masticated bolus; he sips his water, and 
 moves it about with his lips rather than drinks it ; or he 
 utterly refuses it. The region of the gullet and fauces is 
 exceedingly tender and hot ; the salivary glands throughout 
 become swollen and tender ; and from the laryngeal con- 
 nexions the cough becomes frequent and painful. The 
 treatment must here be more active, as the pain and symp- 
 toms are more severe. The nostrils may be fumigated by 
 means of a hot bran mash placed beneath the nose, the 
 steam from which is inhaled. A blister, or a mustard poul- 
 tice, should be applied to the throat. A fever ball, con- 
 taining half a drachm of tartar emetic, and a drachm of 
 nitre, should be given night and morning. Cathartics had 
 better be omitted ; but the food should be soft, and the 
 water chilled. 
 
 BRONCHITIS. 
 
 When the catarrhal attack extends into the bronchii or 
 divisions of the trachea, it is called by the above name. There 
 will be hurried and embarrassed breathing, and, in a great 
 degree, the sense of pulmonary obstruction ; it will be accom- 
 panied by a rattling sound or wheezing noise during the 
 respirative acts ; with a muco-purulent discharge from the 
 nose ; a pulse at first harder and quicker than natural, but 
 gradually becoming still more increased in frequency, but 
 
ROARING. 343 
 
 decreased in volume. Cough is present which is very 
 severe, though so far as may be possible suppressed. 
 
 Treatment. — Apply a blister under the throat, over the 
 course of the windpipe, and along the chest. Clothe well, 
 and let the stable be rather warm than cold, though by no 
 means hot. Foment the nostrils with hot bran in a nose- 
 bag. Give the animal a drink composed of sulphuric ether 
 one ounce, laudanum one ounce, liquor ammonia acetatis 
 six ounces, solution of aloes four ounces, tincture of gen- 
 tian two ounces, and cold water one pint. Then three times 
 daily administer the adjoined, in the shape of drink, also 
 being careful to lower the horse's head that instant he 
 coughs : — 
 
 Extract of belladonna one drachm. 
 
 Liquor potassa; one ounce. 
 
 Liquor ammimia acetatis six ounces. 
 
 Tincture of cantiiarides a scruple. 
 
 Give thrice a day till the appetite is lost. Then discontinue. 
 
 Every night the drink composed of sulphuric ether and 
 laudanum and water may be administered, omitting, how- 
 ever, the liq. amm. acet. and the solution of aloes. Should 
 the cough be distressing, let the horse take a tar ball night 
 and morning. 
 
 During the progress of such a complaint we need not 
 wonder if some diseased alterations of structure in the air- 
 passages should be the immediate consequences ; or other- 
 wise, that such an irritable state of them may remain after 
 the more active symptoms have ceased, as to give rise to 
 ruinous chronic affections. The inflammation may thus 
 leave roaring, w^heezing or whistling, as a sequel ; and thick 
 wind may result. 
 
 CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE PULMONARY AERATING PASSAGES. 
 
 ROARING. 
 
 The artificial habits of life to which we subject the horse 
 occasion numerous morbid changes in his organs, yet in 
 none more than those connected with his respiration : and 
 not only do the grand masses of the lungs suffer, but the 
 very passages to them are altered in structure, and rendered 
 incapable of transmitting the air with its proper freedom. 
 The obstructing matter, on the principle of wind instru- 
 
344 ROARING. 
 
 ments, produces sounds modulated according to its figure, 
 extent, and the precise locality where the opposition 
 is situated, which horsemen call wheezing, whistliny, roar- 
 ing, S)'c. ; terms sufficiently expressive. A horse wheezes 
 w^hen any obstruction is offered to the passage of air within 
 the nostrils ; he whistles when the foreign body is situated 
 in the hind part of the nostrils, or is but slight, and is 
 located near to the opening of the larynx ; but he roars 
 when the larynx is malformed, or hindrance is offered to 
 the free current of air within the windpipe. 
 
 The causes of roaring are remote and proximate. The 
 chronic causes are mostly inflammation in the tracheal tube 
 itself. Occasionally it is brought on by the effects of in- 
 flammation on other parts ; as by the swelling and conse- 
 quent pressure of the salivary glands in strangles, or of those 
 abscesses which not unfrequently occur in violent catarrh in 
 the vicinage of" the pharynx. Obstructions accidentally 
 formed by exostoses, cicatrizations, &c., or extraneous sub- 
 stances lodged in the interior of the trachea, may any of 
 them occasion it. The acute causes might, with propriety, 
 include these accidental obstructions, but they are mainly 
 to be looked for in an extravasation, partial or extensive, of 
 coagulable lymph ; which, becoming organized, forms a per- 
 manent obstruction. When it is extensively spread over 
 the larynx, it produces whistling ; when it constringes the 
 rima glottidis, a whistling sound is the consequence, and is 
 often heard in our own respirations under catarrh ; or in the 
 ordinary respirations of some asthmatic persons. Whoever 
 has handled the throats of many old horses, must have ob- 
 served a hardened state of the larynx, which almost resisted 
 all attempts to what is termed " cough them." This ossi- 
 fication of the laryngeal cartilages is not an uncommon 
 cause ; and a similar state in the cartilages of the trachea is 
 productive of it also. A cause also of roaring is a band of 
 lymph stretched across the tracheal tube ; at others, an 
 internal ring of the same matter simply diminishes its 
 diameter. The obstruction is sometimes so considerable 
 as to excite the sound upon the slightest exertion ; in 
 general cases, however, roaring is only exerted when forcible 
 inspirations and expirations are made ; for it is, we believe, 
 equally produced by the one as by the other. Mechanical 
 
CHRONIC COUGH. 345 
 
 obstructions to free respiration may eventually be produc- 
 tive of roaring : the custom of tightly reining in our car- 
 riage-horses, especially such as run in pairs or double har- 
 ness, there is reason to think produces it ; the practice of 
 using tight throat-lashes or neck-straps may likewise have 
 induced it. In furtherance of which last opinion it may 
 be recollected, that horsemen have a very general suppo- 
 sition that cribbiting ends in roaring, in thick wind, or in 
 broken wind : may not the tight collar, strapped around the 
 throat, here tend to the former of these afiections? The 
 custom of ' coughing ' horses, and so frequently as it is 
 practised in fairs, may be readily supposed as a cause. A 
 horse passes from fair to fair, having his unfortunate throat 
 brutally pinched thirty or forty times each day. Is it to be 
 wondered at if inflammation takes place, and adhesive de- 
 posit follow ? 
 
 The treatment must be regulated by circumstances. When 
 it is acute, and depends upon the diseased state of neigh- 
 bouring parts, the inflammation of those parts must be 
 relieved. When it can be discovered to be the consequence 
 of recent inflammation of the laryngeal or tracheal carti- 
 lages, a physic ball may be given, and the seat of the disease 
 blistered, while, from day to day, some sedative medicine is 
 administered. Every case of roaring, however, excepting 
 the very acute, is undertaken with fear and trembling, and 
 the cure depends quite as much upon chance as upon skill. 
 
 CHRONIC COUGH. 
 
 Coughing is a spasmodic effort of the diaphragm, inter- 
 costal, and abdominal muscles, producing a forcible expira- 
 tion of the air from the chest, with such violence as is 
 calculated to remove any extraneous body that may intercept 
 the free passage of the air. Whenever it accompanies a 
 general affection of the constitution, it is regarded as simply 
 symptomatic, and the original disease is attended to for its 
 removal. Thus catarrh is accompanied by a cough, but 
 we attend principally to the general affection, as the best 
 means of subduing it. A chronic cough is often symptomatic 
 of some affection of the air-passages ; it is also an attendant 
 upon the state called broken wind : it likewise accompanies 
 glanders ; and appears when worms are in the stomach and 
 
346 CHRONIC COUGIT. 
 
 bowels. But besides these cases, there exists at times, with- 
 out any attendant difficulty of breathing (the horse at the 
 same time eating well and thriving), a permanent cough, 
 usually more considerable in the morning and evening, after 
 meals, particularly after drinking, or on first going out to 
 exercise. A cough of this description is very common, and 
 it will remain in this state, without otherwise affecting the 
 horse, for years ; sometimes it will even be continued with 
 no obvious injury for his whole life. Young horses, when 
 first brought into stable, are generally found coughing, 
 which, however, subsides,' leaving behind it no perceptible 
 evil effect. In other instances it does not end in so harm- 
 less a manner, but upon any occasional cold being caught is 
 aggravated ; and each cold makes it worse and worse, until 
 at length, by repeated attacks, the respiration, or 'wind,' 
 is permanently affected. An irritable state of the bronchial 
 passages often remains after catarrh and bronchitis, and 
 coughing occurs whenever the horse moves out of or into 
 the stable ; for the inspired air is colder or warmer than 
 what was before breathed, hence becomes a source of irri- 
 tation : drinking cold water produces the same effect, for a 
 similar reason ; as does any hurry or irregularity of motion. 
 In some cases the irritability of the bronchial membrane 
 itself does not seem so much increased, as the mucus 
 secreted from it appears altered, either in quantity or quality. 
 It may become inordinate in quantity, as is often observed ; 
 such horses, when they cough, throw off much mucus by 
 the nostrils : or it may be more acrid in quality, and hence 
 by these means prove a source of continual irritation ; or 
 the secretion of mucus may be lessened to the injury of the 
 passages. 
 
 The treatment of chronic cough must depend on our view 
 of its causes and consequences. When it appears to arise 
 from a want of mucous secretion, expectorants which excite 
 such secretion are premised, as No. 1. When a redundancy 
 of the mucous secretion is apparent, tonics are required. 
 When the secretion is acrid, give No. 2. The cough, which 
 is the effect of an irritable state of the parts, is sometimes 
 relieved by stimulating the throat externally, and by giving 
 internally opium with bitter tonics. In horses naturally of 
 a full habit, and grossly fed, without sufficient exercise, our 
 
THICK WIND. 347 
 
 attempts must be directed to lower their general plethora, 
 by moderate feeding, and exertion enough. If at grass, a 
 less luxuriant pasture should be chosen. In the stable, the 
 bloated horse should be muzzled at night, to prevent him 
 eating his litter, and his water should be given in moderate 
 quantities only : all sudden exertions likewise ought to be as 
 much as possible avoided. 
 
 When worms in any large numbers are present in the 
 stomach, or intestines, a continued cough generally exists, 
 with irregular appetite and unthrifty coat, stools foetid and 
 slimy, at one time loose and another hard and dry ; for which 
 turn to the head under which those parasites are specially 
 treated of. In all chronic coughs the best effect sometimes 
 follow from feeding with carrots. Turnips, parsneps, beet, 
 and potatoes, may be beneficially used where carrots cannot 
 be got ; and a mash with bran and linseed, or malt, may be 
 occasionally given. 
 
 No. ) . — Calomel one scruple. 
 
 Gum aramouiac two draclims. 
 
 Balsam of Peru one draclim. 
 
 Powdered squill one drachm. 
 
 Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning fasting. 
 In some cases the following has been found efficacious : — 
 
 No. 2. — Tar one drachm. 
 
 Powdered squill (Uie drachm. 
 
 Linseed meal a sufficiency. 
 
 Make into a ball and give every morning, or try the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 No. 3. — Powdered ipecacuanha , half a drachm. 
 
 Camphor two drachms. 
 
 Extract of belladonna one scruple. 
 
 Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning. 
 
 THICK WIND 
 
 Is also a common consequence of either acute or chronic 
 pulmonary inflammations. In some instances, it is the 
 immediate consequence of violent or long-continued exer- 
 cise, and particularly if the exercise be taken upon a dis- 
 tended stomach and bowels, or after full drinking ; or it may 
 be brought on by the application of cold. It is often con- 
 nected with a plethoric state, and is therefore very common 
 among pampered animals and gross feeders ; and more 
 particularly in low-bred and thick-set horses. The post- 
 
348 BROKEN WIND. 
 
 mortem examinations of such cases exhibit, in some in- 
 stances, a sHght hepatization of lung, the consequence of 
 repeated congestions ; in others, the minute bronchial cells 
 are filled with adhesive matter, or the general substance 
 may be pervaded with minute granulations of a blueish 
 colour. 
 
 The symptoms of thick wind are sufficiently known to any 
 one at all conversant with horses. The capacity of the air- 
 cells being diminished, renders it necessary for the air to be 
 more frequently taken in, because, being acted on by a less 
 surface, the blood is not sufficiently oxygenated ; and a suf- 
 ficient number of air-cells not being expanded, the animal 
 makes hasty inspirations to remedy the default : the force 
 with which these are effected, occasions the sound so well 
 known as the distinguishing mark of thick wind. In this 
 affection, the obstruction to both being equal, the inspira- 
 tions and expirations are ahke, which serves to distinguish 
 it from broken wind. Thick wind is, however, very apt to 
 degenerate into broken wind ; and the post-mortem appear- 
 ances of such horses as have been examined for thick wind 
 would readily, by an increase of the disorganization, account 
 for the symptoms which are characteristic of broken wind ; 
 but these can only spring from a hepatized lung which is in 
 the emphysematous state. 
 
 The treatment of thick wind can seldom be more than 
 palliative, for once established, it remains permanent. The 
 remedial means are more in the hands of the proprietor 
 than of the veterinary surgeon. The food must be moderate 
 in quantity, and of such a kind as will occupy the least possi- 
 ble space. No hay should be allowed ; and as thick winded 
 horses are gross feeders, the muzzle ought to be put on as 
 soon as the manger has been emptied. 
 
 BROKEN WIND. 
 
 This peculiar affection has long excited the attention not 
 only of veterinarians, but of the curious in general : and as a 
 cure for it holds out the certainty of a plentiful harvest, both 
 of credit and emolument, it has been a subject of much ex- 
 periment and more conjecture. The older writers indulged 
 in the most absurd and extravagant notions respecting it ; 
 into the detail of which I shall not follow them. On the 
 
BROKEN WIND. 349 
 
 Continent it long occupied, in later times, the research of 
 many eminent veterinarians, but with little satisfactory- 
 issue. It has been attributed to external and internal 
 causes ; to a defect, and to a superabundance, of vital 
 energy ; to altered structure of the heart, of the lungs, of 
 the diaphragm, the stomach, the liver, &c. It is lesion 
 with some, nervous with others, and simple distention with 
 a third. Among our own writers the discrepancy is equally 
 great : Gibson attributed it to an enlargement of the pulmo- 
 nary mass generally ; Dr. Lower to a rupture of the phrenic 
 nerve ; but in later times it has been mostly attributed by 
 our writers to structural change. Yet to proceed somewhat 
 methodically, we will cursorily inquire into its more proba- 
 ble causes. 
 
 The cause of broken wind is hereditary or constitutional 
 predisposition. A certain form of body is unquestionably 
 favourable to its production, and it is from this circum- 
 stance that it proves hereditary. The narrow confined 
 chest, and the pendant belly, which mark low-bred horses 
 and gross feeders, predispose towards the affection. It 
 must be the subjecting horses to a long-continued un- 
 healthy course of feeding on dry food, as chaff, bran, bar- 
 ley meal, &c. &c. that brings it on ; as also working in 
 mills, where much dust is necessarily inhaled. It is seldom 
 the immediate consequence of pneumonia ; but frequently 
 it results from those states of disordered respiration which 
 succeed to it, as thick wind, chronic cough, &c. We are 
 much in the dark about its origin : we see that it gradually 
 steals on a horse, occupying months, and even years, with 
 a slight occasional cough, which ripening into a state of 
 impeded respiration, at last ends in broken wind. We see 
 it also follow one hard gallop ; and we can leave a horse 
 well one day, and find him broken-winded the next. With 
 these facts in our every-day experience, can we readily 
 name any universal cause ? 
 
 A post-mortem examination, in most of the subjects, has 
 brought forward an emphysematous state of lungs, and we 
 need not to have looked further for the cause ; but, on the 
 contrary, it is not by any means uncommon to meet with 
 broken-winded horses whose lungs after death are neither 
 emphysematous or otherwise structurally deranged ; and 
 
350 BROKEN WIND. 
 
 which, with the exception of their lighter colour, and 
 greater bulk than natural, cannot well be distinguished 
 from the sound lung, although they crepitate or crackle 
 when pressed by the hand. It must, however, be acknow- 
 ledged, that it is seldom they are seen even thus free from 
 disease ; for if not emphysematous, they are hepatized, or 
 congested; sometimes tubercular. From two cases cited 
 by Mr. Percivall, emphysema of the lungs can also exist 
 without broken wind. It appears likely that rupture of 
 the air-cells is the cause of broken wind, because it is not 
 always sudden, but gives some years of a warning cough, 
 or of thick-winded wheeze. Although an emphysematous 
 state of the lungs is common, it is by no means' constant, 
 and consequently will not afford a structural solution of 
 this difficulty. 
 
 There is another view of the cause of this disease, namely, 
 that it depends upon derangement of the digestive canal ; 
 and if the irritability of the larynx favours the opinion 
 advanced with respect to the lungs, the constant passing of 
 flatus supports the other conjecture. Horses with broken 
 wind will eat almost any thing, which again is opposed to 
 the conclusion that the lungs are the sole seat of the dis- 
 order. The belly is enlarged, the stomach distended, and 
 its coats much thinned, which last-named facts would seem 
 to decide the question. But the truth is, broken wind 
 appears to be a universal derangem.ent, and it is not one 
 structure that suffers, but the entire body undergoes more 
 or less alteration. 
 
 The symptoms of this complaint are well marked : the 
 cough and the manner of respiration may be considered as 
 conclusive. The sound emitted by the cough is peculiar, 
 and is often forced out with a kind of grunt, in a short but 
 vibrating feeble tone compared with the usual cough of 
 sound-winded horses. The respiration is conducted with a 
 remarkable difference between the inspirations and expira- 
 tions. Inspiration is effected quickly ; and the lengthened 
 laborious strain of expiration, which is performed by two 
 distinct efforts, in one of which the usual muscles operate ; 
 and in the other the abdominal muscles come into violent 
 action, to complete the expulsion ; after which the flanks 
 fall with peculiar force, and the air is again inspired as by 
 
BROKEN WIND. 351 
 
 a spasm. An auxiliary symptom is the peculiar flatulence 
 of every broken-winded horse ; which is strikingly charac- 
 teristic of that disordered state of digestion so common in 
 these cases, and of that constant thirst also which is inva- 
 riably present. 
 
 The treatment of broken wind can seldom be more than 
 palliative. Whatever increases the distention of the stomach 
 and bowels, aggravates the complaint by increasing the diffi- 
 culty of expanding the lungs. Therefore, avoid stimulants, 
 and promote regular evacuations ; abstain from over- dis- 
 tention of the lungs by too violent and too sudden exer- 
 tions, particularly after eating. By carefully attending to 
 these principal indications, a broken-winded horse may be 
 rendered comfortable to himself and useful to his owner. 
 The food should be regularly given in moderate quantities 
 only ; but most particularly it should be of such a nature 
 as will contain much nutriment in a small space : hence 
 corn is more proper than hay, and, above all, a manger 
 food composed of one part bran, one part bruised beans, 
 and two parts bruised oats, agree particularly well, if given 
 somewhat moistened. On a quantity of this food no horse 
 will need hay. When they can be got, give also carrots, 
 mangel wurzel, Swedish turnips, parsneps, or cooked pota- 
 toes, which feeding will be found to combine both medicine 
 and nutriment, and render little water necessary. Turning 
 out to grass commonly aggravates the symptoms of broken 
 wind ; and a neglect of moderate exercise also aggravates 
 the complaint : water should be sparingly given, particu- 
 larly in the working hours ; at night, a moderate quantity 
 should be allowed, but on no account let the broken- winded 
 horse drink his fill at a pond or trough. Medicinally, 
 benefit has been received from daily small doses of foxglove ; 
 under these circumstances it has been given to the amount 
 of a scruple of the drug ; and a piece of rock-salt placed in 
 the manger, has seemed to do some good. 
 
 MODES OF DISTINGUISHING SOUNDNESS AND UNSOUNDNESS 
 OF THE WIND. 
 
 These various affections of the loind are very important 
 to the veterinarian, nor can he be too well informed of the 
 appearances that characterize each distinctly; because, as 
 
352 BROKEN WIND. 
 
 their existence affects the legal soundness of horses, so he 
 will be very often forced to decide peremptorily on very 
 slight appearances. To detect thick wind it is' generally 
 necessary that some time be spent with the horse ; and it 
 is often requisite that he should be examined under various 
 circumstances. Does he bear moderate exercise imme- 
 diately after eating or drinking without blowing high? 
 Does he cough in so doing, or is he observed to do it on 
 every change of position, or temperature ; particularly after 
 drinking? And does he when in the stable, field, or when 
 completely at rest, occasionally cough short, hollow, and 
 not followed by that firm effort we call clearing ? In such 
 a case the horse has chronic cough ; and as his breathing is 
 more or less accelerated beyond the ordinary standard, he 
 is more or less thick winded also. Roaring may be imme- 
 diately detected by a brisk gallop ; but the person who is 
 to judge of its existence should be on the ground. We have 
 seen horses whipped into a momentary cessation of the 
 roaring, therefore they should pass him several times, but 
 without restraint ; and the veterinary surgeon should place 
 his ear against the trachea as soon as the animal is pulled 
 up. 
 
 Broken wind can hardly be mistaken ; the cough accom- 
 panying it conveys a peculiar sound ; it is short, vibrates 
 within. The breathing is hurried in the extreme by exer- 
 tion, and is remarkable by being made up of three efforts 
 instead of two. In the first, the air is drawn in natu- 
 rally, and the flanks fill up as usual; but in the next, 
 after the ribs have acted, the rising of the flanks to 
 expel the air is most unusual ; for it is not done with a 
 gradual contraction of the muscles, but takes place at once 
 by a momentary effort, and then a third action ensues, 
 which is a slow but strong drawing up of the muscles of 
 the belly, as though to force out remaining air. Broken- 
 winded horses are also observed to be pecuharly greedy 
 after water : and a little hurried motion distends the nos- 
 trils, and produces evident distress. Rogues at country fairs 
 have a method of setting broken wind ; and of giving the 
 horse affected something, which for a time shall render the 
 animal superior to his symptoms, or cause him to conceal 
 them. Fat, shot, opium, and in short any substance that 
 
GLANDERS. 
 
 353 
 
 will act as a sedative is used; but these agents are not 
 always harmless, as they frequently result in the death of 
 the horse which takes them. However, all these arts are 
 set at nought if the horse be taken to a pond, and there 
 allowed to swill at his pleasure. The characteristic cough 
 returns. The sedative is overpowered for a short time by 
 the refreshing draught, and broken wind is detected as the 
 natural state predominates. 
 
 GLANDERS. 
 
 This fatal and loathsome disease has long been the scourge 
 of a noble race of animals — horses. 
 
 The editor's account of the nature of glanders and farcy 
 will be short : we have every reason to believe that glanders 
 and farcy are but modifications of each other, and that both 
 originate in one common poison : innumerable facts and 
 well-conducted experiments have set this matter beyond 
 doubt ; for horses have been inoculated with the matter of 
 farcy, and the glanders has been the result : glanders has 
 also been produced by inoculating with the matter of glan- 
 ders : farcy has been brought on likewise by inserting the 
 matter of farcy : and, lastly, the artificial introduction of 
 the matter of glanders has occasioned a true appearance of 
 the farcy. Some authorities, however, deny that any weight 
 is to be attached to such results, and assert that these dis- 
 eases can even be produced artificially, by means foreign to 
 contagion or to individual poison. In answer, we would 
 remark, that it is the very essence of all poisons to be 
 governed by their own laws, and to own only certain modes 
 of operation. Small-pox, syphilis, and the rabid poison 
 have remained the same in their symptoms, mode of propa- 
 gation, and terminations for ages. We have alw^ays, therefore, 
 ourselves, felt convinced of the specific nature of this affec- 
 tion, w^hich for variety in its mode of production, continua- 
 tioni and termination, has no parallel ; and to which only 
 we can attribute the unsettled state of the opinions con- 
 cerning it ; but which do nothing to uproot its claim to the 
 character of a direct and peculiar poison, that can always 
 beget its like, and its like only. It is quite true glanders 
 can be produced by great debility, induced by any cause, 
 as abortive strangles, influenza, or even by the injection of 
 
 A a 
 
354 GLANDERS. 
 
 acrid substances into the veins. But glanders once induced 
 by any cause that undermines the constitution, can then by 
 inoculation generate nothing but glanders or farcy, and this 
 is all and every thing the opposed party contend about. 
 
 The forms of glanders have been called acute and chronic. 
 A very ingenious veterinarian, Mr. James Turner, has pro- 
 posed a third kind, which he calls the insidious. This last 
 kind ensues upon the clearing off of catarrh, influenza, &c. ; 
 a protracted gleet remains from one or both nostrils, 
 watery, mingled with small particles of mucus, invariably in 
 very small quantities, but the discharge of which is constant ; 
 and instead of an enlarged submaxillary gland, the size of a 
 walnut, which leads to suspicion, in these cases it is dimi- 
 nished to the size of a pea or horse-bean, but is indurated, 
 and is frequently loose, not being adherent to the jaw-bone. 
 Another deceptive circumstance is the general state of the 
 animal, which is that of good health, in coat, flesh, and 
 spirits. In this state no one suspects glanders, and yet at 
 any time inoculation with the effusion will produce glanders 
 in another horse. Mr. Turner deserves the thanks of the 
 profession at large for putting them on their guard against 
 this treacherous disease, whose Protean shapes require all 
 our vigilance ; but, as he candidly observes, it is not a new 
 species of glanders, but the true chronic form in one of its 
 most occult shapes, of which we have too many instances. 
 The disease is, however, marked with different degrees of 
 malignancy ; in some cases running its fatal course in a 
 week, and in others continuing for years with little altera- 
 tion, and perhaps spontaneously disappearing at last ; and 
 under this view there is room for a systematic division into 
 acute and chronic : that which Mr. Turner calls the in- 
 sidious, is, as he justly states, but a slight modification of 
 the latter. Acute glanders are seldom clearly marked ; but 
 when they are the effect of some extraordinary circum- 
 stances, acting on a number of horses at the same time, as in 
 a state of unusual deprivation of pure air, their consequences 
 are appalling. Asses and mules afford the most complete 
 instances of acute glanders ; they seldom have any other 
 kind. 
 
 The causes of glanders and farcy have occasioned as 
 much diversity of opinion as the nature of the complaints. 
 
GLANDERS. 355 
 
 Both glanders and farcy originate in contagion. An here- 
 ditary defect in the structural capacity of the aerating 
 organs, there is great reason to suppose, is a remote cause 
 of much importance in glanders. Whatever acts noxiously 
 on the air-passages for a considerable time by its irritation, 
 fits them to develop it also ; and thus either acute or 
 chronic glanders may arise, as the cause is active or in- 
 sidious. In this way it is that the impure air of close con- 
 fined situations probably acts, by wasting the strength and 
 destroying the constitution. In populous towns and cities, 
 in crowded unventilated stables, we therefore meet with 
 this disease in the greatest numbers and worst forms. The 
 debilitating effects of common inflammations of the mucous 
 surfaces of the air-passages and their dependencies, is a 
 general source : even wounds of these parts have brought 
 on glanders. A remote cause is a cold humid state of 
 atmosphere, acting upon a debilitated frame ; and thus it 
 is more frequent in winter than summer. 
 
 The contagious nature of glanders has been altogether 
 disputed by some. Bracken was among the number : but 
 many more think it only contagious in a slight degree ; 
 none suppose it is contagious to the extent that was once 
 imagined. All horses, however, are not equally susceptible 
 to take the disease. It must be remembered, that there is 
 a non -susceptibility in some constitutions, and also in the 
 same constitution at particular periods to receive it, when 
 at other times, the fatal disorder would be readily im- 
 bibed ; to which facts much of this discrepancy of state- 
 ment is owing. The generation of glanders has been 
 alleged and denied ; but the question seems to be at once 
 set at rest by the breaking out of acute glanders among 
 the horses on board the transports bound for Quiberon, in 
 consequence of the necessity of fastening down the hatches 
 for three days during a storm ; of these horses none were 
 known to be affected with the disease at the time of em- 
 barkation. Whence then could the infection be derived ? 
 All were exposed to the impure air, or all imbibed the 
 same cause, which none but the very strong and robust 
 could withstand. But it is not possible for a single horse 
 to infect the air around, so as to give the disease to a 
 healthy one near him : horses have lived thus together for 
 
 Aa2 
 
356 GLANDERS. 
 
 months without Injury : on the other hand, we would not 
 venture to deny, that a sound horse, shut up in an unven- 
 tilated stable, where the air became contaminated, might not 
 himself generate the disorder. In its general character, how- 
 ever, it is contagious ; and its contagious nature is exerted 
 by the actual application of the morbid virus to some part 
 of the body, and that generally an abraded surface. 
 
 The Symptoms of Glanders are, an increased secretion 
 from the membranes of one or both nostrils, which con- 
 tinually flows in small or large quantities. This discharge 
 is seldom at first perfectly purulent, but is more glairy, 
 thick, and not unlike the white of an egg ; it sometimes 
 continues thus for a long time ; at others it hastens to 
 become muco-purulent, and then purulent ; but there 
 always remains a peculiar degree of viscidity and glueyness 
 in it that sticks the nostrils together, as it were, from its 
 tenacity, differing from all other mucous or purulent secre- 
 tions, the very nature of which strongly characterizes the 
 complaint. The general colour of the Schneiderian mem- 
 brane becomes changed ; first to a violet colour, often a 
 dingy yellow, and afterwards to a leaden hue. As ulcera- 
 tion ensues, the discharge becomes tinged with shades 
 of green and yellow, intermixed with blood, and is often 
 sanious and offensive, which is alv,'ays the case when the 
 bones become diseased. From absorption of the morbid 
 matter by the lymphatics, near to the part, the maxillary 
 glands under the jaws become swollen and tender ; when 
 one side of the head only is affected, the absorbent glands 
 of that side, and that side only, grow tumefied. The 
 enlargement of these bodies is too much relied on as 
 an absolute criterion of the existence of glanders ; for 
 though, when the disease has existed some time, they are 
 very generally tumefied, yet, in mild cases of some standing, 
 they are not invariably so : and again, there are other com- 
 plaints besides this that will tumefy them ; whatever in- 
 flames the Schneiderian membrane, as catarrh, strangles, 
 &c. may cause the glands to enlarge. Neither can a certain 
 criterion be drawn from their attachment to, or detachment 
 from, the bone: occasionally they will remain unaffected, 
 or the whole will form a tumid mass, tender, but not ad- 
 herent to the maxillar on either side. They are, how^ever, 
 
GLANDERS. 357 
 
 seldom found in this condition ; for after the disease has at- 
 tained any virulence, a distinct lymphatic glandular knob or 
 two will generally be found in contact with the branch of the 
 jaw-bone upon the affected side. The disease sometimes re- 
 mains long without producing ulceration in chronic glan- 
 ders, and cases of this kind prove very puzzling to the 
 practitioner : at other times, on the contrary, an ulcerating 
 process is speedily exhibited ; which in acute glanders inva- 
 riably appears. The ulcers of glanders have a very pecu- 
 liar character, and their appearance cannot be too atten- 
 tively studied : they usually commence by minute bladders, 
 which at first may contain pus or a clear fluid, but which 
 soon form small cavities, internally deep with abrupt promi- 
 nent edges ; and they are seen in greatest numbers upon 
 the septum nasi, and sometimes uniting into broad con- 
 tinuous patches, which spread and deepen until the carti- 
 lages are absorbed, and the purulent secretion fills the 
 frontal sinuses and the ethmoidal cells. Sometimes the 
 ulceration exists so high up the nostril, that it is very 
 difficult to discover ; yet, with the head held up to a full 
 light, more particularly towards the sun when shining, it 
 may be detected if within any moderate distance ; and when 
 it cannot, the varied appearance of the discharge will lead 
 to a suspicion of its existence. The junior practitioner 
 must not allow portions of the secreted matter which may 
 adhere to the membrane to mislead him into a belief of exist- 
 ing ulceration ; he should, when in doubt, pass up a probe 
 armed with tow, and wipe away such glutinous deposit ; and 
 had not the error actually occurred in the practice of more 
 than one veterinarian, we should be almost ashamed to insert 
 a caution, that the opening of the nasal duct ought not to be 
 mistaken for a chancre. The situation of this opening is 
 found a little way up the nostril upon the reflected skin, 
 and not upon the mucous secreting surface. At an uncer- 
 tain period of this form of the disease, occurring sometimes 
 much sooner than at others, the lungs become tubercular, 
 and hectic symptoms follow the bursting of abscesses within 
 them : large abscesses commonly form within the lungs ; 
 and now the health is evidently impairing fast : there is 
 cough, increased and most offensive discharge by the nose, 
 loss of appetite, emaciation, and weakness in the loins ; the 
 
358 GLANDERS. 
 
 hair feels dry, and falls off on being handled ; the matter 
 from the nose increases in quantity, becomes sanious, 
 stinking, or bloody, and is coughed up by the mouth also ; 
 the animal has a bloated aspect ; the cellular tissue pits ; 
 the conjunctiva is infiltrated ; the caruncula lachrymalis 
 grows discoloured ; the eye has the expression of a sheep 
 suffering from the rot, and the gums are pallid. If put to 
 hard work, such horses rapidly decline in condition ; and 
 yet, should they be destroyed, fat is found in abundance 
 upon their bellies and about their hearts. 
 
 From the very serious effects which follow the spreading 
 of this disease, the veterinary practitioner is often called 
 upon to give a prompt and definite opinion relative to it. 
 The principal intricacy that will present itself, arises from 
 the similarity of appearance that frequently exists between 
 the true disease and a diseased and increased muco-puru- 
 lent secretion which sometimes remains after a severe cold, 
 or is the consequence of repeated catarrhal attacks. Local 
 inflammations also, from various causes, occasionally take 
 place within the nasal sinuses ; which although by no means 
 glanderous, yet are accompanied by such a regular and 
 continued flow of pus as to mislead the practitioner. In 
 such cases, however, the matter secreted is distinct from 
 the glairy pus of glanders ; and we may further be led 
 into a suspicion of the cause by the quantity of the dis- 
 charge, if the horse be allowed to feed from the ground, as 
 well as by the absence of visible ulceration. In present 
 colds the difficulty cannot be great, for then the general 
 health is commonly affected ; there is some fever, loss of 
 appetite, thirst, and cough, which are seldom so well 
 marked during the early stages of glanders ; and those 
 wbich are more advanced require but little to distinguish 
 them ; for although in catarrh the submaxillary glands are 
 sometimes sw^elled, yet they are in these cases hot also and 
 moveable. But when colds have been severe, or often re- 
 peated, there occasionally remains in the mucous mem- 
 branes of the air-passages, particularly in that of the nasal 
 cavities, a disposition to a morbidly increased secretion of 
 a muco-purulent nature, which will continue to flow from 
 one or both nostrils. We have seen cases of this kind which 
 have existed one or two years, and in one instance it had 
 
GLANDERS. 359 
 
 lasted three years, but eventually disappeared. In these 
 instances, however, our principal reliance was upon the 
 nature of the discharge, which presented distinguishing 
 characteristics, that, attended to, proved tolerable guides. 
 The matter of glanders is tenacious and sticky, like glue ; 
 semi-transparent, and hangs about the rim of the nostrils 
 in a peculiar manner ; but more particularly it is continu- 
 ally flowing : whereas in that state resulting from catarrh 
 there is not a regular discharge, but the flow appears now 
 and then, as when the horse coughs, or when after trotting 
 he clears himself by snorting, or when he stoops the head 
 to feed ofl' the earth ; at which times a large quantity fre- 
 quently comes away, and then perhaps no more appears for 
 some hours after. And though the matter of glanders 
 may flow some weeks even, without apparent ulceration, 
 yet in general cases there will occur a more early appear- 
 ance of chancres, and commonly a swelling and fixture of 
 the lymphatic gland also ; to all these considerations should 
 be added, an examination of the general health of the horse, 
 and particularly of the state of his coat or hair, which we 
 have always observed unthrifty and disposed to fall off in 
 confirmed glanders. 
 
 The practitioner need hardly be cautioned on the score 
 of the common tricks practised in horse fairs and markets 
 to conceal the appearance of glanders. It is common with 
 the lowest orders of the salesmen to gallop a glandered 
 horse in some private situation, which forces him by accele- 
 rated respiration and cough to throw off the collected secre- 
 tion immediately formed : some powerful astringent, as 
 alum, vitriol, &c. is then blown up the nostrils, or in some 
 cases the discharge is temporarily stopped by a plug or 
 pledget of tow, cloth, &c. &c. thrust up the nose. But in 
 all these cases the enlarged lymphatics still remain, and 
 the coat will in all probability come off on handling ; 
 but particularly there is a constant uneasiness in the manner 
 of the horse, for he attempts to cough or sneeze to rid 
 himself of the plug. 
 
 TJie Treatment of Glanders. — The philosopher's stone 
 was scarcely sought for more earnestly by the ancients, than 
 a cure for glanders by recent veterinarians. The great 
 reward held out has stimulated many practitioners into 
 
3G0 GLANDERS. 
 
 unnumbered experiments, and occasional success still gives 
 a spur to the energies of new experimentalists. 
 
 Glanders, however, is something more than a mere dis- 
 ease ; it is the termination of all other diseases. Supposing 
 the discharge from the nostrils could be stopped, the glan- 
 ders would not be cured. The discharge is but a symptom, 
 glanders being a general break-up of the constitution. The 
 pulmonary disease would remain untouched. The tubercles 
 and abscesses in the lungs would continue, and when this 
 is considered, we cannot wonder that glanders in horses, 
 like consumption in the human being, has defeated the best 
 efforts of science. 
 
 We will, however, cursorily run over the most reputed 
 remedies which have been or continue to be tried, dwelling 
 longest on those which offer most hope. Injections and 
 nasal applications, on a view of its being a purely local 
 affection, have been too long and too fully tried to mis- 
 lead ; and had not a spontaneous cure every now and then 
 occurred, and had not nasal gleets been mistaken for 
 glanders, no one would have depended on the cure of 
 the disorder. Our neighbours, the French, have been 
 equally, perhaps even more, unfortunate than ourselves 
 in their curative attempts. Internally, mercurials in all 
 their forms have failed ; nor have they succeeded better 
 externally, though M. Bollestra, of Turin, professes to have 
 witnessed benefit from ungt. hydrarg. ^i rubbed into the 
 inside of the thigh daily until five or six pounds have been 
 used. Huzard and Biron were employed by the French 
 authorities to try both the muriate and carbonate of barytes, 
 and the exhibition of both drugs produced, in most in- 
 stances, a remission of symptoms ; but when pushed to 
 what was deemed a necessary extent, the animals usually 
 died from the effects of the medicine. Similar results have 
 followed in the practice of many other veterinarians. M. 
 Moiroud, veterinary professor at Alfort, has given 5ij of 
 chloride of soda in a liquid form, w^hich he has gradually 
 increased to a very large quantity, and with very flattering 
 appearances of amendment ; but the future cases did not 
 correspond. Camphor in daily doses of an ounce seemed 
 to benefit a horse much. Mr. Coleman has given ' the 
 various preparations of arsenic, antimony, copper, zinc, 
 
GLANDERS, 361 
 
 mercury, &c. ; hellebore, aconitum, digitalis, hyoscyamus, 
 cicuta, belladonna, &c. &c., but all without any specific or 
 curative effect.' The late Mr. Sewell appears to have been 
 more successful with the sulphate of copper {blue vitriol) ; 
 but as the benefits were generally confined to cases not 
 marked with much constitutional affection, so the value of 
 the remedy is necessarily much limited. To increase our 
 remedial means, Mr. Vines also has lately revived the sti- 
 mulating plan of treatment, and given it new publicity by 
 his reasoning and experiments. He observes, the remedies 
 which are to be employed in those cases that are likely to 
 run into, or have already become, what is usually termed 
 glanders or farcy, are those which possess stimulating and 
 tonic properties, separately or united. Of these a reference 
 to Mr. Vines' work will show that he places his principal 
 dependence on cantharides ; which have long been before 
 the public as a remedy for nasal gleets, but have never re- 
 ceived such ample elucidation as by this author. He gives 
 them every or each other day, in the form of a ball ; either 
 morning or evening (he, however, prefers the evening), 
 with ginger, gentian, and caraway seeds. He commences 
 with four or five grains of the cantharides, in fine powder, 
 according to size, age, condition, &c. ; and, if well borne, 
 the dose, after ten days or a fortnight, is increased to 
 eight grains, according to the circumstances alluded to. 
 When this larger dose has been in use some time he desists 
 altogether from the medicine for four or five days, and then 
 recommences, but with the smaller dose. 
 
 Mr. Bracy Clarke's formula of administration of cantha- 
 rides, in conjunction with mineral tonics to be given daily, 
 is as follows : — 
 
 Sulphate of zinc (jwhite Titriol) fifteen grains. 
 
 Powdered cantharides seven grains. 
 
 Powdered allspice fifteen grains. 
 
 We cannot conclude without recommending the reader 
 to turn to the encouraging account of the effects of barytes 
 in glanders, administered by Mr. W. Percivall, which will 
 be found fully detailed in his most excellent work entitled 
 ' Hippo-pathology.' 
 
 Glanders is communicable to the human subject. — Ample 
 experience will demonstrate the necessity there is that the 
 
362 FARCY. 
 
 human attendant on diseased horses should be very careful 
 to avoid any contact with the matter of glanders ; which if 
 by any means it should reach an abraded part, or the sur- 
 face of any mucous membrane, will fatally inoculate the 
 individual. After all, from the numerous remedies which 
 have been tried to cure glanders, we may learn that 
 none have been very successful ; all may warrant hope, 
 but not one justifies confidence. If, however, we have not 
 learnt to cure glanders, modern science has found out 
 means to prevent the disease. By perfect drainage and free 
 ventilation the glanders is, in a great measure, to be set at 
 defiance. The other part of the remedy is never to pursue 
 the depletive mode of cure too far ; but to stay before our 
 measures intended to master a complaint undermine tbe 
 constitution : by following these two rules, we may keep the 
 glanders in subjection. 
 
 FARCY. 
 
 From what has preceded, it will appear that glanders and 
 farcy are fully proved to be modifications only of each 
 other. Farcy was long considered to be a disease of the 
 veins ; which error was natural enough, seeing the absorbent 
 vessels, in which the virus travels, were then considered as 
 a species of veins. We are now, however, aware that tbis 
 disease, in its local or early state, is a specific inflammation 
 of the superficial absorbents: experience has also taught us, 
 that as long as its attack remains thus confined to the 
 surface, it is not difficult to cure ; but when it has en- 
 tered the constitution it generally proves fatal, and inva- 
 riably ends in glanders : and then, in return, acute glanders 
 is very apt to end in, and almost invariably does, in farcy. 
 Farcy is, however, not confined to the superficial parts of 
 the body alone, for it may be occasionally met with in every 
 part of the frame ; but the head, neck, and extremities, par- 
 ticularly the hinder ones, are the parts most generally 
 affected ; by which it would seem to choose those situa- 
 tions in wbich absorbent glands are most numerous, or are 
 furthest from the heart, and therefore most active in absorb- 
 ing. It is usual to feel for farcy buds, in a suspicious 
 case, upon the inside of the thighs, where, though none 
 shall be found, the hard corded absorbent vessels may gene- 
 
FARCY. 
 
 363 
 
 rally be detected. When the virus of farcy is absorbed it some- 
 times occasions inflammation in the immediate lymphatic 
 vessel, which it first tumefies and then ulcerates. In other 
 instances, its progress seems to be arrested, the vessel be- 
 comes inflamed, hardened, and then forms the lump which 
 is called a farcy bud. At length, however, if nothing be 
 done, these tumours increase, become hot, then burst, 
 sending forth healthy pus ; after which they ulcerate, and 
 discharge a thin sanies; from one bud it passes on to 
 another; inflaming the lymphatic vessels in its progress, 
 and giving them a hardened feel like a cord under the skin. 
 Sometimes the larger lymphatic trunks proceed to suppu- 
 rate, when they form extensive sinuses, which the farriers 
 call 'farcy pipes.' 
 
 Farcy is subject to varieties in form and character. It 
 has assumed an epidemic feature ; and it often appears com- 
 pounded with, and modified by, other complaints. Two 
 distinct varieties of farcy are very common ; one of which 
 is entirely superficial, and confined to the lymphatics of the 
 skin, and is often called the button farcy. The other com- 
 mences usually in the extremities, and generally the hinder 
 ones : the lymphatic tubes throughout become inflamed, 
 being incapable of their usual office, and hence engorgement 
 of the whole hmb takes place. This farcied enlargement 
 of a limb is not, to a partial observer, unlike the ligamen- 
 tary thickening of a gorged leg ; neither is it much unlike 
 the swelUng from oedema or effusion. But swellings, when 
 they arise from farcy, will present an uneven surface ; in- 
 creasing and decreasing suddenly ; they are further charac- 
 terized by much pain and exquisite tenderness. The lym- 
 phatic glands of the skin will here and there point them- 
 selves into small buds ; and it is further worthy of remark, 
 that such swellings are more likely to exist in definite 
 masses, and between the joints, than on them or near them ; 
 which is not the case in hgamentary enlargements arising 
 from over-exertion or strain. To distinguish farcy from 
 surfeit, which likewise covers the body with small tumours, 
 in the' last affection the swellings are broader, flatter, and 
 generally more diffused over the trunk than the extremities ; 
 besides never being tender ; and when found on the extre- 
 mities, they are usually situated on the outer side, whereas 
 
364 
 
 FARCY. 
 
 the farcy buds are more frequently on the inner side of the 
 hmb. In some cases, however, oedema or actual dropsy of 
 the Hmb does occur, dependent on the obstruction offered 
 to the passing of the absorbed serum : a horse thus affected 
 is often said to have water farcy, which is treated of in 
 another place as a distinct disease from true farcy. 
 
 The infected lymphatic glands or luds will sometimes 
 also, instead of suppurating, take on a scirrhous induration, 
 and remain thus hardened for a long time ; but eventually 
 it happens that they either, by absorption, produce tuber- 
 cles and pulmonary vomicae ; or are translated to the nose ; 
 or end in a diseased thickening of large masses of the skin' 
 neck, withers, and croup. 
 
 A variety of farcy remains to be noticed, which is usually 
 passed over by authors, and which is also one wherein the 
 poison is self- generated probably. It often puts on a chronic 
 protracted form, and shows itself by the affected horse be- 
 coming suddenly lame in one hmb, the tumefaction and heat 
 of which will recede and attack the other limb in the same 
 manner. In this way he may remain for months, with his 
 health very slightly affected ; at length, however, the disease 
 assumes a more marked character, some of the swellings 
 ulcerate, and glanders eventually closes the scene. Old 
 horses are more frequently the subject of farcy than younger 
 ones, which does not appear to be the case with sponta- 
 neous glanders. 
 
 The causes of farcy, with the exception of contagion, are 
 of the same complexion with those of glanders, but are 
 more varied, and numerous. It is necessary, for the pro- 
 duction of farcy, that there be an actual application of 
 the matter at least to a bare surface; probably also it 
 requires either a mucous or an abraded surface. Long 
 continued grease will sometimes degenerate into it ; thus 
 showing us that the morbid poison is dependent on any 
 thing that weakens the constitution, for the filth and im- 
 purities that generate grease are likely in the end to pro- 
 duce glanders. Long continued canker will do the same : 
 in fact, whatever debilitates may occasion it, particularly 
 when combined with neglect in cleanliness and by living in 
 contaminated stables, which last is supposed to be capable 
 of producing farc}^ as it produces glanders. 
 
FARCY. 365 
 
 The Treatment of Farcy. — In the very early stages of 
 this complaint, when it has been taken by inoculation, or 
 has originated in diseased extremities, — in such cases it 
 is not invariably found difficult of cure ; but when farcy 
 has suddenly broken forth without cause or warning the 
 virulence and obstinacy of the affection is hard to subdue. 
 It is almost equally difficult of cure when it enters by 
 means of the mucous membranes of the head, for in these 
 cases the stage between farcy and glanders is so short as 
 to admit of little being attempted. There is, however, 
 a pause in some cases between the taking on of the full 
 character of glanders, during which pause a treatment 
 of it judiciously exerted sometimes proves beneficial : 
 but having once assumed the full glanderous characters, 
 the case becomes hopeless. Nevertheless, we are not 
 prepared to say that it is never removed after it has 
 tainted the constitution ; but when it has propagated its 
 morbid effects to the lungs, whatever may become of 
 the farcy, the horse invariably dies of glanders. Unless 
 it be accompanied with confirmed glanders, many prac- 
 titioners consider every case of farcy as purely a local 
 affection, and their treatment is accordant with that 
 idea. It was once hoped that it might be effectually ar- 
 rested in the first instance, by simply employing topical 
 means, and that nothing more than the destruction of 
 these vessels was necessary to effect all that was desired ; 
 but, unfortunately, it is very usual in these cases for the 
 disease to reappear, and commonly in a more malignant 
 form. We would therefore recommend the student always 
 to treat it as a constitutional affection. In the acute 
 form of farcy attend first to symptoms and obviate their 
 effects ; which done, proceed to attack the disease itself. 
 Do the same by that tumefied state into which the limbs 
 sometimes fall. In the true chronic form of the disease, 
 where the superficial lymphatic vessels and glands are the 
 seat of the affection, the cure should be commenced by 
 opening every one of the farcy buds, and dressing the ex- 
 posed surface first with a solution of chloride of zinc four 
 grains to the ounce, and after the first three days further 
 diluting it to the strength of two grains to the ounce. The 
 quickest mode is to divide them with a sharp pointed knife, 
 particularly such as are directly superficial : if deeper seated, 
 
366 FARCY. 
 
 an opening may be made into each with the same, and 
 afterwards dressed as directed. The internal remedies used 
 are various. Nearly all the mineral acids have been found 
 useful and some of the vegetable ones. All the different 
 forms of mercury have been tried with some success : but 
 corrosive sublimate appears to have answered best ; and, 
 when determined on, should be given to the full extent the 
 stomach and bowels will bear, without salivation, or symp- 
 toms of inflammation being brought on. Ten or fifteen 
 grains may be commenced with, ground very finely with 
 sugar, and given night and morning in gruel as a drench. 
 If this occasion no distress, it may be increased to a scru- 
 ple, and from this to half a drachm, if it be borne with 
 ease ; but the utmost care and watchfulness should be 
 exerted when the dose is considerable. When the weak- 
 ness and irritability of the horse are too great for the exhi- 
 bition of the corrosive sublimate, give half a drachm of 
 calomel twice a day, or the blue pill, or the sulphuret of 
 mercury may be substituted, still carefully watching the sali- 
 vating process. Should the stomach suffer much under the 
 use of these active agents, either join with them bitter tonics, 
 or alternate them with each other. We would also recom- 
 mend that they be in these cases given in solution, and further 
 sheathed by some ingredient of a mucilaginous nature. 
 
 After the trial of mercurials, arsenic ought next to claim 
 the attention, as that has also proved efficacious in farcy, 
 and it may be given in the form of liquor arsenicalis, or 
 Fowler's tasteless solution Verdigris was for some time 
 a favourite remedy at the Veterinary College, in doses of a 
 scruple three times a day, increased to a drachm. We have 
 witnessed also good effects from this preparation ; but we 
 have found it most efficacious when given in a ball in con- 
 junction with the blue vitriol, half a drachm at a dose. 
 Some practitioners choose to employ several articles in con- 
 junction, and they assert the cure is speedier from the com- 
 bination than fi'om any one article separately. In this case, 
 give the following : — 
 
 Corrosive sublimate five gi-aiiis. 
 
 Arsenic five grains. 
 
 Verdigris five grains. 
 
 Blue vitriol half a scruple. 
 
 Mix into a ball with palm oil and linseed meal ; give every 
 morning. 
 
FARCY. 367 
 
 Should the subject be sUght or weakly, begin with a 
 smaller dose of each of the articles : but in any case, when 
 the quantity is found to sit well on the stomach increase the 
 dose of each article, daily, one or two grains, carefully watch- 
 ing the effects produced, occasionally resting a day or two ; 
 and however well the ball may seem to agree, do not increase 
 the agents beyond fifteen or twenty grains each. It has been 
 thought prudent by some to divide the dose, and to give the 
 half, night and morning. It may be also remarked, that 
 some horses can take three or four times more than others ; 
 and therefore, although great caution be necessary in pro- 
 ceeding with the use of the mineral agents, it is equally 
 necessary that the dose should be augmented, in all cases, to 
 as much as the constitution can bear. During their exhi- 
 bition it is also absolutely imperative that the patient should 
 be supported liberally ; nor should the stomach and bowels 
 ever be suffered to remain empty for any great length of 
 time. 
 
 In addition also to the use of the mineral acids, much 
 benefit has been experienced from the following drink given 
 in conjunction with the ball before mentioned every day, 
 but not at the same time of the day ; the ball in the morn- 
 ing, for instance, and the drink in the evening : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Tinctui'e of quassse one ounce. 
 
 Tiucture of oak bark one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums two drachms. 
 
 Water one pint. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Green meat should be particularly sought after ; but if it 
 gripe, add hyoscyamus, one ounce of the tincture, to the 
 drink, and to the food a quantity of bean meal or split 
 beans. When green meat cannot be got, feed on carrots, 
 mangel wurzel, boiled potatoes, turnips or parsneps : and 
 even spear the corn, or give malt. It remains to add, that 
 we have received benefit in two or three instances, from the 
 use of molasses to the amount of four pounds per day ; but 
 it has in other instances altogether failed. Sea bathing, with 
 daily doses of sea water, we have also experienced beneficial 
 effects from in the long protracted cases of farcy, with en- 
 larged limbs and oedema. 
 
368 DYSENTERY. 
 
 DYSENTERY. 
 
 Dysentery in the horse is not recognised by some vete- 
 rinarians, both among the French and Enghsh : but if a 
 catarrhal inflammation of the mucous surfaces of the in- 
 testines, which under certain circumstances, seasons, and 
 situations assumes epidemical and also endemical characters, 
 can lay claim to the appellation, then has the horse dysen- 
 tery. Others consider it in the light of a diarrhoea ; but its 
 characters are distinct from a simple increase of the peri- 
 staltic motion. It consists in an inflammation of the 
 mucous linings of the intestines, attended with a thicken- 
 ing of this coat, and an increased quantity of their natural 
 mucous secretions ; and as the disease advances, of a morbid 
 alteration of that secretion. This increased secretion being 
 frequently discharged, was mistaken for adeps, and was re- 
 garded as a further proof that the fat of the body was at 
 these times in a state of general solution, hence its name of 
 moulten grease. 
 
 The symptoms that characterise dysentery as a primary 
 affection, are the frequent voiding of faecal discharges in 
 stringy portions, excessively shmy or loose, and foetid, with 
 considerable uneasiness from constant inclination to stool, 
 and perpetual straining after the motion has passed. The 
 mucus is mixed in general with the faeces, which are not 
 retained, but voided involuntarily. If the disease increase in 
 violence, membranous films, like sodden leather, are thrown 
 out ; while in very aggravated cases, the ruptured vessels 
 eject blood ; and now and then the intestines become 
 ulcerated. The pulse is variously affected : as, when the 
 inflammation is not intense, it is quickened, corded, and 
 hard, but weak and not wiry ; yet, when the case is very 
 intense, or it is about to degenerate into peritoneal inflam- 
 mation, as it sometimes does, the pulse becomes wdry and 
 oppressed. The mouth is always dry, the appetite lost, 
 the flanks heave, and there is usually much thirst. 
 
 Causes. — It is usually dependent on an inflammatory 
 habit, acted upon by some immediate excitement ; and, as 
 such, it is more often observed in the young and robust, 
 from a sudden check to the perspiration, a change of food, 
 cold, fatigue, &c. : acrid substances, as mineral poisons, 
 
DYSENTERY. 369 
 
 may occasion it ; and, not unfrequently it is the effect of 
 drastic and improper purgatives, in which cases it com- 
 mences in diarrhoea. One other cause also remains to be 
 noticed, but which is seldom taken into the account, and 
 that is metastasis, or the translation of the virus of fever 
 to the intestines ; and which is, we are disposed to believe, 
 i'ar more frequent than is generally imagined. It also has 
 been brought on by eating improper herbage ; and appears 
 now and then the produce of some low marshy situations, 
 particularly in cold rainy seasons ; in which cases it par- 
 takes of a typhoid type. 
 
 Treatment. — There will be liquid or mixed evacuations of 
 the natural faeces and the intestinal mucus. It will, in 
 such cases, be the practitioner's duty to form a true dis- 
 tinction between inordinate diarrhoea and dysentery ; and it 
 is from the mucus quality of the stools, mingled with 
 membranous masses, that he must assure himself of the 
 dysenteric character : in which case, notwithstanding the 
 odium which castor oil has lately obtained, it will here 
 prove his sheet anchor, with the following accompani- 
 ments : — 
 
 Castor oil eight ounces. 
 
 Chloroform one drachm. 
 
 Powdered ipecacuanha one drachm. 
 
 Powdered opium two drachms. 
 
 Powdered chalk one ounce. 
 
 Rice water half a pint. 
 
 Mix, and repeat once or twice, after intervals of six 
 hours. After which, should the discharge continue un- 
 checked, for the castor oil substitute thick boiled starch, 
 and continue to give night and morning, till the discharges 
 have returned to their usual state. Should this not suc- 
 ceed, calomel a scruple, with opium a drachm, may be 
 given every hour, and the following drink at night time : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Chalk one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of catechu one ounce. 
 
 Liquor potass£e one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums two drachms. 
 
 Cold water one pint. 
 
 If green meat can be procured, it should be tried, but with 
 some caution. It has proved the best remedy ; and the 
 same has been observed of carrots in the winter season : 
 but succulent food has done harm ; in which cases sub- 
 
 Bb 
 
370 DYSENTERY, 
 
 stitute malt mashes. AVhen the inflammatory symptoms 
 run very high, the belly may be fomented with hot water, 
 and a new sheepskin, if at hand, may be applied to the 
 loins. Or the mustard poultice is by no means an improper 
 application to the belly, when the inflammation of the bowels 
 appears considerable. Warm clothing is proper, with a 
 moderate temperature ; and when convalescence approaches, 
 every care must be taken to give easily digested food. 
 
 ROT, OR DYSENTERY, IN CATTLE. 
 
 In oxen and cows this is called scouring rot, scouring cow, 
 hraxy, bloody ray, and slimy flux. Some of these names 
 are peculiar to this complaint. The dysentery is charac- 
 terised by a peculiar discharge from the bowels of a frothy 
 slimy nature, of an olive colour, and with much bad smell : 
 sometimes it looks red or brown, and sometimes more 
 yellow, with stringy patches of mucus in it ; and if ob- 
 served when voided, it is very hot, and smokes. These 
 appearances of the matter discharged should be particularly 
 attended to, as well as the evident straining both before and 
 after passing the dung, as they will serve readily to charac- 
 terise the disease ; also to distinguish it from simple diarrhoea, 
 in which there is nothing more than a liquid discharge of 
 dung, composed of nutrient matter, in a state of solu- 
 tion, expelled by the stomach. Dysentery in cattle seems 
 to hold the place of glanders in the horse ; to be the wind- 
 ing up of every thing that impairs the constitution, and 
 of every hopeless disease. The disorder needs every atten- 
 tion from the attendant, • whose industry must not be in- 
 fluenced by what he thinks about the animal getting well. 
 He must have a good stomach, not an over-sensitive nose, 
 and he must be content to labour continuously. " The 
 disease," we are told by Mr. T. W. Mayer, V.S., of New- 
 castle, Staffordshire, " was ushered in by a dull anxious 
 appearance ; the eyelids and dewlap w^ere of a yellow tinge, 
 and in dairy cows there was a total suspension of the secre- 
 tion of milk ; a slight muco-purulent discharge from the 
 nostrils was also observed ; the appetite was indifferent ; the 
 bow^els costive ; the dung of a dark colour, having portions 
 of blood diff"used through it ; but the urine was not much 
 affected. The pulse for the first twenty-four or forty hours, 
 
DYSENTERY. 37 1 
 
 when the disease came on more gradually, was not much 
 affected ; but afterwards it became frequent, small, and 
 hard, beating at the rate of seventy or eighty pulsations per 
 minute. In extreme cases the febrile action set in from the 
 first, accompanied with violent dysentery and tenesmus ; the 
 faecal discharge being intolerably offensive, and consisting of 
 a thin, watery, dirty, green-coloured fluid, full of shreds of 
 coagulable lymph, mucus, and grumous blood. In some, it 
 consisted of a blackish green mucous discharge ; in others, 
 it was principally mucus, coagulable, lymph, and blood, with, 
 comparatively speaking, no portion of faeces along with it. 
 The extremities were alternately hot and cold ; the surface 
 of the nose sometimes dry, at others having a dew upon it ; 
 occasionally during the cold fit the eyes would become sunk 
 in their orbits, the features collapsed, the nose, inner part 
 of the lips, and tongue were of a deadly pallidness, which 
 would be followed up by reaction, and a consequent hot fit 
 again. The bow^els were affected, in some of the extreme 
 cases, with colicky pains ; and in every case there w^as ob- 
 stinate constipation and obstruction in the second and third 
 stomachs. If relief was not afforded, the disease terminated 
 fatally on the third or fourth day." 
 
 Treatment. — If the disease is discovered while costiveness 
 and a hard pulse exists, a little blood may be taken, but 
 the animal w^ere better left alone : a drink administered, 
 consisting of Epsom salts half a pound, sulphur a quarter 
 of a pound, nitrous ether two ounces, tincture of aconite 
 half an ounce, cold water a pint, will do good. After this, 
 medicines which act upon the liver are to be given, viz. a 
 scruple of calomel and a drachm of opium twice a day. 
 The beast must be housed, and the food partially digested 
 by boiling ; while the drink must consist of warm water, in 
 w hich starch has been dissolved or flour stirred. The shed 
 must be kept scrupulously clean. If none of the above 
 medicines act, the following astringent may be tried, which 
 when it fails, may be changed for any other scattered 
 throughout this work : — 
 
 Ipecacuanha (powdered) half an ounce. 
 
 Colchiciim (powdered) one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of galls one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums half an ounce. 
 
 Water one pint. 
 
 Bb2 
 
372 ROT IN SHEEP. 
 
 Patience throughout the disease must be exerted, and the 
 animal by no means neglected until it dies. 
 
 DYSENTERY IN SHEEP. 
 
 Sheep are also troubled with a dysenteric affection called 
 hraxy, in which there is a frequent stooling of soft dung, 
 mixed with blood and mucus. When it terminates fatally, 
 these motions become dark and foetid. If the inner surface 
 of the eye be very red, and the animal easily excited, take 
 two ounces of blood away ; give two or three ounces of 
 castor oil, with thirty drops of laudanum, and two drachms 
 of tincture of ginger : or one ounce of salts, with the same 
 quantity of opiate as before : after which administer night 
 and morning, the following : — 
 
 « Powdered ipecacuanha fifteen grains. 
 
 Prepared chalk one drachm. 
 
 Powdered opium one scruple. 
 
 Boiled starch four ounces. 
 
 House the sheep, give gruel or starch in case the cud is 
 lost, and tend the animal with the greatest care ; also pay 
 every attention to cleanliness, even to chpping the wool 
 away from the poor creature's anus, that the purging may 
 not soil it. 
 
 ROT IN SHEEP. 
 
 Rot in sheep is a disease the public in general, and the 
 agriculturist in particular, are deeply interested in. Poor 
 clayey and moist lands are most liable to beget the rot ; for 
 on such lands the water which falls not being able to soak 
 through, nor yet evaporate, remains upon the earth stagnant, 
 and begets miasm as it exhales ; it likewise generates, as 
 some suppose, the germs of insects, viz. flukes, &c. &c. 
 which are received with the food. As sheep affected with 
 rot present flukes, it is not an unnatural conclusion that 
 they have much to do with the diseased symptoms, and 
 the fatal issue which succeeds to them. It appears this 
 disease is known throughout every part of the world where 
 this valuable animal is cultivated. In Egypt it is very 
 common, and is not there confined to sheep, but it also 
 attacks horses, cattle, and most of the lesser animals ; it 
 particularly is common upon the whole of the borderings of 
 
ROT IN SHEEP. 373 
 
 the Nile; the immense annual floods of which spread a 
 frightful mortality among the numerous grazing tribes which 
 browse on the plants affected by this overflow. The Arabs 
 are reported to affirm, that this pest annually destroys not 
 less than sixteen thousand sheep. These shepherds, we are 
 told, readily distinguish the sheep affected by rot from 
 others, by the presence of a bagful of water found under 
 the jaw. This is no great performance, for every carter in 
 England could point it out when the dropsy had gained so 
 great a head, as to appear in so marked, and visible a shape. 
 As the disease progresses, the affected animals become 
 debile in the extreme, and are mostly found lying down ; 
 their wool falls off* in patches ; a sanious matter of varied 
 colour issues from the nose. When dead, the body is 
 found cedematous throughout, and the liver is usually 
 choked with flukes ; a cough, accompanied with diarrhoea, 
 are premonitory symptoms of an early mortality. 
 
 All recognize one common cause of this disease, which is 
 low marshy pasturage. Indeed, although in every country 
 it is agreed that the eating of vegetable matter growing in 
 low marshy situations, particularly in such as are only 
 occasionally flooded, is an active agent in producing the 
 rot, yet but few hint at any certain curative practice. Pre- 
 vention is, however, in our power, by a removal of the 
 animals from the localities specified to others which are 
 diy. A farm well sheltered is an excellent situation, and 
 dry food their best sustenance. Hay is good, and when it 
 is alternated with a few carrots, turnips, and parsneps, such 
 food often proves restorative. Should the owner reside 
 within a reasonable distance of salt marshes, let him by all 
 means remove his flock there. Common salt has also been 
 given as a remedy, and as it is stated has been found ser- 
 viceable. Iron filings should likewise be put in the water 
 from which the animals drink, in the proportion of a pound 
 to a gallon. The iron should be left exposed to the air 
 when the buckets are empty, which should be filled again 
 an hour before the vA-atering time arrives. On every 
 third day there should be given, morning and night, about 
 ten pounds of dry bran, mixed with half a pound of culi- 
 nary salt; six ounces of aromatic plants cut small, as 
 thyme, sage, juniper, rosemary, lavender, or orange leaves, 
 
374 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
 
 may also be mingled with the bran ; to which must be 
 added five ounces of anise, of fennel, and of coriander seed. 
 This quantity will be sufficient for thirty sheep. Every 
 animal attacked, which is to be discovered by turning up 
 the eyelid, when the conjunctival membrane will be seen of 
 a yellow colour, should have the following drench daily : — 
 
 Oil of turpentine two draclims. 
 
 Carbonate of soda one drachm. 
 
 Water four ounces. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
 
 We shall commence a consideration of the individual dis- 
 eases of this class by some general observations on the 
 origin of affections of the nervous system generally. In 
 the horse, the nervous mass is greatly superior to the cere- 
 bral ; and we find that affections of the spinal cord are 
 in this generous animal more numerous. An apoplectic 
 termination to human life is by no means uncommon ; 
 in the horse it is little known ; but the frequency with 
 which spinal affections occur, bear little proportion be- 
 tween the two ; and taking all the circumstances into con- 
 sideration, are more than equal to the nervous affections 
 of mankind. Dissections of morbid subjects have also 
 shown that the causes are various, but are usually referrible 
 either to pressure on the spinal cord, or otherwise are 
 attributable to a morbid alteration of structure in the cord 
 itself. 
 
 Pressure on the spinal marrow may be the consequence 
 of either wounds or over exertion ; or it may originate in 
 the existence of parasites within the canal. Lesions, occa- 
 sioning wounds, are very common from fractures of some 
 of the vertebrae, or from dislocation of the same bones : an 
 aneurism of the aorta has produced it ; exostosis and poll- 
 evil have also done the same ; the one by ulceration through 
 the articular membranes, and the other by an osseous de- 
 posit within the canal. Debility, resulting from over 
 exertion, causes either sanguineous congestion, or other- 
 wise it is accompanied with an increased effusion of inter- 
 
APOPLEXY. 375 
 
 stitial fluid within the spinal sheath. It is said that the 
 sanguineous congestion of the membranes often precedes 
 inflammation of the spinal cord itself, in which cases a 
 rapid paralysis follows. We are led to believe, the mem- 
 branes can inflame independently, and the same with regard 
 to the spinal cord ; also that each may be productive of a 
 series of symptoms of greater or less intensity. When the 
 substance both superiorly and inferiorhj is inflamed, then it 
 is usually found that both sensation and voluntary motion 
 are destroyed ; but "when the inflammation is limited to the 
 superior portion, the sensation is principally impaired ; and 
 when, on the contrary, the inferior half of the cord is 
 affected, then motion is prevented. A morbid alteration in 
 structure also takes place in the spinal cord ; this change 
 has been found in most domestic animals, as in rabies 
 in dogs, stomach staggers in horses, &c. The spinal cord 
 in these cases becomes soft, and converted into a gi-eyish 
 pulpy mass, losing its original fibrous structure, where 
 paralysis has been present. But we must not be misled by 
 this observ^ation to attribute all the affections of this class to 
 the spinal marrow : we attribute many of the most important 
 to morbid states of the cranial brain, as apoplexy, which is 
 attended with comp/e/e paralysis. Nor must we lose sight of 
 the retrograde march of some nervous irritations, which 
 spring from neither the cranium or spinal marrow ; but 
 originate in the extremities of the nerves, and are trans- 
 mitted to one or other, or to both the sources ; which 
 then become secondarily affected, as in the case of lock- 
 jaw, produced by wounds, &c. &c. 
 
 APOPLEXY. 
 
 Apoplexy does not very often occur in the horse ; but as 
 it does take place, although usually irremediable, it merits 
 a place in this treatise. It appears to consist in a lesion 
 of some of the vessels of the brain, which, by pouring out 
 their contents, produce pressure and irritation. Foreign 
 veterinarians have divided it, after the human, into san- 
 guineous and serous ; but as far as we have learned, it is the 
 former which has been principally met among horses. The 
 usual causes are such as, were it not for the length of the 
 neck, must operate more frequently than they do : these 
 
376 
 
 MEGRIMS. 
 
 are cerebral congestions, commencing in the chest from 
 mordmate exertions; occasionally, but less frequently it 
 may have other sources. 
 
 The only case of this affection which happened in the 
 practice of the editor of the present edition, was attended 
 with no premonitory symptoms. The horse was of the 
 Flanders' breed, and was slowly recovering an attack of in- 
 fluenza. No change was observed in the animal, when it 
 threw up Its head, stiffened its legs, died, and fell down. 
 After death, examination being made, one of the middle 
 cerebral arteries was found ruptured, and a considerable 
 quantity of blood eflrised. 
 
 MEGRIMS 
 
 May be considered as a minor apoplexy from interrupted 
 circulation ; and is known among farriers and horse-men 
 by the additional names of sturdy, or turnsick. It fre- 
 quently attacks horses during their work, particularly in 
 harness : it is, however, now and then seen, in hot weather 
 m the stable or at grass. When it seizes a horse in exer- 
 cise he stops short, shakes his head, looks irresolute and 
 wandering; in this state he remains for a few minutes 
 and then proceeds as before. In more violent cases he falls 
 at once to the ground ; or first runs round, and then sinks 
 senseless ; or the limbs may continue to move after con 
 sciousness is lost, when the animal thus affected becomes 
 very dangerous : in either case, the whole system appears 
 agitated by strong convulsions ; the horse may dung and 
 stale insensibly ; he sometimes is violent, at others more 
 passive, but is equally unconscious to everv thing around • 
 after remaining so a longer or shorter period, his faculties 
 return, and he rises. It is frequently brought on by me- 
 chanical causes, which produce a momentary congestion of 
 the brain ; as tight reining up, or the pressure of the collar 
 in ascending a hill, which obstructs the return of blood 
 from the head. It may also be occasioned by a morbid 
 pressure produced by constitutional causes. Such are 
 found in the plethoric, over-fed horse ; particularly when 
 subjected to long confinement. 
 
 The treatment must be regulated by the cause : if it be 
 mechanical, remove it, or the afl:ection may become habi- 
 
PARALYSIS. 377 
 
 tual. If plethora or full habit be the apparent cause, purge ; 
 or give a course of mercurial alteratives, followed by, or 
 alternated with, purging medicines. It is said that this 
 affection may be prevented, by covering the skull of the 
 affected horse with a wet cloth. 
 
 PARALYSIS. 
 
 Palsy of the whole muscular frame is very unusual in the 
 horse, except some actual pressure or irritation be made on 
 the sensorium by blows on the skull, by portions of bone 
 forced in, or by cerebral tumours : sometimes it is consti- 
 tutionally brought on by agencies unknown to us. Palsy 
 of one side is even of more rare occurrence. Palsy of half 
 the body, most fi'cquently of the hinder parts, is sufficiently 
 common, and is either primitive or secondary. The causes 
 are often involved in much obscurity ; in some cases they are 
 sufficiently obvious : mechanical injuries are of this kind, 
 as casting in the stable, turning round in a confined stall, 
 blows on the spine, sudden falls or slips may, any of them, 
 luxate, or more likely fracture, the vertebrae, and by occa- 
 sioning pressure upon the spinal cord, produce paralysis : 
 ulcerations of these bones, or exostoses, abscesses, or tu- 
 mours within them, may be the cause of the affection. It 
 may be altogether secondary, as being derived from accidental 
 lesions of other organs, or from inflammations in them : it 
 may and does occur from a diseased state of the stomach, 
 bowels, liver, and more particularly from those of the kid- 
 neys, bladder, and womb. The symptoms are total or par- 
 tial loss of either the mobility or the sensibility, or both, of 
 some part of the body, usually of the hinder quarters and 
 limbs. The secretions are sometimes lessened or almost 
 stopped, or the urine flows involuntarily ; convulsive twitch- 
 ings affect the skin, partial sweats present themselves, and 
 the animal remains utterly helpless, although he may fatigue 
 himself with fruitless eftbrts to rise. These are, however, 
 extreme cases. 
 
 The treatment of paralysis must, in a great degree, follow 
 the cause. If mechanical injury have occasioned fracture 
 in any part of the spinal column, the case is hopeless. If 
 the injury be less severe, it is possible that extravasated 
 blood only, or serous deposit, or coagulable lymph, are 
 
378 SPASM. 
 
 effused into the spinal canal, and disturb the functions of 
 the part ; in which case, topical applications are requisite, 
 to encourage an absorption of the obstructing deposit. 
 When the paralysis can be traced to some visceral atlec- 
 tion, or to disease of the stomach, kidneys, bladder, the 
 result is not necessarily unfavourable, although our hopes 
 of a recovery are lessened. We should, in these cases, 
 primarily attend to the exciting cause, if it can be dis- 
 covered. But when there is loss of sensation without loss 
 of motion, the limbs being cold and the horse insensible 
 that he is in possession of such parts, and moving them 
 only when absolutely forced ; or otherwise, when they are 
 entirely paralytic, and yet sensitive, it is probable that the 
 nervous irritation originates within the spinal canal ; and 
 though we may with propriety use external stimulants, yet 
 there will be but small prospect of success. Of internal 
 remedies, strychnia has been found sometimes useful, in 
 one grain, gradually increased to three grain doses ; and it 
 may be united with other tonics, as gentian, or aromatics. 
 This, with purgatives as required, blisters, sheepskins, or a 
 charge over the loins, has often effected a cure, when the 
 paralysis has been confined to the hinder limbs only. 
 
 SPASM 
 
 Appears to be a morbid interruption of the ordinary 
 movements of the general muscular fibre, w^hether it be 
 local or diffused ; and as these movements are effected by 
 influence derived from the nervous system, so we look to 
 these sources for the acting cause of all spasmodic affec- 
 tions. Of spasm we have instances in gripes. We witness 
 the violence of the muscular contractions under the mental 
 influence in vicious and in terrified horses ; we see also 
 the same under an inflammatory state of the brain in 
 phrenitis, rabies, &c. ; and we know that mechanical imta- 
 tion can produce it. 
 
 In the treatment of spasm two indications present them- 
 selves : either to allay the nervous excitement, or to render 
 the part attacked above or helow the disposition to be ex- 
 cited. The first indication takes in such remedies as are 
 direct sedatives to nervous excitability, as opium, hyo- 
 scyamus, belladonna, tobacco, &c. The second indica- 
 
LOCK- JAW, OR TETANUS. 379 
 
 tion is fulfilled by using such remedies as act by altering 
 the susceptibility of the part, which are purges, and other 
 evacuants, whose action diminishes the excess of power ; 
 these last therefore are proper in plethoric subjects, or 
 when the spasm is united with vascular action. When, on 
 the contrary, the spasmodic affection attacks a debile part, 
 we use stimulants, to bring the part to a state to resist the 
 impressions. 
 
 LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 
 
 Tetanic spasm differs from all the affections we have 
 lately noticed, inasmuch as the muscular contractions are 
 not alternated, with periods of relaxation ; on the contrary, 
 here they remain permanent, or with very little, and never 
 entire, remission. Lock-jaiv, so called from the rigid clo- 
 sure of the mouth, may be considered as a morbid irritation 
 of the whole or a part of the nervous system. 
 
 Idiopathic tetanus is the most frequent in the horse, and 
 its causes are all of them, more or less, conjectural, never 
 self-evident. One of the most common is that of cold ; 
 particularly when the heat of the body is abstracted by 
 evaporation, or when moisture is applied to a relaxed 
 system : thus it has followed plunging into a river during 
 a run in the hunting season, or injudiciously allow- 
 ing a horse to stand still during a check after a severe 
 burst ; and more particularly it has been brought on by 
 a partial but continued application of water, as when it 
 makes its way through the roof of a building and falls in a 
 continued drip on the body ; even the drippings from the 
 eaves of a hay-rick, standing in the field in which a horse 
 was grazing, has produced it. It has succeeded visceral 
 affections, and is supposed to be occasionally the effect of 
 worms within the alimentary canal. Traumatic or sympto- 
 matic tetanus is the consequence of some external injury, 
 and it follows all kinds of lesions. Castration, nicking, 
 docking, punctures, particularly of the feet ; lacerations, 
 and even contusions, will bring it on. The size of the 
 wound is of no consequence : it may ensue upon the 
 smallest abrasion ; and it may not follow the largest possible 
 lesion. Cuts or bruises upon the orbital arch, where the 
 nerve emerges from the bony ring, immediately above the 
 
380 LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 
 
 eye, are more likely in this country than any other injury to 
 cause it. In America, it is not an unfrequent result of 
 castration ; and in some tropical climates compression of 
 the cord in the operation must always be avoided, so apt is 
 any irritation to produce it. It is by many considered as 
 most apt to follow wounds of tendinous and ligamentous 
 structures, but a wound on any part may start it up. 
 
 The symptoms. — If a good physiologist were told that 
 tetanus was a spasmodic contraction of all the voluntary 
 muscles, he would describe the following symptoms without 
 having seen the disease, so exactly are they characteristic 
 of such a state. It may originate from no perceptible 
 cause, or it may be produced by a wound, in which case 
 the part injured has healed kindly, and the opening is nearly 
 closed before this terrible complaint makes its appearance. 
 It commences usually by a certain stiffness about the head, 
 and a peculiar mode of standing. Upon raising the head 
 the haws of both eyes are pushed out, giving to the coun- 
 tenance of the animal a strange expression ; but sooner or 
 later it extends all over the body. By the tetanic action 
 the haw is drawn partly over the globe, at the same time 
 that the tension of other muscles gives the eyes a vivid 
 appearance, which ill accords with the more placid effect of 
 a protruded haw. The jaws are not invariably fixed, though 
 from their being generally closed springs the popular name 
 of the disorder. As the disease extends over the volun- 
 tary muscles of the trunk and extremities, the appearances 
 are distressing in the extreme. The head is raised, the 
 ears pointed forwards, the nostrils dilated, and the nose is 
 protruded. The legs straddle wide, the tail is cocked, and 
 quivers ; and the abdominal muscles are drawn tight over 
 the belly, giving to the horse an appearance of having just 
 completed some extraordinary exertion. The complaint 
 presents a few moments of imperfect relaxation sometimes, 
 from the extreme contractions of over-strained muscles ; 
 while profuse sweats mark the distress of continued con- 
 vulsion. The circulation is, in most instances, at first 
 not much affected ; but as the disease increases, the pulse 
 quickens, and becomes tremulous and irregular. The 
 respiration also gradually becomes hurried and intermittent ; 
 costiveness is usually present, and the urine is sparingly 
 
LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 381 
 
 voided. In this state the suffering animal may remain from 
 six to ten days, when, worn out by inanition and irritation, 
 he expires in convulsions. At others, either remedially or 
 spontaneously, the contractions give way slightly ; feeble 
 attempts are made to eat, the limbs become more supple, 
 and a very slow recovery ensues. 
 
 Post-mortem appearances have often exhibited no change 
 from a healthy state throughout the nervous system at 
 large. In some cases, however, there have been marks of 
 cerebral inflammation, and in others the spinal marrow has 
 presented similar features ; this last has been found soft in 
 structure, and with its vaginal coats injected. We have seen 
 the lungs and stomach both highly inflamed ; and a slaugh- 
 terer of horses told us that he seldom if ever cut up a 
 horse which had died of lock-jaw, without finding inflamed 
 lungs. The intestines also usually present inflammatory 
 marks about them ; and, the veins throughout the body, 
 particularly the superficial set, are turgid with blood. 
 
 Treatment. — Although the greater number of instances 
 prove fatal, yet still a sufficient number recover to warrant 
 our utmost endeavours ; and the more so, as most of those 
 who do survive appear to do so from the beneficial effects 
 of the treatment adopted. The very different means which 
 have been successfully tried might stagger the sceptic, and 
 make him attribute the recoveries under these discordant 
 medical agencies to the constitutional strength of the ani- 
 mal. This, however, is not the only instance wherein very 
 opposite means are beneficially employed for the cure of 
 the same disease. Every practitioner is aware of the benefit 
 derived from cold applications in some inflammatory cases ; 
 and every one is equally aware how salutary hot fomenta- 
 tions prove, apparently, in similar inflammations. A cura- 
 tive end is equally produced by both ; the modus operandi 
 to us is not evident. This circumstance should make the 
 veterinary practitioner not absolutely wed himself to any 
 one plan of treatment. When one has been pursued with- 
 out appearance of success, let another be adopted. If a 
 lacerated wound be the cause of the disease, it may be 
 prudent to excise the part, removing not only the injured 
 surface, but a portion of the flesh beyond, and making sure 
 of taking away a piece of the irritated nerve, which is the 
 
382 LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 
 
 cause of the disorder. In the case of a punctured wound, 
 particularly in the foot, if there be a confined sinus, have 
 the horn thinned, and slit it up with a knife. When 
 tetanus follows docking, it is advisable to dock anew : if 
 nicking be the cause, deepen the sections, and actively 
 stimulate the old wounded edges. Where castration has 
 preceded it, remove all ligature, if any remain, and foment 
 incessantly. Having pursued this intention, it next follows 
 to attend to the constitutional part of the complaint : or if 
 it be a case of true idiopathic tetanus, that, of course, must 
 at once engage the attention. It was some years ago very 
 usual to employ cold as a medical agent in the disease ; 
 this was done by removing the horse into the open air, 
 and dashing him with the coldest water for twenty minutes, 
 repeating the same every two or three hours, and in the 
 interim suffering him to remain uncovered, and in the open 
 air. In every instance this was found to mitigate the seve- 
 rity of the symptoms. Ice also has been applied ; the 
 relief obtained being usually in the exact degree of heat 
 abstracted, it was no wonder that it continued a favourite, 
 though generally a delusive practice ; for as warmth re- 
 turned, almost invariably the convulsive contractions returned 
 also ; therefore this method has very properly given place 
 to others which have proved more useful ; though the 
 former need not be lost sight of, as instances have occurred 
 of permanent benefit having been derived from it. It may, 
 therefore, be still tried, when the means which follow are 
 not attended with success ; but in that case, with the cold 
 bath or application of ice should be united some of the other 
 means pointed out. 
 
 The general curative practice in tetanic cases among 
 veterinarians, leans to opening of the bowels, and to a 
 liberal administration of opiates, as being every one of 
 them powerful antispasmodics, but in this painful affection 
 proving doubly so conjointly ; to which are added, blister- 
 ing the spine. Tetanus, at first, not materially affecting 
 the vascular system, there is no necessity for bloodletting, 
 but by all means commence the treatment with a purgative. 
 The croton nut, acting more speedily, offers itself first to 
 notice ; it is also small in compass, and may therefore be 
 administered in substance, under circumstances of almost 
 
LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 383 
 
 entire closure of the jaws. Twenty-five or even thirty- 
 grains of the farina of the nut may be given at first, and 
 one-third of the quantity first administered should be re- 
 peated every ten or twelve hours, until full purgation 
 occurs. If aloes be preferred, it will be not only more 
 convenient, but they will operate more quickly, if they be 
 given in solution. If a prejudice exists in favour of a 
 mercurial purgative, calomel may be given previously, to 
 the amount of two drachms. The powder being blown 
 into the mouth by means of a proper tube for the purpose ; 
 and in this case six or seven drachms of aloes will suffice ; 
 but without calomel ten or twelve drachms in substance 
 will not be too much for a strong, full-sized horse ; and it 
 will probably require three drachms more, repeated two or 
 three times at intervals of five or six hours, ere a complete 
 emptying of the bowels is made, such is the usually con- 
 stringed state of the intestines at these times ; laxative 
 clysters (after the back has been properly raked) must also 
 assist the attempts, and should be thrown up in large quan- 
 tities frequently repeated. We know it to be a practice 
 with some veterinarians to unite digitalis and camphor with 
 aloes, but it does not appear that any marked benefit has 
 resulted therefrom. With others, extensive vesication over 
 the spine from the poll to the tail has succeeded. 
 
 It is certainly desirable that the bowels should be first 
 opened ; but if the irritation be extreme, and the back has 
 been raked, clysters thrown up, and an active purgative have 
 entered the stomach, we should recommend not to wait the 
 operation of purging, but to give the sedative, and then 
 renew the attempts at unlocking the bowels. 
 
 No. 1. — Powdered opium half an ounce. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Camphor two drachms. 
 
 Tincture of aconite •. . . . one ounce. 
 
 Spirit of turpentine two ounces. 
 
 Strong ale a pint. 
 
 Mix the turpentine with the other ingredients by means 
 of yolks of eggs, and repeat either the half or the whole of 
 a similar dose, as the urgency of the symptoms may require, 
 every two, three hours, or longer. 
 
 If the case is far advanced, and the animal is neither a 
 
384 STRINGHALT. 
 
 plethoric nor a young one, it might be well to try the full 
 effect of the tonic plan. The tetanic irritation being confined 
 to the motor organs, so the digestive faculties usually re- 
 main undisturbed ; and if the horse could eat, it is probable 
 that, in many cases, he might become so nourished as even- 
 tually to wear out the disease w^ithout medicine. Liquid 
 nutriment should, therefore, be artificially and liberally sup- 
 plied by means of the human stomach pump, the tube beina: 
 inserted through the nostril : now and then quantities of 
 the mash itself, if offered, will be sucked in by the hungry 
 animal. We have also given gruel as clysters, in which way 
 much nutriment may be thrown into the constitution. But 
 in pursuing the tonic plan, the necessity of avoiding costive- 
 ness throughout must not be lost sight of ; on the contrary, 
 the moment it appears it must be again combated, as it 
 immediately aggravates the tetanic rigors. The directions 
 here given are very well, but horses have recovered under 
 all kinds of treatment. They have been packed in dung- 
 hills, driven over cliffs, into rivers and made to swim, 
 knocked on the head by the knacker's poleaxe, and all 
 have yet survived. The favourite treatment at present is 
 to give the animal a fearful purgative, and then leave him 
 with food before him in perfect solitude, not even looking 
 at him for a week, or longer. More cures are reported to 
 have taken place under the last mode of treatment than 
 any other. However, there are new agents, which certainly 
 demand a scientific trial — we allude to sulphuric ether, 
 chloroform, and aconite. 
 
 STRINGHALT. 
 
 Mr. Feron informs us, that this singular spasmodic affec- 
 tion is esteemed graceful in some continental countries ; at 
 least when it exists in both hinder legs, as it frequently 
 does, being however usually confined to one side : very 
 seldom indeed is it found in the fore, of which we have seen 
 but one or two instances at the most. It is evidently a 
 spasmodic contraction of some one or more of the flexors of 
 the leg, which usually ceases after the animal has been some 
 time in motion ; it is the consequence of local irritation or 
 of pressure on some nervous fibrila, which the excitement of 
 
SPASMODIC COLIC. 385 
 
 exercise renders less acute ; and generally restores the action 
 of the legs to its natural condition. It is not hereditary or 
 congenital, and seldom appears until the approach to the 
 adult age. It is injurious inasmuch as it unfits the horse 
 for certain purposes, as racing, delaying the start so long, 
 as to give away every advantage. It is considered incurable ; 
 and therefore any and all treatment is useless, save for ex- 
 periment. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
 SPASMODIC COLIC. 
 
 Spasmodic colic is the disease known to farriers by the 
 terms gripes, cramp, and fret. The muscular tunic of the 
 intestines renders them very susceptible to the action of 
 spasm, and the vascularity of their villous surface also 
 makes them very liable to become primary agents in the 
 production of this irritation. Spasmodic colic appears more 
 apt to affect the small intestines than the large ; but in- 
 stances are not wanting to prove that the large intestines 
 have also become occasionally affected ; and when the spasm 
 extends to the posterior part of the caecum and rectum, the 
 bladder also sometimes participates in the convulsion, and 
 frequent ejections of urine occur. That colic is dependent 
 on a spasm of the muscular structure of the intestines, we 
 have proofs from the appearances which present themselves 
 after death, in fatal cases, when different portions of the 
 alimentary track will . be found forcibly contracted ; and in 
 the instances where much flatus has been present (although 
 it is improperly in the horse called flatulent colic) , the post- 
 mortem appearances have proved that the caecum and colon 
 were the principal sufferers ; arising apparently from the dis- 
 engagement of an injurious gas from undigested herbage. 
 
 The causes are various : the sudden application of cold 
 either to the surface of the skin when hot ; or to the in- 
 testines under similar circumstances in the shape of cold 
 water drunk hastily, and when the horse has been warm ; 
 in which latter case the attack often soon follows. Costive- 
 
 c c 
 
388 SPASMODIC COLIC. 
 
 ness will bring it on. Tumours in the mesentery, and stric- 
 tures in the bowels, are also the sources of occasional colic. 
 When a horse is found to be subject to repeated attacks, 
 something of this kind, or abdominal concretions, may 
 aptly be suspected ; and we have known many instances 
 where habitual colic was dependent on this last cause. 
 Horses long confined to dry food will sometimes get out 
 and suddenly gorge themselves with green meat ; and with 
 others, a constitutional tendency fi'om some occult cause 
 gives them a predisposition to colic. 
 
 The symptoms of spasmodic colic are usually sudden in 
 their appearance, and not marked, as in inflammation of the 
 bowels, by previous indisposition ; but the horse is observed 
 to be at once attacked with considerable uneasiness, shifting 
 his position from side to side, pawing his litter, and stamp- 
 ing with his feet impatiently. After a few minutes thus 
 passed, the pain remits, and leaves the horse perfectly easy ; 
 he then resumes his eating. In enteritis no perfect re- 
 missions occur, but all is one scene of nearly equable pain 
 and distress, though never actually amounting to the agony 
 of spasmodic colic. As the colic advances, the remissions 
 are less perfect, and less fi'equent : the horse now lies down 
 occasionally, and on rising shakes himself, looking round to 
 his sides, at which sometimes, in desperate cases, he snaps 
 with his teeth ; but more frequently he is seen to strike with 
 his hind feet at his belly, as though determined to remove 
 by force the cause of his pain. In enteritis this acuteness 
 of sensation or violence of temper is seldom seen. When 
 on the ground, it is not uncommon for the horse to roll on 
 his back. In colic the pulse is seldom much altered from 
 its natural state, unless the colic has existed some time, 
 when it occasionally presents marks of general irritation, 
 and is not only quickened, but also somewhat hardened. If 
 it can be felt also during the intensity of the paroxysms, it 
 will likewise be often found to be disturbed even in the early 
 stage ; but this is momentary only, and ceases on the re- 
 mission of the pain. Under the immediate influence of 
 the existing spasm, it will in some instances present a 
 full bounding accelerated stroke ; but more often a wiry 
 thready though quickened beat, both of which may be mis- 
 taken for inflammation. The extremities, as the legs and 
 
SPASMODIC COLIC. 387 
 
 ears, in colic are not often much affected, and they never 
 remain intensely cold for a considerable period, as in ente- 
 ritis ; but the coat stares, and the horse breaks out fre- 
 quently into cold sweats. Sometimes he is seen to at- 
 tempt to stale without effect, at others he stales frequently, 
 with momentary relief. In colic, also, relief is obtained 
 by friction and motion, but both aggravate the distress in 
 enteritis. 
 
 Treatment. — Having reason to believe that the patient is 
 labouring under simple spasm of the intestines, unmixed 
 with inflammatory tendency or symptomatic irritation from 
 inversion, involution, invagination, or introsusception of 
 the intestinal track ; proceed at once to administer such 
 one or more of the numberless antispasmodic remedies as 
 custom and experience have warranted. Numerous as they 
 are, there is not one that has not its advocate ; and perhaps 
 not one that does not deserve to be commended, so simple 
 are the means sometimes required ; and so much is the 
 constitution prone, in some cases, to assist itself or our 
 efforts. While, at the same time, other cases occur fre- 
 quently obstinate and sufficiently fatal to require all our 
 energies and all our discrimination in the choice of our 
 remedies. Upon an animal being seized with spasmodic 
 colic, immediately prepare and administer the following : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Cold water a pint. 
 
 If this has no eflfect, repeat the drink in twenty minutes. 
 If the second dose has no effect, give a third at the expira- 
 tion of an hour ; but with the third drench administer the 
 ether and opium in the quantities named, along with six 
 ounces of solution of aloes, and only three quarters of a 
 pint of water. Should this have no effect, try the draught 
 again at the expiration of forty minutes ; and if no result 
 be obtained by all this medicine, mischief behind the out- 
 ward symptoms may be anticipated. 
 
 Copious clysters having been thrown up previously, and 
 the rectum emptied, the ammoniacal blister may now 
 be applied ; the liquor ammonia being mingled with six 
 times its amount of water, and carefully watched (see En- 
 teritis) . Then, at the expiration of another hour, a drachm 
 
 cc2 
 
388 CHRONIC INDIGESTION. 
 
 of calomel may be shaken upon the tongue, and the drench 
 first-named persevered in immediately afterwards. If still 
 no abatement of the pain be observed, and the general 
 symptoms and appearance indicate nothing but colic, at the 
 expiration of another term repeat the physic last advised, 
 and place sheepskins along the back. 
 
 By this time the pain, if it has throughout the period 
 been acute, must have changed the symptoms into those of 
 enteritis ; and we accordingly proceed as in that disorder, 
 only every hour not forgetting to give the ether and the 
 laudanum, together with the other medicines pointed out 
 as fit for inflammation of the bowels. 
 
 Other things have also to be attended to. In the first 
 place when the horse is attacked, he ought as quickly as 
 possible to be got into a loose box, well littered down, and 
 the sides of it amply guarded by trusses of straw placed 
 upright against the walls. The patient is then to be back- 
 raked ; and after the medicine has been administered, a 
 simple enema of soap and water is to be thrown up. All 
 exercise, friction, pepper, and spice, is to be avoided, be- 
 cause we can never reckon accurately as to what colic is 
 going to become ; by the by, we knew a case in Mr. Gow- 
 ing's practice, in which a prolonged fit was cut short by 
 the administration of a pint of turpentine as a clyster. 
 
 COLIC IN HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 This complaint occurs in cattle, but on account of the 
 intestines of those animals being bound down by the peri- 
 toneum, is of no consequence ; as is aptly illustrated by a 
 question put by the grinder, when preparing the pupils of 
 the Royal Veterinary College for their examination. 
 
 Q. What would you do if you were called to an ox 
 having the colic ? 
 
 A. Make haste, lest the animal should get well before I 
 reached the place. 
 
 CHRONIC INDIGESTION. 
 
 Horses are subject to dyspepsia, or loss of appetite, either 
 from some morbid change in the stomach, being induced by 
 some disease in its secretions, or some extraneous matter. 
 We have had many occasions to advert to the sympathy 
 
ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. 389 
 
 existing between various parts, and the present is a promi- 
 nent instance of the kind ; for in every case of stomach 
 affection the skin is found to sympathize ; and these states 
 are therefore always accompanied with staring hair, dry, 
 and but Httle unctuous : it also presents that inelasticity of 
 cuticle termed hide-bound. The horse continues to eat 
 without appetite, or with one irregular in its desires ; and 
 what is taken in is frequently passed away in the state in 
 wdiich it was swallowed, viz. undigested. 
 
 Causes. — In spring and autumn, when a renewal of hair 
 takes place, the sympathy between the skin and stomach 
 produces the phenomena of weakness so usually observed, 
 viz. faintness, perspiration, and irregular appetite. It is 
 sometimes occasioned by the presence of worms, when the 
 number is great : more often, however, it may be attributed 
 to improper food, as musty hay and corn ; or to injudicious 
 lodging, as unventilated or over-heated stables ; or improper 
 management, as too great a quantity of clothing, the inju- 
 dicious use of spicy stimulants, &c. &c. 
 
 Cure. — Its removal must, in a great measure, depend on 
 becoming acquainted with its cause. In spring, feed suc- 
 culently ; and in autumn, feed liberally ; while, in both 
 cases, encourage that particular growth of hair which the 
 season requires. 
 
 ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE, CALLED HOVE, OR BLOWN. 
 
 When cattle have become fatigued by driving or by long 
 fasting, and suddenly find themselves with plenty of food 
 before them, particularly of such as requires little mastica- 
 tion, as chaff, bran, grains, &c. &c. ; and also at all times 
 when they meet with food they have long been deprived of, 
 as various artificial gi'asses, particularly red clover, they 
 are apt to eat greedily, and omit to stop for the purposes 
 of rumination ; by which means the rumen or paunch be- 
 comes so distended as to be incapable of expelling its con- 
 ents. From this, fermentation begins to take place, and a 
 argequantity of gas escapes, which increases the distention, 
 until the stomach, by its pressure on the diaphragm, suffo- 
 cates the animal. 
 
 The symptoms are uneasiness and distress, with quickened 
 respiration ; sometimes there is a degree of phrensy pre- 
 
390 ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. 
 
 sent. When it is occasioned by green food, the evolu- 
 tion of gas is enormous, and the tympanitis gives a drum- 
 like distention to the belly ; but when dry food, as chaff, 
 bran, &c. &c. has been taken, the impacted matter does not 
 distend so quickly, and the symptoms are less acute ; they 
 resemble those of constipation ; and sounding the side, 
 gives back a response as though a solid matter were hit 
 against. It is thought to be more likely to occur in warm 
 and wet weather than in any other ; and if such be the case, 
 it must arise from the state of the vegetable matter and the 
 surrounding warmth both being favourable to fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 The treatment will consist in attempting to lessen the 
 distention by evacuating the distending gas, or otherwise 
 try to neutralize it. Purgatives have little or no effect. 
 The evacuation of the gases is caused by the introduction 
 of a probang, which is passed down the oesophagus ; or it 
 is brought about by puncturing the side, when the distention 
 is urgent, or the want of assistance, renders it imperative 
 to evacuate the gas immediately, to prevent suffocation ; a 
 puncture is therefore at once made into it, which, among 
 graziers, is called paunching. When nothing better is at 
 hand, this may be performed with a lancet,''or even a pen- 
 knife ; the wound made being kept open by the introduc- 
 tion of a piece of hollow elder or common wood ; the 
 place of puncture being midway between the ileum or 
 haunchbone and the last rib, a span below the transverse 
 processes of the lumbar vertebrae on the left side, to which 
 the first stomach or paunch inclines. A cattle trochar 
 will, however, permit the gas to escape with certainty and 
 speed, and should always be used to make the puncture, in 
 preference to any other instrument. As soon as the air is 
 perfectly evacuated, and the paunch is observed to resume 
 its office, the trochar may be removed ; the wound being care- 
 fully closed by a pitch plaister, or other adhesive matter. 
 It is necessary to observe, that this operation is so simple 
 and safe, that, whenever a medical assistant cannot be ob- 
 tained, no person should hesitate a moment about doing it 
 himself The domestic remedies for lessening the disten- 
 tion, b)'' condensing the gas, have been various ; as oil of 
 turpentine, and particularly ammonia, a strong solution of 
 
LAMPAS. 391 
 
 which in water has been found serviceable. The alkalies 
 generally have long been used with variable success. Vine- 
 gar, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, is strongly 
 recommended ; but as it is observed that the elastic fluids 
 developed are not always alike, so the effects resulting from 
 the most reputed agents have too often failed. Mr. Youatt 
 recommends the introduction of the chlorinated lime given 
 in doses of from 5ij to 5iv suspended in water. 
 
 But it is to a foreign veterinarian we are indebted for the 
 best agent for neutralizing the gases given off when the 
 rumen is distended. M. Charlet has recommended the 
 chloride of potash, which substance has a gi'cat affinity for 
 the compounds of hydrogen, that usually form the major 
 portion of those which exist in the stomach. This sub- 
 stance is to be given in doses of an ounce to a horse, 
 half an ounce to a cow, and three drachms to a sheep. 
 Occasionally, however, from the contents of the stomach 
 being in a state of fermentation, no gas will escape, upon the 
 probang or trochar being introduced. The chloride of potash 
 is then to be poured down the probang or trochar, which- 
 ever may be used, and this substance must not be mixed 
 with either mucilage or aromatic bitters, but sulphuric 
 ether and cold water may be joined to it without injuring 
 its effects. 
 
 LAMPAS. 
 
 The symptoms of this imaginary disease are, the horse 
 quids his hay, or refuses his food. It is most common in 
 young horses ; and the groom looks into the mouth of the 
 animal, when perceiving the bars to be almost on a level 
 with the incisor teeth, he pronounces his charge to have 
 the lampas, and takes the poor creature to be burnt within 
 its mouth accordingly. It is true the animal has recovered 
 its appetite by the time the effects of the burn have passed 
 away, but so it would have done had no hot iron been 
 cruelly employed. The fact is, the young animal is then 
 cutting a molar tooth, and a day or two having elapsed, all 
 the fever and pain occasioned by the process would have 
 been over. No man should allow his horse to be burnt for 
 the lampas. It is a torturing, an idle, and a wanton ope- 
 ration, and tends rather to do harm than good. If an old 
 
392 WORMS. 
 
 horse be reported as having the lampas, examine his mouth, 
 and something may be found wrong with his giinders, or, to 
 a certainty, the cause is to be sought in another part of the 
 body than the roof of the mouth. 
 
 WORMS. 
 
 Every part of animated existence appears subservient to 
 the purposes of other portions of" it ; and therefore every 
 thing hving may be considered as parasitic, chnging around 
 other hving matter for support. Insects, in an especial 
 manner, appear to deserve this character ; for many of 
 them actually entomb themselves within other animals, 
 even as if the bowels were their constant habitation, or 
 their temporary residence during particular states. Such, 
 however, is the case with worms, whose lives are passed 
 within the intestines of most animals. These parasites, 
 annoying the horse, are of several kinds. The Lumbiici, 
 which resemble the earth-worm, and are not uncommon in 
 the small intestines, where they occasionally do mischief by 
 their irritation. Ascaris, or thread-worms, so called from 
 their filamentary figure, are darker and larger in the horse 
 than in man, and reside in the rectum and ceecum occa- 
 sionally ; when they exist in large numbers they may prove 
 prejudicial. The late Mr. Percivall attributed the death of 
 two horses to their presence. Tania, or tape-worm, is but 
 seldom found, and its effects therefore have been little 
 noticed. Bots are the larvae or grubs of the oestrus or 
 gad-fly : and our knowledge of the natural history of this 
 genus has been much extended by that able naturalist and 
 veterinarian, Mr. Bracy Clark. He is, however, mistaken, 
 when he asserts that they are always innocuous : on the 
 contrary, they have even brought on fatal terminations. 
 Mr. Coleman relates an instance which, nevertheless, has 
 no equal to support it, where they had eroded the stomach, 
 and thence had penetrated the diaphragm also. Mr. Cart- 
 wright, of Whitchurch, also describes a case illustrative 
 of their injurious consequences. 
 
 Horses, however, which are turned out during the sum- 
 mer months, are alone subject to bots. Upon a fine day, 
 a fly may be seen buzzing about the lower portion of the 
 liorse's body which is at pasture. AU at once the insect 
 
WORMS. 393 
 
 steadies itself by a very rapid flutter of its tiny wings ; then it 
 darts at the horse, generally touching his knee, and is away 
 again in a moment ; but in that brief space the little crea- 
 ture has found time enough to deposit an egg, and to glue 
 it to the animal's hair. The horse, either stung by the 
 parent fly, or annoyed by the fastening down of his hair, 
 licks the knee to ease the part, and thus conveys the egg 
 into the stomach. The greater number of the eggs swal- 
 lowed must be lost, but some are hatched by the heat of 
 the horse's stomach, and these become hots ; and are often 
 found, when making examinations after death, in vast num- 
 bers clinging to the stomach, from which, until their time 
 of change arrives, they have no power to release them- 
 selves. 
 
 Symptoms of worms. — The most popular is a dry yellow 
 matter under the tail ; but it is not invariably present even 
 when worms are known to exist. When worms are hurt- 
 ful, there is unequal appetite, and an irregular state of 
 bowels ; at one time costive, and at another loose, with 
 glair or mucus around the dung-balls. When ascarides 
 prevail, the horse is much disposed to rub the tail, to ease 
 the itching of the fundament. The presence of bots is sel- 
 dom detected by any distinct signs, except in the spring, 
 when one or more may be detected half protruded through 
 the anus ; the reason of its appearance being, that the time 
 has arrived for it to quit the state of a grub for that of a 
 fly. The lumbrici, or round worm, is probably the most 
 generally hurtful ; but it is only when it exists in great 
 numbers, or itself becomes morbidly irritated, to seek a 
 change of situation ; this symptom applies to ascarides, in 
 which cases both may interfere with digestion and the regular 
 alvine discharges ; the provender of the horse, although he 
 eats heartily, does not digest healthily. The skin also, 
 sympathising with the stomach and intestines, occasions a 
 staring coat and harsh feel of the hair. There are frequent 
 attacks of slight gripes ; the horse stands with his legs wide 
 apart, and his belly hangs low. The breath is often hot 
 and foetid, and it is not unusual for a short dry cough to be 
 present. Worms, however, do exist without any of these 
 symptoms. Whoever will take the trouble to visit a 
 knacker's, and to turn over the dunghill in his yard, will 
 
394 WORMS. 
 
 find it to be composed quite as much of worms as of excre- 
 ment. This dung is taken from the aged horses sent to be 
 slaughtered, and is sufficient proof that worms are much 
 more common than is generally supposed. 
 
 Treatment of worms. — Nature has endowed these animals 
 with such tenacity of life, that no matters known to us will 
 effect their destruction, though a few may answer the pur- 
 pose of their expulsion, Bots are so hardy as apparently 
 to survive immersion in oil, in alcohol, spirits of turpen- 
 tine, and even powerful solutions of mineral acids. The 
 continued use of salt mixed with the food appears, however, 
 obnoxious to them, for sometimes under its use their hold 
 gives way, and they are ejected. Bitters, purgatives, and 
 the mechanical irritation of pointed bodies, as pewter, tin, 
 &c., have no effect whatever upon bots : but with regard to 
 the other parasites, rather more success may be expected 
 from medical aid, in the form of vermifuges. It has been 
 attempted to effect the removal of worms mechanically, by 
 dissolving the mucus they are supposed to be imbedded in, 
 for which purpose lime-water, oil, solutions of aloes, &c. 
 have been injected by clyster up the rectum, and which 
 practice is most to be depended on for the ejection of asca- 
 rides when in the rectum. This practice of washing away 
 the mucus of the intestine, and thus to deprive the intes- 
 tine of the secretion given for its protection, is not to be 
 recommended, though oil for this end would be harmless. 
 Strong purges are given with the same intent, which may 
 remove them also from the whole alimentary track. Re- 
 medies have likewise been exhibited to destroy them within 
 the body, by the mechanical irritation of their spiculi ; 
 under which view, tin, brass, iron, pewter, are thought 
 remedial. The Indian caustic barley, and Indian pink, are 
 reputed vermifuges against the teres and ascaris. The oil 
 of turpentine has also been strongly recommended as an 
 excellent general vermifuge ; but, except for the destruc- 
 tion of the taenia, or tape-worm, it certainly does not 
 appear to deserve that character. 
 
 The mode most in favour with modern practitioners, is 
 to give the horse having worms a drachm, or two drachms 
 of tartar emetic, for six mornings running. The tartar 
 emetic is to be administered in the form of ball, and to a 
 
PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE. 395 
 
 fasting stomach. Upon the seventh morning, administer to 
 the animal a strong dose of aloes, which drives out the 
 parasites that the previous medicine has enfeebled. 
 
 Of other worms and parasitic animals which are found in 
 the horse, the Filaria may be noticed, from the peculiarity 
 of its being in India occasionally found within the globe of 
 the eye. It has also been discovered inside the cellular 
 tissues, and within the cerebral, abdominal, and thoracic 
 cavities. A variety of the Strongylus has been found in 
 the coeliac artery, and FasciolcB have also been met with in 
 the iliacs. Hydatids likewise, though not very common, 
 are also occasionally observed in the horse, presenting all 
 the characters of the acephalocystes ; and to their presence 
 within the spinal canal we are to attribute some of the para- 
 lytic affections of the animal. 
 
 PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE. 
 
 Of these we shall give a very condensed account. The 
 oestris bovis, one of the gad-fly species, to produce what are 
 called wornulls or wormuls, punctures the skin of cows 
 and calves, and occasionally the hides of horses ; it deposits 
 its eggs beneath the integument, between that and the cel- 
 lular membrane ; the hatching of the eggs matures ; the 
 abscess formed by the grub is called puckeridge ; this is 
 ignorantly attributed to a wound inflicted by the goat- 
 sucker, or night hawk. When arrived at their full size, 
 the larvae make their way out at the external opening, and 
 fall on the ground. From the mischief which they do to 
 the hides, their destruction should be attempted ; this 
 may be effected by introducing a penknife to enlarge the 
 openings, and by pressing the insect out. The oestrus ovis 
 lays its eggs on the margin of the nose of sheep, which be- 
 coming larvae, creep into the frontal and maxillary sinuses, 
 occasioning great irritation. The continental shepherds 
 trepan their sheep, and remove them ; but our shepherds 
 have not been successful with this method. Sheep are 
 also obnoxious to a worm called the pallisade, which locates 
 itself within the trachea and bronchii. The fasciola 
 hepatica, or fluke- worm, is also a parasitic insect, whose 
 ravages are supposed to be most injurious, but they are to 
 be discovered in most healthy sheep. Horses, asses, and 
 
390 PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE. 
 
 mules, are occasionally found with them also, as well as 
 rats, mice, &c. ; but in sheep, goats, and deer, they are 
 common. Yet what connexion the animal has with dis- 
 ease is involved in much obscurity : certain it is, however, 
 that both rot, and the vast increase of the fluke, are con- 
 nected with a moist state of the pasturage. Salt marshes 
 never produce it ; and salt is supposed to be a remedy in 
 the early stages. It seldom attacks sheep on high grounds ; 
 but the sheep having once received the infection, of what- 
 ever nature it may be, removal to another pasture is then 
 almost too late. 
 
 Hydatids, as producing what is known as staggers, or 
 turnsick, in sheep, are less common but sufficiently fatal. 
 This vesicular animal, which is found within the cerebral 
 cavities, produces effects which have received various pro- 
 vincial but characteristic names, being called gid, starers, 
 goggles, sturdy, &c. They are universal throughout Europe, 
 and, indeed, infest the flocks of most quarters of the globe. 
 Hydatids also make their way, now and then, into the 
 spinal canal, when they occasion paralysis. The vitality of 
 the tanius globuleux or ccenurus cerehralis is fully evinced on 
 being put into water, which, if it be warm, excites lively 
 motions in the animal, whose size varies from that of a 
 pigeon's egg to the minutest vesicle. They are found 
 sometimes solitary, and at others two or three are placed 
 together wuthin the ventricles of the brain ; occasionally 
 they are discovered within the substance of the cerebellum ; 
 but more frequently immediately on the surface of the 
 cerebral hemispheres : and it is said they are more common 
 to the right lobe than to the left ; their effects are gene- 
 rally produced on the opposite side to that on which the 
 parasitic animal is situated ; it is usual to find the hy- 
 datid on that side of the head towards which the sheep 
 inclines in his revolutionary gait. When this disease has 
 existed some time, the ravages it occasions are very great : 
 one of the cerebral lobes has been found almost destroyed ; 
 one of the ventricles has been distended to ten times its 
 original magnitude : while in other instances, one of the 
 parietal bones has become so absorbed by the pressure of 
 the hydatid, when situated on the cerebral suiface, as 
 scarcely to offer the smallest resistance to the touch. It is 
 
COSTIVENESS. 397 
 
 more frequent in sheep under two years old than at a later 
 period ; and is known by the staggering gait of the affected 
 animal, and its separation from the rest of the flock ; the 
 head is held unnaturally low or high, and is carried more 
 to one side than the other, inclining also the general move- 
 ments of the body to the same side. As the pressure of 
 the hydatid increases, the functions become still more 
 deranged : the sheep staggers about almost unconscious, 
 with dilated pupils, and loss of cud ; until coma or convul- 
 sions close the scene. Of the cure we would remark, that, 
 notwithstanding the hopes held out, it is not often obtained ; 
 for the situation of the hydatid is so diversified and so 
 obscure, that it is only when it directly points itself out by 
 its effects on the cerebral parietes, that we are able to detect 
 it with any degree of certainty. In such cases it may be 
 attempted to puncture the vesicle by means of any instru- 
 ment that will penetrate the bone with safety, after a slight 
 opening has been made through the integuments by a 
 scalpel. A rude instrument is a fine sharp gimlet, which 
 will effect a sufficient opening if passed as far as its screw, 
 or until the hydatid fluid flows, and will prove effective, by 
 evacuating the vesicle without danger of wounding the 
 brain. After the operation, in whatever way performed, 
 should the symptoms not mitigate, there will be reason to 
 suspect that a second or third hydatid remains, in which case 
 the trephine must be resorted to. Subsequent to its use, 
 stitch up the integuments, and secure the head from the 
 effects of cold, violence, or insects. Continental shepherds 
 attempt a rude cure by introducing a long pointed instru- 
 ment up the nose, through the frontal sinuses, and into 
 the cerebral cavity, by which means the hydatid is often 
 effectually destroyed, and ill consequences less frequently 
 result than would be supposed likely from such treatment. 
 
 COSTIVENESS. 
 
 Some horses are habitually costive, which arises either 
 from a defective secretion of the fluid of the bowels ; or, 
 that the absorbents act too strongly, and take up too much 
 of the liquid contents, by which the faecal mass becomes 
 dry, hard, and difficult to pass ; or it may, and frequently 
 does, arise from a defect in the formation of the bile, either 
 
398 DIARRH(EA. 
 
 as to quantity or quality. This we know from what occurs 
 in jaundice, in which, from a loss of the bile by extravasa- 
 tion, there is always present a strong disposition to a costive 
 habit. Some food is prone to occasion constipation, as 
 whatever is stimulating or heating. Corn of all kinds, 
 therefore, has this tendency, but beans more than all. 
 Habitual costiveness should not be counteracted by purga- 
 tives, as they generally increase the evil ; but attention 
 should be paid to the habit itself, and the peculiar tenden- 
 cies of that should be counteracted. Dry food should be 
 remedied by occasional bran mashes. Green meat is par- 
 ticularly useful in these cases in summer, and carrots in 
 winter. A costive state of bowels may sometimes be reme- 
 died by placing a lump of rock salt within the manger. 
 When costiveness arises from defective bile, treat as directed 
 under jaundice. 
 
 Occasional or accidental costiveness must be treated dif- 
 ferently. First, back-rake, next throw up a large laxative 
 clyster ; and then proceed to give a mild purgative by the 
 mouth. ^ 
 
 DIARRHOEA. 
 
 This complaint is, when properly considered, an increased 
 power of the peristaltic action, with a greater secretion 
 of a watery fluid within the intestines ; or, otherwise it may 
 arise from a want of a proper absorption of the fluid part of 
 the intestinal contents ; whereby there follows a frequent 
 evacuation of the dung in a very liquid form ; or it may 
 also spring from the irritability or slight inflammation of the 
 mucous membrane. It is distinguished from dysentery by 
 the purging being incomplete from the very first ; by its 
 being less copious, having all the faeces in solution without 
 any glairy mucous matter ; and, also, by being seldom ac- 
 companied with fever, or any gi'eat aflection of the general 
 health. Some horses are very liable to purging on every 
 exertion, and such are termed, by grooms, washy, having 
 usually narrow chests and lank bellies, by which the intes- 
 tines have not sufficient room for their natural processes ; 
 but are pressed on, and thus forced to a hasty expulsion of 
 the imassimilated contents. 
 
 Causes. — Diarrhoea may arise from mechanical pressure, 
 
DIARRHOEA. 399 
 
 resulting from the last cause ; thus a light belly is often 
 found with occasional diarrhoea ; or it may arise from a de- 
 bility in the intestines themselves. A weakened state of the 
 bowels, inclining to this affection, is often brought on by 
 drastic purges. It may likewise spring from the intestines 
 containing some offensive matter, which nature is striving 
 to cast out ; little dung being emitted at a time. 
 
 It may also be occasioned by the sudden application of 
 cold, whereby the exhalent vessels of the skin becoming 
 checked, more fluid is necessarily thrown on the intestines ; 
 and which operates not only by increasing their quantity, 
 but likewise by the addition of something foreign, hence 
 irritating to them. In these cases, which are marked with 
 thirst and increased pulse, the restoration of the healthy 
 action of the skin is necessary to a cure ; and as the balance 
 of power has been in favour of the intestines, it would be 
 desirable now to turn it in favour of the skin, by making 
 use of the few horse diaphoretics we know of, as antimony, 
 warm clothing, &c. &c. ; and by avoiding the use of outward 
 astringents. 
 
 The treatment. — In general cases, when the motion is 
 copious, little need be done. Nature is then relieving her- 
 self, and requires little more than warmth and a change of 
 diet. If constitutional, we must palliate by a mild but con- 
 stant check on the existing causes : a light-bellied horse 
 should not be worked severely several days together ; avoid 
 too much water, or too early labour directly after meals. 
 Let the feeces be examined : if the food passes away un- 
 digested, the stomach requires tonics to restore its tone ; but 
 if it be a recent attack, examine well for the probable cause. 
 Has it followed any undue exposure, any violent exertion, 
 any change of food, m\y great difference in the warmth of 
 the stable ? Is the water good in quality ; are the oats, or is 
 the hay new ? If none of these causes operate, we must first 
 make ourselves aware that it is the faecal discharge which 
 passes, for such appearances have concealed an obstinate 
 constipation. Being convinced of the diarrhoea, commence 
 the cure by mild astringents. It sometimes happens, when 
 diarrhoea has been long continued, it seems to pervade the 
 whole alimentary track, so that, at the last, the caecum and 
 rectum become equally affected; then dysentery is esta- 
 
400 DIARRHOEA IN CATTLE. 
 
 blished, and a distressing tenesmus prevails. In such cases 
 give astringents by the mouth, as well as by injections. 
 Commence, however, the cure of general cases of diarrhoea 
 by giving the following drink once or twice a day, according 
 to the violence of the complaint : — 
 
 Prepared opium half an ounce. 
 
 Powdered catechu one drachm. 
 
 Prepared chalk one ounce. 
 
 Sulphate of iron {green vitriol) half a drachm. 
 
 Starch, boiled thin . a pint. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Should the horse be weak, boiled starch, or arrow root, 
 or boiled bean meal, may be horned down the throat fre- 
 quently. Give no cold water to drink, but, instead, give 
 thin gruel or rice-water, tepid. Clothe warmly, encourage 
 a fine temperature also, and carefully avoid exposure to 
 sudden currents of cold air. Green meat has been known 
 to check diarrhoea which had resisted every other attempt. 
 To the more intimately understanding of this complaint, 
 under its several varieties, see the subject of Dysentery. 
 
 DIARRHOEA IN CATTLE. 
 
 Looseness, scantering, scouring, is much more frequent 
 in kine than in horses. It is occasioned by intemperate 
 and long-continued travel in hot weather, or by cold super- 
 vening on heat, damp and wet, lying out, &c. &c. Some- 
 times, however, it springs up without any obvious cause, 
 and while the cow is apparently doing well, milking well, 
 feeding well, and laying on flesh within the shed. The 
 conditions under which the disease makes its appearance 
 must always be ascertained. If the animal be weakly, as 
 the generality are when they exhibit diarrhoea, a tonic every 
 day, with a change of food, and an occasional walk about 
 the yard for exercise, will be beneficial. If strong and 
 healthy, give the following : — 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia {Epsom salts) half a pound. 
 
 Powdered ipecacuanha a drachm. 
 
 Sulphate of iron {green ritriol) a drachm. 
 
 Feed liberally, and give bean meal in a mash or otherwise : 
 the prepared rust of iron has been given in doses of half an 
 ounce in a ball, with advantage in these cases. If the 
 colour of the external membranes declare the liver to be 
 
CRIBBITING. 401 
 
 affected, the case must be treated as one of a mild hepatic 
 affection, cautiously guarding, however, against any ap- 
 proach to salivation. 
 
 SCOURING IN CALVES. 
 
 From a morbid stomach secretion, calves are very prone 
 to diarrhoea. The chief cause, however, is irregularity in 
 the feeding, both as to quantity and quality ; the slightest 
 inattention to these points soon brings on this disorder. 
 To remedy diarrhoea, graziers give the calves chalk to lick. 
 When looseness has appeared they also give chalk in milk 
 (which is a good domestic remedy), as well as starch or bean 
 flour boiled in their food. But when these fail, give the 
 following, which is almost certain in its good effects : — 
 
 Prepared chalk half an ounce. 
 
 Powdered opium half a scruple. 
 
 Powdered catechu a scruple. 
 
 Ginger a scruple. 
 
 Sheep are subject to scouring ; and lambs are also liable 
 to a similar looseness with calves. In either case, the rules 
 already laid down exactly apply, making one-sixth of the 
 quantities of the previous dose. 
 
 CRIBBITING. 
 
 This peculiar action is very generally, but is erroneously 
 supposed to arise from a small quantity of air drawn into 
 the stomach : and is hence called sucking the wind. On 
 the contrary, it consists in the simple eructation or forcing 
 out of a small quantity of gas, let loose from morbid 
 combinations within the stomach ; which gas, as it proves 
 a source of irritation, the horse, to aid its expulsion, applies 
 his teeth to a fixed point, whereby to help the effort he is 
 about to make. To prevent the action, it is common to 
 place a tight strap around the throat ; this, by compressing 
 the oesophagus, effectually hinders the animal from indulg- 
 ing the habit. 
 
 It is considered a vice, an action acquired, &c. ; but we 
 believe it always commences in dyspepsia. We never 
 knew an instance of its being contracted at' grass ; but 
 turning out in a straw-yard is a very common cause. It 
 
 D d 
 
402 RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNI^E. 
 
 may certainly be traced to idleness ; but then it cannot be 
 supposed that the mere action of cribbiting, were it either 
 a vice or an amusement, could tend to deprive a horse of 
 flesh. The faulty digestion at once keeps them thin, and 
 makes them prone to assume this dyspeptic symptom, 
 which, once acquired, is lasting from habit, even although 
 we could remove the original cause. To prevent the crib- 
 biting, nothing more is necessary than to place a strap of 
 two and a half inches broad around the throat, tightened 
 only to the degree necessary to prevent the action ; this it 
 does by rendering it painful to distend the oesophagus. 
 The first symptom of cribbiting is usually the licking of the 
 manger, which habit the horse about to crib will indulge for 
 hours together. If taken at this point, and a piece of rock 
 salt placed before him, the animal will apply his tongue to 
 it ; this usually prevents him from becoming a cribber, 
 by giving him employment and strengthening his stomach. 
 Most persons imagine that cribbing rounds the teeth, which 
 is an unfounded prejudice, though horses of a nervous 
 temperament, which snap and bite much while being dressed, 
 generally have the incisors very much rounded. Some 
 horses, notwithstanding they are inveterate cribbers, get fat, 
 and perform the work briskly, even to the end of prolonged 
 lives. 
 
 MORBID DISPLACEMENTS OF THE INTESTINES, &C. 
 RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIyE, 
 
 Hernia, in its strict sense, is a protrusion of any viscus 
 out of its natural cavity ; hence we have hernia of the 
 brain, of the lungs, and of the various viscera of the ab- 
 dominal regions. Hernia, as we propose to consider it, is a 
 displacement of the intestines from the abdominal cavity, 
 either through some of the natural openings or through 
 artificial ones, the effects of accident. When such protru- 
 sion takes place through a moderate opening, and the 
 portion of gut can be readily returned, it is called a re- 
 ducible hernia ; but when it occurs through a small open- 
 ing, and the intestine cannot be replaced, it is termed an 
 irreducible hernia. If the mouth of the opening, round the 
 
RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA. 403 
 
 intestine, constringe, and prevent the return of the bowel, 
 it then forms a strangulated hernia, and usually proves fatal, 
 unless relief be promptly obtained. 
 
 The hernia by far the most common in the horse is the 
 inguinal, of which the scrotal, or when the bowel descends into 
 the scrotum, is most frequently observed in the stallion. 
 Bubonocele, or that of the groin, is a very rare form of dis- 
 ease, but is occasionally witnessed in geldings. In the former, 
 the intestine accompanies the spermatic cord by the ingui- 
 nal canal through the abdominal rings into the scrotum : in 
 the latter the bowel alone lodges in the groin. The rup- 
 tures we have named may be considered as the only ones 
 common to the horse. Some of them are very rarely seen : 
 hernia is more frequently on the right than on the left side ; 
 and scarcely ever appears in mares. However, ventral her- 
 nia or rupture of the muscles of the abdominal sides, and 
 protrusion beneath the skin of a portion of intestine, is 
 sometimes beheld in either sex, and perhaps of the two, is 
 more frequently witnessed in the female. 
 
 The causes which produce hernice are various, but all 
 arise from violence of exertion, or the effects consequent 
 upon external injuries. With us the efforts used in racing, 
 and the leaps taken in hunting, are causes, as we may 
 readily suppose ; when we consider that the dilatation of 
 the abdomen, restrained as it is by weight and tight girth- 
 ings, must press backwards the intestinal mass. Rearing 
 and kicking also, and being cast for operations, particu- 
 larly the rising up after castration, have all brought it on. 
 Blows with a thick stick, or from the horn of a cow, may 
 likewise induce it. 
 
 The symptoms of strangulated hernia are very similar to 
 those of an acute enteritis : there are the same uneasiness, 
 shifting of position, getting up and lying down again. The 
 horse rolls in the same manner, and in turning on his back 
 sometimes seems to get a momentary respite from pain ; 
 yet it is but momentary, for the suffering is not one of 
 remission ; it is constant ; this will serve as one distin- 
 guishing mark between it and spasmodic cohc, with which 
 it has been confounded. In stallions, a pathognomonic 
 symptom is, that the testicle on the hernial side is drawn 
 up to the abdomen, and is retained there, with only mo- 
 
 Dd2 
 
404 RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA. 
 
 mentary fits of relaxation ; towards the last the pulse is 
 quick and wiry ; the horse paws, looks at his flanks, but 
 seldom kicks at his belly. We assure ourselves of hernia 
 by an oblong tumour in the groin, of larger or smaller 
 bulk ; hard or soft, as it may contain either feeces or gas, in 
 which latter case it will also be elastic. When the tumour 
 is raised by the hand, or pressed, a gurgling sound is 
 emitted ; or if the horse be coughed, it will be sensibly 
 increased in dimensions. 
 
 The treatment of strangulated hernia. — The horse suffering 
 under the affection we will suppose to be a stallion, and then 
 describe the various manipulations for his relief: firstly, 
 the examination into the state of the hernia ; secondly, the 
 application of means preparatory to the application of pres- 
 sure ; thirdly, the application of pressure itself ; also, the 
 operation of removing the stricture ; and, likewise, the ap- 
 plication of the various processes to hernia in the horse. 
 
 The treatment of hernia in a stallion. — First, the examina- 
 tion of the hernial sac. In this manipulation both hands 
 are employed ; one is introduced into the rectum, the other 
 into the sheath. The one within the rectum must seek 
 the internal ring ; while the other, pursuing the course of 
 the cord on the side affected, is to be pushed up to the 
 external ring ; and thus, in the natural state, the opposed 
 fingers may be made nearly to meet, and so estimate the 
 size of the opening. However small the protruded portion 
 of gut, the practitioner will be able to detect, and even to 
 reduce it. This exploration may he made in the standing 
 posture ; hut it will he conducted with more facility and cer- 
 tainty if the animal he cast, which is the preferahle mode of 
 proceeding . 
 
 Secondly, the application of means preparatory to the 
 taxis : these are said to be bleeding, and partially paralysing 
 the parts by administration of chloroform ; or lessening the 
 volume of distention by dashing the part with cold water ; or, 
 if the horse be already cast, by spreading ice over the belly. 
 
 Thirdly, the manual efforts to return the displaced gut. 
 To fulfil this indication, we are, with the same hope, 
 at once to proceed thus. The horse is to be thrown upon 
 the opposite side to that disordered ; and after one hind leg 
 has been drawn and fixed forward, as for castration, he is to 
 
RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA. 405 
 
 be turned upon his back, and in that position maintained by 
 trusses of straw, while other trusses are placed under him to 
 raise the croup. With both arms well oiled, or covered with 
 some mucilaginous decoction, the operator will now com- 
 mence his exploration, taking the precaution of emptying 
 the rectum as he proceeds. As soon as he shall have ascer- 
 tained that it is a case of hernia ; have assured himself 
 the gut protruded through the ring is undergoing neither 
 stricture nor strangulation ; he may endeavour to disengage 
 the hernial part, by softly drawing it inward within the 
 cavity, at the same time pushing it in the like direction 
 with the hand within the sheath. Should he experience 
 much difficulty in these attempts, he is to desist ; violence 
 being too often the forerunner of strangulation and gan- 
 grene. He must bear in mind, also, that although the re- 
 duction is effected, unless it be followed by immediate cas- 
 tration, it does not always prove to be a cure : the protru- 
 sion recurs after a time, and occasionally even the moment 
 the animal has risen. If the taxis should be fortunate 
 enough to reduce the hernia, and it be not intended to 
 castrate the horse, apply a well-wadded pledget, or folded 
 cloth, to the part ; this may be retained with a bandage 
 crossed between the legs from side to side, and fastened by 
 one part under the belly to a girth ; and also passing be- 
 tween the legs, it may be again made fast to the back por- 
 tion of the same girth ; the intention of this is, to prevent 
 the protrusion of the gut by the exertion of rising, and 
 consequently it should be removed as soon as that danger 
 is over. If a radical cure were attempted, of course the 
 clams would supersede this, either in the stallion or gelding. 
 And, concerning the treatment of strangulated hernias in 
 geldings. Inguinal hernia taking the same course, is suscep- 
 tible of the same terminations, and requires the same treat- 
 ment, as in stallions. The taxis is to be employed, and 
 will be used with most effect, the operator (the horse 
 lying upon his back) extending the hernial sheath with one 
 hand, while he manipulates with the other ; or, should this 
 fail, by instructing his assistant to hold up the hernial 
 mass from the belly, so as to take its pressure off the ring, 
 and thus give him an opportunity to renew his efforts with 
 more effect. In some cases, the introduction of one hand 
 
406 STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 into the rectum becomes necessary. The reduction of the 
 hernia should be followed up immediately by the applica- 
 tion of the clams, if we unite with the reduction an attempt 
 at permanent cure of the hernia ; taking care, at the time, 
 to draw out the part of the scrotum to which the vaginal 
 sheath is adherent, and to push up the clams as close as 
 possible to the belly ; they are then to be closed, as for 
 castration. 
 
 Of congenital hernia, our limits allow of little more than 
 the mention ; nor need more be detailed, as its conse- 
 quences are seldom injurious. It appears that inguinal 
 hernia commonly exists in the foetus in utero. M. Line- 
 guard, V. S., of Normandy, where breeding is very exten- 
 sively pursued, has ascertained that enterocele is invariably 
 present at birth ; even in abortions, and in subjects still 
 born. The congenital enterocele is an attendant on birth, 
 increasing up to the third or sixth month, but afterwards 
 diminishing, and ultimately vanishing. Should it continue 
 beyond a year or eighteen months, it is to be regarded as a 
 chronic or permanent hernia. Chronic or permanent hernia, 
 it may be remarked, our observations being so much limited 
 to geldings, we see little of. Castration, however, with the 
 armed clams, is the evident cure. 
 
 STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES, OR MORBID DISPLACE- 
 MENT OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 The intestines, in consequence of their peristaltic motion, 
 become sometimes entangled together, and a fatal strangu- 
 lation takes place ; this happens, occasionally, from some 
 of the mesenteric folds entwining them ; sometimes by their 
 rupturing the mesentery, and becoming strangulated by 
 passing through the opening they have made : but it is 
 much oftener the consequence of spasmodic action, and 
 during colic these inversions, involutions, invaginations, and 
 introsusceptions occur. When thus affected, it is not un- 
 usual for the ileum to become reversed in its usual course ; 
 in which case a portion, then contracted by spasm, becomes 
 forced into a part less constringed, and an impenetrable 
 obstruction thence is formed. We may draw a practical 
 inference from these cases — that in spasm we should attempt 
 an early relief; and likewise that we should endeavour, in 
 
JAUNDICE. 407 
 
 all cases of failure in bowel affections, invariably to make a 
 post-mortem examination : and tbis we may do on the ground 
 that repeated cases may enable us accurately to inter- 
 pret symptoms ; then, although we cannot relieve, we may 
 offer such an opinion as will convince our employers it is 
 not our ignorance of the signs, but our circumscribed 
 means, which is the cause of our incapability to afford 
 assistance. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE GLANDS. 
 JAUNDICE. 
 
 Jaundice, by farriers called the yellows, as a distinct affec- 
 tion, is unfrequent in the horse, from his hepatic system 
 being without a gall-bladder. As a symptomatic affection, 
 it is, however, more common ; for whenever any great ab- 
 dominal inflammations occurs, the liver is very liable to 
 participate ; bile then passes into the bloodvessels, which 
 thence is thrown on to the skin. Occasionally also a 
 more slow and primary affection of this organ occurs, and 
 the biliary secretion appears either increased in quantity, 
 altered in quality, or obstructed ; when the consequence is, 
 that the evacuations are irregular either in quantity or 
 quality. This state is betokened by listlessness, dyspepsia, 
 irregular appetite, and early fatigue under exercise : there 
 is some biliary suffusion in the membranes of the eyes, nose, 
 and mouth. Most liver affections in the horse, however, 
 excite no attention until they terminate fatally. 
 
 In our treatment of such a case, it is perceived, that we 
 must attempt to produce a healthy action in the liver. To 
 promote this intention (as in the greater number of cases 
 costiveness is present), begin by giving the following: — 
 
 No. 1 . — Calomel half a drachm. 
 
 Aloes two flrachins. 
 
 Powdered gentian two draclims. 
 
 Castile soap two drachms. 
 
 Form into a ball, and give night and morning until 
 the bowels are actively purged ; then continue only so 
 much of the same, for a week or ten days, as will keep 
 
408 JAUNDICE. 
 
 the bowels lax, not in a purging state. If the symptoms be 
 such as bespeak chronic inflammation, or incipient consoli- 
 dation, blister the right side. In cases where costiveness is 
 not present, but, on the contrary, a relaxed state of the 
 bowels appears, give the following : — 
 
 No. 2. — Calomel a scmple. 
 
 Blue vitriol half a drachm. 
 
 Gentian, in powder three drachms. 
 
 Oak bark, in powder three drachms. 
 
 Make into a ball, and give night and morning, unless the 
 calomel should aflfect the mouth, in which case give only 
 once a day. Should the looseness increase on this plan, 
 add powdered opium, a drachm to each ball. In all cases 
 of yellows, a change of food is proper, and generally neces- 
 sary. In winter, spear the corn, or give carrots ; in sum- 
 mer, soil, or give green grasses ; but, in such case, avoid 
 exposure to the night air, making use of moderate cloth- 
 ing so long as the calqjnel is continued. 
 
 THE YELLOWS, OR JAUNDICE, IN OXEN AND SHEEP. 
 
 These animals having a gall-bladder and cystic duct, are 
 more liable to biliary obstructions than horses ; hence 
 this complaint is more frequent among them. It is very 
 common in some of the cold provinces on the Continent, 
 where these animals are stall-fed in winter ; from which, 
 numbers of them are attacked with it in the spring. In 
 England, it is less often the consequence of confinement 
 than of a slow inflammation of the liver. 
 
 The symptoms are standing apart from the herd, looking 
 ragged, with signs of constitutional disturbance, and a 
 peculiar yellowness of the skin, as well as sometimes of 
 the hair also. Cows are more liable than oxen to the 
 disorder ; and when cows are attacked, the milk often be- 
 comes discoloured, as well as occasionally ropy. 
 
 Treatment. — The remedy in this disease depends upon 
 the administration of tonic bitters, purgatives, and alkalies, 
 in order so far as possible to supply the loss of the natural 
 secretion. With these agents are blended, in case any 
 enlargement can be detected upon the right side, a blister 
 over the swollen part, and the exhibition of iodide of 
 potassium night and morning, in half drachm doses. 
 
TRUE RED WATER IN CATTLE. 409 
 
 TRUE RED WATER IN CATTLE. 
 
 Red water appears to be a disease of the digestive organs, 
 and is justly attributed to derangement of the hver and 
 stomachs. Unhealthy bile renders the chyme also un- 
 healthy. The chyme, of course, affects the chyle ; and the 
 chyle likewise affects the blood, the quantity of which it 
 supports. Thus the consequence of the bile being im- 
 properly secreted, is an altered state of the vital fluid ; the 
 red particles of which are imperfectly formed, and it then 
 becomes the office of the kidneys to remove them as foreign 
 bodies. Red particles, therefore, are voided with the urine, 
 but not sound or entire. On the contrary, the microscope 
 shows them to be broken down, as though they had been 
 ground up in a mortar ; and it is upon the presence of 
 these imperfect foreign bodies, that the colour of the urine 
 depends. The disease is ushered in by diarrhoea, to which 
 constipation succeeds. When it has taken deep hold of 
 the digestive system, the liver is affected, and its secre- 
 tions are unhealthy, and morbidly stimulate the intestines ; 
 the secondary costiveness often complained of gives place 
 to an obstinate diarrhoea. 
 
 Causes. — This disease prevails in some parts of England, 
 and is unknown in others. It is associated with feeding on 
 particular pastures, upon which cows can scarcely be allowed 
 to run without their displaying the disorder. It is also 
 connected with the performance of certain natural func- 
 tions ; thus, in some places, red water is common after 
 calving, and in those places dropping after calving is un- 
 known. In other localities, dropping generally happens, 
 and in those places red water is a very rare occurrence. 
 
 Symptoms. — Those of general constitutional disturbance 
 in cattle, united with a pulse bounding at the heart, and 
 scarcely to be felt at the jaw. The beat of the heart is 
 even loud ; but the symptom peculiar to this disease is the 
 discoloured state of the urine, which assumes all the inter- 
 mediate tints between the palest ale and the deepest 
 porter. 
 
 Treatment. — Those who advocate bleeding say the vein 
 is to be pinned up the instant the pulse falters, or the 
 delay of a few seconds may lose the life of the animal. 
 
410 H/EMATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE IN HORSES. 
 
 Bleeding, however, is not imperative for the perfection of a 
 cure, and being dangerous, it is better, therefore, not attempted. 
 In red water, whether constipation or costiveness exist, 
 administer a strong purge, in which, if the beast is purging 
 at the time, it is usual to mix half a pound of currants ; the 
 appearance of the currants in the fseces being supposed to 
 be proof positive that the medicine has had its effect. Such 
 evidence is more than delusive ; however farmers insist on 
 seeking it, and the veterinary surgeon must obey. In this 
 disorder, however, give the following drink : — 
 
 Epsom salts a pound. 
 
 Flowers of sulphur half a pound. 
 
 Ginger one ounce. 
 
 Powdered gentian two ounces. 
 
 Gruel one pint. 
 
 If the symptoms do not evidence that the virulence of the 
 disorder has abated in six hours, give half the above ; and if 
 in eight hours it has no effect, give calomel two drachms, 
 in half a pint of thick gruel, or else shake the powder upon 
 the tongue. This may be repeated ; and at the expiration 
 of another eight hours after the two doses of mercury, a 
 pint of oil, with a drachm of chloroform, may be given ; 
 for at every risk the bowels must be opened, which in the 
 great majority of cases the first drink will accomplish. 
 After the purgative has acted, administer mild stimulants, 
 as a quart of sound ale twice a day, with tonics, but no 
 astringent medicine. 
 
 HiEMATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE IN HORSES. 
 
 Farriers term this passing of blood : and it arises some- 
 times from pure topical inflammation of the kidneys, in 
 which case it must be treated as under that head : it may 
 accompany a stone in the pelvis of a kidney, or be caused 
 by an ulceration of any of the urinary passages ; but these 
 are unusual origins. Violent exercise, by rupturing the 
 small vessels of the kidneys, produces it most often, and 
 therefore it frequently follows hard riding. 
 
 The cure must consist in restoring the healthy action of 
 the parts, and promoting a healing of the vessels ; more 
 particularly, in avoiding violent exercise and heavy weights. 
 Diuretics are always hurtful. Mild astringents are proper, 
 as bark, catechu, dragon's blood, logwood, &c. Of all 
 
PROFUSE STALING. 411 
 
 medicine, however, the greatest confidence is to be placed 
 in sugar of lead, or a long course of sulphuric acid, 
 mingled with the water which the animal drinks. Great 
 benefit has been known to be derived from a large strength- 
 ening plaister across the loins. In one instance, the fol- 
 lowing, given twice a day, produced excellent effects, after 
 many other means had failed : — 
 
 Acetate of lead two drachms. 
 
 Common mass a sufficiency. 
 
 Make into a ball. 
 
 The sulphuric acid is to commence when the administra- 
 tion of the sugar of lead ceases. 
 
 PROFUSE STALING. 
 
 The above is not an uncommon disease in the horse. In 
 its worst form, it is attended with an immense flow of urine, 
 insatiable thirst, and rapid emaciation ; with an increase of 
 appetite at first, but a sickly one as the disease proceeds. 
 In its usual type it appears as an immoderate flow of the 
 urinary secretion, sometimes limpid, at others turbid, and 
 lastly of a whey-like appearance. It usually originates in 
 some extraordinary stimulus applied to the kidneys, com- 
 mencing sometimes with the digestive organs ; but more 
 generally the effect appears confined to the kidneys, which 
 become locally affected from powerful diuretics taken into 
 the stomach, either in the form of food, as mow-burnt hay, 
 kihi-dried oats, some vegetable matters browsed from hedges 
 and fields, or otherwise from medicines too active, and igno- 
 rantly forced down the horse's throat. Ship-oats when 
 heated, and some particular plants in hay, are also sup- 
 posed to occasion it : hard brackish water is likewise thought 
 to produce it. 
 
 Treatment. — As the cause, in general cases, is not very 
 occult, it would be a prudent precursor to review the cir- 
 cumstances connected with the general management of our 
 patient. Have the whole of the animal's food changed. 
 Order him different water. Caution the groom against the 
 use of diuretics, but place no dependence upon his strongest 
 assertion, that he never gives the horse any physic. If 
 there be merely a superabundance of urine over the liquids 
 taken, moderate doses of catechu, kino, or oak bark, will 
 
412 HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE .HEAD, 
 
 be sufficient to check the flow ; and the same remedies 
 may be appUed in cases where violent diuretics have been 
 the cause. It will also be prudent to apply a warm strength- 
 ening charge over the region of the loins ; this we have 
 found very serviceable in the urinary fluxes in old horses. 
 If the urine be very turbid, if there is evident wasting of the 
 body and loss of appetite, giving reason to suspect much 
 derangement of the digestive and assimilating powers, try 
 the following drink every day : — 
 
 Uva ursi, in powder four drachms. 
 
 Oak bark, in powder one ounce. 
 
 Catechu, in powder two drachms. 
 
 Opium, in powder half a drachm. 
 
 Support liberally on wheat or barley, or ground beans ; but 
 more particularly the former given in lieu of oats, or mixed 
 with the corn ; feeding with grasses, carrots, or beet, &c. 
 If this, after a sufficient trial, does not benefit, try the fol- 
 lowing night and morning, clothing the body warmly. Or 
 if the above measures produce no evident change in a day 
 or two, administer the ensuing daily, in the form of a 
 ball:— 
 
 Iodide of potassium one drachm. 
 
 Common mass a sufiiciency. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN CIRCUMSCRIBED 
 
 CAVITIES. 
 
 HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE HEAD. 
 
 Hydrocephalus internus is a rare disease in the adult horse ; 
 but it sometimes appears as a congenital affection. It 
 seems, when it does occur, to be the effect of some mor- 
 bid irritation of the brain or its membranes, terminating in 
 serous effusion within the ventricles, or between the arach- 
 noid membrane. Such irritation may be acute or chronic ; 
 it may be sufficiently violent to produce the active symp- 
 toms of mad staggers ; or it may be the consequence of only 
 a slow pouring out of the interstitial fluid, which shall 
 occasion sleepy staggers, or the megrims ; it may, how- 
 
HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST. 413 
 
 ever, show itself in paralysis, when the fluid penetrates into, 
 or communicates with, the spinal canal. In the examina- 
 tions made after death, there has been very often found 
 marks of both thoracic and abdominal inflammation : the 
 lateral ventricles have been distended with serosity ; the 
 plexus choroides usually pale, sometimes studded with small 
 tubercular spots ; occasionally they have been much in- 
 jected : the medullary matter has been pale, sometimes less 
 cohesive than natural, as though softened by the fluid. All 
 treatment, hitherto adopted, has proved entirely useless to 
 render the horse of any future service to his master. 
 
 HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST. 
 
 Hydrothorax consists in a collection of serous fluid within 
 the cavity of one or both pleur8e. It forms a very common 
 termination of pleurisy, and appears to arise in these cases 
 from a peculiar disposition on the part of the arteries of 
 the pleurae to secrete an inordinate quantity of serous in- 
 terstitial fluid, towards the close of the disorder. Many 
 gallons of fluid have been found so formed within a very 
 short space of time. In some instances the fluid has been 
 discovered mixed with pus ; and in others, coagulable 
 masses are found floating in it. 
 
 The prevailing symptoms are, breathing diflicult, and that 
 in the proportion to the water effused in the chest ; the horse 
 is seldom found lying, and if he does recline, it is but for 
 a very short time. A few days of suffering reduces the 
 pulse very much ; while sweUings, almost universal, are 
 seen over the abdomen, the sheath, the thighs, and legs. 
 Moreover, if during the attack the hair of the tail, or of 
 the mane, be pulled, it will generally come out with ease, 
 and by handfuls. 
 
 Treatment. — Mr. Percivall very justly observes, that this 
 is almost an affair of desperation ; and therefore we must 
 the earlier attack our enemy, by supporting the horse with 
 every means at our disposal. To detect water of the chest, 
 apply the ear to the sides, beginning at the bottom, and 
 moving it upwards towards the spine. Where no murmur 
 whatever, nor any sound of any kind can be heard, con- 
 clude that up to the point where silence prevails, water has 
 been effused. But where a murmur, occasioned by the 
 
414 HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST. 
 
 atmospheric air mashing into the lungs, can be detected, set 
 it down that the fluid has not readied so high. As soon 
 as the judgment is determined, perform an operation in 
 the manner detailed below. 
 
 The operation of paracentesis thoracis, or of tapping the 
 chest, consists in first making a slight opening through the 
 integuments ; when the skin is to be pulled on one side, 
 and the trochar inserted. The situation for making the 
 opening is near to the anterior edge of the ninth rib, but 
 not too low down, for fear of harming important structures. 
 The skin being drawn aside the canula armed is to be 
 thrust in, and gently pushed forward, till all opposition is 
 mastered ; then withdraw the stillet, and push the blunt 
 tube onward. Sometimes the sides of the chest are covered 
 with pus and coagulated fibrine, which prevent the fluid 
 from rushing forth. A probe, therefore, may be introduced, 
 and moved quietly about to remove the obstruction. Fluid is 
 thus drawn off'; but supposing it to be present upon both 
 sides, there is some dispute as to how much, or the manner 
 in which it ought to be abstracted. If all be taken at once, 
 nature sinks under the operation ; therefore it is best to 
 take a third from each side, using care that the amount 
 draw^i from both sides renders them equal as to what re- 
 mains. " Then giving the horse the best of provender, and 
 the animal having perfectly recovered its tranquillity, repeat 
 the operation at the expiration of eight hours ; this time 
 inserting the trochar lower down, and in another eight hours 
 draw off' the remainder of the water. The trochar, in this 
 last operation, must be inserted very gently, and care be 
 taken that the stillet be withdrawn immediately upon the 
 sides being pierced. 
 
 No fear need be entertained about making these nume- 
 rous holes in the horse's sides. No damage will be done, 
 even though the practitioner should encounter a dry tap, 
 or though no fluid should be found within the chest. The 
 subsequent treatment is to give the most powerful tonic 
 medicines, and the most decidedly nourishing food. Car- 
 rots and roots may be allowed, but all grasses must be 
 strictly prohibited. Linseed may be mixed with the food, 
 and ground beans are especially beneficial. Medicine, how^- 
 ever, must not be forgotten. All astringent substances 
 
ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 415 
 
 must be denied, and there are simple bitters in the hst of 
 tonics. Drugs, hkewise, that promote absorption, are to be 
 chosen, and there is one agent which is powerful in this 
 direction : — 
 
 Powdered opium a draelim. 
 
 Quassse, powdered six drachms. 
 
 Iodide of potassium one draclim. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia one draclim. 
 
 Mix with honey or treacle, and give every night and morn- 
 
 If treated in the above fashion, half a diuretic ball being 
 given once every week, and the bowels kept laxative with 
 bran mashes, the horse may, in three months, regain all his 
 powers ; but, of course, the animal, as he must be stabled 
 all the time, should be valuable to cover the expenses, 
 
 HYDROPS PERICARDII, OR DROPSY OF THE HEART. 
 
 Inflammation of the heart is apt to terminate by an inor- 
 dinate effusion of serum within the membranous sac, called 
 the pericardium. If it admit of a natural cure, or of one 
 founded on promoting absorption, is very doubtful ; and an 
 operation in this case requires considerable skill, holding 
 forth small hopes of benefit. 
 
 ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 
 
 Ascites is a morbid increase of the serous fluids w^hich, in 
 small quantity, naturally pervades the cavity of the abdomen. 
 As a sequel of other affections, it is by no means uncommon. 
 The serous membranes of the horse appear very prone to 
 inflammation ; and effusion into the cavities, which they 
 render smooth for motion, is the common consequence, 
 -Equine ascites may be brought on by the connexion which 
 the serous membranes have both with the skin and the 
 kidneys, as secreting organs. Whatever, therefore, seriously 
 interferes with the functions of either, may prove a source 
 of serous effusion. 
 
 The symptoms usually tirst noticed are oedema of the ex- 
 ternal parts of the belly, chest, and sometimes of the 
 extremities ; which often bring to the recollection some 
 lassitude and disinclination for exertion. The urine is made 
 in smaller quantities than natural, and some costiveness is 
 
416 ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 
 
 present. As the serous accumulation proceeds, the belly 
 becomes more pendulous, and, upon striking, emits a dull 
 sound : the pulse and breathing both now grow somewhat 
 hurried ; the former being small and but little developed. 
 The early constipation gives place sometimes to diarrhoea of 
 fcetid stools, and that particularly where the liver is much 
 affected or the disease is much advanced ; at which stage 
 the pulse is often found to be hardly perceptible by the 
 artery, but to vibrate with a peculiar thrill at the heart. 
 The appetite now fails ; peritoneal irritation frequently pro- 
 duces colicky symptoms ; and a few active pangs carry off 
 the poor beast. 
 
 The post-mortem examination, as may be supposed, very 
 frequently shows the kidneys pale within ; the liver some- 
 times much diseased, occasionally but little so. The mesen- 
 teric folds are often thickened, adherent, and show coagula- 
 ble deposit on them ; and the peritoneum is also seen 
 frequently thickened either by original inflammation, or by 
 subsequent irritation and maceration. The fluid thrown out 
 is serous, occasionally (though seldom) muco-purulent ; 
 sometimes uniform, but more frequently, like other serous 
 •accumulations in the horse, at least like those of the chest, 
 it is mixed with coagulable masses or flocculent portions. 
 The quantity varies, but is very seldom enormous ; this 
 may be accounted for by the horse being generally destroyed 
 ere the quantity becomes great. 
 
 The treatment of ascites promises little ; because it is 
 rather a symptom of visceral disorganization than of simple 
 irritation : we are warranted, however, in attempting the 
 removal of the fluid by exciting the absorbents, as detailed 
 in Hydrothorax ; and by strengthening the system generally 
 by tonics. We must, however, use no depletion : it may 
 also be observed, that purgatives are not admissible here : 
 on the contrary, they may be expected to occasion much 
 constitutional disturbance. External frictions, frequent and 
 long continued, are best ; with gentle, repeated exercise, 
 aided by warm clothing. But as soon as fluctuation is dis- 
 tinctly perceived, at once proceed to the operation of tap- 
 ping, because it will ofler the only reasonable chance in the 
 complaint when performed early. 
 
 Paracentesis abdominis is a simple operation. The spot 
 
ANASARCA, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN. 417 
 
 chosen for the opening should be upon the hnea alba, mid- 
 way between the umbilicus and the sheath : in the mare, 
 between the umbiHcus and pubes. This point should be 
 chosen for the puncture, which ought to be made directly 
 upwards ; and both this and the former operation must be 
 conducted and treated upon similar principles, with the ex- 
 ception, that in ascites the whole of the fluid may be evacu- 
 ated at once, and allowed further to drain off, by the simple 
 application of a linen bandage. Should any prospect of 
 benefit be derived, endeavour to prevent a recurrence by 
 strengthening the general habit. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE CELLULAR 
 MEMBRANE. 
 
 ANASARCA, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Anasarca^ (Edema, and Water Farcy. — We need make no 
 distinction between these terms, particularly the two first. 
 As generally accepted, oedema carries probably rather a 
 more local definition with it ; thus we say an oedema- 
 tous swelling : but anasarca is more frequently used to 
 designate an extensive dropsy of the cellular membrane. 
 Both, however, have the same origin, and are accompanied 
 by the same symptoms. It differs from ascites principally 
 in its external seat, which is sometimes partial and some- 
 times general. It also appears under different forms, as it 
 has different origins ; and its terminations are also under the 
 influence of these circumstances. A debility of the ab- 
 sorbent system is usually observed in the spring and autumn. 
 There is, however, some general atony of the whole system, 
 and the oedema disappears as the constitution establishes 
 itself. At other times anasarca and oedema appear as ac- 
 companiments or sequelae to acute diseases that have dis- 
 turbed the functions generally, in the which case the 
 absorbents become irritated ; or to the oedema is added 
 tumefied lymphatics. 
 
 E e 
 
418 WATER FARCY. 
 
 WATER FARCY. 
 
 This Protean complaint defies definition. At the close of 
 long febrile afi'ections the oedema is such as not only to 
 tumefy the lymphatics, but sometimes to make its way 
 externally by ulceration or by rupture of the vessels of the 
 skin. The aflfection, by a very easy transition, can degene- 
 rate into cracks or grease. Its treatment involves all we 
 have already detailed on hydrothorax and ascites : — internal 
 tonics ; but more potent external stimulants, by punctures, 
 by blisters, by friction, and by sustaining bandages ; liberal 
 feeding ; mild but continued exercise. The free use of green 
 food, however, as being at once diuretic yet laxative, is in- 
 dicated ; or in winter spear the corn, or give carrots, &c. 
 &c. ; for succulent vegetable matter is of much conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Water farcy, therefore, has as much to do with anasarca 
 as with either true farcy or glanders. Gibson is not very 
 wide of the mark when he describes it as of two kinds ; one 
 resulting from febrile attacks, the other partaking of the 
 nature of dropsy. A limb in these cases is often suddenly 
 seen to be gorged, and sometimes so, as to press out 
 the diseased accumulations, which hang around it like 
 dew drops. One singularity of it, w^hich is noticed by 
 Mr. Percivall, and must have been also observed by others, 
 is, that it often confines its attack to one limb only. It 
 will sometimes break out in a state of grease ; and some- 
 times it will extend itself to the opposite limb also. 
 
 The treatment of water farcy should be prompt, or true 
 farcy may follow. The limb is hot and tender, and four 
 quarts of blood in this case may be taken from the sephena 
 vein, to increase the absorption ; a mild purgative warmed 
 with carminatives may likewise be administered. Should 
 these not produce the effect, mildly blister the limb, and 
 give tonics, mixed with the iodide of potassium, in the form 
 recommended for hydrothorax. If the swelling does not 
 after all return to its healthy size, the appearance of farcy 
 at some distant period may be expected. 
 
SWELLED LEGS. 419 
 
 SWELLED LEGS. 
 
 Partial wdema of the extremities, more often of the hinder, 
 is too well known to need much description. What has 
 been said already will apply here : debility, partial or general, 
 is the cause. At the close of long continued diseases, which 
 are weakening, the legs always swell ; and it is reasonable to 
 expect they should do so, when we consider how far they 
 are removed from the centre of circulation. The absorbents 
 may also be themselves affected ; but it is more than proba- 
 ble they are the least part of the cause, for we find them, in 
 these cases, fully equal to taking up the fluids ; as a little 
 exercise often removes the whole swelling. Sudden changes 
 in the temperature of the atmosphere that horses are used 
 to, or in the degree of clothing they wear, or hasty altera- 
 tions in the nature of their food, may any of them occasion 
 swelled legs. Thus it is, that when horses removed from 
 grass, or from a straw yard, are brought at once into a hot 
 stable, and fed highly, their extremities swell immediately ; 
 for the powers of life are unduly pushed before the tran- 
 sporting vessels are able to act on the increased secre- 
 tion : therefore arises a necessity for the administration of 
 tonics, or medicines, to strengthen the system, which, how- 
 ever, will be found less necessary when the changes are 
 gi*adually induced. Standing in the stable acts in the same 
 way, by weakening the constitution ; and hence exercise is 
 doubly useful; first, by assisting the circulation, secondly, 
 by the increased action it excites in the absorbents, and 
 in reviving the drooping health. On the contrary, turning 
 horses out to a straw yard from full feeding, warm clothing, 
 and a hot stable, may likewise bring on swelled legs, by 
 occasioning a general debility : and when they do sufter 
 from this cause, it is, in general, very acutely. It is thus 
 that standing in snow% or in long-continued wet, produces 
 sw^elled legs, by weakening the parts, and by being un- 
 favourable to absorption. It is very usual also for horses 
 to have oedematous extremities in autumn, at which period 
 the powers of life are unequal ; there being an increased 
 action in the skin to produce new hair rapidly, and those 
 parts most remote from the centre of circulation are conse- 
 quently unequally supplied with vital energy. 
 
 E e 2 
 
420 EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD. 
 
 Cure. — This will not be difficult, when we make ourselves 
 master of the cause In removing horses from grass to the 
 stable, with the precautions mentioned, it may be prevented ; 
 but when it has occurred, it must be combated by hand- 
 rubbing, bandages, tonics, and gentle exercise. When 
 swelled legs occur in a horse that is thin and impoverished, 
 the general debility must be counteracted to promote a 
 cure, by feeding somewhat liberally, particularly with a 
 mixture of the edible roots, as carrots, parsneps, mangel- 
 wurzel, &c. &c. ; it is aided also by giving tonics, and by 
 the measures already referred to. The weakened vessels 
 having been long distended, will perhaps not readily regain 
 their tone ; they may therefore, in this case, be assisted by 
 bandages moistened in astringent solutions. When it occurs 
 among cart horses, haybands may be used for this purpose, 
 dipped in cold w^ater ; at twisting which, round the animal's 
 legs, some carters are very expert. In other instances, 
 strong woollen of any kind may be made use of; but flannel 
 forms the best bandage, when evenly and firmly applied, by 
 means of a roller of four yards in length and four inches in 
 breadth. Occasionally we meet with cases wherein the legs 
 appear to become habitually enlarged, or where the recur- 
 rence of the swelling is so frequent as to occasion continual 
 trouble : in these cases it is best to study the constitution 
 of the animal, and to endeavour so to adapt the means at 
 your disposal as to restore to the horse that power w^iich 
 its body has lost. If the animal should be very fat, from 
 staying much in the stable, do not all at once order full 
 exercise, or imagine such a horse can bear bloodletting. No 
 creature can endure that which he is unused to, and a fat 
 body has far less blood to spare than a lean one. Begin 
 gently ; and by degrees you may do all you wish, only 
 remember the horse is prized because of his strength, and 
 it ill becomes the veterinary surgeon to permanently destroy 
 that, the possession of which is the animal's chief recom- 
 mendation. 
 
 EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD, OR ECCHYMOSIS. 
 
 Ecchymosis is a pouring out of blood into the cellular 
 membrane, either the consequence of spontaneous or of 
 accidental lesion. In the former case, it is usually symp- 
 
EXTRAVASATION OF GAS. 421 
 
 tomatic of inflammation, and as such must be attended to 
 in common with its cause. In the latter, it usually results 
 from external violence, and comes under the popular term 
 of a bruise, to which the reader is invited to turn. An 
 injury of this kind may so aflect the organization as to 
 render it impossible for the extravasated blood to be re- 
 absorbed ; in which case both the extravasation and disor- 
 ganized parts become involved in one common sphacelus, 
 and either a healthy suppuration and granulation closes the 
 wound, or the constitution sinks under the process, and life 
 is destroyed. In lesser injuries, the extravasated fluid is 
 absorbed ; or, if it remains, it continues as a fully organized 
 hardened tumour, its aqueous portion disappearing. 
 
 EXTRAVASATION OF GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. 
 
 Emphysema is the escape of gas into the cellular mem- 
 brane, from deep-seated morbid combinations ; therefore 
 it is seen in the pestilential epidemics. Emphysema is 
 also brought on by the entrance of the atmospheric air 
 into a wound, from which it makes its way more or less 
 extensively throughout the cellular tissue. When it happens 
 within the cavity of a joint, it often confines itself to that 
 only : but in other, and fortunately very rare, cases, it per- 
 meates through the whole cellular surface, from the head to 
 the tail, rendering the unfortunate animal one bloated mass, 
 wdiich soon destroys him by its irritation, unless he be killed 
 by shorter means. It was formerly a custom to make a 
 slight puncture into the integuments of the elbow or arm, 
 and by means of a quill to blow a quantity of air into it 
 until the whole shoulder became distended, as a cure for a 
 shoulder strain. It is also still a custom to make veal em- 
 physematous, by blowing air from the mouth of a butcher 
 into any point of the carcass of the dead calf; which plumps 
 up the cellular tissue, and takes ofl" that flaccidity common 
 to the young animal. The most common origin of emphy- 
 sema, however, arises from lesion of the aerating organs, as 
 wounds of the trachea, bronchia, or substance of the lungs : 
 a broken rib, by being forced inwards and puncturing the 
 pleura, is a common cause. The presence of air within the 
 cellular membrane is always a source of irritation : when, 
 therefore, it is very extensively diftused, it may so irritate 
 
422 INTESTINAL CALCULI. 
 
 as to affect the powers of life ; it does so by producing 
 the symptoms of debihtating disease. Two indications, 
 therefore, present themselves, — to remove the air by small 
 punctm'es, and to support the constitution by stimulants 
 and tonics. If a re-accumulation takes place, force it out 
 by moderate pressure with gentle frictions ; and endeavour 
 then to keep it out by bandages to every part where they 
 can be applied : if possible, cut off the communication also 
 with the inlet by establishing adhesive inflammation in the 
 part. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CALCULUS, OR STONY CONCRETIONS. 
 
 Stony concretions have long been noted in some parts of 
 the body of the horse ; and a more intimate acquaintance 
 with gequine anatomy and that of other domestic animals 
 will probably show us that they are almost as universally 
 formed within the various organs of their bodies as in man. 
 Cerebral calculi are occasionally detected as well in the horse 
 as most other domestic animals. Salivary calculi are more 
 common, and are now and then met with in the ducts, but 
 principally of the parotid, where they occasion tumefaction, 
 and whence these bodies should be dexterously extracted : 
 avoiding as much as possible wounding the larger salivary 
 duct, and uniting the parts as quickly as possible afterwards 
 by establishing a healthy inflammation. Biliary calculi, 
 fi'om structural peculiarity in the hepatic system of the 
 horse and his congeners, are not frequent ; but in horned 
 cattle they are more often found. Gastric calculi, are now 
 and then met with in the horse, but much more frequently 
 in the ruminants. 
 
 INTESTINAL CALCULI, OR STONES IN THE INTESTINES. 
 
 Stones in the intestines are sufficiently common in the 
 horse, being of enormous size ; while they often occasion 
 dangerous colics, by accidentally altering their situations. 
 Whenever, therefore, colics occur frequently without any 
 apparent cause, they may be often proved after death to be 
 referrible to irritation from these displacements. 
 
STONES IN THE KIDNEYS. 423 
 
 It is evident that this is an evil we have little power to 
 combat : if a horse by passing a stone with his fa?ces indi- 
 cated a constitutional disposition to separate sabulous matter 
 from his food, and afterwards to concrete it by the mucus 
 of his bowels, the removal of a stone actually formed is 
 hopeless. The abdominal calculus generally has a nucleus, 
 or centre, consisting of a nail or stone. It is composed of 
 the triple phosphates, is generally round, and is easily 
 recognised, by its external surface bearing a polish so bright 
 as to seem the creation of art. Others are composed of the 
 fine hairs which cover the substance of the oat, and some, 
 called dung-balls, are formed by the feeces becoming com- 
 l^act. The first is usually found within the small intestines, 
 the two last invariably in the posterior bowels. 
 
 STONES IN THE KIDNEYS, OR URINARY CALCULI. 
 
 Urinary calculi are rather common in the horse; and 
 as we know these animals are much subject to disturbances 
 in their urinary secretion, we might think it very probable 
 that the silicious matter which is separated from the blood 
 should aggregate within the kidneys, as well as collect in 
 the bladder. We have better evidence than mere supposi- 
 tion, for urinary calculi have been found in horses who 
 have died under symptoms which might have been mistaken 
 for very acute enteritis. We may also suppose, that the 
 early accumulation would occasion irregular and diminished 
 secretion of urine ; followed, at length, by a bloody puru- 
 lent mixture with the water, until more active symptoms 
 should arise, and carry ofi^ the horse. Concretions within 
 the kidneys might be removed in their early state by reme- 
 dies tending to decompose them in the urinary pelvis. For 
 this purpose we have the mineral acids, of which the hydro- 
 chloric, as holding the silicious matter in solution, is to be 
 preferred. The mineral acids pass through the body un- 
 changed, being emitted with the urine in a state of purity. 
 Their power, therefore, is unimpaired, and they are ready 
 to act upon a calculus encountered within the kidney, with 
 all that energy which they would display were the substance 
 outside the animal. The action of the acid may, likewise, 
 be promoted, by injecting a drachm in a gallon of water 
 into the bladder daily. Two drachms of the hydrochloric 
 
424 STONES IN THE BLADDER. 
 
 acid may be mingled with every pail of water, and of the 
 mingled fluids the horse will drink with pleasure in a little 
 time, if other diluents be withheld. 
 
 STONES IN THE BLADDER, OR VESICAL CALCULI. 
 
 The presence of stone in the bladder has long been ac- 
 knowledged as a disease that has occurred in the horse ; 
 but it was always considered as a rare one. Our more 
 extended knowledge has brought many cases to light ; it 
 also exists in horned cattle ; and swine are not exempt 
 from it. It is by no means improbable that it occurs far 
 more frequently than we are aware of, as would appear 
 when we recollect how many horses are parted with on 
 account of being subject to what is considered habitual 
 strangury, the supposed consequence of a strain. Here- 
 after, therefore, all cases of this kind which have resisted 
 the ordinary treatment, and are not based on a known 
 cause, should be subjected to examination by the rectum. 
 
 The symptoms which denote a stone in the bladder are 
 various. Generally speaking, a stone may exist for a length 
 of time, and acquire considerable magnitude, before it is 
 productive of any perceptible disorder. The sedimentous 
 depositions are indicated by the urine gradually becoming 
 thicker and whiter ; by frequent desire to stale ; by the 
 difficulty and pain with which these desires are executed. 
 Sometimes the urine is bloody, and voided with distressing 
 and painful efforts. The irritation may run so high as to 
 give rise to colic. It is not always easy to distinguish 
 between these fits of colic and common intestinal gripes. 
 So long as the pain is not very acute, the subject of cystic 
 colic paws ; makes efforts to strike the sheath with his hind 
 feet ; looks back at his flanks, even reaches them wuth his 
 teeth, and every now and then shakes his head. Should 
 the pains increase, the animal will lie down and roll, ex- 
 periencing occasional relief, and, in fact, will display the 
 symptoms of common gripes. The sweat the animal breaks 
 into diff"uses a strong urinous odour. In this paroxysm of 
 pain, mares have been known to expel the calculus, and 
 thereby obtain instantaneous relief, and from that time to 
 recover. 
 
 The treatment of stone in the bladder may either be 
 
RABIES. 425 
 
 founded on attempts to dissolve the mass, or to promote its 
 expulsion by pressure, or to extract it by operation. The 
 manner in which solution is to be accomplished, has been 
 described in the previous article. An attempt may be 
 made to force it out of the bladder through the urethra, 
 to which we should be more particularly led when we find 
 it already lodged within, or near to, the neck of the 
 organ. The left hand should be introduced into the rec- 
 tum, and be assisted by the right, in the line of the urethra : 
 if the stone be small, it may be brought forward, until a 
 forceps, introduced from the point of the penis, may reach 
 it. If it can be passed no farther than the curvature, it 
 must be cut down upon. When a larger stone is found 
 within the bladder, and the animal be a male, we must 
 proceed as detailed under lithotomy, among the operations. 
 In the female, the method of extracting the stone by litho- 
 tomy need not be practised. A dilitator is to be purchased 
 of the instrument makers ; this being introduced into the 
 short urethra of the mare, and afterwards expanded, enables 
 the calculus to be gi'asped with the forceps and with- 
 drawn. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL POISONS. 
 RABIES. 
 
 The rabid malady, or madness, is never spontaneous, but 
 always acquired from the application of the virus, by a 
 member of the canine or feline tribe. 
 
 The symptoms of rabies in the horse are various ; it 
 usually, however, commences rather suddenly, by some 
 signs of uneasiness ; by sudden falling down, or break- 
 ing out into profuse sweats : in a few hours, however, the 
 animal becomes completely unruly : he stamps and paws 
 violently, and attempts to disengage himself from his halter. 
 Within twelve hours from the attack he is commonly fran- 
 tic : and we have seen one that levelled with the ground the 
 whole of the fittings of a six-stall stable, himself sweating, 
 
42G RABIES. 
 
 snorting, and foaming amidst the ruins. The disease fol- 
 lows the inoculation, at the same periods as in other 
 animals, that is, from five weeks to three months : but its 
 attack is always quickest when the bite is received upon 
 the head. On examination of the morbid appearances 
 after death, there was in two cases great inflammatory 
 marks in the lungs, as well as in all the thoracic viscera ; 
 the stomach and bowels also, particularly the latter, parti- 
 cipated in the affection. The meninges of the brain were 
 likewise suffused with blood. In another case, to this last 
 symptomatic appearance was added a softening of the spinal 
 cord, while the medullary mass resembled a thin caseous 
 matter. The salivary glands, and particularly the parotids, 
 were exceedingly red and infiltrated with yellow serosity. 
 All the parts of the head would be rendered highly vascu- 
 lar from exertions, such as it is impossible that any one can 
 conceive without witnessing them : but no engorgement of 
 the salivary organs, beyond the surrounding parts, existed in 
 the two cases first alluded to, nor have they appeared in 
 those detailed by others. The whole muscular system is 
 discoloured and softened, the cellular texture being studded 
 with ecchymosis. Inflammation at the back part of the 
 mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, has likewise been 
 observed. 
 
 Rabies in the ox, sheep, and swine, produces also phrenitic 
 symptoms ; the harmless sheep is changed into so ferocious 
 an animal, that he has been known to butt at his own 
 shadow reflected by the sun on a door. In sheep, the 
 general appearances after death also resemble those usually 
 present in the horse : it must, however, be remembered, 
 that in no two cases of any animal whatever are they exactly 
 similar ; but in all, marks of violent and almost universal 
 vascukir action predominate. However, inflammation of 
 the glottis, epiglottis, and usually of the trachea, are almost 
 constant rabid post-mortem appearances. Inflammation of 
 the stomachs is not always present in the ruminants, though 
 seldom absent in the horse. 
 
 Treatment. — Our efforts must be principally directed to 
 a preventive plan ; for nothing we yet know of will arrest 
 the disease when it has actually appeared. When a bite 
 
THE BITE OF VENOMOUS REPTILES. 427 
 
 has been received, first well wash the parts around the 
 wound with soap and water ; next wash the wound itself 
 with the same made strong, and well rubbed in. It would 
 be proper to shave the hair, that any other lesser punc- 
 ture might be detected. If the wound or wounds be deep 
 or penetrating, dissect it or them wholly out ; and if in the 
 neighbourhood of important parts, as the eye, &c., apply 
 afterwards the nitrate of silver. If it be where no danger is 
 to be apprehended, use the actual cautery, which, in one 
 only small puncture, may be found sufficient ; taking care to 
 force the cautery to the bottom of the wound in either case. 
 In a lacerated lesion dissect the whole superficies out, if 
 possible, and then apply caustic to the whole surface of the 
 excavation. If the complete destruction of the inoculated 
 part be effected, no fear need be entertained for the safety 
 of the animal ; but it is very difficult often to decide that 
 no other bite has been received. Under such circumstances, 
 any antidote at all, possessing but questionable efficacy, 
 should be also given. The following may be prepared, not 
 in the hope of its effecting a cure, but with the expectation 
 of its acting as a preventative : — 
 
 Box leaves (if possible, the tree box) eiglit ounces. 
 
 Rue eight ounces , 
 
 Cut very fine, and boil in three pints of milk in a close 
 vessel for one hour ; then remove and strain off. Again 
 boil the ingredients another hour in three pints of water ; 
 when again strain off, and mix the liquors. Of this mix- 
 ture give a third every morning fasting. A coiv may take 
 the same quantity, and a sheep one-sixth of it. 
 
 THE BITE OF VENOMOUS REPTILES. 
 
 Many of these, in warmer climates, inflict fatal wounds 
 both on man and beast. In the East Indies, the cobra di 
 capello will occasion death in the largest animal in a few 
 minutes : fortunately we know none of the serpent tribe 
 whose bite or sting is poisonous, excepting the adder ; 
 which now and then wounds horses and oxen while grazing. 
 This accident is not often attended with fatal consequences ; 
 and country persons, as a remedial treatment, merely rub 
 the part with an onion, and force another, mashed, down 
 
428 VEGETABLE POISONS. 
 
 the throat. In more serious cases the following will give 
 relief: — 
 
 Si)irit of hartshorn one ounce. 
 
 Olive oil a pint. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 — To a horse, or ox, give the whole ; to a sheep a third 
 may be given, and some of the same may be well rubbed 
 into the bitten place. 
 
 In case hartshorn cannot be procured, substitute carbo- 
 nate of soda two ounces, or a double or treble quantity of 
 any of the spirits, as brandy, rum, or gin. The stings of 
 hornets, wasps, and bees, may be successfully washed with 
 ammonia, or rubbed with the blue used by washerwomen, 
 which is often found to be beneficial. 
 
 VEGETABLE POISONS. 
 
 The stomach of the horse is sensible to the deleterious 
 effects of many narcotic and acrid stimulating vegetable 
 matters. Of some of these, however, it takes an immode- 
 rate dose to seriously disturb the functions ; of which opium 
 is an instance among others : while a moderate dose of the 
 prussic acid in the form of lauro cerasus kills him in a 
 short time. The taxus baccata, or yew tree, is poisonous 
 to horses when they feed upon them, stealing away life 
 speedily, without raising convulsion or commotion. Digi- 
 talis purpurea, or foxglove ; oenanthe crocata, or dropwort ; 
 phellandrium aquaticum, or water parsley ; nicotiana, or 
 tobacco, are deadly ; while conium maculatum, or hem- 
 lock, and cicuta viroso, or water hemlock, are reckoned 
 poisonous by some, and innocuous by others. Vegetable 
 narcotics appear to produce their effect, through the medium 
 of the stomach, on the sensorium : the stomach, however, 
 is found after death to bear small marks of being affected, 
 nor are more to be perceived in the head : the lungs are 
 seen in many cases very highly inflamed. The more acrid 
 vegetables leave very powerful marks of their ravages, by 
 deep inflammatory spots over the villous surfaces of the 
 stomach and intestines. In such cases we cannot hope to 
 effect the removal of the noxious matter by vomits in the 
 horse. We must therefore, in that animal, oppose the 
 
MINERAL POISONS. 429 
 
 effects of such as are fatal by active purgatives, as the 
 croton nut ; and also by a liberal use of stimulants and 
 demulcents, as oil, butter, ammonia, brandy, and any 
 mineral or vegetable acid : but in such cases a caution is 
 necessary with regard to vinegar, which in doses of a pint 
 has destroyed ; half a pint may, however, in urgent cases, 
 be safely given, or two drachms of vitriol may be infused in 
 two quarts of water, and poured down the animal's throat. 
 
 MINERAL POISONS. 
 
 These act usually by tiieir caustic quality on the coats of 
 the stomach and bowels ; but the horse is an animal whose 
 power of resisting the effects of the more active mineral 
 agents is remarkable. There must be an inherent structural 
 capability in the alimentary canal of the animal to repel 
 their potency ; or how comes it, the mineral acids do not 
 exert their baneful influence, except in quantities which 
 bear no proportion to his general constitutional powers, 
 compared either with man or other animals ? Emetic 
 tartar to the amount of four ounces, creates no disturbance 
 in the horse ; and proportionate doses of crude antimony are 
 equally innocuous. The acetate of lead can also be borne 
 by the horse without distress in very large quantities : 
 and although arsenic, corrosive sublimate, and verdigris, 
 cannot be endured in any thing like equal doses, yet amounts 
 large enough to astonish the inexperienced are given every 
 day medicinally. 
 
 The symptoms which arise from the malicious adminis- 
 tration of the more common mineral acids do not materially 
 differ. The horse is first observed to be uneasy and impa- 
 tient, which ends in his lying down and rolling, or stamping 
 with his feet, as in gripes : he also looks round at his sides 
 in the same manner ; so that these cases might be readily 
 mistaken for colic, were it not for an appearance which 
 is almost constant, and is very rarely seen in spasmodic 
 colic. This is the presence of a viscid, ropy, or frothy 
 mucus, which continually escapes from the mouth, which is 
 singularly hot ; and the breath becomes foetid to the smell. 
 In some instances there are frequent attempts to stale and 
 dung : now and then bloody evacuations pass. Profuse 
 cold sweats break out ; the weakness becomes extreme ; the 
 
430 LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 pulse is from the first quick and small ; then intermits, and 
 the animal sinks to rise no more. 
 
 Dissections of these cases do not always present appear- 
 ances commensurate with the violence of the symptoms. 
 In some, the whole alimentary canal has presented gan- 
 grenous appearances of great extent, when the sufferings 
 were not apparently intense, and when even hopes were 
 entertained of amendment. In others, spots of an inflam- 
 matory hue have been dispersed over the villous surfaces of 
 the stomach and intestines, at considerable distances from 
 each other ; and yet the sufferings during the disease were 
 extreme. 
 
 No treatment we can offer promises much, for a veil is 
 commonly drawn over the case ; and when otherwise, the 
 time usually lost before assistance is sought precludes much 
 hope. If an early application be made, our efforts should 
 be first directed to dilute the poisonous matter, and at the 
 same time to weaken its potency. Alkalies have been sup- 
 posed the best means to fulfil the second intention ; as an 
 ounce of the bicarbonate of potash, mixed with a quart of 
 gruel, frequently repeated ; that is, so fast as the animal 
 can be made to swallow it. Orfila, however, recommends 
 in these cases, particularly such as arise from corrosive 
 sublimate, entangling the poisonous matter in the white of 
 eggs. Back-rake, administer clysters, and with whatever 
 is meant for the stomach mingle large quantities of lauda- 
 num, one ounce to every quart. 
 
 LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 The principles and doctrine of inflammation have been so 
 fully treated of at the commencement, under the head of 
 General Inflammation, that we shall only now introduce the 
 practical inferences to be drawn therefrom, with such par- 
 ticular observations as immediately connect it with the 
 surgical part of our subject. A very attentive consideration 
 of these principles is necessary to a successful practice, as 
 many of the local diseases of the animal have their founda- 
 tion in inflammation. 
 
 Local inflammation is characterized by heat, redness, 
 tension, or swelling, and by tenderness in the part affected. 
 According as such inflammation is considerable or incon- 
 
LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 431 
 
 siderable, the circulating system universally participates, or 
 it is not excited. The general circulation is also increased, 
 according to the circumstances connected with the struc- 
 ture and functions of the injury. 
 
 When the general circulation is increased, the horse is 
 said to have symptomatic fever ; but in every instance the 
 vessels of the inflamed part are in a state of distention. 
 The tumid state of the part in inflammation is a well known 
 symptom, and is dependent on the distended state of the 
 vessels themselves ; to which is sometimes superadded, an 
 effusion or pouring out of the contents of these vessels ; in 
 which, either the serous parts of the blood, or coagulable 
 lymph, are eff'used into the cellular tissues ; andwhich further 
 increases the tension, and embarrasses the recovery. Thus 
 the effects and terminations of local inflammation are varied 
 according to the nature of the part, the state of the patient, 
 and the violence of the attack. If the inflamed vessels be 
 enabled to reinstate themselves, and of recovering their 
 contractility, resolution takes place. But when this does 
 not occur, a more protracted process is usually necessary 
 to the cure. But the effusion, in healthy inflammation, 
 consequent upon incision, is formed of coagulable lymph, 
 which is the cement by whose means the breaches are 
 to be repaired. This joining together is called adhesion. 
 It' extensive injury has been done to the surrounding parts 
 by laceration, &c., then the same vessels, having organized 
 the layer of coagulable lymph, secrete a homogeneous fluid 
 called pus, which process is called suppuration. Sometimes, 
 however, the inflammation is torpid, when, instead of pus, 
 a substance like to white of egg is secreted. This may, or 
 may not, have an offensive smell. Absorption likewise 
 ensues ; and whereas suppuration repairs the loss of sub- 
 stance, a further diminution of it now takes place. Small 
 holes are formed upon the surface, generally having ragged 
 edges ; these holes are termed ulcers, and the process 
 by which they are established ulceration. Occasions will, 
 however, occur, when the inflammatory action is inordi- 
 nately violent, and the reparative agency very dormant : in 
 which states, the inflammatory congestion may rupture the 
 vessels, and destroy them, and the effused blood putrifying 
 
432 LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 in and around them, sphacelus, or mortification, is said to 
 have come on. 
 
 The treatment of local inflammation must be varied ac- 
 cording as the tendency to these different kinds of termina- 
 tion exists ; when it Hes in our choice, there are but few 
 instances in w^hich we would not prefer it to adhere. 
 When any injury, attended with inflammation, occurs, the 
 first thing to be done is to quiet the system, and not to 
 imagine the rest of an hour or two, or even of a day or two, 
 can remove the shock which has excited all the animal 
 fear by endangering life. This end is far better accom- 
 plished by a cheering and sustaining drink, than by the 
 bleeding, purging, &c. formerly in fashion ; which, by fur- 
 ther lowering the body, increased or deepened the effect it 
 was desired to remove. In these cases, therefore, give 
 sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each one ounce, cold 
 water one pint, and repeated at intervals of an hour, until 
 the horse is perfectly restored. Bleeding, when imperative, 
 is better performed locally, as we thereby create a greater 
 effect, with less cost to the system. When blood cannot 
 be drawn from the immediate part, still it is often practi- 
 cable to open a vein in the neighbourhood of it, which 
 does return the blood to the heart, from the individual 
 part involved. Topical applications are among our most 
 active agents in dispelling local inflammations. In inflam- 
 mations, accompanied with much heat, the application of 
 cold promotes resolution. With the coldest water mix 
 spirits of wine, by which means constant evaporation will 
 still lower decrease the temperature ; or a more cold 
 application may be formed from the muriate of ammonia 
 w^ith vinegar. As cold proves itself an active agent in 
 some local inflammations, so also heat, or rather warmth, 
 in many other cases, proves no less so. It is in vain to 
 theorize on the seeming incongruity of curing the same 
 disease by two such opposites : the facts are so, and all the 
 theoretic arguments in the w^orld cannot overturn them. 
 In many cases, therefore, we reap the most decided advan- 
 tages from the use of warmth, in the form of poultices or 
 fomentations ; which appear to act by unloading the ves- 
 sels of the part ; but as actual heat increases inflammatory 
 
LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 433 
 
 action, and therefore promotes other termination than reso- 
 lution, we should be careful to avoid applying either of 
 these means too hot. On the other hand, as in these im- 
 mediate instances cold would prove injurious, so we should 
 be careful in the use of fomentations, that we do not leave 
 the part afterwards wet and exposed, otherwise cold will be 
 generated by evaporation. Fo'r these reasons a moderately 
 warm poultice frequently applied becomes, in many cases, 
 one of the best applications in promoting resolution ; and 
 perhaps it is peculiarly eligible when the inflammation is 
 some way removed from the surface, as it tends to unload 
 the vessels near the part. When the inflammation is 
 situated still deeper, we frequently use rubefacients or 
 actual blisters, vv'hich create an artificial metastasis. But 
 when, notwithstanding all our efforts, the tension, heat, 
 and tenderness of the part increase, suppuration generally 
 takes place. 
 
 When suppuration becomes unavoidable, we should pro- 
 mote it. If the inflammation has been confined to a mucous 
 surface, we may expect suppuration to take place without 
 trouble ; these surfaces soon throwing out pus, but with 
 great expense to the constitution, as the consequent debility 
 too surely proves. If the inflammation be situated within 
 the cellular membrane, under the integuments, or near the 
 muscles, &c. &c., the symptoms will run higher before pus 
 is emitted, but they will also sooner subside. It must be 
 our care then to avoid depleting the system, when we desire 
 suppuration ; on the contrary, we must feed high, and 
 nourish the body by every means in our power ; a mode- 
 rate heat should be constantly applied to the part by 
 means of warm poultices. Should the suppuration be deep 
 seated, or when it becomes prudent to hasten the matura- 
 tion, turpentine may be added to the poultices, which 
 applications should be frequently renewed ; or even blisters 
 may be applied. Almost constant fomentation might pos- 
 sibly be better, as renewing the heat oftener : but in these 
 cases the fomentation is, however, too frequently discon- 
 tinued, the part being left wet, and suffered to grow cold. 
 
 Abscess. — An abscess differs from suppuration, inasmuch 
 as the pus secreted is all poured into a closed sac, and there 
 retained till the bag is either opened with a knife, or bursts 
 
 Ff 
 
434 LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 
 
 of itself. In some cases, neither of the before-mentioned 
 terminations ensue , and then the pus from being confined, 
 and exposed to the internal heat of the body, becomes in- 
 spissated, being more or less hard, varying from the density 
 of a stone to that of cream cheese. When an abscess is 
 forming, it occasions great constitutional disturbance. The 
 pulse throbs ; the pain is shooting ; the spirits are dejected ; 
 the head aches ; and the whole appearance is expressive of 
 extreme wretchedness. Give the horse, then, all the corn 
 he will eat, beans, linseed, roots, or any thing he may pre- 
 fer. Horn down a couple of pots of porter daily ; and 
 give every night and morning one of the sulphuric ether 
 drinks previously alluded to. So soon as the abscess 
 comes to the surface, and one part feels softer, or is more 
 prominent than another, open the place with a sharp 
 pointed knife : insert it gently into the soft or prominent 
 part, and when all resistance is overcome, we may be cer- 
 tain the sides of the sac are cut through ; then, with a bold 
 sweep of the knife, make a long or short incision from 
 within outwards, as you may have before resolved upon. 
 Occasionally the abscess is deep-seated, and we are asked 
 to look at a tumour, all the active stages of which have 
 subsided. It then requires much consideration, very great 
 nicety of touch, and a sharp eye, to determine whether the 
 swelling contain pus or not. Perhaps an exploring needle 
 is, in these cases, the best ; and if this should after 
 being inserted, be drawn forth coated with pus, the operator 
 need no longer hesitate about opening it. Sometimes, 
 when the pus is released from these deep-seated tumours, 
 the stench declares it has been confined so long as to 
 become absolutely putrid. 
 
 Ploughing. — This is the process, by means of which 
 nature casts off parts whose vitality, in consequence of 
 bruises, gangrene, &c. is lost. It takes place similar to 
 suppuration. The healthy part inflames, casts out a thin 
 layer of lymph between the living and the dead portions of 
 the body. Vessels penetrate this lymph. They raise its 
 surface into little pimples called granulations ; which are very 
 vascular, bleeding on the slightest touch, and highly sen- 
 sitive, scarcely bearing to be looked at. The granulations 
 secrete pus, and by this means the dead part is cast off; or 
 
LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 435 
 
 the connexion between the body and the substance to be 
 sloughed away is destroyed, through the interposition of a 
 liquid. This process is one of extreme suffering. It is 
 effected at a great expenditure of nervous energy ; but the 
 tranquillity which ensues is great, and enables the animal 
 to recover from the exhaustion. 
 
 Gangrene. — When debility to a great degree takes place, 
 inflammation falls into gangrene. If the parts near to 
 the seat of inflammation likewise are weak, they usu- 
 ally become gangrenous also ; but if they are strong, the 
 edges assume a deep-red appearance, pus is secreted, and 
 by this means a separation of the dead from the living 
 takes place. It is, therefore, our duty to prevent this ex- 
 tension of gangrene to the sound part, and to promote the 
 removal of all dead portions from the living body. To 
 effect this, we must attend to the system generally ; for upon 
 a salutary effect on the constitution at large we are to 
 depend upon preventing its extension ; particularly if the 
 inflammation be extensive or deep-seated. Constitutional 
 remedies are peculiarly available, because the mortified parts 
 are already dead, and no topical applications can restore 
 them : the constitutional means of this nature are such as 
 tend to strengthen arterial action, as it yet remains exhausted 
 or disturbed. These ends are best fulfilled by drinks com- 
 posed of sulphuric ether and laudanum, an ounce of each, 
 the liquor ammonite acetatis six ounces, and cold water one 
 pint, frequently repeated. If the debility be already ex- 
 treme, we must employ more active tonics, as bark, the 
 chlorides, camphor ; in conjunction with the foregoing, and 
 porter, ale, or gruel, as beverages. With regard to medici- 
 nal tonics and cordials, they should be frequently adminis- 
 tered, that their action may be uniform and permanent. 
 Local applications are to be made use of also ; not with a 
 view to restore the parts already dead, but to prevent the 
 spreading of the evil, and to assist the separation of the 
 sound from the unsound. The fermenting poultice, here- 
 after to be explained, is a useful application ; and occasion- 
 ally the parts may be washed with the chloride of zinc. 
 Scarifications over structures, in a state of gangrene, may be 
 freely made, but they must be circumscribed by the extent 
 of the diseased surface ; and they may be more than skm 
 
 Ff2 
 
436 WOUNDS. 
 
 deep. We shall now proceed to apply these doctrines to a 
 consideration of the several subjects of wounds, ulcers, 
 tumours, inflammatory, indurated, and encysted ; and to that 
 inflammation, both healthy and diseased, which affects the 
 bones. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ' WOUNDS. 
 
 A WOUND is a division of some of the parts of the body ; 
 and as wounds frequently occur to all the animals, it be- 
 comes a matter of great importance for the veterinarian to 
 be equal to the management of them. A wound in any of 
 the animals subject to our care, should be treated accord- 
 ing to the nature of the injury, and the constitution of the 
 creature. When a body is hurt, it undergoes several states 
 before the part is again made whole : hemorrhage first 
 takes place, which if very considerable must be immediately 
 attended to. It is, however, to be remembered, that the 
 vital resources are so much greater in the horse, that the 
 division of an artery which in the human being would re- 
 quire pressure to arrest it, in the horse may be allowed to 
 remain unattended ; and that when nothing but taking up 
 a huQian artery can secure life, moderate pressure will be 
 sufficient in veterinary practice. When, however, a very 
 large artery is divided, a ligature of fine strong silk, or 
 small twine, should be passed around it. The next circum- 
 stance to attend to is, the removal of any extraneous matter 
 which may have got into the w^ound ; and if this can be 
 done without washing the cavity, the chances of early union 
 will be increased. But when dirt, dust, &c. render cleansing 
 of the injury absolutely necessary, tepid water is all that 
 is requisite. Powerfully stimulating applications are hurt- 
 ful, and always prevent an immediate union. We, on 
 the contrary, hope to gain a prompt junction by the 
 medium of the coagulable part of the serum which is poured 
 out in these cases ; and which junction is called union hy 
 the first intention. Modern surgery defines it to be brought 
 about by the vessels of both sides of the wound inosculating 
 with each other : the divided vessels, having first poured 
 
WOUNDS. 437 
 
 forth their adhesive coagula, prolong themselves through 
 the extravasated matter by their own vitality ; the adhesive 
 fluid gluing the surfaces, as the inosculating vessels unite. 
 Some veterinarians deny that this union ever takes place in 
 the horse ; which opinion is certainly erroneous. Although 
 the force of the arterial circulation in the horse usually 
 hurries on the suppurative process, yet it is more owing to 
 the difficulty arising from his restlessness, than to any con- 
 stitutional peculiarity, that primary union does not oftener 
 happen. It is, therefore, the duty of every veterinary prac- 
 titioner to endeavour to promote the adhesive union by a 
 perfect adaptation of the sides of the wound together, and 
 by a careful retention of them in this situation. 
 
 Sutures are stitches made in a wound with needles, armed 
 with either silk, cotton, thread, worsted, fine tape, or zinc 
 wire ; the silk, cotton, or thread, are usually many times 
 doubled, that they may not cut the parts, and are also waxed 
 to increase their tenacity. There used to be many kinds of 
 sutures, but modern surgery has reduced the number to 
 three ; at least, the interrupted, the twisted, and the con- 
 tinued, are those principally in use. The interrupted suture 
 is nothing more than an indefinite number of distinct loops, 
 the ends of the thread being tied, or of the wire twisted, 
 together. For deep wounds, where the substance of the 
 integuments is to be brought into apposition, the needles 
 used are curved, with their bodies somewhat flattened ; 
 which form best adapts itself to penetrating the depth of 
 the divided edges in injuries of this kind. The lips of 
 the wound having been cleansed from clots of blood, or any 
 extraneous matter, should be carefully brought together in 
 exact apposition : but unless there be danger of dirt, or 
 other extraneous substance intervening, much washing or 
 wetting the part had better be avoided. The wound, more- 
 over, had better be allowed to remain open until all bleeding 
 has ceased, and the sides have become sticky. The needle 
 properly armed, is now to be carried from without inward, 
 to a sufficient depth to prevent the ligature tearing away the 
 flesh ; when having penetrated one lip carry the needle 
 through the other, from within outward. Cut it away and 
 leave it untied ; again thread or arm the needle, and if 
 required, repeat the operation in the same manner for 
 
438 WOUNDS. 
 
 each stitch ; the distances of which from one another must be 
 regulated by circumstances, as the depth of the wound, its 
 being exposed to much or httle motion, &c. It is, however, 
 seldom advisable to put them nearer than an inch to each 
 other ; but oftener an inch and a half or two inches is left 
 between them. Having inserted as many as are requisite to 
 sustain the parts in their just position, begin to tie each 
 ligature, an assistant carefully holding the edges of the wound 
 together ; bearing in mind that, if the wound be considera- 
 ble, it is prudent to fasten the centre stitches first. The 
 disposition that is observed to ulceration in the horse and 
 other quadrupeds, greatly lessens the advantages which are 
 often derived from sutures. It is very seldom that the 
 veterinarian can depend on any suture remaining beyond the 
 third or fourth day, after which time it ulcerates out ; 
 more particularly where it has been drawn too tight. 
 
 Wherever the uniformity of the part will allow of it a 
 bandage may be applied, and the bandage called the uniting 
 is the best; this consists of a long roller having two heads, 
 by which means the central part can be first applied to the 
 portion of the body opposite to the wound ; by then draw- 
 ing each roll forward, the divided edges arc brought into 
 contact by the pressure, which will retain them there. The 
 conical form of some parts of the extremities will prevent 
 the permanent application of any bandage, unless retained 
 in its situation by supporting ends passed over the neck in 
 the fore, and over the loins for the hinder legs. The 
 twisted suture is not frequently applicable to the horse. It 
 is conceived, however, that in wounds of the eyelids, lips, 
 nostrils, &c., it may be advantageously employed. The 
 continued suture, though still used by many older surgeons, 
 is certainly superseded by the interrupted, which is fully 
 equal to producing adhesion in the intestines and other thin 
 membranous cavities. All straight surgical needles are 
 made with triangular cutting edges, which greatly assist 
 their entrance into the substance of a wound, particularly of 
 membranous parts. It still, however, remains a doubt, 
 whether the irritation occasioned by the stitches does not 
 sometimes rather retard than promote the adhesive union : 
 and yet it is principally as a promoter of this union that 
 they are advisable; they being seldom, on account of the 
 
WOUNDS. 439 
 
 ulcerative process, retained beyond the fifth day ; at which 
 time the inosculation of vessels not being firm, the part 
 usually again divides, and must then be filled up by granu- 
 lations : neither is it unusual for the irritation of the wound 
 to occasion the horse to bite them out even before their fair 
 time has expired, unless both horse and wound be very care- 
 fully secured. It is also necessary to remark, that where 
 any foreign body has been incautiously allowed to remain 
 within a wound, the irritation becomes so great that it is 
 prudent to divide the stitches, which will sometimes give 
 immediate relief; and the same also takes place when the 
 mere inflammation of the part runs high. Here, therefore, 
 are evils and benefits mixed up, the selection of which 
 must depend on the nature of the case. 
 
 The adhesive injiammation certainly does in some cases 
 appear to be promoted by the judicious use of sutures : in 
 all wounds it is clearly our duty to attempt the union, by an 
 approximation of the divided parts ; we must then be 
 guided by circumstances as to the best method of retaining 
 them so applied. It is, however, proper to remark, that 
 until this union be despaired of, no moist applications should 
 be employed. 
 
 Suppurative process. — When the adhesive union cannot 
 be brought about, the injured part tumefies, becomes hard, 
 painful, -and tender. Lymph is thrown out ; into this 
 lymph vessels shoot ; the lymph and the vessels assume 
 the form of nipples, being very minute, and studded all 
 over the surface : these nipples are called granulations ; the 
 vessels within them secrete pus ; the pus being a bland 
 fluid covers and protects the granulations, which gradually 
 grow until the parts are united, or any cavity the wound 
 may have formed is filled up ; the growth of the granula- 
 tions having reached the surface, cicatrization of the part 
 takes place. Cicatrization is the process of joining divided 
 parts. True skin is never reproduced ; but after the granu- 
 lations have united they lose their vascularity, and are con- 
 verted into cellular tissue. All scars are nothing more 
 than skin united by cellular tissue ; and when the skin sur- 
 rounding a wound is puckered, it is because the cellular 
 tissue contracting draws up the surrounding integuments. 
 
440 WOUNDS. 
 
 The cicatrix also becomes hard and Hgamentous when fully- 
 formed, though at first it is thin, very vascular, and highly 
 sensitive. The skin, however, once destroyed, hair is never 
 reproduced ; although the scar contracting with time, may 
 draw the separated parts close together, and thus conceal 
 the injury. In the process of forming granulations, the 
 wound should be kept from exposure. Many applications 
 are supposed to promote a formation of granulations ; but 
 all of these are quite unnecessary. In other cases luxuriant 
 granulations, as they are termed, shoot up ; when these little 
 bodies rise above the surface, they demand the use of some 
 substance which can reduce their exuberant height. The 
 wound will never heal while they remain so high ; on the 
 contrary, it frequently enlarges : for the pressure the luxu- 
 riant granulations make on the edges produces an absorption 
 of the healthy parts, and thus increases the surface of the 
 sore. This luxuriance must, therefore, be kept down by 
 mild escharotics. The firing-iron is often applied. By the 
 constant use, however, of chloride of zinc and water, of the 
 strength of one grain to the ounce, healthy growth is pro- 
 moted, and all luxuriant granulations effectually checked. 
 The above simple and costless application is all the lotion 
 that every form of wound requires. 
 
 It is the practice of many farriers to plug every wound 
 with something of the nature of a tent, under an idea of 
 keeping it properly open ; by which the healthy processes of 
 nature are frustrated, and simple wounds are rendered com- 
 plicated and tedious, by this introduction of tow, sponge, 
 candle, &c. &c. In this way pus, being confined, becomes 
 unhealthy, and burrows ; sinuses form, and the edges of the 
 wound, l3y being in constant contact with foreign bodies, 
 become hardened, callous, and are rendered incapable of 
 union until they are removed by the knife. The only cir- 
 cumstances that can justify the use of tents are, where a very 
 deep wound exists, with a very small orifice ; in which case 
 it is certainly not prudent to permit the external opening to 
 heal until the granulations have filled the cavity from the 
 bottom ; likewise when any extraneous body is suspected to 
 be within a wound, as thorns, splinters, gravel, &c. ; or when 
 bone has been injured ; in which last case exfoliation being 
 
WOUNDS. 441 
 
 slow, if the muscular parts healed up, the cast- off bone 
 would become a foreign body, and occasion continued irri- 
 tation, with a succession of abscesses. 
 
 WOUNDS OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 
 
 Wounds of the head should be treated according to the 
 part they happen in : the first step is to ascertain whether 
 any injury has been done to the bones underneath ; which, if 
 found to be broken, must be treated according to the direc- 
 tions given under the head of Fractures. When any part of 
 the ear is much lacerated, it may be advisable to draw the 
 divided edges together with fine sutures, and to support the 
 tube internally by means of pasteboard moulded to the shape. 
 When, from accident, either the parotid or other salivary 
 glands become wounded, every attempt should be made to 
 produce a speedy union, or the continued flow of saliva will 
 occasion a fistulous sore. — (See Salivary Fistula, chapter 
 XIII.) In wounds of the eye, or of the eyelids, the parts 
 should be replaced as nicely as possible, so that their 
 motions may not be impeded : in such cases, it is evident 
 no irritating application ought to be used. In divisions of 
 the eyelid, neat small stitches of the interrupted suture may 
 be inserted near together, and the horse secured from rub- 
 bing, by placing him in a box or barn, with his head tied to 
 a beam in the ceiling, at the usual height ; by which means 
 he cannot rub the wound with his knee or his hind leg, nor 
 will there be any rack or manger to rub against : he should 
 also have a cradle constantly on his neck. We have, in one 
 or two instances of wounded eyelids, used the twisted suture 
 with success. In wounds of the nose, care should be taken 
 to remove the bones, if any be broken quite off, or entirely 
 separated from the adjacent structures ; to retain the parts 
 in their situations, there may be put any firm substance up 
 the nostril well guarded with soft tow or rag. 
 
 Wounds of the neck. — When the ligamentum nuchae be- 
 comes wounded, a depending orifice should be immediately 
 made, and the wound dressed with the lotion of chloride of 
 zinc previously recommended, by which sinuses may be pre- 
 vented forming. The integuments of the neck are not 
 unfavourably situated for the insertion of interrupted sutures ; 
 
442 WOUNDS. 
 
 but to prevent their being rubbed out, a neck cradle should 
 be worn, and the horse's head should be racked up to the 
 manger day and night. When it is necessary to perform 
 operations on the neck, by dilating an already existing 
 wound, the longitudinal direction of the muscular ' fibres 
 should direct the section, and due regard should also be paid 
 to the surrounding nerves and bloodvessels. 
 
 Wounds of the chest, when they take place in the muscular 
 and integumental parts of the chest, must be treated like 
 other external wounds. When the lungs are punctured, 
 life will, in the majority of instances, be sacrificed ; for 
 should the hsemorrhage not destroy, fatal inflammation will 
 follow. These wounds are distinguished by the air rushing 
 out at the orifice, and by the scarlet hue of the haemor- 
 rhage. 
 
 Ruptured diaphragm. — A lesion of this important mus- 
 cular septum is a more frequent termination of the life of 
 many horses than is supposed. Death, of course, is a 
 speedy and inevitable consequence. 
 
 Wounds of the abdomen. — These, when external, must be 
 treated after the manner of wounds in general ; observing 
 whether the injury be a puncture of the cavity ; that 
 none of the viscera are wounded, and no protrusion occurs ; 
 when no means are more likely to shut up the opening 
 effectually than the twisted suture. But when the cavity 
 has been more deeply penetrated, and there is reason to 
 fear that some viscus is injured, the treatment must conse- 
 quently be rendered more complex, and the danger propor- 
 tionate : when such a wound has happened, the extent of it 
 should be carefully examined, that we may learn what 
 viscera are likely to be injured ; in which examination we 
 shall be aided much by a previous knowledge of the dif- 
 ferent regions, and the viscera that occupy them. If any 
 of these be protruded, carefully replace them ; unless they 
 should have become mortified, in which case the animal 
 had better be slain. It has been recommended, in case the 
 external wound be large, to stitch the intestine to it, in 
 preference to letting it float loose in the abdomen, which, 
 as will be again noticed, particular circumstances may ren- 
 der eligible. The external wound may be drawn together 
 
WOUNDS. 443 
 
 by sutures ; but if it should be large, more dependence is to 
 be placed on a firm supporting bandage. For forty-eight 
 hours offer neither food nor drink ; then only thick gruel 
 in small quantities ; and if the wound be in the small 
 intestines, apply wet cloths around the body instead of 
 drink, and nutritious clysters instead of food by the mouth. 
 Sometimes, from very large openings made in the abdomen 
 by staking, or from the gores of oxen, there follows an ex- 
 tensive protrusion of parts, which will often require much 
 force and more dexterity to return. There has been placed 
 close to the wound a very firm bandage already drawn 
 moderately tight ; then the parts have been replaced with 
 the fingers under it, gradually drawing the bandage on- 
 wards as they were returned : the integuments should, in 
 such case, be carefully and firmly sewn up ; an adhesive 
 plaister placed over all, and permanent pressure kept up 
 by means of a strong bandage. It sometimes happens, that 
 with all the efforts we can make, the parts cannot be 
 returned ; in which case, what is to be done ? If the 
 bowels protrude, and the return is totally impracticable 
 from flatus, is it prudent to minutely puncture them ? Many 
 prefer this to any attempts at enlarging a very small abdo- 
 minal opening, as is too frequently done ; but which almost 
 always gives passage to a still larger quantity of intestines, 
 and which no future efforts can replace. The return must 
 be attempted by means of the puncture ; or by the fingers 
 of one hand gently introducing portions of the intestines 
 within one side of the opening, while the other hand is 
 employed in restraining the parts forced inward ; an assistant 
 supporting and gently pressing on the remainder : all this 
 is best done with the animal cast and placed on his back. 
 Having returned it, if the opening be a defined one, it 
 should be stitched up with the continued suture. If omen- 
 tum has protruded, by all means excise it if discoloured 
 from strangulation ; and do the same when it is too tumid 
 to return. In all such cases it is evident that a well- 
 informed practitioner is left greatly to his own resources : 
 but the knowledge that the animal must die without assist- 
 ance, will embolden his practice ; and the recollection that 
 greater liberties may be taken in brute than in human 
 
444 WOUNDS. 
 
 surgery, will give a wider field to his exertions, and increase 
 his chances of success. 
 
 WOUNDS OF ARTICULAR AND BURSAL CAVITIES, 
 
 The ruinous effects of these wounds to horses render a 
 due knowledge of the nature of the parts, the consequences 
 that ensue from injuries, and the curative means most 
 likely to obviate their effects, imperative on every veterina- 
 rian. Neither, in the whole round of the art, is there a 
 subject that will afford a more striking display between the 
 well-informed practitioner and the ignorant pretender ; 
 which has been well exemplified by a comparison between 
 the recovery accomplished by mild treatment, compared 
 with those sad results which often accompany the oppo- 
 site sort of measures. The anatomical detail is replete with 
 notices of vascular secreting membranes which pour fluids 
 on surfaces, or into sacs, appropriate to receive them. The 
 membranes which line the cavities of joints and of the 
 bursse mucosae thus secrete an albuminous liquid or glair, 
 which is admirably formed to resist the effects of friction. 
 To secrete this liquid in constant and due quantities, is the 
 function of these membranes, which are not formed to 
 endure the contact of atmosphere ; we cannot, therefore, be 
 surprised at the great irritation which occurs, on so sensi- 
 tive a vascular surface being exposed to the action of the 
 external air ; and when to this we add the effects of attri- 
 tion between the ends of the bones, or between the sides of 
 the tendons and their sheaths, we recognize in the divi- 
 sion sufficient cause for those violent symptoms which 
 are seen to accompany open joints, punctured hocks, or 
 even the accidental or purposed opening of a bursal capsule, 
 or wind-gall as it is termed. If the simple effects of attri- 
 tion, and the exposure of the secreting surface which 
 lines these cavities, is of itself sufficient to create a sympto- 
 matic fever that will endanger life, or to engender an irrita- 
 tion sufficient to produce tetanus, how much more are these 
 consequences to be dreaded, when to the effects of the acci- 
 dent are added the injection of the most acrid substances 
 within a cavity already inflamed by exposure ; and yet this 
 was the practice formerly, and the event was usually accom- 
 
WOUNDS. 445 
 
 panied either by a train of fatal consequences, or at best 
 there followed a complete anchylosed joint. 
 
 The articular cavities most subject to exposure are those 
 of the scapula with the humerus or shoulder joint ; of the 
 knee ; of the pasterns, before and behind ; of the stifle ; 
 and of the hock ; of all which the knee is the most liable to 
 this injury. Of the hursce mucosa;, poll-evil sometimes 
 opens important ones ; the semi-cartilaginous cap of the 
 flexor brachii, which runs over the point of the shoulder, 
 furnishes a bursae mucosae, which, when exposed, is apt to be 
 mistaken for an opening into the shoulder joint. The elbow 
 presents others also : a considerable one is situated behind 
 the knee, and lesser ones are found belonging to the various 
 ligaments and tendons which surround the joint ; an open- 
 ing into these is sometimes mistaken for one made into 
 the great articular cavity. The thecal sheaths of the flexor 
 tendons or back sinews are bursal sacs ; large ones furnish 
 the pasterns before and behind, whose dilatations are called 
 windgalls. We likewise find bursse in the stifle : the point 
 of the hock presents one sufliciently known, as being the 
 seat of a dilatation called capped-hock, and around this 
 joint, as around the knee, individual bursal cavities exist, 
 through which the tendons run. 
 
 The symptoms, progress; and the consequences of open- 
 ings into these cavities as regards all of them are nearly the 
 same ; they difler only in degree : the course and the 
 eflfects are likely to vary according to circumstances, A 
 general view shall be taken of the whole, and then parti- 
 cular cases will be separately noticed. An opening is made 
 into one of these cavities by a fall, by a blow, or stab, or 
 puncture ; and the injury appears in the form of an incised 
 or lacerated wound, then inflammation taking place at first 
 increases the synovial secretion. Its presence is detected 
 by the glairy white-of-egg-like fluid, mingled with the ex- 
 uding moisture. The synovia will continue to flow, until 
 the adhesive inflammation starts up, which will form a 
 lasting plug to the orifice. Or otherwise, the intensity of 
 the inflammatory process will convert the synovial secretion 
 into one, first thinner, next bloody and partly purulent ; ' 
 until the synovial surface is destroyed, or the articular 
 
446 WOUNDS. 
 
 cartilages ai^e absorbed ; the denuded bones inflame, and 
 ossific deposit forms a complete anchylosis ; or the horse 
 sinks previously by the symptomatic disturbance in the 
 system generally. 
 
 Treatment. — When an accident has laid open an articular 
 or a bursal cavity, the grand indication of cure is to close 
 the opening made, which by stopping the synovial discharge, 
 will arrest the morbid inflammatory action. We learn, 
 therefore, that in these cases we may regard inflammation 
 as our most dreaded foe ; but it is equally certain, that we 
 must view it also in the light of our best friend, and most 
 active agent ; and that if it constitutes the disease, it is 
 equally necessary to the cure. It frequently happens that 
 we are not called in until several days after these accidents ; 
 and we find the part excessively tumefied, hot, hard, and 
 painful in the extreme ; accompanied, probably, with a 
 high degree of sympathetic fever. In such a case we de- 
 spair of success. If the swelling of the surrounding parts 
 be great, we may at all times decline to undertake the treat- 
 ment, for such a sign denotes that other neighbouring 
 structures are involved, and we no longer have a simple 
 open joint to deal with. 
 
 When open joints occurred, the treatment was to employ 
 the heated iron, various burning substances, or diflerent 
 obstructions, as repeated folds of brown paper, several plais- 
 ters, and Indian rubber. The pain occasioned by these 
 measures was such as no man ought to inflict for double 
 the price of any horse ; since if his humanity were purchase- 
 able at such an amount only, the poor animal would escape. 
 All these abominations the following recommendations dis- 
 pense with. Let us suppose a very bad case. A horse 
 falls on a rough road, with a very heavy rider. The animal 
 not only opens the joint, but extremely bruises the knee. 
 This is a very serious injury. What is to be done ? Lead 
 the horse to some stable as quickly, but as gently as pos- 
 sible. When he is there, procure a pailful of clean tepid, 
 or warm water, and a soft sponge. With these carefully 
 dab the knees. Do not stroke them down, or try to wipe 
 them dry, but be content to dab a pailful over the knees, 
 and leave the drying to nature. Then take two ounces of 
 
WOUNDS. 447 
 
 tincture of arnica, and mix it with a quart of water. Order 
 the horse's head to be tied up for the entire time previous 
 to the application of the shngs, and a groom to set up all 
 night. The groom is to pour out a portion of the diluted 
 tincture, to soak it up with the sponge, and to squeeze out 
 the sponge above the knee, allowing the liquid by the force 
 of gravity to find its way to the injured surface. This he 
 is to repeat every half hour, night and day. The horse, on 
 the evening of the injury, is to take half a drachm of calo- 
 mel, shaken upon the tongue, followed by a drink com- 
 posed of sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each one ounce, 
 with one pint of water. This draught is to be repeated 
 night and morning, so long as the constitution exhibits any 
 disturbance. 
 
 About the fourth day the slings are to be applied. The 
 poor horse with open joints will be heartily tired of sup- 
 porting his body so long upon legs, the knees of which are 
 exposed to the air. He will, therefore, take very kindly to 
 the slings, and throw his weight into them almost so soon 
 as they are securely hung. With the slings, the lotion is 
 to be changed for one composed of chloride of zinc two 
 scruples, water a quart, which is to be appHed exactly in 
 the same manner as the diluted tincture of arnica, only 
 there is no longer any necessity for the groom to sit up 
 with the animal. 
 
 The bruised parts fall out, or slough out, from the fourth 
 to the sixth day, and the solution of chloride of zinc effec- 
 tually stays the stench which accompanies that process. 
 As the lotion flows down it mingles with the synovia, which 
 begins to pour out in earnest as the inflammation mounts 
 upward. When the slough is removed, the chloride of zinc 
 causes the albuminous particles of the synovia to coagulate. 
 The coagulum effectually prevents the lotion entering the 
 joint, and excludes the atmospheric air. The coagulated 
 synovia sometimes accumulates to the size of a large apple ; 
 but to whatever magnitude it attains, it must not be re- 
 moved. It must be protected by every means in the 
 power of the surgeon, for the longer it continues to cover 
 the joint the better. Beneath it the healing process actively 
 goes forward, and by the end of a month or six weeks the 
 
448 WOUNDS. 
 
 wound will be closed. The joint will also be of the natural 
 size, and if no skin has been destroyed the injury will be 
 difficult to detect. 
 
 The clothing must be suited to the weather, so as to 
 keep the horse warm, without making the animal hot. 
 The food is to consist of the most supporting or nutritive 
 kind. The water is to be whitened, and to be likewise 
 chilled. The main obstacle, however, consists in getting 
 the lotion applied so often as is directed. It should, never- 
 theless, be remembered, that every thing depends upon the 
 wound being kept continually wet. The proprietor, or some 
 one on whom he can depend, should look into the stable 
 frequently, to ascertain that the groom does his duty. No 
 inattention to this point can be displayed without the 
 wound itself indicating the circumstance. If the part should 
 remain stationary for two or three days in succession, if 
 luxuriant granulations should at any time sprout, or if 
 the knee should enlarge during treatment, be certain of 
 neglect. 
 
 It is as well in these cases to fasten the horse so far away 
 from the manger, that he cannot hurt his knee by knocking 
 the part against the w^ooden trough. The food can be put 
 in a basket, supported upon a light framework, which can 
 be placed before the horse at feeding time, and withdrawn 
 afterwards. A pail of w^ater can be always ready upon one 
 side, towards which the animal can turn his head, but 
 against which he cannot hit the open joint. The slings 
 may be removed in about a month, but no exercise must 
 be permitted until the wound be perfectly closed. 
 
 If the skin be injured, a large scar may show, denuded 
 of hair. However, let it alone. As time progi^esses, the 
 cicatrix will contract. This will draw the divided edges 
 closer together ; and many a bare place upon the knees, 
 which has appeared large when the surgeon left the animal, 
 has, after the expiration of a few weeks, become almost 
 imperceptible. 
 
 THE PENETRATED KNEE JOINT PARTICULARLY. 
 
 There are some practical remarks connected with this 
 subject which require to be noticed, independently of the 
 
WOUNDS. 449 
 
 same accident to other articular cavities. The knee joint is 
 peculiarly liable to very extensive laceration, from the hard 
 state of our roads, and the exertions we put the horse to ; 
 whose tired limbs, making often a feeble effort to recover 
 the effects of a trip, bring him on one or both knees with 
 a violence proportioned to the impetus of the speed he was 
 moving at, the weight of the rider, and the nature of the 
 ground he comes in contact with. Whenever a practitioner 
 is called to a horse with a broken knee or knees, it is a 
 natural supposition he is applied to for one of two pur- 
 poses, — either to ascertain the state of the case, or other- 
 wise at once to set about a cure. 
 
 If called in soon after the accident, we must commence 
 the treatment by very carefully dabbing away any grit, dirt, 
 or other matter which would occasion future irritation. If 
 no synovia appears on the surface, it is more prudent to 
 avoid probing : indeed, in our own opinion, it is better to 
 do this under every circumstance. The synovia being de- 
 tected, no probing can be necessary, as the important fact 
 of a serious injury having happened is ascertained. With 
 regard to curiosity, a surgeon has no business with any 
 such meddling impulse. The welfare of his patient should 
 be his single thought, and experience should tell him the 
 dimensions, depth, or magnitude of the wound, are not at 
 first to be ascertained. Such knowledge is not to be ac- 
 quired until the slough has taken place. For the present, 
 he sees synovia, and that should be sufficient. The result 
 of his practice ought to have apprised him, that it is of 
 little consequence to the termination, whether the knee, or 
 one of the bursal sheaths, proper to the tendons crossing 
 the joint itself, be opened. The one case is as difficult to 
 cure, and will as probably end in death as the other. The 
 irritation which ensues upon both injuries is the same in 
 these cases. The wound is as like to involve neighbouring 
 structures, and the consequences are in every respect simi- 
 lar. Therefore, save for the gratification of curiosity, it 
 does not matter whence the syno^na issues ; and all probing 
 can therefore do no good, ascertain no material fact, and 
 often does vast harm, by starting up irritation ; also breaking 
 down delicate parts, which, if left to themselves, might still 
 further unite. 
 
450 WOUNDS. 
 
 With respect to concealing the after blemish, no power 
 of earth can make the hair grow on a scar. It is not skin, 
 and it cannot be covered with the appendage only to be 
 seen upon true skin. But the cicatrix will with time be- 
 come less. Often the wound, which on first healing ap- 
 pears rather large, in the course of three months will be all 
 but imperceptible. Any application of blisters, be they 
 mild or strong, can but increase the blemish it is their 
 intention to remove. Let the scar alone. If you have 
 thrown down a horse, no veterinary surgeon can assure he 
 shall afterwards stand upon perfect limbs. You must, 
 therefore, take the consequences without complaint, and be 
 grateful that you have, in the eflfects of time, some hope 
 left, when science has abandoned you. 
 
 BROKEN KNEES WITHOUT PENETRATION OF THE ARTICULAR 
 
 CAVITY. 
 
 Occasionally we find that what, in popular language, has 
 been called broken knees, turns out to be a simple contu- 
 sion ; in which case tumefaction, heat, and tenderness 
 ensue, and which inattention, undue exercise, or heating 
 applications, may force into permanent thickening of the 
 part, with blemish and injury to the motion ; whereas a 
 little rest, with fomentation, will complete the cure. When 
 laceration has taken place without injury to the cavity of 
 the joint, the wound having been washed, bring the edges of 
 the integument as closely together as possible by strips of 
 adhesive plaister, as already directed ; or if the w^ound be 
 extensive, it would be well to sling the horse. A cure 
 by the first intention or adhesive process can only be hoped 
 for in this way. If heat and tumefaction come on, use the 
 lotion composed of arnica and water, of the strength di- 
 rected in the previous case ; and, after applying the arnica 
 and water night and day for forty-eight hours, if the 
 skin be broken, exchange the lotion for one composed of 
 chloride of zinc and water, which will be found in the suc- 
 ceeding paragraph to that which contains the fomentation 
 just referred to ; in this way a cure may often be esta- 
 blished, without injury to motion or blemish to the animal. 
 
WOUNDS. 451 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE ARTERIES. 
 
 An acquaintance with the course of the large arteries is 
 essentially necessary to every veterinary practitioner, by 
 having which he may avoid them in operations ; or, when 
 an accident has occurred, this sort of knowledge will enable 
 him to stop the divided trunk. By the elasticity of the 
 external tunic, the excised ends of moderate arteries, are in 
 the horse attended with no danger ; the extremities re- 
 tract within the cellular tissue, and close their orifices. 
 We make use of this knowledge in our surgery, by treating 
 many haemorrhages, that have occurred from a partial 
 division of a vessel, by separating the whole, which stops 
 the flow. Hcemorrhages are, therefore, stopped by a com- 
 plete division of a moderate vessel ; by the application of 
 cold ; by styptics ; by compression ; by the firing iron ; or 
 by ligature. Styptics, in their usual acceptation, are seldom 
 applicable in the horse ; they act by mixing with the blood, 
 and with it either form a fine paste, or they coagulate the 
 blood within the vessels. Compression is proper when the 
 vessels cannot be easily got at, and may be made with a 
 piece of sponge, or a pledget of any other kind, pressed im- 
 mediately on the vessel. In docking, nicking, and some- 
 times in wounds of the legs, compression may be occasion- 
 ally applied with advantage. Firing was once a favourite 
 practice ; but is now almost in disuse. The budding iron is 
 only of material service in staying the blood from small 
 vessels, and is principally applied in veterinary practice 
 after docking, and during castration. In deep-seated wounds 
 the hot iron cannot be of any utility ; bat the vessel must 
 be sought for with a tenaculum or hook-like instrument, 
 which being applied to the end of an artery, draws it out 
 sufficiently to permit a double thread to be passed round 
 it : or when it cannot be got at in this way, some of the 
 surrounding substance should be included within the scoop 
 of a curved needle, and a ligature should then be made to 
 enclose all. In taking up very large arteries, it is prudent 
 to secure both ends, or the anastomosing branches may 
 furnish the end remote from the heart with blood. The 
 ligatures with which bloodvessels are now tied, are not 
 
 Gg2 
 
4^2 WOUNDS. 
 
 thick, as formerly, but are found to act best when rather 
 thin. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE VEINS. 
 
 When a large vein is divided, it should be secured by a 
 ligature above and below, or the anastomosing branches 
 may continue the bleeding : when smaller veins are divided, 
 the haemorrhage soon ceases spontaneously, 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. 
 
 Inflammation of the veins is often a very serious affection. 
 In the horse, the course of the disease always rises above 
 the opening made into the vessels, thus in the neck it 
 mounts towards the head, in the limbs it extends towards 
 the heart. Previously, however, to entering on the subject, 
 it must be premised that occasionally plebotomy is followed 
 by simple inflammation of the divided integuments and cel- 
 lular substance ; and which is apparently brought on by 
 the mere effusion of blood during the act : or by some 
 escape of it afterwards ; or, perhaps, from spontaneous in- 
 flammation and serous effusion in the divided integuments 
 and membranes themselves. The swelling thus produced 
 is frequently occasioned by drawing the skin, in pinning up 
 the orifice. It has also been observed to occur when the 
 lancet has been employed by operators not long used to 
 that instrument, which has occasioned the integumental 
 and venous opening to be not exactly opposed to each 
 other. Whenever, therefore, an early extravasation of 
 blood follows bleeding, first having removed the pin, care- 
 fully press out the effused blood with the fingers ; and, 
 if there appear no likelihood of more haemorrhage, do not 
 again insert the pin, but tie the horse's head up that 
 day and night. Should the swelling not be observed im- 
 mediately, or when it happens that inflammation has already 
 taken place within the cellular membrane, first treat by 
 rest, and frequent bathing with a cold solution of muriate of 
 ammonia and vinegar : or apply a mild blister. If the 
 tumour suppurate, as soon as fluctuation is felt, make a 
 depending opening, or introduce a seton through it. We 
 
WOUNDS. 453 
 
 will now consider something further than the mere integu- 
 mental inflammation, and come at once to the point we 
 set out at — the inflammation of the substance of the vein 
 itself, which is either communicated from the integuments, 
 or originates within the vessel from the puncture, that is 
 supposed to occasion a peculiar inflammation of the inner 
 coat of a wounded vein. It is prohable that a predisposi- 
 tion to a certain form of inflammatory action is inherent in 
 the veins so afi'ected, and that this is called forth by some 
 state in the parts themselves ; which at one time confines 
 inflammation to the integuments, and at another carries it 
 upward within the interior of the vessel. 
 
 The symptoms of the injury appear about the third or 
 fourth day usually, when the lips of the cut begin to gape, 
 and a little lymph is thrown out ; the next day the edges 
 are more cast back, as well as more red and expanded ; a 
 sanious discharge issues, or perhaps heemorrhage occurs : 
 the tumefied vein now feels corded, hot, and tender ; and 
 if the progress of the inflammation be not stopped, the 
 tumefaction extends along the course of the vein : if in 
 the jugular, it proceeds towards the head ; and if it occur 
 in any of the other veins of the body, as the saphena and 
 plate vein, it extends towards the heart, hardening the 
 vessel into a cord-like substance ; this appears to be the 
 consequence of the inflammatory action, by forming the 
 contained blood of the venous trunk into a firm coagulum, 
 and therefore all attempts to save it afterwards fail. Sup- 
 puration of the tumour now often appears ; though some- 
 times the immediate punctured part will present little more 
 than a spongy mass, from which a grumous liquid distils, 
 while abscesses form in various situations around the course 
 of the vessel. As the morbid action extends upwards, it 
 frequently involves the whole neck, and often affects the 
 side of the head, from which results hinderance to motion ; 
 and often some difficulty is experienced in eating and drink- 
 ing likewise. There is commonly constitutional disturbance 
 also : in some cases the symptomatic fever runs very high. 
 The pulse has been above ninety ; and the excess of irrita- 
 bility brought on has destroyed even life. 
 
 Treatment. — The course to be pursued will much depend 
 on the state of the disease. It is of importance to keep 
 
454 WOUNDS. 
 
 the horse as quiet as possible, and to restrain the neck 
 from movement ; which latter is best effected by tying up 
 the head, and giving him gruel for food. It is also re- 
 commended to apply a mild blister, in the course of the 
 tumefied vein, which seems to assist by lessening the gene- 
 ral inflammation : this, in fact, is an indication never to be 
 lost sight of. 
 
 When, however, we have no hopes of saving the vein 
 from obliteration, but, on the contrary, a disposition mani- 
 fests itself to form abscesses in various situations, we must 
 proceed to more active measures. The abscesses must be 
 opened freely with a knife, or, if one appears to communi- 
 cate with another, setons may be passed through the sinuses 
 by which they are joined. The head must be tied up, and 
 blister follow blister ; another being reapplied before the 
 action of the first has ceased. In this fashion the life will 
 be saved, although the vein will be lost ; the horse sub- 
 sequently may become equal to the severest service, though 
 immediately after the loss of a jugular he may require some 
 care. He must not be fed from the ground, or ridden hard 
 for twelve months succeeding his recover}^ His manger 
 ought to be elevated, and his water even lifted up, so as to 
 prevent him from stooping his head. At first, his food 
 ought to be such as requires little mastication, but in three 
 months he may return gradually to hay and oats. At the 
 termination of a year, he may feed off the ground, or from 
 a common manger ; he will by that time be equal to the 
 greatest exertion, and may be sold as sound, though in 
 such instances a guarded warranty is generally demanded, 
 and usually given. 
 
 A marked morbid consequence of bloodletting arises from 
 bleeding in the plate or in the thigh vein ; in which the 
 phleme often passes through the vein into the fascia that 
 lies between the vessel and the muscles. In these cases 
 the fascia inflames, and a formation of pus takes place 
 within it, which, as it cannot escape, insinuates itself to 
 some depending situation : an opening should, therefore, be 
 made to evacuate the matter, or a seton may be inserted 
 for this purpose, and the part be repeatedly blistered ; the 
 animal being taken good care of, and not put to liard work 
 too soon afterwards. 
 
OF ABSCESS. 455 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF ABSCESS. 
 
 By abscess, in its most extensive sense, we include every 
 collection of fluid which interposes between parts in a kind 
 of sac : but in its limited sense, as we now propose to em- 
 ploy it, the word represents a collection of pus formed by 
 a quick process of suppuration, and contained within a 
 closed sac. When an abscess forms, the following process 
 takes place : — an injury, generally a bruise, is received : 
 part of the vital body is crushed or dies, and nature is 
 desirous to repair the loss, and to cast off the dead sub- 
 stance. The minute vessels of the part are stimulated to 
 effuse coagulable lymph within the cellular tissue ; the con- 
 sequence of which is distention or swelling, that here, as 
 elsewhere, produces tenderness and heat, and, when the hair 
 allows us to detect it, a reddened blush. The effusion 
 around the immediate part which is dead thickens, grows 
 vascular, and ultimately forms a closed sac. Arrived at this 
 state, the tumour may take on various changes by peculiar 
 processes within it : the suppurative one is supposed to 
 ensue all over the internal sides of the sac, where, by 
 a change in the action of the inflamed vessels, pus begins 
 to be secreted. It then presses against the adjacent mus- 
 cles, causing these structures to be absorbed : and it is for- 
 tunate that, by an apparent conservative law of animal 
 life, such absorption is most active towards the surface of 
 the body, thus aiding the evacuation of its contents, which 
 can be effected without prejudice to the constitution. There 
 are many difficulties to combat in veterinary practice which 
 almost vanish in human pathology : thus, in the formation 
 of human abscess, universal rigors mark almost the com- 
 mencement of the suppurative process. Neither is fluc- 
 tuation or direct prominence in the suppurating abscess so 
 clear in our subjects, from the thickness and tenacity of 
 the integuments ; though some little pointing, and softening, 
 as well as denudation of hair, may be observed : it therefore 
 becomes us to make our examinations the more closely, 
 
456 OF ABSCESS. 
 
 that we may inform ourselves, by less obvious signs, of the 
 actual state of the part. 
 
 The treatment of abscess. — In the early stages of such 
 tumours, endeavour to forward them, through the applica- 
 tion of warmth and moisture, both of which are gained by 
 a poultice. A blister may likewise be applied to the sur- 
 face, and a poultice over that, when it is very important to 
 draw the abscess forward. Horse poultices, on account of 
 their magnitude, are generally formed of bran, upon which 
 boiling water is poured, and the whole well stirred together ; 
 or a very good poultice may be formed of hay, soaked in 
 hot water, any excess of moisture being squeezed out after- 
 wards. About a gallon of substance is sufficient for one 
 application. Being assured that maturation is completed, 
 the thickness of the integuments, and the fear of the exten- 
 sion of the suppurative process inwards, make it always 
 prudent to form an artificial opening in the more dependent 
 as well as prominent part of the tumour. This may be 
 done by direct section. Incision is eflfected by the abscess 
 knife : but in every case the opening should be sufficient to 
 give a ready exit to the matter which has formed, and that 
 which may subsequently^ be secreted. In some situations, 
 as where the natural outlet has appeared on a place we do 
 not desire it should point in, or where the abscess does not 
 point upon the precise spot we could have wished, it may be 
 prudent to make an incision in the natural prominence, 
 and insert a seton through the place we could desire the 
 fulness should have occupied. It is, however, necessary to 
 be careful in making the incision when it dips downwards, 
 that it is made in the course of the muscular fibres, and 
 not in the direction of considerable branches of nerves or 
 bloodvessels. 
 
 Nothing further need be done for the eradication of an 
 abscess than the establishment of a free depending orifice. 
 All putting the finger into the opening and stirring it round 
 is unnecessary, to say the least of it. All injections are 
 objectionable, to speak of them in the mildest terms. 
 Should, however, the sac of an abscess display an indisposi- 
 tion to contract after its contents have been evacuated, 
 apply a blister over it, and when the effects have some- 
 
STRANGLES. 457 
 
 what abated, support the pendant parts by means of band- 
 ages. 
 
 STRANGLES 
 
 Are evidently of febrile origin. The late Mr. Castley thus 
 notices this singular equine affection : " Often when a 
 young horse is looking sickly, delicate, or thriftless, farmers 
 or breeders will say, ' he is breeding the strangles,' or that 
 ' strangles hang about him,' and that he will not get better 
 until he gets over that complaint." There is much truth 
 in this observation, and some breeders are particularly ex- 
 pert at catching the first premonitory symptoms. The 
 affection has been divided into true and bastard strangles. 
 There is, moreover, no reason to suppose the strangles in- 
 herently infectious A number of horses having it together 
 is not a proof of its contagious properties ; any more than 
 some escaping, and others having, it is a proof it has none. 
 The strangles, in many instances produces so little inter- 
 ruption to the health, particularly in mild weather, and at 
 grass, as to inflame, maturate, and heal, without the affair 
 being hardly noticed by the owner. In some cases, how- 
 ever, it reduces young horses to a state of considerable 
 emaciation ; it is said, when very long protracted, to de- 
 generate into glanders ; and the transition from the one to 
 the other does occasionally take place. The exciting causes 
 appear to be those which are productive of catarrh ; thus it 
 is most prevalent in the spring and in damp cold weather. 
 
 Symptoms. — The disease usually commences with the 
 common appearance of mild catarrh, or, as popularly ex- 
 pressed, of slight cold and fever. The horse is somewhat 
 dull, has often cough, some soreness of throat, a slight dis- 
 inclination to food, but still more to water. The under 
 surface of the throat between the jaws swells ; it is hot 
 and tender : sometimes the tumefaction extends to the ear 
 of one or of both sides. On the second or third day it is 
 not unfrequent for the nostrils to throw out a muco- puru- 
 lent discharge ; and if the affection be considerable, the 
 mouth is suffused with a mucous secretion also, or the 
 saliva is slabbered out in great quantities. Now and then 
 the lungs become slightly inflamed, and heaving at the 
 
458 STRANGLES. 
 
 flanks, with oppressed pulse, are present. In most in- 
 stances the pulse is somewhat hurried. 
 
 Treatment. — When the inflammatory symptoms are con- 
 siderable, treat gently ; nurse rather than physic, and on no 
 account be tempted under any circumstances to extract 
 blood. The entire strength is required to cast oflp the 
 disease, and the animal can ill afford to part with the 
 smallest portion of its vital energy. No matter what the 
 pulse may suggest, in strangles it is a rule never to bleed. 
 Put a hood upon the horse, and fasten a nose-bag on to his 
 head, and in the bottom of it place a scalding hot bran 
 mash, the steam from which he may inhale. Put the 
 animal in a well ventilated loose box, and rub a blister 
 under his jaws ; and if the breathing should be bad, carry 
 the bhster down the length of the windpipe. Then take an 
 eight-tailed bandage, which is nothing more than a piece of 
 strong canvas, of sufficient length and requisite breadth, 
 with three slits torn a short way at each end, so as to leave 
 four strings at both extremities. The day after the applica- 
 tion of the blister place some hot mash in the centre of this 
 bandage, and tie the canvas, by means of the ends, over 
 the horse's poll, so that the mash may rest against the 
 swelling on his throat. Give no physic, neither purgative, 
 sedative, or febrifuge. Let the animal take gentle exercise, 
 but not such as to distress him, daily. 
 
 Should nasal gleet remain, after the more urgent symp- 
 toms have subsided, feed liberally, and give tonics. If these 
 do not arrest the symptoms in two or three weeks, open one 
 of the frontal sinuses without delay, and inject warm water, 
 for we may then conclude the membrane of the sinuses has 
 taken on the suppurative process, and the sooner this is 
 combated the better for our success. 
 
 Bastard strangles are those in which the tumour, after 
 having come partly forward retires, or in which the abscess 
 bursts internally, and the pus becomes absorbed. This is a 
 very bad matter. The glands generally swell, more espe- 
 cially the lymphatic glands of the mesentery. The symp- 
 toms are, ragged and unthrifty appearance, with very 
 irregular bowels. The treatment must be tonic, with 
 alkalies, a very small portion of aloes, and simple bitters. 
 
OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION. 459 
 
 But perhaps it is better to turn the animal over to the 
 knacker, as these cases, which chiefly occur in poor washy 
 colts, are not likely to terminate to the proprietor's satis- 
 faction or our credit. 
 
 WARBLES. 
 
 These are enlarged bursae, inflamed by the pressure of the 
 saddle. When they first occur it is best to take a sharp- 
 pointed knife, and thrusting it through them, then to cut 
 outwards, so as to lay the sac open from end to end, by a 
 thrust and cut. The sac, if left in this state, would set up 
 inordinate inflammation, and produce intense irritation to 
 the system. To prevent this, take a piece of lunar caustic, 
 and freely apply it to the surface of the sac, which will 
 eftectually destroy it ; the wound may be afterwards treated 
 with chloride of zinc and water, — a scruple of the former 
 to a pint of the latter, — and be kept clean, by having a piece 
 of rag wetted with the lotion laid over the incision. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION. 
 
 The process of healthy inflammation is verified in acute 
 abscess ; in chronic abscess it wants life, either from the 
 nature of the constitution generally, or the nature of the 
 part individually. Muscle suppurates most healthily, being 
 most freely supplied with blood. Healthy suppuration is 
 hardly ever witnessed in cartilage or tendinous structures. 
 In such parts the lymph eff'used is imperfectly formed, and 
 the after changes are naturally slow. After the lymph has 
 been eflused, it remains in a state of induration, and when 
 an outlet, natural or artificial, is made, it then happens, that, 
 instead of a healthy granulating process, unhealthy ulcera- 
 tion follows. 
 
 Ulceration is a process attended with imperfect granula- 
 tion. The imperfect granulations secrete an impure pus, 
 which is mixed with a thin irritating liquor. The imper- 
 fect granulations, moreover, cannot fulfil their purpose of 
 building up, whereas absorption continues active, and thus 
 a loss, instead of an increase, of substance is the conse- 
 
460 rOLL EVIL. 
 
 quence. Granulation builds up regularly. Absorption re- 
 moves irregularly, carrying away any part that is fit for 
 removal ; and an irregular abraded surface, more or less of a 
 hole, sending forth a thin unhealthy pus, is called an ulcer ; 
 for the cure of which we must endeavour to remedy the 
 morbid action by exciting one more healthy, so that the 
 part being brought to the condition of a simple wound, 
 will heal. When ulcers have continued for a long time, it 
 is often necessary to employ constitutional remedies to esta- 
 blish a cure. In the generality of cases the ulcer occasions 
 great irritability of system, which must be combated by 
 opium ; tonics likewise must be given, together with a 
 liberal diet. In some cases, stable soiling, a course of car- 
 rots, or other total change of food, assists the healing and 
 restorative process greatly. The general treatment of an 
 ulcer is first to cleanse it by means of a poultice, and then 
 to stimulate it by all the means in our power, keeping up 
 the system by a very liberal, nutritious diet. 
 
 Ulcers are often found of a greater extent internally 
 than externally ; when the fluid which is secreted by them 
 absorbs in different directions, forming narrow pipes, the 
 sides of w^hich are scirrhous, from which issues a glairy 
 discharge. These pipes are called sinuses by the surgeon. 
 In general cases, the longer an ulcer has lasted, the more 
 difficulty there will be to bring it back to a healthy state. 
 The external means employed for this purpose are usually 
 stimulating injections, or incision. Ulcers are apt to be 
 treated by farriers erroneously, by plugging up the sinuses ; 
 when the caustic penetrates farther than was intended, 
 sloughing away the diseased, and the healthy parts. The 
 true remedy is equally simple and effective, namely, to slit 
 them up, and then to lay within the divided pipe a piece of 
 tow, saturated with some caustic solution. By this means 
 the scirrhous lining wdll be cast forth, and that wdiich was a 
 sinus will be converted into a simple wound. 
 
 POLL EVIL. 
 
 This is the consequence of an abscess forming within the 
 bursse mucosae of the poll, and extending downwards : some- 
 times these may run underneath the cellular attachments of 
 the cervical ligament. In either case they usually, unless 
 
POLL EVIL. 461 
 
 they are early checked, extend to the ligamentous arti- 
 culations which connect the neck with the head. It 
 is most common in large coarse horses. It is sometimes 
 occasioned by hanging back in the stall, and thus forcibly 
 pinching the poll between the collar rein, or halter, and the 
 bones of the neck : blows, also act in the same manner, given 
 either by the horse himself in rising, or received by knock- 
 ing his head against a low door-way, when leaving the 
 stable, or inflicted by brutal chastisement with the butt-end 
 of the carter's whip. Inflammation results, in a degree 
 proportioned to the extent of the injury : if moderate, 
 resolution may occur ; but if it has been great, and the 
 ligamentous parts have become injured, resolution never 
 takes place : on the contrary, from the living powers of 
 these parts being comparatively small, an unhealthy inflam- 
 mation follows ; from which circumstance it is that we never 
 meet with healthy pus from poll evil ; but, rather its 
 opposite — a thin sanious discharge, or sometimes a more 
 glairy one. 
 
 Treatment of poll evil. — This regards its nature and its 
 extent. If it be the early state of abscess, whether it is 
 deep or superficial, we must first open it freely, and then 
 endeavour to promote the healing process. Should the ab- 
 scess not be fully formed, we should use our best endeavours 
 to make it maturate ; which end will be best attained by a 
 mild blister rubbed in as often as required, till the fluctuation 
 is felt either on one side or the other ; when the next indica- 
 tion is to procure a speedy evacuation to the contents, and 
 a depending orifice for its future passage, that no sinuses 
 may form ; this may be done by the introduction of a seton, 
 first inserting the needle in the middle of the tumour, and 
 passing it out at the most depending part. In case the 
 tumour is a central one, and its limits extend equally over 
 the neck, do exactly the same by the other side. But when, 
 from improper management, matter has not only formed, 
 but has been suffered to remain ; or has only evacuated itself 
 by a superficial opening, either natural or artificial, and not 
 from one in a depending situation ; in such cases, the healthy 
 secretion of pus always ceases, and instead of it, a thin 
 ichorous or a glairy discharge succeeds ; the ulceration also 
 extends still further ; sinuses form in every direction ; and 
 
462 POLL EVIL. 
 
 not unfrequently the cervical vertebrae become absorbed. The 
 ravages which this disease makes are sometimes extreme ; it 
 has been known to disease the occipital and parietal bones, 
 burrowing around the ear, and has insinuated pus into the 
 parotid gland, as well as into the spinal canal, or the brain 
 itself. Under any appearance, a very strict examination 
 must be made, which is best done when the horse is cast, 
 having his head elevated by a bundle of straw- , and turned 
 towards the light. Enlarge the lateral opening so as to 
 admit of a free examination, by means of a finger, of every 
 part liable to be injured. Carious bones must be laid bare, 
 scraped, and then exposed to the escharotic effect of a strong 
 solution of chloride of zinc. Hardened callous edges must 
 be removed, and the smaller sinuses laid open, so as to form 
 one continuous cavity. If all this be not thoroughly done, 
 it will happen, that, when the whole seems on the point of 
 healing, a new tumour will suddenly appear, and frustrate 
 all our hopes. In this way the expert operator, well 
 acquainted with the anatomy of the parts, will combat the 
 worst cases. We must, however, avoid an injudicious use 
 of the knife, by which much mischief has been done. We 
 have seen a direct incision at the summit of the neck which 
 divided the cervical ligament, and allowed the skin and 
 muscles to recede beyond the power of surgery to unite 
 them : and although it has been said that this may be done 
 with perfect safety, for its principal attachment being to the 
 dentata or second vertebra, so the head can be supported 
 without it. Such, however, is a dangerous doctrine, and the 
 division can only be w^arranted as a last resource ; for a 
 close examination of the head will show, that this ligament 
 does most directly extend itself to the occipital bone also, 
 where it evidently acts as a suspending agent, and cannot 
 therefore be cut away without some injury to the mobility 
 and support: we would, therefore, recommend the practitioner 
 particularly to avoid so wide a range, and first to try two 
 moderate counter- openings, created by means of setons. 
 The injection of the internal cavity should be made, if pos- 
 sible, twice a day. One full examination and operation 
 ought to be sufficient for all ordinary cases, but desperate 
 diseases require extraordinary measures. A very mild case 
 is often sufficiently stimulated into healthy action by fully 
 
FISTULOUS WITHERS. ^ 463 
 
 injecting into it the lotion composed of chloride of zinc and 
 water. A more active escharotic than this will be found in 
 the following : — 
 
 Chloride of zinc a scruple. 
 
 Water four ounces. 
 
 When the slough, which the above mixture will occasion, 
 has been cast off, dress with the milder lotion, formed of 
 the same ingredients ; and if, after this, healthy matter 
 shows itself, and granulations arise, the cure will progress. 
 If the discharge again becomes ichorous, and the sore looks 
 unhealthy, at the end of a week or ten days from the first, 
 repeat the operation as before. 
 
 FISTULOUS WITHERS. 
 
 When a saddle has continued to press on the withers, 
 either by its ill fitting, or the improper management of an 
 incautious rider for a whole day, and the evil has, perhaps, 
 been repeated the next, the consequence is frequently an 
 inflamed tumour, which is produced by the enlargement of 
 one of the bursse in connexion with the dorsal spines. 
 This should be immediately laid open, and subsequently 
 treated after the manner explained under the head of 
 Warbles. When this is not done, the whole hardens. Sup- 
 puration generally takes place within the part. The 
 strong fascia on the back prevents the pus escaping. It 
 becomes unhealthy, being confined : it absorbs, thus creat- 
 ing numerous pipes, and a case of fistulous withers is esta- 
 blished. Should the attention be called to a case that has 
 proceeded to a fistulous state, treat exactly in the same 
 manner as with poll evil. Instances have occurred where 
 the matter has penetrated under the scapula, and made its 
 way to the point of the elbow or the front of the breast : in 
 these cases a depending orifice should be made, and a seton 
 introduced through the whole extent of the sinus ; for which 
 purpose seton-needles of sufficient length, with their points 
 guarded to prevent them injuring important vessels, are 
 manufactured. Occasionally the disease extends and in- 
 volves the dorsal spines. The stench will speak aloud 
 when the bones are affected. When the bones are diseased, 
 slit up the fistula, and scrape them, until a healthy surface 
 is exposed ; after which, the milder lotion of chloride of 
 
464 FISTULOUS PAROTID DUCT. 
 
 zinc and water may be used. But when the cartilage that 
 tops the spines is affected, without delay saw it off, leaving 
 a healthy surface of bone. When the sinuses, hkewise, are 
 slit open, to cut from within outwards produces less pain, 
 which in surgery is a consideration. After the incision 
 has been made, lay into the opened sinus some tow, satu- 
 rated in the strong solution of chloride of zinc, the which 
 after twenty-four hours may be removed, and the wound 
 subsequently dressed with the milder lotion. 
 
 Fistulous sternum. — Occasionally the point of the ster- 
 num also becomes so much tumefied by blows or pressure, 
 as to proceed to suppuration ; when here, likewise, a fistu- 
 lous state of the wound is not uncommon. The treatment 
 of this must be regulated by circumstances, but, on surgical 
 principles, must follow the rules laid down for sinuses in 
 general. 
 
 FISTULOUS PAROTID DUCT. 
 
 A fistulous parotid duct presents an unnatural salivary 
 outlet in some parts of its passage. A recent wound of 
 the duct itself will show Uttle more, at first, than the mere 
 opening bedewed with Hmpid moisture, excepting the saliva, 
 which during feeding will pour from the aperture like blood 
 from an artery: the appearance of the opening soon 
 changes, first to ulcerous edges, and at length into the 
 true fistulous ulcer: an old orifice attains an almost car- 
 tilaginous hardness. The salivary fistula may alw^ays be 
 distinguished from any other by the nature and circum- 
 stances of the discharge, which is particularly plentiful after 
 fasting, and will then be forced out in a jetting stream ; at 
 other times it runs down the face. The fluid itself is semi- 
 transparent ; but, not unfrequently, from ulceration in the 
 gland, it becomes tinged with pus, and occasionally stained 
 by a little blood. These cases are usually the conse- 
 quence of either accidental injury, or of abscesses resulting 
 from strangles. The cure was formerly attempted by means 
 of the budding-iron, which fearful agent became a favourite 
 with veterinarians, under the fallacious teaching of Mr. 
 Coleman. The iron was applied at a dull heat, and was 
 tried over and over again, with increased severity. The 
 iron was thought to create an eschar, which acted as a 
 
SALIVARY FISTULA. 
 
 465 
 
 plug to the orifice, while the heat started up reparative 
 inflammation beneath it, which was to effectually close the 
 opening by the time the roasted living flesh was cast ofF. 
 Did it always succeed ? No ! Then, did it never occur to 
 those who used it, that its application was painful, and 
 that the operation of sloughing was hkewise painful ? More- 
 over, the iron necessitated a destruction of ^ the immediate 
 part,' and any loss of substance in a duct is certain to be 
 followed by stricture. All ways, then, this boasted remedy 
 was bad. It was bad surgery to speculate with suffering, 
 nay, especially so, when success could only efface an evil by 
 the establishment of another and a worse injury ; and espe- 
 cially is it the worst of surgery, to repeat so faulty a process 
 an indefinite number of times. 
 
 There are, likewise, other modes of pretended cure, all 
 equally barbarous, all derived from the same school. We 
 shall with indignation pass by each of these, to notice a 
 plan of proceeding adopted by Mr. Gowing, of Camden 
 Town. A firm, agglutinating hquid is formed, by dis- 
 solving gun cotton in sulphuric ether, which is called col- 
 lodiun. Upon applying this liquid to the surface of the 
 body, the vital warmth occasions the ether rapidly to 
 evaporate, leaving the cotton in an altered form, sticking 
 firmly to the part. 
 
 Mr. Gowing first applied some mild caustic to the 
 wound, till the orifice presented the reddened appearance 
 he desired it should assume. He then placed above the 
 opening a bulky pledget, sufficiently large to thoroughly 
 close the wound, and sufliciently solid to resist the solvent 
 powers of the saliva. A piece of cork, cut to the required 
 shape, answers the purpose admirably. Over this, to bind 
 it to the part he wished it should close, he passed some 
 cotton thread, the ends of which he fixed to the hair of either 
 side, by a liberal allowance of the Uquid we before alluded 
 to. ' This he repeated several times, till the plug was held 
 firmly to the place by the cross bands of cotton. He 
 repaired this dressing from day to day as it was neces- 
 sary, having the horse's head tied up, and supporting the 
 animal entirely by fluids. After a few days had elapsed 
 the horse was allowed to lie down, and a short time subse- 
 quently the bandage was removed, when the orifice was effec- 
 ^ H h 
 
466 SPRAINS, OR STRAINS. 
 
 tually stopped. This is a far better, and a far more 
 effectual plan than any of the old measures once fashionable, 
 but now, we trust, on account of their barbarity, discarded. 
 Treated after the above method, should the first trial not 
 succeed, a second can be made ; and even this plan be 
 repeated an indefinite number of times, without inflicting 
 suffering amounting to positive torture. 
 
 CHAPTER, XIV. 
 
 SPRAINS, OR STRAINS. 
 
 Unless we were allowed to destroy a vast number of horses 
 with sprains in every stage, we could never define this in- 
 jury so accurately as to defy criticism. It is said to be not 
 an unnatural distention of parts, but a rupture or division 
 of the cellular membrane which connects these parts : it is 
 at the same time held by some that the injury which tears 
 through this, does not put these tendinous and ligamentous 
 parts on the stretch, because we are told that they are not 
 capable of either distention or contractility. Wood, iron, 
 stone, and even glass, are capable of contraction and disten- 
 tion, yet ligament and tendon are incapable of it ; so we 
 are told at least. But, with great submission, we do firmly 
 believe that these organs can and do suffer extension ; and 
 that, during the violence committed in putting their struc- 
 ture on the stretch, both the internal cellular tissue, and 
 that which connects them with other parts, is ruptured ; 
 and, with it, an infinity of minute vascular, nervous and 
 absorbent vessels are likewise torn asunder ; whence we are 
 at no loss to account for the distention which follows this 
 kind of injury ; the pain and exquisite tenderness conse- 
 quent upon the lesion ; nor the difficulty of promoting 
 immediate absorption, when the absorbents have suffered 
 in common with the other parts. Such we believe to be the 
 rationale of ordinary sprains or strains ; but there are ex- 
 traordinary, or rather more severe effects which follow 
 sudden exertions ; as violent efforts of the muscles to re- 
 store the equilibrium endangered by a slip. Here it is 
 supposed that the tendinous structure itself, thecas, and all 
 surrounding parts, may be unnaturally distended, and their 
 minute connexions broken through. 
 
SPRAINS, OR STRAINS. 467 
 
 We shall now proceed to trace the symptoms and treat- 
 ment, under these kinds of injury. It is probable that 
 the slightest sprain produces some lesion, however minute : 
 and this, of necessity, causes inflammation to repair the 
 hurt ; w^e therefore always find heat, tenderness, and lame- 
 ness as accompaniments of the slightest affection of this 
 sort, but which a few days, or even a few hours, of rest 
 is often sufficient to repair : rest is the remedy, and Nature 
 has then time to w^ork her own cure ; but work the animal, 
 and much more time, with artificial aids, will be required. 
 If greater violence has been committed, greater re-action 
 will take place ; the effusion will be considerable, conse- 
 quently the tumefaction great ; the heat, pain, and tender- 
 ness excessive ; and the animal will lose his appetite, fall 
 away, and present every indication of symptomatic fever. 
 If judicious means are, however, adopted, these symptoms 
 gradually disappear, and, after a considerable interval, the 
 parts are reinstated in their original integrity by absorption 
 of the extravasation. If injudicious means are adopted, the 
 engorgement remains, and becomes organized into a perma- 
 nent induration, rendering the future action of the horse 
 imperfect and painful. When laceration has extended itself 
 into the sheaths, all these evils will, of course, be aggra- 
 vated. 
 
 The treatment of sprain or strain, in whatever part it 
 occurs, must be essentially the same, and the differences 
 required are rather mechanical than medical. There are 
 two indications that present themselves ; these are, to over- 
 come the inflammation ; and, to restore the disintegration 
 wdiich may remain. A mere muscular extension will be 
 followed by considerable inflammation, the removal of which 
 will often leave the limb sound. But it is otherwise w^hen 
 the ligamentous structures are the principal sufferers : the 
 vascular excitement will less easily give way ; and when it 
 does, will leave much enlargement and much weakness. 
 There is one rule in surgery which cannot be too deeply 
 impressed. After every injury the vital fluid is required 
 for reparation, and therefore never bleed when an option 
 upon the subject is left to you ; and, in the great majority 
 of cases, it is not whether the animal really requires blood- 
 letting, but whether the veterinary surgeon shall perform 
 
 Hh2 
 
468 SHOULDER sprain. 
 
 an act which will put money in his pocket. Absolute rest, 
 however, is indispensable ; and constitutional adjuncts, as 
 cooling diet, and pure cool air, will assist the other means 
 adopted. If the injury be recent, bathe the part with the 
 coldest water that can be procured ; but if the sprain has 
 been done some time, apply fomentations and warm poul- 
 tices. Should the tumefaction be great, puncture the part 
 all over, and encourage bleeding with hot water. If it is 
 a flexor muscle that has suffered, put on a high-heeled 
 shoe. These first measures being over, apply pressure to 
 the part, and keep it constantly there, unless the aggrava- 
 tion of the symptoms suggest its removal. This is now 
 readily done by means of the vulcanized India rubber, be- 
 neath which, and over the place of injury, may be put a 
 piece of spongeo-piline that has been soaked in warm 
 water. Frequent blisters have sometimes done good, but 
 not nearly so often as is generally imagined. It is a com- 
 mon practice to fire the horse that has a chronic indura- 
 tion springing from an old sprain ; but there must be magic 
 in the iron which is to remove an already organized sub- 
 stance. That end, however, is sometimes the consequence 
 of continued pressure, which can produce absorption of 
 bone or muscle ; and that is best attained through one of 
 the vulcanized India rubber bandages before alluded to. 
 
 SHOULDER SPRAIN. 
 
 What is now generally known by the term shoulder 
 sprain, appears to consist in an unnatural extension of the 
 muscular or hgamentous parts which connect the scapula 
 and humerus to the trunk ; and which parts, it must be 
 evident, are very liable to this kind of injury, from the 
 great extent of motion the shoulder-blade enjoys. A 
 shoulder strain is, therefore, the consequence of a side 
 wrench, which, by separating the fore legs too widely, puts 
 these parts suddenly upon the stretch. The adductor 
 muscles are frequently the sufferers : sometimes, however, 
 the ligaments of the articulations, both scapular and hume- 
 ral, are affected. As Mr. Percivall, however, justly ob- 
 serves, in the last part of his Hippo-pathology, which is the 
 best and most compendious work upon the diseases of the 
 horse that has hitherto appeared in the English language. 
 
SHOULDER SPRAIN. 469 
 
 there are no known symptoms by which we can be in- 
 formed, whether the muscular or fibrous texture is affected. 
 Shoulder sprains are, however, not of such frequent occur- 
 rence as they were once supposed to be ; and when, on 
 viewing a horse in front, the muscles of one or of both 
 shoulders appear wasted, it requires more than usual exer- 
 tion to make people believe that the evil did not originate 
 where its effects are evident. Such appearance, however, 
 is no decisive proof; for in all affections of the feet, where 
 there is much pain, the animal indulges in rest, and not 
 only the external, but the internal muscles of the shoulders 
 waste : this draws the fore legs closer together, and the 
 whole substance seems lessened. It is very necessary, 
 therefore, to be able accurately to distinguish a sprain of 
 the shoulder from the numerous affections with which it 
 may be confounded. Every case of true shoulder sprain, 
 however, appears to occasion extreme pain to the horse 
 when extending or advancing the leg ; for which reason he 
 drags the toe along the ground, and having rested the limb, 
 drops considerably, and again catches the foot up quickly. 
 These cases are especially characterized by the extreme 
 difficulty with which a horse moves down the slightest 
 declivity, from the weight being thrown on the shoulders ; 
 and also by the strange kind of movement with which he 
 accomplishes the rotation of the body, in which the horse 
 swings the leg round in a remarkable manner : in fact, he 
 evidently attempts to move the limb in any direction but 
 that in which elevation of the shoulder must take place. 
 When the injury is principally in the shoulder, if pressure 
 be made between the fore leg and chest, in the direction of 
 the serratus muscle, the horse will flinch ; and as a further 
 mode of distinguishing this affection, if the foot be elevated, 
 and the whole limb at the same time brought in a straight 
 line, it will give intense pain should the shoulder be the 
 seat of lameness. The immediate seat of the affection itself 
 is in recent cases sufficiently well marked by the heat and 
 tenderness of the immediate part ; there is, however, not 
 always much tumefaction present. 
 
 Treatment. — When by the heat, tenderness, and lame- 
 ness, there is reason to consider the inflammation great, 
 bathe frequently and copiously with a lotion composed of 
 
470 SHOULDER SPRAIN. 
 
 half a pint of tincture of arnica to a gallon of water ; under 
 the supposition that the violence of the symptoms spring 
 from the muscular structure being hurt. Should the case 
 be recent, and the inflammation or external symptom less, 
 bathe with cold water alone ; and, in either case, so soon as 
 the inflammation has abated, change the cold water for hot. 
 In this manner, keep the shoulder wet for a week or longer, 
 when every sign of active disease having departed, a blister 
 may be appHed. With regard to the manner of applying 
 the blisters in these cases, the late Mr. Blaine speaks very 
 confidently, and he says ; " I would recommend the follow- 
 ing practice, which I have long pursued in these cases with 
 invariable success. As soon as the more active inflamma- 
 tory symptoms are abated, I proceed to raise an artificial 
 inflammation by the free use of stimulants, generally of the 
 liquid blister, in the following manner : Mix six ounces of 
 common oil with two or three ounces of liquid blister (see 
 Mat. Med.), and with this rub the whole affected part twice 
 a day, until the swelling and inflammation it will bring on 
 prevent the use of more. In two or three days these will 
 subside, when it should be repeated, until the same effects 
 again prevent the application. In this way keep up a mild 
 inflammation for a week or ten days, according to the origi- 
 nal violence of the affection : in general cases, the subsiding 
 of the second swelling will leave the horse sound. This 
 w^ill be found a much more efficacious mode of practice 
 than the common blister ; but it must be particularly re- 
 membered, that I know of no affection so liable to return 
 as this ; consequently, although the horse may appear 
 sound, it will be very dangerous to put him to immediate 
 work." 
 
 Blows on the point of the shoulder. — These injuries occur 
 more frequently than strains ; they are often productive of 
 more present lameness, and eventually of consequences 
 more serious. Turning suddenly in a narrow stall, running 
 against a hard body, or being kicked, or violently struck, 
 may occasion this injury. There will be great tender- 
 ness and heat at the point of the shoulder ; some swelling, 
 and the lameness will be extreme. In such cases the treat- 
 ment will be the same as in sprain of the shoulder. 
 
SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS, &C. 4/1 
 
 SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS, THEIR SHEATHS, AND 
 LIGAMENTOUS CONNEXIONS. 
 
 A sprain or strain of the flexor tendons is a very grave 
 and serious evil. It is probably often accompanied by 
 laceration of some of the ligamentous fibres ; there is, how- 
 ever, no doubt but that it may be occasioned by a simple 
 distention of the synovial sheaths, and even of the tendons 
 themselves. It is more frequent in the lore than the hind 
 legs ; but it may and does occur in both. It is the result 
 of some violence which acts suddenly on the limbs, as 
 downward leaps, attempts to recover a false step, &c. It 
 is also occasioned sometimes by lowering the heels too 
 much and too suddenly ; by which they are put unnaturally 
 on the stretch. The injury received brings on inflamma- 
 tion, with an incapabihty of extending the hmb. If the 
 inflammation continue, or exercise or improper applications 
 be made use of, the eff'usion then not being readily absorbed 
 may eventually form adhesions between the tendons and 
 their sheaths. It is these eff'ects of adhesive inflammation 
 which form the permanent callosities around the back 
 sinews ; and which, by obstructing the freedom of motion, 
 occasion a lameness much felt after very hard work, as well 
 as at first starting to exercise ; but this decreases as the 
 journey proceeds. It being therefore observed that he is 
 not only less lame when exerted, but also less swollen, an 
 opinion is very general that horses with old strains may be 
 ivorked sound. It would be as reasonable to drive the 
 soldier with one leg until the other grew. 
 
 The treatment of thecal and ligamentous distention or 
 sprain should follow the general rules already laid down. 
 Put the horse where he may be quiet, and have a high- 
 heeled shoe placed on the foot of the affected leg. Cold 
 applications, in the very early stages, particularly when the 
 tumefaction is considerable, will much tend to unload the 
 vessels • and the same indications will be followed by im- 
 mersing the whole limb in spring water. In two or three 
 days change this plan for fomentations or embrocations. 
 Any treatment more stimulating than this in the early stages 
 tends to increase the deposit of lymph, and to orgamze 
 it into a permanent tumour. But when the active stage ot 
 
472 RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS. 
 
 the inflammation has subsided, then mildly stimulatino- 
 applications are proper ; and they should be accompanied 
 here with due friction and bandaging. The recovery from 
 a severe case is usually very slow : the parts being liga- 
 mentous, do not readily reinstate themselves; the after- 
 treatment must, therefore, fully accord with this view, which 
 IS that of giving sufficient time ; and in most cases it ought 
 to be some weeks after the horse may seem sound before 
 he is put to full work. Excepting in trivial cases, it is 
 not often that the parts are really so reinstated as to be 
 equal to continued exertion. Therefore it is better, in the 
 most favourable lesion, to give a few weeks' rest, using a 
 vulcanized india rubber bandage, having underneath it a 
 piece of spongeo-piline, saturated with water. Where the 
 induration remains obstinate, repeated blisters, applied after 
 the method recommended by Mr. Blaine, in shoulder lame- 
 ness, are the best means of promoting a removal of it; but 
 firing is a disfigurement, without the slightest benefit. ' 
 
 OVERREACH 
 
 ^ Is a Uow inflicted on some part of the fore leg by the 
 hind foot; frequently it strikes the flexor tendon, and 'pro- 
 duces inflammation and tumour. The treatment must be 
 similar to that just described : to prevent a repetition of 
 the accident, have the toe of the hind shoe shortened, and 
 the shoe itself put upon the foot so far back as may be 
 convenient. 
 
 . RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS. 
 
 Breaking down is the name given by farriers to this acci- 
 dent, the which now and then happens to young horses 
 while being broken in, or in training. It occasionally hap- 
 pens to older animals, while undergoing violent exertion of 
 any kind. It has been often mistaken for a rupture of the 
 flexor tendons themselves ; but it is hardly ever or never 
 that this injury takes place in the horse: the immense 
 strength of these organs very seldom indeed admits of their 
 rupture from the efforts of the animal; but their con- 
 necting and suspending ligaments, being weaker, are occa- 
 sionally broken through. The fimb, in these cases, betrays its 
 loss of support by the fetlock being brought almost to the 
 
SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 473 
 
 ground ; but the horse can flex his foot after he has raised 
 it, which is not the case when the flexor tendons or back 
 sinews themselves are torn through. A perfect cure is 
 very seldom obtained, but, as the horse may be made suffi- 
 ciently useful for some purposes, so it should always be 
 attempted, first by reducing the inflammation by the means 
 already indicated ; and this beginning to abate, the toe 
 should be somewhat flexed by the application of a high- 
 heeled shoe, to prevent the laceration of that intermediate 
 substance which will be thrown out to unite the ruptured 
 ligaments. A vulcanized india rubber bandage should also 
 be kept on afterwards, until all is firm and some strength 
 be gained. In other respects, the treatment is such as is 
 suited for sprains generally, which will be found fully 
 detailed under the head of Shoulder Sprain, &c. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR TENDON, OR BACK SINEW. 
 
 This, as observed, is a very rare occurrence : it has, 
 however, happened from great violences committed : the 
 general treatment will be that which has been already 
 detailed, excepting that here it would be essential to flex 
 the whole limb from the stifle downward, and to keep it 
 constantly in that state for some long period ; which could 
 alone be effected by the use of proper splint apparatus. To 
 effect this harmlessly, the animal should have the splints 
 put on at the commencement of the injury, before pain and 
 inflammation has time to set it. The head should then be 
 tied up, until the horse is quite tired, when he will gene- 
 rally allow slings to be placed under him. In these he 
 must remain till the treatment is concluded. 
 
 Crooked limb from this rupture, and sometimes also from 
 the former injuries, has taken place. To prevent this, in a 
 month, if all goes on well, the apparatus mentioned may 
 be removed, and a straight piece of iron gradually brought 
 forward from the toe ; this should be by degrees increased, 
 and worn till the cure is as perfect as the nature of the case 
 permits it to be made. 
 
 SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 
 
 A Sprain of the Fetlock Joint arises from some injury 
 done to the ligamentous and tendinous connexion of this 
 
474 LIGAMENTARY SPRAI^'S. 
 
 part, either from long-continued exertion or from violent 
 efforts. The effect immediately produced is, heat and 
 swelling of the part, accompanied with great lameness 
 in the injured leg. When it occurs behind, it is often 
 mistaken for common enlargement arising from oedema, 
 particularly when the accompanying lameness be not con- 
 siderable. Such cases have happened, where horses have 
 continued to be more actively exercised to take down the 
 enlargement, until the increased inflammation thus occa- 
 sioned has forced the vessels to deposit coagulable lymph, 
 which, becoming organized, could never be removed. The 
 remedial treatment must be the same as that of other 
 sprains. 
 
 STRAIN OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE FEMUR, WHIRL, OR 
 ROUND BONE, 
 
 As chestfounder covered all the defects of the fore limbs, 
 so lamenesses behind are all referred, by the older far- 
 riers, to either a strain of the round bone, or of the 
 stifle. Violence may, however, and certainly does, occa- 
 sionally injure the Hgaments of the articulation of the thigh. 
 Here the treatment, from the deep situation of the part, 
 must necessarily be attended with some difficulty. It will 
 be proper to use cold applications to the part, if the pain 
 and tenderness are considerable ; then resort to stimulants, 
 and after a brief time lay on a blister, which should be fre- 
 quently repeated. As a last resource, fire over the joint. 
 
 SPRAIN OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE PATELLA, OR STIFLE JOINT. 
 
 The ligaments of the patella, or of the stifie, may be 
 injured by over-exertions, or by accidental violence, as 
 blows, &c. This may be known by the circular direction 
 in which the leg is carried, during motion, purposely to 
 avoid flexing the joint. The heat and tenderness are, how- 
 ever, of themselves suflicient to guide the judgment. Some- 
 times the muscles of the thigh, and not those of the joint, 
 are the seat of the injury ; in which case, the tenderness 
 will be found within, towards the groin, and not around 
 the patella or stifle. In treatment, however, this affection 
 in no wise differs from the former. Repeated blisterings 
 and absolute rest in both cases are the best remedies. 
 
BRUISES. 475 
 
 CURB, OR EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE HOCK. 
 
 This is usually brought on by some violence offered to 
 the sheath of the perforans tendon, passing downwards at 
 the back of the hock. It is often the effect of leaping, 
 rearing, kicking, &c., and as such is usually sudden in its 
 appearance. A kind of predisposition to curbs from con- 
 formation is apparent in horses with sickle hocks. For the 
 confirmation of this fact the public are indebted to the dis- 
 sections and observations of Mr. W. Percivall, a writer whose 
 various works cannot be too highly commended. The lame- 
 ness arising from curbs is not, in general, severe: occa- 
 sionally, however, it may and does prove considerable. The 
 treatment must accord with the general rules estabhshed for 
 the cure of other ligamentary extensions or strains ; by first 
 allaying the inflammatory symptoms, and then by counter- 
 irritants, as blisters, &c., promoting an absorption of the 
 deposit ; using iodine ointment and ung. cantharides, mixed 
 in equal parts, wuth a high-heeled shoe. 
 
 BRUISES. 
 
 These are tumours formed by some injury, when a rup- 
 ture of the smaller vessels occasions an extravasation of 
 blood within. If the lesion be moderate, the parts will 
 reinstate themselves ; the effused blood will either become 
 absorbed and the tumour removed, or otherwise it will 
 become organized, and, with some increase of dimension, 
 will form an integral portion of the surrounding mass : but 
 when the injury is violent, the parts may be unequal to 
 either of these processes, when the extravasated blood will 
 become a source of irritation, and suppuration will follow. 
 Should a still higher degree of injury have been sustained, 
 the entire tone of the substances around becomes destroyed, 
 and sloughing must take place ; when the living parts will 
 make an effort to remove the dead, and an extensive sore 
 will be formed. 
 
 The treatment of bruises will therefore vary according to 
 these several circumstances. We should always endeavour 
 to fully reinstate the part, by promoting absorption of the 
 effusion; which may be done by giving local strength by 
 
476 RHEUMATISM. 
 
 external stimulating applications, as warm fomentations, 
 diluted tincture of arnica, spirits of wine and camphor, soap 
 liniment, &c. If the blood remain fluid, promote its escape 
 by making a small depending orifice : if it suppurate, treat 
 as a common abscess. When sloughing occurs, treat as 
 directed under the head of gangrene. Should the tumour 
 remain indurated, stimulate with iodine ointment, mixed 
 with that of Spanish flies, and by friction. 
 
 RHEUMATISM 
 
 In the horse is doubted by some, who nevertheless cannot 
 account for many anomalous symptoms on any other patho- 
 logical view. It is acknowledged in cattle ; and no one con- 
 versant with dogs but is aware rheumatism is one of the 
 most prevalent diseases with those animals. The horse, 
 then, is the subject of a disease essentially rheumatic ; that 
 is, he is liable to an attack on the membranous and tendi- 
 nous aponeuroses of the muscles, more particularly of the 
 fore extremities. It appears also to be occasioned by cold 
 and moisture, though it may also spring from high feeding ; 
 and it is seen both in an acute and a chronic form. 
 
 Of acute rheumatism well-marked cases are occasionally 
 encountered, which were traceable to the effects of cold or 
 moisture. The leading characters were alike in all ; the 
 attack being ushered in by universal stifl'ness, but more par- 
 ticularly of the fore extremities. Sometimes the case is 
 attended with considerable tumefaction in front of the 
 breast. The treatment consists in first decreasing the food 
 to so much only as will support life and diminish fat. Then 
 give the following ball night and morning, until the bowels 
 are freely opened, when it is to be withheld till purgation 
 has ceased, and then recommenced : — 
 
 Powdered colchicum two drachms. 
 
 Calomel one scruple. 
 
 Opium one drachm. 
 
 Aloes , one drachm. 
 
 Powdered capsicums half a drachm. 
 
 In the mean time the swollen parts may be freely fomented 
 with very hot water, and afterwards well rubbed with soap 
 liniment, to every pint of which a quarter of a pint of liquor 
 ammonia fort, has been added. 
 
RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE. 477 
 
 Should the above ball not succeed, try the following 
 drink, which, in some cases, is even more effective : — 
 
 Iodide of potassium one drachm. 
 
 Sulpliurie ether one ounce. 
 
 Cream of tartar four drachms. 
 
 Give night and morning in a pint of gruel. 
 
 Chronic rheumatism may be the sequel of the acute ; in some 
 cases it appears as the immediate consequence of exposure to 
 cutting winds, humid atmosphere, &c. ; and is betokened by 
 stiffness and tenderness of the parts it attacks. When the 
 extremities suffer, it is not unusual to observe some tume- 
 faction, but always great disinclination to move. It occa- 
 sionally visits the loins, but is most common in the fore 
 quarters. Sometimes one fore extremity and occasionally 
 both are affected : when sudden, metastasis will often re- 
 move it to the other parts ; which cases were well charac- 
 terized by the old term of flying lamenesses. 
 
 The treatment of chronic rheumatism does not materially 
 differ from that recommended to be followed in cases of the 
 acute description, excepting that strychnia, in doses of a 
 grain, gradually increased to three grains, has occasionally 
 been attended with benefit. 
 
 RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE. 
 
 This disease is even more common among cattle than 
 among horses. It is often observed by the graziers and 
 breeders, who call it a chill. If it affects the extremities, 
 there is heat, tenderness, and enlargement ; when the loins 
 are the seat, the whole vertebral column is stiffened. En- 
 cysted tumours are apt to appear between the gastrocne- 
 mii tendons and the tarsus when general inflammation 
 passes into a chronic form. The causes are attributed to 
 the variable state of the atmosphere, and to the low and ill- 
 ventilated stables in which stall-fed cattle are immured. 
 The treatment is, restricted diet, and the soap liniment, as be- 
 fore directed, only further strengthened by the addition of four 
 ounces of the tincture of cantharides, and the like amount 
 of the tincture of capsicums. The encysted tumours are 
 to be freely opened, and afterwards to be dressed with the 
 
478 VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN. 
 
 solution of chloride of zinc, two scruples to the pint of 
 water. 
 
 EXTERNAL TUMOURS. 
 
 Sitfast is a thickening of the cuticle, produced by the 
 friction of the saddle. It is best removed by the application 
 of blistering ointment, rubbed in upon the excrescence, and 
 an inch all round it. This is to be repeated daily till the 
 sitfast falls off, which it will do after a few applications. 
 The sore left is to be dabbed thrice daily with the weaker 
 solution of chloride of zinc. 
 
 Induration of the elbow is sometimes observed, and of car- 
 tilaginous hardness, occasioned by the horse lying with his 
 fore legs doubled under him, so that his elbow rests on the 
 heel of the shoe, particularly when worn long or with 
 calkens. It would be useless to attempt a cure without 
 removing the cause : that removed, by taking down the 
 calkens and shortening the heels, the enlargement might be 
 dissected out. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF ENCYSTED SWELLINGS. 
 VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN. 
 
 A DISEASED enlargement of the coats of the veins is termed 
 varix, but which is not a common affection of the horse, as 
 his superficial order is comparatively small, and not sub- 
 jected to such artificial pressure as our own. The only 
 instance usual in veterinary surgery is that termed blood 
 spavin ; which presents certainly something like a varicosed 
 enlargement of the superficial vein passing over the hock ; 
 this is the consequence of the pressure of a distended cap- 
 sule, which is called bog spavin. The dilatation, being 
 situated immediately below the bog spavin, is caused by 
 obstruction to the passage of the blood, and a consequent 
 extension of the coats of the vein. Usually, therefore, the 
 dilated capsule is the part to be attended to ; but when the 
 vein itself becomes so much enlarged as, by its own pressure, 
 
WINDGALLS. 479 
 
 to occasion mischief, it can only be remedied effectually by 
 removal. This may be effected by carefully including the 
 vein, and the vein alone, above and below the enlargement, 
 within ligatures, by means of curved needles. The opera- 
 tion is performed without dividing the skin, and the ligatures 
 are left to slough out. After which the tumefied vein may 
 be opened, and the contents evacuated. But it should be 
 remarked that, in five hundred cases of what is called blood 
 spavin, it would not, perhaps, be actually necessary to take 
 up the vein in but one of them. 
 
 DISEASED ENLARGEMENT OF THE BURS^E MUCOSAE, OR 
 WINDGALLS. 
 
 The tendons of those muscles connected with or passing 
 over joints are furnished with membranous bags, called 
 hiirscB mucos(E. These capsules are distributed about all the 
 joints ; but, in a practical point of view, some are more im- 
 portant than others. The morbid enlargement of these 
 constitutes windgalls. Violent and long-continued exer- 
 tions determine more blood to the extremities, and, from its 
 greater supply, the synovial secretion is augmented ; thus it 
 is that windgalls are almost the invariable attendant on hard 
 work. While the swellings remain small, they can do little 
 mischief, and had much better be let alone : but when they 
 become enormously enlarged, they may produce injurious 
 effects fi'om the unequal pressure they occasion ; and, also, 
 by a sympathetic effect on themselves, their contents become 
 not only increased, but diseased, proving frequently inspis- 
 sated or thick. 
 
 In the treatment of windgalls we must attend to three 
 particulars ; the removal of any diseased alteration they may 
 have occasioned in the neighbouring parts ; the removal of 
 their own distention ; and the prevention of its recurrence. 
 Stimulating applications are the most likely to produce a 
 removal of any coagulating deposit ; these are likewise still 
 more proper, as they will tend to effect a removal of the 
 contents of the windgall itself. The liquid blister will be 
 very proper for this purpose. But simply to promote 
 absorption of the contents of the windgall, continued pres- 
 sure will be found the most convenient and efficacious 
 remedy. A calico or a flannel roller may be prepared, of 
 
480 BOG SPAVIN. 
 
 two, three, or four yards long, according to the part affected : 
 four inches is a proper width, and, from its superior elasticity, 
 flannel is preferable to calico or linen. In addition to this, 
 be furnished with one or two pads, staffed with horse-hair 
 or other elastic matter. Begin to apply the roller, and after 
 having made a turn or two below the swelling, place the pad 
 exactly upon the windgall ; if in the pasterns, one should of 
 course be placed over each side : continue the roller firmly 
 and evenly over all, and fasten off. It however must not be 
 forgotten, that but little benefit can be expected unless this 
 be continued as a constant application for a considerable 
 time, during day and night, when not in exercise ; also, it 
 must be remembered, that upon a repetition of the original 
 cause {hard work), they are apt to return ; the dilated cap- 
 sule seldom regaining, with its original size, its original 
 strength. It may be necessary here to warn the practi- 
 tioner never to puncture a windgall. Most of those of great 
 bulk and long continuance actually communicate with the 
 cavity of the joints they surround ; and the others of them- 
 selves excite similar effects with open joints, when they are 
 laid open ; and even if no mischief followed, no good could 
 result ; the cyst would be only momentarily emptied ; for 
 its capacity would commonly remain the same, and would 
 almost immediately fill it up again. Such an operation is, 
 therefore, not only useless, but usually produces such in- 
 flammation as either destroys the horse, or ends in anchy- 
 losis of the joint. 
 
 BOG SPAVIN. 
 
 Blood spavin cannot exist without bog spavin, for it is 
 the swelling of bog spavin that causes the passage of blood 
 within the vein to be stopped ; but bog spavin can, and 
 most frequently does, exist alone. This disease is synovitis, 
 or inflammation of the great synovial capsule of the hock, 
 i. e. that between the astragalus and tibia. The only mea- 
 sure which can benefit this disease is an india rubber 
 bandage, so formed as to allow the top of the calcis to 
 protrude, which will aid the elasticity ; besides, the bandage 
 would answer no further purpose so far as bog spavin is 
 concerned, if the point of the hock were included. 
 
FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 481 
 
 THOROUGH-PIN 
 
 Is the farriers' term for the bursal enlargement situated 
 in the upper and back part of the hock, beneath the ten- 
 dons of the great flexors of the foot ; and, as after some 
 time it necessarily shows itself on each side, so it is a 
 thorough-pin. From the peculiarity of situation it seldom 
 occasions lameness, unless it be very large. Continued 
 pressure is the only remedy. 
 
 CAPPED HOCK. 
 
 This arises from a swelling of the bursa mucosa, that 
 assists the motions of the point of the calcis under the skin. 
 It is very unsightly, and sometimes becomes of a great size, 
 particularly when it is occasioned by the practice of kicking ; 
 in which case not only is there an immense increase of the 
 secretion, but the integuments also thicken, and accumula- 
 tions take place about the capsule, which become of semi- 
 cartilaginous consistency. It has been punctured occa- 
 sionally with partial success, and the contents have been 
 drawn off by setons, but the inflammation raised has endan- 
 gered life ; it has also been opened, and its contents, which 
 in the enlarged state are partly fluid and partly semi-solid, 
 evacuated, but after-irritation has endangered life ; and no 
 great advantage has been gained, for the incision made 
 has united, and the sac has filled again. Hand -rubbing, 
 almost continuously applied, has done more good with 
 regard to diminishing the size, than all the puncturing, 
 blistering, and firing put together. The hand is also as- 
 sisted by an india rubber bandage made to fit the part, 
 and worn at such times as the friction is stayed. When, 
 however, opening the sac is insisted upon, it is best to 
 dissect away the lining membrane, or to destroy it by the 
 application of caustic. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 When any important bone is fractured in the horse, from 
 the trouble of managing him, the expenses attending his 
 
 I i 
 
482 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 keep, and the risk of his future usefulness, attempts are 
 seldom made to reunite it. We destroy, however, many 
 horses with fractured bones that might be saved ; and it 
 was formerly much more the custom than at present to 
 attempt their cure. An old writer, of the name of Blount, 
 has given a very good figure, with directions for the treat- 
 ment of fractures of the extremities. If this were then 
 practicable, under the present improved state of the art, 
 probably broken bones might again be perfectly consoli- 
 dated. Even in fractures of the large and important bones, 
 if the horse was either carefully slung, or partly slung and 
 partly supported, a cure would often follow. When a bone 
 is broken, and there is no external wound, it is called a 
 simple fracture, to distinguish it from that producing a 
 wound externally, which is termed a compound fracture. 
 In simple fracture the divided bone after a time inflames ; 
 coagulable lymph is thrown out from the ends of the broken 
 portions ; within this lymph vessels first form ; the lymph 
 then becomes cartilage, and then the arteries deposit ossific 
 matter, which consolidates, and the bone is united. In 
 addition to this, there is another formation which occurs, 
 called callus. When a bone is fractured the surrounding 
 soft parts are injured, and they effuse lymph, which accu- 
 mulates about or around the ends of the bone. This effu- 
 sion is blended with that of the bones, and forms a tempo- 
 rary bandage about the parts. It undergoes similar changes 
 with the other lymph, and thus it becomes firm, binding 
 the parts together, and filling up any space that may be 
 left between them. This callus diminishes with time, but 
 always to a greater or less extent exists. When a fracture 
 is compound, in addition to the union of the bone, the lace- 
 rated soft structures have to be brought together by the 
 suppurative process, which, of course, will generally delay 
 the cure. Fractures are sometimes accompanied with dis- 
 location also ; in which case it is evident all attempts at a 
 cure will utterly fail. In the treatment of fractures, it is 
 necessary that our aim be directed to assist nature : first, 
 by replacing the divided ends as nearly as possible in their 
 original situation ; and, next, by proper applications, to re- 
 tain them there, until union be effected. In addition to 
 the foregoing fractures, there is another in which the bone 
 
FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 483 
 
 is fractured, or rather smashed into several little pieces. 
 Such a case is obviously hopeless with our patients. We 
 shall therefore proceed to notice the fractures indivi- 
 dually ; premising, however, that it would not be prudent 
 in the medical attendant to give too early a favourable 
 opinion in these cases. The impatience of the animal, and 
 his great powers of resistance, all act against a successful 
 issue. But if it is determined to attempt the union of the 
 bony portions, commence by replacing the fractured parts 
 of bone as nearly as possible in their original position ; and 
 next apply such aids as will so retain them until the union 
 is consolidated. Carefully, however, watch your patient, 
 that his own irritability do not frustrate your attempts. A 
 steady attendant should remain with him night and day, 
 alternating, however, his watch with some other equally 
 trustworthy stable-man. If the fracture is in the bones of 
 the extremities, then suspension of the animal may be re- 
 sorted to, which will, in a great measure, prevent the neces- 
 sity of a constant watch. 
 
 Fractured Skull. — This is quite unfit for treatment, the 
 result generally being phrenitis of the most acute kind. 
 The horse with a fractured skull should be immediately 
 destroyed. 
 
 Fractured Face. — Horses have had all the fore part of 
 the head smashed in, and yet have survived ; and even done 
 good service in the hunting field afterwards. The skin, if 
 not sufficiently divided, should be separated ; each per- 
 fectly detached piece of bone removed, and the other por- 
 tions supported by every means in our power. Pasteboard, 
 or thin leather, should be passed up the nostrils if neces- 
 sary. The skin should then be brought together, and the 
 horse fed on slops, if imperative. His head should be tied 
 up, to prevent his rubbing the wound against any thing, 
 and the animal placed, as soon as he will bear them, in the 
 slings. If, after all, any opening into the nostrils, or else- 
 where, should remain, it may be covered with leather. One 
 eye has, in a case treated by Mr. W. Percivall, been forced 
 out upon the cheek. But this gentleman cleansed and 
 restored the part. The horse subsequently perfectly re- 
 covered the use of the organ. This is the only comminuted 
 fracture wiiich, in the horse, can be treated with success. 
 
 ii2 
 
484 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 Fracture of the Louder Jaw-hone. — It is fortunate if one 
 branch only be broken ; should, however, the injury hap- 
 pen to both, there is still no need to despair. Make a 
 strong leathern case to support the broken bone, and nou- 
 rish the horse with thick gruel. This is one of the easiest 
 remedied cases of fracture that can be encountered. It 
 generally does well, sufficient time being allowed. 
 
 Fractured Ribs. — Blacksmiths are apt, from the effect of 
 passion, to strike a horse with the shoeing hammer. We 
 have more than once seen a fractured rib from this cruelty. 
 In other ways, also, the ribs may become fractured. If the 
 fractured portion of the rib penetrate the cavity of the chest 
 and wound the lungs, the case is hopeless. Should it, 
 however, be a simple fracture, apply a bandage round the 
 body, and bring the divided ends of the rib together. 
 
 Fractured vertehrce or pelvis are both hopeless. 
 
 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 In fractures of the larger bones of the limbs, the horse is 
 almost always killed, as being supposed incurable, or that, 
 if cured, he would be utterly useless : but not only are 
 many of these cases curable, as has been occasionally 
 proved, but a horse frequently becomes very useful after- 
 wards ; and it is evident that the breed of such an animal, 
 at all events, provided it be a mare or stallion, may be 
 made subservient to our purposes. 
 
 Fractured Scapula, or Shoulder-blade, is rare, but does 
 occasionally occur. In fractured scapula the toe trails 
 along the gi'ound ; but as it does the same whether the arm 
 or fore arm be broken, so we must look for other evidences ; 
 and these are gained by attempts at elevating the foot, 
 which not only give excessive pain, but usually produce a 
 crepitus sufficiently distinct ; particularly if the hand is placed 
 on the part. A cure may be effected by suspending or 
 supporting the animal, united with the application of some 
 adhesive matter, which can give solidity to the limb without 
 excoriating it ; further strengthened by bandages judiciously 
 applied, so as to have an equal and extensive bearing. 
 
 The Humerus is not often fractured. It is very short 
 and thick, and so strong as to be little in danger ; but when 
 
FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 485 
 
 it does happen, the plan recommended for the cure of the 
 scapula would be here also proper. 
 
 The Arm-bone is rather more frequently broken, and 
 may be successfully treated as follows : — Having first slung 
 the horse, reduce the fracture ; that is, replace the divided 
 ends of the bone in correct apposition to each other. The 
 animal might be partially slung, so that the feet might rest 
 on the ground, while they supported little of the weight 
 of the body. When all is safe, encase the fractured limb 
 accurately, by making a bandage embrace every part, and 
 strengthen the whole with proper splints. 
 
 The Femur is likewise occasionally fractured : when this 
 accident has happened to a valuable stallion or brood mare, 
 whose future usefulness in propagation would not be mate- 
 rially affected by the shortening of the bone, we might 
 apply sustaining bandages and solidifying applications, after 
 the same manner as directed for the scapula, with the addi- 
 tion of suspension, which here could probably not be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 Fracture of the Tibia is more common than that of the 
 femur, to which it is mostly exposed at its inferior part, 
 w^here the resistance of the muscles, and its obliquity, ren- 
 der efforts at reduction generally unavailable. Union, how- 
 ever, will take place between the bones, and the deformity 
 will be lessened, as well as a more favourable position of the 
 callus around the bone will be gained by bandaging and 
 by splints ; and also by support to the body from the ceil- 
 ing, either wholly or partially. By these means the animal 
 may be rendered useful for slow draught-work, or for breed- 
 ing. 
 
 The Olecranon, or Elbow, has been fractured by violent 
 efforts of the muscles ; but the tendinous attachments ren- 
 der it extremely difficult to apply means to retain it in its 
 situation. It is only by preserving a state of absolute re- 
 laxation of the limb that any attempt can have a chance of 
 succeeding. 
 
 Fractured Cannon. — The muscular action which resists 
 the reduction in the former cases, serves here to keep the 
 bones steadily applied ; and we have seen such a case treated 
 successfully without slinging, by a stiff frame of leather, 
 resembling splints for human fractures, only more exten- 
 
486 DISLOCATION OF BONES. 
 
 sively applied. In Blount's Farriery there is a plate repre- 
 senting some ingenious machinery for the cure of these 
 lesions. Mr. Bass, near Barnet, is said to have had several 
 of such cases, which have terminated successfully, by the 
 application of proper splints with bandages ; of which in- 
 stances are now so common, that no practitioner would be 
 warranted in condemning a horse with a simple fracture of 
 one of these bones. 
 
 Fi'actures of the large and lesser Pastern and Coffin Bones. 
 — These bones have never been successfully united. The 
 animal may afterwards, however, be fit for breeding, but 
 never again, or so rarely that the exception proves the 
 rule, can be fit for fast work. When it is determined to 
 try chances, it is better to sling the horse, and allow nature 
 to do the rest. 
 
 Fractured Navicular Bone. — This accident, though rare, 
 never happens unless the bone be much absorbed, and very 
 hollo Wj in consequence of pre-existing navicularthritis. It 
 is impossible to suggest any remedy, or if any measure 
 likely to benefit the part could be thought of, we do not 
 see in what way it is to be applied. 
 
 A Fracture of the prominent portion of the Ilium, or 
 Haunch Bone, sometimes occurs ; when it is of the simple 
 kind, the adhesive inflammation which follows readily unites 
 the parts ; but from the action of the muscular fibres im- 
 planted into the disunited portion, it is drawn aside, and 
 no surgical efforts can retain it in just opposition with its 
 fellow portion. These cases are called hipped, or let down 
 on the hip. 
 
 The Patella is likewise occasionally fractured by violent 
 kicks ; when the action of the tendons inserted into its sur- 
 faces disunites the fractured portions, beyond the power of 
 veterinary surgery to bring them together ; the limb is use- 
 less, having lost the antagonism to undue flexion : it will be 
 therefore of no avail to attempt a fruitless course of hope- 
 less treatment. 
 
 DISLOCATION OF BONES. 
 
 The articular surfaces of bones are sometimes displaced 
 from their proper situation, when they are said to be dis- 
 located or luxated. In human surgery this forms a very 
 
DISLOCATION OF BONES. 487 
 
 important branch of practice, but is less so in the horse : 
 not that these separations do not sometimes occur, but the 
 immensity of the muscular resistance is such, and our sur- 
 gical machinery at present is so little calculated to make 
 any resistance to the power thus exerted, that few reduc- 
 tions have been attempted. 
 
 Dislocated Patella. — This accident is of rather common 
 occurrence. The bone, however, is always dislocated out- 
 wards ; the form of the lower end of the femur, the strength 
 of the ligaments, and the power of the muscles on the out- 
 ward side, all prevent the bone from being dislocated in- 
 wards. It sometimes happens from weakness, when mere 
 motion will be sufficient to reduce it. Nevertheless, in 
 other instances, surgical aid is needed. In such cases proceed 
 as follows : — in the first place, have the leg drawn forward, 
 if necessary, by means of a rope passed over a beam or 
 rafter, and around the fetlock ; then push violently against 
 the dislocated bone, the position of which will be accurately 
 told by the swelling it produces. It will generally fly back 
 with some noise ; and having got it in its proper situation, 
 partially release the drawn-up leg, and have an assistant 
 to hold the bone justly, by pushing against it for several 
 hours ; afterwards blister the part, to render the animal 
 averse to using it. 
 
 The Signs of a Dislocated Patella are the rigid deter- 
 mination of the limb backwards ; exactly as might be ex- 
 pected from the loss of the moving pulley into which the 
 extensor muscles of the thigh are implanted. The flexor 
 muscles, moreover, having no antagonists, the limb is 
 drawn downwards, and remains firmly flexed, the toe drag- 
 ging on the ground. The displacement of the patella itself 
 is less a guide than might be imagined ; but the complete 
 determination of the limb backwards, and the flexion of the 
 pasterns and foot, will serve to distinguish it ; it can at 
 once be detected by grasping the condyles of the femur. 
 An examination of both limbs will make clear the loss of 
 the protuberant patella in its natural situation, and enable 
 us to see the bone towards the outer edge of the thigh ; but 
 sometimes so deeply imbedded within the muscles of the 
 part, particularly in coarse fleshy horses, as to almost 
 escape cursory observation. This occurs from the powerful 
 
488 EXOSTOSIS. 
 
 actions of the extensor tendons implanted within it ; to 
 which cause we must also attribute the pain that is some- 
 times observed in these cases. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIl. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BONES. 
 CARIES. 
 
 Bones are subject to chronic inflammation, which termi- 
 nates, as in soft structures, in resolution, suppuration, or in 
 mortification. The living powers of parts being generally- 
 proportioned to their vascularity, bones, as having less blood 
 than other structures, are weaker, and their diseased actions 
 are slower : consequently they do not readily inflame, but, 
 having so done, the process frequently produces death of 
 them. Thus bone will die : it is however necessary to 
 observe that the restorative powers here, as in other in- 
 stances, are more active than in man. 
 
 Exfoliation. — When death has taken place in a bone, the 
 process of its removal is called exfoliation, and such process 
 is conducted by the absorbents. This is effected partly by 
 the suppurative and partly by the ulcerative actions ; or by 
 sloughing, though in a very slow mode, which removes so 
 much of the hving as forms the union with the dead ; by 
 which means the decayed portion, losing its attachment, 
 comes away. In caries, therefore, it must be our endea- 
 vour to assist this exfoliation. Sometimes, from an actual 
 want of power to accomplish this, the caries spreads ; in 
 which case we must rouse the living bone into greater 
 action by liberal diet, and a free allowance of ale or stout, 
 or even spirits ; while chloride of zinc, from its disinfecting 
 power, is freely injected, to destroy the fcetor that accom- 
 panies the sloughing of bone. 
 
 EXOSTOSIS. 
 
 Bones being organized like the soft parts of the body, we 
 might therefore suppose that they were also susceptible 
 of disease ; the most prominent instance of which is exostosis 
 or bony tumour. This is the consequence of a morbid 
 
EXOSTOSIS. 489 
 
 increase of the secretion of bony matter. It is to the peri- 
 osteal exostosis, or cartilaginous exostosis of the perios- 
 teum, that those bony swelhngs we call splints, spavins, &c., 
 owe their origin. Yet these exostoses are not limited to 
 any individual parts, but can be as numerous as the bones 
 themselves : the spine exhibits them throughout ; the ex- 
 tremities have them from the semi-ossified cartilage of the 
 senile scapula to that of the lateral cartilages of the coffin 
 bone. The causes of sequine exostosis may be characterized 
 as predisposing and proximate. Pressure is the predisposing 
 cause, and inflammation the proximate. If the exertions 
 are pushed greatly beyond an ordinate degree, the neigh- 
 bouring muscles press unduly against the bone, irritation 
 springs up ; commencing occasionally within the periosteal 
 covering, but oftener within the ligamentous connexions 
 around. After a time, and with repetitions of the original 
 cause, inflammation sets in, and communicates itself to the 
 periosteum, which is in contact with the bone. But there 
 are, as already hinted at, injuries productive of exostosis 
 where the stimulus is one violent effort of over straining 
 the bodily machine : here we have reason to suppose that 
 the foundations of the most ruinous exostoses are laid within 
 the ligaments, which inflaming, extend the affection to the 
 periosteum, and from thence to the bone under it : the 
 result is, that osseous union takes place between the liga- 
 ments and the contiguous bone, of which spavin is an in- 
 stance. The articular cartilages are particularly exposed 
 to the effects of pressure ; as those of the spinous processes 
 of the vertebrae also are ; those of the lateral parts of the 
 feet, and some others are likewise the centres for osseous 
 deposits : during which the cartilage may become absorbed, 
 leaving the bony matter. A morbid disposition to ossific 
 deposit likewise appears to pervade other parts than those 
 immediately connected with the bony base ; as within the 
 coats of the large arteries, the cartilaginous parts of the 
 larynx and the internal portions of some glands. In horses 
 the order of science is so far destroyed, that it is not un- 
 usual to see ulceration and deposition going forward side 
 by side, on the same part of the same bone ; as in the arti- 
 cular surfaces, where disease generally ends in anchylosis. 
 The cure of exostosis must consist in whatever stops the 
 
490 SPLINT. 
 
 disposition to farther deposit, and removes what has been 
 already produced. These effects have been attempted by 
 constitutional means, intended to act on the absorbents 
 generally ; such, however, have not been found to answer 
 any end : local means only are therefore resorted to, and 
 are principally of a stimulating nature, variously modified, 
 as will be seen under individual cases of exostoses. 
 
 SPLINT. 
 
 Splint, or as some call it splent, is the name given to a 
 very common exostosis situated upon the cannon bones, 
 usually commencing in the fibro-cartilaginous substance. 
 In the fore limb it generally occurs upon the inner, and 
 in the hind upon the outer side of the leg. This species 
 of exostosis most commonly lames the young horse, from 
 the greater plasticity of his fi-ame, and from his organization 
 being not yet inured to continued exertion. It is usual to 
 consider the consequences of a splint as principally de- 
 pendent on its situation, and this is generally correct ; but 
 a splint may prove painful, and otherwise injurious, al- 
 though it should not interfere with any tendon or ligament ; 
 for the periosteum becomes exquisitely sensitive under in- 
 flammation and distention. This inflammation, fortunately 
 for the animal, is seldom very acute ; and the increase is 
 generally slow, which enables the periosteum to accommo- 
 date itself to the distention : generally, therefore, when a 
 sphnt is not situated immediately under a tendon, or con- 
 tiguous to ligamentary matter, it occasions no lameness. 
 The veterinary practitioner should, therefore, in his con- 
 sideration of the consequences in these cases, be guided, in a 
 great measure, by the situation of the splint. If placed 
 anteriorly, it is productive of much less injury than when 
 placed posteriorly^ for, as already pointed out, in this latter 
 case, the swelling may press on the ligaments, or interfere 
 with the flexor tendons. For the same reason also, a splint 
 placed at the lower end of the cannon is still more preju- 
 dicial than when situated higher up the leg. It is not un- 
 common to attribute that lameness to a splint which is 
 dependent on other causes. A fully developed splint never 
 lames, unless it interferes with a tendon or ligament. A 
 spUnt, in the course of formation, however, may produce 
 
SPLINT. 491 
 
 the most acute lameness ; and it does so generally in young 
 horses. But a splint may, by its situation, excite also in- 
 flammation in the ligaments and tendons themselves ; it 
 then loses its harmless character, and becomes a source 
 of great evil. As the general nature of splint is that of a 
 conversion of what was fibro-cartilage into bone, so it is 
 evident, in this point of view, that a splint once formed can 
 never be removed : but from the absorption going forward 
 during the later periods of life, it happens that the bulk of 
 the spUnt is diminished, oi', as grooms express it, they 
 ' wear away.' 
 
 Treatment of Splints. — Although, as before stated, we 
 cannot restore the fibro-cartilaginous union, yet we can 
 endeavour to promote an absorption of the hurtful and 
 prominent portion of the exostosis ; or, rather, we can 
 hasten the consolidation, when tenderness and pain will 
 cease, and all further increase be prevented. The appear- 
 ance of splints, as much as their hurtful consequences, has 
 occasioned such varied attempts to remove them. In the 
 olden time very rough means were used for this purpose, 
 which sometimes succeeded, but oftener left matters much 
 worse than before. Such were thumping the swelling with 
 a hammer ; rubbing it violently with a stick ; piercing it 
 with a gimlet, &c. An attempt at removal was also made, 
 and is still occasionally practised, by dissecting away the 
 coverings, when, with a sharp knife, the bony or cartila- 
 ginous swelling was removed. There is no doubt that, 
 when a splint is very prominent, it may be laid bare and 
 extirpated by this means. Pressure, by means of lead, &c. 
 &c., is an invention also of ancient date. Blistering and 
 firing are also very old remedies ; while ' sweating' with oil 
 of origanum, and other essential oils, is of patriarchal ex- 
 traction, and, if not superseded by mechanical removal, will 
 probably last to the end of time. It has lately been the 
 practice to substitute setons for blisters ; but these do but 
 half the work of blisters in twice the time, and are apt to 
 leave a blemish into the bargain : it does, however, appear, 
 that this last method has succeeded in some cases, and after 
 other means had failed. At the Veterinary College, it has 
 likewise been common to divide the periosteum over the 
 splint, by which much relief has been obtained. It has 
 
492 SPAVIN. 
 
 also been treated by applying escharotics to tbe denuded 
 bone after the periosteum had been divided : the budding- 
 iron has even been applied ; occasionally much inflamma- 
 tion has succeeded ; and in one instance it extended itself 
 among the tendons, and did irreparable mischief: in all, 
 the blemish is very considerable. It is, however, seldom 
 necessary to have recourse to other means than vesication, 
 which, if persisted in by first actively blistering, and then 
 keeping up an irritation by means of the oil of cantharides, 
 diluted with three additional parts of oil, for four or even 
 more weeks, will generally complete all that can be effected. 
 Or one active blister may be followed up by another, with 
 intervals of a week between. 
 
 SPAVIN. 
 
 Spavin is a very serious sequine affection : its destructive 
 attack on the utility of the most valuable of our domestic 
 animals has made it a subject of much importance. There 
 is some peculiarity in the degree the fore and hind legs 
 are disposed to take on disease. In the fore leg, for in- 
 stance, splint occurs upon the inner side of the limb ; in 
 the hind leg, it is seen upon the outer side of the shank- 
 bone. Why is this difference beheld in the same disease ? 
 In the fore leg, we attribute splint to the weight cast 
 upon one of the bones of the knee being entirely transferred 
 to the inner small metacarpal. In the hock something 
 of this sort occurs also upon the outer side, yet the small 
 metacarpal bone there is not nearly so often affected ; 
 while the outer splint-bone, which takes little more than its 
 share of weight, is the actual seat of the affection. Why 
 is this distinction? Does not its existence show us we 
 have not yet hit upon the right cause. The artery, never- 
 theless, passes along the inner side of the fore leg, close to 
 the seat of splint ; and it likewise does the same upon the 
 outer side of the hind leg, near to the place where splint in 
 that member begins. Splint originates in inflammation. 
 Inflammation is a disease of excessive vascularity. Can, 
 therefore, the neighbourhood of the artery have any thing 
 to do with its production ? It is not for us to answer the 
 question. 
 
 All this, however, is foreign, it may be said, to our pre- 
 
spAvix. 493 
 
 sent subject — which is spavin. Coleman was possessed of 
 far more cunning than wisdom ; and he used to teach his 
 pupils, when a lameness occurred in the fore leg, to swear 
 it was in the foot ; and when in the hind, to vow it was in 
 the hock. So far as the mere fact of liability of the parts 
 to be affected is concerned, the late professor was in the 
 right. But whence spring this disposition in different parts 
 to assume disease ? Let us illustrate this by a kind of every- 
 day example. A gentleman has two walking sticks ; the 
 one is straight, the other is bent at an angle in the middle. 
 He uses this one day, and the other the next. They both 
 consequently get the same wear. The straight one will 
 become useless, because of its being battered at the point ; 
 and so the foot of the fore leg generally gives way in the 
 limb which is straight. The other will yield at the part 
 where the two lines meet, or at which the stick is bent ; 
 and so in the hind leg, the hock most feels and sustains the 
 shock of motion. The artery crosses from the inside of 
 the hock to the outer side of the hind leg, close to the 
 inner and lower part of the joint, which Mr. W. Percivall 
 defines accurately enough to be the seat of spavin. May 
 not vascularity be the predisposing, and jar the exciting 
 cause ? In the formation of the fore leg can also be dis- 
 covered a reason, for attributing to the foot greater vascu- 
 larity than that of the hind Hmb. In the fore leg, the 
 blood has only to pursue its natural course, or to fall from a 
 height downwards, to make no mention of its being nearer 
 to the heart. In the hind limb, the stream is impeded by 
 making several bends in its course to the foot, placing 
 entirely on one side the circumstance of its being further 
 removed from the centre of supply. Can any inference be 
 drawn from the foregoing statements ? The reader is left 
 to reply. 
 
 Spavin may be characterized as exostosis of some one or 
 more of the tarsal bones, or ossific inflammation of the 
 ligaments which connect them with each other. It may 
 also be considered, that it has no determinate seat, but is 
 much more often found on the inner, than the outer side of 
 the hock. It is also true, that its effects are not to be 
 measured by the dimensions of the exostosis, as these are 
 sometimes great without coiTesponding lameness ; and that 
 
494 SPAVIN. 
 
 it is a character of the affection founded on the lessened 
 irritabihty and increased deposition which warmth, friction, 
 and mental excitement occasion, to render the horse less 
 lame as lie progresses ; which symptom will assist to dis- 
 tinguish it from other affections. A spavin of the cuneiform 
 bones usually lames more than that which is lower down 
 and joins them to the metatarsals. Neither do spavins, when 
 arrived at a certain state, usually increase ; consequently 
 spavined horses for some purposes may prove useful. In 
 moderate and slow work they are even frequently amended ; 
 but in bad cases the fear of lying down prevents their 
 thriving. Thus post-masters and stage-coach drivers were 
 not often willing to purchase badly spavined horses, or any 
 others with permanent lamenesses behind, although they did 
 not reject the foundered or groggy horse. Lamenesses be- 
 fore force the horse to lie down ; those behind often hinder 
 him doing so, owing to an instinctive dread, that when once 
 down he cannot rise again ; and the persons alluded to were 
 well aware that the horse who lies most can work best. 
 
 Treatment of Bone Spavin. — This does not differ from 
 that of splint, except that it is much oftener a cause of 
 serious lameness ; occurring, however, as it commonly does 
 in older horses, it also proves more obstinate ; and the 
 treatment required, therefore, should be more active. Among 
 the older farriers, who, like some of the moderns, thought 
 nothing too strong for a horse, \dolent mechanical operations 
 were resorted to ; as the mallet and chisel to chip it off, 
 boring the exostosis with a gimlet, punching it with a hot 
 iron, or applying caustics ; the first removing it mechani- 
 cally, and the three latter methods destroying its vitality 
 promoted its exfoliation. As might be expected, for 
 one case which succeeded (and in some it certainly did suc- 
 ceed), in many it increased the lameness, or ended in anchy- 
 losis, and sometimes in death. It is not improbable that 
 instruments may yet be devised which will operate on these 
 bony enlargements without risk ; though the chances are 
 fewer in the hock, from its connexion with capsular and 
 bursal ligaments, than in other parts. The treatment pur- 
 sued by veterinarians of the present day varies somewhat ; 
 those bordering on the old school still rub them with some 
 violence, and then stimulate them with ol : origanum, ol : 
 
RING-BONE. 495 
 
 terebinth : &c. &c. Those of later date bUster and fire. At 
 the Veterinary College setons are used, by nipping up the 
 integument and pushing a needle armed with tape through it, 
 so that the seton within the skin exactly opposes itself to the 
 spavin. If the skin be tender or tumefied, it is more proper 
 to make an opening above and below the exostosis, and to 
 push a blunt seton-needle, or eyed probe, from one opening 
 to the other, armed with a tape, smeared with mild blister- 
 ing ointment, or common turpentine. In this way, report 
 says, the College practice has proved very successful. Blis- 
 tering we have, however, found, when repeated over and over, 
 commonly proved equal to all the benefit these obstinate 
 cases can receive ; for when the bony deposit is fully formed, 
 it is in vain to expect its entire absorption : even its partial 
 absorption is often frustrated ; the removal of acute lame- 
 ness is generally the only benefit that can be anticipated. 
 Our principal hope lies in preventing the increase of the 
 bony deposit, and likewise in removing that inflammation 
 which is the existing cause of much of the pain, stiffness, and 
 tumefaction in the surrounding hgaments. Our hopes of 
 success must also greatly depend on the time the evil has 
 existed. When it is early attended to, that is, before the 
 bony deposit has gained its full solidity, stimulants act more 
 favourably, and lessen it more materially. It remains to 
 add, that, when repeated blistering fails, the firing-iron 
 generally concludes the business, but commonly answers no 
 further purpose than being a publication of the animal's in- 
 firmity, and a w^arning to practitioners as regards the pre- 
 vious treatment. 
 
 RING-BONE. 
 
 This is an exostosis surrounding the whole, or part, of 
 the circle of the coronet, or involving the junction of the 
 large and small pastern bones. But, although the situation 
 is no further varied than this in the different cases which 
 occur, yet the parts affected are very dissimilar, and the de- 
 gree of lameness greater in the lower disease. In upright 
 pasterns, either formed thus originally, or having grown thus 
 from ligamentary contractions, the articulary surfaces of the 
 bones become so opposed, that great jar is sustained during 
 
496 ANCHYLOSIS. 
 
 motion, inflammation is excited, and an osseous deposit 
 ensues. Ring-bones are, however, not uncommon among 
 colts at the time of being backed, from the ruinous weight 
 of a heavy rider over rough or ploughed ground ; or from 
 their being thrown on their haunches during their training, 
 which eftbrt is, perhaps, the chief reason that they are 
 more common to the hind than to the fore feet. This 
 disease is likewise to be met with among yearlings that have 
 never been backed. 
 
 The treatment of a ring-bone resolves itself into attempts 
 to reduce any considerable inflammation which may exist ; 
 poulticing around the foot, until it be abated. After this, 
 blister the coronet, and keep up the action of the blister for 
 a month. If the ring-bone be still in the same state after 
 this period, again blister it. 
 
 Exostoses of the Coffin Bone is still more common ; in- 
 deed the coffin bones of old horses are seldom seen without 
 them : it is equally common to see the lateral cartilages 
 more or less absorbed, and their place supplied by bone. 
 It is curious to observe the vast varieties in these deposits ; 
 in some, the coffin is increased to a grotesque form, totally 
 distinct from the original. In a few, the absorption is 
 greater than the deposit, but this is not frequent. Can we, 
 therefore, wonder at the stiffness and disinclination to 
 unusual exertion in old horses ? or can we be surprised that 
 these affections are so irremediable in them ? 
 
 ANCHYLOSIS. 
 
 When ossific matter is deposited within or upon the car- 
 tilaginous extremities of bones, or upon the capsular and 
 investing ligaments, so as totally to destroy the motion of a 
 joint, it is called anchylosis. This tendency is manifested in 
 a very great degree in the horse. Few of the joints of the 
 animal escape anchylosis, as none of his bones are out of 
 the ordinary reach of exostosis. The joints of the spinal 
 column, particularly of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, are 
 very frequently the seat of this affection, which seems to be 
 occasioned by heavy weights. It is anchylosis which renders 
 old horses stiff', and in some instances unwilling to lie down, 
 or when down averse to rising up again. 
 
SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA. 497 
 
 Anchylosis of the Knee and Hock are not frequent ; but 
 when seen, they usually have their source in punctures of 
 the cavities of the joints. 
 
 From what has already been said, it will be evident that 
 no treatment will effect a perfect cure in any instance ; w^e 
 can only palliate the symptoms by the means before de- 
 tailed at length ; such as adapting the shoe to the peculiarity 
 of the tread, and soothing the irritation natural to a part in 
 such a state by wet bandages. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 
 SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA. 
 
 This common or accidental inflammation must be dis- 
 tinguished from that known as the specific or periodical 
 ophthalmia : this usually yields readily to medical treat- 
 ment : in most instances it would be cured by nature. The 
 diseases of the eye have a consequence on the horse un- 
 known to man, wdio, having one affected, is still able to 
 perceive objects distinctly with the other : the horse, on the 
 contrary, has his axis of vision so directed that he sees 
 different objects with each eye ; consequently, when blind of 
 one eye, all things on that side are shut out from his sight. 
 It is said to be a fact, that a blind horse has a smooth coat 
 in winter and a rough one in summer. Nimrod says it 
 happens to nine out of ten. We relate it as we have re- 
 ceived it. There is also another evil connected with an 
 inflammatory affection of the eye in the horse ; which is, 
 the animal is rendered startlish and timid by objects 
 presenting themselves indistinctly upon the diseased side : 
 when both eyes are affected, he is made more so. It is but 
 seldom that this inflammation has other than a mechanical 
 origin : blows, lesion of the conjunctival coat from the lash 
 of the whip, hay-seeds, or other matters falhng within the 
 eyelids, and not being removed by the action of the nicti- 
 tating membrane, are among the common causes. It now 
 and then, in a mild degree, is an accompaniment of in- 
 fluenza ; likewise it occasionally appears as the consequence 
 
 K k 
 
498 SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA. 
 
 of a direct attack of cold ; such cases, however, are rare, and 
 should always be looked on with extreme suspicion. 
 
 The appearances of simple inflammation of the eye are 
 principally to be distinguished by the circumstance, that, 
 except in cases of unusual intensity, they are such as cha- 
 racterise an affection of the conjunctiva only ; whereas, in 
 an attack of specific ophthalmia, the internal parts of the 
 globe are always involved, and it is probable they are the parts 
 primarily attacked. Another assistant guide in distinguish- 
 ing between the two is, that, in specific ophthalmia, there is 
 always constitutional disturbance, as symptomatic fever, 
 impaired appetite, and harsh, dry skin. There is, generally, 
 in both cases, the same impatience of light denoted by 
 closed eyelids ; the same distention of the vessels, reddened 
 hue of the conjunctival coat, and there may be an inflamed 
 and protruded haw : moreover, in the generality of cases 
 arising from simple ophthalmia, the cornea is opaque. 
 From that sympathy which is found to exist between double 
 organs, even when the affection has been entirely brought 
 on by violence done to one eye, the other will by sympathy 
 become affected also, but in a minor degree. Of such 
 liability the practitioner should be aware, as a mistake in 
 this particular might lead him into several important errors. 
 
 The treatment must commence by a careful eversion of 
 the eyelids, in case the cause is not otherwise apparent, and 
 due examination to detect any extraneous substance which 
 may have intruded itself; if any such be found it should 
 immediately be removed, when the animal, if not very bad, 
 will get well. If the evil has existed for some days foment 
 the eye with an ounce of laudanum, mixed in a gallon of 
 warm water, or a drachm to a pint. Lay a piece of wetted 
 cloth also over the eye. If the inflammation, from delay 
 or wrong treatment, runs high, take blood from the eye 
 branch of the angular vein, and give the horse some food 
 of which he is fond upon the floor. The pendant head, 
 and motion of the jaw, will cause the blood to flow freely ; 
 and, should any application be further required, use some of 
 those recommended in the next article. 
 
SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 499 
 
 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 
 
 This ruinous affection of the eyes is distinguished from 
 the simple disease by the constitutional disturbance which 
 accompanies it ; it is also characteiised by affecting the more 
 deeply-seated humours. The attack is made on the inner 
 structures of the eye, the external covering being only 
 sympathetically involved. 
 
 The appearances which accompany the affection are not 
 always the same : those more commonly present are swelled 
 eyelids, which appear nearly closed, and when separated 
 exhibit a sunken retracted eyeball, giving the eye the ap- 
 pearance of being diminished. This arises from the re- 
 tractor muscles acting to withdraw the eye from the stimulus 
 of light, and the horse resists every effort to force open the 
 lids, if the attempt be made in front of a strong light ; but 
 turn the head away, and the animal will unclose the eye. 
 This retraction of the eye at the same time forces the haw 
 over a portion of its globe, where it is seen swelled and 
 preternaturally red, from its participation in the disease. 
 The inner lining membrane of the lids will be found highly 
 vascular and hot, pouring forth, in most instances, a flood 
 of tears, which continually trickle down the face ; and the 
 whole conjunctiva will present a network of turgid red 
 vessels over its opaque white surface. If the cornea be not 
 too opaque or too much inflamed, we shall discover the 
 aqueous humour thick and muddy also ; the iris and choroid 
 will likewise be found altered from their natural colour. 
 From this state it follows sometimes, that a central yellow 
 patch is discovered at the bottom of the eye ; in which case 
 matter has formed, from the usual suppurative inflamma- 
 tion, but it most commonly becomes absorbed again, and 
 sometimes very speedily. In very acute cases, however, 
 there is a large deposit of fluid, which disorganizes the eye. 
 The rapidity of the changes in the state of the eye is a very 
 marked feature of specific ophthalmia ; and the transition 
 from a most opaque to almost a clear state of the cornea, 
 and from a simple dimness in the appearance to a perfect 
 opacity, sometimes occurs in a remarkable short space of 
 time. We have seen an eye opaque within and without, 
 which was merely dim the night before ; and perhaps, within 
 
 Kk 2 
 
500 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 
 
 twelve hours, it would again have almost become transpa- 
 rent, without any apparent medical agency. 
 
 In the above detail of symptoms, it is the active inflam- 
 matory state which has been described, and is frequently so 
 sudden in its attack as to gain almost its "topmost height " 
 in a few hours. It is not, however, in every instance, thus 
 violent, nor thus sudden ; on the contrary, it sometimes 
 approaches more slowly, when the impatience of light is 
 not remarkable, and amounts only to a winking of the lids, 
 and moisture from tears, when brought into the full glare : 
 the globe of the eye looks rather yellow than red, and 
 within, it is only slightly disturbed by a discoloured muddi- 
 ness. The haw is then hardly apparent, the eyelids are less 
 swollen or gorged, and the tears pass in their natural 
 channel ; the eye or eyes remain without much variation 
 many days, and sometimes even weeks. This apparent 
 mildness of symptoms is not, however, a prognostic of a 
 less formidable disease, for this proves usually an obstinate 
 case, and may be eventually fatal to vision. 
 
 Specific ophthalmia commonly attacks only one eye in the 
 horse, leaving the other totally unaffected, orat most only sym- 
 pathetically involved. Worthy of remark, is the complete 
 and sudden metastasis which often takes place in this disease. 
 From being in a very aggravated state of inflammation in 
 one eye, it will suddenly shift its seat to the other, leaving 
 the original much amended or nearly well ; and it will not 
 only thus change about from eye to eye, but may likewise 
 either spring from, or be transferred to, other organs. 
 
 The periodical nature of the complaint is such, that, 
 having once made its appearance, there is almost a cer- 
 tainty of a recurrence of its attacks ; its appearance, how- 
 ever, cannot be anticipated : it may be absent for months, 
 or it may return in a week or two. It is always observed, 
 that the first of these inflammatory attacks, however violent, 
 having arrived at its height, usually gives way to medical 
 treatment ; or the disease leaves the horse of its own accord, 
 and the eyes recover nearly their former appearance : upon 
 a narrow inspection, there may be observed either some 
 small opaque spots within the lens, or the general cornea 
 will not be so distinctly clear as it was before the appearance 
 of the disease ; or even should the centre of the cornea be 
 
SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 501 
 
 perfectly transparent, yet there will commonly remain some 
 cloudy lines around its circumference. This latter appear- 
 ance should always be particularly attended to, for this is 
 the very last part the opacity quits ; and, w-e believe, this 
 hardly ever wholly leaves the edges of an eye once affected. 
 The eye or eyes, however, thus far recovered, seldom re- 
 main very long sound ; but often are again subject to the 
 diseased action, and the complaint recurs with all its pristine 
 violence. As these attacks are repeated, they leave the eye 
 less and less transparent. The remaining opacity forms a 
 nucleus for future and rapid accretion : sometimes, however, 
 it will remain stationary for a long time, and now and then 
 it never enlarges. But, usually, repeated inflammatory at- 
 tacks succeed each other ; and the whole crystalline lens at 
 last becomes opaque, when the disease takes the name of 
 cataract, in which almost all these inflammations terminate. 
 It is remarkable, likewise, when the process of forming cata- 
 ract has become fixed and regular within the crystalline lens, 
 active inflammation usually leaves the eye, and seldom again 
 returns. Occasionally it terminates more destructively ; the 
 crystalline lens may be pushed from its capsule against the 
 membrane of the aqueous humour ; sometimes the pupil is 
 torn, and the iris hangs ragged, or adheres to neighbouring 
 structures; and more rarely the eye is thoroughly disorganized. 
 Causes. — It has been conjectured, that the remote cause 
 of this disease arises from the plethora which takes place in 
 horses at the adult period ; that is, when they have just 
 attained their growth, at which time it is observed they 
 are more frequently attacked by it ; for until this age the 
 blood has not only to nourish the body, but to increase 
 it also by the addition of parts ; but after maturity, having 
 only to support the organs it has already formed, there 
 must be a superabundant quantity thrown on the system : at 
 this period, therefore, the vascular action is strong, and 
 much subject to distention. This theory, however inge- 
 nious, is by no means sufficient to account for the consti- 
 tutional predisposition so evident to this disease ; it is by 
 no means confined to the adult period ; it has been wit- 
 nessed in colts far from the adult state ; and even barring 
 this objection to its corr-ectness, it yet remains to be ac- 
 counted for, why the eye should be, of all the organs, the 
 
502 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA, 
 
 only one attacked ; and why also the complaint should be 
 confined to the horse, and not equally take place in the 
 mule and ass. It is, however, in the native countries of 
 the last mentioned animals, more frequent than in our 
 colder clime. We have, moreover, by a source of extensive 
 observations, pretty clearly estabhshed its hereditary nature : 
 the constitutional disposition does descend from the parents 
 of both sexes to the offspring ; and this knowledge may be 
 hereafter turned to account by our breeding only from such 
 horses as have not a tendency towards specific ophthalmia. 
 The wall-eyed horse, by general consent, is said to be 
 exempt ; yet Mr. Castley met with two cases of this kind 
 in one regiment. Size of body is thought to have some 
 connexion with it, seeing that blindness is much more rare 
 among ponies than among larger horses ; and it is the 
 general opinion, that small retracted eyes, particularly in 
 the heads of coarse fleshy horses, are more predisposed to 
 disease than others. 
 
 The occasional causes are probably various. A determi- 
 nation to the head must be the consequence of the exertion 
 which a horse is exposed to when he is first put to active 
 and laborious exercise, particularly that of drawing ; and 
 this, as he is unused to it, must act considerably in distend- 
 ing the vessels of these organs. Hurtrel d'Arboval lays 
 much stress on dentition as an occasional cause ; and in 
 this process it is certain much blood must centre about the 
 eyes. Early breaking horses into harness by collar pres- 
 sure must also hinder the free return of blood from the 
 head, and produce congestion. There is great reason to 
 think, that disturbances in the digestive functions are pre- 
 disponents. The acrimonious fumes of a hot foul stable, to 
 a young animal that has been only used to a barn and pad- 
 dock, may call it into action. Of all causes, foul stables, and 
 improper food, serve to keep alive the disorder. Formerly, 
 when animals were little cared for, specific ophthalmia was 
 a frequent disease. Now, when horses are better under- 
 stood, and more carefully tended, a man may be in practice 
 ten years without encountering a single instance of its 
 ravages. Cart-horses are most subject, because they are 
 of all animals worst stabled. Ponies are all but exempt ; 
 these diminutive creatures being sufiered to go at large. 
 
SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 503 
 
 In England, where stabling and fodder are much studied, 
 the disease is rare. In Ireland, where horses are thought 
 to be well housed, so they can stand and feed on what 
 they can get, specific ophthalmia, and its effects, are still 
 an every-day occurrence. 
 
 Treatment. ~Jt is not in general found difficult to remove 
 the immediate attack ; but from the specific nature of, 
 and the connexion the disease has with the constitution at 
 large, as before insisted on, it proves extremely difficult to 
 prevent the recurrence. In this particular it resembles 
 scrofula in the human being ; and it is only a proof of the 
 fatal blindness of practitioners, that after all their endea- 
 vours have rather aggravated than ameliorated the dis- 
 order, a total change of practice never occurred to them. 
 Many recommend four large blood-lettings, purgatives, diu- 
 retics, sedatives, setons, and blisters ; and have even not 
 scrupled to propose the putting out of an eye, to stay the 
 ravage which they had no art to stop. When the animal 
 is first attacked, fasten a piece of tape to the head stall, 
 that it may slant across the face ; but above the eye, and 
 on this line, hang a portion of soft rag several times dou- 
 bled, so that it may fall over the affected organ, which it 
 ought entirely to cover. Have the rag kept wet with 
 hot or cold applications, according as either seems to 
 be agreeable to the animal. If hot, break up some poppy 
 heads, and boil one dozen in two quarts of water for four 
 hours, repeatedly filling up the saucepan as the liquor is 
 reduced. Afterwards, press and strain. Then add water 
 to make up the quantity, if any be deficient. Let it stand 
 till the sediment has settled, when decant with care, and 
 warm as required. Should cold be preferred, add one ounce 
 of laudanum to a quart of spring water, and keep the rag 
 wet with the mixture. 
 
 The food should all be boiled, and of the most supporting 
 kind. Roots of all kinds, malt, oats, ground beans, clover 
 hay, linseed, &c. &c. This will probably sufficiently open 
 the bowels, but should it not, avoid giving more than one 
 drachm of aloes night and morning ; and even continue 
 this quantity no further than is imperative to render the 
 bowels soft, yet by no means to induce watery stools. 
 
 With regard to physic, any thing administered must be 
 
504 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 
 
 of a soothing and supporting description, therefore give 
 night and morning, during the violence of the attack, the 
 following drink : — 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Powdered colchicum half an ounce. 
 
 Stout one quart. 
 
 Should the inflammation run very high, the superior 
 branch of the angular or facial, called the eye vein, may 
 be opened, and the horse have some food, to which he is 
 partial, given him to eat off the ground. If the animal 
 refuses to feed, the opening made with the lancet may be 
 bathed with warm water ; and even by this last process, no 
 inconsiderable quantity of blood may be abstracted, yet oc- 
 casionally the blood refuses to flow. In that case, open 
 the opposite vein ; and after this last has lost a small quan- 
 tity, the original will generally pour forth freely. 
 
 This is every thing that should be done ; and when the 
 horse recovers he will be fit for service, without a long rest, 
 and an expensive course of tonics. To perfect the cure, 
 however, and to prevent a recurrence of the disorder, mind 
 and have your stable's drains overlooked : do this, even 
 though your nose can detect nothing. The most unhealthy 
 gases are not always those which smell the worst. This 
 being accomplished, next attend to the ventilation. See 
 that the roof of the stable be, at least, nine feet high. That 
 the air may be sweet it should never exceed 52° degrees of 
 warmth in winter, and 65° in summer. Should the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere be higher than the figures re- 
 corded, throw every door and window in the place wide 
 open, and let them remain thus till the heat declines to the 
 required standard. 
 
 Place a pail of water in the horse's manger, so that he 
 may drink when he pleases. Observe that the water be 
 repeatedly changed, and not the quantity merely filled 
 up, a portion of the stagnant fluid remaining each time. 
 Good water is as necessary for horses as for Christians. It 
 is true, these animals will generally endeavour to drink 
 at every dirty puddle they cross ; but this does not prove 
 that dirty water is good for horses, any more than it is 
 established that green gooseberries are good for children, 
 because little boys and girls are fond of eating them, Man, 
 
CATARACT. 505 
 
 with all his reason, has partaken of very injurious drinks ; 
 and it is hardly fair for him to insist his dumb servant 
 should be over choice in the matter of fluids. 
 
 No matter in what condition the eye, which has lately 
 suffered from ophthalmia, may be in, do nothing to it. 
 Trust entirely to nature, and shut your ears to the quacks 
 about you, though each should swear he has in his posses- 
 sion an infallible remedy. Formerly all kinds of stuffs 
 were put into the sore and sensitive eye of the sick horse ; 
 but if you are determined to do something, the following 
 probably may do as little harm as any thing else, though 
 they are far more appropriate to the former disease : — 
 
 No. 1 . — Sugar of lead half a drachm. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc one scruple. 
 
 Distilled water one pint. 
 
 Mix. When the sediment has settled, decant gently, then 
 filter through blotting paper, and bottle for use. 
 
 No. 2. — Crude sal ammoniac one drachm. 
 
 Infusion of red rose leaves one pint. 
 
 No. 3. — Laudanum half an ounce. 
 
 Rose water one pint. 
 
 CATARACT. 
 
 The specific ophthalmia just described has too common 
 a tendency to end in total cataract ; the lens, in the majority 
 of cases that have terminated, is fully involved, and quite 
 white. In other cases that have happily stopped short in 
 their career, spots only of an uncertain size are visible on 
 the lens or upon its capsule ; for a white opaque spot on 
 either is called a cataract. Cataracts, however, can and do 
 exist in eyes that have never been subjected to ophthalmia ; 
 and as they make their appearance without any apparent 
 cause, so they occasionally will depart without any treat- 
 ment. Blows sometimes produce them, and when caused 
 in this manner, they are for the most part stationary. 
 However, in cataract following ophthalmia, there is gene- 
 rally much derangement of the other internal parts of the 
 eye ; particularly of the iris, which sometimes adheres to the 
 lens, at others to the cornea ; and in some cases its pupil- 
 lary opening is so reduced by contraction as to render the 
 cataract hardly perceptible. This internal derangement 
 
506 GLASS EYES. 
 
 greatly prevents any benefit being derived from the opera- 
 tion of couching ; added to which, a horse so operated upon, 
 to have perfect vision, would require to wear spectacles. It 
 has, however, been suggested that, even without glasses, so 
 much benefit might be gained from it as to prevent acci- 
 dents, like running against posts, falling in pits, &c. This, 
 nevertheless, would be greatly overbalanced by the imper- 
 fect vision, which would render the horse so operated on 
 very dangerous from his liability to shy. 
 
 Treatment. — Cataracts of all sizes and shapes are best let 
 alone. Should they cause the horse to shy, blind the eye 
 or eyes in which they may exist. The measures generally 
 pursued, with very doubtful success indeed, are the blowing 
 of mercurial preparations into the eye, the application of 
 caustics, either in powerful solutions, or in substance, to 
 the organ ; and, in short, all kinds of cruelties, more likely 
 to favour the formation, than to cause the dispersion of 
 cataract. 
 
 GLASS EYES, AMAUROSIS, OR GUTTA SERENA. 
 
 This disease, known by the term glass eyes, from the 
 peculiar glassy appearance the organs assume, is generally 
 considered as dependent on a paralytic state of the optic 
 nerves, or of their expansions, the retinae. By others 
 it is, however, thought to arise from the effects of inflam- 
 mation, by which coagulable lymph is placed over the optic 
 nerve, rendering the retina inaccessible to the stimulus of 
 light ; this can hardly be an occasional, and is certainly 
 not the usual cause. The disease, however, is likely to 
 arise from any irritation of the brain ; thus it is found to 
 follow staggers and the loss of large quantities of blood ; 
 which last mentioned cause specially affects the nervous 
 system. The veterinarian should make himself familiar 
 with the appearances of this complaint, otherwise he may 
 lie open to serious imposition. In amaurosis, a horse pre- 
 sents indications of blindness in his manner, though but 
 little in his eyes ; he seems cautious in stepping ; lifts his 
 legs high, and moves his ears quickly, as though endeavour- 
 ing to make up by sound the intelligence lost by the depri- 
 vation of sight : but, above all, a hand moved close to the 
 eye occasions no winking, unless held near enough for the 
 
GREASE. 507 
 
 motion to influence the air around, which an artful person 
 might manage with ease. When this kind of eye is ex- 
 amined closely, the pupil will be found of one invariahle 
 size and unvarying hue ; it will not enlarge and diminish as 
 in a healthy horse, when removed farther from, or nearer 
 to, the light ; for the retina, ceasing to be influenced by the 
 luminous ray, no longer controls the movements of the 
 iris. It is, therefore, from the peculiarities in the manner 
 of the horse, the invariable size of the pupil, and a greenish 
 glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases may be distin- 
 guished. As it has hitherto proved incurable, we shall 
 waste no time on its treatment. 
 
 EXCRESCENCES, &C. ON THE EYES. 
 
 It remains to observe, that small polypous excrescences 
 sometimes form on the globe of the eye, or on the eyelids. 
 Fungoid projections on the transparent cornea likewise 
 sometimes follow accidental abrasions, or may be they are 
 spontaneous productions. When they are of the nature of 
 polypi, cut them off. When of the fungoid kind, the chlo- 
 ride of zinc in solution, or a minute quantity of the ung : 
 precip : rub : softened with oil and painted over it every 
 day, or second day, will effect a removal. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
 GREASE. 
 
 This disease appears to be dependent on a morbid altera- 
 tion in the quantity and quality of the sebaceous matter 
 secreted by the glands of the extremities. The inflamma- 
 tion which first brings about this effect exhibits some singu- 
 larities not observable in the inflammations of other parts ; 
 and had the assertion of Jenner been true, that matter from 
 it was capable of raising a disease again communicable, 
 its character as a specific disease would stand on equal 
 grounds with syphihs or small-pox. But that capability is 
 now questionable, although not decidedly proved to be erro- 
 neous ; and as on this it rests its main support to the 
 
508 GREASE. 
 
 character of a specific disease, the assertion must be left 
 undecided. The secretion of the sebaceous glands varies 
 according to the necessities of the part within which they 
 are situated. It cannot be denied, therefore, as probable, 
 that their diseases may exhibit corresponding peculiarities, 
 which we find to be the case in grease. Mr. Percivall 
 notices in this disease its simple form, its ulcerative, and its 
 grapy form. In the simple form there is merely swelling of 
 the skin of the hind legs, which becomes hot, inflamed, and 
 tumefied ; greasy in appearance, moist with exudation, and 
 offensive to smell. It soon assumes the ulcerative cha- 
 racter, and cracks, raw, deep, and excessively tender, mark 
 the next stage of the affection. Unless the further progress 
 of the disease can be arrested, these wide and deep ulcerated 
 cracks throw up loathsome excrescences called grapes: 
 renewed fungoid deposits continue to be added, and the 
 heels become enormously swollen. 
 
 The inflammation productive of grease appears to origi- 
 nate in debility, general or local. It originates in general 
 debility, when the system at large is weakened by long-con- 
 tinued disease ; or from want of proper nutriment ; or from 
 long-continued exertion : in which cases these parts being 
 farther removed from the source of circulation, which itself 
 labours under additional languor, they are thought to suffer 
 proportionally in a greater degree than those nearer to 
 the action of the heart ; hence it is said accumulations 
 take place, which, if not removed, terminate in an inflamma- 
 tion, and in an increase of the secretions peculiar to the leg. 
 This species of general debility appears in spring and 
 autumn, from the efforts nature employs to generate a new 
 clothing of hair. 
 
 Grease may be said to have local weakness for a cause. 
 As fluids press, not in proportion to their diameter, but to 
 the height of their column, the venous blood must find some 
 difficulty to its ascent. Debility is therefore more felt in 
 the distended vessels remote from the influence of the 
 heart, under which circumstance the effects productive of 
 grease necessarily ensue. 
 
 Over-feeding is one of the causes of grease ; and if to this 
 plethoric state the want of exercise be added, the legs will 
 be the parts most hkely to suffer. An inflammatory re- 
 
GREASE. 509 
 
 action will follow the distention, and the sebaceous glands 
 will be stimulated both to an increased and an unhealthy 
 deposit : and they being here very numerous and large, 
 and requiring to secrete in proportion, it follows that in- 
 stead of the natural unctuous secretion of the skin of the 
 heels, they will now pour forth a serous fluid through 
 ulcerated cracks, or a general purulent one under the real 
 term of grease. Cold is unfavourable to absorption ; it like- 
 wise weakens the general energy of the parts, and it often 
 suspends the circulation ; and, when this has happened, on 
 the return of warmth the impetus of the blood is always 
 preternaturally increased ; and the distended vessels, being 
 previously weakened, are rendered incapable of contracting 
 on their contents ; and it is perhaps principally to the pre- 
 sence of cold, and its effects on the constitution, that swelled 
 legs, cracks, and grease, are so much more common in 
 winter. Grease has even been called a winter disease, and 
 the chilblain of horses. Moisture is likewise favourable to 
 the complaint, for it first produces a determination to the 
 parts, and then, as a parent of cold, it weakens the already 
 distended vessels. It is stated by an officer of a dragoon 
 regiment, that, when stationed in America, another officer 
 being favourable to the custom of washing the heels of 
 horses, was permitted to exercise it on his own troop ; the 
 result was, that this individual troop in three months fur- 
 nished more than twenty horses with grease, the remainder 
 of the regiment not more than two or three. The acclivity 
 of the stalls in our stables has been considered as aiding the 
 other causes of grease, and with some apparent propriety ; 
 for it tends to throw considerable weight on the hinder ex- 
 tremities ; this, by the unnatural position of the heels, puts 
 the parts on the stretch, and hence weakens them. Grease 
 will often follow injuries ; as halter casting, or indeed any 
 accidental abrasion, may bring it on. The disease may 
 become serious when it occurs under other circumstances 
 favourable to its production, as in moist, cold, and par- 
 ticularly frosty or snowy weather ; or when, from previous 
 illness, a horse has been thrown out of condition ; and, 
 more than all, when such a case has been maltreated by the 
 idleness or ignorance of those around, who, finding a swelled 
 heel, immediately fly to urine balls, or purging balls, whereas 
 
510 . GREASE. 
 
 a little local attention would cure the injured surfaces at 
 once. Vast numbers of horses are greased by want of 
 attention : it is too much to say, under good grooming, 
 horses would never have swelled legs or even cracked heels ; 
 but perhaps few, if any, would ever run into that stage of 
 ulceration, distinguished from milder abrasions by the term 
 grease, as expressive of its oily discharge. It is to extreme 
 cleanliness, to free ventilation, to hand-rubbing the legs 
 when wet until they are perfectly dry ; and to immediate 
 local attention to any accidental abrasion, or to any slight 
 swelling of the heels, that grease is now banished from 
 among our cavalry, and so seldom met with in any well- 
 regulated stable. Grease is, in ninety-nine cases out of a 
 hundred, the consequence of improper treatment of some 
 kind. The attendant is apt to slight the hind legs, because 
 they are less clean from soil and moisture ; from fear also 
 the hinder extremities get neglected, as many grooms dare 
 not trust themselves on their knees, or even employ both 
 hands at once to the heels of the hind legs ; and we need 
 not say, that, from one hand being a resisting point to 
 the other, friction can only be thus obtained. Colour, like- 
 wise, as it marks debility, so it influences grease ; thus, 
 it has been remarked that white-legged and light -coloured 
 horses generally are more liable to cracks, to grease, and 
 to diseases of the feet, than others which are darker, or 
 whose legs are black. In the foregoing summary of the 
 causes of grease, which in the present edition is greatly 
 compressed, every possible reason is assigned for the origin 
 of the disease, save the right one, upon which the author is 
 rather forced, than reaches by his own efforts. The truth 
 is, grease arises from bad stable management. No matter 
 of what breed, or how old the horse may be, the groom is 
 to blame if the animal becomes greasy. In all well-regu- 
 lated stables, the appearance of this loathsome disorder is a 
 signal for a change of attendants therein ; for as the affec- 
 tion is now banished from the army, what earthly reason 
 can be urged why it should be found in private stables ? 
 
 TREATMENT OF GREASE. 
 
 This complaint takes on different states or stages, which 
 being known by different terms, as swelled legs, cracks, 
 
GREASE. 511 
 
 grease, graped heels, &c., are apt to be considered as dis- 
 tinct diseases : but the causes producing any one of them, 
 may produce the others, and the treatment of all must be 
 grounded on the same principles : nevertheless, for sim- 
 plicity of reference we shall consider these several states 
 separately, still blending the character of the specific afTec- 
 tion and the treatment. Swelled legs without discharge 
 have been already fully considered. 
 
 Of Cracks. — At first there will be simply heat and itching 
 in the part ; the horse will be observed to rub one leg 
 against the other, and sometimes to stamp with his foot, 
 the whole surface appearing more red than before. If this 
 state be not attended to, there succeeds an oozing out of 
 an ichorous discharge from a kind of crack, of which there 
 are sometimes several. Occasionally the suppurative pro- 
 cess follows the inflammatory action, so that purulent 
 matter appears to flow from the first; but, if suffered to 
 proceed, pus always makes its appearance. In this early 
 state of tumid, itching, scurfy heels, frequently little more 
 is necessary than the application of the chloride of zinc 
 lotion, a scruple to the pint of liquid ; having first well 
 cleansed the legs with soap and water, and well dried them 
 afterwards, removing as much of the cuticular eruption as 
 possible. When the case has proceeded to form cracks, it 
 will be advisable to attempt the stoppage of the discharge 
 by frequent washings of the same solutions before recom- 
 mended ; how^ever, taking care that all the hair be clipped 
 from the heels, so that the lotion may reach the skin. If 
 with an inflammatory state there is an ichorous discharge, 
 and an ulcerative process fully established, the part showing 
 much virulence and tenderness, the cracks must be carefully 
 washed with warm water, and thoroughly dried, whenever 
 the horse returns from exercise ; after which, bathe with 
 any mild astringent lotion, as the following : — 
 
 Chloride of zinc two scruples. 
 
 Laudanum two ounces. 
 
 Water a pint. 
 
 This should be well applied, at least three times daily, at 
 most six times in tw^enty-four hours. 
 
 Sometimes the irritability of the parts requires the appli- 
 cation of a poultice previously to the use of the wash. 
 
512 GREASE. 
 
 One formed of the following ingredients will be found to 
 act admirably in cleansing, and at the same time soothing 
 the parts : — 
 
 Powdered charcoal two pounds. 
 
 Fresli ale yeast one pint. 
 
 Bran one quart. 
 
 Barley-meal one quart. 
 
 Add a sufficiency of blood-warm water, then sprinkle the 
 surface with powdered opium, and over that strew pul- 
 verized camphor. Apply it at night, and remove in the 
 morning. 
 
 Swelled Legs, with Discharge. — In some instances with a 
 general want of condition, the result of disease, there is a 
 great tumefaction of all the extremities, which is apt to be 
 followed by serous discharge from several outlets. The 
 curative plan in this case is more complicated ; for we have 
 to combat the general debility by generous diet in the form 
 of speared corn, malt mashes, with carrots, &c. in winter ; 
 and also to lessen the watery deposit by very mild remedies. 
 Mild tonics may be administered, but every thing of a 
 draining or depletive description strictly withheld. No 
 matter what shall be urged to recommend diuretics or pur- 
 gatives, let the proprietor firmly resist all such poison. 
 The following is a mild tonic drink : — 
 
 Sound ale one pint. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia half a drachm. 
 
 Extract of gentian half an ounce. 
 
 Tincture of capsicums half a drachm. 
 
 Rub down the extract and the carbonate in some of the ale, 
 and give night and morning. It was before hinted that 
 cases occur of discharge from the heels, where astringents, 
 immediately applied, only irritate : every practitioner must 
 have met with such instances, as they are sufficiently com- 
 mon. Without cavilling about the term, we know that in 
 this form of the complaint it must be patiently soothed, 
 before the parts will suffer themselves to be even gently 
 stimulated by the mildest astringent applications. In these 
 cases the heels, in addition to the tumefaction, and the 
 pouring out of ichorous or semi-purulent discharge in con- 
 siderable quantities, are stiff, tender, and painful in the 
 extreme ; the horse evinces the greatest reluctance to have 
 any thing done to them, and when he is moved snatches up 
 
GREASE. 
 
 513 
 
 his leg convulsively, while the extent of vascular action is 
 such that the heels smoke when exposed. This highly irri- 
 table state can only be reduced by poultices. In these cases 
 apply the poultice before recommended, only the bran may 
 be changed for linseed, or for carrots or turnips, boiled and 
 mashed. By these means the heat, tenderness, swelling, 
 and redness, will abate : the discharge also from a thin 
 ichorous one will become white, bland, and truly purulent. 
 Now there may be mingled with the mild tonic drink, which 
 is to be given at the times before stated, one ounce of the 
 liquor arsenicahs ; and, instead of the former lotion, either 
 of the following prescriptions may be used for once or 
 twice : — 
 Powder : — 
 
 Chloride of lime one ounce. 
 
 Chalk , a quarter of a pound. 
 
 Powdered gall nuts two ounces. 
 
 Or the subjoined lotion : — 
 
 Chloride of zinc three drachms. 
 
 Laudanum four ounces. 
 
 Oak bark (solution of) four ounces. 
 
 Water one quart. 
 
 Neither of the foregoing are to be used, unless the state of 
 the case imperatively demands them, as they are at all times 
 far better withheld than exhibited. When, also, much 
 tumefaction takes place, a linen bandage is often beneficial ; 
 beginning at tlife coronet, and rolling it more than half way 
 up the leg ; being careful that it is only done with a very 
 moderate degree of tightness at first, and that the same 
 bandage is never used twice without being well washed. 
 As amendment proceeds, great care is requisite to prevent 
 relapse, by avoiding the original exciting causes. The 
 general disposition to swelling will be best counteracted by 
 long- continued walking exercise, with moderate but nutri- 
 tive feeding, particularly by the use of green meat in sum- 
 mer, and of carrots in winter. Bran mashes, as tending to 
 open the body, should not be lost sight of ; and w^hen it 
 can be conveniently managed, place the horse in a loose 
 box. But if the complaint occurs in an emaciated animal 
 the plan already detailed should be pursued with more 
 moderation as regards exercise, or with such only as a 
 loose box may aftbrd. We have, in all those cases, where 
 
 l1 
 
514 GREASE. 
 
 green meat could not be got, experienced great benefit from 
 spearing the corn, particularly where the horse was low in 
 flesh or poor in condition. Any change of food, almost, is 
 proper ; at least, any not manifestly injudicious. The best 
 effects have been known to follow the substituting of beans 
 for oats, and this in a horse not particularly emaciated. 
 Before w^e quit the subject it may not be improper again to 
 remark, that this species of grease is frequently the result 
 of blisters injudiciously applied when the legs are in a state 
 of swelling and debility. 
 
 Confirmed Grease.- — This is to be considered only as a 
 more aggravated stage or state of the former ; in which the 
 matter issuing has the foetid peculiar smell, that strongly 
 characterises the disease ; so powerful is this, a person 
 can at once recognise whether a greasy horse be in a stable 
 or not. The inflammation, that was before principally con- 
 fined to the sebaceous glandular structure, now affects the 
 integuments generally, producing extensive ulceration, with 
 intermediate dry hardened scabs : the hair stands erect ; 
 the whole surface becomes exquisitely sensible and vascular, 
 bleeding on the slightest touch ; and the vessels of the heels 
 not only secrete a peculiar fluid, but some of them take 
 on a singular action, and form a semi-corneous substance ; 
 so that, in the advanced stages and violent degrees of this 
 complaint, hardened horny knobs form over the fetlock, 
 intermixed with others more vascular, uniting the proper- 
 ties of pus, mucus, and oil : these protuberant portions are 
 called grapes, from their figure. The constitution usually 
 sympathises much with this extreme state of grease, and 
 the horse, unless very well fed, becomes weak, lean, and 
 irritable. 
 
 Treatment. — It becomes a question, whether, in a case of 
 confirmed grease, even if it were in our power, it would be 
 prudent to stop the discharge at once ; for when secreting 
 vessels have been long habituated to any action, they can 
 seldom be suddenly checked with impunity. But it is to 
 be first remembered, that the diseased exudation cannot 
 be a natural one ; therefore, the heels should be subjected 
 to a treatment that may produce a more healthy secretion. 
 The best means for effecting this is the poultice composed 
 of charcoal, yeast, bran, and barley meal. This should be 
 
SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 515 
 
 applied every day and night, as soon as mixed, it being 
 suffered to perform its fermentative process upon the leg ; 
 and, by the action of the carbonic acid gas, it is remark- 
 able what a change is produced on the part, generating a 
 mild, bland, pus-like fluid, with a decrease of irritability. 
 Should the expense be objected to, a carrot or turnip poul= 
 tice may be tried instead, though no vast saving is effected, 
 as these last are much longer and more uncertain in their 
 action. It is, moreover, essentially necessary to the cure, 
 that all sprouting luxurious gi'anulations should be reduced 
 to the level of the surrounding integuments. Caustics only 
 render these grapes, as they are termed, of greater size ; 
 but the mode best adapted for their removal is by the knife ; 
 having a flat piece of heated iron also ready to pass over 
 the surfaces, in case the haemorrhage is profuse ; as the horse 
 having grease can but ill afford the loss of blood. The 
 operations being finished, apply the poultice as directed. 
 In two or three days leave off the poultice, and employ the 
 strongest lotion into which chloride of zinc enters, and 
 sprinkle the legs with either of the powders before men- 
 tioned, only rendering each weaker as the symptoms abate. 
 In this manner a cure may be accomplished. The disease, 
 however, is apt to return. Should it display this disposi- 
 tion, discharge the groom, and procure one that is less 
 sparing of his labour. Do not have the horse's heels 
 washed when he comes in dirty from w^ork. Make the 
 groom take a hay-band, and go upon both knees, to rub 
 them with both hands, until they are thoroughly dry. 
 Wash them the following morning, and be careful to dry 
 them well afterwards. The thin linen bandage may also be 
 dried ; and the way to the stable, and the straw under the 
 animal inspected, to see they are all free from dirt. A 
 Liverpool dealer, when he has a horse that displays a dis- 
 position for grease, claps a blister upon the heels, and 
 gives the horse a few old beans, with a quart of ale daily. 
 This treatment has so highly pleased the dealer, that he ex- 
 pressed a determination to pursue it for the future. 
 
 SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 
 
 When this disorder first appeared in England, the editor 
 then declared his opinion, that it was but as a fugitive 
 
 l12 
 
516 SLMALL POX IN SHEEP. 
 
 visitation ; that it would obtain no hold of the native 
 flocks, and however virulent it might be abroad, it would 
 be unable to establish a footing at home. This conclusion 
 was based upon the intimate communication, which had 
 long existed between this country and foreign parts ; upon 
 the known contagiousness of the disorder ; and upon some- 
 thing very like to it, having from time to time broken out 
 in this country, but always having ultimately disappeared. 
 These facts enabled an encouraging opinion to be published, 
 at a time when all was terror and dismay ; and it is just 
 ground for self-gratulation, that subsequent events have 
 proved the opinion then declared to be well founded. 
 Nevertheless, as sheep-pox may, in consequence of the now 
 frequent importation of live stock, break out at any mo- 
 ment, it will be proper to include a description of its symp- 
 toms and treatment, in the new edition of the present com- 
 pendious treatise. The first stage of this affection is im- 
 perceptible, but during it nothing is to be foretold. The 
 sheep appear perfectly healthy. They feed well, and are as 
 lively as any members of the flock ; but, during all this time, 
 the taint has been received, and the animals are breeding the 
 disorder. The period, from the reception of the contagion 
 to the development of the complaint is, during the summer 
 months, from six to twelve days ; but, during the colder 
 half of the year, from twelve to twenty-four days. 
 
 At the expiration of one or the other of these periods, 
 the disease exhibits its characteristic symptoms. The ani- 
 mal becomes dull ; is off its feed ; stands apart from the 
 rest ; and ceases to ruminate. The head and ears are pen- 
 dant ; the membrane, lining the eyes and nostrils, in- 
 flamed ; the pulse increases ; the attitude is unnatural ; 
 while a watery secretion overflows the eyes, and a thick 
 mucus is discharged from the nose. If the animal be now^ 
 caught, and thrown upon its back, there will, upon the 
 hindmost part of the belly, and inner side of the thighs, 
 where the wool is very thin, or altogether wanting, be seen 
 a reddish blush, the colour of which will disappear upon 
 pressure. Upon passing the palm of the hand over the 
 skin, a number of inequalities, like to pimples beneath the 
 integument, will be plainly felt. In from two to four days, 
 these pimples pierce the skin, and the fever increases. The 
 
SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 517 
 
 lumps may be in large or small patches ; they may run 
 together, or be at a distance from each other : there is no 
 limit to the eruption, or bounds to its ravages. At the first 
 appearance of the swellings, however, they are of a weak red 
 hue. The animal's sufferings increase. A light clear liquid, 
 in a very small bladder, next appears on the top of each 
 swelling, in from tw^o to four days. After this last symp- 
 tom is fairly exhibited, the sheep becomes more lively ; but 
 in three days, or in six, he becomes worse than ever. There 
 then appears an inflamed circle round each head of the 
 pimples. The bladder no longer contains a clear liquid, 
 but pus now occupies the place of the original fluid. The 
 fever is then at its height, and many a sheep who has past 
 the first virulence of the disorder, sinks beneath this second 
 aggravation. After a while, the pustules burst, and scabs 
 are formed, which, when they are cast off, leave behind 
 them small pits or ulcers, that are very difficult to eradi- 
 cate, because of the weakness attending the complaint. 
 
 The attack generally lasts a month. The after conse- 
 quences are hardly less fearful than the disease. In some 
 cases, when the patches run together, the symptoms are 
 very fearful ; the breath quickens ; the lips and tongue 
 ulcerate ; the head swells ; the breath stinks ; thick 
 saliva runs from the mouth ; the wool tumbles off in 
 flakes ; large sloughs occur, and the animal sinks under 
 the violence of the disorder, diarrhoea generally concluding 
 every thing. The signs by which the disease is recognised 
 are redness of the skin ; the felling of a rash underneath it. 
 Also the appearance of the pimples ; their getting white and 
 clear heads ; a ring showing itself round each swelling, 
 when the transparency becomes opaque. The pimples 
 burst ; the dried matter accumulates about the orifice. Black 
 scabs are formed ; these last drop off, and leave ulcers 
 behind. There are several forms of this disorder, or, rather, 
 the same disease can assume various degrees of violence. 
 
 Treatment. — When sheep-pox is abroad, the master's eye 
 ought to be daily cast upon the flock. The food should be 
 nutritive, the pens open, and sufficient space allowed, as all 
 crowding is injurious. It is better to give the animals a 
 little shelter, than force them together to keep one another 
 warm. Any sheep that seems dull should be carried home, 
 
518 SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 
 
 and put by itself. The following mild laxative ought to 
 be given : — 
 
 Epsnm salts half an ounce. 
 
 Sulphuric ether two drachms. 
 
 Nitre half a drachm. 
 
 Dissolve the salts and the nitre in a pint of cold water, and 
 having added the ether, give the drink to the animal. 
 
 This may be repeated the next day, if costiveness be still 
 present ; but must not be continued after the bowels are 
 relieved, however gently. When the disease declares itself, 
 we must give further medicine ; and the following drink is 
 as good as any : — 
 
 Belladonna a scruple. 
 
 Liquor ammonia acetatis one ounce. 
 
 Rub the belladonna in a little thin gruel, and give in half a 
 pint quite cold. 
 
 While this is administered, all solid food must be with- 
 drawn ; the appetite is almost or quite lost, but the desire 
 for drink is great ; advantage may be taken of this last 
 circumstance to throw some support into the body if 
 water be denied, but plenty of sweet thin gruel (constantly 
 renewed) kept before the animal. CleanHness must, in 
 every particular, be scrupulously attended to. Thus the 
 measures recommended must be pursued, the drink last 
 proposed being given night and morning. When the pim- 
 ples have heads, boiled roots or malt mashes may be 
 allowed ; and, after the scabs are turned black, discontinue 
 the last drink, and give the subjoined : — 
 
 Extract of gentian one drachm. 
 
 Sulphate of copper ten grains. 
 
 Sound ale half a pint. 
 
 Dissolve the copper in a little ale ; rub down the extract in 
 a little more, and give daily. All should after this go well ; 
 but occasionally the disease assumes a typhoid character, 
 when the drink above must then be persevered in, and in 
 addition, a quart of gruel be horned down three times each 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 When the scabs fall off, bathe the ulcers with a solution 
 composed of a drachm of the chloride of zinc to a quart of 
 water ; keep the parts perfectly clean, and apply the liquid 
 mentioned night and day. 
 
WARTS. 519 
 
 The after consequences of this disorder are, by continental 
 writers, recorded as loss of sight, lameness, affections of 
 the lungs, colic, weak intestines, emaciation, abortion, loss 
 of the fleece ; any one of which is hardly less fearful than 
 the disease itself. Wherefore it is better for the farmer to 
 have such animals slaughtered as do not speedily recover, 
 rather than nurse them upon a chance of restoration. 
 Foreign authors speak of inoculation as a certain pre- 
 ventative, or at most, the loss is but one in a thousand 
 lambs, when it is done properly ; but people in this country, 
 where the disease is rare, are not advised to have resort to 
 this last measure, 
 
 MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. 
 
 When a scurfy or scabby eruption at the posterior part 
 of the bending of the knee appears, it is termed mallenders : 
 and when a similar one appears at the bend of the hock, 
 it is called sallenders. Neither of them lame or do much 
 harm ; but sometimes, when neglected, they degenerate 
 into a foul ichorous discharge, a little more troublesome, 
 and always unsightly. Both of them are very easily re- 
 moved by washing with soap and water, and by applying 
 the following : — 
 
 Camphor one di-achm. 
 
 Subacetate of lead {sugar of lead) half a drachm. 
 
 Mercurial ointment one ounce. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 WARTS 
 
 Are best removed by tying a ligature round them ; or, 
 with scarcely any pain, by applying every day, with a camel's 
 hair pencil, a small portion of strong acetic acid ; or they 
 may be cut off with a knife or scissors, and the root touched 
 with any caustic body. There is sometimes seen a sprout- 
 ing luxurious species, whose roots are larger than their 
 heads, so that a ligature is not easily passed around them ; 
 these are best removed by touching their surface daily with 
 the following paste. The following application will seldom 
 fail to remove such as cannot be conveniently got at by the 
 knife or ligature, dressing with it once a day : — 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1 rt. ■ n , 
 
 r. 11 ;■ a sumciency oi each. 
 
 buli)liur J •' 
 
 Make into a paste, and apply a little to the wart. 
 
520 MANGE. 
 
 MANGE. 
 
 This is sufficiently known as an eruptive affection of the 
 skin, very highly contagious, and accompanied with almost 
 incessant itching. It is found in all our domestic quadru- 
 peds. In the various animals it presents some distinctive 
 marks. Our principal difficulty was, to account for the readi- 
 ness with which mange was taken or propagated. This 
 difficulty is now surmounted, since Mr. Erasmus Wilson 
 has shown the veterinary profession the disease is caused by 
 the presence of minute insects of the spider tribe, called 
 acari. Mange often commences at the roots of the hair of 
 the mane and tail ; where a scurfy state of the skin appears, 
 and which it gives the horse pleasure to have examined. 
 A few days will extend this beyond the simple line of the 
 mane and tail : spots denuded of hair will appear, and 
 will eventually make their way over the body to the 
 face. A close examination will detect under the branny 
 scurf small vesicular eminences, watery above and red be- 
 neath ; distinct in the moderate state, but running into 
 continuous scabby patches in inveterate mange. Mr. Per- 
 civall has, with his characteristic accuracy, remarked on the 
 stubborn adherence of some few hairs in the very middle of 
 the otherwise bare mangy patches. If the observer is in- 
 clined to examine these individual hairs, he will find that it 
 requires a very powerfiil pull with a pair of tweezers to 
 dislodge one of them from its cell within the cutis ; and 
 when done, he will find not only that the hair itself is 
 enlarged, but that its bulb is singularly tumid and vascular. 
 As the disease advances, it thickens and puckers the skin, 
 particularly that of the neck, withers, and loins ; and it is 
 throughout marked by its incessant and intolerable irrita- 
 tion, which forces the horse often to rub himself raw. 
 
 The cure of mange. — The disease is more often to be con- 
 sidered as a local affection ; but there are cases also where 
 it may have a constitutional connexion ; as when brought on 
 by emaciation, close confinement, and habitual filth. In 
 cases either generated or caught, where emaciation is pre- 
 sent, feed liberally with malt mashes and green food of the 
 most nutritive kind. If in winter, allow carrots, beet, 
 potatoes, &c. ; and if these are not to be had, spear the 
 corn, and give with bran : for, although not generally taken 
 
MANGE. 521 
 
 into the account, a change of food will materially assist and 
 expedite the cure. 
 
 The external applications resorted to for the cure are 
 various ; but sulphur is, of all other remedies uncombined, 
 the article most to be relied on. The first three of the 
 following receipts are washes, and are calculated for very 
 mild cases, and where the filth of rubbing with unguents is 
 wished to be avoided ; but they should be abandoned if 
 they do not benefit in a week. They may be applied with 
 a sponge, carefully wetting every affected part. The two 
 latter are ointments, sufficiently efficacious, particularly 
 No. 4 ; but of course are not so cleanly as the former : 
 these are also to be applied every morning, accurately rub- 
 bing all affected places. 
 
 No. 1. — White hellebore two ounces. 
 
 Lime water, fresh made one pint. 
 
 Water three pints. 
 
 Boil the hellebore in the three pints of water till reduced 
 to a quart ; when cold, add the lime water. Put the whole 
 into a bottle, and cork it well, pouring it out as w^anted. 
 
 No. 2. — Corrosive sublimate one drachm. 
 
 Spirit of wine, or brandy one ounce. 
 
 Tobacco quarter of an ounce. 
 
 Water a pint and a half. 
 
 Dissolve the sublimated mercury in the spirit, by rubbing in 
 a mortar, after which boil the tobacco and mix. 
 
 No. 3. — Sulphur two ounces. 
 
 White hellebore five drachms. 
 
 W^ater one pint. 
 
 Either of these, though more cleanly, are not so safe as the 
 following ointments, which, besides being safer, will like- 
 wise be more efficacious : — 
 
 No. 4. — Sulphur one pound. 
 
 Oil of juniper quarter of a pound. 
 
 Yellow basilicon one pound. 
 
 Where a stronger remedy is desired the following may 
 be used : — 
 
 No. 5. — ^lui'curial ointment half a pound. 
 
 Soft soap two pounds. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate half an ounce. 
 
 At the Veterinary College a liniment is in general use — 
 
 Oil of nuts "1 
 
 Oil of tar of each equal pai'ts. 
 
 Oil of turpentine J 
 
522 ACUTE FOUNDER. 
 
 Previously to the application of any unguent, all excre- 
 mentitious matter should be removed from the skin, as 
 scurf or scab, by scraping, brushing, rubbing, or washing, 
 which will enable the ointment to reach the parts more 
 effectually. The method of applying the ointment may be 
 left to the discretion of the rubber. We used to direct it to 
 be done by means of a thick pair of leathern gloves ; which 
 will enable the operator to work it into the skin, or to 
 spread it well over every part, and to the bottom of any 
 sinuosities. The rubbing for the exposed parts should be 
 repeated every day, and a general dressing should be made 
 every other day. Where the skin is very stubborn, apply 
 the ointment by means of a hard brush. 
 
 HIDEBOUND. 
 
 It is very seldom that hidebound exists as a primary 
 disease of the skin, but as a symptomatic affection it is 
 sufficiently common. It is unnecessary to enlarge farther 
 on it ; the introduction of it here is merely intended to keep 
 the systematic order of diseases complete. Liberal food 
 and proper grooming will generally cure this imaginary dis- 
 order. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE FEET. 
 
 LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET. 
 
 ACUTE LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 
 
 This may be characterized as an acute inflammatory attack 
 on the vascular parts of the foot generally, but on the 
 sensitive laminee more particularly ; when we consider the 
 extent of secreting surface engaged in the formation of horn, 
 we cannot be surprised that these organs should become 
 the subjects of extensive inflammation. Primary inflam- 
 mation takes place in them from different causes, as from 
 the alternation of heat with cold, exactly in the same 
 manner as it occasions other great inflammations ; but more 
 particularly here, when extraordinary exertions have already 
 distended the vessels. It is, therefore, not unfrequently 
 seen consequent upon any great exertion, as hard driving or 
 
ACUTE FOUNDER. 523 
 
 riding for many hours in succession ; and it is found still 
 more likely to occur in snowy weather, particularly where 
 the removal into a hot stable has immediately followed. 
 Another cause of primary inflammation may be regarded as 
 dependent on the unceasing strain of the laminse which the 
 erect position occasions ; particularly in sea voyages, where 
 it is united with very great stress alternately laid on one or 
 other of the feet in attempting to preserve the perpendicular 
 position during the rolling of the ship. Acute founder is 
 sometimes not a primary affection, but is too frequently the 
 effect of metastasis. We have seen the feet receive this 
 morbid state from a translation of inflammation from many 
 of the organs, but it is most frequent in pneumonia and 
 enteritis : there is no acute attack but what may be 
 translated to the feet. Founder may be confined to one 
 foot, to two, or it may attack the whole four ; but it is 
 most common to the fore feet. 
 
 Symptoms of Acute Founder. — When a horse labours 
 under this complaint, the attendants are usually uncon- 
 scious of the real nature of the disease ; and it is not un- 
 frequent that even the medical practitioner, when called in, 
 does not immediately detect it, unless much used to these 
 cases : for he finds the horse heaving at his flanks, with a 
 quick, labouring pulse ; and, on inquiry, he hears that the 
 attack commenced with a rigor or shivering fit ; that the 
 suffering animal has been lying down and getting up fre- 
 quently ; gi'oaning with excess of pain, and occasionally 
 breaking out into cold and profuse sweats. In such a case, 
 unless he be informed that the horse has been ridden or 
 driven with violence, and afterwards exposed to cold ; or, 
 unless his eye catches the particular disinclination to remain 
 on the feet, or his hand detects their extreme heat, he is at 
 a loss, frequently, whether to consider it an attack on the 
 bowels, kidneys, or lungs, or an inflammatory or rheu- 
 matic fever. An experienced practitioner will, however, 
 even when called in at first, observe, that though the horse 
 appears to suffer much pain, and to lie down and rise fre- 
 quently, yet that he neither attempts to roll or paw with his 
 feet, nor look at his flanks, or kick his belly ; and that even 
 early in the complaint he betrays a peculiar manner of shifl- 
 ing and lifting up his legs, or of placing them so as to re- 
 
524 ACUTE FOUNDER. 
 
 lieve the superincumbent pressure ; either drawing his hinder 
 much under him to ease the fore feet, or placing the front 
 under the chest to reheve the hind, according as one or 
 the other are the principal seat of inflammation ; or, by a 
 marked disinclination to remain long up, when the whole of 
 them are affected. When the inflammation exists in all 
 four of them, the horse usually lies almost wholly on the 
 ground ; this disposition is, however, not quite invariable. 
 We need hardly give any signs to prevent it from being 
 considered as an affection of the loins, rheumatic or acci- 
 dental ; for as soon as the complaint has fully seized on the 
 feet, they will become intensely hot, and the plantar arteries 
 will be found pulsating very strongly. There is sometimes 
 some little tumefaction around the fetlocks, and, when one 
 foot is held up for examination, it gives so much pain to 
 the other, that the horse is in danger of falling ; at which 
 times the slightest tap on the feet with any thing hard gives 
 evidently extreme pain, and is flinched from most sensitively. 
 If the horse be attempted to be taken out of the stable, his 
 disinclination for motion at once shows the feet to be 
 the seat of evil : in his taking each limb up and setting it 
 down, there is something so truly characteristic of the in- 
 tensity of the anguish felt in them as will not easily be for- 
 gotten. He appears to walk as it were upon his heels, and 
 to allow no other part of the foot to touch the ground. 
 The course of the disease is various : it may end in resolu- 
 tion, in which case the symptoms all relax, the remains of 
 the congestion become absorbed, and the parts reinstate 
 themselves perfectly. In other cases, the laminae, throwing 
 out an impure pus, the coffin-bone parts from its attach- 
 ments, and by the weight is forced down ; the pressure of 
 the fallen coffin-bone partly destroys the concavity of the 
 sole, which becomes partially convex ; or is forced outward, 
 and leaves a large space, between the coffin-bone and the 
 horny toe, filled with a semi-cartilaginous mass. When the 
 inflammation proceeds to copious sujipuration, the symptoms 
 having raged with much intensity for six or fewer days, a 
 slight separation of the hoof from the soft parts may be ob- 
 served commencing around the coronet : the purulent secre- 
 tion soon becomes established, and, totally dissolving the 
 union between the soft masses of the feet and the hoofs, 
 
ACUTE FOUNDER. 525 
 
 they fall off, when, of course, the animal is of necessity- 
 destroyed, as a perfect hoof will never be renewed. 
 
 Treatment. — As soon a„s the disease is discovered, if you 
 are able so to do, proceed to remove the shoes ; and, while 
 the horse can yet stand, thin the sole and crust around, 
 allowing him a momentary respite, or he may fall on the 
 operator. If his state utterly precludes his standing up so 
 long, support him by every means at hand ; for thinning 
 the hoof is so necessary to relieve the internal pressure, 
 that it cannot be dispensed with. The next point is, by 
 arteriotomy, to abstract blood from the toe of each affected 
 foot to the amount of two quarts from each, if the founder 
 extends to all four of the feet ; but take three quarts from 
 each, if the disease is confined to the fore feet only, as is 
 most common. To encourage the bleeding when it does 
 not flow sufficiently free, the hoofs may be immersed in 
 warm water, or surrounded with cloths, and warm water 
 poured on them. As soon as the disposition to suppura- 
 tion has commenced, which is usually about the fourth or 
 fifth day in very acute cases, then topical bleeding might be 
 productive of mortification. The next indication is the 
 continued application of moisture to the feet, either by wet 
 cloths, or by cold poultices ; or by the cold bath, if the 
 horse can be made to stand. In a horse that lies almost 
 incessantly, coarse cloths are wrapped around the feet, these 
 being moistened with the coldest water, and covered with 
 thin gutta percha. Although the inflammation runs so high 
 as totally to prevent the horse rising, and his pulse be at 
 90°, he nevertheless may recover. We should also, in all 
 very acute cases where there was much plethora, prefer 
 cold applications ; and a shallow bath, in which the horse 
 if he will stand may be allowed to remain night and day, 
 is an excellent addition to a veterinary establishment. Where 
 the bath is absent, the horse ought to be placed in a loose 
 box, the flooring of which should be strewn with wet tan, 
 that ought to be further watered every second hour. 
 
 The Constitutional Treatment should be that prescribed 
 for diffused inflammation ; except that, while we unload the 
 bowels by back-raking, clysters, and laxatives by the mouth, 
 we should avoid active purgation, which would distress the 
 horse, and might increase the fever ; besides, in this dis- 
 
52G CHRONIC FOUNDER. 
 
 ease, we should always guard against a transfer of inflam- 
 mation to the bowels : but mild nauseants, diaphoretics, or 
 other febrifuges may be usefully employed, as the following, 
 four times a day, in a pint of warm water : — 
 
 Tincture of aconite half an ounce, of the strength 
 
 of a drachm to an ounce. 
 
 Infusion of Indian tobacco four drachms. 
 
 Nitre two drachms. 
 
 Allow plenty of tepid water to drink, feed very sparingly 
 indeed, and never force the horse to rise : the recumbent 
 position is the best, as that which favours the return of 
 blood from the feet ; and, to encourage it, bed him up well, 
 and have his body comfortably clothed. There is much 
 difference of opinion with regard to the propriety of blister- 
 ing in this affection, and it is most prudent to avoid it in 
 the early stage ; but it is beneficial when the active symp- 
 toms have decidedly abated, avoiding, however, the coronet. 
 Apply a cradle, and also wrap tow around the blistered part 
 in sufficient quantities to prevent injury to other parts ; and 
 should amendment occur, give a caution as to the liability 
 of recurrence on extraordinary exertions for some months. 
 Horses with acute founder have had frog setons inserted, 
 and these animals are said to have done well. 
 
 CHRONIC FOUNDER. 
 
 There are several states which might pass by this name ; 
 one is, when the coffin bone drops, as alluded to in the 
 previous disease ; it then rests with its toe, or point upon 
 the sole, which is soon cut through. Horses in this con- 
 dition are forced to work, but they never can recover the 
 use of their limbs. Every step is taken in agony. They 
 are lame for life, and no art which man possesses can render 
 them otherwise. Another is, when a horse has survived, 
 but imperfectly recovered from an acute attack. In this 
 case, also, the animal's existence is rendered miserable. 
 His affection is subject to increase by fits, and again to 
 abate. He is usually comparatively happy during very wet 
 weather. The last and best form of this lamentable dis- 
 order is, when it comes on gradually, never entirely vanish- 
 ing, but never assuming the acute type. Many such horses 
 are now at fast work ; they, however, perform slow motion 
 with comparative ease. The last two cases alone admit of 
 
SHOEING. 527 
 
 treatment, and that, in the great majority of such cases, is 
 perfectly useless, leaving the horse in a worse state than he 
 was before. The measures commonly resorted to, consist 
 in violent purgatives, and setons through the frogs. A 
 cure is not to be expected from these. The most that can 
 be anticipated, is a temporary relief; but the question 
 arises, whether such relief be not dearly bought, both by 
 the horse and his master ? 
 
 SHOEING. 
 
 A great fuss was formerly made about this process. All 
 the evils resulting from the custom were attributed to the 
 mal-practice of the smith. A very great deal was said 
 about his prejudices, his barbarity, and his ignorance. 
 Every lameness was thought to be traceable to one or the 
 other of these causes. Smiths were changed, and veteri- 
 nary surgeons employed, but nevertheless lameness was as 
 frequent as ever. Then it was discovered, that the evil 
 arose from the smith's having no knowledge of the internal 
 structure of the foot. How, it w^as confidently asked, could 
 men presume to touch feet, who were thoroughly igno- 
 rant of the various parts which composed them — their ana- 
 tomy, their physiology, and their pathology ? Upon this 
 some few, and very few smiths, learnt anatomy, and became 
 very knowing about the horse's foot. But the men thus 
 accomplished were, upon trial, found to be none the better 
 workmen. Horses became lame while under their hands, 
 as frequently as before. It should have been asked, Why 
 should not a person, who knows only the thickness of a 
 piece of horn, be able to drive a nail through it? Many 
 men apparently rude, and entirely ignorant, will, upon 
 taking up a horse's foot, pronounce the thickness of the 
 horn with surprising accuracy. Constant practice gives 
 them a facility of thus judging, by external signs, of the 
 probable depth of a secretion. 
 
 And that is all the men require to know. Had they all 
 the knowledge of the schools, this would be of no use to 
 those who have exclusively to deal with horn. It is of no 
 service to cast needless blame upon a laborious class ; the 
 fact being, that with regard to horse-flesh, the proprietor 
 has a choice of evils ; either to ride the horse unshod over 
 
528 SHOEING. . 
 
 our hard roads, or to protect the foot by means of a cir- 
 cular piece of iron. This truth was ultimately suspected 
 by the owners of horses, and some persons began to turn 
 their attention to the form of a shoe. Certain people took 
 out patents for particular shoes, which were to cure all 
 diseases ; but which in the end were found to aggravate the 
 evils they were designed to remedy. The little piece of 
 iron was beat and battered into an endless variety of shapes : 
 it was pierced in this place, and punched in that, hoping to 
 make it change its nature. But, nevertheless, it was found 
 to remain iron ; and so long as it is esteemed imperative to 
 have horses shod, we must put up with the evils attendant 
 upon the metal, for the sake of enjoying those advantages 
 which it can bestow. 
 
 Among those evils inseparable from every kind of metallic 
 shoe, is the severe battering upon hard roads, rendered yet 
 more severe, by the interposition of an unyielding sub- 
 stance, like to iron. Every step the horse now takes is 
 made upon iron, and the wonder should be, not that a foot 
 occasionally gives way, but that any part of a living frame 
 should be able to withstand such treatment. Then, not 
 only are the roads hard, and the pace at wdiich the horse is 
 driven along killing, but we have also to weigh properly 
 the treatment the horse receives within the stable. Here 
 he stands often for days together, crimped up in a stall 
 where he can only stand, frequently he cannot turn round, 
 and very seldom can he lie upon his side and stretch out 
 his limbs. It is infinitely worse than a sentry-box is com- 
 paratively with a man. He stands here generally for twenty 
 hours out of the four-and-twenty. Here he stands with 
 iron upon his feet, resting upon wet stones or damp bricks. 
 No wonder if the feet should become cold ; and those who 
 are accustomed to bleed horses from the foot, can tell how 
 unnaturally cold the first drop or two of blood flows from 
 the part. 
 
 Nor is this all. Blood for its circulation requires mus- 
 cular action. It ascends with difficulty against gravity. 
 But what assistance can the circulation receive, when the 
 wretched animal must stand motionless throughout the 
 day. If the creature hangs back a little to relieve its flexor 
 tendons, the groom sits behind to bid him "come up." 
 
SHOEING. . 529 
 
 By thus placing the animal alone in a stall, we not only 
 compel him to remain inactive, but do violence to the 
 nature of the beast. Horses when free always roam in 
 herds. They are naturally fond of one another's society. 
 But if a horse within a stable endeavours to put his nose 
 over the division, just to have a nibble, a lick, or a smell at 
 his next door neighbour, he commits an egregious fault in* 
 the eyes of the groom, and receives the whip accordingly. 
 Thus he must stand alone in utter solitude, and remain 
 thus standing, perhaps, days together ; for when the owner 
 does not always ride out, the groom is not invariably regu- 
 lar with regard to the hours of exercise. The poor animal 
 stands upon metal, which rests upon wet stones or bricks. 
 It is denied to him to look to the ri^ht or the left. To q:o 
 much forward is impossible, and to hang back the length 
 of his halter is visited as an offence against decency. He 
 must not, to break the monotony of his existence, even 
 raise his eye to look at, or to invite the acquaintance of his 
 neighbour. In the stall he must be content to breathe and 
 feed, but in all other respects, the nearer he approaches to 
 the inanimate the better. And all this must be done, 
 despite the teaching of physiology, which instructs us that 
 the horse was intended for constant motion. Beneath the 
 horny box which covers the foot, is a mesh-work of veins 
 which, unlike the majority of vessels in the living frame, 
 have no valves. The blood within these veins has to as- 
 cend against gravity, but it has no machinery to assist it in 
 its course. 
 
 Now, if the horse were free, he would walk about ; or if 
 he stood still beneath the shadow of some wide-spreading 
 tree, he would select uneven ground, upon the highest part 
 of which he could place his hind feet. Yet he would sel- 
 dom be quite tranquil : he must walk to nip the grass upon 
 which he existed. His feet in this state would be alternately 
 lifted from the earth, and then placed again upon the 
 ground. By this simple motion a kind of pumping action 
 would be established, which would effectually empty the 
 external vessels beneath the horn of the foot. When the 
 hoof was raised, the blood would gush into the veins be- 
 neath it; but when it was again placed down, and the 
 immense weight of the horse's body rested upon the foot, 
 
 M m 
 
530 SHOEING. 
 
 the blood would be driven from the vessels under the hoof 
 into those above it, with a force which, of itself, would 
 render assistance needless ; and it is these alternate states, 
 leading to this result, which proves to us that the horse 
 was designed to be in constant motion. If further argu- 
 ment be wanting, surely it might be found in the frolics 
 and gambols of these animals. When they are happiest, 
 then they are most active, for there is not a surer symptom 
 of disease than inactivity. The horse that is very ill will 
 stand quiet enough ; but the animal that is in health requires 
 space to run about in and to enjoy himself. 
 
 After knowing this, and also perceiving the manner in 
 which man treats his servant, can it be wondered at that 
 the foot gives way, when thrown out of use and totally 
 perverted ? Does it require we should blame the smith, or 
 reproach the shoe, as the primary or even the ex.citing 
 cause of the injury ? In the country, horses are treated less 
 systematically, and there, although they may be roughly 
 shod, they rarely become lame. It is in the stables of the 
 gentleman, of him who has education to teach him better, 
 and wealth to enable him to build proper lodgings for his 
 beast, that the great majority of horses are injured. 
 
 The shoes we do not pretend to say are no evil ; but 
 they are one which cannot be got rid of, and for which all 
 has probably been done that the necessary shape admits of. 
 The iron which composes a shoe may be twisted this way, 
 and turned that. It may be puffed as a new invention, and 
 recommended as a patent, but after all it will be a semi- 
 circular piece of iron nailed to the bottom of a horse's foot ; 
 there it will continue, and man can make nothing more of 
 it. As to all newfangled shapes, or additions, or abstrac- 
 tions, he who cares for his horse had better have nothing 
 whatever to do with them. They are generally expensive, 
 and though meant to do good, they mostly do harm. Let 
 the man who values the animals Providence has entrusted 
 to his care, know the shoe is, and must be under any pos- 
 sible form, an injury. Let him accept it as a necessary 
 evil, and seek not to improve what appears to have reached 
 very near to perfection ; but let him yield a slight portion of 
 his notions with regard to propriety. Let him cast off 
 some of his prejudices concerning a glossy coat. Let him 
 
SHOEING. 531 
 
 free his mind fi'om a portion of his predilection for a neat 
 turn-out, and have the creatures under his charge kept in 
 greater accordance with the fixed rules of nature. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Our advice to all persons not intimately acquainted with 
 the process of shoeing, is not to dictate, but to clearly point 
 out what defect they wish remedied, and leave the choice of 
 the shoe to the smith : nor must we blame the man if the 
 first shoe does not altogether succeed. There appears to 
 be much of chance in these matters. Two horses shall cut ; 
 the defect here is obvious, and it would be thought the 
 remedy was certain ; but there are five different shoes for 
 this defect, and no man can tell the precise one which will 
 suit a particular case. One horse will go well in one, 
 another in the second, and so on ; but all must be tried, to 
 know that which will exactly answer any special horse : 
 this is even the case, although the first veterinarian that 
 ever lived stands at the horse's heels ; and the proprietor 
 need not complain, if he is no worse off in the hands of a 
 smith. Therefore, do not blame the man if he should not 
 hit upon the precise shoe which is to make your nag fault- 
 less : he will ultimately stumble against it if you do but 
 give him time ; and no doctor can do more, only people 
 yield more w^illingly to a httle outward respectability, joined 
 to the most delicate assertion of superior judgment. 
 
 Then, with regard to a horse being pricked. Do not, 
 when this accident happens — and that it does not more 
 frequently occur is a subject for legitimate wonder — do not 
 fly into a passion, and abuse the unlucky smith. It, ten to 
 one, was no fault of the man's ; but let the subject be fairly 
 investigated, and your horse will probably be found the 
 sinner. The best smith may prick any horse at any time ; 
 but the worst or the best is seriously culpable if he attempt 
 to conceal the occurrence, and the horse be laid up in con- 
 sequence of his silence. Then let loose upon him the ven- 
 geance of the law, and you will be sure of a verdict, for no 
 one can defend the culprit. 
 
 If your horse has a thick wall, a high hard sole, and a 
 small inelastic frog, affected with a running thrush which 
 never dries up, have the soles pared out till they are quite 
 
 M m 2 
 
532 SHOEING. 
 
 springy under the pressure of your thumb. Try it your- 
 self, for the hard thumb of the smith is no certain test. 
 The sole should be pared out till a gentleman's child can 
 make it yield ; and never mind although a little blood do 
 ooze through, and hang upon the surface like drops of 
 sweat upon a reaper's brow. Then have the frog cut away 
 till it is smooth, and all the exposed horn be perfectly 
 healthy : cut away, even until all the horn is removed, so 
 long as any whitish powder remains. Do not have the wall 
 touched, farther than to lower the margin of the crust that 
 rested upon the shoe. With regard to the bars, give no 
 directions about such folly. Allow the shoeing smith to 
 use his will, whether they shallbe left prominent or cut 
 away : then have a stopping of tow and tar applied ; over 
 this see there be placed a leathern sole, which is nothing 
 more than a piece of thick leather fixed between the foot 
 and the shoe ; but mind the leather is sound and new, as 
 smiths are apt to buy old stuff, which they assure us 
 answers very well for this purpose : however, where the 
 horse's huge weight has to be sustained, we imagine the 
 leather cannot well be either too new or too strong. Then 
 have the shoe applied, and mind it is made after the fashion 
 recommended by Mr. Turner, of Regent-street ; that is, let 
 it have the full number of holes upon the outer quarter, 
 but only one, or at most two, upon the inner quarter. This 
 freedom allowed to the inner quarter does not prevent the 
 horn from expanding, but it permits a certain amount of 
 play which keeps the internal parts healthy, and hinders 
 their secretion (the horn) from diminishing. 
 
 Into the space left at the heels, between the frog and bars 
 and the leather, at least once a week, have poured in a mix- 
 ture of tar, and whale, seal, nut, or rape oil, in equal pro- 
 portions ; and when the tow is saturated, enough has 
 been used for one occasion. Most nag horses, not much 
 worked, will require their shoes removed every third week, 
 and to be reshod every sixth week. But with regard to 
 those whose work is both fast, heavy, and constant, not- 
 withstanding the smith may load on the iron, and tip with 
 steel, they will only endure from four days to three weeks ; 
 when either at the longer or the shorter period a change 
 will be demanded. Such is the difference of tread in 
 
SHOEING. 533 
 
 some horses, that a shoe which will serve one horse more 
 than three weeks, shall not last his companion that runs 
 beside him longer than seven days ; consequently no rule can 
 be laid down where there are such evident variations. 
 
 Let no man be seduced into patronising any new invented 
 shoe, under the pretence that they will prevent the horn 
 from contracting. Horn is unorganized ; it has within 
 itself no power of dilatation, of contraction or of reparation 
 or of union : it is without arteries, veins, nerves, or ab- 
 sorbents ; it is wholly devoid of life or sensibihty. Then 
 how can such a substance contract ? It is to talk evident 
 nonsense, to mention horn as having any such capacity. It 
 is secreted like to human nail ; it can be cut away, but the 
 horse does not flinch ; it can be even burnt, and the animal 
 remain unconscious ; it is purely a secretion ; it is shaped 
 by the fleshy parts within, which secrete the substance. 
 The chest and cranium are formed of hard and resisting 
 bone ; but if even this unyielding substance is bent, swelled 
 out, drawn in, formed and regulated by so compressible a 
 part as the lungs, and by so pulpy a part as the brain, how 
 much more is a pliable material, like to horn, capable of 
 being moulded by a fleshy membrane, backed by a stubborn 
 bone. The gradual dilatation of the horn may give room 
 for the vascular current of the internal parts ; and this 
 is exactly that which Mr. Turner's one-sided nailing accom- 
 plishes. Therefore, where diminution has to be remedied, 
 Mr. Turner's shoe is to be adopted, and it will be some 
 years before this admirable invention is superseded. Be- 
 sides, Mr. Turner has taken out no patent. This novel 
 shoe is as cheap as any other, and with the addition of 
 leathern soles, especially to the fore feet of light horses, is 
 the very best for general use which we can point out to the 
 reader. 
 
 There is another prejudice shoeing smiths are apt to 
 appeal to ; this is the dislike which horsemen have taken to 
 wood pavement. Every man who shoes a horse has some 
 particular form of iron, which costs only a trifle more, but 
 which will eflectually prevent all slipping. If it does not 
 perform every thing which is prophesied of its virtues, 
 another is produced which never fails. This is put on, but 
 by this time the horse has gained experience in consequence 
 
534 SHOEING. 
 
 of two falls, and the driver or rider grown some\vhat timid 
 by twice being cast upon the earth. The one treads more 
 carefully, and the other is content to pass the dangerous 
 locality at a slower rate. The new shoe, therefore, this 
 time perfectly succeeds ; and so the old one w^ould have 
 done had it been permitted to remain upon the foot. The 
 amendment in the manner of going arises from other causes 
 than the shoe ; but the dupe attributes the change to the 
 last addition, and, in his prejudice, cannot be induced to sit 
 behind a horse wearing any other. 
 
 There is another prejudice the forge is apt to appeal to, 
 and this is avarice. A shoe is recommended, because it 
 will w^ear so much longer. Many horses could go in their 
 shoes perhaps a fortnight longer ; but then a remove, that 
 is, taking off the shoe and paring out the foot, would be 
 necessary. Even, however, with the remove, some hazard 
 would be incurred ; and with a horse under the best of cir- 
 cumstances there is alway sufficient risk. This, therefore, 
 is a subterfuge to push off an inferior article, under the 
 pretence of its possessing extraordinary qualities. This 
 trick can only be practised upon certain owners ; for some 
 horses, shoe them how you may, and put what amount of 
 iron and steel you will, wear through the metal far more 
 quickly than the horn is reproduced, so as to afford hold 
 for the nails. But upon gentlemen w^io have horses that 
 do not work much, the fraud is very frequent, and it is 
 really astonishing how many persons it imposes on. When 
 a smith tells you he has a better article in reserve, refuse to 
 listen to him. You pay him for the best his shop contains ; 
 and the fellow w^ould not confess he was cheating you, 
 unless he thought to gain by the admission : repel all such 
 appeals. Shut your mind against all such advances. Close 
 your ears against all suggestions intended to tickle your 
 avarice ; and you will in the end be a gainer in pocket, for 
 you may be very certain no tradesman has so very honest a 
 spirit that he abhors to finger your money, or can afford to 
 be candid in business at his own expense. 
 
 If your horse has weak spreading feet, the smith then 
 cannot remove too little horn. Tell the man to draw a 
 heated iron over the sole at each shoeing. When the first 
 effects of the fire have subsided, the secretion will be hard- 
 
SHOEING. 535 
 
 ened, and the secreting parts stimulated towards a new 
 l^roduction. These kind of feet, however, mostly have 
 large prominent frogs, and at them the smith usually cuts at 
 freely ; but the sole and frog should have nothing but the 
 ragged portions removed ; and the wall only be pared away 
 to the extent which the old horn has been pushed down- 
 ward. This, however, is pretty well understood, and you 
 may trust the horse within any respectable forge without 
 fear ; only these kind of feet, more than any others, require 
 to be shod wdth leathern soles, which protects them against 
 those injuries from stones, &c., to which they are too much 
 exposed. 
 
 Another prejudice you must be careful from indulging, 
 is that of insisting that your horses be sent home looking 
 smart about the feet. This is usually accomplished by the 
 rasp, and where this instrument is much used, the best 
 judge cannot tell at a glance whether the shoe be fitted to 
 the foot, or the foot has been rasped away to make it fit the 
 shoe. Rather forbid the use of the rasp, save to remove 
 the projecting ends of the clenches ; and have the feet sent 
 home moderately in the rough, rather than they should be 
 too much reduced, and polished up with a coating of lamp- 
 black, tar, and train oil. In conclusion, when your groom 
 or coachman makes any remarks prejudicial to the smith, 
 listen with patience to all that is said. Should the man be 
 moved by malice, or a desire to remove the shoeing (from 
 which the servant mostly has a consideration), he will 
 betray it if left to himself. If you detect any such lurking 
 bad feeling, rather change your servant than your smith ; 
 as it is better for your interest that you should be mode- 
 rately treated by a stranger, than that those who are in 
 your confidence, and immediately about your person, should 
 plunder you. Besides, a man wdio would play tricks with 
 the horses' shoes, is not a person to be trusted with their 
 corn ; and he who would cheat you to the horses' injury, 
 would not mind profiting by putting your animals upon a 
 full allowance of hay. 
 
 The various kinds of shoes required for particular cases 
 will be hereafter specified ; and we have preferred penning 
 these few pages of advice, rather than repeating that which 
 has been often said. 
 
536 THE PUMICED FOOT. 
 
 THE PUMICED FOOT. 
 
 Pumiced feet are produced by a slow chronic inflamma- 
 tion : the front of the hoof always enlarges, and the sole 
 therefore becomes more than flat ; the horse begins to falter, 
 and is sometimes very lame ; at others he can move mode- 
 rately well. The foot, when shod, presents no acquisition 
 of horn; on the contrary, the sole becomes thinner and 
 thinner, and at last bulges out into a surface more or less 
 convex as the internal derangement is greater or less. The 
 large wide feet of the native horses of moist counties are 
 most prone to this evil ; not being able to resist the weaken- 
 ing and irritating effect of battering on stony roads, and 
 least of all on the paved streets of London and other cities. 
 
 The treatment of these feet can be only palliative, as a 
 removal of the deformity has never taken place. Some 
 benefit has been experienced from blistering the coronets in 
 early cases ; this has stimulated the part to an increased 
 secretion of horn. Every means must be taken to avoid 
 pressure on the sole, which is not only painful, but actually 
 aggravates the disease. Pumiced feet should not be kept 
 too moist, nor can they ever be cured by turning out with- 
 out shoes ; but they may be very properly dressed every 
 day, both sole and walls, with a mixture of tar and oil, 
 which proves extremely beneficial to them. The shoe in 
 use for these feet is sufiiciently known ; being formed with a 
 very wide web, and being made so thick as to allow of 
 being bevelled away on the inner surface, to receive the con- 
 vexity of the sole without pressing on it ; this is called a dish 
 shoe. From the outer crust of the foot being thin and 
 brittle, no rule can be laid down as to the particular part 
 through which the nails should be driven, but the smith, in 
 these cases, must get a hold where he can. This is often a 
 very trying matter. It requires no little judgment and 
 patience to shoe a pumiced foot. The sole, however, should, 
 every time the shoe is taken off", have a red-hot iron passed 
 over it, which stimulates the growth of horn, and hardens 
 the part. There is no cure for a foot so diseased ; neither 
 can any one palliate the disorder except the shoeing smith. 
 Standing upon a level pavement, when the shoes are ofl', has 
 been recommended ; but this invention of a mechanical mind 
 
DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT. 537 
 
 has done more harm than good. The measure which has 
 been attended with the greatest advantage is shoeing with a 
 wide-webbed dish shoe, having a leathern sole, for the pur- 
 pose of protecting the seat of the disease, and being rather 
 higher at the toe than at the heel ; because a prominent 
 healthy frog is found an accompaniment to a pumiced foot, 
 and the horse can bear upon the frog when he dreads to let 
 the sole touch the ground. Formerly a different mode was 
 practised by some persons, which was to apply a shoe so 
 narrow in the web as to cover the crust only, but of suffi- 
 cient thickness to elevate the sole above the chance of 
 pressure from the ground. This invention is said to obviate 
 the effects of stones, gravel, &c., getting under the wide 
 webbed shoe, which sometimes lamed the horse ; and it is 
 said that pumiced horses even go best in these kind of 
 shoes. In some cases, however, no shoe answers so well as 
 a strong bar shoe. 
 
 DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT, OR NAVICULARTHRITIS. 
 
 Groggy lameness is the term by which this affection has 
 been principally known to horsemen, and which, hke many 
 other names, served to characterize many of its evils. It 
 is but due to Mr. J. Turner to state, that, by his ample and 
 scientific investigations, the navicular joint disease is now 
 ranked among the recognized afflictions of the horse : and 
 if, unfortunately, we have little hope of finding an efficient 
 remedy for it, we at least do not grope in the dark, and 
 torment sound parts, to the anguish of the animal, and the 
 demonstration of our own ignorance. 
 
 The causes of the affection may be strictly called here- 
 ditary or predisposing: the tendency may exist from birth. 
 Pressure and concussion are, in general, the remote 
 causes; the proximate is found in inflammation, leading 
 to ulceration, or some ossific deposit. Mr. Turner lays 
 much stress on contraction with the hollowed arch of the 
 sole as a cause, which acts by drawing the frog upwards : 
 other writers, without denying that some displacement is 
 occasionally found, are not wiUing to acknowledge this as a 
 cause. The perforans tendon is inserted into the most 
 backward portion of the sole belonging to the coffin bone. 
 To gain this point it has to pass underneath the navicular 
 
538 DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT. 
 
 bone. In progression no inconsiderable portion of the 
 weight is cast upon the navicular bone, and by it transferred 
 to the perforans tendon ; which, however, is protected, and 
 in some measure supported, by the frog beneath. However, 
 when we consider the immense weight of the horse, in- 
 creased by motion as well as by the burden of a rider, it 
 cannot be wondered at if the protection and support some- 
 times prove weaker than is required. The tendon receives, 
 in all cases, the first injury. Often the occasion is marked 
 by instantaneous lameness ; at other times it is slow in 
 coming on, and often repeated before the disease is con- 
 firmed. Between the bone and the tendon is situated a 
 synovial capsule, which facilitates the independent motions 
 of each upon the other. The first consequence of injury is 
 inflammation. Inflammation of the tendon is readily com- 
 municated to the synovial capsule ; the secretion of the 
 lubricating fluid is thereupon stopped ; friction takes place 
 as a consequence ; the navicular bone is denuded of its arti- 
 cular cartilage ; ulceration is ultimately established ; this may 
 end in the absorption of the synovial sac, and the junction 
 of the bone to the tendon ; it may terminate in the fracture 
 of the bone, and it may also conclude with the rupture of 
 the tendon. In case of the first termination the horse is 
 groggy ever after, and when either of the two last termina- 
 tions occur it is better to order the animal to be imme- 
 diately destroyed, for his service in this world is at an end. 
 The symptoms are various, according to the progress made 
 by the disease. At first the horse is lame, and the cause 
 can be discovered in no other part than the foot. If the 
 animal be now narrowly observed, when at rest, and within 
 the stable, he will be seen to favour one foot, and to have 
 the diseased one slightly in advance of the other ; should 
 the animal now be taken out and ridden he goes forth lame 
 and returns home sound, for the warmth of exertion forces 
 back the absent synovia. Should the disease progress to 
 the ulcerative stage, the lameness has, like toothache, 
 moments of uncertain ease, but more or less it keeps on. 
 The foot is now generally advanced or pointed ; the frog 
 narrows, hardens, becomes elevated, and is continually 
 emitting a loathsome thrush ; the sole likewise grows 
 more thick and more high, the quarters become considera- 
 
CORNS. 539 
 
 bly heightened, and of much greater substance ; while the 
 horse either cannot put a foot to the ground, or he patters 
 along with pecuharly short steps, going up hill far better 
 than he descends from an acclivity. 
 
 The treatment, unfortunately, must begin very early, and 
 be followed by a very long rest, to be successful ; and it is 
 seldom that the practitioner is called in until disorganiza- 
 tion has proceeded too far for permanent benefit. If con- 
 traction is apparent, thin the sole and outer crust ; provided 
 inflammation of an active kind be present, as may be known 
 by the heat of the part and the shifting of position, bleed 
 by the toe, and put the foot into poultices ; otherwise blister 
 the pastern and coronet. Insert a frog seton through the 
 elastic, or, as it is called, the " fatty frog." Neurotomy, or 
 division of the nerve, as a last resort, will somewhat stay 
 the ulcerative process, and always ease the suffering animal 
 during progress, as well as give liberty in action. The opera- 
 tion, however, should not be attempted while any active 
 symptoms of inflammation remain, or when the crust or 
 horn of the foot is scanty and weak. 
 
 CORNS. 
 
 Corns, both in man and horse, certainly arise from 
 pressure, but farther than this the analogy fails : in our- 
 selves, the cuticle is usually increased. A corn however in 
 the horse is mostly the consequence of pressure applied to 
 that part of the horny sole which is between the inner 
 quarter and the bars. When violent pressure is en- 
 dured, even for a short time, it produces inflammation 
 and extravasation from the vascular secreting sole, whose 
 vessels becoming ruptured, make a fresh corn present a 
 bloody spot. This vascular secreting portion of sensitive 
 sole, when 'once injured in this way, unless immediately 
 relieved and not again subjected to any pressure whatever, 
 until it be perfectly reinstated, takes on a permanently 
 diseased state ; ever after, instead of perfect horn, a morbid 
 secretion is deposited, and in some cases a semi-purulent 
 matter, or pure pus, fills up the place, the inflamed vessels 
 retaining an exquisite sensibility. It is to this that the 
 incurable nature and the great tenderness of corns when 
 pressed on is owing. We can imagine why corns are 
 
540 CORNS. 
 
 usually found upon the inside of the foot, when we learn 
 that tlie inner wall and heel are weaker, and also as they 
 bear a greater portion of superincumbent weight than the 
 outer parts endure. The coffin bone, not reaching to the 
 heels, is the reason why these structures are the seats of 
 corn, for the coffin bone is the active agent in its production. 
 This bone is moved upwards and downwards at either end, 
 as the weight rests upon one extremity or the other of its 
 articular surface. It is the wings of the coffin bone which 
 causes corns. The descent of its wings squeezes the 
 vascular sensitive sole between it and the shoe in open feet, 
 the shoe in this case being the passive agent ; but in the con- 
 tracted foot, the high, thick, hard and unyielding sole 
 becomes the passive agent, and between that and the wing of 
 the coffin bone the sensitive sole is bruised. These corns 
 may occur in the stable, in the field, or on the road, in short, 
 on any spot where the slightest motion is possible. Too 
 little horn also subjects the feet to corns, because a slight 
 pressure will indent weak feet, which are notoriously sub- 
 ject to them. The best shoe, suffered to remain on a foot 
 too long, will produce a corn or corns. Neglecting to 
 prepare the foot for the shoe is also a fruitful source of 
 corns ; for in preparing a foot, this angular portion should be 
 so pared as to remove it from contact with the iron, without 
 weakening the horny covering of the sensible sole. Another 
 common cause is the neglect of removing or renewing the 
 shoes at proper intervals : when a shoe has been long worn, 
 the growth of the hoof carries it forwards, by which the 
 parts originally opposed to the heels are carried beyond 
 them, and now press on the sole, often becoming indented 
 within the line of the crust, and producing a most injurious 
 pressure. Sometimes, also, either from the original form 
 of the shoes, or by long wear, they become loose or 
 ' springy ' at the heels, as smiths call it ; in which cases 
 gravel is apt to make its way between the shoe and foot, 
 which, by the pressure of the heels during action, is indented 
 into the substance of the horn ; other gravel becomes re- 
 ceived in the same manner, which presses still onward, 
 until at last it harms the sensitive part of the sole : extrava- 
 sation of pure blood ensues, and forms a corn, or it may 
 proceed to suppuration. 
 
CORNS. 541 
 
 Corns when new are deeply seated, and of a bright 
 crimson colour, requiring much digging with the drawing 
 knife to be found. When old they are black and near to 
 the lower surface of the sole, which has then only to be 
 scraped clean to perceive them. A corn, however, should 
 be followed with the paring knife to its source in the sensitive 
 part ; for horses with old corns only go well when fresh 
 shod and newly pared ; and as soon as the portion of sole 
 between the bars grows to a level with the surrounding horn, 
 the sensible sole receives a fresh bruise, and lameness again 
 appears. 
 
 Treatment of Corns. — When a corn of moderate extent 
 tirst appears, it is not difficult by proper means to remove 
 it completely : but when it has existed some time, the 
 injured part becomes weakened, and the diseased action 
 established. As soon, therefore, as it is discovered, the 
 cure should be immediately attempted ; first, by removing 
 the shoe, then with a fine drawing-knife cutting away every 
 portion of horn around ; avoiding, however, wounding the 
 sensitive sole underneath. If any contraction of the heels 
 be present, the sole should be thinned till it yields to the 
 pressure of the thumb, and the blood appears like dew upon 
 the surface. A unilateral shoe should be then applied, 
 chambered opposite the weak part. Every third week re- 
 move the shoes, and pare the horn away from the seat of corn. 
 In this way corns may be cured at their outset. But having 
 become habitual and permanent, a palliative treatment only 
 can be pursued. In the first place, the pressure of the 
 horn must be guarded against by a regular and frequent 
 paring out of the sole ; and if the hoof be very strong, and 
 at all disposed to contract, the quarters also should be 
 attended to, and not allowed to become too thick. We 
 have also in very strong feet found the short shoe or tips 
 sometimes of the greatest possible service : to a weak foot, 
 a chambered shoe is preferable : when the weakness is very 
 considerable, or the corn a very bad one, a bar shoe, with 
 plenty of bearing upon the frog, is the most proper support ; 
 more particularly remembering, in these very aggravated 
 cases, to remove occasionally all the surrounding horn 
 likely to press on the injured part. Animals that could 
 not wear tips or bear a bar shoe upon the foot, have gone 
 
542 THRUSH. 
 
 well when shod with leather, and with a shoe shortened at 
 the quarter, which is the seat of corn. By regularly attend- 
 ing to this, horses, before useless, have been able to per- 
 form work with comfort to themselves and satisfaction to 
 their owner. In slight cases of corn, the shoe proper to 
 be used is one of rather more substance than common, 
 with the web a little wider than usual, and its width equal 
 throughout, that is, as wide at the heels as the toe ; it should 
 also extend rather farther back than it generally does, and 
 present a perfectly level surface to the sole. This affords 
 ease and protection : future pressure must be avoided by 
 keeping the seat of corns clear from offending horn. 
 
 THRUSH. 
 
 This complaint consists in a diseased action of the seba- 
 ceous follicles of the sensitive frog, whereby they produce 
 a thin foetid discharge, which escapes out between the cleft 
 of the horny frog. It is very improperly considered by 
 many as a matter of trifling import ; but a little experience 
 only in the diseases of the feet will show that it is by no 
 means so harmless as supposed. Still more erroneous is 
 it to assert that in all cases thrushes do good by cooling 
 the feet. On the contrary, there probably never was 
 a perfectly harmless thrush, or one that could exist long 
 without doing some injury. Various causes produce 
 thrush ; the immediate one is always inflammation of the 
 sensitive frog. In very many instances their origin is to 
 be traced to the application of moisture, particularly of 
 acrid moisture, as that of dung, urine, &c. ; which, soaking 
 the horny frog, at last penetrates it, and then becomes a 
 source of irritation to the sensitive frog underneath. This 
 effect of moisture accounts for the increased tendency of 
 thrushes to af!ect the hinder feet, while the fore feet remain 
 perfectly free from them. Navicularthritis is notoriously 
 a common cause of thrushes ; when the disease has termi- 
 nated the thrush ends, but the narrow small hardened frog 
 remains. While navicularthritis exists, however, thrush 
 is constantly present, though in the latter stages it may 
 send forth so slight a discharge as almost to escape 
 detection. 
 
 As navicularthritis is a very common cause of thrush, so 
 
THRUSH. 543 
 
 it is equally certain that a long continued thrush is apt to 
 end in navicularthritis, by lessening the horny frog which 
 acts as the chief defence of the perforans tendon. Neither 
 can any horse be considered safe that has a thrush, for 
 there is always some degree of tenderness felt ; and in 
 these cases, if the point of a sharp stone at any time should 
 penetrate the cleft, or any of the sinuses occasioned by the 
 complaint, the animal will come to the ground from 
 excess of pain : but it is not often that this complaint 
 produces any lameness in the general gait. The appear- 
 ances of thrush are sufficiently known : at first a moist 
 exudation only appears from the natural cleft of the frog ; 
 when it has existed some time the frog scales away, and is 
 but partially renewed : the ulceration extends to the sensitive 
 sole throughout its whole surface ; the horny frog now 
 produces a dark coloured discharge of a peculiar foetid 
 smell ; and such cases, if unattended to, particularly in the 
 hinder feet, may degenerate into canker, A horse with 
 one thrush, especially if it be in a fore foot, should on no 
 account be purchased ; but a horse with three or four 
 thrushes may be safely bought ; because in the first case, it 
 denotes internal disease, and is surely the symptom of 
 something more fearful going forward within ; and because 
 in the last instance, there is every reason to believe they 
 arise from standing in dirt, and will yield to a little mild 
 treatment. 
 
 Treatment. — Thrushes in the hind feet, caused by dirt, 
 ought to be immediately stopped ; but when a thrush appears 
 in one fore foot, do not meddle with it, as it is an outlet to the 
 inflammation raging within. In that kind of thrush we notice, 
 sometimes taking place in the open feet of young horses, 
 it will remove all danger, if the treatment should be at 
 once applied to the affection. When thrushes are connected 
 with a diminished state of the feet, it is evident that the 
 fi'og cannot afford to lose much horn. All however that is 
 diseased, rugged, or detached, should be cut away; how- 
 ever small the frog may be made, the smith should be told 
 to pare until he comes to healthy horn, or reaches the flesh 
 beneath. When moisture has been the exciting cause, it 
 should, of course, be carefully removed, and its occurrence 
 again prevented ; particularly that produced by decomposing 
 
544 SANDCRACK. 
 
 clung and litter. In cases of thrush, never have the foot 
 permanently stopped, but leave the frog free, so that it may 
 be readily dressed. The latest and by far the most effective 
 dressing for the disease is, two drachms of chloride of zinc, 
 added to a quart of water. Friars' balsam, tincture of 
 myrrh, solution of vitriol, alum, lead, &c., all have their 
 advocates. Tar and salt mixed is a favourite application, 
 or tar and bole armenian blended : a solution of nitrate of 
 silver is also recommended ; but perhaps the following, 
 should all the foregoing fail, may deserve a trial : — 
 
 Prepared calamine lialf an ounce. 
 
 Verdigris half an ounce. 
 
 White vitriol one drachra. 
 
 Tar three ounces. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Before the introduction of the dressing, the frog should be 
 inspected, so that the introduction of the remedy may be faci- 
 litated, and the disposition to harbour tilth and moisture 
 prevented. The whole frog may then very properly be well 
 rubbed over with the application ; but, more particularly, a 
 small piece of tow should be charged with it, and by means of 
 a skewer, or other similar instrument^ pressed to the bottom 
 of the cleft. Care should be taken, when introducing the tow, 
 to do it neatly, so that no part hangs out ; by which means 
 the dressing will remain secure two or three days ; but no 
 application simply poured in, without the aid of some other 
 substance, as tow, soft sponge, wool, or rag, which retains 
 the agent and guards against moisture, generally answers 
 so well. In bad cases the dressing should be repeated 
 every day, in others every second day, or twice a week. 
 
 SANDCRACK, 
 
 This is a solution of continuity between some of the 
 horny fibres of the hoof, generally in the direction of their 
 growth ; that is, from above dow^nwards. Now and then, 
 though but very seldom, the cracks exist in an horizontal 
 position. This affection is called sandcrack, because it was 
 formerly supposed peculiar to hot sandy districts, the heat 
 of which, applied to the feet, gave them a disposition to 
 crack. This opinion has however been proved correct. 
 English horses when in Egypt had fearful sandcracks, and 
 frequently more than one or two upon the same foot. 
 
SANDCRACK. 545 
 
 These fissures are more common to the fore than to the 
 hind feet ; not but tlie latter are sometimes affected, particu- 
 larly of cart and other heavy draught horses ; in which 
 last animals they are generally observed in front of the hoof, 
 and arise from the violent strain put on this part in drawing 
 loads : in the fore feet they are more usually situated upon 
 the inner side of the foot : here, also, the weakness of the 
 quarter, and the increased weight thrown on it, acts pecu- 
 liarly disadvantageously : sandcracks are, however, seen 
 occasionally in the front of the fore feet. In every instance, 
 where it is not occasioned by some outward injury to the 
 hoof, it is, we believe, brought on by a brittle state of the 
 horny fibres ; sometimes it is constitutional. When the 
 hoof is completely penetrated, it becomes a most painful 
 affection, and productive of extreme lameness ; for the 
 divided edges of the horn are apt, during exercise, to admit 
 the protrusion of the soft parts underneath ; which be- 
 coming suddenly pressed on by the approximation of the 
 horny edges, exquisite momentary pain is produced. From 
 the injury done to the sensitive laminated expansion, there 
 is often a sprouting of fungus between the divided edges, 
 which greatly aggravates the symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. — A very different curative plan is proper to 
 be pursued, according to the state in which the complaint 
 may be found. The grand object must be, to interrupt the 
 communication between the crack and the sound horn. 
 Much difference of opinion has arisen as to the best mode 
 of destroying the connexion between the divided and the 
 entire hoof. Some prefer the firing-iron, others the rasp, 
 and others the drawing-knife. In the usual cases of sand- 
 crack, the state of the opening must be first carefully 
 attended to. When, either from pressure, or from dirt 
 getting into the wound, suppuration has taken place, were 
 an attempt made at once to close and bind up the opening, 
 very extensive mischief would be the consequence. Instead 
 of this, the hard edges of the horn should be first removed 
 with a very sharp knife, and the surrounding portions 
 thinned considerably ; after which, the opening should be 
 dressed with any mild stimulant likely to encourage the 
 adhesive inflammation, as a pledget of tow, saturated with 
 the mild solution of chloride of zinc ; and over this another 
 
 N n 
 
546 SANDCRACK. 
 
 thick pledget, spread with tar, may be placed ; and if the 
 irritation and inflammation are considerable, apply a poul- 
 tice over all. In case of underrunnings and detachments 
 of horn, the separated portions must be removed ; but as 
 this will seldom happen, the leveUing of more than the 
 horny edges is not often necessary. In a few^ days, by 
 repeating a similar mode of dressing, the dirt will be 
 evacuated, and the parts will heal, harden, and become 
 dry ; when the process about to be recommended for com- 
 mon cases, without suppuration, may be proceeded with. 
 
 When a sandcrack has occurred, which shows no signs 
 of active suppuration, although it have completely pene- 
 trated the horn, and a little blood or serous moisture shows 
 itself at the edges, but only under the effects of motion, 
 proceed to pare away the horn around it ; and next, by 
 means of a camel's-hair pencil, introduce within the edges a 
 small quantity of the solution of chloride of zinc, recom- 
 mended for thrush. Bandage the hoof up moderately tight 
 for two days, then again examine the fissure ; when, if the 
 oozing be altogether stopped, and no inflammation appear, 
 proceed to draw lines of a moderate depth with a sharp 
 firing-iron ; one very little above the upper limit of the 
 crack, another just beyond the lower limit also, and after- 
 wards bandage as directed below. If preferred, these lines 
 of separation may be made with a rasp, or fine drawing- 
 knife ; but we have commonly chosen the iron, as we think 
 the seared line of distinction stronger or more perfect, while 
 the melted horn binds the edges together. But in case no 
 moisture at all has appeared at the crack, then the in- 
 sertion of any caustic matter is unnecessary, and the 
 treatment for this kind of fissure is very simple. The 
 measures necessary for such an injury will be as fol- 
 low^s : — 
 
 The horse being shod with a bar shoe, and the hoof 
 either pared away in a line with the crack ; or otherwise the 
 shoe chambered, so that the horn immediately under the 
 fissure may not be pressed on : proceed to bandage up the 
 foot, so as to fulfil the following intentions: — bring the 
 divided edges of the fissure together, and completely retain 
 them there, in such a manner as totally to exclude mois- 
 ture from entering tlie opening. Whatever mode will 
 
PUNCTURED FOOT. Oil PRICK. 547 
 
 answer these purposes best should be adopted ; perhaps 
 the following-, though a common one, is equal to any : — 
 melt some shoemakers' wax, and smear all over the hoof; 
 and, before it is quite cold, bind upon the wax firmly about 
 three yards of tape, so as to include as much of the hoof as 
 may be within the turns ; fasten off with a hard knot, and 
 again over the whole smear more wax ; and, lastly, smooth 
 it into an even surface. This done, rub over a little lard or 
 other greasy substance, to prevent the pitchy matter from 
 sticking. In all cases of simple fissure, not very long or 
 deep, pare away the divided edges so as to cut out the 
 crack, and then with a hot iron draw a line above and 
 below the place where the division had been. 
 
 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK. 
 
 The foot is unavoidably exposed to numberless injuries 
 from sharp bodies penetrating its substance : this may hap- 
 pen in various ways, from nails, pointed flints, glass, &c. 
 The shoe being partly torn off, and then stepped upon, 
 may produce it ; but the accidental puncture by a nail 
 during shoeing is one of the most frequent causes of these 
 accidents. Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their 
 effects according to the parts punctured, and not entirely 
 to the depth of the wound : a knowledge, therefore, of the 
 anatomical structure of the foot is necessary to enable us to 
 ibrm an opinion of the extent of the harm done. A punc- 
 ture through the fleshy frog, even to the vascular portion, 
 is not productive usually of such serious consequences as 
 an apparently more superficial opening made through the 
 centre of the sole ; both may penetrate the capsular liga- 
 ment of the perforans tendon and navicular bone, and either 
 produce anchylosis or destroy the animal. Whenever a 
 puncture takes place of sufficient depth to produce the 
 above-mentioned injury, and synovia escapes, the external 
 opening should be enlarged ; but it should be attempted to 
 close the internal opening, by the continual application of a 
 pledget of tow, soaked in the weaker solution of the chlo- 
 ride of zinc, not to the immediate surface of the capsular 
 ligament, but to the flesh directly over it. This should be 
 renewed three times a day, and the horse should wear a 
 boot, having the foot slightly stopped by means of an old 
 
 N n 2 
 
548 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK. 
 
 shoe tacked on. No matter whether suppuration has com- 
 menced or not, the above solution should be emploj^ed 
 till the opening has healed. A very deep posterior punc- 
 ture may extend itself into the flexor tendon, and is always 
 productive of very great irritation and inflammation. In 
 such cases enlarge the opening, and treat in a similar way 
 with the boot and the weaker solution of chloride of zinc ; 
 observing, that if prior to suppuration the inflammation run 
 very high, or the pain be excessive, a little blood may be 
 taken from the toe and the foot, without removing the 
 previous dressing placed in a poultice : examine the w-ound 
 to see it contains no foreign body, and enlarge the opening 
 whether it does or not. A puncture of the sensitive sole 
 may be treated by cutting away the horn below and imme- 
 diately near to the injury, and then dressing the wound 
 with a pledget of tow smeared wnth tar, and kept close by 
 means of splints and stopping. Should, however, suppura- 
 tion start up, remove the above, put the foot in a poultice, 
 and afterwards dress with the solution of chloride of zinc in 
 the previous mentioned manner ; when, there being a de- 
 pending orifice, the wound will do well. 
 
 But the most usual cases of punctures are those which 
 arise from a w rong direction of a nail in shoeing, and which 
 either presses on, or actually wounds, the sensitive laminae. 
 This is commonly known to the workman at the time by 
 a peculiar sensation arising from the diflerent resistance 
 occasioned, or by the flinching of the horse. The best smith 
 that ever lived may meet with this accident ; the slightest 
 movement of the horse may occasion it. The w^onder is, the 
 men perform a hazardous and delicate office so frequently with 
 so few mishaps. Many horse proprietors, however, think 
 differently, and by venting their ignorance and bad temper, 
 make the smith unwilling to acknowledge when a nail is 
 driven the wrong way. Concealment, in this case, is all 
 that is to be feared. Hide the fact the puncture may sup- 
 purate, and the most fearful destruction to the foot ensue : 
 make it known, and with proper treatment there is an end 
 of the aflkir. Nineteen horses out of twenty that are pricked 
 do well ; but the smith, rather than face the bad temper or 
 abuse of the owner, conceals the circumstance, and runs 
 the chance of ultimate discovery. To prevent the worst, and 
 
PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK. 549 
 
 spare the animal, say to the men labouring at the forge 
 where the horse is shod, you know no man can help prick- 
 ing an animal, and you shall think nothing of it provided 
 you are told ; but you will put the law in force should the 
 circumstance occur and be concealed. Were the nail imme- 
 diately redrawn, the opening enlarged, and a small quantity 
 of tow with tar put upon the wound, it would commonly 
 heal ; and even should it proceed to suppuration, still a 
 depending orifice would exist for the evacuation of the 
 matter, and the extensive detachment of horn be prevented. 
 When a smith, in shoeing, drives the nail into the inner 
 horny wall, or too fine, he is apt, from fear or shame, to let it 
 remain ; but he ought to be aware a slight bulge takes place 
 during progression : pressure on the vascular parts ensues, 
 and inflammation surely follows if it is not withdrawn. It 
 happens, even when he is aware that the nail has pene- 
 trated the inner surface of the horn, and wounded the vas- 
 cular parts, he is often then hopeful to conceal that which 
 not avowed becomes his fault. The offending nail being 
 allowed to remain, the inflammation is considerable the 
 same night, or perhaps not till one or two days afterwards. 
 In such cases, as suppuration proceeds, the confined matter 
 spreads around, detaching a portion of the fleshy from the 
 horny sole, more or less considerable ; at last extending 
 upward, it finds itself an exit by an opening at the coronet, 
 and a quittor is established. In proceeding, the inflamma- 
 tion does not always confine itself to the punctured portion 
 of the sensitive laminae ; but often, when not assisted by an 
 artificial opening, it extends to parts less vascular ; sinuses 
 form inwardly. Fortunately, however, the vital action 
 of the sensitive sole and laminse being extreme, the mat- 
 ter usually proceeds outward, and finds an exit at the 
 coronet. 
 
 It may, therefore, in pursuing this subject, be stated, that 
 at any time when a horse becomes lame within a week after 
 he has been shod, if the origin of it be hid in any obscurity, 
 the shoe should be always removed, and the foot gently 
 struck all over with the hammer. If the lameness springs 
 from this source, and any part be injured by one nail in 
 particular, at that part the stroke will occasion the horse to 
 
550 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK, 
 
 flinch. If this fail to detect the evil, pinch the sole and 
 the wall round with the pincers ; which, if the mischief arise 
 from a prick, will readily point out the affected part by the 
 pain felt there ; and under this spot matter will have surely 
 formed. Proceed in such case immediately to pare away 
 the horny sole, if necessary, till the blood be upon the point 
 of starting ; when on inspection a dark-coloured fluid may 
 ooze from one of the nail holes, yet, if a longer period has 
 elapsed, a purulent one will appear. But should considerable 
 time have passed, and there be an appearance of extensive 
 suppuration, we must carefully examine the extent of the 
 injury, to ascertain how far the horny sole has become 
 separated from the fleshy one ; for to this extent must the 
 horn be removed ; ever keeping in mind, that, as the fleshy 
 sole will never form over the dead or detached sole, so, to 
 gain a new horny secretion, every portion of loose horn 
 must be removed. No greasy matter should be applied to 
 the fleshy sole, but a pledget of tow or lint moistened with 
 tar may be laid on. If the case has been a neglected one, 
 and there has been extensive separation of horn, with con- 
 siderable suppurative process, take away at once every por- 
 tion of the separated horn. There must here be an imme- 
 diate exposure of the entire underrun fleshy surface ; and a 
 mild stimulant application, such as tar, made to the sensitive 
 sole, to change the purulent into a horny secretion. If 
 on the next day the secretion of new horn, though very 
 thin, is yet moderately complete, continue to dress it as 
 before ; but if fungus appears to be forming, touch such 
 part with the butyr of antimony : and after the luxuriant 
 granulation have disappeared, change the dressing to the 
 solution of chloride of zinc, two grains to the ounce of 
 water. Apply such cover as will defend the part as well 
 from moisture as unequal pressure ; but general and healthy 
 pressure, in a moderate degree,* will be salutary : tack on a 
 shoe lightly over all, and fasten on the dressing with splints. 
 When matter has proceeded to evacuate itself by the coro- 
 net, treat as for a quittor. And in all these cases, when 
 the symptomatic fever rages high, give physic. Perfect 
 quiet is absolutely necessary in every instance of puncture ; 
 the slightest exercise irritates, and should be avoided. The 
 
QUITTOR. 551 
 
 hoof should either be cut away, or a shoe should be made 
 to ' lie off' the injured parts, and be very lightly tacked on 
 with three or four nails, not fully clenched up ; this will 
 allow of a ready removal and re-application. 
 
 TREAD, OR OVERREACH. 
 
 A wound about the coronet or heels is a very common 
 accident to horses, from one foot being set on the other ; 
 when the outer quarter, or toe of the shoe upon the 
 hind foot, will wound the integuments, together with the 
 vascular coronary rim of the fore foot. Or it may occur 
 from a blow inflicted by the heel of the fore shoe upon the 
 front of the coronet, in consequence of the hinder one over- 
 reaching it. In the first instance, all these cases are to be 
 considered as simple wounds, or rather as bruises, which, 
 if extensive, have produced death in the surface and adjacent 
 parts of the hurt; in which some inflammation must occur 
 and be followed by slough of the edges thus injured. And 
 sometimes the injury is so great as to cause sloughing of the 
 extensor pedis tendon and opening of the coffin joint. In 
 no instance, therefore, should an early application of irritat- 
 ing or caustic matters be made, by which more extensive 
 inflammation and an increase of sloughing are produced. 
 On the contrary, wash with water to remove dirt, &c., and 
 if the wound be considerable, wrap up the foot in a poultice ; 
 if not, apply over it simply the mild lotion of chloride of 
 zinc. Should the injury be slight, it may heal at once ; 
 but if not, sloughing and suppuration will occur. Under 
 some circumstances, however, more extensive mischief will 
 follow, when the case must be considered as quittor, or open 
 joint. 
 
 QUITTOR. 
 
 The various accidental lesions just described sometimes 
 suppurate ; and in consequence of the thick covering 
 of horn, cannot follow the usual course of inflammation 
 by proceeding outward, but directs its confined secretion 
 inward, attacking all the internal parts of the foot : this 
 state IS called quittor, which is a diseased state supple- 
 mentary to many other lesions of the foot. Now when it 
 is considered of what different materials this organ is 
 composed ; some vascular and sensitive ; some in which the 
 
552 QUITTOR. 
 
 powers of life are very feeble, and their organization low ; 
 W'bile other parts exist which are varied in their shades 
 between the two ; when this is considered, we need not 
 wonder that any morbid action of the foot, having a pre- 
 disposition to extend inward, should in its course present 
 different symptoms, arising from the different structures 
 which it attacks. 
 
 Symptoms. — The probability of a quittor is shown by an 
 enlargement of the coronet. This may be followed by an 
 exudation between hair and hoof, or the tumour on the 
 coronet may burst in its centre. Let whichever may take 
 place, an open sore is speedily set up from which does not 
 issue healthy pus ; but a mixture of pus and a fluid re- 
 sembling white of egg, in which white particles are often 
 seen to float, and which often has a most offensive smell. 
 On searching the w^ound, it is found to proceed by little 
 narrow channels various ways. The channels are often so 
 small and tortuous as to defy the entrance of more than 
 the point of a probe ; and it is from these that the liquid 
 resembling white of egg issues. To find out their extent, 
 cut a small twig of a broom, and, having rounded its point, 
 use it as a flexible probe. It wull bend with the winding 
 of the sinus, and will enter where the silver wire w*ould not 
 penetrate. It must be used for some time and with some 
 force upon the first occasion, and its application should be 
 rejDeated upon the three following dressings. It should be 
 made to enter wherever any glairy exudation is perceived ; 
 for often several large sinuses will communicate with a very 
 small opening. 
 
 A quittor seems to occasion intense pain, producing acute 
 lameness. The horse having a quittor fears to put the 
 diseased foot to the ground ; wherefore it is better to turn 
 him into a loose box, and to dress him with as little 
 disturbance as may be possible. Nevertheless as he suffers 
 from an injury which demands the reparative process to be 
 established before it can be healed, feed him fully with as 
 much liberality as may be compatible with a life of idleness. 
 Attention paid to this last direction will materially shorten 
 the duration of the cure. 
 
 Treatment of Quittor. — This, like most matters of opinion, 
 has varied with the theories and the customs of the day. 
 Formerly all quittors were attempted to be cured either by 
 
QUITTOR. 553 
 
 caustics or by the actual cautery, or by both together. La 
 Fosse, the elder, who was rather fond of novelty, in some 
 measure overturned this practice in France, and introduced 
 a new method, founded on an idea that the obstinacy and de- 
 rangement that accompanied the complaint originated in the 
 lateral cartilages becoming carious ; these he affirmed were 
 capable of being thus affected, but incapable either of ex- 
 foliating like bone, or sloughing like ligament ; and there- 
 fore, to promote a cure, the whole cartilage must be re- 
 moved. This practice became universal in France, and ex- 
 tended itself here also, particularly after M. St. Bel assumed 
 the professorship of our Veterinary College. Here it 
 reigned a little time only ; but in France it continued until 
 the writings of M. Girard on the subject checked its 
 career, and brought its practice into some disrepute. This 
 celebrated professor showed the superiority of the old 
 method of employing corrosives ; and the success of the 
 practice at the Alfort School, over which he presided, 
 tended further to bring these into use. Perhaps also our own 
 success with them might have hastened the re-adoption. 
 
 The practical part of the treatment of qiiittor should be 
 commenced by acquainting ourselves with the actual state 
 of the parts ; and this is the more necessary, as it will often 
 prevent us from being involved in a fruitless attempt, which 
 will probably bring disgrace on our practice, torture on an 
 innocent beast, and ensure trouble and useless expense on 
 our employer. When, by the use of a pliable probe, we 
 meet with a firm hard body, a bone, the case cannot be said 
 to be a favourable one : but unless the cartilages be also 
 carious, such horses frequently become sound, therefore 
 our opinion should be to that effect. If, in addition to 
 caries of the bone and cartilages, we observe a flow of 
 synovia also, a perfect cure is hardly to be expected ; 
 although even here the powers of the constitution have 
 occasionally restored the foot to a degree of utility ; and as 
 these cases happen principally to the hind feet, and very 
 frequently to our large and valuable draught-horses, the 
 attempted cure might be worth the trial. When we detect 
 caries of the anterior or lower parts of the lateral cartilages, 
 we must then be aware that the process of exfoliation is a 
 very difficult one to promote, in consequence of the small 
 
554 QUITTOR. 
 
 powers of life in the parts : if our efforts succeed, the 
 process will probably be a lengthened one ; but as these 
 cartilages extend themselves posteriori}^, they become more 
 and more of a cartilago-fibrous texture ; this as being more 
 highly organized, is more capable of the sloughing and re- 
 productive processes ; so, when caries of the cartilage is 
 detected, if it have a backward direction, and not burrowing 
 deep towards the articulation, we are warranted in expect- 
 ing to succeed. In no part of the treatment is judgment 
 more displayed than this : we must spare, and yet spare 
 not ; we must expose every particle of the internal part of 
 the' foot, be it walls, heels, or sole, that obstruct our 
 proceeding; but we must most carefully avoid removing one 
 particle unnecessarily : and it must be kept in mind, that, 
 unless dictated by the circumstances w^e have pointed out, 
 we must content ourselves with keeping the hoof well 
 thinned, and pliant by moisture, &c. And, notwithstand- 
 ing the prejudices against firing in quittor, we would, when- 
 ever a circumscribed spot of carious bone could be got at, 
 without endangering articular or bursal cavities, apply a 
 pointed cautery ; neither should we be deterred from touch- 
 ing such a spot in the centre of the lateral cartilages ; but w^e 
 would lightly apply it only, and not at all when it was 
 carious tow^ards the base of the cartilage. This will often 
 save much time, even in the worst cases, and equall}^ in 
 those which are destined to an after treatment : occasion- 
 ally it will do more ; for it sometimes happens that this alone 
 will bring about a new action, when the cartilages and 
 ligaments do not v^ery extensively participate, as frequently 
 happens if a nail have penetrated the anterior part of 
 the sole, and wounded the bone. The general end we 
 have in view is to promote a removal of the dead parts ; 
 our further attempts must therefore be directed to alter the 
 diseased ravage going on. Our surgical principles now 
 teach us to make use of so much stimulus, and only so 
 much, as shall alter the diseased action. If it can be done 
 by mild means, it is by far the most humane and eligible 
 method. But if the sinuses are extensive, and the dis- 
 organization has extended to the cartilages and ligaments, 
 we must proceed further : indeed, it is seldom that we can 
 stop short from ' coring out the quittor ' by a forcible slough- 
 
QUITTOR. 555 
 
 ing, brought about by the introduction of some caustic 
 substance, after this fashion. When the opening is very 
 small, and the sinuses deep, but contracted, make a paste 
 with equal parts of resin and corrosive subHmate, softened 
 and held together with tar. Impregnate small pieces of 
 wool or tow fully with this paste, which place around the 
 end of a probe, and introduce one by one to the bottom of 
 each sinus, filling also each up to the orifice with the same, 
 but not jamming them in with force. When, on the con- 
 trary, the orifice of the wound is sufficiently large, and one 
 or two straight sinuses only exist, a bougie may be made 
 with paper, dipped in the paste, and introduced ; or in case 
 the diseased action be extreme, and the quittor is very foul, 
 the powder may be rolled within thin paper, so as to make 
 also a bougie, which being greased or rubbed with tar to 
 render it slippery, should be introduced to the bottom of 
 the sinuses ; but it must be remembered, that, when these 
 are numerous and irregular in their direction, the first is by 
 far the best mode. The hoof should, as soon as the caustic 
 is introduced, be put into a poultice. In two or three days 
 after the introduction of the caustic, there will follow great 
 heat and tumefaction of the foot ; and, at last, the orifice 
 will burst out, expelling the slough, together with the 
 application that occasioned it ; after which it may be ex- 
 pected that the wound will go on healthily to heal. If, how- 
 ever, unfortunately, this should not be the case, recourse must 
 be again had to another introduction of escharotics, and in 
 every case remove so much of the horny sole as may be 
 beneath the pipes. The foregoing is severe treatment, 
 necessitated by long standing cases. However, when the 
 quittor is recent, and the sinuses are superficial, have the horn 
 thinned over the seat of the disease, but not to that extent 
 which lets forth blood. Then have the horse cast. Next take 
 a small director and insert it into a sinus. A sharp knife may 
 then be slid along the director, and a cut made outward, slit- 
 ting the sinus open. This is to be repeated as often as shall 
 be necessary. Some tow saturated with solution of blue vitriol 
 is then introduced into each sinus, and the horse allowed to 
 rise, when he frequently gets up sound. The wounds are to 
 be treated in the ordinary manner. Even when the severe 
 treatment is imperative, it simplifies the case if all super- 
 
556 CANKER. 
 
 ficial sinuses be got rid of at once, in the manner just 
 proposed ; so that the caustic, whose action we cannot 
 watch or control, may be inserted into as few places 
 as may be possible ; besides, while the horse is down, the 
 practitioner has an excellent opportunity of making a 
 perfect examination of the quittor. 
 
 CANKER. 
 
 This afiection has some peculiarities of character ; spread- 
 ing over the surface of the soft parts, particularly of the 
 sensitive frog and sole, and having a fungoid excrescence, 
 somewhat of a hardened texture, and exuding a thin and an 
 offensive discharge ; which inoculates the soft parts within 
 its reach, particularly the sensitive frog and sole, and destroys 
 their connexions with the horny covering. Canker can 
 be safely said to have much constitutional origin ; it is 
 frequently local ; seldom if ever spontaneous ; but either 
 constitutional, or secondary to some affection, as grease, 
 thrush, &c. It appears oftener in hot weather than in cold, 
 and is more frequently seen in crowded and filthy stables than 
 in well-regulated ones. It is now unknown in the army, and, 
 were the same preventive means applied, would be equally 
 unknown elsewhere. The disease originates in various ways : 
 one source, as supposed, but supposed only, is the high 
 heels or calkins of the heavy draught-horse, which remove 
 the frog from that pressure that seems so necessary to its 
 healthy state. The state of wet and filth these horses stand 
 in is a more likely source : moisture applied to the frogs is 
 a most active agent ; it disorganizes the frog itself, and in- 
 creases the growth of the horn on the heels, which aggravates 
 the evil. Another common origin is neglected thrush, 
 wdiich extending beyond the sensitive frog, inflames the 
 vascular sole, and extensive ulceration succeeds. Virulent 
 and neglected grease will often occasion it, and it is no un- 
 common circumstance for quittor to degenerate into canker. 
 When a canker is the consequence of a wound of the sole 
 which extends to the flexor tendon, it is commonly of the 
 worst kind. Treads, bruises, suppurating corns, or what- 
 ever produces inflammation, may occasion canker. 
 
 Treatment of Canker. — The principal indications appear 
 to be, first, to reduce the inordinate increase of parts to 
 
CANKER. 557 
 
 a level with the surrounding surface ; and, next, to re- 
 store the healthy secretions. To lessen the disposition to 
 produce an inordinate quantity of the wall at the ex- 
 pense of a sufficient development of the sole, the plantar 
 arteries were taken up by Mr. Coleman, but without 
 benefit. When, however, he divided the immediate 
 branches furnishing the coronary ring which cut off the 
 secreting supplies from the wall of the foot, the horn of 
 the sole began to form in larger quantities ; and the 
 experiment has been repeated by others with the same re- 
 sult. The division of the plantar nerves has been employed 
 for the same purpose, but with equivocal benefit ; yet it has 
 acted beneficially in another way, by removing much pain, 
 and enabling the animal to bear on the foot, which, by the 
 pressure thus obtained, is improved. When neurotomy is 
 performed in canker, it is principally confined to those cases 
 where the disease has its seat in the sole, bars, and frog : 
 it would never be prudent to do more than simply divide 
 the nerve, because the object here is to destroy sensation 
 temporarily only. When the fungus extends itself con- 
 siderably beyond the edges of the horn, it is prudent at once 
 to remove it to a level with the horny covering by the 
 knife. This will occasion a considerable h?emorrhage, which 
 may be checked by touching it lightly with muriate of 
 antimony ; after this, the edges of the horny sole that 
 surround the opening whence the fungus arises may be 
 better got at. Proceed carefully and accurately to examine 
 what extent of sensitive sole is separated from the horn, or, 
 how much is ^ underrun.' Exactly to this extent must the 
 sole of the hoof be removed with a drawing-knife ; for it 
 must never be lost sight of, that the horn once separated 
 never again reunites ; but becomes a foreign body, and 
 as such, occasions the same effects that occur from the 
 presence of other substances in all parts. Not only must 
 this be done in the first instance, but at every future 
 dressing the same attention should be paid to examine if 
 any further separation has occurred, that this last portion 
 may also be removed. 
 
 Having thus fulfilled the first indication, by reducing the 
 diseased fungus, and having lessened the irritation that 
 occasioned it, the next process is to promote a more healthy 
 
558 CANKER. 
 
 action in the diseased surface : two plans tend to this end 
 — the first by stimulants apphed to the surface ; the second, 
 by pressure, which strengthens the parts generally. As 
 long as there is a profuse secretion of a curd-like matter ; 
 and as long as the fungus grows beyond the surround- 
 ing parts, so long the cankered action is going on ; and, 
 during this time, no secretion of firm horn will take 
 place. An unhealthy formation of thin half-solid horn 
 may be observed over many portions of the surface ; but 
 this will prove an imperfect secretion, and must not be 
 allowed to remain ; on the contrary, it must be carefully 
 removed at each dressing, until, by the application of stimu- 
 lants, and the benefit of pressure, a healthy granulating 
 surface appears, that will produce only an ordinate and 
 proper quantity of good pus, and finally end in the forma- 
 tion of sound horn. After the exposure of the whole can- 
 kered surface, therefore, and of its treatment as before 
 directed, let it be sprinkled with either of the following 
 powders : — 
 
 Chloride of zinc one draclim. 
 
 Resin four ounces. 
 
 Cliloritle of lime one ounce. 
 
 Alum one ounce. 
 
 Resin two ounces. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 Make only sufficient for one dressing, as neither of the 
 above powders will keep, in consequence of the great 
 attraction for water. The cankered surface being lightly 
 sprinkled with either of these, or any other stimulant judged 
 proper, let it be covered as dry as possible ; first by a layer 
 of lint, over which place pledgets of tow thickly upon the 
 bottom of the foot ; this should be done very judiciously, 
 so as to fulfil the remainder of the indication, that is, to 
 keep up a firm and equal pressure ; and to insure a pro- 
 longation of it, introduce over the whole thin strips of iron 
 or steel, slid under the shoe and crossing each other, which 
 will retain the dressing and keep a continual compression. 
 This being done, keep the foot perfectly dry, which is of 
 the utmost importance : nor does any thing so strongly 
 prevent its future increase, and restore the healthy action 
 as dryness, united with pressure. A very great fault is 
 
CANKER. 559 
 
 often committed by dressing cankered feet too often. 
 We would, however, except the first dressing, where it has 
 been severe : here it is usual to let it remain two or three 
 days, until sloughing may be supposed to have commenced 
 and matter to be formed ; but afterwards, no bad case 
 ought to be dressed more frequently than every fourth day. 
 From a feverish impatience, this is often overdone, and a 
 cure that might be quickly performed is needlessly pro- 
 tracted ; also, in the end, proves less complete than it 
 might otherwise have been : for when the dressing is too 
 frequent, every thing done is rendered nearly useless by the 
 diseased action extending itself under other portions of the 
 sole, and the growth of fungus increasing. The destruction 
 of the fungus, when very high and luxuriant, may be 
 effected, as before mentioned, most conveniently by the 
 knife ; but, when not so prominent, it may be done by the 
 application of any of the caustic matter in general use. 
 Muriate of antimony is very commonly applied for this 
 purpose ; as it can be laid on every part by means of a 
 small paint-brush. It has also another advantage, which is, 
 that, by turning the surface immediately white it shows 
 what parts it has been applied to, and what are left undone. 
 The lapis infernalis, or caustic potash, fi'om its quick action, 
 is also a convenient application. We have likewise used a 
 solution of lunar- caustic, but the application of the same 
 in substance is not sufficiently quick to be useful. The 
 caustic dressing, be it what it may, should be continued no 
 longer than there is a diseased surface .remaining ; nor 
 should the escharotic process ever be pushed to the extent 
 of corroding deeply into the substance of the vascular 
 parts. Such conduct betrays the grossest ignorance, and 
 therefore can hardly be expected in the veterinarian ; but it 
 has happened in the practice of smiths and farriers, to the 
 utter destruction of the foot. Yet, on the other hand, until 
 the cankered matter, from being profuse, thin, and clotted 
 with white masses, change to a thicker, less fetid, and more 
 healthy discharge, as well as lessens in quantity, the sore 
 is still a cankered one ; also until the cauliflowered white 
 fungus change to a healthy red granulated appearance, the 
 unhealthy discharge must continue •. and, in all such cases, 
 a due degree of pressure, united with the application of 
 
560 FALSE QUARTER. 
 
 some escharotic, milder or stronger, according to circum- 
 stances, may be considered requisite. But so soon as 
 the fungus is completely reduced, the discharge is lessened 
 in quantity, and improved in quality, accompanied with a 
 secretion of healthy horn ; then nothing more is necessa y 
 than to watch the parts, to dress dry, and not too often ; 
 still keeping up a moderate degree of pressure till the sore 
 be completely hoofed over. Horses are often turned out 
 during the cure of inveterate canker ; as the foot becomes 
 unavoidably exposed to moisture, it is an improper course 
 to pursue ; but mill-work under cover offers an excellent 
 method of combining pressure with benefit to the general 
 health ; observing, if the horse has been subjected to neu- 
 rotomy, that his insensibihty does not cause him to injure 
 his foot. 
 
 FALSE QUARTER. 
 
 This can hardly be considered as a distinct complaint, 
 but, more properly, as a consequence resulting from some 
 one of the former diseases; in W'hich, from the injury done 
 to the coronary vascular ligament, it can never afterwards 
 secrete horn ; but the break or interruption produced by 
 the interposition of a portion of non-secreting substance, 
 causes a part of the outer crust of the wall to be absent. 
 Such a blemish is called a false quarter ; and it is evident 
 that it must greatly tend to weaken the hoof. It likewise 
 sometimes produces the same unpleasant effects as a sand- 
 crack, by the separation of the under layer of the wall 
 admitting the vascular laminse between the opening. The 
 treatment can be only palliative. Keep the neighbouring 
 horn always thin : use a bar shoe, and ' lay off' (as a smith 
 calls it) the deficient quarter. This may be done either by 
 paring the crust, or by an indentation in the shoe ; the 
 choice of which is left to the prudence of the operator, with 
 this exception, that, in a weak thin foot, the alteration 
 should always be made in the shoe, and in a strong one 
 in the crust. 
 
RESTRAINTS, &C. 561 
 
 OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS, 
 
 AND THE VARIOUS RESTRAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY TO 
 PLACE THE HORSE UNDER FOR THEIR PERFORMANCE. 
 
 When it is necessary to perform any painful operation on 
 SO powerful an animal as the horse, it is of consequence to 
 subject him to a restraint equal to the occasion. Horses 
 are very dissimilar in their tempers, and bear pain very 
 differently ; but it is always prudent to prepare for the 
 worst, and few important operations should be attempted 
 without casting. Humanity should be the fundamental 
 principle of every proceeding, and we ought always to sub- 
 ject this noble animal to pain with reluctance ; but when 
 circumstances absolutely call for it, w^e should joyfully close 
 our hearts to all necessary suffering. The resistance of 
 the horse is terrible, and it is but common prudence to 
 guard against the effects of it. The lesser restraints are 
 various : among them may be first noticed the twitch. The 
 tivitch is a very necessary instrument in a stable, though, 
 when frequently and officiously used, it may have the ill 
 effect of rendering some horses violent to resist its applica- 
 tion. In many instances blindfolding will do more than 
 the tw^itch ; and some horses may be quieted, when the 
 pain is not excessive, by holding the ear in one hand, and 
 rubbing the point of the nose with the other. A sooth- 
 ing manner will often engage the attention and prevent 
 violence ; but it is seldom that either threats or punish- 
 ment render an unruly horse more calm. Inexperienced 
 l^ersons guard themselves only against the hind legs ; but 
 they should be aware that some horses strike terribly with 
 their fore feet : it is prudent, therefore, in all operations, to 
 blindfold the animal, as by this he becomes particularly in- 
 timidated, and if he strikes he cannot aim. When one 
 of the fore extremities requires a very minute examination, 
 it is prudent to have the opposite leg held up ; it may, in 
 some cases, be tied : and when one of the hinder feet is 
 the object of attention, the fore one of the same side should 
 be held up, as by this means the animal is commonly pre- 
 vented from striking. If this precaution be not taken, still 
 
 o o 
 
562 CASTING. 
 
 observe to keep one hand on the hock, while the other is 
 employed in what is necessary ; by which means, if the foot 
 become elevated to kick, sufficient warning is given, and 
 the very action of the horse throws the operator away from 
 the stroke. Without the use of these arts the practitioner 
 will expose himself to much risk. The ti-evis is the very 
 utmost limit of restraint, and is seldom used save by smiths, 
 to shoe very violent and powerful horses : whenever re- 
 course is had to it, the greatest caution is necessary to bed 
 and bolster all the parts that are likely to come in contact 
 with the body. On the Continent we have seen horses shod 
 in this machine, and apparently put into it from no neces- 
 sity greater, than to prevent the clothes of the smith from 
 being dirtied. Horses have been destroyed by the trevis, 
 as w^ell as by casting ; or their aversion to the restraint has 
 been such, they have died from the consequences of their 
 own resistance. The side-line is now very generally used, 
 not only in minor operations, but also in those more im- 
 portant. Many veterinarians do not use any other re- 
 straint than this, in which they consider there is safety both 
 to the horse and to the operator. It is applicable to such 
 horses as are disposed to strike behind ; and consists in 
 placing a hobble strap around the pastern of one hind leg, 
 and then carrying from a web collar passed over the head 
 the end of a rope through the D of the hobble, and back 
 again under the webbing round the neck. A man is then 
 set to pull at the free end of the rope, by which the hinder 
 leg is drawn forward without elevating it from the ground. 
 By this displacement of one leg the horse is effectually 
 secured from kicking with either. Occasionally it is thus 
 applied : — hobbles are put on both hind legs, and the rope 
 is passed through each of the rings. According to this 
 last method, the horse is actually cast, as he must fall w^hen 
 the ropes are pulled. Take a long rope, and tie a loop in 
 the middle, which is to be of such a size as it may serve for 
 a collar ; pass the loop over the head, letting the knot rest 
 upon the withers ; then take the free ends, pass them 
 through the hobbles, and bring it under the loop. Let two 
 men pull at the ropes, and the hind legs will be drawn 
 forward. 
 
 Casting. — The objections to this practice arise from the 
 
CASTING. 563 
 
 dangers incurred by forcing the horse to the ground. Mr. 
 Bracy Clark simphfied casting, by inventing some patent 
 hobbles, having a running chain instead of rope, and which, 
 by a shifting D, made the loosening of all the hobbles, for 
 the purpose of getting at a particular leg, unnecessary. 
 These were still further improved by Mr. Budd, so as to 
 render a release from all the hobbles at once practicable. 
 Hobble leathers and ropes should be kept supple and pliant 
 with oil, and ought to be always examined previous to 
 using ; nor should the D or ring of the strap be of any 
 other metal than iron. Brass, however thick, is brittle, 
 and not to be depended on. To the D or ring of one pas- 
 tern hobble, a chain of about four feet long is attached ; to 
 this a strong rope is well fastened, and, according to the 
 way the horse is to be thrown, this hobble is to be fixed 
 on the fore foot of the contrary side : the rope is then 
 passed from the hobble on the fore foot to the D of the 
 hind foot of that side, then to the other hind foot, and, 
 lastly, through the D of the other fore foot. After this, 
 much of the ease and safety of the throw depend on bring- 
 ing the legs as near together as possible. This should be 
 done by gradually moving them nearer to each other, with- 
 out alarming the horse ; which will very much facilitate the 
 business, and is really of more moment than is generally 
 imagined. A space sufficiently large should be chosen for 
 the purpose of casting, as some horses struggle much, and 
 throw themselves with great violence a considerable way to 
 one side or the other ; and they are able to do this if the 
 feet have not been brought near together previous to attempt- 
 ing the cast. The place should be also very well littered 
 down. The legs having been brought together, the as- 
 sistants must act in concert ; one particularly should be 
 placed at the head, which must be carefully held through- 
 out by means of a strong snaffle bridle ; another should be 
 at the hind part to direct the fall, and to force the body of 
 the horse to the side which is requisite. Pursuing these 
 instructions, the animal may be at once rather let down 
 than thrown, by a dexterous and quick drawing of the rope ; 
 the whole assistants acting in concert. The moment the 
 horse is down, the person at the head must throw himself 
 upon that member, and keep it secure ; for all the efforts of 
 
 o o2 
 
564 SLINGING. 
 
 the animal to disengage himself are begun by elevating the 
 head and fore parts. The rope is tightened. The chain 
 is fixed by inserting a hook through one of the links, of 
 sufficient size not to pass the hobbles. When the opera- 
 tion is over, the screw which fastens to chain to the hobble, 
 first put upon one fore leg, is withdrawn. The chain then 
 flies through the D's of the other hobbles, and all the legs 
 are free, save the fore leg first alluded to ; the strap of this 
 has to be afterwards unbuckled. There are also other appa- 
 ratus used in casting, as a strong leathern case to pass over 
 the head, serving as a blind when the animal is being 
 thrown ; and as a protection against his rubbing the skin off 
 his eyes when down. Then a circingle is also used. This is 
 fastened round the horse's body, and from the back hangs 
 a broad strap and a rope : the strap is fastened to the fore 
 leg of that side which it is desired should be uppermost ; 
 the line is given to a man who stands on the opposite side 
 to the generality of the pullers. On the signal being given, 
 the men having hold of the hobble rope pull the legs one 
 way, while, he who has hold of the rope attached to the 
 circingle pulls the back in a contrary direction, and the 
 horse is immediately cast. 
 
 Slinging is a restraint which horses did submit to with 
 great impatience, and not without much inconvenience, 
 from the violent excoriations occasioned by the friction and 
 pressure of the bandaging around his body. Graver evils 
 are also brought about by the abdominal pressure : some 
 horses stale and dung with difficulty when suspended ; and 
 inflammation of the bowels has not unfrequently come on 
 during slinging. The slings are, however, forced on us in 
 some cases, as in fractured bones, the treatment of open 
 joints, and some other wounds where motion would be most 
 unfavourable to the curative treatment. Suspension may be 
 partial or complete. Suspension of any kind will require 
 the application of pulleys and ropes affixed to the beams, 
 that the whole body of the horse may be supported. A 
 sling may be formed of a piece of strong sacking, which is 
 to pass under the belly, the two ends being fastened firmly 
 to pieces of wood ; each of about three feet long, and which 
 are to reach a little higher than the horse's back : to the 
 pieces of wood cords and pulleys are to be firmly attached, 
 
VETERINARY OBSTETRICS. 565 
 
 by which means the sacking can he lowered or raised at 
 pleasure. To the sacking, also, are to be sewn strong 
 straps, both before and behind, to prevent the horse sliding 
 in either direction, without carrying the sacking with him. 
 Upon this so formed cradle he is to recline. If horses 
 when they are fresh should be placed in this machine, most 
 of them would either injure themselves, or break through 
 all restraint. However, by tying up their heads for three 
 or four nights, their spirit is destroyed. The slings may 
 then be applied without the fear of resistance : it is the 
 best method not to pull the canvas firm up, but to leave 
 about an inch between the horse's belly and the cloth, so 
 that the animal may stand free, or throw his weight into 
 the slings when he pleases. In this fashion a horse may 
 remain for months in the slings, and at the end of the time 
 display none of the wear and tear so feelingly described by 
 old authors. 
 
 VETERINARY OBSTETRICS, 
 
 Protracted and difficult parturition does occur in the 
 mare, when it becomes the veterinary practitioner to be au 
 fait at rendering assistance, or he will be completely under 
 the lash of the farriers around him. The principal cases 
 that occur arise either from weakness in the mare, or from a 
 disproportion between the foetus and mother. False pre- 
 sentations are also to be witnessed, but chiefly of the back 
 and croup : that of the back requires much labour, but the 
 foal is to be delivered, the hind legs being presented, without 
 turning in the womb being necessary. When either from 
 debility of the mare, or disproportion in the size of the 
 foal, a natural birth is despaired of, the practitioner having 
 introduced his arm, and having ascertained that the pre- 
 sentation is a natural one, should draw the feet gently for- 
 ward, and then endeavour to place the head between them. 
 If the head only is met with, seize it by the muzzle and 
 draw it gently onward, searching for the feet, and drawing 
 them one after the other in the line of the head ; which 
 manipulations are, of course, only to be attempted during 
 the throes of the mother. So soon as the head and legs 
 are got near the external orifice, enclose each foot within 
 the loop of a rope ; then holding both the ends so attached, 
 
566 EMBRYOTOMY. 
 
 endeavour to liberate the foal, which must be done by 
 steady, but not brutal, pulling at the time of each throe ; 
 unless by protracted labour or excess of debility they have 
 altogether ceased ; when strive to revive them by the ad- 
 ministration of stimulants, especially the infusion of the 
 ergot of rye, in two drachm doses every twenty minutes. 
 Should this not succeed in one hour, proceed to extract 
 without : to delay it, would be to lose both mother and 
 offspring. The blunt hook is sometimes used on those 
 occasions, when the hand cannot be introduced ; it is a 
 powerful aid with those that can direct it. When the obstruc- 
 tion arises from an unnatural presentation of parts, that is, 
 of other parts than the head and fore feet, as of the loins, 
 the croup, and one single extremity, the other being dou- 
 bled backward ; it is evident here our endeavours must be 
 directed to change the position to the natural one, if prac- 
 ticable ; if not, to bring the hinder extremities forwards, 
 and endeavour to make the extraction by this method. 
 Lastly, if all these means fail, we must proceed to lessen 
 the foetal mass by embryotomy. 
 
 EMBRYOTOMY. 
 
 When, from weakness, a very narrow pelvic opening 
 on the part of the mother, or monstrosity on the part of the 
 foal, no efforts can bring the fcetal mass away entire, it 
 must be dismembered. A knife made for the purpose, 
 having the blade concealed, with the haft lying within the 
 hollow of the hand, is to be taken up into the vagina. We 
 are told that, occasionally, hydrocephalus in the colt pre- 
 vents the head from passing. Such a case will detect itself 
 by the volume that will be felt on examination, and which 
 will be easily lessened by plunging the point of the knife in 
 the forehead, and evacuating the contents by pressing the 
 skull in ; when, laying hold of the muzzle, the head may be 
 brought through the pelvic opening. But it is usually the 
 natural size of the head which forms the obstruction ; in 
 which case the head itself must be removed. When the 
 head has been dissected off and brought away, it will be 
 necessary probably to contract the volume of the chest ; 
 which will not be difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous por- 
 tions of the ribs ; detaching the thoracic viscera, and then 
 
CASTRATION. 567 
 
 crushing, or rather moulding, the empty thorax together ; 
 after which the rest of the hody will offer Uttle obstruction. 
 When the head cannot be got at, the Unibs must, one by 
 one, be detached : after which the body, and at last the 
 head, may be drawn out either entire, or lessened con- 
 siderably. 
 
 CASTRATION. 
 
 This practice is of very ancient origin ; and is as exten- 
 sive as ancient. It is founded on the superior placidity of 
 temper it gives. The castrated horse no longer evinces the 
 superiorities of his masculine character, but approaches the 
 softer form and milder character of the mare. Losing his 
 ungovernable desires, he submits to discipline and confine- 
 ment without resistance ; and if he be less worthy of the 
 painter's delineation and the poet's song, he is valuable to 
 his possessor in a tenfold degi'ce. In England, where length 
 in the arms and of the wide-spread angles of the limbs is 
 absolutely necessary in the horse to accomplish the rapid 
 travelling so much in vogue among us, the exchange of the 
 lofty carriage and high action of the stallion is absolutely 
 necessary ; and when we have added the lessened tendency 
 of the gelding to some diseases, as hernia, founder, cuta- 
 neous affections, &c., we may be content to leave the sexual 
 type with the racer for his breed ; also with the drayhorse 
 for his weight, and the fancy of his owner. Supposing it, 
 therefore, eligible to castrate our horses, what is the proper 
 age for the operation? What are the relative advantages 
 and disadvantages of the different methods of performing it ? 
 The proper age to castrate the young horse must depend on 
 circumstances ; as on his present appearance, his growth, 
 and the future purposes we intend him for ; observing, gene- 
 rally, that the more early it is done, the safer is the opera- 
 tion : for until these organs begin to secrete, they are purely 
 structural parts, and as such are not so intimately connected 
 with the sympathies of the constitution. It is otherwise 
 wdien they take on their functional office ; their vascularity 
 and volume is then greatly increased, and the system largely 
 sympathises with them. On the other hand, a removal 
 before the adult age has so much effect on the external 
 
568 CASTRATION. 
 
 form, that it has occasioned, in some countries, a legal 
 enactment to prevent it. 
 
 A reference to our anatomical detail will show that a 
 partial descent of the spermatic glands takes place soon 
 after birth ; and that in most cases, therefore, they may be 
 found without the external abdominal ring, until the fourth, 
 fifth, or sixth month ; but occasionally even later. After 
 this they are drawn up within the interior of the inguinal 
 canal : here they remain until the tenth or eleventh month. 
 Colts, therefore, can be castrated any time between the 
 first and fourth month ; and this period is preferred by 
 some persons, from the little disturbance it occasions to the 
 constitution. Some breeders of horses castrate at twelve 
 months ; others object to this period, because they think 
 the animal has not sufficiently recovered the check ex- 
 perienced from weaning, before this new shock to the 
 system occurs. In the more common sort of horses used 
 for agricultural purposes, it is probably indifferent at what 
 time the operation is performed ; this consideration being 
 kept in view, that the earlier it is done the lighter will the 
 horse be in his fore-hand ; and the longer it is protracted 
 the heavier will be his crest, and the greater his weight 
 before, which in heavy draught work is desirable. For 
 carriage horses it would be less so, and the period of two 
 years is not a bad one for their castration. The better sort 
 of saddle horses should be well examined every three or 
 four months ; particularly at the ages of twelve, eighteen, 
 and twenty-four months ; at either of which times, according 
 to circumstances or to fancy, provided the fore-hand be 
 sufficiently developed, it may be proceeded with. Waiting 
 longer may make the horse heavy : but if his neck appear 
 too long and thin, and his shoulders spare, he will assuredly 
 be improved by being allowed to remain entire for six or 
 eight months later. Many of the Yorkshire breeders 
 never cut till two years, and think their horses stronger and 
 handsomer for it : some wait even longer, but the fear in 
 this case is, that the stallion form will be too predominant, 
 and a heavy crest and weighty fore-hand be the consequence ; 
 perhaps also the temper may sutler. Young colts require 
 little preparation, provided they are healthy and not too 
 
CASTRATION. 569 
 
 full from high living ; if so, they must be kept somewhat 
 short for a few days ; and in all, the choice of a mild season 
 and moderate temperature is proper. When a full-grown 
 horse is operated on, some further preparation is necessary. 
 He should not be in a state of debility, and certainly not 
 in one of plethora : in the latter case, lower his diet, and it 
 would be prudent to give him a purgative. It is also 
 advisable that it be done when no influenza or strangles 
 rage, as we have found the effects of castration render a 
 horse very obnoxious to any prevalent disease. The 
 advanced spring season, previous however to the flies 
 becoming troublesome, is the proper time for the perform- 
 ance of the operation upon all valuable horses ; and be 
 careful that it be not done until after the winter coat has 
 been shed, which will have a favourable effect on the future 
 coating of the horse, independent of the circumstance, that 
 at a period of change the constitution is not favourable to 
 any unusual excitement. 
 
 Castration is performed in various ways, but in all it 
 expresses the removal of the testicles : there are methods 
 of rendering the animal impotent without the actual de- 
 struction of these organs ; for if by any other method the 
 secretion of the spermatic glands is prevented, our end is 
 answered. 
 
 Castration by cauterization is the method which has been 
 principally practised among us. But this by no means 
 proves it the best ; on the contrary, many of our most 
 expert veterinarians do not castrate by this method. Mr. 
 Goodwin, and many other practitioners of eminence, never 
 castrate by cautery. 
 
 A preliminary observation should be made prevdously to 
 casting, to see that the horse is not suffering from a 
 rupture : such cases have happened ; and as in our method 
 we open a direct communication with the abdomen, when 
 the horse rises it is not improbable that his bowels protrude 
 until they trail on the ground. Hernia as a consequence of 
 castration may easily occur by the uncovered operation, for, 
 as already observed, it makes the scrotal sac and abdominal 
 cavity one continuous opening. It is not to be wondered 
 at, therefore, if the violent struggles of the animal should 
 force a quantity of intestine through the rings into the 
 
570 
 
 CASTRATION, 
 
 scrotal bag. Should we be called on to operate on a horse 
 which already had hernia, it is evident we ought not to 
 proceed with it, unless the owner be apprised ot^ the risk, 
 and willing to abide by it. In such case we would recom- 
 mend that the method of Girard be practised, i. e. to in- 
 close the tunica vaginalis within the clams (sufficiently 
 tight to retain them, but not to produce death in the part) 
 pushed high up against the abdominal ring, and then to 
 remove the testicle, being very careful to avoid injuring 
 any portion of intestine in the operation. When a discovery 
 is made of the existence of hernia after cm opening has been 
 already lyiade for the common purpose of castration, should 
 the operator continue his process, and castrate ? We should 
 say, by no means ; but on the contrary, we would greatly 
 prefer the method recommended by Mr. Percivall ; firmly to 
 unite the lips of the external wound by suture, allowing the 
 testicle itself to assist in blocking up the passage ; with a hope 
 also that the inflammation caused by the excision might 
 altogether stop up the scrotal communication with the 
 abdomen. But in the appalling case of immense protrusion 
 of intestine, what is to be done ? Mr. Coleman, in such a 
 case, proposes to make an opening near the umbilicus, 
 large enough to introduce the hand, and thus draw in the 
 bowels. Mr. Percivall would prefer dilating the external 
 ring: but the testicle must be very firmly retained, and 
 even permanently fixed against the dilated ring, or the 
 bowels would again descend. The intestines probably 
 would become inflated in any such case. 
 
 As unbroken young horses are the most usual subjects of 
 this operation, and as such often have not yet been bridled, 
 if a colt cannot be enticed with oats, &c., he must be driven 
 into a corner between two steady horses ; where, if a halter 
 cannot be put on, at least a running hempen noose can be 
 got round his neck ; but whichever is used, it should be 
 flat, or the struggles, which are often long and violent, may 
 bruise the neck, and produce abscess or injury. When 
 his exertions have tired him, he may be then led to the 
 operating spot : here his attention should be engaged while 
 the hobbles are put on, if possible ; if not, a long and strong 
 cart-rope, having its middle portion formed into a noose 
 sufficiently laige to take in the head and neck, is to be slipped 
 
CASTRATION. 571 
 
 on, with the knotted part appUed to the counter or breast ; 
 the long pendant ends are passed backwards between the 
 fore legs, then, carried round the hind fetlocks ; brought 
 forward again on the outside, run under the collar-rope ; 
 a second time carried backward on the outer side of 
 all, and extended to the full length in a direct line behind 
 the animal. Thus fettered, Mr. Percivall says his hind feet 
 may be drawn under him towards the elbows ; it has been, 
 however, often found that, at the moment the rope touches 
 the legs, the colt either kicks and displaces the rope, or 
 altogether displaces himself ; but his attention can generally 
 be engaged by one fore leg being held up, or by having his 
 ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch : if not, the 
 rope may be carried actually round each fetlock, which then 
 acts like a hobble ; and this rope may be gradually tight- 
 ened : this last however is a very questionable method, and 
 the others therefore ought to be long tried before it is resorted 
 to ; in this way people have succeeded with very refractory 
 colts ; but it requires very able assistants, and, if possible, 
 the man who has been used to the individual colt should be 
 present. In either way, as soon as the rope is fixed, with 
 a man to each end of it behind the colt, let them, by a 
 sudden and forcible effort in concert, approximate his hind 
 legs to his fore, and thus throw him. Before the colt is 
 cast, however, it should be endeavoured to ascertain that he 
 is free from strangles and hernia. 
 
 Being satisfied that no hernia exists on either side, pro- 
 ceed to cast the colt, turning him, not directly on the left 
 side, but principally inclining that way ; and if possible let 
 the croup be very slightly elevated : it is usual to place him 
 directly flat on the left side, but the above is more con- 
 venient. Next secure the near hind leg with a piece of 
 hempen tackle, having a running noose ; or, in default of 
 this not being at hand, make use of the flat part of a hempen 
 halter, which should for safety be put on before the hobble 
 of that leg is removed ; as may be readily done if the hobbles 
 having shifting or screw D's, as described in casting, are 
 made use of. Every requisite being at hand, the operator, 
 having his scalpel ready, should place himself behind the 
 horse, as the most convenient way to perform his manipu- 
 lations ; and firmly grasping the left testicle with his left 
 
572 CASTRATION. 
 
 hand, and drawing it out so as to render tlie scrotum tense, 
 he should make an incision lengthways, from the anterior to 
 the posterior part of the bag. The resistance of the cremaster 
 muscle has to be overcome before the testicle can be forced 
 to the bottom of the scrotum ; and this is the more readily ac- 
 complished if the animal's attention be engaged. The incision 
 may be carried at once through the integuments, the thin 
 dartos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the testicles, with 
 a sweep of the scalpel : but wdth one less dexterous at the 
 operation, it will be more prudent to make the first incision 
 through the scrotum and dartus only, to the required 
 extent ; and then to do the same by the vaginal coat, thus 
 avoiding to wound the testicle, which would produce vio- 
 lent resistance, and give unnecessary pain. We however 
 take this opportunity of noting, that cases have occurred, 
 when the tunica vaginalis was divided no testicle followed ; 
 firm adhesions between this tunic and the tunica albuginea 
 having retained it fast. In such cases the scalpel must be 
 employed to free the testicle, by dissecting it away from 
 the vaginal sac. When no such obstruction occurs, the 
 testicle, if the opening be sufficiently large, wall slip out ; 
 but the operator must be prepared at the moment of so 
 doing to expect some violent struggles, more particularly 
 if he attempt to restrain the contractions of the cremaster, 
 and by main force to draw out the testicle. Preparatory to 
 this, therefore, the twitch should be tightened ; the attend- 
 ants, especially the man at the head, must be on the alert ; 
 and the testicle itself, at the time of this violent retraction 
 of the cremaster, should be merely held but not dragged in 
 opposition to the contraction. If the clams have been put 
 on over the whole, according to Mr. Percivall's method, 
 they will assist in retaining the retracting parts ; but they 
 must not be used with too much pressure. The resistance 
 having subsided, the clams must now be removed ; or, if 
 they have not been previously in use, they must now be 
 taken in hand, and having been prepared by some tow 
 being w^ound round them, should be placed easily on the 
 cord, while time is found to free from the grip of the 
 pincers the vas deferens, or spermatic tube, which is seen 
 continued from the epididymis. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin 
 informs us, cut it through wiien they operate. Humanity is 
 
CASTRATION. 573 
 
 much concerned in its removal from pressure, because of the 
 excess of pain felt when it is included. It is necessary, 
 before the final fixing of the clams, to determine on the part 
 where the division of the cord is to take place. To use 
 Mr. Percivall's words, 'If it be left too long, it is apt to 
 hang out of the wound afterwards, and retard the process of 
 union ;' on the other hand, if it be cut very short, and the 
 arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has been released 
 from the clams, the operator will find it no easy task to re- 
 cover it. The natural length of the cord, which will mainly 
 depend on the degree of the descent of the gland, will be 
 our best g-uide in this particular. The place of section 
 determined on and marked, close the clams sufficiently 
 tight to retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectually stop 
 the circulation within it. There are now two modes of 
 making the division : the one is to sever it with a scalpel, 
 and then to sufficiently sear the end of it as to prevent a 
 flow of blood. The other, and in some respects the prefer- 
 able method, is to employ a blunt-edged iron, which is to 
 divide by little crucial sawings, so that, when the cord is 
 separated, it shall not present a uniform surface, but ragged 
 edges, which will perfectly close the mouths of the vessels . This 
 done, loosen the clams sufficiently to observe whether there 
 be any flow of blood ; gently wipe the end of the cord also 
 with the finger, as sometimes an accidental small plug gets 
 within the vessel ; this had better be removed at the time. 
 Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes longer ; and 
 while loosening them gradually, observing to have an iron 
 in readiness again to touch the end of the cord, if any blood 
 makes its appearance. Satisfied on this point, sponge the parts 
 with cold water ; no sort of external application is necessary, 
 still less any resin seared on the end of the cord, which can 
 only irritate and will never adhere. On the after-treat- 
 ment much difference of opinion has existed, and even yet 
 exists. The powerful evidence of accumulated facts has 
 now convinced us of the necessity and propriety of some 
 motion for the newly castrated horse, as a preventive of 
 local congestion ; such practice is common in most countries, 
 and seems salutary in all. Hurtrcl d'Arboval, thus im- 
 pressed, recommends the horse, immediately after the 
 operation, to be led out to walk for an hour ; and it is 
 
574 CASTRATION. 
 
 a general plan in France to walk such horses in hand an 
 hour night and morning. Mr. Goodwin, in proof of its not 
 being hurtful, informs us that whole studs of horses brought 
 to St. Petersburgh to be operated on, are immediately 
 travelled back a certain portion of the distance, night and 
 morning, until they arrive at home. We have, therefore, no 
 hesitation in recommending a moderate degree of motion in 
 preference to absolute rest. 
 
 The French method of casti'ation is advocated by Mr. Good- 
 win ; and it is sufficient that it receives his recommendation 
 to entitle it to attention ; it is rendered the more so, as he 
 observes on the method in general use among us, " that the 
 operation performed by the actual cautery always induces, 
 more or less, symptoms that often become alarming ; and 
 that it cannot be performed on the adult without incurring 
 more swelling and severer consequences than attend other 
 methods of operation. If I ever use the actual cautery, it 
 is for the sake of expedition, and then only on a yearling, 
 or a two-year old ; but I am resolved never to employ it 
 again on an adult." These observations, as emanating from 
 such a source, must be deemed important. Mr. Goodwin 
 then offers the description of the French method of operat- 
 ing from Hurtrel d'Arboval. ' Castration by means of the 
 clams is the method in general use, if not the only one now 
 employed ; it is the most ancient, since it was recommended 
 by Hieroclius among the Greeks. It is performed in two 
 ways, the testicle being covered or uncovered. In the former, 
 the exterior of the scrotum, formed by the skin and dartos 
 muscle, is cut through, and the testicle is brought out by dis- 
 secting away the laminated tissue, the gland being covered 
 by the tunica vaginalis ; the clam is then placed above 
 the epididymis, outside the external peritoneal covering, of 
 the cord. In the uncovered operation, the incision is made 
 through the serous capsule of the testicle ; the tunica vagi- 
 nalis being divided, the testicle presents itself, and the 
 clam is placed well above the epididymis, on the cord. The 
 operation, performed in either way, requires us to provide 
 ourselves with a scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of long 
 pincers, made purposely to bring the ends of the clams 
 together, and some waxed string. The clams may be formed 
 of different kinds of wood ; but the elder is considered the 
 
CASTRATION. 0/D 
 
 best, and generally made use of. To make a clam, we pro- 
 cure a branch of old and dry elder, whose diameter should 
 be about an inch, and whose length should be from five to 
 six inches : of course, the dimensions must at all times be 
 proportioned to the size of the cord we have to operate 
 on. At the distance of half an inch from each end, a small 
 niche, sufficiently deep to hold the string, must be made, 
 and then the wood should be sawed through the middle 
 lengthways. Each divided surface should be planed, so as 
 to facilitate the opening of the clams, either when about 
 to place them on or take them off. The pith of the wood 
 is then to be taken out, and the hollow should be filled with 
 corrosive sublimate and flour, mixed with sufficient water to 
 form it into a paste. Some persons are not in the habit of 
 using any caustic whatever ; then, of course, scooping out 
 of the inside of the clam is not necessary : notwithstanding, 
 the caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier dissolution 
 of the parts, must be useful, and ought not to be neglected.' 
 The addition of the caustic, however, Mr. Goodwin objects 
 to with great reason, remarking, that unless it be a very 
 strong one, and therefore dangerous to employ, it cannot be 
 of any use to parts compressed and deprived of circulation 
 and life. He further informs us that he has operated in six 
 cases in succession with the same effect, without any escha- 
 rotic matter w^iatever. An experimental case of Mr. Per- 
 civall's terminated fatally : by the use of caustic the cord 
 w^as greatly inflamed, as high as the ring, and which un- 
 questionably produced the unfortunate result. ' The covered 
 operation,' continues Mr. Goodwin, ' is the one that I am 
 about to advocate, and which differs only inasmuch, that 
 the scrotum and dartos muscle must be cautiously cut 
 through, w^ithout dividing the tunica vaginalis. It was 
 Monsieur Berger who w^as accidentally at my house when I 
 w^as about to castrate a horse, and who, on my saying that 
 I should probably do it with the cautery, expressed his sur- 
 prise that 1 should perform the operation in any other w^ay 
 than on the plan generally approved of in France. Being a 
 stranger to it, he kindly consented to preside at the opera- 
 tion, and, after seeing him perform on the near testicle, I 
 did the same on the right, but of course not with the same 
 facility. After opening the scrotum, and dissecting through 
 
576 CASTRATION. 
 
 the dartos, which is very readily done by passing the knife 
 lightly over its fibres ; the testicle, and its covering, the 
 tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the right hand, while the 
 left should be employed in pushing back the scrotum from 
 its attachments ; and, having your assistant ready, as before, 
 with the clam, it must be placed well above the epididymis, 
 and greater pressure is, of course, necessary, as the vaginal 
 covering is included in the clam. 
 
 Mr. Goodwin further observes, that in Russia he has seen 
 hundreds of horses operated on, even after the human 
 fashion, with safety ; and he remarks it certainly produces 
 less pain, the animal loses less flesh and condition, and is 
 sooner recovered than when operated on by the actual 
 cautery. 
 
 Castration by ligature is a painful, barbarous, and very 
 dangerous practice : and consists in enclosing the testicles 
 and scrotum within ligatures until mortification occurs and 
 they drop off. It is practised by some breeders on their 
 young colts, but it is always hazardous, and disgracefully 
 cruel. The substance of the testicle in some countries is 
 also broken down either by rubbing, or otherwise by pres- 
 sure between two hard bodies : this is practised in Algiers 
 instead of excision, and tetanus is a frequent consequence 
 of it. In Portugal they twist round the testicle, and thus 
 stop the circulation of the gland. Division of the vas 
 deferens has been performed, it is said, with success on many 
 animals ; and is proposed as a safe and less painful process 
 than the emasculation of the horse. It consists in a longi- 
 tudinal section through the scrotum, dartos, and vaginal 
 sheath, so as to expose the cord, from which the vas de- 
 ferens is to be separated and severed from the artery vein. 
 There is a certain consent of parts by which the sympathy 
 of an organ remains after its functional offices are apparently 
 destroyed. There can be little doubt but the nervous ex- 
 citement would continue, the vein and artery remaining 
 entire. There are certain nice conditions of the organ 
 necessary for propagation ; thus the horse who retains his 
 testicles within his abdomen, possesses all the riggish quali- 
 ties of him with one perfectly evolved : he is lustful, and 
 can cover, but is seldom fruitful. Of the morbid conse- 
 quences of castration we have little to say : by early evacua- 
 
LITHOTOMY. 577 
 
 tions, green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate clothing, 
 but ^particularly by walking exercise, swellings of the parts 
 may be prevented : if not, bleed and foment ; should sup- 
 puration follow, and sinuses form, treat as directed under 
 those heads ; and if tetanic symptoms start up, refer to that 
 article. There has been lately practised in India a novel 
 mode of castration, which is said to be the invention of a 
 Boer settled at the Cape of Good Hope. The cord is ex- 
 posed in the usual manner ; from the cord the artery is 
 singled out ; this vessel is scraped through with a coarse- 
 edged blunt knife, when the other constituents of the cord 
 are cut away, and the operation is finished. This method 
 is much praised by those who have adopted it, and is said 
 to be always attended with success. 
 
 LITHOTOMY. 
 
 Hurtrel d'Arboval's account of the progress of lithotomy 
 in veterinary practice commences in 1774. The second case 
 was successfully operated on in 1794 ; and at later periods 
 other veterinary surgeons have also performed it. ' In 
 monodactyles there are two methods of operating for the 
 stone ; one through the rectum, the other through the 
 bladder. The first, which consists in laying open the 
 bladder by a longitudinal incision made through the parietes 
 of the part of the rectum adherent to it, by means of a 
 straight bistoury, is easily practised ; but in its consequences 
 is dangerous in the extreme : in fact, it is an operation never 
 to be adopted but in a case where the magnitude of the 
 stone precludes its extraction through the neck of the 
 bladder. In all other cases, lithotomy by the urethra is to 
 be pursued. For its performance are required, a straight 
 probe-pointed bistoury, a whalebone fluted staff, and a pair of 
 forceps curved at the extremities. The animal should, if 
 practicable, be maintained in the erect posture. The tail 
 plaited and carried round on the right quarter, the operator 
 feels for the end of the staff introduced up the urethra, and 
 makes an incision directly upon it, from above downwards, 
 an inch and a half or two inches in length. Next, he in- 
 troduces the sound, and passes it onward into the bladder. 
 Now, placing the back of the bistoury within the groove of 
 the sound, by gliding the knife forwards, the pelvic portion 
 
 pp 
 
578 LITHOTOMY. 
 
 of the urethra, and also the neck of the bladder, become 
 slit open ; the latter in two places, in consequence of a 
 second cut being made in withdrawing the bistoury. The 
 opening made being considered of sufficient dimensions, the 
 operator introduces the forceps into the bladder, and seizes 
 the calculus, one hand being up the rectum, to aid him in 
 so doing. The forceps clasping the stone are now to be 
 withdrawn, but with gentleness ; and with a vacillating sort 
 of movement of the hand from side to side, in order more 
 easily to surmount any difficulties in the passage, and the 
 more effectually to avoid contusion or laceration. M. 
 Girard tells us, ' That the cut through the pelvic portion of 
 the urethra ought always to be made obliquely to one side ; 
 the operator should hold his bistoury in such a direction, 
 that its cutting edge be turned towards the angle of the 
 thigh. By this procedure we shall gain easier access to the 
 bladder ; and not only avoid wounding the rectum, but also 
 the artery of the bulb, as well as the bulb itself, and sus- 
 pensory ligaments of the penis.' The parts cut through in 
 the operation are, 1st, the fine thin skin of the perineum, 
 smooth externally, and marked with a raphe ; densely cel- 
 lular internally: 2ndly, adhering to the tissue, the faschial 
 covering, derived from the faschia superficialis abdominis, 
 which has here become fibrous : it forms the common en- 
 velope to the parts underneath, and is closely connected 
 with the corpus musculosum urethree : 3rdly, the corpus mus- 
 culosum urethra, that penniform band of fleshy fibres which 
 springs by two branches from the ischiatic tuberosities em- 
 bracing the sphincter ani, and concealing the arteries of the 
 bulb ; whence they unite, and proceed to envelope the 
 urethra : 4thly, the corpus spongiosum urethra!, the part 
 immediately covered by the muscular envelope, and which 
 here is bulbous. It is more particularly worthy our remark, 
 from two arteries penetrating the bulb, which come from 
 without the pelvis, ascending obliquely outward to reach 
 the part : 5thly, the suspensory ligaments of the penis, pur- 
 suing the course of, and adhering to, the tendinous union 
 of the erectores. An attention to the relative position of 
 these parts will demonstrate the advantages of the lateral 
 oblique incision over one made directly along the raphe : by 
 pursuing the latter, we necessarily cut through the sus- 
 
ESOPHAGOTOMY. 579 
 
 pensory ligaments and into the bulb, wounding thereby the 
 arteries ; whereas, by the former, all this danger is avoided, 
 besides that it renders the operation more simple and 
 facile. 
 
 TRACHEOTOMY. 
 
 Cases occur when this operation is required ; as in stran- 
 gles, when the tumours threaten suffocation, or when any 
 substance has remained unswallowed in the oesophagus, the 
 pressure of which obstructs respiration. In a distressing 
 case of gunpowder bursting immediately under a horse's 
 nose, the effects of which tumefied his mouth and nos- 
 trils, so as to prevent free inspiration, the animal owed 
 his life entirely to our excising a portion from the tracheal 
 rings, about ten inches below the angle of the throat. The 
 operation is a very simple one, and may consist either in a 
 longitudinal section made through two or three of the rings, 
 or a portion, occupying about an inch round, may be ex- 
 cised from the anterior cartilaginous substance. The proper 
 mode, when it can be done, however, is to make a circular 
 opening with a very narrow knife, removing a portion of 
 two cartilages, or taking a semicircular piece from each ; 
 and this last, although it is seldom performed, is by far the 
 best method : the integuments should be first divided in the 
 exact centre of the neck, three or four inches below the ob- 
 struction ; then the skin and tissues should be sufficiently 
 separated to allow a tube adapted to the size of the trachea 
 to be introduced ; the tube having an acute turn and a rim, 
 which must be furnished with holes for the adaptation of tapes 
 to secure it around the neck. There are several instruments 
 of this sort in use, of which that adopted by the French, 
 or the one invented by Mr. Gowing of Camden Town, is to 
 be preferred. The operation has been also performed in 
 cases of roaring, under an idea of dividing the stricture 
 which impeded respiration ; but unless the exact situation 
 of this were discovered, it would be but an experimental 
 attempt. 
 
 ESOPHAGOTOMY. 
 
 It was long thought that a wound in the oesophagus must 
 be necessarily fatal, but we have now sufficient proofs to the 
 
 p p 2 
 
580 ESOPHAGOTOMY. 
 
 contrary on record ; so that we are not deterred from cut- 
 ting into the esophageal tube when it is necessary ; but it 
 is an operation requiring skill and anatomical knowledge ; 
 and its future results are sometimes very serious. The 
 cases that call for esophagotomy are the lodgement of acci- 
 dental substances within the tube. An apple once so lodged 
 was removed by incision by a veterinary surgeon at Windsor, 
 Carrots, parsneps, beet, &c., are liable to produce such ob- 
 struction when not sliced. Too large a medicinal mass also 
 has lodged there ; and a voracious eater has, by attempting 
 to swallow too large a quantity of not salivated bran or chaff, 
 produced an obstruction which pressed on the trachea 
 and threatened suifocation. In all cases of obstruction of 
 this kind we will suppose that a probang well oiled has been 
 previously attempted to be passed, and has completely 
 failed. The probang for the horse, however, differs mate- 
 rially from that used for the cow. It is formed after the 
 fashion of the one adopted by the human practitioner, con- 
 sisting of a pliable piece of whalebone, having a sponge 
 tied to one end. The operation being determined on may 
 be practised standing ; if the swelling be large no fear 
 need be entertained about cutting important organs, as the 
 enlargement will push them on one side. Cut down, there- 
 fore, directly upon the centre of the impacted substance. 
 If the horse be cast, which is quite unnecessary, have him 
 of course thrown with his left side uppermost. It will also 
 be necessary to command a good light. The part of the 
 neck chosen for the opening must of course be governed by 
 the obstructing mass. A section should be made through 
 the integuments and cellular tissue beneath them, right 
 into the oesophagus, if possible with one cut, and into the 
 centre of the pipe. If this be not done at once, and it 
 requires some dexterity so to effect it, mind to make all 
 future incisions in a line with the first opening ; as it is im- 
 portant that the cellular tissue should be little interfered 
 with. The oesophagus, fairly cut into the impactment, 
 should jump forth ; should it not do so, do not manipulate, 
 or attempt to force it out, but enlarge the opening, and the 
 substance will come through when that is long enough ; but 
 no fingering could compel its exit while the opening is too 
 small. The end gained for which the incision was made in 
 
NEUROTOMY. 581 
 
 the oesophagus, the wound may be then closed by the 
 interrupted sutures, each holding a small piece of tow 
 above the orifice, and having their ends hanging out of the 
 external opening, which should also be brought together by 
 sutures. The after-treatment should be, to interdict all dry 
 food ; the animal ought to subsist on very thick gruel for 
 three, four, or five days. If the condition appears to suffer 
 much, allow malt mashes, and when so doing watch the 
 wound ; and if the matters taken in are seen to ooze out, 
 w^ash them away frequently with warm water, to prevent 
 lodgement, which might encourage sinuses to form ; and 
 after each washing syringe with some very mild stimulant, 
 as a very weak solution of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) , 
 &c. &c. 
 
 NEUROTOMY. 
 
 DIVISION OF THE SENTIENT NERVES OF THE FOOT. 
 
 Neurotomy has now stood the test of very extensive appli- 
 cation : our writers offer innumerable proofs of its restoring 
 almost useless animals to a state of much utility. And if 
 there are chances that it may occasion such injury as to 
 hasten the end of some horses, it is usually in such as the 
 disease would have done the same for at no distant period. 
 Having stated thus much in its favour, it must not be sup- 
 posed that we recommend it as an unqualified benefit, even 
 where it succeeds best. No neurotomized horse ever after 
 goes with the same freedom, nor with equal safety, as he did 
 before the operation was performed : indifference to the na- 
 ture of the ground gone over, is said to have fractured legs ; 
 it is quite common to batter the feet to pieces ; and although 
 horses have hunted afterwards, and hacknies have carried 
 their riders long distances, yet it is more calculated to prove 
 beneficial to carriage than to saddle horses. This we believe 
 to be a just statement of its merits ; but there are benefits 
 which it ofters to the animal of a more extensive and con- 
 stitutional kind. Those gained by the bodily system gene- 
 rally have been in some cases very marked : thus, an aged 
 and crippled stallion, from the irritation constantly kept up, 
 became so emaciated as to be unable to fecundate ; but 
 
582 NEUROTOMY. 
 
 being relieved from a constant state of suffering by neu- 
 rotomy, improved in health and condition, and was again 
 used to cover. It happened, also, that a mare similarly 
 circumstanced ceased to feel oestrum ; but after neurotomy 
 it again returned, and she resumed her character of a brood 
 mare. It appears to act with most certainty when a portion 
 of the irritated nerve is excised. One case has actually 
 occurred where the tetanus, occasioned by a wound in the 
 foot, was arrested and removed by neurotomy. It also 
 promises much in the painful state of some cankers, where 
 the irritation has rendered the application of dressings 
 almost impossible : here, by depriving the foot of sensi- 
 bility, we deprive the horse of that which is injurious to 
 him : the sore itself is often amended by it ; but in every 
 instance the dressings can be effectively applied, and the 
 healthy processes cannot be at all suspended. 
 
 With respect to whether the lower or upper incision 
 ought to have the preference, the decision should be guided 
 by the circumstances, as regards the intensity and the seat 
 of the disease. The operation commonly leaves, for a con- 
 siderable time, some enlargement around the spot, the 
 effects of the adhesive matter interposed between the se- 
 vered portions of nerve ; and which can be remedied by no 
 application of bandages. This bulging remains so long 
 as hfe continues; and, however cunningly the incision 
 be concealed, this can be felt with ease, and tells the 
 truth ever after the operation has been performed. Such a 
 circumstance has, however, led some practitioners, when it 
 has been wished to make the upper section, and yet to 
 avoid the chance of detection, to operate on the meta- 
 carpal nerve on the outside, and on the pastern or plantar 
 nerve on the inside. 
 
 MODE OF PERFORMING THE OPERATION. 
 
 The situation of the section through the skin being de- 
 termined on, a guide to which may be gained from the per- 
 foratus tendon, and having firmly secured the leg to be first 
 operated on, cut the hair from the part. This being done, 
 and the exact course of the artery being ascertained by its 
 pulsation, make a section close to the edge of the flexor 
 tendon. Let the cut be near, but rather behind, the artery. 
 
PERIOSTEOTOMY. 583 
 
 if below the fetlock joint. The cellular substance being 
 cleared away will bring the vessels into view, and the nerve 
 will be readily distinguished from them by its whiteness. 
 Elevating it from the vessels, and its membranous attach- 
 ments, by means of a crooked needle armed with thread, 
 pass a bistoury under it, as near to the upper angle of 
 the section as possible. The violent spasm the division 
 of the nerve produces may be somewhat lessened by press- 
 ing the nerve between the finger and the thumb ; when 
 an opportunity may be taken, either with the scalpel or 
 scissors, of dividing it ; then, taking hold of the lowermost 
 portion between a pair of forceps, excise about three-fourths 
 of an inch of its trunk. Having finished, if both feet 
 are affected, proceed to operate upon the contrary side of 
 the other leg ; after which turn the horse, and repeat the 
 operations on the like parts of each leg as they come in 
 succession. The integuments may be now drawn neatly 
 together, and secured by a twisted suture, the whole 
 being properly covered by a light compress. Tie up the 
 head for a day or two, after which put on a cradle ; keep 
 the horse very quiet and low : give mashes to open the 
 bowels ; but we should avoid physicking, from the fear that 
 griping might occur, which would make him restless, or 
 probably require exercise. 
 
 PERIOSTEOTOMY. 
 
 This operation consists in having the horse thrown upon 
 his side, and the leg to be operated upon released from the 
 hobble, and extended upon a sack filled with refuse hay or 
 straw : this is done by means of a piece of webbing passed 
 round the hoof, and the end given to a man to hold, who 
 pulls rather violently at the member. The operator then 
 kneels down and feels for the exostosis he intends to per- 
 form periosteotomy upon. This may be a splint or a 
 node, and commonly exists upon the metacarpal portion of 
 the fore limb. The operator having found the excrescence, 
 snips just below it with a pair of rowelling scissors. He 
 then takes a blunt seton needle and drives it through the 
 cellular tissue, and immediately over the enlargement. Next, 
 another slit in the skin, above the exostosis, is made with 
 the rowelling scissors, and through this last opening the 
 
584 PERIOSTEOTOMY. 
 
 point of the seton needle is forced and then withdrawn. 
 Into the free space thus made a curved knife is introduced : 
 the point of this knife is blunt, and the blade curves upward, 
 the cutting part being below. Some persons use a very- 
 diminutive blade, but the editor prefers rather a large instru- 
 ment, as being more under the command of the hand. 
 Having introduced this knife, he turns the cutting edge 
 downwards, and wdth it incises the enlargement, sending 
 the blade right through the periosteum, and also through 
 the substance of the exostosis, if it be not too solid for 
 the knife to penetrate. This latter fact is only to be as- 
 certained by actual experience, and no opinion formed after 
 an external examination can be of any value ; such being 
 much more the guess of a pretender than the judgment of 
 a surgeon. The age of the animal may be some guide, but 
 even this it is better not to depend upon too entirely. It 
 is true that young horses freely cast forth exostoses, 
 which aged animals mostly absorb ; but this rule, though 
 very general, has exceptions, and by no means is to be 
 absolutely depended upon. 
 
 The enlargement being cut through, next take a seton 
 needle armed with a tape, and draw it through the channel 
 already made : tie a knot at either end of the tape, large 
 enough to prevent its being pulled through the opening at 
 either end, and the business is over. The affair is very 
 simple, and the horse may be at once let up. It is, how- 
 ever, in some cases, and only in some, of so much benefit, 
 that the horse being thrown " dead lame," gets up and 
 trots off quite sound. However, ere you adopt the ope- 
 ration, apprise the owner of the risk incurred, and that 
 it is by no means a certain cure. Leave the choice with 
 him, but be sure and tell him the openings made for the 
 entrance and exit of the seton commonly leave a blemish 
 behind them ; and where the seton travelled, often there 
 remains a thickening, which it may require months to 
 obliterate. 
 
 The after part of the treatment consists in merely having 
 the seton daily moved to and fro : though some persons 
 apply an active blister all over the parts immediately in the 
 neighbourhood of the seton ; under the idea that the vesica- 
 tory renders the operation of greater efficacy, which how- 
 
AMPUTATIONS. 585 
 
 ever is very questionable. When periosteotomy acts at 
 all, it mostly does so at once ; and when its benefits are not 
 immediate, it is better to withdraw the seton to prevent 
 after blemish, rather than hazard further and useless treat- 
 ment by the application of a stimulant to skin already 
 deprived of any connexion w^ith the deeper-seated struc- 
 tures. 
 
 DIVISION OF THE FLEXOR TENDON. 
 
 There are so many accidents and diseases that may pro- 
 duce contraction of the flexor tendons, that we only won- 
 der we do not more often meet with them ; which we 
 should certainly do, but that the attendants, despairing of 
 being able to aflbrd reHef, advise their destruction. The 
 operation consists in making a longitudinal incision of about 
 three inches in length along the inner lateral edge of the 
 tendon ; dissecting each portion from its cellular attach- 
 ments, so as to expose the nerve, artery, and tendons. 
 This opening will allow the perforans to be freed from the 
 perforatus, w^hen a division should be made by a scalpel 
 applied to its surface. It is evident that this should take 
 place below any thickening, or adhesions which may have 
 permanently connected the tendon with the neighbouring 
 parts : any lesser attachments will be broken through, 
 by forcing back the foot to the just position. By Mr. 
 Dick this was done ' by placing his knee against the 
 front or projecting part of the pastern, at the same time 
 laying hold of the foot with one hand and the upper part of 
 the leg with the other, and using considerable force : and 
 this appears to be necessary, in order to break any adhe- 
 sions that may have formed.' The limb should now be 
 placed in a poultice ; and if any fear of future contraction 
 should arise during the cure, lengthen the toe of the shoe 
 proper to the foot operated on. Some slow exercise after 
 the first week may be allowed, but previously to that the 
 horse should be confined to a stall, during which the bowels 
 must be kept open with mashes. 
 
 AMPUTATIONS. 
 
 These have been hitherto confined principally to the tail, 
 the ears, and other parts of minor importance in the animal 
 
586 AMPUTATIONS. 
 
 frame ; but veterinary surgery now takes a wider field, and 
 the extremities are amputated with a certainty of making 
 horned cattle still serviceable for the purposes of yielding 
 milk ; and without doubt the same might be done with the 
 brood mare, or stallion, particularly in fractures of the fore 
 extremities. Professor Dick, of the Edinburgh Veterinary 
 College, furnishes a case sent to him by one of his pupils to 
 the following effect : ' I performed amputation upon the 
 cow on the 7th of July ; after having properly secured the 
 animal, and applied a tourniquet above the carpus, I made 
 a circular incision through the integuments round the leg, 
 a little below the carpus ; and having separated the skin so 
 as to allow of its being pushed up a little, I cut through 
 the sinews, and lastly sawed off the stump : the parts are 
 now completely whole, although she has been going at grass 
 ail the time ; and, now that she has got the advantage of a 
 cork stump, makes a wonderful shift for herself, and yields 
 a good supply of milk to her owner.' Mr. Dick also notices 
 another case of amputation of the fore leg of a two-year 
 old heifer ; and of a third, where the hind leg was removed 
 above the tarsus. Such operations have occasionally oc- 
 curred from time immemorial, with a few enterprising cha- 
 racters. We have heard of them, but they were mostly 
 regarded as mere matters of curiosity or wonder ; and there- 
 fore were not imitated. We shall, however, probably ere 
 long have them more common, in cows at least ; for, oc- 
 curring below the carpus and tarsus, they are as easily 
 performed as nicking or docking : and there is no doubt 
 bat were a hollow padded stump applied, such low opera- 
 tions might be prudent in many cases. Fractures, with 
 great comminution of bone, considerable ravages of disease 
 within the foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases which 
 might call for amputation. Of the method of amputation 
 little need be added to the above. The principal practical 
 points are, the fixing of a tourniquet of sufficient force, 
 which should be padded to make its principal pressure on 
 the leading arterial trunks, while its general circumference 
 will act on the smaller vessels : a ring should be cut lightly 
 below the intended place of operation ; only through the 
 integuments ; which, when separated from their cellular ad- 
 hesions for about six inches, should be turned back ; and a 
 
NICKING. 
 
 587 
 
 circular incision may then be made through the muscles 
 &c taking up by hgature such vessels, both venous and 
 arterial, as display a disposition for much hsemorrhage. 
 The section thus made, free the bone from the soft parts by 
 the scalpel, where the adherences are very mtimate ; and 
 having by means of a crucial bandage retracted the sott 
 parts altogether above the bone, saw it through. Fmally, 
 effectually secure the principal vessels, when, bringing the 
 soft parts and skin over the bone, retain them there by 
 proper bandaging, which suffer to remain without disturbance 
 until the third or fourth day. 
 
 AMPUTATION OF THE PENIS. 
 
 Amputation of the penis is not unknown among us : it 
 has been performed several times, and it is found that no 
 canula is necessary to keep open the urethra ; the force ot 
 the urinary flow breaking down any incipient cicatrization 
 of its orifice. The sheath is first forced back, and the penis 
 brought forward to its greatest possible extent : whatever 
 portion it is intended to remove is now cut through by 
 means of an amputating knife; when the remainder is re- 
 tracted within the sheath, and little hsemorrhage has after- 
 wards occurred, except at the time of passing the urine ; 
 but there appears to have been no alarming quantity ot 
 blood lost. 
 
 AMPUTATION OF THE TAIL, OR DOCKING. 
 
 We are most happy to state this filthy and unnecessary 
 operation is now discarded. It never consisted of more than 
 the cutting off a portion of the stump with brute force, and 
 the cruel appUcation afterwards of a hot iron to the small 
 artery of the tail. 
 
 NICKING. 
 
 We should be grateful that this barbarous and dangerous 
 process is no longer numbered among the necessary ope- 
 rations. It is so beset with accidents which no skill or 
 prudence can prevent, that no one who has a free will ought 
 to mutilate a horse by nicking. 
 
588 FIRING. 
 
 FIRING. 
 
 The practice of firing was not always confined to quadru- 
 peds ; on the contrary, it probably was first used on 
 man ; and to this day in many countries it is a very 
 popular remedy among human surgeons. In India it is 
 applied over the abdomen for the cure of scirrhosity of the 
 liver. Firing in veterinary practice has, by Mr. Coleman's 
 pupils, been justified as only men will justify a favourite 
 operation, the virtues of which have been impressed upon 
 their minds by an eloquent teacher. When Coleman was 
 the chief of the veterinary profession, firing under his 
 rule was used for any and every occasion. It was ridi- 
 culously supposed to act as a permanent bandage ; as if a 
 few strokes with a heated iron could destroy the elastic 
 property inherent in the skin. It was the favourite styptic 
 of these practitioners, and was applied to arteries (as of the 
 tail), as though it possessed within itself some medicinal 
 virtue. It was used to promote absorption, as in callus ; 
 and was likewise resorted to to check absorption, as in 
 ulceration. It was called into action to promote granulation, 
 in broken knees ; and was also a favourite agent to check 
 granulations, when they were too luxuriant. In short, 
 there was no folly which a hot iron did not cover. It has 
 now happily fallen into disuse. Most modern practitioners 
 will now confess that their chief reason for exercising the 
 iron is to satisfy the proprietor, not to benefit the animal. 
 After such an acknowledgment, who would submit to have 
 his patient servant's skin scored and burnt with red hot 
 metal ? 
 
 The mode of cauterization differs according to circum- 
 stances. As a general rule it ought, of course, to be applied 
 in the direction of the hair, by which the blemish is lessened ; 
 but this rule cannot be arbitrarily followed, although it 
 ought to do away with all the false pride of displaying the 
 taste in the figures scored upon a prostrate beast. The 
 Veterinary College recommends that the limbs be always 
 fired in perpendicular lines ; others advocate all manner of 
 fanciful marks. Some cast the horse ; many surgeons perform 
 standing. The irons used are of various shapes and dimen- 
 sions. Some recommend the firing of all things to be very 
 
BLISTERING. 589 
 
 light ; others persist there is no virtue in hot iron unless it 
 burns very deep. The operation consists in having irons of 
 some substance made red hot, and then drawing them 
 mechanically along, or twisting them about upon the skin. 
 The figures are various, so is the depth of the incision. Both 
 must be decided by the taste, judgment, or heartlessness of 
 the operator. 
 
 BLISTERING. 
 
 This is"^n operation of very great utility, and is, perhaps, 
 compared with its benefits and importance, the safest that 
 is performed. When a vesicatory becomes absorbed through 
 the pores of the skin, it inflames the sensible cutis under- 
 neath ; the consequence of which is an effusion of serum 
 through the part, which, in the human, elevates the cuticle 
 into a bladder equal to the surface inflamed ; but in the 
 horse, from the greater tenacity of the cuticular connexions, 
 it becomes separated in the form of small distinct vesicles 
 only. If the irritating cause be quickly removed, the serum 
 may be reabsorbed, and the surface restored by a slight 
 effort of adhesive inflammation. If the irritant act in a still 
 minor degree, it simply irritates the vessels of the cutis to 
 an infiltration of fluid through the sensible pores, but pro- 
 duces no desquamation of cuticle : such has been called, 
 a sweating blister. But wdien by continued irritation, the 
 cutis is exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the part is fully 
 blistered. The salutary action of blisters is exerted in 
 several w^ays ; in promoting absorption ; in combating deep- 
 seated inflammations, and in aiding others. As a stitimlus 
 to the absorbents, they act beneficially in the removal of 
 injurious deposits, as the coagula remaining after inflam- 
 matory lesions. But it is to be remarked, that when any 
 existing deposit is of long continuance, or is osseous, 
 it requires that the action of the vesicatory be kept up. 
 Mercurial blisters have been thought to have a superior 
 influence in accelerating absorption. Mercurials, 7'ubhed in 
 some weeks or days previously to blistering, are certainly great 
 assistants, and should always be employed in the treatment 
 of obstinate osseous or ligamentary enlargements. Blisters 
 are very important aids, in inflammatory affections, as 
 counter-irritants, derived from a law in the animal economy, 
 
590 BLISTERING. 
 
 that two inflammations seldom exist in the vicinity of each 
 other ; therefore, when such an affection has taken place 
 in any part, and we wish to remove it, we attempt to raise 
 an artificial inflammation in the neighbourhood by means of 
 blisters ; which, if persevered in, destroy, or at least lessen, 
 the original one. Occasionally also we blister the imme- 
 diate inflamed part, with an intention to hasten the suppu- 
 rative process by increasing the activity of the vessels ; as in 
 deep-seated abscesses, and also in those which attack 
 glandular parts. We, therefore, employ blisters*to hasten 
 the maturation of the tumours in strangles. When the 
 flagging powers vacillate between resolution and suppu- 
 ration ; as they often do in the phlegmonous inflammations of 
 glandular or of deep-seated parts ; blisters may either hasten 
 the resolution, or they may add their influence to the 
 attempted suppuration, and thus bring it to maturity. But we 
 carefully avoid, in other cases, applying a vesicant to apart 
 immediately in a state of active inflammation : particularly 
 we should avoid what is too often done, that of blistering 
 over the tendons, ligaments, and articulatory surfaces of 
 a tumid limb, labouring under a congested state of the 
 parts from excess of vascular action. Here we should do 
 great injury were we to blister, by causing a greater de- 
 posit of lymph, and by hastening its organization into an 
 injurious bond of union between the inflamed parts. The 
 vesicatory or blister, for general use in veterinary medicine, 
 as a simple stimulant, should be principally composed of 
 Spanish flies. Cheaper substitutes are used, but they 
 irritate violently : in extensive inflammatory affections, 
 they are on this account perfectly inadmissible ; and 
 wherever a case requires any thing more it will be noted. 
 The mode of blistering with the Spanish fly, is sufficiently 
 known. The hair should be cut or shorn as close 
 as possible from around the part ; the blistering matter 
 should then be well rubbed in for ten or fifteen minutes. 
 If the pasterns and fetlocks are the parts to be blistered, 
 previous to rubbing in the ointment, smear some lard, 
 tallow, or melted suet, over the heels, and within the hollow 
 at the back of the small pastern. This will often prevent 
 some troublesome sores forming, from the blistering oint- 
 ment falling on these sensitive parts. While a blister is 
 
BLISTERING. 
 
 591 
 
 acting, the litter should be removed from under the feet, or 
 it will'tickle the legs, and irritate ; but, above all, the head 
 ought to be most carefully secured, for two days and niglits, 
 to oppose lying down, more especially to prevent the horse 
 biting the bhstered part. On the third evening he may be 
 permitted to repose ; but a prevention should even then 
 be continued, by means of what is called a cradle. This 
 apparatus may be bought at every turning shop ; or may 
 be made of eight or ten pieces of round wood, an mch and 
 a half in diameter, and two feet long : these are strung at 
 each end on a rope, and fastened around the neck. When 
 it is intended to blister repeatedly, the effects of the first 
 should have subsided before the second is apphed ; the 
 scurf and scabs also be cleared away, and the part well 
 washed with soap and water. In all cases, the third or 
 fourth day after the application the part should be thoroughly 
 painted over by means of along haired brush (such as are m 
 use with pastry cooks to glaze their crusts) with lead 
 liniment, which should be repeated every day ; and when it 
 is proposed to turn a horse out, it should never be done 
 until the whole blistered surface be quite healed ; otherwise 
 dirt, flies, &c. may prove hurtful. It remains to observe, 
 that, instead of repeated active blistering, it is in some cases 
 preferable to keep up a continual slight irritation on the 
 original blister by means of stimulants, as iodine oint- 
 ment, mild bhstering applications, &c. : caution is however 
 necessary to avoid forming an eschar, and thereby a perma- 
 nent blemish ; but when a blemish is not of consequence, 
 this plan will be found often more efficacious than firing, as 
 in sphnts, spavins, &c. Some practitioners blister mildly 
 one day, and on the next wash off the bhstering matter, 
 thereby saving loss of hair. But there is more of apparent 
 than real good in this plan. If a blister be necessary, it 
 
 requires all its activity. , rn - i 
 
 Ammoniacal blister.— Sipmiish flies are only efficacious when 
 the animal can afford to wait their action, which is rather 
 slow. In most of the acute diseases the horse w^ould perish 
 before the blister began to rise, wherefore resort has been 
 had to boiling water and red hot iron. The action of these 
 last coarse and brutal measures, was alone controlled by 
 the violence of the internal inflammation ; and if the practi- 
 
592 
 
 ROWELLING. 
 
 tioner was mistaken in his estimate of the immediate clanger, 
 extensive and lasting blemish was the consequence. We 
 have in the liquor ammonia an agent quite as formidable 
 as boihng water or heated iron, but it is rather longer in 
 displaying its force ; wherefore it allows time for watching 
 its action, and of checking it the instant it has sufficiently 
 blistered the skin. It is true the Uquor ammonia upon the 
 skin cannot be removed, neither need it be counteracted. 
 Ammonia is like steam, only powerful when confined. The 
 ordinary soap liniment if covered over, would, because of 
 the ammonia it contains, produce a lasting blemish ; but 
 every veterinary surgeon knows how very harmless a pre- 
 paration that is when simply rubbed upon the surface. So 
 when we desire the active effects of Uquor ammonia, we 
 double a blanket or rug four or five times and hold it over 
 the liquid. It takes from ten to twenty minutes to raise a 
 bhster, and it consequently can from time to time be observed ; 
 and when its action has reached the wished-for point, all 
 we have to do effectually to stop it is, to take away the 
 rug or blanket. That removed, the free surface and the 
 heat of the body occasions the ammoniacal vapour to be 
 dispersed, and the animal is safe. 
 
 ROWELLING. 
 
 Rowels act as foreign substances within the body ; they 
 cause irritation and suppuration, whereby more deep- 
 seated inflammations are supposed to be removed : they 
 are, however, often very convenient, because they stand as 
 signboards to show the proprietor that something has been 
 done. The common mode of making a rowel is after the 
 following manner. A slit is first made by means of the 
 rowel scissors, on any part of the integuments held between 
 the finger and thumb ; with the handle of the scissors sepa- 
 rate from its cellular connexions a circle of two or three 
 inches in diameter, into which introduce something to pre- 
 vent the reunion of the skin. A piece of circular leather, 
 tolerably stiff, with a central hole, is a very common sub- 
 stance used ; but is objected to by some, on account of the 
 difficulty of changing it without injuring tlie skin : tow, as 
 more pliant, is frequently introduced into this cavity. If 
 the rowel runs freely, it should be dressed every day, by 
 
SETONS. 
 
 593 
 
 changing the ping, if of tow ; and by cleansing it, if of 
 leather : no rowel should go undressed beyond the second 
 day, for the comfort of the horse. They are very favourite 
 applications with farriers, and therefore are frequently 
 abused, by being employed in all cases indiscriminately ; 
 they are now, however, falling into disuse, setons having 
 almost superseded them. 
 
 SETONS 
 
 In their action resemble a very mild form of rowel, but 
 are more convenient in their application. There is hardly 
 a part of the body where a seton may not be conveniently 
 placed : they have been put around the eye. They have 
 also been entered at the withers, and brought out between 
 the humerus and the sternum ; so extensive or so dimi- 
 nutive can they be made. In sinuous ulcers of the withers 
 and of the neck, they may be placed ; through the heels 
 in foot diseases, they have been inserted. In cavernous 
 sores they are entered at the superior part, and are brought 
 out at an inferior, so as to form a depending orifice. The 
 formation of a seton is very simple : a skein of thread, or a 
 piece of tape of a convenient size, may be used : at the one 
 end place a large knot : arm the eye of a corresponding- 
 sized seton needle with the free end of the tape ; introduce 
 this into any proposed part ; and, bringing it out at some 
 other, either make a second knot, or tie the two ends of the 
 tape together ; which last method of fastening is, however, 
 often objected to, from the danger of its catching in some- 
 thing, and being torn out, to the disfigurement of the 
 horse. When a seton is placed in a sinuous track for the 
 purpose of inflaming, it is moved twice a day frequently, 
 and moistened each time with some stimulant, as oil of 
 turpentine, tincture of aloes and of benjamin. All setons 
 require daily cleaning and moving. When they are re- 
 quired to act more quickly, the tape is infused in terebinthi- 
 nate of cantharides, or small pieces of black hellebore are 
 sewn within it. An old material composed of woollen, flax, 
 or cotton, and hair, is also used instead of tape. Setons, 
 however, are of small service in acute cases. They are 
 chiefly in use for disturbances of a chronic description. 
 
594 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 
 
 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 
 
 Arteriotomy. — Blood is abstracted by opening the con- 
 ducting vessels, arterial and venous. When taken from 
 arteries, the process is called arteriotomy ; when by the 
 latter, phlebotomy. Some bleedings include both these 
 operations ; as general scarifications of the soft parts ; bleed- 
 ing at the toe point ; divisions of the vessels of the cornea, 
 &c. &c. Blood-letting is called Zoca/ when it is practised on 
 or very near the affected part ; and it is supposed to act more 
 immediately than general bleeding, because it produces more 
 effect with the loss of less blood. Local bleeding is there- 
 fore usually practised on the minor branches of the arteries 
 and veins, as on the temporal artery, the plate vein, the 
 vena saphena, &c. — Leeches are a means of local bleeding 
 not often used by us in veterinary practice ; but there is no 
 reason whatever why they should not be employed ; when 
 applied to the eye, and occasionally to other parts also, 
 they adhere readily, abstracting blood rapidly ; and there- 
 fore might be valuable aids in violent local inflammation. — 
 Cupping is also practised in France and other parts of the 
 Continent wdth very large glasses, and it is there supposed 
 to act remedially in many local inflammations. By general 
 bleeding we understand the depletion of the system at large ; 
 and this we practise in extensive inflammations. 
 
 Division of the temporal artery. — The proper spot for 
 either its puncture or division is directly where the vessel 
 leaves the parotid gland, to curve upwards and forwards 
 around the jaw, a little below its condyle. When it is 
 punctured it usually affords much blood, and in such case, 
 enough having been obtained, divide the trunk ; when the 
 receding portions becoming pressed by the integuments, 
 and lessening by their own contractility, the haemorrhage is 
 stopped. It should be punctured by a lancet ; a fleam may 
 fix itself in the bone : its division can be readily made also 
 either by a lancet or scalpel. 
 
 Bleeding by the palate is also a species of arterio-phle- 
 botomy ; and is a very favourite spot for abstracting blood 
 with most ignorant persons, who vehemently recommend it 
 in spasmodic colic or gripes, and in megrims. In such 
 cases, however, a want of knowledge of the anatomy of the 
 
ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 595 
 
 parts has occasioned a serious haemorrhage to occur : it 
 may prove a fatal one if the artery proper to the part be 
 divided incompletely. The palatine artery and nerve run 
 near each other, on each side of the roof of the mouth, 
 so as to divide the inner surface of the hard palate into 
 three nearly equal portions. No other than a direct divi- 
 sion of the vein should ever be made ; therefore, when 
 bleeding is determined on at this place, do it by plunging 
 a lancet or even a penknife in a direct line across the 
 rugae, one inch tvithin the mouth, exactly between the middle 
 and second nippers ; there these vessels form a curve, which 
 curve will then be divided, and will then yield three or 
 four pints of blood. If the instrument enter too much on 
 one side, as about the middle of the second nipper, then a 
 partial and longitudinal division of the artery may be made, 
 and an alarming haemorrhage may follow. In this case the 
 section must be enlarged and deepened inwardly, that is, 
 away from the teeth ; which completely severs the vessel, 
 and its retraction will stop the haemorrhage. A moderate 
 or slight flow of blood from the palate may be obtained by 
 light scarifications of the rugae : but all bleedings here, 
 except under circumstances of the most urgent necessity, 
 had better be avoided. 
 
 Bleeding by the toe is also arterio-phlebotomy. By no 
 means cut out a portion of the sole at the point of the frog, 
 which frequently occasions abscess ; but with a very fine 
 drawing-knife cut down exactly in the line of union between 
 the crust and the sole ; then, by puncturing the part with a 
 lancet, a vast flow of blood may be obtained, the benefits of 
 which in some cases are very marked, particularly in acute 
 founder. If the blood should not flow with sufficient free- 
 dom, place the foot in warm water : the bleeding finished, 
 cover the puncture with some tow and a little tar, and 
 lightly tack on the shoe. There are, however, other 
 methods of bleeding from the toe. Mr. Maver uses a draw- 
 ing-knife with a long curve, so that one sweep of the blade 
 may cut a piece out of the foot. This appears to us bad 
 practice, as it leaves nature a space to fill up, instead of a 
 simple incised wound to heal. Others take away none of 
 the horn, but merely make a slit through the outer cover- 
 ing on to the vascular portion of the foot. The flap of horn 
 
 Q q 2 
 
596 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 
 
 they hold up so long as they desire blood, by the insertion 
 of a piece of wood ; and when they have obtained blood 
 enough, they take out the wood so as to let the horny flap 
 down. This last method, of all others, appears to us the 
 easiest and the best: 
 
 Sometimes the plantar vein is opened as a substitute. — 
 Scarijications are also occasionally practised, which, of 
 course, divide both venous and arterial branches. In France 
 extensive scarifications used to be made into indurations 
 before the suppurative process had commenced, which 
 in some cases prevented that from going on ; and the reme- 
 dial wounds made were healed by adhesive inflammation, or 
 by healthy granulation : the same method has also been 
 occasionally practised here, but it is not now often at- 
 tempted. 
 
 Phlebotomy, or the puncture of a venous branch, is the 
 most usual mode of drawing blood in veterinary practice, 
 and may be employed on any point of the body ; but some 
 vessels are much more frequently opened than others, and 
 most of all the jugular. — Bleeding by the thigh vein. The 
 saphena is a prominent vein, continued from the inner part 
 of the hock, and may be opened by the fleam ; but with 
 much greater safety and propriety by a lancet. The oppo- 
 site leg being held up, the operator placing himself in front 
 of the thigh, and steadying himself and the horse by placing 
 one hand on the hock, may fix the vein with the little 
 finger of the other ; while the lancet held between the thumb 
 and fore finger punctures it. This vein should never be 
 opened, save upon absolute necessity, as it is often trouble- 
 some to pin up. A horse has been cast for the trivial 
 matter of stopping the heemorrhage. — Bleeding from the 
 plate vein. This vein is frequently opened to abstract blood 
 after injuries of the fore extremities. — The superficial bra- 
 chial vein is a continuation of the superficial division of the 
 metacarpal veins, and in the passage upwards receives more 
 than one branch ; its principal trunk ascends along the 
 inner side of the radius. It may also be well to remark, 
 that, when taking blood from the superficial veins of the 
 arm or fore-arm, if any difficulty is experienced in obtain- 
 ing a sufficient flow, the lifting up of the other leg, by 
 throwing the muscles of the punctured one into action, will 
 
BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN. 597 
 
 force the blood from the inner to the outer set ; and an in- 
 creased quantity may be obtained. The plate vein, or ex- 
 ternal thoracic,' is often opened, as it emerges from behind 
 the arm, and is pinned up without any difficulty. 
 
 BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN. 
 
 The situation of this important vessel is well known, but 
 its internal connexions are not so famihar, though such 
 knowledge is essential to the uniform safety of the opera- 
 tion. The horse has only external jugular veins, a right 
 and a left one : as each emerges from the chest, it is found 
 deep-seated, and approaching the trachea ; it then passes 
 forwards in company with the external carotid artery : to- 
 wards the middle of the neck it becomes more superficial, 
 and is now distinctly seen progressing rather above and without 
 the carotid artery and trachea, or windpipe. The carotid, 
 therefore, in the future course of the jugular, is situated a 
 little below and more deep-seated than the vein. The jugu- 
 lar is also separated from the carotid by a slight muscular 
 band, derived from the levator humeri. Its further track 
 is marked in the hollow formed by the inferior edge of the 
 levator humeri, where it is covered by the panniculus car- 
 nosus and integuments only ; when, having nearly reached 
 the jaw, it makes its well-known division into two portions. 
 Bleeding by the jugular is usually practised with a lancet, 
 or with a fleam. The proper spot for the puncture may be 
 found any where between two inches and six from the divi- 
 sion of the vein : this latitude is here mentioned, because it 
 is prudent to avoid puncturing directly over a former bleed- 
 ing place, known by the scar and enlargement : it should 
 also be avoided where a Uttle knot in the course of the 
 vein will sometimes denote the existence of one of the 
 venous valves. But in all ordinary cases, where these hin- 
 derances do not appear, operate at two or three inches from 
 the division of the vein ; which will be sufficiently evident 
 when it is pressed on below the place punctured. Avoid 
 operating low down in the neck, as there the vessel is 
 deeper seated, and near to important parts. 
 
 First moisten the hair and smooth it down ; then, steady- 
 ing and enlarging the vessel with one hand, with the other 
 plunge the point of the lancet into the integuments, so as 
 
598 BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN. 
 
 just to puncture them and the vein ; then, by a sUght turn 
 of the wrist, cany the instrument obhquely forward to finish 
 the cut. For opening the smaller veins, the lancet should 
 always be used. In all but the practised hand, the fleam 
 is the safest for bleeding from the jugular ; it is always 
 prudent to have the eye of the horse covered : unless the 
 eye be covered, the horse will be likely to flinch at the 
 moment of the stroke, and the puncture may be made in 
 any place but where we wish. The hair being first wetted 
 and smoothed, and the fleam being retained in the left 
 hand, the unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so as to 
 fix and swell the vessel ; let the point rest exactly in the 
 middle of the swelling ; strike the fieam sufficiently hard to 
 penetrate the skin and vein. A blood-stick is prelerable 
 for the purpose of striking the fleam : there is a vibration 
 between two hard bodies when they meet, which, in this 
 mstance, is favourable to a quick and moderate puncture of 
 the vein. After the vein has been opened, moderate pres- 
 sure with the edge of the can which catches the blood is 
 sufficient to keep up the flow : it may also be encouraged 
 by putting a finger within the horse's mouth. The requi- 
 site quantity of blood being drawn, remove the can. The 
 remaining process of securing the vessel is of equal import- 
 ance. The sides of the orifice are first to be brought in 
 apposition, without pinching them, and without drawing 
 them from the vein : the same cautions should also be 
 observed when the pin is introduced : let it be small, with 
 an irregular point, and when inserted wrap round it a few 
 hairs or a little tow. 
 
 Common, however, as this operation is, and qualified as 
 every one thinks himself to perform it, yet there are very 
 serious accidents which do arise occasionally. It has 
 occurred that the carotid artery has become penetrated. 
 When the puncture has been made through the vein, the 
 accident is known immediately by the forcible and pulsatory 
 gush of florid arterial and dark venous blood together. 
 In one instance of this kind, which occurred to a French 
 practitioner, he immediately thrust his finger into the open- 
 ing through the vein, and thus plugged up the artery, in- 
 tending to wait for assistance. In this state he remained, 
 we believe, an hour or more ; when, removing his finger, to 
 
OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 599 
 
 his surprise, he found the haemorrhage had ceased, and did 
 not again return. In another case, where an Enghsh prac- 
 titioner accidentally opened the carotid, he placed a compress 
 on the orifice, and had relays of men to hold it there tor 
 eio-ht-and-forty hours ; when it was found the bleeding had 
 stopped The admission of air is also another serious acci- 
 dent that now and then attends bleeding: it sometimes 
 happens from the sudden removal of the fingers or blood- 
 can or whatever was used to distend the vessel by ob- 
 structing the return of the blood : this being suddenly taken 
 away allows the escape of the blood towards the heart, and 
 occasions a momentary vacuum, the air being heard to rush 
 with a gurgling noise into the vein through the orihce ; 
 it then mixes with the blood, and occasions, in some in- 
 stances, almost immediate death. The animal begins to 
 tremble ; he next staggers, and finally falls in a state of con- 
 vulsion • if the quantity of air taken in has been consider- 
 able, death ensues. The remedy must, therefore be in- 
 stantaneous, and consists in again opening the orifice, or 
 making a new one, to gain an immediate renewed How ot 
 blood, which will, in most cases, renovate the horse, who 
 has been found afterwards to be tormented with an intoler- 
 able itching. 
 
 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 
 
 Theory and effects of purgation.— The principles of purga- 
 tion are the same in man and the horse ; but the products 
 vary thus it commonly requires twenty-four hours to 
 produce complete catharsis in the horse, whereas two or 
 three hours, and often less, will effect it in man. Speciality 
 of structure produces this difference. The alimentary track 
 is of immense length in the horse, and the surface to be 
 stimulated into action is consequently of great extent ; add 
 to which, that the erect position of man is favourable to a 
 p;ravitation, particularly of the hquid abdominal contents, 
 which the horizontal posture of the horse tends to retain. 
 Cathartics act by stimulating the intestines to a more fre- 
 quent evacuation, and they also increase the quantity of the 
 matter expelled : under some circumstances they alter the 
 quality of it also. A simple increase of the peristaltic 
 motion of the bowels will hasten the expulsion of the excre- 
 
GOO OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 
 
 mentitious parts of the aliments. A farther stimulus will 
 not only so hasten them, that the fluid contents of the 
 bowels cease to be absorbed, but the secreting surface of 
 the intestines themselves will furnish fluid matter. Stimu- 
 late them still more, the biliary and pancreatic fluids are 
 poured forth in greater quantities. This being the simple 
 operation of purging, it is evident how many erroneous 
 notions are entertained relative to it. 
 
 The abuse and dangers of purgatives.- — In most inflamma- 
 tory affections of the stomach and bowels, cathartics require 
 to be judiciously administered. They are almost equal to 
 poison in inflammation of the lungs ; and in all great 
 visceral inflammations active purges should be admitted 
 with caution. In farcy and glanders, purgatives never do 
 other than harm ; and in no chronic affections attended 
 with great debility are they admissible. Physic is rendered 
 yet more hurtful, from the frequency of its administration, 
 and quantities which are sometimes given. Grooms suppose 
 that every ordinary case requires three doses of physic, the 
 reasons for which Mr. Peall has humorously given, ' The 
 first being intended to stir up the humours,' ' the second to 
 set them afloat,' and ' the third to carry them off.' To very 
 young horses, and to delicate feeders, the exhibition of three 
 strong doses of physic must be attended with most inju- 
 rious consequences, and such as they cannot recover from for 
 months. It is an unfortunate prejudice, engendered by 
 ignorance and kept alive by obstinacy, that to do much good 
 with physic it should be very strong. We were once told 
 by a groom, that the dose dispensed was not strong enough, 
 for it had not purged the horse more than fourteen or fifteen 
 times ; and we have also heard that two ounces of aloes was 
 but a moderate dose. In many cases, however, these sapient 
 grooms are not satisfied unless a horse have twenty or thirty 
 evacuations. Super-purgation has destroyed hundreds of 
 horses, and it has irreparably injured thousands : it certainly 
 very much debilitates the horse. It is hardly possible to 
 conceive a more deplorable object than a horse under the 
 action of an enormous purgative : the liquid aliments escap- 
 ing almost involuntarily, the adjacent parts being excoriated, 
 with the violence and frequency of the dejections ; the belly 
 is drawn to the flank ; cold sweats bedew the frame ; appetite 
 
OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. GO I 
 
 is totally lost, and the strength so lessened as to leave 
 the animal hardly power of tottering from one stall to 
 another ; and yet to this state does obstinacy and igno- 
 rance condemn horses to be reduced. The number and 
 strength of the purgative doses are not the only evils also 
 to which the horse is liable, from improper purgation ; the 
 articles used are likewise often of an injurious nature. 
 Frequently the coarsest aloes are a component part of 
 the favourite prescription, and other drastics are added to 
 increase the strength. No horse should have a strong dose 
 of physic put into him without two or three days previous 
 mashing ; and if this be done, a mild dose will be sufficient. 
 When good physic has been properly given, still it is often 
 rendered injurious, and even destructive, by carelessness 
 or ignorance. Even cold water at these times will injure ; 
 a sudden chill from a door left carelessly open may bring on 
 enteritis ; and active exercise, to promote a ' stirring up of 
 the humours,' has destroyed many a valuable animal. 
 
 Of the articles used in purging horses. — There are nume- 
 rous articles which simply relax the bowels, i.e. shghtly 
 increase their peristaltic motion ; but very few which pro- 
 duce active purgation. Of the former, bran, calomel, and 
 neutral salts, are the common instances ; but it must be 
 confessed that, with the exception of bran, all the others 
 occasionally fail. Rhubarb, jalap, colocynth, and elaterium, 
 are inert ; except in such doses as derange the bowels dan- 
 gerously, and, therefore, it is evident how uselessly these 
 enter into the purgative physic for horses. Gamboge, 
 which is occasionally added to a horse purge, is a still more 
 dangerous addition ; for it sometimes proves a most drastic 
 purgative. The purgative of the horse, therefore, in almost 
 every instance, is aloes blended with gentian. Opinions 
 differ with regard to the various kinds of aloes imported ; nor 
 can W3 ever arrive at a just conclusion on this head, until 
 we unite a conclave of honest druggists, both wholesale and 
 retail, from whom alone might be procured something like 
 a knowledge of the various sorts in an unadulterated state ; 
 for they are all said to be mixed and remixed to suit the 
 convenience of the dealer ; and are named and renamed, to 
 supply the wants of the purchaser ; to which circumstances 
 we are indebted for the contradictory accounts we read rela- 
 
G02 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 
 
 tive to them. Of the aloe varieties two are principally in 
 use ; the Barbadoes and the Cape. The Barbadoes are 
 somewhat quicker and stronger in their action, and conse- 
 quently rather more drastic in their operation than the Cape ; 
 therefore in some cases they are not to be preferred. Bat 
 they are in general more certain in their action than the 
 Cape. Cape aloes are commonly thought to be milder and 
 weaker ; it is usual, therefore, to consider, that a dose of 
 physic, which requires six drachms of Barbadoes, should 
 necessitate seven drachms of Cape aloes. The quantity 
 requisite to produce purging is dependent on so many cir- 
 cumstances, that it is no wonder it should be so often mis- 
 managed. Horses do certainly vary greatly in their in- 
 trinsic capability of being acted on by purgatives, but much 
 more in the circumstances under which they are given. 
 Mr. Coleman, in his lectures, mentions a horse of his own 
 that would purge by taking three drachms only of Cape 
 aloes : while Mr. Percivall quotes a horse which belonged 
 to Mr. O 'Conner, which at three years old required fourteen 
 drachms to purge its bowels. These facts serve to show 
 the propriety of prescribing a very moderate quantity only 
 as the first dose for a horse with whose constitutional pecu- 
 liarities we are unacquainted. The requisite quantity is also 
 greatly dependent on various other circumstances ; old 
 horses, and such as are constantly fed on hard meat, require 
 more than others ; while horses eating green meat purge 
 with a very mild dose ; and in all, by mashing three times 
 a day for several days, we may make four drachms do the 
 work of eight. This, we repeat, shows the extreme im- 
 portance of previous preparation for all horses ; but more 
 particularly for weakly horses, and also such as have been 
 previously accustomed to much home diet. Form also 
 influences the quantity requisite ; a thin, narrow-chested 
 horse, will purge more readily than a circular deep-carcassed 
 one. It may be considered, therefore, that the quantities 
 required to purge horses range between four and eight 
 drachms ; the extent of which range will serve to show that 
 something more is requisite than a blind acquiescence in 
 any invariable form. 
 
 The croton tiglium is a purgative of new discovery. In 
 its action it is certain only in producing motions much more 
 
OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 603 
 
 liquid than those produced by aloes, consequently we sup- 
 pose it is also much more weakening. The capsule of the 
 croton seed, we believe, has been found, if our informa- 
 tion be correct, unworthy of much dependence. Mr. 
 Youatt tried it with variable effect ; but altogether he did 
 not appear prepossessed in its favour. Several others, we 
 know, have also tried it, without being able to come to a 
 direct conclusion relative to its properties. Mr. Field has 
 however found, that two drachms of the capsule have pro- 
 duced the same effects as forty grains of the farina ; which 
 last is the remains of the kernel of the seed, after it has 
 had the croton oil expressed from it. This farina, when 
 genuine, appears to possess more certainty of action. Mr. 
 Field estimates that thirty grains of it are equivalent to six 
 drachms of Barbadoes aloes. The croton oil is equally 
 certain in its action with the farina. Mr. Percivall suggests, 
 that from twenty drops to half a drachm might be found 
 the quantity necessary to fully purge. There is, however, 
 one objection to the use of croton nut or oil. It has the pro- 
 perty of sadly blistering the mouth, unless made into a ball. 
 The nut, divested of its envelope, maybe given in doses from 
 ten to twenty grains. The oil, in doses from eight to six- 
 teen drops ; and the farina, which is sold in cakes, may be 
 administered in doses of from sixteen to thirty grains. 
 Therefore when we read of such or such doses being recom- 
 mended, it is necessary to learn which of the preparations the 
 writer refers to. It appears consequently, at present, aloes 
 is likely to remain the base of the purgative ; and we 
 proceed by offering the formulae of the several strengths 
 formed of Barbadoes aloes. 
 
 No. 1. — Barbadoes aloes (finely powdered) two drachms. 
 
 Oil of caraways one scruple. 
 
 Extract of gentian a sufficiency. 
 
 No. 2. — Barbadoes aloes (finely powdered) three drachms. 
 
 Oil of caraways a scruple. 
 
 Extract of gentian a sufficiency. 
 
 No. 3. — Barbadoes aloes four drachms, with extract 
 
 of gentian, a sufficiency. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 No. 4. — Barbadoes aloes five drachms, -with extract 
 
 of gentian, a sufficiency. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 When it is thought proper to give mercurial physic, one 
 
G04 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 
 
 drachm of calomel may be given the evening previous, by 
 sprinkling the powder on the tongue. This, by lying all 
 night in the horse, may, perhaps, assist the efficacv, if the 
 aloetic ball be given the next morning ; keeping in mind 
 it should be less strong on account of the calomel ad- 
 ministered. However calomel is best exhibited blended 
 with the aloes, when for every scruple of the first it will be 
 necessary to abstract a drachm of the last. 
 
 Treatment connected with physicking. — The intestines 
 should always be prepared for this operation bv bran 
 mashes, and which should be given the three previous days. 
 The first dose given to every horse, with which we are not 
 well acquainted, should be a very mild one ; for some horses 
 are much more easily purged than others, and if the dose 
 does not operate, it can do no harm. Exercise is of particular 
 importance in physicking ; but w^e would earnestly caution 
 the attendants against active trotting or galloping : brisk 
 and continued walking is all that ought to be allowed. 
 Cold water should never be allowed, but, if the horse will 
 not drink it warm, it may be given cool, but never cold : 
 on this particular it is also necessary to observe, that ample 
 dilution of the bowels is of the utmost consequence to 
 insure physic working freely. During the working of the 
 physic the horse should be kept warm within the stable, 
 and by the clothing ; and he must be exercised (if in winter) 
 in clothes proportioned to the cold. When a purge is to be 
 given, proceed as follows : — the horse having fasted an hour 
 or tw^o in the morning, give him the ball, after which he 
 should be offered some warm water ; or it will not be im- 
 proper to let him have his ball a quarter of an hour after 
 he has had about half his usual quantity of water ; for it 
 sometimes happens that the ball disgusts, and then he will 
 not drink for some hours. After it is taken, he should 
 fast another hour, when a bran mash may be given, with 
 a very few oats sprinkled on it, to make it palatable : he 
 should, at noon, be walked for an hour, with mash feeding 
 afterwards ; and exercised again an hour in the evening, 
 being allowed w-arm or tepid water at intervals during the 
 day, with hay and a bran mash again tow^ards night. Early 
 on the following morning the physic will probably begin to 
 work, which, if it does freely, no more exercise need be 
 
OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 605 
 
 given ; but if not, half an hour's walking should be allowed, 
 when the horse may have a mash and warm water. After 
 this, another half hour's exercise should be given (walking 
 only), and which is to be repeated every other hour or two, 
 till the physic acts ; allowing mashes and a little clean hay 
 occasionally, and warm water as often as he will take it. 
 Should the horse appear griped and uneasy, a warm clyster 
 may be given, which will generally relieve ; and in the event 
 of its still continuing, then the following drink may be given, 
 hand-rubbing the belly well at the same time. 
 
 Sulphuric ether one ounce. 
 
 Laudanum one ounce. 
 
 Pejipermint water one pint. 
 
 Mix, and give quite cold. 
 
 It occasionally happens that, notwithstanding every atten- 
 tion, physic will not work on the second day ; in which case 
 let nothing tempt the practitioner to give another dose 
 immediately ; for it sometimes happens that purgatives will 
 not act until the third day. But when a case occurs of 
 non-purgation, always wait until the third day ; when, if no 
 symptoms of purging appear, either let the horse rest 
 altogether for two days longer, and then give him another 
 dose ; or commence by giving him a quarter of the original 
 dose every six hours till it purge, mashing, giving exercise 
 and warm water as before. Let it also be remembered, that 
 it is erroneous to encourage liquid purging to twenty, thirty, 
 or more dejections. No good attends this practice. In 
 the usual course of physic, on the day after the operation of 
 the purgative, the fseces will resume nearly their former 
 consistency and shape, when the physic is said to be set. If 
 it, however, continue to operate with nearly the same 
 violence as on the day before, it must be regarded as a case 
 oi super -purgation, and recourse must be immediately had 
 to the following drink, which is to be administered every 
 second hour. 
 
 Powdered chalk two ounces. 
 
 Laudanum two ounces. 
 
 Tincture of catechu one ounce. 
 
 Tincture of gulls half an ounce. 
 
 Nitrous ether three ounces. 
 
 Mild ale one pint. 
 
 Mix. 
 
COG DIURETICS. 
 
 DIURETICS. 
 
 As we have but little power over the skin of the horse, 
 so we have correspondently a greater one over the kidneys. 
 Diuretics in the horse appear to stimulate the kidneys, 
 whereby they separate a larger quantity of water from the 
 blood. The blood, losing an unusual proportion of its 
 watery part, must be supplied from other sources : this is 
 done by the absorbing vessels, which take up any super- 
 fluous fluids ; the heightened vascularity of the kidneys 
 detracting, like a blister, from the force of the circulation. 
 Like purgatives, they however are nmch abused, and irre- 
 parable injury is done to horses by their too frequent 
 administration. In all accumulations connected with de- 
 bility, it is evident that diuretics may do harm : we may, it 
 is true, remove some extravasation and swelling to-day, but 
 still more will return to-morrow. In these cases we must, 
 on the contrary, strengthen the system by tonics, proper 
 feeding, and mild exercise : the local debility we must treat 
 by friction and bandages. 
 
 The principal strong diuretic substances in general use for 
 the horse are juniper, nitre, turpentine, and potash. The 
 milder ones are cream of tartar, neutral salts, resin, &c. 
 Many other substances act on the kidneys of the horse, but 
 in a less degree. Resin is, perhaps, the least active diu- 
 retic in veterinary practice, and a dose of three to six 
 drachms is not certain in its operation. Nitre, in similar 
 doses, is perfectly certain, likewise more active. In inflam- 
 matory diseases, and in urinary obstructions from gravel, 
 nitre is much to be preferred to resin. Turpentine, both liquid 
 and solid, is a certain diuretic ; as also is potash, half an 
 ounce or an ounce being diluted in two or three quarts of 
 water, and given fasting. Cream of tartar must be given in 
 doses of four to six ounces. All the neutral salts, in similar 
 doses, act in the same way ; but not always with uniform 
 certainty. When they prove aperient, the flow of urine is 
 in general inconsiderable, but it lasts some time. The un- 
 observant are but little aware how very seriously too power- 
 ful and too often repeated diuretics injure the horse ; for 
 great debility and emaciation usually follow upon their abuse. 
 Whenever a diuretic is given, the same cautions should be 
 
DIURETICS. 607 
 
 observed as with a purgative : to keep warm, but not hot ; 
 sweating would impede the process of the diuretic ; to 
 avoid over-exertion ; but, above all, to allow a large quan- 
 tity of tepid water, which greatly increases the effect, and 
 renders the action less hurtful : indeed, a large quantity of 
 water will of itself prove a diuretic, particularly if the horse 
 have previously abstained from drinking. When a horse 
 has long fasted from water, his other secretions must have 
 lessened the watery parts of the blood so much that it 
 would seem to occasion an imperative call for dilution ; and 
 in such case it would be supposed, that whatever fluid 
 aliment was taken, however large the quantity, would be 
 received into the system to repair the waste. But it is 
 not so ; on the contrary, whatever may be the wants of the 
 constitution by long deprivation from liquid aliments, a full 
 dilution, instead of being at once taken up to repair the 
 waste, greatly increases the urinary flow by constitutional 
 sympathy not absorption. It is, therefore, clear, that when- 
 ever we deprive horses of water during the action of diu- 
 retics, under a supposition that we thereby increase the 
 absorption of the extravasated fluids, we err greatly. Diu- 
 retics are given in the form of balls or of powders, a formula 
 of each of which is added : — 
 
 DIURETIC BALLS. 
 
 Resin, yellow four pounds. 
 
 Nitre, in powder two pounds. 
 
 Horse turpentine two pounds. 
 
 Yellow soap one pound. 
 
 Melt the resin, soap, and turpentine over a slow fire ; and 
 when cooling add the nitre. Strong dose, one ounce to 
 ten drachms. Mild dose, five or six drachms. 
 
 DIURETIC POWDERS. 
 
 Yellow resin, powdered two pounds. 
 
 Nitre, powdered four pounds. 
 
 Cream of tartar, powdered two pounds. 
 
 Dose, six to eight or ten drachms. 
 
THE 
 
 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA; 
 
 OR, 
 
 AN ALPHABETICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE LIST 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS 
 
 MEDICINAL ARTICLES AT PRESENT EMPLOYED 
 IN VETERINARY PRACTICE. 
 
 R r 
 
THE 
 
 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 
 
 A WELL-GROUNDED knowledge of chemistry is necessary to 
 the proper construction of the formulee used among veteri- 
 nary surgeons ; and without it we are apt, by injudicious 
 combinations to destroy the effect of our remedies, or other- 
 wise to beget new compounds of totally different qualities 
 to those intended. An intimate acquaintance with chemical 
 affinities of substances enables a practitioner, from articles 
 apparently dissonant in properties and action, to form a 
 new compound with particular influences suited to his 
 purpose. 
 
 The veterinarian should have a neat and well-regulated 
 dispensary : except that the matters need not be quite so 
 numerous, it should be a fac-simile of a well-arranged 
 apothecary's shop. The various articles should be inclosed 
 in drawers, pots, or bottles, according to their forms or 
 natures : each should be separate, and each should be 
 distinctly marked. Above all, it behoves him, if he wish 
 either to satisfy himself, or to do justice to the cases under 
 his care, to be most particular as to the quality of the sim- 
 ples and compounds he uses. The prudent veterinarian will 
 find it his interest to deal with a druggist of established 
 reputation, and to order only high-priced drugs, and of the 
 best quality. The only means to avoid deception is to 
 compound for himself; and to do it with genuine drugs. 
 In the formulae, and doses, the apothecaries' weights and 
 measures are always meant. 
 
 Rr 2 
 
612 
 
 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES GENERALLY USED IN 
 THE COMPOUNDING OF MEDICINES. 
 
 The Pound . 
 
 — Ounce . 
 
 — Dr;iclim 
 
 — Scruple . 
 
 — Grain . . 
 
 , contiuns . 
 
 Twelve onncep. 
 Eight drachms. 
 Three scruples. 
 Twenty grains. 
 
 MEASURE OF FLUIDS: 
 
 The Gallon 
 
 — Pint 
 
 — Fluid ounce. . 
 
 — Fluid drachm 
 
 Gut. or Min. 
 
 Gr 
 
 9 
 
 contains 
 
 Eight pints. 
 Sixteen fluid ounces. 
 Eight fluid drachms. 
 Sixty minims or drops. 
 
 abbreviations; 
 
 for 
 
 Drop. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Scruple. 
 
 Di-aclim. 
 
 Ounce. 
 
 Pound. 
 
 Absorbents. — The efficacy of this class of remedies consists 
 in their tendency to correct a diseased acidity in the 
 stomach. In horned cattle, complaints apparently origi- 
 nating from this course are rather common ; hence cows, 
 calves, and sheep, are sometimes benefited by chalk. 
 
 Acetated Liquor of Ammonia. — ^This has been long known 
 by the popular term of Mindererus's spirit, and is made 
 by pouring any quantity of acetic acid, diluted with seven 
 times its amount of water, upon carbonate of ammonia, 
 until all fermentation ceases, or until a neutral solution 
 has been formed. It is useful in horse practice ; it gently 
 invigorates, is diaphoretic, and sometimes it proves mildly 
 diuretic. It principally shows its salutary effects on the 
 commencement of the debile stage, or at the close of 
 lingering febrile diseases, particularly of influenza. In 
 the more early stages of epidemic catarrh, it may also be 
 exhibited : the dose is from four ounces to an almost 
 unlimited quantity. 
 
 Acetate of Copper, or Verdigris. — See Copper. 
 
 Acids. — Such as are in use in veterinary medicine are de- 
 scribed under their proper names throughout the Materia 
 Medica. 
 
 Acetic Acid. — Made from the destructive distillation of 
 wood. A good application to warts. Diluted with seven 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 613 
 
 times its amount of water it forms vinegar, and a good 
 lotion for several forms of prurigo. 
 
 -^RUGo. — See Copper. 
 
 ^THER, Sulphuric. — A valuable medicine, and the best 
 anti-spasmodic we possess. Blended with its own 
 amount of laudanum, and more than ten times its 
 amount of cold water, sulphuric ether forms one of the 
 best and safest drinks we know of The nitrous spirit of 
 (sther, or sweet spirit of nitre, as it is called, is a more 
 general remedy, only because of its greater cheapness. 
 As a febrifuge, it is at once, though in a less degree than 
 the sulphuric sether, refrigerating without being lowering. 
 
 ^THiops Mineral. — See Mercury, Black Sulphuret of. 
 
 Aloes. — These form a very important article in the veteri- 
 narian's list of medicines, and therefore too much care 
 cannot be taken to procure them genuine. Every prac- 
 titioner, however, should purchase them in the gross ; 
 and have them reduced to powder under his own inspec- 
 tion, as the surest preventive against adulteration. The 
 aloes in use among veterinarians are principally of two 
 kinds ; Barbadoes and Cape. Barbadoes are in most 
 request, as being the most certain in their action ; be- 
 cause they are less adulterated. Barbadoes aloes are of 
 a deep tint, slightly brittle, fragrant, and intensely bitter. 
 Cape aloes are altogether an inferior drug. The action 
 of each kind as a purgative is detailed under the head 
 Purgatives. As an alterative, aloes are sometimes given 
 in doses of one drachm to two daily ; they are also some- 
 times used in similar doses as a nauseant in inflamma- 
 tions, but are not uniform in their action, and are apt to 
 irritate. As an external stimulant, they are used in the 
 compound tinctures of myrrh and of benjamin. Aloes 
 form a remarkable instance of the different properties of 
 the same article over difl"erent animals. A horse requires 
 less than an ounce, an ox two ounces or more, to 
 purge him ; it will make a dog vomit rather than purge 
 the animal ; a man can bear only a small quantity ; 
 and the largest hog not even so much : while, according 
 to the experiments of M. Gilbert, a sheep which took 
 two ounces was not purged, although it died seventeen 
 days afterwards. Aloes, particularly the Barbadoes, will 
 
614 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 not pulverise readily except in frosty weather ; at which 
 time a sufficient quantity should be powdered to last the 
 year through ; and as they are apt again to unite into 
 a solid mass, so, soon as powdered, they should he 
 mingled with half their weight of lard or palm oil : mixed 
 in this manner they keep well, and form a uniform mass 
 of a proper consistence to make balls ; which dissolve 
 readily in the stomach, never harden, and are less apt to 
 gripe than any other form ; particularly if half drachms 
 of powdered ginger be added. — Aloes are now boiled by 
 some practitioners, to render them more mild. The 
 great difficulty of keeping aloes in an equal state of con- 
 sistence, as a purging mass, induced Mr. B. Clark to 
 adopt the following method, by which, he informs us, 
 these inconveniences are obviated. He places one vessel 
 within another, exactly as carpenters melt glue, having 
 water in the outer vessel, and aloes with one-fifth of 
 their weight of treacle in the inner one, which is carefully 
 covered with a lid. The apparatus being put on the fire, 
 is suffered to remain, the aloes and treacle being now 
 and then, but not too often, stirred to combine them, for 
 an hour or more, or until perfectly melted. The inner 
 vessel being now taken from the outer, the contents are 
 expeditiously cast in paper moulds or tubes, of the usual 
 diameter of a horse ball. When cold, Mr. C. finds these 
 balls flexible, yet solid, and says they remain so. He 
 gives an ounce to a saddle or carriage horse, and six 
 drachms to a cart horse : but there is reason to fear that 
 they do not prove so soluble in the stomach as when 
 their particles are divided by oil, lard, or even syrup ; but 
 the last is a more objectionable ingredient than either of 
 the others. 
 
 A watery solution of aloes should be kept by every 
 veterinarian, and which will be found, in many instances, 
 a very convenient form, on account of its quicker 
 action. 
 
 A spirituous tincture of aloes, made by digesting four 
 ounces of the powder in a quart of proof spirit, forms a 
 common stimulating application to recent wounds, &c. 
 Half an ounce of powdered myrrh is a good addition to 
 this vulnerary. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 615 
 
 Alteratives are articles that are supposed to act medici- 
 nally on the body, in a slow and nearly imperceptible 
 manner. The usual alteratives among farriers are nitre, 
 antimony, sulphur, resin, and spices ; but a better ac- 
 quaintance with the art teaches us to add to the list 
 every drug in the Pharmacy. It is easy to make a ball, 
 and call it an alterative. But a good medicine of this 
 description should be adapted to some particular case. 
 It should change something into something else ; where- 
 fore it requires more skill to manage properly this class 
 of medicines than any other. 
 Alum {Alumen) .—This compound body is in very general 
 use in veterinary practice, both externally and internally. 
 In doses of one or two drachms, it is employed as an 
 astringent in diarrhoea, diabetes, and other fluxes. Ex- 
 ternally it is by some used as a styptic to stop haemor- 
 rhage, by sprinkhng it on the bleeding orifice, when its 
 coagulating properties plug up the mouth of the vessel. 
 It fs also esteemed to be a useful escharotic to destroy 
 fungus, and a valuable detergent for foul ulcers. 
 Ammonia crude {Ammonia murias). — It is called crude, to 
 distinguish it from the volatile or prepared ammonia 
 which follows. It is, in general opinion, when diluted, 
 one of our very best discutients ; and, when in mixture 
 with acetic acid or vinegar, to which camphor is added, 
 it forms the favourite discutient lotion of general prac- 
 titioners. From it are prepared 
 
 Ammonia volatile (ammonia subcarbonas) . The gaseous 
 ammonia, fixed into a sohd form by combination with 
 carbonic acid, forms the volatile ammomacal salt of the 
 druggists. It is a good stimulant in the latter stages of 
 fever : united with vinegar, it forms the spirit of Mm- 
 dererus, an excellent preparation. 
 
 Ammonia acetatis, see acetated liquor of ammonia. 
 Carbonate of Ammonia is called salt ot hartshorn ; car- 
 bonated water of ammonia is the spirit of hartshorn of 
 the shops. It is convenient in veterinary practice, Irom 
 its peculiar property of uniting oil and water. Inter- 
 nally, it is an antispasmodic, in doses of six to eight 
 drachms. Externally it is a very quick bhstermg agent. 
 
616 
 
 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 Ammoniacum. — This gum is sometimes given in old obsti- 
 nate coughs, and in farcy. 
 Anise Seed. — The powder of these seeds was formerly 
 much used by farriers ; and the druggists who make horse 
 powders find it a profitable article ; for it is adulterated 
 to one-third only of the genuine powder. It may be 
 very properly united with other warm aromatics when 
 cordials are admissible. It is also thought to possess 
 some pectoral properties ; but they are very trifling. The 
 essential oil is the most active preparation of it ; which 
 see. 
 Anodynes. — These are medicines that quiet pain. In the 
 human, they procure sleep also; but no article with 
 which we are acquainted is absolutely capable of pro- 
 ducing this effect on the horse. As mitigators of pain, 
 opium and hyoscyamus must be tried. Camphor and 
 sether will also act as antispasmodics ; but in all painful 
 affections, where relief is essential, opium in doses of 
 one or two ounces, is chiefly to be depended on ; and if 
 pain be mitigated, sleep follows of course, from the 
 fatigue of irritation. 
 Anthelmintics. — See Vermifuges. 
 
 Antimony.— There are several medicinal preparations made 
 from the crude metal, as 
 
 Black sulphuret of antimony (Sulphuretum antimonii) ; 
 the metal itself, being ground and levigated, in this state 
 is always compounded with sulphur; but when it is 
 to be given as an alterative, more sulphur is often added 
 to it, with nitre or other articles, according to the plea- 
 sure of the compounder : in doses of two, three, or as 
 far as four drachms, it is a good and safe alterative, daily 
 administered. It should be bought and powdered by 
 the practitioner, or he may purchase manganese and 
 forge-dust as a part of the mass. It holds within itself 
 often a portion of arsenic, to which we attribute its occa- 
 sional violence of action, particularly when given to 
 dogs : the presence of arsenic may be tried by burning 
 a little on a red-hot iron plate, when a smell of garhc 
 detects the arsenic. 
 
 Tartarized antimony (Antimonium tartarizatum). 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 617 
 
 Emetic tartar, or the tartrate of potash and antimony, is 
 a very valuable medicine m veterinary practice, although 
 its merits are not allowed by some practitioners : but 
 whoever will try it without prejudice, will have reason to 
 be satisfied that it is both a febrifuge and expectorant ; 
 and, as most of*the fevers of horses are connected with 
 some pneumonic affection, so a remedy that combines 
 the properties of diminishing action of the lungs and 
 increasing expectoration, is invaluable. In inflammation 
 of the lungs it is commonly exhibited. In other cases, 
 it may be given with nitre and supertartrate of potash 
 (^cream of tartar) in similar doses, once a day, in a mash. 
 It is also an excellent alterative. In full doses it occa- 
 sions determination to the skin, and ultimately lessens 
 the action of the heart and arteries : sometimes it in- 
 creases the flow of urine. In our opinion it certainly 
 lessens the febrile action of the vascular system more 
 effectually than any other medicament. It is also in use 
 as a vermifuge, and highly praised. 
 
 AntimonioJ 'powder (Pulvis antimoniahs) . This well- 
 known preparation, supposed to be the same with 
 Dr. James's powder, is a compound of oxide of anti- 
 mony with phosphate of Hme. It has some febrifuge 
 qualities ; but it is not so efficacious in the horse as the 
 tartarized antimony. As an alterative it is useful in 
 doses of one to two drachms ; and as a promoter of con- 
 dition it is often preferable to tartarized antimony. 
 
 Antimony, chloride of (Murias antimonii), or hutter or 
 hutijr of antimony, is a very useful escharotic. 
 
 Antiseptics are remedies supposed to possess a power of 
 resisting a putrefactive process in the body ; but this in- 
 fluence is questioned, and all medicines of this class are 
 now considered as acting only by their stimulating quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Antispasmodics. — Tlie horse is subject to many spasmodic 
 affections, and the class of remedies that applies to 
 those he is troubled with is small. Ethers stand first 
 on the list. Opium holds the second place. Cam- 
 phor, hyoscyamus, belladonna, oil of turpentine, and 
 asafoetida, have all of them likewise proved useful. Cold 
 
618 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 also, in an intense degree, is a powerful antispasmodic, 
 for which reason it is applied in tetanus. 
 
 Aperients. — See Laxatives. 
 
 Arsenic, oxide {Arsenicum oxydum) . This powerful mine- 
 ral is somewhat uncertain in its action, and not always 
 safe : were it not for this, it might- be called a good 
 tonic, in doses of five to ten grains daily, in a very 
 fine powder : more has been given ; but it sometimes 
 appears to remain innocuous until the constitution is 
 fully saturated with it ; and then commences its noxious 
 effects suddenly and irreparably : this destroys much of 
 its usefulness, and makes it necessary to exhibit it with 
 great caution : nor should it ever be given on an empty 
 stomach. The best form in which it can be adminis- 
 tered is, as the liquor arsenicalis, made by boiling its own 
 weight of potash with arsenic and water (one ounce of 
 water to every four grains of arsenic), in some glass 
 vessel. It has the power of staying the progress of 
 glanders ; and it ultimately cures farcy when watched and 
 continued : it also appears to have some vermifuge pro- 
 perties ; and it certainly retards the march of the rabid 
 disease, but is not ultimately successful. 
 
 Astringents. — These are supposed to act on the living 
 fibres by producing increased contraction in them, in 
 which point of view they form a very numerous and im- 
 portant class ; but in a more limited sense, they are 
 considered as substances that restrain immoderate fluxes, 
 ^s of the intestines and kidneys. Those that act by 
 constringing the divided ends of bloodvessels are called 
 styi")tics. Opium, chalk, alum, starch, and catechu, act 
 favourably in restraining intestinal fluxes. Catechu, 
 alum, and acetate of lead, operate as astringents on the 
 urinary passages. 
 
 Balls. — There are some circumstances, in the preparation 
 of this form of medicines, not in general sufficiently 
 attended to by veterinarians. Substances that are vola- 
 tile do not keep well in balls, and therefore should only 
 be made when used. The same caution is also requisite 
 with such as liquefy by the absorption of air. All hard 
 substances entering into balls should be finely powdered. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 619 
 
 and the moist matter that is to form them into an adhe- 
 . sive mass should he of a nature that will neither lerment 
 nor become mouldy. A mass for balls not intended for 
 immediate use should be pressed down into a jar, and 
 tied over with a bladder. As the giving of a ball is a 
 forcible operation, when it is requisite to exhibit medi- 
 cines more than once a day, it is more prudent to give 
 them in the form of drinks. A horse ball should not 
 be so large as a pullet's egg; nor should it be too 
 hard : the weight between an ounce and an ounce and 
 a half, in form resembling a short sausage. A very 
 ingenious instrument is now made for giving balls, 
 which may be used in many cases, but is ^ particu- 
 larly apphcable to colts, ponies, or horses with small 
 mouths. The m.ost convenient mode of ' delivering a balV 
 is, to back the horse in his stall, when the operator 
 should gently draw the tongue out of the mouth ; but it 
 should not be held apart or by itself, as in that case the 
 struggles of the horse may injure it ; it should be re- 
 tained firmly by the fingers of the left hand pressed 
 against the jaw. The ball must now be taken between 
 the tips of the fingers of the right hand, lengthwise, 
 when it should be passed up the mouth close to the roof: 
 having placed the ball on the root of the tongue, the 
 hand may be withdrawn, and the tongue liberated, when, 
 unless the horse should cough, the ball will be swallowed. 
 The head should, during the whole, not be elevated: 
 when it is held up, there is some danger of choking the 
 
 horse. 
 Balsams are a kind of resinous juice, united with some of 
 the extractive matter of the various plants they are 
 obtained fi-om, in combination with an essential oil. All 
 the balsams are occasionally in use in veterinary medi- 
 cine, and were formerly in very high estimation, for their 
 supposed salutary action in chronic diseases. They were 
 also considered as a sovereign vulnerary for abraded 
 urinary passages. It is the modern doctrine to thmk 
 their efficacy overrated, and which is probably in some 
 respects true, particularly as regards their expectorant 
 qualities: nevertheless they are far fi'om being inert; 
 they appear to act very favourably in some instances, as 
 
620 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 a warm terebinthinated stimulant. There are balsams of 
 Canada ; of Copaiva ; of Gilead ; of Peru ; and of Tolu. 
 What is called balsam of sulphur is merely a compound 
 preparation of sulphur in oil. 
 Barbadoes Tar. — See Tar. 
 
 Bark. — Several of the barks enter into the veterinarian's 
 list of medicaments, and all act by an astringent property 
 on the animal fibre. Peruvian bark stands foremost in 
 reputation ; but as horses are little subject to intermit- 
 tent fevers, we can therefore dispense with it. The elm 
 and the oak barks, particularly the last, may be used in 
 cases of debility, with advantage. Cascarilla bark proves 
 also a valuable stomachic tonic. 
 Barytes {Murias Barytas) has been tried with some benefit 
 in glanders. It is, however, a very powerful medica- 
 ment, and few glandered horses are able to bear the 
 quantity requisite for the cure. 
 Basilicon {Ceratum resincB) . A useful digestive ointment. 
 Beans, in a medical point of view, are sometimes used as a 
 
 tonic, and the flour of them as an astringent. 
 Belladonna {nightshade) . An excellent sedative. Its spe- 
 cific action, however, appears to be expended upon the 
 throat. It is largely used in affections of the lungs, and 
 in all diseases where sore throat is a prominent symp- 
 tom. Its full effect is shown by loss of appetite. 
 Blisters. — The action of blisters, and the cases in which 
 they are properly applied, are detailed under opera- 
 tions. The substances used for this purpose are various ; 
 the most important is the cantharides, or Spanish fly' 
 whose action is so certain and mild, that, as a simple 
 vesicatory, every other article is very inferior. In acute 
 inflammatory disease it is, however, too slow in its effects 
 to be of any benefit ; wherefore the application of liquor 
 ammonia is recommended. Euphorbium, which is the 
 general substance introduced as a substitute for a portion 
 of these flies, is sufficiently active ; but it irritates, and 
 therefore ought never to be employed in these cases. 
 However, in common blistering for strains, &c., where 
 the expense of cantharides is objected to, auxiliary vesi- 
 catories may be admitted, among which the tincture of 
 croton is now used. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 621 
 
 No. 1. — BUster for general Use. 
 
 Powdered cantharides f^ne pnund. 
 
 Lard eight pounds. 
 
 The liquid blister is made by substituting eight pints of 
 oil for the eight pounds of lard, and allowing the flies to 
 digest for a fortnight, or boiling them in a water bath. 
 A^pound of camphor is a good addition ; it does not 
 lessen the action of the bhster, but diminishes its irrita- 
 tion. 
 
 No. 2. — A powerful Blister. 
 
 Spanish flies o»e pound- 
 
 Lard tl'^'e^' pounds. 
 
 j^ggin two pounds. 
 
 Oil of turpentine one pound. 
 
 Melt the resin with the lard, after which add the tur- 
 pentine. When beginning to cool, throw in the pow- 
 dered flies. 
 
 No 3 —A Mercurial Blister for Splints, Sjjarins, and Pdnghones, which may he used 
 irhere dependence is placed on the action of Mercurials and Blisters, but which there is 
 reason to think are of but little assistance in the reduction oj these exostoses, paHicularhj ij 
 of long standing. 
 
 Of either of the former four ounces. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, powdered finely a scruple. 
 
 No. 4.— Liquid BUster, weak ; sometimes called Sweating Blister. 
 
 Spanish flies, in gross powder half a pound. 
 
 Olive oil . .- t'""ee quarts. 
 
 Steep the flies in the oil three weeks; strain off, and 
 bottle for use. 
 
 No. 5. — Liquid Blister, very mild. 
 
 Of the above one pint. 
 
 Olive oil ^ Pi"*^ '^^^ ^ "^'*- 
 
 The farriers' sweating Ulster is only a strong stimulant : 
 it occasions heat and swelling, without excoriation or 
 loss of hair ; consequently it is a very convenient appli- 
 cation, when it is an object to avoid a temporary blemish, 
 and when the case is not of a very desperate description. 
 But there are also instances in which it is to be preferred 
 to an actual bhster, as in strains, where some remains of 
 heat and inflammation are present, but without activity : 
 in such cases the sw^eating blister is very often efficacious. 
 The mode of application is to rub it in of sufficient 
 strength to irritate in a mild degree only ; repeating it 
 every day, until considerable swelling is occasioned, when 
 
622 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 the application should be desisted from, and the enlarge- 
 ment suffered to subside. 
 
 Blue Vitriol (Cupri sulphas). See Sulphate of Copper. 
 
 Bole ArxMenian {Bolus ArmenicB), vulgarly called bole 
 armenic, is an argillaceous earth impregnated with iron ; 
 and was formerly extolled for its astringent, strengthening 
 qualities, both externally and internally ; but, although 
 it has some claim to attention, it is seldom now used. 
 
 Borax. — See Soda. 
 
 Bran. — Independently of the use of this as an article of 
 food, it may be here introduced as a medicine also, being 
 without nourishment, but mechanically aperient. In 
 the latter point of view, it is perhaps the most certain 
 laxative with which we are acquainted, and at the same 
 time the most mild also. 
 
 Burgundy Pitch differs so little from resin in its qualities, 
 as to need no particular comment. 
 
 Butter or Butyr of Antimony {Antimonium Muriatum). 
 See EscHAROTics. 
 
 Calamine, prepared {Lapis calaminaris) , is an ore of zinc, 
 which, when reduced to a fine powder, may be very 
 usefully sprinkled on excoriations, and on cracks of the 
 heels, to dry them. It is, however, most frequently 
 used in the form of the unguent called calamine cerate, 
 and formerly Turner's cerate, and is an excellent appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Calomel (see Submuriate of Quicksilver) . This is a very 
 useful medicine in horse yjractice, but is liable to some 
 uncertainty in its action : therefore it should never be 
 continued by veterinarians, unless united to twice its 
 weight of opium ; even then, the moment tbe gums look 
 red, the mouth feels hot, and a tenderness is observed in 
 chewing, it should be discontinued. Calomel has not 
 much effect as a vermifuge beyond its purgative proper- 
 ties ; but it is an excellent alterative in skin affections, 
 as hidebound, surfeits, &c. It has proved useful also 
 in farcy, grease, and oedema. It is often united with 
 purges, but is not to be depended on alone as a purga- 
 tive : it acts well when shaken upon the tongue or 
 strewed upon a mash, the evening preceding the morn- 
 ing the purge is to be given. A scruple to two drachms 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 623 
 
 is a proper quantity ; but it must not be forgotten to 
 subtract something from the strength of the purge. 
 During the use of calomel as an alterative, the horse 
 should not be exposed to wet or cold, nor should its use 
 be persisted in more than a week without a pause. It 
 remains to add, that, unless this article be purchased 
 from a druggist of reputation, it is very apt to be adul- 
 terated. 
 Camphor is an Indian produce, chiefly extracted from the 
 laurus camphor a. It is a substance whose action it is 
 very difficult to define ; but as it is active in its proper- 
 ties on the horse, it well deserves a full trial. In large 
 doses it produces convulsions and delirium : half an 
 ounce has done this. In moderate doses, as a drachm, 
 it proves sedative and antispasmodic, and therefore maybe 
 usefully employed in flatulent colic, in conjunction with 
 other remedies. United with opium, it has acted bene- 
 ficially in spasmodic constrictions of the neck of the 
 bladder not dependent on inflammation. It has also 
 been highly spoken of as a powerful remedy in locked 
 jaw : on very respectable authority it has been also 
 warmly praised for its virtues in fever ; and as in small 
 repeated doses it is at once a gentle stimulant and soother 
 of irritation, so in the latter stages of febrile complaints, 
 where the irritability is considerable, it may be very pro- 
 perly given. But in the more early stages its beneficial 
 action is questionable : nor are its powers as a permanent 
 stimulant sufficient to be depended on at any time with- 
 out other auxiharies. Externally it proves a mild dis- 
 cutient in indurations and rheumatic affections ; and it is 
 with advantage blended with the ordinary blister. 
 Cantharides, or Spanish Flies. — These are, or ought to 
 be, the principal stimulating ingredient in the making of 
 ordinary blisters ; and every veterinarian should purchase 
 them whole and powder them himself, otherwise he will 
 be very apt to buy them adulterated. Previously to 
 being powdered, they should be moderately dried, and 
 then leisurely pounded, or rather ground into a powder ; 
 the operator guarding his face with a close muslin hand- 
 kerchief, so as not to receive the fine particles into his 
 nose and throat, otherwise an unpleasant soreness will 
 
624 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 arise. If they are very dry, and the powder flies much, 
 add a few drops of sweet oil, which will prevent this. 
 Of all the vesicating articles in use, none equal cantha- 
 rides. They likewise make a very useful stimulating 
 tincture for injecting into sinuous sores. Cantharides 
 are found also to have a very salutary effect in those 
 relaxations of mucous membranes w^hich produce a mor- 
 bid purulent secretion ; and which is apparently done by 
 stimulating the system generally, axid these parts particu- 
 larly, into, a new and healthy action. It is thus they 
 have been applied to the treatment of glanders : in nasal 
 gleets they have been extremely beneficial. 
 
 Capsicum. — In Indian horse practice, an infusion of 
 Cayenne pepper is often given as a cure of flatulent 
 colic, and as a vermifuge also ; it is likewise used ex- 
 ternally as a stimulant. We have ourselves tried it in 
 colic with some advantage, but not with sufiicient 
 benefit to prefer it to the more established means. 
 As a stomachic, it is decidedly more potent than most 
 other peppers. 
 
 Caraways. — Both the seeds and essential oil are used as 
 warm stomachic cordials. — See Cordials. 
 
 Carbon. — The chemical name of charcoal: it is useful in 
 stopping the ulcerative process. — See Poultices. 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia, or Salt of Hartshorn of the 
 shops. — See Ammonia. 
 
 Carbonated Water of Ammonia, or Spirit of Harts- 
 horn. — See Ammonia. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron. — See Iron. 
 
 Carrots. — These become, under many circumstances, a 
 medicine, as well as an article of diet. Even for the 
 latter purpose they are not sufficiently known ; for they 
 fatten without heating ; but, on the contrary, they keep 
 the body cool by keeping it open, and greatly promote a 
 healthy coat. As a medicine they often remove cough, 
 cure incipient grease, are good in farcy, and beneficial in 
 surfeits and mange ; but in these latter cases they must 
 be wholly substituted for corn. A poultice formed of 
 the scraped root is an excellent application in cases of 
 ichorous discharge from the heels. — See Poultices. 
 
 Castor Oil {Oleum Ricini). — See Oils. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 625 
 
 Cataplasms. — See Poultices. 
 
 Cathartics. — Whatever excites the intestines to a more 
 early, a more frequent, and a more copious discharge of 
 their contents, may be termed a cathartic, or purge. If 
 this effect be intended to be produced in a shght degree 
 only, the article effecting it is termed a laxative ; which 
 see. The principal cathartic in veterinary practice is 
 aloes. Linseed oil, calomel, and neutral salts may be 
 considered as laxatives. 
 
 Catechu. — By universal suffrage this has long been called 
 japan earth ; although it is an extract from a species of 
 Indian acacia. It is a very mild but tolerably certain 
 astringent ; and its effects are even more obvious on 
 brutes than on the human subject. It acts favourably in 
 relaxations of the urinary passages, and also in alvine 
 fluxes or diarrhoea ; in which latter cases it should be 
 given with chalk and opium, in doses of an ounce cJf each. 
 It ought not to be united with any metallic salt, particularly 
 in a diluted form ; to avoid the affinity which its tannin 
 or gaUic acid has for all metals, which such blending 
 reduces to almost inertness. Even the chalk with which 
 it is so commonly given, being an alkali, Mr. Youatt 
 thought weakened its action ; but the loss is compensated 
 by the chalk's antacid properties. By Indian practice, it 
 would appear catechu is a sedative ; for in that country 
 it is given in daily doses of two ounces, to tame 
 vicious horses. It is an astringent in the diarrhoea of 
 cattle, and appears in these animals to be more active 
 than in the horse. 
 
 Caustics. — See Escharotics. 
 
 Cerates are ointments of a drying, healing nature ; the 
 principal of which is calamine, or Turner's cerate. 
 
 Chalk {Creta). — This is a carbonate of lime, commonly 
 used in a prepared state under the name oi prepared chalk. 
 It is an excellent antacid and astringent, in diarrhoea ; it 
 also proves beneficial in the scouring of calves. The dose 
 is from half an ounce to two ounces. It is occasionally 
 sprinkled over cracks also. 
 
 Chamomile. — This vegetable is supposed to unite in an 
 admirable degree the qualities of a stomachic and febri- 
 fuge. In debility of the stomach and bowels it is a tonic, 
 
 s s 
 
626 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 in doses of an ounce and half an ounce twice a day, 
 particularly in conjunction with carbonate of iron. In 
 fevers, but more especially in the debile stage of influenza, 
 when the purulent discharge has appeared, it is assistant 
 to the other medicines, though inferior to good stout. 
 
 Charcoal {Charbo licjni) has a peculiar property of amend- 
 ing the ichorous discharge from ill-conditioned ulcers, 
 either sprinkled over them in powder or mixed with a 
 poultice. 
 
 Charges are not much used by modern veterinarians ; for 
 a more extensive acquaintance with the animal economy 
 teaches us that there is but little activity in what are 
 considered as external bracers. Nevertheless, there are 
 some other points of view in which we may place this 
 matter, to prove that charges may be of very much 
 service in some cases, if it is merely to act as a bandage, 
 or to protect from cold. In this way a c/mr^e becomes a 
 useful application to the loins in rheumatism ; not only as 
 it protects the affected part from cold, but also because 
 of the resin proving a useful stimulant. Any strong 
 adhesive, as resin, pitch, &c., melted with wax or oil 
 sufficient to keep it from being too brittle, may be formed 
 into a charge, and applied warm on the part ; and as it 
 cools, it should be covered with flocks of wool or short 
 tow. Another favourite, and, if we are to believe the 
 accounts given, a very eftective charge in ligamentary lame- 
 nesses, consists of common salt with the white of egg. 
 
 Chloride of Zinc is valuable as a disinfectant, and also as 
 promoting healing in suppurating or sloughing wounds. 
 It has the peculiar property of suppressing all luxuriant 
 granulations. It acts admirably also in the closing of 
 open joints : preventing all fetor, coagulating the synovia, 
 and at the same time promoting the healing beneath or 
 the stopping of the orifice. It is beneficial in thrush and 
 canker. It isusedas a solutionof various strengths, a scruple 
 to the pint, and a drachm to a pint and a half of water, 
 in grease, in thrushes or cracked heels with exudation. 
 
 Chloroform is an excellent medicine if administered inter- 
 nally. In spasmodic colic it may be administered in 
 doses of one drachm, or two drachms blended with a pint 
 of oil. It is serviceable also in guarding oil wherever a 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 627 
 
 laxative effect is desired without the possibihty of the 
 physic griping. 
 Clysters. — These often form very important medicaments 
 in veterinary practice, and have the valuable properties of 
 being always safe to the animal, and commonly easy to give. 
 From the length of time it requires to open the bowels 
 by purgatives given by the mouth, clysters are often our 
 principal dependence ; and when aperients cannot be 
 used they are our only real means of dependence. 
 Nutriment may be administered in this way, when circum- 
 stances prevent its being received in the usual manner. 
 When clysters are given to remove costiveness, it is always 
 proper to back-rake first (see Raking), as it removes any 
 hardened dung that might obstruct the passage of the 
 Hquid. The apparatus for administering a clyster may 
 be a large hog's or ox's bladder, capable of holding 
 five or six quarts, attached to a smooth wooden pipe an 
 inch in diameter, and fourteen or sixteen inches long ; but 
 a much more efficient apparatus is Reid's patent syringe, by 
 which almost any quantity may be forced up to the required 
 distance in the intestines. The liquor should not be too 
 warm ; but the pipe oiled, the process must be con- 
 ducted gently, so that the horse may not be surprised, 
 by the clyster being suddenly thrown up. This is a better 
 instrument for giving injections than the pewter syringe 
 sold for this purpose by the instrument-makers. 
 
 A laxative Clyster. 
 
 No. 1. — Thin gruel, or broth five quarts. 
 
 Epsom or common salt one pound and a half. 
 
 A Clyster for Gripes. 
 
 No. 2. — Oil of turpentine half a pint. 
 
 Thin gruel four quarts. 
 
 Mr. Gowing once relieved a lingering case of spasmodic 
 colic by administering a pint of turpentine in two quarts 
 of soap and water, as an injection. 
 
 A nourishing Clyster. 
 
 No. 3. — Thick gruel three quarts. 
 
 Strong ale one quart. 
 
 Mix.— Or, 
 
 Strong ale one quart. 
 
 Thick milk two quarts. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 s s2 
 
628 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Astringent Clysters. 
 
 No, 4.— Boiled milk three pints. 
 
 Thin starch two pints. 
 
 Laudanum an ounce. 
 
 No. 5. — Alum whey one quart. 
 
 Bdiled starch one quart. 
 
 CoLCHicuM (Meadow saffron root) is a diuretic medicine 
 to the horse. It also acts upon the liver, and can be 
 administered in cases where the exhibition of calomel is 
 inadvisable. In very large and dangerous doses it is a 
 purgative. It is a favourite agent for the cure of rheuma- 
 tism, as likewise for circumscribed affections of a painful 
 nature as periodic ophthalmia. The powder or tincture 
 are the two preparations in use among veterinarians. 
 The extract is too expensive. 
 
 CoLLYRiuMs are washes commonly in use for the eyes. — See 
 Washes. 
 
 Conserves. — The conserve of red roses is a most convenient 
 medium for forming balls, as it is adhesive, and, when 
 properly made, keeps well. 
 
 Cordials are matters that invigorate by their stimulating 
 property, usually through the medium of the stomach. 
 Cordials have been so long the very strong hold of the 
 ignorant and presuming, that the very term sounds ill 
 in the ear of the well-informed veterinarian. The groom 
 requires a cordial, because his daily and perhaps hourly 
 habits tend to derange his stomach, which can only be 
 brought to feel appetite when re-st:mulated by the cor- 
 dials that are fast hastening him to his end. But his horse 
 indulging in no such habits, does not require a cordial ball 
 twice a week ; or on every evening after hunting ; or on 
 every morning his coat stares with the altered tempe- 
 rature : to the animal, a cordial, as being unnatural, 
 must be hurtful, unless required by some very extra- 
 ordinary exertion ; which, by calling forth too much of 
 the constitutional powers, has expended the vital re- 
 sources whence the stomach draws its tone. Thus 
 after a very hard run with hounds ; after thirty, forty, or 
 fifty miles' rapid carrying, this may happen ; and then a 
 gentle stimulant may excite the digestive sympathy arti- 
 ficially. Here a cordial may be proper and even neces- 
 sary : but a very good one can under such circumstances 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 629 
 
 be administered ; it is not a ball, but a drink, being 
 composed of an ounce each of sulphuric ether and of 
 laudanum, in a pint of cold water. It is given so soon 
 as it is thoroughly mixed. 
 
 Copper {Cuprum) yields two articles used in veterinary 
 practice. 
 
 Verdigris (^rugo). This subacetate of copper has 
 been given internally in daily doses of two or three 
 drachms, and sometimes with success ; but it does not 
 appear to merit the exclusion of other remedies. It has 
 however some power as a tonic, and, in this point of 
 view, may be properly administered. Externally, its 
 benefits are more apparent, as it proves one of the best 
 detergents and mild escharotics with which we are 
 acquainted. Mixed with honey, it forms segyptiacum, 
 and is used in ulcers of the mouth, and likewise as a 
 paste to other ulcerated parts. Mixed with tar, it forms 
 a good application for thrushes, grease, and cracks. 
 
 Blue Vitriol (Cupri sulphas). — This has been at one 
 time lauded to the skies ; at another abused to the 
 shades; and, like most of the matters thus treated, its 
 merits lie between the two. It is, unfortunately, not a 
 cure for glanders ; but it certainly does, in some cases, 
 flatter much. It has been justly observed of it, that in 
 lingering chronic cases, the result of influenza, it proves 
 a most excellent tonic ; and here often it exerts its best 
 influence, and puts a stop to the discharge. It is also a 
 good detergent application in the proportion of half an 
 ounce to a pint of water ; or when injected into sinuous 
 sores in dilution, or sprinkled dry on unhealthy surfaces, 
 as canker, &c., its action is mild but effective. 
 
 Coriander. — The seeds of the coriander are a w^arm 
 aromatic stimulant. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate {Hydrargyri oxymurias) . — See Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Cowhage. — This has been described as a valuable vermifuge 
 in doses of half a drachm to a drachm ; but it does not 
 appear to possess much medicinal activity on the horse. 
 
 Cream of Tartar {Potasses supertartras) . — See Potash. 
 
 Croton Tiglii. — In India this has long been used both as 
 a human and brute purgative, and lately it has entered 
 
630 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 into the veterinary practice of this country : the expressed 
 oil is of extraordinary power as a cathartic. In veterinarv 
 pharmacy the meal which possesses similar properties is 
 often used ; but, unfortunately, by the arts of the druggist, 
 it is often so adulterated as to deceive the expectations 
 of the practitioner. When it is pure, it may be given in 
 doses from a scruple to half a drachm, with linseed meal, 
 in the form of a ball, to shield its acrid nature. It is 
 equally, indeed somewhat more, drastic than aloes, 
 producing profuse liquid watery stools, often much 
 griping, and it occasionally takes as much time to excite 
 purgation. It is also somewhat uncertain in its action, 
 but, under a favourable operation, it is quicker than 
 aloes, although our first accounts of it denied this. It 
 may, therefore, when immediate purgation is necessary, 
 be very properly applied to ; and also in tetanus its 
 diminished bulk and great activity make it valuable. 
 Dissolved in turpentine, it forms a blister, only inferior 
 to cantharides. For cattle, Mr. Morton observes, that 
 its union with the sulphate of magnesia in doses of from 
 twenty to thirty grains is now commonly had recourse 
 to ; and that it has been found effectual in overcoming 
 obstinate constipations, as well as in those cases which 
 require the bowels to be quickly acted upon. 
 
 Demulcents are medicines that act mechanically, by sur- 
 rounding acrid matter, and thus sheathing it from hurting 
 sensitive and irritable parts. In this way oily prepara- 
 tions act ; likewise, honey, gums, mucilages, &c. Di- 
 luents, as warm fluids, mashes, &c., are also demulcents, 
 because they dilute acrimonious matter, and render it 
 less active. 
 
 Diaphoretics are supposed moderatelv to increase the 
 natural exhalations of the skin. Sudorifics are intended 
 to do it more actively, and to occasion actual sweating. 
 Vinegar will often produce a violent perspiration, but it 
 is not a salutary one ; yet the same liquid, neutralized by 
 ammoniacal salts into Alindererus's spirit, will often ex- 
 cite a favourable but mild diaphoretic effect. Antimo- 
 nials in repeated doses, assisted by diluting liquors and 
 warm clothing, will likewise commonly produce some 
 diaphoresis. Camphor, in considerable doses, will also 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 631 
 
 uniformly occasion determination to the skin. The prin- 
 cipal diaphoretic action is, however, gained from nau- 
 seants, as aloes, white hellebore, &c. 
 
 Digestives are stimulant applications that produce or in- 
 crease the tendency to suppuration : they are mostly of 
 the warm terebinthinated kind, or the gum resins. Of 
 the former, are turpentine, resin, pitch, and tar : of the 
 latter, are myrrh, aloes, balsams, &c. 
 
 Digitalis. — Foxglove, or, as the Germans have it, Jinger- 
 hut. Mr. Morton very justly forbids its use after it is 
 a twelvemonth old; and when it is considered how 
 universally it is diffused, the use of it is unpardonable 
 when its virtue has evaporated. It has been most erro- 
 neously stated to be inert in veterinary practice, except 
 in very large doses ; and even then its salutary action 
 was denied : but this opinion is losing ground. In mode- 
 rate and repeated doses it seldom fails to lessen arterial 
 action, and excite mild diaphoresis. It is, however, 
 somewhat irregular in its action, and appears to act best 
 when the constitution is already excited. In some cases 
 it commences its operations by increasing the pulse ; but 
 it almost invariably, when sufficiently continued (in 
 drachm doses every four hours), reduces the heart's 
 action, and that in a particular manner : not altogether 
 by diminishing the number of pulsations regularly, but 
 by intermissions or lapses of pulsation between the beats. 
 Thus a momentary pause is detected, and then the 
 systole and diastole follow each other in uniform tenses 
 until a new interruption. The tyro is apt to be alarmed 
 at this ; but it is the effect the established practitioner 
 expects and even wishes to produce : he has arrested the 
 impetuosity of the circulation, and in general cases has 
 cut short the disease. In all great visceral inflammations 
 this happens with the use of digitalis ; but it is in pneu- 
 monia more distinctly visible : it is, therefore, a most 
 valuable agent, but, like all active agents, requires 
 much watching : without care it may be pushed too far, 
 if, after the alteration of pulse just described, it is con- 
 tinued to be given in equal doses. To prevent this, it 
 should be diminished in strength and frequency ; in- 
 stead of emetic tartar and nitre as accompaniments, it 
 
632 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 should now be given with some tonic ; when, in turn, it 
 may give place to laudanum and sether. In this way 
 digitalis will bear an equal palm with the white hellebore, 
 and leave a horse convalescent sooner : they are, how- 
 ever, both valuable medicines in judicious hands ; but 
 we think the foxglove the safest. The infusion is made 
 by pouring a quart of boiling water on an ounce of the 
 powder. The tincture, by digesting three ounces of it 
 in a quart of spirit. Foxglove should be gathered about 
 its flowering time, and dried in the dark, which greatly 
 increases its strength. A French apothecary is said to 
 have been able to condense the active principle of digi- 
 talis, which he names digitaline. For cattle and sheep 
 also, Mr. Morton tells us, digitalis appears an excellent 
 febrifuge in combination with nitrate of potash, and the 
 potassio-tartrate of antimony. 
 
 DiscuTiENTs are remedies which dissolve impacted matter, 
 as old enlargements formed by vascular deposits or ex- 
 travasations. 
 
 Disinfectants have until lately been little more than a 
 name ; or the process of the decomposition of effluvium 
 has been expensive, troublesome, and offensive in the 
 extreme ; out we have now a means, not only of com- 
 pletely disinfecting our houses and stables, but of instan- 
 taneously removing the foetor of the most putrid 
 substances. The chloride of lime does this by the use of 
 a concentrated powder ; this is cheap, and when it is 
 mixed with ten times its quantity of water, and sprinkled 
 around objects known to carry about them, or to 
 throw off, unwholesome odours, as in malignant epi- 
 demics, glanders, &c., completely removes all the offence 
 to smell. By washing the walls, standings, racks, man- 
 gers, head-stalls, brushes, curry-combs, &c., with this 
 liquor, all risk is avoided, even where the most tainted 
 horse has been placed. The chloride of zinc, however, 
 accomplishes all this much more rapidly and more effec- 
 tively. When an unpleasant smell exists, hang cloths 
 saturated with the solution about the room. An ounce 
 of chloride of zinc is sufficient to medicate two gallons 
 of water. 
 
 Diuretics are such articles as stimulate the kidneys to a 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 633 
 
 greater separation of urine from the blood; as resin, 
 turpentine, oxymuriate of mercury, soda, nitre, &c. 
 Drinks, or Drenches, are the liquid remedies given to 
 brutes. It is not so safe to give them by means of a 
 bottle as by a horn ; for instances have occurred of the 
 neck of the bottle breaking. Mr. Bracy Clark recom- 
 mends to reverse the drinking horn, closing up the large 
 end, forming a moderate opening at the smaller end, and 
 to introduce that into the mouth. In tetanus such a 
 horn would be useful, and at all times it prevents the 
 waste of the liquid ; but in tetanus a patent syringe is a 
 better means, and the tube can be introduced into the 
 pharynx through the nostril. The usual method of giving 
 a drink is, we presume, famihar to most persons, but can- 
 not be practised without assistance. Insert the noose of a 
 halter into the mouth, and by means of a stable-fork let 
 the assistant raise the head high. The operator must 
 now mount a stool or a reversed pail, &c. &c., on the 
 off side of the horse, there steadying himself with his 
 left hand ; with the right he should introduce the horn 
 gently into the mouth, and completely over the root of 
 the tongue, when, by overturning the horn, the whole of 
 the drink will escape into the back part of the mouth -. 
 withdraw the horn often or seldom until the fluid 
 shall be swallowed. It will be prudent, however, to still 
 keep up the head some time longer, as many horses 
 obstinately retain much of it in the mouth ; and while so 
 held it is common to give the muzzle an unexpected tap, 
 which takes off the attention from the resistance, and 
 the remainder is then swallowed. Much of the success 
 of giving a drink depends on not filling the horn too full ; 
 at once introducing it thoroughly into the mouth, turning 
 the drink quickly out of it, and as quickly lowering the 
 head and withdrawing the horn. A tin bottle with a 
 strong neck is a good substitute for the common horn. 
 
 Electricity is seldom used in veterinary practice with us. 
 On the Continent, powerful machines are found at the 
 Veterinary Colleges of Alfort and Berlin for the treatment 
 of cataract, gutta serena, paralysis, &c. 
 
 Embrocations are external remedies applied by rubbing 
 them on the part with the hand, a sponge, flannel, or 
 
634 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 brush, as occasion suits. The formulee for them are very 
 numerous, and it would extend beyond our Umits to par- 
 ticularize any here. 
 
 Emetic Tartar {Antimonii tartarizatum) . — See Antimony. 
 
 Epsom Salts {MagnesicB sulphas) . — See Sulphate of Mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 EscHAROTics, known among farriers by the more familiar 
 term of caustics, are substances which destroy the texture 
 of the parts they are applied to in the degree of their 
 intensity, and therefore are often divided into erodants 
 and caustic. The mineral acids are active caustics. Sul- 
 phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is now seldom used. Nitrous 
 acid {aquafortis) may be applied by means of a camel's- 
 hair pencil to fungus on the foot. The chloride or 
 muriate of antimony, commonly called the butter of anti- 
 mony, is an escharotic or caustic in very general use in 
 veterinary practice. Applied to a raw surface it instantly 
 changes it white, destroying a thin layer of substance ; 
 hence it is a very convenient application in cankered feet, 
 as, by means of a small camel's-hair brush, it can be 
 spread over as much or as little a portion of parts as is 
 necessary. In sandcrack, when the sensitive substance 
 protrudes, it may be applied in a similar way. In obsti- 
 nate cases of grease, the buds are sometimes beneficially 
 touched with it : but in quittor, poll-evil, and other 
 sinuses, it is not so proper as some other escharotics. — 
 Nitrated silver (Argenti nitras) , or, as it is popularly called. 
 Lunar caustic, is a preparation from silver, which renders 
 it expensive : it is, however, essentially necessary to the 
 veterinarian's dispensary, from its being so completely 
 under command in its action ; not extending its effects 
 beyond the immediate part it is applied to. It proves 
 the most convenient caustic for destroying the edges of a 
 contaminated wound, when not too extensive, as the bite 
 of a rabid animal. Dissolved in five, six, or eight times 
 its own weight of water, it forms an excellent liquid 
 caustic, peculiarly useful as a dressing for the foot rot in 
 sheep, and also to touch the protruded portions in sand- 
 crack. Dissolved in twenty times its weight of water, it 
 makes a useful detergent wash for foul ulcers, and to 
 keep down too luxuriant surfaces. — Caustic potash {po- 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 635 
 
 tassa fusa), called lapis infernalis, formed into a^ solid 
 body, is also another powerful caustic, quicker in its 
 action than the lunar, and therefore more convenient for 
 extensive use ; but its ready liquefaction renders it unfit 
 for tedious operations or deep-seated parts. Made into 
 a paste with soap, it forms a useful escharotic to insert 
 into the pipes of a quittor.— Oxymuriate of mercury 
 {hydrargyri oxymurias), known by the term corrosive 
 sublimate, is a very usual caustic employed, and is, per- 
 haps, one of the best, for 'coring out' quittors. In 
 strong solution it is an excellent appUcation for grease, 
 often ^curing when every other means have failed.— The 
 nitrous oxyde of quicksilver, called red precipitate, is also 
 another preparation from mercury, and in very general 
 use as an escharotic in horse practice. Sprinkled over 
 very foul surfaces, it changes them quickly into a better 
 state ; and it acts equally beneficially on luxuriant sores, 
 by destroying fungus, for which purpose its form of a 
 powder renders it very convenient. — The sulphate of 
 copper, called blue vitriol, is a much milder escharotic 
 than most others, and much used in powder, to destroy 
 fungus. A solution, of a drachm to six ounces of 
 water, makes a detergent lotion for ulcers, as grease, &c. 
 —The sulphate of zinc, or ivhite vitriol, is also a good 
 escharotic, and forms, in a saturate solution, the remedy 
 for quittor, which it is said has been adopted by Mr. 
 Newport.— Qwic/c lime is sometimes used as an escharotic 
 substance, for sprinkling over ulcerated surfaces, as can- 
 kered feet, &c. ; for which purpose it is convenient, from 
 its property of absorbing the moisture. 
 EuPHORBiuM.— This most acrid substance is sometimes used 
 as a substitute for cantharides. It irritates extremely, 
 and therefore should never be used. See Blisters. 
 Expectorants.— These are remedies that promote the re- 
 moval of the irritating mucus formed in the bronchn 
 and trachea. The principal of these are oxymel, and 
 probably squills : nauseants likewise act in this way. 
 The critic might say that the horse does not expectorate ; 
 but his bronchial secretion can be increased, and he can 
 cough out the produce : thus this class of remedies is 
 not ^without its value in veterinary medicine. 
 
636 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Extract of Lead. — See Lead preparations. 
 
 FoxMENTATioNs are warm fluid applications to an injured 
 part, generally by means of cloths wrung out of hot 
 w^ater, and re-applied as it cools. Infusions of various 
 herbs have been employed for fomentations ; but as the 
 good effect is principally dependent on the warmth and 
 moisture, so warm water alone is sufficient. Fomenta- 
 tions allay irritation, and are useful to stimulate the 
 flagging powers in gangrene : by tending to unload the 
 vessels, they also promote resolution ; but they are sel- 
 dom used sufficiently long, and attendants are very apt, 
 when they are removed, to leave the part wet or 
 uncovered, by which more harm than good is done, as 
 the evaporation thus occasioned is a source of cold. We 
 have in some cases fomented, and had a poultice afterward 
 applied as far as we know, the practice is singular, but it 
 is beneficial. 
 
 Gentian is a useful stomachic bitter : it has now somewhat 
 given place to articles more in fashion ; but I doubt 
 much whether more effective. Mr. Youatt considers 
 gentian as a valuable animal tonic, so much so, as to 
 supersede most others. Its dose may vary by circum- 
 stances from one to five drachms ; but it should be 
 always given with ginger. It is a useful adjunct to aloes. 
 
 Ginger is perhaps the best spice in the veterinary materia 
 medica; but even this should not be wantonly used. 
 As a warm cordial, it may be occasionally given in doses 
 of two or three drachms ; and in flatulent colic, in doses 
 of four to six drachms : it will also form a valuable 
 assistant to safine and other cold remedies, given to 
 tender stomachs and bowels. For horses, for cattle, and 
 sheep, it is an excellent carminative, and should be 
 always employed when a warm stimulant is wanting. It 
 is indeed one of the most valuable cordials to invigorate 
 the stomachic and intestinal surfaces we know of. The 
 dose for cattle is from two to four drachms ; and half a 
 drachm to a drachm for sheep. 
 
 Glauber's Salt {Sod(S sulphas). 
 
 Glysters. — See Clysters. 
 
 Goulard's Extract, ) ^ t i t^ • /• 
 
 Goulard's Wash, | ^^^ ^^^^' ^^^ Preparations of. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. • 637 
 
 Grains of Paradise are warm spicy seeds ; and are given 
 by gi'ooms to promote a fine coat. In this way they 
 often do mischief; but as an addition to other stomachics, 
 when necessary, they may be still properly made use of.^ 
 Gruel is an article of no small consequence in the veteri- 
 nary materia medica, inasmuch as it is bland, mild, and 
 diluting. In making it, care should be had to its inten- 
 tion : if as a cordial or for nutriment, it ought to be 
 thick ; if as a diluent, it cannot be too thin : it should 
 likewise, when made, be perfectly clean, and free from 
 smoke. Ignorant servants are apt to think any thing 
 sufficiently clean for a brute, without being aware that 
 the most delicate female is not half so susceptible to 
 unpleasant sensations from dirt as is the horse ; and if 
 he once has gruel offered to him that has been smoked, 
 it is only by force that he will ever after take any. A 
 useful diluent is also made from bran, by pouring boiling 
 water on it, when it is called bran tea ; but it should be 
 strained when cold, particularly when offered to horses 
 in catarrh. 
 Gum Resins are compounded of gum and resin. Gum 
 ammoniacum is sometimes used in chronic cough. Gum 
 guaiacum is now employed in farcy. Gum myrrh has 
 outlived the reputation of all others ; but it is question- 
 able whether its virtue as a cordial, in the usual accepta- 
 tion or meaning of the word, is not ideal; but as a per- 
 manent tonic it ranks higher. 
 Hartshorn, Spirit of {Aqua carhonatis ammonia). See 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia. 
 Hellebore, white {Veratrum album). This active vege- 
 table is variously estimated : Mr. Percivall cherishes it 
 as a valuable sedative and active nauseant, given in doses 
 of a scruple or half a drachm, every four, six, or eight 
 hours. Mr. Youatt also praised it much for moderating 
 active internal inflammation. We also have used it with 
 very beneficial effects; but in verification of the old 
 proverb, that doctors will differ, we are told that Mr. 
 Sewell held it in slight estimation ; it has, however, crept 
 into pretty general practice. As the horse was not in- 
 tended to vomit, so it is exceedingly difficult to excite 
 nausea in him. Aloes have been used for that purpose, 
 
638 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 but they are uncertain, and in many cases cannot be 
 prudently administered, from fear of drawing the neigh- 
 bouring affections to the bowels. We are, therefore, 
 forced to trust to the powdered root of the white helle- 
 bore, which is, perhaps, the most certain nauseant with 
 which we are acquainted ; but it is only safe under very 
 watchful eyes and quick perceptions. It may be given 
 to a certain point, and nothing but moderate nausea is 
 observed : if pushed beyond this, the head droops in the 
 manger, the mouth slavers, the pulse sinks, the horse 
 reels too and fro, and purging comes on, which com- 
 monly proves a fatal symptom. It may be given in 
 doses of a scruple every six hours, which may be 
 increased to half a drachm ; but the horse must be care- 
 fully looked to, and as soon as the pulse sinks and the 
 mouth slavers, or any trembhng appears, desist from its 
 further exhibition, directly combating its debilitating 
 and sedative effects by active stimulants. Hellebore 
 lowers the system more speedily than digitalis, but digi- 
 talis more safely when there is time for its operation ; at 
 least so we have found : it is for the observant veterinarian 
 to select the proper cases for both. It ranks high also 
 with some veterinarians when used with setons by smear- 
 ing them with the powder, but black hellebore is superior. 
 
 Hellebore, black.— We understand that this root has 
 lately been employed with much success as a local appli- 
 cation in fistulous affections of the poll and withers. 
 When the tumour has burst and been allowed to dis- 
 charge two or three days, being dressed with an ordinary 
 digestive, and the discharge being of the nature termed 
 laudable ; then take a few portions of the fibrous part of 
 the root, sew in the seton passed into the sinuses, and allow^ 
 them to remain a fortnight or more. Under this treat- 
 ment Mr. Morton assures us he has observed its salutary 
 action in several cases. 
 
 Honey is an article of importance in the veterinary pharma- 
 copoeia, as it is a medium for making balls with. 
 
 Hyoscyamus (Henbane) appears to act as a sedative, with- 
 out the constipating qualities of opium. 
 
 Infusions are only different from decoctions by the article 
 employed being steeped in boihng water instead of boiled. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 G39 
 
 Iodine.— Among horses this substance has not long made 
 its appearance; but as a remedy for bronchocele it has 
 been some years employed on dogs. It is now given to 
 horses to promote a solution of the glandular swellings 
 which frequently remain after catarrh. In daily doses of 
 half a drachm to a drachm, it seems to have much re- 
 solving power, not over these only, but also over all 
 other glandular enlargements. It appears also to possess 
 tonic and alterative properties combined. It is almost 
 a specific for profuse stahng. Its purity may be tested 
 by its becoming soluble in alcohol, and by evapo- 
 rating entirely by heat. In Mr. Morton's Manual of 
 Pharmacy, several preparations of it are given, with 
 valuable notices thereon, which we recommend to con- 
 sideration. It is by some veterinarians very highly 
 thought of; we particularly allude to the iodine of potas- 
 sium, which may be administered to the horse in doses 
 from one to two drachms : to cattle it may be given m 
 the same quantities. An ointment, ung. potassi iodidi, 
 is also an active dispeller of glandular enlargements. Its 
 effects, we may add, are often slow, but seldom unavail- 
 ing. The iodide of lead is an excellent appUcation 
 rubbed upon swellings ; so also is the iodide of sulphur for 
 obstinate skin diseases. 
 Iron.— Almost all the preparations from this metal prove 
 excellent tonics to the horse. Iron filings may be given 
 in the corn or a mash, in doses of two or three ounces 
 once or twice a day. The rust, or carbonate (ferri 
 carbonas) , is another form, and proves useful when given 
 as the former, in doses of one ounce to two. _ Green 
 vitriol, or copperas, as the sulphate of iron is called 
 {ferri sulphas), is also given as a tonic, and some think 
 it a prefefiable preparation, on account of its saline 
 admixture. It is usually given in a daily dose of one 
 drachm or two drachms : it has more lately been given 
 with some success in that form of glanders which has 
 been termed " insidious." All the preparations of iron 
 appear to produce most effect when combined with 
 aromatic bitters: they should not be united with any 
 alkah, consequently ought not, in chemical strictness, to 
 
640 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 be made up with soap ; nor should any astringent vege- 
 table enter the composition with them. 
 
 Jalap, though so strong a human purgative, is totally 
 inactive in the horse. 
 
 Japan Earth. — See Catechu. 
 
 Juniper. — The essential oil is used as a warm stomachic 
 and slight diuretic ; it also can with advantage enter 
 into mange ointments. 
 
 Kali. — See Potash. 
 
 Lard. — Many practitioners are at a loss for a substitute 
 for lard, which forms the basis of most of their unctuous 
 matters. When, however, lard cannot be procured, or 
 is extravagantly dear, the fatty matter, called i)alm oil, 
 may be always obtained : as a medium for balls, it may, 
 as a vegetable oil, be supposed much less disgusting to 
 the stomach of the horse than an animal oil, as lard. 
 
 Laudanum. — A liquid preparation or tincture of opium. 
 — See Opium. 
 
 Laxatives may be denominated milder purgatives, and, as 
 acting with less irritation, are much to be preferred to 
 purgatives in inflammatory affections. In some chronic 
 cases, also, they are eligible, because they can be more 
 frequently repeated. Of this latter kind are calomel with 
 small doses of aloes. The laxatives proper in febrile 
 cases are Epsom, Glauber's, or, in default of these, 
 common salts, eight to twelve ounces, dissolved in thin 
 gruel, and repeated every six to ten hours till effect is 
 produced. In some cases, as bowel affections, from six 
 to eight or ten ounces of castor or linseed oil, w^ith a few 
 ounces of watery tincture of aloes, form the best laxative, 
 especially when guarded with half a drachm of chloro- 
 form. It must, however, be allowed, that most of these 
 articles are uncertain in their action ; hw^ their uncer- 
 tainty is by no means equal to that which it is the fashion 
 to represent. The action of laxatives is much assisted 
 by diluting drinks, bran mashes, raking, and clysters : 
 indeed, both bran mashes and clysters are of themselves 
 
 , in many cases sufficiently laxative. Grass, particularly 
 that of the salt marshes, forms an excellent laxative out 
 of the stable ; so does soiling in it. 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 641 
 
 Lead. — Several preparations of this metal enter into vete- 
 rinary practice. The principal of these is the 
 
 Lead, Acetate of {Superacetas plumhi). — This is still 
 familiarly known by the old term of sugar of lead ; origi- 
 nally so called from its sweet taste. It is of much im- 
 portance in veterinary practice, forming a more conve- 
 nient, and we think a more efficacious, mode of making 
 Goulard water, as the solution of it is popularly called ; 
 but which liquor has been usually made from a prepara- 
 tion of litharge, called extract of saturn, or Goulard's 
 extract. When this celebrated liquor is to be made from 
 the acetate, do it as follows : 
 
 Goulard luater. — Take acetate of lead, one drachm to 
 two, proof spirit an ounce, soft water a pint : when the 
 extract is preferred, it is thus made : — Liquid acetate of 
 lead {liquor plumbi acetatis) , one drachm to tw^o ; proof 
 spirit an ounce ; soft water a pint. Either of these pre- 
 parations of the acetate of lead are excellent, and justly 
 appreciated applications, in superficial inflammations ; 
 but, to produce the full effect, the part affected should 
 be kept constantly wet with one or the other of them. 
 Liternally, this preparation is inert: even four ounces 
 have been given without producing any visible effect. 
 
 Lead, Carbonate of {Plumbi carbonas). — White lead is 
 sometimes used as a desiccative, being sprinkled over a 
 sore. 
 Lime is, in some cases, when quick, a useful caustic ; and, 
 when pulverized, is found good to sprinkle over cankered 
 feet, greasy heels, or any foul surface, where an absorp- 
 tion of moisture, as well as an escharotic process are de- 
 sirable. 
 
 Lime Water. — Six pounds of lime, infused in two gal- 
 lons of water, may, after standing three or four hours, be 
 strained off, and kept in a closely stopped bottle for use, 
 without which care it will be useless. Lime water is a 
 good application for mange ; and is also sometimes recom- 
 mended internally for obstinate coughs and nephritic 
 complaints. 
 
 Chloride of Lime is a most valuable disinfectant : it 
 is used as an external appUcation to wounds having a 
 putrid tendency ; in the latter use it is inferior to the 
 
 T t 
 
642 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 chloride of soda, and more especially of zinc. In a 
 retention of the placenta, called 7Wt having cleansed, in a 
 cow, where the putridity had become so great as to pro- 
 duce larvtie or maggots ^nd intolerable foetor, there was 
 injected a wine-glass of chloride of lime, diluted with a 
 pint of warm water, into the vagina ; which itself brought 
 away, in two hours' time, several quarts of putrid matter, 
 by which the cow was greatly relieved ; but some foetor 
 returning, a second injection was passed the next day, 
 which again sweetened the cleansing, and prevented 
 further putrefaction. But as the placenta was not yet 
 ejected, two ounces of the chloride of soda was now given 
 in a pint of gruel every hour ; the consequence of which 
 was, that after the sixth dose the placenta came away, 
 much decomposed, but without foetor ; and the cow was 
 evidently saved by these means, though apparently before 
 in a dying condition. 
 
 Liniment is a fluid preparation of oil and other matters. 
 
 Linseed. — The seeds boiled form a thick mucilaginous 
 drink, used in catarrh, sore throat, and all chest affec- 
 tions. Linseed meal makes a convenient poultice, parti- 
 cularly where a close application of the poulticing medium 
 is required. 
 
 Liquid Blister. — See Blister. 
 
 Liquor Ammonia Acetatis. — See Acetated Liquor of Am- 
 monia. 
 
 Lotions. — See Washes. 
 
 Malt. — This forms an excellent cordial in cases of debility, 
 and, when continued, it becomes a permanent tonic : it 
 has also some pectoral qualities ; but in active inflamma- 
 tions of the chest it is too stimulating for use. Malt is 
 also an excellent alterative : in farcy, in grease, and in 
 mange also, when accompanied with emaciation, it has 
 been used with extreme efficacy : but, in such cases, it 
 should be given in considerable quantities without other 
 corn, and even with as little hay as possible, so that 
 almost all the nutriment received by the constitution may 
 be malt. This practice is not generally known, but it has 
 proved, in some cases, singularly efficacious : the best 
 mode of giving malt is by mashes. — See Mashes. 
 
 Mashes are much in request in stable management, and are 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 643 
 
 made fi'om oats, barley, bran, malt, linseed, and some- 
 times chaff: they are also given cold or warm; but, in 
 either case, should always be made hot. In making 
 them, care is necessary to avoid smoking the water, and 
 not to stir them with any thing dirty, or the horse will 
 refuse them. The mode of mashing is sufficiently known : 
 boiling water is poured on the bran, corn, or whatever 
 is the subject of the mash, sufficient to render it of the 
 consistence of a poultice ; it should be covered over, and 
 suffered to remain an hour or two, unless it is to be used 
 hot to steam the head, as in catarrh ; but even here it 
 should not be hung round the neck immediately, or it 
 would alarm the horse. Some horses will not readily eat 
 bran mashes without a handful of corn to make it pala- 
 table : when horses are weakly and much emaciated, it is 
 prudent often to mash all their corn. The quantity in- 
 tended for them the ensuing day may be put into a vessel 
 the over-night, and boiling water poured on it : in this 
 way it is rendered more easy of digestion, and hence 
 more nutritive. Speared corn has been sometimes recom- 
 mended ; which is nothing more than malting a quantity, 
 by soaking it in cold water for twenty-four hours, and 
 then spreading it two inches thick on a floor ; this will 
 make it soon sprout, when it may be given. In this way, 
 it must be made from day to day, or it will become musty 
 or mouldy. 
 Mercury (Hydrargyrus) , or Quicksilver. — This singular 
 mineral yields us some of our most active medicinal 
 agents. 
 
 Corrosive mercury {Hydrargyrus oxymurias), popularly 
 called corrosive sublimate, forms an excellent medical 
 agent in judicious hands. As an alterative, it may be 
 given in doses of ten to twenty grains daily : in glanders 
 and farcy this quantity may be gradually increased to as 
 much as the horse will bear without inconvenience ; but 
 as its noxious effects are often sudden, so it must be 
 most carefully watched. Externally, also, its effects are 
 considerable. As a caustic, it has already been noticed 
 among Escharotics. It formed a discarded wash for mange ; 
 and was often employed as an auxiliary to the stimulant 
 properties of blisters, when used for exostosis. It appears 
 
 T t 2 
 
644 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 to have a very peculiar effect on cattle : received by the 
 stomach, a considerable quantity may be given with im- 
 punity : but sprinkled on a wound, comparatively a small 
 quantity destroys. 
 
 Red precipitated mercury [Hydrargyri oxydum ruhrum) , 
 or red precipitate, is a useful, active, and convenient 
 caustic, by the ease with which it may be sprinkled over 
 sores. (See Escharotics.) 
 
 Black sulphuret of mercury {Hydrargyri sulphur etum 
 nigrum) , or jEthiops Mineral, is less frequently given in 
 horse practice than it deserves. There is too much 
 fashion in our pharmacy, and too little experiment. In 
 all skin affections we have found this a valuable alterative, 
 and also vermifuge, in daily doses of two or three 
 drachms. 
 
 Mint and Peppermint. — See Oils. 
 
 Muriate of Antimony. — See Antimony. 
 
 Muriate of Barytes. — See Barytes. 
 
 Muriate of Soda, or Common Salt. — See Salts. 
 
 Myrrh. — This excellent gum resin is a valuable tonic to 
 the horse, in doses of an ounce, particularly if united with 
 a salt of iron, and any warm bitter. There are two tinc- 
 tures of it ; one simple, and one compounded with aloes : 
 both of which are much used externally, as warm diges- 
 tives, in wounds and sinuous sores, and the application 
 is frequently attended with striking benefit : the aloetic 
 tincture is by much the most stimulant. To cattle also 
 it proves a stimulating tonic and valuable antiseptic in 
 doses from one ounce to two ounces. 
 
 Naphtha. — See Tar. 
 
 Narcotics. — In the present instance, it is not necessary to 
 separate the consideration of these from what lessens 
 irritation and eases pain. — See Antispasmodics and 
 Anodynes. 
 
 Natron. — See Soda. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver {Argenti nitras). This is popularly 
 called lunar caustic, and is in veterinary practice a valu- 
 able external application. — See Escharotics. 
 
 Nitre [PotasscB nitras) is a very general mineral product, 
 and is as useful as it is general : it is compounded of 
 nitric acid, and vegetable alkali, whence its chemical 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 645 
 
 name nitrate of potash. It is the most useful, powerful 
 refrigerant : it greatly diminishes febrile action, and 
 determines its depleting action more certainly to the 
 kidneys than any of the saline articles we use. It is also 
 antiseptic and diaphoretic, and therefore of great con- 
 sequence in active fever, given two or three times a day, 
 in doses of three or four drachms. As an alterative it 
 is also well known ; but it is not a good plan, as practised 
 by some grooms, to infuse it into the water which horses 
 are to drink ; it is apt to disgust them with all liquids. 
 Nitre is sometimes used as a cooling lotion for inflam- 
 matory swellings arising from sprains. 
 
 Nitre, Sweet SjArit of {Spiritus cBtheris nitrici). — This 
 is a valuable preparation of nitre, inasmuch as it is a 
 refrigerant, and yet, in some measure, a cordial, from its 
 rethereal composition ; therefore it is a useful medicine 
 in the more advanced stages of fever, in doses of four 
 ounces two or three times a day. It is also a useful 
 article to give in the immediate approach of the first 
 cold tit of fever, in a dose of two ounces. 
 
 Nitrous Acid {Acidum nitrosum dilutum), or aquafortis, — 
 See Caustics. 
 
 Oak Bark. — See Barks. 
 
 Oils. — These are either fixed or volatile. The fixed oils 
 are so called because they are not liable to be changed 
 into vapour under any high degree of temperature, and 
 are also generally gained in quantities by expression. 
 The volatile oils, on the contrary, are produced by distil- 
 lation, and evaporate by a moderate heat. The fixed 
 kind, in horse practice, are, — 
 
 Oil of Bay, an expressed oil from bay berries : now 
 obsolete, except in the recipes of the country smith. 
 
 Oil of Castor. — See Castor Oil. — In very large doses 
 this occasions some disturbance in the bowels, and does 
 not often operate as a laxative ; but in doses of eight or 
 ten ounces, repeated every five or six hours, it proves 
 frequently an excellent laxative w4ien more drastic matters 
 are inadmissible. It is apt to be decried, and numerous 
 experiments are detailed to prove that it is noxious as 
 well as inert ; but hardly any two experiments agree. 
 
646 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Mr. Blaine had given it for years, without experiencing 
 any ill eftect, but often the best, from its use. It is true, 
 it can never gain a character as a certain aperient ; it is, 
 on the contrary, an uncertain one, unless joined with a 
 watery tincture of aloes, or with neutral salts, when the 
 mixture seldom fails, if mashes have been in use : alone, 
 it must be owned, it is not always certain as a purgative, 
 but in quantities that produce much irritation. It is 
 most safe when guarded by Chloroform. 
 
 Oil of Olives. — The best olive oil may be substituted 
 for castor oil, when the latter cannot be obtained. It is 
 the principal medium in the composition of liniments, 
 and enters into many ointments. 
 
 Oil of Linseed. — It is a pretty certain laxative, and is 
 more to be depended on than olive oil ; and in many in- 
 stances more than castor oil. 
 
 Oil of Palm. — This has the consistence of lard ; with 
 the addition of a fragrant smell. As it does not become 
 rancid, it is greatly to be preferred : it must also be less 
 noxious to the stomach of the horse than the animal oils. 
 It is the produce of the kernels of the fruit of the Cocos 
 Butyracea, or Mackaw tree, or Brazilian palm. 
 
 The essential or volatile oils are, — 
 
 Oil of Amber. — An antispasmodic not much in use. 
 It is said to have a pecuhar property of hastening the 
 action of aloes. 
 
 Oil of Anise Seeds. — This is an excellent warm aro- 
 matic, and may very properly be added to cordial balls. 
 
 0*7 of Caraways may be used in the same way, and 
 considered in a similar point of view. 
 
 Oil of Jumper. — This is often added to diuretic balls, 
 to increase their effect : it acts, however, principally, as 
 a warm aromatic. It is now mingled with mange appli- 
 cations. 
 
 Oil of Tar is a cheap penetrating distillation from tar. 
 It may be employed in mixture with whale oil, as a 
 suppling matter for the hoofs. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. — See Turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Origanum. — This warm penetrating oil was 
 formerly much used as an external stimulant; but it 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 647 
 
 possesses no powers superior to turpentine, and is there- 
 fore little used by modern practitioners. 
 Oil of Vitriol. — See Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Ointments are greasy applications for covering excoriated 
 surfaces. The numerous preparations of this kind are 
 much reduced in number. 
 
 Opium. — We believe it has been attempted to prove that 
 this valuable antispasmodic is nearly inert in the 
 horse, and it is true that it requires a large dose to 
 exert a narcotic efiect ; on the contrary, its action is 
 rather that of a stimulant when the system is already 
 excited ; it therefore is injurious in direct increased 
 vascular action ; but in indirect vascular action, the con- 
 sequence of some great irritation, it then exerts its 
 sedative properties. In enteritis of the horse, never- 
 theless, after blood has been abstracted, it has had a most 
 salutary effect. Its advantages also are apparent in teta- 
 nus, where its benefits are sometimes most striking : in 
 spasmodic colic its powers are particularly observable after 
 very enormous doses ; in which cases, also, it may be 
 given in clysters as well. It greatly assists the action of 
 astringents' in diarrhoea ; and, in profuse staling, united 
 with alum and catechu, it has proved singularly effica- 
 cious ; as also in difficult staling, not dependent upon 
 spasm of the neck of the bladder. In farcy and 
 skin complaints, it combats the ill effects of too large 
 doses of active minerals. It increases the pulse, in 
 repeated doses of one to two drachms every six hours ; 
 hence it is an useful auxiliary remedy in the debile stages 
 of irritative fever. 
 
 Laudanum is the tincture of opium, and is a most 
 effective preparation. It must, however, be given to 
 the horse in doses of one ounce, and even larger, accord- 
 ing to the necessity of the case. 
 Oxymel, Simple.— This is made by simmering a pint of 
 vinegar with two pounds of honey. Sugar is sometimes 
 substituted, but this is never advisable, as it destroys a 
 considerable portion of the efficacy of the compound. 
 Oxymel, properly made, will be found a valuable remedy 
 in pneumonia, and all catarrhal affections ; particularly 
 in conjunction with nitre, tartar emetic, and foxglove ; 
 the dose from four to six ounces. 
 
648 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Palm Oil.- — See Oils. 
 
 Peppers. — The various kinds of peppers are sometimes 
 used, particularly in colic. Mr. B. Clark has written a 
 treatise expressly on the virtue of the pimento berry. 
 As a domestic remedy, any of them may be very 
 properly given in doses of three drachms to six ; except 
 the Cayenne, which, as being very strong, admits of only 
 a drachm as a dose : the peppers are sometimes used as 
 stomachics, or to w-arm other more permanent tonics, 
 like steel, bitters, &c. 
 
 Physic. — See Cathartics, 
 
 Pitch is used to give a consistence and adhesiveness to 
 plaisters and ointments, and is also the basis of charges. 
 It has a strong medicinal quality as its relationship 
 with terebinthinated substances convinces. 
 
 Potash {Potassa) has been commonly called the vegetable 
 alkali, to distinguish it from soda, or the mineral alkali. 
 Potash in its pure state is a potent caustic, and enters as 
 a base into the composition of salts. The nitrate and the 
 supertartrate have potash as their foundation : the former 
 has been noticed as nitre ; the other is popularly called, 
 cream of tartar. 
 
 Supertartrate of Potash (Potassse supertartras, cream 
 of tartar). — This is not a very active medicament in horse 
 practice, but is however slightly febrifuge, and mildly 
 diuretic : it has some alterative powers, and unites with 
 those medicines wdiich are generally employed when 
 horses are labouring under cutaneous affections. 
 
 Poultices. — In veterinary practice, bread would be too ex- 
 pensive an article to make poultices of in common cases. 
 Bran, therefore, is very commonly used ; and, to give it 
 a proper consistence, some linseed meal, if thought ne- 
 cessary, may be mixed with it ; or, in default of this, a 
 little of any other meal. A poultice should be made of 
 a sufficient consistence, that it may not run through the 
 cloth it is put in ; and yet it should not be so thick as to 
 dry too quickly, for a poultice acts principally by its 
 moisture ; therefore it should be frequently wetted through 
 the cloth. In applying poultices to the legs, care should 
 be taken not to tie them too tight, as is frequently done, 
 and thereby the mischief is aggravated instead of reHeved : 
 a piece of broad list is, for this reason, very proper to 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 649 
 
 fasten them on with. A poultice should never be applied 
 too hot ; very little good can be derived from it, and 
 much pain may be occasioned. A hot poultice soon 
 sinks to the heat of the part. Poultices are likewise, in 
 many cases, applied cold. A very convenient mode of 
 applying a poultice to the extremities is by means of an 
 old stocking cut off at the ancle. The leg of it being 
 slipped over the hoof, is brought around the part, and se- 
 cured below by means of broad list. The poultice is then 
 put into the stocking by means of the hand, and afterwards 
 secured above by another piece of broad Hst. In cases 
 where it is found difficult to keep a poultice on any part 
 of the extremities, from its inclination to slip down, still 
 by no means tighten the supporting bandage ; but, instead, 
 pass a long tape from it over the withers if in front, or 
 back if behind, and attach it to the other side of 
 the bandage ; it will then be effectually secured from 
 slipping. 
 
 A common softening Poultice. 
 Bran, any quantity; pour on it boiling water, to form a thick paste; add linseed 
 meal sufficient 'to m:.ke it adhesive. After this, stir in one or two ounces ot 
 sweet oil. 
 
 A cooling Poultice, 
 Bran, any quantity ; pour on it a sufficient quantity of cold water to form a 
 poultice ; and, as it dries, moisten with more water. 
 
 Cleansing Poultices in general use for Grease, or ichorous Discharges, or for gangrenous 
 
 Wounds. 
 
 Oatmeal half ^ pint- 
 
 Linseed meal I'all a pmt. 
 
 Powdered charcoal four ounces. 
 
 Stale beer and bran grounds sufficient to make a 
 
 poultice. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Carrots, scraped sufficient to make a 
 
 poultice. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Turnips, boiled and mashed sufficient to make a 
 
 poultice. 
 
 To either of these last two four ounces of charcoal may 
 be added, if thought proper. Or, 
 
 Linseed meal, or oatmeal, any quantity; mix with boiling water, and ferment with 
 a table-spoonful of yeast : as it rises, apply to the part. 
 
 Powders. — Pulverized medicines, without much taste, may 
 be conveniently given by mixing with a mash, or in the 
 
650 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 corn. If in the latter, and the matters given are very- 
 dry and hght, the corn should be first sprinkled with 
 water, to prevent the powder being blown away by the 
 breath of the horse or the snorting of the animal. But 
 whenever a horse is delicate in his stomach, and refuses 
 his food on this account, the attempt to give them thus 
 should not be persisted in. 
 
 Purges. — See Cathartics. 
 
 Quassia, a useful bitter in doses of six to ten drachms. 
 
 QuiNA, often called quinine, is a disulphate of quina ; and, 
 as far as our own experience goes, is a very valuable 
 brute as well as human tonic in doses of from one drachm 
 to two drachms, and is more particularly so if conjoined 
 with camphor. We need not say that its costliness pre- 
 vents its use save in particular cases. 
 
 Raking is a method of emptying the bowels by means of 
 the hand. The right-hand arm being stripped and oiled, 
 with the left hand the tail is drawn aside, wdien the right 
 being made as small as possible, should be gently intro- 
 duced up the fundament, and any hardened excrement 
 the hand meets with carefully removed. From this it 
 will be at once evident that back-raking must be useful 
 in a vast variety of cases. It should always be made use 
 of previously to giving a clyster, otherwise the hardened 
 matter may cause the rejection of the fluid. It is also 
 always proper in colic ; and in all cases of costiveness it 
 should never be dispensed with. 
 
 Red Precipitate. — See Mercury. 
 
 Repellents. — Medicines whose action was supposed to 
 consist in driving back humours from one part to 
 another. Modern physiology allows no such power ; 
 and it appears, from the theories now received, that all 
 repellents, as they were termed, act simply by their tonic 
 force. 
 
 Resin, or Rosin, is either yellow or black. The yellow is 
 the one used in veterinary practice ; internally, as a 
 diuretic ; and externally, in charges, plaisters, &c. 
 
 Salts : — 
 
 Common Salt. — This is a useful remedy in veterinary 
 practice ; for when Epsom or Glauber's salt cannot be 
 conveniently got at, this may be substituted as an ape- 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 651 
 
 rient. It also proves itself a vermifuge, and in solution 
 assists the effects of opening clysters. It may be given 
 in doses of from six to eight ounces. The chloride of 
 sodium or common salt is an invaluable tonic and altera- 
 tive, and is so palatable that it induces the animals 
 before whom it is placed to eat it with avidity. It 
 increases the digestive powers ; and we believe it to be a 
 vermifuge also. As a remedy for the rot in sheep, Mr. 
 Youatt bears evidence of its excellence. 
 
 Salt, Epsom (Magnesia sulphas). — See Sulphate of 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Salt of Steel. — See Iron. 
 Salt of Tartar. — See Potash. 
 
 Savin. — It is efficacious against warts. 
 
 Sedatives. — These form a class of valuable remedies cal- 
 culated to diminish the irritability of the system, either 
 by acting on the immediate part or on the whole senso- 
 rium. In some cases they may be supposed to act by 
 enabling the system to resist irritating impressions ; in 
 others they lower the animal powers by a narcotic or 
 soporific effect. In the horse we have no remedies that 
 are decided soporifics ; but we have such as lessen irrita- 
 tion and check spasmodic action (see Antispasmodics) . 
 Opium, hyoscyamus, digitalis, cicuta, belladonna, cam- 
 phor, nauseants, and the cold bath, are sedatives adopted 
 in different stages succeeding upon injuries or fever. 
 Some irritative states are best combated by tonics, as 
 the mineral acids, &c. 
 
 Silver furnishes us with a nitrate known as the lunar 
 caustic, whose properties as an escharotic are detailed 
 under that head. 
 
 Soda is the mineral alkali, the medicinal properties of which 
 do not differ materially from potash, or the vegetable 
 alkali. 
 
 Chloride of Soda is a detergent, and a disinfectant. 
 As an application for malignant and spreading ulcers it 
 possesses very great efficacy. It forms also a good 
 stimulating injection for poll-evil and fistulous withers ; 
 and in grease it may be often advantageously employed. 
 
 Spanish Flies. — See Cantharides. 
 
652 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Spurred Rye, or Secale Cornutum, or Ergot of Rye, acts as 
 a uterine excitant. It should be kept in well-stoppered 
 bottles, and even then it must not be kept too long. It 
 acts in doses of two to four drachms ; but it should 
 not be given until the regular forcings of the womb have 
 proved ineffective. It has been administered to the 
 foaling mare with effect, but it a})pears to exert its 
 powers most successfully in cows and sheep. The secale 
 is certainly an emmenagogue of great power, yet it should 
 be employed only when other means have failed. 
 
 Squills {Scilla Maritima). — Squills are highly recom- 
 mended by Mr. White. By their stimulating properties 
 they may assist the bronchial secretions in a slight 
 degree ; but in cases of emergency they ought not to 
 supersede more active agents. 
 
 Starch. — In diarrhoea, starch clysters have proved very 
 useful. Starch may also in such cases be given internally, 
 united with chalk and opium. 
 
 Stimulants. — The veterinarian is doomed to hear the word 
 cordials so often, that he will gladly recognize all proper 
 matters under this head in preference to the former 
 much abused one. Stimulants are medicines that exert 
 an influence on the system by increasing the power and 
 action of a part ; hence they may be considered as very 
 numerous, and the term as of very extensive signification. 
 Local stimuli are all such matters as either promote the 
 vascular, the nervous, or the absorbing energies ; as 
 friction, rubefacients, blisters, &c. General stimuli act 
 on the sensorium at once, through the medium of the 
 senses : the voice of the hounds stimulates the horse ; 
 the exertions of a fellow will likewise stimulate ; and 
 the stallion's fire is drawn forth by the scent of the 
 mare. Absorbing stimulants are heat, cold, friction, de- 
 pletion, mercury, &c. 
 
 Stomachic stimulants. — Such may be called cordials, as 
 are intended to have a temporary effect on the stomach ; 
 and those may be noted as stomachics whose action is 
 more permanent. Both the one and the other appear to 
 act by a sympathetic effect they excite between the sto- 
 mach and the brain : warm spicy matters possess some 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 653 
 
 efficacy; but, as might be supposed, such cordials (i.e. 
 stomachics) appear to act best when they are received 
 into the system at large, as generous food, malt, gruel, 
 ale, &c. 
 
 No. 1. — Gentian, powdered eight ounces. 
 
 Ginger, powdered four ounces. 
 
 Oil of anise seed half an ounce. 
 
 Make into a mass with lard, honey, treacle, or conserve 
 of roses, and give one ounce for a dose. 
 
 No. 2. — Of the preceding mass one ounce. 
 
 Gum myrrh one drachm. 
 
 Balsam of Tolu one drachm. 
 
 No. 3. — Of the first mass one ounce. 
 
 Camphor one drachm. 
 
 Opium one drachm. 
 
 Either of these may be given as a drink also, by infusing 
 the powders in a pint of ale. 
 
 As stimulants, Mr. Vines, in his Treatise on Glanders, 
 enumerates the following articles : — Cantharides, canella 
 bark {canellcB cortex), capsicum berries {capsici hacca), 
 cubebs or Java pepper {cubeha), ginger root {zingiberis 
 radix), grains of paradise (grana paradisi), pellitory of 
 Spain {pyrethri radix) ; all the different sorts of peppers, 
 as the common, black, Cayenne, Chili, long, and white ; 
 pimento or allspice {pimentcB haccce), sweet flag-root 
 {calami aromat. radix). Winter's bark {Wiritera cortex). 
 
 More permanent stomachic stimulants are such as act 
 not only by determining a greater quantity of blood to 
 the stomach, but also by strengthening the muscular tone 
 of that organ, enabling it to act with more energy in 
 its digestive movements. The following formulce are in- 
 serted, and are proper in cases of convalescence, or re- 
 covery from debilitating diseases which have impaired 
 the appetite : — 
 
 Powdered canella alba four drachms. 
 
 Ginger one drachm. 
 
 Sulpliate of copper {blue vitriol) one drachm. 
 
 Make into a ball with conserve of roses. 
 
 Decoction of chamomile three pints. 
 
 Watery tincture of aloes one ounce. 
 
 Ginger, in powder half an ounce. 
 
 Sulphate of iron {<jreen vitriol) half an ounce. 
 
 Mix, and divide into four drinks. 
 
654 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Gum myrrh two drachms. 
 
 Mustard fl(jur one drachm. 
 
 Cantharides five grains. 
 
 Gentian powder four drachms. 
 
 Make into a ball with thin Venice turpentine. 
 
 Powdered gentian three drachms. 
 
 Powdered quassia three drachms. 
 
 Powdered grains of paradise three drachms. 
 
 Make into a ball with Venice turpentine. 
 
 Tonic stimulants are supposed to exert their influence 
 on the muscular fibre, and to improve its tone : this 
 they do, in some instances, through the medium of the 
 stomach, and are then called stomachics ; or they are 
 received into the blood. Tonics are, therefore, stimu- 
 lants of permanent action ; from which we may learn 
 that this class is numerous, and is, in fact, diffused 
 through the whole materia medica. A complete know- 
 ledge of their number and effect can only be gained by 
 an intimate acquaintance with the animal economy, and 
 the nature of the various agents employed in acting upon 
 it. Either of the subjoined may be given daily : — 
 
 Gum myrrh two drachms. 
 
 Sulphate of ii"on (ijree.n vitriol) two drachms. 
 
 Gentian powder three drachms. 
 
 Ginger powder one drachm. 
 
 Mix into a ball with turpentine or palm oil ; or into a 
 drink with a pint of mild ale. 
 
 Arsenic four grains. 
 
 Gentian, powdered three drachms. 
 
 Cascarilla, powdered three drachms. 
 
 Mix into a ball with conserve of roses ; or, like the 
 above, into a drink. 
 
 Gum myrrh three drachms. 
 
 Powdered gentian three drachms. 
 
 Carbonate of iron two drachms. . 
 
 Make into a ball. 
 
 As tonics, Mr. Vines also enumerates Angustura bark 
 [CusparicB cortex), Buckbean [Menyanthes trifoliata), 
 Cascarilla bark {CascarillcB cortex), Chamomile flowers 
 {Anthernides Jiores) , Geni'mn root {G enti an fs radix) , Quas- 
 sia wood ( Quassias lignum) . 
 Stoppings are articles introduced into the hollow at the 
 bottom of the hoof to moisten the horn ; and in other 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 655 
 
 instances also, as in cases of corns, or bruised soles. For 
 the first purpose, any thing that will retain moisture 
 may be used ; the following will be found as good as any, 
 as it not only moistens but renders the horn tough : — 
 
 Linseed meal four parts. 
 
 Tar one part. 
 
 This may be taken out of the foot, and re-applied ; thus 
 sufficient to stop the foot once, is made to serve several 
 times. 
 
 Clay is not a good stopping. It dries too soon, and 
 then rather adds to the evil of hardening the hoof than 
 diminishing it. In cases of pricks, &c., tar is not im- 
 properly used as a stopping. Pieces of tow are dipped 
 into it, and are then retained by means of tough strips 
 of wood, as withy from the broom-binding, which may 
 be laid across. Oil of turpentine one part, horse turpen- 
 tine one part, and grease a third part, make also a good 
 stopping for similar purposes. Sole pads are now in- 
 vented of thick felting, which, being passed within the 
 shoe, and then wetted, swell, so as to be permanently 
 retained, and yield moisture. 
 
 Storax. — See Balsams. 
 
 Styptics are remedies that restrain haemorrhage, either in- 
 ternally or externally. Those used in the first case, are 
 acetate of lead, sulphate of zinc, alum, and catechu ; in 
 the last, pressure, division of the vessel, cold, hot iron, 
 cobwebs, down, galls, or any substance that has a coagu- 
 lable property. 
 
 Sublimate. — See Mercury. 
 
 Sudorifics. — These are uncertain remedies in the horse. 
 We can procure a slight relaxation of skin by diluents, 
 warmth, and diaphoretic medicines ; but actual perspira- 
 tion we can seldom excite, except by violent nauseants. 
 Vinegar, however, in frequently repeated doses of six 
 ounces, will generally produce it ; but it appears to excite 
 much action in the system, and hence is not to be recom- 
 mended. Increased clothing will generally produce it; 
 but by exciting increased action, it may do more harm 
 than good. In common cases, it will be therefore pru- 
 dent to content ourselves with diluents, antimonials, and 
 
656 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 acetated liquor of ammonia : in important ones we may- 
 use nauseants. 
 
 SuLFHUR. — Flour of sulphur is a very common remedy in 
 veterinary practice ; internally as an alterative, and exter- 
 nally as a cure of eruptions of the skin : for the latter 
 purpose, the black sulphur, which is cheaper, should 
 never be used, as it is apt to contain arsenic. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, or Oil of Vitriol {Acidiun sulphuricuni) , is 
 seldom used in horse practice but as an escharotic, or in 
 a diluted state as a lotion. 
 
 Sulphur, Balsam of {Oleum sulphur eium) . — Brimstone, 
 boiled in oil, was used formerly in old coughs and thick 
 wind ; but, as may be supposed, with little advantage. 
 Anisated balsam of sulphur was made by adding oil of 
 aniseed to the former. 
 
 Sulphate of Copper {Cupri sulphas). — See Copper. 
 
 SuLPHURET of Quicksilver {Sulphuretum hydrargyri ni- 
 grum), or ^thiop's mineral. — See Mercury. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia {Magnesifs sulphas), Epsom Salts, 
 is a valuable medicine oftentimes to the veterinarian. In 
 cases requiring a loose state of bowels, but where aloes 
 are inadmissible, as in inflammatory affections, this salt 
 is often a resource : in fevers it appears to have a double 
 effect ; one as a febrifuge, the other as an aperient. It 
 requires from six or eight ounces to twelve, dissolved in 
 water or gruel, to open the bowels ; and sometimes it is 
 necessary to repeat the dose before the effect is produced. 
 It cannot, therefore, be considered altogether as a certain 
 laxative ; but when combined it seldom fails, particularly 
 if assisted by bran mashes. In opening clysters, also, it 
 may be very properly added. 
 
 Supertartrate of Potash (Potassce supertartras) , or 
 Cream of Tartar. — See Potash. 
 
 Tar is a very useful article to the veterinarian. Equal 
 parts of tar and fish oil make an excellent application for 
 the hoofs of horses, applied daily with a brush. Tar is 
 also an excellent stopping for the bottom of the feet, in 
 the proportion described under Stoppings : it is, also, 
 either alone, or mixed with oil of turpentine, often used 
 with advantage as a salve in pricks and bruises of 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 657 
 
 the sole. Tar has also been given inwardly in balls for 
 coughs. 
 
 Tar, Barhadoes. — This is the more cleanly preparation 
 to be employed as an internal remedy, and is often given 
 for coughs. Mr. Hart has attempted to sanction the use 
 of it, under the name of Green Naphtha, as an internal 
 remedy in all chronic chest affections. 
 
 Tannin is prepared from oakgalls ; when concentrated with 
 galhc acid, it then effectually becomes a powerful astrin- 
 gent. 
 
 Tartarized Antimony (Antimonii tartarizatum) . — See An- 
 timony. 
 
 Tents are substances introduced into wounds, to prevent 
 their too early closing. In deep lesions having a narrow 
 outlet, or when any foreign body remains to be expelled, 
 they may be very properly employed ; and any soft sub- 
 stance, as lint or tow, may be introduced for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Tin. — This is used as a vermifuge for horses. It has, how- 
 ever, but moderate efficacy, and, when given, it should 
 be always in fine filings, and not levigated, as there is 
 reason to believe its action is purely mechanical ; in 
 which case, tin must be preferable to pewter filings, as 
 being harder ; but the last are generally substituted. Dose, 
 three ounces daily. 
 
 Tinctures are solutions of vegetable or other matter in spi- 
 rituous liquors, of various strengths and of different kinds. 
 When any of the resinous gums are to be dissolved, pure 
 spirit of wine should be used. When the roots, bark, 
 leaves, &c. of plants are to be made into tinctures, dilute 
 or proof spirit is sufficient. Most of the tinctures of the 
 human pharmacopoeia may occasionally be employed in 
 veterinary practice, but, for the above reasons, this will 
 never be a very useful formula. The principal ones in 
 use are tincture of aloes ; compound tincture of ben- 
 jamin ; tincture of myrrh ; and tincture of Spanish flies ; 
 all of which are occasionally used. Internally, also, all 
 of them are stomachics and tonics. Tincture of catechu 
 likewise may sometimes be useful in astringent drinks. 
 The tincture of opium also would be of use. Foxglove, 
 
 u u 
 
658 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 
 
 as being a powerful remedy, may likewise be often given 
 in tincture ; so also would many others. 
 
 Tobacco. — This is a very powerful narcotic. An instance 
 is mentioned by Mr. White, of two ounces having been 
 given by an ignorant groom to produce a tine coat, which 
 occasioned almost immediate death. But this very 
 activity, when we are better acquainted with its mode of 
 action, may be made subservient to important medicinal 
 purposes. 
 
 Tonics are remedies so called from a supposed property of 
 giving tone to the living fibre ; by which they increase the 
 action of the heart and arteries throus-h the medium of 
 the stomach principally. — See Stimulants. 
 
 Turner's Cerate.- — See Cerates. 
 
 Turpentine forms an article of very considerable importance 
 in veterinary medicine. There is no great difference 
 between the Venice and the common, which are the kinds 
 principally used in our practice. The oil is the essential 
 principle : the Venice turpentine is less potent, and owes 
 its slight activity to the little oil which it contains. 
 
 Turpentine, Oil of. — This terebinthinated preparation 
 is far more in use than the Venice turpentine. Inter- 
 nally, in doses of two to four ounces, it forms an anti- 
 spasmodic in flatulent colic, and half the quantity in daily 
 doses is a vermifuge ; in both chronic and acute indiges- 
 tion it is also serviceable. Externally, its use is still 
 more frequent : it is a ready and never-failing stimulant ; 
 and more dilute, it forms an application for old strains 
 and bruises. 
 
 Unguents. — Synonymous with ointments ; which see. 
 
 Verdigris (JErugo). — See Acetate of Copper. 
 
 Verjuice is only an apple vinegar, and hence applicable 
 to similar purposes with acetic acid. 
 
 Vermifuges are such substances as remove worms from 
 the body. Tin or pewter, iron filed fine, but not levi- 
 gated, or powdered glass, two or three ounces of either 
 are in general use. Common salt, six to eight ounces ; 
 oil of turpentine, two to three ounces ; savin, one to two 
 ounces ; cowhage, half a drachm ; calomel, a scruple ; 
 arsenic, ten grains ; aloes, till they purge ; tartar emetic 
 
VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 659 
 
 in drachm doses for six mornings, and then a purging 
 ball ; all these are, or have been, thought to be excellent 
 vermifuges, but the last is now most confided in. Worm 
 medicines should be given fasting. — See Worms, in the 
 Diseases. 
 
 Vesicatories, blistering articles. — See Blisters. 
 
 Vitriol, white {Sulphas zinci). — White vitriol, or sulphate 
 of zinc, is an excellent styptic and astringent : applied 
 externally : Mr. Morton speaks of it in solution, as 
 very useful in reducing the swellings of horses' legs, 
 gorged by over exertion. But instead of the common 
 linen or woollen bandages usually employed, Mr. M. 
 recommends those made of chamois leather, which not 
 only retain the moisture, but by their elasticity give a 
 continued compression to the relaxed or gorged limb. 
 In ophthalmia it forms the best wash for the middle and 
 latter stages. It is also a good detergent in grease and 
 other ill-conditioned sores. 
 
 Vitriolated Copper. — See Blue Vitriol. 
 Vitriolated Iron. — See Green Vitriol. 
 Vitriol, Oil of. — See Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Vingegar, Dilute Acetic Acid {Acetum). — The acetous 
 acid is very frequently used in veterinary practice ; it is 
 of the utmost consequence, therefore, that it should be 
 pure. It is, however, unfortunately, very liable to be 
 adulterated with, or wholly made of, sulphuric acid, and 
 then becomes very unfit for use as an internal remedy, 
 being changed into an active stimulant instead of a refri- 
 gerant. Vinegar, not neutralized by salt or sugar, is 
 capable of proving very noxious to the horse. We have 
 instances on record of a pint of strong vinegar destroying 
 life ; but, neutralized with carbonate of ammonia, it forms 
 a most excellent febrifuge, under the old name of Min- 
 dererus's Spirit. Neutralized with sugar or honey, it 
 forms a valuable expectorant called oxymel. As an ex- 
 ternal application, the acetous acid is likewise no less 
 useful. In strains, bruises, and other local injuries, it is 
 the base of the best remedies, either in combination with 
 acetate of lead when active inflammation exists, or mixed 
 with crude sal ammoniac, or the bay salt, to counteract 
 the effects of distention. 
 
 u u 2 
 
660 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 Vinegar, distilled. — This preparation is nothing more 
 than the common vinegar deprived of its water and fecu- 
 lent parts. 
 
 Washes are watery solutions, or infusions, of various sub- 
 stances, to be washed over the parts to which they are to 
 be apphed. 
 
 Wax, White and Yellow. — The yellow is principally used 
 by the veterinarian, to thicken and give consistence to 
 ointments. 
 
 Willow Bark. — See Bark. 
 
 Worm Medicines. — See Anthelmintics. 
 
 Zinc — See Vitriol, Calamine, and Chloride of Zinc 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abscess, 432. 439. 455. 
 
 chronic, 459. 
 
 Abdomen, anatomy of, 225. 
 
 regions of, 236. 
 
 ■ stones in, 422. 
 
 wounds of, 442. 
 
 Absorbents, 121. 
 
 ■ functions of, 122. 
 
 Abstraction of blood, 594. 
 
 Abuse of purgatives, 600. 
 
 Action ofthe muscles of respiration, 215. 
 
 Acute indigestion (cattle), 389. 
 
 larainitis, 522. 
 
 Adhesive inflammation, 439. 
 
 Aeration of the blood, 221. 
 
 Age, the teeth with regard to, 36. 
 
 of horned cattle, 47. 
 
 of sheep, 48. 
 
 Alimentary canal, diseases of, 385. 
 Amaurosis, 506. 
 Ammoniacal blisters, 592. 
 Amputation of the penis, 587. 
 
 tail, 588. 
 
 Amputations, 586. 
 Anasarca, 417. 
 
 Anatomy and physiologv of the foot, 
 259, 
 
 ofthe abdomen, 225. 
 
 of ganglia, 162. 
 
 of spinal marrow, 163. 
 
 of spinal nerves, 164. 
 
 Anchylosis, 496. 
 
 Ancient English writers, 5. 
 Anconeus, 100. 
 Animal poisons, 425. 
 Antea spinatus, 98. 
 Anterior aorta, 127. 
 
 cava, 144. 
 
 extremities, 79. 
 
 Aorta, 127. 
 
 anterior, 127. 
 
 posterior, 136. 
 
 Appearance of really aged horses, 41. 
 Appendage to bone, 96. 
 Apoplexy, 375. 
 Arteries, 1 19. 
 
 course of, 120. 
 
 ofthe brain, 135. 
 
 • wounds of, 451. 
 
 Arteriotomy, 594. 
 
 Articles used for purgatives, 601. 
 
 Articular cartilage, 90. 
 
 Ascites, 415. 
 
 Axillary artery, 129. 
 
 Back (the), when well formed, 32. 
 
 sinews, rupture of, 473. 
 
 Bars, 263. 
 
 Bel (M. St.) successful in 1790, 7. 
 
 Belly, dropsy of, 415. 
 
 wounds of, 442. 
 
 Biceps rotator tibialis, 109. 
 Bishoping horses to disguise their 
 
 age, 43. 
 Bites of venomous reptiles, 427. 
 Bladder, 242. 
 
 arteries of, 130. 
 
 inflammation of, 338. 
 
 — spasm of the neck of, 339. 
 
 Bleeding, 594 
 
 Blistering, 589. 
 
 Blood, abstraction of, 594. 
 
 aeration ofthe, 221. 
 
 circulation ofthe, 218. 
 
 spavin, 478. 
 
 Bloodv urine, 410. 
 
 Blown, 389. 
 
 Blows on the pointof the shoulder, 470. 
 
 Bog spavin, 470. 
 
 Bone spavin, 492. 
 
 Bones, 63. 
 
 appendages to, 90. 
 
 of the foot, 84. 
 
662 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bones of the pastern, 82. 
 
 posterior extremities, 
 
 85. 
 
 shank, 82. 
 skull, 64. 
 
 Bony trunk, 73. 
 
 Bowels, inflammation of the, 333. 
 
 Brain (the) and its meninges, 150. 
 
 base of the, 153. 
 
 diseases of the, 374. 
 
 inflammation of the, 299. 
 
 structure of the, 155. 
 
 Breast, chest, or counter, 25. 
 Broken knees, 449. 
 
 wind, 348. 
 
 Bronchii, 220. 
 
 Bronchitis, 342. 
 
 Bruises, 475. 
 
 Bursas mucosae, 118. 
 
 ' enlarged, 479. 
 
 Calculus concretions, 422. 
 
 intestinal, 422. 
 
 urinary, 423. 
 
 vesicular, 424. 
 
 Calving, dropping after, 291. 
 Canine teeth, or tushes, 39. 
 Canker, 556. 
 
 Cannon, or shank bone, 26. 
 Capped hock, 481. 
 Capsules, renal, 246. 
 Carcass, or trunk, 31. 
 Carotid, connnon, 131. 
 
 external, 132. 
 
 internal, 135. 
 
 Cartilage, 90. 
 
 • articular, 90. 
 
 ■ non-articular, 90. 
 
 Casting, 562. 
 Castration, 567. 
 
 • by cauterization, 569. 
 
 Cataract, 505. 
 
 Catiirrhal fever, or influenza, 277. 
 
 Cattle, the horns denote the age of, 48. 
 
 the permanent teeth of, 48. 
 
 Cava, vena, anterior, 144. 
 
 posterior, 148. 
 
 Cellular tissue, 173. 
 Cerebral nerves, 156. 
 Cervical ligament, 208. 
 Channel (the) should be wide, 20. 
 Charter granted to the Veterinary Pro- 
 fession by Her Majesty, 10. 
 Chest, counter, or breast, 25. 
 
 dropsy of, 413. 
 
 Chronic abscess, 457. 
 
 cough, 345. 
 
 ■ founder, 526. 
 
 ■— indigestion, 388. 
 
 Circulation of the blood, 218. 
 
 foetal, 254. 
 
 greater, 219. 
 
 pulmonic, 236. 
 
 Coats of the eye, 183. 
 
 Coecum, 225. 
 
 Cold, or cough (cattle), 296. 
 
 Coleman and Morecroft (Messrs.) ap- 
 pointed joint professors, 8. 
 
 Coleman (Mr.), summary of his merit, 9. 
 
 Colic (cattle), 388. 
 
 spasmodic, 385. 
 
 College, Veterinary, History of, 6. 
 
 Colon, 236. 
 
 Colours, or marks, of the horse, 49. 
 
 Colt (the), 258. 
 
 Committee, medical, established, 8. 
 
 Common cold, 341. 
 
 integument, 168. 
 
 Complexus major, 105. 
 
 Composition of bone, 59. 
 
 Condition, 51. 
 
 always means one thing, 52. 
 
 getting a horse into, 54. 
 
 morbid, 63. 
 
 Conformation of the exterior of the 
 horse, 15. 
 
 Coraco humeralis, 100. 
 
 Corns, 539. 
 
 Costiveness, 397. 
 
 Coverings of the body, 168. 
 
 of the viscera, 168. 
 
 Cribbiting, 401. 
 
 Customs, induce material change in 
 horses, 13. 
 
 Cuticle, 169. 
 
 Cutis, 176. 
 
 Cystitis, 338. 
 
 Danger of purgatives, 600. 
 Deglutition, 205. 
 Depressor capitis major, 107. 
 
 minor, 107. 
 
 Descent of the testicle, 255. 
 Description of Plate I., 60. 
 II., 92. 
 
 III., 117. 
 
 IV., 119. 
 
 . v., 149. 
 
 VI., 175. 
 
 VII., 209. 
 
 VIII., 224. 
 
 IX., 250. 
 
 X., 260. 
 
 Diaphragm, 213. 
 
 rupture of, 442. 
 
 Diarrhoea, 398. 
 
 (cattle), 400. 
 
 Diffused inflammation, 272. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 663 
 
 Digestion, 231. 
 
 Disease of the alimentary canal, 385. 
 
 ■ bone, 488. 
 
 brain, 374. 
 
 divisions of, 271. 
 
 of the eye, 497. 
 
 feet, 522. 
 
 generally, 269. 
 
 glands, 407. 
 
 navicular joint, 537. 
 
 nerves, 374. 
 
 skin. 507. 
 
 Diseased collections of fluid within the 
 
 cavities, 412. 
 of fluid within the 
 
 cellular membrane, 417. 
 Dislocated patella, 48G. 
 Dislocations, 481—486. 
 Distribution of the arteries, 127. 
 Diuretics, 606. 
 Division of disease, 271. 
 
 the flexor tendons, 585. 
 
 ■ the sentient nerve of the 
 
 foot, 581. 
 
 — — the temporal artery, 594. 
 
 Docking, 588. 
 
 Dro])ping after calving, 291. 
 
 Dropsy of the abdomen, 415. 
 
 belly, 415. 
 
 chest, 413. 
 
 head, 412. 
 
 heart, 415. 
 
 skin, 417. 
 
 Duodenum, 234. 
 Dysentery, 331—368. 
 ■ cattle, 370. 
 
 Ear (the). 176. 
 
 Earl of Plymouth, the first to stable 
 
 hunters, 58. 
 Early writers of Greece, 2. 
 
 . Rome, 2. 
 
 Ears, how they should be carried, 17. 
 Ecchymosis, 420. 
 Elbows of the horse, 25. 
 Embryotomy, 566. 
 Encysted tumours, 478. 
 Enlarged bursas mucosae, 479. 
 Epidemic of 1841-42, 297. 
 Erectores capitis major, 106. 
 
 minor, 106. 
 
 Exostosis, 488. 
 
 of the cofRn bone, 496. 
 
 Extensor pedis, 102. 
 
 posterior, 113. 
 
 ■ accessorius, 113. 
 
 ■ metacarpi magnus, 101. 
 
 obliquus, 101. 
 
 Exterior conformation of the horse, 15. 
 External iliac arteries, 138. 
 
 tumours, 478. 
 
 Extravasation of blood, 420. 
 Extremities anterior, 79. 
 Eye (the), 179. 
 
 coats of, 183. 
 
 humours of, 180. 
 
 use of, 181. 
 
 Eyelids, 186. 
 
 Eyes, the mode of examining them, 17. 
 
 Face, bony, 67. 
 
 of the horse, 19. 
 
 Foetal circulation, 259. 
 
 Fall of the veterinary profession in 
 
 the Dark Ages, 2. 
 False quarter, 560. 
 Farcy, 362. 
 
 • water, 418. 
 
 Fat, 72. 
 
 Fauces, 199. 
 
 Feet, diseases of, 522. 
 
 inflammation of, 522. 
 
 should be of a proper size, 26. 
 
 Femoral artery, 141. 
 
 Fetlock joint, sprain of, 473. 
 Fever in cattle, 288. 
 
 pure, 271. 
 
 Firing, 588. 
 
 Fistulous parotid duct, 464. 
 
 withers, 463. 
 
 Flanks, 33. 
 
 Flexor brachii, 100. 
 
 metacarpi externus, 102. 
 
 internus, 102. 
 
 • medius, 102. 
 
 pedis perforans, 102 — 115. 
 perforatus, 102 — 115, 
 
 radialis accessorius, 104 — 115. 
 
 tendons, division of the, 585. 
 
 rupture of, 473. 
 
 sprain of, 471. 
 
 their ligamentous con- 
 
 nexions, 471. 
 
 suff'raginis, 102. 
 
 their sheaths, 471. 
 
 ulnarius, 103 — 115. 
 
 Folly of turning a horse out to grass, 
 
 52. 
 Foot, anatomy and nhvsiology of the, 
 
 259. 
 
 division of the sentient nerve of 
 
 the, 581. 
 
 interior of the, 263. 
 
 pumiced, 536. 
 
 prick in the, 547. 
 
 punctured, 547, 
 
 Fore-arm (the) should not be too 
 large, 26. 
 
664 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Founder, acute, 522. 
 
 chronic, 526. 
 
 Fractured arm bone, 485. 
 
 bones of the extremities, 
 
 484. 
 
 cannon, 485. 
 
 • face, 483. 
 
 femur, 485. 
 
 • humerus, 484. 
 
 ■ ilium, 48G. 
 
 jaw-bone, 484. 
 
 navicular bone, 486. 
 
 ■ olecranon, 485. 
 
 pastern bones, 486. 
 
 • patella, 486. 
 
 pelvis, 484. 
 
 ribs, 484. 
 
 scapula, 484. 
 
 scull, 48:3. 
 
 ■ tibia, 485. 
 
 ■ vertebrae, 484. 
 
 Fractures, 481. 
 
 French method of castrating, 574. 
 ■ Revolution (the), favoured ve- 
 terinary medicine, 4. 
 Fret, 385. 
 
 Frontal sinuses, 190. 
 Functions of the eye or sight, 188. 
 
 Ganglia, anatomy of, 163. 
 Gangrene, 435. 
 Garget, 293. 
 Gastrocnemii externus, 114. 
 
 • internus, 115. 
 
 Gemini, 113. 
 
 Gestatory term, 256, 
 
 Getting a horse into condition, 54. 
 
 Glanders, 353. 
 
 Glands, diseases of, 407. 
 
 of the head, 283. 
 
 Glass eyes, 508, 
 Gluteus externus, 108. 
 
 internus, 112. 
 
 maximus, 108. 
 
 Good and bad form, 15. 
 Gracilis, 110. 
 
 Grant of a Charter by Her Majesty, 10. 
 
 Grease, 507. 
 
 Greater circulation, 219. 
 
 Gripes, 385. 
 
 Gutta Serena, 506, 
 
 Guttural pouches, 178. 
 
 HiEmorrhage, modes of stopping, 451, 
 
 Hair, 168. 
 
 Head, bones of the, 63. 
 
 dropsy of, 412. 
 
 ■ • of the horse, 16. 
 
 and neck generally, 207. 
 
 Heart, 216. 
 
 dropsy of, 415. 
 
 Hepatitis, 334. 
 
 (cattle), 335. 
 
 Her present Majesty grants a Charter, 
 
 10. 
 Hernia, congenital, 406. 
 
 intestinal, 402. 
 
 strangulated, 404. 
 
 History of the Veterinary College, 6. 
 
 Veterinary Medicine, 1. 
 
 ■ in Great 
 
 Britain, 4, 
 Hock (the) and its conformation, 35. 
 
 capped, 481, 
 
 Hoematuria (cattle), 337. 
 
 Hoof (the), 260, 
 
 Hoose, cattle, 296. 
 
 Horn, 262. 
 
 Horns (the) denote the age of cattle, 
 
 48. 
 Horny sole, 262. 
 Horse and dog, comparison between, 
 
 14. 
 Horses of great age mentioned, 45. 
 Hove, cattle, 389. 
 Humeralis, 100, 
 Humours of the eye, 180. 
 Hydrocephalus, 412. 
 Hydrops pericardii, 415. 
 Hydrothorax, 413. 
 
 Iliac arteries, 138. 
 
 Iliacus, 1 12, 
 
 Ilio femoralis, 111. 
 
 Importance of thorough drainage, 57. 
 
 Impregnation, 252, 
 
 Indigestion, acute (cattle), 389. 
 
 chronic, 388. 
 
 Inflammation, adhesive, 439. 
 
 of the bladder, 338. 
 
 brain, 29;). 
 
 cornea, 497. 
 
 feet, 522. 
 
 heart, 325. 
 
 intestines, 326. 
 
 local, 430, 
 
 of the liver, 334, 
 
 (cattle), 334. 
 
 kidneys, 335. 
 
 lungs, 303. 
 
 (cattle), 
 
 324. 
 
 324, 
 
 303. 
 
 (sheep), 
 and pleurae, 
 
 mucous surfaces. 
 
 331. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 665 
 
 Inflammation of the peritoneum, 332. 
 
 — ))leura3, 313. 
 
 throat, 342. 
 
 veins, 432. 
 
 udder, 293. 
 
 womb, 340. 
 
 Influenza, 277. 
 
 (cattle), 22G. 
 
 Interior of the foot, 263. 
 Internal ear, 177. 
 Intestinal calculus, 422, 
 
 hernia, 406. 
 
 Intestines, 234. 
 
 morbid displacement of the. 
 
 40i 
 
 -406. 
 
 strangulation of the, 406. 
 
 Ischio femoralis, 110. 
 
 Jaundice, 407. 
 
 (cattle), 408. 
 
 (sheep), 408. 
 
 Jaw, lower, 69. 
 
 Job possessed horses, 12. 
 
 Jugular vein, bleeding from the, 597. 
 
 Kidneys, 240. 
 
 inflammation of the, 335. 
 
 Knee and its bones, 81. 
 
 — joint penetrated, particularly of, 
 
 448. 
 
 of the horse, 26. 
 
 broken, 449. 
 
 Lacerated knee, 450. 
 Lactation, 257. 
 Lamina, sensitive, 265. 
 Laminitis, acute, 522. 
 
 — chronic, 526. 
 
 Lampas, 391. 
 
 Large intestines, 235. 
 
 Larynx, 200. 
 
 muscles of the, 201. 
 
 use of the, 202. 
 
 Latissimus dorsi, 96. 
 Legs, swelled, 419. 
 Levator humeri, 96. 
 Ligaments, 92. 
 
 Lips, 194. 
 
 Lips and nostrils, 20. 
 Lithotomy, 577. 
 Liver, 238. 
 
 inflammation of the, 334. 
 
 • (cattle), 
 
 334. 
 Local inflammation, 430. 
 Lock-jaw, 379. 
 Loins, their importance, 32. 
 Longus colli, 107. 
 Loose boxes better than stalls, 56. 
 
 Lower jaw, 69. 
 Lumbrici, 116. 
 Lungs, 219. 
 
 inflammation of, 303. 
 
 (cattle), 324. 
 
 (sheep), 324. 
 
 Madness, 299. 
 
 Mad, sleepy staggers, 299. 
 
 Majesty, Her present, grants a Cliar- 
 ter, 10. 
 
 Mammary gland, 249. 
 
 Mane, and how to dress it, 21. 
 
 Mange, 520. 
 
 Marks of the mouth, 37. 
 
 Medical Committee established, 8. 
 
 Medicine, Veterinary,the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries favourable to, 
 3. 
 
 history of, in 
 
 Great Britain, 4. 
 
 Medulla, or marrow, 91. 
 
 Megrims, 376. 
 
 Membrane, cellular, 173. 
 
 of the placenta, 253. 
 
 Mesenteries, 137. 
 
 Mesentery, 226. 
 
 Messrs. Coleman and Morecroft ap- 
 pointed, 8. 
 
 Mayor, chief in obtaining the 
 
 Charter, *11. 
 
 Mineral poisons, 425 — 429. 
 
 Minimus, 100. 
 
 Mode of performing neurotomy, 583. 
 
 Molars, or grinders, 38. 
 
 Morbid displacement of the intestines, 
 402—406. 
 
 Mouth, 193. 
 
 muscles of the, 193. 
 
 Mr. Morecroft resigns the joint pro- 
 fessorship, 8. 
 
 Mr. Morton, chemical lecturer, 10. 
 
 Mr. Sewell appointed head professor, 
 10. 
 
 Mr. Simonds added to the Veterinary 
 College, 10. 
 
 Mr. Spooner appointed head professor, 
 10. 
 
 Muscles of the anus, 116. 
 ears, 176. 
 
 generally, 93. 
 of the globe of the eye, 185. 
 larynx, 201, 
 
 mastication, 206. 
 
 the mouth, 193. 
 
 nose, 192. 
 
 part of the neck, 96. 
 the pharynx, 203. 
 
666 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Muscles of the respiration, 212. 
 
 action of, 215. 
 
 tail, 116. 
 
 tongue, 196. 
 
 ■ voluntary, 95. 
 
 Mucous surfaces, 331. 
 
 Nasal organs, use of, 192. 
 
 Natural history of the horse, 11. 
 
 Navicular joint disease, 537. 
 
 Navicularthritis, 537. 
 
 Neck of the horse, 20. 
 
 Nerve, the sentient, of the foot, divi- 
 sion of, 581. 
 
 Nerves (of), 165. 
 
 (the), 155. 
 
 cerebral, 156. 
 
 ■ diseases of, 374. 
 
 of the fore extremity, 161. 
 
 hind ditto, 162. 
 
 spinal, 159. 
 
 sympathetic, 164. 
 
 Neurotomy, 581. 
 
 Nicking, 588. 
 
 No determinate figure of the horse 
 possible, 16. 
 
 Nose (the), 184. 
 
 Obstetrics, veterinary, 565. 
 Obturator, externus, 112. 
 
 ■ internus, 113. 
 
 Q]]sophagus, 209. 
 
 Of the urinary organs, 242. 
 
 Omentum, 228. 
 
 Open joint, 445. 
 
 Operations, 561. 
 
 Ophthalmia, periodical, 499. 
 
 simple, 497. 
 
 ■ specific, 499. 
 
 Orbits, 67. 
 
 Organs of generation (female), 247. 
 
 (male), 244. 
 
 Overreach, 472. 551. 
 
 Palate, bleeding from, 594. 
 
 Pancreas, 293. 
 
 Panniculus carnosus, 174. 
 
 Paracentesis abdominis, 414. 
 
 Paralysis, 377. 
 
 Parasitic animals (cattle), 395. 
 
 Parotid duct, fistulous, 464. 
 
 Parturition, 257. 
 
 Pastern (the) should not slant too 
 
 much, 28. 
 Patella, sprain of the ligaments of, 474. 
 Pectoneus, 111. 
 Pectoralis anticus, 104. 
 niagnus, 104. 
 
 -- trans versalis, 104. 
 
 Penis, amputation of, 587. 
 Permanent nippers, 39. 
 
 (cattle), 48. 
 
 Periodic ophthalmia, 499. 
 Periosteotomy, 584. 
 Peritoneum, 91. 
 Peritonitis, 332. 
 Pharynx, 203. 
 Phlebitis, 452. 
 Phlebotomy, 596. 
 Phrenitis, 299. 
 Physicking horses, 599. 
 Physiology of secretion, 167. 
 Physiology of the viscera, 237. 
 Placenta, 252. 
 
 membranes of, 253. 
 
 Plantarius, 114. 
 
 Plantar vein, 596. 
 
 Pleurae, 210. 
 
 Pleurisy, 313. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia (cattle), 315. 
 
 Pneumonia, 303. 
 
 Poisons, 425. 
 
 animal, 425. 
 
 mineral, 425 — 429. 
 
 vegetable, 425 — 428. 
 
 Poll-evil, 460. 
 Popliteus, 1 15. 
 Postea spinatus, 98. 
 Posterior cava, 148. 
 Power and safety of horses, 212. 
 Prick in the foot, 547. 
 Profuse staling, 411. 
 Properties of the blood, 222. 
 Psoas magnus, 111. 
 
 parvus. 111. 
 
 Pulmonary vessels, 142. 
 Pulmonic circulation, 218. 
 Pulse, 124. 
 Pumiced foot, 536. 
 Punctured foot, 547. 
 Pupils taken at the Veterinary Col- 
 lege, 8. 
 Pure fever, 271. 
 Purgatives, 599. 
 
 articles used for, 601. 
 
 danger of, 600. 
 
 treatment of, 604. 
 
 Purpura haemorrhagica, 284, 
 Pyriformis, 1 1 2. 
 
 Quarter, false, 560. 
 Quittor, 551. 
 
 Rabies, 425. 
 
 Ramus anastomoticus, 135. 
 
 Real thigh bone of the horse, 35. 
 
 Rectum,'^236. 
 
 Red water, true (cattle), 409. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 667 
 
 Regions of the abdomen, 225. 
 Renal capsules, 241. 
 Reproductive system, 250. 
 Reptiles, venomous bites of, 427. 
 Restraints, various, 561. 
 Rheumatism, 476. 
 
 • (cattle), 477. 
 
 Rhomboideus, 96. ^ 
 
 Ring-bone, 495. 
 
 Roaring, 343. 
 
 Romans (the) exported horses from 
 
 England, 12. 
 Rot (cattle), 370. 
 
 (sheep), 372. 
 
 Rotator capitis, inferior, 106. 
 
 internus, 107. 
 
 superior, 106. 
 
 Round bone, sprain of the ligaments 
 
 of, 474. 
 Rupture, 406. 
 
 of the back sinews, 473. 
 
 Ruptured diaphragm, 442. 
 
 flexor tendons, 473. 
 
 suspensory ligament, 472. 
 
 Sandcrack, 544. 
 Sartorius, 109. 
 Scalenus, 107. 
 
 Scapulo humeralis major, 100. 
 Scapulo ulnarius, 97. 
 Scarifications, 596. 
 Scouring in calves, 401. 
 Sense of taste, 198. 
 
 touch, 171. 
 
 Sensitive lamina, 265. 
 
 Sentient nerve of the foot, division of, 
 
 581. 
 Serratus magnus, 97. 
 Setons, 593. 
 
 Setting on of the horse's head, 16. 
 Sewell (Mr.) appointed professor, 10. 
 Shoeing, 527. 
 
 general remarks on, 531. 
 
 Shoulder (the) should slant, 23. 
 
 sprain of, 468. 
 
 point, blows upon, 470. 
 
 Sight, 188. 
 
 Simonds (Mr.) added to the Veterinary 
 
 College, 10. 
 Simple ophthalmia, 497. 
 Situation of the viscera, 225. 
 Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
 
 favourable to veterinary medicine, 3. 
 Skull of the horse, 62. 
 Sleepy staggers, 299. 
 Slinging, 564. 
 Sloughing, 434. 
 Small pox in sheep, 515. 
 Sore throat, 392. 
 
 Spasm, 378. 
 
 of the neck of the bladder, 339. 
 
 Spasmodic colic, 385. 
 Specific ophthalmia, 499. 
 Spavin, blood, 478. 
 
 bog, 480. 
 
 bone, 492. 
 
 Spleen, 240. 
 Spienius, 104. 
 Sjjinal nerves, 159. 
 
 anatomy of, 162. 
 
 Splint, 490. 
 
 Spooner (Mr.) appointed professor, 10. 
 
 Sprain of the fetlock joint, 473. 
 
 flexor tendons, 471. 
 
 ligamentous connexions 
 
 of the flexor tendons, 471. 
 
 patella, 474. 
 
 sheaths of the flexor ten- 
 
 dons, 471. 
 
 shoulder, 468. 
 
 stifle, 474. 
 
 whirl bone, the ligaments 
 
 of, 474. 
 Sprains, 466. 
 Stable (the) itself, 55. 
 Stables are kept too warm, 56. 
 Staling, profuse, 411. 
 Sterno maxillaris, 107. 
 
 thyro-hyoideus, 107. 
 
 Stifle corresponds to the human knee, 
 
 35. 
 
 sprain of, 474. 
 
 Stomach, 229. 
 
 staggers, 299. 
 
 Stones in the bladder, 424. 
 
 ~ intestines, 422. 
 
 kidneys, 423. 
 
 Stony concretions, 422. 
 
 Strains, 466. 
 
 of the ligaments of the femur, 
 
 474. 
 Strangles, 457. 
 
 Strangulated hernia, treatment of, 404. 
 Strangulation of the intestines, 406. 
 Stringhalt, 384. 
 Structure of the brain, 1.55. 
 Styptics, 451. 
 Subscapularis, 98. 
 
 Summary of Mr. Coleman's merit, 9. 
 Summering of hunters, 58. 
 Suppuration, 433. 
 Surgical operations, 561. 
 Suspensory ligament, rupture of, 472. 
 Sutures, 437. 
 Swelled legs, 419. 
 Swellings, encysted, 478. 
 Symptomatic fever, 282. 
 Synovia, 92. 
 
668 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tail, amputation of the, 388. 
 
 ■ and how it should be set on, 34. 
 
 Taking a horse up from grass, 54. 
 Taste, 198. 
 Teeth, 70. . 
 
 of the calf at birth, 47. 
 
 with regard to age, 36. ■ 
 
 Temporal artery, division of, 594. 
 Temporary and permanent teeth, 37. 
 Tendons, 95. 
 Tensor vaginae, 108, 
 Teres externus, 97. 
 
 internus, 97. 
 
 Testicle, 144. 
 
 descent of, 255. 
 
 Tetanus, 379. 
 Thick wind, 347. 
 Thorax, viscera of the, 210. 
 Thorough-pin, 481. 
 Throat.^sore, 342. 
 Thrush, 542. 
 Toe, bleeding from, 595. 
 Tongue, 195. 
 Touch, 171. 
 Trachea, 208. 
 Trachelo mastoideus, 105. 
 Tracheotom}', 579. 
 Trapezius, 96. 
 Tread, 551. 
 
 Treatment connected with physicking, 
 604. 
 
 • of strangulated hernia, 404. 
 
 Triceps abductor femoris, 110. 
 
 Triceps extensor brachii, 99. 
 
 True red water (cattle), 409. 
 
 Trunk, bony, 73. 
 
 Tumours, external, 478. 
 
 Tusks, or tushes, or canine teeth, 39. 
 
 Udder, inflammation of, 293. 
 Ulceration, 459. 
 Ureters, 241. 
 Urethra, 246. 
 Urinary organs, 242. 
 
 calculus, 423. 
 
 Use of the larynx, 202. 
 nasal organs, 192. 
 
 Various restraints, 561. 
 
 Varix, 478. 
 
 Vas deferens, 245. 
 
 Vastus externus. 111. 
 
 internus, 111. 
 
 Vena portae, 148. 238. 
 Vesical calculus, 424. 
 Vesicular disease, 295. 
 Veterinary obligation to John Hunter, 
 9. 
 
 obstetrics, 565. 
 
 Veins generally, 143. 
 
 inflammation of, 452. 
 
 of the head and neck, 146. 
 
 hind extremity, 147. 
 
 wounds of, 452. 
 
 Viscera of the chest, 210. 
 — physiology of, 237. 
 
 — situation of, 225. 
 
 Voluntary muscles, 95. 
 Vomition, 233. 
 
 Warbles, 459. 
 
 Water farcy, 418. 
 
 Warts, 519". 
 
 Whether the litter should be removed 
 
 or not from under horses, 57. 
 Whirl-bone of jockeys, 35. 
 sprain of the ligaments of, 
 
 474. 
 Wind broken, 347. 
 
 galls, 479. 
 
 - thick, 348. 
 
 Withers, fistulous, 463. 
 
 ■ (the) should be high, 22. 
 
 Womb, inflammation of, 340. 
 Worms, 390. 
 Wounds, 436. 
 
 of the abdomen, 442. 
 
 arteries, 451. 
 
 articular cavities, 444. 
 
 chest, 442. 
 
 neck, 441. 
 
 particular parts, 441. 
 
 ■veins, 452. 
 
 Writers of the seventeenth century, 
 3. 
 
 Yellows (cattle), 408. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN S SttUARE, LONDON. 
 
Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine 
 Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine 'at 
 Tufis University 
 200 Westboro Road 
 North Grafton, MA 01 536 
 
f ■4'^