\ ' '\ ■■-'% «i I 1 1 CYCLOPEDIC "S.^ .*- i i x /■\Ml IVivS ■ml y H C,B, SMITH JOHNA.SEAVERNS 9090 013 414 22; Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cuminings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts, University 200Westboro Road North Grafton, MA 01 536 M ■ i 3» . • ■JU^-?.} ;?.v. -•- ' ^"""f^ii&Sfl ' / . ■ '>:* ■ o > .. '"■ ■ • w i 1H « =s Farmers Cyclopedia of Live Stock By Earley Vernon Wilcox, Ph.D., and Clarence Beaman Smith, M. S. Authors of Farmer s Cyclopedia of Agriculture Illustrated NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEG AN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1912 by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, England Printed in U. S. A. PREFACE In Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, published in 1904, we pre- sented in a systematic manner the established facts which constitute the foundation of practical agriculture as a whole. At that time we had in mind the expansion of the section on animal husbandry in a subsequent volume to more adequately meet the needs of the two million American farmers who make live stock their principal source of income. After three years of labor this idea has come to fruition. There are many books devoted to the different kinds of stock, as cat- tle, horses, hogs, and poultry; the subject has also been treated with refer- ence to special features, like breeds of live stock, feeding, animal diseases, dairying, stock judging, breeding, refrigeration of animal products, curing of meats, meat and milk inspection, blacksmithing and marketing stock. Occasionally two or more of these features have been combined ; but here- tofore no attempt has been made to bring all these matters and the multi- tude of other features of animal industry into a symmetrical whole. In the first five parts of the book we have considei-ed the general aspects of stock raising, giving attention to those facts and principles which apply to all kinds of farm animals. The other seven parts are con- cerned with specific animals — horses, mules, asses, beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, etc. We have also discussed the present status and value of many other less useful or semi-domesticated animals and game in which an increasing interest is being manifested. We have consistently tried to present all the important facts in their logical beaiung on each problem of animal production. The selection of material has been made from the viewpoint of its value to the practical stock raiser in solving the almost innumerable specific problems which he finds. The basis of this volume is to be sought in the bulletins and reports of the agricultural experiment stations, Federal and State Departments of Agriculture, live stock periodicals, other publications of this and foreign countries, and in our own personal experience. The book, therefore, em- bodies those experimentally established facts and principles of animal husbandry which at present are our most reliable guides to profitable practice. American stock raisers are in a position to produce economically the finest of animal products of all sorts. The recent meat inspection law has enabled the Bureau of Animal Industry to devise and put in operation the most efficient system of meat inspection known to the world. This book is designed to encourage the stockman to do his part in increasing the national resources. The task of preparing the present volume has been a peculiarly pleasant one on account of the hearty co-operation which we have received from various sources. The list of names of those to whom we are indebted would run into the hundreds. We are thus compelled to forego further acknowledgment than the specific credits given throughout the text. Photographs have been freely loaned by the secretaries of nearly every vi FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK breed association, many experiment station workers and private breeders. We feel particularly grateful for the generous assistance and the untiring interest which the publishers have given to the completion of the book. After the illustrations had all been made and the whole text was in page proof, a disastrous fire destroyed the printing plant, including the illustrations for the book, some of the original manuscript and all the page proof. The publishers, however, at once began the work of putting- it in type again and assisted greatly in securing new illustrations. In acknowledging our gratitude to the publishers we should mention espe- cially Prof W. G. Johnson, secretary of Orange Judd Company and asso- ciate editor of American Agriculturist, who has had general supervision of the book in the process of making. THE AUTHORS. United States Department Agriculture, Washington, D. C., January 1, 1908. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK CONTENTS PART I Page History, Anatomy and Physiology, and Breeding of Domes- tic Animals Pages 1-42 The domestication of animals — Animal characteristics — Classification of farm stock — Origin of farm animals — Origin of domestic fowls — Anatomy and physiology; skele- ton, muscular system, nervous system, teeth, alimentary canal, blood system, respiratory organs, urinary organs, reproductive organs, skin, nutrition, saliva, gastric and pancreatic juices, heart, respiration, kidneys, body tempera- ture, milk secretion, rumination and vomiting, pregnancy. Breeding farm animals; heredity, variation, atavism, pre- potency, hybridization, sports, telegony, determination of sex, domestication and variation, influence of feed, practi- cal methods of breeding, inbreeding, line breeding, natural breeding, outcrossing, crossbreeding, grade breeding. PART II Principles op Stock Feeding Pages 43-86 Composition of animals and plants, protein, crude fiber, carbohydrates, fat, necessity for food, digestibility of feeding stuffs, production of flesh, production of fat, production of energy and heat, production of milk, eggs, etc — Water for animals — Mineral matter for animals — Summary of the laws of nutrition — Feeding standards — ■ Calculating balanced rations — Average composition of American feeding stuffs — Percentage digestibility of Amer- ican feeding stuffs — Rapid calculation convenience table. PART III Diseases op Animals Pages 87-170 Farm hygiene; wholesome feeds, careless feeding, me- dicinal effect of feeds, water as source of disease, ventila- tion, exercise, disinfecting premises, cautions about conta- gious diseases. Diseases of the horse; influenza, strangles, scalma, pneumonia, horse pox, anthrax, glanders, tetanus, rabies, surra, cerebro-spinal meningitis, choke, colic, jaundice, peritonitis, diabetes, bloody urine, azoturia, heaves, conges- tion of the brain, sunstroke, purpura hemorrhagica, splints, ringbone, bone spavin, side bones, quittor, corns, eczema, fistula, wounds, big head, parasitic troubles — Dis- eases of mules. Diseases of cattle; tuberculosis, rabies, cowpox, acti- nomycosis, anthrax, black leg, calf diphtheria, malignant catarrh, malignant edema, Texas fever, nagana, mycotic stomatitis, wabble flies, horn fly, buffalo gnat, mange or vu FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page scabies, corn stalk disease, bloat, loss of cud, indigestion, verminous bronchitis, abortion, retained after-birth, milk fever, garget, joint ill, scouring, rickets, creeDS, rheumatism. Diseases of swine; cholera, swine plague, infectious sore mouth, swine erysipelas, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, infectious catarrhal pneumonia, blood poisoning, infectious joint ill, trichinosis, worms, mange, hog louse, rickets, pitchy mange, thumps, sore mouth, loss of appetite, poison- ing, constipation. Disease of sheep; sore mouth, white scours, catarrh, croupous bronchitis, croupous pneumonia, pleurisy, abor- tion, garget, sore eyes, eczema, foot rot, foot and mouth , disease, arthritis, malignant edema, big head, rabies, para- sitic ictero-hematuria, sheeppox, ulcerative leg infection, aspergillosis, pseudo-tuberculosis, influenza, scab, dipping sheep, head scab, botfly, sheep tick, scab mite, bladder worm, gicl, fringed tapeworm, tape and stomach worms, lung worms, nodular disease — Diseases of goats. Diseases of poultry; roup, fowl cholera, tuberculosis, going light, chicken pox, leukaemia, losses in incubator chicks, gapes, lice, mites, simple catarrh — Diseases of water fowls — Diseases of turkeys — Diseases of pigeons — Dis- eases of dogs; distemper, rabies, fleas, mange, tapeworm — • Veterinary medicines — Castration and spaying — Artificial impregnation — Sterility in animals — Horseshoeing — Poi- sonous plants and mineral poisons. Business Aspects of Stock Farming Pages It 0-229 Stock raising and soil fertility, pages 170-180 ; .loss of fertility under different systems of farming, manure value of farm products, quantity and value of farm manure, com- position, fermentation, preservatives, applying manure. Systems of stock farming, pages 181-194, general stock farming, pure breed stock farming — Dairy farming; soil- ing system, pasture system — Systems of cattle farming; range methods, beef cattle farms, baby beef farms — Horse farming — Sheep farming — Swine farming — Goat farm- ing — Poultry farming. Live stock organizations, institutions, and associations, pages 195-206. "Work of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the experiment stations, agricul- tural colleges, farmers' institutes, national live stock asso- ciations, breeders' associations, registry associations, exposi- tions and fairs, state and county fairs, stock periodicals. Transportation and marketing of live stock, pages 206- 229. Local buyers, marketing pure breeds, auction sales, horse markets, shipping to market, shipping laws, inspec- tion of stock, live stock exchange, when to ship stock, securing cars, shipping horses, bills of lading, liabilities of railroads, shipping rates, rules of stock yards, com- mission charges, shipping cattle, market quotations, mar- keting hogs, marketing sheep, shipping stock abroad, government inspection, shrinkage in shipping. PART V Animal Products Pages 231-278 Slaughtering and curing of meats, pages 233-258 Slaughtering cattle, sheep, and swine, cutting up carcasses. TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Page percentages of dressed meats, veal calves, meat prepara- tions and by-products, curing hides, tallow, lard, pickling materials, curing bacon, hams, tongues, sausage, smoking meats, beef extract, tankage, albumen — Farm methods of killing and curing meats, tanning hides. Refrigeration of meat and other animal products, pages 258-269. Sources of cold, refrigerator cars, refrigerating machines, cooling meats, eggs in cold storage, poultry in cold storage, refrigeration in the dairy, construction of cold storage houses. Meat inspection, pages 270-274. Diseases and parasites transmitted in meats, meat poisoning, federal meat inspec- tion, state and municipal inspection. Milk inspection, pages 274-278. Adulteration of milk, preservatives in milk, bacteria in milk, common sources of contamination, abnormal conditions in milk, transmis- sion of diseases in milk, importance of sanitation. PART VI Horses and Mules Pages 279-348 Horses, pages 283-340. Breeds, trotters, pacers, saddle, hackney, coach, hunter, ponies, draft types. Market classes; roadsters, coach, cab, bus, draft, loggers, chunks, express, artillery, saddle, cavalry, carriage, horse breed- ing sires, associations of breeders, feeding horses; grains, by-products, hay and other roughage, milk, molasses, and . animal feeds, fattening horses, rations, water, feeding colts, feeding brood mares, stallions, injurious feeding stuffs, stalls, ventilation, grooming, blanketing. Mules and asses, pages 340-348. Industry, zebroids, breeds of jacks, burro, breeding mules, hinnies, market classes, feeding mules. PART VII The Beef Cattle Industry Pages 349-421 Economic importance of beef cattle, breeds, market classes, raising calves, baby beef, grains for steers, rough- age, roots, molasses, feeding methods, fattening period, heavy vs. light steers, home grown vs. purchased feed, shelter, salt, water, beef vs. dairy types, market grades, breeding beef heifers, branding steers, period of pregnancy, oxen for draft purposes. PART VIII Dairy Cattle and Dairy Farming Pages 423-493 Statistics, breeds, feeding, grains for cows, large vs. small grain rations, narrow vs. wide rations, roots and fruits for cows, forage crops, soiling crops, pasture, sugar, condimentals, miscellaneous feeds, practical rations, feeding- methods, factors affecting quality of milk, bedding, fly pro- tection, milking methods, milking machines, barns, dehorn- ing, milk contamination, fermentation of milk, pasteuriza- tion, formalin as preservative, creaming, separators, care of cream, starters, churning, butter making, cheese making, ereamei-ies and cheese factories, co-operative associations, building creameries and cheese factories x FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page PART IX Swine Pages 495-559 Statistics, breeds, types, score cards, buildings for hogs, fences, management of boar, selection and breeding of sow, care of sows, rations for sow and pigs, weaning, food requirements of pigs from bkth to maturity, pasture for hogs roots and other succulents, soiling hogs, grains and grain by-products for hogs, preparation of feeds for swine, tankage, milk, meat meals, etc., for swine, hay and miscel- laneous feeds, wide vs. narrow rations for hogs, general considerations on feeding, market classes and grades of swine. PARTX Sheep and Goats Pages 561-630 Sheep, pages 565-621. Systems of sheep fanning, sta- tistics, breeds, judging, weedy and brush lands for, be- ginning sheep farming, breeding ewes, bucks, winter feed- ing of ewes, period of pregnancy, age and productiveness of ewes, care and management of lambs, grain for lambs before and after weaning, fattening sheep and lambs, roughage, silage and roots, grains for sheep, hothouse or winter lambs, sheep ranching in West, sheep for wool alone, classification of wools. Goats, pages 621-630. Angora goats, handling, milch breeds, care. PART XI Poultry Pages 631-677 Chickens ; breeds, feeding for eggs, grains, mashes, ani- mal feeds, stimulating feeds, grit, salt, early molting, build- ings and yards, characteristics of eggs, packing, preserving marketing, desiccating, factors affecting fertility, hatching eggs, incubators, brooders, classes of chicks, fattening chickens, marketing — Ducks; breeds, hatching, feeding, buildings, marketing — Geese; breeds, mating, fattening, marketing — Turkeys; breeds, selection of breeding stock, nesting, feeding, marketing. Pigeons ; breeds, buildings and fixtures, hatching and feeding, mating — Guineas. PART XII Other Useful Animals Pages 679-701 American bison and catalo, deer, elk, antelope, moose, preservation of game, reindeer, caribou, musk ox, camel, carabao, zebu, rabbits, dogs, cats, foxes, skunks, ostriches,' ruffed grouse, quail, prairie chickens, pheasants, peafowl, swans, frogs, fish. PART I History, Anatomy, Physiology and Breeding of Domestic Animals FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK HISTORY AND BREEDING OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS THE DOMESTICATION OF ANI- MALS is the most important factor in the development and civilization of man. Before man had animal associates he was a savage, without a home, without culti- vated fields and without sympathetic instincts. Animals, however, have pro- duced more profound changes in man's mental and moral equipment and in his social and domestic affairs than any- other feature of his environment. Ani- mals not only furnished the power to subdue nature, cultivate the soil and in- augurate an agricultural system, but they also supplied food, clothing and many necessary utensils. The para- mount influence of domestic animals upon our civilization cannot be elimi- nated by assuming that man naturally had the impetus toward a higher form of civilization. The races which have few domesticated animals have Temained far behind in point of power, commer- cial progress and mental development. A human being without a fondness for animals is a rare and strange creature. A bond of sympathy exists between us and our animal associates and this sym- pathy has led to the establishment of various forms of association between man and animals. Many species of an- imals have found how to profit from as- sociation with man. We in turn have found it necessary as well as a source of satisfaction to utilize animals for our own purposes. From the thousands of species of ani- mals on the globe only a few have been domesticated. At first thought this may seem strange but practically all of the really promising species have been domesticated — most of them before the dawn of history. Man requires certain characters in his farm animals. These are not mysterious characters, however, but simply the same qualities which he requires in his farm workmen — the abil- ity to understand and willingness to do his desires. Farm animals are useful to the extent to which they fulfill these re- quirements and the wages of farm work- men are rated on the same basis. A balky horse or one with vicious habits is of little or no value although his strength and speed may be of the highest stand- ard. Animal characteristics—Perhaps we have not all realized how necessary it is to have an understanding between ourselves and our animal servants. But everyone has noticed differences in attachment. The cat becomes attached to the place but there is little or no per- sonal affection. When you move to a new home your cat remains at the former place, or if taken away goes back at the first opportunity. With the dog, on the other hand, home is at his master's side. The dog's sense of local- ity is as well developed as in the cat but his attachment or affection is a personal matter. The dog, moreover, makes great progress in understanding his master's business and desires. We have all seen dogs which knew just where the pigs and chickens were allowed to range and where they were not permitted. Such dogs will learn to protect their master's interests in a hundred other respects. All of us who have seen trained sheep dogs work know how attentive they are to their business. The coyotes and other enemies must be driven away. None of the sheep can be permitted to stray away from the herd. Sleeping lambs must be roused and driven into the herd when it moves away from the bed-ground. These and a hundred other details are attended to without any ad- monition from the shepherd. The dog learns how to frighten stubborn sheep without injuring them — by threatening to bite and otherwise. All this requires a high order of intelligence — more than some of our human servants manifest. Cattle show less of the personal ele- ment in their association with man. Usually they are perfectly content when FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK they have comfortable quarters and enough to eat. One cannot help noticing, however, how differently they behave in the presence of strangers than with their regular attendants. Like children in the presence of company, they usually fail to show all the wonderful qualities which have been ascribed to them. A change of milkers produces a loss in milk yield. The cows are worried by strangers. In a much greater degree the horse understands our desires and forms close personal attachments. The horse knows instantly when a stranger has the reins and soon learns whether it is safe for him to "soldier." Our horse remembers kind acts and also cruelty. He knows, too, whether or not we are likely to enforce our orders. The domestication of animals implies a sort of contract. It is not a one-sided affair. The animal on his part agrees to fit in with the schemes of man and fur- ther his purposes by doing the appointed tasks. In return for these services man is under obligation, to protect his animal associates from cold, heat, flies, and storms ; to furnish them suitable rations ; and to give them sanitary quarters. The domesticated animal is a servant and the servant has rights. The man who beats or otherwise maltreats his stock is not only a brute but a fool from a mere bus- iness standpoint. If you abuse your farm animals you get less wool, less mut- ton, less pork, less beef, less milk, and less work. This is one case in which money and decency are on the same side of the scales. Proper sanitation — The same may be said of farm hygiene. Animals require sanitary quarters just like man. Yet who has not seen farm stock in stables quite without ventilation, with moisture dripping from the walls and full of filth and foul odors? Under such conditions stock cannot thrive or produce a profit for the owners. Moreover, animals have the right to healthful surroundings. In becoming servants of man they gave up the freedom which enabled them to se- cure plenty of fresh air, untainted food and a clean bed-ground. Anyone can readily convince himself that farm ani- mals are naturally of cleanly habits and, if a choice is offered, will not voluntar- ily lie in filth or eat soiled food. It is an easy matter to encourage and strengthen this tendency. By so doing we serve the interests of the farm stock and our own pocketbooks. "Weaklings — In this connection we wish to call attention to a reprehensible tendency among some breeders. Many fancy or pet breeds have been produced with a peculiar and striking set of char- acters or with some peculiar feature but without health or vigor. Such creatures may be interesting but they are pitiable. Few of us can find pleasure in the study of weaklings. Vigor, power and action are more attractive. Another debt to domesticated animals which is not always acknowledged is the fact that man remained a savage in every sense until he acquired animal friends. The first real step in civilization was the domestication of animals. Some animals were first tamed not from any selfish motive, but purely for comradeship. Thus the dog was first valued as a com- panion but was soon found to be useful for various purposes. Successful agriculture is the very basis of civilization, but the soil could not be cultivated without the help of animals. Man needed animals also for transportation of burdens, for food, clothing and for innumerable utensils and articles used in construction. The races which showed the greatest skill and shrewdness in taming and training ani- mal servants made the greatest progress. Similarly today the most prosperous stockman is the one who has the most improved breeds and knows best how to handle them. Primarily, too, he does not raise fine animals because he is prosperous, but he is prosperous because he keeps fine stock. Important live stock problems — To the student stock raising offers more interesting and more difficult prob- lems than any other line of life work. The world has long worried over the various questions of heredity and varia- tion. These can best be solved by work- ing on domesticated animals. The aver- age farmer can easily keep a record of his animal breeding which will be of the utmost value. He has to learn how to produce more fat or more lean, large bones or fine bones, long or short legs, long or short snout, fine, delicate ears, the proper expression in the eyes, smooth- ness and regularity of form, a well bal- anced development, the deposition of fat in certain parts of the body, a marbling of the meat, strength and elasticity of bone, delicacy of skin, a certain fineness and length of hair, definite color and definite color patterns, feather markings, size, color, and form of comb, wattles, legs DOMESTIC ANIMALS and other parts, lung capacity, tempera- ment, strength, vigor, action, ability to transmit desirable qualities to offspring, and so on through the list of the many thousand points which have been at- tained by breeding. The great strides already made along this line have not been accomplished by accident or by luck, but by working with a definite purpose in mind; not by leaps and jumps, but slowly through patient toil and after numerous failures. To the originator of a new, useful breed of ani- mal the world owes as much as to the inventor of the most useful mechanical device. These men, however, are little known and little appreciated. All school children are taught who invented the tel- ephone, telegraph, steam engine, loco- motive, etc. How many of our readers know the names of the men who contrib- uted to the origination and substantial improvement of Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Holstein, or Jersey cattle; mod- ern types of horses, mules, zebroids; Berkshire, Victoria, Duroc-Jersey, York- shire, or Tamworth hogs; Rambouillet, Southdown, Dorset, Suffolk, Lincoln, Cotswold or Cheviot sheep; Wyandotte, Dorking, Plymouth Rock, Orpington, Minorca, Brahma or Houdan chickens; and so on through the almost endless list of distinct and valuable hreeds of farm animals and fowls. These improved breeds have contrib- uted untold wealth, comfort and enjoy- ment to the human race. In order to appreciate this point more fully compare the modern Berkshire hog and the "razor- back," the Shorthorn and the Texas steer, the broncho and the thoroughbred, the common goat and the Angora, the tough, unimproved fowl and the Wyan- dotte. Breeders have made improvement in every direction — in the quality and flavor of the meat, in the value of the wool and mohair, in the size of the ani- mal, in speed, strength and endurance of the horse, in docility, fertility and the power to utilize feed stuffs economically. This sounds formidable enough on paper and in practice it is more difficult than it sounds. There is the constant struggle to prevent undesirable charac- ters from cropping out in your farm ani- mals. The process of improving animals is in one sense unnatural or somewhat against nature. Certain natural tenden- cies have to be overcome, others greatly developed. The sheep's coat is a protec- tion and a great comfort in winter. By careful selection, however, we have so increased the weight of the fleece that in warm weather it is a positive burden to the sheep and must be removed once or twice per year. Without man's inter- vention nature would gradually reduce the amount of wool. Another example of this sort is seen in milch cows. Native cattle have small milk glands and produce a quantity of milk barely sufficient to nourish the calf for the first two months of its life. We have increased the size of the gland and the milk yield enormously until good dairy cows yield 6,500 to 30,000 pounds of milk per year. This is, again, an un- natural i^erformance and can be main- tained only by rigid selection. In the hog, in turn, we have taken advantage of the tendency to lay on fat and have developed it to such an extent that the hog has become a living fat factory. Similarly through the list of breeding achievements we have exaggerated cer- tain tendencies and suppressed others un- til the breeder must be constantly on the alert to maintain the high standard in his stock. Under natural, wild condi- tions there is no occasion for the produc- tion of a ten-pound fleece, a 30,000-pound milk yield or 200 pounds of fat and, if left to themselves, such animals would soon return to the normal, wild condition. The animals themselves take no conscious part in the improvement of breeds. In fact from their standpoint what we call improvements may not be improvements at all. Animals can cer- tainly derive no advantage to themselves from becoming so fat that they cannot walk without danger of crushing the bones of the leg, from producing a fleece too hot and heavy for comfort or from producing three times as much milk as is needed for their offspring. These con- ditions must be brought about by man without help from the animals, for our farm stock can hardly be expected to take interest in a process which tends in some respects toward their discomfort. The unconscioiis forces of nature also operate against us because we make our animals do or produce more than would be necessary in a state of nature. In the natural laziness of things there is great inertia against doing any unnecessary work. Enormous milk yields and in- creased production of other animal sub- stances constitute a more or less serious drain on the strength of the animal. Their health is liable to be affected and special diseases arise. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK These difficulties have been overcome as they arose and it is therefore unnec- essary to consider them further. They should remind us again of our debt of gratitude to the men who have given us our modern wonderfully perfect farm animals. A farm without live stock is an in- complete idea. Fields of alfalfa, clover, rice, sugar cane, cotton ; orchards of cher- ries, peaches and oranges may be beauti- ful, but they soon become tiresome to the eye if no farm animals are in sight. The well-sodded, green pasture support- ings cows, sheep, goats and horses is re- quired to round out the idea of farm or homestead. Not only from an artistic standpoint is home incomplete without animals, but also from a business standpoint. It is impossible to sell all crops as such to the greatest advantage. Without farm ani- mals there is always considerable waste on the farm. Small undersized potatoes must be thrown away. Turnips, ruta- bagas, carrots, cabbage, cull apples, etc., are allowed to rot and become a total loss. Animals manufacture meat, milk, wool and eggs from this unsalable material. Hogs will root out and eat all potatoes that may have been missed in digging. They will also harvest other root crops and will pick up a good living from the shattered grain left on the ground after harvest. Sheep clean the weeds out of fence corners better than hired help. All this work is done without expense, and much material which otherwise would be lost is utilized. There is another practical point worth bearing in mind. Farm crops are bulky and require much time and labor for transportation to market. Moreover, they are in a comparatively raw, crude condition. In the finished product (meat, milk, eggs, wool, etc.) the crops bring more and are more easily marketed. Many farmers keep their men and teams busy all fall and winter long hauling hay and corn to market. The same hay and corn could be made into beef and pork on the farm and marketed in a day. This allows the men and teams as well as the farmer himself to remain on the farm and attend to their proper business. The fences need repairing, a few broken hinges are to be replaced and definite plans must be made for the next year's work. The whole farm should be care- fully mapped and crops assigned to each field for a period of five years in advance. Such plans require thoughtful attention each year. It is good work for the fire- side in winter and serves to keep the farmer at home rather than constantly on the road between the farm and town. Farm animals contribute much to the national wealth. We usually think of factories and mines as the real foun- dation of commerce but these are of sec- ondary importance as compared with farming. In 1905 agricultural produc- tion in the United States amounted to $6,000,000,000. A large part of this was animal products. The present value of our horses is $1,200,000,000; of our mules, $251,000,000; of our dairy cows, $482,000,000; of our beef cattle, $662,000, 000; of our sheep, $130,000,000; of our hogs, $283,000,000. These are almost un- thinkable values and show how farm ani- mals are the basis of our national great- ness. This is no place or occasion to set forth the importance of meat in the human diet. This is too well known by the millions who eat it. A corner on meat causes unspeakable anxiety and even panic among the people. The work- ing man must have meat. Without go- ing into the merits of the vegetarian controversy meat is indispensable for most of us if we are to remain capable of normal work. Then, as already indicated, the arti- cles of clothing and manufacture fur- nished by animals are beyond number. Our debt to animals is large but we must make it still larger by greater ani- mal production. Qualifications of a stock farmer — For success at live stock raising one must put all his time, energy and thought into the business. This is no more than must be said for any other business. Without attention animals do not make profit for their owners. We cannot get something for nothing from farm ani- mals. Special education, skill, common sense count for just as much in stock raising as in banking. The time has passed when the man who does not know enough to do anything else can make success of stock farming. A good gen- eral education is required and also ex- tensive special training, particularly in chemistry and biology. The stock raiser must know the laws of heredity, the principles of breeding, animal physiology, the nature and treatment of diseases and practical hygiene. This involves some engineering skill in providing water sup- ply and drainage. Then he must know DOMESTIC ANIMALS the chemistry and effect of foods. Brains and skill in feeding bring results and save money. Stock raising a science — The man ■who understands the principles of feed- ing and the nutritive value of feeding stuffs will be able to compound rations for mere maintenance, for growth, for fattening or for other special purposes. Stock farming is not a trade but a science combined with practical skill. The brain work is far more important than the manual labor. Farm soils are not inexhaustible. Re- moving crops year after year is like draw- ing checks against your bank account. When the account is exhausted in either case you can draw no more. Now, the ideal way of cropping the soil annually is to carry farm animals up to the limit of the farm's capacity and raise legumes, which in turn are effective in stock feed- ing as well as in maintaining the fertil- ity of the soil. When the farmer hauls his hay and grain to market he is haul- ing away his farm ; but when the annual surplus of farm animals is sold the farm and its fertility remain. A system of bookkeeping { s strictly necessary in stock raising. Otherwise the farmer must work in the dark, for he has no other means of knowing whether certain methods are paying or losing propositions. There should be a record of the performance of every animal. Then all barren ewes can be fattened and sold for mutton and unproductive cows can be disposed of. The stock raiser is thus in a position to detect and stop leaks in his profits. A very important requisite f the successful stockman remains to be men- tioned. There must be a liking of the business and a love of animals. The farmer need not be fond of all kinds of live stock. In fact strong prejudices may exist against sheep, hogs or some other animal simultaneously with a special fondness for horses or cattle. Cattle- men may hate the sight of sheep and sheepmen of cattle. The successful stockman, however, is fond of his ani- mals. He has names for all of them. He knows all their peculiar habits — when they sleep, when they drink, what and how much they eat. He therefore recog- nizes instantly when one of his animals is "off feed" or ailing in any way and promptly attends to its wants. In other words he knows his stock as individual animals, not as a herd. The peculiar requirements of each animal are thus considered in farm practice. Farm ani- mals differ as much in temperament and habits as man. In the same herd very different dispositions are to be observed. When these differences are taken into account in the rations and daily treat- ment of different animals the best re- sults are obtained. Farm animals must continue to fur- nish us with food, clothing and many other necessities, and our indebtedness to them will increase rather than dimin- ish. There is accordingly a glorious op- portunity for all stock raisers to improve the quality of their animals and an equally fine opportunity for the great ex- tension of the business to meet the ever increasing demand for animal products. CLASSIFICATION OF FARM STOCK More or less serious attempts have been made to tame or domesticate for some use almost all known animals including even snakes, crocodiles, turtles and in- sects. Only a comparatively few species, however, have proved suitable to man's uses. Naturally almost all of our impor- tant domesticated animals are herbivo- rous, and the most useful mammals be- long to the order of ungulates or hoofed -animals. This order of animals includes the horse, ass, zebra, camel, llama, alpaca, goat, sheep, buffalo, bison, zebu, cattle, hog, etc. Ungulates are commonly di- vided into two groups, the odd-toed and the even-toed. The group of odd-toed ungulates includes, the horse, ass, quagga, zebra, tapir, and rhinoceros. Other ungulates, except hyrax and the elephant, are even-toed. The even -toed or artio- dactyl ungulates include the hippopot- amus, swine and ruminants which group in turn embraces musk ox, cattle, sheep, goats and antelopes with hollow horns which are not annually shed, and the deer family with solid horns which are shed annually and regrown. Eabbits and the Belgian hare belong to the family Leporidae of the order of rodents which includes also rats, mice, squirrels, prairie dogs, etc. The majority of our domestic fowls belong to the order Gallinacese, which in- cludes the domestic hen, turkeys, guinea fowl and pea fowl in addition to the various species of grouse, pheasants, and quail, some of which are raised in a state of semi-domestication. Ducks, geese and swans are the repre- sentatives of three families of the order Lamellirostres. DOMESTIC ANIMALS The numerous breeds of domestic pigeons are descended from the wild pigeon (Columba livia) of Europe. ORIGIN OF FARM ANIMALS Horse — This subject has received much attention from naturalists and otbers, and a great variety of opinions has prevailed. We are told by paleon- tologists that the horse originated in ""die new world. In support of this statement a fairly satisfactory series has been worked out in the ancestry of the horse leading far back in the geological history of the world to a five-toed ancestor about the size of a rabbit. Then came the three-toed ancestor of the horse and fi- grouped into five species. Sanson was even more liberal and made eight species. Pietrement practically adopted Sanson's system of classification but spoke of races rather than species. Then came Darwin, who rejected, all these systems and argued that all modern breeds of horses must have descended from one original wild species, on account of the "fertility of the most distinct breeds when crossed." This is not a final cri- terion, however, for there are certain species which produce fertile crosses, for example the dog and wolf, cattle and zebu. Nevertheless the majority of writ- ers have followed Darwin in recognizing only one species of horse. Fig. 3 OLD BLACK HORSE OF ENGLAND, SOURCE OF OUR DRAFT BREEDS nally all the toes became rudimentary except the middle one. Most authorities seem to be agreed that the horse origi- nated in North and South America whence it spread to Asia, Europe and Africa. Subsequently, for some reason, the horse became extinct in the western hemisphere. All of our present breeds of horses, therefore, came from the old world. The question of how many species of wild horses have been domesticated to form the basis of our present breeds is a vexed one. Hamilton Smith believed that the modern horse breeds may be Recently Professor Ewart called atten- tion to the constant differences between Celtic ponies and other horses. The Celtic pony has only minute hock cal- losities and the hair on the upper part of the tail is long and forms a fringe. Then we have Prejvalsky's horse from the deserts of central Asia. This is evidently a distinct species and a true wild horse. It is distinguished by a short, erect mane, absence of forelock, and short hair on the upper two-thirds of the tail. Prejvalsky's horse is identi- cal with the tarpan of older writers and has freely crossed with the domestic horses of the region. 10 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK \ i^JiS \ ' ^^gg^^ ye. ..-., mm ■- ,ta IfSh^ST JBK ■' l^Jf ' DAN |Jn j .\i< M i .-, ■DAN PATCH, THE WORLD RENOWNED PACER, READY FOR THE TRACK (By courtesy M. W. Savage) According to recent studies by Ridge- way on the origin of horsc<=, the horses of northern Europe and Asia were dun or white, thick-set and slow of action. The Celtic pony was of lighter build, more elegant form and more active. Appar- ently the heavy horses of northern Eu- rope and Asia made their way southward across the central mountains of the con- tinent, coming to Babylonia, Palestine and Greece about 1500 B. C. About the same time a bay breed of horses appeared in northern Africa and attracted atten- tion on account of its elegance and great speed. It bore a star in the forehead as another distinguishing mark. This horse was the ancestor of the Arabs and thoroughbreds of the present day. Ac- Fig. 5- -TYPICAL AMERICAN ROADSTER AND RIG IN MODERN USE (By courtesy Rider and Driver) DOMESTIC ANIMALS 11 cording to this view we have four types or species of existing horses : The com- mon horse (Equus caballus), Prejvalsky's horse (Equus prejvalskii), the Thor- oughbred or Libyan horse (Equus libycus) and the Celtic pony. Asses and zebras — Belonging to the same genus with the horse, we have sev- eral asses and zebras which may be made to interbreed with the horse, producing sterile crosses or mules. In the north- west part of the Gobi desert lives a wild ass known as the dziggetai (Equus hemionus) while the Kiang (Equus hemionus kiang) thrives at high alti- tudes in Tibet and Mongolia. Through- out the great plains of Asia is found quagga (Equus quagga) which formerly roamed through Cape Colony and Orange River Colony is now probably extinct. Cattle — From a geological standpoint cattle are a relatively modern group of animals. Their original home was in the old world, probably in Asia. Represen- tatives of the family Bovidse, however, are now found throughout the world. From fossil remains thus far discovered it appears that cattle were originally polled and that horns were developed later, probably as a means of defense against carnivora. The absence of horns in certain modern breeds is therefore a reversion to an earlier condition. The Fig. G ■LADY SUFI THE TROTTING TRACK FIFTY YEARS AGO the onager (Equus onager) and the va- riety hemippus. The African wild ass (Equus asinus), the source of our modern domestic ass still survives in northern Africa. The Somali wild ass (Equus somaliensis) is distinguished by its pronounced gray color. At least three species of zebras have been de- scribed with numerous varietal forms. They all come from Africa and it is likely that they may be variations of one and the same species. At present, how- ever, distinction is made between the Grevy, Burchell, Common, Grant, Ward, Chapman and Crawshay zebras. They may all be referred to the species Eqv/us zebra. The closely related polled ox (Bos planifrons) was succeeded by the aurochs (Bosf primigenius or urus) from which, according to Lydekker all domesticated breeds of European cat- tle must trace their origin. The so- called Celtic Shorthorns have been referred to another supposed wild species, now extinct (Bos longifrons). It seems unnecessary, however, to com- plicate matters with the assumption of another wild species as an ancestor. The half-wild, white cattle of Chilling- ham and other British parks are stunted descendants of a domesticated form of the aurochs and are not truly wild cat- tle. The aurochs was of great size, standing 6 feet at the shoulder, and was 32 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK probably black. It gradually became ex- tinct during the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries. All of our domesticated cat- tle are included under the scientific name Bos taurus. Allied species—While all our domes- tic cattle have thus descended from the aurochs of Europe, there are other related species of Bovidse some of which have been domesticated or crossed with domes- tic cattle. We may well mention a few of them in this connection. The Zebu {Bos indicus) is distin- guished by a hump on the withers, large drooping ears and a white ring around each fetlock. It is a more or less im- portant domestic animal in Africa, In- dia, China, Burma, Siam and Mada- been crossed with the zebu. The crosses are sometimes fertile. In fact a gayal- zebu hybrid has been crossed with the American bison and still produced fer- tile offspring. The Banteng (Bos sondaicus) occurs in Java, Borneo and neighboring coun- tries. It is smaller than the gayal with longer legs and a white rump patch. The banteng breeds freely with domes- tic cattle and has been domesticated to some extent. Apparently the native Burmese cattle are descended from it. In forests it grazes preferably on young bamboo sprouts. The Yak (Bos grunniens) is noted for its large size, height, massive horns and fringe of long hair hanging from the Fig. 7 HANDSOME TEAM OF MODERN TROTTERS (By courtesy Rider and Driver) gascar. In Algeria the zebu has been crossed with domestic cattle and the crosses are fertile. Cattle with zebu blood in them seem to be immune to Texas fever. The crosses also produce a good quality of beef. The Gaur (Bos gaurus) is massive with large ears little or no dewlap, and dark color on the back. It is found in India, Cochin China, Siam, Burma, etc. The gaur has apparently not been domes- ticated. On the other hand the gayal (Bos frontalis) of similar appearance but smaller size and shorter legs is eas- ily domesticated. Even when allowed to roam at will in the forests they return at night to their owners. The gayal has flanks. Its native home is the plateau of Tibet where it ranges in summer at elevations of 14,000 to 20,000 feet. Do- mesticated yak are smaller, with slen- derer horns and may be kept at all al- titudes. Domestic yak cross freely with native Indian cattle. The European Bison (Bos bonasus) is now extinct except for a few herds in the Caucasus and Lithuania. It appears not to have been truly domesticated and not to have crossed with domestic cattle. The American Bison (Bos bison) once extended in countless herds from Penn- sylvania to the Bocky mountains but is now extinct as a wild species. A few thousand are preserved in the Yellow- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 13 stone and other parks and on various private estates in United States and Canada. Our bison is therefore at pres- ent in a state of semi-domestication. It breeds freely in captivity and when crossed with domestic cattle produces fertile crosses known as catalo. These hybrid animals are fertile both among themselves and with either of the parent species. They produce a shaggy coat good for robes, especially when the buf- falo is crossed on the Galloway cattle. The African Buffalo (Bos coffer) is found under five recognizable varieties throughout Africa. Apparently it has not been domesticated nor interbred Sheep — The ancestral form of the do- mestic breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) is entirely unknown. The wild moufion of Europe (Ovis musimon) crosses with do- mestic sheep and has been considered by some writers as the source of the Euro- pean breeds of sheep. There is no good evidence for this assumption. It is possible, however, that the moufion is the original parent of the European sheep and the argali (Ovis ammon) may have given rise to some of the Asiatic sheep. Wild species of sheep are found in Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Although specimens are kept in zoolog- ical parks they do not lend themselves Fig. 8 LADY PALMER AND FLATBUSH MARE, OF FIFTY YEARS AGO, AT FULL SPEED with domestic cattle. The Indian buf- falo (Bos bubalns) is found wild in India and other parts of the orient. In a semi-domesticated condition this ani- mal is found in southeastern Europe, Africa, Western Asia, Burma, Philip- pine Islands (where it is known as car- abao) and neighboring countries. In India the domesticated buffalo gives more milk and of a better quality than that of native cattle. The period of lactation extends over about three years. Other Bovidse such as the tamarau of Mindoro, the anoa of the island of Celebes, and the musk ox of Arctic America are of less importance. readily to domestication. Our Rocky mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) has apparently never produced any hybrids with domestic sheep. In former years, however, the bucks used to come down among the flocks of domestic ewes. Sheep are perhaps more influenced by geological conditions than any other do- mesticated animal. In England, for ex- ample, ea«h region has its characteris- tic breeds. These will be classified and described in the special chapter on Goats — The zoological differences be- tween sheep and goats are very slight and many naturalists believe they should 14 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK be piaced in the same genus but re- frain from doing so merely on account of a desire to avoid the confusion of changing names. There are hairy- sheep and all sheep have some hair in the fleece. The difference between the horns of sheep and goats is no greater than that in different breeds of sheep. All our domestic goats including the common, Angora, and Cashmere goats are domesticated races of Capra liircus, the common wild form of which is the Persian goat. It is possible, too, that the blood of the markhor {Capra fal- coneri) has mingled with that of the Persian goat. Our so-called mountain goat (Oreamnos montanus) of the Cas- from the European wild boar by the shortness and great width of the skull. The Chinese pig has been repeatedly crossed with other breeds and has exer- cised a strong influence in shortening the face of our pigs. The same results have also been secured by selection and breeding. In fact shortness of legs and shortness of snout seem to be associated characters. The Japan pig with short head, broad forehead and nose, fleshy ears and furrowed skin is a variety of the Chinese pig. There are other wild species of the family Suidse, but they have had nothing to do with the forma- tion of our modern breeds. Among those we may mention the bearded hog MODERN TYPE OF HEREFORD BULL cade range and Rocky mountains is not closely related to the goats but the hair is quite like mohair. Swine — Leaving out of the question the pig's fossil ancestors, which have been traced back at least to the eocene age, we may start with the wild boar of Europe (Sus scrofa) and the Chinese pig (Sus indica.) Sus scrofa once ranged all over Europe, northern Africa and Hindostan, and is the original par- ent of European breeds of domesticated hogs. Sus indica is no longer known in a wild state but was domesti- cated by the Chinese about 5000 years ago. The Chinese pig is distinguished (Sus barbatus) of Borneo, the wart hog (Sus verrucosus) of Java, and the pec- cary (Dicotyles torquatus), ranging from Arkansas to Texas and South America. OBIGIN OF DOMESTIC FOWLS Most authorities are agreed that the Red jungle fowl ( Gallus gallus, formerly called Gallus banhiva) is the wild an- cestor of all breeds of chickens. The jungle fowl inhabits India, Burma, Malay peninsula, Indo-China, Java and the Philippines. Several geographical varieties of the wild fowl have been de- scribed. The voice of the jungle fowl DOMESTIC ANIMALS la very closely resembles that of domestic breeds and the wild form breeds freely with domestic races. The game fowl most closely resembles the wild species. In fact it can scarcely be distinguished from it except by the larger size and more erect carriage of the tail. The jungle fowl is difficult of domestication but in the Philippines wild cocks are kept for fighting purposes. Brief mention may be made of other wild fowl which have sometimes been referred to as parents of our common fowl. The Gray or Sonnerat's jungle fowl (Gallus sonneratii) of India resem- bles the common fowl in structure but the voice is entirely different. The increases in size and undergoes changes in color. The mallard crosses freely with domestic ducks and the crosses are fertile. The Rouen resembles the wild mallard more closely than any other duck. Not only the common breeds of ducks but also the call duck, penguin duck and hook-billed duck derive their origin from the mallard. The muscov- ies come from the wild musk duck (Cairina moscha). Geese — Among the breeds of domestic geese the Embden and Toulouse prob- ably descended from the wild graylag goose of Europe (Anser cinereus), while the brown and white China geese seem to derive their ancestry from the wild Eig. 10 HEREFORD BULL OF 60 YEARS AGO. THE WHITE MARKS ARE NOT PURE BUT MOTTLED hackles are horny and transversely banded, and finally, although it crosses readily with domestic fowls, the off- spring are invariably sterile. The last statement is also true of the Ceylon jungle fowl {Gallus lafayettii) of Ceylon and the Green or Java jungle fowl (Gallus varius) of Java. Ducks — Naturalists are at one on the point that nearly all our breeds of ducks are descended from the wild mallard (Anas hoschas) of Europe and America. The mallard may be readily tamed and has been bred in domestication for sev- eral generations. In captivity the mal- lard in the course of a few generations acquires the gait of the domestic duck, Asiatic goose (Anser cygnoides). Ac- cording to some authorities the common domestic goose of India is a hybrid be- tween these two species. The domes- tic African goose may also be a mixture of the same sort. The Canada or com- mon wild goose (Bernicla canadensis) is quite widely domesticated and is also crossed on African and Toulouse breeds to produce mongrels which are sterile. Turkey— Three species of wild turk- eys have been recognized; viz., Meleag- ris gallopavo in the United States, M. mexicana in Mexico and M. ocellata in Central America. The first two seem to be merely geographical races of a single species and from this wild form our do- 16 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK mestic turkeys are descended. All the wild forms breed freely with the domes- tic turkeys and the offspring are per- fectly fertile. The Bronze turkey stands nearest to the wild ancestor and its vigor and constitution have been re- peatedly improved by admixture of wild blood. Guinea — The common guinea fowl of Western Africa (Numida meleagris) is supposed to be the wild ancestor of our domesticated guinea fowl. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY It would not be in accord with the purposes of the present work to go into details concerning the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals. It is desirable, however, to discuss such points as may assist the farmer in ob- taining a comprehensive knowledge of his farm stock. (For names and illus- trations of various parts see colored plates.) The skeleton consists of a backbone, skull, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle and two pairs of appendages. The backbone may be conveniently divided into re- gions, each comprising a certain num- ber of vertebrae. The cervical vertebras include those from the skull to the first rib. In all mammals except the sloth and sea cow the number of cervical ver- tebras is seven, being long or short ac- cording as the neck of the animal is relatively long or short. The first and second cervical vertebrae, known as the atlas and axis, are especially modified so as to allow free turning movements of the head. The next region includes the dorsal or thoracic vertebras which are charac- terized by having ribs movably articu- lated with them. The number is 13 in the cat, dog, ox, sheep and goat; 14 in the hog, 18 or 19 in the horse and ass, and six or seven in domestic poultry. In mammals they are so joined together as to permit motion in several directions, but in poultry the dorsal vertebras are more rigidly articulated, those next to the sacrum often being grown together with the sacrum. The spines are high and much flattened in all ungulates, long and slender in dogs and cats. They slope backward forming strong points of attachment for the back muscles. Sev- eral ribs, varying in number in different animals, meet and become articulated with the breast bone or sternum. The sternum consists of seven to nine artic- ulated segments in our domestic mam- mals, while in fowls the sternum is one thin, broad bone furnished with a keel of varying depth. The lumbar vertebras lie between the dorsal vertebras and the sacrum. The number is five in the horse, six in the hog, ox and goat and seven in the sheep. Tbe sacrum is made up of a certain number of vertebras which are rigidly united and serve as an articulation for the pelvic arch. The number of sacral vertebras is five in the ox and horse, four in sheep and hogs and 12 to 17 in birds. The caudal or tail vertebras naturally vary in number according to the length of the tail, (7 to 10 in sheep, 21 in the ox, 23 in hogs, 17 in the horse, 22 in the cat, 16 to 23 in the dog). In ungulates the anterior ribs are scarcely curved, the chest being very narrow in front. The number of pairs of ribs is the same as the number of dorsal vertebras with which they artic- ulate. The skull i s really composed of a num- ber of modified vertebras, just how many is not determined. The bones of the skull can therefore best be enumerated in rings beginning with the base of the cranium. The first three segments con- sist of four bones each (one at the base, one on either side, and one above the brain). By studying a weather-cleaned skull of a sheep the following bones may be identified: Basioccipital, two exoccip- itals, supraoccipital, basisphenoid, two alisphenoids, parietal, presphenoid, two orbitosphenoids, frontal. These enclose the brain. The face is composed of ethmoid, lachrymals, turbinated and nasal bones in addition to the vomer, palatines, pterygoids, malar, maxillary and premaxillary of the upper jaw and palate and the mandible, squamosal and hyoid belonging to the lower jaw and tongue. The difference in the shape of the skulls of different animals is determined by the relative size of the various bones of the skull. In hogs, for example, the head has been much shortened as a re- sult of breeding, thus giving the skull of the improved breeds a very different appearance from that of the razorback. The shoulder girdle consists of a shoulder blade, collar bone and coracoid on either side. The foreleg (or wing in the case of birds), articulates with the socket formed by the junction of these three bones. In all of the ungulates the shoulder blade is high and narrow, the coracoid is never much developed and DOMESTIC ANIMALS 17 the collar bone is absent. In fowls all three bones of the shoulder girdle are well developed, the collar bone being rep- resented by the "wish bone." The pelvic girdle also consists of three bones on either side, viz : ilium, ischium, and pubis. The first two are directly- articulated to the spinal column while the pubic bones of either side unite be- low to complete the arch. The three bones of each side of the pelvis are pres- ent in all of our domestic animals in- cluding the fowls. Legbones of farm animals — There is one formula for the bones of the fore and hind legs of farm animals. The first segment is a single bone, the humerus of the fore leg, femur of the hind leg. In the next segment there are two bones; radius and ulna in the fore leg, tibia and fibula in the hind leg. In the dog, cat and Belgian hare the radius and ulna are both well developed and distinct. In ungulates the humerus is short and stout while the ulna is com- plete in the pig, rudimentary and be- hind the radius in ruminants and firmly united with the radius in the horse. Similarly with the hind leg the fibula is a complete bone in the pig while in the horse there is merely a rudiment of it, attached to the tibia. The original type of the mammalian skeleton has undergone the greatest modification in the bones of the feet. In the horse there are only six of the original ten wrist or carpal bones and, since there is but one of the original five toes, the horse has also but one meta- carpal or cannon bone. Splint-like rudiments of two other metacarpal bones are to be found at the upper end of the cannon bone or at the "knee" joint. Below the cannon bone and form- ing the shaft of the foot we have the small cannon bone, coronary bone, and coffin bone — the last being within the hoof with the navicular bone behind it. The stifle joint of the horse corres- ponds to the knee of man. The "knee" of the horse's fore leg corresponds to the hock of the hind leg, both being at the upper end of the cannon bone. The fetlock joint is between the large and small cannon bones, the pastern joint between the small cannon or large pas- tern and coronary or small pastern bones, and the coffin joint between the coronary and coffin bones. The horse walks upon what corresponds to the nail of the middle finger and middle toe of man. In pigs four digits touch the ground, the first being absent and the third and fourth larger and in front of the second and fifth. In ruminants the third and fourth digits reach the ground while the second and fifth do not. In dogs the first digit appears on the side of the leg, not in contact with the ground. In fowls the wing, which corresponds to the foreleg of mammals, shows a well developed humerus, radius and ulna, while only one carpal and one metacar- pal bone remain, along which the wing feathers are attached. In the leg the femur and tibia are strong bones but the fibula is a mere splint. The tarsal bones are absent while the shank con- sists of a metatarsal bone (really three bones fused together) to which the four toes are articulated. The muscular system of farm animals is too elaborate, the number of muscles too great, and their modifications for different purposes too complex for con- sideration in detail in the present vol- ume. All muscles are either striped or unstriped (as examined under the micro- scope) according as they are under the immediate control of the will or not. The heart muscle forms an exception for it is striped though involuntary. The essential characteristic of muscle fibers is contractility which they possess in high degree. The typical striped muscles are concerned in locomotion, being attached at either end to a bone and extending across some movable joint. The most important unstriped muscles are found in the walls of the intestines and blood vessels. (See colored plates for location and names of muscles.) Similarly with the nervous system, i n so far as our present purposes are con- cerned, it may be disposed of in a few words. The central nervous system con- sists of a brain and spinal cord. The microscopic elements of this tissue are peculiarly modified cells consisting of a central body from which fibers run in two or more directions. The cell bodies constitute the gray matter, and the fibers the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. The gray substance is in- side the spinal cord and on the surface of the brain, constituting the cortex. The most important parts of the brain are the cerebrum, optic lobes, cerebellum and medulla. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves originating in the brain and controlling the special senses, movements of the face, respiration and 18 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK pulse rate. From each segment of the spinal cord a pair of spinal nerves arises, each of which possesses both sensory and motor roots. The sympathetic nervous system consists of a trunk on either side running from the base of the skull to the pelvis, furnished with ganglionic enlargements and connected with the spinal nerves by small fibers. The teeth show great differences in form and arrangement in different farm animals. The typical full denti- tion includes incisors in front, followed by an eyetooth or canine, premolars and molars or grinders. Each tooth con- sists of a root, neck and crown. Nerves and blood vessels enter the tooth through below. The dog has, when enumerated in the same manner, three incisors, one canine, six molars above and seven mo- lars below, while in the cat the dentition is tbe same except that there are four molars above and three below. Colts' teeth — Colts are born with the first two incisor teeth; the middle incisors appear after four to six weeks and the corners after six to nine months. The central incisors are shed at the age of 2 1 /2 to 3 years, the middle incisors at 8^2 to 4 years and the corners at 4V& to 5 years. The horse thus has a full set of permanent teeth at five years of age. As a rule cattle keep their milk incisors till the age of 18 months while the Fig. 11 REPRESENTATIVE OF THE WILD CATTLE OF ENGLAND. A DESCEXDAN OF THE AUROCHS the root and terminate in the tooth cav- ity. The tooth substance consists of a dentine base covered with a hard enamel. Considerable growth takes place in the tooth to offset the loss from wear. Horses'' teeth — Normally the horse has forty teeth or on either side of each jaw three incisors, one canine, and six molars. Occasionally a so-called wolf tooth is present, which is a premolar tooth. In cattle, sheep and goats there are no incisors in the upper jaw, while there are four on either side below, no canines in either jaw and six molars on either side of either jaw. The hog has three incisors, one canine, one premolar and six molars on each side, above and permanent incisors are all in place in the lower jaw at the age of five years. Lambs' teeth — Lambs are born with the central incisors and the other milk incisors appear within four weeks. The shedding of the incisors begins at the age of 12 to 18 months and is finished at the age of four years. The pig is born with the third incisors and the others appear within three months. The permanent incisors are in place at the age of 18 months. The essential parts of the alimentary canal f farm animals are mouth, pharynx, oesophagus or gullet, stomach and intestines with connected glands DOMESTIC ANIMALS 19 The pharynx and gullet are much alike in all farm animals. Great differences, however, are observed in the stomach and intestines. In ruminants the first three of the four stomachs are really en- largements and appendages of the gul- let. The names of these stomachs in order are (1) rumen or paunch, reticulum, (3) omasum, (4) abomasum. The last is the true digestive stomach, the other stomachs being reservoirs or concerned in preparing food for diges- tion. (See colored plates showing inter- nal organs.) Likewise in the dog and horse the anterior end of the stomach is essentially a gullet enlargement or fore stomach. in geese. The digestive stomach of most birds is relatively small, while the gizzard is larger and furnished with a thick muscular wall The blood system consists of a heart and blood vessels, arteries carrying blood from the heart, and veins back to the heart. The arteries are connected with the veins by means of minute capilla- The arteries may be distinguished from the veins by their thicker, more elastic coats and by the fact that the pulse can be felt in them. With the blood system is intimately connected the lymphatic system, which consists of tubes and glands through which fluids circulate and finally enter the blood Fig. 12 — TYPE OF A HIGHLY DEVELOPED HOLSTEDJ-FEEESIAN COW (Kathereen Beets and her three-hour old calf. Under the supervision of Cornell University, this cow made a seven-day milk record of 479.6 pounds; equivalent to 19.613 pounds of butter.) The first portion of the intestine is the duodenum in which digestion is ac- tive, followed by the ileum which ter- minates in the cseeum or blind sac, con- necting also with the colon which in turn passes on into the rectum. In the horse the length of the small intestines is about 56 feet, of the caecum 2 1 ' 2 feet and of the colon 21 feet. The impor- tant digestive glands are the salivary glands, liver, pancreas or stomach sweet- bread and smnll glands in the walls of the stomach and intestines. In chickens and pigeons the gullet is enlarged into a crop for storing food. In pigeons the crop is double while in ducks it is little developed and absent through the right lymphatic vein and thoracic duct near the heart. Inciden- tally the lymphatic glands, situated in the head, trunk, appendages and body cavity, filter out the bacteria in the cir- culating fluid and are therefore often swollen in cases of infectious diseases such as glanders, tuberculosis and lym- phangitis. Three other organs should be mentioned on account of their connec- tion with the blood system ; viz.. spleen, thymus and thyroid gland. The spleen is found near or sometimes attached to, the stomach. It is a rather firm organ of dark red color and is concerned in the manufacture of red blood corpuscles. The thymus or neck sweetbread has the 20 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK same function. It is a grayish red or- gan which is highly developed in the fetus and young animal but gradually disappears before adult age. The thyroid also lies on the windpipe and secretes a fluid which is absorbed by the blood and seems to be necessary to the proper assimilation of food and to the physical and mental development of the animal. The respiratory organs include the nose, larynx, trachea or windpipe and lungs. The trachea forks into bronchi and bronchioles of smaller and smaller size ending in the alveoli or blind sacs of the lungs. In fowls there are numer- ous extensions of the respiratory sys- The kidneys of sheep, goats and swine are bean shaped and without lobes. The reproductive apparatus consists of ovaries, oviducts, uterus or womb and vagina in the female; and testes, sper- matic cords, seminal vesicle and penis together with various connecting glands, especially prostate gland and Cowper's gland, in the male. In fowls there is no urinary bladder but the ureters open into the cloaca or posterior part of the rectum. The vagina and uterus are also wanting in fowls, the oviducts opening directly into the rectum. The male copulating organ is absent except in ducks, geese, swan and the ostrich. The skin or general integument pos- Fig. 13 MERIXO SHEEP 60 YEARS AGO tern, known as air sacs, and located in the body cavity and also in the hollow bones. The air sacs communicate with the lungs but not with one another. The urinary organs f farm animals consist of kidneys connecting by means of ureters with a bladder from which the urethra conducts the urine to the outside. In the male the urethra passes through the penis and in the female it ends just above the opening of the va- gina. The kidneys are usually enclosed in a capsule of fat. The right kidney of the horse is heart shaped, the left bean shaped. Each kidney of the ox shows 15 to 20 lobes and is oval in form. sesses two layers, the cutis and the sub- cutis, the first of which is further sub- divided into epidermis and corium. The subcutis may carry much fat tissue and gradually passes into the dermal muscles and other tissue. The skin musculature is extensively developed in farm animals. Hair, wool, feathers, claws, hoofs and horns are the most im- portant epidermal structures developed in the skin. The bony core of the horn is an outgrowth of the frontal bone. Process of nutrition — The farmer is not interested in all the problems of ani- mal physiology. He is chiefly concerned with the processes of nutrition, growth DOMESTIC ANIMALS 21 and fattening. Nutrition is such an im- important part of animal life, however, that nearly all organs of the body are concerned with it. A considerable part of the animal's movements are for the purpose of obtaining food. The teeth, tongue and stomach reduce the food to small particles. The digestive juices dissolve and otherwise modify the nutri- tive elements so that they may be ab- sorbed. The stomach, intestines, sali- vary glands, pancreas and liver take part in this work. The dissolved food mate- rials are absorbed directly into the veins or are carried by the lymphatic vessels to the blood. By means of the circulating blood the food in solution is distributed to all parts of the body. The excess of nutritive substances; viz., proteids, car- bohydrates, and oils or fats. Protein is an essential constituent of all animal tissues and must therefore be present in the ration to a greater or less degree. Carbohydrates include starches, sugars and their derivatives. The mechanical work of reducing the feed stuffs to fine particles ready for the action of the digestive juices is natu- rally much greater with farm animals than with man. For much of the food is of a coarse nature and contains rela- tively large amounts of cellulose and crude fiber. Some advantage, there- fore, is gained by cutting, cracking, grinding, soaking, steaming or boiling feed. The animal is thereby saved some Fig. 14 A GRAND CHAMPION MERINO RAM OF PRESENT DAY sugar is first stored tip by the liver in the form of glycogen. The waste prod- ucts arising from the breaking down of tissues are carried in the blood to the kidneys, lungs and skin where they are excreted in the form of urine, carbon dioxid and sweat. The whole cycle which the food undergoes from diges- tion to excretion in the form of a waste product is known as metabolism. For the farmer's purposes, therefore, animal physiology is practically the same as the general subject of nutrition and may well be discussed from that standpoint. Nutritive substances in feeds — The feeds which we give our farm ani- mals contain three classes of organic, of the mechanical work of preparing the feed for digestion. The economy of these processes, however, cannot be de- termined by viewing them from this standpoint alone. They may cost too much in proportion to the advantage gained. Moreover, in ruminants there seems to be a natural demand for a cer- tain amount of coarse feed. As soon as the feed is taken into the mouth it is mixed with the saliva and becomes thereby somewhat softened. This helps in masticating and swallow- ing the food. The saliva also contains ferments, especially ptyalin which changes a part of the starch and cane sugar in the feed stuffs into dextrin, FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK maltose and grape sugar. If the food is in fine particles or has been cooked, the sugar appears within half a minute while otherwise the change from Starch to sugar may not take place for two or three minutes. In ruminants the sugar thus produced is apparently fermented in the paunch giving rise to lactic acid. The saliva also exercises a very slight effect in changing protein into soluble peptones. Fats and oils are not chemi- cally affected by the saliva, but are partly emulsified and thus rendered more susceptible to the action of the gastric and pancreatic juices. Action of saliva — I n ruminants the action of the saliva continues in the first three stomachs and is greatly as- sisted by the innumerable bacteria which are taken in the feed and water. The bacteria find in the moisture and warmth of the anterior stomachs ideal conditions for their multiplication. They set up active fermentations which affect starches, sugars, crude fiber and protein. In fact crude fiber is more extensively disintegrated by this fermen- tation than by any of the digestive juices. The saliva is active, however, only in alkaline or but slightly acid solutions. The digestion of starches and sugars, therefore, is interrupted as soon as the food reaches the stomach in animals like the horse and pig. The gastric juice is decidedly acid and checks the action of the saliva. The gastric juice f all farm animals (in the stomach of the pig and horse and in the fourth stomach of ruminants) contains enzyms, free hydrochloric acid and free lactic acid. These acids check also the fermenting action of the bacteria in the food. Protein is changed into albuminoses and peptones by the pepsin ferment of the gastric juice assisted by the hydrochloric and lactic acids. Some of the albuminous feed stuffs also pro- duce nucleins during digestion. More- over, carbohydrates and coloring matters which are held in some nitrogenous sub- stances may be set free. Certain pro- teids, like casein in milk, are coagulated before digestion takes place. The same process occurs in milk when rennet is added in the manufacture of cheese. The chief digestion products of proteids in the stomach are peptones and albu- minoses. The gastric juice contains also a ferment known as lipase which breaks up the food fats into free fatty acids and glycerin. The carbohydrates are not affected by the gastric juice. As soon as the partly digested food passes into the intestines the whole mass is rendered alkaline by the addition of bile and pancreatic juice. The bile con- tains also bile acids which unite with the proteids and pepsin causing precipita- tion of the latter. The bile has no effect in breaking up proteids, but acts slightly on carbohydrates and fats, emul- sifying the latter. The movements and secretions of the intestines are greatly stimulated by the bile. In most farm animals the bile and pancreatic juice en- ter the intestine at the same point. In ruminants, however, the pancreatic juice enters lower down. The pancreatic juice i s the most active of all digestive fluids. It attacks the proteids actively changing them to pep- tones, albuminoses and other soluble substances. A small amount of insol- uble and, therefore, indigestible nucleins appears as a result of the action of the trypsin in the pancreatic juice. This fluid also has the power of rapidly emul- sifying fats which are further dissolved and saponified by mixture with the bile. Finally the starch which failed to be di- gested by the saliva is almost instantly changed into dextrin, maltose and grape sugar. As the food mass passes on through the small intestine the bile and pancre- atic juice continue to act upon it as also the juices secreted by the walls of the intestines. At the same time the bacteria in the food are also active and finally, in the large intestine, gain the ascendency over true digestive ferments and stop the action of the latter. Under the influence of bacteria, especially in the large intestines of ruminants, pro- teids are peptonized, fats split up and carbohydrates changed into lactic, butyric and acetic acids. Even cellu- lose and crude fiber are attacked and partly disintegrated. Where the food constituents are di- gested — From the above brief discussion of the digestive processes' it is apparent that protein is digested in the stomach and intestines. Fats are digested by the action of gastric juice, bile, pancreatic and intestinal juices; and carbohydrates by the saliva, pancreatic and intestinal juices. In ruminants cellulose is disin- tegrated partly in the stomach and partly in the colon. The length and capacity of the digestive organs are adapted to the size and feeding habits of DOMESTIC ANIMALS the animal. Thus in cattle the alimen- tary tract is twenty times as long as the body, in sheep and goats twenty-seven times, in the hog seventeen times, in the horse and ass eleven or twelve times, and in the dog only four times. The capacity of the alimentary tract is 800 pounds in cattle, 450 pounds in the horse, 65 pounds in the hog, and 25 pounds in the dog. In cattle the feed requires three or four days to pass through the alimentary tract. About the same length of time is occupied by the digestive processes in the horse, sheep and goat. In hogs, on the other hand, the complete process does not ex- tend beyond 36 hours and in dogs not longer than 15 hours. The time re- quired for digestion naturally varies ac- cording to the character and condition of the feed. Thus in cattle, green, suc- culent forage may pass through the ali- mentary tract in two days. On the other hand, dry hay may occupy 14 days or more in the same process. In feeding experiments in which the ration is changed during the course of the experi- ment for purposes of comparison, it is customary to allow six to eight days for the last remains of the previous ration to appear in the manure. The digested and dissolved portion of the feed together with the water is ab- sorbed through the walls of the stomach and intestines, chiefly the latter, and carried by means of the blood and lymph vessels to the tissues. A curious trans- formation takes place in the protein of the feed. After the protein has been changed into albuminoses, peptones and crystalline bodies, it is retransformed in the walls of the stomach and intes- tines into ordinary protein and appears as such in the blood vessels. An enzym in the wall of the stomach, probably identical with rennet, has the power of reuniting the peptones and albuminoses into the original proteids. The restored protein although chemically like the original is physically very different. It is animal protein whereas that in the food is vegetable protein. The animal is thus capable of partly disintegrating and immediately reconstructing the food protein according to the organic require- ments of the particular animal. The fats—Likewise the fats although at first split up, as above described, into free fatty acids and glycerin, and later saponified in part, are largely recon- structed from their digestive products in the walls of the stomach and intes- tines and appear in the chyle as a neu- tral, animal fat. Some of the food fat, however, may pass through the walls of the alimentary tract into the chyle with- out change. The carbohydrates after digestion are absorbed chiefly by the blood vessels and only to a very slight extent in the chyle. When absorbed they are in the form of grape sugar, galactose or lactic, butyric and acetic acids and their salts. The pentosans in the feed apparently go through the same processes as the carbo- hydrates. Water and mineral salts are absorbed into the blood chiefly through the walls of the intestines and to a much less ex- tent through the stomach. The absorp- tion of digested food products follows the ordinary laws of capillarity, filtration and diffusion. The absorbent surface in horses and cattle is five times as great as in the hog. The undigested portion f the feed passes on into the large intestines where finally the process of digestion is super- seded by that of decomposition due to bacteria. The material which is ulti- mately discharged as feces or manure consists of actually indigestible mate- rial, more or less digestible material which has failed to be digested, some of the digestive juices and bile, epithelial cells from the intestinal walls, and waste products from the tissues of the body. The manure contains, there- fore, considerable nitrogenous substance as well as mineral matter. In birds the feces contain also the urinary ex- cretion. Function and character of blood As already indicated the blood car- ries all of the absorbed food materials throughout the body and delivers them to the tissues where they are needed. It also carries back the waste materials due to disintegration of tissue and dis- charges them into the intestines, kid- neys, lungs, or sweat glands of the skin. The blood also carries oxygen from the lungs to various parts of the body where it is used in the process of metabolism. The blood consists of a fluid or serum containing red and white corpuscles. The red color of the blood is due to hemoglobin in the red corpuscles. Hemoglobin is scarlet when charged with oxygen but becomes brownish red when the oxygen is replaced by carbon dioxid in the tissues. In cases of anemia the number of red corpuscles is below the normal and the blood is there- 24 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK fore incapable of carrying sufficient ox- ygen to the tissues. In certain diseases the white corpuscles become too numer- ous and give the blood a pinkish color. The function of the white corpuscles or leucocytes is a hotly disputed point, but they seem to have the power of protect- ing the animal against disease to some extent by directly destroying bacteria or by secreting antitoxic substances which check the action of disease germs. When blood is withdrawn from the blood vessels it clots as a result of the formation of fibrin filaments. The time required for the coagulation of the blood varies in different animals from V/2 to 25 minutes, being shortest in the sheep and increasing in length in the goat, hog, ox, dog, cat and horse. and the prompt removal of carbon di- oxid. This interchange of gases takes place in the pulmonary capillaries which come in contact with the walls of the alveoli of the lungs. The change in the color of the blood from scarlet to brownish red takes place in the sys- temic capillaries and back to scarlet in the lungs. The rate of respiration a s well as the pulse is greatly influenced by exercise, but as a rule in farm animals there are four heart beats for each respiratory movement. The rate is somewhat higher in cows than in bulls and steers. In cows asleep it is about 22 per minute, in rumination 24 to 36. In bulls and steers it is about 20 per minute. In the horse at rest the rate is about 10 but Fig. 15 — AB'RICAN FRILLED SHEEP Normal heart beat — The normal pulse or rate of heart beat per minute in adult animals is as follows: horse 36 to 40, cow 45 to 50, mule and ass 46 to 50, pig, sheep and goat 70 to 80, dog 90 to 100, cat and hare 120 to 150, chickens 140, geese 110, pigeon 136 to 138. In the newborn colt the pulse rate is 100 to 120, at two weeks 80 to 96, at three months 68 to 76, at six months 64 to 72, at one year 48 to 56, at two years 40 to 48, at four years 38 to 50, in old age 32 to 40. The purpose of respiration i s to sup- ply oxygen to the blood and remove car- bon dioxid from the blood. The vital activity of every part of the body re- quires an adequate supply of oxygen may increase to 50 or more in active motion. Similarly sheep at rest breathe about 15 times per minute, but when running the rate of respiration may be as high as 140. In the cat the respira- tory rate is 24, in the dog 15 to 18, in the hare 55, in the pigeon 30. In young animals the breathing is slightly faster than in adults. The kidneys_As already stated the blood not only carries all nutritive sub- stances including oxygen to the tissues of the body, but carries away the waste products to the various excretory or- gans. The kidneys are the most impor- tant of these latter and excrete the urine containing urea, water and various mineral salts, as well as uric acid, hip- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 25 puric acid, kreatin, kreatinin, combina- tions of sulphuric acid with indol and phenol, coloring matters, aromatic sub- stances and carbon dioxid, nitrogen and oxygen in a gaseous state. Urea and uric acid are the final products of de- composition of nitrogenous substances in the body. Kreatin is largely derived from the animal matter in the food. Many of the constituents of urine are accidentally present and vary according to the nature of the food. Thus various aromatic substances and drugs are ex- creted by the kidneys. An excess of sugar or albumen in the feed may lead to the appearance of these substances in the urine. The amount of urine depends on the quantity of water in the food and drink and on the extent to which water perature is regulated by a very com- plex nervous apparatus through the agency of the blood vessels and skin. The regulating apparatus is so delicate that the body temperature does not vary more than one degree in health even in the greatest extremes of external tem- perature. The normal temperature of different farm animals is as follows: in the horse 100 to 101° F. ; in the cow. 101 to 102° F. ; in the sheep, 103 to 104 D F. ; in the hog, 102 to 103° F. ; in the dog, 101 to 102° F., and in poultry, 105 to 106° F. From these figures it appears that the body temperature of farm ani- mals is higher than that of man, which is 98.4° F. Milk secretion—The whole group of mammals is characterized by the pos- Fig. 16 — MODERN TYPES OF CHEVIOT SHEEP (Champions at the Smithfield, England, Club Fat Stock Show) is excreted through the lungs and skin. In cattle, sheep, goats and horses about 20 per cent of the water is removed in the urine and 80 per cent through the lungs; in hogs 60 per cent in the urine and 40 per cent through the lungs; and in dogs 85 per cent in the urine and 15 per cent through the lungs. The sweat also contains water, fats, urea, mineral salts and aromatic sub- stances. The sweat glands are quite highly developed in the horse, while ruminants sweat very little and cats not at all. Body temperature— The oxidation or partial combustion of the food sub- stances in the body results in the pro- duction of heat, which is to be consid- ered as one of the forms of energy produced by the food. The body tem- session of a mammary gland or udder in which milk is secreted for the sus- tenance of the young. In farm stock the amount of milk secreted has been greatly increased by breeding especially in cows and goats. For the first few days after the birth of the young the mammary secretion is known as colos- trum and differs considerably from the normal milk produced later. Colostrum contains a large amount of cellular tis- sue from the udder, much albumen and casein and relatively little fat, milk sugar and salts. The total solids in the case of the cow may amount to 38.5 per cent in the colostrum but within a month the amount falls to the normal or 12.5 per cent. The fat content of the milk f differ- ent animals is as follows: 4 per cent in TABMEB'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the cow. -i.4 per cent in the goat, 5.4 per cent in the sheep, 1.3 per cent in the ass, 1.2 per cent in the mare. 6.4 per cent in the sow. 9.5 per cent in the dog, 3.3 per cent in the cat, 10.5 per cent in the rab- bit, 10.5 per cent in the elephant, 7.6 per cent in the buffalo. 48.5 per cent in the porpoise. In women it is 3.3 per cent. The milk oi' the cow. goat, ewe and buf- falo forms curds after the addition of rennet while the milk of woman and that of ass and mare do not. The com- position of the milk of all species shows considerable variation in the amount of its different elements depending upon The individual, time of day. season, feed and other factors. The average cow's milk contains about ST. 5 per cent of Neither casein nor milk sugar are found in the blood, and the amount of fat in the blood is minute as compared with that in the inilk. The important constituents of the milk are therefore not transuded from the blood but are special products resulting from cellular activity in the udder. The milk fat seems to arise from a process of fatty degeneration of the cells of the udder. Casein seems to develop at the expense of the albuminous cell contents and the origin of milk sugar is not known. It is not influenced by the character of the ration. Rumination and vomiting — I n con- nection with this discussion of the physiology of farm animals two other Fig. 17 — LEICESTER SH water and 12.5 per cent of solids includ- ing fat. casein, milk sugar, and ash. The milk of all other mammals contains the same elements in varying propor- tions. Milk sugar j s an animal sugar found only in milk. It splits up. yielding lac- tic acid which causes the spontaneous coagulation of milk. The lactic acid ferment is destroyed by boiling. Fat occurs in milk in the form of minute globules. The most important fatty acids in milk are palmitic, stearic and oleic, and the melting point of butter depends on the relative proportion of these acids. Milk contains other albu- minoids besides casein. :r A HALE CEXTLRY AGO special processes should be described; viz. rumination and vomiting. Rumi- nants swallow their coarse food into the rumen or paunch to be returned to the mouth and masticated. Water enters directly into the paunch and reticulum, passing on into the other two stomachs almost immediately. The opening be- tween the reticulum and third stomach or manyplies (also called omasum and psalter) is so small that coarse feed can- not pass through. The first and second stomachs, therefore, always contain food even after a long period of fasting. In the paunch the feed stuffs are partly macerated by the action of diges- tive juices, water and bacteria. The DOMESTfC ANIMALS 27 feed may remain for a long time in the paunch and is then more easily regur- gitated. In forming a cud from the coarse material in the paunch and ele- vating it to the mouth the first two stomachs seem to co-operate, but the ab- dominal muscles and diaphragm furnish the necessary force. If the abdominal muscles are paralyzed, rumination is impossible. When the cud reaches the mouth it is prevented by the soft palate from entering the nasal chamber in the roof of the mouth. The mastication of a cud may be prolonged for fifteen min- utes. The cud is then swallowed and an- other ascends to the mouth within which the material is not discharged from the mouth. Owls and other car- nivorous birds voluntarily vomit up the bones and hair of their prey after the meat is digested. Various other birds can easily reject the contents of their crop, and in the case of pigeons partly digested material is brought up from the crop to feed the young birds. Vomiting as ordinarily understood, however, is an involuntary and patho- logical process. Dogs and cats vomit very readily, pigs with difficulty, and horses very rarely or not at all. In the horse the stomach is small and cannot be easily grasped by the abdominal mus- Fig. 18 CHAMPION LEICESTEB AT RECENT INTERNATIONAL FA' :K SHOW AT CHICAGO about four seconds. The masticated cud after being swallowed ] through the opening between the second and third stomachs and thence into the fourth or true digestive stomach. Ru- mination is impossible if the paunch is not fairly well distended with food. The process appears to be voluntary but is partly a reflex, unconscious action, performed as a rule while lying down. Rumination is interrupted by fright, pain or disease, and this well known fact has given rise to the fallacy that such animals have 'lost their cud." Rumination may be regarded as a reg- ulated, voluntary process of vomiting in cles so as to force its contents upward. Reproduction _ The physiological processes thus far discussed are con- cerned with the preservation of the in- dividual. "VTe may now refer briefly to the essential features of reproduction or preservation of the race. In all birds and mammals the female repro- ductive elements are eggs produced in ovaries while the male elements are spermatozoa produced in testicles. The egg is fertilized by the union of a sper- matozoon with it and at once begins to develop. In birds the egg is fertilized at or near the ovary after which the white of the egg, shell membrane and FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK shell are formed, and further develop- ment within the egg ceases until the egg is incubated by natural or artificial heat. In mammals likewise the egg is ferti- lized at the surface of the ovary or in the oviduct after which it passes into the uterus. ;Here it becomes attached, surrounded with membranes and under- goes its development. The necessary sustenance for the developing bird is furnished in the large yolk and white of the egg. In mammals the nutriment for the fetus comes directly from the blood of the motber through the uterine walls, and by means of an interlacing network of maternal and fetal blood vessels. The duration of pregnancy r gesta- tion is four weeks in the hare, eight weeks in the cat, nine weeks in the dog, XI weeks in the sow 21 weeks in the sheep, 22 weeks in the goat, 41 weeks in the cow, 47 weeks in the mare, 12 months in the ass. The number of young born by mam- mals has been considerably increased by domestication, breeding and selection. The tendency to produce twins in the case of sheep and large litters in the case of the sow is hereditary as is also the tendency to come into heat at fre- quent intervals. The mare comes into heat about 10 or 12 days after parturi- tion and the cow after 20 days. In gen- eral the number of young born at one time varies with the size of the species and the length of the period of preg- nancy. The number of young is great- est in small mammals and those with a short period of gestation. Barrenness or sterility y?\\\ be dis- cussed in the chapter on animal diseases. BREEDING FARM ANIMALS In breeding farm animals the purpose is not merely to increase the number of individual animals and thus perpetu- ate the race, but also to improve the quality of the individual. Intelligent breeding is done with some definite ob- ject in view. The breeder has a pur- pose in mind and wishes to obtain an- imals which conform to some standard in respect to size, weight, form, color, proportion of parts, quality of meat, pro- ductiveness of milk, wool, mohair or other products, speed, action, disposition, fertility, early breeding habits, vigor, constitution, ability to transmit good characters to offspring, and numberless other points which may be considered the legitimate aims of breeders. Some matters recorded in the literature of this field of study are of too theoretical or controversial nature to suit the purposes of the present volume. An intelligent discussion of the subject, however, is im- possible without considering the impor- tant basis of theory upon which practi- cal breeding proceeds. To be sure these theories, in so far as they have any real value, are themselves based on actual practice or experiments in breeding. The results of practice and experiments, for- mulated more or less wisely into hypoth- eses or theories, serve to guide breeders in subsequent experiments which in turn may substantiate or discredit the theo- retical propositions thus far maintained by breeders. Artificial selection—Breeding is es- sentially a process of artificial evolution in which man attempts to regulate and develop natural tendencies in a definite direction. In natural evolu- tion the fit and the unfit live together and interbreed, at least so long as the unfit are able to exist. Progress in any given direction is therefore slow, being greatly retarded by the intermixing of incongruous tendencies. In the origi- nation and improvement of breeds of live stock, on the other hand, artificial selection is rigidly enforced and only those animals which show the desired characters in the highest degree are used for breeding purposes. In this way undesirable tendencies are eliminated and the process of evolution greatly hastened. Heredity — I n general the young of animals resemble their parents more or less closely. In the language of the breeder like produces like. This ten- dency on the part of offspring to resem- ble their parents is called heredity and is necessarily an important factor in all breeding work. But if offspring were exactly like their parents that would be the end of the matter and there would be neither a science nor an art of breeding. Fortunately as a mat- ter of fact no two animals are exactly alike. If a number of sheep, hogs, cattle or other farm stock of the the same breed and closest relationship be examined, they will be found to show differences in form, size, color, disposition, etc. This tendency of animals to differ from one another and from their parents is called variation and is the corner stone of the whole science and art of breeding. Variation — Darwin in his "Origin of Species" and "Plants and Animals under Domestication" recorded an enor- mous number of facts regarding the de- tails of variation in domesticated ani- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 29 mals. Other investigators have recorded further facts of variation until we now have available a great mass of such material. Eecently a tendency has de- veloped to measure these variations and to express them in mathematical terms and formulae. We may proceed first to a discussion of the causes of variation. At the very outset we must admit that it is practically impossible to conceive of the absolute identity of two such com- plicated structures as farm animals. No two eggs from the same female can be identical. They are matured at slightly different times and are formed of different particles of organic sub- stances which in turn were received from the blood at different times, and from different sources. It is impossible, therefore, for a female animal to produce two identical offspring from different eggs even if both eggs could be ferti- lized by one and the same spermatozoon — 'another impossibility. For the same reason no two spermatozoa can be ex- actly the same. This hereditary varia- tion is ascribed by Weismann to the di- rect action of external influences on the biophors or "life bearers" of the egg and spermatozoon. Sex influenced by feed — Now, with- out entering as yet into the subject of determination of sex in animals, it may be remarked that according to numer- ous experiments the quality of nutri- tion exercises some influence in deter- mining the sexuality of the germ cell both before and after fertilization. That inequalities in nutrition exercise an in- fluence on the germ cells must be as- sumed to be true, but the exact nature of the influence is not exactly known. According to Vernon it appears that a highly nourished egg as compared with one receiving less nutriment is more likely to develop into a female. The general nutritive condition of the ani- mal exercises a favorable or unfavorable influence on the germ cells according as the animal is excessively poor or fat. Undue accumulation of fat about the ovaries and testes is unfavorable to the best development of the eggs and sper- matozoa. Vigor of offspring — Considerable seasonal variation occurs in the size and vigor of offspring. Thus for exam- ple it seems undesirable to breed sheep during the hot weather of summer, even where it is possible as is the case with Dorsets. The unfavorable influ- ence of hot weather may be exercised throughout the period of pregnancy but it is doubtless active to some ex- tent at the time of impregnation and just previously. Professor Ewart has observed that rabbits fertilized before the eggs are mature are likely to pro- duce young which resemble the male, while, if fertilization takes place late in the period of heat, the offspring partake more of the characters of the mother. It is evident, therefore, that the charac- ters of the progeny are in some degree related to the condition of the germ cells at the time of fertilization. Parental tendencies— In animals like swine and hare which bear several young at each birth, the individuals of the same litter may differ as greatly as those of different litters from the same parents. During gestation all the fetuses of a given litter are presum- ably subjected to as nearly identical conditions as it is possible to obtain. The differences which appear in the young at the time of birth are hence largely predetermined in the germ cells. According to Weismann the characters of the offspring are almost entirely de- termined at the time of union of the germ cells. The great variation observed m offspring of the same parents would thus be due to unlimited possible per- mutations in the mixing of ancestral tendencies from both parents. Size influenced by feed — The only instance in which the offspring do not differ considerably is in the case of identical twins which have been studied by Galton and Weismann and are prob- ably developed from a single egg and sperm cell. But even identical twins differ slightly in some points and this indicates clearly that differences in feed and environment are not without effect during the development of the animal. Convincing evidences of this fact are familiar to every observing stockman. If the milk of the mother is defective in quantity or quality, pigs and lambs may be so stunted in early life that they never attain their normal de- velopment. Chickens improperly or in- sufficiently fed during the first week may never reach more than half their normal size. The size and character of the vital organs, strength of the bones and even the quality of the meat are greatly in- fluenced by the kind of ration. Excess- ive infestation of cbickens with lice and cattle with ticks stunts growth. Tick infested cattle at maturity are 200 pounds lighter than other cattle of the same breed which are free from ticks. Moreover, infestation with ticks may de- FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK lay the sexual maturity of cows so that they will not breed until four years of age. But it is not necessary further to multiply examples of the influence of environment on farm animals. It is evident that not all the characters of the adult animal are predetermined at the time of its conception. In other words it is desirable for the breeder to give close heed to the selection of the parents and to the care and feed of the offspring until maturity. The influence of the maternal fluids upon the young during pregnancy are apparently of less importance. Such in- fluence, whatever it may be, cannot be determined with any certainty. Ferti- and firmly fixed while those of the mother are of a more mixed and inde- terminate nature. On the basis of equal inheritance from both parents Galton formulated his law of ancestral heredity. According to this law the characters of the progeny are determined by the whole line of ancestors, being a mixture of all their tendencies. The im- mediate parents contribute half of the characters and all the other ancestors to- gether contribute the other half, the four grandparents furnishing one-fourth, the eight great-grandparents one-eighth, etc. In other words each parent contributes one-fourth, each grandparent one-six- teenth, etc. Fig. 19 — NEAPOLITAN SWINE FORMERLY MUCH USED IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF ENGLISH BREEDS lized rabbits' eggs of one breed have been transferred to the oviduct of a female of another breed and at birth show no in- fluence of the latter. Equality of parents— All practical experience as well as theoretical consid- erations forces us to conclude that each parent contributes equally to the char- acter of the offspring. There are many apparent exceptions to this statement, but they are more apparent than real. In crossing a thoroughbred male upon a mongrel female the father's charac- teristics may be more conspicuous in the offspring, but this is largely due to the fact that his characters are definite Atavism — The phenomenon known as "throwing back," atavism or reversion has always been familiar to farmers and breeders. This consists in a tendency of the characters of the grandparents or earlier ancestors to appear more con- spicuously than is usually the case in the offspring, so that the latter seem to resemble their earlier ancestors rather than their parents. The strik- ing resemblance is sometimes to a grandparent and sometimes to a re- mote ancestor. Darwin accumulated more conspicuous instances of atavism than any other investigator. In one case a dog inherited a peculiar color from DOMESTIC ANIMALS si an ancestor which according to Galton's law contributed only 1-256 of its char- acters. In another instance a calf re- verted in its color to a great-great-great- great-grandfather. Atavistic charac- ters appear most frequently when two distinct breeds are crossed. Thus if two races of pigeons are crossed, the blue color of the original wild pigeon appears in the progeny. In an experiment in which Japanese waltzing mice were crossed with white mice the offspring could hardly be distinguished from the common gray house mouse. Moreover, the occasional appearance of stripes on colts is supposed to be a reversion to some striped wild ancestor. Prepotency i s another phenomenon which deserves consideration as a factor in variation. The progeny of unlike ature of animal breeding. The assump- tion that one parent ever contributes more than one-half to the sum total of characters in the offspring has never been proved. If such an assumption is implied in the use of prepotency, it is doubtful whether any such phenomenon occurs in nature. As ordinarily used in popular jour- nals and agricultural literature prepo- tency means nothing more than the abil- ity of a pure-bred animal (usually the male) to transmit several of his char- acters to his offspring from mongrel or grade females. Now pure breeds are established by a long series of matings in which both parents are selected on ac- count of their possession of certain definite characters. These characters be- come fixed, and no disturbing tendencies Fig. 20 — MODERN TYPES OF YOUNG ESSEX SWINE parents may be intermediate in appear- ance between the parents, may resemble one parent in one point and the other in another feature, or may show none of the characteristic features of one parent while closely resembling the other. As shown by Vernon and others these may be cases of prepotency or may be merely cases in which the characters of the par- ents do not blend in the progeny. The term prepotency as applied to the apparently unequal inheritance of char- acters presupposes the existence of a greater power in one parent than in the other to impress its features upon the offspring. Such a parent is said to be prepotent or to have superior power in transmitting qualities. The term pre- potency is used very loosely in the liter- are allowed to creep in by admixture of other blood. In other words all hered- itary forces are directed along definite lines. In a mongrel or scrub animal, on the other hand, all sorts of miscellaneous and more or less antagonistic tendencies are mixed. There is no dominant set of characters and no definite direction of the heredity forces. Pure bred sires — Now when a pure bred male is crossed on a mongrel female his fixed and definite tenden- cies give a certain amount of definite- ness to the characters of the offspring. The young are said to resemble the father more than the mother. But there is nothing strange about this phe- nomenon, in fact it would be highly remarkable if it should fail to occur. Prepotency is a useful term, however, FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK for denoting the apparent superiority of the sire over the dam. We may now mention a few cases which have been considered instances of prepotency. Darwin refers to a black greyhound which gave his color to the puppies whatever the color of the bitch. The male Manx cat usually trans- mits the tailless character. Prepotency does not belong exclusively to the sire. It is equally conspicuous in the dam if she be pure bred and the sire a cross. When sire and dam are both pure bred but of different breeds the young inherit their qualities about equally from both. The blending of characters can never be predicted in such cases and the results are seldom satisfactory. ing propensity when crossed with ewes of other breeds. The Angus bull may produce polled calves from the first cross with horned breeds. Likewise the black and white patches of the Holsteins seem to be dominant characters and it is dif- ficult to breed them out after they have once been mixed in the blood. But it is not necessary to multiply examples for they must be familiar to every breeder. Hybridization ma y also at timer be- come an important factor in variation. It is quite impossible to predict the characters which will appear in hybrids. Sometimes the characters of the ances tors, even remote ones, appear. In othej cases the characters of the parents blend, Fig. 21 — BERKSHIRE OF 60 YEARS AGO BEFORE PURE STOCK WAS REQUIRED Prepotency of breeds — Prepotency may be an individual or a racial trait. Certain individuals of a given breed may be especially prepotent. The char- acters of certain breeds may be more firmly fixed than those of another breed so that in a cross the one breed pre- dominates over the other. The so- called Apalousa horse of Oregon and Washington transmits circular spots to the foal and these spots reappear for many generations without the further admixture of the original blood. Short- horn bulls are quite prepotent in trans- mitting their racial characters. The Dorset ram transmits the early breed- thus producing progeny intermediate be- tween them or something quite new and not resembling either parent. When the characters of the sire and dam do not blend, but are inherited side by side in varying proportions, then the young will resemble the sire or dam according as one or the other set of characters proves to be dominant. Hybrids between zebus and cattle and between the bison and cat- tle partake almost equally of the char- acters of both parents. In the numer- ous crosses which Professor Ewart pro- duced between the mare and zebra stallion, and zebra mares and male ass "some of the hybrids in make and dis- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 33 position strongly suggest their zebra sire, others their respective dams; but even the most zebra-like in form are utterly unlike their sire in their mark- ings." A "curious blending of charac- ters, derived apparently partly from their actual and partly from their remote an- cestors" was observed. Mendel's law — At present the most widely exploited theory regarding the behavior of hybrids is that of Mendel, originally published in 1865, and re- cently applied by many observers to ex- plain the facts of plant and animal hybridization. According to Mendel's law one-fourth of the hybrids after two generations resemble one parent, one- fourth the? other parent while one-half encies are intermixed the mixture is only temporary and not stable. In other words, if these animals are used for breeding purposes, their offspring are likely to revert to the pure form of one or the other breeds from which they de- scended. Again, when the sire and dam are of very different character, the pro- geny may revert to the original wild form and thus all the advantages of pre- vious breeding be lost. Sports — Variation in farm stock is usually a slow process due to the accu- mulation of minute differences. Occa- sionally a great leap or mutation occurs giving rise to what is known as a sport. Striking examples of this are to be found in the ancon sheep which suddenly orig- Fig. 22 — MODERN TYPE BERKSHIRE SOW (Weight 45<; pounds at 13 months) are of mixed nature and are constantly separating into the pure parent forms during subsequent generations. Mendel first worked on the common garden pea and his law has not been found to hold good in all cases of the hybridization of plants, much less in all animal hybrids. Crossing — Enough is known concern- ing the behavior of offspring of very dissimilar parents to show that crossing of different breeds is of little value in the hands of the average farmer. The results cannot be predicted. Two sets of tendencies are mixed together, but there is no likelihood that the offspring will show any advance on either parent. Moreover, it appears that when very un- like and more or less antagonistic tend- inated in Massachusetts in 1791, and in the black-shouldered peacock. In these two instances the sports bred true and reproduced their characters perfectly in their offspring. Sports are usually more prepotent and stable than mere varia- tions which closely resemble the parent form but they are not always transmis- sible. Telegony i s a term used to denote the supposed influence of a previous sire on the offspring of the same dam by an- other sire. It has also been called in- fluence of a previous impregnation or infection and numerous examples of its supposed occurrence are reported in the literature of the subject. Many cases have been reported of children from a 34 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK second husband who resembled the first but not the second husband. Such cases come largely from tbe time of slav- ery in this country and there is no good evidence for any of them. An Arabian mare belonging to the Earl of Morton and once covered by a quagga is said to have shown unmistakable markings of the quagga in all of her subsequent colts by Arabian stallions. Goodwin reports that in the royal stud in Hampton court mares had colts with the markings of a previous stallion by which they had been served. Many similar cases have been collected relating to horses. From Massachusetts, Michigan and Tennessee come stories of mares once served by jacks and which have subsequently pro- duced colts with long ears and marks of jacks even when served by pure bred stallions. Tbe literature of the subject teems with such cases in cattle, sheep, goats, swine, dogs, rabbits and guinea pigs as well as in fowls. The idea in- volved in the notion of telegony is that the female becomes contaminated or in- fected by the first male by which she is served and that this influence is never or at least not quickly eradicated. If such a condition were true, a pure bred dam once impregnated by a mongrel sire could never afterwards be depended upon to produce pure offspring even from pure bred sires. Many distinguished scientists have lent the influence of their name to this popular belief, but without performing any actual experiments to test the mat- ter. Darwin reported numerous in- stances apparently with approval and the same may be said of Agassiz, Law, Har- vey and others. Several elaborate ex- planations have been proposed for the phenomenon, the most ingenious being the theory first suggested by Newport and later worked out by Weismann. This was to the effect that the sperma- tozoa of the male not only fertilize the mature egg which has left the ovary, but also enter and partly fertilize many or all of the immature eggs in the ovary. These eggs when subsequently fertilized at maturity by another male would con- tain some of the hereditary tendencies of the former male. It is hardly neces- sary to say that no evidence for such a process has ever been produced. Ewart's experiments — After cases of telegony had been collected for many years and a quite general belief in the phenomenon established, Professor Ewart subjected the matter to a care- ful test by crossing horses and zebras. Ewart examined in a critical manner a number of cases usually mentioned as supporting the hypothesis of telegony in horses. In all cases other simpler ex- planations were found for the actual phenomena without resorting to any theory of infection, corruption or influ- ence of a previous sire. The experi- ments conducted by Ewart were chiefly confined to the production of crosses be- tween horses and zebras and the raising of colts from tbe same mares after pro- duction of the hybrids. In these experi- ments chestnut, brown and black mares were employed and in some cases the mare was bred alternately to horse and zebra stallions in order to give the best possible opportunity for judging any influence of the zebra upon the appear- ance or conformation of the colts. No evidence whatever was obtained in sup- port of the theory of telegony. The colts obtained from mares which had previ- ously been bred to zebras were true to their parents in every respect and exhib- ited no mental or physical traits of the zebra. Experiments of Baron de Parana in Brazil also gave results distinctly op- posed to the theory of influence of a previous sire. Ewart also conducted ex- periments for the purpose of determin- ing whether any support for the hypothe- sis of telegony could be obtained from breeding mares to different breeds of stallions in succession. The results from these tests were also unfavorable to the theory of telegony, as were similar ex- periments in breeding mares to different stallions of the same breed. Ewart states, therefore, that although at the beginning of his experiments he "hoped to prove the fact of telegony," his experiments and observations thoroughly convinced him that there never has been an un- doubted case of telegony, at least in dogs, rabbits and horses. This is the testimony of an unwilling witness and is therefore quite convinc- ing. Breeders generally believe that if a mongrel male or one of another breed accidentally impregnates a pure bred female she is forever ruined for purposes of pure breeding. It is now evident that no such fears need be entertained. Occasionally one hears the fear ex- pressed that pure bred males may be- come contaminated by serving mongrel females. There is no evidence whatever to support such an idea. Prenatal influences — The subject of intra-uterine or prenatal influences has received perhaps an undue amount of consideration. It has long been popu- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 35 larly supposed that the imagination of the mother, especially when stimulated by fright or unusual experiences, may exercise some mysterious effect on the developing fetus. Innumerable sup- posed cases of this kind have been re- ported in man, farm mammals and even in fowls. Children are said to have been born with marks resem- bling mice, goats, cows and other ani- mals in consequence of their mothers having been frightened by such animals during their pregnancy. All sorts of mon- strosities in offspring have been attrib- uted to the influence of the imagination of the female. One case is reported where an Angus cow produced a black and white calf with horns after having seen a black and white horned steer. Perhaps the most astonishing case ever reported was obtained by Miles from a Kentucky Jersey breeder. Jersey cows, pastured near some horses branded on the left shoulder with the letters U. S., produced calves with the letters IT. S. in white hairs on the left shoulder. Even the second generation is said to have shown the same marks! In fact some of the related examples of supposed prenatal influence are so ridiculous as to suggest that they were originally told merely as jokes. At any rate there is no evidence to support the theory that malformation or peculiar marks can be impressed on the offspring through the medium of the imagination of the dam. Determination of sex — The dairyman desires heifer calves, the beef raiser bull calves, the dog raiser male pups, etc. The possibility of predetermining the sex of offspring has always been an al- luring subject. Almost every imagin- able scheme has been tested in deter- mining sex in the human race and in farm animals. The subject has at- tracted so much attention that it seems necessary to state, as briefly as may be, the most important theories which have been proposed. At first it was supposed that one ovary and testis (the right) produced only male offspring and the other only female. This, how- ever, has been proved not to be the case as tested in man and swine. Thury proposed the theory that eggs fertilized as soon as mature produce females while males result if fertilization is somewhat delayed. Miles states that in Michigan in ewes and cows served as soon as they were in heat the female offspring were twice as numerous as male in some years while in other years the reverse was true. On most farms the male ani- mals are allowed to run with the females for a considerable period and presumably the females are impregnated as soon as in heat. Nevertheless the proportion of male and female offspring is about equal and this is unfavorable to the theory of Thury. Moreover, the actual union of the spermatozoon with the egg may not take place for two weeks after service, in fact it is utterly impossible to say when it occurs. The union of the male and female germ cells may take place more promptly at the end than at the beginning of the period of heat. Eelative age of parents — It' has been claimed by Hofacker and Sadler that female offspring predominate when the sire is younger than the dam and male when the sire is the older. The results thus far obtained in testing this theory are by no means uniform and do not prove the point of contention. In the case of man there are about 106 boys born to every 100 girls without regard to the relative age of the parents. Martegoute states that the larger ewes are more likely to bear female lambs, but this is not in accordance with practi- cal experience. Tegetmeier collected statistics on the sex of colts from rac- ing mares during a period of 21 years. The total number of colts was 25,560, of which 12,797 were female and 12,763 male. The males are in excess at birth in many species of animals, as well as in man, but there is a higher mortality among males in early life so that the in- equality may disappear or the females may ultimately predominate. Some evidence has been accumulated to show that as a result of oppressive heat, overwork, defective nutrition or the prevalence of disease the excess of male offspring may be reduced. Baker claims that "causes tending to increase the birth rate tend also to increase the proportion of female offspring." It does not appear, however, that there is a pre- ponderance of female offspring in races of animals of unusual fecundity. Influence of sire and dam — It has sometimes been assumed that the dam exercises a greater influence than the sire in determining the sex of the progeny. Statistics adduced in support of this assumption are not conclu- sive. Wright maintains that " if a vig- orous cockerel is mated with not more than three adult hens, the cocks almost always largely predominate in at least the early broods; later this becomes un- FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK certain. If an adult cock be mated with not more than three pullets, the result is very uncertain. If an adult cock be mated with five or more pullets, the pul- lets are generally in excess. The fewer hens and the more vigorous the stock, the greater is the proportion of cockerels which are always more numerous in the earlier eggs of a season than the later." But, as argued by Miles, Wright ad- mits that "there will be numerous and startling exceptions to these rules." They, therefore, fail to have the value of a general law. Food and sex — Many writers have maintained that sex is determined by nutritive conditions. According to this of heat to pass after the birth of a heifer calf before the bull is admitted for service. This hypothesis in turn does not agree with actual experience in breeding. Schenk's theory of the deter- mination of sex is that each sex has a tendency to produce the opposite sex. The stronger, more vigorous or better nourished parent should therefore pro- duce the opposite sex in the offspring. The facts are not in harmony with this theory. No SATISFACTORY THEORY Although much speculation has been indulged in regarding the factors which deter- mine sex, none of the theories proposed is perfectly satisfactory, and no scheme Fig. 23 — OLD ENGLISH HOG THE BASIS OF MANY MODERN BREEDS idea the sex is not determined at the time of union of the germ cells. This notion receives some support from the phenomena observed in bees. Ordinary bee larva? which, if fed in the usual way, develop into sexless working bees, may be made to develop into queens by feeding on "royal jelly." This would indicate that the sex is not determined until the embryo has undergone some development. Stuyvesant proposes a theory based on the assumption that the dam entirely controls the sex of the progeny, and that every alternate egg is of the same sex. If heifer calves are desired, it would merely be necessary to allow one period has worked out successfully in practice. Statistics compiled at the Maine experi- ment station on 3614 calves do not tend to substantiate any theory of sex deter- mination. Some cows show a tendency to produce bull calves, others heifer calves. The same is true of ewes, mares and sows. It seems to be an individual matter and is not under the control of man. Having discussed the various factors of variation which may be brought to bear on the germ cells before and at the time of their union we may proceed to a consideration of influences which affect the developing embryo and the growing young animal. The importance of the DOMESTIC ANIMALS 37 effect of environment upon the animal di- minishes rapidly from the time of its conception. The condition of the dam at the time of impregnation is of great importance, as is also her state of health and nutrition during the period of preg- nancy. Domestication and variation — The amount of variation in growing ani- mals is increased as the complexity of the environment increases. Domesti- cated animals vary more rapidly than wild species for the reason that the feed is more varied, other external conditions change more frequently, many new con- ditions arise and variations in the animal are quickly noted and utilized by the breeder. Domestication has brought about important changes in animals. domestication animals apparently be- come more plastic and subject to varia- tion. But the difference in this respect is not great and is perhaps partly due to the fact that we can readily note the changes in domesticated animals on ac- count of having them under constant observation. Temperature exercises a direct effect on the growth, size and temperament of animals as well as upon the nature of their coat of hair. For most animals there is an optimum temperature at which they thrive best and a minimum and maximum beyond which they cannot live. The change to a white coat in winter noted in ptarmigan, hares, etc., is the direct effect of cold. The change takes place first on those parts of the Fig. 24 CHESHIRE SOW OF MODERN TYPE (Sweepstakes at Pan American Exposition. Age six years, weight 594 pounds.) In some instances the digestive tract has been greatly enlarged and the food consuming capacity correspondingly in- creased. Moreover, the fecundity has been increased and the breeding period has become extended over a much longer season than in the wild relatives. In some animals all periodicity in breeding has disappeared and they will breed at any time. Again the polygamous rela- tion is much more common in domesti- cated than in wild animals. Rabbits in- crease in size under domestication, the weight of the wing and leg bones of fowls decreases. These changes make the animals in question better suited to man's purposes and are direct adapta- tions to the domesticated state. Under body in which the blood circulation is least active. One of the effects of intense light is the development of more pigment in the skin. In the tropics the skin even of the white races becomes brown. In the southern states white hogs suffer from sun blisters. Black or red breeds are not thus affected. Influence of feed — The quality and amount of feed is one of the most important factors in the variation of animals. Many instances of the in- fluence of food have been collected by Vernon. Hemp seed gives some birds a black plumage. Cayenne pep- per in the food changes the color of the feathers from yellow to orange red, FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK especially in young birds. White Italian fowls fed cayenne pepper show orange stripes on the breast within 10 days, and later all over the body. The natives along the Amazon have found that feed- ing the green parrot on a certain fish will cause the development of yellow and red feathers among the green. In the wild boar the intestines are nine times as long as the body, in the domestic hog 13.5 as long. According to careful determinations made by Krocker, sheep may produce wool twice as fast on a heavy as on a very scant ration. Hun- dreds of instances of this sort are known to feeders. Geographical races_The combined action of the soil, light, rainfall, tem- perature, feed stuffs and other condi- tions of different localities results in the production of geographical races suited by a direct process of adap- tation to the conditions which prevail in the respective localities. It is not as- serted that local, natural conditions en- tirely determine the origin and charac- ter of local races of farm stock. Market requirements and the possible profits to be derived are also factors. Allen has found that birds and mammals in this country increase in size as we go north, while the color becomes more intense towards the south, and also towards areas of large rainfall. In Angora, according to Falconer, goats, sheepdogs and cats have fine, silky hair. In England and Scotland every little district has breeds or races of sheep peculiar to it, and, ap- parently, best adapted to its conditions. The character of the soil indirectly through its effect on the forage plants of a given locality is of much impor- tance in determining local races of farm stock, for example the blue grass horses of Kentucky. This matter has not re- ceived the attention which it deserves. Variation of parts of body — I n studying variations in farm animals it appears that certain characters or parts of the body may vary quite inde- pendently of all other features. This makes it possible to select animals for breeding purposes without regard to any other point than the one in which we are producing variation. Usually, how- ever, several parts vary at the same time, or, in other words, the variations are to some extent correlated. Bulldogs have short heads and short legs, while grey- hounds have long heads and long legs. Similarly the legs and snout are long in the razorback and short in improved breeds of swine. In fact it is almost impossible for one part of the body to vary without affecting some other part. Some of these correlations are easily un- derstood and others are quite peculiar. Thus fowls with tufts of feathers on the head have perforations in the cranium. Pigeons with white, yellow or silver plumage are hatched naked. Blondes seem to be slightly more susceptible to disease. White horses are most likely to be worried by gnats. White dogs are most susceptible to distemper, and white chickens to gapeworm. In some local- ities cats with a reddish coat are im- mune to distemper. Every organ of the body is related in one or more ways to every other organ. The removal of the thyroid gland or its non-development from any cause renders the normal growth and the attainment of normal mental de- velopment impossible in the individual in question. It is a well known fact that sterility may be brought about by in-and-in breeding or by close con- finement or other unfavorable condi- tions. In all animals the reproductive organs are very sensitive to changes in environment, but more so in certain in- dividuals than others. Hence a number of animals in each herd may be sterile. Conversely the reproductive organs ex- ercise a powerful influence upon the rest of the body as shown in part by the extensive changes produced by castra- tion of the bull, ram, stallion or cock. Practical methods of breeding — J n the above paragraphs we have at- tempted to review the main scientific facts and theories upon which practical breeding is based. There remain for dis- cussion the practical methods of breed- ing. The fundamental idea of breeding, aside from the mere perpetuation of the breed, is to produce variation in a defi- nite direction. The corner stone of the breeder's work is not heredity, as some- times asserted, but variation, for if there were no variations there could be no im- provement of the breed. By means of heredity the desirable variations are given stability and permanency. Conse- quently, after a breed has been estab- lished, heredity is the important force, since by virtue of it the herd "breeds true" and a guaranty is given of fixed- ness of type. A long pedigree, therefore, gives assurance that variation will not be irregular but in a fixed direction. The breeding methods in common use by means of which our modern improved stock has been produced are in-breeding, DOMESTIC ANIMALS 39 cross-breeding, line-breeding, natural- breeding and grade-breeding. Quite extensive data on inbreeding have been collected by Miles and bis discussion is followed in part in tbe present account. Inbreeding — I n tbe first place mucb difference of opinion prevails as to the closeness of relationship necessary to es- tablish a case of inbreeding. Inbreeding has been variously defined as "breeding between relatives without reference to the degree of consanguinity," "breed- ing from close relations," "breeding from the same family" and "pairing of relations within the second degree of cousins twice or more in succession." In general inbreeding is used to mean breeding between close relatives with- out defining the exact relation. Inbreed- ing may mean a single pairing of relations, or several, or even the contin- uation of the process. Since the days of Bakewell, who be- gan his work in 1760, all noted breeders have practiced inbreeding to a greater or less extent. It seems to be necessary, in fact, in establishing a breed. Cer- tain desirable characters appear in one or two members of a family and form the basis of a breed. Some of the families of Herefords were inbred for 80 years or more without the infusion of outside blood. In the practice of inbreeding many of the closest possible pairings have been allowed, for example brother and sister, father and daughter, etc. Atwood developed a fine flock of Meri- nos from one ewe without any outside blood. Hundreds of other examples of close and continued inbreeding are on record. In all cases, however, inbreed- ing has been practiced in order to pre- vent the admixture of other tendencies in the preservation of desirable ones. In other words, breeders have selected their breeding animals for their posses- sion of the required characters and with- out reference to the relationship be- tween the animals. Inbreeding is a merely accidental process in the forma- tion of a breed; it is a means to an end. Inbreeding insures the fixing of tenden- cies more quickly than by any other method of breeding. If great care is not exercised, however, defects are likely to be established and perpetuated. Moreover, inbreeding may result in a loss of vigor and fecundity. It should, therefore, never be practiced without a definite ob- ject in view. In fact it is almost never to be recommended in ordinary farm practice. So called "line breeding" i s a modified form of inbreeding, the main difference being that in line breeding a little more latitude is given to the closeness of re- lationship. Interbreeding is allowed be- tween members of a few families which have descended from a common ancestry. In other words the animals selected for breeding purposes must be in the same line of descent. It is obvious that if a breed of animals be originated by in- breeding, the large number of animals ultimately produced will allow breeding between animals of quite wide relation- ship. They will, however, all be in the same "line" of ancestry. Consequently line breeding is essentially nothing more nor less than the logical extension of inbreeding after a large number of breeding animals in one line have be- come available. Both inbreeding and line breeding suffer from the defects of exclusiveness. All animals from out- crosses are excluded. As suggested by Warfield, if the family should become too large it would get out of control, and the feature of exclusiveness would be lost. The purpose of inbreeding and line breeding is to secure as nearly as possible an absolute indentity of blood. It may be desirable to have only one type in a herd, but this is true only when the type is perfect and without defect. Since such an attainment has thus far been impossible, it is desir- able to have a slight variation in the herd in order that selection may be made of those animals which most closely ap- proach the ideal in the mind of the breeder. Exclusive inbreeding or line breeding leads ultimately to loss of vigor and size as shown by the white park cattle of England which weigh only 550 to 700 pounds. Natural breeding aS defined by War- field, or, as it is sometimes called, out- crossing or mixed breeding, is breeding with the object of securing the best progeny by all means at the disposal of the breeder. This is nothing more nor less than artificial selection. Natural selection tends to the perpetuation of the average individual of the species. In the case of cattle, for example, cows which give too little milk for the proper sustenance of the calf would be gradu- ally eliminated by natural selection. Cows which give much more milk than required by the calf would be weeded out for the reason that the udder would be too large and clumsy and might im- pede the progress of the cow in escaping FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF ZIVE STOCK from enemies. Then too the production of more milk than is used would put an unnecessary strain on the cow and would be speedily corrected. In nature, therefore, while the species tends to vary in several directions from the average, the average individual has best chance in the struggle for existence. Fig. 25 — OLD-FASHIONED GAME COCK To the breeder, however, the average is not good enough. He seeks to secure variation to the extreme in large pro duction of milk, beef, wool, speed or other qualities. Individual merit is the basis upon which the breeder must build. According to this system if any advantage is to be gained by occasional inbreeding, the breeder avails himself of it. If just the right breeding animal cannot be obtained inside the line or family, then outside blood is mixed with the family, provided the outside animal has the right qualities. As has been so well stated by Warfield, in natural breed- ing the breeder seeks to prevent the im- pairment of the constitution of his stock or any decrease in fecundity. Moreover, he breeds for quality, practical value and usefulness rather than for pedigree or exhibition standards. In working toward these ends he does not disregard the achievements of his predecessors^ but strives to save all the advantages gained by them while he forges somewhat ahead. The purpose of the breeder should be not to devise methods of breeding, but to achieve results. The method is only a means to an end. The breeder therefore takes whatever there is of good from all known methods. Inbreeding and outcrossing have been very aptly compared as follows: "There is no one point on which practical breed- ers as well as scientists are more perfectly agreed than that the ultimate tendency of breeding in-and-in is injurious; that when carried to excess it will always re- sult in a loss of constitutional vigor in the produce ; that while its tendency may be in the direction of fineness of texture lightness of bone, smoothness, evenness, and polish, it is invariably at the ex- pense of robustness, strength, vigor and power. On the other hand scientists as well as practical breeders, with perhaps equal unanimity, concur in the belief that a cross in the blood usually gives increased size and vigor to the produce, and that cross breeding or pairing of an- imals of distinct varieties usually re- Fig. 26 — MODERN GAME COCK suits in increased fertility." Again, pre- potency, which is often claimed as a characteristic result of inbreeding, is fre- quently secured by outcrosses to just as great a degree. Cross breeding means mating animals of two distinct breeds. A common modi- DOMESTIC ANIMALS 41 fication of this method is seen in cross- ing a pure bred male on a scrub or un- improved female. The latter process is known as grading up or grade breeding. Cross breeding has been a quite common practice among sheep raisers. The Hampshires were improved by crossing Fig. 27 WILD TURKEY GOBBLER, SOURCE OF OUR DOMESTIC BREEDS with the Southdowns; the Shropshires have been crossed with the Cotswold, Leicester and Southdown, and many- other crosses have occurred in sheep, cattle and horses. All who have prac- ticed cross breeding insist upon the great importance of using only males of the best possible character. Many fail- ures in cross breeding have been due to the use of inferior males. However im- portant the infusion of new blood may be, the breeder cannot secure any useful result by merely mixing the blood of different breeds indiscriminately. Cross- ing must be done with intelligence and with some purpose in view. Otherwise the good points of both breeds may be lost in a worthless ha If breed. As indi- cated in the discussion of variation, widely unlike characters may not blend and it is often impossible to predict what the results will be. One breed may be used sometimes to supplement an- other breed in some weak point. Cross breeding, however, is little practiced at the present day and there seems to be comparatively little occasion for it. Grade breeding — Finally we come to grade breeding or grading up, the only method of breeding with which the aver- age farmer is likely to be occupied. It is the method which promises the best, quickest and most economic results in his hands. Considering the great num- bers of native or unimproved stock which must be utilized, grading up is 1 MEnBED .,•'./<_■.% I Fig. 28 BRONZE TURKEY OF MODERN TYPE the only method of breeding which can be conscientiously recommended to the farmer. Grade breeding consists in the continued breeding of pure bred sires to unimproved or grade stock. The result is the constant im- provement of native stock and the 42 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK constant elevation of the quality of grades. Crossing pure breeds to obtain a new breed is hardly to be thought of at present in ordinary farm practice. Again, most farmers cannot afford the loss of time necessary to establish a new breed even by the method of natural breeding. Even if he has the time why should he wish to form a new breed? We already have good pure breeds for all purposes — for quantity of milk, for rich- ness of milk, for excellence of beef, for vigor in beef animals, for coarse and fine wool, for mutton, for speed, for draft, for bacon, for lard, for eggs, for chicken meat, etc. To be sure there is room for improvement. But why not build on the basis of the great advan- tages furnished by existing breeds ? The only sensible way to improve upon our present conditions is to go ahead from the most advanced point yet reached, rather than go back and begin anew. The average farmer raises stock for quality and usefulness, not for pedi- gree; and since such a large proportion of farm animals consist of native stock, the only reasonable course for the farmer to pursue is to use pure bred males for improving this stock in definite direc- tions. This system is simple, easy to understand and brings rapid results. Even the first cross shows decided im- provement, and within three to five gen- erations the grades are for all practical purposes as good as pure breeds. The choice of breed in the sire will depend on the product which is desired. For the production of heavy draft horses use Percheron or Clydesdale stallions; for quantity of milk, Holstein bulls; for rich milk, Guernsey or Jersey bulls; for dual purpose cows, Shorthorn bulls; for beef, Hereford, Shorthorn or Angus bulls, etc. The individual farmer will have his preference in the choice of breeds, but when a given course has been adopted, stick to it and do not change from one breed to another without rea- son, for the tendencies of the herd will become mixed and indefinite unless a uniform plan is followed. In order to get satisfactory results by this method the males must be pure bred. Never use a grade sire for breeding pur- poses. All such animals should be cas- trated. It is not necessary for the farmer to import his sires from Europe, in fact this practice is often to be deprecated. American stock for American conditions should be the slogan of the breeder, and the farmer will usually get better results from the use of American sires. In farm stock, pedigree is merely a record of ancestry and does not insure quality in an individual animal. Pedi- gree is a good thing as far as it goes, and should be insisted upon in the choice of sires to head a herd. Even the best line of descent, however, shows poor in- dividuals here and there. Consequently individual merit should be insisted upon as well as pedigree. PART II Principles of Stock Feeding SI II ° 2 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING Man's first flocks and herds lived by grazing. No grain was fed them and no forage was stored for their use in winter. Their grazing ground changed with necessity and they were fat or lean according to the season and the abun- dance of herbage. This method of stock- raising is limited to regions of favorable climate. Land also must be cheap and thinly settled. Such conditions prevail in the United States today in some states of the West. The principles of feeding under such conditions are limited to a knowledge of the best feeding grounds and watering pools. Where the winters are so severe that stock cannot secure forage, and in thickly settled communi- ties where land is too expensive to be kept in pasture, or where it is desired to increase beyond the normal the pro- duction of milk or wool or eggs or meat or work, then feeding becomes necessary and a knowledge of the principles of feeding of great importance. For centuries our domestic animals have been cared for by man. Stock has been fattened, cows fed for their milk and beasts of burden made to work, and men have come to know in a general way the food requirements for these different purposes. Yet the facts thus learned by observation were particular facts and ap- plied to particular foods. Each feeder had his theories and each theory differed from every other theory. No man knew the reasons — the why of it all. Studying animal nutrition — It was not until about 60 years ago that the subject of animal nutrition began to be studied seriously. The pioneers in this work were Boussinganlt in France, Lie- big in Germany and Lawes and Gilbert in England. The voluminous results of German investigators were first made available to American and English readers in 1880 by Dr. H. P. Armsby in his Manual of Cattle Feeding. This work presented a comprehensive digest of the experiments in animal nu- trition made up to that time and served as a direct stimulus to the extensive in- vestigations which have since been made along similar lines in America at our experiment stations. At the present time we have a comparatively full un- derstanding of the very complicated sub- ject of animal nutrition. Principles of nutrition — I n our pres- entation of the subject we will discuss the principles of nutrition in so far as they may be necessary to a clear under- standing of the subject by the feeder. Under principles of feeding will be taken up for consideration such matters as the composition of animals and plants, defining such terms as are commonly employed in this connection; the diges- tion of food and factors influencing di- gestibility; the function of the various food constituents in the body, such as protein, carbohydrates, fat, mineral mat- ter, salt and water; the compounding of rations; feeding standard; calculating balanced rations ; and tables showing the composition of American feeding stuffs and their percentage digestibility, etc. COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS A clear understanding of animal feed- ing begins with a knowledge of what the animal is — what it is made of, what changes in composition take place during growth and during fattening, and the like. This information has been well supplied by the work of Lawes and Gil- bert in England, who analyzed the en- tire bodies of ten animals, and by the Maine experiment station in this coun- try, which analyzed the entire bodies, ex- clusive of the skins, of four steers. The results of .these analyses are shown in the table below: COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS Water Ash Pro- Fat tein p ct p ct p ct p ct Fat calf 62.3 4.48 16.6 16.6 Half fat ox 54.0 5.56 17.8 22.6 Fat ox 45.6 4.56 15.0 34.8 Steer 17 months old.. 59.4 4.40 17.4 18.8 40 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS — Con. Water Ash Pro- Fat tein p ct p ct p ct p ct Steer 17 months old. .57.1 5.20 17.5 20.2 Steer 24 months old.. 53.1 5.10 16.6 25.2 Steer 24 months old.. 53. 4 5.20 16.8 24.6 Fat lamb 48.6 3.63 10.9 36.9 Store sheep 57.3 4.36 14.5 23.8 Half fat old sheep ...49.7 4.13 14.9 31.3 Fat sheep 39.7 3.45 11.5 45.4 Very fat sheep 33.0 2.77 9.1 55.1 Store pig 55.3 2.57 14.0 28.1 Fat pig 38.6 1.40 10.5 49.5 Average 50.7 4.1 14.5 30.9 Water in animals— A striking feature of this table is the large amount of water shown to exist in the animal body. Ex- cept in the case of fat animals, over 50 per cent of the bodies of cattle, sheep and swine consists of water. The body of the calf, even though fat, is shown to percentage of fat. On the average we see that over half the dry matter of the ani- mal body consists of fat. Even in the case of lean animals, as the store pig and store sheep, the fat constitutes the largest part of the dry matter, while in the case of the very fat sheep and the fat pig, practically half the whole body is composed of fat. Lawes and Gilbert have shown that in fattening cattle, sheep and swine from 65 per cent of the increase in weight in the case of cattle to as high as 75 per cent in the case of sheep may be com- posed of fat. The nitrogenous sub- stance may constitute 7 to 8 per cent of the gain in weight and the ash from less than 1 to more than 2 per cent, the rest of the increase being water. With Fig. 30 — FIRST CUTTING OP ALFALFA, MAY 24, ON AN OHIO FARM consist of a still larger percentage of water. As animals increase in fatness the percentage of water decreases. This does not mean that fat is substituted for the water already existing in the body but that the increased growth in fatten- ing contains a less proportionate amount of water than the original body. In the case of mature cattle, sheep and swine the increase in growth during fattening contains only about 25 per cent of water and in some cases even less. This explains why animals ready for market contain less water than lean ani- mals and why the meat of young pork or lean hogs fries away so much more than pork from well fattened swine. Fat in animals— The next important column in the table is that showing the young fattening animals these propor- tions will be slightly changed, there be- ing a slight increase in the ash, nitrog- enous substance, and water. Protein in animals — I n the column marked protein it will be noted that on the average the bodies of the animals examined were made up of 14.5 per cent of this material. Protein is a word used for a group of substances in both plants (see page 48) and ani- mals which contain the element, nitro- gen. Lean meat is a characteristic ex- ample of protein and the albumen or white of an egg is another important nitrogenous compound belonging to this group. The calf is seen to contain as much protein as fat. All the other ani- mals contain much more fat than pro- PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 47 tein. In lean animals the percentage of per cent, and a lean hog 73 per cent of protein is greater than in fat animals. dressed carcass, while a fat ox gave 60 The ash of animals constitutes the P er cent °f dressed carcass, a fat sheep residue that is left after the whole body 53 P er cen t, and a fat hog 82 per cent, is burned. The ash is made up chiefly From tne butcher's standpoint, therefore, of lime, phosphoric acid, potash, sodium fat animals are worth more pound for and magnesia, with smaller amounts of pound live weight than lean animals, other materials, such as silicon, iron first because they do not dress away so chlorine and sulphur. much and second because of the better From the above table it can be calcu- quality of the meat of well fattened ani- lated that a half fat ox weighing 1000 mals - pounds would contain, exclusive of con- Having now considered the composi- tents of stomach and intestines, about tion of animals and the proportions in 55.6 pounds of ash. A half fat ox weigh- which the various substances exist in ing 1000 pounds, inclusive of contents of thj body let us next examine plants, stomach and intestines, was found by study their composition, and see how Lawes and Gilbert to contain 18.39 they are fitted to nourish the animal pounds of phosphoric acid, 21.11 pounds body, of lime, 2.5 pounds of potash and 0.85 pounds of magnesia. The ash of sheep COMPOSITION OF PLANTS and hogs was found to exist in these ani- An animalg deriye ^ nourisWnt mals in proportions very similar to those directly or indirectly from pljmt8 At m tie ox * one time they feed on the green plants, Greater value of fat animals—There at another on the cured forage or hay, is another marked difference in the char- and again on the grain or by-products acter of the carcasses of lean and fat of the plant. The composition of several animals and that is the much larger important forage plants at different proportion of butcher's meat in fat stages of growth is shown in the table than in lean animals. Lawes and Gil- below, together with the analyses of sev- bert found that a lean ox gave 47 per eral grains for comparison. Other cent of dressed carcass, a lean sheep 45 analyses may be found on another page. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. Nitrogen Water Ash Protein Fiber free extract Fat P er ct per ct per ct per ct per ct per ct Green plants: Red clover 70.8 2.1 4.4 8.1 13 5 11 Corn 79.8 1.1 2.0 4 3 12 1 7 Timothy 61.6 2.1 3.1 11 8 20<> 12 Cowpea 83.6 1.7 2.4 4.8 71 04 Blue grass 49.4 3.9 5.2 15.4 24.9 13 Cured plants: Clover hay 20.8 6.6 12.4 21.9 33 8 4 5 Timothy hay 15.0 4.5 6.0 29.6 419 3 Cowpea hay 10.7 7.5 16.6 201 42 2 2 9 Blue grass hay 9.4 7.7 10.4 19.6 50.4 2.5 Grains: Corn 10.9 1.5 10.5 2.1 69.6 5 4 Oats 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 Cotton seed 9.1 4.0 19.6 18.9 28.3 20.1 The table shows that plants contain contain most water and the percentage water, ash, protein and fat the same as decreases as the plant approaches matu- animals do and in addition two other rity . All farmers have noticed how much classes of substances designated under more quick]y h cureg towapd the d ^headings fiber and nitrogen-free ex- of ^ haying geason ^ at ^ begin _ "water in plants-Water constitutes J™* A \ ^ ? e ^Wa station *- nn«si wuBinuic timothy cut when j ust beginning to head a very large part of green plants, aver- , hf , / ? . . . i , %r. . • +1 i .„ lost 75 per cent of water in curing; when aging about 70 per cent in the plants L * . . . „ . , _ 6 ' mentioned. There is a less amount in cut at the beginning of the blossoming the cured plants and still less in grains. season the loss was 66 per cent, and when The percentage of water in plants is cut a little later or at about the usual not constant. Young growing plants time the loss was only 57 per cent. 48 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Even when hay appears perfectly well cured and dry it contains a large amount of water, as may be seen in the analyses above. From the time hay is put in the barn until it is baled or used in winter there is usually a shrinkage in weight of 15 to 20 per cent, due to further loss of moisture. Grain also shrinks from 10 to 20 per cent in weight in storage from loss of moisture. The water in plants or feeding stuffs is of no greater value for animals than water obtained from other sources, ex- cept that it is pure and may add palata- bility to the food. Feeds are valuable in proportion to the dry matter they con- tain, not in proportion to the water. Ash in plants — The ash in green plants and of grains, as shown by the table, is comparatively low, being rela- tively much lower than the ash in ani- mals. The ash content of the cured hay is somewhat greater. Different plants vary greatly as regards their ash content and even different parts of the same plant. Thus the dry matter of beet leaves contains about 15 per cent of ash, while the dry matter of the roots con- tains but about 3.8 per cent of ash. The dry matter in the straw of wheat, oats and peas contains from 5 to 7 per cent of ash, while the grain of these plants contains only 2 to 3 per cent. Different parts of a kernel of grain also store up different amounts of ash, thus the outer coating or bran of wheat contains about 6 per cent of ash, while the wheat flour contains only about one-half of 1 per cent of ash. The ash of plants contains the same elements as the ash of animals, though in somewhat different proportions. Pot- ash is much more prominent in the ash of plants than in animals, while phos- phoric acid and lime is much less so. These differences are shown in the fol- lowing comparison: COMPOSITION OF ASH IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS (per Cent). Total ash Potash Soda Timothy hay (dry matter) G.8 2.4 .12 Fat ox (fresh body) 3.9 .14 .12 Lime Phos acid Magnesia .55 .80 .22 1.74 1.56 .05 The protein of plants is essentially the same material as that found in an- imals. As before noted it is a short term used to signify a group of com- pounds in both plants and animals that contain nitrogen. The proteids are all very highly organized organic com- pounds. They have been found to con- tain on the average about 52 per cent carbon, 23 per cent oxygen, 16 per cent nitrogen, 7 per cent hydrogen and 2 per cent sulphur and sometimes small amounts of phosphorus or iron in addi- tion. It has been estimated that the proteid molecule contains at least 5000 atoms, while that of water contains but 3 atoms, sugar 24 to 45 and fat 165 atoms or thereabouts. This gives an idea of the highly organized and complex form of the proteid compounds. The gluten of the wheat kernel is an exam- ple of vegetable protein. All plants contain some protein, but it is most abundant in leguminous plants and seeds, like clover, alfalfa, peas, beans, etc. The table on page 47 shows that cotton seed is very rich in protein. Feed- stuffs rich in protein are sometimes re- ferred to as "flesh formers" on account of their importance in the formation of lean flesh. Protein is the only constituent in feeding stuffs that contains nitrogen. The nitrogen is the same as that found in fertilizers and that constitutes four- fifths of the air Ave breathe. The protein group is usually divided into the proteids and non-proteids, the former of which is the more abundant and has the greater feeding value. Of the non-proteids the amides, gelatine, creatin, etc, are prominent members. The non-proteids are simpler in struc- ture than the proteids, are soluble and transferable throughout the tissues and are not believed to be muscle formers like the albuminoids, but perform, rather, functions similar to the other organic constituents of the food. The source of protein in the animal body is the protein of the food. It is believed also that the animal body is not capable of building up protein from simpler substances, but that the protein must enter the body fully organized. Protein is essential in the building and repair of all animal tissue and is a prominent constituent of the muscles, brain, nerves, blood, hair, nails, skin, etc. Animals cannot build up their bodies, cows produce milk, poultry eggs, or sheep PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 49 wool unless the food they receive con- tains protein in sufficient quantities. In addition to these functions, protein serves also as a source of energy to ani- mals and may also be used in the build- ing of fat for storage in the body. Fiber and nitrogen-free extract — The next two columns in the table of analyses on page 47 show constituents not found as such in the animal body. These are fiber or crude fiber as it is gen- erally given in tables of analyses and ni- trogen-free extract. Crude fiber or cellu- lose constitutes the essential part of the cell structure or framework of plants and seeds and gives to them their rigidity. Under nitrogen-free extract is included Fig. 31 LUPINE. A WILD FORM COMMON IN THE WEST the starches, sugars, gum and like sub- stances. Crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract are referred to as a whole as car- hohydraies. This term is very fre- quently used in connection with feeding stuffs and includes the whole group of starches, sugars, fibers, cellulose and gums, everything in fact except the pro- tein, ash, crude fat and water. The carbohydrates are composed of three elements only, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The plants get all the car- bon they need from the air and all the oxygen and hydrogen necessary from water. They are, therefore, the cheapest constituents of feeding stuffs. Under the influence of the digestive fluids the starches and crude fiber are converted into sugar which is soluble and can be readily absorbed into the animal system. Both fiber and nitrogen-free extract serve as a source of energy and heat in the animal body and for the production of fat. The largest part of all farm crops consists of these carbohydrates. Crude fiber is especially abundant in the hays and straws as will be seen by reference to the table on another page, while the starches predominate in such feeds as corn, potatoes and cassava. Sugar is es- pecially abundant in sugar beets and in cane and sorghum. Digestible crude fiber or cellulose is regarded at the pres- ent time as being practically as valuable for productive purposes as either starch or sugar, leaving out of consideration the work expended in preparing it for use by the body. The work of chewing and digesting crude fiber is, however, very considerable. Kellner found that if tarch be rated at 100, wheat straw would have a value of 27, or practically be only one-fourth as valuable as a food. Fat or ether extract — The last col- umn of the table is designated as "fat." In some tables of analyses of feeding stuffs, it is called "crude fat" or "ether extract." In analyzing feeding stuffs they are extracted for a long time with ether. The ether dissolves out not only the vegetable oil or fat proper, but also certain waxes, the green coloring mate- rial of the plant, etc. This crude fat, therefore, is a mixture of a number cf different substances. The fat of foods serves for the pro- duction of energy and heat in animals the same as the carbohydrates do, and may also be modified and deposited as animal fat. For these purposes fat is considered to be about 2.25 times as val- uable as carbohydrates. Like the car- bohydrates the fats contain just the three elements — carbon, oxygen and hy- drogen. The fat molecule, however, is much more complex than the carbohy- drate molecule. The fat content of green plants is usually very low, as may be seen from the table, and consists very largely of the waxes and green coloring material which have a lower feeding value than the true fats. True fat is found mostly in the seeds of plants. Corn and oats con- tain about 5 per cent of fat, while cot- ton seed contains as much as 20 per cent. 50 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK NECESSITY FOR FOOD Without food the animal dies. No matter whether animals work or rest, whether awake or asleep, certain internal work and changes are constantly going on as long as life lasts. The heart beats, respiration goes on, the body is kept warm. To maintain these vital proc- esses, food is necessary. The body re- quires the tissue building material and the latent energy and heat which is stored in food to maintain it. Use of food — After foods have been eaten and acted upon by the digestive juices, the various nutrients which they DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS Most of the compounds contained in feeding stuffs must undergo certain chemical changes and modifications be- fore they can be made use of by the ani- mal body. These chemical changes are brought about during the processes of digestion, as was shown in the discussion of the physiology of animals in Part I of this work. Not all the constituents of a feeding stuff, as shown by analyses, are digested. A part passes through the animal undigested. In order, therefore, to estimate the Fig. 32 — CRIMSON CLOVER AS GROWN IN DELAWARE contain are absorbed from the digestive tract and carried by the blood to every portion of the body. Every cell is reached and supplied with the nutriment necessary for its maintenance while the material which the cell has already used is carried away in the blood and ex- creted from the body. The broken down protein is excreted partially in the form of urea from the kidneys through the urine, while the carbon is excreted from the lungs, in the form of carbonic acid through the breath. feeding value of any material it is nec- essary to know what portion of the pro- tein, the carbohydates, the fats, etc, con- tained in the feeding stuff is actually digestible. Experiments to determine this matter have been carried on now for many years with different kinds of ani- mals and with all the more usual feed- ing stuffs. The results secured for all the more usual American feeding stuffs are shown in the table on another page, en- titled, The average digestibility of Amer- ican feeding stuffs. Attention will be PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 51 called to this table again when the dis- cussion of the compounding of rations for animals is taken up. Determination of digestibility — The digestibility of feeding stuffs is deter- mined by feeding animals regularly for a considerable period food which has been carefully analyzed. The feces are collected during this period and ana- lyzed. The difference between the amount of food fed and the amount of undigested matter found in the feces is taken to represent the amount digested by the animal. The digestibility of the different feeding stuffs as given in tables of digestibilifr 0, has been determined in this manner. The greatest number of digestion ex- periments has been made with rumi- nants, a less number with swine and horses, and a few with poultry. The coefficients of digestion, i. e., the percent- age digestibility of feeding stuffs, for these different classes of animals, are shown separately in the tables above re- ferred to. Digestion by different animals — As regards different kinds of animals, cattle, sheep and goats appear to digest the same foods equally well. This is especially true of the more easily di- gested foods. In the case of woody, dif- ficultly digested foods, cattle digest a larger percentage than sheep. Horses, probably on account of the simpler or- ganization of the stomach, do not digest most feeding stuffs as well as the ru- minants do. They digest oats and corn and in general the protein constituents of feeds practically as well as sheep, but not the crude fiber or crude fat. Swine digest corn, barley and some other grains as well or better than ruminants. They do not digest the crude fiber and fat of most feeding stuffs as well as ruminants do nor the protein of green forage as well. Different breeds of the same species of animal digest feeds apparently equally well, and young animals appear to digest the better grades of coarse feeds and grains equally as well as older animals of the same kind. Factors affecting digestion — There are a number of factors affecting the digestion of feeding stuffs which are within the control of the feeder and these he should know. Palatability — A palatable ration fa- vors digestion probably because of a greater flow of the digestive juices which occurs when foods are eaten with a rel- ish. It is believed that the success of many feeders is due, in a large measure, to their great care in the preparation of rations to have them appetizing and palatable. The more palatable the ra- tion the more within limits will the ani- mal eat, and the more the animal eats and digests the greater will be the amount of flesh or other animal products produced. The stage of growth at which fod- ders are harvested have a marked in- fluence on their digestibility. Young growing plants contain relatively more protein and less woody fiber than older plants and are more easily digested. As plants approach maturity there is gen- erally a translocation of a large portion of the protein, starch and fat to the seeds, leaving the hard, woody portion, or crude fibers, in the stems. This is why straw made from crops cut when the grain is ripe is so greatly inferior in feeding value to the hay made from the same grains if cut when the grain is in the early dough stage. Hay made from ripe grasses is no better than straw. The yield of early cut plants is very much less than from mature plants, so that the total amount of digestible nu- trients is greater as the plants approach maturity. The greatest amount of di- gestible food in the grasses is obtained about the time, or soon after, they come into bloom and this is the time they should be cut for hay. Cured hay appears to be as easily di- gested as the fresh grass from which it is made. In curing, however, there is usually considarable loss from the dry- ing up and rattling off of the leaves and finer parts of the plants thus leaving a larger proportion of woody fiber. Prac- tically, therefore, cured fodder is not quite so digestible as green fodder. Cured or partially cured hay that has been exposed to rain is decreased in di- gestibility. The rain leeches out some of the more soluble constituents of the hay leaving the more undigestible parts. The fermentation of hay in the mow, corn in the shock, or grain in the bin, also decreases digestibility. Silage is not as digestible or as nutritious as the green fodder from which it is made. Long stored hay also is slightly less di- gestible than fresh hay. Special practices, as wetting feeds, cooking, steaming, etc, have been shown by many American and German experi- 52 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ments not to increase their digestibility with the possible exception of potatoes and some other roots for hogs. If, how- ever, any of these practices make the rations more palatable and thus induce the animals to eat larger amounts, then they have their place in the preparation of feeds, but not because they favor di- gestibility. Grinding grains appears to increase their digestibility from 3 to 10 per cent. It is of most value with horses and swine and of least importance with sheep. Of course old animals with such poor teeth that they cannot grind up the grain efficiently should be fed ground grains. Grinding, however, adds to the cost of the grain. If the cost is in- creased 10 per cent of the value of the are fed with a highly nitrogenous feed, amounts even greater than 15 per cent may be fed without injuriously affecting the digestibility of the ration. Kindness must be mentioned as a factor of importance in influencing di- gestion favorably. Fright of any kind checks the flow of juices of the salivary and other glands supplying digestive juices. The milk flow of cows is uni- formly decreased by fright as has been proved by trials at a number of the ex- periment stations. The contented ani- mal eats more food and makes better use of it in the production of meat and other animal products than the animal that eats in fear. There is no doubt but that the success of many feeders is due in a large measure to the confidence they grain, the practice is of doubtful econ- omy. All grains and grain by-products are more easily digested than roughages. Miscellaneous factors, such as work ; amount of food eaten, whether great or small ; f requency of feeding ; watering, whether before or after feeding; or the consumption of large quantities of salt, in experiments thus far reported do not show any marked effect on digestion and may be assumed for practical purposes to be without influence on this factor. When pure starch or sugar constitutes as much as 10 per cent of the dry matter of the ration, they have a depressing in- fluence on digestibility, especially of the protein and fiber. When the dry matter of roots and potatoes constitutes more than 15 per cent of the ration, digesti- bility is decreased. If, however, they inspire in their flocks and herds by their uniform gentleness and kindness in handling and caring for them. THE PRODUCTION OF FLESH Animals fed normally grow from birth to maturity increasing in weight and developing their bones and muscles. What constituents of feeding stuffs are essential to this growth? We know that the muscles, blood, tendons, hair, skin, nerves, brain and all the tisues of the body contain nitrogen. The only con- stituent of feeding stuffs that contains nitrogen is the protein. Protein is, therefore, absolutely essential to grow- ing animals. Is protein also necessary for mature animals that have made their full growth ? When the urine of animals is ana- lyzed nitrogen is always found in it. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 53 This is true even when the foods fed contain no nitrogen whatever. Even when animals receive no food at all and are starving, nitrogen is found in the urine. In these cases the only possible source of the nitrogen found in the urine is the protein previously stored in the body. The nitrogen in the urine repre- sents the protein that was used in the body in carrying on its vital functions. In the living animal of whatever age, a certain amount of protein or flesh is constantly destroyed in the life processes and is removed from the body through the urine, while new tissue is constantly built up out of the protein obtained from the digested food to replace that broken down and destroyed. Protein is used constantly in the body of all ani- mals. This is true whether the animals are young or old and whether they are at work or at rest. If the protein in the foods supplied is more than sufficient to maintain the vital activities of the ani- mal, the excess, within limits, may be stored as flesh. Forms of protein— On the basis of careful experiments, it is believed that protein exists in the body in two forms. In one form it is unstable and rapidly destroyed. In the other form it is com- paratively stable and only slowly de- stroyed. It Las been suggested that in the first instance the protein destroyed may be that which has been carried to the cells of the body, but which has not yet become organized, while in the latter case the protein has become organ- ized into the tissues of the different organs. Organized protein or flesh constitutes by far the greater part of the protein of the body, and in mature animals re- mains nearly constant, the amount de- stroyed each day being practically less than one per cent. The quantity of pro- tein not organized into flesh, or "circu- latory protein" as it has been called, on the other hand may vary greatly. In starving animals the circulatory protein may be practically nothing, while in an- imals well fed on foods containing a large amount of digestible protein it may equal as much as 5 per cent of the organized protein. But while less than 1 per cent of the organized protein is destroyed each day in the vital processes, 70 to 80 per cent of the circulatory pro- tein may be destroyed. It is thus seen that the bodily func- tions are maintained largely at the ex- pense of the circulatory protein which varies in amount from day to day with the amount of digestible protein in the food. A certain amount of protein i n the food is essential to life. If the protein supply in the food is increased above this amount, a temporary gain in flesh occurs and a rapid increase in the cir- culatory protein. With every increase, however, in the amount of protein sup- plied in the food there is a correspond- ing proportionate increase in the amount of protein consumed in the body and excreted in the urine. No matter, there- fore, how great the amount of protein supplied in the food any excess beyond the normal amount required to keep the animal in good condition will not be formed into flesh, but will be consumed in the body and excreted in the urine. On this point Armsby states that the "Animal body puts itself very promptly into equilibrium with its nitrogen sup- Fig. 34 — beet pulp silos: A, open silo; B, trench silo ply, and no considerable or long contin- ued gain .of proteid tissue can be pro- duced in the mature animal by even the most liberal supply of proteid food." This means that in fattening mature animals there is practically no increase in lean meat. The gain is largely due to deposits of fat which contains no ni- trogen. Other constituents — Thus far we have spoken only of the protein constituent of the ration in flesh formation. Pro- tein, however, is seldom fed alone. It is usually combined in feeding stuffs with either fats or carbohydrates and usually with both. Especially is this true with all vegetable feeding stuffs like the hays and grains. What effect do carbohy- drates and fats have on flesh formation when they are fed with protein? Less Protein Required — Experiments have shown that when either carbohy- drates or fats are fed in the ration with 54 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK protein a much smaller quantity of pro- tein is required for the vital functions, and that the gain in flesh may extend over a longer period than when protein is fed alone. Armsby illustrates this in the case of a dog that, when fed on lean meat, re- quired 1500 grams to maintain himself in good condition. When fed only 500 grams the dog lost flesh and was starv- ing. "When, however, 200 grams of fat was fed with the 500 grams of lean meat the dog not only kept in good condition, but actually gained in weight. The an- imal was actually better nourished on 500 grams of protein and 200 grams of fat than on 1500 grams of protein. The use of the 200 grams of fat saved 1000 grams of protein. It is probable that had the dog been able to have eaten the 200 grams of fat in addition to the 1500 grams of protein he would not have The best proportions of protein, fat and carbohydrates to feed different ani- mals at different stages of growth, for the different purposes of growth, fatten- ing, work, milk, egg and wool produc- tion have been studied very extensively and have been formulated into feeding standards which will be taken up and discussed farther along in this acccount. In summing up this phase of the ques- tion it may be said that animals can live and form flesh on protein alone. But by the addition of carbohydrates or fat to the ration they can live and form flesh for a longer period on a much small- er quantity of protein. Lean meat is formed entirely from the protein sup- plied in the food. In the next section we will see how fat is formed. PRODUCTION OF FAT Lean meat is made from the protein Fig. 35 — HARVESTING SILAGE CORN OX A PENNSYLVANIA FARM made any better gain than when fed simply the 500 grams of protein. The excess protein would simply have been consumed in the body and excreted with- out tbe production of any additional flesh, in other words, would have been fed at a loss. The carbohydrates appear to be equally as efficient as the fats in pro- tecting protein from consumption in the body. This is a matter of considerable importance since nearly all the feeding stuffs grown on the farm are much richer in carbohydrates than in fat. The question now arises if fats and carbohydrates protect protein from con- sumption to what extent may they be supplied in the ration? May the ration consist almost entirely of fats and car- bohydrates or must the greater part be made up of protein? in the food. Can fat also be produced from protein? Dogs exhausted of fat by starvation have been fed on lean meat from which the fat had been extracted They not only gained in flesh but also in fat, showing that fat can be pro- duced from protein. The extent, however, to which protein may actually be used for the production of fat is not well known. The fats contained in foods may be converted into the body fat of animals. This has been proved experimentally. Often a very large proportion of the fats fed are retained in the body. Vegetable fats are quite similar to animal fats and are readily converted by animals into body fat. Fat may also be produced from car- bohydrates. That is, such materials as starch, sugar and crude fibre may be PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 55 built up by tbe animal body and depos- ited as fat. This was conclusively proven by Lawes and Gilbert in experiments with swine and sheep in which the amount of fat gained in the case of swine was 40 to 80 per cent greater than could have been obtained from the pro- tein and fat contained in the ration. Jordan has also shown that milk fat may be largely derived from the car- bohydrates of the blood. It is thor- oughly well settled at this time that the carbohydrates are a very prominent source of all animal fats. Fats then may be derived from the protein in the food, from the fat in the food or from the carbohydrates in the food. It is probable that in fattening animals a very large proportion of the gain in body fat is derived from the carbohydrates. When carbohydrates or fat are fed to animals in excess of their daily re- quirements, it is within limit stored in the body as fat. The fat serves as a reserve source of energy and fuel which can be used by the body in time of need or when the food supply is insufficient. Starvation and death do not usually occur until all the stored fat of the body has been used up. PRODUCTION OF ENERGY AND HEAT Energy may be defined as the capacity to do work. Whether the work consists in drawing a load, digesting the food eaten or in keeping the body warm en- ergy is expended. Not a muscle is moved without the expenditure of energy. The energy of the body is derived entirely from the energy stored up in the food eaten. The energy of the food was de- rived from the sun while the plant was growing in the field. Under the influ- ence of sunlight the carbon of the air was made to unite in the plant with water, producing sugar, starch, fiber, fat, etc. In the building up of these com- pound substances work was expended by the sun. This work was stored up in the newly formed compounds in the form of potential energy, and it is this energy which the body uses in doing work and keeping itself warm. Potential energy ra ay be defined as the energy of position. Work must be expended on the hammer of a pile driver to raise it into position. By virtue of its position it is able in falling to do an amount of work in driving the pile equal in amount to that done in raising it into position. The energy stored in the hammer when it has reached its position at the top of the pile driver is known as potential energy. Likewise food compounds contain potential en- ergy by virtue of the work expended by the sun in making them. When these food compounds are de- composed or broken down in the body by oxidation or cleavage, the potential en- ergy they contained is released and be- comes active or "kinetic" energy (en- ergy of motion). It is this energy which is the source of muscular exertion, elec- tricity, heat, etc, in the animal body. Before growth or fattening or m i]k production is possible there must be food sufficient to supply first the energy and heat requirements of the body. Only the food in excess of the requirements for these purposes can be used for growth and production. The energy set free by the breaking down in the body of the constituents supplied in the digested food ultimately takes the form of heat. The conversion of the energy of motion as in work into heat is well illustrated by pounding a piece of iron on the blacksmith's anvil. As the hammer strikes the iron the en- ergy of motion of the hammer is sud- denly checked and the iron becomes hot, the energy of motion being converted in- to heat. When work is done by the ani- mal either externally or internally, heat is produced. Production of energy_What constit- uents of the food are most concerned in the production of energy in the body? At first it was thought that the protein compounds were the most important factors. Experiments, however, do not show that more of the nitrogenous com- pounds are broken down during work when large amounts of energy are re- quired than during rest. On the other hand there is a marked increase in the carbon excretion due to the breaking down of carbon compounds with each increase in the amount of work done. There appears to be an intimate connec- tion between work and the carbon compounds as the fats and carbohydrates as well probably as the carbon portion of the protein compounds ; while the rela- tion between work and nitrogenous com- pounds is not so obvious. Chief function of food — While food serves to build up tissue and keep the body in repair its chief function is to 50 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK supply the body with energy. The most convenient measure of the potential en- ergy of a food is the amount of heat evolved from it when it is completely oxidized or burned. The unit of heat measurement is the calorie. A calorie of heat is the amount required to raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F. The energy value of a feeding stuff is based on the amount of the ration that is digestible. A pound of digestible protein is estimated to have a fuel or heat value of I860 calories. A pound of digestible fat has a heat value of 4220 calories; while a pound of digestible carbohydrates has the same heat value as a pound of di- gestible protein, 1860 calories. The total plied is available for other work such as chewing and digestion of food, drawing a load, etc. The energy of food i s first employed in carrying out these functions, after which it appears as heat, just as when the energy of the hammer in motion is converted and appears as heat in the iron. The food nutrients are not first converted into heat and then into other forms of energy as fuel is in the engine. The heat is the final result of the va- rious forms of energy exercised in the body. It is a waste or excretory product and is eliminated from the body in sev- eral different ways. It is only when this source of heat is not sufficient to meet the demands of the body for heat that . <; f Jit, ■ r •.■' Fig. 36 — IN THE MIDST OF THE OATS HARVEST fuel value of a feeding stuff is found by using all these factors. This heat unit of measurement, the calorie, is employed as a matter of con- venience and not because the primary function of food is to supply heat. This is not the case. The food is used pri- marily to supply energy. The energy is used first of all in the necessary muscu- lar and other work of the internal or- gans, as the circulation of the blood respiration, maintenance of the elas- ticity of the muscles, the processes of se- cretion, absorption, excretion, osmosis, nerve and brain work, etc. The surplus energy existing after these requirements for the vital activities have been sup- food materials are oxidized for the special purpose of keeping the body warm. Net energy—Work of any kind uses up energy and results in the production of heat. In eating and digesting food much more heat is evolved from the body than when the animal is at rest. The more difficult the food is to masti- cate and digest the greater is the amount of energy expended. Coarse foods are not nearly so well adapted to rapid gains as concentrates because of the greater energy required to eat and digest them ; even though they contain an equal quantity of nutrients. Armsby found that a steer fed timothy hay utilized 37 per cent of the energy PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 57 of the digestible matter in the hay in mastication, digestion and assimilation. When corn meal was fed about 20 per cent of the digestible nutrients were so used. In the case of horses Zuntz found that 48 per cent of the digestible nutri- ents of the hay and 19.7 per cent of the oats fed were used up in the mastication and digestion of these foods. The difference between the amount of energy which a food contains and the amount required to masticate, digest and absorb it is spoken of as the "net energy" of the food. Zuntz states that in general the coarse foods have about 20 per cent less "net energy" value than the grains. It is plain that the feeding value of any material should be reckoned in terms Fig. 37 — STEER WITH APPARATUS USED IX DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS BY ARMSBY of "net energy" rather than in terms of total digestible nutrients; for, while some feeds like the hay may show a com- paratively large proportion of digestible nutrients, the energy required to chew and digest such food may be so great as to leave but little of the original en- ergy of the food remaining for produc- tive purposes. Feeding standards should therefore be based on the "net energy" value of food rather than on the total digestible nutrients. Unfortunately the "net energy" value of American feed- ing stuffs has not yet been worked out, and so we continue to make our calculations on the basis of the total digestible nutrients in each feed. It is probable that the next step in the scien- tific feeding of animals will be along the line of the determination of the "net energy" of our feeding stuffs. In the animal body a ll the nutrients of the food, i. e., the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates and the di- gestible fat may serve as sources of en- ergy and heat. If the daily food supply is sufficient to furnish all the energy the body requires this is the source first drawn upon. If the food supply is not sufficient the fat which may be stored in the body is drawn upon, and finally if this source is not sufficient, the pro- tein of the body itself is drawn upon. In all rations usually fed to farm ani- mals there is 4 to 10 times as much car- bohydrates and fat as protein. Much of the protein fed is used in tissue building and repair and in the produc- tion of milk, eggs, etc. Hence much the larger part of the energy of the body is derived from the carbohydrates and fat. Of these two constituents the fat we have seen is about 2.25 times as valuable as the carbohydrates. But usually there is 15 to 20 times as much carbohydrates in a normal ration as of fat. The chief source of energy and ability to do work, then, is the carbohydrates. PRODUCTION OF MILK, EGGS, ETC The average of more than 5000 analy- ses of samples of cow's milk show the following percentage composition: Total solids Ash Proteid 12.9 .7 3.2 Fats Sugar Water 3-9 5.1 87.1 The milk of other farm animals con- tains the same constituents as cow's milk, but in little different proportions. Milk does not exist in feeding stuffs ready formed, but must be manufac- tured by the animal. This is done by special glands in the udder. Animals giv- ing milk must have enough food to sup- ply not only their normal wants but enough in addition to supply the re- quirements of milk production. The only source of the protein in milk is the protein of the food. Should this source not be sufficient the animal draws on its own body for the supply. The protein of the food may possibly serve as a source of milk fat. It is not definitely known whether it is so used or not. Eecently Jordan has definitely proved that milk fat is formed from the carbohydrates in the ration. It is prob- 58 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK able that the carbohydrates are usually the chief source of fat in cow's milk. Nevertheless, an amount of protein con- siderably larger than that which calcu- lation shows ought to be sufficient is re- quired if the largest flow of milk is se- cured. In other words protein seems to have two functions in milk production : It forms a constituent part of the casein of the milk, and it serves to stimulate the flow of milk. Animals giving milk require much heavier feeding aIK ] the proportion of protein in the ration must be much greater than for animals not giving milk. Some animals normally give a large Breeding animals when pregnant re- quire more nitrogenous foods than other- wise for the nourishment of the grow- ing foetus. The proportion of protein in the ration must be increased. In egg production a l so a larger amount of protein is required in the ra- tion than for the simple maintenance of the fowls. Rations suitable for these different purposes will be discussed un- der each of the different animals af- fected. WATER FOR ANIMALS The bodies of animals, as we have learned, are more than half water. This Fig. 38. — GENERAL VIEW OF ARMSBY's RESPIRATION APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING THE "NET ENERGY" OF FEEDING STUFFS quantity of milk but of low quality, while others give a smaller amount of milk but of high quality. From the standpoint of the feeder it is not so much the quantity of milk that must be considered as it is the quality. It is the amount of dry matter produced in the milk which must be made the basis of calculation. The water in the milk is of minor importance from the feeder's standpoint. The various matters per- taining to the selection of rations for dairy cows, the effect of foods on quan- tity and quality of milk, etc, belong to the subject of dairy farming and will be found discussed there. water is distributed in every portion of the body including the bones. The soft tissues of the body contain 45 to 75 per cent of water, while the blood is at least SO per cent water. "Water serves many different func- tions i n the body. As a diluent of the digestive fluids it permits them to act more efficiently in softening and chemi- cally changing the food constituents into soluble forms. Concentrated food solutions must be diluted before they can be absorbed into the circulation. In the blood and lymph the water serves as a means or transporting the food PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 59 nutrients to every part of the body. In the urine, perspiration and breath it carries away waste material. It plays a highly important role in controlling the temperature of the body. By evaporation from the skin it absorbs the body heat and thus reduces the tem- perature. During hard work and with liberal feeding the abundant heat lib- erated would raise the temperature of the body to a dangerously high degree were it not for the increased evapora- tion of water which takes place from the body and thus maintains the normal body temperature. Heavy work in the heated days of haying and harvesting is made possible only by the abundant perspiration of the body which accom- panies it. Any failure in the water supply to animals causes serious functional de- rangements. Both digestion and absorp- tion are delayed, the nitrogenous waste materials are only slowly washed out of the tissues, the blood gradually thick- ens, the temperature is raised and the body becomes feverish. There is an in- crease in the consumption of the nitrog- enous and fat tissues of the body which continues until death or until water is supplied in sufficient amount to restore the water content of the body to its normal state. Need of water for young animals — Kellner states that young growing ani- mals may be seriously injured in growth and development by a deficiency in the amount of water supplied them. A long continued, insufficient amount of water causes a loss of appetite for solid food, a prominent breaking out and diarrhea — the latter when after a long period of thirst water is again given. For all these reasons animals can live longer without food than without water. Amount of water animals require — Animals secure a large part of the water they need in the food supplied them. Additional amounts are usually required, especially if dry feeds are given, and this is supplied as free water. The amount of water that animals require is usually left to the animals themselves, i. e., they are allowed to drink until their thirst is satisfied. There is no danger from over watering unless the animals are compelled to eat watery feeds or are given excessive quantities of salt. It has been found that the actual water requirements of animals for each pound of dry matter eaten is about 7 to 8 pounds for swine, 4 to 6 pounds for cattle, 2 to 3 pounds for horses and 2 to 3 pounds for sheep. More is required in hot weather or hard work, when per- spiration is abundant, than in cooler weather or rest. The above figures in- clude the amount of Avatcr given in the food. Fig. 39 ONE WAY OF SECURING A CON- STANT SUPPLY OF GOOD WATER Temperature of water — Much has been said regarding the temperature at which water should be drunk. Water when taken into the body must be warmed by the animal to the temperature of the body. If the water is very cold, more heat is required than if it is drunk at a higher temperature. Ordinarily 60 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK there is abundant heat in the body to warm up the water drunk if taken in small amounts and the animal can do it more cheaply than it can be warmed in a boiler with coal or wood. When given large draughts of water at one time or fed large quantities of cold fodder like frozen silage or beet pulp, there is re- quired a larger amount of heat to raise the temperature of the material to the temperature of the body. In such cases the energy may be drawn from that used for productive purposes in which case it is a direct expense in food materials be- sides being dangerous to health. Fresh water at a temperature of 60 to 70° F. is likely to prove most satisfactory for all stock. Pure water — The drinking water of animals should be as pure as that used by man. It should be colorless and odor- less with a fresh agreeable flavor, Brooks, wells or ponds which receive the drainage water of the barnyard or other surface drainage should not be used as the source of the drinking water of farm stock. The presence in water of any such material as ammonia, table salt, nitric acid, etc, indicates contamination and impure water. Farm animals prefer soft running or standing water to hard water, acccord- ing to Kellner. They can accustom themselves however, to unusually hard water without serious digestive disturb- ances. Horses and sheep are more easily injured by impure water than other animals. Cattle and swine are less demanding in this respect. Since, how- ever, impure water is a carrier of dis- ease, every effort should be made to place before all farm animals a permanent supply of soft, pure, fresh, agreeable water at all times. MINERAL MATTER FOR ANIMALS As we have seen when the bodies of an- imals are burned a small quantity of ash remains. The amount of ash is greatest in old lean animals and least in young animals. About 80 per cent of the ash is made up of lime and phosphoric acid, in nearly equal proportions, the re- mainder consists of small amounts of potash, soda magnesia, chlorine, iron, sulphuric acid, etc. The soda and chlo- rine are usually combined in the form of common salt. Ash in bones — The greater part of the ash exists in the bones, but a small amount, scarce 1 per cent, is found in all the softer tissues of the body. This amount though small is absolutely es- sential to the carrying on of the vital functions of the body. Fortunately, practically all normal feeding stuffs contain sufficient min- eral matter to supply all the require- ments of the animal, and the feeder need pay little attention to this matter with one or two important exceptions. Some of the grains and some of their by- products normally contain a smaller per- centage of ash than cured forage plants, and when they are fed alone must often be supplemented with feeds containing ash material, especially in the case of growing animals. This fact is well illus- trated by the work of Henry in feeding corn to pigs. In Henry's work, growing pigs were fed liberally on corn meal with only salt and water in addition. As a result these pigs were very much dwarfed and their bones contained only about one-half as much ash and were only about half as strong as those of pigs fed hardwood ashes or bone meal in addition to the corn and salt. Of the different cheap forms of lime that supplied in ground bones or bone ash has been found the most satisfactory for feeding to animals to supply any lack of lime in the food. Ground bone and bone ash also contain large proportions of phosphoric acid which might supply any possible defi- ciency of this element. A lack of lime in the food can some- times be met through the water supply. Kasparek notes a case in which a herd of 130 cattle continually met mishap from the breaking of bones until they were given hard water to drink. It has often been observed that the bones of horses in regions well supplied with lime- stone and hard water are much stronger than those of horses reared in regions of little limestone and soft water. Good drinking water, however, should not, it is claimed by German writers, contain over 3 grains of lime per quart of water or there is danger of internal disorders, particularly of the bladder. Poultry are exceptional among the animals in their demand for ash mate- rial, supplementary to that supplied in the food. Young chickens seem to be greatly benefited by the addition of sand to the rations even when allowed an abundance of sand for scratching PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 81 purposes, and laying fowls of all kinds must be supplied with sufficient mate- rial, like crushed shells or lime, to meet the requirements of egg production. Salt for stock — Common salt is the only mineral which ordinarily needs to be supplied to animals in amounts addi- tional to that supplied in the food, ex- cept as noted above for poultry and oc- casionally lime for other animals. Salt is not only absolutely essential to the render the fodder savory and is de- manded for the normal nourishment of the animal." When salt is fed in excess large quan- tities of water are required for washing it out of the system. If this is not sup- plied in the food, the water is withdrawn first from that normally evaporated from the lungs and skin, and secondly from the tissues of the body itself. The water thus lost from the tissues Fig. 40 — CORN AND COWPEAS AS GROWN IN KANSAS vital processes, but it has several addi- tional functions. It aids in the passage of the albuminoids of the foods from the digestive tract into the blood vessels and facilitates the circulation of the blood. Armsby states that the feeding of salt is especially in place "when a greater en- ergy of all the vital functions is desired as in horses and well fed working oxen, in young animals, and in male breeding animals, etc, while in fattening only so much should be given as is necessary to is replaced when the animal is again given water to drink. When animals are oversalted an excessive thirst is created which if satisfied xesultis in the introduction of excessive quantities of water into the system. This may re- sult in the utilization of food materials for warming up the water and eliminat- ing the excess from the body which would otherwise have been used for pro- ductive purposes. 62 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Quantity of salt for different ani- mals — The following quantities of salt are generally considered sufficient to meet the daily needs of different farm animals: Medium sized cattle % ounce to 2 ounces; horse V2 to 1 ounce; slurp or swine 1-6 to 1-3 ounce; chickens not to exceed 1 ounce for 100 fowls per day or 5 ounces in every 100 pounds of food. A convenient and satisfactory way of supplying salt is in the lump form as rock salt. If left under cover where the animals can get at it at will, they will eat only the amount they require. If, however, they are deprived of salt for a long period and then allowed to eat at will they may take an excess. Besides the actual physiological value of salt in the animal system it plays an important role in the preparation of fodders, often making them palatable where otherwise animals might refuse to eat them. SUMMARY OF THE LAWS OF NU- TRITION In order to get a clear insight into the principles of animal nutrition it will be desirable to summarize briefly in one place what has been treated in preced- ing pages more at length, together with a further statement of the laws govern- ing animal nutrition. We have seen that animals and plants are made up of like elements and that animals grow, fat- ten, work and produce milk, eggs and other products as a result of the food (including salt and water) they con- sume and the air they breathe. Foods taken into the body in the form of grass, hay, and grain are not entirely digested. It is only the digested food that is of value to the animal. The re- mainder is excreted as waste. Practically all normal feeds contain sufficient mineral matter to meet all the demands of animals and if the animals are allowed free access to salt and water they will attend to their needs in these respects without further attention from the feeder. The three constituents of feeding stuffs which demand most consideration on the part of the feeder are protein, carbohydrates and fat. Protein i s absolutely essential to the production and repair of muscles, blood, nerves, brain and all the tissues of the body. It is necessary to the production of casein of milk and albumen in eggs. The greatest amount of protein is re- quired by growing animals or animals producing milk or eggs, but all ani- mals of every age whether producing or not require some protein. Carbohydrates cannot produce or re- pair tissue. They can be used for the formation of fat either in the body or in milk and as a source of energy and heat. For these purposes (energy, heat and fat production) the carbohydrates are equal in value to protein. While car- bohydrates cannot take the place of pro- tein, they do serve to protect the protein in the body from consumption so that when carbohydrates are fed with protein a much less quantity 01 protein is re- quired in the ration. Fat fulfills the same functions in the ration for animals that the carbohy- drates do except that as a source of en- ergy and heat it is about 2.25 times as valuable. Fat cannot be used in the building or repair of tissue. It may be stored in the body as fat or may serve as a source of fat in mills:. It serves likewise to protect the protein from con- sumption so that when fat is fed in the ration with protein a much less quantity of protein is required. Any of the food constituents, protein, fat, or carbohydrates may be used as a source of energy and beat. Any may be used for fat production, though the chief sources of fat are the food fats and carbohydrates. The carbohydrates and fats may serve to protect protein from consumption. Pi'otein is the only food constituent that can build up and repair tissue and maintain the vital functions. Relative to the changes which foods undergo in the body, it does not appear that protein can be manufactured in the body, but must come to the body ready formed in the food. The food fats are modified in the body into the charac- teristic fat of the animal as lard, tal- low, oil, etc, and the body can build up fats out of simpler substances like the carbohydrates. The stored energy of the foods is made available to the animal through chemical process by which the more complex compounds are broken down into simpler ones like water and carbonic acid. The energy released in these chemical processes, which are largely those of cleavage and oxidation, for the most part ultimately appears as heat. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 63 If food is withheld from an animal, the life processes continue for a time, the tissues of the body being drawn upon to supply energy. The fat is first used. When this is exhausted, the nitrogenous tissues are drawn upon, the animal be- comes emaciated and death soon fol- lows. With pregnant females or when cows are giving milk or poultry eggs, and an insufficient supply of protein is furnished in the ration, the animal draws upon its own tissue to produce the necessary tissue of the fcetns, the casein of the milk, or albumen of eggs. Animals require considerable food just to maintain themselves and carry on the necessary internal work of the body. It is only the food fed in excess of this that can be used for productive purposes. however, to the amount of flesh or fat or milk which an animal will produce, and any additional food supply is simply consumed in the body or is excreted without change. The limit of increase may be deter- mined by the age of the animal, the stage of fattening, or the period of milk production. It is well known by feed- ers that when animals have been on fat- tening rations for a long period and have reached "maturity" or "ripeness,'' any further gain in weight is at the ex- pense of double or quadruple the amount of food required to produce a pound of gain in the early stages of feeding. Finally, there is a limit to the amount of flesh, fat or mil!: which an animal can be made to produce. Heavy feeding be- Fig. 41 OHIO PUMPKINS READY FOR FEEDING PURPOSES The ration, therefore, for milk or meat production or work must be liberal and must contain the food nutrients for these different purposes in sufficient quantities and in the right proportions. A horse stuffed with wheat straw cannot do much work, nor a cow give much milk, on swale hay. They do not contain suf- ficient protein, and it takes so much work to chew and digest them that noth- ing is left for productive purposes. When the food supplied an animal is increased beyond what is essential for maintenance, there is an increase in the amount consumed by the body for the supply of energy. In addition to this there may be a deposit of fat or increase in milk production. There is a limit, yond this point is at a financial loss, and nature protests by a failure of the appe- tite or a lessened ability to make good use of the food and in other ways. Animals as mere machines — Com- mercially animals may be regarded pri- marily as machines for the conversion of the crude products of the farm, like the grasses, fodders, roots and grains into manufactured products like meat, milk, wool and eggs. It is the part of econ- omy to utilize these machines to their fullest capacity, within the limits of health. The more crude matter they can consume, the greater will be the outturn of manufactured products and the greater the profits. It is as great folly to begrudge the animal its full 04 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK feed as it is to begrudge the fuel for heating the boiler of the engine. A low fire means low steam pressure and lit- tle work; a good fire, high steam power and efficient work. Productive capacity of animals — The amount of manufactured material pro- duced by an animal in a year is some- times enormous. A good cow will yield 6000 to 8000 pounds of milk annually, containing 800 to 1000 pounds of dry solids. This is more than twice the dry matter contained in the entire body of an ordinary cow. Some exceptional cows have produced more than 25,000 pounds of milk in a year containing at least 3000 pounds of dry matter. No other animal equals the cow as a machine for converting feeding stuffs into products for man's use. The hog from birth to 12 months of age may in- crease in weight to 300 or 400 pounds. Liberally fed steers between one and two years old may gain 600 to 700 pounds in weight. In both cases less than half the gain in weight is dry matter. This shows that the dairy cow normally pro- duces two to five times as much dry mat- ter in a year as fattening swine or steers. Utilizing feeds economically — The relative ability of cattle, sheep and swine to utilize feeds economically, varies with the age and condition of the ani- mal and with the kind of feed. Up to the age of three months calves make more rapid gains than pigs, but with older animals neither cattle nor sheep make as large gains on the same amount of feed as pigs. This point is well brought out in the following table taken from the Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, which shows the average quantity of the different grains required to produce 100 pounds of gain with each of these ani- mals: GRAIN BEQUIRED FOR 100 POUNDS GAIN Mixed Barley Corn Kafir corn Oats Peas Wheat grain lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs Swine . • . , 418 485 502 529 582 472 518 439 422 452 582 432 Sheep . . . Cattle . . . 453 454 914 1,028 1,058 1,032 911 1,090 871 The table shows that cattle require much more food to produce a pound of gain than sheep or hogs. It also shows that generally less mixed grain is re- quired to produce a pound of gain with all animals than where the ration con- sists of a single grain with the possible exception of barley for pigs and sheep. The necessity of feeding different grains and of frequently varying the rations for rapid and economical gains has been found very desirable with all animals. Feeding capacity of animals — An- other way of stating the differences in the feeding capacity of animals and their ability to produce manufactured products from crude materials is as fol- lows: When animals are fed sufficient and suitable rations 100 pounds of dry matter in the feed will produce on the average 8 pounds of beef, 14 pounds of mutton, 20 pounds of pork, or 100 pounds of milk. In addition to the actual products for man's use which an animal may produce and which may more than pay for the cost of production, the manure by-product is of the greatest importance in maintaining the fertility of the farm and has a direct cash value. Some fruit growers and other specialists frequently buy cattle and feed them through the winter on purchased feed and are satis- fied with the results if they obtain the manure as a clear profit. Feeding stuffs lose practically none of their fertiliz ; ng constituents in pass- ing through an animal, but on the other hand are the sooner made available for the uses of crops by the partial decom- position which they undergo. This phase of the subject will be considered more in detail in another chapter of this work. FEEDING STANDARDS It has been shown that all rations for animals must contain some protein. We have seen also that when carbohydrates and fat are fed with the protein less protein is required and the cost of the ration is lessened. The question arises how much of the ration for different purposes should consist of protein and how much of carbohydrates and fat? This problem has been most exten- sively investigated by the Germans, and as a result of many feeding experiments PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 65 and observations they have developed tables of feeding standards. These standards show approximately the total amount of dry matter which the differ- ent classes of animals require each day for maintenance, for growth, fattening, work or milk production and how much of the dry matter fed should consist of digestible protein, how much of digest- ible fat, and how much of digestible carbohydrates. These standards, as devised by Wolff and modified by Lehmann, are shown in the table herewith : WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS [Showing amounts of nutrients per 1,000 pounds live weight for a day Total i Digestible nutrients — dry Carbo- Animal matter Protein hydrates Fat Oxen : Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds At rest in stall IS 0.7 8.0 0.1 At light work 22 1.4 10.0 0.3 At medium work 25 2.0 11.5 0.5 At heavy work 28 2.8 13.0 0.8 Fattening cattle : First period 30 2.5 15.0 0.5 Second period 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 Third period 26 2.7 15.0 0.7 Milch cows : Giving 11 pounds milk a day 25 1.6 10.0 0.3 Giving 16% pounds milk a day ...27 2.0 11.0 0.4 Giving 22 pounds milk a day 29 2.5 13.0 0.5 Giving 27V 2 pounds milk a day 32 3.3 13.0 0.8 Sheep : Coarse wool 20 1.2 10.5 0.2 Fine wool 23 1.5 12.0 0.3 Breeding ewes, with lambs 25 2.9 15.0 0.5 Fattening sheep : First period 30 3.0 15.0 0.5 Second period 28 3.5 14.5 0.6 Horses : Light work 20 1.5 9.5 0.4 Medium work 24 2.0 11.0 0.6 Heavy work 26 2.5 13.3 0.8 Brood sows 22 2.5 15.5 0.4 Fattening swine : First period 36 4.5 25.0 0.7 Second period 32 4.0 24.0 0.5 Third period 25 2.7 18.0 0.4 Growing cattle : Dairy breeds — 2 to 3 months old, weighing about 150 pounds 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 3 to 6 months old, weighing about 300 pounds 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 6 to 12 months old, weighing about 500 pounds 27 2.0 12.5 0.5 12 to 18 months old, weighing about 700 pounds 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 18 to 24 months old, weighing about 900 pounds 26 1.5 12.0 0.3 Beef breeds — 2 to 3 months old, weighing about 160 pounds 23 4.2 13.0 2.0 3 to 6 months old, weighing about 330 pounds 24 3.5 12.8 1.5 6 to 12 months old, weighing about 550 pounds 25 2.5 13.2 0.7 12 to 18 months old, weighing about 750 pounds 24 2.0 12.5 0.5 18 to 24 months old, weighing about 950 pounds 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 Growing sheep : Wool breeds — 4 to 6 months old, weighing about 60 pounds 25 3.4 15.4 0.7 6 to 8 months old, weighing about 75 pounds 25 2.8 13.8 0.6 s feeding.] Fuel value Calories 16,600 22,500 27,200 32,755 34,650 35,500 35,900 22,850 25,850 30,950 33,700 22,600 26,400 35,400 35,600 36,000 22,150 26,700 32,750 35,170 57.S00 54,200 40,200 40,050 33,600 29,100 28,300 26,350 40,450 36,650 32,150 29,100 27,350 37,900 33,400 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS — Continued Total i — Digestible nutrients — \ dry Carbo- Fuel Animal matter Protein hydrates Fat value Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Calories 8 to 11 months old, weighing about SO pounds 23 2.1 11.5 0.5 27,400 11 to 15 months old, weighing about 90 pounds 22 1.8 11.2 0.4 25,850 15 to 20 months old, weighing about 100 pounds 22 1.5 10.8 0.3 24,150 Mutton breeds — 4 to 6 months old, weighing about 60 pounds 26 4.4 15.5 0.9 40,800 6 to 8 months old, weighing about 80 pounds 26 3.5 15.0 0.7 37,350 8 to 11 months old, weighing about 100 pounds 24 3.0 14.3 0.5 34,300 11 to 15 months old, weighing about 120 pounds 23 2.2 12.6 0.5 29,(550 15 to 20 months old, weighing about 150 pounds 22 2.0 12.0 0.4 27,750 Growing swine : Breeding stock — 2 to 3 months old, weighing about 50 pounds 44 7.0 28.0 1.0 70,450 3 to 5 months old, weighing about 100 pounds 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 55,050 5 to 6 months old, weighing about 120 pounds 32 3.7 21.3 0.4 4S.190 6 to 8 months old, weighing about 200 pounds 28 2.8 18.7 0.3 41,250 8 to 12 months old, weighing about 250 pounds 25 2.1 15.3 0.2 33,200 Growing fattening swine : 2 to 3 months old, weighing about 50 pounds 44 7.6 2S.0 1.0 70,450 3 to 5 months old, weighing about 100 pounds 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 55,650 5 to 6 months old, weighing about 150 pounds 33 4.3 22.3 0.6 52,000 6 to 8 months old, weighing about 200 pounds 30 3.6 20.5 0.4 46,500 9 to 12 months old, weighing about 275 pounds 26 3.0 18.3 0.3 40,900 The standard shows that an ox at rest Meaning of nutritive ratio_By nu- requires about 0.7 pound of protein, 8 tritive ratio is meant the ratio between pounds of carbohydrates and 0.1 pound the digestible protein and the other di- of fat per day. An ox at heavy work re- gestible nutrients in the ration. The quires considerably more food. The nutritive ratio of a ration best suited table shows that he requires 4 times as for the requirements of the ox at rest much protein, or 2.8 pounds, that the is stated in the table to be 1 tll.S. This carbohydrates should be increased to means that for each part of digestible 13 pounds and the fat to 0.S pound. protein in the ration for an ox at rest In addition to these nutrients which the there should be 11.8 parts of earbohy- ration must contain to support the ani- drates and fat. The ratio 1 :11.8 is mal under the different conditions of called a comparatively "wide" ratio on work and rest a certain bulk in the food account of the large amount of car- is desirable. The bulk serves to distend bohydrates and fat contained in it as the stomach and aids in digestion be- compared with the protein. The nutri- sides keeping the animal satisfied and tive ratio of the ration recommended healthy. The bulk which has been found for the ox at hard work is 1 :5.3. This is desirable is indicated in the column a comparatively "narrow" ratio. For marked total dry matter. The dry mat- coarse wool sheep a ration with a "me- ter is the actual amount of food given dium" ratio 1 :9.1 is recommended by the exclusive of any water it may contain. standard. The nutritive ratio of the different Method of calculating nutritive ratio rations is shown in the last column of — The nutritive ratio of a feeding stuff the table. or ration is calculated by multiplying PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 07 the total amount of digestible fat in the ration by 2.25, since fat contains 2.25 times as much energy or heat as carbo- hydrates. The resulting 1 quantity is then added to the total amount of digestible carbohydrates and the sum divided by the total amount of digestible protein. Timothy hay for example contains 2.9 per cent of digestible protein, 43.7 per This is a wide ratio and is character- istic of many of the coarse feeds of the farm like the grasses and straws. The grains like corn, barley and oats and the leguminous hays have medium nutritive ratios, while such by-products as distil- ler's grains, gluten feeds, cottonseed meal and linseed meal have narrow nu- tritive ratios, the nutritive ratio of lin- seed meal being as narrow as 1:1.7. / E / * / / J f( ■ sJ Fig. 42 VARIOUS KINDS of forks and slings for unloading hay Under general farm conditions the sling Fig. E is most satisfactory for unloading. cent of digestible carbohydrates, 1.4 per cent of digestible fat. In calculat- ing the nutritive ratio of this feeding stuff we first multiply the fat 1.4 by 2.25, which equals 3.15. This amount added to the digestible carbohydrates 43.7 gives us 46.9 and 46.9 divided by 2.9, the digestible protein, gives us 16.1. The nutritive ratio of timothy hay, therefore, is stated as 1 :16.1. Feeding standards only approximately correct — The amounts of nutrients rec- ommended in the table of feeding stand- ards are intended to be sufficient to meet the food requirements of maxi- mum production. The table, however, must not be taken as an absolute guide for compounding rations for all ani- mal.- at all times. Such a table cannot be constructed. 68 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In the first place our methods of analyses of feeding stuffs are not abso- lutely uniform. Then no two animals di- gest the same amount and proportion of nutrients from the same feeding stuff. The same feeding stuff varies in com- position at different stages of maturity, and as a result of different methods of curing. Not one feeder in 1000 can have his feeding stuffs analyzed. He must depend on tables of analyses of feed- ing stuffs. These feeding standards, as well as tables of analyses, are the final averages of many experiments and analyses and hence only approximately correct in any given case. Again, these feeding standards have been developed under conditions as they exist in Ger- many. These conditions as regards both feeds and methods are considerably dif- ferent from what they are in America. The German feeding standards have been in use now in this and other coun- tries for a number of years. As a result in weight is due almost exclusively to the stored fat formed from the carbohy- drates and fat of the food. Oxen at rest have been fed the main- tenance ration stated by the standard and made a uniform gain in weight, showing that the requirements of the standard are perhaps too high. Again, the food requirements of dairy cows, it is claimed, should be made to conform more closely to the actual productivity of the cows. While, however, these inconsistencies of the German standard have been pointed out, no one as yet has offered a substitute. We therefore continue to use the German standard, keeping in mind their deficiencies. Reliability of standards — The stand- ards represent the final results of a long series of investigations and observations with each of the different classes of an- imals and may be assumed to be approx- imately correct for the average ph^sio- Fiff.43 TWO-HORSE HAY PRESS a number of changes have been sug- gested, the most radical of which is that the nutritive ratio demanded by the standard for fattening mature animals is much too narrow. The standard calls for a ration for fat- tening cattle which shall have a nutri- tive ratio varying from 1 :5.4 to 1 :6.5. Extensive experiments by Kellner have shown that the nutritive ratio of a fat- tening ration for cattle may vary from 1:4 to 1:10 without affecting its effi- ciency for fattening purposes, providing that the nutrients supplied above that required for maintenance be from the more easily digested feeding stuffs. Generally with mature animals the fat- tening ration may have a wide nutritive ratio, while with growing animals the fattening ration should have a somewhat narrower ratio. In the latter case it is necessary to take into consideration the protein needs of the animal for growth ; while with mature animals the increase logical requirements of herds and flocks. At any rate they present an intelligent approximation to the truth, and the man who consults them as a guide takes a step in advanced agriculture which will be of certain benefit to him intellectu- ally and probably financially. The feeder who is student enough to study animal nutrition and the compounding of rations is likely to give the greatest attention to the well-being and comfort of his animals in other respects and to keep well informed on the cost of his feeds and the market price of his prod- ucts. The standards are calculated for animals weighing 1000 pounds. If they weigh more or less than this, the amount given should be increased or decreased very nearly in proportion to their weight. Figures have been given show- ing that the increase should be in pro- portion to the radiating surfaces of the animals regarding them as geometrical figures. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING^ If we regard the heat of the body ration for a cow weighing about 1000 largely as a waste product, it is difficult pounds and giving 20 pounds of milk to see how this rule would apply except per day. A balanced ration is a ration perhaps in cold weather when food is i n which the digestible nutrients are Dxidized expressly for heat production. compounded in the proportions best There can be no doubt, however, but 8uited to tbe end in view> A balanced what the quantity of work an animal is ration for an animal at regtj therefore) doing should be taken into consideration mi M be a ye unbalanced ration for as well as yield of milk or other animal aQ animal ^ ^^ The ^^ products Generally speaking with best tioM of ^ diff M . these factors in mmd, the increase or * \. decrease in the ration should follow \ nts to . f + e f d *£ different purposes is somewhat closely the weight of the ani- shown in the table of feeding standards, mal. Small animals generally require P a ^ e 65 - n w e wish to feed a ration slightly more food proportionally than ™ at sh ^ll be satisfactory for a cow giv- large animals do. ^ n S 20 pounds of milk, we see by the ~ * ~ ~,„ . ™,.,,« -^A-r.-KT^-^Tv-nA table, page 65, that the proportions of TIONS BALANCED* A- digestible ^^ best £. ^ f Qr ^ _ .. , purpose are 29 pounds dry matter, 2.5 We now come to the matter of com- ^ protei M ^ carboh drat pounding rations so that they shall con- 05 d of £ and nutritive rati() of form approximately to the requirements -t .r.n of the feeding standards. Given certain '.'"., feeds, in what proportions shall they be Available foods—Let us suppose that fed to fulfill the various requirements the foods available are mixed hay, corn of rations for fattening, growth, milk silage, corn meal, bran and linseed meal production, maintenance (or rest), etc? (new process). The table giving the The work is largely mathematical. composition c.f feeding stuffs, page 74, Balanced ration for a cow — As an shows these feeds to have the following illustration, let us compound a balanced average composition: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDS Feeding stuff Nitrogen- Dry matter Protein Fiber free extract Fat Per et Per ct Per ct Per ct Per ct Mixed hay S4.7 7.4 27.2 42.1 2.5 Corn silage 25.6 1.9 5.9 12.0 0.9 Corn meal 85.0 9.2 1.9 08.7 3.8 Bran 89.1 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0 Linseed meal 91.1 35.9 8.8 36.8 3.0 It has been shown earlier in this ac- of the ruminants will digest of the above count that not ^ only must the composi- feeding stuffs is shown in the table en- tion of a feeding stuff be known, but titled, "Percentage digestibility of also that the proportion of each nutri- American feeding stuffs," page 79. ent that an animal will digest must be From this table the following figures are known. The average amount which any secured: THE PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF MIXED HAY, DENT CORN SILAGE, CORN MEAL, BRAN AND LINSEED MEAL. Nitrogen- Dry matter Protein Fiber free extract Fat Mixed hay 57.10 58.50 59.70 58.70 48.50 Corn silage 65.10 49.30 66.70 6S.60 80.00 Corn meal 89.40 67.90 — 94.60 92.10 Bran 62.30 77.80 28.60 69.40 68.00 Linseed meal 79.20 85.20 80.40 86.10 96.60 Coefficients of digestibility_The fig- hay about 57.1 per cent is digestible by ures given in this table are called the ruminants. Of the total protein in mixed "coefficients of digestibility." Taking hay 58.5 per cent is digestible, of the those for mixed hay for consideration total fibre 59.7 per cent, of the total ni- the 57.1 per cent under dry matter means trogen-free extract 58.7 per cent and of that of the total dry matter in mixed the total fat 48.5 per cent is digestible. 70 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK If, then, mixed hay consists of 84.7 per cent of dry matter as shown in the previ- ous table and only 57.1 per cent of this is digestible, then 84.7 x 57.1, or 48.36 per cent is the amount that is actually digested by the animal; that is, out of every 100 pounds of dry matter in mixed hay 48.36 pounds are digestible. The digestible nutrients in a feeding stuff, then, are determined by multiply- ing the percentages of crude nutrients TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 LBS by their respective digestion coefficients. The product shows the pounds of digest- ible nutriments in 100 pounds. By this method of computation the figures showing the total dry matter and the digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of all the feeding stuffs in the following table were found. The figures for fibre and nitrogen-fibre extract are combined, since they have like feeding value, under the single heading of carbohydrates. Dry matter lbs Mixed hay 84.7 Corn silage 25.6 Corn meal 85.0 Bran 89.3 Linseed meal yx - x This method of ascertaining the di- gestible nutrients in any feeding stuff or ration is long and laborious. Tables have been constructed which show at once the amount of digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of a large number of American feeding stuffs and one of these convenience tables are given on page 83. By the use of this table the work of cal- culating rations will be very much shortened. As a trial ration for a cow giving 20 pound of milk, let us select 8 pounds of hay, 25 pounds of corn silage, 3 pounds of corn meal, 2 pounds of bran, and 2 pounds of linseed meal and see how it compares with the requirements of the standard. Using the table given above, we note first that 100 pounds of mixed hay con- tains 84.7 pounds of dry matter. One pound of hay, therefore, will contain 1-100 of 84.7 pounds or 0.847 pound. Eight pounds, then, will contain 8 times 0.S4T pound or 6.78 pounds of dry mat- ter. Similarly if 100 pounds of hay contain 4.3 pounds of protein, one pound will contain 1-100 of 4.3 pounds or .043 pound and S pounds will contain 8 times .043 or .34 pound. In this way igestible Digestible Digestible protein carbohydrates fat lbs lbs lbs 4.3 40.9 1.2 0.9 12.6 0.7 6.2 66.9 3.5 12.0 3! i.T 2.7 30.6 38.7 2.9 HAND CORN SIIELLER the figures in the table given below were obtained. When we compare the total amounts of nutrients furnished bv this ration DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS Dry matter lbs 8 lbs mixed hay 6.78 25 " silage 6.40 3 " corn meal 2.55 2 " bran 1.78 2 " linseed meal 1.S2 19.33 Ration required by standard 29.00 TRIAL RATION 'rotein Carb ohydrates Fat lbs lbs lbs 0.34 3.2 0.10 0.22 3.2 0.20 0.19 2.0 0.10 0.24 0.8 0.05 0.61 0.8 0.06 1.60 10.0 0.51 2.50 13.00 0.50 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 71 with the amount required by the stand- ard we see that the dry matter, protein and carbohydrates are all deficient. Let us add, therefore, about 10 pounds more silage, 2 of bran and V/2 of linseed meal. This gives us a ration containing about 25 pounds of dry matter, 2.59 pounds of protein, 12.6 pounds of car- bohydrates and 0.6 pound of fat. This ration is still deficient in. dry matter as compared with the standard and contains a slight excess of fat. Nevertheless it is approximately cor- rect, and near enough to satisfy the standard. It has been found that the dry matter may vary from 10 to 20 per cent from the standard either way with- out affecting the efficiency of the ration. The amount of dry matter, however, could easily be increased by the addi- tion of a few pounds of straw without materially changing the nutritive ratio or affecting the ration in other respects. The method here given for calculating rations is largely a cut and try method. The amounts of each material to use are largely guessed at until the right proportions are found. It is the method in common use by practically everyone who uses these standards, and practices the feeding of balanced rations. Calculating balanced rations by alli- gation — There is, however, a mathemat- ical way of calculating balanced rations based on the old arithmetic principle of alligation in which all guess work is eli- minated. The rule of alligation, the reader will remember, is the one followed when required to mix together three or four different priced articles like teas, to produce a mixture having a uniform price. The method of applying the rule of alligation in balancing rations was first presented by J. T. Willard, director of the Kansas experiment station in Bul- letin No 115 of that station. The system is based on the nutritive ratios of feeding stuffs and on what the author calls the "protein equating factor." By this term is meant the num- ber of pounds of a feeding stuff re- quired to contain 1 pound of digestible protein. Thus, if a feeding stuff, A, contain 5 per cent digestible protein, 65.5 per cent digestible carbohydrates and 2.7 per cent digestible fat, the nu- tritive ratio (determined by the method described on page 66 is 1 :14, and the protein equating factor (100-=-5 is 20; that is, 20 pounds of this feed will contain 1 pound of digestible protein. In a similar manner let us assume that the nutritive ratio of a feeding stuff, B. Fig. 45 A POPULAR KIND OF POWER FEED GRINDER FOR THE FARM is 1:6 and the protein equating factor 8. Now let it be required to mix these two feeds so that the mixture shall have a nutritive ratio of 1 :9. This is done by alligation, as shown below. Now proceeding with the alligation we find that the difference between 14 and 9 is 5. This is set down opposite the feed, B, with which it is compared. Second term of ratio Feed A -14 Proposed mixture 9 Feed B 6 The difference between 6 and 9 is 3, which is set down opposite feed A with which it is compared. Now for each pound of Difference 3 Protein equat- ing 1 factor X 20 Mixture necessary 60 40 5 X 8 protein in feed A there are 20 (pro- tein equating factor) pounds of non- protein. Hence it would require 3 x 20, FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK or 60 pounds of feed A to contain 3 pounds of protein, while of the feed B, whose protein equating factor is 8, 40 pounds (5 x 8) must be taken. In com- pounding these feeds to secure the de- sired nutritive ratio, therefore, they must be taken in the proportion of 60 to 40 or, reducing, 3 to 2. If feeds A and B are mixed in the proportions of 3 pounds of A to 2 pounds of B then the nutritive ratio of the mixture will always be 1 :9. Whatever quantity of this mixture is taken to mix with the grain or other feeds in compounding a ration, this ratio will be preserved. Second term of ratio ( Mixed hay 11.0 A < Required mixture 5.7 ( Bran 4.0 i Corn silage 13.7 Bi Required mixture 5.7 ( Linseed meal 1.5 ( Corn meal 11.7 C < Required mixture 5.7 ( Bran 4.0 The feeds are arranged in couplets f which one of each pair must have a nutritive ratio wider than the desired ratio and the other narrower. Hay has a nutritive ratio of 1 :11, which is wider than the desired ratio (1:5.7), while bran, with which hay is paired, Fig. 46 — A GOOD FORM OF STOCK FEED COOKER has a nutritive ratio of 1 :4, which is narrower than the desired ratio (1:5.7). So in couplet B and couplet C. One Let us compound a ration according to this method for dairy cows giving 20 pounds of milk which shall have a nutri- tive ratio of 1 :5.7, using the same feed- ing stuffs as before, viz: hay of mixed grasses, corn silage, corn meal, bran and linseed meal, old process. From the table, page 83, we obtain the second terms of the nutritive ratios of these feeds, and the protein equating factors, and comparing the feeds with each other in pairs with the desired nutritive ratio by the method of alligation, we ob- tain the following figures : Protein equat- Mixture Difference ing factor necessary 1.7 X 23.7 40 5.3 4.2 8.0 1.7 6.0 X 8.3 X 82.6 3.3 1.6 8.3 44 347 26 27 50 feed with a wide nutritive ratio is com- pared with another having a narrow nu- tritive ratio. Notice in this example we have five kinds of feeds, three of which have a wider nutritive ratio than that desired (1:5.7) and two narrower. In order to balance the three wide rations against the two narrow ones, one of the narrow rations must be taken twice. We have used bran twice. We could have used linseed meal twice instead of bran just as well. We would have obtained the same result so far as nutritive ratio is concerned, but the quantities of each feeding stuff used in compounding the ration would have been changed slightly. If only one of the five feeds had had a nutritive ratio narrower than the de- sired one, then it would have been nec- essary to compare each feed having the wider ratio with the one having the nar- row ratio. Now we are ready to examine the last column of the above table a little more critically. As it now stands it shows that if we take 40 pounds of hay, 44 pounds of bran, 347 pounds of silage and so on down the column, and mix them we will have a mixture whose nutritive ratio will be 1 :5.7, and we can feed as much of this as we desire. These figures are rather large and we can per- haps see their relationship better by reducing them down. By using the smal- lest number 26 — that for oil meal — PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 73 for our divisor, we get the following pro- portions: oil meal 1, hay 1.54, bran 1.7, silage 13.3, corn meal 1.03, bran 1.92. These figures mean that in making up a ration with these feeds for a dairy cow which shall have a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.7, every time we take 1 pound of oil meal for the mixture, we should take 1.54 pounds of hay, 13.3 pounds of silage, 1.03 pounds of corn meal and 3.62 pounds of bran (1.7 plus 1.92). One day's feed — Supposing now we want to make up enough feed for just one day, how many pounds shall we take of each feed ? By observing the re- Fig. 47 — ROOT CUTTER, SHOWING AR- RANGEMENT OF KNIVES lation between the figures in the pre- ceding paragraphs we see that if we take the quantities regarding them as pounds just as they stand, they would not make enough feed. If we take three times the quantity, we would have a slight excess of silage. Suppose we take 2V 2 times the quantity, this will give us 3.9 pounds hay, 33.25 pounds silage, 9 pounds bran, 2.5 pounds lin- seed meal and 2.7 pounds corn meal. This ration differs somewhat from the ration worked out by guess work in that less hay, more bran and less linseed meal is taken, while the nutritive ratio is closer to that required by the standard We have given these two methods for calculating rations in considerable de- tail and the feeder can take his choice between them. The first method may keep the inexperienced guessing a long time before he strikes the combination that will give him the desired quantities and the required nutritive ratio. The latter method may be slightly compli- cated, but a half hour's study will master it, and it will give absolutely accurate results, with a comparatively small amount of work. By use of the conven- ience table, page 83, the work of calcu- lating ratios by either method can be greatly lessened. Balancing rations — A few general re- marks will apply to balancing rations by either method. If in the above ration the feeder had for feeding nothing but hay from mixed grasses, silage and corn meal, it would have been impossible to have compounded a ration with a nutri- tive ratio of 1 :5.7 either by the guess method or any other method because the nutritive ratio of hay is 1:11, that of silage 1:13.7, and that of corn meal 1:11.7 — all more than 1:5.7. Some feed with a nutritive ratio nar- rower than 1 :5.7, like bran with a nutritive ratio of 1:4, or oil meal with a nutritive ratio of 1:1.5, must be used for balancing up the feeds with such wide nutritive ratios. This is why even the best dairy farmers nearly always have to buy some con- centrated feed in addition to what they raise on their farms, in order to make satisfactory balanced rations for their cows giving a heavy flow of milk. The feeds richest in protein and easily di- gestible are nearly all mill by-products. Fig. 48 KNIFE FOR CUTTING BEANS OR PEAS When mature animals are being fat- tened for market or stock is being kept over winter without work, the farm will furnish all the feed that is required of an entirely suitable character, and none need be bought from outside sources. The feeder's guide— Supposing the standard required in a given case called 74 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK for a nutritive ratio of 1 :5 and with the feeds on hand the nearest the feeder could get to this was 1 :7.5, should he sell part of his feed of one kind and buy feed with a narrower nutritive ratio of another? That depends. The matter is a business one. It might not pay, financially, to haul one feed to town and bring back another, even though his cows gave a little more milk with a more balanced ration or made a more rapid development. The feeder will have to figure this out for himself, taking into consideration the relative cost of feeds, nearness to market, price of finished product, etc. Literatuz'e — Some of the more recent popular books on feeding live stock are as follows: Feeds and Feeding by W. A. Henry; The Feeding of Animals by W. H. Jordan ; The Principles of Animal Nutrition by H. P. Armsby (1903); Profitable Stock Feeding by H. E. Smith (1900) ; Die Ernahrung der Landwirt- schaftlichen Nutztiere by O. Kellner (Paul Parey, Berlin, 1905). Tabic 1. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING Average of Many Analyses. Water Acorns, fresh _. 55.3 white oak — 27.0 Alfalfa, green fodder 71.8 hay 8.4 meal 10.9 Alfilaria SO.O Alk'li mead'w grass (Puccinrllia airo'uhs) 4S.0 " dry 13.4 Almond hulls 4.8 Apples, fresh S4.0 Apple pomace 72.0 silage SO.O American poultry food 9.1 Animal meal 5.7 Artichokes (Jerusalem) tubers 78.0 Atlas gluten, feed or meal ^_7.3 Barley silage 75.0 straw 8.3 " green forage 82.< > hay 10.6 " grain 10.9 " " naked or bald 9.4 meal 119 " bran 7.0 " screenings 12.2 " malt sprouts 10.2 brewers' grains, wet 7."). 7 dry S.O feed 9.5 grass, wild (Hordeum jubatum) hay 9.7 Beans, Adzuki 15.8 Carob (Beans and pods) 14.0 " " grain 19.8 Navy, field 12.0 " Horse, fresh 84.2 straw 9.2 " Lima, straw 10.0 " Mesquite, (Prosopis juliflora) 5.0 Tornillo, (Prosopis pubrscens) . . . . 5.1 Beets, red 88.5 Beggarweed, hay 9.2 Bermuda grass, in bloom 71.7 Blomo feed 16.8 Blood molasses feed 5.7 meal 9.0 " dried 8.5 Blue grass, Kentucky, hay 21.0 joint, hay 6.8 Bone, boiled beef 5.7 meal (Bowker's) — fresh 34.0 " cut 26.3 Brewers' grains (beer), fresh 77.0 " " dry 7.0 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat 1.0 2.5 4.4 34.8 1.9 ' 1.1 3.5 — 45.4 4.4 2.7 4.8 7.4 12.3 1.0 7.4 14.3 25.0 42.7 •> 2 t. i 17.0 20.3 30.5 1.6 1.7 4.9 4.7 7.9 0.7 4.0 3.0 17.0 26.0 0.9 9.3 12.T5 17.0 44.0 3.5 s.s 5.5 1.7 60.0 3.2 0.4 0.5 1.0 13.4 0.7 2.0 1.4 6.0 17.0 1.5 0.9 1.6 4.5 11.8 1.0 2.S 13.2 5.5 63.0 6.2 ■10.1) 42.0 — . — 10.7 1.8 2.4 0.9 16.8 0.1 2.0 31.2 11.0 36.0 12 6 3.0 2.5 11.3 11.3 1.2 3.8 3.7 42.0 39.5 2.7 1.7 2.9 4.2 8.8 0.9 5.3 9.3 23.6 18.7 2.5 2.4 12.4 o 7 69.8 1.S ::.:; 13.2 2.8 68.6 2 7 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 2 2 — 5.0 26.0 — 1.1 3.6 12.3 7.3 61.8 2 8 5. < •s\:2 10.7 48.5 1 7 1.0 5.4 :;.s 12.5 1 6 3. 1 24.1 13.0 44.8 6.7 4.5 13.5 8.5 59.0 4 8.2 9.8 2<).o 41.0 2* 3.5 20.0 3.9 55.5 0.7 3.0 5.6 0.5 72.0 03 2.6 15.0 17.4 43.6 1.4 3.5 22.5 ■ — ■ 59.7 1 9 1.2 2.8 4.8 6.5 04 8.7 8.8 37.6 34.3 1 4 9.6 10.7 21.0 46.7 19 3.4 12.2 3.2 45.2 2 5 3.0 9.8 19.3 61.8 10 1.0 1.5 0.9 8.0 01 4.7 11.8 29.1 42.1 2.9 2.0 2.1 5.9 17.3 09 9.9 14.0 11.0 48.0 6 — 20.7 — 05.3 3 2 4.0 80.0 2.0 4.0 10 4.7 84.4 — — 2 5 6.3 7.8 23.0 38.0 3 9 5.3 9.5 33.8 42.2 24 — 44.8 — — 170 — 34.0 — — 22.0 22.8 20.6 — 1.9 20 5 16.0 15.0 — — 23.0 0.7 7.0 2.9 11.0 1.4 2.7 28,3 11.8 44.5 5.8 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING rr, Table 1 — Continued Water Bronie grass (Bromus inrrmis), in head. 64.1 " hay 11.0 " " fringed (B. ciliatus) 62.5 " " fringed (B. ciliatus), hay. 4.4 Broom corn, hay 9.4 seed 12.7 Buckwheat straw 9.9 grain 12.6 " bran 11.5 " middlings 11.8 wild, seed 12.0 Buttercup, hay 10.4 Cabbage 90.5 Cactus, Sicilian, spineless 8S.0 plant 75.0 cholla, fruit 79.5 Carrots, root 88.6 Cassava 66.6 Chess, (Bromus secalinus), green 73.0 hay 10.0 " seed, (Bromus secalinus) 14.2 Chicken corn, seed 10.0 silage To. 1 1 forage 73.0 Clover, hay, white 0.7 " " Japan 11.0 (red) 20.8 green forage (red) 70.8 silage ( red ) 72.0 " meal (red) 7.7 alsike, hay 9.7 green forage 74.8 Bokhara hay 9.0 bur, hay 11.3 " " seed 6.(5 crimson, green 80.9 hay 9.6 wild, yellow hay 9.5 sweet (Melilotus «) 70.0 hay 6.0 " snail, green 81 .0 hay 10.0 Cocoanut cake 4.0 meal 10.0 Corn, grain 10.9 meal 15.0 bran 8.7 cob 10.7 meal and cob 15.1 hominy feed or meal 8.8 germ 10.7 gluten meal, Hammond 8.1 King 7.2 (Buffalo) 8.2 " miscellaneous .... 8.6 Chicago 9.5 cream gluten 9.0 gluten feed, Diamond 8.7 " " Davenport 8.6 miscellaneous .... 8.1 Buffalo 9.0 aistillery grains, dried 7.0 glucose feed and refuse 0.5 fodder, green flint 79.8 dent 79.0 " " sweet 79.1 leaves and husks, green. .66.2 dry 42.2 leaves, dry 30.0 husks, dry 50.9 dry stover 40.5 silage 74.4 Cotton seed, whole 9.1 meal S.2 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat 3.1 > 4.0 1O.0 16.2 1.8 9.5 11.0 30.8 35.2 1.8 2.0 4.0 13.0 16.5 0.8 7.3 10.4 33.7 42.0 2.1 5.7 3.9 36.8 42.4 1.8 3.0 io.:: o 2 70.4 5.0 5.5 5 2 43.0 35.1 1.3 2.0 10.0 s 7 64.5 22 4.5 24.8 11.7 40.8 6.7 4.8 28.0 6.3 41.9 7.2 2.6 10.(5 lo.s 60.8 3.3 6.0 0.1 30.0 40.7 3,4 1.4 2.4 1.5 3.8 0.4 3.0 0.9 1.4 6.3 0.3 4.0 1.7 4.0 15.6 0,3 2.6 1.4 3.0 12.4 1 2 1.0 1.1 1.3 7.6 0.4 0.7 o.s 1.6 20.S 0.2 2.4 3.0 11.0 9.0 1 5 8.0 10.0 36.5 29.0 6.0 4.3 s.o 7.2 63.3 2.1 4.5 11.2 9.0 62.0 2.8 1.9 2.5 S 7 11.2 0.7 1.9 1! 1 9.0 11.0 0.8 8.3 15.7 24 39.0 2.9 8.5 13.8 24.0 39.0 3.7 0.6 12.4 21.9 33.8 4.5 2.1 4.4 8.1 13.5 1 1 2.6 4.2 8.4 11.6 1 2 6.2 10.0 28.0 45.0 3.0 8.3 12.8 25.6 40.7 2.9 2.0 3.9 7,1 11.0 0.9 7.0 13.4 22 1 45.3 3 2 6.9 10.5 20.2 44.9 2.2 8.9 21.5 5.2 32.7 5.4 1.7 6.1 5.2 8.4 0.7 8.6 15.2 27.2 36.6 2 8 5.4 15.6 30.0 35.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 4.8 9.0 0.5 9.6 1S.0 21.8 42.0 24 2.0 2.9 4.7 8.4 OS 10.lt 1 1.0 22.0 40.0 3.2 6.0 20.4 8.3 39.0 22 0.0 21.0 7.4 38.5 17.0 1.5 10.5 2 1 ( 19.6 5 4 1.4 9.2 1.9 68.7 3.8 1.5 O.S 11.2 62.6 62 1.4 2,1 30.1 54.9 5 1.5 8.5 6.6 64.8 3 5 2.7 10.6 4.2 65.0 77 4.0 '.) s 4.1 64.0 74 1.0 "s:: 1.1 50.8 10 7 1.4 34.2 1.7 39.0 16 5 0.9 24.5 0.1 47.S 12 5 o.s 30.0 2.6 49.2 8 8 1.2 37.6 2.3 44.4 5 0.9 34.6 1.9 50.4 26 1.4 2.-!. 7 o.s 54.9 4 5 1.3 26.3 (5.0 53.0 4 3 1.3 32.2 6.4 54.7 63 2 7 20.6 6.3 52.0 3 4 2.0 29 2 11.0 39.4 11.4 1.1 l^o.T 4.5 56,8 10 4 1.1 2.0 4.3 12.1 07 1.2 1.7 5.6 12.0 on 1.3 1.9 4.4 12.8 5 2.9 2.1 S.7 19.0 1 1 2 7 4.5 14.3 34.7 1 6 5.5 6.0 21.4 35.7 1 4 1.8 2.5 15.8 28 3 07 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 1.1 1.5 1.9 5.9 12.6 0.9 4.0 19.6 18.9 28.3 20.1 7.2 42.3 5.6 23.6 13.1 76 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK TABLE 1— Continued "Water Cotton seed hulls 11.1 " " feed (meal and hulls 1 to 4) 8.0 Couch grass, western, (A. pseudorepens), air dry 4.4 Cowpea, green vines 83. G hay 10.7 silage 79.3 grain 11.9 Crab grass, hay 10.3 Distillery slop 94.0 " waste, dry 6.0 Distillers' grain (dried), mostly corn.. 7.0 rye .. 6.8 Durra, grain 10.3 Emmer, kernels and chaff 9.0 alone 10.8 Egyptian corn, grain 8.2 leaves 6.1 " stalks 6.0 Fescue grass, rough (Festuca scabrella) . .57.3 air dry 4.5 Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris), green. .. .66.7 " hay 8.4 Fish meal, herring offal, slightly salted. 11.0 Flax seed 3.7 Gourd vine (Cucurbita foetidissima), dry. 13.9 Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) . . 4.6 Grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya) . . . . 7.0 Guinea grass (Panicnm jummtorum) . . . .64.5 Hair grass, tufted (Dcschampsia cacspitosa), Hay, mixed grasses 15.3 Hedvsarum Woodland (H philoscia) . . . .69.9 hay 7.0 H. O. Poultry food 8.5 " " Dairy feed 8.5 " " Horse feed 11.0 Johnson grass hay 10.2 " " green forage 81.0 Kafir corn, grain 12.5 " " stover 19.2 " " green fodder 73.0 Kentucky blue grass 49.4 hay 9.4 Lespedeza hay 11.0 Linseed meal, old process 9.2 " " new process 9.9 Malt sprouts 5.0 skimmings 6.7 Mangel-wurzels 91.2 Marsh ("Briston") grass, green 50.6 Meadow Foxtail, green SO.O hay 10.0 fescue, hay 20.0 " " green forage 69.9 Meat or beef scrap 7.9 " meal 6.3 and bone 5.7 Milk, whole 87.0 skim 90.0 separator 90.6 whey 93.8 butter 91.0 Millet, Barnyard ■ — ■ " Broom corn or hay, seed 11.0 Cattail or Pearl, cut in bloom.. 49. 5 African or Pearl, dough stage.. 40.0 Indian or Pearl, stalk and seed head 26.0 Pearl, cured forage 7.5 Japanese, green 75.0 " Hungarian hay 7.7 " " green forage 71.1 seed 14.0 Ash 2.8 3.7 1.7 7.5 2.9 3.4 3.4 2.0 2.1 5.7 3.5 1.5 1.8 11.8 7.5 4.6 10.1 2.9 7.9 11.8 3.2 12.7 14.4 14.0 5.5 2.0 6.0 2.6 3.5 2.8 6.1 Nitrogen- free Protein Fiber extract 4.2 46.3 33.4 13.4 32.5 38.7 1.3 8.0 2.0 3.9 7.7 8.5 5.7 5.6 6.4 3.5 1.0 2.8 2.4 10.0 6.8 1.8 17.4 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.7 3.6 3.0 4.0 4.0 7.0 1.5 6.0 1.7 3.3 6.5 2.4 16.6 2.7 23.5 6.9 1.2 32.0 29.2 17.3 4.4 10.5 14.0 13.1 10.1 3.7 4.0 89.4 8.7 22.9 61.0 22.1 11.4 19.8 6.5 2.0 7.4 5.4 16.7 16.8 19.0 12.0 7.2 10.9 4.8 2.3 5.2 10.4 13.8 :;•_'.!> 3.-1.9 28.0 14.4 1.4 5.1 3.4 16.0 7.0 2.4 50.0 48.4 37.0 3.6 3.3 3.2 0.6 0.3 37.2 4.8 20.1 6.0 3.8 32.9 2.9 9.0 11.0 12.3 33.4 10.5 2.5 1.6 23.8 31.6 15.3 34.0 7.9 26.2 5.2 16.9 24.5 28 2 mo 27.2 6.7 20.4 4.6 13.0 8.9 28.5 1.9 26.8 6.9 15.4 19.6 24.0 11.0 8.0 0.8 12.S 5.4 26.0 25.9 10.S 9.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.1 7.5 3.1 11.8 11.0 20.0 24.0 29.0 31.0 7.8 27.7 9.2 9.5 43.0 7.1 42.2 7.6 55.7 41.0 2.0 37.0 39.0 54.0 44.4 04.0 69.0 70.5 46.4 47.8 18.5 41.0 12.2 31.4 26.6 43.0 34.3 42.5 19.0 42.1 15.5 48.0 62.0 52.0 61.0 45.9 70.5 39.6 15.1 24.9 50.4 39.0 35.4 36.8 47.0 05.0 5.4 28.0 7.4 36.0 38.4 14.3 4.9 4.7 5.2 5.1 4.8 61.0 22.0 26.0 35.0 45.0 13.1 49.0 14.2 57.4 Fat O » 3.7 1.9 0.4 2.9 1.5 1.7 1.6 0.4 12.0 11.4 7.5 1.8 2.5 2.0 4.8 1.7 3.4 0.6 1.3 1.6 3.2 14.0 39.S 2.0 2.5 l.S 0.4 0.3 1.0 5.5 4.0 4.3 2.1 2.9 1.6 0.7 1.3 2 5 3/7 7.9 3.0 3.0 2.8 0.2 1.6 0.9 4.0 2.7 0.S 18.5 13.0 10.5 3.7 0.9 0.3 0.1 0.5 3.S 2.0 2.5 2.0 0.9 0.5 2.1 6.7 4.0 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 77 Table 1— Continued "Water Millet. Indian (Eriscoma cuspidata), green 56.8 " Indian (Eriscoma cuspidata), dry 5.6 Milo maize, white, mature head 15.7 Modiola dccumbens, green 80.0 Molascuit 21.2 Needle grass, (Ktipa Nclsonii), green.... 4.4 air dry 4.7 Oak leaves, live scrub (Q. dumosa) 3.9 " " blue scrub (Q. douglasii) . . 5.2 " poison oak (R. diversiloba) . 5.4 " moss (Ramalina reticulata) 22.3 Oat, whole grain 11.0 " feed 7.7 " " Quaker 7.4 " straw 9.2 " hay 16:0 " green forage 62.2 " and pea forage (green) 78.7 Olive pomace 17.0 Orchard grass, in bloom 73.0 hay 9.9 Para grass (Panicum mottc) 75.0 Paloverde twigs 5.1 Parsnips 88.3 Pea (Lathyrus maritimus), vino 81.0 " field, grain 15.0 " bran or hulls, (field) 7.5 " meal (field) 10.5 " silage 50.1 Peavine hay (Mexican) 5.9 " field 10.0 " vines, with pods 6.3 Peanut vines, with pods 6.3 (without nuts) 7.6 " kernels, without hull 7.5 hulls 9.0 bran 6.4 cake 10.7 " middlings 6.4 Pie melon 94.5 Potato tuber 78.9 Pigeon grass, seed 11.0 hay 8.0 Prickley Comfrey, green SS.4 Provender 11.7 Pumpkins, flesh 9.3 whole fruit 90.9 seeds and stringy matter.. 77.0 Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) 87.0 Quack grass 76.8 Rape, green, Dwarf Essex 85.7 silage, Dwarf Essex 78.0 and corn silage 80.0 Redtop, green forage 56.6 hay 8.9 Rhode Island bent, hay 7.1 Rice, grain 12.4 " bran 9.7 " hulls 8.2 polish 10.0 " wild, grain 10.0 Russian thistle, green, small and tender. 83.0 hay 13.0 Rutabagas . . 4 88.6 Rye, grain 116 " feed 11.7 " flour 13.1 " green forage 76.6 *' straw 7.1 " grass, perennial, hay 14.0 " Italian, hay . 8.5 " " " in bloom 73.2 Sacalin leaves 8.2 Ash Nitrogen- free Protein Fiber extract Fat 3.1 5.4 14.0 21.0 0.8 6.7 11.6 30.0 45.0 1.7 1.7 8.2 8.4 63.1 2.8 2.8 2.7 3.2 10.6 0.6 S.0 3.7 8.3 58.8 0.1 4.5 5.1 19.4 25.0 1.6 7.7 s.s 32.6 43.0 2.7 9.4 9.2 26.8 31.4 5.2 4.3 8.3 33.0 34.6 4.3 8.7 6.9 25.0 41.0 6.5 4.5 19.2 14.0 48.4 2.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 60.0 5.0 3.7 16.0 16.1 59.4 7.1 5.0 10.7 16.4 5.7 3.6 5.1 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 6.1 7.4 27.2 40.6 2.7 2.5 3.4 11.2 19.3 1.4 1.8 2.6 11.6 6.8 0.6 1.8 7.6 42.7 13.1 17.6 2.0 2.6 8.2 13.3 0.9 6.0 8.1 32.4 41.0 2.6 2.S 2.3 9.1 11.0 0.3 5.7 10.9 36.0 39.0 3.2 0.7 1.6 1.0 10.2 0.2 1.5 4.0 5.0 7.0 0.2 2.4 23.7 7.9 50.2 0.8 3.0 10.0 42.0 36.0 1.4 2.6 20.2 14.4 51.1 1.2 3.5 5.9 13.0 26.0 1.6 11.0 20.0 29.0 30.0 3.2 10.0 24.0 16.1 37.0 2.9 6.0 13.5 29.0 36.0 15.0 6.0 13.5 29.0 36.0 15.0 10.8 10.7 23.6 42.7 4.6 2.4 27.9 7.0 15.6 39.6 3.4 6.6 64.0 15.0 1.6 3.5 5.5 65.0 18.0 1.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8.0 4.0 8.0 48.0 23.0 2.7 0.4 0.8 1.2 2.9 0.2 1.0 2.1 0.0 17.3 0.1 r.u 9.. r > 15.1 54.5 5.5 9.5 10.5 28.0 40.2 3.8 2.2 2.4 1.6 5.1 0.3 2.0 9.5 4.7 6S.0 4.1 7.0 0.9 1.0 4.0 0.1 0.5 i .:: 1.7 5 2 0.4 1.5 6.0 4.0 5.0 6.9 2.0 1.8 2.0 6.5 0.5 2.7 4.2 6.7 9.1 1.5 2.0 2.4 22 7.1 0.6 3.4 2.7 2.0 13.0 0.8 2.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 0.4 2.9 3.8 11.7 23.9 1.0 5.2 Y.9 2S.6 47<5 1.9 6.7 6.1 31.9 46.3 1.9 0.4 7.4 0.2 79.2 0.4 10.0 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 13.2 3.6 35.7 38.6 0.7 6.7 11.7 6.3 5S.0 7.3 1.6 13.7 1.2 73.0 0.9 3.3 3.0 2.7 8.3 0.3 25.2 16.8 10.5 32.8 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 7.5 0.2 1.9 10.6 1.7 72.5 1.7 3.7 15.0 4.5 62.0 3.0 0.7 6.7 0.4 78.3 0.8 1.8 2.6 11.6 6.8 0.6 3.2 3.0 38.9 46.6 1.2 7.9 10.1 25.4 40.5 2.1 6.9 7.5 30.5 45.0 1.7 2.5 3.1 6.8 13.3 1.3 1.2 5.0 2.4 8.0 1.0 78 FARMERS CYCLOPEDIA Ob' LIVE STOCK TABLE 1— Continued Water Sacalin, stalks 82.0 Sainfoin, hay 15.0 Saltbush, Australian, green 78.< I Saltbush Australian, hay 7.0 Nuttall's, green . . . 73.1 > " " air dry 5.1 Tumbling (Atriplex volutans), green 78.9 " Tumbling, dried 6.2 " Atriplex Califomias, hay 6.0 " (Atriplex halimoides), green... 82.0 dry .. 4.8 " (A. holocarpa), green S5.0 " " " dry 5.6 Salt marsh hay 10.4 Serradella at different stages 79.5 hay 9.2 green forage 79.5 Sesame meal 7.4 Sesbania macrocarpa 9.0 Spear grass, yellow, (Poa lucida) 48.5 air dry 4.3 Buckley's, (P. buckley ana) .53.8 air dry 5.3 Sorghum, seed 12.8 silage. 76.1 " green fodder .....79.4 cured fodder 5.8 Soy bean, seed 8.7 meal 10.2 " " silage 74.2 " " green forage 75.1 " hay 11.3 straw 10.1 Spelt, whole grain 7.5 " kernels 9.0 Spurry hay 13.7 green 75.7 seed 11.0 Squashes, whole fruit 94.9 Squirrel tail grass, (Hordeum jubatum) . . 4.."". Starch feed, wet 66.0 " dry 4.0 Sugar beet, root 86.7 leaves . .88.8 " " crowns 81.9 fresh pulp . 89.9 " tops 87.0 " " dry pulp 6.4 " " molasses 25.7 " " silage 70.0 " cane, whole plant 71.0 " " tops 75.0 Sunflower seed 8.6 stalks and leaves, fresh 84.4 heads with seeds 75.6 Sweet clover, (Melilotus alba), green. .. .79.4 dry 6.0 Sweet potato, tubers . 71.1 vines 41.5 Sweet corn, stalks, green 80.0 husks SCO " " grain, green 82.0 " " cobs, green SO.O " " mature green fodder 84.0 fodder fully dry 51.0 " " silage .....8.3.0 Tall oat grass, green 69.5 Tankage '8.6 Teosinte, green . 79.8 silage 66.8 Timothy, green 61.6 hay 15.0 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat 0.9 1.6 7.2 S.O 0.3 7.3 14.4 20.4 39.5 3.0 4.6 2.7 3.7 10.4 0.5 19.4 11.6 15.9 44.0 2.0 .3 7 4.7 4.4 13.9 0.2 13.0 16.6 15.6 49.0 0.8 3.9 2.9 6.3 7.9 0.2 17.3 13.0 28.0 35.0 0.9 4.7 7.S 27.0 52.0 2.0 5.4 3 2 2.7 6.3 2 28.9 16.9 14.3 33.8 1.3 4.4 2.7 2.5 4.8 0.2 28.5 17.6 15.9 31.0 1.2 i. i 5.5 30.0 44.1 24 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 0.7 7.2 15.2 21.6 44.2 2.6 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 0.7 8.7 36.7 3.8 17.0 26.0 33.0 32.0 13.5 38.0 4.3 3.9 4.s 18.8 22.7 1.5 7.2 8.9 34.9 IL'.7 2H 3.2 2.8 16.6 22.7 0.8 6.5 5.8 34.1 46.6 1 6 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3 6 1.1 0.8 6.4 15.3 0.3 1.1 1.3 6.1 11.6 0.5 8.0 5.8 23.0 55.5 1.6 5.4 36.3 3.9 27.7 ISO 5.0 35.9 3.4 2.8 17.5 2.8 4.1 9.7 6.9 2? 2.6 4.0 6.7 10.0 1.0 7.2 15.4 22,3 38.6 5.2 S.7 8.8 37.6 34.0 1.4 3.8 12.2 13.5 61.0 2.0 2.5 15.5 2.0 68.5 2.5 5.8 9.2 24.0 44.7 2 8 4.0 2.0 4.9 12.7 08 11.0 12.0 11.0 45.0 9.0 0.4 0.7 0.5 3.2 0.3 7 5 7.2 33.3 45.0 2.8 0.2 4.0 26.0 24.0 3.0 0.7 12.0 8.0 66.0 10.0 0.8 1.5 0.0 9.9 0.1 0.7 1.9 1.4 7 2 3 0.8 1.9 1.9 13.4 07 0.4 1.0 • > •> 6.3 02 0.7 1.9 1.5 8.7 4 3.3 10.8 19.8 5S.4 1 3 8.8 7.3 — 58.2 0.9 4.4 9.4 14.0 11 0.5 0.6 10.0 18.0 0,4 1.5 1.7 7.0 14.0 06 2.0 16.3 29.9 21.4 °1 2 1.9 1.0 5.7 6.1 00 1.8 2.3 7.9 7.8 40 2.1 4.0 4.8 9.3 0.5 9.6 18.0 21.8 42 2 9,4 1.0 1.5 1.3 24.7 0.4 5.8 7 7 13.0 20.3 2.1 1.3 1.7 0.4 15.4 0.4 0.6 1.1 3.5 8.4 0? 0.5 2.9 0.5 12.9 0.9 0.6 1.3 5.6 11.8 0.5 1.0 o 2 4.0 8.0 00 2 7 6.3 15.0 24.0 1 3 0.8 2.0 4.0 8.6 1 2.0 2.4 9.4 15.8 0.9 16.0 49.8 4.8 5.0 15 8 1.3 0.9 6.2 11.5 3 4.0 2.5 12.4 13.6 07 2.1 3.1 11.8 20.2 1.2 4.5 6.0 29.0 41.9 3.0 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 79 TABLE 1— Continued Water Turnips, roots 90.G Velvet beans, seed and pods 12.4 " " seed 11.5 hay 10.0 Vetch, seed (Yicia satira) 13.0 hay 11.3 Hairy, hay 20.3 " Bird, (Yicia craccaj, hay 7.3 green 7.1.0 " Bodia's, (Astragalus bodini), air dry 5.S Pretty milk, (A. clcgans), green. 75.0 hay . 5.6 Water grass (Chloris el cyans) 7.0 Watermelons 00.0 Watermelon rind 00.0 pulp and juice 02.0 Whale flesh meal 7.3 Wheat, grain (spring) 10.4 (winter) 10.5 rusted 10.7 bran 11.0 middlings 12.1 " screenings 11.6 shorts 11.8 mixed feed 11.0 straw 0.G rusted 8.6 Red dog flour 8.0 " grass, western, green forage. . .60.0 hay 4.6 " slender, (Agropyron tcnc- rum), green forage .. r >7.0 slender hay 5.1 Bearded (Aaropi/ron can- mum) 38.3 Pearded, hay 5.3 Northern (A. dasi/sta- chyum) 14.0 Northern, hay 4.8 Winter fat (Eurotia Janata), green 58.0 dry 0.0 Wire grass (J uncus balticus) 72.0 hay 7.0 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat 0.8 1.3 1.2 5.9 2 4.0 17.0 14.0 48.0 4 6 ."..l! 22 7 7.6 4S.5 6.6 5.9 14.0 37.7 30.6 1 8 2.9 20.1 1 2.S 54.0 1.1 7.0 IT.n 25.4 36.1 2 3 5.8 17.2 22.5 32.1 2 1 6.0 13.0 30.0 49.0 2 o 2.0 5.5 7.0 10.0 0.1 11.4 10.3 21.3 40.0 1 3. 2.0 4.7 8.3 9.6 0.4 7.r> 1S.0 31.0 36.0 1 4 12.0 8.9 33.6 30.5 1 0.8 1.0 — . 7.8(5 1.2 1.4 1.4 5.6 0.4 0.3 0.8 ii 5 5.8 6 4.s ( VI 3 — — 2.-, 1 1 1.0 12.5 1.8 71.2 2 2 1.8 11. s 1.8 72.0 21 2.0 13.7 3.0 os.o 2.4 5.8 154 9 53.9 4 3.3 15.6 I.e. 6.4 4,9 2 12.5 4.0 65.1 3.0 4.6 14.9 7.4 56.8 4T. 4.5 16.0 8.0 55.0 4 1 4.2 3.4 38.1 43.4 1 3 6.9 6.0 18.0 29.6 OS — 19.0 — — 47 3.0 4.0 12.6 18.0 1 2 10.0 8.7 31.7 43.3 1.6 3.2 2.9 14.0 20.1 OS 7.6 S.O 31.0 45.5 2,1 3.5 3 3 15.3 ISO OS 7.0 7.4 34.7 420 1.9 4.0 4.3 21.0 24.6 1 6.3 7.4 30.7 4-J.O 2 7 5.1 » 7 o 14.0 15.0 7 in. o 15.0 31.0 .".■',0 1 1 2.0 4.0 10.0 12.0 0.4 7.0 12.0 32.0 42.0 1.3 PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. AVERAGES FOR RUMINANTS Dry matter Acorns SS.OO Alfalfa, green, 3d cutting 60.62 hay 65.23 Apple pomace 72.51 Atlas gluten meal 80.00 Barley hay 61.20 green fodder 65.90 " grain 86.00 " straw 53.00 " and peas, green fodder. .53. 40 Barnvard millet, dried fodder. . .57.40 green fodder. .66.60 Beans, seeds, field 89.00 " straw, " 55.00 " meal, soy 86.60 soy, dried fodder 62.40 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat — 83 00 1 12 1 N ) 91.00 S7.00 40.00 74.05 42.41 71.73 38.42 57.12 75. 7( 1 54.86 72.43 49.43 54.74 — ■ 01.00 SI. 50 47.20 — - 7 2 8 » — st 50 91.20 44.80 65 20 01.70 63.30 40.50 54.40 71. SO 00. so 71.20 5! >.90 — 7()i)'i — 92.00 S0.00 — - 25.00 55.00 54.00 42.00 46.20 77.20 43.50 01,10 50.70 03.10 63.70 61.60 51.60 J 0.30 50.51) 61.50 66 50 OS 30 6! 30 — SS.OO 72.00 02 00 81.00 — 49.00 43.00 67.00 57.00 — 91.10 71.20 70 30 89 60 — 71.10 60. SO OS. SO 29.20 80 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK TABLE 2 — Continued Dry matter Beans, soy, green fodder 59. SO " silage, soy (steers) 49.80 " (goats) 59.00 " and corn 69.00 " and millet ...38.S0 " " horse, with sun- flower heads 65.60 " silage, horse, with corn and sunflower plant. 65.50 Blomo, feed 67.00 Black grass hay (J uncus bulbosus) 59.50 " (J. ffcrardi) 53.40 and redtop hay 54.60 Blue grass hay, Kentucky 63.S0 " joint hay 54.30 Bran, wheat 62.30 and shorts 00.20 Branch grass hay, (Distichlis spicata) 49.70 Brewers' grains, dried 61.50 Buckwheat 70.80 Buffalo grass, hay 50.00 Buttercup hay 56.10 Canada field peas, green forage. 68.40 Cassava 52.00 Cattail millet, dried fodder 62.30 Cerealine feed 90.40 Chess or cheat, dried fodder. . . .45.00 Clover, alsike hay 62.30 " crimson, green forage. .07. ! 10 hay 58.10 " red, green forage 66.10 " silage 52.00 " " rowen (green) ...59.30 (cured) 58.00 " hay "...57.40 white, hay 66.00 and timothy hay, mixed. 54. 60 Corn, grain, Dent 91.00 meal 89.40 " and cob meal 78.70 germ 74.00 gluten feed 86.30 meal 89.70 " maize feed 87.10 cobs 51.40 Dent, green fodder 67.80 cured fodder 64.30 *' flint, " " 68.60 " Dent and flint, dried im- mature fodder 03.90 " Dent and flint, dried ma- ture fodder 68.20 " sweet, green fodder 71.10 cured " 67.20 stover 57.20 " shredded 58.00 shives, "new corn product" 58.10 fodder, topped, (cured) . .57.40 blades and husks, (cured) 63.80 leaves, (pulled fodder) 59.80 husks, cured fodder 72.00 dried butts 66.50 silage, Dent 65.10 immature Dent ..65.60 Flint 73.10 Dent and flint 70.80 and soy bean silage 69.00 " horse beans, and sun- flower heads 65.60 " horse beans, and sunflower plants 65.50 silage, sweet corn 6S.10 Nitrogen- free Ash Protein Fiber extract Fat 18.90 75.10 47.00 73.20 54.10 28.00 55.30 42.90 61.20 48.90 56.70 75.70 54.80 52.00 71.90 — 65.00 64.80 74.90 82.10 — 38.40 69.40 59.20 72.20 41.10 62.70 60.10 72.40 76.70 25.60 58.00 65.30 73.70 74.10 31.00 63.00 61.00 76.00 15.00 — 63.00 00.50 57.00 41.50 69.00 54.30 57.40 49.00 45.70 57.50 47.90 59.70 53.20 40.30 44.70 62.50 66.60 66.10 53.70 39.40 63.40 54.50 55.90 44.70 — 77.S0 L'S.III) 69.40 68.00 7.50 75.80 18.30 64.30 45.00 58.10 51.70 56.40 45.70 36.60 — 80.80 49.70 50.80 91.10 66.50 74.S0 24.10 75.80 100.00 6.00 54.40 04.70 61.70 62.40 48.10 56.30 41.10 66.90 69.70 42.30 82.00 62.40 71.00 52.40 65.00 24.00 80.00 55.00 59.00 6S.40 62.60 66.50 59.10 46.10 — 76.60 82.20 95.30 80.60 23.00 42.00 46.00 49.00 32.00 52.20 66.10 53.50 70.70 50.20 56.10 77.10 56.10 74.50 66.50 51.90 68.70 46.70 64.60 43.40 55.00 67.00 52.60 77.60 64.50 44.00 40.00 55.00 56.00 54.00 43.40 61.90* 52.50 65.30 60.80 45.80 64.S0 47.40 62.80 59.80 29.10 58.00 54.20 64.40 55.20 58.50 73.20 60.00 69.50 50.60 — 42.30 49.60 57.50 54.00 — 76.00 58.00 93.00 86.00 — 67.90 — 94.60 92.10 — - 55.60 45.70 87.60 si. Ill 48.00 75.00 68.00 72.00 90.00 — 85. CO 78.00 89.20 84.40 — 8S.2H — 89.80 94.40 — 85.50 82.50 87.90 91.50 — 19.30 57.50 48.30 — 35.60 59.70 60.20 73.70 74.10 30.70 50,10 62.20 68.00 73.00 42.60 60.00 74.90 70.30 71.40 37.20 51.70 66.00 66.20 72.20 30.60 56.10 55.80 72.20 73.90 55.30 64.00 62.90 70.00 75.60 35.60 04.10 73.80 68.20 73.00 32.60 35.90 64.20 57.90 70.40 23.00 37.00 70.00 60.00 57.00 38.70 46.70 57.0(1 60.50 78.20 3.80 38.70 71.00 57.90 67.40 22.60 47.70 72.90 66.40 58.10 26.80 48.40 07.50 63.00 59.90 16.00 29.50 79.50 75.00 32.50 11.50 21.00 73.50 69.00 79.50 32.20 49.30 66.70 68.60 80.00 34.30 51.30 70.60 67.40 80.20 32.90 62.80 75.10 76.90 81.80 30.30 56.00 70.00 76.10 82.40 — 65.00 64.80 74.90 82.10 41.10 62.70 60.10 72.40 76.70 25.60 58.00 65.30 73.70 74.10 31.90 54.00 71.10 71.80 83.50 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING SI TABLE 2— Continued Dry matter Ash Protein Cottonseed, raw 66.10 43.30 67.80 roasted 55.90 — 46.90 hulls 39.S0 23.20 — meal, high grade. ..90.00 — 83.00 73.70 23.70 8S.40 low grade ...61.00 — 73.00 Cowpea, green fodder 6S.30 22.S0 75.60 vine cured fodder 59.20 49.50 64.80 silage 59.60 30.30 57.50 Crab grass hay 53.60 37.60 — Distillers' grains, Bills 73.00 — 71.00 Merchants ...79.00 — 72.00 Flat sage, dried fodder 56.50 62.00 51.80 Fox grass (Spartina patens) hay. 54.80 58.20 59.30 Gluten feed 86.30 — 85.60 meal S9.70 — 88.20 Grasses, mixed green rowen 65.60 46.20 67.40 " cured 57.10 — 58.50 pasture, cured 72.60 51.80 73.40 Hungarian grass, dried fodder. .65.00 47.40 60.00 green fodder. 67.20 52.20 64.30 Hairy vetch, green fodder 70.30 45.10 82.S0 dried fodder 69.40 42.20 82.30 Hay, mixed grasses 57.10 — 58.50 H. O. dairy feed 65.30 — 77.80 " " horse feed 70.10 — 74.40 Hominv meal (sheep) 91.00 35.00 74.00 Johnson grass, cured 56.50 30.50 41.40 Kafir corn meal 61.00 18.30 54.70 " dried fodder 57.90 11.00 42.00 " " stover and soy bean meal 71.80 63.30 81.80 Kentucky blue grass hay 64.00 45.00 63.00 Linseed meal, new process 79.20 — 85.20 old process 78.70 — 8S.80 Maize feed 87.10 — 85.50 Malt sprouts 67.10 — 80.20 Mangel-wurzels, roots 78.50 16.40 74.70 Millet, Barnyard, green fodder. .66.60 59.50 61.50 cured hay 57.40 63.10 63.70 " Cattail, cured fodder 62.30 68.40 02.60 Hungarian, green 67.20 52.20 64.30 and soy bean silage 5S.S0 — 58.40 Milo maize, dry fodder 52.00 77.00 16.00 Oat hay 49.30 34.60 54.20 " straw 50.30 — — " hay, green 59.50 53.40 71.80 " dust 61.00 — 68.00 Oats and peas, green fodder 65.40 45.40 76.10 " vetch, green 67.00 52.70 74.80 " grain 60.00 53.40 72.00 Orchard grass, hay 56.60 — 59.50 Pasture grass, green 6S.70 49.70 65.50 cured 72.60 51.80 73.40 Pea bean (field) 71.00 — 67.50 " meal 86.80 43.70 83.20 " and oat hay 64.00 58.00 72.00 " " " silage 65.50 52.00 75.00 Peanut vine, cured 59.90 20.40 63.30 feed 52.10 — 70.60 Potatoes, dried 80.00 — 20.00 raw 75.70 — 44.70 boiled 80.10 — 43.40 Prairie hay 51.50 25.00 17.70 Quaker oat feed 62.00 — 81.10 Redtop hay 59.70 20.00 61.30 and sedge hay 46.00 10.10 37.20 Redtop and black grass hay 54.60 57.50 47.90 Rice polish 83.00 32.00 66.00 " meal 73.80 — 61.90 " bran 58.00 33.00 65.00 " corn, black, fodder 52.00 21.00 25.30 Rowen hay 64.40 46.60 69.10 Fiber 75.50 65.90 40.00 55.50 38.00 59.60 42.00 52.00 59.10 77.00 89.00 60.40 57.40 78.00 62.60 59.70 76.10 67.60 71.20 61.10 61.10 59.70 40.80 35.20 65.70 54.00 67.00 80.40 57.00 82.50 32.90 42.80 66.50 61.60 66.50 71.20 69.40 51.00 43.50 57.60 52.80 33.50 59.70 68.30 53.00 60.40 74.30 76.10 69.00 25.70 63.00 61.00 51.90 11.70 61.00 42.60 61.30 55.70 59.70 22.00 14.00 44.50 66.60 Nitrogen- free extract 49.60 51.40 41.10 90.00 60.60 68.00 80.(50 70.60 72.50 54.50 70.00 80.00 55.10 53.10 89.20 89.80 71.00 58.70 74.20 67.10 67.90 76.30 72.90 5S.70 69.90 78.70 94.00 56.90 S0.30 67.00 68.30 66.00 86.10 77.60 87.90 68.10 91.30 68.30 51.60 59.10 67.90 59.20 61.00 52.00 53.20 62.60 69.50 67.70 67.90 63.00 55.40 72.50 74.20 76.80 93.60 64.00 67.00 69.50 49.10 92.00 90.40 92.10 61.00 67.40 61.90 45.60 53.20 93.00 92.30 78.00 62.00 66.20 Fat S7.10 71.70 -85.70 100.00 93.30 90.00 59.40 51. SO 62.60 46.80 95.00 97.00 36.10 36.40 84.40 94.40 55.20 48.50 67.30 63.90 65.70 71.60 70.30 48.50 85.50 84.00 89.00 38.40 65.00 9S.50 54.00 96.60 88.60 91.50 100.00 64.30 46.30 46.10 65.70 72.20 63.00 61.90 38.30 09.20 79.00 67:70 47.20 69.00 53.80 54.70 67.30 78.00 54.50 54.00 75.00 65.90 89.70 13.00 56.60 89.00 50.50 49.00 40.30 74.00 91.10 35.00 64.00 47.40 82 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK TABLE 2 — Continued Dry matter Rutabaga, root S7.20 Rye, meal ST. 30 green fodder 73.40 Salt bush, silver (Atriplex argen- tea), hay 46.30 Salt hay, high grown 53.00 " " mixture 50.40 Sorghum, green fodder 07,30 " cured fodder, pulled. .63.10 " bagasse 00.00 seed 70.00 Soy bean, meal SI. 00 green fodder 59.80 " cured fodder 62.40 " silage (steers) 49.80 (goats) 59.00 and millet silage 58.80 " " " corn silage 71.00 i^ugar beets 94.50 Swale hay 39.00 Timothy, green fodder 63.50 " rowen 64.80 hay 5G.G0 before or in bloom.60.70 past bloom .".."..Ill rowen 62.20 Turnips 92.80 Velvet beans, green vines 69.30 hay 74.20 Vetch, common, green fodder. . . .61. SO and oats, mixed, green fodder 67.00 " and oats cured fodder. . .58.10 Hairy, green fodder ....70.30 cured fodder CO. 40 "Victor corn and oat feed 74.70 Wheat bran 62.30 " and shorts 60.20 middlings 75.00 Whiteweed hay 57.81 > Wild oat grass hay 04.00 Witch or quack grass hay 01.20 Ash 31.20 55. SO 71.50 69. SO 42.40 29.50 13.40 1S.90 2S.00 50.70 37.00 31.90 32.20 45.20 32.80 44.20 30.30 56.40 5S.G0 20.40 17.30 45.10 42.20 52.00 34.70 40.00 Protein 80.30 S4.40 79.40 0610 03.00 42.00 46.80 60. so 13.70 53.00 91.10 75.10 71.10 55.30 75.70 58.40 60.00 91.30 34.00 4S.10 71.70 46.90 56.80 45.10 68.00 89.70 73.30 6S. SO 71.40 74. SO 59.70 S2.S0 82.30 70.80 77. SO 7.-.. si I 70. so 58.40 58.30 58.60 Fiber 74.20 79.20 S.30 50.00 60.70 59.00 70.40 63.S0 43.00 71.20 47.00 OO.SO 42.90 54.80 60.40 03.00 100.00 33.00 55.00 63.80 52.50 58.80 47.10 66.50 100.00 59.60 7S.00 44.20 68.30 66.00 61.10 01.10 48.30 28 60 18.30 3,3. 10 45.50 67.90 62.80 Nitrogen- free extract 94.70 91.90 70.10 49.20 53.00 54.70 74.60 64.50 01. SO 82.00 76.30 73.20 OS. 80 01.20 52.00 59.20 77.00 99.90 40.00 65.70 67.80 02.30 04.30 00.40 03.40 96.50 82.40 75.70 70.10 67.90 54.20 70.30 72.90 73.00 69.40 04.30 SI .30 CO. 70 65.50 65.60 Fat S4.20 64 20 74.50 52.30 47.00 29.70 74.20 46.70 40.40 S1.00 85.70 54.10 29.20 48.90 71.90 72.20 90.00 49.90 44.00 53.10 52.90 52.20 58.40 51.90 49.50 87.50 81.30 78.70 5S.G0 47.20 18.00 71.00 70.30 86.80 os oo 45.00 86.30 62. oo 50.50 57.20 PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY BY SWINE Dry matter Per ct Grains and seeds : Millet seed, Hog 73.0 Barley, whole kernel 80.1 Flint corn, unground 82.5 89.7 Corn meal, finely ground 89.5 and cob meal, whole ear ground 7. r >.0 Wheat, unground 72.0 cracked 82.0 Peas, ground 89.8 Sorghum seed 75.0 Py-products : Wheat bran 65.8 " shorts 70.5 Linseed meal 77.5 Roots : Potatoes, raw 97.0 " cooked 95.0 Ash •er ct Protein Per ct Fiber Per ct Nitrogen- free extract Per ct Fat Per ct 19.0 5.4 68.0 81.4 68.7 89.9 86.1 33.0 4S.7 38.3 48.7 29.4 92.0 S6.6 ss.s 93.9 94.2 59.0 57.0 45.6 77.0 81.7 44.0 50.0 40.3 75.7 70.0 80.0 ss.o 60.0 28.5 30.0 60.0 77.9 20.0 83.6 74.0 83.0 95.1 83.0 82.0 00.0 70.0 50.0 72.0 5.4 10.0 75.1 73.5 S6.0 33.0 36.5 12.0 65.5 so.s ss.o 71.8 80.0 44.6 40.0 84.5 82.0 - 98.1 97.6 — PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY BY HORSES Dry matter Per ct Dried Fodders : Timothy hay in full bloom, well cured 43.5 New corn product 49.9 Grains : Dent corn, unground 74.4 Corn meal, ground SS.4 White oats, first quality, un- ground 72.4 Oats, same material as above, ground 75.7 Sorghum seed 04.0 Ash Per ct Protein Per ct Fiber Per ct Nitrogen- free extract Per ct Fat Per ct 34.0 21.7 21 2 07.5 42.0 54.0 47.3 40.9 47,3 59.8 20.3 57.8 75.0 (?) (?) 88.2 95.7 47.7 73.1 33.1 80.1 31.1 79.4 82.4 29.2 82.4 41.0 14.4 29.0 80.1 74.0 79.9 01.0 TABLE 5 CONVENIENCE TABLE Showing pounds of dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding stuffs; also fuel value, nutritive ratio, and protein-equating factor, a. Total Carbo- Fuel Nutri- Protein- dry hy- value, tive equating Feeding stuff matter Protein drates Fat calories ratio factor lbs lbs lbs lbs Per lb Green fodder: Corn fodder (av. all varieties) .20.7 1.10 12.0S 0.37 200 1:11.7 90.9 Kafir corn fodder 27.0 0.87 13.80 0.43 291 1:17.0 114.9 Sorghum fodder 20.0 0.00 12.20 0.40 254 1:22.0 100.7 Rape 14.3 2.10 8.65 0.32 214 1: 4.3 40.3 Rye fodder 23.4 2.05 14.11 0.44 319 1: 7.4 48.8 Oat fodder 37.8 2.44 17.99 0.97 -120 1: S3 41.0 Redtop, in bloom 34.7 2.00 21.24 0.58 4.17 1: 10.9 48.5 Orchard grass, in bloom 27.0 1.91 15.91 0.58 355 1: 52.4 Meadow fescue, in bloom 30.1 1.49 10.78 0.42 357 1:11.9 07.1 Timothy, different stages 38.4 2.01 21.22 0.04 459 1: 11:*, 40 S Kentucky blue grass 34.9 2.00 17.78 0.09 409 1: 7.3 37.6 Hungarian grass 28.9 1.92 15.03 0.30 341 1: 8.6 52.1 Red clover, different stages. . .29.2 3.07 14.82 0.09 301 1: 5.3 32.(5 Crimson clover 19.3 2.10 9.31 0.44 231 1: 4.8 40.3 Alfalfa, different stages 28.2 3.89 11.20 0.41 207 1: 3.1 25.7 Cowpea 10.4 1.08 8,08 0.25 102 1 : 5.1 59.5 Soy bean 28.5 2.79 11.82 0.03 29S 1: 4.7 35.8 Corn silage (recent analyses) .25.0 1.21 15.50 0.88 330 1:13.7 82.0 " fodder, field cured . r >7.8 2.34 32.34 1.15 093 1:14.9 42.7 " stover, field cured 59.5 1.98 33.10 0.57 077 1:17.4 50.5 Kafir corn stover, field cured. .80.8 1.82 41.42 0.98 845 1:24.0 55.0 ..57.7 3.22 48.72 1.15 1,014 1:15.9 31.1 Sorghum silage 23.9 0.00 14.90 0.20 290 1: 25.0 166.7 fodder, cured 90.0 2.00 53.20 1.70 1,109 1: 21.9 38.5 Hay from — Barley S9.4 5.11 35.94 1.55 82S 1: 7.7 19.0 Oats 84.0 4.07 33.35 1.07 700 1: 9.1 24.0 Orchard grass 90.1 4.7S 41.99 1.40 929 . 1 : 9y4 20.9 Redtop 91.1 4.S2 40.83 0.95 1,000 1: 10.2 20.8 Timothy (all analyses) 80.8 2.89 43.72 1.43 927 1:10.2 34.0 Kentucky blue grass 78.8 4.70 37.40 1.99 809 1: 8.8 21.0 Hungarian grass 92.3 4.50 51.07 1.34 1,101 1:12.2 22.2 Meadow fescue 80.0 4.20 43.34 1.73 957 1: 11.3 23.S Mixed grasses 87.1 4.22 43.20 1.33 939 1 : 11.0 23.7 Rowen (mixed) 83.4 7.19 41.20 1.43 9G0 1: 0.2 13.9 Buffalo grass 50.1 0.20 42.01 1.28 950 1: 7.2 10.1 Prairie grass 51.5 0.01 40.90 1.97 900 1 : S4.2 103.9 Mixed grasses and clover 87.1 0.10 42.71 1.40 970 1: 7.5 10.2 Red clover 84.7 7.3S 38.15 1.81 923 1: 5.7 13.0 Alsike clover 90.3 8.15 41.70 1.30 984 1: 5.5 12.3 White clover 90.3 11.40 41.82 1.48 1,053 1: 3.9 8.7 q, From Kansas station, Bulletin No. 115, by J, T. Willard, 84 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK TABLE 5 — Continued Total Carbo- dry hy- Feeding stuff matter Protein drates lbs lbs lbs Crimson clover , 91.4 10.49 3S.13 Alfalfa 91.6 10.58 37.33 hay, first stage 59.5 13.24 39.26 " second stage 58.3 11.90 40.67 " third stage GO.O 10.43 43.17 Cowpea 89.3 10.79 38.40 Soy bean 88.7 10.78 38.72 Wheat straw 90.4 0.37 36.30 Rye straw 92.9 0.63 40.58 Oat straw 90.8 1.20 38.64 Soy bean straw 89.9 2.30 39.98 Roots and tubers: Potatoes 21.1 1.36 16.43 Beets 13.0 1.21 8.84 " sugar 13.5 1.10 10.20 Mangel-wurzels 9.1 1.03 5.65 Turnips 9.5 0.81 6.46 Rutabagas 11.4 0.88 7.74 Carrots 11.4 0.81 7.83 Grains and other seeds: Corn (av. of dent and flint) . . .89.1 7.14 66.12 Kafir corn 87.5 5.78 53.58 Barley 89.1 8.69 64.83 Oats 89.0 9.25 4S.34 Rye 88.4 9.12 69.73 Wheat (all varieties) 89.5 10.23 69.21 Cottonseed (whole) 89.7 11.08 33.13 Mill products: Corn meal S5.0 6.26 65.26 " and cob meal 84.9 4.76 60.06 Oatmeal 92.1 11.53 52.06 Barley meal 88.1 7.36 62.88 Ground corn and oats, equal parts 88.1 7.01 61.20 Pea meal 89.5 16.77 51.78 Kafir corn meal 61.2 6.13 51.72 Soy bean meal 71.8 36.09 17.01 Meat scrap 89.3 66.20 0.30 By-products obtained in various industries: Gluten meal — Buffalo 91.8 21.56 43.02 Chicago 90.5 33.09 39.96 Hammond 91.9 24.90 45.72 King 92.8 30.10 35.10 Cream gluten (recent an- alyses) 90.4 30.45 45.36 Gluten feed (recent analyses) .91.9 19.85 54.22 Buffalo (recent analyses) 91.0 22.88 51.71 Rockford (Diamond) 91.3 20.38 54.71 Hominy chops 88.9 8.43 61.01 Malt sprouts S9.8 18.72 43.50 Brewers' grains (wet) 24.3 4.00 9.37 (dried) 92.0 19.04 31.79 Distillery grains (dried), prin- cipally corn 93.0 21.93 38.09 Distillery grains (dried), prin- cipally rye v. . .93.2 10.38 42.48 Atlas gluten feed (distillery by-product) 92.6 23.33 35.64 Rye bran 88.2 11.47 52.40 Wheat bran (all analyses) 88.5 12.01 41.23 " middlings 84.0 12.79 53.15 " shorts S8.2 12.22 49.98 Buckwheat bran 88.5 19.29 31.65 Cottonseed feed 92.0 0.65 38.57 Buckwheat middlings S8.2 22.34 36.14 Fuel Nutri- Protein- value, tive equating Fat calories ratio factor lbs Per lb 1.29 95S 1 3.9 9.5 1.38 949 1 3.8 9.5 0.89 1,014 1 3.1 7.6 0.39 994 1 3.5 8.4 0.69 1,026 1 4.3 9.6 1.51 978 1 3.9 9.3 1.54 985 1 3.9 9.3 0.40 698 1 :100.5 270.3 0.38 782 1 65.8 158.7 0.76 773 1 33.6 83.3 1.03 S29 1 18.4 43.5 330 1 : 12.1 73.5 0.05 1S9 1 : 7.4 82.6 0.10 215 1 : 9.5 90.9 0.11 128 1 : 5.7 97.1 0.11 139 1: 8.3 123.5 0.11 164 1 : 9.1 112.5 0.22 169 1: 10.3 123.5 4.97 1,572 1 : 10.8 14.0 1.33 1.160 1 : 9.8 17.3 1.60 1,434 1 : 7.9 11.5 4.18 1,247 1 : 6.2 10.8 1.36 1,524 1 : 8.0 11.0 1.68 1,548 I : 7.1 9.8 18.44 1,600 1- 6.7 9.0 3.50 1,477 1 : 11.7 16.0 2.94 1,329 1: 14.0 21.0 5.93 1,433 1 : 5.7 8.7 1.96 1,389 1: 9.1 13.6 3.87 1,432 1 : 10.0 14.3 0.65 1,302 1 : 3.2 6.0 — 1,131 1 : 8.9 16.3 25.38 2,058 1 : 2.1 2.8 13.70 1,415 1: 0.5 1.5 11.87 1,702 1 : 3.2 4.6 4.75 1,559 1 : 1.5 3.0 10.16 1,742 1 : 2.8 4.0 15.67 1.S73 1 2.3 3.3 2.47 1,514 1 1.7 3.3 5.35 1,605 1 3.3 5.0 2.89 1,509 1 2.5 4.3 3.82 1,557 1 3.1 4.9 7.06 1,589 1 9.1 11.9 1.16 1,200 1 2.5 5.3 1.3S 306 1 3.1 25.0 6.03 1,199 1 2.4 5.3 10.83 1,573 1 2.8 4.6 6.38 1,252 1 5.5 9.6 11.88 1,598 1 2.7 4.3 1.79 1,263 1 • 4.9 8.7 2.87 1,111 1 4.0 8.3 3.40 1,369 1: .4.8 7.8 3.83 1,318 1: 4.8 8.2 4.56 1,139 1 : 2.2 5.2 3.37 1,039 1 : 4.8 10.4 6.21 1,349 1: 2.3 4.5 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 85 [Table 5 — Continued Total Carbo- dry hy- Feeding stuff matter Protein drates lbs lbs lbs Cottonseed meal 91.8 37.01 1G.52 hulls SS.9 1.05 32.21 Linseed meal (old process) .. .00.8 2S.TG 32.81 " (new process) ..90.1 30.59 38.72 Sugar beet pulp (fresh) 10.1 0.63 7.12 " (dry) 93.0 G.80 65.49 " leaves 12.0 1.70 4.00 Beet molasses 79.2 9.10 59.50 Dried blood 91.5 52.30 — Fuel value, Fat calories lbs Per lb 1,526 698 1,443 1,411 144 1,344 20 127 1,078 12.58 1.S9 7.06 2.90 0.20 2.50 Nutri- Protein- tive equating ratio factor 1.2 34.7 1.7 1.5 11.3 9.6 3.0 6.1 0.1 95.2 3.5 3.3 158.7 14.7 5S.8 11.0 1.9 PART III Diseases of Animals FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK DISEASES OF ANIMALS FARM HYGIENE Health is an absolutely necessary pre- requisite to the accomplishment of prof- itable results from animal industry. So long as animals are not in health they do not have good appetite, and, therefore, fail to make suitable gains in weight or to perform other valuable service such as work, in the case of horses, milk yield, in the case of dairy cows, or wool and mohair, in the case of sheep and goats. The domestic fowls likewise fail to yield any returns even from the small amount of feed consumed, so long as they are not in health. It becomes necessary, therefore, to look after the hygienic conditions of animals not only for the reason that otherwise no profits can be made, but also in order to prevent the permanent infection of premises in the case of outbreaks of in- fectious diseases and to prevent endan- gering the lives of the farm help and others who may use produce coming from the farm. Importance of good feed — Animals, like human beings, are susceptible to va- rious unfavorable conditions in their environment. One of the highly impor- tant considerations to bear in mind in animal industry is the necessity of fur- nishing clean, wholesome forage. It re- quires but little consideration of this point to realize how much this impor- tant factor in profitable animal industry has been neglected. A chemical analy- sis of a feeding stuff shows its feeding value, but this analysis is based on clean, wholesome samples and the percentages of nutrients obtained do not apply to the same feeding stuffs when the latter are for any reason in unsatisfactory condi- tion. In the first place it may be stated that, under ordinary conditions, feeding stuffs cannot be maintained for an in- definite period without suffering some harm. They lose slightly in feeding value by long keeping even when the conditions for the preservation are the best which it is possible to obtain. Changes due to moisture — As a result of changes in the moisture content of the air they may at times absorb enough water to cause fermentations or to favor the development of molds and other fungi all of which processes have the effect not only of reducing the nutritive value of these feeds, but also of render- ing them more or less injurious or actu- ally dangerous. Thus hay, corn fodder and other materials stacked in the field are subjected to the injurious effects of weathering and are generally diminished in value as a result of the increasing penetration of rain into the material and by the rotting and fermentation due to the development of molds. Silage and other feeds — Silage, under the proper conditions, normally under- goes a fermentation which is considered beneficial, but when carried too far, or when an attempt is made to keep the material too long, a loss is suffered in its feeding value and it becomes less pala- table. Grain preserved in granaries even under the best conditions gradually be- comes dusty, dries out to an undesirable extent, thus becoming less palatable and presumably somewhat less nutritious. At the same time, unless conditions are unusually favorable, it is .likely to ab- sorb odors from various sources so as to render it less suitable for animal feed. Other undesirable changes in feeding stuffs — The above unfavorable changes are mentioned as occurring in feeding stuffs which have been harvested in ex- cellent condition and stored under suit- able arrangements. The undesirable changes in the condition of feeding stuffs take place more rapidly and are of greater extent when these materials are 90 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK allowed to become injured by bad weather conditions, faulty storing, or from the existence of fungous diseases and insect pests during life. All rusty, smutty, or moldy forage is less valuable for feeding than clean material of the same sort and in some instances may be decidedly dangerous. The rusts of ce- reals and grasses are perhaps the least dangerous of the many fungous diseases which attack these plants, but when straw is thoroughly dried the existence of rust increases the amount of dust in such material and, therefore, renders it a less desirable feeding stuff. Smuts on the other hand, may be not only very disagreeable on account of the clouds of dust which come from the smutty ce- reals, but may also be dangerous under certain circumstances. For example, smutty oats, while not always harmful to a pronounced extent have Occasionally been known to cause death of dairy cows and other animals to which they have been fed in large quantities. Similarly with corn smut this material while often fed without any injurious effect is by no means always a harmless food mate- rial. Then too, silage, although an ex- cellent feed for all kinds of animals when given in a proper stage of fermen- tation, may become exceedingly danger- ous after it has undergone other kinds of fermentation as a result of molds. Moldiness of cereals and other feeding stuffs is usually due to the presence of such common fungi as species of Peni- cillium, Mucor and Aspergillus. Some of these have been shown by experiment to be fatal to horses, cattle and sheep. The fact that they are not always dan- gerous should not furnish an excuse for carelessly allowing forage to be affected by them. Careless feeding responsible for many ailments — Animals require a ration more or less accurately compounded ac- cording to their needs. When a prop- erly balanced ration is not fed loss of weight may occur, which, in extreme instances, leads to a pronounced emaci- ation, loss of appetite, and an increased susceptibility to disease of all kinds. Careless feeding may, therefore, be re- sponsible for a considerable percentage of animal disease, some of which is of a serious nature. Thus, colic in horses is ordinarily due to feeding excessive grain rations to horses which have been kept on medium rations, to feeding heavy rations of coarse forage immedi- ately before putting the animal to hard work, or to feeding spoiled material. Even in mules, which are commonly con- sidered less susceptible to such troubles than horses, it has been found that the use of large quantities of uncut hay im- mediately before going to work may cause a rapid development of colic. In order to prevent such results, it has been found desirable to cut the hay in short lengths and feed it in smaller quantities in the morning and to omit hay from the noon ration in order to prevent the overloading of the stomach. Azoturia in horses is likewise caused in most instances by continuing heavy work rations for working horses during days when they are idle. The unneces- sary amount of protein obtained in these rations is not used up in the body while at rest, and is excreted by the kidneys in large quantities, causing more or less serious derangement of these organs or death in a large percentage of cases. In the case of heaves, roaring and vari- ous other troubles of the respiratory organs in horses, the predisposing cause may often be the use of dusty, moldy or unwholesome forage, especially in too large quantities. Tt has long been known that certain feeding stuffs may produce serious trouble if fed in maximum rations at once without a preliminary feeding pe- riod in which the amount is gradually increased. Thus cottonseed meal is decidedly dangerous or fatal for pigs if fed in too large quantities without re- gard to the length of the feeding period. Unfavorable results are also obtained from this material if fed in larger rar tions than 2 to 4 pounds for horses and 4 to 6 pounds for cattle. Alfalfa, al- though fed to thousands of horses, cat- tle, sheep and hogs as the exclusive roughage, is not always a perfectly safe feed. Bloating from alfalfa rarely oc- curs when it is fed in the form of hay, but as a pasture crop it may cause seri- ous effects in this way upon cattle and sheep but not on horses and pigs. In order to avoid danger from this plant, it is necessary to accustom the animals slowly to pasture on alfalfa and usually an immunity to bloating is acquired after a preliminary period of varying length. Similarly with pea hay an oc- casionally bad result has been noted from feeding this material in excess. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 91 In some instances, it has an irritating effect upon the kidneys and must be dis- continued for this reason. Medicinal effect of certain feeds — A large percentage of feeds exercise a more or less pronounced medicinal effect upon the alimentary tract in addition to their nutritive property. Thus, roots, as a whole, silage, alfalfa, and various leguminous crops, as well as green for- age in general have a slightly laxative effect, which, in some cases, becomes so pronounced that it must be corrected by reducing the amount of laxative feeds in the ration or by giving other feeds with an opposite tendency to counter- act the effect of the feed. Horses which are accustomed to receiving timothy hay, when first put on alfalfa, are often badly affected in this way and perspire more freely than they ordinarily do. After a short period of feeding, however, the disagreeable effects wear off. It is highly desirable, therefore, that changes of this sort in the ration be made in a gradual manner so as to avoid digestive disturbances or loss of appetite. The appetite of animals must be closely watched in order to obtain the best results from feeding. It is not al- ways possible to determine at once what is the cause of the failure of appetite. As a rule, however, it indicates either an excessive ration, the too long con- tinuance of a forcing ration, the iise of unwholesome materials, or lack of va- riety. In working horses the loss of appetite is not so serious a matter since a change of ration and the use of pur- gatives and tonics usually restore the appetite. Any loss of weight suffered dur- ing the feeding period is an exceed- ingly serious matter in the case of steers, sheep and hogs which are being forced for market. In these animals a loss of weight means not only the abso- lute loss due to the original trouble, but also a considerable period of delay dur- ing which the animal still continues to make unsatisfactory gains. Since so many of our domestic animals are main- tained under somewhat unnatural con- ditions and since, on this account, un- usual demands are made of their diges- tive power, it is necessary for the farmer to give strict heed to the appetite of all his animals in order to prevent losses which may occur from neglecting this matter. A simple and almost univer- sally practiced method of preventing loss of appetite consists in a change of grain and roughage rations, and if this change is made with proper regard to the equivalents in feeding value of the different rations, beneficial effects are almost always observed and no loss oc- curs as a result of the animal going off feed. Water as a source of disease — Water is commonly recognized as a source of many animal diseases, but its impor- tance in this connection is probably un- derestimated by the majority of farm- ers. Eecently, however, an increased interest in the protection of the water supply is being shown by the most ad- vanced stockmen. Water is not only capable of carrying bacterial diseases, but a number of the most serious ani- mal parasites are transmitted by drink- ing water or by eating grass and other plants which grow along the edge of in- fested pools or water ways. The relative percentage of infection in different kinds of animals from drinking impure water depends partly upon the amount of the water which the animal consumes, but more immediately iipon the quality of the water. Most bacteria are gradually destroyed in running water which is subject to sufficient movement to cause a reasonable amount of aera- tion. Nearly all pathogenic bacteria, however, live for a greater or less time in pure water and when once the water becomes contaminated the danger of in- fection, therefore, persists for several days. The number of bacteria in water naturally varies greatly according to the sources of the water and the amount of filth Avhich it carries. Thus, in a hog wallow there may be as high as 2,500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter of water, while in well-floated cisterns and deep wells properly protected the number may not be more than a few hundred in the same quantity of water. The number of bacteria in water and the consequent danger from using it depends also upon the depth of soil through which the water has filtered. Thus, as shown by Bitting, the number of bacteria in a cubic inch of surface soil may be as high as 518,000, while at 1 inch below the surface it is only 51,000 and at 5 feet only about 2,500. The number of bacteria in the soil, however, will nat- urally vary according to the amount of rain and the severity of the storms. 92 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK After heavy rain storms the bacterial content of the deeper strata of soil is higher than after long periods of drought. The common practice of allowing hogs and other animals to obtain their water from streams or ponds in which they are allowed to stand is an undesirable prac- tice. Not only do the animals contam- inate the water which they require themselves, but the contamination in the case of running streams is carried down the stream and subjects the animals of Fig. 50 SIMPLE METHOD OF TAKING AIR INTO STONE OR BASEMENT STABLES other farmers to the danger of infection. An infectious disease once started may, therefore, spread widely as the result of carelessness from the premises where it had first occurred. Such methods of in- fection have been observed in the case of hog cholera, but particularly of anthrax. It is well worth the trouble of all stock farmers to provide a clean water supply in troughs or by some other method by which the animals are prevented from contaminating their water supply. A proper supply of pure air i s nec- essary to the health of all kinds of farm animals and it is unquestionably true that a considerable percentage of the disease which prevails among farm ani- mals is due to close confinement in badly ventilated and otherwise insani- tary stables. The belief is often held that our modern high-bred animals re- quire more pampering and greater atten- tion to the regulation of the temperature of their surroundings than do scrub animals. Such, however, is not neces- sarily the case. Moreover, in securing a high tempera- ture in stables during the winter it often occurs that too little attention is given to the ventilation of the stable, so that one possible advantage is ob- tained with the simultaneous loss of another and more important advan- tage, namely, good ventilation. The air of stables which are filled to their full capacity with farm animals be- comes contaminated not only as a result of the breathing of the animals, but by various organic substances given off in the respired air and by the manure and other filth which is too often allowed to accumulate in stables. The amount of air breathed hourly by different farm animals has been cal- culated by King as follows: For horses 4,296 cubic feet, for cows 3,542 cubic feet, for hogs 1,392 cubic feet, for sheep 917 cubic feet and for hens 31.5 cubic feet. It is, of course, admitted at once that perfect ventilation is not possible in practice, but fortunately it is also not necessary. In fact in the average stable, a sufficient amount of air passes through the cracks and around doors and windows to prop- erly ventilate the stable. Under such conditions no attention may be given to ventilation. If, however, such loosely Fig. 51 — CROSS SECTION OF MONITOR- ROOFED STABLE WITH HINGED-VALVE SYSTEM OF INLETS AND OUTLETS constructed stables admit too much cold air and lower the temperature too greatly, it may be necessary to make them nearly airtight, and if this be done a system of ventilation becomes necessary. In other words, in practice a special sys- tem of ventilation is necessary only in cases where the stables are constructed so nearly airtight that otherwise a suf- ficient quantity of air could not get in. Furthermore, in order to secure the proper operation of any system of ven- tilation, it is necessary to have the stables constructed nearlv airtight since DISEASES OF ANIMALS 93 otherwise the matter could not be con- trolled at all. Where air can leak in through various cracks this is sufficient to interfere with the operation of an artificial system of ventilation. Ventilation important — The princi- ples upon which a scientific system of ventilation is based are the necessity of I }L45lL_jt5l 2L& Fig. 52 CROSS SECTION OF THE WISCON- SIN STATION BARN SHOWING SYSTEM OF VENTILATION DEVISED BY PROFESSOR KING furnishing as large amounts of air as possible without reducing the tempera- ture of the stable in winter unnecessa- rily. Obviously the air which rises to the roof of the stable is warmer than that upon the floor. Much of the heat generated by the animal body is, there- fore, lost by removing the air near the roof. Again, this air does not contain the impurities which it is desirable to remove, since they are for the most part heavy and remain nearer the floor of the stable. The best systems of ven- tilation, therefore, provide for taking the foul air from near the floor and dis- charging it to the outside with as little loss of warm air as possible. The ven- tilating system which has been devised and worked out by King operates very successfully in all moderate climates in winter, but, according to some Canadian experiments, is not very successful in the extreme cold weather which prevails in Canada during midwinter. Recent experiments in Minnesota have shown that steers in the process of fat- tening appear to thrive well and re- main comfortable when confined in box stalls as tight as they can be made, be- ing removed for a short time once a week. It is perfectly obvious, therefore, that ventilation is a matter which may be overestimated, in and of itself, under conditions which are otherwise sanitary. If, however, an infectious disease pre- vails on any given premises it is much more necessary to give heed to proper ventilation, since otherwise, the disease will spread and affect animals more ex- tensively than would be the case if large quantities of good air were provided. Fig. 53 HINGED VALVE FOR VENTILATING STABLE Care of yards — In safeguarding the health' of animals another important point remains in connection with the care of yards. Quite too often animals are allowed to stand in wet, unspeakably filthy yards. In the case of dairy cows, the animals become so filthy that it is practically impossible to obtain clean milk from them and other animals be- 94 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK come soiled and uncomfortable with mud and other filth which dries on them as soon as they are given an oppor- tunity to get out of the mire. It has been shown, time and time again, from careful experiments that all farm ani- mals make better gains and give more profitable returns from their food when yards are properly drained and kept in a dry and cleanly condition. The finan- cial argument is, therefore, sufficient to determine a sanitary practice in this regard if other considerations are not entertained. Exercise is an important matter in the proper management of all farm ani- mals. In order that animals should de- velop to their best estate and show all the vigor of which they are capable, it is necessary that they be reared under circumstances which permit of freedom and natural exercise. Obviously, the amount of exercise desirable for differ- ent farm animals will vary according to the purpose for which they are raised. During a short fattening period it is not necessary to pay much attention to this point, since the danger of the loss of health from lack of exercise during a short period is not great. For all an- imals which are to be kept for stock pur- poses and dairy purposes and similar lines of usefulness which require that the animal should live to an old age, the matter of exercise must never be lost from view. Outdoor exercise desirable — In recent feeding experiments with steers and other animals it appears that better and more economic gains are made if the feeding period is long when the animals are allowed a reasonable amount of out- door exercise. Similarly with dairy cows, the returns in milk are better and they are made on less feed when they are given the freedom of a dry yard. _ Ac- cording to the observation of Craig in Indiana, nervous exhaustion and debil- ity frequently develop in breeding ewes which are not allowed a sufficient amount of exercise. The symptoms of the disease are for the most part of a nervous character, the appetite is lost and the animal becomes dull and slow of motion. As a rule, the disease pro- gresses quite rapidly and does not respond to medicinal treatment unless it is ap- plied in the early stages. In a large percentage of these cases the trouble is caused by insufficient exercise and im- proper feeding, the exercise being the more important factor. Craig recom- mends that breeding ewes should be forced to take considerable exercise every day, if necessary, driving them about one-balf mile each day. Disinfecting premises and how it is done — After the occurrence of an in- fectious disease, it is necessary to disin- fect the premises thoroughly. This may be accomplished in various ways de- pending on the nature of the buildings and yards in which the disease occurred. Infected hog pens, if not of much value, may be burned on the spot and new ones constructed at another place on the farm, similarly with temporary chicken houses, after an outbreak of fowl cholera or other serious infectious disease. With valuable buildings, however, such a procedure cannot be adopted and some form of disinfection can be carried out. In this work there is a choice of a num- ber of materials. We may use corrosive sublimate at the rate of 1 ounce in 8 gallons of water, the material being mixed in wooden tubs or barrels and the corrosive sublimate being powdered before it is added to the water. The so- lution may then be applied with a broom or mop to all contaminated woodwork. Chloride of lime at the rate of 5 ounces to the gallon of water is an effective material and may he applied in the same way as corrosive sublimate. Crude car- bolic and sulphuric acids may be mixed in wooden tubs or glass vessels, the two acids being combined in equal quanti- ties and afterward diluted in cold water at the rate of 1 part to 20. Slaked lime is a very useful material in disinfect- ing buildings and yards, although it does not possess the high antiseptic power of the substances wdiich have just been mentioned. It is particularly val- uable in disinfecting soil, since it does not injure the soil for crop purposes. It may be used at the rate of one-half pound of lime to the gallon of water. Whitewash, prepared in this way, is a common disinfectant for use in chicken houses and stables. In addition to its disinfectant properties, it is of some use as a deodorizer. Sulphuric acid may also be used on woodwork when diluted in water at the rate of 1 ounce to the gallon. In tightly constructed stalls or small buildings, formalin fumigation may be adopted, but unless the build- ing is very tight this remedy will give DISEASES OF ANIMALS 95 no results. Contaminated floors, ceil- ings, walls and other woodwork, how- ever, may be sprinkled* or sprayed with 2 or 3 per cent solution of formalin with excellent results. Cautions about contagious diseases — In case of the death of any animal from contagious disease the carcasses should be at once destroyed without opening or allowing the infection to be spread by the fluids in the body. This destruc- tion is best accomplished by burying deeply or by burning. The carcasses of animals which have died of contagious diseases are a great menace to the health of other animals or to man. The virus in such carcasses may be carried long distances by water, flies and various other insects and particularly by dogs, other carnivorous animals, and carrion- eating birds. All danger from such dis- semination of the disease may be avoided by destroying the carcasses promptly. Small animals may be easily disposed of by burying to a depth of 2 feet. This is particularly effective with chickens which may be covered with unslaked lime before the soil is placed over them. McDowell believes, however, that burn- ing is the most satisfactory method of disposing of contagious carcasses. If no furnace or specially prepared place is available, a trench may be dug 2 or 3 feet deep and a layer of brushwood placed in the bottom, after which the body is laid on the wood and covered with brushwood sprinkled with kerosene and set on fire. According to the experi- ments of McDowell complete destruc- tion of a 1,300 pound carcass required 5 gallons of kerosene and Y-z a cord of wood. In other localities good results have been obtained in burning carcasses by placing them on iron rails under which a fire may be easily maintained. In the southwestern part of the country where crude oil is abundant and cheap this material may be used for destroying carcasses. The care of pastures i s an important matter on account of the possibility of the spread of various parasitic diseases as a result of carelessness in this regard. It should be remembered that the tape- worms of sheep, the gid worm and stom- ach worms of sheep and calves, lung worms of sheep, and the nodular disease of the intestines of sheep are all due to the use of pastures which have become thoroughly contaminated with the par- asitic worms which cause the diseases in question. In order to avoid the annual propagation of these diseases it is nec- essary to adopt a system of rotation, changing the sheep and cows from one pasture to another every few days and combining this system witb better drain- age and protection of the water supply. DISEASES OF THE HORSE _ The horse stands in a peculiar rela- tion to man as compared with other domestic animals, in that he enjoys the close personal sympathy of man and is therefore looked after rather closely with regard to his health. Moreover, the average farmer, after finding a horse winch suits bis purposes, naturally wants to keep him as long as he is capable of good service, and this means that the horse is subject to a great many chances of injury which are not of much im- portance in the case of cattle, sheep or pigs, for the reason that these animals are kept only a short time. Veterinarians have spent more time and energy in studying horse diseases and perfecting practical remedies than is true of the diseases of any other farm animal. In fact, in many localities the terms "veterinarian," and "horse doc- tor" are practically synonymous. The obvious reason for the common use of the term "horse doctor" for "veterina- rian" is due to the fact that the farmer calls in export veterinary services in treating bis horses more often than for his other animals. In the following ac- count of horse diseases, attention is given first to the general infectious dis- eases and later to those which affect one organ or set of organs. How to detect illness — The normal temperature, pulse rate, rate of breath- ing and other matters which may be of assistance to the farmer in examining the horse to determine whether anything is wrong with his health have already been discussed in Part I. The temperature of the horse, as in the case of most other farm animals, is to be taken by insert- ing a clinical thermometer in the rec- tum. Most farmers, after a little experi- ence, can readily tell whether fever is present or not by placing the hand in the mouth. In a particular case of sick- ness, considerable importance attaches to the attitude of the horse and to various facts regarding the history of the case. Thus, there is always the possibility FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK of determining with some certainty whether the animal has been exposed to infectious diseases in other horses, or whether the sickness is of a noninfec- tious character and due to some condi- tions in the environment of the particu- lar horse. The condition of the coat, especially if it appears rough and star- ing, may indicate the presence of fever, without any other symptom. Moreover, the mucous membrane of the mouth and eyes readily indicate the congested con- dition which accompanies fever. In ad- ministering medicine to horses, several methods are at the disposal of the farmer. (See under veterinary medi- cines.) Influenza also called pink eye, epizoo- tic, bilious fever, typhoid fever of the horse, etc, is a highly contagious disease of the horse, ass and mule, accompanied with fever, changes in the blood, stupe- faction, great depression and nervous disturbances. One attack of the disease ordinarily confers immunity. Some- times influenza occurs merely in scat- tered cases, but under other conditions, not well understood, it may appear as a general epizootic, affecting large num- bers of horses. Simple cases of influenza are not necessarily serious, but the dis- ease is sometimes followed by troubles in the nervous and blood systems. On account of the fact that one at- tack of the trouble nearly always pro- tects the animal against other attacks, old animals which have had the disease and recovered from it are safer to buy than younger animals which have not been affected. Apparently lack of ex- ercise and over-feeding in young horses are predisposing causes of influenza. The symptoms occur within from four to seven days after exposure. In mild cases they may consist merely of a short course of fever accompanied with considerable depression and stupefaction of the animal. The horse stands with his head low and occasionally shows chills and champing with his teeth. The special senses are often affected, so that the horse cannot hear, see or taste correctly. The eye is greatly congested and this gives rise to the term pink eye. A reddish or saffron color also appears in the mouth. During the course of the disease the fetlocks and belly may swell to a considerable extent. The disease ordinarily lasts from six to ten days and during this time the horse may lose from thirty to seventy-five pounds. At times nearly half of the cases are com- plicated with intestinal or pulmonary troubles and when the lungs are affected with a form of pneumonia the mortality is very high. In fact influenza may be followed by congestion of the feet, pleurisy, peritonitis and various other complications. As long as the appetite remains the horse may be given small quantities of grain, bran or hay, with roots or apples. One method of reducing the tempera- ture consists in giving large enemas of cold water and quinine in one dram doses. If the lungs are affected, it is nec- essary to blanket and otherwise protect the horse, as in cases of pneumonia. Influenza, at best, is a rather serious disease and proves fatal in a large per- centage of cases, especially in young an- imals. The percentage of cases in which the lungs are affected is also high. Strangles — This disease is also called distemper, catarrhal fever, or colt ill, and is an infectious disease most fre- quently seen in young animals. One at- tack protects the animal against another. The fever lasts for a few days, but dur- ing the progress of the disease, pus may form in the lungs and frequently absces- ses develop in various parts of the body. The first symptoms are sluggishness, ir- regularity of appetite, increase in thirst, a dry, staring coat, and rose color in the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth. After two or three days the an- imal coughs and a discharge takes place from the nostrils, the discharge being first watery and later becoming thick and yellowish in color. Later a swell- ing takes place in the throat, between the jaw bones. This swelling is puffy, hot and sensitive and soon develops into a large abscess, which breaks spontane- ously, or may be opened. In simple cases recovery takes place within about two weeks. If the swelling in the throat is accessible, it must be opened in order to prevent the pus from burrowing too deeply in the muscles. In some cases there is more or less delirium, plunging and involuntary movements, but mild cases require little treatment, except careful diet and protection from cold drafts. If the fever is high, Glauber salts may be administered in doses of a handful three times daily. The swelling about the throat may be treated with DISEASES OF ANIMALS 9? warm water and flaxseed poultices. Dur- ing convalescence the animal should be protected against drafts. Scalma i s a contagious disease accom- panied with fever and irritation of the breathing passages, as shown by the de- velopment of a cough. The symptoms develop within about a week after ex- posure and the disease spreads slowly through the stable. A gray albuminous discharge takes place from the nostrils and may persist for two or three weeks. The breathing and pulse are not much affected, but the temperature may rise quite high. The course of the disease is from five to eight days. Scalma may be complicated with spasms and pleurisy and may be diagnosed most easily from the fact that the temperature is quite high without a corresponding quicken- ing of the pulse. Most cases recover. Steaming with turpentine at the rate of one-half ounce in half a bucket of hot water and hot packs on the loins re- lieve some of the pain. Quinine may also be given during the fever period. Pneumonia, also called edematous, or contagious pneumonia, is an infectious disease of the horse which develops most frequently in damp, unclean and badly ventilated stables. The symptoms may appear slowly or at once. If the case develops slowly, there is a cough accom- panied with dullness and loss of appetite and a considerable acceleration of the breathing and pulse. The mucous membranes of the mouth and eyelids be- come somewhat swollen. If the case is more violent, the symptoms of pneu- monia appear at once and the disturb- ance of the temperature, pulse and breathing are more pronounced. The weakness of the animal is very striking and is not accompanied with stupefac- tion or nervous troubles. The mortality from edematous pneumonia is usually ibout two per cent, but may run as high as twenty-five per cent. Bleeding should not be resorted to in cases of this disease, since the animal is already greatly weakened. Stimulants are indicated as a desirable treatment for this trouble. Turpentine may be given in one ounce doses, or alcohol, digitalis, strychnine and quinine. (For doses see Veterinary Medicines.) In Europe a serum treat- ment has been devised for pneumonia of horses and gives excellent results in some cases, but appears not to be en- tirely reliable. Horse pox i s a n infectious horse fever accompanied with pustules, especially on the pasterns and fetlocks, and also upon the lips or about the nose. This disease closely resembles sheep pox, cow pox and also small pox in men and usually runs a mild course of about four days, followed by rapid convalescence. If the disease is not complicated by swelling and suppuration of the glands, little treatment is necessary, The animal should be protected from cold drafts and if the fever is high may be given qui- nine or iodide of potash in one dram dcses. Where pneumonia complications are threatened, mustard poultices may be applied to the chest. Anthrax attacks nearly all of the domestic animals and is due to a specific micro-organism, which was discovered in 1851. The disease largely spreads by carelessness in the disposal of the car- casses of animals dead of anthrax. It has been shown that the virus of anthrax may remain virulent in dead bodies for a period of fifteen years or more. This shows how necessary it is to burn or otherwise completely disinfect the car- cass of an animal dead with the disease. The symptoms of anthrax usually de- velop very rapidly. The animal shows great weakness, chills and colicky pains. The temperature is high and swellings appear underneath the skin in the legs, shoulder or side of the body. As a rule death takes place within three or four days. The blood is black and does not coagulate. There is little use in treating cases of this disease. Ex- periments have been made to treat it with creolin in 2 to 5 dram doses, but without good results. A number of Ital- ian investigators have claimed that the use of corrosive sublimate in sub-cuta- neous injections was of some value but this claim has not been substantiated. In a few cases carbolic acid in a one-half per cent solution in water, given in fre- quent doses so as to aggregate 40 or 50 quarts a day, have yielded satisfactory results, but the method is not applicable in all cases. In many outbreaks of an- thrax in horses, infection has been due to the use of oats which had in turn been infected from previous cases of the disease. Where oats or grain are suspected, it may be well to subject them to a high temperature in an oven before feeding. The temperature should be hio-h enough to brown the grain. OS FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The best prevention of anthrax consists in the use of a vaccine from which good results have been obtained by the Bu- reau of Animal Industry and by other investigators. In some localities in the South this disease is almost stationary and has to be treated constantly by the preventive method. Glanders, also called farcy or nasal gleet, is a malignant, highly contagions disease due to infection with the gland- Glanders occurs under at least three distinct forms, one affecting chiefly the lungs, another the nasal passages and the third the skin. These forms of the disease, however, are not by any means separate and distinct, but the most con- spicuous symptoms may be located in one or the other of the sets of organs just mentioned. In pulmonary gland- ers, for example, the lungs are the chief seat of infection and contain tubercles Fig. 54- FARCY FORM ers bacillus. Glanders is most common in horses and in mules, but may occur in nearly all the domestic animals ex- cept cattle. Man may also become in- fected through wounds, . and in such cases the disease is nearly always fatal. Likewise in horses the disease is almost uniformly fatal, but the course may vary from a few weeks to several years. of varying size, depending on their age. At first these tubercles are so minute that they would not be detected except by the trained veterinarian. Later, however, they increase in size, break down and pockets are thus formed which contain pus; such pockets are at once disclosed by cutting through the lungs with a sharp knife. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 9:) The nasal form of glanders is char- acterized by chronic catarrh. The nasal discharge may be interrupted at inter- vals, but sooner or later begins again. The division wall in the nose is attacked and pustules form which later break down and slough off leaving ulcers with a ragged outline which may be seen from the nasal openings. Occasionally, however, the ulcers are located too far back to be visible. The skin form of glanders, also know as farcy, is chiefly character- ized by the presence of numerous swell- ings in the lymphatic glands just be- neath the skin of various parts of the body but particularly of the legs. The farcy buttons, as they are called, may be accompanied with a general swelling of the affected parts. In stallions the testi- cles usually become swollen during the early stage of the disease. These different forms of glanders, as already indicated, are not distinct dis- eases but may all appear in one and the same case. During the progress of the disease the liver, spleen, kidneys, pan- creas and various other organs may be attacked in addition to the lungs, lym- phatic glands, skin and mucous lining of the nose. In ordinary cases of glanders a dry cough is noticed, especially after exer- cise or after pressure on the throat. This cough is to be distinguished from that of ordinary colds or other diseases by the fact that it persists indefinitely. The submaxillary glands are usually swollen and very sensitive. These glands may be felt by pressing against the in- side of the lower jawbone from the un- der side of the throat. In health the submaxillary glands are soft and not readily recognizable by the touch; when attacked by glanders they become hard, knotty and slip back and forth under pressure. The swelling of the submax- illary glands is one of the symptoms by means of which the disease is diagnosed. Symptoms frequently obscured — While glanders, as already indicated, is almost always fatal and therefore one of the most, if not the most, serious dis- ease of horses, the symptoms are often quite obscure in the early course of the disease, and it therefore becomes of great importance to devise a method for recognizing the disease as early as pos- sible. In cases of recent origin or slow development where the external symp- toms are not recognizable, mallein has been found to be a most valuable and reliable agent in the detection of gland- ers. Mallein is a product of the gland- ers bacillus containing the active toxin or poison of the bacillus, but no living bacilli. It cannot, therefore, produce glanders, and it has no noticeable effect upon the healthy horse. In glander- ous horses, on the other hand, a hypo- dermic injection of mallein causes an elevation of temperature to the extent of one to three degrees, swelling at the point of inoculation and occasionally trembling. The method of making the mallein test is essentially the samt, as that adopted in the tuberculin test. (See tuberculosis under Diseases of Cattle.) The use of mallein is generally prac- ticed throughout the world in detecting glanders in its incipient stages. There is no satisfactory treatment for glanders and none should be adopted or permitted. A course of treat- men^ for glanders adopted by a careless veterinarian or farmer simply results in exposing other horses and men to in- fection with a disgusting and incurable disease. The use of mallein in repeated and large doses has sometimes apparently caused a partial or complete cure of glanders after that disease had been thoroughly established. Thus, a num- ber of instances of this sort have been reported in England, Canada, the United States and elsewhere. These cases of supposed cure, however, are not so numerous as have been thought and many of them have turned out to be merely apparent cures. The system first adopted in Canada, after much serious thought along this line, was to quaran- tine all horses which showed a tempo- rary reaction after the use of mallein and keep them under observation for a number of years, during which they re- ceived other mallein injections. This method, however, has been abandoned and in its place the more satisfactory one has been adopted of killing all glan- derous horses as soon as the disease is detected. Care of a glanderous horse — As al- ready indicated, there is no satisfactory treatment for glanders. Good care and a nutritious diet may enable glanderous horses to live for five years or more, but in the meantime they may spread con- tagion far and wide. All glanderous animals should therefore be killed im- 100 FARMERS CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK mediately and burned or deeply and carefully buried. In most states tbe State Veterinarian is empowered to carry out these measures and it has been necessary to do so on account of the rapid spread of glanders unless strict repressive measures are undertaken. In ,'some localities, as for example in the neighborhood of Boston, glanders grad- ually increased in spite of all measures taken to repress it. A source of con- tagion of considerable importance was found in the existence of public water- ing troughs, where one glanderous horse might leave infection for a number of other horses. It therefore appears to be a very dangerous practice to permit the use of any glanderous horse in such a way that it will be brought in contact with other horses in public places. Tetanus, r lockjaw is a very virulent, infectious disease, characterized by vio- lent muscular contractions, which are due to the poisoning of the nerve centers by a toxin produced by the tetanus bacillus. Nearly all domestic animals and man are subject to the disease, but it is more common in horses and mules than in cattle. Occasionally tetanus oc- curs in cows after abnormal calving. As a rule tetanus arises from infection of a wound, frequently as a result of carelessness in castration, docking the tail, etc. The most conspicuous feature of tetanus is the continued muscular spasm, which may be increased in sever- ity by any fright. Different parts of the body are attacked in different cases, chiefly the muscles of the head and throat ; in other cases those of the neck and back. The nervousness and sensi- tiveness of the ears are greatly in- creased, so that the slightest noise may produce fright and the resulting spasms. The head and tail are usually extended and the movements of the animal are stiff. Moreover, the teeth are occasion- ally grated together. The tetanus bacillus is common in the filth of stable floors and in gardens. In some localities this infection is much more general than in others and there- fore an antiseptic treatment of wounds must be applied promptly in all cases in order to avoid the development of tetanus. In the treatment of tetanus, good results have been obtained by the use of anti-tetanus serum. This serum is commonly prepared from the blood of horses recovered from tetanus and pro- duces immunity to tetanus in man oi horses. In large doses it occasionally gives good results after the first symp- toms of the disease have appeared. In all cases of tetanus, however, a veteri- narian should be called to administer the treatment. The results obtained from the use of the anti-tetanus serum, while not uniform, still furnish a basis for reasonable hope of ultimate con- trol of this disease. In a number of cases good results have been obtained from treating horses with the serum after the disease had reached an acute form. In such cases the serum was given in repeated doses of large size. In some cases the best results have been obtained from rubbing the serum into the wound through which infection took place. One German investigator claims to have cured horses by firing a gun close to the head during the height of the muscular spasms. The shock is said to have caused a relaxation of the mus- cles. Likewise good results have been reported in a few instances from the use of sodium iodide in doses of five grams. Quite recently a Spanish inves- tigator has reported the cure of a few cases of tetanus by means of a subcu- taneous injection of carbolic acid. Apparently, however, the chief reliance in cases of this disease is to be placed on the timely treatment of wounds with antiseptics and the use of anti-tetanus scrum. Rabies — The virus of rabies, or hydro- phobia is found in the saliva of affected animals and is usually transmitted only by the bite of such animals, which in the vast majority of cases are dogs. (See under Diseases of Dogs.) Surra — While surra probably does not occur in the United States, it is com- mon in the Philippines, where it has caused great loss among horsesi and mules, as well as among carabao and other animals. The disease attacks both sexes and all ages, but white or gray mules are said to be more susceptible than those of other colors. Surra is al- most invariably fatal and the course of the disease extends ordinarily over a period somewhat less than two months. This disease is due to the presence of a parasite in the blood which is carried from one animal to another by means of biting insects. The symptoms of surra include fever, loss of appetite, dullness and a stumbling gait. The DISEASES OF ANIMALS 101 temperature runs up to 104° F. Occa- sionally there may be slight catarrhal symptoms, with discharge from the nos- trils. Chills are never observed in the course of this disease. There is almost always some swelling of the legs, partic- ularly between the fetlock and hock; the sexual organs are also likely to be- come greatly swollen. In the later stages of the disease the animal becomes markedly paralyzed. The appetite is ravenous, but there is a gradual and ex- treme emaciation. There is no satis- factory treatment and affected animals should therefore be slaughtered at once and buried. Cerebro-spinal meningitis — This is, in the most instances at least, a non-con- tagious disease which occurs in horses in isolated cases or occasionally in ex- tensive outbreaks. The symptoms of the disease are not well defined and it is therefore probable that several different diseases have been referred to under the same name. Similar, if not identical, diseases have been called choking dis- temper, grass staggers and blind stag- gers. Horses of all ages and both sexes are affected and temperament and phys- ical condition have nothing to do with susceptibility to the disease. Mules are affected as well as horses and the mor- tality among them is equally great. Ac- cording to certain European investiga- tions, this disease is due to a bacterial organism in the membranes of the brain. Such conditions were found in an outbreak investigated in Maryland. Other writers have attributed the dis- ease to ergot, smuts and other fungi which are supposed to be taken with the food. In some instances improper feeding has been considered the cause of the disease. Occasionally the use of moldy corn causes a rapidly fatal dis- ease in horses, usually referred to as cerebro-spinal meningitis. The usual symptoms are staggering gait, partial or total inability to swallow, various muscular contractions and de lirium. In violent cases treatment is seldom effective, while in mild forms the administration of cathartics, tinc- ture of aconite and blisters on the neck, spine and throat give some relief. New horse disease — A disease among horses which acquired the name of "new horse disease" was investigated in Maryland and appeared to be cerebro- spinal meningitis. Since no bacterial organism has been identified in con- nection with this disease in the United States, it seems well to avoid the use of all moldy grain or fodder or, at least, cease feeding such material if the symp- toms of the disease should appear. In some cases a beneficial effect is noted from the use of cold water or crushed ice about the head and favorable re- sults have also been obtained from bel- ladonna and strychnine. In an out- break of this disease which occurred in Delaware, decayed corn silage, musty oats and musty wheat bran were sus- pected of having caused the trouble. Feeding experiments with suspected sub- stances for the purpose of determining their effect upon horses have usually been without result. In such experi- ments grain screenings containing a large proportion of cockle seed, wheat bran infested with stinking smut and moldy oats failed to produce any symp- toms of the disease in horses. In addi- tion to the experiments already men- tioned, it should be stated that in mild attacks there is a loss of control of the legs and tail and loss of appetite; also a brown discoloration of the mucous membranes of the mouth and nose. In violent cases there is trembling, stupor and complete paralysis, the animal stag- gering and falling to the ground. In such cases a large proportion of the an- imals die in convulsions. Improvement may begin on the third or fourth day, or in more severe cases the disease lasts eight to 14 days. This trouble needs fur- ther investigation. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OR- GAN'S The horse is subject to a number of troubles due to improper rations, over- feeding and unpalatable or moldy feed. Moreover, water in excessive quantities after an unusually long period of thirst- ing may give rise to violent digestive disturbances. As should be apparent to every farmer, the quality of water given to horses should be above suspicion. It is besc to allow the horse to drink at frequent intervals or whenever dry. No bad results may be expected from allow- ing the horse to drink small quantities of water, even when heated from work- ing. As already indicated, however, after long periods without water, some care must be exercised. Many cases are on record where horses during transpor- 102 FARMER'S CYCLOP ED LI OF LIVE STOCK tation have developed fatal symptoms of digestive trouble as the result of al- lowing them to drink unlimited quan- tities of water after being in stock cars for 24 hours. Bowels affected by feeds — Some feed- stuffs may cause a too laxative condi- tion of the bowels. This is particularly true of alfalfa and other leguminous plants until horses become accustomed to them. Most roots are also slightly laxative. It is well, therefore, in ordi- nary rations, not to use too many differ- ent materials which are laxative. The use of moldy, smutty or dirty feed is always to be avoided on account of the possible bad effects from such material. Teeth an important factor — The teeth of the horse sometimes give trouble and require attention. There is no question, however, that much of the work done on the horse's teeth is quite unneces- sary and in many cases harmful. It has been customary with certain empiric horse doctors to file off the teeth in nearly every case which they examine if they could find no other cause of trouble. Such manipulation repeated too often renders the teeth less suited than they naturally would be for masticating the feed and in some cases leads to decay. Irregularities with the teeth may re- quire treatment. In some horses the teeth do imt wear uniformly across the whole surface and leave points which lacerate the tongue and checks. Even a casual examination will show whether such points are present or not and they may be readily removed. In the case oi severe toothache due to the decay of a tooth, it is necessary for the farmer to call a qualified veterinarian, since the removal of a horse's tooth is a rather difficult operation. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate or roof of the mouth fre- quently appears to be somewhat swol- len and projects downward somewhat lower than usual. Such swelling in most cases is perfectly natural and needs no treatment. There has been a tendency to call this trouble "lampas" and to lance the mouth in all cases. This is, for the most part, unnecessary. The lining of the mouth and tongue sometimes becomes irritated or lacer- ated by spines, barbs and other hard material in the feed. This is particu- larly true after the use of hay contain- ing wild barley or foxtail grass, as it is commonly called through the west- ern states. The barbs of this plant puncture the mucous membrane of the mouth where they break off and re- main, causing inflamed areas or in some cases wdiite patches and interfering with the feeding of the horse. This trouble is best treated by changing the diet, feeding clean, wholesome material and washing the horse's mouth with a weak solution of borax. In case of choke from some large piece of feed swallowed by the horse, it is desirable to give some softening material at once, such as oil and plenty of water. If this does not remove the obstruction in the throat, the use of a probang becomes necessary and if some experience has not been had in such cases, it may be well to call a veterinarian. Some farmers, however, understand how to use a perfectly smooth oiled stick or buggy whip in pushing the obstruction down the gullet. Colic — The horse is subject to various forms of colic, some of which are quite dangerous and require immediate treat- ment. A distinction should be made in treating the colic of horses between the various forms which occur. According to Michener, engorgement colic is due to overloading the stomach. This may be the result of a ravenous appetite or of the accumulation of food in the stom- ach from indigestion. Engorgement colic often arises when horses are fed full rations during a pe- riod of rest. The symptoms include ab- dominal pain, retching movements, hard breathing, upturned upper lip, contrac- tion of the flank and arching of the neck. Sometimes the horse may sit down like a dog or may show violent movements; in other instances he is stupid or dazed and leans against the stall. This form of colic should be treated by rectal in- jections of large quantities of water containing turpentine. If the pain is acute, it may be relieved by giving mor- phine in five-grain doses or Indian hemp in doses of two drams. Obstruction colic is a very common bowel trouble in horses which requires prompt treatment or the disease is fatal. It may be due to paralysis of the bowels or the accumulation of partly digested feed. The horse shows abdominal pain, paws and lies down flat on his side with head and legs extended. At quite fre- quent intervals he rises and walks about VISEASES OF ANIMALS 103 looking at his sides. The ahdomen is distended, but not with gas. In treat- ing this form of colic, large doses of a cathartic should be given, such as Bar- badoes aloes in one-ounce doses, calo- mel in doses of 2 drams or a pint of linseed oil; castor oil may also be given to the extent of 1 pint to 1 quart. Some veterinarians recommend Epsom or Glauber salts in doses of 1 pound. Enemas of turpentine (tablespoonful in a quart of water) are also beneficial. Flatulent colic, also called wind colic or bloat, is usually due to sudden changes of food, too long fasting or to the eating of excessive quantities of feed after exhaustion. The symptoms do not develop so rapidly as in spasmodic colic. The horse appears dull, paws somewhat and the pain seems to be continuous from the start. The abdomen swells and if the symptoms are not relieved, the breathing and heart beat are violent and rapid. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the accumulation of gas in the intestines. For this form of colic, charcoal may be given in large quanti- ties. Chloral hydrate may be adminis- tered as a drench in doses of 1 ounce in a pint of water. Spirits of ammonia may also be given in water in one-ounce doses. A cathartic should be used as soon as possible, preferably Barbadoes aloes, accompanied with rectal injec- tions of linseed oil or turpentine. Spasmodic colic, also called cramp colic, is the name commonly used for the form of colic caused by contraction of a part of the small intestines and is usu- ally due to excessive drinking of water or indigestible food. Cramp colic al- ways begins suddenly. The horse stops, stamps and looks back at his side. Pain is shown by pawing, lying down, rolling and getting up frequently. Each at- tack is followed by an interval of ease, during which the horse appears to be entirely well. Soon after, the pain re- turns with increased severity and the intervals between the later attacks are shorter. If the pain becomes very acute, the horse may plunge to such an ex- tent that he will seriously injure him- self if kept in an ordinary stall. It is commonly believed that high bred horses with a round barrel are particularly sub- ject to this disease. For the treatment of cramp colic, chloral hydrate may be used in one-ounce doses diluted in water, or a mixture of 2 ounces each of sul- phuric ether and laudanum in a half pint of linseed oil. If these materials are not at hand, whiskey or Jamaica gin- ger are useful. Blankets dipped in water containing a little turpentine and placed about the belly offer some relief. A cathartic of aloes or linseed oil may also be given with enemas of water con- taining turpentine. Worm colic — Horses are also subject to a number of intestinal parasites, in- cluding at least three kinds of tape worms, several small round worms and the common long round worm of the stomach. The intestinal worm most fre- quently seen is Ascaris equorum. They are white or reddish in color and vary from 4 to 12 inches in length. The symptoms of infestation with worms are not easily recognizable but the condition may be known from the presence of worms in the feces. In treat- ing this disease it should be remembered that remedies are more effective upon the worms if given after a long fast. If round worms are observed in the feces, it is well to give daily for three or four days a drench containing 1 ounce of creolin and 2 or 3 ounces of linseed oil, followed by 1 ounce of Barbadoes aloes on the fourth day. Jaundice i s caused by the absorption of the bile into the blood and may be recognized by the yellow tinge of the mucous membranes or even of the skin in white or light gray horses. The dis- ease occurs as a result of some liver trouble and may best be treated in most cases by the administration of calomel in two-dram doses followed by 7 drams of aloes. Peritonitis J s a serious inflammation of the membrane lining the body cavity. It is rarely seen as a primary disease but frequently occurs as a result of care- lessness in castration. Inattention to the castration wound may lead to in- fection which penetrates along the cords into the body cavity. This disease is usually ushered in with a chill, followed by high fever, stiffness and pawing or striking at the belly. The horse lies down carefully, walks uneasily about the stall and in the later stages of the dis- ease prefers to stand. The flanks are tucked up and the legs cold. The pulse is hard, wiry and rapid, ranging from 70 to 90 beats a minute. Treatment should consist in giving opium in the powdered form in doses of from 1 to 104 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 2 drams, followed by half-dram doses of calomel every two or three hours. Mustard poultices or other counter irri- tants may also be applied to the belly. Diabetes i s characterized by an ex- cessive secretion of a clear, watery urine, great thirst, loss of strength and rapid emaciation. The cause of the disease is to be sought in any drug or food which unduly stimulates the kidneys. Affected horses may live for months or may die of exhaustion within a short time. Treatment is not always successful by any means, but should properly con- sist of a change of diet, the use of wholesome food, boiled flaxseed in the drinking water and tonics like powdered gentian in doses of 4 drams and phos- phate of iron in two-dram doses. Saccharine diabetes is another form of the disease primarily due to an affec- tion of the liver rather than of the kid- neys. The chief symptom is the secretion of a large quantity of urine containing sugar. As is well known, the liver has the function of storing sugar in the form of glycogen, but may at times fail to perform this function, leaving large quantities of sugar in the blood which is excreted through the kid- neys. The excessive use of sugar or molasses in the ration may give rise temporarily to this form of diabetes. If the liver is not seriously affected the disease may best be treated by allowing the horse to run at pasture and by ad- ministering carbonate of potash in doses of ^4 ounce ; mix vomica in half -dram doses is also useful in improving the general health. Bloody urine is ordinarily caused by mechanical injuries or sprains in the region of the loins or by bladder stones. Certain plants also produce this effect, at least temporarily. Thus, in some cases bloody urine may be observed as the result of feeding pea straw to horses for long periods. In treating this dis- ease it is necessary to avoid all irritating substances in the food. Slippery elm or linseed tea may be added to the drink- ing water and in some cases cold water applied to the loins is beneficial. It is also well to give chloride of iron in three-dram doses. Azoturia, also called hemoglobinuria, is due to disease of the liver rather than that of the kidneys, but the characteris- tic symptoms are loss of control of the hind legs and the excretion of dark-col- ored, ropy urine of a reddish or brownish color. This disease is in most instances connected with the use of a highly nitrog- enous diet containing large quantities of beans, peas, cottonseed meal, oats, etc, especially when given to working horses during a period of idleness. Azoturia never appears among horses at pasture and rarely among working horses, except on holidays or days when they are allowed to rest without a cor- responding reduction of their ration. Azoturia may cause death within a few hours or days, or recovery may take place under the proper treatment. The dis- ease may be largely prevented by atten- tion to the diet, reducing the amount of protein and reducing the whole ration during periods of idleness. Treatment may consist in the use of laxatives, daily exercise and a one-ounce dose of saltpeter given each day. Bromide of potash in a four-dram dose sometimes yields encouraging results, as does also iodide of potash in half-ounce doses every four hours. Inflammation of the urinary organs — Horses are also subject to acute or chronic inflammation of the kidneys, tumors in the kidneys, parasites in these organs, inflammation and paralysis of the bladder and stricture of the urethra as well as urinary calculi. In cases where evidence appears of stones or gravel in the urinary organs, whether in the kidneys, ureter, bladder or urethra, the treatments ordinarily rec- ommended have not shown very encour- aging results. The continued use of carbonate of potash or muriatic acid in the drinking water may break down the stones formed in the urinary organs, but it is seldom that any method of treating this disease is perfectly satisfactory. DISEASES OE THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS The horse is subject to colds, catarrh, bronchitis, pneumonia and other simple inflammatory or more serious diseases of the respiratory organs, and these troubles are frequently due to badly ven- tilated stables, and exposure to cold rains or sudden changes of temperature. In a case of simple cold, no serious re- sults need be feared, provided the trouble is not unduly neglected. . It may be well to allow the horse to rest a few days and supply warm food and water in a stable where the temperature and pure air sup- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 105 ply may be easily regulated. Good re- sults are usually obtained also from giving bran mash or linseed gruel. If the horse is somewhat constipated this symptom may be relieved by the use of enemas of warm water and the animal may be made to inhale steam for fifteen to twenty minutes four or five times a day. If the discharge from the nose does not cease within a reasonable time, tonics may be administered. Chronic catarrh, or as it is sometimes called "nasal gleet," is essentially a chronic persistence of a cold and con- sists of an inflammation of the nasal membrane. Occasionally the same trouble is due to a fracture of a bone in the nose from blows, or to diseased teeth. This disease is not contagious but great precaution should be exercised to make sure the trouble is chronic catarrh and not glanders. In some cases of chronic catarrh the glands under the jaw are somewhat swollen but there are never ulcers with ragged edges in the nostrils, such as are seen in glanders. Attention should be given to the food and water and a tonic may be adminis- tered containing a mixture of 3 ounces reduced iron and 1 ounce powdered nux vomica. This material should be thor- oughly mixed and made into 16 powders, which are to be given twice a day for eight days. Minor respiratory difficulties — The horse is also subject to nasal polypus, bleeding from the nose, inflammation of the pharynx, sore throat and spasm of the larynx. These troubles, however, are not of sufficiently frequent occur- rence to merit a discussion in this con- nection. "Thick wind" and "roaring' 7 are terms applied to difficulty in breath- ing which is sometimes shown by horses. Thick wind may be due to the presence of nasal polypus, deformed bone, paraly- sis of one side of the nostril and other causes. In chronic roaring, a peculiar noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs. This trouble is due to paralysis of the muscles which move one of the cartilages of the larynx and us- ually is to be treated by surgical opera- tion. Similar troubles in breathing are referred to under the names of grunt- ing, high-blowing and whistling. Lung troubles—The lungs of the horse may be affected by congestion of a tem- porary sort or by pneumonia in the form frequently referred to as lung fever. Pneumonia is ushered in by chill, after which the breathing becomes rapid, the animal hangs its head and the tempera- ture rises. In cases of pneumonia the horse does not lie down but persists in standing during the whole course of the disease. In treating this trouble pure air is essential and it is better to have proper ventilation, even if the tempera- ture is cold, than to secure a higher tem- perature with foul air. If the legs be- come cold they may be warmed up by rubbing, and hot blankets may be applied to the chest at frequent intervals until the most violent stage of congestion is relieved. Since the heart is often very much weakened during the progress of pneumonia, great precaution should be used in giving aconite, since this is a powerful depressant. The diet should consist of a laxative food such as bran mash or green feed if in season. Stimu- lants are indicated in nearly all case3 of pneumonia. One that is commonly recommended consists in repeated doses of 6 ounces of whiskey. Horses may also be affected by inflam- mation followed by the formation of pus in the guttural pouches or by pleurisy, bronchitis, abscesses in the lungs, chronic cough, rupture of the diaphragm and thumps. Heaves [ 8 a disease so frequently re- ferred to that special mention of it may be made in connection with the diseases of the respiratory organs. The peculiar irregular movements of the flanks and abdomen seen in horses affected with heaves are familiar to all horse raisers. While heaves appears to be a disease of the respiratory organs, its cause is usu- ally sought in the use of improper food, particularly smutty or moldy clover or other leguminous forage plants. Heaves is also referred to under the names of broken wind or asthma. The trouble may be obscured by temporary treatment and this gives occasion to some decep- tion by horse dealers. The presence of the disease, however, may be readily shown by driving the horse rapidly up hill, when the peculiar symptoms of heaves will at once appear if the horse is affected with the disease. There is no complete cure for the disease if it has persisted for some time, but the more distressing symptoms may be relieved by giving attention to the diet. 106 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM While the diseases peculiar to the nervous system of the horse are not readily recognized by the average farmer and are not easily treated, it may be well to mention briefly some of the more important ones. The membrane of the brain may undergo an inflamma- tion, which gives rise to cerebritis or men- ingitis, as it is also called. This trouble is usually caused by exposure, extreme heat or cold, overfeeding with nitrogen- ous food or injury to the brain. The first symptoms are usually those of men- tal excitement and are followed by de- pression, muscular twi tellings and con- vulsive or spasmodic movements. In violent cases there is delirium and plunging. About the only treatment which can be applied in such cases is the use of ice packs upon the head and bleeding in case the heart action is very violent. Some benefit is also derived from the use of a cathartic, such as Barbadoes aloes, in doses of 7 drams. Congestion f the brain, also known as megrims, may be due to the influence of great heat, sudden excitement or arti- ficial stimulation. Tat horses with short necks are especially subject to this disease. The symptoms appear sud- denly. The animal stops, staggers and falls and the breathing is fast and noisy. In some cases loosening the col- lar gives immediate relief. The animal may be given a large dose of Glauber salts or some other purgative and bleed- ing from the jugular vein will give re- lief if the blood pressure is high. Sunstroke — In cases of this disease the animal suddenly stops, droops his head, staggers and falls to the ground unconscious. The breathing is noisy and the pulse slow and irregular. The temperature may rise to 107° or 109° F. In sunstroke no bleeding should ever be permitted. Ice or cold water may be applied to the head and spinal cord and whiskey in six-ounce doses given with half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia may be administered. Minor nervous diseases — Among the other nervous diseases to which the horse is subject, mention may be made of apoplexy, anemia of the brain, dropsy of the brain, nervous spasms affecting various parts of the body, epilepsy, paralysis, spinal congestion, nerve tu- mors, electric shock and chorea or St Vitus' dance. The last named trouble is characterized by involuntary muscu- lar contractions affecting different parts of the body. Stringhalt is sometimes considered as a form of chorea. In cases of stringhalt, one or both of the hind legs may be suddenly jerked up to a much greater height than is usual in walking. The disease rarely affects the front legs. The symptoms usually be- come more pronounced in old age. There is little success to be expected from treatment of this trouble. Occa- sionally some benefit is derived from giving iodide of iron in doses of 1 dram. DISEASES OF THE BLOOD SYSTEM Nearly all of the troubles which come under this head are difficult to recog- nize, except for the trained veterinarian, and are not easily treated. A number of inflammatory diseases of the heart are known, affecting the muscle proper, the external covering or the internal covering. The symptoms of inflamma- tion of the heart may include a chill, sudden increase in temperature and ir- regular heart sounds which may be noted by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the animal. The horse may also be affected with pericarditis, val- vular disease of the heart, palpitation, fainting, enlargement of the heart, fatty degeneration, arterial weakness, varicose veins and other similar troubles which closely resemble in their symp- toms the same diseases in man. Purpura hemorrhagica — This disease ordinarily occurs as a sequel to stran- gles, influenza or some other infectious and debilitating trouble. It may, how- ever, occur as a primary and independ- ent disease. Swellings suddenly ap- pear on various parts of the body, head, lips, legs, belly, etc. The swellings are not very painful to the touch, but may acquire large size. The nostrils may be- come so badly swollen as almost to be closed. In the mouth and nostrils dark red or purple spots may be seen and a blood-colored discharge may take place from the nose. This trouble is best treated by the use of sulphate of iron in one-dram doses every six hours or by giving carbonate of ammonia in one- dram doses, together with half an ounce of tincture of ginger and 2 drams of fluid extract of red cinchona bark. If colloidal silver can be obtained, this Diseases of animals lot remedy will give excellent results if ad- ministered in doses of 5 to 12 grains by intra-venous injections. LAMENESS On account of the unusual exposure to strains, the horse is subject to more forms of lameness than any other of our domestic animals. Lameness may be due to strains of the muscles, ligaments or the joint capsules in any part of the leg or shoulder and pelvic girdles. Splints are bony enlargements which occur between the hock and fetlock joints on the inside of the leg. They may vary greatly in size in different horses. Most frequently they appear on the fore leg. Splints often accompany lameness which is not a continuous trouble but becomes more pronounced after considerable exercise. Since splints are relatively harmless, it is not desirable to interfere by means of reme- dial measures unless they become an Fig. 55 — A FORM OF SLING FOR USE IN TREATING CERTAIN DISEASES Lameness, as ordinarily understood, means any irregularity of movement in the horse due to some disabling of the organs of locomotion. Ordina- rily it is a very difficult matter to detect the exact seat of lameness in a horse and the methods by which diag- nosis is made in different kinds of lame- ness cannot be described in this place. We may briefly mention a number of the common forms of lameness in horses, to- gether with notes on their treatment. actual cause of lameness. Tincture of iodine may be applied to the inflamed parts several times daily and if this method docs not give results, resort may be had to blistering by means of Span- ish fly. Splint is especially common in cities, where it is a rare thing to find a horse wheh does not show one or more. Ring-bones — This term is used to de- note an enlargement of the bone around the coronet. The bony ring may occupy 108 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK several positions with regard to its height from the hoof, giving rise to high, middle and low ring-bones. The disease may result from severe labor, bruises, sprains or injuries to the liga- ments. Apparently, also, ring-bone may be partly of a hereditary nature or at least the tendency seems to be inherited to develop ring-bone. This trouble is rather more serious than splints. It causes a defect which must lead to the rejection of a horse on account of un- soundness even if no actual lameness is present. Eing-bone may be largely pre- vented by the use of well balanced ra- tions and care in trimming the hoofs of young colts so that the foot is always properly balanced. Even after ring- bone has developed, it is sometimes pos- sible to cure it by proper shoeing so as to straighten the axis of the foot. In many cases relief or cure is obtained by the use of sharp blisters of cantharides and biniodide of mercury. The actual cautery is also employed in treating this disease. If none of these treatments bring the desired results, the trouble may be remedied by the operation known a3 neurectomy, which consists in sever- ing the plantar or median nerve. Bone spavin i s a bony outgrowth of the hock joint. Enlargement usually appears on the front and inner side of the joint, but may sometimes occur on the upper part of the hock. In certain cases there is no enlargement of the joint which may be detected by sight or touch. Such cases of spavin are due to partial union of the bones which con- stitute the joint. Bone spavin inter- feres in a serious manner with the usefulness of the affected horse. The lo- cation of the enlargement gives rise to the terms high, outside, or external spavin. Spavin as a rule is due to bruises or strains, particularly in vio- lent efforts put forth in jumping, trot- ting or galloping. After a spavin has become thoroughly established, the us- ual remedies are not very satisfactory. Horses should at once be turned out to pasture and allowed to rest for not less than one month. Some benefit may be expected, especially in the early stages of the disease, by the use of astringent liniments such as iodine or from freely cauterizing with a firing iron. Side bones — On either side of the coffin bone there is a cartilage which may in certain cases become hardened by deposits of mineral matters which may thus lead to lameness. Side bones are situated on one or both sides of the leg and bulge above the upper border of the hoof. They may be the result of in- flamed conditions, bruises, or may follow troubles like corns, quittor or quarter crack. The treatment usually recom- mended for side bones consists in the free use of cold foot baths and tincture of iodine applied to the swollen parts. Minor difficulties which cause lame- ness — In addition to these bone dis- eases which may cause lameness, the horse is also subject to fractures of bones in various parts of the body, the symp- toms and conditions naturally varying with the part affected. Lameness may also be caused by various troubles lo- cated in or around the joints. For ex- ample, wind gall is a name given to the enlargement of the joint sack at the back part of the fetlock joint. They Fig. 56 — QUARTER CRACK TREATED BY CLAMPING WITH NAILS appear in the form of soft tumors of varying size and are caused by strains, jumping or bruises. Sometimes the trouble may be checked by the long con- tinued application of cold water. Pres- sure bandages may also be used and liniments and blisters applied. The bog spavin, blood spavin and thoroughpin are sometimes confused. Blood spavin is located in front and on the inside of the hock and is merely a varicose condition of the vein. Bog spavin is a round, smooth tumor in front and on the inside of the hock. Under pressure it disappears and re- appears on the outside and back of the hock. Thoroughpin is found at the back and top of the hock. The treatment DISEASES OF ANIMALS 109 recommended by Liautard consists in deep and thorough cauterization. Lame- ness may also be caused by broken knees, inflammation of the joints and dislocations, 'straining of the shoulder known as sweeny, muscular strains, sprains of the suspensory ligament and by conditions which give rise to knuck- ling of the fetlock, sprung knees, curb, capped elbow, capped knee or capped hock. Among the various troubles located in the foot, ankle and fetlock of the horse, mention may be made of several with a brief description of a few of the more important ones. Thus, the foot may show a faulty conformation known as flat foot, club foot or crooked foot. The horse may interfere or strike one foot against the opposite leg as the re- sult of faulty conformation of the foot. Again, a partial dislocation of the fet- lock joint may lead to knuckling or cocked ankles. Wounds and more or less serious injuries may be produced by overreaching, especially in trotting and running horses, or from calk wounds on either the fore or hind feet. Occa- sionally, also, the feet become injured by frost bite. Quittor is a term applied to a degen- eration of certain tissues of the foot, followed by the formation of pus. The disease is due to bruises or wounds of the coronet or other parts of the foot. Quittor causes more or less se- rious lameness. It may be treated most successfully by a surgical operation, removal of all of the degenerated mate- rial, as well as pus, and treating the parts in a thoroughly antiseptic man- ner. Corns — Much trouble is sometimes experienced from corns which consist in injury to the horn of the foot involv- ing the soft tissues beneath. Pus may form and the foot may become exceed- ingly sensitive. As a rule, heavy horses working on rough streets are most lia- ble to this disease. Mules rarely have corns and this seems to indicate that the mule's foot is best adapted to receiv- ing bruises upon the hard pavement without endangering the tissues under- neath the horn of the foot. The trouble may sometimes be remedied merely by removing the shoes and turning the horse to pasture. If pus is formed, however, it is necessary to open the cavity and cleanse the affected part. The feet are also sub- ject to sand cracks, quarter cracks, con- tracted heels and founder or lammitis. The last named disease is a general in- flammation of the sensitive tissue of the foot and may be due to bruises, wounds or direct injury to the hoof, or may re- sult as a sequel to some infectious dis- ease. It may affect all of the feet, or one or more, and may assume an acute or chronic form. The treatment varies in different cases according to the nature of the trouble. In some cases surgical interference must be resorted to, but if the early stages of the disease are no- ticed, cold foot baths and antiseptics applied to the foot are sometimes suffi- cient to correct the trouble. DISEASES OF THE SKIN . Eczem a is often the result of indiges- tion and may be best treated by the use of large doses of laxatives, followed by a daily dose of 20 grains nux vomica and V2 ounce gentian root. A sim- ilar treatment may be adopted in the case of nettle rash and scaly skin dis- ease. _ In the case of herpes, which oc- curs in the form of skin eruptions in circular areas, zinc ointment usually gives satisfactory results. Grease or canker is a specific disease of the heels of horses and is commonly due to a par- asitic fungus. In treating this trouble it is necessary to cleanse the parts thor- oughly and protect them against mud and filth by the application of bandages. The affected parts may be dressed with a mixture containing 1 ounce vaseline, 2 drams zinc oxide and 20 drops iodized phenol. The skin of the horse is also subject to erysipelas, horse pox, the growth of warts, ringworm and mange. The symptoms of mange are incessant itching and rubbing. The treatment of this disease should consist in the re- moval of the scabs by means of soapsuds anda thorough application of some in- secticide, preferably mixtures similar to the dips used for sheep scab. Ordina- rily the trouble may be prevented by a thorough application of a decoction of V-/2 ounces tobacco in 2 pints of water. Fistula i s a term used to designate pipes or tubes leading from cavities in the muscles to the surface of the body, through which a constant discharge takes place. These tubes are usually lined by a false membrane and do not heal. Fistula may occur on any part of the body but is most common on the withers or poll. In the latter situation 110 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK fistula is known as poll evil. Both fis- tulous withers and poll evil are due to blows or rubbing from improperly fit- ting saddle or harness. The muscles at these points are so arranged that any pus which forms at the highest point of the muscle has a tendency to burrow more deeply rather than to make its way to the surface, the result being a run- ning sore in every case. If this trouble is noticed in the early stages, it may be successfully treated by removing the whole false membrane with a knife. In long standing cases, however, it is best to make an opening to the outside at a point slightly lower than the bottom of the pocket which contains the pus. This operation establishes a free drain- age to the outside, and the opening may be prevented from healing too soon by tying a string through the wound. The healing process may then be brought about gradually by repeated washing of the cavity with strong, antiseptic solu- tions such as blue vitriol, corrosive sub- limate or carbolic acid. Before making the opening to the outside, it is some- times desirable to place a stick of lunar caustic or a small quantity of blue vit- riol in the upper natural opening of the fistula in order to destroy the false mem- brane. Wounds — Too little attention is given to the treatment of wounds in farm ani- mals, particularly in horses and mules. It should be remembered that various diseases, especially lockjaw, may be con- tracted through fresh wounds and there is always some danger of blood poison- ing. Moreover, even shallow wounds may become exceedingly sore and cause a great amount of pain and worry to the horse. Where cut surfaces are kept per- fectly clean, the wound heals without the formation of pus. Under ordinary circumstances, however, this is impossi- ble with farm animals. Nevertheless, whenever an animal receives a wound, an effort should be made to treat it so as to at least prevent the development of dangerous bacteria. For this purpose corrosive sublimate may be used at the rate of one part in a thousand parts of water; or a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid, a 2 per cent solution of lysol, formalin or creolin. If the wound is so situated that it cannot be con- veniently bandaged, it may be well to keep the surface covered with iodoform or some other dry antiseptic. Attention should also be given to wounds to pre- vent flies from depositing their eggs in such places. Big head, also called osteroporsis, is a disease in which the bones become less hard and compact by reason of an in- crease of the spaces filled with marrow and soft tissues. The enlargement of the head is ordinarily the most conspic- uous symptom and usually a weakness of the back is noticed and a gradual change in the ribs so that the horse becomes flat sided. Lameness appears suddenly and accompanies all the other processes of the disease.- Horses, mules and perhaps other animals are subject to this trouble. Animals over eight years of age are less susceptible than younger horses. One attack of the dis- ease does not confer immunity and it is probable that an animal never re- covers entirely from the disease. In some localities this disease appears to be partly due to malnutrition and may be corrected to some extent by rest and the use of lime and other mineral mat- ters in the drinking water or feed. Fig. 57 HORSE BOTS IN STOMACH Parasitic troubles — Horses are at- tacked by a number of insects and para- sitic worms, but particular mention may be made in this place of two insects which cause more or less trouble and are very frequently brought to the at- tention of horse owners. The botfly, in the adult stage, is about % of an inch long, with transparent wings, bear- ing dark spots. The bot is hairy, the head brown, with a white front, and the DISEASES OF ANIMALS 111 body brown with three rows of black spots. Prom June to October the flies lay their eggs on the hair of the horse in a position where the animal can reach them by bitii.g or licking. The eggs are thus taken into the stomach, where the young maggotc hatch and attach them- selves to the walls of the stomach. Here they remain until they become full grown, when they loosen themselves and pass out of the feces. Some experi- Fig. 58 — NORMAL PRESENTATION OP COLT ments indicate that bi-sulphide of car- bon administered in small doses in cap- sules has a beneficial effect ir expelling bots, but as a rule the administration of drugs to destroy or expel these parasites is quite unnecessary. Horses should he thoroughly groomed in order to remove or destroy the eggs and prevent their en- tering the stomach. The screw worm fly is somewhat larger than the common house fly, but resembles the latter in general appear- ance. The color is a metallic green, Fig. 59 — another normal presentation OF COLT with three black stripes on the back. The eggs of the screw worm fly are laid in wounds or natural openings of animals, or of man, and the grubs, after hatching, bore into the flesh, making deeper wounds. Infested animals, if untreated, may die of blood poisoning. Tar, grease or fish oil on wounds will sometimes as- sist in keeping the flies away. If wounds become infested, it is necessary to re- move the maggots and treat the surface with a solution of corrosive sublimate or crude carbolic acid. DISEASES OF MULES As already indicated in the discussion of mule raising, these animals are sub- ject to the same diseases which affect horses. Glanders is a very fatal dis- ease of mules and spreads rapidly among them. They are also subject to colic, anthrax, surra, mange and various other troubles. Corns are not as often ob- served in mules as in horses for the rea- son that the feet have a form which better protects them against bruises than is the case with horses. Likewise, poll evil is less common in mules than in horses on account of the fact that they seldom throw up the head so as to bruise it. The diseases to which mules are susceptible may be treated in the same way as with horses. DISEASES OF CATTLE The diseases to which cattle are sub- ject are in some respects of more im- mediate concern to man than those of any other of our farm animals. This is particularly true for the reason that man is not only closely associated with cattle, coming in physical contact with them nearly every day, but also for the reason that Ave use the meat and milk as standard articles of food. The meat may not only be infected with certain bacterial and animal parasites, but may also undergo changes as a direct result of bacterial infection, leading to more or less serious trouble in man. Moreover, milk is one of the very best media in which bacteria can multiply rapidly; it also carries bacteria in some cases di- rectly from the cow. Thus, the milk of tuberculous cows, or those suffering from foot and mouth disease, is a dan- gerous article of food. As already in- dicated, any bacteria which may gain entrance to the milk after its removal from the cow may also multiply and render the milk dangerous for human consumption. Sanitary officers are therefore under heavy obligation to pro- tect man against the use of infected food products from cattle. Tuberculosis — Among the various dis- eases which afflict farm animals, there is none of such transcendent importance as tuberculosis, either from the stand- point of the losses which it causes to 112 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK i animal industry, or from that of danger to human health. This disease has been known since the dawn of history as one jof the plagues of man and animals. More time has been devoted, especially in recent years, to the study of tuber- culosis than to any other animal dis- ease. This is partly due to the fact that tuberculosis may attack all of the do- mestic animals and various wild species of animals, as well as man, and it is therefore of more general concern to the human race than the diseases which affect only the lower animals. Conflicting opinions — The subject of tuberculosis has been brought prom- inently before the attention of the whole of controversy between Koch and his disciples on the one side and the oppo- site school on the other side; and also with all other matters relating to the nature and prevention of the disease. Tuberculosis, also known as consump- tion, phthisis, pearl disease, tubercular- pneumonia, tubercular-garget tubercu- lar-meningitis, and by various other names, is, as already stated, one of the oldest diseases of which there is defi- nite record in literature. There is per- haps no subject in the whole field of human or veterinary medicine which has occasioned more extensive or more bitter controversy than this disease. Not only has the existence of the tuber- 60 — ADVANCED CASE OF TUBERCULOSIS, N. M. EXPERIMENT STATION reading public not only on account of the great prevalence of the disease, but also on account of the wide difference of opinion which prevails regarding its nature and infectiousness. The con- troversy concerning tuberculosis as- sumed a particularly acute stage after the announcement of Dr. Koch, at the British Congress on Tuberculosis in 1901, to the effect that bovine and human tuberculosis are two distinct dis- eases, not capable of intertransmission between man and animals. Since that time, the already large mass of litera- ture on tuberculosis has been increased by the appearance of thousands of arti- cles dealing with the immediate points cle bacillus been called in question, but even the existence of the disease itself has been ridiculed at times and consid- ered as chiefly imaginary. On the other hand, the extent and dangers of the dis- ease have, by some writers, been so exag- gerated and distorted as to make it ap- pear strange that any animal or man escapes infection. Points to be decided — The most im- portant questions in the mind of practi- cal farmers regarding tuberculosis may be stated as follows: Is the disease a specific affection? Are there several distinct forms of tuberculosis; for ex- ample, one in cattle, one in man, one in birds and one in cold blooded animals, or DISEASES OF ANIMALS 113 are all forms of tuberculosis which oc- cur in domestic animals and man mere variations of one and the same disease, which may be transmitted from animals to man and from man to animals? If transmission between man and animals is possible, to what extent does this oc- cur? Is the consumption of milk and meat of tuberculous animals dangerous? What is the practical value and relia- bility of the tuberculin test and what are the best methods for adoption on a large scale to control or eradicate the disease ? Opinions favor contagion — Summa- rizing the almost innumerable articles on tuberculosis, it may be stated that, as the result of extensive and careful studies and experiments by a large num- ber of trained investigators, it is cer- tain that tuberculosis is a contagions disease, due to the presence of the tuber- cle bacillus and that the disease attacks a greater number of animals than any other disease. The tubercle bacillus may be isolated from diseased tissues, stud- ied in pure cultures and used for inoc- ulation of laboratory animals or ordi- nary farm animals, in which the disease is invariably produced as the result of inoculation. The tubercle bacillus is also present in actively developing tuber- cles in animals affected with the disease. Dispute as to wholesomeness op meat and milk — Kef erring next to the disputed point regarding the unity or plurality of the disease, it should be said that Koch and his disciples still maintain that the bovine and the human forms of the bacillus are distinct and that human tuberculosis is rarely trans- mitted to cattle. The Koch school also maintains that bovine tuberculosis is so different from the human form that there is practically no danger in eating the meat of tuberculous cattle and little or no danger in drinking the milk of tuberculous cows. At the otber extreme we have Von Behring and Lis disciples, who assert that human tuberculosis is in most instances acquired from cattle, usually by drinking the milk of tubercu- lous cows at an early age. It is main- tained that children thus infected may not develop apparent symptoms of the disease until they reach an adult age. Between these two extremes we have various gradations of opinion. The matter is fortunately not left in such an unsatisfactory state as would be in- dicated by these extreme positions. Hundreds of the most careful experi- ments have shown beyond question that tubercle bacilli obtained from man may produce the disease when inoculated into cattle. There is also a mass of circum- stantial evidence sufficient to convince the ordinary individual that the milk of tuberculous cows is dangerous and capable of infecting children or even adults. The tubercle bacilli may be found in such milk and the milk of tuberculous cows produces the disease in animals after inoculation, and also in pigs and calves when they are al- lowed to drink it. According to recent experiments, however, it appears that under ordinary circumstances both ani- mals and man become infected, in a majority of cases, by taking the tuber- cle bacilli into the alimentary tract in the food, rather than by taking bacilli into the lungs with the inspired air. 114 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Two forms of disease — Quite re- cently the announcement has been made from several sources that there are two forms of tuberculosis, both of which may attack man. Much evidence has been presented to show that the two forms of the disease may coexist in the human patient or in one of the domes- tic animals. Dr. Raw and others have come to the conclusion that tbe ordinary form of pulmonary tuberculosis affects primarily the lungs and is due to human tubercle bacilli; while the intestinal form of tuberculosis is largely due to bovine tubercle bacilli, whether it oc- curs in man or animals. Essentially the same results have been obtained by the German Imperial Health Office, Theobald Smith and other investiga- organs the disease is characterized by the development of tubercles varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a hen's egg or greater. The contents of these tubercles ultimately change into a cheesy or calcareous mass and such tubercles may be found in the lungs, liver, spleen and intestines. As soon as a case appears which is recognizable by external symptoms, it is desirable to apply the tuberculin test to the whole herd for the purpose of ascertaining whether the disease has spread to other animals. Prevention of the disease — This brings up the most important side of the question, namely, that of preventing the disease. In the work of eradication, tuberculin is a very valuable reagent. 62 — BEEF, TUBERCULOUS RIB ROAST. MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT STATION tors. It appears, therefore, that the human and bovine tubercle bacilli differ in many respects, the bovine form be- ing more virulent than the human form and showing a greater tendency to pro- duce infection of the intestines and lymphatic glands. The symptoms of the disease in cat- tle are often very difficult to recognize in the early stages. The first noticeable symptom of a chronic case is a dry cough. The condition of the animal slowly deteriorates and there is a loss of flesh, accompanied wi + h an unhealthy appearance of the coat. The disease affects nearly all of the organs and tis- sues of the body, but in individual cases may be confined to one organ or a set of neighboring organs. In the internal This substance contains the toxin or poisonous principle of the tubercle ba- cillus but none of the living bacilli. It cannot, therefore, cause the disease in living animals. When inoculated into healthy cattle it produces no reaction of any note. In tuberculous cattle, how- ever, it causes an elevation of tempera- ture of one to three degrees, together with swelling at the point of inocula- tion. In making the tuberculin test the temperature of the animal should be taken at intervals of about two hours, for four or five times in order to de- termine the average normal temperature of each animal. After inoculation with tuberculin, the temperature is again taken at intervals of two hours or less and if an elevation of two degrees is DISEASES OF ANIMALS 115 noted, it may be taken for granted that the animal is tuberculous. The great value of tuberculin, therefore, lies in the fact that it enables us to recognize tuberculosis in animals before any ex- ternal symptoms appear. One of the surprising facts in con- nection with tuberculosis is that an ani- mal may be affected for a year or two without losing weight and without showing any visible signs of the disease. During this time, however, it may spread tuberculosis throughout the herd. Eradication of the disease — The sys- tem recommended by Bang, of Den- mark, for the eradication of tuberculo- sis, consists in applying the tuberculin test to all cattle in the herd, separating those which react from those which do not react and preventing the two herds from subsequently coming in contact. The milk of reacting cows is sterilized before using as food for calves or man. In this way tuberculous cows may be used for breeding purposes for a num- ber of years and the loss to the farmer is much less than would be the case if he slaughtered all reacting eattle at once. In localities where the percentage of tuberculosis is high, Ostertag recom- mends modification of this system, ac- cording to which the reacting and non- reacting animals are not separated, since this involves so much extra work. The tuberculin test is applied frequently and the milk of all reacting cows is steril- ized before being used. In this way the calves are prevented from becoming infected. During the past five or six years, de Schweinitz, Von Behring, Pearson, Arloing and others have worked out a system of preventive vaccination against tuberculosis. This scheme consists in using tubercle bacilli of low virulence, preferably obtained from man, for the purpose of inoculating young, healthy calves. As a result of this inocula- tion a mild form of the disease is pro- duced; the calves may cough for a few weeks and show some loss of flesh ; later they recover and are thereafter immune to tuberculosis. This method has al- ready been tried on more than 10,000 young cattle, with quite satisfactory re- sults, and appears to be gaining ground wherever it has been tried. Sanitation a preventive — Cattle kept under sanitary conditions are less liable to become infected than those which are maintained almost continu- ally in filthy barns without proper light or ventilation. Under range conditions, where cattle are outdoors nearly all of the time, tuberculosis is almost un- known. In herds kept under unsatis- factory conditions, however, the disease may affect from 50 to 95 per cent of the herd. The extent of infection in the United States cannot be stated with any certainty but probably ranges from 20 to 30 per cent, while in Europe it is considerably higher Milk is UNWHOLEfOME — With regard to the milk of tuberculous cows, it has been shown beyond question that, in a majority of cases, the milk does not contain tubercle bacilli. They may be present, however, at any moment and such milk cannot, therefore, be con- sidered as safe under any conditions ex- cept after sterilization or some other treatment. Recently Von Behring has recommended that the milk of tubercu- lous cows be treated with formalin to the extent of 1 part in 20,000 to 40,000 parts. It is argued that in this way the tubercle bacilli arc killed with- out destroying the vaccinating property of such milk. It may be possible that the continued use of tuberculous milk treated with formalin may ultimately produce some immunity in man. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia [ s a specific disease affecting cattle, but nut other^ animals, and is characterized by an inflammation of the lungs and pleura, leading to death in the vast ma- jority of cases and spreading rapidly among all exposed cattle. Fortunately, this disease does not exist at present in the United States, and it is hoped that it will never occur again. At one time it prevailed extensively, but it was erad- icated by the efforts of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and no case has been known in the United States since 1S92. Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, is an infectious disease attack- ing chiefly the digestive organs. It is not known in the United States, but has prevailed to an alarming extent in the Philippines. The micro-organism of this disease has not been isolated, but the virus may be transmitted from one animal to another, either directly or indirectly. The symptoms are high fever, repeated chills, rapid pulse, great debility, drooping of the ears, rapid fall- 116 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ing off in the milk yield, reddening of the mucous membranes, persistent diar- rhea and coughing. After death in- flamed patches and ulcers are found in the digestive organs. No satisfactory treatment for this disease is known, hut a preventive inoculation has been used with fine results. This may be effected by means of pure bile from an animal which has recovered, by the use of bile followed by virulent blood, or by the simultaneous inoculation of serum and virulent blood. Foot and mouth disease, also known as aphthous fever, occurs throughout Europe and other foreign countries. Strict quarantine measures, however, prevented the introduction of the dis- ease into this country until 1903, when a serious outbreak occurred in New England. The Bureau of Animal In- dustry, in connection with state veter- inary authorities, at once began the campaign of quarantine and eradica- tion and carried it out with complete success. The method consisted in kill- ing and burying or burning all diseased animals, for which an indemnity was paid to the owners. Foot and mouth disease is highly infectious, the virus being found in eruptions, on the mouth and on the feet, as well as in the milk. It is most prevalent in cattle and hogs, jz££2££LJ£L&. Fig. 63 INCREASED SALIVATION IN FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE but also affects goats, sheep and more rarely other farm animals, as well as man. The chief symptoms are high fever, loss of appetite, slobbering, erup- tion of yellowish blisters in the mouth and on the tongue .and lips as well as on the feet and udder. The blisters burst and a stringy discharge takes place. Ordinarily, cattle recover within 10 to 20 days, unless complications occur. The milk of affected cows is very dangerous for children or for calves and pigs. On account of the rapid- ity with which the disease spreads, it is best to destroy all affected animals at once. A method of preventive vaccina- tion has been devised, but the immunity thus produced is of short duration. Certain Italian investigators claim to have had good results from intravenous injections of corrosive sublimate, but this needs confirmation. Fig. 64 FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AFFECTING THE UDDER Hemorrhagic septicemia i s a highly fatal and infectious disease, due to the presence of a specific micro-organism. The disease occurs in various foreign countries aud prevails to some extent in certain parts of the United States. It is often confused with corn stalk dis- ease or anthrax. In the cutaneous form of the disease, the tongue, throat, dew- lap and lower part of the legs swell, the appetite is lost and the milk secretion stops. There is a high temperature and difficulty in swallowing. The discharge from the nostrils may be bloody. In the pulmonary form of the disease the symptoms are those of croupous pneu- monia and bloody urine is observed, to- gether with diarrhea. After death red spots are observed underneath the skin and in various internal organs. There is no satisfactory treatment for the dis- ease and the only thing to be recom- mended at present is the immediate destruction and burying of affected ani- mals, DISEASES OF ANIMALS 117 Rabies occurs in cattle as well as in other domestic animals, being due usu- ally to the bite of a rabid dog. (See under Diseases of Dogs.) Cowpox, also known as variola, is an infectious disease of cattle characterized by fever, falling off in the milk yield and the appearance of pustules on the teats and udder. The disease ordinarily runs a harmless course and is quite prev- alent, especially in the eastern states. It is not transmitted, except by contact. A similar disease affects horses and sheep. As should be well known, the virus obtained from the pustules of cow- pox is used in vaccinating man against smallpox. This virus produces a mild form of the disease, from which man recovers in a few weeks and is then immune to smallpox. If it becomes nec- essary to treat the teats and udders of cows, good results may be obtained from the use of some antiseptic wash or oint- ment such as carbolized vaseline or iodo- form ointment. Actinomycosis, also called lumpy jaw, big jaw and wooden tongue is an infec- tious disease due to the ray fungus. This fungus causes local tumors in the bones and other tissues. The disease is com- mon in cattle, but affects also the pig, sheep, horse, deer and man. The pres- ence of the fungus may be detected by the naked eye in the form of minute yellow spots. The most common loca- tion of the disease in cattle is in the bones of the upper and lower jaw, the salivary glands and the throat. Tumors may also be found on the tongue, and the disease is occasionally observed in the lungs and intestines, where it may sometimes be mistaken for tuberculosis. Big jaw is apparently contracted in minute skin wounds or through dis- eased and decaying teeth. The fact that most cases appear in the head indicates an infection through the teeth or mu- cous membrane of the mouth. The first treatment adopted for this disease was the removal of the tumors and cauteriz- ing with hot irons or chemicals. Sub- sequently, it was found that iodide of potash in eight to twelve-gram doses re- peated daily for five or six days and again for a similar period after an interval of two or three days gives com- plete success. The drug should be ad- ministered in water in the form of a drench. It is quite uncertain whether this disease is directly communicated to man in eating the meat of cattle affected with lumpy jaw. Where the head alone is affected the meat is not condemned. A generalized case of lumpy jaw, how- ever, is sufficient to cause condemna- tion. Anthrax j s m0 st common in cattle and sheep, but also affects other domes- tic animals and may be transmitted to man. (See under Diseases of the Horse.) Blackleg, also known as quarter-ill, black quarter, symptomatic anthrax and charbon in the southern states, is a highly infectious disease of young cat- tle _ characterized by external swellings which give forth a crackling sound when stroked. Cattle are most susceptible be- tween the ages of six months and two years. The disease also affects sheep and goats, but other domestic animals, as well as man are immune. Blackleg ordinarily runs a rapid and fatal course. The dry spores of the blackleg bacillus may be carried in hay or other feed and may thus affect cattle, but the bacillus ordinarily gains entrance to the body through wounds in the skin, mouth tongue or throat. Affected animals rap- idly lose weight, become dull and show a high fever. A stiffness or lameness of the legs takes place as the result of muscular swellings and death occurs in one and a half days after the appear- ance of the first symptoms. Blackleg may be readily distinguished from anthrax by the presence of crackling tumors, which contain gas. In anthrax the spleen is greatly enlarged and the blood does not clot readily, while in backleg the spleen is not affected and the blood clots within the usual time. Treatment for blackleg is not to be rec- ommended, since it is of little avail. Excellent results, however, have at- tended the use of vaccination in pre- venting the development of this disease. Vaccine for this purpose is produced by the Bureau of Animal Industry and has been distributed to the extent of several million doses. The reports received from different parts of the country indicate it as a practical and efficient means of controlling the disease. Throughout the blackleg areas in this country the amount of infection is usually from 10 to 20 per cent with death in almost all cases. After the use of blackleg vac- cine, however, the loss from this disease is reduced to less than 1 per cent, 118 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Calf diphtheria — This disease is also known as necrotic inflammation of the mouth and occurs in young cattle, caus- ing ulcers and canker patches in the mouth. The disease is due to the necro- sis bacillus. Ordinarily it is local, af- fecting only the mouth and pharynx, but in serious cases there is considerable fever, a dribbling of saliva and loss of appetite. Occasionally the nostrils are affected. Diseased animals should be separated from the rest of the herd at once and the mouth should be washed with a 2 per cent solution of creolhi or a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Malignant catarrh i s a n infectious disease of the respiratory and digestive a 2 per cent solution of creolin or a 2 to 4 per cent solution of lysol as a mouth wash, in the early stages. Malignant edema i s a form of gan- grenous speticemia which affects nearly all domestic animals, as well as man. The hind legs are dragged forward in a stiff manner and trembling appears in various muscles. A high fever accom- panies the disease, together with swel- lings at the point of infection, which crackle on pressure. The disease may be distinguished from blackleg, however, by the fact that it appears in isolated cases and never as an epizootic. The best treatment is surgical, consisting in an opening of the swellings and an Pig. 05 — CASE OF TEXAS FEVER organs and fortunately is not common in the United States, except occasion- ally in Minnesota, New York and New Jersey. The disease is ushered in with a chill, followed by fever, drooping of the head and quivering of the muscles in various parts of the body. The eye- lids become inflamed and discharge quite freely. The mucous membrane of the mouth, nose and throat, as well as the other respiratory passages, is also af- fected, and often, also, the intestines. The mortality from this disease ranges from 50 to 90 per cent. There is no satisfactory treatment, but some bene- fit may be derived from the use of application of a 30 per cent solution of peroxide of hydrogen. Texas fever, also known as southern cattle fever, splenetic fever, red water, etc, is a disease of the blood due to a blood parasite which destroys the red corpuscles and which is carried from one animal to another by means of the cattle tick. This disease occurs every- where in the United States south of the quarantine line, which runs an irregu- lar course from Virginia to California. The disease also occurs in South Amer- ica, Europe, South Africa and else- where. In the English colonies it is DISEASES OF ANIMALS 119 commonly known as red water, on ac- count of the excretion of bloody urine due to the destruction of the blood cor- puscles. Texas fever was first men- tioned in this country in 1S14 and grad- ually attracted so much attention that the Bureau of Animal Industry finally took up the study of the disease, prov- ing for the first time that it could be transmitted only by means of the cattle tick. It was soon found that south- ern cattle are immune for the reason that they become infested with ticks in early life, developing a mild form of the disease. A fever develops and the animal becomes depressed and loses ap- petite. Constipation is often observed, followed by diarrhea. The red blood corpuscles become dissolved to such an extent that the coloring matter of the blood appears in the urine during the later stages. The first symptoms usu- ally appear within nine to 14 days and the disease is ordinarily fatal. The Bureau of Animal Industry and a num- ber of agricultural experiment stations have perfected a means of producing immunity by inoculating northern cat- tle with the blood of recovered southern cattle. For this purpose a small quan- tity of defibrinated blood is used, and after a period of eight or nine days an inoculation fever appears, which persists for seven or eight days, with an average temperature of 104° F; after another Fig. 66 TEXAS FEVER QUARANTINE LINE period of 25 to 30 days, a second fever period may appear for about a week. Occasionally a third attack of fever oc- curs. In 95 per cent of cases the results are quite satisfactory in that treated animals become perfectly immune. It is best, however, to let them become in- fested with ticks slowly after they are shipped South. If tick-free pastures can be found in the South, it is still better \to ship the animals before inoculation. It has also been found possible to vac- cinate cattle with blood obtained from engorged ticks taken from southern cat- tle. The ticks may thus be used as a vehicle in which to ship the blood long distances. Evers has had some success in inject- ing hemoglobin into diseased cattle and this treatment is based on the fact that the hemoglobin, or red coloring matter of the blood, is destroyed by the Texas fever parasite and its replacement by artificial means helps to tide the ani- mals over the acute stage of the disease. Fig. 67 CATTLE TICKS FEMALE MALE Preventive measures — While the in- oculation method is perfectly successful in the vast majority of cases, it suffers from certain disadvantages. It requires for its successful operation the perpetu- ation of the disease in the southern states. Since it is *Certain that Texas fever depends entirely upon the cattle tick for its continuance, much attention has been given lately to the problem of eradicating the tick, and striking re- sults have been obtained by Butler, Morgan and others along this line. But- ler has successfully eradicated the tick from ten counties of North Carolina and has placed these counties above the quarantine line. Similar results have been obtained in Tennessee, Louisiana and elsewhere. The method of extermi- nation is based on a system of rotation of pastures and starvation of the ticks. The ticks cannot live more than a year without some animal blood as suste- nance. For this reason a rotation of pastures, with cultivation of the old pastures, will gradually destroy the ticks. In North Carolina it has been found that this can be done at an ex- pense of not more than $6.00 per farm. The method appears to be so possible of general application that an appropria- tion has recently been made to enable 120 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the Bureau of Animal Industry to take up this work in co-operation with state authorities. The cattle tick is reddish and flat- tened. When gorged with blood the ticks are nearly as deep as wide. Other spe- cies of ticks are not concerned in trans- mitting Texas fever in this country. The ticks appear on cattle about the first of June. When mature they drop to the ground and deposit their eggs, which hatch in about 25 days, after which the young ticks attach themselves to grass and weeds from which location they infest cattle. Aside from the fact that ticks carry Texas fever, their pres- Mycotic stomatitis j s a disease of the mouth and feet of cattle and has ap- peared in the summer and fall in cer- tain sections of the country duriug the last five years. It has caused much alarm in some localities on account of its resemblance to foot and mouth dis- ease. It is noninfectious and is due to eating moldy food. The symptoms are loss of appetite, dribbling of the saliva and inability to eat. Sores appear in the mouth and occasionally on the feet and teats. It is not a serious disease and should be treated with antiseptic washes such as a 2 per cent solution of creolin or carbolic acid. Fig. 68 — CATTLE TICKS. EXCESSIVE INFESTATION OF SKIN ence on cattle in large numbers causes anemia, loss of weight, stunting and, in serious cases, death. Badly infested cows, according to Mayer, do not breed until three or four years of age and steers fail by two hundred pounds of reaching their normal size. Nagana i s an infectious blood disease attacking cattle and horses and probably transmitted only by the bite of the tsetse fly. According to most authori- ties it does not occur in any of our pos- sessions, but Musgrave and Clegg claim it is identical with surra; this is based on their investigations in the Philip- pine Islands. ANIMAL PARASITES Cattle are subject to infestation with flukes, bladder worms, tapeworms, round worms, mites, ticks and insects. Most of the external parasites may be destroyed by dipping. The internal par- asites, especially stomach worms, are to be treated with drenches of a 1 per cent solution of creosote or gasoline, as recommended for lambs. There is no satisfactory treatment of liver flukes. In Missouri and certain other central states, cattle are sometimes infested with a parasitic worm similar to that which causes nodule disease of sheep and known as Oesophagostomum inflatum. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 121 This and other intestinal parasites are best prevented by a frequent change of pasture and by avoiding the use of wet, improperly drained pastures. Warble flies appear from June to September and lay their eggs on the skin, from which they are licked off by the cattle and the grubs on hatching bore through the tissues of the body, finally appearing under the skin. Upon reaching full size, the grub emerges from the skin and falls to the ground. The chief injury from warble flies is done to the hides and this loss is consider- able. In preventing the attacks of the insect, the backs of cattle may be treated with kerosene, train oil or fish oil. The grubs may also be squeezed out and de- killed by spraying with kerosene emul- sion and this remedy has, in a number of localities, given the best results. Buffalo gnat (Simulium pecuarum) occurs most abundantly along the lower Mississippi valley, where it breeds in stagnant water and sometimes appears in enormous numbers, driving cattle away from their grazing ground. A plague of flies usually lasts for five or six weeks. Smudges have proved the best method of protecting animals in the field against the Buffalo gnat. Mange or scabies i s a disease of cat- tle due to a mite closely related to that which causes sheep scab. The disease is gonerally distributed through Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Mon- • ■ - ' ■-•- o ' ''■■■ ' . *-■;''» i ' ■.'■__ :.-J< Fig. 69 — TICKS ON CATTLE SKIN stroyed or killed by smearing the open- ing in the skin with grease mixed with sulphur. The horn fly (Haematohia serrata) has become quite generally distributed over the country. It is smaller than the house fly, but quite closely resembles it. The horn fly appears in swarms and has the habit of collecting on the base of the horns from which fact the name has arisen. They attack cattle on the flanks and shoulders, where they are not easily warded off. A mixture of 2 parts cottonseed oil or fish oil and 1 part pine tar may be applied to the flanks, back and horns at milking time, in order to keep off the flies. This ap- plication must be repeated every week or 10 days. The swarms of flies may be tana and elsewhere. It is first recog- nized by the cattle rubbing themselves, and gradually extends from the shoul- ders back over the body. It is believed that the disease affected buffalo as well as cattle and it has been known in Mon- tana for the past 30 years. The only successful way of treating this disease is by dipping and for this purpose a lime and sulphur dip containing 21 pounds sulphur and 16 3 /4 pounds of lime per 100 gallons of water is best. Cattle should be dipped twice in the spring and again twice in the fall, the fall application being more important. The interval between the two dippings, either in the spring or fall, should be about two weeks. During 1906 Peters 122 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK had excellent results from spraying cat- tle with a 25 per cent mixture of crude oil in water. Corn stalk disease affects cattle and sometimes horses and sheep. The cause of the disease is not known. The symp- toms are digestive disturbances, accom- panied with delirium and unconscious- ness and death commonly occurs within 24 hours. The disease has been supposed by some to be due to corn smut, to the Burrill disease of corn, to some poison like nitrate of potash contained in the corn and to various other conditions of corn. Recently, certain investigators have claimed that corn stalk disease is may be adopted for ulcerated sore mouth and sore throat. If cattle become choked with some solid food material, the ob- struction may be crushed by the hand, if not too hard, or forced on into the stomach by pressure; or, if this is im- possible, the probang may be used as recommended in Diseases of the Horse. Bloat in cattle is a very common trouble, especially after eating green alfalfa or clover. If observed in its first stages, this trouble may be checked by large doses of soda or melted lard; otherwise it may be necessary to punc- ture the stomach by means of a knife or a trocar and canula. Tbe point for Fig. TO DIPPING CATTLE FOR MANGE only one form of hemorrhagic septi- cemia. At times chemical analysis shows a large amount of nitrate of pot- ash in corn and occasionally corn smut may be harmful, but some experiments have shown it to be quite inert. This disease needs further investigation. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OR- GANS Wounds in the mouth which lead to sore mouth may best be treated with an- tiseptic washes, such as permanganate of potash at the rate of 1 dram in a pint of water, or with a 1 per cent so- lution of creolm. A similar treatment puncturing is located equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone and the transverse process of the vertebras on the left side. At th ; s point the stomach is united with the body wall and no danger attends the operation. The canula may be left in until all the gas has escaped, after which soda or am- monia may be administered to prevent further fermentation, Loss of cud — Whenever cattle are seri- ously sick, they stop chewing the cud and for this reason the notion com- monly prevails that they have lost the cud. There is no such thing as loss of end, in the ordinary sense, but if cattle DISEASES OF ANIMALS 123 do not ruminate it indicates that some- thing is wrong in some respect or other and attention should be given to them. Indigestion i n cattle may be due to overloading the stomach, the use of moldy or damaged food, drinking too much cold water after a long period of thirsting or the use of an improperly balanced ration. The rational system of correcting this trouble obviously con- sists in giving attention to the diet. In more serious cases followed by diarrhea or dysentery good results are usually obtained by administering castor oil in ■win mi intwaaywam" - i yy Fij i 1 — CAGE FOR DIPPING CATTLE, N. D. EXPERIMENT STATION one-pint doses followed by half an ounce of tincture of opium or tannopin in doses of 30 grains. Poisons of vegetable or mineral ori- gin are treated below in a special sec- tion of this chapter. DISEASES OF THE BLOOD VES- SELS AND LYMPHATICS Quite frequently cases of pericardi- tis occur in cattle as the result of punc- ture from sharp foreign bodies swal- lowed into the paunch. Strangely enough, cattle sometimes swallow quite long pieces of sharp wire, or even hat pins, which cause such accidents. There is obviously no treatment for this trouble. In case of bleeding, the hem- orrhage may usually be checked by a continued application of cold water, ice, tow, lint or sponges. In some cases it may be necessary to apply a hot iron or to tie a ligature around severed blood vessels. SPRING TRAP SPRUNG SPRING TRAP SET Fig. 72 — TRAP TO PLUNGE CATTLE INTO VAT DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS Cattle are occasionally afflicted with catarrh, which should be treated by plac- ing them in well ventilated stables pro- tected against sudden changes of tem- perature and giving niter in one to two- ounce doses followed by stimulants. In case of bronchitis, relief is usually ob- tained by blanketing the animals and giving iy 2 ounces niter, 2 ounces aro- ', • I 7 n * -i r '.-.s — : :•• Fig. 73 LANGEDAHL DIPPING PLANT. STEER JUST LEAVING CAGE matic ammonia and 2 drams of camphor in a pint of linseed tea every four hours. Verminous bronchitis i s usually due to infestation with Strongylus micrurus, a small round worm which is parasitic in the windpipe and bronchial tubes. This trouble may be treated by placing the cattle in a dry stable and subject- ing them to the fumes of chlorine gas. 124 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK DISEASES OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Cattle, like other domestic animals, are subject to rabies, sunstroke (see un- der Diseases of the Horse) epilepsy, staggers and other similar troubles. The disease known as staggers or inflam- mation of the brain is to be recognized by the appearance of frenzy, or exces- sive dullness in some cases, trembling and spasms of the muscles, followed by delirium in most cases. This trouble rarely yields to treatment, but some ben- efit may be derived from the use of a purgative followed by iodide of potash in two-dram doses twice daily. DISEASES OF THE URINARY OR- GANS Diabetes in cattle is usually due to an over-dosing with drugs and feeding moldy, frozen or otherwise unsuitable Fig. r4 DERRICK FOR LOWERING CAGE INTO DIPPING VAT food. The best treatment consists in a change of diet and the administration of a mixture containing 2 drams each of sulphate of iron and iodide of pot- ash. Bloody urine may be a symptom of Texas fever, but if it occurs as an independent disease it may be treated by giving J /2 dram quinine and 2 drams muriate of iron in a pint of water three times a day. The presence of sugar or albumen in the urine indi- cates an improper ration and attention should be given to the diet. Stones sometimes develop in the bladder and other parts of the urinary passages. This trouble may be treated by surgical operations in cases where the value of the animal is sufficient to warrant the expense. Otherwise treatment is very unsatisfactory. Fig. 75 — DIPPING CAGE FOR CATTLE DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS The subject of sterility or barrenness and artificial impregnation will be dis- cussed later in this chapter. Fig. 76 — VAT FOR DIPPING CATTLE Abortion — One of the most serious diseases with which the cattle raiser has DISEASES OF ANIMALS 125 to deal, in some localities, is abortion. This trouble may be due to eating moldy or ergotized feed, to undue exposure, fright, worry, bruises or the existence of some serious disease. The most troublesome form of abortion is of a specific, infectious nature and is trans- mitted from one animal to another, par- ticularly as a result of copulation. The Fig. 77 — NORMAL PRESENTATION OF CALF only satisfactory method of preventing this trouble consists in the thorough ap- plication of antiseptic washes to sus- pected bulls and the use of similar anti- septics as vaginal douches in all aborting cows. The aborted calf and the mem- branes must be destroyed at once and all parts of the stall which may have become contaminated should be thor- oughly disinfected. It is best not to use for breeding purposes any animal which has once aborted. Fig. 78 — APPARATUS FOR PUMPING AIR IN- TO THE UDDER IN CASES OF MILK FEVER Retained afterbirth— The cow is par- ticularly subject to this trouble. If the membranes do not naturally come away within a few hours after calving, they should be removed by hand. This may best be done by twisting a wisp of straw in the projecting membranes and twist- ing the whole mass, pulling steadily at the same time but not too hard. If the membranes have been retained long enough for decomposition to begin, it is necessary to give a full vaginal douche containing an antiseptic such as cor- rosive sublimate 1 part to 1000 in water, 1 per cent carbolic acid solution, or a 1 per cent solution of creolin. Milk fever_One of the troubles which dairymen fear most is milk fever. Until Schmidt's treatment for this disease was devised the majority of affected cows died. Recently, however, a satis- factory treatment has been found. Milk fever may be due to too close confine- ment in unsanitary stables, high tem- perature in the stable, constipation and various other predisposing causes, but except in rare instances the disease oc- curs within a short time after calving. It seems, therefore, to be connected with this event. In the acute form of milk fever there is a sudden languor, uncer- tain gait, staggering, dilated pupils, hard pulse and elevation of temperature. The cow lies on her breastbone, with the feet under the body. In the most violent form of milk fever there is re- ^EIZ^ Fig. 79 ANOTHER MILK FEVER APPARATUS ally no fever at all ; in fact the tempera- ture may be lower than normal. The at- tack comes on slowly, but weakness in- creases until the cow is unable to stand. After lying down she may live for two or three days without treatment. Until recent years the treatment adopted for milk fever consisted in the use of pur- gatives, jce bags on the head and tincture of aconite given internally, followed by stimulants after some improvement was noted. This line of treatment was followed by that devised by Schmidt, which consists in the injection of 10 grams iodide of potash into the udder as soon as the symptoms are noted. In a large percentage of cases recovery takes place after this treatment, but oc- casionally a second dose may be neces- sary after 24 hours. The infusion of 126 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK iodide of potash is given through the milk duct of each teat, without injury to the tissues of the udder. From some experiments it appears that good results may be obtained from tbe hypodermic use of iodide of potash and also from the injection of anti- septics such as lysol into the udder. Quite recently, however, a very effective treatment has been found in the injection of oxygen or filtered, atmospheric air into the udder. Special apparatus has been devised for this purpose, which may be obtained from veterinary dealers. All that is necessary is to pump each quarter of the udder as full as it will stand with air, after which the udder may be kneaded slightly. Improvement is ordinarily shown within a few min- utes and recovery takes place within a few hours in 95 per cent or more of cases. Garget or mammitis_Quit e com- monly in heavy milkers the udder be- comes swollen, hot and somewhat tender, just before calving. The swelling may Fig. 80 — COW AFFECTED WITH MILK FEVER extend slightly forward, along the belly. This swelling is ordinarily of a physio- logical nature but may in some cases be so intense as to require treatment. As a rule the swelling disappears within a few days after calving and the normal condition is regained more quickly if the calf is allowed to suck the cow. At first, if the congestion persists so as to lead to the secretion of bloody milk and the formation of pus in one quarter or more of the udder, it may be desirable to give large drinks of warm water and apply hot poultices to the udder, held in place by means of straps passing over the loins. The udder should be care- fully milked clean and if the milk ducts become closed, it may be necessary to make use of a milk tube. This should be used cautiously, however, so as not to injure the tissue of the udder and should be perfectly clean before insert- ing, otherwise a serious inflammation and gangrene may take place. Contagious mammitis — The more se- rious form of the disease is known as contagious mammitis and is due to in- fection with bacteria. In these cases the inflammation is more extensive and the trouble requires still more careful treat- ment. In milking out the affected quar- ter, care should be exercised to collect all the milk and destroy it in order to prevent infection. The hands of the milker should also be carefully cleaned before milking another cow. The milk may be drawn through a milk tube or teat-dilator and the milk ducts injected with a solution of peroxide of hydrogen. In case of closure of the milk duct, which may occur during the later stages of lactation, it may be treated similarly if the trouble persists. Joint ill — This disease occurs in calves within a month or so after birth and is commonly associated with disease of the navel. The symptoms include swelling of one or more joints, lameness, lack of appetite, high fever and a discharge from the navel. Occasionally other symptoms are noted. The disease appears to be due to infection through the navel cord at the time of birth, and for this rea- son it is desirable to treat the navel cord of calves with an antiseptic solution in order to prevent infection. If the dis- ease appears, it may be best treated by painting the navel daily with tincture of iodine and applying the same remedy or biniodide of mercury to the swollen joints. In bad cases the iodine may be injected under the skin of swollen joints by means of a hypodermic syringe. Scouring i s a common result of indi- gestion and usually indicates an im- proper ration. Sour milk, especially if it is given cold, is a frequent cause of scouring. Sometimes the disease is con- tagious in nature and occurs in an epi- zootic form. In addition to the quality of the milk, the condition of the cow at time of calving may have something to do with scouring. Occasionally scour- ing spreads quite rapidly through all of the calves of a given herd. This form of the disease is commonly known as white scours and is due to an infection through the navel cord. In fact, white scours may be merely one set of symp- toms directly connected with joint ill and having apparently the same cause. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 127 In preventing this trouble, the navel cord may be washed with a one per cent so- lution of carbolic acid. A simpler form of scouring of a noncontagious nature may be checked by the use of rye bran, or still better by adding formalin to the milk at the rate of 1 part to 4000. The latter method has recently been recom- mended by Klein as a very effective rem- edy. Rickets, also known as rachitis, is an inflammatory disease of the bones of young calves and causes thickening of the bones and lameness of the calves. The existence of the disease indicates an improper ration and may be corrected by feeding more milk and adding lime water or phosphate of lims to the ruilk. Creeps, r osteomalacia, is a condition of brittleness or softening of the bone, which occurs among adult cattle. It may be recognized by the gradual ema- ciation and depraved appetite of affected cattle, combined with muscular weakness and bone fractures. Tbe bones may be- come broken in lying down or during the ordinary movements of the animal. Treatment should consist of a change of food and the addition of more mineral matter, such as lime and magnesium salts. Cottonseed meal is also beneficial. Tbe disease occurs chiefly in regions where mineral matters are deficient in the food. ^ Fig. 81 — DEVICE FOR CASTING CATTLE Rheumatism, is a constitutional dis- ease accompanied with lameness, fever, inflammation and swelling of various parts of the body, particularly the joints. It may occur where cattle are kept in damp, insanitary quarters. The treat- ment for this disease should obviously include the provision of a dry place to lie. This need not be in warm stables, but wherever the cattle are kept they should not be compelled to lie in wet bedding or muddy places. Hot applica- tions, friction or blisters applied to af- fected joints bring some relief. Minor ailments—Cattle are also af- fected with foot rot, which may be treated as in sheep; eczema, for which Epsom salts may be given, followed by an application of boric acid to affected parts at the rate of 2 drams in 8 ounces of water; and keratitis, or inflammation of the cornea of the eye, to be treated by placing the animal in a dark stable, ad- ministering a purgative and dusting calomel into the affected eye. DISEASES OF SWINE Swine are not any more extensively afflicted with infectious and other dis- eases than would be expected from the conditions under which they are ordi- narily raised. The hog in this respect is at some disadvantage as compared with our other domesticated animals. Swine are naturally of cleanly habits, if given an opportunity to keep out of mudholes and filth, but on many farms the hog houses and hog yards are kept in the same place year after year, with little effort to clean or drain the yards. The inevitable result is the gradual ac- cumulation of filth, and in case of an outbreak of an infectious disease tbe trouble spreads rapidly from one animal to another. The rapidity with which in- fection spreads among hogs is partly due to the fact that they take much of their food from the ground and the food is therefore particularly subject to con- tamination from the feces and other dis- charges of diseased hogs in the same yard. Swine diseases have received compar- atively little attention from the ordinary practicing veterinarian, partly for the reason that be is not called upon to diagnose hog diseases and prescribe rem- edies as frequently as in the case of horses and dairy cows. It therefore comes about that most of the work in the investigation of hog diseases in this country has been done by the Bureau of Animal Industry and the agricultural experiment stations in states where hoc; raising is an important business. The experiment station in Indiana has given much attention to the diseases of hogs and a bulletin dealing exclusively with this subject has been published by Craig and Bitting. In this bulletin not only the important infectious diseases of swine are treated, hut also various lesser troubles to which hogs are subject. At other experiment stations, notably in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa and Missouri, a great amount of work has been done, 128 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK particularly on hog cholera and swine plague. It is perhaps best, in discussing swine diseases, to start with the most important infectious ones. Hog cholera — I n the corn belt, where hogs are raised to the greatest extent, hog cholera and swine plague are the most discouraging troubles with which the hog raiser has to deal. These diseases may occur separately, or at the same time, and it is often difficult to make a diagnosis between them, partly for the reason that the hog may be affected with both diseases at the same time. In fact, hog cholera and swine plague quite com- monly occur in conjunction, spreading through a herd of hogs and attacking one animal after another. Hog cholera has not been known for a long time, as compared with anthrax or tuberculosis. The disease was referred to in Ohio in Fig. 82 — POSITION ASSUMED IN HOG CHOLERA 1833 and in the southern states at about the same time. The origin of hog chol- era is not known. Some writers seem to believe that it came with imported hogs from England or the European con- tinent. According to estimates based on losses actually reported, it appears that the swine industry suffers to the extent of $10,000,000 to $25,000,000 annually from the ravages of hog cholera. In 1896 the loss from hog cholera was esti- mated at nearly $50,000,000. The num- ber of hogs which die yearly from hog cholera in Indiana alone varies from 200,000 to 900,000. Confounded with swine plague — In the earlier investigations of this dis- ease, it was much confused with swine plague; in fact, swine plague and hog cholera were supposed to be different forms of the same disease. In typical cases, ^ however, hog cholera affects the intestines chiefly, causing ulcers in the intestinal walls, and also manifests it- self in the form of reddened, inflamed areas on the ears, throat, chest and flanks. Swine plague, on the other hand, is more likely to attack the lungs, caus- ing a form of pneumonia, attended with much coughing. ■'^J^T' Fig. 83 — chronic hog cholera, show- ing ulcers in large intestine Symptoms — Hog cholera may be de- fined as an infectious, malignant disease, due to the presence of the hog cholera bacillus in the intestines. The most conspicuous symptoms are loss of appe- tite, high fever, discharge from the eyes, reddish or purplish discoloration of the skin and constipation followed by pro- fuse diarrhea, which persists until the death of the animal. The temperature is usually from one to three degrees above the normal. Affected swine ap- pear dull and lie quietly in the corner of the pen or yard, frequently huddling together or hiding under the bedding. The discharge from the eyes is at first watery, but later becomes thick and yellow. The gait is staggering and un- certain. The symptoms vary greatly in different cases, but if an outbreak of disease occurs in a herd of hogs, with symptoms resembling those just de- Fig. 84 — cholera ulcers in wall of HOG INTESTINE scribed and spreading rapidly through the herd, the services of a qualified vet- erinarian should be called at once and measures taken to protect the healthy hogs. The mortality from hog cholera ranges from 80 to 90 per cent. In acute cases the animals die within two or three days, while in the chronic form the disease,. DISEASES OF ANIMAL 129 may persist for a month or more and in a few cases recovery may take place. In chronic cases the spleen becomes greatly enlarged and soft and the large intestines may show hemorrhages. Distribution of the disease — Hog cholera is distributed generally through- out the central states. It has been known to occur in every state of the Union, as well as in Canada. In Great Britain and English colonies the disease is commonly known as swine fever, or pig typhoid. In Germany the disease is called Schweinepest and in Scandi- navia Svinpest. While hog cholera may appear almost anywhere in the United States, there are many large areas, particularly in the Rocky moun- tains and Pacific coast region where hog cholera almost never occurs, except by reason of importing hogs from the corn belt. In such localities the farmer can protect himself against losses from hog cholera by quarantining every hog which he buys from an outside region before allowing it to be placed in the hog yard or to come in contact with other hogs. There is no good evidence for directly connecting hog cholera with any human disease, but it most closely resembles typhoid fever. The bacillus of hog cholera behaves very similarly to that of typhoid fever and the disease is fre- qi'ently carried in water like typhoid. For this reason special care should be exercised in protecting the water sup- ply of swine. In some outbreaks of hog cholera the healthy hogs have been al- lowed to eat the carcasses of dead ones, thereby transmitting the disease with- out fail. No MEDICAL TREATMENT EFFECTD7E — There is no satisfactory medicinal treat- ment for hog cholera. Many distin- guished veterinarians have worked at a remedial treatment without success. Nevertheless more than one hundred sure-cure patent medicines have been advertised for the treatment of hog cholera. According to Craig and Bit- ting, who have tested nearly all of these remedies, very few of them remain on the market for more than two or three years. Perhaps the best general treat- ment may be obtained from the use of a mixture of 1 part chloride of potash, 1 part bicarbonate of soda and 2 parts nitrate of potash, giving a table- spoonful to each hog for a dose. More- over, encouraging results have been re- ported from the use of similar doses of a mixture containing 1 pound wood charcoal, 2 pounds each of sulphur, salt, baking soda and hyposulphate of soda, and 1 pound each of Glauber salts and antimony sulphide. These remedies, however, are of little avail, except in mild cases. Wherever the water supply is suspected of carrying the disease, it is desirable to add an ounce of blue vitriol to each barrel of water. In this way the water is sterilized so that healthy hogs may not become infected by means of their drinking water. Means of eradication — The chief re- liance in the control of hog cholera must be placed on thorough quarantine, disinfection of premises and the use of anti-hog-cholera vaccine. The disin- fection of the premises must be carried out very thoroughly; otherwise it will be of little avail. If the hog houses in which the disease occurs are of little value, it may be best to burn them up, plow the ground in the hog yards and plant to some cultivated crop, using a fresh, clean place for hog yards. The average hog pens and yards, especially if the drainage is poor, and with the usual amount of cracks and crevices in the houses, can scarcely be disinfected by any known means. The best system, therefore, consists in abandoning the old yards and starting again in a new place, as far from the old yards as the size of the farm will permit. Preventive measures — In the preven- tion of hog cholera by means of vaccine, encouraging results have been obtained from time to time, but many unfavor- able results were had, and this outcome could not be explained on a good basis until recently. The Bureau of Animal Industry has found that in addition to swine plague and the form of hog chol- era caused by the well-known hog cholera bacillus, there is another infec- tious hog disease which, in its symp- toms, can scarcely be distinguished from hog cholera, but which is produced by virus in which no baccilli can be found. We appear, therefore, to have three distinct and highly infectious dis- eases which may afflict a herd of hogs at the same time. Working on this basis, a vaccine is being prepared which, it is hoped, will protect hogs against any one of the three forms of disease. This is necessary, from a practical standpoint, for the reason, as already hinted, that it is a very difficult matter to determine which form of the disease 130 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK is present in any given outbreak. The only way, therefore, to furnish imme- diate protection to the herd, is to make use of a vaccine which will be effective against all three diseases or whichever one happens to be present. Swine plague — As already indicated, this disease is of a highly infectious nature, accompanied with symptoms of pneumonia and occurring in outbreaks of greater or less extent, frequently in connection with both the bacterial and non-bacterial form of hog cholera. The chief symptoms are pneumonia, cough, reddening of the eyes and a flushed con- dition of the skin on the belly, nose and ears. The disease usually runs a rapid course. In some cases the animals die within a day or so, while in other cases it is protracted for a week or longer. In making post mortem examinations on hogs affected with swine plague, the lungs will be found in a heavy and con- gested condition, such as is seen in other forms of pneumonia. In swine plague the chief seat of infection is in the lungs, and some form of pulmonary disease is nearly always the direct cause of death. As a rule, infection with swine plague takes place through the air passages; while in hog cholera, as already stated, infection occurs through the water or food. The reddening of the skin sometimes occurs in cases which show symptoms of swine plague and indicates that hog cholera is also pres- ent. Swine plague was recognized as a dis- ease distinct from hog cholera in 1886, and is now generally distributed through- out the country. The disease is known as "sehweineseuche" in Germany, and is frequently referred to as infectious pneumonia of swine. There is obviously no satisfactory treatment for this disease, since, if pos- sible, it is even more fatal and quicker in its results than hog cholera. The only hope for the control of the disease lies in the expected practical oiitcome of experiments now being carried on to perfect the general vaccine for infectious hog diseases. From certain experiments just reported from Germany it would ap- pear that hog cholera and swine plague are two forms of the same disease caused by a filterable virus. Swine erysipelas, also known as roth- lauf in Germany and rouget in France is sometimes referred to as diamond skin disease, on account of the fact that the reddened patches on the back as- sume a diamond shape. The disease is peculiar to swine and largely attacks adult hogs. It rarely appears in ani- mals under three months of age. Swine erysipelas is a highly infectious disease, which often remains as a permanent, stationary infection in certain localities. The disease has not been positively iden- tified in many localities in the United States and appears to be at any rate of much less importance with us than the three forms of infectious hog diseases already mentioned. Swine erysipelas occurs under the form of a true erysip- elas and uricaria or nettle rash, in the form of skin ulcers or gangrenous places, and in the form of a bacterial heart disease. In fact, animals which have apparently recovered from swine erysipelas may suddenly die as a result of the localization of the bacteria of the disease in the heart. A system of vacci- nation against this disease has been de- vised in Europe, by means of which it it claimed on good authority that swine erysipelas may be largely controlled. The vaccine has already been used in thousands of cases and appears to bring the desired results. Infectious sore mouth — In Wisconsin and various other hog raising states, a disease is quite prevalent among young pigs under the name of infectious sore mouth. This trouble appears in pigs from a few days to several weeks of age and seems to be highly infectious. The disease may be rapidly spread from one pig to another of the same litter, by reason of the infection of the sow's teats by the first pig in which the dis- ease appears. The lining of the mouth and lips becomes greatly inflamed and swollen and the swelling extends back over the skin of the face toward the eyes and throat, in some cases causing quite extensive ulcers. The mouth be- comes so sore that the pig is unable to suck the sow and the disease may be recognized by the ulcers on the lips which soon slough off, leaving bleeding patches. In controlling this disease it is necessary to isolate the healthy pigs at once and disinfect the pens in which the disease occurs. Perhaps the best treatment to adopt consists in dipping the pigs head foremost into a bucket containing permanganate of potash at the rate of 1 ounce to a gallon of water. The head should be held under as long as it is safe and the operation may be repeated daily for a week until DISEASES OF ANIMALS 131 recovery takes place. The udder of the sow may also be washed with the same solution Tuberculosis — This disease is dis- cussed more extensively under the head of Cattle Diseases, but is of sufficient importance in hogs to merit brief men- tion in this connection. According to the statistics obtained in meat inspection in foreign countries as well as in the United States, tuberculosis is a fairly common disease of hogs. It has been increasing in most localities during re- cent years, but where its increase has been found due to the vise of milk from tu- berculous cows, and where, consequently, this milk has been sterilized before feed- ing, tuberculosis has gradually dimin- ished in pigs. Wherever hogs are al- lowed to occupy the yards around a country slaughter house and feed on the offal from slaughtered animals, it may the disease apparently lives on cereals or grasses and gains entrance to ani- mals through wounds in the skin, it is obvious that the udder in sows is par- ticularly liable to infection. (See under Diseases of Cattle. Minor swine ailments — Hogs may also become affected with anthrax by feeding on the carcass of an animal that has died of this disease. The symptoms are similar to those which appear in cat- tle and the outcome of the disease is nearly always fatal. In preventing the spread of this disease among hogs, it is merely necessary to prevent the animals from gaining access to carcasses of other animals which have died from anthrax. It should also be remembered that hogs may develop rabies or hydrophobia as a result of being bitten by rabid dogs. The symptoms of rabies in hogs are very similar to those in other animals. •■•.' I Fig. S5 "GOVERNMENTS/' PIGS REJECTED IN INSPECTION. ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION readily occur that all of such hogs be- come infected with tuberculosis. In fact, this material and the milk of tuber- culous cows constitute the two most com- mon sources of tuberculosis in pigs. If the disease becomes generalized in the breeding sow, the udder may become affected, and when this occurs it has been observed that the young pigs are very likely to contract the disease. Foot and mouth disease — Fortunately this disease does not exist at present in the United States. The quite serious outbreak which occurred a few years ago in New England, however, was enough to call attention to the possibility of the general infection of hogs on farms where cattle are attacked with foot and mouth disease. See under Diseases of Cattle.) Actinomycosis — This disease is most common in cattle, but may also occur in hogs, and since the fungus which causes The animal is restless, frequently gets up and down, squeals and runs about the pen. The hog ordinarily dies within a few days after the first symptoms of rabies appear. There is no practical treatment for this disease, which, fortu- nately, is quite rare in hogs, and all afflicted animals may as well be de- stroyed at once. Likewise with tetanus, or lockjaw. This disease develops in hogs, as in other animals, as the result of wound infec- tion, usually from filth in which the bogs lie. The commonest source of in- fection with the tetanus bacillus is in wounds caused by castration. On this account it is well to cover the wounds with a liquid or powder antiseptic im- mediately after castration, and to keep the hogs for a few days in pens provided with an abundance of clean litter. Where tetanus is unknown, these pre- cautions are perhaps unnecessary, but on 132 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK premises where hogs have been raised for years, it is best to take all reason- able precautions to prevent this disease as a result of castration wounds. There is no practical treatment which can be adocted after tetanus develops in hogs. Fig. 86 — HOGS WHICH DIED DURING SHIPMENT. ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION Infectious catarrhal pneumonia — A catarrhal pneumonia is occasionally ob- served in pigs, and is undoubtedly of an infectious nature. It attacks chiefly young pigs under four months of age. It spreads rapidly among the animals in a piggery but does not show a high rate of mortality. The chief symptom is coughing, with difficulty in breathing, the coughing spells being sometimes quite violent. The fever is not high and the appetite is not much affected if the sick pigs are kept in fairly warm quar- ters. It can be readily distinguished from hog cholera or swine plague by the fact that it does not attack old animals. A post mortem examination shows the presence of red patches on the surface of the lungs. The control of the disease is to be accomplished largely by pre- ventive measles, such as quarantine and cleanliness about the piggery. Some benefit is obtained by giving cre- olin in doses of 1 teaspoonful in milk. Fig. 87 — DISEASED KIDNEY OF HOG Blood poisoning — Distinction is com- monly made between two forms of blood poisoning. The first form, also called pyemia, is due to the penetration of bacteria into wounds and their final dis- tribution throughout the body. In such cases abscesses may form in almost any of the internal organs, or upon the sur- face of the body. In the other form of blood poisoning, commonly known as septicemia, the bacteria which cause the trouble remain near the wound where they gained entrance and multiply rap- idly, producing a poisonous substance or toxin, which is carried through the body in the blood, causing a fever and other well-known symptoms, particu- larly a pronounced dullness and muscu- lar tremors. As a rule the hog is little susceptible to blood poisoning, but in bad cases death may take place within a few days. There is no satisfactory treatment for the disease except of a preventive nature, which consists in cleaning any skin wou^d which the hog may receive and treating it with an an- tiseptic such as carbolic acid in a 1 per cent solution, or corrosive sublimate at the rate of 1 part to 1000 in water. Infectious joint-ill — The symptoms of this disease are weakness, fever, diarrhea, swollen and painful joints and abscesses in various parts of the body, particularly near the navel. The disease affects young pigs only a few days old and probably arises by an infection of the navel, as occurs with young calves and colts. The rate of mortality is quite high and treatment is useless, except in the way of preventing the disease. If infectious joint-ill has occurred in a cer- tain pen, no sow should be allowed to farrow in that pen until it has been thor- oughly disinfected. The disease may also be prevented, in most cases, by washing the navel cord with a 10 per cent solution of creolin soon after the pigs are farrowed. Trichinosis i s a disease caused by Trichinella spiralis and affects man, swine and rats. Occasionally it is also observed in the badger and other ani- mals. The trichina is a minute worm, from 0.04 to 0.1 of an inch in length and in the adult stage lives in the in- testines of man, swine and other mam- mals. The number of young produced by each female amount to several thou- sand, and the young worms immediately migrate through the intestinal walls and finally coil up in the muscles, where they cause intense pain, headache, diges- tive troubles, abdominal pains, vomiting and fever. The symptoms are fre- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 133 quently mistaken for those of typhoid. If only a small number of trichina are contained in the infested pork eaten by man, the symptoms may be very slight, and recovery takes place. In some cases, where the infestation was very exten- sive, it has been found that the muscles of the patient contained as many as 100,000,000 trichinae per ounce of flesh. Man becomes affected with this disease by eating raw or partly cooked pork. The trichinae are killed by thorough cooking or by the usual process of salt pickling and curing pork products. Naturally trichinosis is most frequent in Germany where raw pork is eaten most extensively. Preventive measures — Hogs become infested, to a large extent, through eat- ing the offal and rats about slaughter houses. In a few instances, as high as 8 or 10 per cent of the hogs kept in such localities have been found infested with trichinae. It is apparent, therefore, that hogs may be prevented from becoming trichinous by feeding them on grain and other wholesome food and prevent- ing them from eating the offal of slaughtered animals and rats. Fig. 88 — ROUND WORMS IN HOG INTESTINE The common round worm of hogs — Young pigs sometimes become unthrifty and lose flesh as a result of infestation with intestinal worms known to scien- tists as Ascaris suilla. This is a large white or yellowish worm, pointed at both ends and ranging from 6 to 10 inches in length. They are carried from one ani- mal to another in the feces. Obviously an infested hog may contaminate the ground on which the hogs are maintained by the eggs of the worm which pass out in the feces. Preventive treatment con- sists in changing the quarters of the pigs to uninvested ground, or the ap- plication of lime or other disinfectants to the soil and pens. The worms may be expelled from infested hogs by giv- ing turpentine in doses of 1 teaspoon- ful in milk. The doses should be re- peated daily for a period of three days. Thorn headed worm—This parasite is found in the anterior part of the small intestines with its head embedded in the intestinal wall. It is not as common as the round worm and seldom occurs in greater numbers than five or six in a single animal. The presence of the thorn headed worm, however, causes Fig. 89 — THORN-HEADED WORM ATTACHED TO WALL OF HOG INTESTINE much more serious symptoms than the common round worm and death results in a considerable percentage of cases. Infection takes place through the feces as with the round worm and the pre- ventive treatment should be the same; namely, plowing up the hog yards and removing the hogs to other quarters, to- gether with the use of turpentine in tea- spoonful doses. K : dney worm— This parasite is found chiefly in the kidney, in the fat around this organ, or in the liver. Occasionally the presence of the parasite causes an inflammation of the kidney and the for- mation of abscesses. The parasite in question is known to scientists as Fig. 90 — KIDNEY WORMS IN THE HOG Stephanurus dentatus. The symptoms of infestation with this worm are not characteristic and the method by which the hogs become infested is not known. It is impossible, therefore, to apply an intelligent system of prevention, except such as recommended for round worms. 134 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Miscellaneous worms — Hogs are also subject to infestation with pinworms (Oesophagostomum deniatum) which may cause slight digestive disturbances and may be prevented by proper clean- liness in the food and water supply; whip worm (Trichocephalus crenatus) which infests pigs by means of unclean food, but fortunately causes no serious symptoms under ordinary conditions; lung worm (Stongylus paradoxus) which flukes (Paragonimus westermanii) and pork measle worm {Cysticercus cellu- losae). Fig. 91 WHIP WORMS ATTACHED TO AVALL OF HOG INTESTINES attacks the lungs and bronchial tubes of pigs under six months of age and causes symptoms which have given the disease the name of whooping cough. The para- sitic worm is about % of an inch long. It is not well understood how the worm gains entrance to the bronchial tubes, but infestation appears to be connected with wet pasture lots and miry, unsani- tary quarters. The symptoms are a whooping cough, lack of thrift and con- siderable emaciation. As a rule pigs £■ '2js Fig. 92 — PORK MEASLES recover, especially if careful attention is given to their diet. This is about all that can be done, since direct reme- dial treatment has not given satisfactory results. Hogs are also occasionally in- fested with liver flukes, which will be described under Diseases of Sheep, lung Fig. 93 — SEVERAL SEGMENTS OF ADULT PORE MEASLE TAPE WORM (TAENIA SOLIUM), NATURAL SIZE This worm is the immature stage of one of the common tapeworms of man and man becomes infested with DISEASES OF AXUIALS 135 this tapeworm by eating measly pork. The symptoms in hogs are rather indefi- nite and cannot be recognized. The presence of infestation is disclosed dur- ing meat inspection. The rueasle worms are found in various muscles of infested hogs but particularly in those of the abdomen, diaphragm, tongue, heart and neck. It is obvious that man cannot become infested with this worm if pork is thoroughly cooked before eating. An- other, bladder worm (Cysticercus tenui- collis) is occasionally found in the body cavity of hogs. This is the immature stage of a tapeworm which is common in the intestines of dogs and wolves. The method of preventing the infesta- tion of hogs with this parasite, there- fore, consists in keeping unnecessary dogs away from the premises, treating for tapeworms those which it is desired to keep and preventing dogs from eating the offal of slaughtered hogs, cattle or sheep in which the parasites may be found. Fig. 94 ECHINOCOCCUS CYSTS OX THE LIVER OF HOGS Echinococcus — This is the immature stage of a tapeworm which infests dogs and wolves. The parasite is commonly found in the liver, lungs and other or- gans of hogs as well as cattle. The par- asite may also infest man and it is the cause of a highly fatal disease in man. The parasite may be recognized as small bladder like structures in the infested organs. The symptoms of infestation in hogs are not characteristic and not easily recognized. The disease is best prevented by giving attention to dogs which are allowed about the premises. Dogs should not be allowed to feed on the offal of slaughtered animals and should be treated from time to time with a suitable vermifuge for the removal of tapeworms which they may harbor. Mange i s a common disease of hogs, caused by a parasite mite and appears first near the eyes and ears as well as on the inside of the fore legs; later it may spread over the whole body. The scabs formed by this mite are white and dry and the hair falls off in patches. The disease is readily transmitted by contact. Hogs are subject to two forms of mange, one due to infestation with Sa.coptes scabiei suis and the other to Demodex folliculorum suis. The latter affects chiefly the chest, abdomen, flank and inner surface of the thighs. It causes the development of pustules, which may be followed by ulcers of con- siderable extent. The first named mite causes true scab and its presence may be recognized by the rubbing of the ani- mal, due to the itching sensation pro- duced by the mite. "While mange in hogs is not rapidly distributed, it is difficult to treat. All affected animals should be isolated at once and the skin should be washed with soft soap, after which a treatment may be applied with a mixture containing 1 pound white arsenic and 12 pounds of alum in 25 gallons of water. The piggery should be thoroughly disinfected with kerosene emulsion or pure kerosene, together with lime on the floor. Recently considerable success has been had in dipping mangy pigs in a tobacco dip or from the use of a mixture of S parts turpentine and 1 part sulphur. Hog louse—While the hog louse (Haematopinus urius) is widely distrib- uted, it does not commonly cause serious trouble to hogs except those which are already in an unthrifty condition, for one reason or another. The louse bites the skin and sucks out blood, causing considerable irritation. It is large enough so that it may be seen with the naked eye. Infestation takes place largely from filthy quarters and the best means of disinfecting such places is by the use of a spray of kerosene. Recently. kerosene emulsion or pure kerosene has been applied to infested hogs, with good results. One of the best means of apply- ing this consists in having rubbing posts for the hogs which are constantly smeared with kerosene; in this way the hogs are induced to treat themselves. They may also be sprayed or dipped in crude oil. For this purpose a tank may be filled with water to the proper depth and covered with an inch film of oil into which the hogs are plunged. Rickets — As in man and other ani- mals, rickets in hogs is due to an im- proper development of the bone, as the result of insufficient mineral matter in 136 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the food. It may not develop during the first few weeks, but will appear soon after the pigs are weaned and especially- after they begin to put on considera- ble weight. The bones are weak and bend or break. This weakness is not only in the leg bones but is seen in the Fig. 95 — RICKETS IN THE HOCK JOINT OF THE PIG Fits — Occasionally hogs which appear to be in good health are attacked by spasms or fits. These attacks may be due to various reuses, such as the presence of intestinal worms or other digestive troubles and in many instances are the result of too close in-breeding for a number of generations. If the spasms are not too severe, they may easily be relieved by throwing the pig into a warm bath, after which he is to be kept as quiet as possible. Occasionally some benefit is derived from giving a dram of bromide of potash, with a small cathartic of castor oil. Thumps — This disease, also known as spasms of the diaphrrgm, is rather com- mon in pigs. The heart beats are some- times louder than under normal condi- tions, but thumps are not always due to any disorder of the heart. The chief cause of thumps is found in over feed- ing or some digestive trouble due to the use of improper rations. The most con- spicuous symptom is a jerking move- ment of the flanks, which occurs irreg- ularly. The disease may persist from undue arching of the back. The treat- ment should consist in withholding part of the corn and substituting nitrogenous grains and especially milk. Hogs should also be given an abundant supply of wood ashes, charcoal, air slaked lime and salt. Pitchy mange — This is not a para- sitic or infectious disease, but is due to uncleanly conditions, especially filthy Fiff. 96 — PITCHY MANGE IN THE HOG pens and exposure to great changes of temperature. Eed spots develop on the skin which later become blisters and pustules. Treatment consists in cleanli- ness about the pens and washing the in a warm water bath. Fig. 9/ -PAPILLOMA OF THE TONGUE EN HOGS a few days to three or four weeks. Thumps are usually treated with suc- cess by turning the pigs on pasture, thus giving them abundant exercise. A ca- thartic of raw linseed oil may also be given with a dose of about 10 drops of tincture of opium. In cases where thumps are the result of heart trouble in consequence of an attack of bronchitis or some other disturbance, treatment may consist in the administration of a vermifuge and the use of small doses of digitalis. Sore mouth — A form of sore mouth, not of an infectious nature, may some- times be observed in pigs which are allowed to wallow in filthy places and es- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 137 pecially if they are fed on sour, decom- posing and irritating food. In such cases the saliva drips from the corners of the mouth and the hog champs with his teeth. The treatment for such trouble is very obvious : it should consist in the use of a cleanly food supply, together with an abundance of pure water. Loss of appetite — While hogs are usu- ally ravenous feeders, they sometimes lose appetite as the result of the long continued use of the same ration with- out sufficient variety. Thus, corn, with- out any other grain, occasionally becomes so distasteful to hogs that they refuse to eat it. The usual method, which in most cases is successful when loss of appetite appears, consists in feeding a ration of greater variety, with more frequent changes. Poisoning — One of the most common forms of poisoning in hogs is due to feeding swill from hotels where the dishes are washed with washing powder or other kind of irritating, highly alka- line soap. The symptoms are fever, partial paralysis, diarrhea and occasion- ally vomiting. The rate of mortality is very high, and in many instances this form of poisoning has been mistaken for hog cholera. A number of plants are known to be poisonous to hogs, but, as a rule, cases of poisoning from this cause are comparatively rare, much more so than in sheep, despite the fact that hogs are commonly considered as exercising lit- tle choice in their selection of food. Cot- tonseed meal has long been known to poison hogs if fed in large quantities for long periods. The conditions under which this meal may be safely fed are discussed in Part IX, on Swine. Many complaints have been made regarding the poisonous effects of young cocklebur on hogs. The plant seems to be eaten most frequently when it is about 3 to 6 inches high and is particularly attractive at that time, since it starts early in the spring and may be the only green mate- rial to be found. Apparently it is quite doubtful whether the plant actually con- tains any poisonous principle. Experi- ments by Craig and Bitting indicated that the bad effects are due to irritation from the burs eaten by the hogs. Scours — Young pigs kept in dark, filthy quarters, with little attention to the condition of their food, may develop serious cases of scours. Such outbreaks are due to the same causes which pro- duce similar digestive troubles in calves, lambs and colts. The trouble is merely one of improper dietetics and bad hygi- ene. Treatment obviously consists in avoiding these improper conditions by the use of clean food in properly balanced rations and cleanliness about the pig- gery. In cases where the trouble per- sists for a long time, with the ordinary symptoms of dysentery or diarrhea, it may be well to give a dose of 2 ounces castor oil or 5 grains of calomel followed by V-2 teaspoonful of laudanum. Constipation i s a trouble which most frequently develops from the lack of green food or other laxative material in the diet. If the ration is too dry and not enough water is offered to the hogs, the obvious remedy consists in using more succulence in the ration, especially slops of cleanly character and giving a cathartic of castor oil or Epsom salts. Hogs may also at times be affected with chronic indigestion (for treatment see under Diseases of the Horse), ergot poisoning (see under Poisonous Plants), peritonitis (see under Diseases of the Horse), sunstroke (see under Diseases of the Horse), garget (see under Dis- eases of Cattle), snuffles (see under Dis- eases of Sheep) and pneumonia (see un- der Diseases of the Horse). DISEASES OF SHEEP In treating the common diseases which affect sheep, it seems best to classify them according to the parts of the body which they affect as well as according to the nature of the various diseases. As a rule, little attention is paid to the com- mon symptoms of disease among range sheep, partly for the reason that under the conditions of sheep ranching it is practically impossible to keep close enough watch on the sheep to observe the first symptoms of poisoning or the devel- opment of some disease. In the more thickly settled portions of the country, however, where the farmer has only a small flock of sheep, they may be watched as closely as other animals and treated promptly for disease symptoms as soon as they appear. Sore mouth — The mucous membrane of the mouth and throat is exceedingly delicate, but ordinarily sheep do not take food which is likely to lacerate or injure the mouth. Occasionally, stiff part- icles of food are taken along with other material causing injury to the mucous membrane and resulting in a soreness which prevents the sheep from properly 138 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK eating its food. In simple cases of sore mouth, the membrane looks red and in- flamed. In some animals the amount of saliva is increased, the sheep shows pain in eating, and the breath has a disagree- able odor. Kecovery ordinarily takes place within a few days but may be con- siderably hastened by using a mouth wash of a 4 per cent solution of borax or a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Bloating — Sheep are exceedingly sus- ceptible to bloating or tympanites. Any unusual fermentation set up in the food may cause an accumulation of gas which distends the paunch to a painful or dan- gerous extent. The foods which are us- ually responsible for bloat are green alfalfa, green clover, rape, green corn, and other succulent foods. Sheepmen quite commonly hold the belief that these materials are especially apt to cause bloat if eaten when the dew is on or soon after frost. The evidence for this belief, however, is not very strong. It is a fact of general observation that sheep may become accustomed to eating these materials so that no bloating takes place. The best treatment for bloating in sheep is found in the use of a trocar and can- ula. This instrument should be thrust into the paunch from the outside at the point on the left side of the animal where the paunch comes most closely m contact with the body wall. The canula is left in the wound until the gas es- capes, after which a tablespoonful of tur- pentine may be given in 4 ounces of lin- seed oil in order to prevent further fermentation. The administration of laxatives and tonics is also of some value. As a result of improper feeding or confinement in insanitary places, lambs and occasionally old sheep, may develop a depraved appetite which leads to eating various harmful plants or even wool. Obviously, the treatment for such trou- bles consists in allowing the animals more freedom and providing better rations and more sanitary quarters. If indigestion is developed in connection with^ this trouble, it may be desirable to give a tonic of 2 ounces of soda, 1 ounce of powdered gentian, 6 ounces of sulphate of soda mixed together and used in doses of 1 teaspoonful. Various digestive ailments — A num- ber of other digestive disturbances are occasionally observed in sheep, such as chronic bloat, which may best be con- trolled by the use of laxatives and a tonic such as just mentioned; overload- ing of the paunch, which appears to be due in most cases to overeating, and a consequent partial paralysis of the paunch; and stomach staggers, which is due to irritation and inflammation of the third stomach, resulting from thj use of innutritious food. A change of diet and the use of Epsom salts in doses of 6 ounces, or flaxseed tea will usually con- trol this trouble. Occasionally sheep choke on foreign bodies in the gullet. An occasional cause of choking is found in turnips, potatoes, or ears of corn. The svmptoms need not be described since they are so obvious as to be readily rec- ognizable. It is usually possible to remove such materials in the gullet by means of pressure and manipulation with the hands. White scours — This frequently occurs, especially in young lambs kept under unsanitary conditions in badly crowded quarters. It is usually a contagious dis- ease and is accompanied with considera- ble fever, bloating, diarrhea and death in a large percentage of cases. The treat- ment should be mainly preventive, con- sisting in providing clean quarters and the use of disinfectants about the prem- ises. Some benefit may be derived from the administration of subnitrate of bis- muth in doses of 1 dram. Unrecognizable diseases — Such dis- eases as inflammation of the fourth stom- ach and intestines, atrophy of the liver, jaundice, peritonitis, and inflammation of the kidneys are accompanied with symptoms which cannot always be recog- nized by the farmer and will, therefore, require diagnosis and treatment by the veterinarian Catarrh — Sheep and lambs are quite subject to catarrhal conditions of the nasal passages, due to exposure during inclement seasons, especially just after the animals have been sheared. If caught in cold rain storms at such times a considerable percentage of the flock may develop colds and in some cases the symptoms of catarrh are also accom- panied with general lameness and occa- sionally paralysis and death. As a rule, however, there is merely a slight sneez- ing and coughing which commonly goes by the name of snuffles. If the animals are placed in warm, dry quarters and given small doses, say % ounce of niter and common salt, they usually recover within a few days. Under range condi- tions it is obviously impossible to treat DISEASES OF ANIMALS 139 all of the animals which may be affected and it is, therefore, necessary to rely upon the effect of dry air and sunshine in checking the progress of the trouble. Respiratory ailments — A number of diseases of the respiratory passages in- cluding the larynx, wind pipe, bronchi, and lungs occur in sheep, following such exposure as sometimes causes colds or as a result of infection. In some cases croup results, especially in young lambs. This disease most commonly occurs after shutting the animals up in too close and hot quarters, especially if the litter is of a dusty nature. The disease is accom- panied by a hacking cough, followed by the development of false membranes in the nose. It must be treated promptly in order to secure satisfactory results. Sul- phate of soda in doses of x /% pound should be given by way of the mouth at once and a mustard poulti or some other blister may be applied to the wind pipe. In cases of suffocation it may be neces- sary to open the wind pipe as is done in the operation called tracheotomy. This operation frequently becomes necessary in cases of laryngitis, which is a compar- atively rare disease in sheep and is due to exposure to rain or confinement in close, unsanitary buildings. The symp- toms are persistent coughing, snuffling, and soreness of the throat. The treat- ment should consist in proper ventilation and disinfection of the sheep quarters, after which the affected animals may be made to inhale sulphur fumes or the water vapor from a boiling kettle. The treatments of sulphate of soda at the rate of 2 pounds daily for each 100 head of sheep usually give satisfactory results. Croupous bronchitis — This trouble is usually the result of inhaling irritating gases or smoke, especially such as comes from smelters. In the vicinity of smelters the disease may occur in large numbers of animals, otherwise it is obviously not very frequent. Occasionally this trouble develops in connection with certain other contagious diseases which cause a high temperature and general prostration of the animal. Counter-irritants applied to the chest may give some relief but, as a rule, treatment for the disease is quite unsatisfactory. ^ Croupous pneumonia—This disease is likewise caused by confinement in too warm buildings or allowing heavy fleeces to remain too long after the advent of hot weather. It usually takes a very acute form, indicating congestion and inflammation of the lungs. Direct treat- ment for the disease is almost entirely without avail, but occasionally relief may be obtained from the administration of castor oil in doses of 2 or 3 ounces fol- lowed by ammonium acetate in y 2 ounce doses or acetanilid in doses of l 1 ^ ounces. Pleurisy — l n connection with pneu- monia, pleurisy may sometimes occur and may be recognized by the high fever, rapid pulse, and short, jerky breathing accompanied with a dry, painful cough. The same treatment should be used as in pneumonia but is not very satisfac- tory. Blood and nervous diseases — A num- ber of diseases of the blood system and nervous system occur in sheep, but the symptoms are not particularly character- istic and the troubles, if serious, usually require the attention of the veterinarian. It is, therefore, useless to discuss these diseases in this connection more than briefly to mention the fact that the more important ones are dropsy, inflammation of the heart, thumps, inflammation of the brain, cerebro-spinal meningitis, apo- plexy, fits, paralysis, heat exhaustion and sunstroke. In the rare instances in which sunstroke occurs in sheep the an- imal ^ may usually be relieved by im- mersing it in a tub or tank of cold water for a few minutes. It may then be given alcohol in y 2 ounce doses at frequent intervals and tincture of digitalis in tea- spoon doses. Abortion— As usually applied to sheep this term refers to the birth of the lamb at least 20 days before the normal period. Sometimes, however, it occurs much earlier and it is not observed at all. Abortion may be due to eating plants infested with ergot, smut, or other fungous diseases, to worry from dogs or other animals, jumping fences, exposure to severe storms, or the occurrence of an infectious disease which produces a high fever. Any mechanical injury to the abdomen may result in abortion. Many of these cases are due to infection and wherever this form of the disease occurs it is necessary to get rid of the affected ewes. According to extensive statistics collected on the subject of abortion and sterility in ewes, it appears that from 4 to 8 per cent of most breeds of ewes abort, for one reason or another. While it is usually recommended that the dis- 140 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ease be treated in a preventive way by avoiding tbe conditions wbich cause it, it is the best policy to fatten all ewes wbicb have once aborted and sell them for mutton. It is useless to take further chances with them as breeding stock. Garget — This trouble may be due to exposure to cold soon after lambing, bruises caused by the lamb, or by strik- ing against stones or other hard objects. The disease appears most frequently in old ewes and the time finally comes with every ewe when she can no longer be used for breeding purposes for the rea- son that the udder is almost sure to be affected with garget or mammitis. On the western sheep ranges where little attention can be given to each particu- lar ewe in regard to the condition of the udder, it has been found advisable not to keep ewes for breeding purposes be- yond the age of about six years. In small flocks where individual treatment can be given to each affected ewe, doses of Epsom salts in 3 or 4 ounces may be given followed by an ointment applied directly to the udder and consisting of 4 ounces of vaseline, 2 ounces of cam- phor ointment, and V2 ounce of extract of belladonna. The ewe should also be thoroughly milked for a few days in or- der to relieve the congestion of the udder Sore eyes — Dust, pollen and other ma- terials may cause an inflammation of the eyes and this trouble is particularly fre- quent on the dry, dusty ranges, especially where the dust contains considerable alkali. If it is possible or desirable to give individual treatment in such cases, a good eye wash may be prepared by mixing 30 grains of boric acid and 15 grains of sulphate of zinc in 3 ounces of water. Occasionally an eye disease or ophthalmia appears in an apparently infectious form, but it may be due to the presence of dust as just mentioned and may affect a large number of animals giving the appearance of an infection. If the discharge from the eyes should become thick and purulent, it may be de- sirable to shut the sheep up in a dark place. After bathing the eyes in warm water blow into them a mixture of equal parts of calomel and boric acid. Eczema — On account of the fact that the skin of sheep is so abundantly pro- tected by the heavy coat of wool, eczema is of rare occurrence among these ani- mals. Occasionally an eczemic condi- tion of the skin is brought about as a result of parasitism of internal worms. A form of the disease known as moist eczema occurs in sheep which are in poor condition and suffer from unusual exposure to cold rains. Eczema may ap- pear most frequently on thin Avooled sheep, especially in animals on which the wool parts on the back in such a man- ner as to receive and hold water during rains storms. Recovery ordinarily takes place spontaneously and as a rule there is no satisfactory treatment except to change the conditions under which the sheep were kept so as to prevent the agencies which have caused the disease from continuing in operation. Other forms of eczema sometimes occur in sheep, for example, one which is quite similar to grease in the horse. Fagopy- rism is also known in sheep. This is due to eating too much buckwheat or the milling products of this grain or to eating large quantities of wild buck- wheat, smartweed, or other wild plants closely related to buckwheat. The symp- toms consist in a swelling and slough- ing off of the external part of the skin, particularly about the head, face and other parts of the body covered only with short wool. Foot rot — Apparently there are two forms of foot rot, the contagious and noncontagious. It is not always cer- tain, however, that the slight cases which appear to be noncontagious are not caused by the specific organism of foot rot. Infection apparently takes place as a result of injuries to the hoof, partic- ularly between tbe two halves of the hoof, and this infection is particidarly dangerous when the hoofs are allowed to grow too long so as to inclose vari- ous filthy substances between the two halves. As a result of an extensive study of this disease by Mohler and Washburn it appears that the first evi- dence of the disease is a slight lameness which rapidly increases, and a reddened, feverish condition of the hoof. The ex- perienced sheepman is able to detect at once the existence of the disease by the peculiar odor of the infected hoofs. When no treatment is applied pus forms under the hoof and leads to the com- plete loosening of the hoof, finally also attacking the bone. If no attention is given to the affected animal, the disease may assume a chronic form and lead to great malformation of the hoof and bone DISEASES OF ANIMALS 141 of the foot. Occasionally the toes be- come twisted and elongated to the ex- tent of 3 or 4 inches, being turned up at the end. Ordinarily there is consider- able fever and the appetite is badly affected. The disease commonly appears in one foot but extends to the other three feet and spreads rapidly throughout the herd. According to the investigations of Mohler this disease is due to the pres- ence of Bacillus necrophorus which causes a number of other similar troubles in other animals. In preventing this disease it is desirable to thoroughly in- spect and quarantine sheep which are purchased from outsido sources before they are allowed to enter the flock. It is also desirable to examine the feet of the herd at regular intervals for the pur- pose of finding out whether the condi- tion is satisfactory in all cases. Over- grown hoofs should be pared away so that the wearing surface will come in regular and complete contact with the ground. Treatment — In case of an outbreak of foot rot among a herd of sheep, all affected sheep should be immediately is- olated and all the sheep, whether dis- eased or not, should be made to pass through a shallow trough containing a solution of chloride of lime at the rate of 1 pound to 12 quarts of water. The depth of the solution should be 4 inches or more. Another effective solution con- sists of 1 pound of carbolic acid for each 4 gallons of water. After treat- ment the healthy part of the herd should be placed in a clean, uncontaminated pasture and the diseased animals left for further treatment. The hoofs should be pared away so as to remove all loos- ening horn tissue after which the sheep may be made to stand for 10 minutes in a strong solution of blue vitriol as warm as may be borne by the hand. The solu- tion recommended by Mohler consists of 3 pounds of blue vitriol or copper sul- phate in 5 gallons of water. The solu- tion should be no deeper than is neces- sary to cover the hoof and the sheep should be prevented from lying down in it since great injury would result to the skin and wool. Foot and mouth disease — The symp- toms of foot and mouth disease in sheep might be mistaken for those of foot rot. The lesions in the feet in the case of foot-and-mouth disease are, however, much more superficial than in the case of foot rot, and disappear spontaneously after the disease has run its course. Moreover, the lesions in foot-and-mouth disease are more apt to be visible than in the case of foot rot and are accom- panied with pustules and ulcers in the mouth. Finally, foot-and-mouth disease is far more infectious than foot rot and spreads with far greater rapidity. Arthritis — This trouble arises as a result of infection which takes place at birth, the infectious material entering through the unclosed navel cord. The symptoms appear soon after birth, the lamb being feverish, without appetite, and lame in one or more joints. Pus may form in some of the affected joints and in some of the internal organs. There is no treatment for the disease after it has once appeared but it may be effectively prevented by washing the navel cord soon after birth with a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Ilalignant edema_A form of blood poisoning or malignant edema quite of- ten occurs as a result of infection from injury with unclean instruments, es- pecially sheep shears. Professional sheep shearers are sometimes very care- less in this regard and carry about with them shears which have become badly contaminated with the bacilli of malig- nant edema. When they cut the skin of sheep in shearing them an infection is almost sure to take place at this point and leads to an extensive swell- ing which is hot and painful and pro- duces an exudation with a disagreeable odor. The disease is ordinarily fatal, terminating in a few days. Where sheep are badly cut in shearing, they may also become infected by allowing them to lie down in old filthy corrals, since the bacillus of malignant edema commonly occurs in such soil. It is al- ways desirable, therefore, to give some heed to this matter, since otherwise large losses may occur. Occasionally a loss of 100 to 200 sheep has been observed in a single band of 2,000 as a result of infection with malignant edema. Big head — A peculiar and fatal dis- ease of unknown origin occurs among sheep in Utah, Nevada, Idaho, and Wyoming under the name big head. The characteristic symptoms of the dis- ease are great swelling of the head and ears, with an occasional extension of the dropsical condition along the 142 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK neck even tc the shoulders. The ears, in some cases, swell to the thickness of an inch and affected sheep show pronounced cerebral symptoms. About 50 per cent of cases die and those which recover are so badly affected that they are of little value for stock purposes. There are certain areas which are com- monly recognized as dangerous on ac- count of the unusual occurrence of this disease on them. This fact gives some basis to the belief that the disease is due to some poisonous plant. No plant has been found, however, which would cause the symptoms of big head. The trouble has also been attributed to the bites of scorpions, but the local dis- tribution of the disease would not har- monize well with this supposition. It may be an infectious disease of which the micro-organism is unknown. In some respects it resembles the disease com- monly known as geel dikkop, which oc- curs in South Africa, and is there be- lieved to be of infectious nature. In some seasons big head causes the loss of from 20,000 to 50,000 sheep and is, therefore, an important disease in the localities where it occurs. Big head appears mostly in the spring, in April and May, but, according to some sheep raisers has also been observed in the fall. It has been known in the localities where it occurs for the past 30 years. Rabies — In sheep, the incubation pe- riod for this disease ranges from 25 to 90 days. Symptoms are much the same as those observed in other animals and include restlessness, bleating, stamping of the feet, and the tendency to bite. (See under Diseases of Dogs.) Parasitic ictero-hematuria — This dis- ease, also known as carceag in Europe, is due to a minute animal parasite of the blood related to the plood parasite of Texas fever. The parasite is found in the blood, liver, spleen, kidneys, and other organs, and the disease appears to be confined to sheep. Among the first symptoms are fever and bloody urine, followed by a yellow condition of the skin and dropsical swellings or- the side of the head and neck, after which the animal remains for much of the time in a crouching position. When ex- amined post-mortem, affected animals show a decided yellow color in the skin and fat tissue- and an enlargement of the kidneys. The disease is quite gen- erally distributed in Europe, but in this country occurs chiefly in limited areas in the Eocky Mountain states, partic- ularly in Montana and Idaho. No satis- factory remedies have been devised but in a few instances it has been found that goats are not susceptible to the disease and for this reason sheep raisers have taken to grazing goats on the in- fested areas. Sheeppox — This disease, while un- known in the United States, might pos- sibly be introduced and is therefore brief- ly mentioned. It is one of the most im- portant and universally distributed dis- eases of sheep in Europe and it has caused the loss of millions of sheep. It still prevails to a large extent in various parts of Europe. The disease is closely related to cowpox and smallpox. The symptoms include rapid breathing, fever, chills, and depression, followed in a day or two by red spots on the bare parts of the skin. If the eruptions are close together the affected parts become great- ly swollen. After a few days vesicles or pustules are formed which burst and form scabs. A system of vaccination has been devised for the control of sheep- pox. The permanent home of the dis- ease appears to be in Asia, from which outbreaks continually originate. Some of the native sheep of Africa have been found to be relatively unsusceptible to the disease, while European sheep intro- duced into those localities rapidly die by infection. Blackleg — (See under Diseases of Cattle.) Anthrax — Sheep are very susceptible to this disease and ordinarily develop anthrax in an acute or apoplectic form. (See under Diseases of the Horse.) Lockjaw — Tetanus or lockjaw is occasionally observed in sheep as the result of an infection from wounds by nails or splinters. The period of in- cubation is about one week and the death rate is very high. (See under Diseases of the Horse.) Tuberculosis — Sheep are not as sus- ceptible to tuberculosis as cattle and hogs, but when an outbreak occurs, af- fected animals should be separated from the rest of the flock in order to prevent the further spread of the disease. Ulcerative leg infection — A disease resembling erysipelas appeared among a number of herds of sheep in New York and also affected dairy cows in the same locality. The first symptoms were swell- ing in the region of the fetlock and pas- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 143 tern joints. The disease appeared to originate as a result of infection in wounds while the sheep were allowed to stand in the mud. The best treat- ment was found in the use of an iodized phenol or a saturated solution of borax. Creolin also gave good results when ap- plied to the affected parts. Aspergillosis_A number of molds belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium have been found to be some- what pathogenic when inhaled into the lungs in large quantities. The spores may germinate in the lungs, causing the development of tubercles, which some- what resemble those of true tuberculosis. trouble prevails most extensively in cer- tain localities in the western parts of the United States but ordinarily runs a be- nign course and therefore does not at- tract much attention except upon the inspection of mutton after slaughter. All kinds of sheep, whether pure breeds or common stock, are equally susceptible, but the symptoms do not develop to an alarming extent except among breeding ewes. According to the investigations of Norgaard and Mohler fatal cases are practically unknown and the losses which result from the rejection of af- fected carcasses in abbattoirs are very small. Fiff. 98 — AN ADVANCED CASE OF COMMON SCAB There is no satisfactory treatment for the disease except that of a preventive nature, which naturally consists in avoiding the use of moldy or dusty hay for sheep. Pseudo-tuberculosis — This disease is well known in Europe and the United States and is sometimes also referred to as caseous lymphadenitis. It is a specific, infectious disease caused by a bacillus which is pathogenic for a num- ber of small laboratory animals as well as sheep. It is apparently not patho- genic for chickens or pigeons and it ap- pears doubtful whether the disease ever develops in horse and cattle. This Influenza — J n cases of this disease in sheep the affected animals show great depression, fever, weakness, and stagger- ing gait, a cough develops and the appe- tite is gradually lost. In some outbreaks, diarrhea is a striking symptom, together with such complications as pneumonia and meningitis. The lesions which oc- cur in this disease vary greatly accord- ing to the part affected and are found chiefly in the respiratory organs. In the catarrhal form of the disease, Craig and Bitting recommend one tablespoon- ful three times daily of a mixture con- taining 4 grams tincture of belladonna, Yo gram tincture of aconite and enough sirup of squill to make 4 ounces. 144 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Scab — Taking the country as a whole scab is the most important disease af- fecting sheep. It is due to the pres- ence of a mite (Psoroptes communis ovis) in the skin and is readily contagious from one animal to another. Fig. 99 — A SMALL PORTABLE DIPPING VAT FOR SMALL FLOCKS The mite burrows in the skin, causing an intense itching and irritation which leads to the formation of pustules, scabs, and the loss of wool. The infected area of the skin rapidly extends as the mites multiply, so that the disease pro- stages before scabs have formed and be- fore the wool begins to fall off. Loose locks of wool are soon observed and as the scabby area extends over the shoul- ders, back and sides, the affected sheep presents a very disagreeable appearance. Investigation and results — It has been found that scab mites may live for six months or longer in the soil of infest- ed localities without any nourishment derived from sheep. If the eggs of the mite are kept at a temperature nearer that of the body they hatch within about four to eight days. Sheep scab prevails to the greatest extent over the western range districts, where sheep are kept under less careful supervision than when raised in small flocks on farms in the thickly settled eastern agricultural regions. Too little attention was paid to the gradual spread of this disease un- til it finally became a veritable plague and was forced upon the attention of federal and state sanitary officers and ^ !S|3f i?2 RfPnHN Fig. 100 DIPPING PLANT grosses over nearly all parts of the body, which are heavily covered with wool. The irritation makes the sheep restless and causes them to rub and bite affected parts and these actions on the the part of the sheep constitute one of the surest symptoms by which the dis- ease may be recognized in the early upon the sheep raisers themselves. The work of eradication was then taken up in a vigorous manner by the Bureau of Animal Industry and by various state veterinarians and other local stock of- ficials and has been carried on for many years with striking results. In 1904, the Bureau of Animal Industry in- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 145 spected 40,968,000 sheep and dipped 9,- 578,000. The results of inspection in- dicate a decided reduction in the num- ber of scabby sheep received at the principal market centers and this is considered as due partly to the extended use of compulsory dipping. In certain states as for example, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho and Oregon, the conditions with regard to sheep scab had become very serious and required the dipping of sheep ing together 4 ounces oil of turpentine, 6 ounces sulphur, and 1 pound of lard. In the extensive dipping of sheep under federal supervision, lime-sulphur is the dip most in use. As a result of the dipping of millions of sheep during re- cent years it appears that the federal system has been successful in producing cures, preventing scab in 92 per cent of all cases and in effecting a complete cure in 85 per cent of infected sheep. •*n r, 1 M i- ' . i ..,.. -^^kjL^ j- i- qr ""•"♦• ^"^Wl^ - 1/ s Fig. 101 SIDE VIEW OF DIPPING TLAXT SHOWING INCLINED EGRESS AND DRIPPING FLOOR on the very extensive scale already men- tioned. As a result of this work sheep scab has been almost eradicated in Wy- oming, is under control in Utah and Ore- gon, and is being vigorously attacked in Idaho, where millions of sheep were dipped in 1905. The adoption of com- pulsory dipping for sheep was at first looked upon as an unnecessary hardship for sheepmen but it was soon recognized that the great advantages resulting from clean sheep far more than outweighed the slight initial disadvantage and trouble of dipping. In regard to the effectiveness of different dips, tobacco extract and sulphur ap- pears to lead the list, followed by lime and sulphur and nicotine and sulphur. The effectiveness of lime and sulphur, however, in recent years has been rather higher than that of any other sheep dip. In the treatment of exposed sheep, lime and sulphur, according to the most recent statistics, stands first, with an effectiveness of 99 per cent, followed by tobacco extract and sulphur at 94 per cent and nicotine and sulphur at 85 per cent. It is recommended by the of- Fig. 102 PLAN OF DIPPING PLANT VIEWED FROM ABOVE A large variety of dips have been used for the purpose of curing scab and many hand applications have also been recommended. Hand treatment of sheep, however, is as a rule unsatisfac- tory for the reason that not all affected areas can be recognized at the time of treatment and some of the mites may, therefore, escape. A fairly effective hand application may be made by mix- ficials who have charge of this work in the United States that all dips should contain sulphur to the extent of lO 1 /^ pounds per 100 gallons of water. Process of dipping—Sheep dip should be used at a temperature of 100° to 110° F. and each sheep should be kept in the dip for about 2 minutes. Where a large number of sheep are to be dipped an extensive system of corrals con- 146 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK nected with a single or double dipping vat must be provided. Some of the dipping- vats now in use will allow running through 10,000 to 15,000 sheep a day. The tobacco and sulphur dip is prepared from 1 pound of tobacco leaves and 1 pound of sulphur for each 6 gallons of water. The materials has not existed long. In old cases, how- ever, with a large development of scab and crusts over the affected parts, the Fort Collins formula, calling for 11 pounds of lime and 33 pounds of sul- phur jter 100 gallons of water, is recom- mended. In preparing the lime and sul- phur dip the lime is slaked in enough c£tuu.ti(L J->in(^ . iEaPii Fig. 103 SMALL DIPPING PLANT. A, COLLECTING YARD; B, DIPPING VAT; C, PLACE FOR attendant; D, incline to draining pens E and F. lower figure gives DIMENSIONS OF VAT are mixed and kept in a lukewarm con- dition for about 24 hours, after which they are brought to the boiling temper- ature and then allowed to cool. Lime and sulphur dips have been pre- pared according to various formulas con- taining 10V 2 , 11, 15, 16 2-3, 33 1-3 pounds of lime and 15, 16 2-3, 20 5-6, water to make a nme paste, after which the sulphur is sifted into the lime paste and the whole mixed. The mixture is then boiled in a small amount of water for a1 least two hours with occasional stirring. The boiling should continue until the sulphur disappears from the surface of the mixture. The preparation Fiff. 104 — DIAGRAM OF DIPPING VAT SEEN FROM ABOVE jjjjliill and 33 pounds of sulphur per 100 gal- lons of water. The Bureau of Animal Industry has also used a formula calling for 8 pounds of lime and 20 pounds of sulphur per 100 gallons of water. The last named formula is recommended as very efficacious in cases where the scab should then be allowed to settle and the clear liquid drawn off, adding enough water for the proportions called for by the formulas just given. The federal authorities recommend that the sedi- ment should never be allowed in the dipping vat, but in many instances DISEASES OF ANIMALS 147 where sheep have been dipped by their owners this has been done without caus- ing any injury. The chief objections which have been raised against different sheep dips are their injurious effect upon the sheep or upon the color or staple of the wool. An extensive investigation of this matter was made by Hollings in Bradford, Eng- land, from the standpoint of the quality of the wool. Many complaints have been made by wool buyers of injuries to wool from different kinds of dips. The investigations in question cover nearly all of the English colonies. It appeared that as a rule the low price paid for inferior grades of wool was due to the injury from the different dips. Hol- lings condemns lime and sulphur dip as alkali or arsenic be present in the dip great harm results to the wool. On this account the use of arsenical dips can hardly be recommended as a general farm practice, since mistakes might easily be made in compounding the dip. As a matter of fact the injury to the wool from the use of lime and sulphur dips has caused exceedingly few com- plaints in this country and it is recom- mended as the best dip not only for effectiveness in curing scab but for ease in preparation and application and com- parative harmlessness to the sheep and wool. Head scab — This disease is also caused by a parasitic mite (Sarcoptes scabiei oris). Other varieties of this mite cause itch or mange in other farm Fig. 105 — SECTION OF DIPPING VAT SEEN FROM THE SIDE injurious. It was claimed to cause trouble in scouring, dyeing and weaving of the wool and for this reason has been abandoned by many sheep raisers in Australia, Tasmania, and Argentine Re- public. Tobacco dips were found to stain the wool in large percentages of cases except where sheep were dipped immediately after shearing. Tobacco dips are further objected to on the ground that they are injurious to the Fig. 106 SMALL DRIPPING CHUTE, WITH TROUGH AT END TO CATCH DRIP sheep. Carbolic dips, and especially those containing pitch oil, are injurious to the wool staple. Hollings believes as a result of his investigations that ar- senical dips are effective in curing scab and that these dips cause the least in- jury to wool when properly prepared and applied. If, however, an excess of either animals, producing similar diseases upon them. The attacks of the mite are largely confined to the head and this gives rise to the common name for the disease. The mange caused by the head scab mite may extend backward about the eyes, ears and neck. The mites burrow under the skin of parts not heavily covered with wool, causing the formation of pustules, which become in- crusted. Any of the dips commonly used in the treatment of scab will cure this form of scab and the cure takes place promptly with the remedies ap- plied in other stages of the disease. The crusts may first be removed by rub- bing with oil, after which, if other dips are not convenient, kerosene emulsion or a tar sulphur oil ointment will give satisfactory results. Botfly_The sheep botfly (Oestrus ovis) lays its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep in early summer and the eggs, up- on hatching, develop into grubs which penetrate deeply into the nasal cavity and after becoming full grown fall to the ground where they bury themselves and finally emerge as adult flies. The flies somewhat resemble the common house fly but are covered with small round spots and the abdomen bears velvety 148 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK brown and straw colored hairs. The flies may be seen all summer long wor- rying sheep which in badly infested lo- calities form a habit of carrying the nose close to the ground in order to keep out the botflies. Sheep sometimes resort to dusty roads for this purpose. The pres- ence of the grubs in the nasal passages causes considerable congestion and ul- ceration and in some cases death. In most localities where sheep raising has been practiced for a century or more al- most every sheep carries from 2 to 3 grubs in the head from October to June. Treatment for this trouble is somewhat difficult. The maggots may sometimes Fig. 107 FEMALE SHEEP SCAB MITE be dislodged by the use of a feather dip- ped in turpentine and inserted into the nostrils. Fumigation by means of sul- phur fumes and other gases in closed rooms has proved injurious to sheep and only partly effective in removing the maggots. In serious cases it may be ad- visable to trephine the outer blade of bone, after which the maggots may be re- moved and the part thoroughly washed out in tepid water containing a suitable antiseptic. One of the best preventive means for controlling this trouble is to smear tar about the nostrils in sheep, since this substance has a tendency to keep the flies from laying their eggs in the nostrils. A good plan recommended by many sheep raisers consists in boring holes in a log in which salt is placed and tar smeared around the margins of the holes. The sheep in eating the salt keep the nose smeared with tar. SHEEP SCAB MITE (MALE., Tick — The common sheep tick is not a true tick but a wingless fly which is very generally distributed throughout the country and causes great damage, not, as a rule, in killing any infested sheep but in bringing about a loss of flesh and unthriftiness. The parasite (Melophagus ovinus) is often considered Mft^S&P^'"^' • : Fig. 109 SHEEP BOTS. ARROW SHOWS LOCATION OF GRUBS. INDIANA EXPERIMENT STATION of little importance as an enemy of the sheep, but really causes serious losses of lambs in many localities. It is partly DISEASES OF ANIMALS 149 due to the fact that after the ewes are shorn the ticks migrate at once to the lambs and cause great irritation. In many localities, it has been found desir- able to dip both ewes and lambs imme- diately after shearing in order to get rid of this pest. For this purpose sheep may be dipped in a lime-sulphur solution or any other dip which is commonly recommended for sheep scab. The dip, however, need not be so strong as recom- mended for scab, for the reason that ticks are not under the surface of the skin but simply crawling about in the wool. A weak creolin dip will therefore give quite satisfactory result and sheep need not be held so long in the dip as in the case of scab. Where the tick prevails to an excessive degree it is well to dip the sheep after shearing and also in the fall. Bladder worm — Upon examining sheep after slaughter it sometimes occurs that the larval stages or bladder worm form of the tapeworm (Taenia margi- nata) are found in the caul. This is the larval condition of the tapeworm which occurs in the dog but is most fre- quently found in the bladder worm form in sheep and pigs and occasionally in cattle. The vesicle in which the bladder worm occurs is found in all sizes rang- ing from that of a pea to that of a man's fist. The bladder worm is most fre- quently found in the pleura and peri- toneum covering the walls of the body cavities. Since this parasite lives in the adult form in the intestines of dogs it is desirable that dogs be treated at regu- lar intervals with some vermifuge like aloes in order to expel the tapeworms and that all unnecessary dogs be kept away from sheep pastures, since the eggs of tapeworms from dogs may be taken into the stomach of sheep with their feed and thus give rise to an infestation. The bladder worm stage in sheep is us- ually a harmless parasite. It may, when occurring in large numbers, cause death in young animals, but this is quite in- frequent. Gid or staggers — This disease is also caused by a bladder worm stage of a tapeworm (Taenia coenurus) which lives in the intestines of dogs. The bladder worm is about the size of hazelnuts and is provided with a thin membrane. It penetrates from the alimentary tract to the brain, where it causes peculiar symp- toms which characterize the disease. Affected sheep have the tendency to turn round and round in a circle toward the side of the brain in which the parasite is located. There is practically no treat- ment for this disease, but prevention may be accomplished to a large extent by burying or destroying the head of af- fected sheep so as to prevent the dogs from becoming reinfested from eating the bladder worm stage of the tapeworm. Gid is of common occurrence in Europe, but has not been known in the United States until within the past few years. It has recently been reported from a number of localities in Montana and was observed in the Judith Basin by one of us. In some cases where the bladder worm is located near the top of the head an actual enlargement of the skull may 110 GID WORM OX SHEEP BRAIN take place and the worm may be re- moved by trephining at this point. It should also be remembered that wolves, coyotes, and foxes may be infested with the adult worm and may, therefore, carry infection. Fringed tapeworm (Taenia fimlriata) — This is a very common intestinal para- site of sheep, especially in the western states, where it causes extensive financial loss. It is found in a large majority of flocks of sheep throughout the Rocky mountains and in some cases whole car- loads of sheep have been found badly af- fected to the extent of 60 per cent or more. The fringed tapeworm varies from 6 to 8 inches in length and is found in the small intestines and bile ducts. When present in large numbers the lambs are weakened and fail to de- velop or put on fat. The general symp- toms are those of malnutrition and many investigators have believed that excessive infestation by this tapeworm is one of the causes of loco, disease. In the intestines, the tapeworm causes a local irritation and similar effects are produced in the bile ducts in addition to stopping the flow of bile. It is not known how the worm lives from the egg stage until it is again found in the intestines of sheep, but some experi- ments by Curtice indicate that occa- sional infection may take place directly 150 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK from one sheep to another without an intermediate host. Treatment _ for fringed tapeworm is usually without very satisfactory results. The medi- cines which are used for this purpose become so diluted before they reach the small intestines that they have but lit- tle effect on the tapeworms. Powdered areca nut may be given in doses of V2 to 1 dram and oil of male fern 10 to 20 drops, or the ethereal extract of male fern may be given in dram doses. One pound of copper sulphate dissolved in 2 quarts of water and then diluted _ to make a solution of 8 gallons gives^ fairly satisfactory results when administered in doses of 2-3 ounce for young lambs and 1 1-3 ounces for lambs two months of age. Broad tapeworm (Moniezia expansa) — This parasite attains the length of 12 to 15 feet and is V2 to % inch in width. The life history of the tapeworm is not understood. It affects lambs and young sheep more frequently than other ani- mals. The symptoms of infection are malnutrition, whiteness of the wool, and paleness about the eyes and lips. A posi- tive diagnosis, however, is as a rule very difficult. The worm develops very rapidly in the intestines of infested sheep. No medicinal treatment of a satisfactory nature has been devised. Liver fluke (Fasciola hcpalica) — This parasite is of quite common occur- rence in the liver of sheep and cattle throughout the country, but many large areas are comparatively free from it. The usual location of the liver fluke is in the bile ducts of sheep, goats, cattle, Fig. Ill SNAIL IN WHICH ONE STAGE OF THE LIFE OF THE FLUKE WORM IS PASSED and hogs. Occasionally it is also found in the horse. It is found in small or large numbers in the liver of nearly all sheep and cattle and for this reason can- not be considered as a source of serious disease except when it is present in un- usually large numbers. It is only in rare instances that the liver tissue it- gelf is affected by the presence of the fluke. The life history of the fluke is quite complicated. The eggs pass out through the bile duct and intestines with the feces. After hatching in ponds and pools of water the young, immature flukes are parasitic in the body of fresh water snails. There are two or three immature stages which are passed in the water and finally the larvae crawl onto the stems of grasses, from which posi- tion they gain entrance to the stomach of sheep. The symptoms of liver rot due to fluke worms are not easily recog- nized. Badly affected sheep are un- thrifty, show a poor appetite, and a yel- low tinge to the skin, as well as paleness about the lips and eyes. During the later stages of the disease the sheep becomes rapidly emaciated and if badly infected the mortality is high. This dis- ease is more prevalent in wet than dry years. There are no remedies which bring results in removing the flukes. Even the use of tonics are of little avail. When the young larvae are first taken into the stomach they are susceptible to the action of salt and it is sometimes suggested that the free use of salt will help to prevent bad infection. - l^KeM,^ Fig. 112 SHEEP AFFECTED WITH TWISTED STOMACH WORMS AS SHOWN AT "A" Stomach worm {Slrongylus contor- tus) — Sheep are very commonly infest- ed with this parasite and east of the Mississippi river it is perhaps the most serious disease with which the sheep raiser has to contend. In Indiana, Craig and Bitting estimate that the average annual loss from this parasite is about 30,000 sheep. It is to be found in nearly all flocks in small numbers but serious symptoms and losses occur only when the parasite is present in large numbers. Lambs are particularly susceptible, especially before weaning. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 151 The stomach worm, as its name indi- cates, is parasitic in the stomach and is a small, threadlike worm about Y2 inch to 1 inch in length and of a white or reddish brown color. The life history of the parasite, while not thoroughly understood, appears to be such that in- festation may take place directly from one sheep to another after the parasite has passed out with the feces and existed some time in moist places or stagnant water. The symptoms of stomach worms are not very characteristic. There are digestive disturbances accompanied with diarrhea. The appetite is abnormal and quite irregular. Frequently the thirst appears to be increased. In preventing this disease it should always be remembered that the young worms are taken up by sheep in grazing upon moist, badly infested grass. In- festation may, therefore, be avoided to a considerable extent by frequent change of pastures. During wet seasons it is well to arrange pasture lands so that the use of such fields may be alternated every third or fourth day. If pas- ture fields are known to be badly in- fested, the sheep may be taken up dur- ing part of the time and fed on dry forage. Many lines of treatment have been recommended and some of them give quite good success but they are hard to administer and in general are unsatisfactory in results. This is par- ticularly true in large flocks where the repeated administration of a drench to each individual sheep requires an ex- pense of time and labor which is almost prohibitive. Vermifuges as a rule be- come badly diluted before reaching the fourth stomach, where the worms are located. A vermifuge powder recom- mended by Craig and Bitting contains y 2 pound each of areca nut and wormseed and i/4 pound each of gentian, sulphur and sulphate of iron. An ounce of this mixture is given to each ten lambs or six old sheep in the morning with meal or crushed gram. Turpentine has also been used in treating sheep for stomach worms. This drug may be mixed with milk at the rate of 1 part to 16 and the mixture given in doses of 1 to 3 table- spoonfuls, depending upon the size of the lamb. Still better results are obtained from the mixture containing 8 parts pine tar, 8 parts raw linseed oil, and 1 part turpentine, in doses of 1 to 3 ounces. An emulsion may be made by adding 1 ounce of turpentine to 2 ounces of raw linseed oil and adminis- tering this mixture in doses of V2 ounce to 1 ounce. This remedy should be given in a perfectly fresh condition. Considerable success has been reported from the use of benzine and gasoline and these remedies are recommended by Stiles and others as the best for use against the stomach worm. Each dose of gasoline or benzine must be mixed separately in linseed oil or milk and the mixture may be given to lambs in tea- spoonful doses and to old sheep in table- spoonful doses. While excellent results have been reported by some men who have used this remedy, others have re- ported unfavorably on its use. Accord- ing to some investigations it appears that 4 ounces of sweet milk containing one tablespoonful of gasoline is a suit- able dose for a sheep weighing from 60 to 100 pounds. This treatment should be given only after a fasting period from 10 to 18 hours and no water should be given until after a further pe- riod of two hours. Moreover, the treat- ment must be given on three consecutive days and then repeated for another three days a week or ten days later. The gaso- line or benzine can best be administered with a fountain syringe having a rubber tube that can be passed well back into the mouth and the sheep should be held in a standing position, since if it is set on its haunches some of the gasoline may pass into the lungs and cause death. One of the most recent treatments which has been highly recommended con- sists in giving coal tar creosote in a 1 per cent solution in water, the dose be- ing 2 ounces for young lambs. In a single treatment Craig and Bitting ob- tained better results from this than from any other method. Wheeler, at Biltmore, North Carolina, obtained best results from lysol and other coal tar products in doses of 6 ounces in 1 per cent solution. The chief attention, however, should always be given to means of keeping lambs away from con- taminated feed and water, since preven- tion is far more successful and profitable than remedial treatment. Intestinal worms_A number of threadlike worms are frequently found in the upper part of the small intestine of sheep. These include Strongylus venlricosus, S. filicollis and Dochmms cernuus. All of these are minute para- sites which may be found associated to- gether in the intestines and usually 152 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK cause only slight symptoms of disease. They may be most effectively treated by the use of vermifuges like areca nut. Lung worms — The hair lung worm is found in the small air cells of the lungs and causes a form of pneumonia, while the thread lung worm inhabits the bron- chi, causing a hacking cough commonly known as verminous bronchitis. The hair lung worm is so exceedingly slender and long that it commonly escapes notice when the lung is examined post-mortem by individuals who are not acquainted with its location and appearance. The diagnosis of this disease cannot be made with certainty until the symptoms of pneumonia appear and obviously no me- dicinal treatment can be given which will expel the worm. The only success- ful way of preventing the disease con- sists in abandoning badly infested pas- tures for a year, or better still, plowing them up and cultivating them for years before they are again used as pastures. The thread lung worm (Strongylus fil- aria) is somewhat larger and is the one which is commonly referred to as caus- ing verminous bronchitis. It may readily be observed in the windpipe and bronchi in animals dead of this disease and occurs with about equal frequency in sheep and calves. The disease is most frequently observed in summer and fall and begins to diminish in intensity in winter. It is frequently referred to un- der the name hoose. Apparently wet seasons favor the development of lung worms. The various lines of treatment recommended for this trouble, while more or less successful, are scarcely capable of preventing the stunted con- dition in affected lambs. Among the large number of remedies recommended, turpentine is perhaps the best. It may be injected by means of a hypodermic syringe between the rings of the wind- pipe so as to pass directly into the wind- pipe. The turpentine may be mixed with equal parts of sweet oil to which carbolic acid has been added at the rate of 12 to 15 drops to a tablespoonful of the mixture. Two or more injections of this mixture made at intervals of a few days usually give quite satisfactory re- sttlts. Almost equally good results are obtained by injecting into the windpipe a mixture of 2 parts of olive oil and 1 part of turpentine in doses of 1 to 3 tea- spoonfuls. Some investigators have recommended that turpentine be admin- istered in the form of an inhalation by placing it in a bucket of boiling water or by pouring some on hot bricks near the head of the affected sheep. Sheep have also been driven into closed stables and made to inhale chlorine gas, or sul- phur fumes, for the purpose of induc- ing a cough and thus expelling the worms in the windpipe and bronchi. These remedies, however, are not very effective and are somewhat dangerous. Nodular disease — In some parts of the country, particularly in the southern and central states, nodules resembling those of tuberculosis are found in the in- testines of sheep and are due to the pres- ence of a parasitic worm (Oesophagos- ioma columbianum) . The disease caused by this parasite cannot be diagnosed with any certainty, but as a rule there is a pronounced anemic condition and a profuse diarrhea. In the case of death of any sheep in the herd a post-mortem examination of the intestines will dis- close the presence of numerous nodules in the intestinal walls if the worm in question is present. Obviously no treat- ment can be given which would affect the worm when protected by the mem- branes of the intestinal walls. Ac- cording to recent experiments by Dal- rymple, however, considerable success has been had from the use of a dry lot pasture for lambs. It should be remem- bered that when sheep afflicted with nod- dular disease of the intestines are placed upon a previously healthy pasture they infect this pasture very promptly. When healthy lambs are allowed to graze over such pastures they, in turn, become in- fested, but when not given access to in- fested pastures they do not contract the disease. It appears from Dalrymple's experiments that lambs from infected mothers may be raised in a healthy con- dition, provided they be kept on dry lots. This system merely requires that a small feed lot be thoroughly cultivated and kept clear. Green feed and grain may be fed and the lambs are thus pre- vented from eating any vegetation which might have become contaminated from the feces of the infested ewes. DISEASES OF GOATS Goats are commonly believed to be less susceptible to diseases than sheep. This is not true, however, for all dis- eases. For example, the lung and stom- ach worms are a very serious source of infection in goats and cause extensive losses. Goats are also readily affected with foot rot. With regard to stomach worm it should be said that low, wet DISEASES OF ANIMALS 153 lands are undesirable for use as goat pastures, since in such localities they become badly infested. Goats thrive best, therefore, on dry, mountain pas- tures where they can obtain plenty of browse. When allowed to graze under free conditions, goats, like sheep, seldom become affected with tuberculosis. In Germany and elsewhere in Europe, how- ever, it has been found that milch goats kept confined under insanitary condi- tions are perhaps as readily affected by tuberculosis as are cattle. Mohler in- vestigated a very fatal disease of goats known as takosis. The chief symptoms of this trouble are excessive weakness, emaciation and pneumonia. No medic- when kept under the restraint sometimes necessary, are more exposed to contagion and other forms of disease than when allowed to live a more free, natural life. Particular attention should therefore be given to the sanitary condition of poul- try houses, if the birds are not allowed a considerable amount of range. Roup i s a contagious disease often called "fowl diphtheria," resembling in many respects diphtheria of man. It is occasionally claimed that diphtheria in children has been acquired by contact with chicken roup and that roup has developed from diphtheria in children, but the evidence for this transmission of the disease is not forthcoming. Roup Fig. 113 — A CASE OF TAKOSIS IN A GOAT inal treatment is of avail against the disease. Mohler gave considerable at- tention to the perfection of a method of preventive vaccination. Fortunately, takosis appears to be waning in recent years. The common diseases to which goats are susceptible may be treated in the same manner as recommended for sheep. DISEASES OF POULTRY While chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and pigeons are subject to a great va- riety of diseases of an infectious and non-infectious nature, attention will be given in the present account to those which are of the most importance. It should be understood that all kinds of poultry, as well as large farm animals, affects the lining of the mouth, nose, larynx, eyes and sometimes extends into the lungs and intestines. The disease is characterized by a yellow, thick, false membrane on the affected parts. The membrane is attached to the underlying tissues, so that a bleeding surface is left when it is removed. So long as roup is confined to the mouth and larynx it may be cured but when it has infected the windpipe and lungs its progress cannot be checked. The eyes often become com- pletely covered over with false mem- branes and when the larynx is attacked the opening may be closed so that the chickens die of strangulation. At first a thin, watery discharge takes place from the eyes and nose and a fever may be noted after three or four days. The 154 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK disease is chiefly transmitted to healthy fowls hy eating pieces of membrane which have been thrown upon the ground by diseased birds. In treating roup a great variety of remedies have been tested without as much success as could be desired. In- fected fowls should be isolated and the premises disinfected with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, lime water or a solution of blue vitriol. The false membranes may be removed and tissue underneath touched with a stick of lunar caustic, after which the whole mouth may be washed out with a solu- tion of nitrate of silver at the rate of 8 grains per ounce of water. The affected patches may also be painted with iodine Fig. 114 TUBERCULOSIS OP INTESTINES IN CHICKENS. CAL. EXPERIMENT STATION and the mouth washed with a solution of borax, a 1 per cent solution of car- bolic acid, or a 3 per cent solution of peroxide of hydrogen. Ward and Moore nave tested forty or more remedies with- out complete success. Considerable benefit was derived from dipping the heads of affected fowls in kerosene, but often the disease recurred after an apparent recovery. Fowl cholera i s another contagious disease characterized by rapid emacia- tion and a constant and profuse diar- rhea. Medical treatment of this trouble is of little avail and therefore is not to be attempted. The disease attacks chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, pigeons and various cage birds, as well as certain species of wild birds, and infection spreads rapidly throughout the flock. All dead as well as diseased birds should be instantly buried or burned and the poul- try houses thoroughly disinfected. Occasionally some relief is obtained by giving a mixture of subnitrate of bismuth, soda and cinchona bark, but usually treatment is of no avail. A number of vaccination experiments for fowl cholera have been carried on but the method has not yet been put in shape for practical application. Tuberculosis affects all kinds of fowls, causing tubercles on the wings, parts of the skin, head and in the lungs, liver and other internal organs. The liver is affected in nearly all cases and contains numerous gray tubercles. A high tem- perature develops during the course of the disease, the comb becomes pale and great emaciation results. Tuberculosis is the cause of from 10 to 15 per cent of the deaths of young chicks in brood- ers and this fact indicates the impor- tance of strict sanitation in brooders. Extensive investigations in regard to the prevalence and treatment of tuber- culosis in fowls have been carried on in California and New York by Ward, Moore and others. At Petaluma, Cali- fornia, where chicken raising is con- ducted on a large scale, very serious out- breaks of tuberculosis have occurred. The tuberculin test has been tried in detecting the disease in its early stages, but is not very satisfactory with fowls for the reason that their normal tem- perature varies so greatly. The only satisfactory treatment for tuberculosis consists in the destruction of diseased birds and thorough disinfection. Going light, or asthenia, W as first in- vestigated by Dawson. The chief symp- tom of this trouble is emaciation with- out diarrhea and without loss of appe- tite. The disease is infectious and due to a bacillus which attacks chiefly the small intestines. Going light may per- sist for a long time, but the mortality is high. The disease has been reported in Maryland, Delaware and elsewhere, and may best be treated by giving cas- tor oil in doses of two teaspoonfuls or calomel in ^-grain doses, followed by a tonic. Chicken pox, also known as sore head and pigeon pox, has long been known in Europe and America. It prevails most DISEASES OF ANIMALS 155 extensively in the warm climates of the southern states, Hawaii and elsewhere. Chicken pox is due to a fungus which usually attacks the head, causing small eruptions near the eyes, ears or on the bill. The eyes may become entirely cov- ered over. All affected fowls should at once be removed and the premises disin- fected with whitewash, carbolic acid or Bordeaux mixture. The scabs may be removed by warm soapsuds and affect- ed parts painted with iodine or washed with nitrate of silver. According to Cary chickenpox is merely one form of roup. Leukaemia is a contagious disease with a short course, usually resulting in death within three days. Sick fowls droop and show a roughened plumage. There is high fever and paleness of the comb but no diarrhea. The small in- testines are inflamed and covered with a purulent secretion containing the bac- teria of the disease. The disease is thus spread by the feces of affected birds. Diseased fowls may be given a tonic of sulphate of iron at the rate of 2 to 4 grains daily with the feed and dis- infectant measures should be adopted. Losses in incubator chicks m ay be due to overcrowding in brooders and conse- quent death by suffocation. As already indicated, tuberculosis is very prevalent among chickens in brooders. Frequently chickens fail to absorb the yolk and in Rhode Island it is found that 35 per cent of incubator chicks are affected with a disease of the gall bladder in which a green stain can be seen on the outside of the body. This trouble is largely due to an unbalanced ration and indicates a lack of protein or animal feed in the diet. Liver, flesh, refuse meat, blood meal and other similar substances should be used. The chickens should be fed frequently and in small quantities. Gapes i s caused by a worm (Syngamus trachealis) in the windpipe. Infested chicks cough, assume a drooping pos- ture and lose weight rapidly. Many in- vestigators believe that gape worms live in earthworms and the chickens become infested by eating these worms. In certain experiments along this line, chickens allowed to eat earthworms were attacked with gapes, while those kept on a plank floor did not become infested. The trouble may be treated by applying a feather dipped in turpentine to the in- side of the throat. Internal doses of garlic or asafetida also have a beneficial effect. The fowls may also be made to breathe lime dust to induce violent coughing. Lice, mites and ticks— Chickens be- come infested with a considerable num- ber of parasitic insects and mites. The most common species are chicken flea, chicken tick and various species of lice. When present in large numbers these pests cause much worry and loss of weight to the fowls. These pests may best be controlled by constructing roosts so that the parasites cannot crawl upon the fowls, and by spraying the chicken houses thoroughly with kerosene or kero- sene emulsion every 10 days or two weeks. Scaly legs i s due to a mite known as Sarcoptes mutans, which burrows un- derlie skin of the legs, causing an exu- dation of fluid, which becomes gummy and forms scales on drying. The scales may be softened with warm soapsuds, af- ter which the legs may best be treated by dipping in kerosene or painting with an ointment containing 1 to 2 drams of balsam of Peru to the ounce of vaseline. Another form of the disease, commonly known as depluming scabies, attacks the feathers, causing them to break off near the skin. Affected birds should be iso- lated and rubbed with a carbolic oint- ment or a similar salve. Favus, also known as white comb or baldness, is caused by the same fungus which produces ringworm in other ani- mals. The trouble appears upon the comb and neck in the form of circular patches. The feathers fall off from the affected areas and crusts form in such places. These parts should be washed with warm water, after which an ointment may be applied, containing 1 part benzine, 20 parts soft soap and enough sulphur to make a paste. , Air sac mite is a white mite barely visible to the naked eye, which lives in the lungs, air sacs, windpipe and body cavity, and according to some investi- gators may cause a cough or strangula- tion and in some cases diarrhea. We have found the mites, however, in healthy fowls and it must therefore re- main doubtful whether they are always the cause of a serious disease. They may be concerned in some instances in carrying tuberculosis or other infectious diseases. The mites probably gain en- trance to the body in the food. There is obviously no treatment for this trouble, but fortunately this mite is not common. 156 FARMER'S 'CYCLOPEDIA OF LIV FT STOCK having been reported in small out- breaks from Montana, Maryland, the District of Columbia and a few other localities. Simple catarrh ma y best be treated by keeping the birds in a good condition in clean, well ventilated houses without drafts and giving a little cayenne pepper with the food. In cases of bronchitis a similar treatment is indicated, or 10 drops of turpentine may be given in a teaspoonful of castor oil. Occasionally chickens exposed to sudden changes of temperature and kept in insanitary houses are affected with pneumonia or other serious diseases of the air passages, which may be treated like bronchitis, but the results are not so satisfactory. Pip — Rarely the mouth becomes in- flamed and this and various other re- lated troubles are sometimes known as pip. This trouble may best be treated by washing the mouth with glycerin water or a solution of borax. Crop bound — Whenever the crop be- comes obstructed as the result of tempo- rary paralysis and the accumulation of food, the best treatment consists in soft- ening the mass of food by giving sweet oil and manipulating the crop between the fingers. Simple diarrhea indicates something wrong about the food or water. Atten- tion should therefore be given to these matters and affected birds may be fed a tablespoonful of olive oil, followed by 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth three times daily in water. DISEASES OF WATER FOWL Ducks are often attacked by choiera, which is similar or identical with fowl cholera, but is usually more fatal, re- sulting in death within about twenty- four hours. Occasionally some benefit is derived from giving a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid in the drinking water and cayenne pepper with the food. As a rule, however, no treatment is satisfactory. Ducks are less subject to diarrhea, other digestive troubles and external parasites than are chickens. Similarly with geese, the most serious trouble is cholera. This rarely occurs on farms where geese are raised in small numbers but has been observed in serious outbreaks in Rhode Island and elsewhere in large goose fattening establishments. Goose cholera is apparently distinct from fowl cholera, and the mortality is very high. The disease may best be pre- vented from spreading widely by keep- ing geese in small pens so arranged that when an outbreak occurs the affected pen may be removed from the other birds. DISEASES OF TURKEYS One of the most serious diseases of young turkeys is diarrhea, which is most often caused by exposure to cold or dampness and by eating spoiled or un- cooked food and drinking filthy water. Affected poults should receive hard boiled eggs and stale bread with plenty of pepper. Good results are also obtained from giving a mixture containing 2 ounces of sulphuric acid and % pound copperas in 2 gallons of water, the dose being 1 teaspoonful added to each quart of di inking water. Roup, gapes and other common troubles affecting turkeys may be treated in the same manner as recom- mended for chickens. Occasionally tur- keys become infested with tapeworms. For expelling these worms male fern, kousso or turpentine may be given in small doses. A peculiar malignant dis- ease of turkeys is known as "blackhead" and is due to the presence of Amoebe meleagridis in the intestines. The trou- ble has proved serious in Rhode Is- land, where it has been thoroughly in- vestigated. The head may become some- what discolored, which gives the disease its name, but this symptom is not always noted. The disease attacks young tur- keys and affects chiefly the blind pouches of the intestines. A profuse diarrhea is observed. Later the liver is attacked and becomes enlarged to twice its usual size, showing round, discolored spots. There is no satisfactory remedial treat- ment, but the disease appears to be transmitted through the feces and this material should therefore be removed and the turkey houses disinfected. DISEASES OF PIGEONS Pigeons are subject to a large number of diseases most of which, as, for ex- ample, roup, cholera and asthenia, also occur in chickens and should be treated in the manner recommended for those birds. Pigeons may also become infested with lice, ticks and mites, which may be eradicated in the way mentioned for chickens. If pigeons become badly in- fested with intestinal worms, these para- sites may be removed by giving a small piece of garlic daily or a minute dose of areca nut in a capsule with castor oil. "When disease in pigeons is characterized by a stiffening of the joints due to DISEASES OF ANIMALS 157 tumors at these points, it may be the re- sult of strains or other injuries. The inflamed spot may be treated with strong spirits of camphor or iodine. Canker closely resembles roup in chickens and may be identical with this disease. It is accompanied with fever, swelling of the throat and the appearance of white patches in the mouth and throat. The canker sores may be treated with pow- dered alum, but all affected birds should be isolated. A form of sore head, prob- ably identical with chicken pox, but fre- quently called smallpox in pigeons, ap- pears in the form of sores on the head and spreads over the neck, forming scabs. The scabby areas may be re- moved and the disease cured by apply- ing a dilute solution of blue vitriol. DISEASES OF DOGS While dogs may become affected with a great variety of diseases which are of much importance to the dog raiser, the purposes of the present volume do not permit us to discuss the less important dog diseases except in so far as they may be a source of contagion to man and our common domestic animals. Dogs are recognized as capable of fur- nishing considerable service to the stock raiser, but unfortunately they also carry many infectious diseases, which may become a source of great danger to stock. On this account it has become desirable to give close heed to the health of dogs which are maintained on stock farms. Distemper [ 3 a highly contagious and malignant disease, due to a specific bacil- lus, and affects dogs, cats and other car- nivora. It is one of the most serious dis- eases of dogs and causes the death of from 50 to 60 per cent of affected animals. The symptoms of distemper include loss of appetite, fever and con- stipation, followed by quite profuse diar- rhea. The eyes at first show a watery dis- charge, but later this discharge becomes thick, yellow in color and of a purulent nature. Distemper may be described as a catarrhal fever, and a persistent dis- charge takes place from the nose. It affects chiefly young dogs and perhaps more frequently high-bred, pampered dogs than those which are allowed great- er freedom. If a dog kennel once be- comes infected, it is necessary to treat it thoroughly with antiseptics or burn it up in order to prevent the spread of the dis- ease to other dogs which may occupy the kennel. The period of incubation is usually from one to three weeks. Hill recommends a mild emetic at the start; for example, a teaspoonful of mustard and salt in warm water. This may be followed by the use of stimulants, such as a teaspoonful of port wine and 1 grain of quinine or a mixture of 4 drains niter, 4 drams tincture of gentian and x /2 ounce aqua menthae, the dose of this mixture being a teaspoonful. If the eyes are badly affected they may be treated with weak antiseptic solutions such as silver nitrate at the rate of 4 grains in 4 ounces of water. Despite the fact that some veterinarians refer to distemper as yielding to remedial treat- ment, it is the common experience that treatment is quite unsatisfactory and unless the pups are of more than the us- ual value it is often best to kill them at once and disinfect the kennels. Many dogs which recover from the disease are of little use on account of heart weak- ness or some other bad result of dis- temper. Certain Italian investigators have confidently recommended a serum treatment as devised by Piorkowski. Much controversy has developed con- cerning this method, and the results ob- tained from its use are not uniform. E,abies or hydrophobia i s an acute disease of the nervous system trans- mitted from one animal to another by means of bites. The virus of rabies is present in the saliva of affected animals and may be sufficient to transmit the disease before the symptoms have ac- tually appeared in the animal in which the disease is developing. An unusual amount of energy and skill has been ex- pended in solving various problems con- nected with rabies and the controversy concerning the disease has been most bit- ter. Some authorities deny the exist- ence of rabies entirely and refer to it as purely imaginative ; by others the extent and danger from the disease has been much exaggerated. Dogs, cattle, horses and other domestic animals, as well as man, are susceptible. The dog is of par- ticular importance in this connection for the reason that most cases are due to the bites of rabid dogs. In man the disease appears about 70 days after being bitten and a similar lapse of time is observed in other animals. The symp- toms may somewhat resemble those of lockjaw, but are distinct by the fact that the animals are vicious. Affected dogs show a nervousness and run about the 158 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK country for days at a time, being in a stupefied condition at times and show- ing fits of great violence, when they bite at all animals near them. In man the well known Pasteur treatment has been found to be an effective remedy, but the expense of the treatment is too great for application to ordinary dogs and all rabid dogs should therefore be destroyed at once. The muzzling orders adopted in various cities are an effective means of controlling the disease if applied in a rational manner. Eabies has been practically exterminated in England by the general and systematic enforcement of muzzling laws. Fleas are one of the commonest pests of dogs. If infested dogs are allowed in houses, the floors and rugs may become thoroughly infested so as to create a serious nuisance. Numerous remedies have been proposed for the destruction of fleas. Some dog owners wash their dogs frequently and apply a rather strong soapsuds. Others rely chiefly on a thorough application of insect pow- ders. Experiments with dog fleas in New Hampshire indicate that a creolin bath is the best remedy. For this pur- pose infested dogs or cats may be im- mersed in a 2 per cent solution of creo- lin In order to prevent the infestation of dwelling houses with dog fleas, it is desirable to provide the dog with a rug to sleep on and this rug should be taken out frequently and thoroughly shaken or otherwise treated. Mange or itch i s a contagious disease of dogs, due to the presence of mites which burrow in the skin and cause the development of intense itch, the forma- tion of scabs and finally the loss of the hair. There are various forms of mange, but the common sarcoptic mange may be treated in the same manner as recom- mended for sheep scab. On the western ranges, where dogs are used in herding sheep, it is customary to throw them in- to the dipping tank along with the sheep at dipping time. Tapeworm — Considerable economic importance attaches to the relation of the dog to the sheep industry. On large sheep ranges where dogs are uni- versally used to help the herder in the management of the sheep, attention must be given to the health of the dog, otherwise, he serves as an agent in the distribution of tapeworms. On this account it is quite unfortunate that the dog should be so much neglected in this respect, as is commonly the case. Since some of these parasites live dur- ing their mature stage in dogs, it is readily seen that dogs may be the means of spreading the tapeworms' eggs over the grass upon which the sheep feed. Sheep dogs should therefore be treated periodically for tapeworms. For this purpose perhaps the best remedy is areca nut, given in doses of 2 grains for each pound of the dog's weight. The dose will, therefore, vary greatly according to the size of the dog. Areca nut should be followed a few hours later by castor oil in tablespoonful doses. Coyotes and wolves are also concerned in spreading sheep tapeworms and these animals should be exterminated as completely as possible. Recently a number of cases of gid have been ob- served in sheep in Montana. As de- scribed under Sheep Diseases, this is the immature stage of the tapeworm, which in its mature condition lives in the intestines of dogs. The disease may be best controlled, therefore, by treating dogs with vermifuges and preventing them from eating the heads of affected sheep. As already indicated, dogs are also subject to a great variety of diseases, including catarrh, diarrhea, jaundice, warts, inflammation of the eyes, deafness, ringworm, lice, apoplexy, cholera, lock- jnw, rickets and other troubles which cannot be discussed in this connection. VETERINARY MEDICINES Drugs and veterinary medicines may be administered to domestic animals in various ways. One of the commonest and most convenient methods for prac- tical use by stockmen is the drench. The fluid or powdered drug is mixed with a pint or more of water in a bottle and poured into the animal's throat. Powdered drugs and many solutions, in a small quantity, maybe mixed with bran or other grain feed, provided the taste is not too disagreeable. The objection to this method is that not all of the drug may be taken. The use of capsules is a very convenient method practiced by veterinarians, but is not so common among farmers. Various medicines are also given by injection with a small syringe under the skin, into the wind- pipe, body cavity, chest cavity, or direct- ly into a blood vessel. This method should be practiced only after some experience has been had. Medicines may also be administered in enemas DISEASES OF ANIMALS 159 in the rectum or by inhalation from hot water. Some powdered drugs may be blown into the nostrils, where a local effect is desired. All irritating medi- cines should be mixed with a larger quantity of bran or water in order to render them harmless. Medicines are commonly classified into various groups, according to their physiological effect and a few of these classes of medicines may be briefly defined. Antiseptics are substances which check or prevent the growth of bacteria and parasitic fungi. The most common ones are table salt, corrosive sublimate, carbolic acid, iodoform, zinc chloride, iodine, iron chloride, formalin, blue vitriol and lunar caustic. Disinfectants and deodorizers are used for similar purposes and also to absorb moisture and disagreeable odors. The most important disinfectants fox veterinary use are chloride of lime, com- mon lime, sulphurous acid, formalin and permanganate of potash. Anesthetics are chemicals which pro- duce insensibility or loss of conscious- ness. General anesthetics are given by inhalation, and the most common ones are chloroform, ether, a mixture of these drugs and nitrous oxide. Local anes- thetics produce insensibility in the part to which they are applied. Good ex- amples of this group of drugs are co- caine, carbolic acid, extreme cold, as, for example, from the evaporation of ether and aconite. Anodynes are substances which re- lieve pain and include hot or cold water, belladonna, cocaine, chloral hydrate, opium, morphine, etc. Anthelmintics vermicides or vermi- fuges are substances used to expel or destroy worms. A number of thes. are used, including various purgatives, gas- oline, turpentine, carbon bisulphide, etc. Alteratives are substances which neu- tralize or counteract the formation of disease products in the blood. The ones most frequently used include mercury, iodine, arsenic, etc. Narcotics are drugs of which the ef- fects are too well known to require description. In treating domestic ani- mals, opium, Indian hemp, chloral hy- drate and belladonna are most frequent- ly used. Purgatives, laxatives or cathartics are substances used for the purpose of loosening the bowels. In veterinary medicines, the most important purga- tives are Glauber salts, Epsom salts, aloes, castor oil, Croton oil and jalap. Vesicants are blistering reagents, the commonest ones being cantharides or Spanish fly, Croton oil, strong acids, biniodide of mercury, silver nitrate, etc. In the following paragraphs brief notes are given on the action and doses of some of the common drugs used in veterinary practice. Aconite lowers the temperature by weakening the pulse and causing an in- creased perspiration. Doses for horses, 20 to 30 drops; for cattle, 40 drops; for sheep, 3 to 5 drops; for dogs, 1 drop. Aloes i s a purgative generally admin- istered to horses; dose for the horse, 4 to 6 drams; for the dog, y 2 dram. Areca nut i s a well known vermifuge; dose for horses, cattle and mules, % to 1 dram. Aromatic ammonia i s a stimulant and antidote for acid poisons ; dose for horses and cattle, y 2 to 4 ounces; for sheep, % oz. Arsenic IS a n alterative and nerve tonic ; dose for horses, 5 grains ; for cat- tle, 5 to 8 grains; for sheep, 1 grain. Bismuth subnitrate produces a coat on the stomach and intestinal walls and soothes irritation in cases of diarrhea; dose for horses, 2 drams; for sheep, 20 grains; for dogs, 5 to 10 grains. Bromide of potash lowers the tempera- ture and checks nervous excitement; dose for horses, 2 to 6 drams; for sheep, 1 to 2 drams ; for pigs, 1 dram ; for dogs 10 to 20 grains. Calomel i s a vigorous cathartic; dose for horses, 15 to 60 grains; for sheep, 8 grains; for pigs 5 grains; for dogs, 1 grain. Cantharides when used locally is a blistering agent and given internally it is a stimulant ; dose for horses, 6 grains ; for sheep, 4 grains; for pigs, 3 grains. Carbolic acid i s mostly used as an antiseptic and disinfectant and should be used in a solution in water at the rate of 1 part to 100 parts. Castor oil [ s & mild purgative of great value. Dose for horses, 1 pint; for cat- tle, V-/-2 pints; sheep, % of an ounce; dogs, Y 2 an ounce,, Catechu i s a n astringent and useful in checking diarrhea. Dose for horses, 2 160 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK to 5 drams; for sheep, 1 to 2 drams; for dogs, 20 grains. Chalk may also be used for the same purpose in doses of 1 ounce for the horse and 1 dram for sheep, pigs or dogs. Charcoal i s very useful in checking di- gestive disturbances and as an absorbent for various kinds of material or acid poi- sons. It may be given in as large doses as will be taken. Chloral hydrate is a powerful narcotic, valuable in the treatment of spasmodic colic. Dose for horses, 1 ounce; for sheep, 1 dram; for pigs, 50 grains; for dogs, 25 grains. Corrosive sublimate is an active poi- son much used as an antiseptic and for ordinary purposes should be used at the rate of 1 or 2 parts to each 1,000 parts of water. Croton oil, commonly used as a blis- tering reagent, may also be administered as a vermifuge. Dose for horses and pigs, 1 to 10 drops; for dogs, 1 drop. Epsom salts i s one of the most fre- quently used purgatives. Dose for the horse, 1 pound ; for cattle, 1 to 2 pounds ; for sheep, 1 to 4 ounces; for the dog, 1 to 4 drams. Formalin is a noncorrosive and non- poisonous antiseptic of great value, its chief disadvantage being an irritating effect on the eyes and nose. For ordi- nary purposes, such as treatment of wounds and disinfecting it may be used in a 2 to 4 per cent solution in water. Gentian J s a bitter tonic. Dose for the horse, 4 to 8 drams; for sheep, 1 to 2 drams; for pigs, 50 grains; for dogs, 15 grains. Ginger i s U sed as a stomachic and stimulant. Dose for horses, 1 ounce; for sheep, 1 dram; for dogs, 15 grains. Glauber salts i s a valuable and much used purgative. Dose for the horse, 1 pound; for cattle, V/2 pounds; for dogs, 1 dram. Hydrochloric acid i s used as a correct- ive for faulty digestion. Dose for horses and cattle, 1 to 3 drams; for sheep, 25 drops; for pigs, 20 drops. Indian hemp i s a narcotic much used in cramp colic. Dose for horses, V2 to 1 dram; for sheep, 10 to 15 grains; for dogs, 1 to 2 grains. Iodide of potash j s an alterative exten- sively used for the internal treatment of various infectious diseases. It is a spe- cific for lumpy jaw. Dose for horses, x /2 dram; for cattle, 1 to 2 drams. Iron peroxide, sulphate and carbonate are used as general tonics. Dose for horses, 2 to 4 drams; for sheep, */2 dram; for dogs, 2 to 5 grains. Jalap is a purgative chiefly used for the smaller animals. Dose for hogs, 1 to 2 drams; for dogs, 1 dram. Laudanum i s much used as an ano- dyne and in treatment of colic. Dose for horses, 2 to 4 ounces; for sheep and pigs, 2 drams; for dogs, 20 drops. Lime water i s an astringent and anti- dote for acid poison. Dose for horses, 4 to 5 ounces; for cattle, 5 to 8 ounces; for sheep, 1 ounce; for dogs, 1 dram. Linseed oil J s a well known and valu- able purgative. Dose for horses, % to IV2 pints; for sheep, 6 ounces; for pigs, 5 ounces; for dogs, 1 to 2 ounces. Male fern i s chiefly used as a vermi- fuge. Dose for horses, 1 ounce; for sheep, 2 drams; for hogs, 1 dram; for dogs, 30 drops. Morphine £ s llse( J ]ik e laudanum in re- lieving pain and quieting the action of the intestines. Dose for horses 5 to 10 grains; for dogs, 1-8 to % grain. Nux vomica i s a much used tonic. Dose for horses, 20 to 60 grains ; for cat- tle t the same; for sheep, 10 grains; for hogs, 8 grains; for dogs, 2 grains. Olive oil is used as a laxative, like lin- seed oil. Dose for horses, 1 to 2 pints ; for sheep, 3 to 6 ounces ; for dogs, 1 to 3 ounces. Opium i s a narcotic used for the pre- vention of spasms. Dose for horses, 1 to 2 drams; for cattle, 2 to 4 drams; for dogs, 1 to 5 grains. Quinine i s a bitter tonic, most used in diseases accompanied with fever. Dose for horses, 20 grains; for cattle, 20 to 30 grains; for sheep, 6 to 10 grains; for hogs, 3 to 10 grains; for dogs, 2 to 5 grains. Sulphur is used internally as an al- terative. Dose for horses, 1 ounce; for sheep, 1 to 2 drams; for pigs, 1 to 4 drams; for dogs, 50 grains. Sweet spirits of niter acts as a slight stimulant, lowers the temperature and causes sweating. Dose for horses, 1 to 3 ounces; for cattle, 3 to 4 ounces; for sheep, 3 to 6 drams; for pigs, 2 drams; for dogs, 50 drops. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 161 Zinc carbonate and sulphate are used as tonics and astringents. Dose for horses, 2 drams ; for cattle, 2 to 4 drams ; for sheep, % to 1 dram. For the actual use of the various medi- cines mentioned under this list, see un- der the Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Swine, Sheep and Poultry. CASTRATION AND SPAYING Castration — It is frequently necessary for the farmer to perform this opera- tion on his animals and a few sugges- tions are therefore in place regarding the methods to be adopted in castrating stal- lions, bulls, rams, boars or other male animals. In the first place some form of throwing or casting apparatus is neces- sary for large animals, unless they are confined in a chute. For this purpose many simple devices may be adopted requiring merely the use of a rope at- tached about the shoulders and passing back to the hind feet. The use of strap hobbles about the ankles is desirable in order to prevent the animal from burn- ing the skin on hard ropes. The ap- paratus should be so adjusted as to pull all four feet together and thus make the animal fall as easily as possible. Some operators prefer to castrate stallions in a standing position. For this purpose they may be confined in a chute, or, if the operator has acquired sufficient skill, the use of a twitch on the nose is sufficient. The advantages claimed for castration in the standing position are that it is done more quickly than by any other method, the animal is not worried by being thrown and is therefore not liable to in- jury. The disadvantage of the method is a possible occurrence of a tumor on the end of the cord after castration if the cord is cut too long. In skilled hands stallions may be castrated in a standing position in ten to fifteen seconds. Altering colts — Male colts may be castrated at one year of age or a little later if a larger build of horse is desired. The advantage of waiting until the age of two years is that, as a rule, a stronger development is thus obtained. Some farmers believe that the shock of castra- tion and danger from the operation are less if it is done at one year of age, but with care there should be no particular danger in castrating two-year-old stal- lions or even aged stallions. The blood vessels are larger in stallions which have seen service and more care is required in preventing bleeding after the castration of such animals. In castrating stallions a cut should be made through each side of the scrotum from front to back, paral- lel with the middle of the bag. The cut should be made with a single quick stroke and deep enough to cut both of the membranes. The testicle is then forced through the opening and the posterior half of the cord may be at once severed with the knife. This half contains the muscle and after it is cut the stallion is unable to exercise any strain on the tes- ticle. Where straining occurs there is always some danger of injury to the stal- lion and possibly the development of a fatal peritonitis. After the posterior half of the cord is removed, the testicle hangs limp and the remainder of the cord containing the blood vessels, nerves and spermatic tube may be crushed off with an ecraseur, cut off after applying clamps, seared off with a hot iron or cut off after tying a catgut ligature. The whole operation should be done as quick- ly as is consistent with safety and the parts may be sprinkled with iodoform or some other dry antiseptic in order to assist healing. Altering calves — The bull calf, if not to be kept for breeding purposes, should be castrated at about two to three months of age. In young animals there is no serious hemorrhage, but in old bulls the spermatic artery must be crushed or seared off or a clamp applied in order to prevent bleeding. In castrat- ing bulls a cut should be made through the walls of the scrotum on either side so as to expose the testicles, which are to be removed one at a time as with stal- lions. Altering pigs — If boar pigs are cas- trated at the age of one to two months or even at older age, but before they have seen service, the operation may be done with perfect safety by exposing the tes- ticles as recommended for stallions and cutting off the spermatic cord with one stroke of the knife. In old boars excess- ive bleeding may be prevented by crush- ing or searing off the cord or by the ap- plication of clamps. Altering lambs — Lambs may best be castrated at the age of ten days co two weeks. The testicles may be exposed by an incision of the scrotum, as in other animals, and the cord seared or crushed off. If a hot iron or a hot crushing in- strument is used for this purpose, it may be well to use a sheet iron protector, which fits around the scrotum, close to 162 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the belly so as to prevent searing the skin of the belly. A simple device of this sort is also employed with other animals where the hot iron method of castration is adopted. With old rams the spermatic cord should always be crushed or seared off in order to prevent excessive bleeding. Western practice — On the western ranges the usual method of castration would occupy altogether too much time. A much faster but quite safe remedy has been devised. This consists in cutting off the tip of the scrotum with a sharp knife, after which both testicles are pressed out simultaneously by means of the fingers, the testicles grasped in the teeth and pulled out. The operation can be done so fast that it requires four or five men to catch the lambs fast enough, even when confined in a small pen. By this method a single operator can dock two thousand lambs and castrate the ram lambs which usually average one-half of them, within 2V2 or 3 hours. The losses from this method of castration, without the exercise of any further precautions, are so small as to be negligible. Young goats may be castrated in the same manner. Preparation for the operation — In castrating animals veterinarians ordina- rily clean the scrotum and surrounding parts carefully in an antiseptic solution and wash the hands and instruments in a similar solution before making any in- cision. This is a wise precaution if the operation is done with the animal ly- ing in the filthy straw of an ordinary yard. The busy farmer, however, seldom has time for these preliminary opera- tions, and as a rule bad results need not be feared when ordinary cleanliness is observed. It is well to have some pow- dered antiseptic, such as iodoform, in a tin box, which may be quickly dusted over the wound after castration. Precautions necessary — I n a ll animals the incision in the scrotum should be made lengthwise of the animal, parallel with and close to the middle line of the scrotum. This makes the cut come at the lowest point of the scrotum, from which the testicle may be most easily re- moved. The operator must always be careful, especially in the case of colts, not to pull unnecessarily on the cord. Peritonitis and death may result from such strain. Moreover, the cord must al- ways be cut short enough so that it does not hang through the cut in the scro- tum, otherwise it may be caught in the healing wound and develop into a trou- blesome tumor, commonly known as "champignon," which requires another operation for its removal. Spaying — The removal of the ovaries of female animals has long been a rather common practice and is done for several reasons. Mares are sometimes vicious during their period of heat and they may therefore be spayed to prevent the dis- agreeable features of heat and various tendencies manifested at such times. Cows may be spayed at the height of their milking period in order to prevent them from going dry, thus securing a continuous flow of milk. According to certain experiments along this line, it appears that cows may be kept giving milk without cessation for two years or more. Heifers which are not desired for breeding purposes may also be spayed to prevent them from becoming pregnant. This is especially common under range conditions. The meat of spayed heifers is sometimes claimed to be better than those not spayed, but the difference is not striking. The chief reason for the spay- ing of young heifers and sows is to in- crease their tendency to fatten rapidly. Likewise with bitches the operation of spaying is often carried out to prevent them from becoming pregnant. This is especially desirable in pet dogs which are worried by males during the period of heat. This trouble is entirely avoided by spaying. Effects upon milk flow of cows — As just indicated, the flow of milk in spayed cows may be maintained for a longer period than when this operation is not performed, the period being prolonged from a year and a half to four years. Some writers maintain that fat and other solids of milk increase in quantity after spaying. Careful experiments along this line, however, show that no changes of this sort take place. The animal gradually lays on fat as the milk flow diminishes. The value of spaying is greatest in beef heifers or cows which are not suitable for breeding purposes. When such animals are spayed the opera- tion is of considerable economic impor- tance, especially on western stock ranges. Method of operation — Spaying is done somewhat differently in different animals. The danger of infection of the body cavity is greater in mares and bitches than in cows or sows. The ova- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 163 ries are small, oval organs varying in size up to that of a walnut and lying just at the ends of the horns of the uterus. They may be most conveniently found by following these organs with the hand. On the range, cattle to be spayed may be roped and thrown, or driven into a chute designed for holding the animals firmly. An opening may then be made in the right side, about half way between the last rib and the prominence of the hip bone. Care should be taken to make the cut with a knife provided with a guarded-blade so as to avoid all danger of cutting the intestines. The hand is then inserted and as soon as an ovary is found, the ligament connecting it with the abdominal wall is cut with scissors, knife or ecraseur and the ovary is re- moved. The other ovary must then be removed in the same way. This opera- tion is done by veterinarians with ob- servance of proper sanitary precautions, after washing the hands and the knife in an antiseptic solution. On cattle ranges, however, the operation is very quickly performed by cowboys, who re- ceive from 25 to 50 cents per head. These men pay no attention to antisep- tic conditions, but simply wash their arms and knives in a bucket of water and stitch up the cut in the body wall with coarse twine. Many veterinarians prefer to remove the ovaries through an opening in the wall of the vagina and this method is adopted most frequently in the case of mares. The operation may then be done with the mare in a stand- ing position, confined in a chute. In such operations the ovarian ligaments are crushed off by an ecraseur and great care is taken to avoid mistaking a fold of the intestines with its contents for an ovary. Mares and bitches should be spayed only by skillful veterinarians or expert operators, since there is consider- able danger of abdominal infection un- less antiseptic precautions are observed. ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION During recent years an unusual in- terest has been developed in the artificial impregnation of our domestic animals. Several purposes are served by this op- eration. As is well known, some mares and cows may remain permanently ster- ile, despite repeated service by the stal- lion or bull, but in some cases this ster- ility is due entirely to the malformation of the uterus, particularly a closure of the neck of this organ. Artificial im- pregnation or insemination was first adopted to treat such cases. It was found that by dilating the neck of the uterus slightly with the finger or a metallic instrument, the opening could be enlarged sufficiently to permit the in- troduction of a syringe into which the semen had been drawn after service, and by means of which the semen could be introduced directly into the uterus, thus producing pregnancy. Later the method of artificial inpreg- nation acquired a much greater impor- tance by its extended use on horse farms and to some extent on cattle farms. It was found that frequently a number of mares would be in heat at the same time, and where it was desired to use the same stallion on all mares, the ser- vice was severe on the stallion and in some cases, led to the production of weak colts. Resort was therefore had to artificial impregnation to increase the efficiency of the stallion. Several methods have been adopted. Some breeders pre- fer to attach a so-called breeding bag to the penis of the stallion before service, after which the semen is drawn into a syringe commonly known as an impreg- nator, and may then be injected into a number of mares. A sufficient quantity of semen is readily obtained from one service to impregnate six or more mares. Occasionally an objection is made to the use of the breeding-bag and if this is the case the horse is al- lowed to serve a mare, after which the artificial impregnator is introduced into the vagina and the semen drawn into it and used as just described. In order to prevent a large proportion of the se- men from being discharged directly in- to the uterus of the mare served by the stallion, a rubber plug has been devised for obstructing the entrance to the ute- rus. After service the plug is removed and a small quantity of semen intro- duced into the uterus. A number of dealers in veterinary in- struments have devised special syringes or artificial impregnators which differ considerably in their shape and construc- tion. According to the extended observa- tions and experiments of Lewis, in Okla- homa, the curved metallic impregnator is more satisfactory than one consisting of a rubber bulb, rubber tube and a can- ula which is introduced into the uterus. The capsule method op artificial im- pregnation also has its champions. This method consists in simply using small 164 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK gelatine capsules which are filled with semen from the vagina of a mare just served by a stallion and then intro- duced at once in the uterus of other mares from which colts are desired. There appears to be no decided prefer- ence in favor of either one of these meth- ods, but some experience is required be- fore the breeder becomes really skillful in the practice of either method. Artificial impregnation has been used a number of years by hundreds of farm- ers and the results thus far obtained are perfectly satisfactory in every re- spect. The colts obtained by this meth- od are of the usual size and vigor, so that it may be confidently asserted that no objection from this source may be raised to the system of artificial impreg- nation. The same system has also been used with cattle, dogs and other animals. In the case of registered animals, where the name of the sire must be given, it is simply stated in the herd-book that the animal in question is the result of arti- ficial impregnation from such and such a sire. This is a simple solution of the difficulty which occurred in the minds of some breeders regarding the state- ment of pedigree in the case of animals bred in this manner. Mule breeding by artificial impreg- nation — The system of artificial impreg- nation is of peculiar value in mule breed- ing. As is well known, many mares do not take kindly to jacks and frequently kick so violently that special breeding chutes or some other means of restrain- ing them must be adopted. Moreover, not all jacks are keen in serving mares; in fact, occasionally they refuse altogether to do so. It is obvious, therefore, that the system of artificial impregnation is of great benefit in helping breeders over this difficulty. It is merely necessary to allow the jack to serve a jennet, after which the semen is removed in an arti- ficial impregnator and injected into the uterus of mares from which mule colts are desired. STERILITY IN ANIMALS Sterility or barrenness in animals may be due to a variety of causes. In the male it may be due to imperfect develop- ment, inflammation or degeneration of the testicles, malformation, paralysis or growths on the penis, nervousness or the presence of such diseases as azoturia, failure of the testicles to descend, im- proper feeding, etc. In the female bar- renness may be due to imperfect develop- ment, tumors, or degeneration of the ovary, catarrh of the uterus, nervous- ness, a too fat or too poor condition, clo- sure of the neck of the uterus, etc. In mares sterility may affect 20 to 40 per cent, in cows 20 to 30 per cent, in sheep and goats about 5 per cent, in swine, 3 to 10 per cent, in poultry reliable data are not available. Constitutional barrenness — It is evi- dent from the above statement that many cases of barrenness are of a consti- tutional nature and can not be treated. In curable cases the cause should be sought and the proper remedy applied. Within certain limits barrenness does not depend on the age of the female. The reproductive functions do not de- velop until a certain age is reached and disappear again at old age. The per- centage of sterility may be higher when too old or too young males are used. Statistics collected for several years in England with regard to pure and cross bred sheep show that on an average about 5 per cent are barren. Only about 2 per cent, however, were constitution- ally barren. In fact much of the bar- renness in domestic animals is prevent- able. Breeding animals should be neith- er too fat nor too poor, but must be . kept in a moderately fat, vigorous con- dition if the best offspring are desired. In cows and mares the neck of the uterus may become hardened and swollen so as to close the opening and exclude the semen. This cause of barrenness may easily be removed by dilating the uterus. In mares this may be done with the finger, while in cows it is usually more difficult and may require the use of a metallic dilator. In such cases the operation should preferably be done by a qualified veterinarian. A Danish in- vestigator has recently found that in high bred cows, the corpus luteum re- mains on the surface of the ovary after parturition, and prevents the occurrence of heat or estrum. The removal of the corpus luteum by a surgical operation is followed shortly by the usual period of heat. Conditions favoring fecundity — The fecundity of our farm animals may be greatly affected by the artificial condi- tions of modern farming. In Indiana it has been found that ewes too closely confined without proper exercise become DISEASES OF ANIMALS 165 absolutely sterile in a large percentage of cases. Overfat mares, cows or ewes are impregnated with difficulty. Hens, turkeys, ducks and geese lay relatively infertile eggs if they are not allowed to have a reasonable amount of exercise. Most cases of sterility may be cured or prevented by giving proper attention to the diet of the breeding animals and the sanitary condition of their surroundings. The use of artificial inpregnation (See that subject) will often give success in apparently hopeless cases. HORSE SHOEING The use of iron shoes for horses' hoofs may be considered as a necessary evil of our modern civilization. It is impossi- ble to drive horses continually over the hard pavements of cities without seri- ously injuring the hoofs unless some Fisr. 115 THREE-QUARTER SHOE WITH RUBBER PAD form of shoe is adopted. Horses which are kept on the farm or driven short dis- tances along country roads do not re- quire shoeing, except occasionally, and then often only on the front feet. The art of horse shoeing may be learned by the ordinary farmer so that he can keep his horses' feet in good condition, but if the farmer does not care to bother with this operation, it is at least desirable that he give enough attention to the matter to know when the job is prop- erly done by the blacksmith. Too much cannot be said in condemnation of the practice of indiscriminate paring away of the hoof in order to make it fit the shoe. The hoof may in certain cases grow irregularly and require some par- ing, but none is needed if the growth is uniform and no tendency to cracking is observed. The normal hoof of the horse is well designed to protect the REGULAB HOOF more delicate parts which it covers and to furnish an elastic cushion to relieve the jar upon, the joints of the legs. When too much of the hoof is pared away, the elasticity is lost, and tbe sole becomes too sensitive so that some form of lameness may develop. Lameness Fig. 117 — FULLERED SHOE 166 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK may also result from driving the nails too deeply into the horn of the hoof. A slight study of the structure of the horse's hoof will convince anyone that the frog and bars of the hoof should be Fig. 118 NARROW FORM left with as little interference as pos- sible. It is merely necessary to rasp off the ragged edges of the toe and sides when these parts grow out so far as to incur danger of breaking. In order to Fig. 119 — WIDE FORM insure the normal development of the hoof in colts it is desirable that they be allowed plenty of exercise out of doors, so that the wear on the hoof will be uniform. Fig. 120 — FORE FEET IN REGULAR FORM It is sometimes thought that the shoe should be heavy in order to wear as long as possible. A light shoe, however, will often wear nearly as long as a heavy one, and for all practical purposes the lighter the shoe the better and the least likely it is to interfere with the gait of the horse. In summer and at all times wben the roads are not slippery, no calks should be allowed on the shoes, but on icy roads in winter a permanent calk may be used, or one of the forms of "never- slip" calks. A convenient calk of this sort is of a conical shape and furnished with threads by means of which it may be screwed into the shoe. Recently con- siderable success has been had with the use of a rubber pad between the bars of Fig. 121 — CONFORMATION OF THE FORE FOOT. A, AN ACUTE -ANGLED FOOT; B, A REGULAR FOOT; C, A STUMPY FOOT the shoe. This gives a large surface of contact and thus prevents slipping at the same time and an added elasticity is secured. POISONOUS PLANTS AND MINEEAL POISONS Domestic animals occasionally be- come poisoned by eating dangerous min- erals by accident or from malicious poi- soning. Brief notes may be given on a few of the most common forms of min- eral poisons. Lead poisoning has been noted as the results of eating sugar beet pulp carried in freight cars which had previously been used for lead ore. The same trouble occasionally develops in the neighbor- hood of smelters, where lead dust is pre- cipitated on the vegetation. In acute cases, the attack is sudden and resem- bles staggers or mill? fever, being accom- panied with paralysis. Treatment may consist of sulphuric acid in 60-drop doses diluted in water, followed by linseed oil in doses of V2 pint; these doses are the proper size for horses or cattle. Arsenic may also be given maliciously or may be taken on vegetation in the neighborhod of smelters. Usually the poisonous effects are not noted for sev- eral days, after which the abdominal pain, sweating and nervous excitement are very pronounced. Arsenic causes a violent inflammation in the stomach, which may best be treated by adminis- DISEASES OF ANIMALS 167 tering laudanum and linseed oil. In some cases hypodermic injections of morphine may be given. Poisoned pastures — I n smelter re- gions it has been observed that the continual use of forage on wnich sul- phurous or sulphuric acid is precipitated may lead to a weakness and softening of the bone, accompanied with other troubles, particularly an inflammation of the respiratory passages. Under such circumstances the only treatment which can be recommended is to re- move animals beyond the influence of these poisons. Poisonous plants — A large number of wild plants have been shown to be poi- sonous to a greater or less extent to domestic animals and man. Naturally the most serious cases of plant poison- ing in stock occur on the western ranges, where for all or a greater por- tion of the year, stock are allowed to graze on the native vegetation. In cultivated pastures, particularly where a system of rotation is followed, such weeds do not secure a foothold and losses from poisonous plants are therefore much less serious in the thickly settled regions. It has been observed in the study of poisonous plants during recent years that the losses are most severe at times and under conditions where the range is over pastured, so that grass and more palatable plants are not to be obtained in sufficient quantities. Farm animals do not voluntarily choose to eat poisonous weeds in preference to grass, but may be driven to eat such plants under stress of hunger. The losses from poisonous plants in the western states are annually a very se- rious matter, but this problem as a whole may be looked at as a part of the problem of range management and range improvement. Where the ranges are so managed that the animals are able to secure good grass in sufficient quanti- ties, little danger need be apprehended from stock being poisoned by harmful plants. Briefs notes follow on the more important plants which are concerned in poisoning farm animals. Loco — Throughout the western range country there are a number of wild le- guminous plants which have been sus- pected of causing the loco disease and are commonly known as loco weeds. The most abundant, species in Colorado and Kansas is Astragalus moUissimus; while in Montana the plant most fre- quently concerned in causing loco dis- ease is Aragallus spicatus* Contro- versy has prevailed regarding the loco disease. It has been supposed by va- rious investigators to be due to eating alkali, to tapeworms, stomach worms, insect parasites contained in the loco weed and to the poisonous or injurious effects of various loco weeds. In in- vestigations which were carried on in Montana it appeared that, in some parts of the state, horses and sheep were badly affected as the result of eating the common loco weed of those sections. In the southern Rocky moun- tain states the disease is more preva- Fig. 122 — purple LOCO WEED lent among cattle. The symptoms are those of extreme emaciation, malnutri- tion and weakness accompanied with va- rious cerebral symptoms such as perver- seness and stupidity on the part of the animal. In fact, affected animals are commonly crazy or foolish, as is indi- cated by the Spanish word 'loco." There is no medical treatment for loco disease, but affected animals may be removed from pastures where the loco weed grows and fed on a nutritious diet. When this is done they soon recover, to all intents and purposes. Locoed sheep may be readily fattened and make good mut- ton. Similarly with locoed cattle, the disease does not interfere with their sub- sequent use for beef purposes. Locoed horses may be restored to a serviceable 168 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK condition by keeping in cultivated pas- tures or in the stable on a well balanced ration. Death camas (Zyadenus venenosus) is a low perennial with an onion like bulb and narrow leaves separating in such a manner as to give rise to the name "crow foot," which it bears in some localities. It produces a cluster of yellowish green flowers about the first of May. The plant is distributed from California to South Dakota. The symptoms of poi- soning are irregularity in the movements of the animal, accompanied by fast breathing and spasms. In the later stages of poisoning in sheep there is a complete paralysis of the muscles and the animal lies upon its side in a sort of stupor. Sometimes the stomach contents are regurgitated through the mouth and nostrils. Larkspurs are widely distributed over the country and a number of species, especially in the western states, have been shown to be poisonous. In Mon- tana the common poisonous species are Delphinium bicolor and D. glaucum; while in Colorado these two and three other species have recently been shown flowers of considerable beauty. The larkspurs are especially poisonous in their younger stages. The symptoms are stiffness, irregularity in the gait at first and later violent spasms interrupted by periods of quiet. Water hemlock—Several species of this plant are known to be exceedingly Fig. 123 TALL LARKSPUR by Glover to be poisonous. These plants grow from 6 inches to 7 feet in height and carry a spike of pale or dark bine WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK poisonous to man and animals, the most common poisonous species being Cicuta vagans, C. maculata and C. occidentalis. These plants are smooth perennials with stems 2 to 6 feet high and com- pound leaves which arise from the ground and flat topped clusters of white flowers. The first symptoms of poison- ing are severe pain and frenzied move- ments of the animal. Affected animals die in spasms sometimes within 15 min- utes after the first symptoms appear. Aconite is a common wild species at high altitudes throughout the Rocky mountains. In some localities it oc- curs in such quantities about small streams and watering places as to be a source of danger to both cattle and sheep. It requires only small quantities to cause serious results, especially if eaten in the younger stages. DISEASES OF ANIMALS 169 Lupines are frequently called "blue beans," or "blue peas," by stockmen and Fig. 125 — ACONITE may be recognized by the striking spikes of blue, pea-like flowers and long kinds of domestic animals in the west- ern states and under ordinary circum- stances are perfectly harmless, and in- deed, a valuable forage. Occasionally serious losses from poisoning occur from these plants, especially if they were har- vested at the time when the seeds were nearly mature. The poisoning element appears to be contained chiefly in the Ergot i s a parasitic fungus which in- fests rye, rye grass, blue joint and va- rious other grasses. It may be recog- nized as black or brown spurs in the heads of infested grasses, these spurs often being mistaken by stockmen for the seed of the grasses. Ergot some- Fig. 127 ERGOT IN WILD RYE-GRASS Fig. 126 LUPINE stemmed leaves with seven to 10 leaflets which arise from a common point. Lu- pines are largely used as hay for all times causes abortion, paralysis of the muscles, especially of the head and neck, and if eaten in large quantities causes a sloughing of a ring of tissue around the leg near the crown of the hoof. Treatment for plant poisoning—Ac- cording to our experiments in Montana, which have been corroborated by Glover in Colorado and other investigators, one of the most effective and universally applicable remedies for poisonous plants is potassium permanganate, which may be combined with an acid salt, such as sulphate of aluminum. The remedy may be dissolved in water and given as a drench. Adult sheep may be given 5 to 10 grains; horses, 20 grains, cat- tle 30 to 50 grains. Young animals should receive doses proportionately smaller. The effect of potassium per- manganate is to destroy the active poi- sonous principles in the stomach before they have been absorbed and, therefore, before they have had any effect upon the animals. It is not a physiological anti- dote and does not antagonize the symp- toms which are produced by plant poisons. It simply oxidizes the poison still remaining in the stomach and pre- vents it being absorbed into the blood. For combating symptoms which have al- ready appeared, various other drugs may be used, according to the symptoms pres- 170 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ent. In .arkspur or aconite poisoning, hypodermic injections of atropine may- be administered in doses of ^ to 1 grain for horses and cattle, and from 1-10 to 1-5 of a grain for sheep. This' remedy has recently given excellent results in Colorado in experiments car- ried on by Glover. In poisoning from water hemlock morphine may be given hypodermicany, or chloral hy- drate irr the stomach. Chloral hydrate may be given in doses of 1 ounce to horses and cattle and about *4 of an ounce to sheep. Morphine may also be administered in such cases in doses of IV2 grains for sheep and 3 to 10 grains for cattle and horses. PART IV Systems of Stock Raising, Soil Fertility, Live Stock Institutions, and Stock Marketing w 5 to I FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY Stock raising is the only kind of farm- ing that maintains the land in its virgin productiveness. On a carefully managed stock farm the soil should be as produc- tive after a hundred years of farming as on the day when the first furrow was turned. This cannot be said of grain farming, or hay farming, or any other kind of farming, where crops raised are sold off the farm. The growing plant takes food from the soil for its' development. When first broken up the virgin soil is mellow from the remains of plant and animal life that have accumulated in it for ages. It absorbs and holds the rainfall. Its rich dark color retains the warmth of the sun and it bountifully yields up its food in fields of grain and hay that gladden the heart. But as crop after crop is re- moved from the field and sold off the farm, the original stock of available plant food in the soil grows less and less. The humus that once served to make the soil mellow, and hold the summer rains for the thirsty crop, burns out. The soil bakes and packs. The rain washes over its surface and wears great gullies in it. The plant searches for the scanty stores of food, but the dwarf growth and sickly color of the crop tell the story of the ex- hausted soil and the reasons for the abandoned farm. The stock farmer a manufacturer — Legitimate stock farming never leads to this result. It is a higher class of farm- ing. A higher grade of intelligence is re- quired to carry it out successfully. The stock farmer must know, as a first re- quisite, how to produce hay and grain. But these are simply the crude product in his business and correspond to pig iron in the steel industry. Out of the crude hay, grain, roots, etc, grown, the stock farmer must know how to manu- facture marbled mutton and beef, English breakfast bacon, stanch draft horses, speed, butter with the flavor of June, wool, eggs, cheese. The stock farmer is a manufacturer. His animals are the machines he works with and they constitute a mechanism more profound and delicate than any- thing ever conceived by the mind of man. To know just what crude materials to use, in just what amounts and just how to combine them for the production of the choicest product, to know when the machine is working to its fullest capac- ity, and to know how to repair it should it get out of order, requires an intelli- gence of as high order as that required to build a battleship. Utilization of by-products — I n many of the great industries of today the profits come in the careful husbanding and utilization of the by-products — ma- terials that once were considered of no value and thrown away. This is espe- cially true in stock farming. Success in this business depends very largely on what use is made of the by-products. The one great by-product in stock farming, the one that maintains the fertility of the farm unimpaired, and which makes it an inexhaustible gold mine, is the manure pile. Value of manure— This material con- tains every element essential to the growth of crops. The nourishment it contains is in a form readily available to plants. It also supplies to the soil that great ameliorator known as humus. Humus is not directly a plant food in it- self, but it makes the soil friable, mellow and porous, so that rain can soak in and the air penetrate to the roots of plants. It absorbs and retains the rains, yielding up its moisture slowly to the growing crops and in a large measure it consti- tutes the life of the soil. Enormous quantities of the highest grade mineral fertilizers are of little value to the farmer unless the soil also contains humus. Selling fertility — Every crop grown on the farm has a value as a fertilizer. 1Y4 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK When the crop is sold, so much of the fertility of the farm is removed per- manently. If the crop is fed on the farm and the manure saved and returned to the soil, this great loss of fertility is checked. If in addition to the crop raised on the farm, others are bought and fed and the manure spread on the fields, the farm may actually grow richer and richer from year to year. In fact, many a run-down farm has been brought to a high state of productiveness by this method of stock farming. In selling animals or animal products from the farm, there is also a certain amount of fertility removed from the farm. The amount, however, is very much less than where the raw crops are sold. Thus it takes about 15,000 pounds of hay and grain to produce 1,000 pounds of beef. This hay and grain if sold, would remove fertility, which if bought, would cost at least $100. At the same prices the value of the fertility removed when the 1,000 pounds animal produced on this feed is sold, would be but about $12. If, instead of meat, butter is sold from the farm, the fertility removed is prac- tically nothing. If extra feed is bought, as is common on the modern stock farm, then the fertility thus brought to the farm might exceed that removed in the meat and milk. The degree of success of a farmer can usually be accurately gauged by counting the number of loads of manure he hauls out on his fields annually. Losses in fertility by different methods of farming — The loss of fertil- ity on a 160-acre farm from (1) all grain farming, (2) mixed grain and general farming, (3) mixed potato and general farming, (4) stock farming and (5) dairy farming has been worked out in considerable detail by Snyder at the Minnesota Station (Bui. 41) with the following general result: LOSS OF FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS UNDER DIFFERENT SYS- TEMS OF FARMING Nitrogen Kind of farming pounds All grain farming 5,000 Mixed grain and general farming 2,600+ Mixed potato and general farming 2,300+ Stock farming 900 Dairy farming S00 Phosphoric acid Potash pounds pounds 2,500 4,200- 1,000 1,000+ 1,000- 2,400+ 150 60 175 85 These figures are conservative. The loss of nitrogen in grain farming is greater than represented because of losses that occur in the drainage water and in the decomposition of humus. In the other systems of farming the loss of nitrogen may not be as great as repre- sented if clover, alfalfa or other nitro- gen-gathering crops are grown. The losses of phosphoric acid and potash shown for dairy and stock farming may be entirely eliminated if purchased feeds are used in addition to those grown on the farm. Elements of plant life — It is well known that plants utilize many different elements in their growth such as lime, sulphur, magnesia, potash, chlorine, so- dium, phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen, car- bon, etc. These elements, except three, are sufficiently abundant in all soil for the full growth of all plants. These three elements are nitrogen, potash and phos- phoric acid ; on some soils lime is needed in addition. The value of fertilizers is based on the percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash they contain. These sub- stances are always present in all farm crops, and hence we may estimate the manurial value of these crops by the amount of these elements they contain. Professor Armsby has done this for a number of farm crops and animal prod- ucts, estimating the value of the nitro- gen they contain at 17 cents a pound, which is about the usual price when this fertilizer is bought, the phosphoric acid at 7 cents, and potash at 4 cents a pound. The results are given in the table herewith. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 175 MANURE VALUE OP FARM PRODUCTS Nitrogen Meadow hay o „ 20.4 Timothy hay 19.7 Hungarian hay 23.1 Red clover hay 40.2 Wheat straw 11.0 Barley straw 12.S Oat straw 12.2 Corn stalks 16.9 Potatoes 7.0 Mangels 4.6 Sugar beets 6.1 Turnips „ 3.7 Carrots 3.7 Wheat bran 49.2 Rye bran 48.9 Wheat middlings 48.5 Brewers' grains 17.8 Oil meal 105.1 Cottonseed meal 135.7 Winter wheat 37.5 Winter rye 33.9 Oats 36.4 Corn (Indian) 33.1 Barley 39.7 Cow's milk 10.2 Cheese 90.6 Live cattle 53.2 Live sheep 44.8 Live swine 40.0 Eggs 43.6 Unwashed wool . . . o 108.0 MANURIAL VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS How farm fertility is lost — The table shows that when the farmer sells a ton of timothy hay off the farm, he sells about $6 worth of manure with it. When he sells a ton of wheat bran he sells fer- tility to the value of $12.50. A ton of pigs takes away $8.17 worth of the farm fertility and a ton of unwashed wool, $24.27 worth. In other words, when a man sells a ton of timothy hay for $14, the net price is but $8, because with it he has taken away $6 worth of his work- ing capital in the form of farm fertility. Nitrogen costly — The most expensive element in fertilizers is nitrogen and the greater the amount of this element sold in any product the greater will be the financial loss to the farmer. This is not strictly true, however, because all leguminous plants like beans, peas, clover, alfalfa, etc, have the power, through tubercles on their roots, of utilizing some of the nitrogen in the air for their growth and thus actually leave the ground richer in this element than before they were planted. ^ As an offset to this, however, very considerable quantities of nitrogen are lost to the farm through volatilization from stable and yard manure. -Pounds per ton- Phosphoric acid 8.2 14.4 6.8 11.2 4.4 3.8 . 3.8 10.0 3 2 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.0 28.6 68.6 7.4 8.2 32.2 29.2 10.6 11.2 12.4 11.8 9.0 3.4 23.0 37.2 24.6 17.6 7.4 o o Potash 26.4 40.8 42.4 36.6 12.6 18.8 17.8 19.2 11.4 8.2 7.8 6.6 5.6 54.6 38.6 5.2 1.0 24.8 56.2 15.8 17.8 7.4 15.4 3.0 5.0 3.4 3.0 3.6 3.0 149.2 Value per ton dollars $5.10 5.99 6.10 9.07 2.69 3.32 3.06 4.39 1.87 1.19 1.46 1.02 1.00 12.45 14.65 8.96 3.64 21.11 28.35 7.75 7.26 7.43 6.75 7.99 2.09 17.21 11.78 9.45 8.17 8.05 24.47 Plant food retained in manure I n feeding animals farm crops or purchased feeds, it has been shown by innumerable experiments that nearly the whole fer- tilizing value of the material is recov- ered in the manure. The amount re- covered is dependent to a considerable extent upon the age, condition and kind of animal. Full grown animals which maintain their normal weight excrete practically all of the fertilizing constit- uents consumed in the food. Young and rapidly growing animals retain a considerable portion for building up their bodies and may not excrete, there- fore, more than 50 per cent of the fer- tilizing constituents of the food. Milch cows take some of the mineral elements and nitrogen from the food for the pro- duction of milk and so may not excrete more than 65 to 85 per cent of the fer- tilizing constituents of the food. Fat- tening and working animals excrete from 90 to 95 per cent of the fertilizing constituents of the food. Necessity for preserving manure — - We thus see that by utilizing the crops grown on the farm, for the production of animals or animal products, a very large percentage of the fertility of the farm is retained on the land in the form 176 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK of manure. The proper care and utili- zation of this manure will determine in a large measure the degree of success at- tained by the stock farmer. The proper method of caring for the manure, there- fore, is well worthy most, careful consid- eration, for the more manure, the bigger the crops; the bigger the crops, the more animals ; and the more animals the more profit and the more manure. There are as many failures among stock farmers as among grain farmers and the chief rea- son is because the manure produced is not properly husbanded and utilized. The by-product which gives the profit is overlooked. Quantity and value of farm manure produced — The money value of the ma- nure produced on a farm during the seven winter months where 4 horses, 20 cows, 50 sheep and 10 hogs are kept, is estimated by Professor Roberts at about $250. By the usual method of handling from one-third to one-half the value of the manure is leached out or otherwise lost before it is put back on the field. The quantity of manure produced and its value varies greatly with different animals. It has been estimated by Arms- by that a horse requires about 2500 pounds of straw for bedding purposes per year, and that this, with the normal amount of manure produced, will, under favorable conditions, result in about 6 tons of fresh manure, but ordinarily hot more than 5 tons, and under unfav- orable conditions, as where only one horse is kept, or the manure infrequently hauled away, perhaps not more than 2V2 tons. Heiden estimates that 100 pounds of dry matter consumed by a horse will yield about 210 pounds of fresh manure. The same amount with a cow will produce 384 pounds of manure, in- cluding tirine. Sheep produce about 183 pounds for 100 pounds of dry matter consumed. A hog produces from 8 to 12 pounds of manure a day, or from IV2 to 2 tons a year. The following table is based on results secured at the New York Cornell station and shows the average amount of manure produced per day by animals fed liberally and given sufficient bedding to keep them clean, calculated to a uniform basis of 1,000 pounds live weight : AMOUNT AND VALUE OF MANURE PRODUCED PER 1000 POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS Amount Value Value per day per day, a per year, a Pounds Cents Sheep 34.1 7.2 $26. OS Calves 67.8 Hogs 83.6 Cows 74.1 Horses 48.8 a Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phos- phoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 4V 2 cents per pound. Value of manure — The fertilizing value and the cash value of the manure produced by different animals under normal conditions, is shown in the table below prepared by Beal, the manure being understood to include both solid and liquid excrement: 6.7 24.45 16.7 60.88 8.0 29.27 7.6 27.74 ANALYSES AND VALUE PER TON OF MANURE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS /alue per ton $3.30 2.18 3.29 2.02 7!07 Phosphoric Water Nitrogen acid Potash per cent per cent per cent er cent Sheep 59.52 0.768 0.391 0.591 Calves . . . 77.73 .497 .172 .532 Hogs 74.13 .840 .390 .320 Cows .... 7. r ).2r> .426 .290 .440 Horses . . . 48.69 .490 .260 .480 Hens 56.00 0.S0 to 2 0.50 to 2 0.S0 to .90 The two tables taken together show :hat, with equal weight of animals, hogs produce more manure a day than any other animal. Cows and calves come next, followed by sheep and horses. If we consider the money value of a ton of manure, as shown in the last table, we see that the most valuable manure is that produced by hens, followed by that produced by sheep, then hogs, while that produced by calves, cows and horses is about equally valuable. Under ordinary farm practice, it is not common for each kind of manure to be saved separately but all are put into a common heap. The composition of manure thus made varies a?cording to Beal, about as follows: Nitrogen, 0.4 to 0.8 per cent ; phosphoric acid, 0.2 to 0.5 per cent; potash, 0.4 to 0.8 per cent; water, 60 to 75 per cent. Preventing losses of plant food in manure — In ordinary handling of barnyard manure enormous losses occur because the liquid portion is allowed to STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY m go to waste. A part is absorbed in tbe bedding used and finds its way to the common heap, but large quantities are lost through the cracks in the barn floor and leaching in the yard. If the real fertilizing value of this material were well known, much greater care would be taken to preserve it. European farmers understand this better than American farmers do, and preserve this material with as much care as any pro- duct produced on the farm. ■Relative value of solid and liquid manure — As between the solid and liquid excrement the liquid is by far the more valuable from a fertilizing standpoint. The urine of all farm animals is espe- cially rich in nitrogen and potash, but is lacking in phosphoric acid. Investiga- tions at the Pennsylvania station showed that the urine of milch cows contains nearly one-half the nitrogen and three- fourths of the potash of the food con- sumed and almost no phosphoric acid. The dung on the other hand contains about one-third of the nitrogen, one- sixth of the potash and three-fourths of the phosphoric acid of the food. Fig. 129 FRENCH METHOD OF KEEPING MANURE Similarly, experiments with sheep at the Maine station showed that the urine contained nearly half the potash, and from one-half to three-fourths of the nitrogen. All of the phosphoric acid was found in the solid excrement. These data show that neither the solid excre- ment nor the liquid is a complete ferti- lizer in itself ; the one is lacking in nitro- gen and potash and the other in phos- phoric acid and much better results will be secured where both are Combined. This is effected in a large measure by using such materials for bedding as will absorb the liquid, when it may be mixed with the solid excrement. The best ab- sorbents from the standpoint of economy, fertilizing value and effectiveness are straw, peat and peat moss. Sawdust is a good absorbent, but has no value as a fertilizer. On the average 2.2 per cent of the ni- trogen of manure is in the solid matter and 10.8 per cent in the liquid; 1.67 per cent of the phosphoric acid is in the solid matter and only a trace in the liquid of cows and horses, but practi- cally 5 per cent in the liquid of hogs; 1 per cent of the potash and soda is in the solid matter and 13.2 per cent in the liquid. Character of manure from different farm animals — The various kinds of manures produced by the different farm animals, differ markedly in their physi- cal characteristics as well as their chemi- cal composition, and have greatly differ- ing values for the various purposes to which manures are put. Poultry manure, since it always con- tains both the solid and liquid excre- is the richest of all farm manures, par- ticularly in nitrogen. This manure, however, quickly loses its nitrogen by fermentation, when not properly mixed with absorbents or preservatives. Pmt neither this manure nor any other farm manure should ever be mixed with such alkaline substances as lime, wood ashes, etc, as they set free the nitrogen of the manure in the form of ammonia, which is lost in the air. "Sheep manure contains a smaller amount of water, and, weight for weight, is the richest manure produced by any of the common farm animals. It is what is called a hot manure, fermenting rapidly with the development of heat. Like horse manure, it is especially likely to lose ammonia. "Horse manure is very dry and is therefore difficult to thoroughly mix with litter. It is a hot manure, undergoing fermentation rapidly and generating a high heat on account of its loose texture. It is likely to lose ammonia more rapidly than sheep manure and requires careful management from the moment it is voided. The composition of horse man- ure is more uniform than that of any other farm animal, chiefly because the food of horses is more uniform. The urine is especially rich. "Hog manure is variable in composi- tion owing to the variable nature of the food supplied to this animal, but is gen- erally rich, although containing a high percentage of water. It generates little heat in decomposing. "The manure of neat cattle, like that of hogs and for the same reason, is vari- able in character, but is generally poorer than that of other farm animals on ac- count of its large percentage of water. 178 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK It decomposes slowly and develops little heat." Fermentation of manure — Both solid and liquid excrement undergo rapid changes from the time they are voided and the chief concern of the farmer is how he may prevent losses of valuable constituents before these manures are returned to the soil. If the manure can be hauled directly from the stable to the field as rapidly as made, or at very short intervals, there will be but little loss in fertilizing value. If, how- ever, it is left in piles to accumulate for six months or more, exposed to the rain, sun and winds, very large losses may occur from fermentation, leaching, etc. Beal states that: "The fermentation of manure is due to the action of minute miscroscopic organisms which belong to two great classes: (1) those which re- quire an abundant supply of air (oxy- gen) and which die when deprived of oxygen — known as aerobic ferments; and (2) those which grow without oxygen and die when exposed to it — known as anaerobic ferments. "The decomposition observed in the manure heap is due, as a rule, to the com- bined action of these two classes of fer- ments. On the outer surface of the heap, where the air circulates freely, the first class (aerobic) is active, while in the interior of the heap, where the supply of air is limited, the fermentation is due to the anaerobic ferments. The latter soon run their course and cease to exist. Their function seems to be principally to break up the more complex substances of the manure and prepare them for the further action of the aerobic ferments, which finally convert them into simpler compounds, such as water, carbon dioxide and marsh gas. "Where the manure is compacted (as in deep stalls, for instance), the carbon dioxide formed by fermentation soon per- meates the mass so completely as to ex- clude the air entirely, thus arresting fer- mentation. In loose heaps into which air is freely admitted, fermentation of the aerobic form may go on indefinitely. "The fermentations of manure are very complex and vary according to cir- cumstances. The principal conditions affecting these processes are: (1) tem- perature; (2) supply of air as deter- mined by compactness of heap ; (3) mois- ture ; (4) the composition of the manure, and (5) the nature of the preservatives added. "The higher the temperature the more rapidly will manure decay. In aerobic fermentation of manure the temperature may rise to 122° to 140°, or even 158° F. On the other hand, in the interior of the heap, where anaerobic fermentation is in progress, the temperature rarely rises above 95° F. Experiments have indi- cated that 131° F. is the most favorable temperature for manure fermentations." It is thus seen that the successful rot- ting of manure is dependent upon the proper regulation of the two kinds of fermentation necessary. In loosely packed heaps fermentation may be too rapid and the temperature may rise so high as to burn the strawy portion pro- ducing what is known as fire-fanging. This must be avoided because the bene- ficial effect of barnyard manure lies not only in the fertilizing elements it con- tains, but also in the ameliorating influ- ence of the humus in it. How to check injurious fermentation in manure piles_One of the chief means used in checking rapid fermentation is by increasing the moisture supply of the heap. This drives out the air and pre- vents the rapid multiplication of the aerobic fermentation. Horse and sheep manures are especially dry and require moistening oftener than other manures. In the best European practice, a pit is dug beside the manure pile into which the leachings are drained. These are pumped regularly over the manure to keep it at a uniform degree of moisture, and when the leachings are not sufficient for this purpose, water is used. The manure pile is kept in a close, compact heap and the fresh manure from the sta- bles placed on top. If the liquid is stored separately in tanks, it undergoes rapid fermentation and deterioration and the solid excrement requires much more attention to prevent fire-fanging than when the liquid portion is mixed with it. In addition to this, the liquid portion by itself requires special tanks or cisterns. Everything considered, the best results will be obtained by the use of water-titj'ht stall floors and gutters and the use of sufficient bedding to absorb the liquid portion of the manure. In properly fermented manure, the coarse materials are gradually decom- posed and the bulk greatly decreases. It is easily handled and readily mixes with the soil and its plant food is readily available for the production of crops. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 179 Losses due to leaching—Next to the losses which occur in the fermentation of manures is that caused by leaching 1 . Horse manure thrown into a loose pile out of doors and subject to changing weather conditions loses practically one- half of its fertilizing constituents within six months. If mixed with cow or hog manure and kept close in a compact mass so that the water will quickly run off, the loss, while still considerable, is not nearly so great. Manure allowed to lie in the barnyard over summer, loses fully one-half or more of its fertilizing value. very effective. Only so much should be used, however, as is necessary to keep the animals clean, as it is very poor in fertilizing constituents and its presence serves simply as a means of dilution. Chemicals are sometimes used to fix the ammonia. Gypsum or land plaster is one of the best of these. This may be sprinkled on the fresh dung and urine in small amounts and is one of the most effective materials for this purpose, be- sides being a lime fertilizer of consider- able value. The manure heap itself as stated above, should be kept compact Fig. 130 — THESE 15 LOADS OF CORN SHOULD HAVE BEEN CONDENSED INTO 2 LOADS OF MEAT AND $150 WORTH OF MANURE RETAINED ON THE FARM Manure preservatives—The organisms causing the decomposition of manure are voided with it and commence their ac- tivity at once. Through their opera- tions considerable losses of ammonia oc- cur in the manure of horses and sheep in a comparatively short time. The most effective means of retarding this loss is by the use of absorptives, such as straw, leaves, peat, sawdust, etc. These not only take up the liquid portions, but absorb to a considerable extent the ammonia produced by fermentation which would otherwise be lost in the air. The most effective absorptives are peat moss and peat. Straw, however, is the material most widely available and is and uniformly moist. When this pre- caution is observed the use of land plaster or any other chemical will scarcely be necessary. The various kinds of manure should be mixed together in the heap, the horse manure with the cow manure, etc. Yards for manure_The barnyard in which the manure is kept should be dished so that when the manure pile is built in the center, the leachings will drain towards it. The ground should be uniformly packed down to prevent the percolation of the liquid into the soil, and on sandy or gravelly yards it may be advisable to cement over the lower portion. 180 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Covered yards for manure — There is considerable discussion as to the value of covered yards for preserving the ma- nure. Where such sheds are loosely built, so that the manure preserved under them may be rapidly dried out, they are more harmful than beneficial, but where they are tightly built, so that the manure re- mains in a moist condition, they un- doubtedly furnish a valuable means for preserving manure in a first class condi- tion. The New England barn cellars, in which manure is stored and worked over by hogs, constitute one of the best meth- ods of preserving manure. Another method is that known as the deep stall method. These stalls are built below the surface of the ground and the manure left in them to accumulate during winter. also renders soluble considerable quan- tities of the insoluble fertilizing constit- uents of the soil itself. Fresh manures are particularly valu- able on heavy clay soils while on sandy soil or light soil well rotted manure per- haps gives best results. In rather moist years, however, fresh manures will do better on sandy lands than on heavy soils because on the heavy soils they de- compose very slowly, while on the lighter soils with sufficient moisture, decom- position is much more rapid. On light soils there may be some loss by drainage, but there is scarcely any loss whatever in manures when applied to heavy soils, since these soils possess powerful absorb- ent qualities, which prevent the loss of fertilizing ingredients. Fig. 131 — MANURE SPREADER READY FOR OPERATION Experiments have shown that manure thus kept is preserved in ideal condition. It is kept uniformly moist, the fermen- tation is slow and there is practically no loss of fertilizer constituents. This is the method in common use by most farmers in their sheep pen, and expe- rience has shown that this manure when drawn out in the spring is in the most valuable form for turning under. Applying manure on the land — Kela- tive to the application of manure to the soil, both scientific and practical men hold that the fresher it can be spread on the land the less loss there is and the greater the benefit. The fresh manure when turned under readily undergoes fer- mentation which not only disintegrates the coarser particles of the manure, but Fresh manures tend to the production of a rank succulent growth of stems and weeds rather than grain. They are, therefore, most useful in the produc- tion of the hay crop, while for grain, the more rotted material gives the better re- sults. In applying manure it should be spread in a thin, even layer over the sur- face, the method of leaving in piles for a month or more gives unsatisfactory re- sults, because where the piles have been made the growth is especially rank and produces an uneven harvest. If the fields are hilly, the manure should be plowed under very soon after being spread ; otherwise, there will be consider- able loss in the drainage waters from heavy rains, STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 181 On heavy soils the manure may be plowed 4 to 5 inches deep, and on light- er soils 7 to 8 inches deep. From 10 to 15 tons of manure are usually sufficient for the production of maximum grain crops. Frequent light applications for both hay and grain give much better results than occasional heavy applications. SYSTEMS OF STOCK FABMING There are 5,739,657 farms in the United States. Live stock is kept on 96 per cent of these farms, while on about one-third of them, live stock or live stock products is the principal source of income. On the majority of the stock farms in the United States, a number of different classes of stock is maintained; horses to work the farm, from which a few colts may be bred for sale; sheep to keep the weeds down in the meadows, graze over the rough land, eat up the surplus roughage of winter, and produce wool and lambs for sale ; cows, to supply milk and butter and furnish some stock for fattening and for sale; hogs to eat up the waste and odds and ends about the farm, dairy and house, and to condense and turn the corn crop into money; and poultry for eggs and for the table. In the complete utilization of all farm crops, and in the maintenance of soil fertility, there is a place for the profita- ble use of each of the different farm animals. Advantages of general stock farming — If corn is grown for hogs alone, the fodder would be an entire waste, but by feeding it to cattle, horses or sheep, this waste material is turned to profitable ac- count. The large quantities of skim milk obtained as a by-product on the dairy farm would represent a severe loss were not hogs, calves or poultry kept to convert it into veal, pork or eggs. These various reasons and the further fact that all the animals fit in one way and an- other to further the pleasure and comfort of the daily life of the farm family, show why general stock farming is more pop- ular than special stock farming. Factors which determine the kind of stock farming in a locality — While these reasons generally hold, there are certain other factors which go to deter- mine the kind of stock farming that is followed in any community, these are soil, climate, population, etc. Thus we find that the finest race horses of the country are produced on the limestone soil and blue grass region of Kentucky. White breeds of hogs are unsuccessfully grown in the South because of sun scald. Dairy farming is most highly developed in the more densely settled portions of the country. Live stock ranching, on the other hand, is profitable only in the sparsely settled western states and in a climate where stock can remain out all winter. Sheep diseases are especially se- vere in the South and tend to restrict the development of the sheep industry in the more southern states. The large poultry farms are usually located within easy access to the larger markets. Since general stock farming represents the most common type in America, and in fact all countries, a concrete example of the system followed on one of the better classes of these farms may be suggested. The farm is that of Mr. E. _ E. Chester, of Champaign County, Illinois, and the description is that of Prof. W. J. Spillman. Typical general stock farm The stock raised on this farm are cattle, hogs and horses. The farm contains about 440 acres of rich, black, prairie loam. Enough stock is kept to consume all the produce of the farm and a little more. About 100 acres are kept in permanent blue grass pasture and 100 more in tem- porary timothy and clover pasture. The leading cultivated crop is corn, of which l'+O acres are annually grown. About 50 to 60 acres are planted to wheat and oats each year and the remainder of the farm with clover or timothy and clover. No systematic rotation is followed. This is seldom necessary on a stock farm since the fertility of the farm is maintained by the use of manure, which is applied on the fields that need it most. The manure on this farm is usually applied to the corn crop. Corn averages 50 bushels per acre; oats 50; wheat 20; hay about 2 tons to the acre. Some 50 acres of hay are cut each year. A 100-ton silo is filled each year and about 40 acres of corn cut for fodder. The blue grass pasture is grazed off during the early part of the season but usually sufficient stock is sold off so that it is given com- parative rest during the summer time. The pasture accumulates so much fer- tility that it is occasionally broken up and cropped. The stock kept consists of about 100 head of cattle, 100 hogs or more and some 20 head of horses, which is about twice 182 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK as many as is necessary to do the work of the farm. The original herd of high grade Shorthorns has been gradually changed into a herd of registered stock. By this means the average price of the calves sold has been raised from $15 to $100 a head, many of these cattle be- ing sold for breeding purposes. In addi- tion to the home grown stock, calves, yearlings and two-year-olds are also bought to feed for market. Young light cattle weighing between 500 to 800 pounds are preferred for this purpose. Calves for beef — Mr. Chester's method of handling calves for beef is never to let them get hungry, but make their feed as cheap as possible up to the Hogs raised — About 100 hogs are kept on the farm all the time. They are kept on pasture as much as possi- ble, but fed grain the year round, ex- cept when following cattle on feed. They are sold when they reach a weight of about 300 pounds each. As much growth as is possible is made on pas- ture, and as soon in the spring as possi- ble, the sows and pigs are put after the cattle on pasture. The horses kept are both raised and bought. They are all high grade, draft animals and sent to market only in prime condition. "No exercise is given while fitting for market except to lead them out three times a day for water. Fig. 132 — CALVES READY FOR THEIR SKIM MILK, KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION fattening period and then stop cheapen- ing. Before fattening, the animals are given pasture, corn stalks, clover hay and silage. The steers are fattened when they reach a weight of 1,000 pounds. Several lots of one or more carloads are fed annually, a lot be- ing on feed the most of the year. In early winter fattening, each steer is fed 20 to 40 pounds of silage, 1-4 to 1-3 bushel of corn and all the clover hay it will eat. The corn is fed as broken from the stalks, grain, husks and cob all crushed together. In summer fat- tening, steers are kept on blue grass pasture and fed about a peck of corn each daily, either crushed or whole on the stalk. The fattening period usually lasts 100 to 120 days, When put on feed to be prepared for market, horses are given all the clover hay they will eat and a gradually in- creasing ration of corn and oats till they have all they will eat up clean. In season, green corn is used instead of dry, the change being accomplished by substituting one ear of green corn for one of dry each day." Mares are us- ually sold off before they become old unless unusually valuable for breeding. While this general live stock farming is the most usual kind there can be no doubt that the highest type of live stock farming is represented by the man who grows only pure bred stock. We may therefore, well consider that subject next, following it by other special types of live stock farming, STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 183 PURE BREED STOCK FARMING It was noted above that when the herd of high grade cattle was changed into a registered herd, the selling price of the calves was raised from $15 to $100 a head. This suggests at once the greater profit in growing pure bred over grade and scrub stock. There are a number of matters that must be considered, however, before taking up this kind of farming. All our pure breeds of stock have originated from the common species. They have developed as a result of con- stant, careful attention to feed, care and breeding. Under conditions of neglect, ing to give his pure bred animals much more care and attention as to shelter, food and general well being, had better keep out of pure breed stock farming. It is like putting a piece of highly special- ized machinery in the hands of a man used to a grub hoe. Additional requirements of breeders — Furthermore, if a man is willing to give his pure bred stock this greater care, he must still have in addition a keen accurate judgment of the merits and demerits of each individual animal he breeds or buys, in order to sustain the standard of the breeds he is handling. This means he must know personally Fig. 133 A BREEDING HERD OF BERKSHIRE3 therefore, there is a constant tendency to revert to the original unimproved form. The man who goes into the busi- ness of raising pure bred stock, must thoroughly understand this. Greater care necessary for im- proved stock — Pure bred stock cannot be handled in the same manner as scrub or common grade stock. Scrub stock has learned to shift for itself and will make a living and will get along very well where the most carefully reared pure bred stock would be a failure. We do not hesitate to say that under the average conditions of farming, grade stock will prove fully as profitable as high priced pure bred stock and perhaps much more. The man who is not will- every animal in his herd, its peculiari- ties and capabilities. He must also know the kinds of animals other men are breeding so that when he introduces new blood into his herd he may secure animals that will add an element of im- provement to them. Pure bred sires — Many men who do not find it profitable to breed pure bred stock because of inaptitude for the business, may still find it profitable to keep pure bred sires for mating with grade animals. Such sires can be re- lied upon to impress their chief charac- teristics upon the offspring and thus greatly raise the standard of excellence of the herd. Even here, the breeder must be prepared to give his stock thus 184 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK produced better care than common in order to take advantage of the improve- ment introduced by the sire. The use of a $500 pure bred Angus bull on grade cows for beef, should impart to the off- spring a tendency to the beef form and rapid fattening qualities of the Angus breed. But if this stock be skim; ed on pasture or feed, the gain will not be more rapid and there will be no more profits than on scrubs, handled under like conditions. Breeder must be a specialist — The whole theory of breeding is treated in detail in another chapter of this work. It is introduced here among systems of stock farming to call attention A o the special requirements necessary to make this kind of farming a success. It is Proportion of pure bred stock ill the country — The total number of pure bred animals in the United States is not large. In 1904 the numbers were about as follows: Horses, 185,000; dairy cattle, 224,000; beef or other cat- tle, 452,000; sheep, 222,000; hogs, 181,- 000. In round numbers this is only 1 per cent of the horses and beef cattle produced in the country; 1.3 per cent of the dairy cattle and less than 0.5 per cent of the swine and sheep grown. Beginning blooded stock raising — In entering the business of producing pure breeds of live stock, much study and care is essential in the beginning to understand the characteristics of the breed which it is desired to handle. The breed selected should be adapted to the 134 — HAMPSHIRE HOG CRATED FOR (Photo furnished by E. C. Stone) the work of the specialist and in his hands succeeds, bringing in much larger returns than from general feeding or grade breeding. But when attempted by men unfamiliar with its requirements, it more often brings failure than profits. The breeder, of all stock men, must be a business man as well as a stock raiser. His success depends on both good breed- ing and wide advertising. Much the larger part of the men en- gaged in growing pure bred stock are located in the corn belt and eastern states. It is from these states that the western range men buy their pure bred sires to use on the grade range stock, though direct importations from Europe are frequently made. With large herds, pure bred sires soon pay for themselves in the higher grade and better quality of the_ progeny produced. locality of the breeder. In the little country of England practically each county has its particular breed of live stock best suited to the local condition of the county. There are sheep which will thrive on low wet lands, and others which do best on the highlands. Breeds of hogs that will flourish in the south and others that sun scald. Breeds that return a considerable profit from grazing and others which are noted for their ability to utilize large quantities of grain profitably. The market requirements in the neighborhood must also be consid- ered. In laying the foundation of a herd or flock, it is best to start with a few ex- ceptionally good animals and grow into the business slowly rather than to at- tempt to build up a herd rapidly with. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 185 animals of average merit. The reputa- tion of a herd is usually built up on the performance of a few remarkable animals, usually not more than one or two. Selling stock — After one has grown a few animals, the question arises as to how to dispose of the surplus stock. One of the many ways is to select a few of the best animals and to exhibit them at the county fairs. Exhibiting at fairs — The animals should be shown in their best possible condition. It is well for the breeder to be on hand early and secure as promi- nent pens as possible and to remain at the pens or stalls with his exhibit, in order to answer all questions regarding them. This is a practical point often overlooked and while the exhibitor is watching the races, some other fellow will be selling stock. Should he fail to take any prizes at the fair, which is likely to be the case the first time he exhibits, it would be well to look closely at the animals which won. If he cannot see why his animals failed, he should ask the judge. Judges are usually willing to state the grounds on which they made Jheir de- cision. The following year he should be able to show his animals to still bet- ter advantage and within a short time will be taking his full share of the prizes. In this way his breed is brought to the attention of the public and he may be able to dispose of all of his surplus stock locally. Advertising in stock journals — In case he is breeding extensively and the local demand is not sufficient, it will be necessary to advertise in the more prominent stock journals. The adver- tisement should be short and state ex- actly what the breeder has to sell and the character of his animals. Adver- tising is something that cannot be car- ried on spasmodically, but should be continued every week or month, year after year. Broadening the field at state and national fairs — After exhibiting at the county fairs, the next step will be to make exhibits at the state fairs. Here the competition will be very much sharper indeed and the breeder may have his vanity seriously jarred, before he succeeds in carrying home any of the coveted prizes. Every experience at these fairs, however, makes him a closer observer and broadens his outlook. If he takes his lessons seriously, however, and can come back a little stronger each year, he will soon be winning his share of the prizes. The next great step is to show at the international expositions; here he will come in competition with the solons of the show business. All this time his acquaintance with breeders and live stock men is growing as well as his repu- tation and the notoriety of his flocks and herds. Selling stock by auction — Another method of disposing of surplus stock is that of the auction sale. Such a sale must be advertised in the papers. Usually the beginner will find it ad- vantageous to join in with other breed- ers, in holding an auction at some cen- tral point. In this way the small breed- er shares in the advertising advantages and sale privileges secured by his con- nection with other breeders whose opera- tions are more extensive. This is a quick means of disposing of the sur- plus stock, and frequently stimulation of the bidding in the auction ring se- cures much higher prices than might otherwise be obtained by private sale. Whenever a sale is made, the breeder should furnish the buyer as promptly as possible a pedigree of the stock he has sold. Mail order sales — Many breeders do a large mail order business. In the mail order trade the breeder should be careful to keep a copy of all letters regarding the description and sale of any of his stock. It frequently happens that a buyer wishes to purchase an animal similar to one purchased one to five years previously, but not related to it. The correspondence record should enable the breeder to satisfy his cus- tomer. Great effort should be taken to satisfy each customer because they become advertisers for the breeder, and in case complaint is made, though it may not be altogether the breeder's fault, he should do more than what is required of him to meet the complaint. Occasionally one may be imposed upon but not often. With care, in replying to inquiries and in describing animals the complaints will be few and far be- tween. Breeding record — Careful records should he kept at all times and nothing left to guess work. Every detail should be known to a certainty. This is es- pecially true of the breeding of pigs where there are large numbers in each litter, and every breeding animal should 186 'FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK be recorded in the record association for the breed. DAIRY FARMING Next to pure breed live stock farming, it is doubtful if there is any special stock farming that pays better than dairy farming. In case the dairy farmer has judgment and ability he may also breed and sell high grade, pure bred dairy stock. Dairy farming is the most exact- ing of all kinds of farming on the time of the farmer — there is no second morn- ing nap and no Sunday in dairy farm- ing. Owing to the demand for dairy prod- ucts in a fresh condition, particularly milk and cream, and to the extensive use of these materials in every house- hold, dairy farming tends to center in the more densely populated regions, particularly about the great cities. It is the one kind of live stock farming that pays best on high priced land where an intensive system of farming must be followed. There are two sys- tems of dairy farming as regards management of crops and cows. These may be designated as the soiling sys- tem and the pasture system. Soiling system_I n the soiling sys- tem the farmer plans to have a succes- sion of green forage throughout the growing season for his cows. The cows are kept in stables or yards and all the green food they require is cut and car- ried to them. By the pasture system the cows are turned out onto the meadows as soon as the grass starts in the spring, and are made to gather their own food. The soiling system has the following advantages: (1) More stock can be kept on the same area, since all the land can be cropped and heavy yielding forage plants grown instead of the usual light yielding pasture grasses. There is no loss from the trampling of stock. Shaw estimates that twice the number of animals can be kept on the same acre- age by the soiling system as by pas- turing. (2) There is less wacte in har- vesting and feeding. The crops are cut green when most palatable, and, hence, are more nearly all eaten up. None of the finer parts is lost as in curing for hay. Less energy is expended by the cows in masticating and digesting the crops. (3) The animals are main- tained in better form and in a more uniform condition, because they get sufficient food each day, properly com- bined, to meet their physical require- ments. Drouths which wither the pas- tures and decrease the milk flow in summer time do not affect them. During the heat of the day, they are coolly stabled away from the annoying flies, and in the drizzling rain and bleak days of early spring and late fall, they are snugly sheltered. All the energy of the animal is conserved and con- centrated for the manufacture of milk. (4) All the fertility of the farm is preserved, since where the stock is kept stabled all the manure can be saved and utilized to the best advantage. If purchased feeds are used in addition to the home crops which is nearly always done, their fertility is nearly all saved at a clear profit. (5) No fences are re- quired. No weeds accumulate, since they are cut before they have a chance to produce seed. Objections to soiling — There are cer- tain objections to the soiling system. In the first place, there is considerable in- crease in the cost of labor involved in cutting the crops and carrying them to the cows, caring for the manure, etc. Cows demand more attention and more intelligence is required to keep them in a good, healthy, vigorous condition. The winter treatment of cows by both the soiling and pasturage system is practically the same. Succulent food in the form of either silage or roots, is provided as a substitute for the grasses and green forage of summer. Various hays and fodders are used and also grains and milling product. Illustration of soiling system — A striking illustration of intensive dairy farming is presented in the widely known case of the Rev. J. D. Detrich of Pennsylvania, described by Prof. W. G. Johnson in the American Agriculturist. December 6 and 13, 1902. On a farm of 15 acres, Mr. Detrich raised all the roughage for 30 head of stock, 17 of which were milch cows. On this farm, Mr. Detrich cleared on the average, $2,200 a year. The cows and young stock were kept in the stable all the time, and after 15 years of such treat- ment appeared to be sound and healthy as those that run at large. For a com- plete account of this remarkable place, see the book published by Orange Judd Company, entitled, Profitable Dairying by C. L. Peck. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 187 All manure was carefully saved, the gutter behind the cows was made water- tight and not a pound of solid or liquid manure went to waste on the farm. Every day the gutters were thoroughly cleaned. Rotten sod, leaf mold, etc, were then placed in them as absorbents. When cleaned out the manure was drawn immediately to the field and spread on the land from which soiling crops had been removed, or in winter on rye and grass fields. All the cows kept were registered Jer- seys and good niilk producers. The male calves, if promising, were raised, otherwise they were killed at birth. It did not pay, Mr. Detrich held, to feed $18 worth of milk to a calf that would sell for $7. The 17 cows kept produced about 26 gallons of milk daily, which was sold for 25 cents a gallon, giving a silage was fed. All the roughage fed on the farm, including hay, soiling crops and bedding was cut in quarter inch lengths. No system of rotation was fol- lowed in cropping the farm. It was not necessary as a means of soil improve- ment, since the manure returned to the land kept it fully supplied in organic matter and food constituents. Each acre in cultivation produced the equiva- lent of 6.7 tons of hay during the sea- son. On this farm one man and a boy did practically all the work except at haying time. This example of intensive dairying shows what can be accomplished on a small place, where system is fol- lowed and every pound of fertilizer pro- duced is returned to the soil. Pasture system — At a distance from the city, where farms are larger and 135 — FILLING SILO WITH BLOWER gross income of about $2400 a year from this source. About five head of young cattle were sold off the place each year at an average price of $100 apiece. About $625 a year was spent for con- centrated feeding stuffs. The cows were fed a balanced ration and each ration consisted of three parts : (1) Succulent material, as silage in winter, and rye, timothy and clover, corn, peas and oats, or some other green crop in summer; (2) dry hay or fodder to give the manure proper consistency which made it easier to keep the cows clean and to handle the milk, and (3) mill products, consisting of bran, oil meal and gluten. The amount of mill products fed daily was regulated by the consistency of the manure and by the milk flow. During the growing season green crops were fed until the corn was put into the silo in the fall, after which land cheaper, it is more common, and usually more profitable, to pasture dur- ing the growing season than to feed soiling crops. The pasture system has the advantage of great convenience, since the cattle do their own harvesting and no attention is required of the farmer after they are turned into the pasture in the morning until time to milk at night. It is the natural system. By it there is no danger of loss of vigor or stamina in the animals. This is the system usually followed where milk is sold to the creamery for butter and cheese production. During the dry season of summer, some green fodder may be fed in addition, but this, while very desirable, is rather the exception than the rule. Silage is quite generally put up for winter use. This method is much less demanding on the time of the farmer than the soil- ing system, the greater part of the 188 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK manure is returned to the soil and the fertility of the farm well maintained. This method of farming is well suited to combining with hog feeding and poultry raising, since the skim milk obtained as a by-product is especially valuable feed for both hogs and poultry. If the reader has read that intensely interesting book called, the Fat of the Land written by Streeter, he will re- member that butter making, combined with hog and poultry raising, was the combination used with such good results. When asked by the dairymen why he se- lected Holstein instead of Jersey cows, his reply was that they were greater eat- ers, produced a larger flow of milk and more manure. These are points not al- ways considered in their true light by the live stock farmer. der of the corn fodder is shredded for feed. Milk, butter and cream are sold. The skim milk is fed to hogs and about 100 fat hogs are sold annually. Net profits on this farm are stated to be about $8,000 per year. The pasture system of dairy farming can be much more profitably carried out on a large farm than on a small one and on higher priced land than is re- quired for other kinds of stock. The great dairy states are New York, Wisconsin, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Texas and Missouri. The dairy industry, while not greatly developed in the southern states, is par- ticulally suited to southern conditions, because of the great variety of feeds that can be grown and the long growing season. The mild climate makes ex- 136 — RECEIVING THE MORNING MILK SUPPLY IN THE CITY Pasture system illustrated — Prof. Spillman in a recent yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, gives the pasturage system observed on the dairy farm of Mr. T. E. Ellison of Allen county, Indiana. The farm contains about 320 acres and all the crops grown are fed and considerable additional feed purchased. One hundred and five acres of the farm is kept in blue grass pasture. Corn is grown on about 170 acres and the remainder is put into oats, clover, alfalfa, etc. In addition to the crops grown, 50 to 60 tons of bran and gluten meal are fed annually. About 100 head of registered Jersey cows and about 75 head of young stock are kept. No breeding stock is sold. The heifer calves are raised on skim milk, clover hay and pasture. His 650 ton silo is filled each year with about 50 acres of the corn crop. The remain- pensive buildings unnecessary. Ice is needed, of course, in butter making, but the recent investigations of Babcock and Russell have shown that it is not at all necessary for cheese making. SYSTEMS OF CATTLE FARMING The raising of cattle for beef is an en- tirely different proposition from dairy- ing. Under ordinary conditions, cattle are not marketed for beef until two or three years old. During this time it is necessary to carry them over at least two winters at a considerable expense for feed and care. On high priced land, therefore, it requires especial skill to raise beef cattle profitably. Prof. Spill- man states that "very few men even in the great live stock regions of the middle west are able to make large profits from the production of beef." There are many methods of producing beef. In the dairy sections practically STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 189 half of the calves are born males, some of these are sold for veal, a few are kept for breeding purposes and some are grown for beef. There is no great money, in the beef thus produced, since it costs about as much to produce it as it will bring in the market. The aim here is to utilize as much roughage and pasture- age as possible in the growing of the stock and to finally finish off with four to six months' feeding on grain and fodder. Range cattle — Much the larger por- tion of the beef cattle produced in the United States is grown on the vast west- ern ranges which extend from Texas northward into Canada. In this region lie thousands of square miles of land fit only for grazing purposes. On this great area cattle may be maintained the year around with little other expense than the cost of herding and shipping to mar- ket. A few years ago, the range cattle were largely represented by the Texas Fig. 137 — THE OUTCOME OF THE RANGE CATTLE BUSINESS WHEN NO ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO FEED OR WATER steer type, but recently a very large ele- ment of the improved beef breeds has been introduced, until today the western range cattle represent on the average a higher grade of feeders than those pro- duced in the sections east of the Mis- sissippi. The herds maintained on these ranges vary from a few hundred to 60,000 in numbers and the size of the ranges from a few thousand to 1,000,000 acres. Meth- ods of ranging have changed greatly within recent years. At the present time the system of managing cattle on the ranges may be briefly described a3 follows : Each cattle raiser or company, pos- sesses an area of grazing land upon which alfalfa and other forage crops are raised for winter feeding. During the graz- ing season, cattle are left for the most part to their own resources in securing forage, but as a rule are inspected by cowboys about once a month and if found upon poor grass are driven to more desirable locations. The cattle range over wide areas and are rounded up about twice a year. A spring round- up takes place between April and June in different parts of the country. At this round-up the stock is counted and the calves branded. Each calf is given the brand borne by its mother. The brands of each owner are published and are well known. Each owner furnishes a number of cowboys for the general round-up in proportion to the number of cattle he owns. The fall round-up us- ually takes place in September or Octo- ber and is for the purpose of selecting animals suitable for beef. The cost of maintaining cattle under these conditions without hay for winter feeding is from $1.50 to $2 a year, while with winter feeding the cost va- ries from $4 to $10 a head. Owing to the gradual withdrawing of the better farming lands along the water courses by settlers and to the increasing atten- tion given to sheep farming, the great cattle range business is gradually de- creasing. The large herds are being broken up, more hay is being grown and more alfalfa feeding done. Fattening range cattle — Under range conditions cattle are seldom fat- tened for market. They are kept on the range for one to four or five years and then shipped east to be fattened in the corn belt. In the corn belt, particularly in the states of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri, there are a large number of farmers and companies who make a special business of fattening range cat- tle. In addition to this, thousands are sent to the great central markets like Chicago, and reshipped to be fed on farms all over the corn section. The men and companies who form the back- bone of the beef feeding industry are the ones who own and operate farms in connection with their feeding operations and grow a large part of the forage used. One of the largest companies of this kind is the Standard Cattle Company of Ames, Nebraska. This company feeds from 1,200 to 7,000 range cattle 190 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK every year. Many of them are grown on the company's ranges in Montana, but a large number are bought for feeding in addition. This company has a number of farms aggregating several thousand acres. It grows a large part of the corn and forage used and buys enormous quantities of bran, oil meal and other grain feeds. The steers fed are usually at least, four years old. They average between 900 and 1,000 pounds in weight, when put on feed. They are fed from five to seven months and average, when sold, between 1,100 and 1,300 pounds. The grains chiefly fed are corn, bran, oats, and oil cake. Corn usually constitutes from 80 to 90 per cent of the total grain fed. It is fed ground. The by machinery. No summer feeding is practiced. When wheat bran is bought at a cost of $7 to $10 a ton it is made to constitute 10 to 15 per cent of the grain ration. Beef cattle farms_The corn belt is the center of the beef cattle farms of the country. Usually on these farms pure bred bulls of the beef type are used with grade cows of the beef type. The stock is pastured during the growing season on blue grass and native pas- tures and fed corn, corn fodder, hay, bran, oil meal or cottonseed meal dur- ing the fattening period which usually covers the fall and winter months. Even on these beef cattle farms it is usual to save the cream and bring the calves up on skim milk rather than let . ■■■ M* ; ^ v *■-. *V,,: J9S .'■-,-■■■:, ■■■.'■/,■■ /-: V, ■.-,.'■ ■:-:•-..• ••'"- " J^S r; -CATTLE IX FEED LOTS. MILLS FARM amounts fed per steer during the fatten- ing period vary from 45 to 75 bushels a head. The average annual cost of the food for 11 years was about $19 a head and the labor involved in feeding $2.82 a head. The company has a barn 682 feet long, a little more than 200 feet wide, with a capacity of about 3,000 steers at one time. It is arranged so that each steer can have a separate stall and is sup- plied with all the labor saving devices, like carriers for hay, etc. Fresh water is kept before them all the time and the manure gutters can be flushed out into the river near by. Much the larger portion of the cattle fed, how- ever, is fed out of doors, and followed by hogs. About 150 head are considered enough for one feed lot. The entire corn crop is harvested, cut and shredded them suck the cows, as is done on the western ranges. As a rule also, addi- tional steers are bought for feeding. These are picked up in the surrounding country, or brought in from the large stock centers. The majority of the cat- tle thus fed are range cattle. Home- grown beef cattle are usually marketed when about two and a half to three years old. Range steers average a little older. Farmers buy these in the fall in a thin condition, feed them from five to six months, then market. West of the Mississippi river it is seldom that any special precautions are taken to save the manure. Its removal to the land is regarded rather as an ex- pense. Much of tbe western land is still so fertile that the need of manure is not felt yet. Whatever of profit there STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 191 is,> therefore, in feeding, must be con- sidered on the basis of the market value of the crop and the price of beef. If corn and hay are cheap, feeders low, and finished beef high, there is a good mar- gin of profit. There is another phase also that must be considered. A farmer located several miles from the railroad is at consider- able expense to haul his crops to mar- ket. If he feeds his crop he does away with the expense of hauling and his fat cattle can walk to market. The freight too, on the carload of fat cattle is con- siderably less than it would be on the five or six carloads of feed required to produce a carload of cattle. There are thousands of farmers throughout the corn belt who feed from At present there is an indication that beef production will constitute a grow- ing feature of both eastern and south- ern agriculture. In building up the ex- hausted soils of the cotton and tobacco states, stock is needed. The shipment of feeders from the West to the eastern and southern states, where manure is valued by each cartload, promises satis- factory returns, even where nothing is made on the beef, if the manure is ob- tained at a clear profit. The millions of dollars annually spent for factory fertilizers could, in a large measure, be saved to the farmer by a carefully planned system of stock feeding. Baby beef farming—The relatively long time required by cattle to reach marketable size has led to the develop- ing. 139 — TRACTION ENGINE FOR USE ON LARGE RANCHES one to 10 carloads of beef cattle throughout the winter, using their own home grain and buying grain in addi- tion. 1 There are also many feeders located near the large cities who buy both feed and cattle. This was once a highly developed industry about Minneapolis and St. Paul, and other northwestern cities, where mill screenings were abun- dant and cheap. This industry has declined lately, owing to the increased cost of the screenings. Where all the feed is bought, the profit in the busi- ness lies in adding 250 to 300 pounds to the weight of the animals and sell- ing the whole animal at a slight ad- vance on the cost. When fee-Is are low and beef high, there is a profit, but this is more or less speculative farming. ment of a system of forced feeding for the production of what is known as baby beef. By this system it is planned to have the calves dropped in the fall. They are taught to eat grain at as early an age as possible and given the best hay. The following spring they are turned out to pasture and the grain ration still kept up. By fall they are ready to put in the feeding pen and forced on grain, hay and silage, and marketed after about six months' feed- ing, or when from 14 to 18 months old. This method of feeding is successful only with the better beef grade stock. Scrubs mature too slowly for forcing. This system takes advantage of the fact that much less food is reqidred to pro- duce a pound of gain during the grow- ing period of the animal than at any 192 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK later period. By this method of feed- ing, money is turned over twice as fast as by the normal method of feeding and the profits are considerably greater. Heifer calves can also be forced in the same manner as steers. HORSE FARMING While horses are used all over the country, the states most largely engaged in raising horses for market are the corn belt and western states. The important centers for the horse trade are Chicago, Omaha and Kansas City. Most of the pure bred horses are produced east of tbe Mississippi river, but much the larger part of the grade market horses are grown on the ranges of the West, and the basis of the western horse industry is the native range horse. The range horses trace back in their origin to a small breed of animals known as mustangs, which escaped from the early Spanish settlers of the South- west. "With tbe advent of eastern set- lers many horses of larger and better breeds escaped and served to modify to some extent the character of the early Spanish horses. These breeds, thus de- veloped in wild and semi-wild condi- tions are known in different localities as cayuse, bronchos, mustang and Indian ponies. At the present time these breeds are being greatly improved by the use of pure bred sires of practi- cally all the different prominent breeds of horses. Under range conditions horses can take care of themselves better than cat- tle, especially in winter time, since they are able to paw away the snow to the grass underneath. The improved siren are not allowed to run wild with the herd, but are kept stabled- or pastured and the mares rounded up twice a year for breeding purposes. In some states, laws have been passed prohibiting the running at large of native wild sires. The horses thus grown are brought east and sold in great numbers for all the various purposes for which horses are used. Farm horse breeding—Farmers all over the country when they own good brood mares raise one or more colts nearly every season, and many men now make a special business of breeding horses for market. Colts are marketed when four to five years old, after first breaking to work in harness. It costs but little more to grow a horse to ma- turity than to grow a steer and the horse usually sells for four to six times as much. Where a farmer has only a few mares he must depend largely on such service as the community affords. As a result of this he seldom produces a high-priced market horse. Where a man has sufficient mares to warrant keeping a pure bred sire, he can pro- duce a definite market class of horses and can, moreover, match them to bet- ter advantage. Mule growing i s confined quite largely to the corn belt and southern states. The mule is produced by cross- ing the male ass or jack on mares and the business is carried on under practi- cally the same conditions as horse breed- ing. (See Chapter on Horses and Mules.) SHEEP FARMING In nearly every state the general farmer maintains a small flock of sheep as a part of the stock of the farm. Sheep are the farm scavengers. They keep down the weeds and pick up a living in the wood lot and the rough lands that cannot be plowed. In winter they eat up the oat and bean straw and a portion of the corn fodder and cheaper feeds. They supply both a crop of wool and a crop of lambs and, under general farm con- ditions, pay as well as any stock on the farm. Sheep are most extensively raised in the northern and western states. Owing to dogs and various diseases they are less grown in the South. A good many farmers devote their whole attention to sheep, the sheep being grown for both wool and mutton. Illustration of sheep farming — One of the well-known eastern sheep farms is that of Joseph E. Wing in Ohio. The farm consists of 260 acres. About 75 registered Dorsets are maintained on the farm and in addition 700 to 1000 west- ern range lambs are fed each winter. The lambs when bought, average 40 to 55 pounds in weight each. They are fed about four months at the end of which time they weigh from 70 to 95 pounds. The principal crops grown on this farm are alfalfa, corn and beardless barley. Alfalfa is the crop of first im- portance. The home flock is pastured on alfalfa, and alfalfa hay is fed to all sheep in winter. From 1,000 to 4,000 bushels of corn are bought in addition. The lambs are fed not quite all the corn they will eat up clean. In winter STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 193 feeding they are kept in a single barn without partitions. Twice daily the fat- tening lambs are turned out for a half hour, while the feed racks are being filled with hay. They are kept in the rest of the time to save the manure, which is necessary for successful crop production on the farm. The manure is used on the corn land and as a thin top-dressing for meadows and pastures. The barn is arranged so that plenty of fresh air is available all the time. The labor bill amounts to about $1,500 an- nually and the net profits about $2,500. With sheep as with cattle, thousands of head are annually fattened by farm- ers throughout the corn belt for market. While many of the lambs may be bought in tbe neighborhood, the bulk are from the western ranges. son and fattened with corn in the fall. Clover, alfalfa and blue grass pastures furnish ideal conditions for the summer range of the hog. The gains on pasture alone are slow and on business farms some grain or other feed is supplied in addition. In the western tier of corn belt states, alfalfa and sorghum are extensively grown as a forage crop for hogs. In many northern states and Canada, rape, clover, peas and oats are the special crops grown to provide hogs with pas- ture. In the South, cowpeas, peanuts, sorghum and Bermuda grass furnish unsurpassed pastures for hogs. Good brood sows will produce from five to 10 pigs each litter and have two litters a year. With good pasture and grain feeding, pigs are ready for market when Fiff. 140 — DRY, CLEAN FEED LOT, ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION Sheep ranching in the West and the fattening of western sheep are consid- ered in detail in the chapter on sheep. SWINE FARMING Tbe hog is grown more generally throughout the country than any other farm animal. Even a man with only a small village lot frequently keeps a pig or two to eat up the household waste. Nc other farm animal makes such good use of its food in the production of meat as the hog. He is an omnivorous eater. His ration may consist of kitchen slop, farm grains, hay, pasture, roots, fruits, nuts, meat, milk, fish — everything. He is a benediction to the poor man and swells the bank account of the rich. Un- der general farm conditions, hogs are kept on pasture during the growing sea- nine to 12 months old and at that time will weigh from 200 to 300 pounds each. When properly managed, there is more money in hogs from the meat stand- point, than from any other farm animal. Swine producing states — The states which supply the bulk of hogs for the packing houses are known as the surplus corn states. These states are Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Ohio, Indiana. So much corn is grown in these states that it is cheaper to send the surplus to market in the form of pork than in its original bulky condition. Berkshire and Poland- China are the favorite breeds. The system of growing is simple. As soon as spring pasture is suitable, pigs are turned on pasture and given a little grain each day. As soon as the corn 194 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK matures in the fall, "which is usually in early September, the pigs which at the age of six months have become hogs, are fed all the corn they can consume without waste. In addition they are given all the pure water and ashes they need. Within three or four months on this feeding they are ready for market. Swine and cattle farming go well together since in the case of fattening beef animals on corn about one shote is put in the lot after each steer, and picks up a large portion of his living from the droppings. On dairy farms also hogs form a valuable, adjunct in con- suming the surplus skim milk. While all other grains and mill products are fed to hogs more or less extensively, corn is the principal grain ration used in America. GOAT FARMING Angora goats are grown under west- ern range conditions to the extent of nearly 300,000 head. Small flocks are also scattered throughout all the states. These goats furnish mohair, meat and skins. Under range conditions they are handled in practically the same manner as sheep. On eastern farms they are used in small numbers as brush destroy- ers. When confined in sufficient num- bers on brush land, they soon gnaw and strip off the bark and browse on the leaves to the entire destruction of the brush. This land is easily cleared then for agricultural purposes, after which they are not as profitable in general farming as sheep. Goats are not as good mothers as sheep and provision must be made for caring for the kids during the early stages of growth while the does are out feeding. Goats defend themselves against animals, as dogs, much more effectually than sheep. Milch goats are kept in small num- bers in cities and towns, principally by foreigners. They are not yet present in sufficient numbers to be considered from the standpoint of American systems of farming. POULTRY FARMING The raising of poultry — chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, etc., may be car- ried on successfully anywhere in the United States. Poultry farming is a kind of farming well adapted to men with small means and, when given rea- attention, affords satisfactory profits. It is light work and is suc- cessfully carried on by women. While probably 95 per cent of the poultry grown in the country is pro- duced on farms and by the old method of letting the mother bird hatch out the eggs, there are many large poultry farms in which practically all the eggs are hatched out in incubators and the chicks raised in brooders. Under general farm conditions the eggs are hatched under the mother birds. The flock is fed grain in winter and a small amount in summer, and allowed, for the most part, to run at large and pick up a living on pasture, insects and in the grain fields and about the barn. By this method most of the eggs are produced in spring and early summer when the price is lowest. It is at this time that the cold storage egg man lays in his supply of cheap eggs to be kept three to nine months and sold when the farmer's hens are not laying and prices are higher. Many eggs at this time are also packed in lime water, or in water-glass and kept for three or four months, which is a very satisfactory way of prolonging the natural egg sea- son. Eggs and broilers—Near the larger markets there is considerable demand for absolutely fresh eggs and for broil- ers. These demands have called into existence many large poultry plants in which practically all eggs are hatched in incubators, and the chicks reared in brooders. Especial effort is made to secure eggs in winter when prices are highest. Chicks are, therefore, hatched eary in spring. March hatched chicks will usually begin to lay in October and early November. The feed is the great factor on these farms and is made up of meat scraps, grain, grit, green food, pasture or grass range, skim milk, etc. As about half the hatch is likely to be cockerels many raisers caponize them and get a little better price for the caponized birds. The aim is to keep only one and two-year-old hens for eggs and to have them molt in July and August, in order to be in good egg lay- ing condition by November, when the farmer's hens have stopped for the winter. Details of the different methods for handling each kind of poultry will be found in the chapter on poultry. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 195 LIVE STOCK ORGANIZATIONS, IN- STITUTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS In this section we purpose to bring together and briefly describe all the various agencies and factors that are working together to foster and improve the live stock industry of the country. Such a discussion will necessarily take into account the work of the state and United States governments, the experi- ment stations and agricultural colleges, the national, state and county live stock associations, the yearly fairs and expositions and the agricultural journals of the country. Live stock work in the United States Department of Agriculture — One of the most far-reaching agencies in the pro- tection and promotion of the live stock industry of the country is the United States Department of Agriculture. At the present time this department is de- voting the greater share of its energies to this industry. The division imme- diately concerned with the live stock interests is known as the Bureau of Animal Industry. This bureau is charged with the enforcement of the laws relative to the exportation and importation of live stock to and from foreign countries. America still looks to England, Scot- land and some other foreign countries for much of its blooded stock. Under the laws of the United States, pure blooded stock which is registered in the countries from which it comes, may en- ter the United States free of import du- ties if imported for breeding purposes. The importer must first secure a permit from the United States Department of Agriculture. If the animals come from countries in which contagious diseases are prevalent, they may be prohibited from entrance altogether, or may be kept in quarantine for 90 days before they are allowed to be shipped to interior points. The law on this subject reads as fol- lows : Any animal imported by a citizen of the United States specially for breed- ing purposes shall be admitted free, whether intended to be so used by the importer himself or for sale for such purpose: Provided, That no such ani- mal shall be admitted free unless pure bred of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the books of record estab- lished for that breed: And provided further, That certificate of such record and of the pedigree of such animal shall be produced and submitted to the cus- toms officer, duly authenticated by the proper custodian of such book of record, together with the affidavit of the owner, agent, or importer that such animal is the identical animal described in said certificate of record and pedigree: And provided further, That the Secretary of Agriculture shall determine and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are recognized breeds and pure bred animals under the provisions of this paragraph. Cattle, horses, sheep, or other domestic animals straying across the boundary line into any foreign country, or driven across such boundary line by the owner for temporary pasturage purposes only, together with their offspring, may be brought back to the United States within six months free of duty. Best known work of bureau of ani- mal industry — The Bureau of Animal Industry is perhaps, best known to stock men fr,om a veterinary standpoint. Through the work of this bureau pleuro-pneumonia, which a few years ago was a dreaded contagious disease of cattle that had become established in a number of eastern and central states, and threatened the cattle industry of the whole country, has been entirely wiped out of the country. The disease known as Texas fever, once so myste- rious and little known as to inspire terror wherever southern cattle were taken, has been brought under control by the establishment of a quarantine line which limits it to the southern states. The investigation of the bureau has clearly indicated the character and cause of the disease and that it is also possible to eliminate it entirely from the country. The stamping out of the foot and mouth disease of cattle, which recently obtained a foothold in the New Eng- land states, is still fresh in mind. At the present time the bureau is busily engaged in eradicating sheep and cattle scab from the western states. Entire states have been freed from this disease through its efforts and the work is going rapidly forward in others. Blackleg of cattle has been greatly reduced by the free distribution of more than a mil- lion doses of vaccine yearly. It is the stamp of this bureau also which admits our meat products to European countries. The large packing houses which ship millions of pounds of dressed meat to Europe yearly would scarce find market for a single pound 196 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK were their meat not inspected by the government, and thus assurance given that it has been inspected by competent men and found to be free from disease, cleanly prepared and properly labeled. Division of dairying — An important division of the Bureau is the Division of Dairying, the object of which is to "col- lect and disseminate information con- cerning dairy farming, the care and im- provement of dairy cattle, and the pro- duction, care and distribution of dairy products." Especial attention is given to dairy organizations, dairy schools, the organization and management of cream- eries and factories, the milk supply of cities and towns, and the laws relative thereto. The Division Architect prepares plans and technical advice for the con- struction of sanitary and economical dairy buildings. The manufacture of butter and the different kinds of home and foreign cheeses are also studied. The work broadening in scope — While the work of the Bureau hereto- fore has been chiefly concerned in safe- guarding the health of American live stock, it is each year broadening the scope of its activities. At the present time it is undertaking, in co-operation with the Colorado experiment station, to originate an American breed of car- riage horses, based upon American stock. Extensive investigations are also being made, in co-operation with the Pennsyl- vania station, to ascertain the funda- mental principles in the feeding of farm animals. In this work the actual feeding values of different crops is being determined. Amounts are fed in an expensive piece of apparatus so delicately constructed that the energy expended in chewing and digesting the food can be accurately measured. This work, though slow and expensive, should in time give us ac- curate feeding standards, in place of the very unsatisfactory standards in use at the present time. Poultry breeding experiments in co-operation with the Maine station, and beef breeding and feeding experiments in co-operation with the Alabama stations, are also being carried on. Bureau of plant industry — Co-oper- ating with the Bureau of Animal Industry is another division of the de- partment, known as the Bureau of Plant Industry. This bureau, among many other activities, investigates the best method of culture, harvesting and curing of crops for the use of farm animals. One branch is studying range problems, the best methods of maintain- ing them in their highest state of effi- ciency, improvement by the introduc- tion of better forage plants, etc. Studies are made of the plants poisonous to live stock, and efforts made to find method whereby their injurious effects may be corrected. One division is studying sys- tems of farm management; the purpose of which is to learn the methods of the most successful stock farmers and make these methods available to all stockmen. This division also plans cropping sys- tems for farms in every section of the country, giving in detail the best method of laying out and cropping the farm and the number and kind of animals it can carry most profitably. In plant breeding work, the effort is being made to secure varieties of corn richer in protein and, therefore, more satisfactory as a balanced ration for feeding, and heavier yielding varieties of corn, oats and other grains. The world is being searched for better forage plants and grains than we now have. The bureau of entomology of the department, has made exhaustive studies of the insects which prey upon farm an- imals, and which not only make life a burden to the animals themselves and stunt their growth, but also carry con- tagious diseases. Through the work of this Bureau, stockmen know how to con- trol practically all of the more serious vermin affecting stock. The forest service controls the for- est reserves of the United States, now amounting to over 126 million acres. In the West the forest reserves are extensively used for grazing purposes. The regulations of the service are such as to maintain the reserves in the high- est state of efficiency for both forestry and grazing. The work of the Biolog- ical Survey of the Department and of the Fish Commission in the relations to the stock farmer are considered in Part XII. Division of publications — Last but not least may be mentioned the Division of Publications of the Department. In this division are published the results of experimental work in the department Avith both animals and plants. Man\? of the publications issued are of a sci- entific nature and have only a limited distribution; but much the larger num- ber are popular and of direct interest to farmers. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 197 Experiment stations — These are state institutions which conduct research work in agriculture. There is at least one in every state and territory of the Union as well as in Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico. By the Congressional act of 1887 each state and territory receives $15,000 from the United States government toward the support of these stations. In 1906 this was increased to $30,000 for each state and territory within the United States. In addition to this, many of the states contribute large amounts to the support of the ex- periment stations. The progress that stations also act as a bureau of informa- tion for farmers on all farm problems and generally furnish the principal speakers at the farmers' institutes. Us- ually the stations are attached to and form a part of the agricultural col- leges, though many states have substa- tions located in different sections to study local problems. Every live stock man should know the workers in his own state experiment station and receive their bulletins and reports. Below is given the location of the central experiment stations in each state and territory. In sending for pub- •,■ ' ma Fig. Ill — STUDENTS LEARNING BUTTER MAKING! AT THE PENNSYLVANIA AGRICUL- TURAL COLLEGE has been made in recent years in agricul- tural knowledge and teaching is due in large measure to the investigations of the stations. The investigations of the stations cover the whole field of agriculture. In animal industry especial attention has been given to dairying and to the feeding of animals. This whole book is based primarily on the findings of the exper- iment stations and references to them will be found on practically every page of the special chapters dealing with ani- mals. The stations publish the results of their investigations in the form of bulletins and reports, which are sent free to farmers for the asking. The lications of information address as follows : Director Experiment Station, (Place) (State) LIST OF STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS Alabama — College Station, Auburn ; Canebrake Station, Uniontown; Tus- kegee Station, Tuskegee. Alaska — Sitka. Arizona — Tucson. Arkansas — Fayetteville. California — Berkeley. Colorado — Fort Collins. Connecticut — State Station, New Haven; Storrs Station, Storrs. 198 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Delaware — Newark. Florida — Lake City. Georgia — Experiment. Hawaii — Federal Station, Honolulu; Sugar Planters' Station, Honolulu. Idaho — Moscow. Illinois — Urbana. Indiana — Lafayette. Iowa — Ames. Kansas — Manhattan. Kentucky — Lexington. Louisiana — State Station, Baton Rouge; Sugar Station, Audubon Park, New Orleans; North Louis- iana Station, Calhoun. Maine — Orono. Maryland — College Park. Oklahoma — Stillwater. Oregon — Corvallis. Pennsylvania — State College. Porto Rico— Mayaguez. Rhode Island — Kingston. South Carolina — Clemson College. South Dakota — Brookings. Tennessee — Knoxville. Texas — College Station. Utah — Logan. Vermont — Burlington. Virginia — Blacksburg. Washington — Pullman. West Virginia — Morgantown. Wisconsin — Madison. Wyoming — Laramie. Fig. 142— €LAS OF FARMKRK STI DYINC SHF.KI' JULKJINC! Massachusetts — Amherst. Michigan — Agricultural College. Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, St. Paul. Mississippi — Agricultural College. Missouri — College Station, Columbia Fruit Station, Mountain Grove. Montana — Bozeman. Nebraska — Lincoln. Nevada — Reno. New Hampshire — Durham. New Jersey — New Brunswick. New Mexico — Mesilla Park. New York — State Station, Geneva; Cornell Station, Ithaca. North Carolina — Raleigh. North Dakota — Agricultural College. Ohio — Wooster. Agricultural colleges — The agricul- tural college is the live stock man's col- lege. There is one in every state and territory in the United States. They are state institutions, endowed by the United States government with $50,000 each year, the income from certain ex- tensive land grants, and appropriations made by the states, amounting in all to more than $3,000,000 annually. The exper- iment stations and agricultural colleges are usually located at the same place. It is the business of the stations to in- vestigate the principles and laws under- lying agricultural operations. The col- leges formulate these principles and laws into pedagogic form and teach them. The man who wants to learn the STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 199 live stock business these days goes to an agricultural college to get the funda- mental principles of the business. College courses — Nearly all of these colleges have a strong animal husbandry department which gives special instruc- tion in the different phases of animal industry. Students study the anatomy, physiology and diseases of animals, an- imal breeding and management, the feeding and judging of stock in the show ring, dairying, butter and cheese making, blacksmithing, construction of farm buildings, growing of crops, etc. No tu- ition is charged. The full course at these colleges usu- ally covers four years and leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science, but a Practical nature of college work — ■ At each college samples of all the various breeds of stock are usually kept for the information and instruction of students, and the students are taken on excur- sions during the course to inspect the barns, stock and methods of management observed by the best stock growers throughout the states. In addition, students are taught to feed stock and prepare them for the market through all the stages of early feeding to the fi- nal slaughtering and cutting up of the meats. In recent years also the colleges have taken part and made exhibits at the state and international fairs. The students of different institutions also meet in competition at these fairs and Fig. 143 SHORT COURSE STUDENTS STUDYING STOCK JUDGING AT THE PENN- SYLVANIA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE number of institutions provide short win- ter courses giving special instruction in such subjects as dairying, live stock feed- ing, butter and cheese making, first aid to animals, etc. These courses are from three to six weeks long and are de- signed for the boys on the farm who are not able to take the complete course at the college. Some colleges give two or three year courses. In some states where the live stock in- terests are not extensive, the animal hus- bandry department of the college is not well developed. Among the states hav- ing the strongest courses in animal husbandry are Iowa, Wisconsin, Michi- gan, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, New York, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Minnesota, and the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph, Canada, expositions in judging according to a scale of points the excellencies of the various animals. The professors of an- imal industry of the various institutions are in great demand as expert judges at live stock shows. This outline will serve to indicate the intensely practical character of the work carried on at these colleges and to show that the original purpose for which they were created is being ful- filled in overflowing measure. During the past 15 years the work of the agri- cultural colleges and experiment stations has served to place American agricul- ture on a higher plane than it has ever before reached and promises even great- er usefulness in the future. Farmers' institutes—The farmers' in- stitute is a kind of traveling school for 200 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the instruction of the adult farmer and his family. They are usually carried on under the auspices of the state. The principal speakers are the professors and workers in the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and successful farmers who are able to present their methods clearly. The latter, when well versed in the principles of agriculture, make the most effective speakers. How farmers" institutes are man- aged — These institutes in each state are usually under the direction of a general state manager, who provides for meet- ings throughout the state, in co-opera- tion with local societies. The state usu- ally furnishes two or three speakers and the local society the remainder. At these institutes, the best and most re- cent information on the handling and Iowa. This train stopped at country towns and lectures were given by ex- perts on methods of corn growing and improving the crop by means of se- lected seed. It has been estimated that the corn crop was increased in value $15,000,000 in one year as a result of these special trains. Since the corn special, other states have run special trains in which the principal matters discussed were dairy- ing, alfalfa growing, stock raising, etc. Farmers'" Institute Specialist — Keal- izing the importance of the farmers' institute movement, the United States Department of Agriculture has recently established an office, known as the Farmers' Institute Specialist. This of- fice is under the direction of the Office of the Experiment Stations. It serves L y w»TO "*■ 8 Fig. 144 — STUDENTS SCORING BEEF CATTLE (Nebraska Experiment Station) care of stock, the value of improved stock, the growing of crops for stock, dairy problems and kindred agricultural subjects are presented in a manner to interest and instruct the farmer. At these meetings the college professor comes directly in contact with the prac- tical side of farming and thus learns the needs of the farmer. When he returns to his classes he is able to discuss prob- lems of living interest. At the same time, the farmer is brought to feel that the professor, though he may not know all the practical details of farming, nevertheless has a knowledge of the fun- damental principles which may be of great value to him. Institute train specials — Within recent years a new phase of the farmers' institute has been the running of special trains over the states. Among the first of these was the corn special train in as a kind of center of information for farmers' institute speakers, to which they may send for the latest infor- mation on the subjects which they are to discuss. The Institute Specialist also compiles information relative to the work done in all foreign countries, along similar lines, and in addition publishes outlines of syllabi which may be used by institute speakers on special subjects, such as profitable cattle feeding, silage and silo construction, care of milk, etc. Lantern slides and charts, illustrating the syllabi are loaned by the department. In 1906, a total of 11,000 farmers' in- stitutes were held in 44 states. The at- tendance at these institutes was 1,600,000 persons. Such, in general, are the provisions made by the nation and states to promote the - interests of the live stock industry. In addition to these agencies, the live STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 201 stock men themselves have numerous national, state and local organizations, which represent in strongest measure, the positive side of the live stock in- dustry- American National Live Stock As- sociation — This association is largely- made up of representatives of state and local associations and discusses questions of national importance, such as the ex- tension of our foreign trade, reasonable shipping regulations, equitable and just transportation rates for stock, sanitary- regulations, which shall provide for uni- form control and eradication of all dis- eases affecting the live stock interests of the country, the protection and utili- zation of public grazing lands, the se- curing of staple prices for animals and Function of national live stock as- sociations — These national associations push the interests of the particular animal or breed they represent and pub- lish the herd book of the breed each society represents. The particular so- cieties advertise the breed they repre- sent and publish popular information concerning it, so that its merits may be- come widely known throughout the coun- try.* They offer premiums at county, state and national fairs or expositions in order to encourage the exhibition and growing of high-grade specimens of the breed and in every way seek to promote its interests. In addition to these national organiza- tions, representing the breeds, there are state associations and many local asso- Fig. 145 — JESUP AGRICULTURAL WAGON OF TUSKEGEE, ALABAMA (This wagon, equipped with improved forms of agricultural implements, visits the homes of negro farmers, and a lecturer gives instruction on the best methods of tanning. The illustration shows the lecturer persuading a farmer to test a modern plow. ) animal products at the great packing centers, education of the public in re- gard to the utilization of the coarser parts of slaughtered animals, etc. The association also acts as a bureau of in- formation on matters of general and public interest, relating to live stock. Breeders' associations — In addition to this national society, which is made up of representatives of the live stock in- terests generally, there are many other societies of national scope devoted to particular animals or breeds, such as the National Pig Breeders' Association, Na- tional Wool Growers' Association, Na- tional Dairy Association, American Aberdeen-Angus Association, American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, Ameri- can Poland-China Becord Company, etc. There is a national association for prac- tically every pure breed of animal now being bred in the United States, ciations throughout the states, repre- senting the same breed. Registration of animals — Members of the associations who are raising pure bred animals can secure the registration of these animals and their progeny in the herd book of the association, upon the payment of a small fee for each animal. The purpose of these herd books is to record the genealogy of each animal in the breed, and thus give information to the purchaser or breeder regarding the history of the animal he is using. This is of tremendous importance in esti- mating the possible future value of the animal. In addition, these books show the standard of excellence adopted for the breed and enumerate the points which it is desired to perpetuate in the breed. Begistration numbers — When the ped- igree of an animal is received the sec- FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK retary of the society assigns to it a number in the order in which it is re- ceived. These numbers are known as the Registration Numbers. They are entered in the book variously called stud book, herd book or flock book. These books are usually issued yearly. For American animals the numbers are usu- ally given without brackets, but Cana- dian or European records are either in brackets or marked off by dashes. Fol- lowing the number of the registered ani- mal are usually found certain initials which in the case of a Jersey animal might be A. J. C. C, which stands for American Jersey Cattle Club, and shows that the animal is recorded in the reg- istry of this club. The reliability of a pedigree in any instance, depends upon the character of the association which publishes the rec- ord and also upon the integrity of the individual breeder. Nearly all of the breeds of importance are divided into families and there may be as many different associations and registry books, and it is important that the breeder of pure bred stock knows the initials used by all of these associations and be posted with reference to their standing. It may detract greatly from the value of an animal to be recorded in a herd book which does not have the support of the best breeders, or with an association which is lax in its requirements of reg- istration. A complete pedigree should be trace- able for at least six generations. When all the sires and dams are known for that length of time, the pedigree is said to be complete. But when any are lack- ing, it is termed short bred. With im- ported animals, however, it is only necessary that the registration run back to the importation, and the initials Imp. after a number means that the animal was imported. Not all societies follow the same method in presenting pedi- grees. In the case of Shorthorn and some other cattle breeders' associations, a simple statement is given of the sire and dam of an animal and then of the dams in successive order, thus leaving out the breeding of the sire's side. A complete pedigree requires that both lines be traced out for at least six gen- erations. In presenting a pedigree the name of the animal is first given with such other data as are necessary to identify it and then an ordinary brace is used, after which the sire is placed above and the dam below, another brace follows the name of the sire and at the top again of this brace the sire is given and the dam below. The same procedure is car- ried out for further generations and with the dam also. Illustration of pedigree — To illus- trate this point further, a Jersey pedigree is given in a condensed form on the fol- lowing page showing not only the sires and dams, but also their performance records. The outline presents the pedi- gree of a bull calf offered for sale by the Hartmann Stock Farm, in 1906, as an- nounced in "The Jersey Bulletin." A glance at this record shows that the grandsire and great-grandsire have pro- duced cows which have given a high yield of butter and that the grand- mother, great-grandmother, and great- great-grandmother on the sire's side, were all heavy performers. A fairly complete and satisfactory account is also given of the ancestors on the moth- er's side. This pedigree, while it does not prove positively the merits of the bull offered for sale, indicates that it comes from good stock and the chances are that it inherits a good many of the characteristics of its ancestors. Herd books and other records — The Jersey breeders have an official book showing the butter records of many of the registered cows of the breed, which helps greatly in estimating the prob- able value of an animal. In tracing out a Shorthorn pedigree, we would look up the official record in the American Shorthorn Herd Book. In the same way, in looking up the pedigree of stand- ard bred horses, the year book, published by the American Trotting Association, would be used. In the case of beef cattle, there are no official records of production. In such cases, the show yard winnings and sale reports take the place of other rec- ords. In order that the pedigree of an animal may be valuable to a breeder, it is necessary that he know the different families of the breeds, and many of the noted animals in the different families. The number of times these noted ani- mals or their progeny appear have a definite meaning to the breeder when he knows what they stand for. Advanced registry — Some breeders have what is known as an Advanced Registry. Animals to be eligible to rec- ord in the advanced registry book must STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY; '203 If H OS 03 O s « £ t G ce M 5 o i \_ — 7"- —f± __> J ,j', k 22"-> t-j-2" ^W^W' —8' — ---rii STjf Sg''~* W&, horses entered, whether sold at auction or private sale. Rate of commission : Home consigned horses, $3 a head western horses, $5 a head; feed, 50 cents a day; single feed, 25 cents. Chicago horse market — One of the greatest horse markets in the United States is Chicago. Horses are sold both by auction and by private sale. The following information, based on the practices of the Chicago market, is quoted from Prof. C. S. Plumb: "A horse negotiated at the halter is sold as he stands; all imperfections, blemishes and unsoundness go with him. He is sold without recommendation and the title only is guaranteed. "A horse sold for a worker only must be a good worker, and all imperfections go with him. "A horse sold sound must be so in every particular; free from vices and able to pass a perfect veterinary exami- nation. block to the highest bidder. The sales made at retail are not published unless they are for extra choice animals that sold considerably above the regular auc- tion quotations. Domestic and foreign buyers carefully inspect all the arrivals as soon as reported, and as many ani- mals as possible that will fill their orders are purchased privately, dealers pre- ferring this method, as it gives them Fig. 155 — simple farm gate more time to examine and try their purchases than can be accorded where horses are sold under the hammer, 212 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Horses sold at private sale generally command better prices than if sold at auction, although there are many ex- ceptions to this rule, the spirit of the bidder creating competition, and buyers, relying on one another's judgment, bid the offering up. "All kinds of vehicles and appliances are at hand to show horses according to their several uses, either as drafters, drivers, or saddlers, and all sales are void if the animals fail to perform ac- cording to the recommendation. "The animal sold must have all the qualities named by the auctioneer at the time of the sale. Any horse falling short of the recommendation on which lie is sold, can be rejected, but the pur- chaser must examine and try the animal within the time specified in the rules. "The rules of the exchange require the payment of a uniform price of 60 cents a day for feed charges on horses sold in the market. No charge is made for. watering, bedding and grooming. If the horse's tail is to be soaked, or tail and mane braided, extra pay must be given to men not in the employ of the stock yards company." Shipping to market — When the grower has sufficient stock to ship to market in carload lots, he can usually get more than by selling in the local markets. The great stock markets of the country are Chicago, Kansas City, Buffalo, Omaha, St. Joseph, Mo., In- dianapolis, Cincinnati, Jersey City and St. Paul, Minn. The number of horses, cattle, sheep and hogs shipped into five of the- largest of these markets in 1904 is shown in the table below: RECEIPT OP LIVE STOCK AT THE LEADING STOCK YARDS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1904 Horses and mules Chicago, HI 105,949 Kansas City, Kan 67,562 Buffalo, N. Y 54,300 Omaha, Neb 46,845 St. Joseph, Mo 28,704 Cattle Sheep Hogs Total 3,526,684 4,504,630 7,238,746 15,376,009 2,163,471 1,004,099 2,227,170 5,462.302 636,013 2,466,657 5,236,480 8,393,450 944,192 1,754,365 2,299,627 5,025,029 587,261 794,379 1,658,849 3,067,193 The table shows that by fpr the larg- est number of animals were shipped into Chicago. The Chicago stock market is not only the largest market in the United States, but the largest stock market in the world. Buffalo stands out conspicuous as a hog and sheep market. Market for everything — At these large stock centers, a market may be found for every grade and kind of ani- mal grown on the farm, every day in the year. The large packing houses of the corn belt are located at these stock cen- ters and for one purpose and another can utilize every kind and condition of farm animals. Many of the animals shipped into a great market like Chicago are killed. A large number are re- shipped as feeders or stockers and many are exported alive to Europe. Of the cattle shipped into Chicago in 1905, 41 per cent were reshipped for some of these various purposes. Over 28 per cent of the sheep received were reshipped and about 26 per cent of the hogs. Shipping dead or alive_p ra ctically all animals sent to the larger markets are shipped alive. The exceptions to this may be early winter lambs, veal calves and poultry, which are often shipped dressed, or in the case of lambs and calves with the entrails out, but the hides still on. It is not usually profit- able to ship dressed cattle, hogs or sheep to any of the larger city markets, since these markets are supplied by the big packing houses, and it is absolutely im- possible for the farmer to prepare as nice looking and as high a grade of meat as can be produced by the packing houses, because he has' not the facilities for killing, dressing and curing, nor the skill. System in butchering — On the farm, or in the small towns, one or two men may do all the work on an animal from killing to cutting up, while in the pack- ing house 150 or more men would be employed on the various details of this work. Each man has a particular piece of work to do and learns to do it in the most skillful manner. If a wrong cut is made it can be traced back to the man who did it. After the work of dressing is completed, the meat at the packing houses can then be run into STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 213 the chilling rooms and kept there until it has ripened and its quality is greatly- improved, a convenience seldom found on the farm. Packing house gang — In order to show how minutely the work in the great packing houses is specialized in the killing of beef cattle, the work of a beef-killing gang at one of the large Chicago packing houses made up of 157 men may be cited. During a working day of 10 hours 1,050 cattle were slaugh- tered and dressed by this gang. The gang was made tip as follows: One general foreman, one foreman over yard gang, one driving up cattle, two penning cattle, two knocking cattle, two and cutting out, one pulling tails, two and onedialf gutters, two throwing down guts and paunches, three tail sawyers, two hanging off from splitter, three beating out fells, one helper sawing tails and ripping open, two neck splitters, one tallow lot man, one trucking feet, one trucking up hooks, one hanging up hoofs, two cleaning out, three dropping hides. In the washing gang, there were one foreman, one trimming bruises on rail, one wiping beef, one putting in neck and kidney cloths, one scribe saw- yer, one hoseman, one washing shanks, one switchman, three washing ribs and necks inside, one squeezing beef, one pumping kidneys, three long brush Fig. 156 — TEXAS CATTLE IN STOCK YARDS (Illinois Experiment Station) shackling cattle, one hanging off for hackler, one squeezing blood from beds, one switching onto heading beds and putting up heads, one throwing down heads, one pritching up, one dropping cattle, one pritching up helper, one stick- ler, three headers, one ripper, four leg breakers, three feet skinners, one gullet raiser, seven floormen, one breast sawyer, one aitch sawyer, two and one- half caul pullers, two putting in hooks to hoists for fell cutter, one floor squeezer, one washing crutches and bel- lies, four fell cutters, one cutting out bladders, two rumpers, one rump helper and drop hide feller, two backers, four splitters, one back and rump hand, one washing hind shank, one ripping tails washers, one washing rags, two wiping hinds, two ladder men, (knife), two bruise trimmers, one cutting off cords and shanks, one tying veins, two trim- ming skirts and necks, one pumping necks. For weighing the beef, there was one scaler, one grader, one pushing on scale or tagger, one pulling off scale, one elevator man. For refrigerating and car loading, there were 14 beef coolers, five trimmers, seven carriers and loaders, 11 laborers. With work systematized in this manner, and the utilization of all modern mechanical appliances, as near perfect results as it is possible to secure in the dressing of meat are obtained. Local market for home-dressed meats — It is quite possible, however, 214 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK for a stockman living near the smaller towns and cities to put up a high-grade class of bacon, ham, mutton, beef and poultry and sell to private consumers direct. Where a high-grade trade of this character can be worked up, there is nearly double the profit by killing and selling in this manner than by selling alive. Laws relative to shipping stock — In order to prevent the spread of animal diseases from one state to another, to protect the public health against the killing for food of any diseased, ema- ciated, or pregnant animal, and to pro- tect and foster the export trade in sound animals and meat, national, state and local laws bearing on these matters bave been enacted. The national laws deal with inter- state and foreign trade, and their admin- istration is intrusted to the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture. Diseased animals must not be shipped — These laws require that before any cattle or other stock is offered for transportation, the shipper shall exercise reasonable care to ascertain that his ani- mals are not affected with any con- tagious or infectious disease. Should a shipper send diseased animals to mar- ket, they might be quarantined any- where on the road or after they had reached their destination, which would result in a great loss of time and a total loss of all -profits besides subjecting the shipper to arrest. If . the animals are diseased, this fact must be stated to the transportation. company at the time of shipment and a special pen set aside for receiving them at the stock yard. Be- fore using the same cars again for carry- ing stock, they must be thoroughly dis- infected. Quarantine line area — To pre- vent the spread of splenetic or Texas fever of cattle, a national quarantine line has been established, which takes in nearly all of the southern and south- western states. Cattle from below this line can be shipped into markets north, east and west of it only in accordance with the rules and regulations of the department of agriculture. At present these provide that cattle may be shipped during the months of January, Novem- ber and December without restrictions. They may be shipped at any time by rail or boat to a recognized slaughter center outside the quarantined area for immediate slaughter, but cannot be trailed, driven or hauled therefrom in a private conveyance. When thus shipped, the cattle must be slaughtered within two weeks after arrival at destination. Cars containing such stock must be marked Southern Cattle. The waybills, bills of lading of such shipments, must contain a like statement. Any cattle outside of the quarantine line which may be infected with the southern cattle tick, may dis- seminate Texas fever, and are, there- fore, subject to the regulations govern- ing the movements of cattle originating in the quarantined area. Dipping required — Southern cattle may also be shipped to any points out- side the quarantined area at any time, providing they have been properly dipped under the supervision of an in- spector of the Bureau of Animal Indus- try, and are shipped in clean, disinfected cars and not driven through the quar- antined area or unloaded therein, except at such points as may be designated in the rules of t^e Secretary of Agriculture. When cattle, after proper dipping and inspection, are shipped from the quar- antined area, to points outside, for pur- poses other than immediate slaughter, the owner or consigner of the cattle must give a signed statement to the transportation company, showing the purpose for which the cattle are shipped, and this statement must in every case accompany the waybills. Permits granted — In states which have been quarantined against scabies in cattle or sheep, a permit must be obtained from the inspector of the Bu- reau of Animal Industry, before the stock can be sent to market. If diseased, such stock must be dipped, in dips rec- ommended by the Bureau of Animal Industry, before shipment can be made. Stock not visibly affected with the scab- ies may be shipped, without inspection, from points in the quarantined area, and where the services of the inspector are not readily procurable to any recog- nized slaughtering center for immedi- ate slaughter. The car in which such stock is shipped must be labeled "unin- spected cattle," or, in the case of sheep, "dipped scabby," or, if exposed to the dis- ease, "exposed sheep for slaughter." Stockers must be dipped — If scabby cattle or sheep are shipped for stockers or feeders, they must be dipped at least twice at intervals of 10 days apart, un- der the supervision of the inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 215 Swine diseased with hog cholera or swine plague, or which have been ex- posed to either of these diseases by- contact with diseased animals, or con- finement in infected cars, pens or other premises, cannot be transported or driven from one state or territory to another, and all persons intending to ship swine must ascertain before offer- ing them for shipment that the animals are not diseased and have not been ex- posed to the contagion of either disease. Swine not diseased with either of these diseases, and which have not been ex- posed to the infection, may be shipped anywhere subject only to state or terri- torial laws. Infected stock yards — "Public stock yards shall be considered infected, and no swine shall be shipped therefrom for feeding or stocking purposes. No dis- eased swine shall be shipped from the stock yards, but shall be slaughtered, subject to condemnation on post-mortem inspection; and all swine in a certain lot or shipment shall be considered dis- eased when one or more of them show evidence of the disease. Swine that are not diseased and have been merely ex- posed by being in the yards, may be shipped to a recognized slaughtering center for immediate slaughter. Where, however, a part of the yard is set apart for the reception of infected shipments of swine and is kept free of infection, swine may be shipped from such parts without restriction." Transportation requirements — The law relating to the transportation of live stock, which is the subject of inter- state commerce, requires that in the transporting of cattle, sheep, swine or any other animals from one state to another, they shall not be confined in cars, boats or vessels of any description for a longer period than 28 consecutive hours without unloading the same for rest, water and feeding for a period of at least five consecutive hours, unless prevented from unloading by storm or other accidental causes, or by special request of the owner or person in charge, when time may be extended to 36 hours. In estimating such confinement, the times during which the animals have been confined without such rest on con- necting roads from which they are re- ceived, shall be included; if, however, proper arrangements for food, water, space and opportunity to rest are pro- vided, the provision in regard to their being unloaded does not apply. All the regulations of the department of agri- culture relative to the shipment of stock, transportation of diseased animals, etc, can be obtained upon application to the Secretary of Agriculture at Washing- ton, D. C. Attendants on stock cars — Where one or more carloads of stock is shipped long distances, it is expected that at least one attendant will accompany them to look after the stock. This attendant will be given free transportation by the railroad company to market, but must pay his own expenses on the return trip. He is usually given accommodations in the caboose of the stock train, and must take such accommodations as are avail- able. Where but one or two animals are shipped in a box car, the attendant may ride in the same car with them. On shorter journeys of 24 to 30 hours, where it may not be necessary to either feed or water stock, an attendant is not necessary. Even with the larger shipments, if no attendant is sent with the stock, the employees of the railroad will see that they are watered and feed given them. Upon arrival at the stock yard, the attendant will see that the car contain- ing his stock is switched off at the proper station. If he is well acquainted with the stock yards, he may be able to save much unnecessary switching in properly placing his car. Inspection of stock — As soon as stock arrive at the stock yards, they are in- spected by a veterinarian. At the Chi- cago stock yards there are three separate sets of inspectors, those representing the city of Chicago, the state of Illinois and the United States. Each of these in- spectors has clearly defined duties and all work in harmony to secure pure meats for the people of Chicago, the state, the United States and foreign countries which consume animal and meat products, shipped from the Chi- cago markets. The inspection is both ante-mortem and post-mortem, and in case of doubt, microscopic also. If animals suffering from disease or injury, which makes them unfit for food arrive, they are condemned. These, as well as ani- mals which arrive at the yards dead, are sent to the rendering works. Every day considerable numbers of pigs, sheep and occasionally cattle, arrive dead. "Animals in poor condition and under suspicion as unfit for food are marked 216 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK with metal tags in the ear and are placed in special pens for further obser- vation or slaughter." These animals are slaughtered under the supervision of attendant veterinarians and records are made of each case. In case of ani- mals which are out of form in some respects, yet not unfit for food, the meat is sold to local buyers. Tu the yard inspection it may happen that some animals fall under suspicion that will later be allowed to go with the passed animals as being salable on open market. Condemned animals — "Cows within a month of parturition and for 10 days after will be subject to condemnation. In the slaughter houses, the meat of all cows that have calves inside with the hair on is condemned. So also are all pregnant sows near parturition, hogs with bunches, boils, cuts on hams and shoulders, etc. Bob or deacon calves (calves less than a month old) are con- demned, and also sheep emaciated and in bad condition." The live stock exchange takes charge of all dead and condemned animals. The condemned animals are slaughtered and with the dead stock are sold chiefly for soap grease and fertilizers. What- ever returns are secured from this source over the cost of handling are turned over to the original owners of the animals. The system of meat inspection ob- served at the slaughtering houses has been noted in another chapter of this work. It is sufficient to state here that by its thoroughness, only clean, whole- some meat, free from disease, reaches the public. The stamp of the Bureau of Animal Industry on these meats gives notice to foreign countries that it has been carefully inspected and found absolutely free from disease, elean and healthful. When to ship stock — Stock should be shipped to market only when it is in prime condition; 50 to 100 pounds of meat added to a horse will often in- crease its sale value as many dollars. The cost of shipping prime animals to market is no more than for shipping those in medium condition, and it is only the prime stock that gives top market prices. Many feeders often make the mistake of holding stock that should be sent to market. Thus, if a man is feeding 100 to 150 head of steers and one-half to two-thirds of this number are fit for market, he may keep these in prime condition at a loss until he can ship the whole bunch at once. This is a lui stake. Fat stock should be shipped as soon as it is ready and enough is on hand to make a carload. This gives the animals that are left a better chance to improve and avoids the loss that in- evitably occurs when stock ready for the market is still retained in the feed- ing yards. Many experiments with all manner of stock have shown that the last few pounds added to an animal's growth before marketing cost three to four times as much as it is worth. Consult with the commission man — The greater part of the stock sold in the larger markets is sold through commis- sion men. Before sending stock, it is extremely desirable, and usually saves both disappointment and loss to the shipper, if the commission merchant be notified two or three days in advance of the shipment. Then, if the commis- sion merchant thinks the stock will be benefited by still longer feeding, or that the prospect is vmfavorable at the time the feeder expected to have his stock on the market, he can so advise the ship- per, and thus save him from sacrificing his stock or getting it to market at the wrong time. This is a matter of special impor- tance in November or the beginning of winter, when the markets are being crowded with half-fat cattle that ought to be held back 30 to 60 days longer. "No doubt many of these look all right in the feed lot and appear to have a good finish, but not having matured or ripened, they practically go to pieces on the cars and, in addition to loss in heavy shrinkage, the owners have to accept a low price on the market." Give notice op shipment— If the plan of giving notice a day or so before the feeder expects to ship is followed up, it works both to the advantage of the shipper and seller. The commission man is on the market every day. He knows just what the market wants, and can judge much more clearly of the immediate future prospects, usually, than the feeders 300 or 400 miles awsy. By seeking his friendly counsel, the feeder can often avoid losses and in- crease his profits. Classifying stock in shipping— Where a feeder has more than one car- load of stock to send to market, it should STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 217 be classified as much as possible. Ani- mals of practically the same weight should be put together. Even the color is a matter of considerable importance. A whole car of black hogs, or a whole car of white hogs, creates a more favor- able impression than a mixed lot. Where the animals are about of the same size, the cars can be loaded more easily and the stock shipped much bet- ter. There is less danger from the weak and smaller animals being injured. Where it is not done by the shipper, it must often be done after the stock reaches the market, which takes con- siderable time and often results in loss to the shipper. If the shipper has only one carload of stock, of course it can- not be graded in this manner. Striking a market — It is the aim of all stock shippers, of course, to try to strike the best market. As a matter of fact, it is extremely difficult, if not im- possible, to forecast the day when the best prices of the season will be se- cured. Stock is being shipped every day in the year, and if there were any one season in which it was especially high, many feeders would aim to hit that mar- ket. The results of this would be a glut and low prices. Coburn cites an example in which a heavy fall of snow occurred on a Sun- day in February. The following Mon- day morning on the Kansas City market but 61 cars of stock were on sale. The difficulty of reaching the station was so great that shippers and feeders thought it would be a good time to ship into the market while others were tied up at home, and so get the benefits of the high advance in price. As a result of this reasoning, there was by far the largest receipts for a winter day up to that time, and prices went to smash. "This is mentioned simply to show what little judgment is exercised by the majority of feeders in always rushing to the market with all of a particular feeding simply to get the benefit of a rise, and the bene- fit of a break is more often the result." It is entirely impossible for all to strike the best market. Stock should be shipped when it is ripe for market, even if prices are not as high as it is expect- ed they may be a month or two in the future. If this system is regularly fol- lowed, it is firmly believed that the average profits will be much greater than where stock is held after it is fin- ished in order to strike a better market, Securing cars and shipping horses, cattle, etc. — Where stock is shipped by freight, it is usually necessary to notify the railroad company two or three days in advance, in order that suitable cars may be secured. Even in the largest market one day's notice at least is ex- pected. There are many different kinds of stock cars. The plain box cars, 30x36 feet in length, are used to a consider- able extent. Such cars are about 8 feet wide and 7 feet high. Horses and cattle shipped in these cars may be penned in by constructing temporary box stalls. Ix shippixg but oxe horse or one cow it may be penned in at one end of the car, loose with plenty of bedding on the floor. A bedding of sand is advisable for horses, to prevent their slipping. With cattle an abundance of straw or hay may be used. Whex a carload of horses is thus shipped, they should stand side by side with the heads all one way and so close that they will not lie down. Cattle are shipped in the same way. The more common stock car, and the more suit- able in warm weather, is the car with slatted sides and ends, made expressly for stock. These cars are usually fitted with water troughs on the sides. Cars for sheep axd hogs usually con- tain two decks, the second floor being at a height of Sy 2 feet from the first floor and generally removable. By using these double decked cars, nearly twice as many sheep or hogs can be carried in the same car as in the common car. Improved stock cars — In addition to these more common stock cars, there are a number of improved forms of cars. "One of the most prominent forms for shipping cattle has open barred sides, with hay racks and iron water troughs, which rest in a horizontal position to hold water or feed, or which may be shifted to the side of the car in an inverted position for cleaning." On such cars as these, cattle from points distant 1,000 or 1,500 miles from market can be shipped without unload- ing and arrive in market in much better condition than when shipped in the common cars from which they have to be unloaded once or twice for feeding and thus knocked about and more or less injured before reaching their final destination. Uxloadixg stock ix transit— It great- ly injures the appearance of stock to have to unload it once or twice before 218 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK reaching market, as the animals are con- siderably bruised and the bruises thus sustained show up still more when the hide is off. It will be a fortunate day for stock men when all stock can be shipped in these improved cars without unloading. Overloading cars — Considerable care is necessary not to overload cars, since stock does not look as well when it reaches market, there is considerable extra shrinkage in weight, which affects the sale fully 10 cents a hundred pounds. Special horse cars — For shipping high-grade stock, especially horses, a form of palace car has been devised which is thus described by Plumb : "This is a car divided into stalls which are adjustable. A horse is placed in one end of the car with head facing the side and a wooden partition is swung against him and fastened to make one side of a stall. A second horse is led up along side the first, facing the same way, and another partition is swung about to form the side of a stall, thus the entire side of the car, excepting for a space in the center, is filled with horses in independent stalls, each being furnished with mangers for holding water and hay. An alley extends along in front of the horses, and there are water pipes for use in watering at cer- tain stages on the journey. The car also has a chest for storing grain and over- head racks for hay and straw. Such a car is chartered and costs so much per mile in addition to the regular carriage, this being charged by the company owning the car." Size and capacity of cars — The usual stock car has an inside length of about 34 feet, and has a capacity of 18 to 20 horses or cattle, 70 to 90 hogs in a single floor, or 100 to 150 in a double decker, and about 200 to 250 sheep in a double deck car. With the smaller western lambs still larger numbers can be car- ried. Thus loaded, sheep and hogs have sufficient space in which to lie down, but cattle and horses are expected to stand up throughout the journey. Bills of lading_I n making a ship- ment of stock, either by express or freight, the shipper is given a bill of lading which shows the date of ship- ment, to whom the shipment is made. The rate of charge is also stated if the shippers so desire. The shipper may either retain this bill of lading in his own possession if he goes with his stock, or it may be sent to the person to whom the shipment is consigned. This, how- ever, is unnecessary when sending to commission men, who are well known in the city to which the stock is sent. When the agent or commission mer- chant receives the stock, he must sign a receipt showing that he has obtained the stock in good condition. If, how- ever, the stock has been injured through negligence on the part of the railroad, damages can usually be collected. Liability of railroads — I n making a shipment of stock, the consignor is usu- RAILROAD RATES FOR STOCK FROM WESTERN POINTS PER HUNDRED WEIGHT From To Kansas City, Mo. To Omaha, Neb. 1898 Amarillo, Tex $0.28 Barstow, Tex 47 San Antonio, Tex 45 x /2 Woodward, Okla 22 McAlester, Ind. Ter... .22 Greeley, Col 31 Eldorado, Kan *33.00 Logan, Kan *31.00 Kearney, Neb — Alliance, Neb — Belle Fourche, S. D.. . — Eapid City, S. D — Dickinson, N. D — Helena, Mont — Miles City, Mont — Cheyenne, Wyo — Laramie, Wyo — Pocatello, Ida — - *car rates. January 1905 1905 January 1898 ).34i/ 2 .50% •5iy 2 .29i/ 2 .31 .33 .14 .15V 2 To Chicago. January 1905 ).44V 4 $0.52% 1898 .563/ 4 *$32.00 53.00 .36 .35 •62V 2 .31 71.10 •6iy 2 $o.i5y, .27 .36 .35 .62i/ 2 .33 *71.10 '130.10 36i/ 2 283/ 4 37y> 46 48 47 48 71 48 47 47 81% •3iy 2 •35i/ 2 .37i/ 2 .46 .48 .47 .48 .71 .48 .48 .48 .75 STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 219 ally required to sign a release. Theo- retically, this releases the railway or ex- press company from all liability to damage should the shipped stock be injured en route. If, however, it can be shown that the damage occurred through the negligence of the railway or express company, damages can be obtained not- withstanding the "release." Transportation rates— Railroad and transportation rates on stock vary greatly in different sections of the coun- try, and also with the distance that the stock is shipped, whether by freight or express, size of the car, etc. In recent years the tendency has been to charge a certain rate a hundred pounds — a change which has decreased the ten- dency among shippers to overload their cars. The foregoing table shows the rates on carload lots of cattle from leading points in the West to three of the more prominent stock markets, as given in the report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the beef trust in- dustry. The rates on carload lots also differ markedly in different states. The fol- lowing table, prepared by Plumb, shows the freight rates in Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, in shipping cattle, sheep and swine from 100 to 300 miles: FREIGHT RATES IN DIFFERENT STATES Length Class of Freight of Haul Wisconsin Illinois Iowa Cattle, per 100 pounds 100 $15.00 $ 9.50 $11.32 Do 200 20.00 12.10 15.53 Do 300 25.00 14.70 20.26 Sheep, per 100 pounds 100 18.50 13.00 10.96 Do 200 25.00 18.30 22.00 Do 300 31.20 20.00 25.90 Swine, per 100 pounds 100 18.50 13.00 10.96 Do 200 25.00 16.50 15.80 Do 300 21.20 18.00 19.00 Relatively short hauls, it will be confined for the most part to the fore- noted, cost proportionately much more noon. As soon as the animals reach the than longer hauls. The cost of shipping stock yards they are quickly unloaded sheep from Oregon to Chicago in 30 to and driven to the selling pens, where 36-foot cars varies from $234 to $260 a they are fed and watered, car. When stock is shipped to market, Selling stock—Shippers to these mar- both humanity and economy demand kets are prac tically compelled to intrust that the animals be sent forward as their stock to a eommission agent for quickly as possible They are, therefore, gale< The regular commission dealers ordinarily shipped in special stock in these yardg are memberg of an or an _ trams which run at a much more rapid ization of Hve stock exchailge> the pur . rate than the ordinary freight trains. pose of whicn is to fix a minimum and Stock yards_In all of the leading uniform charge for selling and buying cities, large central stock yards have stock and to enforce fair and honest been established to which all the live methods on the part of its members, stock brought into the city are taken The actual gale of gtock occurg at the for sale. In this way all the sellers and which are vigited b fc frQm buyers are brought together. All the 71 * ,-, , i . ■, ", i ° . i ,-, all of the great packing companies, Jo- stock yards are organized on the s,ime , , . .-, . , i i • uv general plan. A company usually cated m the stock yards, and m addition known as the Union Stock Yards com- b ^ W ers for sma11 local concerns, for pany owns and controls them. eastern concerns or special order buyers The yards are divided up into numer- and ex P ort buyers. The export buyers ous sections. There are main drives and purchase cattle and other stock for ship- alleyways, with intervening spaces filled ment alive to Europe. The buyers for with stock houses and pens. It is the the European market are more numer- aim of shippers and the railroad also to ous at the Chicago market than else- so time the loading and movement of where. If the owner of the stock accom- trains that the stock shall arrive in the panies his animals to market, he must yards early in the morning, in time for conform to the rules made by the ex- the day's market, which is ordinarily change or stock yard company and pay 220 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK such rate for yardage, feed or commis- sion, as has been established. Subdividing shipments — Stock is usu- ally sold in bunches varying from one to several hundred. The consignment of each shipper is usually sold separately, but may be subdivided by the commis- sion agent, either for the purpose of adjusting the number sold to the de- mands of the individual buyer or for the purpose of securing uniformity in character and quality and thus obtaining a better price for the whole lot. A mixed shipment of cattle, for instance, is usually divided according to the sex. Cows, heifers, bulls and stags and steers each being sold in a separate lot. The subdivision thus made may be sold either to one buyer or to many buyers. Final disposal of stock sold — As soon as a bunch of stock is sold it is driven to the scales and weighed. Ani- mals bought by packers are immediately driven to the packing houses which are usually located in or near the stock yards. Cattle are generally held a day or more to rest and to reduce their tem- perature to a normal point before kill- ing. Hogs and sheep are usually killed on the day of purchase. Bules of the stock yards — The gen- eral regulations in stock yards are prac- tically the same in all different cities. When stock is unloaded, it is fed and watered before being offered for sale, and this expense must be borne by the shipper, as well as the charge for weigh- ing the animals when they are sold. The dead and injured stock arriving at the stock yards is disposed of by the stock yard company for various pur- poses. The fat is used for soap, the lean meat and bones for fertilizers, etc. The proceeds from these sources after expenses are paid, are turned over to the shipper. Water is supplied free in all yards. The person in charge of a consignment of stock fills out a blank form which he presents at the office of a feed super- intendent for whatever feed he desires. This feed is promptly delivered to the pens anywhere in the yards. The cost for hay in the different yards varies from $1 to $1.50 a hundred weight and of corn and oats from $1 to $1.25 a bushel each. Commission charges — The regulations adopted by the Chicago live stock ex- change relative to commission charges, is shown in the following regulations in force in 1907. Cattle — 50 cents a head. Not less than $10 nor more than $12 a car. Calves — 25 cents a head. Not less than $10 nor more than $12 a car. Double-deck carloads $18. Milch cows — With calves by their sides, 75 cents. Hogs — Single-deck cars containing 30 head or more, $8. Double-deck carloads of hogs, $12. Sheep — Single-deck cars containing 30 head or more, $8. Double-deck carloads of sheep, $12. Sheep originating in double-deck cars, but for any reason arriving in single- deck cars, where double-deck freight rates are applied, may be sold at the double-deck rate of commission, viz., $12. Less than 30 head of hogs or sheep in a single-deck car, with no other stock n the car, shall be charged for at the rate of 15 cents a head. Stock driven or hauled in : Cattle 50 cents, calves 25 cents, hogs 15 cents, sheep 15 cents a head. Mixed stock in car lots — Cattle — 50 cents a head. Not to exceed $12 for the cattle contained in the car. Calves — 25 cents a head. Not to ex- ceed $12 for the calves contained! in the car. Hogs — 15 cents a head. Not to ex- ceed $8 for the hogs contained in the car. Sheep — 15 cents a head. Not to ex- ceed $8 for the sheep contained in the car. The commission on mixed stock shall be governed by this section, provided the charge shall not be less than $10 on a single-deck, or $14 on double-deck cars, not more than $15 on a single-deck, or $18 on double-deck cars, containing two species of live stock; on cars con- taining three species of live stock — either single or double decks — the min- imum charge shall be $15, maximum $18 a carload. When part of a car is double-decked and loaded with hogs or sheep or calves, unmixed, the commission for selling such fractional upper deck shall be at the rates herein established for selling single decks of mixed stock for each ani- mal on the upper deck, not to exceed $12 for the entire car. When mixed the same rates shall apply, not to ex- ceed $18 for the entire car. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 221 On carloads of stock having more than one owner, requiring more than one ac- count of sales, the commission shall be 50 cents a head for cattle and 15 cents a head for hogs and 15 cents a head for sheep, without regard to the number of head in said car, provided that the aggregate commissions charged shall not be less than the minimum fixed rate a car under the section that otherwise would apply. In determining the application of said rates of commission, the official count and classification by the yardmaster shall rule in all cases, except when cor- rected by authority of the Union Stock Yard and Transit company to conform to the actual number and true classi- fication. The commission for purchasing li\e stock shall not be less than the follow- ing named rates : Stocker and feeder cattle (includ- ing calves), each, but not ex- ceed $10 a carload, unless the parties in connection with a loan or advancement, agree to pay a head, without regard to the num- ber constituting a carload lot. .$0.50 Stock and feeding sheep and lambs, a single-deck carload- • 6.00 Stock and feeding sheep and lambs a double-deck carload 10.00 Charges, dockage, etc.— Lumpy-jaw cattle and diseased meats are condemned at Chicago. Sales, unless otherwise stat- ed, live weight by the 100 pounds. Own- ers of stock slaughtered subject to state inspection receive returns of sales ac- cording to post-mortem inspection. Pub- lic inspectors dock pregnant sows 40 pounds, stags, altered boars, 80 pounds. Yardage — Cattle and horses 25 cents, calves 15 cents, hogs 8 cents, sheep 5 cents a head. Feed — Corn 75 cents a bushel, timo- thy hay $25 a ton, prairie hay $20. Yardage changes — All people doing business in the stock yards must con- form to the above regulations. The care of the stock from the time of its arrival to its disposal is subject to the company's orders and care. No charge is made for the use of the yards, but a charge for weighing, usually termed yardage, is collected when the stock is sold. The yardage charges in Chicago are noted above. In Buffalo and Pitts- burg, the yardage charges are as follows : Cattle 15 cents a head; hogs 6 cents; sheep 4 cents; calves 8 cents. At Oma- ha, the charges are 25 cents for cattle; 8 cents for hogs; 5 cents for sheep, and 10 cents for calves. Payment for stock— If a carload of stock is sent to market to be sold by a commission merchant, the shipper re- ceives a check or draft for his consign- ment just as quickly as the stock is sold. Along with it he receives a statement as to the weight of the stock, the classifi- cation which was made of it, the prices received for each class, the yardage and feed charges paid and the amount of the commission charges. All these expenses are subtracted from the gross receipts for the stock and the balance is sent to the shipper. There is usually no delay whatever in making a settlement. Shipping cattle_I n shipping cattle off grass, they should always be put up in^ a dry lot for a day or two before shipment is made and fed nothing but corn, oats and hay. This applies more particularly to the native eastern cattle which are used to these feeds. If this is not done, the cattle on arrival at market have a grassy look, their hair looks shiny, and they shrink almost double what they would if handled as noted, and sell from 10 to 15 cents a hundred less than if put in a dry lot and fed on dry feeds before shipping. If the cattle are fed corn on grass, they may be taken off the day before shipping and fed on dry food. In driving cattle to the cars, care should be taken not to overheat them. The cars should be well bedded down with hay or sand. Either of these is considered more satisfactory than oat or wheat straw. For successful ship- ping, it is essential to place cattle on the cars full of feed, but with as little moisture in them as possible. A steer full of water at the beginning of the shipment is likely to show up badly in the stock yards, as a result of loose bowels. When properly handled, cattle should arrive at the stock yai*ds dry be- hind and ready for a good fill of water. Oversalting and watering stock — Many shippers make the mistake of oversalting their stock at time of ship- ment, or by feeding them oats, with the expectation of having the stock arrive very thirsty in market and drinking large quantities of water which will add to their weight at the time of sale. This is a great mistake; the buyers in the stock yards have had long experience, and can tell at a glance whether stock 222 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK has been overwatered or not. When cat- tle are bought by buyers to be shipped still farther on the cars, it is of great importance that they be in con- dition to stand the farther shipment at once. If cattle drink too freely they are apt to flounder and break down. The packing houses can use these cattle, but it stops competition as far as out- side buyers are concerned, and the re- sult is a considerably lower price than they would normally have brought had they not been oversalted and thus drunk too freely. With cattle shipped from feeding pens, there will ordinarily be no especial preparation for their shipment neces- sary. They should be fed as usual on the day of shipment. If the cattle are not used to having salt every day, it should not be given to them on the morning they are taken to the station. Water may be withheld from the stock on the day of shipment in cold weather, but should not be withheld in warm weather. A prominent firm of commission dealers on the Kansas City market, states that: "A big fill is not by any means the desired end in the marketing of beef cattle. To handle them intelli- gently in the feed Tot and on the way to the shipping point and to load them with care, means much more for the appearance of animals on the market and helps to make a sale. Cattle buyers are paid for what they know and so their bids on sore and down cattle, the result of bad shipping or heavy fill, are in accordance with appearance of con- signments in the pens. What a shipper gains in one direction is frequently lost in another." Loading cattle — As to the loading of cattle, Clay, Robinson & Co. state that the best investment a shipper ever made was in putting extra good bedding in his cars, as it means a big saving from loss of possibly dead or crippled cattle, as well as the shrinkage. The car should be loaded comfortably full, as steers ride better than when loaded loose- ly. If fairly compacted, it prevents throwing by the starting and stopping of the cars. On the other hand, if the car is crowded too heavily, it is not easy for a steer to get up if he once gets down, and often a crippled or a dead animal is the result. There will also be less loss from this source if the stock is classified and all those put in one car approximating the same weight. This, of course, cannot be done where only one car is sent, except in a limited way by partitions, but is a matter of importance where several cars are shipped. Factors affecting selling price of cat- tle for beef — There are a number of fac- tors affecting price of cattle in the mar- ket. These are the supply, the class and breed of cattle, their weight, sex and age, amount of by-products fur- nished, etc. The supply of cattle is one of the most important factors influencing price. There appears to be a marked seasonable variation in the cattle supply of the markets. Usually the supply in the second half of the year is consider- ably greater than during the first half. For five of the principal markets it averages 30 per cent more. This is largely due to the fact that the move- ment of grass-fed cattle to market, espe- cially from the ranches, begins in the middle of the summer, and continues until winter. The average prices of native, western, and Texan cattle for the first and second halves of the years 1902-3, as paid by leading packers in Chicago, is shown in the following table : Price January-June July-December 1902 Native Western ..$6.07 — , . 5.90 $4.00 Texan $fi.45 4.38 Native $4.71 4.86 1903 Western Texan — $4.15 $3.66 3.82 The native breeds mentioned in the above table are usually understood to in- clude those cattle reared in the agricul- tural regions of the middle West. They are generally fattened on corn and char- acterized as cattle of superior breed, ac- companied by larger size and good qual- ity of meat. Western cattle are those bred in the grazing states of the West and North- west. They are practically the same stock as the native of the present day but do not class so high on the average. They differ principally in their different preparation for market. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 223 Texas cattle are those from the ranges of Texas. The term is some- times applied to all cattle from below the quarantine line in the Southwest. They are inferior in breed to either na- tives or westerns, which is manifest in their much lighter structure and the beef from them is of inferior quality. When western cattle are' brought east and fattened in the corn belt they may enter the markets as natives, from which they are practically indistinguishable. Corn-fed Texans may also be practically indistinguishable from natives, es- pecially if they are from ranges, which are using improved stock. The table brings out clearly that the highest prices are paid during the first half of the year, and for native stock. Prices for different breeds of cattle — These general classes of cattle, of course, include all the different breeds, the prices for which vary greatly, ac- cording to whether they are of the dairy form or of the beef type. The princi- pal beef types are the Angus, Galloway, Herefords and Shorthorns. These cat- tle and their grades bring the best prices for beef of any cattle offered in the market. The choice among packers varies as to their preference for the different breeds. The Cndahy packing company Df Chicago state that they do not dis- criminate as to price in favor of the different breeds, but in paying a fancy price would rather have Shorthorns than the other breeds. This difference in their estimation would only amount to 5 cents a hundred pounds. Swift and Co. prefer Angus, Short- horn and Galloway cattle three years of age, when thoroughly fattened on grain to Herefords of the same age. Two- year-old Hereford cattle, when fat, are considered equal to the other breeds mentioned, but after the second year the Herefords become unevenly fat. Ham- mond makes practically the same state- ment in regard to Herefords. Schwarzschild states that in buying cattle for the United States, and espe- cially for the export trade, preference 900- 1050- Class of cattle 1050 lbs 1200 lbs Native $4.75 $4.90 Western 3.85 4.23 Average $4.40 $4.57 is given to Angus steers, since when well fattened on corn, these steers dress out from 1 to 2 pounds a hun- dred pounds live weight more than either Shorthorns, Galloways, Herefords or Holsteins. 'Although the Angus may appear very fat, they will show more lean meat and be less wasteful for the retail butcher than animals of any of the other breeds above men- tioned. The meat itself will show a better and richer grain and is very juicy. The Shorthorns come next and, for the same time and same percentage of feed used, will show considerable fat on the outside, but less lean meat. This fat will be in lumps on the outside, but is very unprofitable for the retailer. Gallo- ways and Herefords come next in qual- ity as well as grain. The Holsteins are very undesirable; being coarse, they do not show much grain in the beef and are especially unprofitable for the retailer. Of the five breeds of cattle mentioned, the Angus is superior to the extent of 10 to 15 cents a hundred pounds live weight." Hammond states that the Herefords, Galloways, Shorthorns and Angus, eith- er as thoroughbreds or as three-quarter- bred yearlings, when equally fat are equally valuable for beef. The same is true for two-year-olds, but a change begins to take place at three years, when the Shorthorns grow more bone and become coarser, and when four years old are apt to be too heavy and coarse to bring the top price of the market. Herefords become lumpy by putting the fat on in bunches. The weight of stock when marketed stands next to breed as a factor affecting the price received. Cattle are bought and sold by the hundredweight and the price varies in accordance with whether the animal is heavy or light, since the quality of beef is usually supe- rior with the heavier grades. This dif- ference in price is brought out in the following table, which shows the average price in Chicago of beef cattle of dif- ferent weight on selected dates: 1200- 1350- 1500 350 lbs $5.27 4.50 1500 lbs $5.53 4.48 plus lbs $5.17 4.37 $4.89 $5.01 $4.77 224 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The data in this table bring out clear- ly that the price per hundredweight, of the same kind of stock, increases steadily with each increase in weight, until the last class is reached. The best price is seen to be paid for cattle weighing be- tween 1,200 and 1,500 pounds. For export purposes, beef-bred types weighing between 1,300 and 1,400 pounds and from two and one-half to four years old are more desirable. These relative prices and weights hold whether the cat- tle are native, western or Texan. Sex and age have an important bear- ing on the prices paid for beef cattle, since the quality of beef produced from the different sources varies considerably. The standard beef cattle is the steer. The following are the average prices paid for steers, bulls, stags, cows and heifers on selected dates, during the years 1898-1903, on the Chicago mar- kets. Native steers $5.16, bulls $3.55, stags $4.42, native cows $3.68, western steers $4.39, western cows and heifers $3.89. The data show clearly the relatively smaller price for cows and heifers, bulls and stags than for steers. Horns on cattle sometimes affect prices. Other factors being the same, hornless cattle are preferred by buyers because there are less bruises on them. The price paid, however, for hornless cattle is often no more than for horned cattle, but under some circumstances, may be as much as 5 to 10 cents a hun- dred pounds more. If the cattle are not bruised, horned cattle are considered of equal quality and prices paid for them are the same as for hornless. The character of the hide influences the price of beef cattle, as this is one of the most valuable by-products in the slaughtering business. There are many different grades of hides. The average annual price a hundred pounds in Chi- cago for these in 1904 was as follows: Heavy native steers, $11.77; butt branded steers, $10.93; heavy Texas steers, $12.67 ; light Texas steers, $11.71 ; heavy Colorado steers, $10.84; heavy na- tive cows, $10.63; light native cows, $10.47; branded cows, $10.27; native bulls, $9.12; branded bulls, $8.13. These data show that the most valuable hide is obtained from the heavy Texas steer. The poorest grade is from the branded bull, which is 50 per cent less valuable than from the heavy Texas steer. The average weight of hides runs from 60 to 64 pounds an animal, and the propor- tion of hide to live weight from 5 to 5.8 per cent. The fatness of the animal and the quantity of butter fat from which oleo oil and stearin are obtained, influences the price to a considerable extent. After hides, it stands as the second most im- portant by-product in slaughtered cattle. It was formerly used for tallow, but is now used almost wholly in making oleo products, such as butterine, etc. Recent legislation has, however, con- siderably decreased the demand for but- terine; as a consequence, the price of oleo has lessened, making the price of the by-product smaller than it was before. The weight of fat from heavy native steers is about 130 pounds, while on me- dium native steers, it runs about 65 pounds, or only half as much, and grad- ually decreases with western stock, heifers, cows, and bulls, and in the lat- ter case amounting to but 25 pounds. Price in different markets — The price of cattle varies considerably in the different markets, even for the same grade of stock. Thus native steers of a given grade usually sell for a higher price in Chicago than in Kansas City. This is because freight expenses from the West to Chicago are greater than to Kansas City; and Chicago is nearer the center of final consumption, which enables the dealer to pay a higher price at that market than in Kansas City. There is also considerable difference in the quality of cattle received in the dif- ferent markets; thus cattle received at Chicago markets dress out 1 to 2 per cent higher in the same class than cattle in the Kansas, Omaha, St. Louis or St. Joseph markets. The western markets also depend to a much greater degree on grass-fed stock, while Chicago uti- lizes a greater number of natives. Market quotations — The prices of dif- ferent grades and classes of cattle can be readily learned each day for the different markets by consulting any of the more innoortant stock or market papers. The following, taken from The Daily Drovers' Journal of Chicago, shows the method of classifying cattle, usually followed by most stock papers that give full quotations. Beef cattle : Inferior and rough beef steers. $4. 10 to $4.40 Common to fair corn-fed steers 4 -45 to 4.65 STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 225 Pair to medium corn-fed steers 4.70 to 5.40 Good to choice corn-fed steers. 5.50 to 6-00 Choice to prime beeves 6.10 to 6.90 Export steers, 1150 to 1250 lbs 5.00 to 5.35 Export steers, 1250 to 1250 lbs 5.40 to 5.70 Poor to fancy corn-fed year- lings 4.40 to 6.25 Corn-fed "Western steers 5.10 to 6.65 Northern-fed Texas steers.... 4.50 to 5.60 Distillery steers 4.75 to 5.75 Butcher stock: Beef cows, common to fair... $2. 75 to $3.15 Heifers, inferior to choice 2.40 to 4.30 Stags, poor to choice 2.60 to 4.65 Bulls, inferior to fair light... 2.15 to 3.00 Common to selected bolognas. 3.20 to 3.55 Bulls, fair to selected butch- ers 3.60 to 4.50 Bulls, fair to choice export. . 3.50 to 4.40 Stockers and feeders : Stockers, inferior to good. ... $2.60 to $3.40 Stockers, selected 500 to 700 lbs 3.45 to 3.75 Feeders, good to choice mixed. 4.10 to 4.40 Feeders, good to fancy selected 4.45 to 4.85 Stock heifers, poor to good mixed 2.60 to 3.00 Feeding heifers, 700 to 850 lbs 3.10 to 3.85 Stock calves, according to weight 3.50 to 4.50 Calves : Inferior to fair heavy calves. .$2.50 to $3.50 Good to choice heavy calves. 3.75 to 4.50 Common to choice veals 4.50 to 6.75 Choice to prime calves 7.00 to 7.25 Milkers and springers : Medium to choice milkers. . $22.00 to $50.00 Common to choice springers 25.00 to 40.00 The various grades are noted under the general classes for beef cattle, butch- ers' stock, canners and cutters, calves, stockers and feeders and milkers and springers. In general the terms used are self-explanatory. The terms, spring- ers, under milkers and springers, refer to cows within two or three months of calving. For a more definite explanation of the different classes of beef, see the chapter on that subject. Marketing hogs_Many of the general features already touched upon in the marketing of cattle apply to swine. There are, however, some specific ship- ping directions that apply especially to these animals. Killing and marketing on the farm — Swine are sometimes killed on the farm and sent dressed to market. If farmers could visit the large markets and see the generally inferior and unattractive appearance of the animals as finally of- fered to the public for sale, he would at once note the great disadvantage he is at in sending his hogs to the larger markets in this form. Dressed hogs should be sent only to the local mar- kets. In these markets the farmer is able to deliver them fresh and cleanly in appearance and thus secure their full value. A splendid trade can often be worked up in the sale of home cured hams, bacon and sausages. If sufficient trade of this character can be worked up, prices above the normal can be secured and the returns by this method of han- dling will be nearly twice as great as where hogs are sold alive. Shipping hogs alive — By far the greater quantity of hogs will be mar- keted alive in the larger packing centers. Hogs for shipment should be in their normal condition when driven on board the cars. Especial care should be taken not to overheat them by fast driving or excessive worrying. Before ship- ment, the cars should be well cleaned out and the floor thickly bedded in the winter months with good, clean straw or hay, and in summer with sand, slack coal or cinders. Neither hay nor straw should be used for bedding in warm weather, as these are heating, and every effort must be made to keep the hogs as cool as possible during shipment. In shipping white hogs, use onfy clean sand in summer, as cinders or coal injures their appearance and sell- ing price. The sand or cinders should be well wet down just before loading; unless these materials are available use no bedding at all in warm weather. The object of the sand is to prevent slipping and loss by crippling and piling up. Wetting down hogs in shipping — In hot weather it is generally considered advisable to wet down hogs during ship- ment. The railroad employees will do this if requested to. If hogs have be- come overheated, great care must be observed in throwing the cold water on them. If water can be put on their bellies, or where they can wallow in it, there is much less danger. The general opinion seems to be that the hogs should be wet down as often as they need it and that shipment without loss can thus be made, when without wetting down, there would be many dead animals. If the hogs are not overheated, water can be run on them from a hose. Uniform weight and color — Hogs of as nearly uniform weight as possible should be made to occupy the same car or deck. Hogs of a uniform color also tend to produce a favorable effect on 226 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the buyer and better prices than mixed lots. There is no discrimination by the buyers as regards white and black hogs, but both of these are given the prefer- ence over red hogs, though the differ- ence is very slight, and often is nothing. Medium sized hogs preferred — The markets demand and pay the best price for moderately fat hogs, six to 12 months old, weighing from 180 to 320 pounds. The Berkshire and Poland-China breeds seem to meet best the demands of the packers, though breed is not a' point of importance so long as the form and weight of the hogs is satisfactory. Very fat hogs, 300 to 500 pounds, bring top prices when lard is selling high, other- wise lower weight hogs are given the preference. There is no special demand for bacon breeds of hogs. Bacon is produced in large quantities but it is obtained from the smaller types of lard hogs, princi- pally the Berkshire. The prices paid for the different classes of hogs are shown in the follow- ing quotations taken from the Chicago Daily Drovers' Journal in 1907: Hogs: Common to fair mixed packing.$6. 90 to $7.00 Good mixed, 210 to 240 lbs... 7.00 to 7.02 Fair to choice medium weights 7.00 to 7.05 Fair to fancy selected butchers 7.02 to 7.10 Bulk of packing hogs, 270 to 300 lbs 7.00 to 7.05 Shipping grades 7.02 to 7.10 Rough heavy packing, odd lots 6.85 to 6-90 Poor to good heavy packing. 6.95 to 7.02 Fair to fancy heavy shipping. 7.02 to 7.10 Common to choice light bacon 6.85 to 7.00 Fancy selected light shipping. 7.00 to 7.05 Mixed pigs, 110 lbs and under 5.80 to 6.25 Stags, according to weight... 5.75 to 6.70 Boars, according to weight... 2.00 to 4.00 Government throw-outs 2.00 to 5.00 All stock papers regularly quote the market price of the different grades of hogs in the chief markets. The terms used in the quotations are largely self- explanatory. All these terms are de- fined in the chapter on Swine. Dockage in prices for hogs — Sows far enough advanced in pig to be noticeable are docked in price. Usually the meat is considered wholesome up to 60 or 70 days after sows are with pig, nevertheless the meat is not so good and there is a heavy shrinkage. When sows are far enough along to be docked they should be kept off the market. Sows too far along are condemned by the inspectors and sold in a separate class, for what they will bring. It is usually a money- losing scheme to breed sows with a view to fattening them for market. The dockage for pregnant sows usually amounts to 20 to 40 pounds in weight, or the price may be 75 cents to $1 less a hundredweight. Spayed sows are pre- ferred to open sows of the same class as the bellies of the latter show more or less seed in dressing, which is not as marketable as seedless bellies. Stags are docked even heavier than sows, usually $1 to $1.50 per hundredweight. Marketing sheep—Mutton breeds are generally marketed as lambs or yearlings. Where both wool and mutton is sought, they may be marketed at a later stage, and, of course, the older sheep are al- ways sent to market when they have passed their usefulness as breeders. When sheep are grown primarily for wool they are marketed as mature sheep. In the east a grower will usually have both lambs and a part of his old sheep to sell each year. The careful sheepman culls over his flock annually and sells all old sheep and non-breeders. Classify in shipping — In shipping to market, sheep should be graded, the lambs being put in separate cars or com- partments from the older sheep. The highest price for lambs is usually ob- tained during the months of February to July. Buyers are always glad to see a good many black or dark colored noses in the flock, as it indicates mutton blood. The lots that top the market usually are in prime condition, and weigh between 90 to 110 pounds each. No special preparation is required in shipping. Preparation and loading of sheep — It is usually more profitable to sell lambs under one year of age than to feed them to a later stage, unless an abundance of cheap feed is available. Sheep for ship- ment should be fed as usual and loaded with as little excitement as possible. Car floors should be well covered with good, clean hay. Shearing before shipping — When heavily wooled, fat sheep are sent to market, it is generally more profitable to shear them and sell the wool separately than to sell sheep and wool together. Pelt buyers make a slight difference in price, as between pelts with light and heavy fleeces, but not stiff cient to justi- fy the sale of heavy-wooled sheep un- shorn. The usual difference in price during the spring months, between wooled and shorn sheep, averaged be- tween 75 cents and $1 a 100 pounds. STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 227 Christmas or winter lambs marketed at a live weight of 50 to 60 pounds, dur- ing the winter months are usually dressed before sending to market. Lambs that will dress out 25 to 30 pounds at two months of age and sent to the New York market sell all the way from $3 to $12 each. Such lambs should present a well- developed leg of mutton with plenty of lean meat, tender and juicy and a good white caul to spread over the carcass when on exhibition. A dressed lamb weighing 25 pounds, of this character, is superior to one weighing twice this amount which is lean and bony. These lambs for the most part are dressed by simply removing the intes- tines. Backsets may or may not be used, depending upon the market. The lambs are killed and dressed to save express charges. Before shipping, the carcasses are usually sewn up in cheese-cloth or some clean-looking material. The following quotations show the us- ual classification of sheep in the Chicago market. The prices are for a day in March, 1907. Sheep and yearlings: Native wethers, good to fancy.$5-60 to $6.25 Wethers, fed westerns, plain to prime 5.25 to 6.00 Yearlings, plain to fancy..... 5.65 to 6.60 Feeding ewes, inferior to choice 3.25 to 4.00 Feeding yearlings, poor to choice 5.25 to 5.60 Feeding wethers, poor to choice 4.65 to 5.20 Mutton ewes, good to fancy 5.25 to 5.75 Ewes, fed western, plain to choice 4.50 to 5-30 Cull ewes, poor to fair 2.50 to 4.00 Bucks and stags, poor to choice 2.50 to 4.75 Lambs : Good to prime natives $7.25 to $7-50 Inferior to fair natives 5.25 to 7.15 Fed westerns, plain to prime. . 7.00 to 7.50 Feeding lambs, poor to choice 6.25 to 7.25 Shipping stock abroad — The United States ships large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep abroad. In 1905 34,822 horses valued at $3,175,259 were exported besides 5,826 mules. The same year 567,806 head of cattle valued at $40,598,- 048 and 268,365 sheep valued at $1,687,- 321 were exported. The regulation governing the shipping of live animals is under the direct supervision of the United States Department of Agricul- ture. Not an animal can be shipped out of the country, nor a boat carry stock that has not first been inspected and passed by officers of the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry of that Department. The foreign trade in animals and meat prod- ucts is of immense value to the Ameri- can farmer and vigilant effort is made by the government officials to see that only sound, healthy animals are exported and that the ocean transportation of them shall be in as humane a manner as possible. Government inspection — All animals designed for export must be examined by a government veterinarian. Inspec- tion will be made at any of the follow- ing stock yards: Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Joseph, Pittsburg; and the following ports of export : Portland, Me., Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, Newport News, Port Royal, New Orleans and Galveston. After stock has been inspected in the stock yards it is tagged and loaded in clean, disinfected cars. At the point of export clean, disinfected yards and sta- bles are provided. The boats on which they are to be shipped must have been thoroughly cleaned and disinfected un- der the supervision of a government officer. Space required on shipboard — Cat- tle must have 6 feet vertical space on all decks. Dehorned cattle, however, may be given but 5V 2 feet. Cattle carried on the upper spar deck must be allowed a space of 2y 2 feet in width by 8 feet in depth per head. Four cattle are allowed in each pen and at the ends of the rows, five. Cattle in single stalls must have 3 feet in width. Vessels are allowed, with certain restrictions, to carry three deck loads of cattle. Sheep on shipboard must be allowed a space 4 feet long and 14 inches wide, while for lambs or sheep weighing less than 100 pounds 4 feet by 12 or 13 inches suffice — two rows of sheep standing in the 8 feet width of pens. Sheep pens must not exceed 20 feet by 8 feet where two tiers are carried and each tier must have a clear vertical space of not less than 3 feet. In the summer, sheep cannot be kept on tiers under deck, but during the winter sea- son two tiers may be placed in each wing and only one tier amidship. Horses must be allowed 6 feet 3 inches clear vertical space, a width of 2Y 2 feet, and a depth of 8 feet. Additional space may be required by the inspector for very large horses. Separate stalls must be provided for all horses. A space 8 by 10 feet square must be reserved on each FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK steamer carrying 22 or more horses, for use of horses which hecome sick. When horses are placed in the same compart- ment with cattle, they must be separated by fore-and-aft alleyways and tempo- rary athwartship bulkheads. No animals are allowed on the poop- deck or within 20 feet of the breakwater on the spar deck between the 1st of Oc- tober and the 1st of April. If cattle or sheep are carried on the bridge deck, proper runways must be provided for loading and unloading. Specific directions are given by the department as to the character of the stanchions, the dimensions for head boards, foot boards, division boards, flooring, the fitting of the different pens, character of foot locks, cattle fittings, stanchions, ventilation, light, etc. Each under-deck compartment of 50 feet* in length must have at least four bell- mouth ventilators of not less than 18 inches in diameter. Every vessel not provided with pipes for watering animals must carry casks and hogsheads of not less than 400 gal- Ions total capacity for each 100 head of cattle and horses. An additional amount in equal proportions shall be carried for sheep. These casks must be filled with fresh water before sailing. Each vessel must carry water condensers with suffi- cient capacity to provide 8 gallons of fresh water every 24 hours for each head of cattle, in addition to the amount re- quired for other animals on board and for other purposes. Foreman and attendants — It is re- quired that an experienced foreman be in charge of the animals and not less than two-thirds of the attendants must be experienced men who have made pre- vious trips. The attendants must meet with the approval of the inspector of the port, must be ablebodied and speak English sufficiently to make themselves understood. There must be an attendant to each 35 head of cattle upon steamers having waterpipes extending the entire lengths of both sides of the compartment and when steamers are not thus fitted up, there must be one attendant to every 25 head of cattle shipped. In the case of sheep, there must be one man in care of each 150 head during the winter season, October to April, and one to 200 sheep during the summer. For horses, one man to every 22 head. Vessels are not permitted to take on board any cattle or sheep unless such animals have been allowed at least 12 hours' actual rest at the port of embarkation before the vessel sails, nor until the loading of ine other cargo has been completed. Inspection and tagging — It is required that all animals remain a sufficient length of time in the stable or yards during daylight for the inspection and tagging. Horse's that have been shipped 500 miles cannot be taken on board un- less they have been allowed at least 18 hours' actual rest in the stable. When shipped less than 500 miles, they are requested to remain in the yards or stables not less than six hours. In any case, they must not be taken upon the steamer until the loading of the other cargo has been completed. It is the business of the inspector or his deputies to supervise the loading of the animals and see that they are prop- erly stowed and tied, that a sufficient amount of good wholesome food is prop- erly stowed and that all the require- ments of the departments' regulations have been complied with. Animals suffering from broken limbs, or other serious injuries during the voy- age are slaughtered under the direction of the captain of the vessel. Stock on shipboard does not require a great deal of attention outside of feed- ing, watering and bedding. There is but little distress from seasickness and this soon disappears. Horses are the most difficult to handle satisfactorily, as they catch cold more easily and fre- quently have fever. It is advisable that only experienced attendants be in charge of horses. The stalls are not cleaned until the end of the journey, when the whole ves- sel is cleaned and thoroughly disin- fected. The charge for shipping cattle varies from $6 to $20 a head. A good steer, which frequently brings $60 in Chicago, will bring $90 to $100 in England. The transportation cost for horses varies from $20 to $25. Transportation charges for pure bred stock from Europe to the United States are somewhat higher than the figures here given. Loss in shrinkage — Plumb states that the loss from shrinkage between Chicago and English ports is generally estimated at 65 pounds a head for cattle. Twenty- five years ago, it is estimated that from 5 to 10 per cent of the real value of cat- tle was lost by shrinkage in weight, by STOCK RAISING AND SOIL FERTILITY 229 death and by injury in transit. The loss from hogs was about 12 per cent. Since 1880, as a result of British and Ameri- can supervision of the shipping trade, the loss of cattle by death in transit at sea has been very greatly reduced, amounting to less than 1 per cent. Daily attention given stock on ship- board — On a vessel which carried 850 head of cattle, 66 head of horses, and 320 head of sheep as a part of her cargo, the cattle were watered twice daily, 6 A. M. and 4 P. M.„ and not given over a half bucketful each. After each watering they were fed hay. At the be- ginning of the voyage they were fed corn on the cob at 11 A. M., but later fed grain twice a day, in the morning and evening. Horses were watered four times a day, as they are likely to get feverish. They were fed hay in the morning and bran mash at noon, and after the third or fourth day given oats or corn at noon and hay in the afternoon. Sheep were given all the water they wanted and fed twice daily. For the first few days at sea the stock look discouraged, but soon get so they eat regularly. The journey seems to be especially hard on sheep, as compared with other stock, yet but few die. PART V Animal Products Fig. 157 FINAL STAGE IN SKINNING THE VEAL (This excellent photo and Figs. 158, 159, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187, 188, are by- courtesy of Prof. Andrew Boss, Univ. of Minn.) •J3-J FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ANIMAL PRODUCTS SLAUGHTERING AND CURING OF MEATS In this section we shall consider first the practices of the large packing houses and later the methods which may be adopted on the farm. Among the sights of interest in a large packing center like Chicago, the abattoirs must be in- cluded. The present account of slaugh- tering and curing meats in these estab- lishments is based on personal observa- tions and on the excellent descriptions by Wilder and Mohler. Condition of cattle before slaughter — Before animals are slaughtered they must be brought to a fit condition for slaughter. They must not be feverish, excited, or exhausted. Animals which are diseased or which are killed during violent exertion or immediately after being driven or transported in cars for long distances, do not bleed as freely as they should. The result is that such meat is too red and does not keep prop- erly. Consequently, cattle should be al- lowed to rest over night and should be driven to the slaughtering floor with as little excitement as possible. Any un- necessary abuse and beating or poking merely causes red and unsightly spots on the carcass and makes bleeding less perfect. Conditions affecting bleeding — Heiss- ler found that age was without any special influence on the amount of blood obtained in slaughtering. Male animals yield somewhat more blood than females. An excessively fat condition, especially in swine, brings about a strik- ing diminution in the amount of blood. In horses, the blood amounts to 4 to 9 per cent of the body weight, in cows 4 to 5.75 per cent, in calves 4 to 6.7 per cent, in sheep 4 to 7.5 per cent, in hogs 1.5 to 5.75 per cent. In rabbits and other small animals, bleeding is perfect, even if the throat is cut without pre- viously stunning or otherwise rendering the animals unconscious. In such cases, the blood flows out quite completely, since the brain is intact and the blood pressure is not lowered at the outset. In large animals, however, this is not the case, but bleeding is just as com- plete after stunning as when the animal is slaughtered, according to the Jewish. method, without previous stunning. Moreover, no differences have been found in the keeping quality of the meat, whether bled by the Jewish method or after previous stunning. Formerly animals were pithed or speared before bleeding. This consisted in severing the spinal cord at the base of the skull. The method suffers from the great disadvantage that the animals remain conscious until the blood is re- moved, and bleeding is also quite im- perfect. The best and most humane method of slaughter is, therefore, that in which the animal is stunned and then bled. Humanitarian sentiments are thereby satisfied, since the animal is in- stantly rendered unconscious, bleeds freely since he medulla oblongata, the regulating center of the heart's action, is uninjured. Slaughtering of cattle—Cattle may be prodded forward in the chute by means of a pole with a rounded knob on the end, without bruising the meat. In the stunning chute they are knocked or stunned with a long handled four- pound hammer, which delivers a blow on the center of the forehead. A slid- ing door in the chute allows the ani- mal to be rolled out for hoisting, after which it is stuck and headed. Both arteries and veins are severed, so as to allow free bleeding. In removing the tongue as much fat and meat as possible is left in connection with this organ. The skin is cleanly removed from around the horns and care is taken to leave a full shaped neck in heading. 234 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In handling carcasses on the floor, use is made of a pritch, which is simply a stick with a sawtoothed ferrule on the end in contact with the hide, and a spike on the other end to prevent it from slip- ping on the floor. In cutting off the feet, the skin is removed close to the hoof, but is not opened up any further back than is necessary, since otherwise the shank becomes bloody and discolored. At the same time, the gullet is raised, but not too high, taking care not to middle line and the caul is removed in a clean condition and placed in a box. If the intestines are cut by accident, they are at once skewered together. A single or double hoisting apparatus is used to raise the beef from the floor. When the carcass is partly hoisted, the hide is smoothly skinned from the hind legs. This is known as fell cutting. A spring spreader is now commonly used in abattoirs. This allows the car- cass to spread gradually as the splitting Fig. 158 — DRESSING VEAL. REMOVING THE HEAD cut the windpipe or weasand. Then the skin is opened along the whole length of the animal in a straight cut. The gambrel joint should be uncovered only enough to expose the joint. About one-half the work of slaugh- tering is done while the cattle are on the floor and the other half after hoist- ing. It is, therefore, possible to operate a double slaughter floor. On 16 double beds, 150 cattle are slaughtered per hour. The breast is sawed carefully along the proceeds and prevents splitting the tail and loin vertebrae irregularly. The car- cass is spread to a maximum when the chuck is split. The skin must be removed from the rump and back with care and precision, so as not to injure the hide or the appearance of the meat. The intestines are removed carefully, so as to save the fat in a cleanly condi- tion. The liver is taken out without tearing and placed on a truck. The choppers used in splitting the back are ANIMAL PRODUCTS 235 ground thin in all cases, except for cows and hard boned western steers. As soon as the beef carcass is hung in two halves, it is washed and scrubbed with fountain brushes. Blood clots in bruises may be removed by scrubbing with hot water and slight trimming. The process of washing is begun at the hind legs, grad- ually working downward. Slaughtering sheep— I n slaughtering sheep, the details are much the same, except that they are handled much more is continuous from then on until they are dressed, the sheep never touching the floor again." Great care is taken in dressing mut- ton to do a clean job in removing the legs. Otherwise, the meat may become stained. If the wool comes in contact with the meat, the latter acquires a taint- ed flavor. In removing the pelt, the fell must not be broken or the meat will show age more quickly and will look un- sightly. The methods of dressing mut- DI.'KSSING VEAL. SKINNING THE SHANKS rapidly by reason of their light weight. In the modern abattoir, division of labor is very effective in the case of sheep. These animals are slaughtered by a "string gang," each man doing a small part of the work and acquiring great skill and dexterity as a result of per- forming the same operation repeatedly. A string gang can slaughter 2,000 sheep per day on a floor space of 32x80 feet. "The sheep are hoisted with a double shackle, two at a time, and the work ton vary in different cities. The car- cass may be dressed round without back- sets and without the caul; in other lo- calities one or two back-sets are used and also the caul; in still others inside sets may be used or the ribs broken. Water is used freely in dressing mutton if it is to be run into the cooler imme- diately. Otherwise, the washing cloths are wrung out in hot water before using. It is always desirable to have the sheep as clean as possible before slaughtering. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Slaughtering swine — As pointed out by Wilder, a few years ago the packing houses killed hogs only in winter and most of the product was cured. At present, the killing season is much ex- tended and by means of cold storage, fresh pork may be shipped to all points in good condition. When hogs were chilled with ice, from 5 to 15 per cent of the hams and shoulders soured; now this misfortune happens in only about 1 per cent of these products. At pres- ent about 70 per cent of the pork slaugh- tered in the packing houses is cured. Swine are more easily injured than any an opening 3 or 4 inches is made, sev- ering the veins and arteries. If the thrust is made into the shoulder, some of the meat thereby becomes blood- stained. Scalding and scraping swine — Scald- ing is the next process. If the hogs are scalded too soon after sticking, the skin may take on a red or purplish color, such as is seen in cases of hog cholera. Hogs are left in the scalding vat until the hair loosens. This takes place more quickly in some hogs than in others. As soon as the bristles are pulled, the hogs are put through the scraping machine, Fig 160 — A GOOD TYPE OF FEEDER, SHOWIN G PLENTY OF DEPTH other animal killed at the packing house. It is, therefore, customary to provide special receiving pens in which hogs are allowed to rest thoroughly before slaugh- ter. They are driven to the killing floor with care to avoid their piling up and becoming bruised. Wilder recommends a paddle-shaped stick covered with can- vass for driving hogs. A cooling pen is provided adjoining the killing room. Hogs are hoisted for slaughter by means of a revolving wheel, the Hurford wheel being most generally used. Each hog is shackled by the hind leg nearest the wheel. After being hoisted, they are run on a rail, where they are stuck and bled. In sticking, after which the remaining hair is scraped off by hand. In removing the intestines, the leaf lard is carefully pulled. The hams are neatly faced to give them a good appearance and the back is split in a straight line to give a smooth pork loin. Cuts of beef — The system of cuts used in preparing beef for the wholesale and retail trade varies considerably in dif- ferent cities. In Chicago, each side is cut for the wholesale dealer into seven pieces, four bordering on the back and three on the belly. The first row of pieces are chuck, rib, loin and round, named in order from the neck back- wards. The other row of pieces con- ANIMAL PRODUCTS 237 sists of shank, plate and flank. The retail dealers subdivide these pieces so as to get from the first row the neck, chuck, prime rib, porterhouse, sirloin, rump and round, the round being below the rump; and from the second series the shin, plate, flank and shank. In European cities the subdivision is more extensive. Thus in London, the upper series of pieces runs cheek, clod and sticking, chuck, fore rib, mid rib, loin, topside, aitchbone and silverside; while the lower series include brisket, shoul- der, shank, forequarter flank, thin flank, leg, street and shank. In the continen- tal cities the classification of beef cuts FORE QUARTERS. Holstein Ribs 9.01 Chuck 26.70 Brisket 5.61 Plate 3.23 Navel 2.55 Shank meat 68 Shank beef 3.40 HIND QUARTERS. Holstein Loin 17.17 Round 20.91 Rump 5.10 Angus 9.76 26.56 5.77 3.88 3.00 5.00 2.05 Angus 17.89 17.89 5.00 . ' ' • 1 .-,-***#& _^^* *9|^gttjg|£gg^ik ■ o.*9Bgi PL* J^n ^^^^mmm^^mm^ • •$.*. **jj \ <:■-"' y^"'- ... - .•; * ^BsKM^SfBaSB^ | mm g Fig. 161 A POOR TYPE OF FEEDER, LACKING IN DEPTH is still more complicated but need not be described here. Percentage of dressed beef and cuts — The percentage of dressed beef obtained from slaughtered cattle varies some- what according to breed, feed and other factors, ranging ordinarily from 59 to 65 per cent. Good beef breeds, properly fattened, should yield about 60 per cent of dressed beef. The value of a carcass, however, depends more on the relative percentage of high priced cuts than on the total amount of beef. In a recent test at the Iowa experiment station, when a Holstein steer was compared with an Angus, the following percent- ages of different parts were obtained : Flank steak 68 .62 Flank beef 1.53 2.125 Cod fat 1.30 1.625 Suet 2.04 2.825 In this test the retail value of the Holstein carcass was $59.68 and that of the Angus $94.51. The dairy type car- ried -26 per cent of valuable cuts and the beef type 27 per cent. A compar- ison of the absolute weights of different parts from these steers showed the fol- lowing figures : Head Tongue Tongue trimmings Holstein 23.5 lbs 3.5 2.5 Angus 25.5 lbs 2.0 1.5 238 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Fig. 162 — SHOWING THE BACK OP A WELL-FITTED STEER Holstein Angus Feet 15.0 19.0 Caul fat 11.5 23.0 Pauneh and con- tents 125.0 115.5 Paunch fat 10.0 11.0 Tripe 1G.0 16.0 Intestines and contents 63.5 54.0 Intestine fat 15.0 19.0 Heart and lung fat 3.0 6.0 Heart 1.5 2.5 Lungs and wind- pipe 8.5 6.5 Liver 11.0 10.0 Live weight 1,090.0 1,324.0 Beef 602.0 812.0 Tallow 39.5 59.0 Hide 61.0 80.0 1 The total fat in beef cattle varies from 5.5 per cent to 6.5 per cent, and the hides from 7 per cent to 7.5 per cent. In Texas steers the average weight of the skull in pounds is 4.19, jaws 2.2, knuckles 2.73, dark hoofs 1.9, piths 1.24, round shins 1, flat shins 0.73, tallow 8.93, horns 0.97, neat's-foot oil 0.93, tankage 3.64. The average value of the offal is about $9 per head. According to "Wilder the average percentage of different cuts by the Chicago method is chucks 28, rounds 23, navels 8, flanks 2, flank steaks 0.5, kidney 0.25, ribs 10, loins 15, No. 1 suet 3, No. 2 suet 0.5, necks 0.75, shanks 4, brisket 5. In meat cut kosher style, the flanks and chucks are heavier. Cuts of pork — I n the packing house hogs are cooled to a temperature of 34 to 36° F., before being cut up. The hams are removed first and then the shoulders, after which the loins and sides are separated into their usual cuts. The cuts commonly recognized on the Chicago market are head, shoulder, shoulder trimmings, back, bacon, short ribs, side, tenderloin, extra short clear, pork loin, ham, ham trimmings and feet. In England, the cuts of a bacon hog are as follows : In the back series of cuts the end of collar, prime collar, thick back, back ribs, loin and corner of gam- mon; in the belly series, fore hock, top of thick streaky, prime thick streaky, thin streaky, flank and gammon hock. The type known as mixed packing hogs Fig. 163 CHAMPION PAT STEER, CHI- CAGO INTERNATIONAL. 1903 ANIMAL PRODUCTS 239 furnish the extra short clears, ex- tra short ribs, pork loins, fat backs and fat bellies. Hogs dress from 65 to 80 per cent. For hogs dressing about 70 per cent, the following percentages of cuts are average yields, according to the different methods of cutting. "A hog cut into extra short clears will yield 26 per cent extra short clears, 9 per cent loin, 12.5 per cent ham, 9 per cent shoul- der, 13 per cent lard." Correspondingly different results are obtained if hogs are cut into extra short ribs; pork loins, belly and short, fat backs; regular short ribs; rough ribs; short clears; mess pork, or Cumberland cuts. Hard, short Cuts of mutton_I n s heep and lambs the dressed weight usually ranges from 53 to 62 per cent, being smaller in lambs than in older sheep. The cuts of mutton commonly recognized are neck, shoulder, shank, rib, breast, loin and leg. The leg, loin and rib are the high priced cuts and determine the value of the carcass. The neck piece is some- times divided into neck and scrag end, both together being called a chine. Like- wise, the loin may be separated into best end and chump end, and a flank piece may be cut from the lower side of the loin. Chops are cut from the loin. Fig. 164 OUTLINES OF PRIME STEER FITTED FOR THE BLOCK ribs are the same as standard short ribs with the bone left in. Short clears are the same as short ribs, with the spare ribs removed. Clear back is the same as short clear with the belly removed. According to the method of cutting, we also obtain Amer- ican short cut ham, English long cut ham, skinned ham, Boston shoulder, Xew York shoulder, dry salt shoulder, square shoulder and California ham, which is also shoulder. The clear belly be- comes the rib belly if the spare ribs are left in, and the clear back becomes the rib back with the spare rib. Mess pork is cut from the sides of fat, heavy hogs in strips 6 inches wide and packed in pickle at the rate of 200 pounds per barrel. leg, neck or breast. Cutlets are cut from the thick end of the loin. The saddle includes both of the loins and the haunch consists of the leg and adjoin- ing part of the loin. Kinds of veal — Veal does not keep as well as other meats and is not adapted for smoking and curing. It is, there- fore, slaughtered for immediate con- sumption or for sausage making. Calves less than four weeks are not fit to eat and are liable to condemnation. The meat of immature calves is flabby and watery. The fat around the kidneys is yellow or gray and tough, while in older calves it is white and of softer consist- ency. The long bones also show a red 240 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Fig. 165 LAMBS FITTED FOR THE BLOCK marrow in place of the yellow, fat mar- row of older calves. The meat of imma- ture calves, or even that of fetuses, is not harmful. The idea that it causes diarrhea is without foundation. In Ger- many and England such meat is much sought after by certain individuals. Or- dinarily, however, a natural repugnance is felt toward eating the meat of im- mature calves or fetuses. Slaughtering calves — Veal calves are stunned and the throat cut by a length- wise stroke. The carcass is then hoisted and the skin stroked to prevent the ac- cumulation of blood under it. The car- cass is slit open from the middle of the lower jaw to the root of the tail. Most of the skinning can be done by the use of the fist and without an instrument. The quicker the skin is removed, the easier the process. Some markets re- quire that the veal carcass be delivered wrapped in the skin which is left ad- hering to the meat, except along the belly. Certain butchers do not skin the head, but scald it and scrape off the hair. Cuts of veal — The usual series of cuts of veal include head, neck, withers, back, loin, leg, breast, shoulder, flank and feet. Chops are cut from the loin or ribs. The knuckle or lower part of the leg is used chiefly for soups and stews. Veal fillet is the leg piece with the bone taken out. The haslet includes the heart, lungs and liver. The firm, white part of the fillet is sometimes called "udder." The head and feet when care- fully cleaned after scraping off the hair ai*e readily salable. The brains and tongue are also valuable parts. Two glands in the calf are sold under the name sweetbreads, viz : thymus and pan- creas. The pancreas, as explained in the section on anatomy, is a digestive gland L *:*#-|N i ' S "3 E-3 2 ° 2, c j«-c H SS?>, « > -3 o-Ov, -g .g » * xi b,° o 2 B~ O <-( as £ o > E^-:oiio;=*iai2: Z = c p o fa g "sEcs-.:-?^ O fis| ||i||sj^rf|g; a ll|!.HlIi&Jlsg|2||e|s H < » a i . J § 1 •§ IS a £ .a I 23 °g ag* O o O a g » . gt] ;t ism IS g I|!i.l 1^ : I QJ 1 Saa=2ij5= a- |j.ai: a a r 3 a-- s rjt-S ^ o 3 5 j: - , c ■- o ?. ^ _'S t c 2 l—l ^£S=s2i3a J 5.S2S " ; -5^^S^^^5-g 3 g-5>s5o| s: = a s c|. 5 a^| ^ Ci CS CH> G> O OS CTJ '- , <-t ^h W-I«^t-M HCJCO^iDtDl-aiCiH^HrHrHMH ^H ^H M C3 63 C-q C^J & 0S. The breed was greatly improved by crossing Thoroughbred stallions on are living. (Tor secretaries, see ap- pendix.) The Cleveland bay [ s a coach breed which originated in England by crossing the Thoroughbred upon native mares of the Cleveland district. It was noted for coaching and long distance work. The color is bay, weight 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, height 10 to 16.2 hands. The croup is straight, back short, thighs strong. The Cleveland bay is adapted for pulling heavy loads at considerable speed. He has much to recommend him to the farmer. Since the establish- ment of the stud book in 1884, additional speed has been secured by the further. HORSES AND MULES 293 admixture of Thoroughbred blood. The Yorkshire coach horse is very similar to the Cleveland bay and is considered by some as a family of the latter. It shows more of the Thoroughbred, occa- sional white spots and does not breed as true as the Cleveland bay. About 1,700 Cleveland bays have been registered in the United States. (For secretary, see appendix.) The hunter is not a distinct breed, nor three-quarter-blood horse makes a better animal for hunting. The back should be of medium length, front leg upright, loin broad, knee and hock rather large, head carried low. Ontario, Canada, is noted for this class of horses, and the English government obtains many cav- alry remounts from that province. Hunt- ers are also raised in West Virginia, Virginia, Missouri, Maryland and else- where in the United States. These Fig. 205 — FRENCH COACH STALLION. HIGHCLIFFB even a definite type. Peer suggests that "almost any well-bred farm mares of suitable conformation, even grade draft- mares and such general purpose animals, as found on all farms, make very excel- lent brood mares for producing this class of animals." Raising hunting sad- dlers is therefore a line of breeding which the farmer may undertake with assur- ance of reasonable profit. The Thor- oughbred stallion should be used in all cases in order to give endurance and low action. Some of the hunters are nearly Thoroughbred, but a half-blood or horses bring good prices; the demand is active on account of the increasing number of hunt clubs. Moreover, the hunter is not an artificial product with a fictitious value. He is an excellent gen- eral-purpose horse about the farm and a roadster. The jumping or hurdling habit comes naturally to the Thorough- bred blood. Such horses readily take hurdles 4 to 6 feet in height and more rarely 8 feet. Influence of Thoroughbred — From the above discussion of light breeds of horses, the immense influence of the blood of the 294 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Thoroughbred is apparent. The Thor- oughbred has furnished the foundation of the Trotter, Saddle Horse, Pacer, Orlov trotter, Morgan, Hackney, French German and Yorkshire coach, and Cleve- land bay. The oriental blood is "hot blood." The Thoroughbred and its modifications in various modern breeds are known as "hot blooded" as contrasted with the "cold blooded" draft horses which originated in continental Europe. The blood of the Thoroughbred is every- posite horse and may carry some even of the old English war horse blood. Ponies are 9 to 13 hands high, Gallo- ways 13 to 14 hands, Hobbies 14 to 15 hands. The two latter terms are not much used in America. The Shetland pony is the only pony breed extensively raised in the United States. This pony originated in the Shetland islands among the scant forage of a hilly country, hence their small size and shaggy coats. They were first used in mines as a pack Eig. 206 GERMAN COACH STALLION (Courtesy J. Crouch and Son) where present in horses which are dis- tinguished for speed, courage and en- durance. Even the Welsh pony carries some oriental blood. The "Galloways" and "Hobbies" were simply small Eng- lish race horses under 14 hands in height. The Barbs, Turks and Spanish horses were of about the same size as the Hob- bies, and far inferior in this respect to the English Thoroughbred. The Arabian has contributed much less than the Barb, Turk and native English horse to the formation of the Thoroughbred. At any rate, the Thoroughbred is a eom- and saddle animal. Now they are used chiefly for the amusement of children. The Shetland is 9 to 10.2 hands or more high, with solid, paunchy body, strong, large-boned legs and all colors, even piebald. He is a heavy-harness horse in miniature, weight 275 to 400 pounds, price about $150. His gait is that of a trotter, and he is sturdy and capable of a great amount of work, with much abuse. As a rule, however, the Shetland will not overwork. He is docile and intelligent. His en- durance is evident from the fact that he has made 50 miles in a day. Under HORSES AND MULES American conditions the Shetland as- sumes a larger size and smoother coat and this type is now preferred. They have sometimes been crossed with the Welsh pony and Hackney with good results. The diminutive size of the Shetland forbids his use for anything else than a children's pet. In England other breeds of ponies have been produced such as the Welsh, Celtic (considered by Ewart a distinct species), Exmoor, Connemara, Hebri- dean, Dartmoor and New Forest. The Dartmoor is about 13 hands high and the foundation stock was apparently Exmoor. northwest cayuses. The foundation stock of mustangs came over from 1519 on. The modern representative is a wiry, ugly-shaped, parti-colored horse of wonderful endurance and unreliable temper. They may be ridden or driven 50 to 125 miles a day. They are used for driving, cow ponies or pack animals. In addition to their endurance they are great rustlers and are able to take care of themselves under heavy work with- out any feed except what they pick up on the range. From their origin it is evident they are based on the Barb horse. They are 12 to 14 hands high and Fig. 207 — PRIZE COACH STALLION. PALADIN The latter is bay or brown, with strong legs, and 12.2 hands high. Good polo ponies can be obtained by crossing them with Thoroughbred sires. The New Forest pony from southern England is somewhat larger than the Exmoor, and is sturdy and well formed. About 5,000 Shetland ponies have been registered in the United States and of these about 4,200 are now living. This breed has been referred to in history since the year 1700. (For secretary, see appendix.) The ponies of our western states are of Spanish origin. In Mexico and our Southwest they are called mustangs, in many localities, Indian ponies; in the central Rockies, broncos; and in the weigh from 600 to 1,000 pounds. Many of the cow ponies have been trained in all the saddle gaits and their intelligence is quite remarkable. The bronco has been the Indian's best friend and an indispensable factor in the conquest of arid America. Polo ponies are obtained directly from the ranks of the broncos or by crossing Thoroughbred sires on bronco, Welsh or Exmoor pony mares. The bronco has much more of promise in him than any of the imported ponies. The use of Thoroughbred sires greatly improves the form and disposition of the bronco without lowering his endurance and alertness, 296 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The Creole pony is really a small race horse with preponderance of Thorough- bred blood. They enjoy considerable fa- vor in Louisiana. The Creole has been crossed with the Shetland pony with fairly good results. Draft type— As the light or "hot blooded" horses are all descended, with modification, from the Thoroughbred, so the draft or "cold blooded" horses are descended from the old black horse of Flanders. At the dawn of history this wild black horse was found throughout Pennsylvania from the seaboard to the Ohio river. For this heavy work the Conestoga horse was produced and was at one time famous as a draft horse in Pennsylvania. This horse was a prod- uct of local breeders, based on imported heavy horses of unknown blood. The Conestoga horse stood 16 to 18Y 2 hands high and weighed 1,600 to 1,900 pounds. With the advent of railroads the breed was allowed to become extinct. The Clydesdale originated in Scot- land, being first referred to in 1715. The Fig. 208 — MODERN TYPE OF CLEVELAND BAY continental Europe. In northern Europe the conditions seemed to be favorable to the development of large men and large horses. By skillful breeding and an oc- casional mixture with oriental or native blood, several heavy breeds have been produced from the black horse of Eu- rope. Thus from England we have ob- tained the Clydesdale, Shire horse, and Suffolk Punch; from France the Per- cheron and French draft horse ; and from Belgium the Belgian draft horse, or Flemish horse. Before the days of railroads much freighting was done by hox*ses through black Flemish horse and other heavy horses were crossed with the early form of the type. At present the type is well fixed and the breed is very true and prepotent. The color is bay or brown with white markings on the face and legs. Other colors, such as gray, black and chestnut sometimes appear. The flanks are lighter in color, fading to a dun on the belly. Mares weigh 1,500 to 2,000, stallions, 1,800 to 2,200 and the height is 16 to 17 hands. The head is long, neck medium, leg broad, with fint silky feathering below the knee and hock, shoulders sloping. The Clydesdale I10ESES AND MULES 297 shows a fast, elastic walk and a fairly good trot. The waist is sometimes too small, the back too long and the feet too flat In these points much improve- ment has been made of late. The fore- head is broad, hindquarters well devel- oped, leg joints strong, tail well carried. The special merits of the Clydesdale are the smooth, clean legs, and the long, graceful strides. This breed was firs I imported into Canada in 1842, into the United States in 18S0 and the first but rather too small, with a tendency to curb, prepotency marked, disposition sluggish. The Suffolk keeps easily and is well adapted as a plow horse to or- dinary farm conditions. He is not popu- lar either in Canada or the United States and there are only about 20 regis- tered in this country. (For secretary, see appendix.) The Shire horse—The black horse of Flanders, imported to England and crossed on native heavy mares, gave rise Fig. 209 — MRS. COURTLAND H. SMITH ON PRIZE HUNTER American stud book appeared in 1882. There are 11,000 Clydesdales registered in this country. (For secretary, see appendix.) The Suffolk Punch comes from the county of Suffolk, England, where he has been bred in his present form for more than 200 years. Chestnut or sorrel is the only color allowed. The Suffolk stands 15 to IGV2 hands high, weighs 1,500 to 1,900 and is rounder in conforma- tion than the Clydesdale or Shire horse. The back is broad and short, less clean to the old war horse or "great horse," which was much in favor as a charger in the days of knight errantry. Its descend- ants appeared as the black Lincoln- shire horse early in the eighteenth cen- tury, which in turn became the pro- genitors of the modern Shire horse. A modern Shire stallion from King Ed- ward's stables is shown in Fig. 2, page 8. Gilbey believes that this horse traces his ancestry back to the horses found in England by Csesar, FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The Shire horse resembles the Clydes- dale, but is heavier and coarser. The color is black, bay, brown or gray ; height 16 to 17.2 hands, weight 1,600 to 2,300 pounds, neck short, nose Roman, shoulder straight, body short, deep and round, back broad, legs strong with heavy bone and "feather" extending around on the sides. The gait is slower and less stylish than in the Clydesdale, but the animal is stronger and less likely to be "weedy." The shoulders and pasterns are more erect than in the Clydesdale and the cheron, Percheron or French Draft. In that year the name Percheron was adopted. At first two types, the light and the heavy, were recognized. The light Percheron was most in fpvor and was used as a coach horse. He weighed 1,400 to 1,600 pounds, stood about 15.2 hands high and had considerable speed as well as strength. The neck was trim, the feet well formed and the legs only slightly feathered. In 1732, many of the orien- tal horses were captured in France from the invading Saracens, and this blood, • flS^ffi : ft "^ ]0fim ^ ft; ' Jem- **#-^* *^_ m Wi HP - - - i ~~ i . - JL \ V "^H HBI^% ~l ^^r^ mmfS " - J»"^-;« u Iki '-"HI ^^ ^ Fig. 210 — SHETLAND STALLION, CHAMPION AT ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION hair is coarser. Shire and Clydesdale have been crossed to produce the select. Clydesdale, but this horse is no longer in favor. The early importations of Shires to this country included many in- ferior animals, but great improvement in this respect has taken place in recent years. There are about 7,500 registered Shires in the United States. (For secre- tary, see appendix.) The Percheron ; s the national horse of France and originated in the dis- trict of La Perche. Until 1883 all draft horses in France were referred to indifferently as Norman, Norman-Per- mixed with that of the European black horse, yielded the Percheron. Shire horses were also imported from England and their blood added to the existing mixture. Du Hays in his treatise on the Percheron claims an Arabian ances- try for this horse. The French Kanuck horse of Canada is a descendant of the light Percheron and makes a good cob horse, and the "Morse Gray," imported into New York about 1825, was evidently a Percheron. The color of the modern Percheron is black, gray, or white, stands 16 to 17.2 hands high, and weighs 1,600 to 2,200 HORSES AND MULES 299 pounds. The legs are short, blocky and without feather, the hoof is good, head small, face straight, neck arched, should- Fig. 211 SHETLAND PONY, THE children's pet ers and hips sloping, body deep, round and broad. The Percheron is powerful, but his legs and feet are his strong points. He shows his heel in walking and his action is good, but not quite so swinging as that of the Clydesdale. The percentage of blacks has been greatly in- creased by the Americans. Roans, bays, browns and chestnuts are occasionally observed, but probably indicate impure breeding. The weak points in the Percheron are lightness of leg below the knee and hock, rolling gait in front and wide straddling behind. These defects, however, are only seen in a certain percentage. For breeding, stallions with oblique pasterns should be selected. Alexander rightly calls attention to the beneficial effects which the Percheron has exercised upon our native horses. He is by far the most popular of all the draft horses, and breeds fairly true to type. He is docile, easily kept in con- dition, of good constitution and well adapted to all sorts of draft purposes. When crossed on native mares, the Percheron produces excellent express, farm, draft and general purpose horses, according to the size of the mare. "Where the blood of this breed pre- dominates in a district, no other breed should be used. Continued breeding in the right line is highly advisable and will re- sult in the production of practically pure bred horses of great usefulness and value." There are more than 30,000 Fig. 212 — champion clydesdale mare 300 PARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK registered Percherons in the United States. (For secretary, see appendix.) The French Draft, also known as the Boulounaise horse, had the same ances- try as the Percheron and was once in- cluded with the latter. In fact, the breed is now in process of differentiation from the Percheron and can scarcely be dis- tinguished from it. The prevailing colors are gray, bay and black. The French Draft is . slightly heavier than the Percheron and useful for fewer pur- poses, being purely a heavy draft horse. (For secretary, see appendix.) preferred colors are brown, bay and black with an occasional roan or chest- nut. They are closer to the ground than the Percheron and less trim in appear- ance. The head is large, ears sometimes lopped, neck thick, shoulders straight, back short and board, chest deep, legs short and flat, feet large, heel low. The defects of the Belgian are clumsy gait, coarse neck, sloping croup and too erect pasterns. Attention is being given to the correction of these points. Belgians are slowly gaining in favor among American breeders on account of their Fig. 213 — SUFFOLK STALLION, CHAMPION AT LONDON ROYAL SHOW, 1905 (Courtesy Suffolk Horse Society) The Belgian Draft horse, r Flemish horse, stands nearer than any other breed to the old black horse of Flanders. His ancestors were first used as war chargers and later for draft purposes. Until re- cently the Belgian Draft horses imported into the United States have lacked qual- ity. The Percheron and Clydesdale pos- sess more style and better action than the Belgian, and are therefore more in fa- for in this country. The Belgian has less feather on the legs than the Clydes- dale, shorter neck, wider breast and larger body. The Belgian Draft is the largest of all horses, weighing 1,700 to 2,500 pounds, and standing 15.3 to 17 hands high. The great power and easy keeping qualities. There are about 2,000 registered Bel- gians in the United States. (For secre- tary, see appendix.) In southern Belgium there is a light race of Belgian drafters, known as the Ardennes horse. Having described the various breeds of light and draft horses, we may now turn our attention to the recognized market classes of the hors.\ MARKET CLASSES The following paragraphs on market classes are based largely on the accounts of Davenport, Alexander and Rommel. According to the estimates of dealers, only about 60 per cent of the horses HORSES AND MULES 301 which are brought to market in Chicago correspond to any recognized market class, leaving 40 per cent as nondescript or unclassed. "From the nature of the case the market classes repre- sent all the types and classes for which any general demand has asserted itself, and if a new use should arise, demand- ing a new type of horse, the attempt to secure it would immediately give rise to a new market class." It is apparent therefore, that if a horse is to be sold promptly and at a profitable figure, he about 75 per cent of cases. From a financial standpoint that is a very differ- ent thing from 60 per cent. Buyers can- not be blamed for not offering good prices for unclassed horses. In fact, the farmer is himself responsible for the existence of so many unclassed horses. He can produce the horse which he de- sires. In other words, nondescript horses are the result of breeding without any method or aim. Naturally, if a good price is expected for horses, they must be sound, free Fig. 214 CHAMPION SJORE STALLION (Rolleston Wonder, No. 7,931; three years old) must fill the requirements of one of these classes. All horses are classified as soon as they arrive in Chicago and the price finally paid for them depends upon their individual excellence in the class to which they are assigned. Hundreds of stock judges, as well as buyers have told us that there are alto- gether too many nondescript horses sent to market, and still more on farms. When the farmer uses the same care and intelligence in breeding horses which he devotes to the breeding of sheep, cattle and pigs, he succeeds in from blemishes and defects. They should also be mature, that is, five years old or just past that age. It pays to have the horse in good condition or reasonably fat. A fatness in heavy draft horses adds greatly to their market value. In fact there are a considerable number of feeders who have developed the special industry of buying promising horses which are too thin for market requirements and putting them in an overfat condition. Such animals satisfy the market men and buyers, but they are soft and must be .trained down before 302 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK they are in condition for work. Never- theless, since fat horses are in demand, the farmer may as well get the extra price paid for fat horses, by using the necessary feed. It must be remembered that commis- sion merchants and professional horse buyers are very shrewd judges of horses and instantly note any good point or de- fect. The only means of obtaining good prices is to bring the right kind of horse to market. Color is also a matter class. Geldings bring a higher price than mares of the same quality. In Chicago, which is the largest horse market in tbe world, there is great de- mand for certain types of horses, which, according to Davenport, may be con- veniently divided into 5 classes: (1) Road, carriage and coach horses, (2) cab horses, (3) bus horses, (4) draft horses, (5) trotters. The first class are drivers; they are used for private pur- poses in hauling all sorts of conveyances, m 215 PERCHERON STALLION. FRANCOIS of some importance. Gray Percheron grades bring much more than blacks. "Washed out" colors are very undesir- able. As a rule, however, color does not interfere with the sale of a horse if he has quality and the proper points. All market classes have standards which are nearly as strict as those for breeds, with the exception, of course, of pedigree requirements. The class stand- ard requires a certain form, size, height, style, action, color, etc. In all these re- spects the horse must be adapted to do a certain line of work in a certain way, in order to fall within the limits of the from a light runabout to a heavy coach. They are bougbt for country and city use, but chiefly the latter, and are mainly seen on city boulevards and driveways. If they are to be driven in pairs, they must be matched in size, style and action. Uniformity of color and sex are some- what less important. The weight and height of horses in this class naturally varies according to the use to which they are to be put. The Roadster should stand 15.1 to 15.3 hands high and weigh 950 to 1,150 pounds. The conformation is smooth. Legs must be sound, pasterns HORSES AND MULES 303 sound and sloping. A low gait is better than high knee action, for speed witn a light vehicle is the point aimed at. This class of horse is rangy but chest, abdomen and flank are deep. The coach horse stands 15.2 to 16.2 hands high and weighs 1,100 to 1,250 pounds. He must carry his head and tail high, and must possess high knee and hock action. This type is heavier, smoother, rounder, less angular than the roadster, but must be graceful and sty- lish in action. The front feet should describe circles in their motion. Matched teams of this type bring $475 or more, while roadsters are worth $150 per head. The knee action can be induced by train- ing and shoeing, but the right hock ae- ward in straight lines. Style and action, however, are the main points. The "cob" also belongs to this class. He stands about 15.1 hands high, weighs 1,000 to 1,100 pounds, and is used for light coach work, especially as a single driver before a light vehicle. The cob is somewhat smoother and more compact than the coacher, shorter on his legs, but with a higher knee action. Since, as already indicated, the price obtained for horses in this class is high — $150 to $750 — it is a profitable business for those who are properly equipped with breeding stock and experience. In rais- ing this class of horses, more failures are made than with draft horses. If the conformation or style is defective, they Fig. 21G — THE THREE STANDARD COLORS OF PERCHERONS tion comes only by breeding. Not much speed can be expected of a coach horse — about 6 to 10 miles per hour. Carriage horses are intermediate between the road- ster and coacher in size, with the gait of the roadster. In this whole class there is little choice of color between blacks, browns, bays, chestnuts or sorrels, but grays are not wanted. The head must be clean, neck gracefully carried, forehead broad, eyes full, nostrils large, shoulders sloping, barrel round, tail set high. "If the fore- arm be too long the result will be a knee- sprung horse, after considerable service; if too short, he will be calf -kneed." The hair is fine and the veins prominent. There must be neither an interfering nor wobbling gait; the legs must move for- cannot be sold except at a loss. The market is overloaded with average, or ordinary driving horses, and they must be better than that if they are to bring a remunerative price. The farmer should, therefore, go at the business very cautiously and on a small scale at first. Cab horses constitute an ill defined class, made up largely of culls from the driving class and the bus class. Cab animals are used on cabs and other light vehicles in the public service, as well as for the light delivery work of mercantile houses. The height of the cab horse is 15 to 15.2 hands and his weight 1,050 to 1,100 pounds. As just stated, driv- ing horses, defective in speed and bus horses under weight make up the cab horse class. They must be strong and 304 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK useful, but need not show much speed. There is always a large supply of theso horses, and the market price seldom ex- ceeds $100. This price obviously does not justify any farmer in producing such horses. The bus horse J s so-called from its use in Europe as omnibus horses. Here they are used for the same purpose to a much less extent and also for express and heavy delivery work. Tbe bus horse stands 15.1 to 15.3 hands and weighs 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. They must have strong bone and sound feet. The bus horse is low, blocky and of tion of strength. Several other points, however, must be observed. The legs must be strong with good bone and large hock, the hoof dense and well formed, loin heavy, back short. As long as the strength of leg bones is proportionate, the weight cannot be too great; i. e., for city use. The draft horse should not weigh under 1,500 pounds in good con- dition, and if he weighs 1,800 to 2,000 pounds or more, so much the better. The form is smooth and rounded, leg bones flat, pasterns rather short, shoulder straight, breast full, forelegs rather far apart. The walk and trot Fig. 21 I — THREE PRIZE- WIN XIX (! PERC HERONS draft form. He is really a general pur- pose horse and is required to haul a con- siderable load at a slow trot, but with- out style. He must have a faster gait than a draft horse and is by no means merely an undersized draft horse. There is use for considerable numbers of them in our cities and the price in Chicago is about $140. The tram horse of England is the same type, but slightly lower and smaller. The draft horse has one function— to pull heavy loads at a walk, on the farm or in the city, and alone or in two to ten- horse teams. Strength is the chief point and within the limits of the draft type, weight is the most prominent indica- should be easy, and the legs should move straight ahead. A rolling or waddling gait is objectionable. The height varies from 15.3 to 17.2 hands. Other things being equal, every 100 pounds above 1,600 adds $25 to the value of the horse. A well-fattened condition also increases the market price of a draft horse more than is the case of any other class of horses. On the Chicago market the average price for draft horses in 1904 was $177, but well-matched teams of good drafters brought $1,000 and ani- mals of fine quality, $350 to $600 per head. The London van horse j s chiefly pur- chased in America and is simply a good BORSES AND MULES 305 quality of draft horse, 16 to 16.2 hand* high and weighing 1,600 to 1,800 pounds, used for hauling heavy drays and vans. The Scotch van horse i s the same type as the English vanner, but may Le somewhat lighter and on longer legs. The English cart horse i s merely a very heavy draft horse, weighing 2,000 pounds or more, and on rather long legs, standing 16.2 to 17.2 hands high. Loggers are heavy, strong draft horses with blemishes or defects, which render them unsalable on the city market. This type of horse is in demand by lum- they bring $25 per head more than farm chunks. The draft horse i s the class of horse for the farmer to raise for sale. Only pure bred draft stallions should be used, the particular breed being left as a mat- ter of choice for each farmer. The mares should be of good form, heavy weight and good milkers, and the colts should be forced from the earliest age. Other- wise the right size cannot be secured. If the mare is a poor milker, the colt can- not get the requisite strength of bone. The milk ration may be increased by feeding the colt fresh, warm, skim milk. Fig. 218 — GETTING READY FOR THE SHOW RING bermen for use in the woods. They must be of good wind. According to Alexander, the very best draft horses of Wisconsin are taken by lumbermen, so that few of them find their way to large market centers. In Chicago, loggers sell at $160 to $250 per head. The farm chunk j s a misfit, light draft horse of mixed breed, standing 15 hands or more high, and weighing 1,100 to 1,500 pounds. Their usual price is $100 to $175. The express horse is a drafter, weigh- ing 1,350 to 1,500 pounds and standing 15.2 to 16 hands high. There is always good demand for the express horse, and Cracked grain (oats and barley), help wonderfully. Draft horse raising is es- sentially a problem of meat production. The standard-bred trotter is a pure breed and has been described above. This horse to be valuable requires a training which the ordinary farmer cannot give. None but professional horsemen can breed this horse with financial success. There are several other classes of horses for which an occasional or vari- able demand arises. In the following paragraphs, mention is made of some cf these minor classes. The artillery horse, according to the United States army regulations, has the following points: 106 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK "The artillery horse is required for quick draft purpose, and should move the carriage ordinarily by weight thrown into the collar rather than by muscular exertion. The animal must be sound, without blemish or defect, well bred, of a kind disposition, and free from vicious habits, a square trotter; well broken to harness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth and gait, and with free, prompt action at the walk, trot and gal- lop." The price paid for these horses is usually not sufficient to tempt the farmer to raise them. The saddle horse ranges from 15.1 to 15.3 hands in height, and 1,000 to 1,150 pounds in weight. The light, low type is called ladies' saddler or ladies' hack. The type may correspond to the Ameri- sional call for polo ponies, fire horses, police horses, ponies, broncos, chunks, general purpose horses and southern hor- ses. It will not pay the farmer to raise horses specifically for this trade. American carriage horse — The follow- ing proposed classification for American carriage horses, was drawn up by the U. S. Deparment of Agriculture, in co- operation with the American Association of Trotting Horse Breeders. The object of this movement is to further the work which the department is doing in breed- ing carriage horses from an American foundation, and the interesting of state fair associations in the proposition so that farmers may be educated to know the type desired. The type desired for the American Fig. 219- :iH'IIKRON STALLIONS READY FOR THE SHOW RING can Saddle horse, described under breeds, or may come of driving stock. To bring good prices they must be trained in the saddle gaits. The hunter i g i n considerable demand. The blood utilized in the production of this type has already been described. The cavalry horse sometimes comes in demand by the government. The fol- lowing are the United States army re- quirements regarding this horse. "The cavalry horse must be sound and well bred; gentle under the saddle; free from vicious habits; with free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; without blemish or defect; of a kind disposition; with easy mouth and gait." This and various other demands may be met by the ordinary supply of classed horses. Thus, there is an occa- carriago horse is as follows: Not under 15 hands for mature horses; smooth, compact and symmetrical conformation; neck of good length, inclined naturally to arch; sloping shoulders; well set legs of medium length; sloping pasterns and good feet ; short strong back ; well sprung ribs, well ribbed up to coupling; smooth loins; full flanks; straight croup with well set tail; full, round buttocks. Classes open only to horses of Ameri- can blood. Stallions in classes 1 to 5 in- clusive must be registered either in the American Trotting Register as standard ; in the American Morgan Register or the American Saddle Horse Register, and certificate of such registry must be shown in the ring if required. Entries in all classes for mares, entries as get of sire in Class 5 and produce HORSES AND MULES 307 of mare in Class 10, and entries in Class 11 must be sired by a stallion registered as above, but the dams of such entries need not be registered mares; the breed- ing of dams, however, as far as known, must be given when entry is made. No mare having any draft cross will be eligible. Any exhibitor falsifying the breeding of entries will be barred. En- tries in all classes must be practically sound. Entries in all classes to be judged on conformation, style, action and manners as a suitable type of carriage horse. Spe cial attention will be given to trueness of action. Good knee and hock action are desirable. Entries in all classes should trot and walk straight and true, dam as a brood mare of the carriage type, 50 per cent; general conformation, style, action and manners of the foal, 50 per cent. The following percentages will govern in Class 11: General conformation of entry as a carriage type, 70 per cent; style, action and manners, 30 per cent. Entries in Classes 1, 2, 6 and 7, to be shown in harness hitched to any suitable vehicle. Entries in all other classes to be shown in hand to bridle. Excessive weight in shoeing in any class is forbid- den. CLASSES AS FOLLOWS Class 1. Stallion 4 years old or over. Eig. 220 — PERCHERONS AT OHIO STATE FAIR, 1905 and judges will especially avoid horses showing any tendency to mix gaits, pad- dle in front or sprawl behind. The following percentages will govern judges in Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 : General conformation and all round suit- ability as a carriage type, 60 per cent; style, action and manners, 40 per cent. The following percentages will govern in Class 5 : General conformation and all round suitability of sire as a carriage type, 30 per cent; style, action and man- ners of sire, 20 per cent; general con- formation and all round suitability of get as a carriage type, taken as a whole, 30 per cent; style, action, manners and uniformity of type in get, 20 per cent. The following percentages will govern in Class 10: General conformation of Class 2. Stallion 3 years old and un- der 4. Class 3. Stallion 2 years old and un- der 3. Class 4. Stallion 1 year old and un- der 2. Class 5. Stallion with three of his get of either sex; get need not be owned by exhibitor. Class 6. Mare 4 years old or over. Class 7. Mare 3 years old and un- der 4. Class 8. Mare 2 years old and un- der 3. Class 9. Mare 1 year old and under 2. Class 10. Mare with foal of either sex. Class 11. Foal under 1 year old, either sex, 308 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK HORSE BREEDING The successful breeding of any kind of live stock is an art which may be learned only by the closest and most conscientious attention to all details. The principles of breeding have been discussed in a previous chapter. The practical side must be learned in actual contact with animals. A few general facts worth while may be mentioned for the guidance of the horse breeder. Points of the horse — I n the first place, the points of the horse must be thorough- ly understood, otherwise it is impossible to breed with intelligence or with a defi- that it is generally neglected in farm practice. As soon as the farmer has de- cided on the type of horse which he wishes to raise he must keep that type constantly in mind in his breeding. No cross-bred or grade sire should be used, and no change of breed should be permit- ted. By following this plan persistently, and using tbe same breed of stallion from year to year, the herd of horses will gradually approach the pure, fixed type. There will also be a greater uni- formity of conformation, size and color among all the horses on the farm. Such uniformity is a great point in selling Fig. 221 — BELGIAN STALLION nite purpose. In other words, the horse breeder must be a judge of horses and must know the points of the horse. The score card serves merely as a guide and help to the beginner. The experienced horse man does not carry a score card about with him. He has the points in his eye and fingers, and also much more information, which cannot be set down in a score card, but which comes from experience only. Importance of sire_I n the general discussion of breeding in Part I. it was pointed out that the selection of a sire is an important matter in the case of all domestic animals. With horses it is par- ticularly important, partly for the reason horses for a remunerative price. It is only by adopting a rational system of breeding and following it without waver- ing, that the farmer can build up a reputation for having horses which are worth the buyer's time in looking at them. The stallion must not only have the right breeding in him, but he must be free from defects, blemishes, all forms of unsoundness or disease. Of course acci- dental wounds, barb-wire cuts and simi- lar injuries have nothing to do with he- reditary characters, but spavins, splints, ringbone, sidebones, any form of lame- ness, incorrect position of the leg should not be tolerated in the stallion or the , HORSES AND MULES 309 breeding mare. These defects or the tendency to develop them, may be inher- ited in the progeny. The farmer should, therefore, take every possible precaution in order to reduce the number of de- fective and misfit colts to a minimum. Besides the defects just mentioned, at- tention should be given to periodic ophthalmia, cataract, "glass eye," St. Vitus's dance, heaves, string halt, broken wind, roaring, navicular disease, skin tumors, curb, sprung knee or hock, calf knee, flat hoof, and too upright pasterns. No aborting mare should be bred nor stallion with maladie du coit or venereal disease. Coarse hair on the sides of the legs indicates spongy bone and a pre-disposi- tion to grease heel and lymphangitis. The hoof is a very important point in breeding horses. The horse can't work without good hoofs, and, in general, his and the right kind of food, but is to be protected so far as possible against flies, severe storms and other conditions which may affect the animal unfavorably. While the adequate nutrition of breed- ing animals is a necessary prerequisite to the best results, all breeders know, that neither the mare nor the stallion should be too fat. It is unfortunate thai the exhibition standard seems to require the overfat condition. Fat develops around the reproductive organs in both sexes and tends to sterility or at least to weakness of progeny. Over-feeding con- stitutes a drain on the vital powers and particularly on digestion. Unlike steers and swine, horses are not fed simply to get increase of weight. Horses must produce energy. The feeds which cause a large accumulation of fat do not contribute sufficiently to the vigor of the animal. The excess of fat 13 Fig. 222 BROOD MARES AND COLTS AT IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE wearing qualities and period of useful- ness depend directly and primarily upon the quality of his hoofs. The quality of the hoof is a matter which is largely determined by breeding. The character of the feed and soil also exert an in- fluence. Bran, oats, barley and other nitrogenous feeds are necessary to the best development of hoofs. For this reason, corn should not constitute the chief grain feed for the young and grow- ing colt. Geological conditions may also exercise some influence upon the growth and soundness of the hoof. Swampy land, with succulent vegetation and "flat," mineral-free water is unfavorable to the production of dense, tough, good- wearing hoof horn. "The well-born but incompletely nour- ished colt fails to develop and at ma- turity is no less a weed than the ordinary scrub or native animal." The develop- ing colt is not only to be fed enough merely a burden and must be trained off before the stallion loses the flabbiness of muscle and gets into good condition. Neither brood mares nor stallions should be underfed or in a half-starved condi- tion at the time of breeding. Exercise or a reasonable amount of work is good for both sire and dam. On the farm they may be worked without unfavor- ably affecting their fecundity. The mixed breeding indulged in by many farmers is by no means always due to carelessness or indifference on their part. In some neighborhoods it is prac- tically impossible to obtain the same breed of stallion for service year after year. Alexander calls attention to the fact that often after a good start has been made in the process of grading up in a given neighborhood, the stallions used up to that time may be taken away. In such an emergency, some farmers use a grade stallion or one of a different 310 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK breed, with the result that all the ad- vance thus far made is lost If a farmer has been using one breed of stallion for several years, that breed is better than any other for him. Under such circumstances it is not a question of the relative merits of different breeds. If difficulty is experienced in getting the right stallion of the right breed re- course may be had to some of the meth- ods suggested by Alexander and others. The farmers of a particular neighbor- hood may raise a joint fund for the purchase and maintenance of a stallion By this means, improvement would be made in the type of horse; the horses of the association could be brought to the attention of buyers by legitimate ad- vertising, exhibition at local and state fairs and otherwise. "Were such asso- ciations formed in each horse-breeding center, and were each of them to preach and practice the same sound doctrines of breeding, the use of scrub, grade, cross-bred and unsound stallions would soon be a thing of the past, while better mares would be used for breeding pur- poses, with the inevitable result of gen- Fig. 223 — FARM WORK HORSE, THREE-FOURTHS PERCHERON or a stallion may be rented of the owner for the season by guaranteeing a certain amount of service fees and maintain- ing the stallion and groom. Associations of breeders — The forma- tion of local horse-breeding associations also helps materially to secure the de- sired result. Such organizations could agree to raise only one breed of horse and grades of that breed and could make ar- rangements to have the proper stallion service for all members. All problems connected with horse-breeding and local conditions of the horse market could he discussed at meetings of the association. eral improvement in the quality of our horses and the profits to be reaped from the business." As already indicated, it is quite inad- visable to prescribe to farmers the breed or type of horse which they shall raise. Each farmer knows better than anyone can tell him his own likings and pe- culiar fitness for the work. There is a constant demand for all the recognized market classes of horse. Soil, feed and other local conditions are factors in determining a choice for one or an- other breed. Some men will, therefore, decide on raising draft horses, others HORSES AND MULES 311 roadsters, saddlers, hunters, polo ponies, expressers or some other type, as cir- cumstances may dictate. Thus far we have spoken of breeding horses for market. Farmers must al- so raise horses for their own use. On the farm horses are needed for work, driving and riding. The draft type will usually be chosen for work horses. Most farmers, however, prefer the light draft Points in the structure and physi- ology of the horse—The weight borne bv the front feet of the horse as compared with that on the hind feet is expressed by the ratio, 5-4. The center of gravity is, therefore, at the base of a line which falls through the withers, just behind the shoulder blade and front feet. The proportions of the body vary somewhac in different types. Thus the Thorough- Fig. 224 — EXPRESS HORSE. FROM U. S. DEPT. AGRIC. BUR. ANIM. IND. type. For most farm work, 1,300 pounds is heavy enough for the draft horse. The 1,700 to 1,800-pound horse is less active and a larger feeder. The 1,300- pound horse, on the other hand, can be worked, driven or ridden as occasion may require. Most farmers cannot keep distinct types of horses for all different lines of work. The general purpose horse with good strength and considerable speed is, therefore, the horse for the av- erage farmer. bred is 3 or 4 inches higher than long, while the Shire horse is about 9 inches longer than high. In general, a wide forehead indicates a large brain power. In the speed horse, the shoulder is more oblique than in ths draft horse. Pink skin produces white hair, and most white and gray horses have black skin. The carrying of weight upon the back requires long, oblique shoulders, with strong shoulder and loin 312 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK muscles and oblique pasterns. Endur- ance in the horse is indicated by good room for breathing and digestive func- tions. The temperature of the horse in health is 100 to 101° F., and the pulse varies from 35 per minute in drafters, to 45 in ponies. The pulse may be felt at the jaw, inner side of the forearm or fetlock joint. The most convenient point is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the jaws along the lower edge of the jawbone, and thence on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It is located most easily just in front of the thick muscles of the cheek. If the fingers are placed against the artery on the inner surface of the jaw at this point, the pulse can readily be felt. The normal rate of respiration in the adult horse is 10 to 12 per minute. The usual period of pregnancy in the mare is 11 months, but the first preg- nancy may last a whole year. Cases are known where colts were carried 400 days. Some observers believe that in long pregnancies, the colt is likely to be male. FEEDING HORSES Feeding experiments have been car- ried out on an extensive scale with all kinds of farm animals by experts in animal industry, as well as by thou- sands of feeders. It is often said that less is known about the scientific feeding of horses than about other animals. Such, however, is not the case, for all feeding stuffs which are available for use on the farm have been tested in a manner so that their feeding value is known. We may best discuss the va- rious feeding stuffs under the heads, grains, coarse fodders, roots or succulent feeds, and miscellaneous feeds. Oats — It is perhaps best to begin with oats, not because it is universally con- ceded to be the best horse feed, but for the reason that it is considered the stand- ard grain for the horse, and because it is customary to compare other grains with oats. It has long been considered dangerous to feed oats in a fresh condi- tion, and most feeders recommend that oats should be allowed to remain in the granary for at least two months. This matter has been carefully investigated, especially in France, with the result that no objection can be found in using oats in a perfectly fresh condition. The common belief is that fresh oats are heating and cause inflammatory condi- tions of the skin, digestive derangements, nervousness and vertigo. A thorough test by the French war department, how- ever, showed conclusively that no harm resulted from using fresh oats; on the other hand, there seemed to be some ad- vantage in the fresh oats over oats which had been kept for two months or longer. In keeping oats for long periods, a more or less pronounced change of color takes place, white oats becoming yellow- ish, and the natural lustre of all varie- ties of oats gradually disappearing so that they look dull and dead. In order to make old oats look fresh, machines have been devised for polishing them with the aid of oils and camphor. As a rule, oats over two years old should be rejected for feeding purposes, for the reason that they may have undergone changes which reduce their nutritive value. Oats which come from localities with epizootic diseases are sometimes put through a heating process in order to disinfect them. They will stand a temperature of 150° F. without being greatly harmed. Too high temperatures, however, will brown the hulls, render them harder than in fresh oats and somewhat less digestible. As already indicated, many feeders, es- pecially in the northern states, believe that oats are the only grain which can be fed in long periods to horses with good results. Oats are readily digested by horses and furnish a comparatively large amount of protein. The idea, however, that oats must be used as the exclusive grain for horses must be abandoned, for Arabian horses and many other Asiatic horses receive no other grain than barley. Moreover, barley is extensively used as a horse feed in California and in some other western states. Again, in the southern states, and in fact almost throughout the corn belt, corn is fed in much larger quantities than oats. Thou- sands of horses in the United States never get oats from one year's end to another. It should be apparent, therefore, that while oats may well be considered the standard grain for horses, they may, nevertheless, be replaced in the daily ration with various other grains. In making the substitutions, no check takes place in the growth of the horses, no diseased condition is likely to appear and a great saving in feed bills is made possible. Many writers have insisted upon the presence of a peculiar princi- ple in oats and have referred to it under HORSES AND MULES 313 the name of avenine. Careful chemical analyses have failed to show the pres- ence of avenine or any other peculiar chemical body in oats, which is noL found in other grains as well. Ap- parently as good results are obtained in spirit and action from other grains as from oats. When oats become too expensive, they may be replaced in the ration with corn, barley, kafir corn, dried brewers' grains, beans, peas, bran, cottonseed meal, or even with highly nitrogenous coarse fodders. In Maine it was found that when mixed grains were compared with oats the mixed grains proved more effective for colts and cost less. In another test oats produced less growth iu colts than an equal weight of a mixture of peas and middlings, the ratio being 100 to 111. When colts were fed a mix- ture of middlings, gluten meal, and lin- seed meal in the ratio of 60 :35 :15 and hay, the daily ration cost 12 cents, and 14 cents when oats were substituted for the mixed grains. The daily gains in the colts were 1.3 pounds on mixed grains and 2-3 pound on oats. In nearly ail experiments greater gains have been se- cured from mixed grains than with the use of an exclusive oat ration. As suggested by Stewart, one of the chief reasons for the general preference of oats, rests upon the fact that approx- imately one-half of the oat substance consists of hulls. The hulls must be eaten with the rest of the grain, and as a consequence, the masticated mass is comparatively loose and easily digested. There is hence no grain which can be fed ad libitum with such safety as oats. Apparently the stomach of the horse can- not hold enough oats at one time to cause serious digestive troubles. No time or energy need be spent in preparing oats, since in all horses with good teeth, oats are about equally digestible whether fed whole, cracked, ground, steamed or in a natural condition. In Utah it has been found that bran and shorts may be sub- stituted for oats. Usually a considerable saving can be made by using bran or shorts. In North Carolina, oats were compared with cowpeas in rations of 4 pounds together with ground wheat, corn and meadow hay. Both rations were satisfactory in energy production, but since the oats cost 2 cents per pound and the cowpeas only 1 cent, it is evident that the cowpeas are much more econom- ical as a horse ration. In the same state it was found that oat hay, cut in the milk stage was about equal to clover or cowpea hay. The Maryland experiment station compared the digestibility of whole and ground oats for horses. It appeared that the horses did not relish an exclusive ration of whole oats and lost weight consider- ably. In order to keep the horses in good appetite, it became necessary to add hay to the ration. The oats were then fed three times a day. Much diversity of opinion prevails regarding the relative value of whole, bruised, crushed and ground oats. The test was, therefore, made between whole and ground oats. The results were slightly in favor of ground oats. For old horses the ground oats were more digestible, while for young horses whole oats seemed the bet- ter. This slight advantage of grinding, however, will not be a paying proposi- tion unless grinding can be done very cheaply. Horses may be fed a ration of 10 to 16 or even 20 pounds a day. At the usual price of oats it will produce quite a saving to give a ration of 2-3 oats and 1-3 corn. Moreover, bran should almost always be fed along with oats. Barley — As already indicated, barley is an excellent horse feed. It is exten- sively fed in various parts of the Orient, Africa, Europe, California and other western states. It is a very hard grain and should be crushed or ground before feeding. It is still better to boil or steam barley and mix it with bran or a little molasses. In horse rations, 4 pounds of barley equals 6 pounds of oats. Boiled barley is perhaps the best pos- sible grain for colts. It gives a most rapid growth, great strength of bone and muscle and a sleek coat. Barley may, therefore, be used to replace oats in horse rations under all circumstances. This matter was tested in Germany on two sets of horses of 60 each. One lot of the horses received 8 pounds of oats and the other received the same amount of barley. The effectiveness of both rations seemed to be about the same. As a result of this test it was concluded that the best ration for horses contains 1-3 oats, 1-3 barley and 1-3 beans. In substituting barley for oats, French in- vestigators have found it desirable to feed slightly more barley than would be given in the oat ration. For the heavy French draft horses, barley constitutes about i/4 of the grain ration, while for speed horses the proportion may be much larger. In the French army, 314 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK barley is substituted pound for pound for oats. The regulations of the Ger- man army prescribe that barley may be used to replace oats for indefinite pe- riods to the extent of 1-3 to 1-2, or all of the usual oat ration. In general, barley is substituted pound for pound for oats. In North Dakota, barley was found not quite equal to oats. Malted barley appeared to be inferior to whole barley. According to the extensive ex- periments of Lavalard, barley may en- tirely replace oats in the ration of all kinds of horses, whether used for driv- ing or draft purposes. Apparently, how- ever, it is necessary to give the barley in slightly larger rations. Corn — As already stated, corn may be substituted for oats in part or even en- tirely. It is used in this way at present to a large extent throughout the corn belt and especially in the southern states. In Germany and various other European countries it has been found that corn may be used in the place of oats without injury to health. Old horses are some- times not able to eat corn without pre- vious grinding. In Germany a mixture has been recommended containing 50 per cent cracked corn, 15 to 20 per cent cracked beans, 10 to 20 per cent bran, and 10 to 15 per cent malt dust. The daily ration then consists of 10 to 15 pounds of this mixture. In England, ten street car companies have adopted a ra- tion, consisting of about 9 pounds corn, 5 pounds oats, 2 pounds beans and peas, 1-3 pound bran. In Leipsic a generally adopted ration for horses contains 11 pounds corn and 3 pounds oats. Blin in his experiments with corn found it to be inferior to oats. Corn is especially suited for the production of energy in work horses. Kloepfer substituted 5 pounds of corn for 6 pounds of oats in rations for farm horses. As a result of his ex- periments he recommends that oats be fed during the day and corn in the even- ing, after being soaked for 24 hours. For many years Lavalard conducted experiments in feeding horses for the Paris omnibus company, particularly with reference to the grains which may be economically substituted for oats. The first tests with corn were under- taken with all kinds of horses and gave most satisfactory results. The total number of horses involved in these ex- periments was about 30,000, so that the results are of unusual value. By replac- ing a part of the oats with corn one com- pany using 16,000 horses effected a sav- ing of more than $250,000 a year, thus showing the great economy of corn feed- ing. Recent experiments with cavalry and artillery horses have shown that corn may generally replace oats without in any way causing the horses to deterio- rate. The horses fed the corn ration were worked the same number of hours in the military drill and in the maneu- vers and were ridden at the same gait as those fed exclusively on oats. It was impossible to notice any difference in the condition of the two lots of horses. Again, oats contain on an average 70 to 75 per cent of kernel and 25 to 30 per cent of indigestible hulls, while the hull of corn amounts to practically nothing. According to Lavalard these facts fur- nish an explanation why horses on corn thrive better and are more able to main- tain their weight, than on oats. Lavalard's experiments demonstrated that corn may be used to replace oats in the ration for both cavalry and artillery horses. In fact, if substituted pound for pound it increases the nutritive value of the ration. From an economic stand- point this is ample justification for the practice of feeding corn. In Utah, a feeding experiment was car- ried out on two teams of horses, one of which was fed corn and timothy and the other clover, oats and wheat. The corn and timothy lot made the poorer show- ing, as was to be expected from the fact that the ration was very poorly balanced. In a subsequent experiment, in which both rations contained wheat and bran, corn and oats were fed for the purpose of a direct comparison. The horses on corn made the greatest gains on the same amount of work. As a result of ex- periments continued along this line for three years, Mills concludes that during the summer, corn and timothy are not as good as oats, clover and wheat; that in winter the corn and timothy ra- tion is as good as the other; and that during spring and summer, corn, wheat or bran will produce more gain than oats, wheat or bran. In North Dakota, oats were compared with corn for mules. The corn was fed on the cob and the test lasted 84 days. The corn was greatly relished and it was noticed that on a ration of corn and oats less grain was needed than on an exclusive oat ration. Stated in an- other form, 88.5 pounds of the mixture of corn and oats equaled 100 pounds of oats unmixed. From a computation of these results it is concluded that 77.5 HORSES AND MULES 315 pounds of corn is equal in feeding value to 100 pounds of oats. On this basis, when oats are worth 50 cents per bushel, corn would be worth 87 cents. Burkett in North Carolina found that for horses and mules, corn and cob meal was just as valuable as shelled corn. All of these tests showed a slight difference in favor of ground corn as compared with whole corn. Stewart accumulated some inter- esting data regarding corn as a horse feed, which may be summarized in the following paragraph. Corn meal has long been fed to horses in the United States and is now pur- chased in increasing quantities in Eng- land and continental Europe for the same purpose. Finely ground corn meal, when masticated by the horse, forms a somewhat pasty mass, which does not allow the ready penetration of the di- gestive juices. If, therefore, corn is fed in large quantities, it may occasionally cause colic. For this reason the use of whole or coarsely ground corn helps to avoid the possible danger of colic. But if the corn meal is mixed with cut hay, the digestive juices readily come in contact with all parts of it, and the hay is more thoroughly masti- cated. Street car companies have found it desirable to mix the corn with some coarse fodder. Stewart reports the death of 12 or more horses from eating corn meal. In these cases the meal was fed sometimes wet and sometimes dry. Corn meal fed alone is, in Stewart's opin- ion, the cause of more cases of colic than any other feed. But on the basis of 30 years' experience he consid- ers corn meal perfectly safe if fed mixed with cut hay or straw. The same prac- tice is recommended in feeding all meals to all horses of whatever age. The following rations containing corn are recommended on account of the good results from them in practical ex- perience : Timothy hay, 12 pounds ; corn meal, 11 pounds ; malt sprouts, 5 pounds ; Red clover, 8 pounds; oat straw, 6 pounds; corn meal, 12 pounds; wheat middlings, 6 pounds; Alsike clover, 8 pounds; corn fodder, 6 pounds; corn meal, 10 pounds ; rye bran, 6 pounds ; linseed meal, 2 pounds. Blue grass hay, 12 pounds; corn meal, 8 pounds; linseed meal, 3 pounds; wheat middlings, 6 pounds. Meadow hay, 6 pounds; wheat straw, 8 pounds ; corn meal, 8 pounds ; pea meal, 6 pounds ;cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. A common and very effective horse ration contains 16 pounds of a mixture of equal parts corn and oats ground to- gether. "A still better ration is 950 pounds of oats, 950 pounds of corn and 100 pounds of flaxseed, all ground to- gether. We have fed this for long pe- riods — sometimes two years continuously — and have found no ration that sur- passes it. It is well balanced as a working ration, and just laxative enough for health " A good ration for stage horses has been found in a mixture of 1 pound corn meal and 2 pounds of hay. Horses at such work keep in good condition when fed on cut hay and corn meal alone, but leguminous hays give the best results. Dechambre and Curot, as the result of long continued observations on corn feed- ing, came to the conclusion that corn is the only grain which can be used to re- place oats without necessitating a more or less complicated mixture in the ra- tion. According to the calculations of these authors, corn furnishes 9.08 per cent of digestive protein, while oats yield 9.48 per cent. Attention is also called to the fact that when 4 pounds of oats were replaced by an equal weight of corn for cavalry horses, the horses which re- ceived corn maintained their weight better and withstood fatigue better than those which were fed oats. Corn is easily preserved for long periods, but also undergoes various changes as a re- sult of moisture and molds. Fermented corn may produce a disease similar to pellagra in man. The nutritive value of corn may also be somewhat affected by smut, ergot, and by various insects. Maize cake has been thoroughly tested by Grandeau and others. It was found that from maize cake horses digest about the same amount of carbohydrates and two or three times as much protein as from oats and rather less protein than from a ration of horse beans. Maize cake, however, does not produce gains like a ration of corn and beans. In Maryland, a comparison was made between shelled corn and corn meal. The whole corn was aW fed on the cob, as well as shelled. The results obtained from this test show a decided advantage in favor of the corn meal. The horses had a better appetite when fed meal and digested the material more completely; this was especially true of old horses. A comparison of the di- gestibility of corn by horses and cattle showed that cattle digest both the corn and corn meal more completely than do horses. 316 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK While, as will appear from the above discussion, corn has given favorable re- sults in nearly all cases where it has been fed to horses, a few unfavorable re- ports have been made. Thus, the Lon- don omnibus company objected to feed- ing corn too extensively, for the reason that the percentage of disease increased when the ration consisted largely of corn. The horses kept fat on corn, but the muscular system was apparently not in as good condition and veterinarians had to be consulted more frequently. Some of the Berlin street car companies have had similar results. These unfav- orable reports, however, come from feed- ing corn too exclusively. Where it is properly balanced with some more ni- trogenous grain, no bad results are ob- served. Moreover, when it is remem- bered that thousands of mature horses and mules are fed corn as the only grain, without bad effect, it must be ad- mitted that corn is not only safe, but a very efficient feed when used with the precautions which have been mentioned in the above discussion. Cottonseed meal — This grain is not fed as extensively to horses as to cat- tle; nevertheless, it is universally recog- nized as a valuable horse feed and is added to some extent to nearly all ra- tions for horses in the southern states and in other localities where the price is not too high. In North Carolina, But- ler has recommended as a ration for a horse at light work, 12 pounds corn fod- der, 2 pounds cowpea hay, 5 pounds of corn, and 1 pound of cottonseed meal. For horses at severe work, the amount of cowpea hay and corn is to be doubled, while the cottonseed meal is fed in ra- tions of 2 pounds. Any difficulty ex- perienced in getting a horse to eat cot- tonseed meal, when he is not accustomed to it, may ordinarily be overcome by mixing corn meal and cottonseed meal. Cottonseed meal is used in these ra- tions to supply the protein for repair of worn out muscles and may be considered as replacing cowpea hay for this pur- pose. Tn the southern states, cottonseed meal must be preferred to oats and bran, for the reason that it is considerably cheaper. As a result of some experience with cottonseed meal in feeding brood- mares, Craig advises against its use for this purpose. In North Carolina, Emery found cottonseed meal to be an excel- lent feed with which to balance rations. A test of cottonseed meal for horses in New Hampshire gave rather unfavor- able results. The horses were not well disposed towards the cottonseed meal and sometimes refused to eat grain mix- tures containing it. The effect on the weight of the horses, however, was very satisfactory in all cases in which it was eaten. Good results have also been re- ported from the use of cottonseed meal for horses in England, Germany and elsewhere in Europe. In North Dakota, it was readily eaten by horses and caused no digestive disturbances or loss of appe- tite. In Louisiana, it is fed in rations of from 1 to 6 pounds, with an average of about 3 to 4 pounds. The maximum safe ration is probably 6 pounds. Horse chestnuts—According to Schil- ler, horse chestnuts are extensively fed to borses by the Turks, without any inju- rious effects. In this country, they are commonly considered poisonous if fed in large quantities, and, as a matter of fact, are rarely fed to any farm animals. Lupines — I n Europe, the seeds of va- rious kinds of lupines are fed to horses with satisfactory results after being dis- embittered. Nearly all lupines contain a poisonous principle which must first be removed in order to make them a safe feed. In the western states, lupines cover large areas and are cut for hay to the extent of thousands of tons. This material, even when it contains ripe seeds, may be safely fed to horses, but it is probable that they do not get much of the seed in eating the hay; at any rate, no serious losses are reported in- horses when feeding on lupines. Rye may replace one-third of the oats in the grain ration. It should previously be cooked or moistened. If infested with ergot it may cause serious disease and therefore shoidd be fed sparingly until it is demonstrated that the grain is clean. Rye weighs more per bushel than oats, as it has 60 per cent less husks, but also a smaller percentage of protein than oats. It is, therefore, lower in nutritive value, but when mixed with cut hay makes a suitable ration for horses. In France, the cab companies have always fed some rye, especially when this grain was cheap. Lavalard tested rye in experiments with army horses. Rye was substituted for oats pound for pound and the amount was gradually increased until the horses maintained a constant weight. Lava- lard believes, as a result of his experi- ments, that rye varies in composition more than other grains. This is offered as an explanation of the contradictory HORSES AND MULES 317 results obtained from the use of rye as a horse feed in the hands of different feeders. As a rule, when rye is cooked before feeding it gives satisfactory re- sults. It may be fed to horses with oats in the proportion of 1 to 2, or 1 to 4. In feeding rye, it should be remembered that it has a constipating effect and, for this reason, it may be mixed with new corn for the purpose of preventing scouring in horses. In Germany, rye screenings containing much cockle seed were fed to horses for long periods, in rations of 2 pounds per day, without causing any bad effect. Wheat — In North Dakota, whole, hard wheat was fed to horses for one month, for the purpose of noting its effect. The horses easily got off feed and in some cases the digestion was much deranged when wheat was fed as the only grain ration. A considerable percentage of the kernels passed through the digestive tract unbroken, and, of course, undi- gested. The wheat appeared to exercise a strongly laxative effect upon mules fed at the same time. The animals maintained their weight, however, on a comparatively small amount of wheat. This test demonstrates clearly, however, that it is not advisable to feed wheat alone to horses. "Wheat mixed with bran appeared to be more effective for horses than whole oats. In fact, horses kept on a ration of two parts ground wheat and one part bran, did hard work with- out losing weight. "Wheat is ordinarily too expensive for use as a horse feed, but fortunately, dam- aged wheat if not moldy, is as good for horses as high-grade wheat, as it usually contains more protein. It of- ten happens that frosted wheat can be obtained in large quantities at a very small price, and also wheat slightly scorched in elevator fires. As is well known, many horse raisers use a mix- ture of oats and wheat for stallions, when umisual service is required of them. Wheat has been found, however, in many cases, to produce an irritation or itching of the skin, somewhat similar to the effect caused by buckwheat, In Sweden, experiments have shown that wheat is considerably superior to rye. During a period of hard work, 10 pounds a day may be given with oats. It has been found to have a beneficial effect in building up the muscles of horses. When fed in large quantities, however, it may cause digestive disturb- ances and other troubles, as already in- dicated. Experiments with wheat in Denmark have also shown that it is pref- erable to rye as a horse feed, when mixed with oats. Bran — Bran nearly always constitutes a part of horse rations, being fed in regular quantities daily, or at short intervals in the form of a mash. Not infrequently, oats are high priced when bran is cheap. Thus the Canadian ex- periment station reports that oats are sometimes as high as $26 a ton, when bran is only $15. Under such condition there is an evident economy in sub- stituting bran for at least a part of the oats. A number of experiments were made in Canada in which various mix- tures of oats and bran were fed for the purpose of determining the relative cost of different rations. It was found that when the grain ration consisted of two parts bran and one part oats, a sav- ing of $19.50 was made in the ration of each horse per year; while when linseed meal was fed at the rate of one part to ten parts of oats, the cost was greater than on an exclusive ration of oats. In New Hampshire, a ration, contain- ing 7 pounds of bran was most relished by the horses. Feeding too large a quan- tity of bran, however, seemed to make the animals soft and inclined to perspire freely. The weight of the horses was maintained uniformly on rations con- taining bran, and these rations proved wholesome, palatable, and moderate in cost. As a result of numerous experi- ments with bran, it has been conclusively shown that bran may be substituted for oats in the horses' rations, either in sum- mer or winter. Some of the most exten- sive experiments with bran have been made in North Dakota. In a test in which oats were compared with bran, prairie hay was fed as a rough forage. The horses which received bran and shorts worked longer hours than those which were fed on oats. The oat- fed lot consumed 420 pounds of grain per head, while the horses maintained on bran and shorts received only 372 pounds of grain per head, in a feeding period of one month. The comparison of these grain feeds was continued, reversing the rations in the two lots of horses. The summary of the results obtained from these experiments shows little difference in the two rations. Horse bread—Bread is fed to horses prepared from rye, wheat and buck- wheat flour, and corn meal and other 318 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK meals. Horse bread, however, is us- ually not prepared simply from a flour or meal, but is mixed with other ma- terials. A horse bread, which is ex- tensively fed in Norway, is prepared from skim milk and ground oats. The bread was relished by the horses and did not cause constipation, even when fed m large quantities. It is lighter than oats bulk for bulk and owing to its mechani- cal condition, it is eaten up perfectly clean. Horse bread made in a similar manner has been endorsed by Swedish authorities as a nutritious and palatable horse feed, capable of entirely replacing oats. Brewers' grains — The most extensive work on brewers' grains for horses has been done at the New Jersey experiment station. This work was undertaken partly to learn whether brewers' grains could be used as a substitute for oats. Since oats are frequently too expensive, the importance of determining the avail- ability of other materials in the place of oats is sufficiently apparent. In the experiments in question, brewers' grains were fed dry to a large number of horses, on the basis of a substitution for oats, pound for pound. The material was eaten with relish by the horses, except in a very few cases. The horses varied in age from six to 10 years, and the brewers' grains were fed in rations of 8 pounds a day, as compared with the" same quantity of oats for three months. The oats appeared to be more satisfac- tory than dried brewers' grains. In a second feeding test the horse on brew- ers' grains gained considerably more than those on the oats ration. It appears from these experiments that both dried brewers' grains and oats, when fed in rations of 8 pounds together with 6 pounds of hay, 2 pounds of bran and 4 pounds of corn, furnished more nutri- ment than was sufficient to maintain tho weight of horses under an average amount of work. On the whole, it seems that dried brewers' grains are equally as efficient as oats in a ration for work horses. A careful study of the composi- tion and digestibility of brewers' grains showed that they furnish more valuable digestible nutriment than oats. The only practical question remaining for the feeder, therefore, is whether it will pay, under ordinary circumstances, to substitute brewers' grains for oats. Dur- ing the time of the experiment, bran cost $22 per ton; corn $22; oats $30; and dried brewers' grains $18. On the oat ration the cost per horse per day was 24 cents and on the ration of dried brewers' grains 19 cents, thus showing a saving of 5 cents a day in favor of the brewers' grains. The cost of brewers' grains in carload lots is about $16 in the summer and $18 in the winter and spring months, and the freightage need not be more than $2 in excess of this sum On the basis of the experiment just recorded, brewers' grains, even at $24 per ton, would be as cheap as oats at 36 cents per bushel, and, as stated by Voorhees in his sum mary of the experiment, an increase of $1 per ton on the brewers' grains would be balanced by an increase of IV2 cents per bushel for oats. If the farmer is lo- cated conveniently to a brewery, the grains may be purchased wet and fed in that condition. Wet brewers' grains, however, are not as desirable for horses as for milch cows. As a rule, 4 pounds of wet brewers' grains are equal to 1 pound after drying. Distillery dried grains — The Indiana experiment station carried on an ex- periment with distillery dried grains, known as "Biles Fourex," with a manu- facturer's guarantee of 33 per cent pro- tein. They were tested on four mares of medium size on the station farm, maintained at work of varied severity. One team received dried distillery grains for four weeks and at the end of this period the other team was given the grains and oats were substituted in the ration of the first team. Two of the mares did not eat the grain with relish at any part of the experiment, and on some days absolutely refused to eat it at all; the other two ate the distillery grains with less aversion, but only in moderate amounts. The two animals which evi- dently did not like the distillery grains ate not more than 10 pounds a week, while the other two consumed from 42 to 50 pounds per week. As a result of this experiment, it is obvious that dried distillery grains do not furnish a satis- factory addition to the list of concen- trated feeds for horses. Linseed meal — Linseed meal may be fed to horses to the extent of 4 pounds per day without any injurious effects. In New Hampshire, it was found that a ration containing 4 pounds of linseed meal, together with 10 pounds of hay and 8 pounds of corn was of great effective- ness. As a ride, however, horses will not HORSES AND MULES 319 eat 4 pounds of linseed meal per day, for long periods with relish. It is, per- haps, best to begin the linseed meal ration in smaller quantities and gradually work up to the maximum amount. In ordi- nary cases 2 pounds of linseed meal and 2 pounds of bran is perhaps better than 4 pounds of linseed meal. Burkett found that horses suddenly changed from a linseed meal ration to quite different ra- tions, containing no linseed meal, did not lose in weight. Stewart used flaxseed in small rations in feeding colts intended for fast work, and obtained satisfactory results. The colt was kept in a fine condition; the skin was clean, the bowels free and an even development of the muscles of the limbs and of the whole body was ob- tained. Flaxseed has a laxative effect and mixed with oats is a most desirable supplemental feed in derangements of the digestion. It should be cooked into a pasty mass and then mixed with other feed. Whole vs. ground grain_On account of the small size of the horse's stomach, and on account of the further fact that horses sometimes fail to digest their feed as thoroughly as ruminants do, it is de- sirable to know the value of any pre- liminary treatment of feed before giving it to horses. In general, it is stated that the horse's stomach will hold about S 1 /^ gallons, and on this basis many recom- mendations have been made regarding a feed of small rations at frequent inter- vals, rather than large amounts in the morning and evening only. One of the most common ways in which grain can be changed before feed- ing it is grinding, and the question is frequently asked whether grinding pays. It may be stated that for nearly all animals, the grinding of grains has been found to increase their digestibility somewhat. The increased effectiveness of ground grains, however, may not be enough to pay for grinding unless the farmer is conveniently located near a mill, or has a feed grinder on his place. In a test of grinding, carried on at the Utah experiment station by Sanborn, it was found that whole grain was as ef- fective for horses as ground grain, and since in his experiments it was found that ground grain would have to be 15 to 20 per cent more effective than whole grain to pay for the cost of grinding, it must obviously be considered of doubtful pro- priety to incur this extra expense. Whole grain was also compared with ground grain by Wilson and Curtiss at the Iowa experiment station. The grain throughout the feeding experiment was mixed in a proportion of 150 pounds of oats, 50 pounds of shelled corn, 25 pounds of barley bran, and 25 pounds of linseed meal. One lot of colts received ground grain and oats while the other received their grain whole. The greater gains in weight were made from the ground grain. The difference, however, was not sufficiently decided to form a basis for a recommendation in favor of grinding grain. In the Iowa experiments it was found that colts required T 1 ^ pounds of grain and 13 pounds of hay to make 1 pound of gain; and while the effectiveness of feed is based on a consideration of gain in weight produced in the colts, as is done in the case of other animals, the value of grinding grain may be some- what larger than is usually stated. Throughout the corn belt, this grain is almost universally fed to horses without previous grinding, either in the form of shelled corn or on the cob. The amount of corn which passes through the intes- tines undigested is very small in the case of animals with good teeth. In old age, or during the period when the per- manent teeth are replacing the milk teeth, just before the animals reach ma- turity, it is obviously desirable to grind or otherwise soften the grain in order to increase its digestibility. In general barley and wheat appear to be improved by grinding, and the same may be said for screenings and kafir corn. In the latter case, however, this is obviously dur in part, to the small size of the seed. Buckwheat—This grain is not ex- tensively used for a horse feed. Accord- ing to the experiments of Girard, about 27 per cent of the kernels of buckwheat pass through horses without being di- gested. This indicates the desirability of cracking or grinding buckwheat before feeding. There is an objection to the use of buckwheat on an extensive scale in feeding horses or other animals, in that it contains an active principle, which produces more or less poisonous effects. These bad effects are avoided, according to Russian experience, by roasting the grain before feeding. The injurious effects of buckwheat ap- pear when it is fed for long periods. The symptoms of poisoning which are ob- served include congestion about the 320 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK head, some delirium, and finally consid- erable swelling of the head, with erup- tions on the skin. The maximum safe ration of buckwheat for horses and mules ranges from 4 to 6 pounds. It may be substituted to this extent, pound for pound, for oats. Buckwheat is very use- ful for fattening horses for sale and in England is extensively used for this pur- pose, since it makes very rapid gains. In the French army buckwheat is allowed as a substitute for oats, pound for pound, to the extent of one-quarter of the grain ration. The regulations of the German army permit the use of buckwheat as a horse feed in small quantities. Rice — This grain has recently assumed considerable importance in this country on account of its extensive cultivation in Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and else- where. Rice bran, rice polish and other milling products have been fed to farm animals, including horses. The experi- ments thus far conducted with horses, however, are not sufficient to permit of a general conclusion regarding the value of this material. Rice hulls are some- what objectionable on account of their irritating effect, due to their sharp points. The milling products of rice have been found useful in mixtures of other meals for the production of horse bread, in France and other European countries. Beans — Lavalard carried on quite ex- tensive experiments with beans in con- nection with horses owned by cab com- panies, and with army horses. It was found that when beans were used to re- place oats in the horse ration, only one- half the quantity should be used. Beans may be advantageously fed to horses when required to perform long-contin- ued, sudden or severe labor. In Eng- land the idea prevails that the feeding of beans adds greatly to the endurance of hunting horses. Moreover, in the chief racing stables, a moderate sized ration of beans is usually added. As a rule, beans should not be fed in larger quan- tities than 1 to 2 pounds, and then for the purpose or replacing from 2 to 4 pounds of oats in a ration. All varieties of beans are fed to horses in common practice and good results have been obtained in nearly all cases. Beans may prove injurious to horses with thick wind or in animals which arc especially susceptible to founder. Fresh horse beans sometimes cause colic. On this account, they should be fed cracked and it is usually recommended that they be held over for a year or so before feed- ing. Girard found that horse beans are very readily digested. French experi- ments, carried on for a period of six years, and based on more than 1,600 horses, show that beans constitute a very effective means of increasing the energy and capacity of work horses. No special precautions seem to be necessary in feed- ing beans except those which have al- ready been mentioned, namely, that the daily ration should be small and that the beans should be cracked, ground or soaked before feeding. Vetches — Vetches may also be used as a horse feed in replacing oats, at a rate of four parts by weight for 10 parts of oats. Vetch seed should not be added to horse rations in larger quantities than about 2 pounds. Lentils — These are often fed to horses in Europe, especially if the seed has been injured in any way so as to ren- der it unfit for human food. Along the Mediterranean, lentils are often fed to mules. This grain, however, frequently causes colic if fed in large quantities. On this account, horses and mules should gradually be accustomed to it, and the ration should not be larger than 2 pounds. Peas — Peas constitute an excellent horse feed. They are practically equal to beans in feeding value. Peas some- times exercise a slightly constipating ef- fect. Stewart found that a ration con- taining eight parts of peas, eight parts grain and one part of flaxseed, the whole being ground together gave excellent results with work horses. Peas are ex- tensively fed to the street car horses in Europe and in Canada. Stewart fed pea meal to the extent of 16 pounds a day, mixed with 1 bushel of cut hay. Soy beans — This bean is gradually at- tracting much attention in the South, on account of its high feeding value. The beans, as well as the hay, have been fed more extensively to cattle and hogs than to horses, but they may be fed to horses in rations similar to those rec- ommended for horse beans and other va- rieties of beans, namely about 2 pounds. A black variety of soy bean has been found most useful for horses in experi- ments in France. This bean has also been used as a horse feed in Japan and elsewhere. HORSES AND MULES 321 Cowpeas — The cowpea is another legu- minous grain, which may be used in horse rations in the same way as soy beans and other beans. The size of the ration, like that of beans, should not ex- ceed about 2 pounds. Flat pea — This legume, while showing a high protein content, according to its chemical analysis, must generally be re- jected as a horse feed on account of the fact that it is somewhat poisonous. Its poisonous principle exercises its effect whether the pea is fed whole or ground, and mixed with oats or other grain feeds. Carob bean — The carob bean at pres ent has but little consequence as a horse feed in this country, for the reason that it is scarcely available in quantities worthy of mention. Wherever it has been used, however, it has been found to be a valuable horse feed on account o± the large amount of sugar and other car- bohydrates it contains. When carob beans have been substituted for oats, pound for pound, to the extent of 2 pounds in the daily ration, considerable economy in the cost of feeding has been accomplished. A number of rations containing this bean have been suggested by French in- vestigators as suitable for horses and mules at hard work. Two or three of these rations may be here cited : Oats, 4 to 6 pounds; carob beans, 10 to 15 pounds; barley meal, 2 to 4 pounds; clover hay, 12 to 14 pounds. Carob beans, 10 to 12 pounds ; hay, 20 pounds ; bran, 10 pounds. Carob beans, 12 pounds; bran or barley meal, 8 pounds; clover hay, 14 pounds. The continued use of carob beans some- times causes an irritation or obstruction of the esophagus and, for this reason, it is best that they should be cracked, ground or moistened with hot water be- fore feeding. Millet — According to the experience of Stewart, millet is a highly nutritious food for colts or mature horses. It ap- pears to contain a larger amount of nu- triment than oats, but somewhat less oil. It is particularly adapted to the develop- ment of muscular strength, when well ground ; but it is recommended by Stew- art that it never be fed without grind- ing. A number of varieties of millet have been fed to horses in small quan- tities and usually with good results. On the basis of these experiments, it is con- sidered as about equal to kafir corn. Mil- let hay is also recommended by French feeders who have used it. This ma- terial has also been used quite exten- sively in the Soudan and in various English colonies. Kafir corn — Kafir corn is about equal to corn in composition. Naturally it has not been fed extensively to farm animals, except in the Southwest, where it is grown on a large scale. In Okla- homa, kafir corn has been fed to horses and mules with good results. It appears not to be quite so well relished by horses as corn, but it is considered to be a safe, economical and valuable feed. It may be used to occupy the same place in a ration as corn, or in other words, may be fed in rations of 6 to 10 pounds to bal- ance an equal amount of oats or other more nitrogenous grains. HAY AND COARSE FORAGE Alfalfa has been extensively tested as a horse feed in the United States and in nearly all foreign countries. In addition to the many careful experiments which we have on record with reference to it, we should also remember the vast ex- perience which has been had by farmers who use it as the chief hay or coarse forage for horses and mules. At the present time, this, of course, is particu- larly true for the western states, where alfalfa is the most important hay. When fed to brood mares it produces fine re- sults and shows no bad effects on either the mares or foals. In Oklahoma, al- falfa is considered the best hay for horses, although other common legumes are frequently used for this purpose with good results. It is sometimes accused of causing heaves and bloody urine. Alfalfa may cause heaves, as is true of clover, when the hay is moldy or otherwise im- properly cured. As to the possibility of alfalfa causing bloody urine, such an effect is exceeding rare, if indeed it ever occurs. This statement is based on the experience of hundreds of farmers who use alfalfa as the almost exclusive feed of young horses. For instance, in Utah, many horses are reared to maturity with prac- tically no oth&* feed than alfalfa. If this plant had the effect of irritating the kidneys to such an extent as to cause bloody urine, it is quite impossible that such horses should reach maturity in a good condition. A careful experiment was instituted by Merrill, in which the relative feeding value of alfalfa and timothy was tested, together with various 322 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK points on the practicability and economy of reducing the amount of fodder fed to horses, the use of alfalfa alone as a maintenance ration for horses at rest and at work, and the effect upon the kidneys, of alfalfa, cut at early, medium and late stages. The experiments showed clearly that it is easier to maintain the weights of horses on alfalfa than on timothy; the cost of maintenance also appears to be less. The general appearance of the horses was, in every case, somewhat in favor of the alfalfa. When alfalfa and timothy were fed ad libitum, a larger quantity of the alfalfa was eaten, appar- ently for the reason that it was better relished by the horses. It was found, in these experiments, that attacks of colic may be easily prevented by a suitable system of feeding. It was suggested, for example, that the amount of alfalfa hay commonly fed may be reduced to the ex- tent of one-half and grain substituted for this hay. That colic may be caused by the use of too much coarse hay has been shown in innumerable instances, es- pecially where horses have been allowed to eat large quantities of hay immedi- ately before going to work. If alfalfa hay is fed ad libitum, horses will eat as much as 45 pounds per day; but 20 pounds give far better results," if a small amount of grain is added to the ration. The use of alfalfa hay appears to cause a greater consumption of water by the horses and consequently an increased amount of urine. No evidence has been obtained, however, that this increased excretion of urine is in any way detri- mental to the health of the horse. At the Utah experiment station, alfalfa has formed the only coarse forage in a ra- tion for all horses for the past 15 years. During this time no horse has died from the direct or indirect effects of feeding alfalfa. Moreover, no injurious effects have been noted, as a result of excessive urination. On account of the fact that through- out many of the far western states, al- falfa hay, with perhaps indefinite quan- tities of straw, constitutes the mainten- ance ration of horses during the winter or at periods when they are not at work, it is desirable to determine the amount of alfalfa hay required for maintenance ration at rest and for light work. Ac- cording to experiments at the Wyoming station, it was found that 14.3 pounds of alfalfa hay per day was enough for maintenance when the horses were at liberty to eat straw at a stack. In other cases, only 13.5 pounds of alfalfa hay were required, together with 2.5 pounds of oat straw. Estimated on a basis of 1.000 pounds live weight, horses ap- pear to require about 12 1 /2 pounds of al- falfa hay and 2 pounds of oat straw for maintenance. As already indicated, similar experiments were made in Utah, with the result that 32 pounds of alfalfa hay were found to be sufficient for a team at light work. Brome hay i n tests at the North Da- kota experiment station proved to be equal, or in some cases slightly superior to timothy. It starts early in the spring and therefore forms a pasture which is greatly relished by horses as well as other animals. It also stands dry weather better than timothy, and for this reason is adapted for use in the western states, where the rainfall is comparatively low. In experiments with brome grass in North Dakota, this hay was fed for a period of 42 days. The horses ate the brome grass with appar- ently greater relish than they did the timothy. Beggar weed hay — I n some parts of the South, particularly in Florida, beg- gar weed hay is used as a coarse forage for horses and other animals. In a se- ries of feeding experiments, carried on in Florida, beggar weed hay gave excel- lent results. It apparently has about the same feeding value as cowpea hay and should preferably be run through a shredder before feeding. Clover hay throughout the eastern states, and wherever clover is raised on a large scale, constitutes one of the im- portant coarse fodders for horses. Clover hay has been found to be more nutritious than timothy, nearly equaling alfalfa in this respect. It is objected to, how- ever, by many horsemen, particularly for feeding roadsters, on account of its tend- ency to produce heaves and other res- piratory troubles, when fed in a dusty or otherwise unclean condition. These objections do not apply to clean, properly cured clover hay and there seems to be no good reason why it should not be fed extensively, if preserved in good condi- tion. Moldy clover hay may cause acute indigestion or even death. The cause of death in such cases is the path- ogenic mold, which may attack the intes- tines and also the lungs, if carried into those organs with the inspired air. HOBSES AND MULES 323 Moldy clover may also affect the kid- neys and liver in an injurious manner, according to the investigations of Bansse. The second crop of clover is frequently accused of a tendency to cause horses to slobber. The reason for this is not known. Some horse raisers have found that the addition of bran or apples to the ration has a tendency to prevent slobbering when it is caused by eating clover hay. Cutting hay — The practice of cutting hay for horses has long been recom- mended, and is quite generally adopted by farmers. The use of cut hay on the farm has followed its successful use by companies which use large numbers of horses. The ordinary reason offered for the practice of cutting hay is that the work of mastication is somewhat light- ened and that digestion takes place more rapidly, with less likelihood of the devel- opment of colic. The last point has been found to be an important one in con- nection with the morning and noon meals of the horse, or in feeding at any time just previous to putting the horse to work. At such times, the use of un- cut hay, especially if fed in large quan- tities, appears to be more likely to cause colic than if cut hay is fed. In a comparison of cut and uncut clover hay in Utah, it was found that the process of cutting was to be recom- mended, from an economic standpoint, s : nce the nutritive value of the clover was thereby decidedly increased. If the stems are too dry and brittle, they may irritate the horse's mouth and this is about the only objection which can bf raised to cutting the hay. Such troubles, however, very rarely occur, and may be obviated by moistening the hay before feeding. The practice of moistening clover hay may also be advantageous, for the reason that the dust will thus be prevented from entering the lungs and exercising any irritating effect upon them. The supposition that clover hay causes horses to sweat more freely than timothy and that it produces softer flesh seems to be without good foundation. On account of the greater protein content in clover hay, as compared with timothy, it forms a well balanced ration with corn, and thus we may prepare a very simple ration for horses on the farm. According to French experience, the greatest amount of nutriment, in the best condition, is obtained from clover hay, when it is cut just at the beginning of the flowering period. The digestibility of the protein, however, may be at the maximum, during the period of full flower. Statistics furnished by the Paris cab companies indicate that the extensive use of clover increases the percentage of colic among horses. Clover in the form of silage, prepared in regular silos, or in stacks, may also be fed to horses under the same precautions that are desirable in feeding hay. Corn silage has not been fed to horses as extensively as to cows and sheep, but when preserved in good condition may be used for the purpose of adding succu- lence to the ration. Tne desirability of keeping a close watch on the condition of the silage for feeding to horses is evident from the fact that, in Pennsylvania, sev- eral cases of poisoning of horses from eating moldy silage have been noted. These cases occurred, however, from feeding the spoiled silage from the top of the silo; and this material should not be fed to any farm animal. In the cases in question, a paralysis occurred, begin- ning with the throat and gradually ex- tending over the rest of the body. Ex- periments with the poisonous silage showed that half a bushel would cause well marked symptoms, or death. In Ohio, as high as 30 pounds per day of silage have been fed, with good re- sults; but in winter some difficulty was experienced in using this material on account of the fact that it easily becomes frozen. In Canada, rations of 10 pounds per day of silage were fed to horses. It was eaten with apparent relish and no bad effects were observed. The silage, however, did not appear to replace any appreciable quantity of the grain ration, and was for the most part an added expense rather than an economy. In fattening horses, however, good results were obtained from feeding 5 to 8 pounds of silage per day, in that it seemed to prevent digestive troubles. Silage in good condition, not musty nor improp- erly fermented, may be safely and ad- vantageously fed in rations of from 10 to 15 pounds. Fletcher fed a bushel a day without, harm, and with excellent re- sults. Stewart found that roots in horses' rations may be replaced by silage. ISTot only corn may be ensiled and fed in this form to horses, but good results are also obtained from the use of ensiled grasses and clover which may properly form from one-half to three-fourths of the ration for horses at light work. Tn Virginia, it was found that silage could be advantageously fed to 324 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE STOCK As a rule it is best to begin witb small rations until tbe palatability and whole- someness of the feed are thoroughly es tablished. Silage makes a good coarse forage for horses, when used in connec- tion with hay, corn stover, or grain. Af- ter horses have gradually been accus- tomed to silage, they may be fed all they will eat, but the amount is always smaller than that consumed by cattle. In North Carolina, corn silage, when fed in rations of 30 pounds per day, as compared with 15 pounds of oat hay, was found to produce a saving of 4y 2 cents daily in the ration. When the same amount of silage was compared with 15 pounds of cowpea hay, good results were also obtained. It was found possible to prepare suitable rations for horses, con- taining from 20 to 30 pounds of silage, with ear corn, shelled corn or corn and cob meal, with or without the addition of bran, dried blood or other nitrogenous grains. Similar favorable results were obtained with mules, and it is concluded from the experiments in North Carolina, that, all things considered, the addition of corn silage to a ration improves it. Corn stover was carefully tested at the New Hampshire experiment station in comparison with a high grade of timothy hay. The corn stover was first run through a silage cutter, after which it was given in rations of from 6 to 12 pounds. The corn stover proved to be of equal value to timothy hay and was ob- tained at about one-third of the cost. There was a slight margin in favor of corn stover, when compared with timo- thy hay in tests in which two kinds of grain rations were used. Considering the fact that from 3 to 5 tons of dry matter can be produced per acre in the form of corn stover and only about two tons in the form of timothy hay, the great econ- omy in using corn stover is apparent. During the winter season, when the work is light, corn stover may be util- ized as the only roughage and a great saving thereby effected. New corn product j s the term used for the ground stalks and leaves of the corn plant minus the pith. This material is also called corn shives. A test was made of the new corn product at the Mary- land station. The new corn product, with ground oats, was compared with timothy hay and the same grain ration, the horses being fed for two weeks dur- ing the first test. During a fourteen- day period, the horses on timothy hay consumed 118 pounds of timothy and 106 pounds of ground oats. During the same period, the other horses consumed 95 pounds of new corn product and 90 pounds of oats. It appears from the records of this test that the only diffi- culty experienced in feeding the new corn product was in the case of two horses, which did not at first take kindly to this forage. They soon, however, learned to relish it and gradually became accustomed to mixed feed. The horses ate the mixture of ground oats and new corn product continuously for five months and relished it more keenly at the end of this period than at the be- ginning. Cowpea hay— At the North Carolina experiment station cowpea hay has been compared with bran in rations for horses, both the bran and cowpea hay being fed to the extent of 10 pounds per day, to- gether with corn and cob meal, gluten meal and corn stover. The cost of the ra- tion was diminished 5 cents per day for each horse by the substitution of cowpea hay for bran ; and the hay appeared to be equal in feeding value to the bran. Since cowpea hay may be easily grown through out the southern states and since it has the effect of improving the fertility of the soil, like other legumes, it is ob- viously desirable to use this home-grown protein whenever possible, in place of tht> much more expensive bran. Further tests of cowpea hay in North Carolina showed that a suitable ration may be compounded for horses and mules by us- ing 15 pounds corn and cob meal, l x /2 pounds cottonseed meal and 10 pounds of cowpea hay per day. The cost of this ration was only lO 1 /^ cents daily. Grama grass is one of the native grasses, which grows abundantly over large areas of the western ranges and frequently passes under the name of buffalo grass. In fact, in Montana, Wy- oming, Idaho and elsewhere, grama grass is the most common species referred to as buffalo grass. Horses are very fond of this material, either in the green state or when standing in the cured form, on the range in winter. At the Oklahoma station it has been found that when the seed is affected by smut, this grass may be dangerous or even fatal to horses. In the case in question, however, the grass was so badly affected with smut that after rains the stems of the grass were entirely covered with black spores. HORSES AND MULES 325 Hay is a term used to denote various coarse fodders in a dry condition. It or- dinarily includes the dry cured grasses, cereals and legumes. Many of these forms of hay have already been referred to and the others will be discussed below. Thus, we have not only timothy and clover hay, but wheat hay, rye hay, oat hay, etc, as well as hay formed from va- rious other grasses of less importance. The amount of hay fed to horses will vary according to the kind of hay, but as a rule it will be found desirable to feed hay mostly at night, in small quan- tities in the morning and none at all at noon. By following such a plan, the percentage of colic will be considerably reduced among horses. The beneficial effect of this plan is due to the fact that the stomach of the horse is small and best adapted to caring for small feeds at frequent intervals. On this account, hay can best be fed in the evening, at a time when the horse is at leisure to con- sume considerable quantities of hay at ease and digest it before going to work. Hay may be cut and fed mixed with the grain, or the two parts of the ration may be fed separately. The horse, at the close of a day's worn, demands his grain before receiving the hay and remains somewhat uneasy until the grain is given. On this account, it is practically impossible to get the hay eaten at once unless it be mixed with grain. The experiments thus far carriec out in testing the comparative merits oi mixing hay and grain and feeding them separately do not show any great advan- tage in favor of either method and this matter may, therefore, be well left to the discretion of the individual farmer. Millet hay i s raised quite extensively, particularly in the western states, where it is fed to horses, cattle, sheep and pigs. As a rule, no injurious effects are re- ported from its use and it seems to be an efficient ration. In North Dakota, quite serious poisoning and death in horses, was observed from eating millet hay about half headed out. The first symptoms consisted in violent trembling and struggles, followed by extreme lame- ness and tenderness of the hock join Is. The hocks became swollen, the appetite disappeared and the action of the kidneys was soon almost entirely stopped. The bone was rendered spongy and easily broken. Not only the hock joint was thus affected, but also the pastern, fet- lock, knee, elbow and shoulder joints. Straw ma y be used as a substitute for hay in almost any kind of a horse ration. Straw, however, is not equal to the best grades of hay in feeding value. The different kinds of straw are usually placed in the order: Oat, barley, wheat and rye, in relative feeding value. A certain amount of straw may always be fed to horses, the quantity varying with the amount of work and the other con- stituents of the ration. It is customary on the farm to allow horses access to the straw stacks, where they may eat straw ad libitum between the regulai meals of hay and grain. Horses at rest may find nearly a maintenance ra- tion in a good quality of oat straw. At any rate, straw may be used even more extensively than at present, in reducing the cost of the ration. Thus a consid- erable quantity of expensive hay may be replaced by a somewhat larger amount of straw with quite decided economy. Horses usually require about one-fourth more grain when fed straw than when re- ceiving hay. In France and other European coun- tries more attention is given to feeding barley and wheat straw than in thi3 country, for the reason that these grains are relatively more important in Europe than oats. The nutriment in straws is not as completely digested as in hay. In Erance, wheat straw is the most abundant form of straw fed to horses, while oat straw is recognized as su- perior to it, but cannot be obtained in large quantities. Eye straw is consid- ered of little value and is mostly used for bedding and other purposes. It is too tough and difficult to digest. Straws may be fed whole or cut, as in the case of hay. The straws of cereals may be clean or without dust, or may be greatly contaminated by the presence of rust, smut or mold. In addition to cereal straws, mention should also be made of the straws of legumes, which are fed quite extensively to horses. Thus, in many localities, the straw of field peas is fed as the only coarse forage. This material, if har- vested and preserved in good condition, constitutes more than a maintenance ration, and may keep horses in fairly good condition at hard work, for short periods. It may be fed ad libitum, with- out serious effects, except that in an occasional horse it causes some irri- tation of the kidneys. Similarly, the other legumes, raised for the seed, and, therefore, threshed, should be carefully 326 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK preserved for feed. It should be re- membered that straws of legumes have a higher feeding value than those of cereals. In many parts of the country, and particularly in the western states, the cereals are cut when the grain is in the dough stage, and preserved as hay. Thus, we have oat, wheat, barley and rye hay. The use of barley hay is most extensive in California, while oat hav is a much liked feed and is widely used in the Rocky mountain region. It has been found that occasionally two crop 1 of oat hay may be obtained if the first crop is not cut too close to the ground and before the grain has passed the dough stage. Either oat hay or barley hay is a very satisfactory feed for horses in winter, or at any time of the year. Some precaution is necessary in the use of cereal hays, in avoiding too great contamination with smuts. If grain becomes badly infested with smut, and is allowed to ripen, and is then threshed, the smut spores are largely blown away, so that the cleaned grain is not badly affected. "Where, however, these cereals are cut before becoming ripe, the smut, if present, is preserved with the hay, and, therefore, renders the material a questionable feeding stuff. Lavalard found that pea straw and pea pods, when cut fine, were about equal to timothy hay in feeding value, and more easily digested. In the west- ern states, where cereals are raised in large areas, many horses stand prac- tically idle during the winter and straw is allowed to remain in the stack, or is burned in order to get it out of the way. In such cases the straw can bet- ter be utilized as a part of the main- tenance ration for horses. Cowpea hay may be fed to work horses or mules for months at a time without any harm. According to Scule, cowpea hay puts a fine coat on horses and mules, which cannot be obtained with any other feed. Cowpea hay may be fed in rations of 10 pounds a day, mixed with corn stover, sorghum, fod- der or other coarse materials. Pasture without grain is not suffi- cient for horses which are accustomed to heavy grain feeds. Such horses may also be worried by the flies in the pas- ture, the absence of shelter and no grooming. The value of pasture de- pends directly upon the quality of the grass. Cultivated pastures, with al- falfa, clover and tame grasses, furnish a complete maintenance ration for horses at rest, similarly with the famous blue grass pastures, and also the bunch grass and grama grass of the western ranges. On the range, as is well known, horses maintain themselves in a practically wild condition, eating nothing but na- tive grasses and keeping in good condi- tion. Pasture is often resorted to for horses, not alone on account of the slightly laxative effect of green material, but also to give the feet a chance to re- cover from hard usage on pavements and cobble stones. Sorghum hay 1S equal to corn fod- der in a dry condition, and somewhat superior in a green state. Sorghum hay, however, loses much in careless curing. It may Le mixed with alfalfa hay and is not dangerous if fed with other feeds. Occasionally, as is well known, green sorghum develops prussic acid and may then cause death very promptly. The danger from prussic acid poisoning is much less, or almost entirely absent, in the case of sorghum hay. Sweet clover has also been found to be a valuable feed for horses. They must first be accustomed to it, since it has a peculiar odor and flavor which most horses do not relish at first. Sweet clover should be cut early, be- fore it is in full bloom and should be cured and handled like alfalfa. Timothy hay i s l eS s completely di- gested by horses than by cattle and sheep. It is, however, eaten with great relish, and is preferred by nearly all horse raisers. Chemical analysis shows that timothy hay is not especially rich in digestible nutriment. The reasons for its continued preference by horse- men are various. It differs decidedly from other hays in appearance and no doubt need be felt, therefore, regard- ing the character of the hay in buying it. Then, too, it is less likely to be dusty than clover hay and for this reason it is preferred, especially in the case of roadsters. In Utah, it was found that timothy hay when cut into short lengths gave the horses sore mouths, and was, therefore, somewhat objectionable. Roots and fruits_On account of the relatively small size of the horse's stomach, it is not desirable to feed either roots or fruits in large quantities. The chief object of feeding roots and fruits, is to add palatability to the ration, assist in the digestion of the. HORSES AND MULES 327 other parts of the ration and to keep the bowels in good order. Many ex- periments have been made to test the feeding value of different roots in horse rations, but as a rule, these feeds are used, as already stated, not for nutri- tive value, but for the medicinal effect which they may exercise upon the di- gestive organs or upon the kidneys. Almond hulls — In the preparation of almonds for market, it is customary to hull and sort them, the hulls being ordi- narily discarded. It has been observed that horses eat the dry almond hulls, and an analysis of them has shown this material to be rich in sugar and starch. The material, however, con- tains about 7 per cent of tannin, and, therefore, should not be fed except in small quantities. Fruit — The use of fruits in feeding horses is well known throughout the country. Nearly all horses are fond of fresh fruits, and will eat them readily in rations of moderate size. On account of the high percentage of water in fruits, they are usually considered as having little feeding value. It re- quires 100 pounds of apples to equal 15 pounds of corn or 6 pounds of cotton- seed meal. Apples and oranges are practically equal in feeding value, standing considerably above melons. Prunes, figs and grapes are somewhat more nutritious. On the basis of their relative feeding value, when bran is worth $15 a ton, fresh prunes are worth $3. Dried fruits are much more nutritious than fresh fruits. In food value, raisins stand at the head of the list of dried fruits, followed by apricots, both of these fruits, in a dried condi- tion, being about equal to bran. These facts should be borne in mind, for at times dried fruits may become slightly injured, and instead of throwing them away, they may be used as feed for farm animals, particularly hogs and horses. Artichokes are readily eaten by horses. They may be substituted for about half of the hay ration. For this purpose about 30 pounds per day are required, but this is too large an amount for hard working horses, and it is better, therefore, to feed them only in small quantities. Carrots exercise a well known laxa- tive effect upon the bowels and stimu- late the stomach and kidneys slightly. They are commonly recommended in the case of colds and digestive disturb- ances, but may cause sweating, and should not, therefore, be fed to hard working horses, except sparingly. Some feeders recommend that they should be cut into thin slices in feeding, while others have found that this was not necessary. About 4 or 5 pounds for colts, and 8 to 10 pounds for adult horses, is a suitable ration of carrots. In Canada, carrots were fed in rations of 10 pounds per day. Cassava i s a very starchy root, being used quite extensively in the manufac- ture of starch. Cassava has been tested as a horse feed in Florida, during a pe- riod of six weeks. The horses did not take kindly to cassava and appeared to relish it much less than they did sweet potatoes. The cassava was not con- sumed in uniform rations, so that it was difficult to estimate accurately its feeding value. Cassava is slightly more effective as a feeding stuff than sweet potatoes. Mangels were fed to horses in Can- ada in rations of- 6 pounds per day, but were not much relished by horses. They were eaten in smaller quantities than any other of the roots tested for this purpose. Potatoes have not proved very suit- able as a feed for thoroughbred horses. In a raw state they are not readily di- gested, and may, therefore, cause colic. They should always be cooked and may then be fed to farm horses in the pro- portion of 12 pounds to each 5 pounds of hay. According to German experi- ments, 12 pounds of raw, wholesome, ripe, unsprouted potatoes may be fed to horses with good results. They should be fed whole, if small, and sliced if large, and should preferably be mixed with straw or hay. The de- velopment of colic as the result of feed- ing horses potatoes may often be avoid- ed by not watering the horse too soon after feeding. In the same set of experiments, old, moldy or decayed potatoes caused death in eleven cases even when the potatoes were fed steamed. Po- tatoes may be substituted for a part of the corn ration, and, according to Wodarg, should be steamed. Pumpkins are often fed to horses in small quantities on farms, but no ex- periments are on record regarding their feeding value, or other effects on horses. 328 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In Queensland, pumpkins are recom- mended as useful in the cure of heaves and asthma in horses. In South Africa, pumpkins are considered an excellent feed for both horses and mules, in ra- tions of 8 to 10 pounds daily. Rutabagas have been fed to horses in rations as high as 31 pounds to replace a part of the hay. The feeding value of these roots, however, is not particularly high, and they should be used merely as appetizers. No injurious effects have been noted from feeding them. Sugar beets have a slightly laxative effect and in some cases cause horses to scour, while in many other instances they have been found quite beneficial in their effect upon the digestive organs. In cases where horses are made to scour by eating sugar beets, once a week may be often enough to feed them. If horses are receiving alfalfa or other laxative feed, it is not desirable to use sugar beets at all. Sugar beet pulp is of about the same feeding value for horses, pound for pound, as sugar beets, and helps to digest grain and hay more per- fectly than would otherwise be the case. In Utah, it has been found that horses may safely eat as much as 40 pounds per day of sugar beet pulp. This, how- ever, is somewhat too high a ration for work horses, since the pulp is too bulky in proportion to the amount of nutriment contained in it. Where the pulp can- not be obtained in a fresh condition, it may be dried and safely shipped long distances. In such cases it may be moistened before feeding and furnishes a palatable addition to the horse's ra- tion. Dried beets contain large quanti- ties of sugar and are, therefore, recom- mended for use in the horse ration by certain German investigators, particu- larly Muntz. Sweet potatoes have been successfully substituted for a part of the grain in horse's rations. In Florida, sweet pota- toes were fed in rations of from 11 to 15 pounds. Sweet potatoes may be sub- stituted for at least one-half of the grain ration, this substitution being made at the rate of 3 pounds of sweet potatoes for 1 pound of corn. On this basis, an acre of sweet potatoes yield- ing 150 bushels is equal to an acre of corn with a yield of 50 bushels, so far as feeding horses is concerned. The addition of sweet potatoes to the ra- tion caused some economy in the ex- pense of feeding. Turnips, as already indicated, have been fed extensively throughout the country in small rations. In Canada, it was found that horses relished turnips in rations of 10 pounds per day. From the above discussion of various roots and fruits used in feeding horses, it is apparent that these materials, while not containing a great amount of nutriment, are useful in increasing the palatability of the ration, regulating the digestive or- gans and improving the condition of the coat. As a rule, the use of 5 to 8 pounds of roots per day helps in pre- venting indigestion and colic. Miscellaneous feeds_It should be re- membered that the present account of horse feeding does not contain a dis- cussion of all the feeds which have been given to horses. This is obviously im- possible, for the reason, that under va- rious circumstances, nearly all edible materials have been fed to horses in smaller or larger quantities. Many of these materials, however, have not been fed under experimental conditions, and nothing definite can, therefore, be said regarding their feeding value. Under such circumstances, it is thought best to omit even the mention of them. Among the miscellaneous materials which have been fed to horses, an ex- periment was made with Kola nut, in Germany, in which it appeared that, when added to the ration, this nut in- creased the working power of horses, and also their endurance. Milk — The value of whole or skim milk in feeding colts, has long been recognized. In Iowa, it was found that the rate of gain was considerably greater when skim mill?: was added to the ration. It appears that for colts, 10 pounds of skim milk has about the same feeding value as 1 pound of a ground grain mixture, and since in the experiment the milk was fed during the severest months of winter, it is probable that the milk had even a higher feeding value than is indicated by the results obtained. As is well known to farmers, cow's milk may be used to supplement the milk of the mare in forcing colts after they reach a size where they can consume more milk than the mare yields. Colts may easily be taught to drink milk, and may be forced on a milk and grain ration in much the same manner as calves are forced to yield HORSES AND MULES baby beef. When the mare's milk is too scanty in quantity, new cow's milk may be given to the extent of 2 quarts per day and later may be gradually re- placed with skim milk in the same manner as to be recommended for calves. The skim milk may be increased in quantity to from 4 to 6 quarts per day, and may be continued in the ration un- til the colts are one year old. According to observations, made by many feeders, milk produces rapid gains and good quality in colts, and may be fed to them with as profitable returns as when given to calves or other animals. Another point in favor of skim milk is that it adds protein to the ration in much cheaper form than can be obtained from oats. In some experiments, 10 pounds of skim milk have given re- sults about equal to 5 pounds of oats and on this basis the feeding value of skim milk would be much higher than the price usually charged for it. For a short time after the colts are weaned, Stewart recommends that a tablespoon- ful of boiled flaxseed be mixed with milk, in order to prevent constipation. Colts, however, are susceptible to scour- ing, and some attention should be given to the quality of skim milk as fed to them. It should preferably be fed warm and in a fresh condition. In feeding cow's milk to colts, it should also be remembered that the percentage of fat in cow's milk is nearly three times that in mare's milk. Cow's whole milk, therefore, contains relatively too much fat and the skim milk is in com- position nearer that of the mare's milk. Molasses — Within recent years, mo- lasses, sugar, sirup and various mixtures of molasses with ground grain, ground alfalfa, blood meal and other substances have been extensively fed to horses in the tropics, in Europe and throughout this country, particularly in the south- ern states. The reports thus far made on molasses feeding have been favorable, for the most part. It appears from French experiments that molasses has a tendency to hasten the passage of food through the alimentary tract. Oc- casionally, moreover, molasses causes more or less poisonous effects in the form of acute indigestion or inflamma- tion of the kidneys. In the latter form of the trouble, there is an abundant uri- nation and the urine contains an ex- cess of the salts of potash and soda, to- gether with some albumen and sugar. According to French investigations, the irritating effect of crude molasses, as fed to horses, is due to the presence of potash salt in this material. The ra- tions of molasses which are required to cause digestive disturbances are much larger than the usual size of ration, and also much larger than those which pro- duce an excess of urine. While good molasses is a highly nutritive food ma- terial, easily digested and assimilated, and in many cases corrects faulty diges- tion, it may occasionally cause diabetes. One quart of molasses, at a value of 3 cents, was found equal to 4 quarts of oats, at a value of about 6 cents. When horses were fed molasses, they were found to do as much work and remained generally in a better condition than when molasses was left out of the ration. The cost of feeding is almost always somewhat reduced by the use of When molasses was fed experimen- tally to three horses at Cornell, it was found that sugar appeared in the urine soon after the molasses was given and albumen in two cases. It is not to be supposed that the sugar always appears in the urine when molasses is fed, but on account of the fact that molasses may cause diabetes, it is perhaps well to observe carefully the effect of molas- ses in the ration for any particular horse before feeding it in large quantities or for long periods. In experiments by Grandeau, the use of sugar, molasses and other sweet feeding stuffs did not appear to affect materially the digesti- bility of other constituents of the ra- tion. In Copenhagen, a feeding experiment was carried on with blood molasses. The result of this experiment showed that 3 pounds of the molasses feed mixture had about the same feeding value as 4 pounds of grain, consisting of a mix- ture of barley and oats. At the pre- vailing prices, the molasses feed was somewhat cheaper than corn, and il was estimated that by replacing one- fourth of the grain with this feed, an annual saving of about $5.50 per horse would be effected. One of the chief ad- vantages claimed for molasses in a ra tion for horses, is that it renders in- ferior hay more palatable. It also has a slightly beneficial medicinal effect in cases of colds, keeps horses fat and is. a cheap ration, 330 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK On the basis of data gathered from a large number of Louisiana planters Dalrymple states that molasses is widely used as a feeding stuff for plantation horses and mules. The average con- sumption, as observed by him on 42 plantations in the sugar belt, being 9V2 pounds per head per day, and ranging from 2 to 22 pounds. According to this investigator, the opinion that molasses constitutes a wholesome, easily digested and economical constituent of a ration for draft animals, is confirmed. The southern planters have found that mo- lasses may advantageously be mixed with grain or cut hay. In Sweden, molasses has been fed during long periods in ra- tions of 3 pounds per day without causing injurious effects upon the horses. In Massachusetts, a much ad- vertised material, known as blomo feed, was tested in feeding horses. This feed is apparently a mixture of ground corn stalks, or similar material, with dried blood and refuse molasses. It is nearly black in color, sticky and of a bulky, fibrous nature. As sold at the present time, it is guaranteed to contain 15 per cent of protein. A digestion ex- periment with blomo feed showed that it is quite inferior to corn or oats in this respect. At the ordinary market price, the proprietary feed is much more ex- pensive than oats or corn meal, cost- ing at least twice as much as corn meal and one-third more than oats. Most horses were found to eat it readily, and it may be fed in daily rations of 6 quarts. It is not injurious, so far as has been observed, but it is very ex- pensive and does not keep well. In Florida, Conner tried cane sirup as a feed for horses, mixed with corn. The sirup was somewhat thin and for this reason 5 pounds of it was substituted for 4 pounds of corn. Both mules and horses remained in good condition on the sirup, although they were kept at hard work. It appears, therefore, that low grade sirup may be fed to work horse3 and mules, provided it is mixed with chopped hay or grain. One serious ob- jection to this feed, from a practical standpoint, is that molasses, unless care- fully mixed with straw, hay or grain makes the mangers very gummy. Even under the best of conditions, it is a nasty feed, and attracts flies. If mo- lasses is to be fed regularly, it would seem best to have a metallic lining to the feed box so that it can be thorough- ly cleaned at frequent intervals, partic- ularly in hot weather. A blood-molasses feed used in horse rations in Copenhagen, proved very val- uable for horses and appeared to be suit- able for substitution in the place of a part of the grain ration, at the rate of 3 pounds of the molasses feed to 1 pounds of grain. At the prevailing prices, the molasses feed was cheaper than a whole ration of grain and pro duced a considerable annual saving in the expense of feed. Molasses has also proved a successful feed for horses in the Fiji islands. As much as 30 pound3 of molasses a day were fed to each working horse, but the ration finally adopted as most suitable was 15 pounds of molasses, 3 pounds of bran and 1 pounds of corn. Green cane tops were also fed in addition to this ration. The health of the horses remained excellent and no diarrhea resulted. On the con- trary, the molasses appeared to have a constipating effect, which was partly counteracted by the bran. The use of molasses and cane tops, which would otherwise have been a waste material, effected a saving of over $45 per head per year. The managers of sugar plan- tations have decided, therefore, that mo- lasses is a satisfactory substitute foi starchy food, and recommended rations of 15 pounds per day to horses weighing 1.250 pounds. The molasses produces no undue fatness or softness, nor does it lower the endurance of the horse. Berns found in his experiments with molasses, that horses gain from 2 to 3 pounds a day, when fed 1 quan of molasses diluted with 5 pounds of cut hay. The rapid gain was made during a period of rest, but at the end of six weeks the horses appeared to be in fine .working condition, and were not softened as a result of eating mo- lasses. Further experiments were then carried on with 100 heavy truck horses for a period, of 14 months. Each horse received morning and night, 1 quart of molasses diluted in 3 quarts of water, thoroughly mixed with 6 pounds of cut hay, 2V2 quarts of bran and IV2 quarts of corn meal. The noon ration consisted of 5 quarts of dry oats, and long hay was fed at night. The animals gradually improved in con- dition and gained in weight, their coat becoming sleek and glossy. Molasses has also been tested with army horses in Porto Rico, being mixed HOUSES AND MULES 331 with chopped grass. The horses received 35 pounds of grass and 14 pounds ol' molasses daily. Some of the molasses was given as a drink diluted in water. This ration was continued for 5 months, and it was observed that at first the horses lost weight, but later gained in a satisfactory manner. The grass and mo- lasses ration cost 15 cents a day as com- pared with a hay and oat ration at 27 cents. In Porto Rico, as in various other countries, the use of molasses appeared to improve the appearance of the coat, and any tendency to constipation was readily checked by the use of bran. In Louisiana, Godchaux reports that plantation owners have gradually learned the value of black strap molas- ses as a feed stuff for horses. This ma- terial was previously of no value, but at present it brings 5 cents a gallon as a horse feed. The use of molasses with a properly balanced ration, has gradual- ly diminished the cost of feeding. Thus, on a series of plantations, which used 240 horses and mules, the feed bill was formerly $10,000, whereas it has now been brought down to $2,500 per year. Formerly as much as 18 pounds of oats per day were used, where now the ra- tion consists of 8 pounds of corn meal, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 11 pounds of molasses and 15 pounds of cowpea hay. Animal feeds_It has been found by many feeders that animals which are naturally herbivorous may not only take kindly to considerable quantities of ani- mal feed in their ration, but actually give fine returns for it. Thus it has been found that horses will, eat considerable quantities of meat. In the siege of Paris and under other similar circum- stances, it is reported that horses ate as high as 6 pounds of horse meat daily, either cooked or raw, chopped fine and mixed with other material. No bad ef- fects were produced by such a ration and the horses seemed to thrive well on it. In addition to the miscellaneous feeds already mentioned, a large number of other materials are occasionally fed to horses. Thus, the by-products obtained in the manufacture of all kinds of vegetable oils are used as feed for the horse. The oil cakes, which have been fed to horses, include linseed meal, cot- tonseed meal, palm cake, sesame cake, cocoanut oake and other materials" of the same sort of less importance. Like- wise in the manufacture of starch, va- rious by-products are obtained, nearly all of which have been fed to horses. The most important of these are the va- rious gluten meals, and gluten feeds, which are well known as having a high feeding value. Similarly, all of the residues obtained in brewing and distilling, have been used. Attention has already been called to the value of ordinary milling by- products, such as bran, middlings and shorts of various kinds of cereals, as well as meal obtained from grinding cottonseed cakes, linseed cakes, the by- products obtained in the preparation of rice for market, etc. Some of these feeding stuffs are mentioned merely to indicate that they may be used as horse feed, but not to insist on their value or importance. As a matter of fact, many of the products just mentioned in the list of miscellaneous feeds are of quite subordinate importance on account of the limited extent to which they are produced or are available for horse feed. With regard to condimental feeds for horses, it may be said that the farmer would do best to buy his drugs and other substances, used as tonics, at regular dealers and prepare his own condimental feeds from them. The pro- prietary feeds are altogether too expen- sive. FATTENING HORSES In feeding horses for work or for the market, the farmer often loses sight of the fact that one of the primary pur- poses of his feeding is to produce gain in weight. Horse flesh is just as valuable an asset to the farmer as beef. It is a common practice in fattening horses to give them hay in self-feeders and grain four or five times a day. One scheme which has been recommended as very effective, consists in the following practice : Ear corn at 5 A. M. ; water at 7 A. M. ; at 9 A. M. hay in the racks and 3 quarts of a mixture of one-third oats and two-thirds bran; at noon, corn; at 3 P. M., oats, bran and hay; at 4 P. M., water and at 6 P. M., corn. In this scheme of feeding, 15 ears of corn are fed to each horse during the day. The preferred hay is a fine quality of clover, free from dust. Another system of fattening horses for market or putting flesh on old horses, consists in feeding boiled barley, ground corn and molasses. Each feed of this mixture contains 3 pounds of boiled bar- ley, 2 pounds of corn meal and linseed 332 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK meal, at the rate of 1 pound a day, in addition to a ration of molasses, say 10 to 15 pounds daily. In fattening draft horses, Coverdale recommends bran for foals and mares, and in putting on the proper market finish for mature horses, 10 to 12 pounds of a mixture of equal parts bran, oats and corn; or of three parts oats and two parts bran; or equal parts of bran, wheat and shorts. An- other effective fattening ration consists of 18 ears of corn, twice a day, 15 quarts of oats and bran mixed, and 10 pounds of hay. While it has come to be a recognized market requirement, that horses must be fat in order to obtain the top price, it is also well known among people who are familiar with horses, that animals treated in this manner are exceedingly soft, short-winded and sweat profusely. In fact, when an animal is bought with a layer of soft fat underneath the skin, as required by modern markets, it is well understood that at first he is of little use as a work animal and must be trained down to a proper form be- fore he can render the best service of which he is capable. Narrow versus wide ration — The question is often asked whether the proper ration for horses is balanced in the same manner as that recommended for beef cattle, sheep and hogs, or whether a considerably wider ration may not yield satisfactory results. In Utah, it was found in one set of ex- periments, that horses on corn and timothy did as well as those on oats, clover and timothy. In this experiment, it appeared that the value of food for the horse sometimes depends upon the heat units which it furnishes. The amount of protein in the corn and timothy ration which proved successful in the experiment thus mentioned was considerably lower than that which is ordinarily recommended. In subse- quent experiments in Utah, corn meal and timothy did not sustain work horses as well as oats, wheat and clover hay and the narrow ration appeared to be much more effective and desirable for horses in summer than a wide nutritive ratio. In winter it is believed that a somewhat wider ration should be used than in summer. Exclusive grain ration — No farmer would think of trying to keep his horse on a grain ration without any coarse forage or other feed. As it is a matter of some interest, however, to determine whether such a thing be possible or not, the question has been tested in a num- ber of places with negative results. Maintenance ration — The use of a maintenance ration is perhaps more common with horses than with other farm animals, since there are often pe- riods when there is no work for farm horses to do and during this time they need not receive any more feed than is necessary to keep them in good condition. In Wyoming, from 13V2 to 15 pounds of alfalfa hay in addition to the straw has been found a good maintenance ration. It is gen- erally known among farmers that horses may be kept in fairly good condition during a period of rest, without the use of grain. If the coarse forage is not good, however, a small grain feed should always be added; otherwise the horses will lose in weight and condition. Where horses have access to straw stacks, as is frequently the case on the farm, from 12 to 14 pounds of good al- falfa, clover or cowpea hay is sufficient to maintain them without the addition of grain to the ration. Loss of appetite— It is a quite se- rious matter with any domestic animal when he gets off feed or loses his appe- tite. Such occurrences, however, are quite common, especially where a care- less system of feeding prevails. The cause of the loss of the appetite may be overwork or the opposite condition of too little exercise. Loss of appetite may also be due to improper food, unbalanced ra- tions or faulty management in general. In order to prevent horses from getting off feed, it is desirable not only to give considerable variety in the daily ration, but to change the ration from time to time, as decidedly as can be done with convenience and with available feeds. As already indicated, many companies which employ large numbers of horses have found that the percentage of loss of appetite and other diseases among horses have decreased greatly when a good system of feeding has been adopted. This will be found to be true on the or- dinary farm. At times, however, the horse refuses his food for no apparent reason, and the average feeder, if he does not think of any cause which seems to fit the case, usually resorts to some form of condi- mental feed or tonic. In cases where the appetite becomes faulty without the HORSES AND MULES neglect of the feeder, it may be well to give some form of so-called condition powder or condimental feed. A feed of this sort, which has given excellent re- sults, wherever tried, and which may be compounded by any farmer, contains a mixture of linseed meal, flaxseed, mo- lasses and corn meal, in the proportion 25, 10, 20, 40, with small amounts of turmeric root, ginger, caraway seed, gen- tian, cream of tartar, sulphur, coriander seed and common salt. This condimental feed contains about 20 per cent of mo- lasses, and according to nearly all feed- ers, who have tested molasses, this ma- terial has, among other effects, that of improving the appetite and digestion of horses. Horses may not only get off feed or lose appetite to some extent as the re- sult of careless feeding, but more se- rious diseases may be due to the same cause. Thus, irrational feeding may cause abortion, heaves, swelled legs, founder, scratches, urticaria, sore mouth, choking, bloat, colic, constipation, dysen- tery, azoturia, diabetes, bloody urine, etc. It should be remembered in this con- nection, that boiled grains are somewhat harder to digest than when raw. Colic may also be caused by watering the horses heavily at too long intervals. A safe and easy rule to remember is, that horses should be watered about half an hour before or after feeding. It may be laid down, therefore, as a general proposition, established beyond doubt, that by means of a systematic course of feeding work horses and mules, the best prevention of various diseases is se- cured. Water — The amount of water re- quired by horses appears to be affected in a quite pronounced manner by the kind of feed which they receive. In Utah, it was found that horses fed al- falfa hay drank about 4 pounds of water per day more than those which received timothy. This test was made in April. In February, horses on timothy drank 62 1 /2 pounds of water per day, while those on alfalfa required 70 pounds per day. The extra amount of water taken when the coarse part of the ration con- sisted of alfalfa, was excreted in the urine. In Florida, a number of tests of this matter has shown that the aver- age horse or mule varies greatly in his water requirement, drinking from 50 to 110 pounds of water per day. On most farms it is customary to water the horses after feeding in the morning, be- fore and after feeding at noon and be- fore feeding at night. This practice is perfectly safe and satisfactory if the water is not given in large quantities too soon before or after receiving grain or hay rations. As a matter of fact, the caution just expressed in this matter is often not necessary, since it is well known that many horses may be watered immediately before or after feeding without any serious results. In New Hampshire, also, it has been found that the feed exercises an influ- ence on the amount of water consumed by horses. A ration of corn and bran seemed to cause the horses to drink most water, while a ration containing corn, linseed meal and hay had the ef- fect of causing the horses to drink the least water, which was observed in any of the rations tested at the New Hamp- shire station. During a period of 17 days, the amount of water consumed by the horses varied from 3,625 to 4,000 pounds, showing a great difference in the individuality of horses. While the kind and quality of feed may exercise a con- siderable influence on the amount of water taken by horses, the amount of Water appears not to influence the di- gestibility of different elements in the feed, particularly the mineral matters. Cost of rations— The cost of horse ra- tions is as important a matter as the cost of rations of other farm animals and recent experiments have shown that many of the rations fed to horses on farms, in the stables of transportation companies and elsewhere, are altogether too expensive for the amount of energy which they provide. It is often possible to diminish the cost of the ration greatly without lowering its effectiveness. The economy in such a practice is self-evi- dent. In New Hampshire, Burkett studied the cost of different horse ra- tions and found that the expense varied according to the market price of mate- rials in that state, from 17 to 22V2 cents per day per horse. On account of the many substitutes which have already been suggested for a part of the oat ration, there is no further excuse for feeding oats as the exclusive grain ration to work horses, when such materials as corn, cottonseed meal, brewers' grains, bran, barley, etc, are to be conveniently obtained. In the 334 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK case of the New Hampshire experiments on the cost of horse rations, it was found that oats was the most expensive part of the ration, and that this grain proved no more satisfactory than other feeding stuffs. In the experiments in question, the average total cost per year for feed for one horse was $47.35, and the average cost for feed for each hour's work ac- tually performed was 3.4 cents. Observations made along this line in Canada, indicate that under average Canadian conditions, the cost of feed and the care of the horse may be esti- mated at about 37 cents per day. In Ohio, a set of experiments was carried out in determining the cost of feeding horses. The daily grain ration in this case consisted of 7^2 pounds each of corn and cob meal and bran; while each horse received one ton of hay per year and in winter an additional feed of 30 pounds of silage per day. The cost of feeding under these conditions was $84 per horse per annum. Colts — If it at any time becomes nec- essary to raise colts by hand, they should Fig. 225 COLT CREEP FOR FEEDING GRAIN get fresh, warm cow's milk with a table- spoonful of sugar to each quart of milk. It is desirable that cow's milk fed to colts should not test over 4 per cent of fat. Cow's milk may be given a pint or less at a meal, five to ten times per day. Fresh skim milk may gradually be substituted for the whole milk, as with calves, and the colts may be taught to eat grain. By the end of two months, colts should drink as readily as calves. If it is desired to hasten growth as rapidly as possible, one fresh egg may be stirred in the milk daily, for each colt. The addition of sugar to cow's milk is not necessary on account of its composi- tion, but in order to make the milk more palatable for the colt. After colts are weaned they may be fed from 4 to 6 quarts of skim milk per day, until one year old. The results obtained from such a system of feeding are very satis- factory, and in some comparative tests which have been made produce horses of 100 pounds more weight than would otherwise have been the case. Moreover, the use of skim milk is favorable to the development of good bone and muscle. If milk cannot be obtained for colt feeding, it is necessary to give them oats or some other grain twice a day. Before the colt is weaned it should be taught to eat a small amount of lin- seed meal in addition to the oat ra- tion. The purpose of feeding linseed meal is to prevent constipation after the colt is weaned. Equally good re- sults may be obtained by the use of a little flaxseed tea. Colts should be fed grain as soon as they will eat it, and for this purpose oats and bran are excellent mixed with small quantities of salt. Colts should not be allowed to starve during the first year, for if a scanty ration is fed, they may be stunted to such an ex- tent that they never reach full develop- ment afterwards. Colts on the range should be moved from time to time, since the feed may get poor in one lo- cality and may be much better in an- other. It is also necessary to keep a close watch on the water supply and salt. Compounding rations — I n the discus- sion of various feeds for horses, mention has been made of their feeding value; medicinal effect, if any, and the quan- tities in which they should be fed. In compounding these materials for ra- tions, a great variation will be noted. In the northern states, the standard ra- tion with horsemen consists of oats and timothy hay. In the southern states the prevailing ration is corn stover, corn, cottonseed meal, soy beans and cowpeas, while on the Pacific coast a very common ration consists of barley hay, oat hay or wild oat hay, supple- mented by barley or other grains. In other parts of the country still other ra- tions are commonly fed. It is perfectly evident, therefore, that feeding horses is an art more than a science. After a horse raiser has ac- quired a certain amount of practical experience in feeding one ration, that ration, in his hands, gives satisfactory results. The same feeding materials HORSES AND MULES might be used with unsatisfactory re- sults by other persons, who have not had experience with those particular feeding stuffs. There is no reason why one ration should be adopted in a cer- tain locality because it has been found particularly suitable for another locality. No farmer in the southern states, for example, would consider it practical to buy oats and timothy hay for feeding his horses, simply because that ration was found satisfactory in the northern states. There is no one ration for horses. A combination of suitable and economical feed stuffs should be made, according to the abundance of various crops and the prevailing market prices, and various substitutions may then be made in a ration, as indicated above, under the discussion of different feeds. Sample rations_It may be well to present a few samples of rations which have given good results in different lo- calities. In Edinburgh, it was found that horses at heavy hauling on a ration of 16 pounds of oats and 21 pounds of Italian rye grass hay, kept in excellent condition, but lost weight when the hay was diminished to the extent of 2 pounds. In Kansas City, draft horses have been found to keep in condition on. a ration of 20 pounds each of oats and hay; or on a ration 20 pounds hay, 4 x /2 pounds corn and 6V2 pounds oats, morning and noon and 6 pounds of wheat bran at night. In California, a good ration consists of 10 pounds al- falfa hay, 12 pounds barley and 7 pounds cracked corn. McLay, a noted breeder of Clydesdale horses, has come to the conclusion on a basis of practi- cal experience, that 10 pounds of oats, 5 pounds of corn and 3 pounds of bran, divided into three equal feeds make a ration which cannot be much improved. The amount of corn may be increased during the winter. In addition to this grain feed, about 15 or 16 pounds of hay are allowed for each horse. The rations allowed army horses in the United States, are as follows: For cavalry horses, 12 pounds oats and 14 pounds of hay; for artillery horses, the same; and for mules, 9 pounds of oats and 14 pounds of hay. In Great Britain very similar rations are allowed for army horses. As a rule, however, both hay and straw are fed, with a similar oat ration to that which prevails among our army horses. In France, oats and hay in similar proportions are the standard rations for army horses, and the same may be said of Germany. Omnibus horses, however, in France re- ceive beans, corn, oats, hay and straw; and in England, corn, peas, hay and straw or beans in the place of peas. Fire company horses in various cities of the United States receive oats and hay with straw and small quantities of bran. Express horses usually receive corn in addition to oats, bran and hay; fre- quently, also, both corn and clover meal are fed during the day. In Scotland, MacNeilage collected some valuable data regarding the feed- ing of draft and work horses in cities and for farms. In many localities it was found that brood mares were given a mash, composed of mixed ground grains at 5 A. M.; cut corn stalks ait noon and mash again at 6 P. M. Near foaling time a little molasses was added to the mixture. Other horse feeders fed bruised oats, linseed meal and small quantities of Swedish turnips to mares during pregnancy. Before the colt is weaned, the amount of linseed meal and oats was considerably increased. Mac Neilage found that the use of boiled food is dying out in the western part of Scotland, and on many farms has been abandoned entirely. Farmers have found that horses winter better, and are less liable to colic. The general tendency among the most successful of Scotch feeders is to feed the horse at least five and even six times per day. The same feeder considers that a work horse should never be fed less than four times a day, and that five or six times is still better. .Whenever it is necessary to work horses soon after feeding, it is strongly recom- mended that the hay should be fed cut, in order to check the liability to colic. Nosebags—With all work horses, whether on farms or in cities, it has been found, as the result of the extended use of nosebags for feeding horses, that this practice is a very commendable one in every way. The percentage of colic is greatly reduced thereby, and the horse kept in better condition. By the use of nosebags it is possible to divide the daily ration up into a number of small meals at more frequent intervals than would otherwise be possible; and ex- perience shows that a horse thrives bet- ter on five or six or even seven small meals per day than two or three heavier meals. Feeding brood mares — Previous to foaling, and especially after foaling, 336 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK mares should be fed a nitrogenous grain ration, combined with green feed, to give a large milk yield. Alfalfa, clover and cowpea hay are perhaps best suited to this purpose. The more milk yielded by the mare, the better the development in the colt, since colts are in this respect on the same basis as the calf, lamb or pig. Ogilvie recommends that brood mares should be kept at work constantly during the period of pregnancy, lighten- ing the work somewhat towards foaling time. In his experience, better and more vigorous colts were obtained by this method than where the mares are too much pampered and kept in idle- ness. "The average farm mare can be worked, if in the hands of a careful and intelligent man, right up to the foaling time, without fear of injury to her or her prospective offspring." The same breeder recommends that after a rest of two weeks, following foaling, the mare should again be put to daily work. The colt need not be taken away from the mother during the working hours unless he is too much in the way or li- able to do harm to crops. A great variety of opinions prevail re- garding the time when mares should be returned to the stallion for service. Dif- ferent breeders follow different practices in this respect and each one insists up- on his time as being Best. Thus we find recommended as the proper time every day from the ninth to the twenty-first after foaling. The majority of breeders, however, prefer the 18th to the 21st day after foaling. No mistake will be made if either one of these days is selected. Care and feed of the stallion — The stallion needs plenty of oats, bran, clean hay, crushed barley, green grass and other forage and no corn. The oats and bran should be fed twice per day, and throughout the mare season. Warren recommends a good sized feed of boiled barley with a little flaxseed cooked in it, mixed with bran and fed hot at night. It is recommended that the stallion should not be fed large quantities of hay or al- lowed to drink much water in the morn- ing, especially just before service. Many breeders use small quantities of beans in the ration for stallions, especially during the breeding season. "With re- gard to the number of mares which may be served by a stallion, much difference of opinion prevails, and great differ- ences are observed in individual horses. If a stallion is allowed to begin ser- vice at two years of age, the number of mares should be very small; otherwise, considerable injury will be noted in the development of the stallion and will ap- pear most conspicuously in later years. Most horse raisers recommend that the stallion be not allowed to go into service until he is four or five years old. He may then serve about 20 mares the first season, increasing the number until 50 is reached. As a rule, the owners of stallions attempt to keep them gaining in flesh, rather than losing during the breeding season. In order that this may be accomplished,, the stallion should not be over fat at the opening of the season. He should begin the season in moderate flesh and be fed liberally enough to make slight gains in weight during the whole season. His effectiveness and the percentage of colts will be higher than if the stallion begins the season too fat and loses weight as the season pro- gresses. The digestive capacity of the horse — As stated in Chapter I, the stomach of ruminants consists of four divisions, whereas the horse has only a single, comparatively small stomach. As the result of this difference, the process of digestion in the horse's stomach is much simpler than it is in that of the cow or sheep. From a chemical standpoint, however, the processes are similar. Ac- cording to Henry, the average capacity of a horse's stomach is 19 quarts; the small intestines, 67 quarts; and the large intestines, 137 quarts. Most comparative experiments with horses and ruminants show that horses have a lower digestive efficiency than cattle and sheep. The horse digests less crude fiber, especially in coarse forage plants, than does the steer or sheep. It does not always ap- pear, however, in such tests, that the digestion of the horse is particularly in- effective. Thus, in Utah, it was found that horses make as good use of their food as cattle and are fully as easy to mature as steers. Injurious feeding stuffs — Many plants are known to be more or less poi- sonous to horses and some of the com- mon cultivated horse feeds occasionally become poisonous as the result of being infected with ergot, smut or molds. Ergot occurs quite commonly on rye, wild rye grass and various other spe- cies of wild grasses, particularly HORSES AND MULES 337 throughout the western states. When eaten in large quantities, this material is highly injurious^ and may cause death if persisted in. (See Poisonou3 Plants.) In Vermont, the common horse-tail or scouring rush has been found poi- sonous for horses. It affects young animals sooner than old ones, but horses fed grain resist the action of the poison much longer than those which do not re- ceive grain. Apparently, horses which graze upon the green plant are not poi- soned, particularly if the plant is some- what immature. In hay, however, it causes serious results. The symptoms are unthriftiness, loss of weight, loss of control of the muscles, muscular spasms and inability to stand. The treatment consists, in the first place, in stopping the use of the hay which contains the plant, and the administration of a pur- gative tonic and nutritious ration, par- ticularly one which is slightly laxative. Occasionally golden-rod has proved more or less poisonous to horses, prob- ably on account of the presence of an al- kaloid or a fungous disease. The exact nature of the poisoning, however, is not well understood. In the western range states, a num- ber of poisonous plants are known to af- fect horses. The loco disease is ex- ceedingly common in horses in parts of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming and Colo- rado. (See Poisonous Plants.) Lupine hay has occasionally caused poisoning in horses but this occur3 much less frequently than with sheep. The apparent immunity in most cases of horses to lupine poisoning appears to rest on the fact that the horse does not eat the lupine beans, but selects merely the leaves, which do not contain any poison. In South Dakota, the rattle-box weed was found to be quite poisonous to horses, although the number of animals which feed upon it is comparatively small and, therefore, only slight impor- tance attaches to it. Not only feeds containing ergot may be injurious to horses, but also moldy or smutty grains or coarse forage may cause bad results. Thus horses have died as the result of eating a smutty oat hay, moldy corn, moldy silage, moldy clover hay and other spoiled feed stuffs. Horses appear to be more susceptible to the inju- rious effects of molds and parasitic fungi than are cattle and sheep. The poisonous effects of sorghum, which occasionally develops prussic acid, are, of course, equally apparent in horses and cattle. The bad effects noted in feeding millet hay to horses in North Dakota have al- ready been referred to. In addition to the poisonous plants and fungi already discussed as poisonous to horses, men- tion should also be made of larkspur, aconite, death camas, flat pea, and many other native plants, which are more or less common on the western ranges. Box stalls for horses may be con- structed in so many different ways that it is of little practical importance to suggest the details of construction, since these will be determined by the particu- lar circumstances of each case. Good •esults, however, have been obtained from the use of planks 2x6 inches placed 3 inches apart, and bolted. If it is especially desired to keep the feed box clean, it may be constructed so as to tilt outward, except at feeding time; it is thus easy to clean it and no project- ing pieces of wood are left in the box stall, which may tempt the horse to form the habit of cribbing. Ventilation_Bad ventilation for horses has been found to predispose them to brain congestion, respiratory catarrh and a general unsatisfactory condition. It is not necessary, however, to construct such elaborate systems of ventilation for horses or other farm animals as has sometimes been recom- mended. In other words, good ventila- tion is much more necessary than a high temperature of the stable and a sufficient amount of fresh air may be obtained in almost all stables. In fact, unless stables are built with- particular care, it is impossible to prevent air from passing through them in all directions and affording sufficient ventilation for more animals than the stables could pos- sibly accommodate. A good temperature for horse stables is about 50° F. in winter for work horses and 60 to 65° F. for mares and suckling colts. For work horses, however, it is not necessary, as every farmer knows, to have the temperature so high. In fact, the whole matter of the temperature requirement depends on what the ani- mal is accustomed to. Horses which have been kept in artificially warmed stables would be likely to take cold if exposed in stables full of cracks and showing practically the same tempera- ture inside as outside. On the other FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK hand, horses which are accustomed to passing the winter in cold stables, might be injuriously affected by being kept in artificially warmed stables with a com- paratively high temperature and mois- ture content of the air. The use of range horses in the East has increased so much of late that a brief mention of the industry seems desir- able. Range horses are brought east more and more from year to year. At first a considerable market for them was found in St. Paul, Kansas City, St. Louis and Chicago. They are now brought into New York, New England and elsewhere in quite large numbers. Range horses in skillful hands are more easily broken than is commonly sup- posed and the prejudice against brands is disappearing. Age of horses — The average age of usefulness of a horse may be set down as about 18 years, although many of them are not very effective after reach- ing 12 years of f.ge. Horses frequently live beyond 30 years, and occasionally to the age of 40 or 50 years. There are mares on record which have produced 32 colts and quite often horses are ca- pable of working up to the age of 25 or 30. Thoroughbred mares may be bred to a somewhat older age than draft mares. Thus, many breeders use thor- oughbred mares up to the age of 22, but draft mares are usually bred only to the age of 15 to 18 years. As a rule, stallions are not good for service past the age of 20. Geldings are preferred by some horse users and mares by others. The differences in the effectiveness of geldings and mares are not great enough to be of any note. According to some Russian authorities, geldings are slightly more susceptible to disease than mares, but the statistics on this point are not extensive enough to be of much value. Blanketing horses—Blankets are not always used in a rational manner in protecting horses. Thus when a blanket is placed in immediate contact with a horse underneath the harness, especially in the case of horses which are kept at severe work in winter, they sweat quite profusely while in motion and when at rest must suffer from the cold on ac- count of being moist and covered with a moist blanket. Better results in equal- izing the temperature would be ob- tained by working horses without blan- kets and blanketing them while at rest. The only justification for fastening blan- kets on working horses in cities is that the owners cannot always depend upon the drivers to place blankets on them when the horses are at rest. In Utah, the matter of blanketing horses was studied with reference to the effect upon the gains in horses and the amount of food eaten. It was found that when blankets are worn daily while the horses were at work, they proved a source of irritation to the horses, and blanketed horses lost in weight, while those which were not blanketed during the working hours gained slightly on the same ration. Grooming horses— It has been found by experiment that the weight of per- spiration which passes through the skin of the horse during a hard day's work equals that of the feces. It is apparent, therefore, that a large amount of solid waste material in the perspiration must become deposited on the skin and in the hair. This is particularly true of horses kept at hard work and confined in sta- bles during the resting hours. When horses are turned out to pasture and not worked, the amount of perspiration s exceedingly small, and the consump- tion of green grass and other laxative feeds makes it unnecessary to pay much attention to the care of the skin. In the stable, however, this is an important matter. The mere presence of flies or other similar external sources of annoy- ance is sufficient to cause some worry on the part of the horse and actual loss in weight, or at any rate the use of more food for the same amount of work. Similarly with an unclean skin, the itching caused by the presence of this filth on the skin is sufficient to worry the horse, and the digestive and other functions are also influenced unfavor- ably by the unhealthy condition of the skin, which results from lack of care. There is, therefore, abundant renson for grooming horses quite aside from the mere consideration of appearance. MacNeilage found that throughout the northern part of Scotland, horses are commonly groomed three times daily, while some distillery and brewery horses were groomed five times per day; viz., at 5 and 11 a. m., and at 12.30, 6 and 8 p. m. When the horses are returned to the stables in a sweaty condition, they are first treated with an iron scraper, then rubbed with a wisp of straw or HORSES AND MULES 339 coarse sacking, after which they are cov- ered until dry and then thoroughly cleaned with brush and currycomb. The appearance of the coat and the general thriftiness of the horses are in all cases much improved by thorough grooming, so that this operation is not to be looked upon as a mere matter of style. By means of careful grooming the skin is kept in a healthy condition, the sweat pores are opened and horses are actually able to endure hard work more success- fully and with less loss of weight. Determining age by teeth — At birth the colt usually has no teeth in the front in the face of the central front teeth are obliterated or razed off, and the same process takes place in the other front teeth, ending with the corner teeth by the end of the second year. The shedding of the milk teeth and the appearance of the second set, or per- manent teeth, begins to take place at from two and one-half to three years of age. The first, or milk teeth, may always be recognized by their shortness, white color and by a constriction or neck near the gum. The middle front teeth are shed first, the intermediate ones following at the age of three and Fig. 226 — FLEXIBLE SHAFT HORSE CLIPPING MACHINE of the mouth and only four molars in each jaw. After a few days, the middle incisor teeth appear, and after about a month another grinder breaks through on each side of each jaw. At the age of four months the intermediate front teeth appear, and at the age of six to eight months the side front teeth, or cor- ners as they are commonly called, break through, and also another grinder on each jaw. This completes the set of milk teeth. As soon as a tooth breaks through the gum, it is subject to wear, which, in connection with its growth, continually changes its appearance. At the age of 13 to 16 months the cavities one-half to four years, and the corner teeth between four and one-half and five years of age. These conditions will thus serve to determine the age of the horse up until the time when he be- comes mature. A horse is said to be mature at five years of age, when his set of permanent teeth is completed. The determination of the age of horses between the ages of five and 10 years may be made with considerable certainty by experts, from a study of the front teeth of the lower and upper jaws. Nat- urally these teeth undergo a progressive wearing process, which changes their appearance as the animal grows older, 340 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In general it should be remembered that the shape of the front teeth gradually changes with age. In young horses they are wider from side to side than from front to back; while in very old horses they become thicker from front to back than from side to side, showing in many cases a triangular shape. At six years the nippers become worn down even with the middle teeth and the inner edge of the corner teeth is also worn down even with the outer one. The nip- pers of the upper jaw take about two years longer to wear down than those of the lower, so that until a horse is eight years old his age may be deter- mined nearly as well by referring to the upper nippers as by examining the lower nippers at the age of six. At the age of seven the tushes become dull at the point and somewhat rounded by wear and both edges of the corner teeth are smooth with a small cavity on the face. The middle teeth have lost their mark by this time and show an even surface. From this age until 10 or 11, the incisor teeth of the upper jaw are usually examined for determining the age. Age is now indicated with some accuracy by the amount of wear upon the face of the teeth and by the gradual disappearance of their marks or cavities on the cutting surface. The marks in the corner teeth become en- tirely obliterated between seven and eight years of age. The same process takes place in the front teeth of the upper jaws more slowly and when these changes have occurred in the upper teeth, the horse may be looked upon as 10 years of age. After this time the determination of the age of the horse involves more or less guess work; the corner teeth become triangular and deeper from front to back. By the age of 20 or 21, the angles have disappeared from the teeth and all teeth become oval. The teeth gradually become deeper than broad and as this process goes on the space between the teeth increases. The teeth also become of a dirty yellow color, with occasional streaks of brown, and the gums recede and waste away. Bishoping teeth — A common fraud- ulent method of attempting to make the horse's teeth look younger than they really are is known as "bishoping." This consists in using an engraver's toed to dig out a slight groove on the biting surface of the corner teeth. This cav- ity is then burned with a hot iron to give it the black color which would be seen in a six or seven-year-old horse. The expert, however, has no difficulty in distinguishing between this artificial mark and the natural mark of the younger horse. MULES AND ASSES Mule raising, like other lines of ani- mal industry, has had its ups and downs, but at present the outlook is bright. Good mules are readily marketable at a remunerative price — $140 to $250. The active call for them is due partly to their increased use for all purposes. Many mules were needed for our Span- ish war, and the English bought thou- sands of them for shipment to South Africa. Throughout the South they have long been the favorite draft ani- mal for work on the plantation and for city use, and mules are being employed more and more for similar purposes in the northern states. According to the last census there were 3,445,000 in the United States and the Department of Agriculture estimates the number at 2,890,000. Stock raisers in various foreign coun- tries are rapidly awakening to a reali- zation of the peculiar value of mules. Thus in Jamaica, the mule industry is in a much more flourishing condition than horse breeding. The demand for mules for use in the banana business is so great and continuous that during the past 12 years breeders have neglect- ed horses and turned their attention to mules, with the result that they are now bred twice as extensively as horses. Similarly the mule industry is growing in South America, South Africa and elsewhere. Many countries which have hitherto given no heed to mules are be- ginning to look into the business. The mule, as is commonly known, is a hybrid between the mare and the male ass or jack. The hybrid produced be- tween the horse stallion and the female ass or jennet, is known as a hinny. As stated in Chapter I, hybrids may be obtained by crossing any two species of the horse family. These crosses have been produced between the horse and ass, zebra and quagga. While such crosses are easily secured, the hybrid animals are always sterile. Several in- stances have been cited where mare mules have been supposed to bear young. HORSES AND MULES 341 Upon investigation, however, all evi- dence for the supposed fertility of mules has proved unsatisfactory. Male mules are amorous and have to be castrated, to prevent them from worrying mares, but no colts have come from such occa- sional breeding. Zebroids — Within recent years experi- ments have been carried out in crossing zebra stallions on mares. The resulting hybrid is known as a zebroid. The most poses, or for heavy and light draft work, their size and form depending upon that of the mare. Percheron, Clydesdale and Suffolk mares produce draft zebroids, while thoroughbred mares produce ze- broids of considerable speed. Breeding may be done either in the spring or fall, but preferably in moderately warm weather. Eecently, the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry has undertaken some ex- periments in breeding zebroids. conspicuous men in this work are Pro- fesssor Ewart and Baron de Parana of Brazil. Zebroids tend to inherit the size and conformation of the mare, be- having like mules in this respect. The stripes of the zebra, however, are not entirely obliterated in the hybrid. Zebroids are active, gentle, docile, good feeders and of remarkable power. They are rather more elegant animals than mules and are claimed to be better workers and of more tractable disposi- tion, They may be bred for saddle pur- Fig. 227 FIVE-YEAR-OLD JACK (Courtesy Converse Bros.) Selection of jack — In raising mules, the selection of the jack is an important matter. We may, therefore, proceed to describe the various breeds of jacks, which may be used for the purpose. In general, the best grades of jacks of ail breeds are used for raising jacks and are called jennet jacks, while the some- what less valuable ones are bred to mares for the production of mules and are called mule jacks. In the following account of jack breeds, Goodpasture's 342 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK descriptions as modified by Knight are largely utilized. Andalusian — This breed comes from southern Spain, and was the first to be introduced into the United States. The King of Spain presented a jack and jennet of this breed to George Wash- ington in 1787. Later Henry Clay in- troduced them into Kentucky. It is an old breed. The color is gray, frequently white, and rarely black or blue. The Andalusians stand 14 to 15 hands high and have fine legs with large bone and comparatively free from jack sores. The head and ears are fairly satisfactory in States by Henry Clay. This is a good black, with white points, of fine style and action, and from 14M> to 15 hands, with a clean bone. The Catalonian is a popular jack on account of his desir- able color, fine short hair and unusual height. Rarely specimens of this breed are gray. In style and action the Cat- alonian is unsurpassed and he is, there- fore, a desirable animal for crossing upon our native jennets. . Some of the chief good points of our native jacks come from Catalonian crosses. Certain breeders claim that mules sired by Cata- Fig. 228 — BROOD MARE AND HER MULE COLT conformation, but the breed is unpopu- lar on account of its color. Maltese — This well-known breed came from the island of Malta, and the first to reach this country were given to General Washington by Lafayette. The Maltese is a small jack, seldom standing over 14 hands high. The color is black or brown. The head is well formed, with pointed upright ears, but the leg3 are rather small for sires of mules. The Maltese is quite satisfactory for saddle or driving purposes, but is too small as a mule-getter for our farm conditions. Catalonian i s another Spanish breed of jack first introduced into the United Ionian jacks mature earlier than those from other breeds. The Majorca jack comes from the island of the same name. It is the largest of all imported jacks, often standing 16 hands high, with the great- est weight and heaviest bone, head and ear of all jack breeds. No jennets of this breed have been imported into America. The Italian jack j s common in Italy and has been imported in considerable numbers into this country. They are the smallest of the imported breeds and the price is correspondingly low. The color is black with an occasional gray, HORSES AND MULES 343 and the height 13 to 14 hands. The bone is large, but the Italian jack is too small for producing mules. They seem to be related to the Maltese. Occasion- ally they are quite vicious. The Poitou was the latest breed of jacks to be imported into this country. The Poitou jack has been greatly im- proved by systematic breeding, with the result that Prance leads Europe in qual- ity and number of jacks and also iof mules. According to Ayrault, the noted French authority on the subject, the head of this jack is large, the mouth small, and the ears long with long, curly hair. The tail is short, with long hair only at the tip. The chest is broad and all the joints large. The mane is long and the hair generally fine and silky. The color is black or dark brown, rarely gray. The price is high, ranging from $1000 to $3200. They are in such great demand in France, Spain and elsewhere that the trade can scarcely be supplied. The requirements for entry into the Poitou stud book are very strict. Mules from this jack, according to Allen, are unequaled, and sell for more than those from any other breed. Draft mares bred to this jack in the United States pro- duce excellent mules. The native jack—Notwithstanding the excellence of many imported jacks, especially the Poitou and Catalonian, it is the opinion of experienced breeders like J. L. Jones, that "our native jacks with good imported crosses behind them, will sire the mules best suited to the wants of those who use them in this country, and will supply the market with what is wanted by the dealers." The native jack is of greater weight and larger bone than imported jacks, showing in this regard the effect of limestone soil and blue grass. He is a mixture of all breeds of imported jacks and, therefore, shows all colors. Re- cently, however, breeders have selected them for black color with white points. Colts from native jacks are stronger, with better body and more length than those of imported jacks. In Jamaica, the Maltese jack is preferred for mule breeding. At present there are about 1400 registered jacks in the United States. Best time for breeding — In breeding jacks to jennets, the spring is the best season. Jack colts are weaned at six months of age. They are fed on oats, bran, hay and plenty of green forage or pasture. Both jennet and mule jacks may begin service at two years of age. The jack gets only about 50 per cent of mule colts from his service, but the percentage of colts from stallions is usually no higher. About *40 mule colts per season is good work for a jack. Most consider it best that mule jacks should not be allowed to associate with their own species, but only with the horse. During the season of service they should be fed a nitrogenous ration and should have the freedom of a good pasture. Fig. 229 NEW USE FOR THE DONKEY The burro—From the Rocky moun- tains to the Pacific coast a diminutive jack, known as the burro, is in common use. The burro is the descendant of jacks brought by the Spanish settlers of that region, but it is not certain to what breed of jack it is most closely related. Its color varies from white to almost black, mouse color being very common. The size is about that of the Shetland pony. A peculiar feature fre- quently seen in the burro is its enor- mously thick neck. It is a slow, strong, patient and sure-footed animal, and is capable of carrying loads up to 250 pounds. It is, therefore, an excellent pack animal for mountain work. Burro mares crossed with the thoroughbred stallion produce tunnies of considerable 344 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK speed, good temper, great endurance and more style than the ordinary mule shows. The best of hinnies for mining are obtained by putting burro mares to small, blocky stallions. If it is desir- able in such cases, artificial insemina- tion may be practiced by means of the syringe or capsule. Mule industry — The following states are leaders in the mule industry: Texas, Missouri, Mississippi, Georgia, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, North Carolina, etc. In recent years horses when frightened throw the head up, thus bruising it and causing poll evil. Mules, on the other hand, lower the head at such times and avoid dan- ger in that way. Moreover, mules excel horses in their capacity for hard work, in endurance, in length of life and in economy of feeding. It is often as- serted that mules live twice as long as horses, but the truth is they live con- siderably longer than horses. Then.too, mules are not immune to ordinary horse diseases, as sometimes asserted. On the Pig. 230 — TWO-YEAR-OLD MULE FROM KENTUCKY JACK AND COMMON FARM MARE the industry has become widely extended and there are at present large mule ranches in Iowa, Montana, Colorado and Utah. The number of jacks including burros in the United States is about 125,000, a large percentage of them be- ing used in the production of mules. Mules may be used for all purposes for which horses are adapted, except fast driving, and in addition are well suited to several lines of work where horses cannot be profitably employed. Thus in mines mules excel horses for several reasons, notably for the reason that contrary, they are just as susceptible to glanders, influenza, distemper, colic, etc, as are horses. The English govern- ment suffered great losses from glanders among mules in the Boer war. For military purposes, the mule has long been considered superior to the horse, and the army mule has been a conspicuous feature in all our Indian fighting and more serious wars. The mule is less easily frightened then the horse and withstands hardships better, such as going without water for 24 hours and without feed for two or three days.; HORSES AND MULES 345 The use of mules for draft purposes in cities is increasing from year to year, and for farm work they are also becom- ing more popular. A Virginia farmer writes: "For general purposes and last- ing wear the well bred mule outclasses and outlasts any horse." This statement is based on a long experience with mules bred from mares weighing 1400 to 1750 pounds, and a Kentucky jack for which $1000 was paid. The opinion prevails quite widely that the mule is more stubborn, vicious and ill-tempered than the horse. The tem- per and behavior of the mule, however, depend largely on his breaking, training and method of handling. Mules endure abuse and rough handling with as much patience as the horse. An Iowa breeder considers "no team more gentle, more safe or more agreeable to handle than a pair of mules." In the South the mule and the negro work together. Cotton and sugar plantations are inconceivable without mules. All these uses of the mule constitute a market which is not likely to be overstocked for some time to come. Since the mule inherits much of its form from the dam, it is neces- sary to exercise as much care in select- ing mares as in horse breeding. The mare must be sound and well built, and the color should be dark, preferably black, bay or brown. "The mare should have good length, large, well-rounded barrel, good head, long neck, good, broad, flat bone, broad chest and good style." Best time to breed mares — The right time for breeding is about April 1 in Tennessee and at corresponding times in other parts of the country. Before being served, mares should be hobbled or placed in pits or chutes. A suitable breeding chute may easily be construct- ed of plank, placed vertically and close enough together so that the jack's feet do not get caught. At the entrance to the chute wings may be placed opening out at a slight angle. Poles passing through the chute in front and behind the mare and also behind the fore legs and in front of the hind legs just under the belly, will prevent any accident from kicking or squatting. Moreover, if sev- eral mares are ready for service at the same time, artificial insemination may be accomplished by means of the syringe or capsule method. (See Artificial Im- pregnation.) The mare is returned to the jack on the eighteenth day after service. For farm work, a mule should stand 15 to 15.2 hands high and weigh 1050 to 1100 pounds. Some users of mules prefer a heavier animal — up to 1300 pounds. In order to get mules of this size, Percheron mares and a jack 15.2 hands high may be used. In all cases, both the mare and jack should be dark in color, for the market demands dark colored mules. A mature jack is a more certain foal getter than a young one. Wbile, therefore, jacks may be allowed to do service sparingly at two years of age, they should not be brought up to a maximum till the age of four or five years. Some breeders castrate male mules during the first summer, while they are still with the mares, but, as a rule, it is better to wait till they are one year old. In general, the market prefers female to male mules. The females mature a little earlier and are plumper and more squarely built. Then gnats and screw worm flies often irri- tate the sheath of the male. Warder recommends that mules be broken at two years of age, after which they are to be put at light work during the third year. It is believed that by this system they develop a quicker step than when broken after attaining full maturity and put at hard work imme 1 diately. The same methods are to be used in breaking mules as with horses. Abuse and barbarous treatment are quite uncalled for. "By kind treatment mules may be rendered the most docile and affectionate creatures among our domestic animals and will often show more intelligence than the horse." Hinnies, as already stated, are hybrids obtained by crossing the stallion upon the female ass or jennet. The hinny is usually smaller than the mule and is commonly considered less desirable in every respect. One breeder states that binnies are weak and stubborn and can- not be compared with mules. They re- semble the horse rather than the jennet and have a neater head and heavier mane and tail than the mule. In Jamaica, the hinny is not considered so unimportant. One noted breeder says, "I can make bold to say that they are hardier than the mule out of mares, will grow to a serviceable size and are more cheaply bred." Another breeder in Jamaica states that hinnies "are larger, more docile, and in all respects better 346 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK than the ordinary mule, and the saving in breeding is considerable, as the price of one mule mare equals that of three or four jennies, and the keep of a jenny one-fourth that of a mare." Small stal- lions are used in breeding hinnies. We have already mentioned the fact that good hinnies have been obtained by crossing thoroughbred or pony stallions on burro mares. Now and then in farm papers, the question is raised concern- ing the value and usefulness of hinnies. It may be, therefore, that on account of the economy in raising them, more at- tention may be given to hinnies in the future than has heretofore been the case. Feeding mules—The statement is fre- quently made that mules eat less than horses. Riley, however, on the basis of a long experience with thousands of army mules, formed a different opinion. He maintains that a mule "requires just as much as a horse of similar dimen- sions." In fact, at hard work, Riley states that, "the mule will eat more than the horse will or can." At three years of age the mule is shedding his milk teeth and cannot eat much. He is, therefore, weak and particularly lia- ble to contract distemper, sore eyes, skin sores and other diseases. But the ma- ture mule in health is a good feeder. In general, a poor feeder is a poor ani- Fig. 231 THE MULE AND THE COTTON PLANTER Market classes — There are two gen- eral classes of mules, cotton mules and sugar mules. The size of the colt at birth and the rapidity of growth deter- mine whether it be a sugar or cotton mule. "If the colt when foaled, is 3 feet 5 inches and upwards, and grows nicely, it will make a sugar mule; if under the above height it will be a cot- ton mule. The mature sugar mule stands 15.3 to 16.3 hands or higher and is heavy, well-boned and rather stylish. They are used on sugar plantations, for dray purposes, and for heavy farm work. The cotton mule is simply smaller than the sugar mule, but of the same con- formation. mal whether it be sheep, pig, dairy cow, beef steer or horse, and the mule is no exception to this rule. The mule will manage to get along on poor feed given at irregular intervals, but the sensible man does not attempt to determine just how much neglect in this respect the mule will endure. The mule colt is taught to eat grain before it is weaned, which takes place at the age of four months. At weaning time the colts are put in a barn and fed bran, oats, cut grass, and clean hay. After about two weeks they may be turned on pasture, preferably alfalfa or clover with some grain. Little variation is needed on this system till mules are HORSES AND MULES 347 two years old. Then if they are to be sold, they must be fattened; otherwise they bring but a small price. The fol- lowing fattening regimen has been pro- posed by Jones: "The sugar mule should be placed in the barn with plenty of room and not much light about the first of November, before he is two years old, and fed about 12 ears of corn per day and all the nice, well-cured clover hay he will eat, and there kept until about the first of April. Then in the climate of middle Tennessee the clover is good, and the mule may be turned out on it without fear of firing, that is, heating so as to cause scratches, as the green clover removes all danger from this source. During the time they run on clover they eat less hay, but this should always be kept by them." Later they are put in barns or sheds and fed green clover and grain in the form of sheaf oats and bran. Ground barley may be fed in June ad libitum. Later they may be fed, in several separate grain rations, green roasting ears, shelled corn, bran and oats. Bran and oats are considered necessary for giving the proper finish to the coat. Mules fed in this way until the September after they are two years old, should weigh 1150 to 1350 pounds. The sugar mule market opens in September. The cotton mule is usually not put in the barn till the August after it reaches two years of age. It should re- ceive shelled corn, green corn, good hay and soiling crops until November, after which time oats and bran are added, so as to bring the mule to the right finish by January 1, when the market for the cotton mule opens. The central south- ern market for sugar mules is New Orleans, but large markets for both classes of mules are found in Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Louis- ville, Nashville and many other cities of the Mississippi valley region. In feeding working mules the same mate- rials may be used and in the same ra- tions as for horses. (See above.) A number of feeding experiments have been carried on with mules and the results may be briefly cited here as sup- plementary to the discussion of feeding under horses. Chicken corn proved nearly equal to corn for mules in Mis- sissippi. This crop is usually cut green four or five times a year, but it may be worth while to allow it to mature and feed the grain to mules. Corn and cob meal was compared with shelled corn in North Carolina in rations of 10 pounds clover hay for roughage, and also with a ration of oat hay. The results were slightly in favor of shelled corn. Cottonseed meal is ex- tensively fed to mules. In Louisiana it is recommended that the ration begin with y 2 pound and be gradually in- creased to 6 pounds as a maximum feed. Only bright, yellow meal is con- sidered safe. Eed, musty meal is always to be avoided. In a test in Mississippi, cottonseed meal was not relished by mules. In North Carolina it was found that cottonseed meal could be used to replace a part of the corn or oats in a mule ration. Good results were had from feeding 2 pounds daily mixed with other grain or sprinkled on moistened hay or corn stover. In North Carolina, 4 pounds gluten meal and 4 pounds corn stover were compared with 8 pounds of oats for mules in rations containing also 10 pounds corn and cob meal and 8 pounds cowpea hay. The gluten meal-corn stover ration proved slightly superior and was cheaper, but the mules did not greatly relish the gluten meal. At the same experiment station, bran proved more effective and cheaper than oats for mules. Oats are usually too expen- sive for mules and may economically be partly or entirely replaced with cot- tonseed meal, gluten meal, cowpea hay, or alfalfa. Wheat and cowpeas have been found about equally effective for mules in rations of 4 pounds with 8 pounds of corn. Wheat, however, is too expensive and cowpeas have the ad- ditional advantage of improving the soil. Beggarweed hay may be fed shredded to mules ad libitum. In Florida, this hay gave good results. Cassava is not much relished by mules, but in Florida it seemed to have a greater feeding value than sweet potatoes. The latter may be fed in rations of 12 to 15 pounds. In Florida, it was found that they could be used to replace half of the ordinary corn ration, the substitution being made at the rate of 3 pounds of sweet potatoes for 1 pound of corn. A mule was kept in good condition for three months on sweet potatoes, cassava and hay. Bermuda hay for working mules in Mississippi proved equal to timothy and was somewhat cheaper. Cowpea hay, 348 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK substituted for bran, pound for pound, in North Carolina, proved equal to the bran and reduced the cost of the ration 5 cents per day. Fifteen pounds of cowpea hay with 10 pounds corn and cob meal gave better results than a ration containing 5 pounds corn and cob meal, 1 pound cottonseed meal, 5 pounds cowpea hay and 12 pounds corn stover. Silage may be fed to mules under the same conditions as to horses. In North Carolina, silage was found to improve mule rations. The animals were active, sleek and always in good condition while receiving silage. In these experiments silage was also com- pared with oat hay (30 pounds: 15 pounds, clover hay in the same ratio and cowpea hay also in the ratio 30 pounds: 15 pounds). In all cases, it proved highly satisfactory when fed in rations of 25 to 30 pounds. Molasses is commonly fed to mules in rations of 5 to 20 pounds per day, usually 8 to 12 pounds. In Louisiana, blackstrap molasses has been found al- most equal to corn for mules and may be bought for 5 cents per gallon. For- merly on some sugar plantations, oats were fed in rations of 18 pounds per day. The use of molasses has greatly reduced the cost of feeding. Molasses is extensively fed to mules in Jamaica, South Africa and elsewhere. We may now mention a number of rations and feeding methods which have given good results in the hands of breeders and farmers. Southern feeders' ration — A south- ern mule raiser has found that mules at light work may be kept in fine condi- tion from December to March on a ra- tion of 5 pounds cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls ad libitum. On this ration the hair shed early in the spring and the coat had a fine appearance. In South Africa, chaffed hay, corn stover, corn, linseed meal, bran, barley, alfalfa, sweet potatoes, pumpkin and sunflower seeds are used in compounding mule rations. The Rhodesian government has found that chaffed hay (cut in %-inch lengths), is much less likely to cause colic in mules than whole hay, especially if the mules are put to work immediate- ly after feeding. The use of a well balanced ration greatly reduces the percentage of disease among mules. Thus in Louisiana, by the use of molasses, cowpea hay and alfalfa, the cost of mule rations has been reduced one-half and the mules are much healthier than on very wide rations with too much corn, or even on an exclusive grain ration of oats. On large sugar plantations, it has been found that properly balanced rations (for example 8 pounds corn and cob meal, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 11 pounds molasses and 15 pounds cut cow- pea hay), almost eliminate the occur- rence of colic among mules and cost only 15 cents a day. PART VII The Beef Cattle Industry FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BEEF CATTLE Cattle raising for the production of beef has undergone many fluctuations during the brief history of our country. The production of beef has not always been a profitable business, even in the days of the cattle kings When every- thing goes well with cattle, there are large profits in the business; but the risks are great, the initial expense of getting into the business is a serious matter, and the skill required in manag- ing cattle is of no mean order. There are many other considerations, which cause men to choose sheep or hogs in preference. In the first place, cattle mature much more slowly than either sheep or hogs. Then, too, they require more feed for each pound of gain. More- over, the market requirements are very strict in the case of beef, and prices are disastrously low for cattle which do not conform to these standards. Fail- ures for non-conformance to these re- quirements are somewhat less serious in the case of sheep or hogs, and the loss is only a moderately high payment for the experience. On the western ranges, sheep have long been rivals of cattle and for the past 15 or 20 years have had much the best of the argument. Greater profits have been derived from sheep. As a natural result, sheep have been gradual- ly replacing cattle in the western states and large tracts of range, which were originally used for cattle grazing, are now devoted entirely to sheep. It is scarcely necessary to call atten- tion to the great importance of the cattle industry in the United States. Notwithstanding the fact, as already in- dicated, that profits have not been par- ticularly attractive during the past few years, an increasing number of men are learning how to produce beef at a profit even under conditions which ap- pear to be unfavorable to the farmer. Most of our highest finish on beef ani- mals is put on in the corn belt. Not all of these cattle are raised on farms in the central states, but this is true of a considerable percentage of them; and thousands more are shipped in from tbe range to be finished on the cheaper grains of the central states. Cautions prompted by experience — The cattle feeders of the central states are gradually learning how to avoid some of the unprofitable practices, which have ruined their predecessors in that line of business. In this work the change in market requirements has helped the feeder considerably. In the early days of the cattle business, a five or six year old steer in an over-fat con- dition was in great favor. Now such an animal cannot compete with the finished steer at the age of two or three, and, within recent years, baby beef has come to occupy an important place in the business of beef production. The ad- vantage of using younger animals is ob- vious, since the capital invested is turned over more rapidly, and the cost of finishing an animal is less when the process lasts only a year or two than when the animal is held on the farm un- til four or five years of age. It should not be supposed from this enumeration of cautions that any at- tempt is being made to discourage beef production. The demand for beef is always equal to, and sometimes in ex- cess of, the production, and this must be true as far into the future as it is possible to foresee. The population is increasing at present more rapidly than the increase in beef-raising, and other means than those commonly used at present must be found for keeping up with the demand for beef. It should be understood from the start, however, that antiquated or slovenly methods in beef production cannot bring profits. TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY It is only men who have learned how, and know the present market require- ments, who will succeed in producing beef at a fair profit. Annual consumption — The total num- ber of beef cattle at present held in the United States on farms and ranges, is about 44,000,000. During 1905, 12,500,000 beef animals were slaughtered, of which 875,000 were ex- ported. The average value of these animals was about $41.50 a carcass. There are also about 2,000,000 calves BEEF BREEDS Perhaps the first question which en- ters the mind of any person who intends to go into the beef business, concerns the choice of a breed of beef cattle. We therefore, characterize the different breeds of beef animals, with notes on their relative importance and their chief advantages and disadvantages. Shorthorns — We commence with this breed for the reason that of all breeds of beef cattle, this is the most popular. Shorthorns are also commonly called Durhams, from the English county in W^m^i- Fig. 234 — THE SHORTHORN BULL LAVENDER CLIPPER killed annually for veal. The number of adult beef cattle slaughtered annual- ly is approximately 20 per cent of the total number on hand. Among the ap- proximately 44,000,000 beef animals in the country at present, not over one- half, or 22,000,000, are cows; these cows will yield a crop of calves amounting to about 80 per cent annually, or 17,600,- 000; deducting the 12,500,000 adult animals slaughtered annually, and 2,000,- 000 calves, we have left a possible in- crease of 3,100,000 upon the total num- ber of beef animals in the country. which the breed originated. These ani- mals were developed by improving the Teeswater and Holderness cattle with slight admixtures of Dutch bulls and Galloways. Sborthorns had already been introduced into this country about 1790, and importations have occurred with great frequency since 1815. Among prominent early breeders of Shorthorns in this country we have Lewis F. Allen and William Warfield. The first volume of the American Shorthorn Herd Book was published in 1846, and that of the Ohio Southern Shorthorn Record in 1878. 154 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Popularity — At present, Shorthorns are found in every state and territory in the Union, and in every province of the Dominion of Canada. Shorthorns are perhaps relatively most numerous in Illinois and Iowa, but are abundantly distributed throughout the central states. Their popularity is due largely to their fitness for the purpose for which they are raised ; or, in other words, is based on a solid business foundation. Shorthorns are capable of readily adapting themselves to the different con- ditions under which they are found. In become fully mature and attain their complete size at the age of four years. The conditions under which they thrive best and yield the greatest profits are those which prevail in the central states, where good pastures are to be obtained, and where suitable grains for fattening are abundant. Shorthorns are capable of making as good returns for their feed as any other breed. The meat is of good quality, the percentage of bone and offal is small, but the grain of the meat is not quite so fine as is observed in other breeds. Fig. 235 SHORTHORN BULL FROM NONPAREIL HERD point of hardihood they are not equal to the Galloways or Scotch Highland cattle, and are perhaps inferior in this respect to the Herefords, especially under range conditions. This matter, how- ever, depends so greatly upon the opin- ion of breeders, who are almost always somewbat prejudiced in favor of one breed or another, that the point is not worth arguing. In regard to size and weight, they are somewhat superior to all other beef breeds. They mature as early as other breeds, and may be brought to a proper market ripeness at the age of two and one-half years. They Strong and weak points — One of the strong points in favor of Shorthorns is tbeir milk yield. In fact, the Shorthorn is often referred to as a dual purpose breed, yielding a good quality of beef, and at the same time giving a large quantity of milk. This quality has been considered of sufficient importance to perpetuate, and, as a result, we have a milking race of Shorthorns. More attention has been given to milking Shorthorns in England than in this country, and this fact is perhaps due to a tendency among our breeders to go into specialties. This requires THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 355 that attention be given to securing one line of good qualities without regard to other matters, such as milk production. On account of the large amount of milk which Shorthorns yield, they are well adapted to localities where a combination of dairying and beef production can be operated most profitably. Shorthorns are also of great value, like other pure beef breeds, in grading up native or scrub cattle, so as to pro- duce a good quality of grade animals for beef. The chief weaknesses of Short- horns are lack of constitution and rela- tive sterility as observed in certain fam- ilies, especially where careless breeding or in-and-in breeding have been prac- ticed. The standard colors of the Short- horn are red, white and roan, with red most in favor, and all shades of roan to ship thoroughbred Shorthorns from the corn belt into the arid Southwest, without loss of condition in the animal. Hereford — It is commonly considered that the Herefords are descended from some of the native cattle of Great Britain, and that they were mixed, in their earlier history, with the Devon and the Sussex cow. Apparently all of these animals were at first nearly a solid red. A cross with white cattle gave a ten- dency to white markings, which has persisted in the Herefords. In the early history of the breed, the face was not pure white as at present. This charac- teristic, however, has been definitely fixed by long continued breeding. History of the breed — The Herefords were well known and had established a considerable reputation for themselves in many herds as early as 1835. They Eig. 23G — herd of young herefords well liked ; but white is somewhat in dis- favor. The general form is large, com- pact and rectangular, with a smoothness of outline such as is required by the standard adopted for beef form. The body is long and deep, with parallel up- per and lower lines and side lines. The head is relatively small and considerably narrower in the female than in the male. The horns are short, but longer and smaller in the female. While it is commonly contended that the Shorthorn is not quite equal to the Hereford on the range, many range men have had excellent success with them. In the Southwest, the Shorthorn is the prevailing beef type and the majority of grade beef animals contain Short- horn blood. This breed withstands vac- cination for Texas fever very well, and is also capable of adjusting itself to changed climatic conditions. It is a comparatively simple matter, therefore, did not gain in popularity, however, as fast as the Shorthorns, partly for the reason that their milking powers were somewhat inferior. Then, too, there was considerable controversy regarding the purity of white-faced and mottled- faced animals, so that their distribu- tion was strongly checked. Apparently the first importation of Herefords into the United States was made by Henry Clay in 1817. The American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association was organ- ized in 1881, or three years previous to the organization of a herdbook in Eng- land. At present the Herefords are dis- tributed almost, if not quite, as widely as the Shorthorns, being most numerous in the Mississippi valley, particularly Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois and Indiana. Strong and weak points — The Here- fords gain rapidly, adapt themselves to all soil, climatic and feed conditions u ° i a « ffi s THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 357 which prevail in the United States and do exceedingly well in the corn belt and the agricultural part of Canada. They are also particularly noted for their account of the fact that attention was given primarily to beef form. It is claimed for the Herefords that they are less susceptible to abortion and milk 238- A TIER!) OF HEREFORD CATTLE grazing ability on the range. The average size of the Hereford is slightly under that of the Shorthorn, but they mature as early, being ready for beef at two and one-half years of age. In fact, recently, claim has been made that Herefords mature earlier than any other beef breed. The quality of the meat is good and the dressed weight sat- isfactory. In crossing the Herefords with other breeds, the best results have been obtained with Shorthorns and Gal- loways. Crosses with Devons and West fever than most other beef breeds. The chief weakness of the Hereford is the small milk yield. Colors — The face, throat, chest, lower part of the body, legs and tip of the tail are white, all other parts being red. The red should neither be too dark nor too light. The skin is slightly thicker than that of the Shorthorn, but the form of the body is essentially the same. The horns are longer and more spread- ing, the position in which they are car- ried being a characteristic of the breed. Fig. 239 — HEREFORD CALVES Highland cattle are less satisfactory. In England, the milking quality of the Hereford was good, but it has been con- siderably neglected in this country on Polled Herefords—While the horns of xhe Herefords have always been recog- nized as one of the elements of beauty of this breed, the market demand for THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 359 polled cattle has given rise to the desire of securing polled Herefords. This has finally been accomplished through the work of a number of indus- trious breeders, including Guthrie and Gammon. The origin of polled Here- fords is much the same as that of polled Durhams, since they depend upon Here- ford bulls and common muley cows. Some difficulty was experienced in get- ting a start with a herd of polled Here- fords, since quite close breeding had to be practiced. An organization was formed, however, in 1900 and very satis- factory progress is being made with the polled Herefords. from horneu cows were hornless, and in 1S93 a two-year bull and six heifers were selected from his progeny as a basis for further experiments. The first bull was named Discovery, and in 1898 four additional horned Hereford heifers were bred to a descendant of Discovery and their calves were all hornless. Polled Herefords are now distributed from Wisconsin to Texas and various breed- ers report entire success with them. There is no tendency for the horns to return and the progeny of Polled Here- ford bulls are hornless in 60 to 90 per cent of cases. This percentage compares favorably with Angus or Galloway. Pig. 241 THIRD PRIZE ANGUS BULL AT INTERNATIONAL STOCK SHOW 1906 They were first exhibited at the Omaha Exposition in 1889 under the name of Polled Kansans, but this name was subsequently dropped. Some con- troversy has been waged lately regard- ing the quality of the Polled Herefords, it being claimed on one side that in get- ting rid of the horns, some of the de- sirable qualities of the Herefords were lost. This, however, is strongly denied by other champions of the new breed, and the point must be left for the future development of the breed to settle. Development of the breed — In 1889, Mr. W. W. Guthrie of Atchinson, Kan- sas, discovered on his ranch a nearly pure bred Hereford calf, which was hornless. All of the calves by this bull, Polled Hereford clubs — The Ameri- can Polled Hereford Cattle Club was organized in 1900, and now has about 500 registered animals. The National Polled Hereford Breeders' Association established in 1902, also has a large reg- istration and the supply of young bulls is quite inadequate to meet the demand. Under the rules governing registration in the record book of this association, "the produce of any bull in the Nation- al Polled Hereford Record from any cow in the American Hereford Record and the produce of any cow in the Na- tional Polled Hereford Record by a bull in the American Hereford Record is eligible. to registration in the National Polled Hereford Record if such produce 360 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK has not developed horns when it has reached the age of two years." Aberdeen Angus — This breed is va- riously known as Polled Angus, Polled Aberdeen or Aberdeen Angus. In the early history of Scotland there seems to have been a number of polled cattle re- ferred to as Angus Doddies, Buchans, or Aberdeen Humlies. In Scotland, the approved color is black, but occa- sionally some white or red markings ap- pear; such animals, however, are not used for breeding purposes. In Scot- between the Angus and Galloway is in the thicker skin and longer and more shaggy hair of the Galloway. Popularity — The Angus was first im- ported into the United States in 1873, and into Canada in 1876. The breed met with some prejudice, on account of the fact that the field was already oc- cupied by Shorthorns and Herefords. It was necessary, therefore, for the champions of the Polled Angus to dem- onstrate the good points claimed for the Angus before this breed acquired any a good type of pulled angus cow land, the Angus is considered as hav- ing a finer bone, softer and silkier hair and shorter legs than the Galloway. It has long occupied in that country a con- spicuous place in the fat stock and beef markets, on account of its excellent meat. Within 100 years, crosses have been made between the Angus and Ayr- shire, Guernsey, a breed known as Fife, now extinct, Shorthorns and Galloway cattle. In fact, the intimate relation- ship between the Angus and Galloways must be sufficiently apparent from the fact that both are black, polled and na- tive to Scotland. The chief difference decided popularity. The American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association was organized in 1883. The Angus is now well distributed throughout the United States, being found in nearly every state and territory; they are bred most extensively, however, in Iowa, Illi- nois, Missouri, Ohio, Indiana and Kan- sas, Iowa standing far in the lead in the number of this breed. As already indicated, the Angus had not become much known outside of Scotland before the middle of the last century; but since their introduction into the United States, their numbers THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 361 have increased rapidly, extensive impor- tations of Scotch blood have been made, and the breed is steadily gaining in popularity. The Angus is, perhaps, best adapted to localities where moderate temperatures prevail, and where com- fortable quarters may be furnished for winter. With regard to the value of the Angus, on the western ranges, consid- erable difference of opinion prevails and the statement has frequently been made that these cattle are too lazy to make a success under range conditions. It is impossible to give an authoritative opinion on this subject, since so much prejudice prevails in the matter; in fact, much attention to the early maturing qualities of the Angus, with the result that this breed now matures as early as any other. In ability to make economic use of food, the Angus is second to no other breed. The form is almost always symmetrical, and not patchy. In fact, the hair is so short that any irregularity of form would be apparent. During re- cent years, the Angus has carried away its share of prizes at fat stock shows, and in block contests. The quality of the meat is usually recognized as su- perior to that of the Shorthorns and Ilerefords, and nearly or quite equal to Fig. 243 — BLACK ROCK, GRAND CHAMPION ANGUS STEER AT THE 1905 INTERNATIONAL the champions of almost every breed claim that their particular breed is su- perior to all others, as a rustler on the range. It is sufficient to say that many cattle raisers, throughout the range, from the northern to the southern boun- dary of the United States, have reported excellent results from the use of pure bred and grade Angus on the range, and have found that Angus bulls are as ca- pable of getting vigorous calves under range conditions as any other breed of bulls. Strong and weak points — In size, the Angus is perhaps slightly inferior to the Shorthorn and Hereford, but on account of its short legs it weighs more than its apparent size would indicate. The breeders in this country have given that of West Highland and Galloway cattle. In Scotland, the Angus was considered a good milch cow, but in the United States, little attention has been given to the milk yield of this breed, so that at present the quantity of the milk is rather small. The fat content is per- haps above the average. The Angus are good breeders and their value in crossing and grading up native stock has long been recognized. In fact, a good Polled Angus bull will produce from 75 to 90 per cent of black, polled calves from horned cows of any color. This indicates clearly enough the high pre-potency of the Angus in fixing its characteristics upon the offspring. On this account, Angus bulls are often used. O o o « o " ►J o THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 363* on dairy cows when the calves are not desired for dairy purposes. The standard points of the Angus in America are essentially the same as al- ready mentioned in Scotland. The color must be black. White is decidedly ob- jectionable, except on the under line behind the navel and even there it must not show in a large patch. The skin is of medium thickness, with a mellow touch, covered with thick, soft hair. The skin must never be hard nor the hair stiff. Galloways — This breed of cattle also comes from Scotland, and has occasion- cally been called Polled Scots. In Scot- land the standard color is black with a Popularity— Biggar has justly called attention to the fact that Galloway cat- tle have qualities which particularly fit them for the western ranges. In the first place, they are possessed of un- usual hardiness, whereby they are able to endure a severe climate. Absence of horns is also a desirable quality, and in type they are very uniform. Finally, they possess the power of transmitting their good qualities to their offspring in a marked degree. A Galloway bull of good breeding will transmit a black color to 90 per cent of his calves, and the hornless condition to from 95 to 100 per cent without regard to the breed of the mother. m m ws . - Mv , r - ,. „.,„. , m 3glk- ^tN£~-f*&i H Pig. 245 — GALLOWAY COW BARONESS 2ND OF TARBREOCH brownish tinge. The head is short and wide, with a broad forehead and wide nostrils. The body must be deep, rounded and symmetrical, the skin mel- low and moderately thick, the hair soft, wavy, with a mossy undercoat; and wiry or curly hair, is very objectionable. The Galloways are so called on account of their apparent origin in the province ol Galloway and the breed is one of the oldest and purest of the beef type. It was first introduced into Ontario in 1853, and into Michigan in 1870. The first volume of the American Galloway Herd Book was published in 1883. At present the most important centers of breeding Galloways are Missouri, Iowa, Illinois. Kansas and Minnesota. While at present the Galloways are, perhaps, not so popular as either the Shorthorns, Hereford or Angus, they are at least entitled to the fourth place among the beef breeds, as pointed out by Shaw, and they are rapidly gaining in popularity. They are the hardiest of all beef breeds except the West High- land cattle, their size is somewhat smaller than that of the breeds already considered, but their grazing qualities are of an exceedingly high order. They do not mature quite so early as the Shorthorns, Herefords or Angus, but they take on flesh smoothly and the meat has long been noted for its excel- lent quality; in fact, in this respect they perhaps excel even the Angus. The 564 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Galloways are excellent breeders and show an extremely small percentage of sterility. The only serious objection which can be raised against them is their small milk yield. One of the pe- culiar valuable points of the Galloway, is their hide, which, when tanned, may be used for robes and fur coats. Ac- cording to the most recent scale of points for the Galloway, this breed must be pure black with a brownish tinge; white markings on the feet, ankles, legs, or any part of the body above the under line are very objectionable. West Highland cattle, also known simply as Highland cattle came origi- therefore, best adapted to severe cli- mates like those of Alaska and North- west Canada, and some of the colder parts of the Rocky mountain ranges. Popularity — The West Highland cat- tle have been imported in small num- bers into the United States, especially in the far West, and to some extent in the Dominion of Canada, and elsewhere throughout the country. At least one small herd is found in the state of New York. During the fall and early winter months, when the coat is in best condition, this breed presents a beauti- ful appearance; otherwise it is shaggy. In size, it is the smallest of the true beef X- ^ s jib if." { ~ ■'vT . "•' '"^' ' '*'?; '^vW y BS^SP^'Y ' I ■"''"' '^^S ..<-■ V^NSSfc V"-. ^^^fe ■ '> .-'.■ *■ Fig. 246 — WEST HIGHLAND BULL, CHAMPION AT ST LOUIS EXPOSITION nally from the western part of Scotland. The horns are large, sharp-pointed and upturned. The color is generally black, brindle or dun. The hide, as compared with the Angus and Galloways, is thick and covered with long, soft hair, con- siderably longer even than that of the Galloways. There are several distinct varieties of West Highland cattle, the principal of which are the Kyloes, North Highlanders, and the West Highlanders. In Scotland, this breed is not considered of much value for its milk, and there- fore the calves are usually allowed to suck the cows. In hardiness, however, it is superior to all other breeds,, and is breeds, but they weigh well in propor- tion to their apparent size. The West Highland cattle are capable of not only enduring cold, but also damp weather, and can find a living for themselves on either grass or brush. They mature rather slowly, and the quantity of the milk is very small. The meat, how- ever, is considered especially excellent, and in the English markets commands the very highest price. The color may vary considerably, black being very common with a ten- dency at present toward a yellow or light dun; brindle or red and black colors are also allowed. The form is that of the THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 365 typical beef type, only smaller, and the body in proportion to its size is strong, deep, thick and exceedingly compact. Sussex cattle_This breed differs from the Devon in being larger and coarser. Standard animals are always of a dark red color; white or black markings indicate impure blood. The head is relatively thin and the horns point somewhat forward, then turn closely related to the Devons in their early history. The Sussex Herd Book of England was established in 1860. Sus- sex cattle were first imported into the United States in 1884 and into Canada in 1891. They have not made much progress in this country since their introduction, although a few herds have been established along the states bor- dering on the Mississippi river. The Fig. 247 WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF up and are thin, long and tapering. The form corresponds with the require- ments of the beef type, but the Sussex is apt to be deficient in the shoulder. The back line is usually straight, but is sometimes broken by a slight lump be- tween the shoulders. This breed, ac- cording to many English champions, is very hardy and is capable of making a good showing under favorable climatic and feed conditions. Popularity — The Sussex seems to be Sussex is best adapted to localities where abundant feed and pasturage are available. They are relatively heavy, being fully equal to the Galloways in size. They do not mature very early, but are excellent grazers and furnish a good quality of meat in an economic manner from the feed consumed. The Sussex is not much used for dairy pur- poses, and the milk yield is compara- tively low. They are fertile and good breeders, but their value for crossing 366 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK and grading up with common stock has not been tested to any marked extent in the United States. The color standard adopted for the United States is a solid red of either a dark or light shade. The horns are rather long but not heavy and spreading, showing a graceful, forward curve. Long Horn Leicestershire, or Craven cattle, are descended from a breed of cattle which became established in York- shire, England, and was noted for its beauty and fattening quality. The fa- mous breeder, Bakewell, originated a race of cattle known as the Dishley breed, by crossing these cows with a being allowed along the under line and' upon the udders of cows. Both of the Welsh breeds are good milkers and pro- duce an excellent quality of beef. They are hardy and active and are, therefore,' well adapted to maintaining themselves under range conditions. Red polled cattle are commonly clas- sified among the dual purpose breeds and are sometimes called the Norfolk Polled breed or Norfolk Red Polls. According to the English standard, the color must be red, while the tip of the tail and ud- der may be white. The head must be be decidedly that of the beef type. The absolutely hornless and the form must Eig. 248 — RED POLLED BULL FALSTAFF II Northumberland bull. Notwithstanding their apparent good qualities, the Long Horns have ceased to be general favor- ites, since Bakewell's time. At first, this breed was too coarse, but con- siderable improvement has been made, especially in reducing the coarser parts and increasing the size of the higher priced cuts of meat. Welsh breeds of beef cattle— At pres- ent there are two Welsh breeds, known as North and South Wales cattle, or Anglesey and Castle Martin breeds. Both of these races are apparently descended from the indigenous cattle of Great Britain. The pure bred animals are almost entirely black, a little white cows give sufficient milk to make profit- able dairy animals, and at the same time preserve the beef form. The Red Polls are apparently the outcome of mixing both Suffolk and Norfolk Polled cattle. Improvement has been brought about by careful selection and good feeding. They were first imported into the United States in 1873, and the Red Polled Cat- tle Club of America was formed in 1883, publishing the first herd book in 1887. The Red Polls, although most numerous in the central and Mississippi valley states, are now registered from nearly every state and territory in the Union. Among the dual purpose breeds, the Red Polls are perhaps the most popular at THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 367 present. They stand between the Short- horns and Devons in size, are excellent milkers, mature early and are noted for transforming their feed into milk dur- ing the period of lactation and into beef as soon as they are dry. Devon cattle are one of the oldest and purest breeds of dual purpose cattle which originated in Great Britain. In their early history, they were closely con- nected with the Hereford and Sussex cattle. The breed is found in its purest and best form in North Devon. The Popularity — Devons were first intro- duced into the United States in 1817, after which importations took place with considerable rapidity. The first volume of the American Devon Herd Book was published in 1861. This breed is now found in nearly every state in the Union, but is more numerous in Ohio, Pennsyl- vania, New York, Massachusetts and Wisconsin. Devons are not particularly popular in most parts of this country for dual purpose cattle for the reason that they are somewhat deficient in size for • :: e J . 4 Fig. 249 — DEVON BULL, TULIP ROYAL English standard for the Devon requires a small, clean head with deer-like ex- pression, thin, fine horns of a cream color tipped with black, growing with a regular curve upwards. The skin is somewhat loose and covered with hair of a soft, furry nature, inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good condi- tion and full coat. The North Devon race of this breed is highly esteemed for beef and for draft purposes, but less for the dairy. Their milk has a high fat content but the quantity is rather small. The South Devon race is sometimes mixed with a larger breed called the Old Marlborough Bed. beef and the milk yield is small. They are active grazers and the fat content of the milk is very high. They do not ma- ture quite so early as the standard beef breeds. In crossing and grading up scrub stock, they are quite valuable. The bulls are able to transmit their rich, red color to a large percentage of off- spring. According to the American standard the heads of Devon cows should be rather long, with a broad, indented forehead, tapering slightly towards the nostrils. The nose should be of a flesh color. The minimum weight at three years old is 1,000 pounds. The Devon is neat, smooth and graceful in genera] FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK appearance and is decidedly more active than Shorthorns. Polled Durhams originated in Ohio, from two sources; viz, a cross between Shorthorn bulls and muley cows and pure hornless Shorthorns, which oc- casionally are seen as freaks in this breed. They are, therefore, a double standard breed and stand in the same re- lation to the Shorthorn as the Polled Hereford does to the standard Hereford with horns. The American Polled Dur- ham Breeders' Association was organized in 1899. The Polled Durhams are be- coming popular throughout the United States and have been exported to some extent abroad, where they are also mak- ing a name for themselves. They are formed in 1880, and the breed has be- come generally distributed throughout the United States, the first record book having been issued in 1882. Brown Swiss cattle are well adapted to con- ditions where a combination of dairying and beef production is sought. The size is medium; cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,300 pounds. The quantity of milk is moderately large, and its fat content good. The Brown Swiss cattle are ex- cellent grazers, fatten readily when dry and the calves develop rapidly. They are fertile and excellent breeders. Ac- cording to the American standard the color is dark brown to light brown or at some season of the year gray. A few splashes of white near the udder are Pig. )0 — EXULISII TYPES OF DEVON COWS most numerous in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Texas and other central states. They were first exported to the Argen- tine Eepublic in 1894. The appearance and points of the Polled Durhams are essentially the same as those of Short- horns, but more attention has been given to milking qualities, so that this breed probably excels even the milking Short- horns in the quantity of milk. Brown Swiss cattle are one of the standard breeds from Switzerland, and have become generally distributed throughout Europe. It was first im- ported into the United States in 1869 by Mr. Henry M. Clark of Belmont, Mass., since which time many importa- tions have been made. The American Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association was not objectionable and a light stripe is allowed along the back. The hair be- tween the horns is light, but not red- dish. The horns are rather short, fiat- tish and with black tips. Holderness— As explained by Youatt, the Shorthorns include the Holderness and Teeswater breeds, which are sup- posed to have been derived from a cross with large bulls that were imported from Holland into Yorkshire. The Holder- ness is a large framed breed, with good backs, long quarters, straight legs and well developed udders. Frequently they are white, with blue or gray spots; but the majority of them are mouse-col- ored and white. The Teeswater cattle were of large size, but of an ungainly^ THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 369 form and gave less milk than the Hol- derness, but of a somewhat higher fat content. Polled Albion—About 25 years ago, Mr. B. E. Ferris crossed white Short- horn cows with a polled bull of unknown pedigree, obtaining a white, polled strain of cattle. The admixture of Jersey, Holstein and Ayrshire blood was also al- lowed, but later more Shorthorn blood was introduced into the strain. The cows are said to be somewhat smaller than Shorthorns, yield a fair quantity of milk, ranging as high as 5 per cent in fat. A Polled Albion Breeders' As- sociation has been formed and a herd book is being kept. The bulls weigh about 1,600 pounds and the cows about 050. The breed is said to be hardy and of more rapid growth than the Bed Polled. MARKET CLASSES In the first place, distinction should be made between market classes and market grades. The market classes, which are commonly recognized, in- clude: beef, butcher stock, cutters and canners, veal calves and stockers and feeders ; while the grades are : prime choice, good, medium, common and in- ferior. Attention has been called by Mumford to the importance of studying these market grades, so as to understand thoroughly the market demands. This is a necessary part of a successful beef business, since nondescript beef cattle cannot be assigned to definite classes, and the owner must, therefore, take chances regarding the price which he re- ceives for them. The market classes al- ready named may each include several grades, so that the classes gradually shade into one another, but the prime animals of each class are to be readily recognized after a little study. The 251 brown swiss champion at world's fair names of the different market classes indicate somewhat the uses to which cattle are put, while the grades refer to quality. It should also be remembered that weight has only a secondary influence in determining the grade and the market price. It is commonly recognized as being a much more difficult matter to determine the correct value of low grade cattle than of cattle of the higher Fig. 252 — POLLED ALBION BULL THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 371 grades. Obviously the best way of be- coming acquainted with the market grades is to visit a large stock market like Chicago and study the classifica- tion, as adopted by the expert cattle buyers. If the farmer is in a position to supply high-grade cattle, he is prac- tically certain to receive a remunerative price for them; in fact there is a ten- dency to bull the market somewhat with fine cattle, so that often they bring more than they are really worth. On the other hand, common and medium grades of cattle are not much in demand and seldom bring their full value. Fig. 254 POINTS IN THE STEER 1 Forehead and face 17 Hooks 2 Muzzle 18 Rumps 3 Nostrils 19 Hin«li|ii:irlcrs 4 Eyes 20 Thighs 5 Ears 21 Twist 6 Poll 22 Base of Tail 7 Jaws 23 Cod purse 8 Throat 24 Underline it Shoulders 25 Flanks lu Chest 26 Leys and bone 11 Brisket 27 Hocks 12 Fore ribs 28 Forearms 13 Back ribs 29 Neck veins 14 Crops 30 Bush of tail 15 Loins 31 Heart girth 16 Back 32 Pin bones Importance of knowing market re- quirements — The small feeder who does not study market classes and seldom visits large stock markets, is at a great disadvantage as compared with the regu- lar shipper, for the reason that the former is not well posted on the latest market demands, and the style and qual- ity of cattle for which there is the most active call. Even the breeder of pure bred stock needs to familiarize him- self with the market classes, for other- wise he may continue to breed and se- lect his animals in such manner as to perpetuate characters which are coming into disfavor on the market. When a breeder decides upon a particular breed, and continues to breed these animals be- cause they belong to a particular breed, i he is overlooking the fact that a breed of i animals is not valuable because it bears .a certain name, but because it possesses .certain qualities for which there is a (regular. demand upon the market. The purchaser looks for quality in the pro- duct, not for a particular breed name. It may be, therefore, that in a lot of cattle of different breeds offered for sale upon the beef market, each market class will contain animals of each breed. Designation of terms — Beef cattle in- clude export, shipping and dressed beef steers. Under this class are quoted all grades of fat steers and heifers, which have received enough food of the right quality to indicate a successful attempt to fatten them. The weight varies greatly, since the class includes every- thing from heavy shipping steers to light grades of dressed beef. In the class of beef cattle we have prime steers, weighing from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds; choice steers and good steers each weigh- ing from 1,150 to 1,600; medium steers weighing from 1,100 to 1,400; and com- mon, rough steers, weighing from 900 to 1,200 pounds. The terms shipping, export and dressed beef cattle are sometimes used to mean distinct classes. This is not really the case, however, since these terms refer to the uses which are made of the cattle, rather than to their quality. As a rule, export cattle in- clude good and choice grades of steers, weighing from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds. Shipping steers include medium and good grades of cattle, weighing from 1,160 to 1,500 pounds, and bought f or the eastern markets. The Boston buyers prefer heavy steers. As stated by Mum- ford, there is a constant limited demand for prime steers, weighing 1,200 to 1,300 pounds, for the high-class trade in New York. Dressed beef cattle is a term used to denote steers purchased by the Chicago packers. There is a wider range in the weight and quality of these cattle than among the cattle which are used for export or shipping purposes. In the various market classes already mentioned, no weight is given exceed- ing 1,600 pounds, and this is a satis- factory maximum, for the reason that but few cattle reach the market which weigh more than 1,600 pounds. In the general class of beef cattle we have also baby beef, distillers and Texas cattle, these being sub-divisions of the class. Baby beef contains only the prime and choice grades, while the dis- tillers and Texas cattle show all the grades. Baby beef is a term applied to choice or prime steers between the ages of one and two years, and weighing from 372 FARMER'S' CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 800 to 1,000 pounds. The term Dis- tillers arose from the fact that formerly the feeders who used distillers' residues in cattle rations purchased only poor grades of bulls and steers, for the con- sumption of such feed. At present however, distillery residues are fed to a better grade of steers. The Texas or western range cattle were formerly distinguished by their long horns and brands. At present a long horn steer is seldom seen, and the pure breeds of cattle have been so widely distributed over the range that the western range steer may not be distinguished by any characteristic feature except for the fact that he bears a brand. A slight discrimination is made by buyers against Texas cattle on account of their long horns, and against southern cattle on account of the fact that they come but are animals which have never been sufficiently well fed to be in a good mar- ket condition. As a rule, only a small percentage of steers of good quality are classed as butcher stock, for if they are fat they go in the class of beef cattle, and if they have not been fattened and are promising animals, they are more properly classified with the stockers and feeders. Cutters and canners_Mumford calls attention to the fact that the impression commonly prevails that this class in- cludes only old, thin cows. As a mat- ter of fact, however, it includes poor bulls, steers and heifers, as well as cows. Great difficulties are experienced in fix- ing the value of animals which belong to this class. Cows are apt to show an excessively large paunch and in general they dress a relatively low per cent. Fig. 255 — WESTERN STEERS USED IN LARGE FEEDING OPERATIONS from below the quarantine line. Dis- tinction is often made to indicate lo- calities where range steers have been bred and fed. Thus we have such terms as Montana Texans, Dakota Texans, etc. Since all western range cattle bear brands, they are sometimes referred to as branded cattle. Butcher stock — This class includes what is sometimes referred to as the by- products of the industry of cattle feed- ing. This means that the feeder has failed to produce a prime animal, either for the reason that he made a poor selection of feeders, or from not hav- ing used proper rations. It is not al- ways possible, however, to make for- tunate selections of stock, and even the most expert cattle feeders sometimes se- lect in their herds animals which can- not be satisfactorily fattened. These animals find their way to the local or Chicago market. Many of them are not culls from the classes of beef cattle, Buyers, therefore, ordinarily discrimi- nate against them. Neither cutters nor canners include any prime grades, since from the very nature of the class, it is evident that no animals of prime quality should be included in it. The quality which is visually apparent in inferior canners may be readily understood from such names as Dairymaids, Nellies, Hat Racks and Skins, which are com- monly applied to them. Low-grade bulls, which show a poor conformation and lack of condition are commonly referred to as Bologna Bulls. The best part of the loins and ribs of bologna bulls, how- ever, may be used for block purposes. Stockers and feeders — This is a very important market class of beef stock, since from this class the majority of cattle feeders select their stock for the production of fine beef animals. As indicated by Mumford, these two classes represent the beginning and the end of THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 373 the processes of beef production. Stack- ers and feeders may include calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and older ani- mals. Steers and bulls about a year and a half old that are intended for placing immediately in the feed lot are referred to as feeders; while calves, heifers and young steers are commonly called stockers. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard and fast line between these subdivisions of the class. It is rare that a steer weighing less than 800 pounds is put in the feed lot, the com- mon weight ranging from 900 to 1,000 pounds or more. Feeders are usually a year and a half of age or older. veal calves are not determined by weight but by quality. A choice veal calf must be fat and in fancy condition. It must not be too young or too old; too light or too heavy. RAISING CALVES Several systems of raising calves are in favor in different parts of the coun- try. Calves may be allowed to run with the cows during a number of months and take all the milk. Again, they may be kept confined and allowed to suck several times daily. Another variation is found in confining calves and feeding them fresh, whole milk from the pail. Fig. 256 — GOOD VEAL PROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION It should not be supposed that feed- ers must be animals lacking in quality. As a matter of fact, even the finest bred animals at the beginning of the fat- tening period necessarily lack market finish. The period of fattening is de- signed to put this finish on the animals. Therefore, the fancy, selected feeders may include the most promising beef animals which can be found. Veal calves include choice veals weighing from 120 to 160 pounds; good veals weighing from 110 to 200 pounds; medium veals, weighing from 100 to 240; and common veals weighing from 80 to 800 f It is obvious that grades of Again, they may be fed on fresh sepa- rated milk or skim milk, or less often they are fed whey, buttermilk or sour milk. On the western ranges, the only system which can be operated with suc- cess consists in allowing the calves to run with the cows for several months, after which they are weaned and do not receive either whole or skim milk, but are put on a grain and coarse forage ra- tion, or may be allowed to obtain all their feed on the range. Range cows allow their calves to suck at frequent intervals while they are young, but the calves do not follow the cows until they have acquired considerable strength^ 374 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK At first, the calves are kept hidden, while the cow goes off to graze for a few hours, and then returns to allow the calf to get more milk. In all dairy regions, and wherever milk may be sold as such, or in the form of butter, the farmer must decide on the relative economy of allowing the calf to have the whole milk, or selling the cream or butter and replacing this part of the milk with other food. This problem has been attacked by many ag- ricultural experts, and by other practi- cal feeders; and interesting residts have been obtained which have had much to do in determining the common practice in this matter. Calves may be more this matter is the kind and quantity of cream substitutes which may be best and most economically used with the skim milk ration for calves. Hay tea experiments — In Kansas, Otis tested the use of hay tea for calves. In this experiment two kinds of hay were used: mixed hay, containing or- chard grass, blue grass and a little red clover; and alfalfa hay. The hay was boiled for one or two hours, after which the coarse material was removed and the tea further concentrated by boiling. In this experiment I2V2 pounds of hay were used to produce 100 pounds of tea. The total cost of this amount of tea was estimated at 11 cents. The re- Fig. 21 -BLOODED CALVES WORTH MORE THAN MILK profitably maintained when not allowed to receive whole milk, but only skim milk with a small grain ration added. This fact being established, it becomes necessary to determine how well calves thrive on such a ration as compared with calves on whole milk or with calves al- lowed to suck the cow. Experiments along this line have shown that while in some instances slightly better results are obtained in whole milk calves than in skim milk calves, yet the differences are so slight that, as a rule, it is impos- sible to distinguish between calves brought up by these two methods; and the profit from skim milk calves is al- most invariably greater. One of the most important points to consider in suits obtained from the use of this ma- terial were not very satisfactory. Al- falfa tea appeared to be so laxative that it was impossible to keep the calves from scouring. The cost of gain in calves on hay tea was too high. According to Stewart, however, this old practice of rearing calves on hay tea rests on a good foundation. The soluble nutriments in the hay are readily ex- tracted by boiling and the material con- tains all of the nutrients required by a growing calf, providing the hay is cut at a time when there is a large amount of soluble matter. Moreover, the tea should be boiled down so as not to contain too much water in proportion to the amount of nutriment. In Stewart's experiments, THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 375 two gallons of hay tea, to which Y± pound each of flaxseed and wheat mid- dlings had been added, was tried on calves for a period of sixty days, during which the amount of middlings was gradually increased to 1 pound a day. The calves thrived well and gained more than 2 pounds each per day. Educating the calf — In teaching the calf to drink, it is desirable to leave it with itself for at least 12 hours, or until it becomes hungry. Attempts to make it drink before it is hungry are almost sure to be useless. The calf may be taught to drink by forcing open the mouth and holding the fingers in it. As a substitute for the common method of teaching calves to drink, various calf should be allowed to suck the cows for three to five days. The milk during this time is commonly considered unsuitable for human consumption. At the end of four or five days the milk is ready for use. During this time the calf will have received the colostrum and will have benefited by its nutritious character and its medicinal effects; and will also have assisted in preventing inflamma- tion of the udder of the cow. The calves may now be separated from the cows and fed on whole milk. As soon as they have learned to drink, the whole milk should be gradually replaced with warm, perfectly fresh skim milk, the process of substitution taking place 258 CALVES READY TO FATTEN FOR BABY BEEF. KANSAS EXPER. STATION feeders have been patented, consisting of a tube and a rubber nipple. It is almost, if not as easy, however, to teach a calf to drink as to induce it to make use of the feeder. Often the calf loses the nipple and is unable to find it. Then, too, the milk is obtained so slowly that in cold weather it may become chilled before the calf has finished his meal, in which case it may cause scour- ing. The average calf cannot make good use of hay or grain until he is about 10 days old. During this time, there- fore, it is well to feed the calf whole milk. The following scheme may be considered as based on the results ob- tained by the majority of cattle raisers, who have adopted the mpthod of feeding calves on skim milk and grain. Calves slowly, so that at the end of four weeks the calves receive nothing but skim milk. The skim milk must be fed sweet and warm ; that is, of a temperature of 95 to 100° F. The change from whole milk to fresh skim milk will occupy a period of about two weeks. The skim milk ration may begin at 10 pounds a day and may be increased to 15 pounds at four weeks of age, after which it should range from 18 to 24 pounds a day. Quantities to feed — At first the whole milk should be fed about three times a day: 4 pounds in the morning, 2 pounds at noon and 4 pounds at night. After 10 days two meals a day will be sufficient. During the time that the calf receives whole milk, the quantity may be gradually increased to about 12 376 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK pounds. When the process of substitu- tion has begun, about 1 pound of skim milk should be substituted for 1 pound of whole milk, and this gradual replace- ment kept up until the change is com- plete. In the meantime the calf should be taught to eat a little grain; some form of meal, either flaxseed, linseed meal, corn meal, kafir corn meal or va- rious mixtures. A handful of the dry meal may be placed in the calf's mouth and by this means it is forced to eat. The taste of the grain is agreeable and the calf soon learns to go to the feed box for it. In Kansas it has been found that a calf from three to five weeks of age may receive from 10 to 12 pounds of skim milk daily; from the age of seven to eight weeks, 14 to 16 pounds; and from three to five months, 18 to 20 pounds. It should be remembered that the percen- tage of protein in skim milk is greater than in whole milk, and since protein is the element which forms the bone and muscle, the feeding value of skim milk should be obvious. The fat content in milk is the least valuable of the milk constituents, from the standpoint of the calf, and may be replaced by grains containing some fat. Calves which are allowed to suck the cows may, during early life, show a plumper and sleeker appearance than the skim milk calves. The difference, if any, however, usually disappears later on. It has been found in Kansas that skim milk is worth from 20 to 40 cents a hundred pounds as a food for calves. If skim milk has become contaminated in any way, or undergoes slight changes, it may be sterilized. When such milk is fed to calves, they usually show a dis- like to the odor of the milk at first, but soon become accustomed to it. A com- parison of *the feeding value of steri- lized skim milk and fresh separator skim milk shows that these materials are of about equal value for calves. In the set of experiments already referred to in Kansas, the grain used in replacing the cream of milk included shelled corn, corn chop, corn meal, whole kafir corn, ground kafir corn and linseed meal, to- gether with a little dried blood and flax- seed in certain cases. The average daily gain was highest on a combination of shelled corn and ground kafir corn. In a comparison of three methods of feed- ing calves, it was found that the daily gain was V-/z pounds on skim milk, 1.86 pounds in calves which drank whole milk, and 1.77 pounds in calves which were allowed to suck the cows. Skim milk calves consumed 122 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain; whole milk calves consumed 58 pounds of grain and 32 pounds of butter fat for 100 pounds of gain. Estimating the butter fat at the usual price, the ma- terial required for a pound of gain in this case cost more than with skim milk calves. Otis believes on the basis of his ex- periments that the use of skim milk makes it possible to obtain the greatest profit from cows on home-grown grains, since feeds which are desirable in re- placing cream of milk may easily be raised on the farm and will yield as great a profit when fed to young calves as can be obtained from them in feeding any other kind of animal. Experiments with milk substitutes — In Pennsylvania, Haywood carried out a set of experiments to determine whether calves may be reared on milk substitutes without the use of milk. The results of these experiments indicate that there is little difficulty in raising dairy calves without milk, except for the first two weeks. The cost of raising calves on milk substitutes up to an age when they may be put upon a hay and grain ration, or three to four months of age, does not exceed about $10 a head. Calves from valuable dairy stock, when raised in this way, are worth much more than the cost of production and are, therefore, raised at a profit. In these experiments the calves were allowed to suck the cows for a few days after which they were taught to drink whole milk and were then gradually accustomed to the substituted material. As a basis for the preparation of a milk substitute, Hayward took an Eng- lish formula, calling for 16 2-3 pounds flour, 33 1-3 pounds flaxseed meal and 50 pounds linseed meal. In feeding this mixture, 2 1 /2 pounds were scalded in boiling water after which enough water was added to make 2 gallons, and a little salt and sugar were sprinkled in the material before feeding. Another sat- isfactory mixture tested in Pennsylva- nia contained 30 pounds wheat flour, 25 pounds cocoanut meal, 20 pounds nu- trium, 10 pounds of linseed meal and 2 pounds of dried blood. One pound of this mixture was added to 6 pounds of hot water and, after stirring, allowed to THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 377 cool down to a temperature of 100° E. before feeding. English practices — In several coun- ties of England calves are left with the cows for about two weeks, after which they are taught to drink first whole fresh milk and then whole and skim milk mixed. At the end of about a month, the calf receives only skim milk with oatmeal, barley meal or linseed meal. Small quantities of hay are also placed within reach of the calves and they are given, in addition, chopped tur- nips, carrots or other vegetables. In Ayrshire, calves which are intended for dairy cows are fed on whole milii for the first four to six weeks, allowing them about 4 quarts a day, the quantity lessened as soon as there is plenty of green grass to eat. Grain is added at that a very small quantity of mixed meal be added to the milk from the time the calf is four or five days old. If oatmeal or linseed meal is used, it seems to act as a tonic and helps to prevent scouring and other digestive troubles. Objections to natural feeding — One of the chief objections to the custom of allowing calves to suck the cows until they are a month old, or more, is that it is then much more difficult to wean them and they lose flesh while they are being taught to drink. In general, the older the calf the more difficult it is to teach him to drink from a pail, so that the practice of feeding him from a pail at the end of the first week has abundant justification. Calf rearing is never successful unless the calves are kept in a healthy, growing, progressive Eig. 259 — ROUGH FEEDERS ON AN AVERAGE FARM the age of about four weeks. With the milk other feeds are given, such as hay tea, linseed jelly, oat and wheat meal porridge, etc. Another method of feed- ing, which has given success in Ireland, consists in making a thick soup of lin- seed meal and bean or pea meal, which is mixed with milk in such a way as to make a material of about the consist- ency of mucilage. In the northern countries of England the common practice prevails of feeding calves equal parts of milk and sweet whey at a lukewarm temperature. The only objection to this feed is that it is apt to cause scouring. In Norfolk, calves are frequently raised on skim milk, to which a little wheat flour is added. They are also allowed to have a small amount of chopped turnips and a bit of hay. Some of the most suc- cessful English beef raisers recommend state, and any check which may take place in growth is likely to result in a stunting from which it may never en- tirely recover. Rice meal was compared in Alabama with corn meal for calves, the calves being allowed small quantities of Japan clover hay. It was found somewhat dif- ficult to induce the calves to eat a suf- ficient quantity of rice meal, and it therefore became necessary to substitute bran for one-third of the rice meal. The calves which received rice meal made an average daily gain of 1.6 pounds, while those which were fed corn meal gained 1.9 pounds a head daily. Whey is commonly utilized for both calves and pigs. A comparison of whey and skim milk was made in Kansas by Otis. In this test it was found that whey produced poor gains and that the returns given for the feed consumed 378 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK were not satisfactory, but when the test was* repeated, using alfalfa hay, bet- ter results were obtained. The calves which received whey did not become fat, but they remained in a thrifty con- dition. Defective ration — If serious scour- ing takes place in young calves, it is evident that there is something wrong with the ration. The addition of a tea- spoonful of dried blood to the milk ra- tion has been found to be valuable in checking scouring in Kansas. A num- ber of packing companies manufacture a sterilized dried blood or blood meal which may be safely used for this pur- pose. In serious cases of scours, the addition of one or two eggs with dried blood is quite successful. Another rem- edy which gave good results in Kansas consists in adding from 1 to 2 ounces of castor oil to the milk in the morning, followed in the evening by a dose of 15 or 20 drops of laudanum in addition to the dried blood. Various feeds — In order to get a defi- nite idea of the feeding value of milk for calves, a test was made by Beach in Connecticut, in which it was found that for each pound of gain in calves, from 0.91 to 1.33 of a pound of solid matter must be fed. This shows that the young calf is exceedingly effective in manufacturing meat out of feeds. In Switzerland, it has been found that six eggs and 14 quarts of milk a day are sufficient to make a calf gain three pounds a day. This ration, however, would be altogether too expensive, ex- cept for high bred animals or in loca- tions where fancy prices could be ob- tained for fine veal calves. In New South "Wales, cod liver oil is extensively used in feeding calves. It appears that 2 ounces of cod liver oil in 3 gallons of milk makes a ration on which calves will gain 1% pounds a day at a cost of 3 cents. The cod liver oil is easily fed and is greatly relished by the calves. Likewise in England, cod liver oil has given excellent results. In many cases calves are fed on whole milk for five weeks, after which a ration is prepared in the proportion of 5 quarts of skim milk to 2 ounces of cod liver oil. The oil may be safely fed to calves, since it never shows any bad effects and the calves appear to be very fond of it. It constitutes an exceedingly cheap ration when mixed with milk. Various forms of starch have been used as cream substitutes for calves. In Italy, a ration of skim milk and starch made gains of 2 pounds a day in calves. Oleomargarine added to skim milk was found to be more effective than ground bone. According to some feeders, scalded linseed meal is the best cream sub- stitute, followed in effectiveness by cod liver oil. In Queenstown, cod liver oil has been found to lessen the danger of scouring, and gave better results than a mixture of linseed meal and molasses added to skim milk. There seems to be no apparent ad- vantage in boiling milk for calves, since according to German experience, if it is fed in a fresh condition it should not contain enough bacteria to cause scour- ing. A comparison of skim milk calves and sucking calves was made in Nebraska, during which Burnett kept the calves under observation for 147 days. During this time the average gain of skim milk calves was 292 pounds, and sucking calves 343 pounds. The amount of gain in these cases was in favor of whole milk, but a greater economy was shown in the use of skim milk. In Germany, an artificial calf cream, sold under the name of Kalberrahm, has been used as a cream substitute, but when mixed with skim milk, this feed has been found to be somewhat inferior to whole milk for calves. A number of feeders in New South Wales have made use of cocoanut oil cake. *Tke results obtained, however, indicate that this material is not easj to prepare and that calves do not thrive well on it. In Canada, cocoa shell milk has been prepared by boiling cocoa shells in water. This material appears to be a good substitute for milk for young calves. Ration experiments — -In Nebraska, Haecker carried on a series of experi- ments to test the value of certain rations containing fat for replacing the cream in skim milk for calves. In his experi- ments, linseed meal, germ oil meal, corn oil, shelled corn, oats and bran were used. In accordance with common prac- tice in this state, the calves were taken from their mothers at the end of three days and fed whole milk for about two weeks, after which a change was made to skim milk. The corn and oats added to the milk were fed ground and ^ the calves were taught to eat grain rations THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY, 379 at the end of six weeks. Corn oil of- fered some difficulty. At first an at- tempt was made to prepare a mixture of the corn oil and milk containing 3 per cent of fat. It was found neces- sary, however, to reduce the fat to 2 per cent, since the oil proved too laxative. During 1 this experiment it appeared that linseed meal is an excellent mate- rial for replacing cream in milk and is very economic as compared with the other feeds. Germ oil meal gave about as good results as linseed meal, and is, therefore, recommended as a calf food. In order to attain their greatest de- velopment, calves require mill: for a period of four or five months. After that time milk may be entirely omitted from the ration and the grain ration may be increased. It is presupposed that calves begin to receive grain at the age of two or three weeks in addition to skim milk. To the grains which have already been mentioned for this purpose, we may add kafir corn meal, which has been found to give excellent results in Kansas as a substitute for corn meal. In Iowa, the use of whole milk gave somewhat better gains in calves than did a mixture of skim milk and flaxseed. The whole milk calves, however, re- ceived a more decided check in their growth at weaning time than did the skim milk, calves. Partly in conse- quence of this fact the cost of gain on whole milk was 7.6 cents a pound, while on skim milk and flaxseed it was 5 cents a pound. Corn meal, at later tests in the Iowa station, proved to be the best of all grains as a cream sub- stitute. Similar residts were obtained in Nebraska. At the end of a year whole milk calves could not be distinguished from skim milk calves, and the profits were much larger in the latter than in the former. During the first week or two, the whole milk calves appeared to be in the lead, but the skim milk calves soon equaled them in growth. The Minnesota experiment station found that the cost of raising calves on whole milk was three times that of raising them on skim milk and ground flaxseed. In Massachusetts, good results have been obtained from the use of an emulsion of skim milk and oleomargarine, with an addition of a little brown sugar. Calves will make good gains on skim milk alone, but when pork is high and veal low, there is greater profit in feed- ing skim milk to pigs than calves. Cream substitutes — The proposition of feeding calves on skim milk and using some cream substitute involves the question of the relative profit from milk in the form of butter and veal or beef. In Pennsylvania, it was found that milk gave better returns in veal than in butter. When calves were com- pared with pigs in regard to their abil- ity to utilize skim milk, it was found that young calves were about equal to pigs. In fact, in Utah, calves up to the age of three and one-half months re- quired less milk and corn for a pound of gain than did pigs; but after five or six months pigs took the lead in this respect. In Wisconsin, experiments have been carried on in making curds from sweet skim milk by heating it to a tempera- ture of 90° F. and adding a liquid ren- net extract. This material produced excellent gains in calves. We have already recommended that milk constitute a part of the ration of calves until they are four or five months old. Some Canadian feeders, however, have found that skim milk is not strictly indispensable after the calves are two months old. In some of the southern states cottonseed meal has been used as a cream substitute in feeding calves and has given excellent results. In Mississippi, cottonseed meal was found to be the cheapest grain which could be used for this purpose. If fed in too large quantities, however, it may kill the calves. In France, a large variety of feeding stuffs have been used as cream substi- tutes, including potato starch, cooked flaxseed, rice flour, barley meal, malt flour and oleomargarine. Quite satis- factory results in using cream substi- tutes have also been obtained in Hol- land, Sweden and other European coun- tries. Recently Klein has recommended the addition of small quantities of formalin to milk as a treatment for scours. In order to produce the right results it is not necessary that the formalin be used in greater strength than one part to 4,000. If it is added to the milk ration after calves show symptoms of scouring, the effect is very decided and a recovery ordinarily takes place within two or three days. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In the above discussion of various cream substitutes, other recommenda- tions have been made regarding scour- ing, and it appears from the experi- ments of various feeders that a number of substances have the effect of prevent- ing scours, among them cod liver oil, rye bran, kafir corn meal, dried blood, etc There is one disadvantage in feeding skim milk, as compared with allowing calves to suck the cows. This appears, however, only when calves are fed in a careless manner. If calves are fed only twice a day, especially when they are very young, and then allowed to have all the milk they will drink, they may develop into small, pot-bellied yearlings, veal in fancy condition to a larger one in a rougher condition. Fancy veal — The art of producing fancy veal has been highly developed in England. The feeders keep their calves in dark pens, scrupulously clean and furnished with dry bedding. It is some- times recommended that a piece of chalk- stone be suspended so that the calves may lick it, since it is sometimes sup- posed that chalk assists in whitening the meat. This idea is probably incor- rect, but chalk appears to help in pre- venting scouring. Veal raisers seek to produce veal calves with the whitest possible meat. In general, the use of whole milk, with- out any other feed, has been found to »| Fig. 260 BABY BEEF FROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION which, in the western states, are known as "dogies." Feeding calves for veal — About 2,000,000 calves are annually killed in the United States for veal. The indus- try of fattening veal for market is there- fore of no mean importance. The same variation of methods prevails here as in rearing calves for dairy or beef pur- poses, and therefore a considerable variety of feeds have been used. In order to bring fancy veal prices, calves should be hastened to a proper market condition at as early an age as possible In general, calves should be in prime veal form at six to eight weeks of age; and if they are in condition at that time, it is not desirable to keep them longer, since the market prefers a small give the best results. Where this scheme of feeding is followed, the milk from the different cows is divided so that the calves receive a milk richer and richer in fat as they increase in age. An attempt is made also in feeding fancy veal to keep the temperature of the pens as nearly constant as possible. The best results in the production of a tender veal of light color is obtained when the calves are given from the start all the milk which they can take with- out suffering from indigestion. In or- der to properly force the larger veal calf, it may be necessary to give him milk of two cows. A good veal in proper condition at the age of one month will take all the milk of one cow. Some TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 381 feeders give eggs and add small quan- tities of meal to the milk, but those who have a reputation for producing fancy veal object to such practice, claim- ing that meal and eggs tend to darken the meat of the veal. In Holland, a still more artificial method of forcing veal is in favor. Calves are kept in pens so narrow that they cannot turn around, and therefore cannot take any exercise. The pens are kept in total darkness, only being light- ed up slightly when the calf is fed. The Dutch feeders also keep a piece of chalk hanging where the calf can readily lick it. Baby beef — Recently an increasing interest has been shown in the produc- tion of baby beef, and it is therefore necessary to discuss the methods by which baby beef is fitted for market and the economy of this system. Under certain circumstances, especially where dairying is combined with beef production, there is a great advantage to be secured in inducing beef animals to mature early. The problem of the production of baby beef has received much attention from expert feeders in Iowa,. Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Ne- braska, New Hampshire, Utah, Wiscon- sin, Colorado, Canada and elsewhere. The various agricultural experiment sta- tions have taken an active part in investigating this matter and have con- tributed largely to a clearer understand- ing of the economy of early maturity and the method of producing this result. Points in favor of baby beef produc- tion — The production of baby beef is good economy for the reason that the amount of feed required for a given gain is less in young than in old ani- mals, and this fact makes it highly desirable to begin forcing animals from the start. In the above discussion of calf feeding, it is assumed that a large percentage of the calves thus treated are to be forced to an early maturity. In this process scrubs do not mature so early as well-bred cattle, and, therefore, only the latter should be chosen for the production of baby beef. In practice, the Herefords A Shorthorns, Angus and grades of these breeds are most used in producing baby beef. The raising of baby beef is a some- what difficult and complicated specialty which has grown up within recent years and considerable skill is necessary in securing the right condition of the ani- mals. All animals in order to be entered in this class must be of prime or choice quality. Since, however, it is neces- sary to reduce the cost of beef produc- tion as much as possible, a larger num- ber of feeders are annually going into the business of producing baby beef. Obviously, the sooner the animal can be brought to a market condition, the greater the profit. Not only are gains made more rapidly in young than in old animals, but the amount of feed re- quired for a pound of gain is also less. The quality of the meat is superior, the market demand is somewhat more ac- tive, the price a little more fancy and the money invested is turned over at shorter intervals. In fact, many beef raisers have come to the conclusion that with increasing prices for feeds, labor and land, early maturity offers the only solution of a profitable system ' of beef production. The tendency of feeders toward obtaining an early maturity in cattle has been manifested for many years. At first, the market age was lowered to three years, after which we began to find that the best beef breeds are fully mature at 30 months and that animals may be found in an excellent market condition for baby beef at the age of one to two years. The men who first engaged in this line of beef pro- duction as a venture, soon found that as they lowered the market age, they added greatly to their profits and many others followed their example. A fa- mous English feeder found that Short- horns could be forced so as to produce from $6.50 to $8 worth of meat a month up to the age of a year and a half. When sold in the form of baby beef, it was found by this feeder that the animal cost for work and feed $1.51 a week. At first it was supposed that the quality of young beef must be inferior to that of older animals. It was soon found, however, that quality depends upon the method of feeding and that baby beef need not be a poor article. Perhaps the best plan for securing early maturity is to have the calves come in the fall. They may then be fed on a skim milk and grain ration until the pastures turn green in the spring, when they should be put upon pasture and the grain ration continued. As soon as the pasture gets short in the fall, the calves should be put in a feed lot and forced on hay and grain to the age of 16 to 382 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 18 months. In New Hampshire, it was found that the total cost of bringing animals to a fine market form at the age of 16 months was $28.81. Experiments in Michigan indicated that early maturing breeds of cattle would bring a greater profit at one year of age, if pushed from the start, than if kept until they were three or four years old. In Colorado, a number of feeding experiments were carried out with calves seven to 10 months old. They were forced on a fattening ration for 178 days, the ration containing corn, oats, sugar beets and alfalfa hay. The profit obtained from these animals at the end of the feeding period was very satisfactory. Likewise in Iowa, Ne- braska, Minnesota, Utah, Canada and and linseed meal. When such a system of feeding was adopted, the profits in baby beef from skim milk calves were much greater than when whole milk was used. In this system of beef production it should be remembered that when a forcing ration is given throughout the first year, the animals may not endure heavy feeding the second year. In some instances their health fails and financial loss results. If calves are forced from the start, they should be finished off soon after the end of the first year or not later than 18 months. Among the great advantages which may be claimed for the system of baby beef production, we may mention the fact that at the age of one year, heif- ers, if in good market condition, bring »G1 — MEDIUM CUTTERS FROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION elsewhere, excellent results have been secured in feeding for baby beef. Many of our agricultural experiment stations have demonstrated clearly that after weaning, calves may be kept on a good growth ration of hay, silage and common farm grains and then forced on a fattening ration, so as to be in a fine market condition at an age of one or two years. By this system better prices are obtained for farm crops than when sold direct. The rations which are desirable for the production of baby beef differ according to the section of the country and need not be discussed in detail here, since the feeding value of different grains and other feeding stuffs will be discussed in order in the section on feeding mature beef. In Canada, it has been found that baby beef may be produced cheaply on i ground silage, ground barley and peas as much as steers and this is the only time in the life of the heifer when it will bring as much as the steer, pound for pound. In Kansas, the best and cheapest ra- tion was alfalfa hay and corn, followed by alfalfa hay and kafir corn. In the experiment carried on in Kansas, the calves were of common breeding; never- theless, they made good gains and pro- duced a satisfactory profit. While this 6hows the possibility of tising common calves in baby beef production it should not be made a general practice, since failure is apt to result and it is far safer and more profitable to use only high-grade or pure-bred beef animals for this purpose. With good breeding and proper feeding, the animals should be brought to the weight of 1,000 pounds at the age of 12 to 14 months. Cottrell calls attention to the well-known fact TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 383 that the more the calves have been han- dled and the tamer they are when they go into the feed lot, the more rapid and economical are the gains. The system of rearing calves on skim milk and cream substitutes, therefore, fits into the scheme of baby beef production, since the calves must necessarily be handled from the earliest age and thus become accustomed to the presence of man. In the experiments now under discus- sion, the profits in the form of baby beef from calves raised with cows were less than from skim milk calves and this constitutes another important sup- port to the practice of feeding skim milk and cream substitutes. Importance of system in feeding baby beef — In the production of baby beef, great care must be taken with the feeds ; they must be fresh and palatable at every feeding and must be presented in such a way that the animals will eat the largest possible quantities. It is commonly recommended that the feed- ing periods be absolutely regular, that water and salt be supplied at all times and in general that the grain be mixed with the hay or silage. According to statistics collected by Mumford from Illinois beef raisers, the spring is chosen as the season for the calves to come, by four-fifths of the cor- respondents of the Illinois experiment station; the other fifth of the beef rais- ers are divided in their preferences be- tween summer, winter and fall. Among the same men four-fifths practiced cas- tration on bull calves under three months of age and only 5 per cent post- poned the operation later than six months. In the large number of beef raisers, among whom the statistics in question were collected, less than one- half raised calves for the production of baby beef, the average age of cattle when marketed being 26 months and the average weight 1,275 pounds. While on some markets baby beef means well- fattened beef animals about one year of age, the term is frequently extended to include all finished cattle between one and two years old. Among Illinois beef raisers, the length of the suckling period for calves intended for the production of baby beef varies from one week to 10 months, with an average of five months and 24 days. The suckling period for calves not intended for baby beef ranges from five to seven months, six months being preferred by 40 per cent of the beef producers. Interesting statistics were also col- lected among prominent beef raisers with regard to the grain feeds which they used in feeding for baby beef. Among these grains, corn constitutes about one-half, oats one-third, followed by bran, linseed meal, a mixture of corn and oatmeal, barley, cottonseed meal, gluten meal, wheat and rye in order. The production of baby beef is not confined to the corn belt, but is much in favor in various other parts of the country. Thus, in Idaho, French has found that it is possible to raise calves profitably on skim milk by replacing the cream with whole oats; when calves are fed on this ration, they seem to make better use of rough feed later than do calves which have been raised on whole milk. The important point is also mentioned by French that early matu- rity is not hindered by this method of feeding. With regard to the economy of the practice, it appears that in Utah the value of the cream saved is more than four times that of the oats con- sumed in replacing the cream. In a series of feeding tests in Idaho, it was found that steers raised in the manner just described gained 2 pounds per day for a period of 128 days on coarse feeds alone. Baby beef produced on skim milk, oats, alfalfa hay and pas- ture dressed about 60 per cent of the live weight and the meat was well marbled and pronounced of prime qual- ity when examined by the butcher. The steers produced an average profit of $18 a head over the cost of feeding and care. French calls attention to the impor- tance of teaching calves to eat hay at as early an age as possible. The hay should be provided in self-feeding racks, so that they can obtain it at any time. "The calves, even those only five or six days old, soon learn to pick this tempt- ing bit of hay instead of sucking each other's ears, as they are apt to do when fed in the ordinary w*ay." The question often occurs to the farmer who intends to force calves to a market maturity at an early age, whether it pays best to feed grain during the first winter, or coarse forage alone. In Nebraska, this matter was studied by Burnett and Smith. It was found in this experiment that it is more econom- ical to feed a small grain ration, even if 384 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK good gains can be obtained with bay alone. In a furtber test of tbis matter, tbe same investigators used rations of 6 pounds of mixed grain in the winter, with hay and pasture in summer for one lot of calves ; a similar regimen with only 3 pounds of grain for a second lot, and no grain for a third lot of calves. The results from this experiment showed that the cost of producing meat in calves during winter is least when tbe grain ration is of considerable size. All indi- cations pointed to the economy of feed- ing grain during the winter. If the spring, about tbe time when tbe milk is omitted from the ration. If this sys- tem is adopted, there is little check in the regular growth of the calves. In some respects, however, this system is less convenient to operate on the farm than the ordinary, and what appears more natural, one of having the calves come at the usual spring season. Feeding calves for dairy and stock purposes — I n the above discussion of calf feeding, particular attention has been given to feeding calves which are intended for baby beef. A number of the calves produced on the farm, how- Fig. 262 — WELL FED STEERS WORTH $6.15 PER HUNDREDWEIGHT, FROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION whole year is taken into consideration and the system adopted in which no grain is fed while the animals are on pasture, it appears that a grain ration one-third of the full size is most eco- nomical. Season for calf production — The majority of farmers in Illinois prefer the spring season for calves and this may be considered as tbe usual farm practice throughout the country. There is considerable to be said in favor of having the calves come in the fall, par- ticularly since if they are fed on skim milk and a moderate grain ration dur- ing the winter, they are in excellent condition to turn out to pasture in the ever, must be raised to full maturity for use in tbe dairy, for breeding cows, and for tbe production of mature beef. Ex- actly the same methods should be adopted in feeding these calves up to the time when the milk ration is stopped. After that period, calves which are to be allowed to grow to full ma- turity should be kept on moderate grow- ing rations which will merely keep them in good, vigorous condition and produce moderate gains. It is always desirable to prevent any check in the growth, or loss of weight; but calves which are to be kept for stock purposes should not be made overfat during their early life by forced feeding. THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 385 Feeding mature steers — The same feeds are to be used in feeding mature steers as in the production of baby beef. The rations become a little larger, since the steers weigh more and are capable of utilizing more material. They must receive the same variety as during their early life, viz., grains and various kinds of coarse forage, including pasture. After the fattening period has begun, the chief point is to keep the animals gaining as rapidly as possible and force them to a market maturity at the ear- liest moment compatible with the health and constitution of the animals. The sooner the market finish is secured, the more profit is to be derived from the operation. Grains — While it is possible to fatten animals on coarse forage alone, provided this is supplied in large quantities, they cannot be fattened so as to conform to modern market requirements without the liberal use of grain feeds in the rations. We may, therefore, discuss in this con- nection the comparative value of the different grains which are commonly fed to cattle. Barley — Both the common and bald barley is used in fattening steers. In Idaho, French found that steers kept on a grain ration of equal parts chopped barley and shorts made satisfactory re- turns for their feed and gained a pound in weight for every four pounds of grain eaten. The gain in weight compared favorably in point of rapidity and econ- omy with the results obtained in the corn belt, where the market price for grains is somewhat lower. The rough- age fed to the steers in question was hay of mixed grasses and clover and corn silage. In Montana, a test was made by Shaw to determine the relative results from feeding light, medium and heavy rations of barley. The steers used in this ex- periment were divided into three lots, of which one received per 100 pounds live weight 0.46 pound of barley, the second 0.59, and the third 0.72 pound barley. The barley was ground and fed in the form of a meal. The amount of food required for a pound of gain in- creased with the amount of grain fed in the ration and the cost of gain in- creased proportionately. It appears from this experiment that where alfalfa or clover is used for the roughage not more than % pound of grain to 100 pounds of live weight is necessary to secure satisfactory results. If the effect- iveness of mixed grains be considered at 100, barley was found to equal 84.5. In these experiments barley seemed to be a little more expensive than wheat, since in steers which were fed this grain, the cost of a pound of gain was 6 cents, as compared with 5 cents for wheat. In North Dakota, barley produced greater and faster but more expensive, gains than a combination of bran and shorts, while in Utah, barley proved to be cheaper and more effective than pea meal for steers. Barley has been used in Colorado and appears to produce rapid gains, but the shrinkage of the steers in shipping is somewhat greater than on a corn ration. In Scotland, barley bran has been found to produce profitable gains. At the Woburn experiment farm it ap- peared that dried brewers' grains can- not be profitably used to replace all the hay in a ration for steers. When used to replace part of the hay, how- ever, they produced rapid gains in weight. Brewers' grains have not been as extensively used in feeding steers as for dairy cows. In Germany, the excessive use of dis- tillery refuse from barley and other grains was found to exert an unfavor- able effect on the quality of the beef. Beech nuts have been fed to cattle in rations of 2 to 10 pounds. Before feeding they are usually cracked and may then be fed dry or moistened. No harm is produced from the vise of beech nuts, but they may be fed to hogs with better and more economical results, since hogs readily harvest them without as- sistance. Beans are fed in large quantities to steers, but not many experiments have been carried out to determine their feed- ing value. Jack bean meal seemed not to be relished by steers in Mississippi, and proved to be indigestible. At Wo- burn, horse bean meal produced rapid and economical gains in steers. In va- rious parts of England excellent results have been obtained from a grain ration of beans, oats and wheat, in the ratio of 7: 5: 4. Bran — In the statistics collected by Mumf brd in Illinois, it appeared that 10 per cent of the beef raisers of that state used bran. The average amount fed daily is 5 pounds a head. In some local- ities bran is too expensive to occupy a large place in the steer ration and it is commonly limited to a small quantity on 386 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK this account. In fact, since bran varies considerably in price from year to year, it is used or omitted from the ration, according to the economy of feeding un- der the prevailing prices. Bran is used more extensively by dairymen than by beef raisers. Its value in the produc- tion of beef, however, is well understood, and its use is increasing somewhat dur- ing seasons when it can be obtained at reasonable prices. Corn — Throughout the corn belt and wherever this grain can be produced economically, corn unquestionably stands at the head of the list of grains for economy and effectiveness in beef pro- duction. It may be fed in rations of 4 to 18 pounds a day, as the only grain; but better results are obtained, even in comparatively short feeding periods, by the addition of smaller amounts of bar- ley, wheat, peas, beans, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, bran, soy bean meal and other nitrogenous feeds. Whenever corn is caught by frost in the fall, so that it does not reach com- plete maturity, doubt is frequently enter- tained regarding the value of such corn as a feed for steers. This question was thoroughly studied by Kennedy and others at the Iowa experiment station. The results obtained from feeding tests showed tbat soft corn containing 35 per cent of water at the beginning of the test was equal in feeding value to ma- ture corn when usad for fattening cattle. Cattle which received the soft corn made nearly as large gains and finished in as fine condition as those on mature corn. Since soft corn injured by frost could be readily purchased at 30 cents a bushel, the gains in steers were produced at 3 cents a pound less than when mature corn was fed costing 50 cents a bushel. Apparently the amount of water present in soft corn is the chief difference in so far as composition is concerned between it and fully mature corn. In Colorado, a comparative test of corn and wheat for steers showed them to be about equally effective, but during shipping the shrinkage was much less in the corn- fed steers. In Oklahoma, corn has been found to be superior to kafir corn, and about equal to wheat meal in feeding value on the basis of tests made in Ohio. A comparison of corn and wheat in Penn- sylvania gave results in favor of corn. In Virginia, corn fed whole or ground made greater and cheaper gains than cottonseed by-products, the cheapest gains being made on whole corn fed in rations of 12 pounds. At the Texas experiment station, com chops proved to be more profitable wben used during the whole fattening period than when fed merely to finish off steers which had been maintained on cottonseed by-products. Gluten meal proved to be superior to linseed meal at the Ohio experiment station; while in Illinois, gluten meal produced the re- quired market finish in steers more cheaply than any other of several ra- tions which were tested. In farm practice corn is considered a fundamental grain in fattening steers and other grains are looked at merely as supplemental feeds, used for the pur- pose of improving the quality of the beef or for increasing the efficiency of corn. At the Iowa experiment station, Ken- nedy and others carried on feeding ex- periments in testing the use of supple- mental feed stuffs with corn. It was found that the use of such material re- sults in a more rapid rate of gain, finer finish, sometimes more economic gain, and always in higher prices for the fin- ished beef. Gluten meal, linseed meal and cottonseed meal proved excellent feeds for this purpose. They are par- ticularly suitable for balancing rations in which the roughage is somewhat in- ferior. The extent to which supplemental feeds may be economically vised depends upon the price of corn and the otber feed, and also on the character of the roughage. In general, the higher the price of the cattle and the finer their quality, the more profitable will be the use of such feeds. While these supple- mental feeds increase the effectiveness of corn, it should always be remembered that almost, if not quite equally good results may be obtained from a ration of corn and clover or alfalfa hay. Profits from the last named ration will ordina- rily be greater than those from a ration of corn and expensive grain feeds. The same problem of the economy of supplemental feeds in connection with corn was studied by Burnett and Smith in Nebraska. It was found that the cost of gain with corn alone was 13 per cent greater than with corn and linseed meal. Corn and grass were found not to supply a sufficient amount of protein for cheap gain. The use of linseed meal, moreover, appeared to help the diges- tion of steers, so that they were less / THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 387 troubled with scours than those which received corn as the only grain. Recently this matter has been thor- oughly studied by Haney and others at the Kansas experiment station. In this series of experiments, eight rations were used and the grains used in the experi- ments were corn and cob meal, ground kafir corn, ground wheat and a mixed grain ration, the coarse forage being mixed hay, sorghum hay, kafir corn hay and alfalfa hay. The amount of hay required for 100 pounds of gain was lowest in a ration containing corn and cob meal and alfalfa hay and great- est in a ration of ground kafir corn and sorghum hay. The cost of gain was least in the grain and alfalfa ra- tion, and greatest in the kafir corn and sorghum ration. Similarly the dressed weight was highest in the corn and al- falfa ration. In these experiments al- falfa hay proved to be superior to kafir corn hay or sorghum. The amount of gain from a bushel of grain was greatest in the corn and alfalfa ration and least in the kafir corn and sorghum ration. The average profit per steer on the corn and alfalfa ration was $8.98 ; while a loss of $5.14 was suffered on the kafir corn and sorghum ration. From the experiments just outlined, it appears that in beef production, kafir corn is about equal to corn and cob meal. Ground wheat and alfalfa hay fed to- gether is not an economic ration, since it is too laxative and the wheat is too expensive. The chief value of these ex- periments lies in the fact that they show the importance to the western farmer of good roughage in beef production. Thus alfalfa hay valued at $4 a ton, together with corn and cob meal, pro- duced 100 pounds of gain in beef steers for $5.1*3. By increasing the acreage of alfalfa, and giving more at- tention to methods of tillage, the prob- lem of securing a supplemental feed to be used with corn is solved, since corn and alfalfa make a cheap and ideal ra- tion. Not only in this country, but in Scot- land, England and parts of Europe where corn has been imported for feed- ing purposes, it has been found that corn is greatly increased in efficiency by the addition of linseed meal or some other supplemental feed. Since corn is and must be the main grain used in fattening steers, it is an important ques- tion to determine the form in which it shall be fed. While it is not safe to follow blindly the common practice in all matters of feeding, nevertheless the consensus of opinion of practical feed- ers is of immense importance as deter- mining the best and most economical methods. In Illinois it appears, from statistics collected among the beef raisers, that in winter feeding 25 per cent of the farmers use shock corn, 10 per cent snapped corn, 39 per cent ear corn, 16 per cent shelled corn, 3 per cent corn and cob meal, 3 per cent corn meal and 2 per cent silage. In the summer feed- ing ear corn is used by 50 per cent of the farmers, shelled corn by 36 per cent and corn meal by 5 per cent. The feeding methods of Illinois farmers, as summarized by Mumford, indicate that for the year around, shock corn is used by 17 per cent, ear corn by 43 per cent, shelled corn by 22 per cent and corn meal by 4 per cent. With regard to the question of which method yields the .greatest profits, 24 per cent of the Illi- nois farmers replied shock corn, 11 per cent shredded corn fodder, 5 per cent snapped corn and 5 1 4 per cent shelled corn. It is apparent from the summary of feeding practices that only a very small number of farmers use silage as a regular ration in the production of beef; in fact, only eight of the several hun- dred men who replied to a circular of inquiry mentioned the use of silage at all, and of these, three fed it only to breeding cattle and calves. Notwithstanding the inf requency with which silage is used by the Illinois farmers, Mumford found in his ex- periments that silage compares favor- ably with ear corn, corn meal, or corn and cob meal. Corn meal and corn and cob meal proved to be about equally ef- fective. It was found in these experi- ments that a nitrogenous feed added to the corn ration improved the appetite and increased the digestive capacity. Corn meal proved to be about equally ef- ficient for beef production with shelled corn, but no more so than ear corn; while the best results obtained from any of the various forms of corn and com- binations used with it were found in feeding ear corn supplemented with lin- seed meal and gluten meal or shock corn and ear corn. The net profit in feeding steers on corn in various forms varied from $4.13 to $9.84 each. The results obtained by Mumford in his long series of experiments indicate that the grind- ing of corn for feeding two-year-old steers during the winter is not to be 388 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK recommended, since the profits from ear corn were fully twice as great as those from corn meal. The profits from the use of shock corn were approximately the same as those from ear corn, but there are certain advantages in the use of ear corn, since it has been harvested and is more convenient to feed in winter. It is obvious from this discussion that the corn center is practically synony- mous with the beef center. As shown by Waters in Missouri, eleven prominent corn states produced more than 75 per cent of all the corn in the United States, was used was twice that on timothy hay and the amount of grain required for a pound of gain was about one-third that on the timothy ration. This in- dicates the desirability of using a ni- trogenous ration with corn. Corn may not only be fed in the various forms al- ready mentioned, but as a soiling crop it possesses enormous value. It is pos- sible to select varieties and choose times of planting so that a continuous crop will be secured from the middle of June until heavy frost. Among the many supplemental feeds which may be used with corn, clover Fig. 263 FANCY SELECTED FEEDERS FROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION and also 60 per cent of the cattle, milch cows, horses, mules, hogs and sheep. These are the states also which produce the best finished steers and the finest grade of horses. The most effective way of increasing the already high feeding value of the corn plant consists in supplementing corn and corn stover with feeding stuffs which are highly nitrogenous, and in us- ing more generally the immense crop of corn stover, much of which is now al- lowed to go to waste. In a comparison of cowpea hay with timothy hay as the roughage in a corn ration in Missouri, the average daily gain when cowpea hay hay has yielded excellent results in Illi- nois. In the same set of experiments, a ration of corn, timothy hay and corn stover gave quite unsatisfactory results, since the amount of protein in such a ration was too small. The corn and clover hay ration, however, possessed a number of advantages, including ready availability, the production of large gains and fine quality of beef. In Nebraska, Burnett and Smith have tested the value of linseed meal and al- falfa hay as supplemental feeds with corn. The cost of 100 pounds of gain was $8.25 on corn and prairie hay; $7 on corn, sorghum and linseed meal; THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 389 $6.82 on corn, prairie hay and linseed meal; $6.09 on corn, corn stover and lin- seed meal; and $6.04 on corn and al- falfa. A combination of alfalfa hay and corn proved to be exceedingly satisfac- tory. In Kentucky, May found that ear corn was preferable to corn meal, pro- vided hogs were allowed to follow the steers. When clover hay was fed with corn, the amount of nitrogenous grain necessary to properly balance the ra- tion was greatly reduced. In rations where supplemental grain feeds were used, dried distillery grains added to the grain ration proved to be the most economic feed. In Kansas, Cottrell carried on some experiments to compare the value of shelled corn and corn meal. The daily gain for each steer was somewhat greater in those fed corn meal. During a feeding period of the ordinary length, steers on ground corn gained 23 poundb a head more than those fed whole corn, and required 62 pounds less grain and 25 pounds less hay for each 100 pounds of gain. It appears from these experi- ments that 8.2 pounds of beef may be produced from each bushel of corn. Many other experiments have been carried on for the purpose of determin- ing the relative value of dry and soaked corn, and to compare unhusked ears, corn in the ear, whole shelled corn and corn meal. There is less corn in the droppings of steers when the corn is fed soaked than when fed dry. If it costs more than 6 cents per bushel to soak the corn, however, it will not pay. In ordinary cases, where the stock breeder raises his own corn, he cannot afford to expend any labor on it after it is mature. It should, therefore, be fed in the ear, without husking. In that form it is nearly as effective as corn meal, and the cost of husking, grinding and handling is saved. Moreover, if hogs are allowed to follow steers in the feed lot, all of the undigested corn is picked up and utilized by the hogs. About 15 per cent of the whole corn passes through the intestines in the manure and 6!/2 per cent of the corn meal. Nearly all of the whole corn can be util- ized by pigs, but practically none of the corn meal. In a feeding experiment at the Minnesota experiment station it was found that steers would eat much more corn meal than they could digest and that it was thus wasted. Cottonseed meal is the most impor- tant nitrogenous grain feed for steers throughout the southern states and wherever it may be obtained at a rea- sonable price. It is superior, pound for pound, to all other grain feeds in ef- fectiveness for beef production. Cot- tonseed may be fed raw, boiled, roasted, ground or whole. It may be used as the only concentrated feed in a ration, or, better still, with corn, kafir corn or some other carbonaceous feed. Neither cottonseed nor cottonseed meal is a safe feed if allowed to become rancid or dark colored. The meal should be perfectly fresh and of a bright, yellow color. Cot- tonseed may be used as a complete ra- tion for steers, the mpa! constituting the concentrated part of the ration and the hulls serving as a coarse fodder. These materials have been mixed in a commer- cial feed known as cottonseed feed, and as sold on the market is supposed to contain four parts hulls and one part meal. In Iowa, satisfactory results have been obtained from the use of cottonseed meal, when it was gradually increased from 1-5 of a pound to 1.4 pounds daily. In Illinois, about 7 per cent of the beef raisers use cottonseed meal. The largest amount of this substance used by any feeder, as reported in re- plies to a circular letter, is 9 pounds daily, and the smallest amount 1 pound, with an average of 4 pounds. No un- favorable report was made by Illinois feeders on the use of cottonseed meal; on the contrary they report that it causes more rapid gains, quicker finish and gives a smoother form to the steers than the corn and roughage alone. When corn is high, cottonseed meal appears to be even more economical than corn. In Mississippi, Lloyd found that the shrinkage in steers fed shelled corn, cot- tonseed meal and sorghum hay for a pe- riod of 120 days was 37 pounds to the animal, while the steers dressed 59 per cent. Cottonseed meal produced a fine quality of meat and proved to be a profitable feed. In Oklahoma, Burtis found that where cottonseed is to be used in the fat- tening ration for cattle, the maximum amount should be 8 pounds a day, and that 4 to 6 pounds is more satisfactory. It is desirable to mix the cottonseed meal with some other grain in order to 390 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK avoid the possibility of the steers get- ting off feed. The use of a little cot- tonseed meal mixed with kafir corn, wheat or other feed stuff appears to add to the palatability of the ration, and therefore to secure a thorough mastica- tion of the feed. Corn mixed with cot- tonseed produces results almost equal to wheat and is cheaper. In Oklahoma, it has been found necessary to add cotton- seed meal to the grain ration in order to obtain the most economic results. At the Oklahoma station, a number of dif- ferent rations have been successfully used containing cottonseed meal. These rations included cottonseed meal in quantities varying from 3 to 7 pounds a day, in addition to alfalfa hay or prai- rie hay and shelled corn or kafir corn meal. The results obtained in Okla- homa indicate that when corn costs as much or even one-third more than cot- tonseed meal it is still profitable to re- place a portion of the cottonseed meal with corn. According to observations made by Craig and Marshall in Texas, it ap- pears that cottonseed meal and hull3 constitute the most generally used ra- tion in the cotton belt and correspond in effectiveness and economy to a com- bination of corn and alfalfa in the corn belt. In a series of tests at the Texas experiment station, the steers ate 5^2 pounds of cottonseed meal and 22 x /2 pounds of hulls daily, and gained 2.2 pounds a day. At the usual price for cottonseed meal and hulls, a pound of meat was produced for 4 cents. Cottonseed meal is not only used throughout this country, but has also been tested by many feeders in England and in continental Europe. In Eng- land, cottonseed meal has been found somewhat lower in feeding value than decorticated cotton cake. Complaint is often made that the profitable feeding of beef cattle in the south is impossible and in some southern localities the farmers have been slow in realizing the benefits and profits of cattle feeding. Smith and Bray have recently shown that beef cattle may be fed at a fine profit on home-grown prod- ucts in Mississippi. The hay used in these experiments was a mixture of al- falfa and Johnson grass and the grains included corn meal, bran and cottonseed meal. The steers which received cot- tonseed meal and hulls were given 6 to 8 pounds of cottonseed meal and about 25 pounds of cottonseed hulls daily. The results indicate that a ration of cotton- seed meal and hulls is superior to a mixed ration of corn meal, bran and cot- tonseed meal; while the mixed ration had more variety it was more expensive. In Alabama, Duggar found that steers on a ration of cottonseed and cotton- seed meal gained 2.23 pounds a day, while on cottonseed and shredded corn stover the gain was only 1 pound a day. The amount of cottonseed fed in these experiments varied from 4.8 pounds to D 1 /^ pounds a day. The amount of shrinkage in steers shipped short dis- tances was less in those which received cottonseed meal than those which re- ceived cottonseed. In North Carolina, good gains have been obtained on an exclusive diet of cottonseed meal and hulls for a period of 81 days, the meal and hulls being fed in a proportion of 1 :4. These ma- terials may be used for different pur- poses in proportion ranging from l:l l /2 up to 1:7. The ratio 1 :iy 2 is well adapted for the purpose of rapid fatten- ing. In further experiments in Texas, cottonseed meal and hulls proved equal or superior to any other available grain ration. Eoasted or boiled cottonseed was found more palatable and less laxa- tive than raw seed, but the latter gave the most economic gains. The best ratio of meal and hulls for cheapness was 1 :5 or 1:6; and for rapid gains 1 :3. The quality of the beef is not in- fluenced in any pronounced manner by the use of cottonseed meal, but the tal- low is whiter than on other grain rations. In Arkansas, cottonseed has proved to be the cheapest and best grain for cattle. The whole seed is as good as meal and hulls for a fattening period of 60 days, but in longer periods of feed- ing, the large quantity of oil in the whole seed causes a loss of appetite. Cottonseed hulls should be fresh and from dry seed, since otherwise they may cause serious scouring. Dry hay is of benefit in preventing scouring. In Ar kansas, a ration containing 8 pounds of cottonseed meal and 25 pounds of hulls gives resiilts equal to grain feed- ing. The relative value of cottonseed and other grains has been studied in Mississippi, where it appears that 1 pound of cottonseed meal is equal to 1.66 pounds of cottonseed or 1.9 pounds of corn. In Mississippi, rations of 5V 2 pounds a day have been used for long THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 391 periods without any harm, but T 1 /^ pounds was found to be slightly too much. In a further series of tests in Okla- homa, cottonseed proved to be less sat- isfactory when fed alone than when combined with other grain. In general, it may be said that cottonseed meal rare- ly affects the health of steers, except when fed in excess, or for long periods during hot weather. Cattle may lose appetite if fed cottonseed meal in too large rations, but are not seriously af- fected. Throughout the northern states, cot- tonseed meal has been found effective when fed with some other grain; for example, corn in the ratio of 1 :4. In Tennessee, cottonseed meal gave best gains when mixed with corn meal in the ratio of 1 '.lVi. Dried distillery grains — This feeding stuff has not been extensively used in fattening steers. In Kentucky, May tested dried distillery grains in fatten- ing steers. It proved to be the most economical of the various rations which were tried, and less grain was required for a pound of gain when distillery grains entered largely into the ration. Distillery grains may be made more suit- able as a feed for steers by drying rather than by feeding directly from the still as slop. On the basis of German ex- perience with this material, it appears that the excessive amount of water in distillery slop is unfavorable to the quality of the meat. Gluten feed has already been re- ferred to as a by-product of corn. It may be used as a supplemental feed with corn, since it contains a high percen- tage of protein. According to Englisn experience, gluten feed is superior to a mixture of cottonseed meal and ground wheat for fattening steers. It may be fed in rations of 5 to 6 pounds daily, and often costs less than an equally ef- fective mixture of various grains. In some English feeding experiments glu- ten meal has given a greater profit than mixtures of cottonseed meal, barley and linseed meal. Gluten feed compares well with oats and mixed grains of ail sorts. In Iowa, where gluten feed was used as a supplemental meal in a grain ration, the amount was gradually increased from 1-5 of a pound to 4 pounds daily. In a lot of steers fed in this manner, the average daily gain was 2,98 pounds and the cost of gain was $9.65 a hun- dred pounds. Gluten meal may be used in the same quantities and for the same purpose as gluten feed. In the Iowa experiments just referred to, Ken- nedy and Marshall found that steers on a ration containing corn and gluten meal gained 2.92 pounds a day, and that the cost of 100 pounds of gain was $9.34. Horse chestnuts — According to Schil- ler, horse chestnuts may be cracked and fed to cattle in rations of 20 pounds. Their feeding value is high, but they have a constipating effect and potatoes should be fed with them to overcome this disadvantage. Horse chestnuts are considerably improved by steaming. Kafir corn may be substituted for corn in fattening rations for steers. Kafir corn appears to be inferior to corn in feeding value. In Kansas, its effect- iveness proved to be lower than that of corn and its fat was less digestible. Both red and white kafir corn are equally suitable for steers. As a rule, corn meal is better digested than kafir corn meal. At the Kansas experiment sta- tion, it was found that 5y 2 per cent of corn meal,, 12 per cent of red kafir corn and '14 per cent of white kafir corn meal passed away in the manure. The red kafir corn is slightly superior to the white variety, according to Kansas ex- perience. In Oklahoma, 10 per cent more kafir corn meal than corn meal was required to produce a given gain. Apparently, the digestibility of kafir corn is somewhat improved by soaking and the material is enough more effect- ive when ground to pay for grinding in all cases. «* Linseed meal — This material is fed to steers, as well as other farm animals, for its beneficial effect on the health, as well as for its nutritive value. In Scotland, linseed meal has given better gains than corn or cottonseed meal. A narrow ration is preferred by those feed- ers to a wide ration, and this is obtained by the use of linseed meal. It is recom- mended by Scotch feeders that the ra- tion should become narrow as the feed- ing period progresses by increasing the amount of linseed meal. In Iowa, ex- cellent results have been obtained from linseed meal by gradually increasing the amount fed to steers from 1-5 of a pound to 4 pounds daily, in addition to 19 pounds of corn. It appears from statis- tics collected in Illinois that 21 per cent FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK of the beef raisers of that state use linseed meal in fattening steers. The amount used a day ranges from 1-5 of a pound to 6 pounds, with an aver- age of 2.2 pounds for all cattle and 3 pounds for fattening steers. In the opinion of Illinois feeders, the great value of linseed meal toward the close of the fattening period is noted in the improvement of the finish of the steer and as an aid to digestion. Some feed- ers use it only when stock is out of condition ; others, when corn is high, but many men use it in all cases. In most instances it should be fed in small quan- tities as a part of the grain ration, for the reason that it is usually rather ex- pensive. In Iowa, linseed meal has been found inferior to corn for steers at pas- ture, partly on account of the fact that it is somewhat laxative and, together with grass, makes the bowels too loose. Similarly in Ohio, it proved inferior to gluten meal under the same conditions. In a test made at the Kansas experiment station, an exclusive diet of linseed meal did not give as good results as com meal alone, or as a well-balanced ration. Oats — In Montana, oats has been tested for fattening steers, used as the only grain, or mixed with equal parts of wheat and barley, all chopped to- gether. The mixed grain ration proved superior to any kind of grain used alone. When the efficiency of the mixed grain ration was estimated at 100, oats was placed at 84. In the test in ques- tion, the lot which received mixed grains gained 281 pounds during a feeding period of ordinary length, while those which received oats gained only 188 pounds during the same period. While the individual difference is not great, it would amount to $352 in a bunch of 100 steers. In other experiments with oats, this grain did not give satisfactory results in fattening steers. Nevertheless, prac- tical farmers obtain fine profits from oats when fed in connection with other grains. In recent years oats have been fed to steers less extensively than bar- ley and wheat, this condition being due to the relatively high price of oats and the demands for this grain in horse feeding. In Texas, oats were found to be equal to corn chops for fattening steers, while in some experiments in Wyoming, chopped oats were fed to steers at a loss. According to Cana- dian experience, oats in the sheaf possess a smaller feeding value than wild rye grass. In Canada, oatmeal has been fed to steers and was found to be inferior to wheat for fattening purposes. Peas — In Canada and the northern tier of states, peas enter into the ration of nearly all the domestic animals and have been largely used for steers. Pea meal in Toronto was found to be infe- rior to corn meal, while in a later test it gave greater but more expensive gains. Peas and oats mixed have been found in Canada to be inferior to wheat or oatmeal. Pea meal constitutes a por- tion of the mixed meal, which is almost universally used in fattening steers in Canada. Moreover, the large cattle feed- ing companies use peas or pea meal ex- tensively and report good results. Rice products — According to Fraps at the Texas experiment station, the use of rice hulJs in large quantities is at- tended with some danger, on account of the fact that the hulls are composed of numerous sharp-pointed fibers, which irritate the stomach walls. It is re- ported that a cattle company in Texas attempted to use rice hulls as a roughage for cattle, but had to give it up for the reason that the animals vomited after the continued use of this feed. In some localities rice hulls are used for fuel rather than feed. Rice polish con- tains much less crude fiber and is com- paratively rich in carbohydrates, while rice bran is, according to its analysis, somewhat better than corn or corn meal and nearly equal to oats or wheat. It appears as the result of experiments thus far carried on, that rice hulls have a very low feeding value, while rice pol- ish is perhaps superior to corn, as is also a good quality of rice bran. Considerable attention has been given to rice products by the Texas experiment station. In one set of experiments, in 1903, rations were fed to steers contain- ing cottonseed meal, rice hulls, rice bran, cottonseed hulls and molasses. In 1904, rice bran and cottonseed meal were used as the grain ration for five different lots of steers, in which the effective- ness of sorghum hay, cowpea hay, pea- nut hay, alfalfa hay and cottonseed hulls were compared. In steer rations, the use of rice bran was found to be inferior to cottonseed meal. The sub- stitution of double the weight of rice bran for a part of the cottonseed meal in the ration proved more profitable . than the addition of rice bran to a full TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 393 cottonseed meal ration. From the use of rice polish in rations of 2 to 2V2 pounds a clay, no digestive disturbances were noted, and the gain in weight was satisfactory. In fact, when rice polish was substituted for a part of the cotton- seed meal, the cost of the gain was somewhat reduced, and the rate of gain increased. Rice hulls, however, in all experiments in Texas, have proved to be unsatisfactory, whether mixed with cot- tonseed meal, rice bran, molasses or other feeds. Eye — In a steer feeding experiment in Idaho, the grain ration for one part of the fattening period consisted of one part chopped rye, one part bran and two parts chopped wheat. The rate of gain during this period was not so good as when chopped wheat was fed without the addition of rye. A number of other variations were made in the combina- tion of rye with different farm grains and it appeared to be an easy matter to use too much rye. The chopped rye was not well relished by the steers. Soy bean meal — In Kansas, Cottrell fed soy bean meal to steers by scattering the meal over other grain in the feed boxes. At the beginning of the feeding period, the soy bean meal was given in rations of ^ pound a day, but this quantity was slowly increased, until after 10 days the steers received 4 pounds a head daily and the corn ration was slightly reduced. The soy bean meal, however, proved to be too laxative and the ration was reduced again to 1 pound a day. As soon as the digestive disturbances were corrected, an attempt was made to increase the ration again, but with unsatisfactory results. After continued trials to obtain good results with this feed during a period of 26 days, it was finally dropped entirely from the ration. While the soy bean meal interfered with the gains in steers, it appeared to make them shed their coats early and had a beneficial influence in other ways. Velvet beans — In Florida, Taliaferro tested the value of velvet beans in pods when fed with cowpea hay. The steers were allowed to have all the cowpea hay they would eat and received in addition 3 bushels of velvet beans in the pod daily The percentage of dressed weight was somewhat less than when cassava and cottonseed meal were used, and it appears that velvet beans alone, with cowpea hay as the roughage, are infe- rior to rations in which cassava occu- pies an important place. Wheat — While wheat should never constitute the whole or even the major part of the grain ration for steers, it may be used when the market price is low. A number of experiment stations and feeders have investigated the feed- ing value of wheat for the purpose of determining the maximum market price at which wheat could be fed with a profit. In Minnesota, it was found that wheat could be profitably fed to steers when the market price was not higher than 47 ^ cents a bushel. In Idaho French found that steers on a chopped wheat ration produced a pound of meat for every 3.4 pounds of wheat consumed. The profit from feeding wheat to steers was found to be quite attractive, and it appears that chopped wheat is an ex- cellent grain ration when combined with corn silage and hay. As a rule, how- ever, it is best to feed wheat for only a part of the fattening period, changing to barley and oats or peas in order to prevent the steers from getting off feed. In Colorado, wheat with or without sugar beets has been found to produce good gains in steers. The shrinkage as a result of shipping was greater than with corn-fed steers, but less than in those on a barley ration. Ground wheat appeared to be superior to ground bar- ley. In Canada, wheat bran proved to be more valuable for feeding purposes than whole wheat or wheat flour, and in this test the new-process bran gave the best results. In Maryland, however, the new and old-process bran proved to be of equal value. In Oregon and Penn- sylvania, wheat used alone was found to be less effective than when mixed with corn or some other grain. In Ore- gon, wheat has been tested as a steer feed in the sheaf. Steers appeared to do better than pigs on sheaf wheat, but the gains are costly and the steers do not mature quite as rapidly as on ground wheat. It should be remembered that frozen wheat has about as high a feeding value as uninjured wheat, and on account of its low market price may be fed with profit. The economy of feeding wheat in any form to steers de- pends upon the market price. In Wyom- ing, cracked wheat in one feeding ex- periment appeared to be used at a finan- cial loss. At the Montana experiment station, Linfield found wheat to be superior to 394 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK either oats or barley and almost, if not quite, equal to a mixed ration. Wheat also produced meat at a very economic rate, the gains costing 5 cents a pound on a wheat ration and 8 cents on an oat ration. It was found necessary, however, to make a change in the ration after two months, since by that time the cattle had a smaller appetite for wheat. In Canada, the use of frozen wheat and corn silage in fattening steers re- sulted in good gains and an excellent quality of beef. English feeders have found that wheat may be profitably used to replace linseed meal. Moreover, in Nebraska, wheat showed a feeding value corn ration. The gains on the wheat ration exceeded those on a corn ration by 16 pounds a head in a feeding exper- iment of 23 weeks. Different grains compared — Many of the agricultural experiment stations in this country and in Canada have made comparative tests of the feeding value of different grains for the purpose of determining the best economy in feed- ing steers in different localities. At Toronto, a comparison of corn, peas and oats for steers, which also received roots, silage and hay, showed that the daily gain was greatest on corn, followed by peas and oats; while the cost of gain was least on corn and greatest on oats Fig. 264 MONTANA STEERS READY FOR MARKET 5 per cent greater than corn, and hogs following steers fed on wheat made profitable gains. In Oklahoma, good gains were pro- duced on a ration of 11 V2 pounds of wheat meal and 3V2 pounds of cotton- seed meal, and 4 pounds of prairie hay with wheat straw. It is believed, how- ever, that the gains would have been greater and more profitable if alfalfa had been used as a part of the ration. In England, a comparison of wheat and corn for steers showed that corn meal made more rapid gains and at less cost than wheat meal. A similar com- parison, by Burnett and Smith in Ne- braska showed that steers required 11 4-5 pounds of feed for a pound of gain on a wheat ration and I2V3 pounds on a and the total cost for the whole feeding period from October 1 to June 1 was $20.75 each steer on corn, $22.50 on peas and $25.10 on oats. Perhaps the best grains for beef pro- duction in the corn belt are corn, kafir corn and linseed meal; in the northern and western states, corn, peas, barley, wheat and linseed meal, and in the south, cottonseed meal, corn, kafir corn and cowpeas. According to the data furnished by numerous experiments with different kinds of grain for steers, it appears that a mixed grain ration is more effective than the use of any single grain. Light, medium and heavy grain ra- tions compared — The beef raiser has not TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 395 only to decide what are the most effect- ive and economic grains and the best combinations in which to feed them, but also the amounts which may be fed with the best results and greatest profits. This problem has been studied by Ken- nedy and others at the Iowa experiment station. After the steers had been brought to a proper feeding condition, the rations were gradually increased until one lot received 16, one 19 and one 21 pounds daily each head. The grain was shelled corn, but later on in the experiment supplemental feeds, such as gluten feed and other nitrogenous materials, were added to bring the steers more rapidly to a fine finish. On the light grain ration, the amount of grain required $£>r each pound of gain was 10.95 pounds, and the amount of rough- age 9 pounds; while the average cost of each pound of gain was 9 cents. On a medium grain ration each pound of gain required the consumption of IIV2 pounds of grain and 8V2 pounds of roughage, and cost 9.1 cents. On the heavy grain ration each pound of gain required 12 pounds of grain and 6Yz pounds of roughage, and cost 9.2 cents. Gains can be made more economically with a light or medium grain ration than with a heavy one; but in a feeding period of 189 days, it is not possible to finish cattle on light or medium grain rations so as to bring the top market price. The difference in the selling price of cattle fed a heavy grain ration is more than enough to offset the cheaper gains made by steers on light and me- dium rations, so that in the end the greater economy is found in the heavy rations. Judging from the gains made by hogs following the various lots of steers, it seems that the grain was more perfectly digested by the steers which received the light and medium rations. In Kentucky, good results were ob- tained by increasing the rations during the fattening period, so that at the end of the period the steers were receiving from 20 to 24 pounds daily of ear corn or corn and cob meal ; or, when supple- mental feeds were added to the corn, 13 to 20 pounds of corn meal and 2 to 6 pounds of cottonseed meal, or 4 pounds cottonseed meal and 4 pounds bran. Shaw attempted to determine the most economic ration of barley for fattening steers in connection with clover hay as roughage. It is believed as a result of this experiment that when alfalfa or clover hay is used as the roughage, not more than ^ pound of barley or a similar grain to each 100 pounds of live weight is necessary to produce the most satisfactory results. The extra gains derived from the use of heavy grain rations sometimes fail to compen- sate for the extra cost of the ration. Grain mixed with the roughage — Ac- cording to the experience of Cottrell, the feeding of grain and roughage mixed seems to prevent scouring in steers. When the grain and roughage are fed separately, the steer chews his grain but little, swallows it quickly and none of it is brought up for mastication. Since starch constitutes a large part of corn and most other grains, a consider- able part of this material must pass through the intestines undigested. On the other hand, Cottrell insists upon the point that when grain is mixed with the roughage, the steer is compelled to spend more time in chewing his ration and that some of the grain is brought up again with the rough material and more thoroughly masticated. It is be- lieved, therefore, that "the steer gains more from each bushel of grain eaten, better digestion keeps his body in better health, and scouring is avoided." Cot- trell, therefore, recommends that the feed of the steer be so mixed that every mouthful contains some corn and some roughage. Grain stubble fields — In harvesting cereals, some of the grain falls upon the ground. This is a total loss unless it can be harvested by domestic animals. The common practice of turning stock into stubble fields rests on a good foun- dation. In Montana, it was found that stubble fields are worth ..bout $1.50 to the acre for grazing purposes. Pigs are perhaps more successful in collecting the scattered grain than steers, but all do- mestic animals succeed in getting con- siderable valuable material out of the stubble fields. Condimental feeds — A great differ- ence of opinion prevails regarding the feeding value of proprietary, tonic and condimental feeds, which are so exten- sively advertised in agricultural jour- nals and elsewhere. These feeds have been repeatedly analyzed in this coun- try and in Europe and, as a rule, chemi- cal analysis shows that their nutritive value is not high enough to warrant the prices which are ordinarily charged for them. In Scotland, condimental feeds FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK were found to be considerably inferior to oats, pound for pound, for cattle, but some benefit was derived from the ad- dition of equal parts fenugreek, cara- way, coriander and aniseed. At the Iowa experiment station, Ken- nedy and Marshall carried on an ex- tensive series of experiments with 11 lots of steers, in which linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, germ oil meal, dried blood, and certain stock foods were compared. One lot of steers also re- ceived corn and grass without any sup- plemental feed. The average cost of feeding the steers during a fattening period of the usual length was least on a corn ration and greatest on a ration of corn and linseed meal. The selling ceived corn and linseed meal, and corn and gluten feed, and lowest in the lot fed on corn and this stock food. The two chief claims made by the manufacturers of proprietary feeds are, that their preparations contain a high amount of nutriment and also exercise a beneficial medicinal action. It has been shown by hundreds of experiments, however, that by proper combination of grain feeds the necessary amount of nutrients can be furnished in as avail- able form at a much lower price. In fact, well balanced rations may easily be compounded on any farm by the use of home-grown feeds. Then too, the claims for the medicinal effect of pro- prietary feeds are always overestimated, Fig. 265 — ROLL HUSKER CORN SHREDDER price of the steers by the hundredweight was highest in the lot which received corn and gluten meal and lowest in those which received corn and one of the stock foods. The net profits to the steer were highest on the ration of corn and gluten meal and lowest on a ration of corn and this stock food, being $17.99 and $5.52 respectively. A ration of gluten meal, corn and wheat straw re- turned a profit of $3.50 a steer more than a ration of corn and wheat straw. In this set of experiments it was esti- mated that the price obtained for corn a bushel in the form of beef was $1.04 on the ration of corn and gluten meal, and only 70% cents on the ration of corn and the stock food referred to. The dressed weights in the various lots of steers were highest in those which re- for the reason that they contain no un- usual or unknown drugs and these drugs may be obtained in a pure form of regu- lar druggists at a much lower price than must be paid for them in the form of proprietary feeds. Roughage for steers — A part of the ration for steers must always consist oi forage plants and roots. This part of the ration may be supplied in the form of pasture, by soiling, and by feeding hay, silage or roots in stalls or feed lots. Recently the importance of this portion of the ration has been shown more clearly than ever before, so that more atten- tion must be given to it if the greatest profits are to be derived from fatten- ing steers. Immense quantities of corn fodder are allowed to go to waste or are burned up, notwithstanding the fact THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 397 that this material is equal in feeding value to most of the hay which is so highly treasured, as a coarse fodder. The greatest changes in rations for steers have, however, been brought about in consequence of the discovery of the high feeding value of leguminous hays. As already indicated, these materials may take the place of a considerable part of the nitrogenous grain ration and may thus lower the cost of the ration to a great extent. In the following paragraphs we dis- cuss the feeding value of the more im- portant forms of coarse forage which have been used in feeding steers. Alfalfa — Throughout the western states, and recently to an increasing ex- tent in the eastern and southern states, alfalfa is gaining favor as a coarse forage for steers. In Kansas, the use of alfalfa has little less than revolutionized the methods of steer feeding and the beef raiser has learned that by means of corn and alfalfa, both of which are grown on his ranch, he may produce the finest quality of beef at the least possible cost. Cottrell made a comparison of the feeding value of whole and cut alfalfa hay. It was found that it cost about 30 cents a ton for the labor of cutting and handling alfalfa hay, in addition to the cost of machinery and its opera- tion. The amount of grain and hay re- quired for a given gain was greater with the whole hay than when cut in short lengths. During a feeding period of tbe ordinary length, the steers gained 7 pounds a head more on cut hay than on whole hay, and ate 47 pounds less grain and 37 pounds less hay for each 100 pounds of gain. In other experiments in Kansas, the great feeding value of a combination of alfalfa hay and corn was clearly brought out. Beef produced on a ration containing these two common farm feeds was of unusually good qual- ity and ranked high when judged by ex- perts. The excellent quality and flavor of the meat were believed to be directly due to the use of alfalfa and corn. These feeds were found to give satisfac- tory results and fine profits, not only in the case of well-bred beef steers, but also with dairy steers and scrubs. Likewise in New Mexico, the cattle- men are finding that the present range methods of cattle raising are unprof- itable. The grass is destroyed by over- grazing, and according to careful es- timates from 50 to 100 acres of such range land are required for maintain- ing each steer annually. If alfalfa, how- ever, is planted ©n all land where a suf- ficient amount of water can be secured for irrigation, the productiveness of the land, in so far as feeding material for beef is concerned, is greatly increased. It was found that a fine quality of beef could be produced on alfalfa hay alone. It is recommended by Vernon that alfalfa hay should be stacked in the field, since this is the cheapest method of handling it, and a larger percentage of leaves remain on the stems than by any other method of treatment. It ap- pears that the cost of 100 pounds of gain on alfalfa hay alone averaged from $2.25 to $6.25, depending on the market price of alfalfa. The return in beef for each ton of alfalfa hay was about $10.75 or $32.10 an acre. Craig found that alfalfa hay was an excellent coarse feed to use with corn, but was unsatisfactory as an addition to a ration of rice bran and cottonseed meal, for the reason that both of these grain feeds are highly nitrogenous, and the three together, therefore, make a too narrow ration. The steers which re- ceived alfalfa and corn and cob meal ate daily 11 pounds of the meal and 17 pounds of alfalfa, gaining 2V2 pounds in weight; on this ration the cost of a pound of beef was 4 cents. Otis tested the value of alfalfa on calves, yearlings, two-year-old and three- year-old steers, the grain ration being corn or kafir corn. It appeared during these experiments that by feeding an abundance of alfalfa and corn silage, it is possible to produce rapid gains in steers, and to finish them in a fine mar- ket condition. The value of alfalfa hay was clearly demonstrated as a means of balancing a grain ration of corn or kafir corn. Otis, therefore, recommends that alfalfa be planted much more ex- tensively than at present, and that corn be also harvested in the form of silage. It is believed that these two crops may be confidently depended upon and will enable the feeder to produce an excellent quality of beef, even if other grain feeds should largely fail him. In a subsequent test at the Kansas ex- periment station, Erf compared alfalfa hay alone with a mixture of alfalfa and prairie hay, in a ration containing corn and cob meal, and with a little cottonseed meal added toward the end of the feed- ing period. The average daily gain per 398 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK steer during the whole feeding period from January to April was 2.3 pounds on a mixture of alfalfa and prairie hay, and 2.8 pounds on alfalfa alone. The amount of grain consumed per 100 pounds of gain was 715 pounds on the mixture of alfalfa and prairie hay, and only 578 pounds on the alfalfa alone. The total profit per steer was more than twice as much when the alfalfa was fed alone as when it was mixed with prairie hay. The alfalfa and corn and cob meal appeared to constitute an excellent ra- tion for fattening and Erf believes that this combination will give better results than where a greater variety of roughage is used. Throughout the region where alfalfa is extensively grown, it is the most im- portant hay for cat Lie. In Colorado, 1 pound of alfalfa hay proved equal to 2.7 pounds of corn silage and about equal to corn fodder, pound for pound. In feeding steers a greater profit was derived from alfalfa than from either corn fodder or silage. Alfalfa silage has been tested in Utah and proved in- ferior to corn silage, but in the same experiments, alfalfa hay was superior to timothy or wild hay. At the Nevada experiment station it was found that from 15 to 21 pounds of alfalfa hay are required for 1 pound of gain in two- year-old steers. Widtsoe and Merrill found that al- falfa cut just before blooming produced greater gains in steers than when cut in full bloom or one week later. The early cutting of both the first and second crop proved to be superior. In order to se- cure the greatest feeding value, alfalfa should be cut between medium bloom and the first full flower. In Utah, the third crop was found to have the highest feeding value, pound for pound, followed by the first and second crops. Com- parisons of the feeding value of different parts of the plant show that the leaves are from two to four times as nutri- tious as the stems. Brome grass hay — This forage is not grown in quantities sufficient for tise in steer feeding, except in Canada and parts of the northwest. In Canada, it has been found that cattle require more corn fodder than brome grass hay for the same gain in weight, but that corn fod- der gives the greater profit. Brome grass appears to be about equal in feeding value to western rye grass. In some ex- periments it has proved superior to tim- othy and is well worth feeding as a roughage for steers. Buffalo grass hay — This forage may also be fed wherever it is grown in suf- ficient quantities to make its harvesting economical. At the Kansas experiment station, buffalo grass hay was found to be better than prairie hay and far su- perior to timothy. On the range, this grass is recognized as an excellent for- age, whether in the green or dry state. Cattle are fond of it, and will become fat on buffalo grass alone, if the grazing is good. Chess is often fed to steers, but very few experiments have been made to de- termine its value. At the Oregon ex- periment station, chess proved inferior to clover hay, but . was valuable as a maintenance ration in wintering cattle. The threshed grain from chess is screened out in cleaning wheat and in this form is fed extensively. For most animals, however, except poultry, it should be ground before feeding. Clover — In the central and eastern states, clover occupies the position in steer rations which is filled by alfalfa in the west. At the Tennessee experi- ment station, the first crop of clover was found to possess a greater feeding value and was better relished than the second crop, which caused slobbering. In Mis- sissippi cheaper gains were made from clover hay than from shredded corn stalks, cowpea or crab grass. In Indi- ana, steers made better gains on chopped than on whole clover hay. The feeding value of the different kinds of clover is practically the same, although in some experiments alsike clover has been found to be superior to the other varieties. All kinds of clover hay are used in feeding steers, includ- ing red, crimson, alsike, white and other less common varieties. Red clover is grown to a far greater extent than the other kinds and is ordinarily referred to when no particular kind of clover is specified. Corn — Throughout the corn belt, corn furnishes perhaps the chief coarse fodder for steers. It may be fed in the form of corn fodder, corn stover, pulled fodder, shredded corn stalks, corn shives, silage, or as a soiling crop. As a rule, corn may be most economically har- vested and fed in the form of silage. Among the beef feeders in Illinois, the use of corn stalks is a matter of great importance and, for this reason, Mumford collected statistics regarding TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY the methods of feeding this ' material. Among the feeders who gave a detailed account of the use of corn stalks, 80 per cent pastured them off in the fall or cut part of them for shock corn and pastured the remainder. About 12 per cent of the beef raisers plow under all the corn stalks, and some of them burn the stalks. It appears that the com- mon practice in Iowa and Indiana is to pasture off the corn stalks in the field, or plow them under. Considerable nu- triment may be obtained from corn stalks by pasturing, but it is quite in- excusable to plow them under, since numerous careful experiments have amount of gain. In Arizona, corn fod- der was found about equal to alfalfa. At the Maryland experiment station, corn fodder gave the best results when shredded, moistened and mixed with the grain ration. It was then more digesti- ble, better relished and eaten more com- pletely. In this experiment, corn fodder showed twice the feeding value of cot- tonseed hulls, and corn shives proved superior to shredded corn, fodder corn, stover or timothy hay. Mumford found that steers which re- ceived silage appeared to have larger frames and on that account seemed to be more thinly fleshed than the steers Fig. 266 PRIME STEERS FROM ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION shown that their feeding value is quite sufficient to warrant harvesting and car- ing for them with as much attention as is given to hay. In Colorado, one pound of corn fodder proved to be equal to about 2V 2 pounds of corn silage in feeding value. At the Iowa experiment station, corn fodder was found to be superior to timothy hay, corn silage or sorghum silage. In experiments at the Illinois station, the digestibility of corn fodder and corn silage in steer rations was found to be practically the same. The fodder gave larger gains in yearling heifers than did silage. Heifers fed silage ate more and required more feed for a given which were fed on shock corn. Sum- marizing the results obtained in sum- mer and winter feeding, however, it was found that steers fed on shock corn made better gains than those on silage. In Virginia, Soule carried on a num- ber of feeding experiments w^h silage and corn stover, as a feed for steers. The steers which received silage gained nearly y 2 a pound daily a head more than the other lots of steers and finished in better condition. It appears from this set of experiments that a reasonable amount of succulence in the ration is a good thing. Of the various rations which were tested in these experiments, that containing silage, corn and cob meal and linseed meal gave the greatest 400 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK gains. The silage was eaten with the greatest relish and there was absolutely no loss; whereas, with stover, the loss amounted to 15V 2 per cent, and with timothy hay, 4 per cent. In Illinois, only a small proportion of beef raisers use silage as a regular part of the ration for steers. In fact, in sta- tistics collected by Mumford, only eight feeders mentioned the use of silage. The men who were using silage most exten- sively fed it to young steers and in largest amount at the beginning of the fattening period, withdrawing silage from the ration several weeks before the cattle are finished. It is unquestionable that the liberal use of silage, especially during the early part of the fattening period, has a beneficial effect upon the cattle and puts them in condition to utilize economically the heavy grain feeds which are given them in the later stages of forcing. A thorough comparison was made be- tween silage and corn stover at the Illi- nois experiment station. In feeding 5 1-3 acres of silage to calves, 8V2 acres of other crops were used at the same time; while in feeding 5 1-3 acres of shock corn, only 5 x /2 acres of other crops were fed. The labor in feeding silage is somewhat greater than in feeding shock corn. Thus, Mumford found that it requires one-third longer to feed an acre of silage than an acre of shock corn. The average amount of beef produced in this set of experiments from an acre of silage was 385.35 pounds, with oats and hay as a supplemental feed; whereas, from shock corn, the amount of beef produced was 337.9 pounds, a difference of about 47 1 /2 pounds an acre in favor of the use of silage. With regard to the economy of harvesting corn in the form of silage and corn stover, Mum- ford found that the cost of harvesting and feeding was about twice as great for silage as for shock corn. In the experiments under discussion the steers were followed by hogs. It was found that when silage was used, 97^2 per cent of the total meat produced was beef and 2V 2 per cent pork; whereas, with shock corn, only 84 per cent was beef and about 16 per cent pork. It is obvious, therefore, that if shock corn is used, the steers should be followed by hogs in order to avoid the total loss of what the steers waste. Among various rations which were tested at the Massachusetts experiment station, silage with bran and gluten meal gave the best and cheapest gains. Ill North Carolina, the most rapid gains were produced on silage with cottonseed meal. Reasonable gains were obtained from corn silage fed in rations of 44 pounds for 11 days, followed by soy bean silage in rations of 45 pounds for 46 days. In Ohio, silage has been found more palatable for steers than corn fodder, and likewise in Texas, silage proved superior to dry fodder in feeding value. In Utah, however, dry corn fodder proved more effective than silage. In experiments carried out in Virginia, much cheaper gains were ob- tained from corn silage than from hay, while in Wisconsin, silage with a heavy grain ration proved to be exceedingly effective, 35V2 pounds of silage making 1 pound of gain. The silage from 1 acre produced 700 pounds of beef. Cowpea hay — In the southern and western states and territories, where this forage is produced on an extensive scale, it has been found to be an effective feed for steers. In Missouri, cowpea hay with corn produced daily gains in steers of 2.6 pounds, as compared with 1.6 pounds on timothy and 1.9 pounds on clover and corn fodder. Both the cowpea hay and the clover hay gave a superior market finish and a finer coat than timothy or corn fodder, with corn as the grain feed. Cowpea hay in Arkansas is considered the cheapest and best forage for cattle. It was found more readily digestible than clover hay in Illinois. At the Tennessee experiment station, Soule fed 6 to 10 pounds of cowpea hay daily a steer, in the place of 3 to 5 pounds of cottonseed meal. This substitution wa3 made with excellent results. In ra- tions containing a large amount of suc- culence, however, cowpea hay is not so satisfactory, for the reason that the steers cannot then be induced to eat enough of it. Together with grain, cow- pea hay may be fed in rations of 20 pounds a day, and 2 to 3 pounds of cow- pea hay may be estimated as equal to 1 pound of cottonseed meal. At the Texas experiment station, Craig did not find so high feeding value for cowpea hay. It appeared that in a ration of rice bran and cottonseed meal, cowpea hay could not be added in large quantities with satisfactory results. A ration, however, containing large amounts of cottonseed meal and rice bran is already highly nitrogenous and could best be balanced with corn stover or some other carbonaceous feed. TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 401 Johnson grass — This grass is con- sidered of great value, or a curse, de- pending on whether a system of stock farming is pursued or cultivated crops to be marketed as such. In Mississippi, an experiment was carried out to deter- mine the relative feeding value of John- son grass hay as compared with cotton- seed hulls. It appeared that 1 pound of Johnson grass hay was equal to 1.2 pounds of hulls, giving a value of $10 a ton to the hay, when hulls are worth $8.33. Kafir corn stover — In tests at the Oklahoma experiment station, this for- age proved to be somewhat inferior to alfalfa hay, but equal to corn stover. Kafir corn stover was found to be infe- rior to corn fodder. In Kansas, however, corn stover and kafir corn stover ap- peared to have equal feeding value. This is offensive to animals if eaten in large quantities. Tannin interferes with the digestion and in some cases causes ex- cessive thirst and constipation. The average amount of tannin in the various kinds of oaks in the arid regions is about 10 per cent. Pastures — The kind and quality of pastures used for beef animals in va- rious parts of the United States show a great variation. The pasture may be uncultivated for years and may contain nothing but native grasses in scattered bunches and not forming a complete sod. On the other hand, some system of rotation may be adopted, according to which the pasture land is from time to time plowed up, cultivated to various crops, then used as a meadow and fi- nally allowed to run to pasture again. In the range areas of the far western states, Fig. 267 — CATTLE GRAZING ON SALT BUSHES ON ALKALI LAND forage is not raised in sufficient quanti- ties to make it an important steer feed, except in parts of the southwest. Oak leaves — On many of the west- ern ranges, particularly in the more arid parts of Utah, Nevada and California, range cattle derive considerable food from oak brush. The scrub oaks, of which a number of species grow in this region, are low and much branched and furnish an abundance of foliage. A study of oak leaves as forage was carried on at the California experiment station by Mackie. It was found that the decid- uous oaks carry a higher nutritive value than live oaks, and are better relished by cattle, horses and sheep. Only sheep and goats thrive on the live oaks. Cattle eat not only the leaves of scrub oaks, but also the small twigs and at times kill the bushes. Oak leaves cany a considerable amount of tannin, which the beef raisers depend, to a large ex- tent, for a maintenance ration upon the native grasses which are exceedingly nutritious. According to Mumford, it appears that in Illinois, about 55 per cent of the beef raisers use blue grass pasture, 25 per cent timothy, 15 per cent clover, and small numbers use redtop, rye, cow- peas, orchard grass and other grasses. The carrying capacity of pasture varies according to the quality and quantity of the forage. In the case of ordinary pasture land, about 2 acres are required for each steer during the summer. In general, however, the amount may be put down as being from 1 to 4 acres. Year- ling steers and calves require less acre- age of pasture. The time for returning cattle to pasture varies in different parts of the country. In the corn belt it ranges from April 1 to June 1, but is 402 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK usually about the first of May. In the corn belt, cattle are ordinarily removed from pasture during September, but may in some cases be allowed to remain until October or even December. Where cattle are finished for market in the early fall, they are sometimes removed from the pasture during the latter part of the grazing season and heavily fed on grain with soiling crops or some other succulent food. Tke question at once arises in connec- tion with pasturing steers whether they shall be fed grain during this time or not. This matter has been studied in a number of states with results which are fairly in harmony, although differing somewhat in certain respects. Burnett investigated this subject in Nebraska, where it was found that when steers are to be sent to market in early winter, there is more profit in keeping them on pasture during the summer, with grain. Where, however, the steers are to re- ceive a grain ration during the winter and marketed in the spring, it is more economic to keep them on pasture dur- ing the previous summer without grain. In the use of pasture for steers which are being fattened for market, close watch should be kept of the steers to see that they are receiving enough coarse forage in addition to their grain to make constant and fairly uniform gains. Any falling off in weight or check in their growth indicates that the pasture is poor. In Alabama, Duggar and others made observations on the gains produced by scrub cattle on the ordinary pastures in that state. The plants chiefly eaten by the cattle were broom sage, crab grass, swamp grasses, switch cane and les- pedeza. The daily gains made by cat- tle on such pastures varied from 0.28 to 0.82 of a pound, and the total gain for a pasturaere season of 210 days varied from 59 to 172 pounds, with a beef value varying from $1.48 to $4.30. The increase of different classes of cattle during a pasture season of seven months varied from 8 to 51 per cent of their weight. During the winter season, cat- t } e kept on southern pastures are al- most sure to lose in weight, for the reason that the common grasses lose nearly. all of their nutriment as a result of the frequent rains. In Mississippi Hutchinson and Lloyd kept cattle on cotton-field and woodland pasture carrying more or less Johnson grass and fall oats. The breeding cattle kept in fine condition and young ani- mals made quite heavy gains. In gen- eral it has been observed that young animals gain more rapidly on pasture than older steers. In order that pas- ture may give the greatest results in beef production, care should be taken not to overstock it at any time. In Mississippi, it appeared that Bermuda grass, white clover and lespedeza stood heavy grazing better than other grasses. K, however, the cattle were changed at suitable in- tervals, Johnson grass and alfalfa were found to furnish excellent grazing for long seasons. Two-year-old steers which had been carried through the winter on a maintenance ration and were in rather thin flesh, gained 242 pounds in 178 days on ordinary pasture, or at the rate of 1.3 pounds daily. The pasture was found to carry one animal for each 1.1 acres for the period of seven months. On poorer pasture land, however, about 2% acres were required for each steer. Pearl millet or pencillaria. This plant was for a number of years adver- Fig. 2G8 — SINGEING THE SPINES FROM CACTI THAT THEY MAY BE EATEN BY CATTLE tised in a pompous manner as produc- ing enormous yields of forage of un- usual feeding value. The few tests which have been made with it, however, indicate that the claims for pearl millet have been greatly exaggerated. At the Kansas experiment station, Haney tested pearl millet stover as compared with kafir corn stover as a roughage for cattle. The pearl millet was some- what overripe when cut and a few of THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 403 the leaves had fallen. The cattle which received pearl millet did not thrive well, but their appetites remained in good condition. The value of the pearl millet appeared to be considerably less for feeding purposes than kafir corn. Peanut hay — This coarse material, while produced in large quantities, is seldom fed to steers. Craig and Mar- shall have fed peanut hay to steers at the Texas experiment station, and found that it was unsatisfactory when fed with rice bran and cottonseed meal, owing to the fact that it contains a high percent- age of protein and should therefore be used in a more carbonaceous ration. It appears that peanut hay is of consider- able feeding value. Prickly pear — On the southwestern desert ranges of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and Colorado, various species of prickly pear cacti have attracted atten- tion as forage plants. On account of the spines which these plants carry, it is necessary to singe or otherwise treat them to remove the spines before they can be eaten. Horses understand how to roll the cacti under their feet so as to break off the spines and prepare the material for food. With cattle and sheep, however, the case is different, since these animals do not understand how to remove the spines. In order to utilize prickly pear more extensively, va- rious methods of singeing by means of wood fires or gasoline blowers have been adopted and a number of feeding experi- ments have been carried on. It ap- pears that for cows from 40 to 100 pounds of prickly pear may be used per day. Oxen may be worked on an ex- clusive prickly pear ration of 125 to 200 poimds per day. Rye — Steers are often allowed to graze on green rye. One of the advan- tages of rye is that it springs up early in the season and thus furnishes a suc- culent green food in advance of the or- dinary pasture grasses. In Alabama, it has been found that rye will be eaten clean by cattle, even if it is allowed to reach the height of 2 feet before the cattle are turned on it. Duggar found that cattle would make gains of l 1 /^ pounds a day on rye pasture. Rye grass — This wild grass is cut for hay in various parts of the country. If allowed to get too ripe before cutting, it is a coarse grass and unpalatable. Rye grass is also subject to infestation with ergot and should not be used for feed when the heads contain too much of this fungus. The Canadian feeders have found that rye grass is equal to oats in the sheaf for fattening steers. Silage — In discussing the corn plant as a coarse forage for steers, mention has already been made of the use of corn silage in fattening cattle. Silage is not used as extensively for steers as for dairy cows, but appears to give good results wherever it has been thoroughly tested. A number of mixed forms of silage have been used in different locali- ties with considerable success. In Mary- land, a silage containing corn, sorghum and soy beans in rations of 40 pounds a day proved to be more than a main- tenance ration for winter. According to Canadian experience, the cost of gain on Robertson's mixture is considerably less than on straight corn silage. Refer- ence is made under sorghum and other plants, as well as corn, to their use in the form of silage. Sorghum — This plant is fed to steers as a coarse forage wherever it is grown on a commercial scale. In Arizona, it proved to be nearly equal to alfalfa, and in Iowa, sorghum silage appeared to be as effective as corn silage in fattening steers, but was not so well relished. A test of this matter in New Mexico showed that all of the non-saccharine sorghums were readily eaten by cattle and were preferred in many cases to al- falfa hay. Sorghum as a soiling crop was found to produce rapid gains in ex- periments carried on in Tennessee. In Texas, it was found that steers shrunk least on shipping after being fed on sorghum and cottonseed meal and hulls with corn chops. In Texas, it has been found that sorghum hay in a ration of cottonseed meal and rice bran, gives results about equal to cottonseed hulls, 1 pound be- ing equal to 1.02 pounds of the hulls. The gains in weight in steers fed on cot- tonseed hulls as compared with sor- ghum hay were slightly in favor of the hulls. Soy beans — Soy bean silage may be fed to cattle in winter in rations of 25 to 30 pounds a day with a grain ration of 1 to 2 pounds cottonseed meal, and 5 pounds of corn meal. This ration pro- duces rapid gains in weight and also maintains the health of the cattle in ex- cellent condition. In Illinois, soy bean silage proved to be as digestible as clover hay. Straw — Spelt straw is not extensively grown, except in limited areas and for 404 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE STOCK this reason has not been fed or tested extensively as a ration for fattening steers. In Canada, spelt straw was found to possess about half the feeding value of ordinary hay. Straw of va- rious kinds may profitably be fed with leguminous forage plants and other hays and grain. When mixed with legu- minous hay, there may be a considerable saving in the cost of the ration. The feeding value of all kinds of straw, how- ever, should be understood as being somewhat less than that of good hay. Steers ordinarily eat straw more freely if allowed the liberty of a yard. Oats furnish the best straw. Oat straw mixed with silage in the proportion of 1 to 2 constitutes an excellent roughage for steers. In Canada, steers made a cheaper gain on a ration containing wheat straw than where hay was used. Timothy — On account of the great de- mand which almost everywhere exists for timothy hay, as a feed for horses, farmers can sell this material for city use at a price which is really in ex- cess of its feeding value for steers or other animals. When this is the case, it may be good farm practice to sell tim- othy and feed other cheaper but equally valuable rough forage to the steers. In Iowa, timothy proved to be inferior to corn fodder in fattening steers, but somewhat better than sorghum silage. For the maintenance of young steers, about 20 pounds daily are required for each 1,000 pounds of live weight. There appears to be no difference in the feed- ing value of early and late cut timothy hay. In Utah, timothy proved equally digestible, whether fed green or in the form of dry hay. It proved, however, to be inferior to wild hay. According to experience in Illinois, timothy is not equal to clover hay for steers and tends to the production of intestinal fat. Vetch hat — Several varieties of vetch are used as a coarse forage for all kinds of farm stock. According to experi- ments in Oregon, vetch hay is about equal to clover hay for steers. It may be fed to steers in combinations and pro- portions such as have been recommended for other leguminous hays. Miscellaneous — According to statis- tics collected in Illinois, a great variety of coarse fodders are used in fat- tening steers. About 34 per cent of the beef raisers use clover hay as roughage, 31 per cent corn fodder, 11 per cent hay (kind not specified), 6 per cent timothy; while others use corn stover, straw, blue grass hay, cowpea hay, alfalfa, redtop, sorghum, millet, native hays, sheaf oats and silage. It is obvious from the above discussion of the kinds of roughage used for steers that this matter may be left to the discretion of the individual feeder, since the market price and the conven- ience of obtaining different forms of coarse fodders will vary in each case. In general, however, it is well to bear in mind the great superiority of legumi- nous hays as roughage, since these ma- terials furnish protein in the cheapest form in which it can be obtained, and, therefore, serve to balance rations con- taining corn, the cheapest grain feed for steers. Cut vs. uncut hay — Much difference of opinion prevails regarding the economy of cutting hay for steers. Most hays are more effective when cut than when left long. The same is true for many of the roots commonly fed. The decision of the question of whether these shall be cut or not must depend on the cost of cutting in each individual case. According to Canadian experience, the cost of gain was 70 cents less a 100 pounds on cut than on uncut hay. Roots for steers — Many experiments have shown the necessity of some form of succulence in the ration for steers. This may be supplied in the form of roots, and all kinds of roots may be fed with satisfactory results. All roots should be sliced or pulped. The English beef raisers make large use of roots and consider them a necessary element of the ration. Until recently, however, feeders have paid little attention to them in steer rations and many beef raisers have considered them as quite unimpor- tant. In Canada, sugar beets, mangels, turnips and other roots are extensively used and have proved satisfactory. About a ton of roots, together with 500 pounds of hay and 400 pounds of pea meal, are necessary for the production of 100 pounds of beef. When roots are com- pared with silage as a means of furnish- ing succulence to the ration for steers, the results are always in favor of silage, for the reason that this material con- tains grain and is therefore of a higher feeding value. Roots are especially val- uable in steer feeding during the early part of the fattening period. Toward the end of the fattening period, however, the quantity should be diminished, since - otherwise the meat may be less firm than THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 405 it should be. Eoots may be fed in ra- tions of from 50 to 60 pounds a day to each steer. In England, it has been found that a daily ration of 56 pounds of rutabagas is equally good and cheaper than when half of the root ration is replaced by 2% pounds clover hay, x /z pound mo- lasses and V2 pound corn meal. The English feeders commonly believe that all steers in process of fattening should re- ceive roots at least to the extent of 28 pounds a day, and that a ration of 56 pounds is profitable. The daily gain of steers on turnips, mangels and silage in a number of English experiments was found to be about the same. Some of the roots which have been most extensively fed to steers may be briefly discussed in the following para- graphs. Carrots — Nearly all farmers believe in the nutritive and medicinal value oi carrots for farm animals. They are fed less extensively to steers, however, than to dairy cows or sheep. Cassava — This root has been fed to steers at the Florida experiment station, where it is claimed that beef was pro- duced on it at a cost of 1 cent a pound. Cassava appeared to give greater gains and a larger percentage of dressed weight than cottonseed meal or corn meal, and the profit from feeding cassava was greater than from corn, but less than from cottonseed meal. These results, however, require substantiation, since they seem to indicate too high a feed- ing value for cassava as judged by its chemical analysis. In Florida, cassava has been fed in rations of 30 pounds a day, or in the form of cassava pulp in rations of 18 pounds a day. The steers fed on cassava or cassava pulp dressed 51 per cent. It appeared from the Florida experiments that velvet beans alone with the roughage are inferior to a ration containing full feeds of cassava. The cassava pulp from starch factories is a valuable feeding stuff, but at the usual price of $6 a ton is less econom- ical than the whole cassava root. Potatoes — In recent years the price of potatoes has been too high to allow of their being fed extensively to steers. Whenever potatoes are low, however, they are used as one of the important elements in steer rations in ordinary farm practice, but very few experiments have been made to test their exact value for this purpose. It has been found in Germany that potatoes may be safely and profitably fed to steers in rations of 60 pounds a day in combination with clover hay and linseed meal. Sugar beets — Recently the use of sugar beets and particularly sugar beet pulp has become a general practice among beef raisers. It is most profit- able to sell the sugar beets to the fac- tory and buy pulp for feeding. For this reason, pulp is fed far more ex- tensively than sugar beets. Some of the large cattle feeding companies use it on an extensive scale, after having found that its feeding value and medicinal properties are more important and more effective in steer fattening than would appear from an analysis of the material. In early experiments in Colo- rado, sugar beets were found to have a feeding value of $3 a ton. In Wyoming, when used in rations of 14 pounds a day with alfalfa hay, sugar beets made profitable gains. Beet leaf silage has also been used to a considerable extent, but according to German experiments it does not possess much feeding value. At the Colorado experiment station, Carlyle and others made a number of tests to determine the conditions under which sugar beet pulp could be most profitably fed to steers, in connection with the use of alfalfa and home-grown grains. In one set of experiments, all the steers were given alfalfa hay and sugar beet pulp ad libitum, while some of the steers received corn and others barley and oats. It appeared from these experiments that where an abundance of beet pulp and alfalfa hay were fed, a grain ration of 5 pounds a day produced a rapid and satisfactory gain. The steers which received grain ate 98 pounds of pulp and 11 pounds of hay daily, while those that had no grain consumed 123 pounds of pulp and 12.5 pounds of hay daily. Carlyle recommends that in feeding pulp, great cleanliness should be observed and the troughs should be thoroughly cleaned daily after feeding. In the coldest weather of winter it is recommended that beet pulp should never be fed in the afternoon or even- ing. It must be remembered that sugar beet pulp has a laxative effect. Cattle appear to be particularly fond of pulp from the silo, preferring this to fresh pulp. In order to ensile pulp, it should be placed in the silo direct from the sugar factory, in a perfectly fresh state. 406 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In another set of experiments in Col- orado, alfalfa hay was fed to all the steers ad libitum, while beet pulp was tested with regard to its feeding value with the hay and ground corn. In this test, 3.2 pounds of sugar beet pulp were found to equal in feeding value 1 pound of the hay. Sugar beet pulp at ordi- nary prices appears to be cheaper and better than ground corn in connection with an alfalfa ration for mature steers. When alfalfa hay is worth $5 a ton, sugar beet pulp may be estimated at $1.50 a ton. It was found as a result of careful experiments that steers would gain nearly a pound a day more on a ration of alfalfa, corn and beet pulp than on a ration of hay and corn or hay and beet pulp. In another test of this matter at the Colorado experiment station, it was found that during a fattening period of ordinary length, steers on a ration of alfalfa hay and beet pulp returned a profit of $16.60 a head, while on beet pulp, hay and corn, a profit of $15.45 was obtained and on beet pulp, barley, hay and oats, a profit of only $12.55. In Michigan, it appears that one ton of sugar beet pulp equals 421 pounds of corn stover, 274 pounds of mixed hay and 69 pounds of mixed grain for feed- ing steers. In another test in Michigan, better results were obtained from the sugar beet pulp, indicating an even higher efficiency. In Utah, it was found that steers would make a pound of gain from HV2 pounds of alfalfa hay and 3V/ 2 pounds of sugar beet pulp, at a cost of 2.8 cents a pound. When the sugar beet pulp was fed ad libitum with alfalfa hpy it showed a feeding value of $1.85 a ton. A stock feeder in Logan, Utah, found sugar beet pulp a very profitable ma- terial and estimates its value at $2.50 a ton. His feeding operations have been so successful, from a financial stand- point, that arrangements are being made for more extensive operations in the future. His system consists in feeding alfalfa and sugar beet pulp regularly, twice daily, in open yards and no more is given than will be eaten up in a few hours. In accustoming animals to sugar beet pulp, it is a good practice to begin with a small quantity and gradually increase until a full feed is reached. At the be- ginning, the amount may be 10 pounds a day for steers and increased to 40 to 80 pounds, together with grain and alfalfa hay. If the animals show any hesita- tion in eating pulp, it may be mixed with grain at first, and thus rendered more palatable. Dried blood — Although cattle are nor- mally vegetarian in habit, they may be induced to eat animal food. Animal ma- terial is most frequently fed mixed with grain or molasses in order to render it more palatable. The quantity of dried blood fed to steers should not exceed about 1 pound a day, as a rule. At the Iowa experiment station, Kennedy fed one lot of steers on corn in various forms, wheat straw and dried blood, be- ginning with a ration of 1-6 of a pound a day, and gradually increasing to IV2 pounds daily. This ration gave an average daily gain of 2.4 pounds a steer, at an average cost of 11 cents a pound of gain. It will be seen by this experiment that the cost of producing beef on ani- mal feeds is likely to be rather high. Blood meal may also be used in steer ra- tions at the rate of 1 1-5 pounds daily, but will ordinarily increase the cost of gain. Likewise bone meal of good quality may be fed to steers, and is readily digested by them. Molasses — I n Utah, molasses was compared with pulp in rations of 8 pounds a day. It was found to have a feeding value of $2.35 a ton and was well relished by steers. It may be used in rations of 4 to 8 pounds a day. The use of molasses and sugar in feeding farm animals is increasing rapidly, but has given better results with horses and mules than with cattle. Steers, however, appear to be able to utilize mo- lasses and sugar economically. In Scot- land, it has been found as a result of one series of feeding tests, that sugar, in rations of 1 to 2 pounds a day, has a tendency to check the growth of steers and put them off feed. Molasses has been fed much more extensively in Eu- rope than in this country. In Texas, it did not appear to improve a ration containing silage, and in Kansas, it was found to be of little value in fattening steers. In France, however, sugar was found serviceable in making hay more palatable. FEEDING METHODS AND MISCEL- LANEOUS MATTERS IN BEEF PRODUCTION There remains for consideration a number of important subjects concern- ing the methods of feeding and various TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 407 factors which influence the development of steers, the quality of beef and the profit to be derived from feeding. Fattening season — According to sta- tistics collected by Mumford in Illinois, 40 per cent of the beef raisers of that state believe that they can fatten beef most advantageously in the summer, while 26 per cent prefer fall, 20 per cent spring and 14 per cent winter. Not- withstanding this apparent preference for the summer season, 61 per cent of the beef raisers stated that they had found winter feeding profitable. The time of year at which steers are put on full feed varies with different farmers, ing period, however, may be set down as about six months. Shaw found that a satisfactory in- crease in weight was not attained when steers were fed on a forcing ration dur- ing a short period and that on this ac- count such feeding resulted in consider- able waste of the meal. In this test, feeding periods of 84 and 140 days were compared. It was found that steers on a light meal ration for 140 days gave a profit of $6.75 a head more than those fed 84 days on an excessively heavy ration. Steers which were forced to the limit were more likely to get off feed. In Tennessee, Soule has found that so Fig. 269 — MODEL CATTLE FARM WITH CEMENT SILO AND RESERVOIR but in the majority of cases the pre- ferred season is September to Novem- ber. As a rule, it is necessary to occupy from 15 to 30 days in a preliminary period, during which the cattle are gradually brought up to full rations. Length of the fattening period — The length of the fattening period will vary in different cases, according to the age of the animals, their condition at the beginning of the period and the purpose for which they are fed. As a rule, steers require about six months for the attain- ment of a proper market finish ; in some instances from seven to nine months may be necessary, while occasionally satisfactory results are obtained in three months. The usual length of the fatten- long as animals are making a daily gain of iy 2 to 2 pounds, the fattening period can be continued at a profit. Number of feeds a day — There is lit- tle to be said on this point, since nearly all beef raisers feed twice a day and find this more satisfactory, convenient and economic than any other system which can be adopted. Size of the ration — I n feeding year- lings in winter, a considerable percent- age of beef raisers give all the corn that the cattle will eat, while many use about a peck of corn or a slightly smaller quantity. When the yearlings are kept on grass in siimmer, about one peck of corn a day is a perfectly satisfactory ration, or ^ bushel corn and oats and 408 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 5 pounds linseed meal. With two-year- olds in winter, some feeders give all the corn they will eat, while the majority feed about ^2 bushel. If mixed grain rations are fed, the following will be found satisfactory: One peck of corn, 6 pounds oats or bran and 6 pounds cot- tonseed meal ; all the corn that the steers will eat, 5 pounds of bran and 5 pounds of linseed meal; 1-3 bushel of corn and 5 pounds cottonseed meal. Two-year- olds in summer, on grass, will eat from 1 peck to 1-3 bushel of corn. Many feeders, however, find it quite satisfac- tory to give all the corn the steers will eat, without measuring it accurately. Daily gain — The average daily gain for steers cannot be stated without qual- Illinois, different men estimate that from 4 to 20 bushels of corn are nec- essary for the production of 100 pounds of meat on calves in winter; from 5 to 30 bushels on yearlings in winter and from 5 to 25 bushels in summer; from 5 to 40 bushels on two-year-olds in winter and from 6 to 37 bushels in summer. It is obvious from these es- timates of farmers that too little at tention is given to the matter, since it is quite impossible that the effectiveness of corn and other grain feeds should vary so enormously as indicated by these figures. On a basis of more than 100 feeding experiments involving over 750 steers, it has been found that the follow- ing amounts of different grains are re- Fig. 270 TRACK AND CAR FOR CARRYING FEED TO THE FEED RACKS ification, since the gain, as will presently be explained, depends on a number of factors, particularly age, and the length of the feeding period. The daily gain, as shown by statistics based on more than 50,000 steers, ranges from 1.2 to 2.3 pounds a day. In many instances, however, a considerable higher gain is obtained. According to the reports of Illinois feeders, the average gain for cattle in the summer on grass is 2 pounds and in winter 2.2 pounds a day. Feed required for 100 pounds gain — Throughout the discussion of individ- ual feeds used in fattening steers, men- tion has been made, in most instances, of the amount of these feeds required for a pound of gain. A common say- ing among farmers is, that "a bushel of corn will make 5 pounds of beef." In quired for the production of 100 pounds of beef: 817 pounds mixed grain, 911 pounds peas, 914 pounds barley, 1,028 pounds corn, 1,032 pounds oats, 1,058 pounds kafir corn, or 1,090 pounds wheat. Steers should gain about 2 pounds a day on a ration of 30 to 50 pounds of silage or roots, 8 to 12 pounds of grain and hay or straw ad libitum. Amount of roughage — This is a diffi- cult point on which to make a specific recommendation, since the majority of beef raisers, perhaps 95 per cent, allow steers all the roughage they will eat during the whole fattening period. Per- haps one-half of the beef feeders follow the practice of changing the roughage in the ration from time to time, in order to induce the steers to eat as much as possible. The more roughage THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 409 that is utilized by steers, the less grain will be required for putting them in market condition. Length of fattening period and cost of gain — It has been repeatedly demon- strated that the cost of gain increases with the length of the fattening period. Thus, in a set of experiments carried out by Georgeson, it was found that the amount of grain required for 100 pounds of gain in a feeding period of 182 days was 1,000 pounds, while for a feeding period of 56 days, the amount was only 730 pounds. It is obvious that the steer should be sold at the earliest moment at which he is fit for market, since the expense of producing further gains in- creases until a point is reached where the cost of gain is too high to permit of further profit from feeding. In fact, short before the steers are in prime con- dition, otherwise the greatest profit can- not be obtained from the outlay which has already been made in feed and labor. Taking a feeding period of average length as a basis on which to formulate a general statement of the requirements of a beef steer for 100 pounds of gain, it may be said that 1,000 pounds oi" grain and 500 pounds of roughage in the form of corn stover and hay will produce 100 pounds of meat, but these amounts will have to be increased in the estimate if the feeding period is unduly prolonged. The cost of feeding per 100 pounds of gain in beef steers, ranges from $4 to $12, depending on the quality of the steers and the kind of feed. Feeding steers loose and tied — It is of importance to determine the relative Fig. 271 FEED YARD AND SHEDS. COURTESY KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION during the last stages of the fattening period, the cost of gain is nearly always greater than the price received for the steer when finished. The necessity for putting on this expensive meat lies in the fact that otherwise a high market price cannot be obtained and the econ- omy of the apparently wasteful process is obvious when it is remembered that the value of the whole carcass is greatly increased by the finishing touches put on during the last stages of the fatten- ing period. In a comparison of feeding periods of 117 days and 160 days for steers, in Canada, it was found that the cost of 100 pounds of gain in the shorter period was $12.75 and in the longer period $10.53. This apparent exception to the rule just stated indicates clearly that the fattening period should not be cut profits obtained in feeding steers loose and tied, in stanchions or otherwise. In a test carried on in Canada during a feeding period of 129 days, loose steers gained 311 pounds and tied steers 275 pounds. The gain in the loose steers cost $4.76 a 100 pounds and $5.39 in tied steers, while the daily gain in the latter was 1.6 pounds and in the former 1.8 pounds. At the Mississippi experiment station, Smith found that stable fed steers made greater gains than those which were kept in open yards. In good weather the latter gained more rapidly than those which were kept in the stable and made less trouble in the way of care. Heavy vs. light steers — While con- siderable difference of opinion prevails regarding *he profits to be derived from 410 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK heavy and light types of steers, the ma- jority of feeders prefer the heavy steers. In Canadian experiments, it has been [found that there is more profit in heavy than in light steers. Value of succulence in the ration — A number of experiments have been made to determine the importance of adding succulence to the ration in the form of silage, soiling crops or roots. In Ten- nessee, dry rations were compared with succulent rations, corn stover being fed against silage. It appeared from these experiments that the animals which re- ceived a succulent ration did much better than those which were fed on the dry ration. The rate of gain was more rapid on the succulent ration and a greater economy was observed, as well as a superior quality of beef. Age and cost of gain — It has been shown beyond question in almost innu- merable experiments that the rate of gain decreases with the increase in the age of the animal, and that the cost of the gain correspondingly increases. This fact has led to the adoption of early maturing beef breeds and the produc- tion of baby beef in order to get the greatest amount of meat from a given amount of feed. According to statistics compiled from experiments with more than 50,000 cat- tle ranging in age from six months to four and one-half years, it appears that the average daily gain decreases grad- ually from 2.3 pounds in yearlings to 1.2 pounds in five-year-olds. At the Colorado experiment station, the daily gain in five-year-olds was 1 pound; in two-year-olds, 1.7 pounds, and in year- lings, 2.2 pounds. In the same experi- ment, the five-year-olds required 3,600 pounds of hay for 100 pounds of gain, the two-year-olds, 1,300 pounds, and the yearlings, 900 pounds. In young calves, a pound of gain has been produced for each 1^2 to 2 pounds of dry matter fed in the ration. The required amount gradually increases until « adult age, when from 10 to 12 pounds of dry mat- ter are consumed for each pound of gain. In Alabama, 18-year-old oxen were fed at a loss, while young steers made excellent gains on the same feed- ing stuffs. Likewise, at the Maryland experiment station, it has been found that dairy cows, six years old or less, may be fattened at a fair profit while cows eight to 10 years old or older must be fed at a loss. Similarly in Colorado, North Caro- lina, Oklahoma and other states, as well as in Canada, more profit has been found in two-year-old than in three-year- old steers. At the Central Experimental Farms in Ottawa, the cost of 100 pounds of gain was as follows: In calves, $4.89; in yearlings, $7.23; in two-year-olds, $7.45; in three-year-olds, $13.75. It has also been determined by a series of ex- periments in Canada, that the total feed required for a calf for a period of 203 days averages about $13.80; for a yearling, $18.20; for a two-year-old, $18.96; and for a three-year-old, $22.82. Home-grown vs. purchased feeds — The concentrated grain feeds constitute the greatest element of expense in con- nection with the production of beef. It is, therefore, a matter of great impor- tance to determine how and to what ex- tent these expensive feeds may be sup- plemented by crops grown on the farm. Since the most expensive element of grain feeds, as well as other materials in the steer ration, is the protein, it is ob- viously necessary to produce this ma- terial in ordinary farm crops in order to make a saving in the ration. A majority of beef feeders have found it profitable to raise all of the feed used for their steers, or as nearly all as their farm acreage will allow. A considerable percentage of beef producers buy corn, linseed meal, bran, patent stock foods, cottonseed meal, oats, shorts, middlings, gluten meal, brewers' grains, hay and even straw. About one-half of those who purchase feed for their steers buy corn, while the other half buy milling products of one sort or another. It has been shown by numerous experiments, however, as indicated above, that by growing alfalfa, cowpeas, clover or other leguminous crops, this material may be used to supplement a consider- able part of the grain ration, with a great saving in the feed bill. Methods of increasing returns from beef cattle — I n New England, some of the best and most progressive feeders state that the best way to increase the profits from beef production consists in a use of better bred steers, better rations, and better pastures. In Illinois, a sum- mary of the replies of 639 beef producers to the question of how to increase the profits from the business, indicates that the vast majority of them believe this desired end is to be accomplished by the use of a larger number of well-bred cat- tle, A more intelligent use of feeds. TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 411 better care of cattle, better pasture, bet- ter shelter, and extermination of flies and lice are also mentioned as important factors. A significant fact which ap- pears in the belief of beef producers, as well as packing house men, is that the necessity of the use of better blood in beef herds is being more and more gen- erally recognized. The use of better animals and the more rational use of feeding stuffs are the two main lines along which the beef producer must work in order to increase his profits. These facts are being recognized not only in the corn belt, where for years the finest quality of beef has been produced, but also in the south, where lately the character of beef herds is being consid- erably improved. Thus, Duggar, in Alabama, considers that the essentials to the highest profit in beef production in that state are the use of better bred bulls of beef breeds ; the employment of better trained men as feeders, the production of cowpeas, sorghum and other well known farm feeds and the improvement of pastures. Shelter—On the point of shelter, the opinions of different men are widely apart; some believe that during the fat- tening period, if this operation is car- ried on in winter, steers are particularly susceptible to the influence of cold weather, and, therefore, should be pro- tected against exposure to cold; while others take the opposite view, that the best results are obtained only when steers are allowed to live under natural conditions, including exposure to the cold weather of winter. The results of numerous experiments undertaken to obtain evidence on this controversy are not all uniform in their tendency, but recently the preponderance of evidence is in favor of allowing the steers con- siderable freedom in yards and not pam- pering them unnecessarily. In Scot- land, certain feeders have found that cold weather retards the growth of young cattle, and therefore recommend that the barns be heated in February. In Illinois, this matter has been thor- oughly studied by Mumford. When the ground of feeding yards is dry and open sheds furnished under which the cattle can take refuge from severe winds and rain storms, the best possible con- ditions are secured for the production of beef. The chief protection which cat- tle seem to need in winter may be se- cured in the form of cheap sheds or Windbreaks. In one experiment in Minnesota, Shaw found that steers fed in a shed, as com- pared with others fed inside, consumed about 2 pounds more food a day, at an increased cost of 1.7 cents, but made a greater gain and a higher net profit of 1.72 cents during a feeding period of 140 days. In a series of feeding operations car- ried on by Burnett in Nebraska, it ap- peared that the largest gains were cheap- est, and that all strikingly large gains were made in steers fed in box stalls in a shed. During a feeding period of the ordinary length, the average gain of some of the steers fed in a shed was 444 pounds, as compared with 350 pounds each, as the average for the whole lot. The steers kept in open sheds gained somewhat less than those in box stalls. At the Pennsylvania experiment sta- tion, Mairs and others carried on a se- ries of tests extending over a period of three years. The plan of these experi- ments was to compare feeding in a large pen or box stall in a basement, with feeding in a yard adjoining a barn, with an open shed for protection. During the feeding period the temperature ranged from 4 to 11° below zero F. Dur- ing the first two years the results were not so much in favor of open yard feeding as in the third test. On the whole, however, the actual amount of food eaten* by steers outside was less than that required by those kept inside. The gains made by steers in process of fattening were not increased by warm quarters, and it appears, therefore, that it is impossible to have stables too cold for fattening steers in the climate of Pennsylvania, provided the steers are kept dry and well bedded. It is a com- paratively simple matter to prevent out- door yards from becoming muddy by the use of soft coal cinders, gravel, drainage, and, if necessary, by paving. A shed in a well-drained yard, covered with the proper surface material, can be kept practically as dry as the interior of a barn, provided enough bedding is used and the manure is removed at fre- quent intervals. If, on account of the nature of the soil or the slope of the land, any difficulty is experienced in keeping the yard dry, it is essential that it be paved, or otherwise treated so as to prevent it from becoming muddy. In Canadian experience, steers have made much better gains loose in the yards than in barns. If, however, steers 412 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK are to be kept in open yards at all, it is better to leave them loose all the time, rather than to confine them for a part of each day. On the basis of statistics collected among beef raisers in Missouri, it ap- pears that 60 per cent prefer an open shed, 21 per cent an open lot, and 19 per cent barn feeding. With steers, as with other domestic animals, health and vigor are important considerations, and in order to obtain these it may be nec- essary to abandon the use of close barns and confinement. It is unnecessary to pamper steers to excess, since if raised under outdoor conditions they are fully able to withstand the ordinary sever- ity of a northern climate. Salt — An abundant supply of salt should always be accessible to steers. It has been estimated that steers re- quire about 1 ounce a day for each 1,000 pounds of live weight. Wherever range steers are salted at regular inter- vals, or given free access to chunks of rock salt, they thrive better than where they are left to satisfy their appetites in this direction by eating alkali. The form in which salt is supplied to steers is a matter which can well be left to the convenience and preference of the individual beef raiser. If an excessive amount of salt be added to the feed, it leads to drinking . too much water and a consequent excessive urina- tion. In Kansas, when salt boxes were placed in each feed lot and kept filled with loose barrel salt, the results were satisfactory in all respects. According to statistics collected by Mumford, in Il- linois, it appears that 85 per cent of the beef raisers use barrel salt, 7 per cent rock salt, and 8 per cent both kinds of salt. Many farmers use a mixture of equal parts salt and wood ashes. As a result of mixing these materials, the steers are induced to eat the salt slowly, and the mineral substances in wood ashes are believed to be beneficial. Of the Illinois beef raisers, about 65 per cent keep salt constantly before the steers during the feeding period, while 35 per cent feed it at regular intervals. Water — The manner in which water is supplied to the steers will vary according to the arrangement which each farmer devises for the feed lot. In Kansas, Cottrell, in his experiments with steers, allowed them to have free access to water at all times. The water was sup- plied in tanks and kept in a pure and wholesome condition. During the cold- est weather of winter the water was warmed and maintained at a tempera- ture of about 50°. The cost of heat- ing water in winter was found to be about one-tenth of a cent a day for each steer, and the care of the heaters was a very simple matter. It appeared that warming the water enough to take off the chill was profitable. In Illinois, it appears, according to Mumford, that 17 per cent of the beef raisers consider it advisable to warm water for steers during winter; the remaining 83 per cent, however, do not warm the water any more than is required to keep it from freezing in open, exposed tanks. In Pennsylvania, it was found that animals which had water before them all the time showed a better appetite than steers which were watered but once a day. A self-watering device saved considerable work, and appeared to ef- fect economy in the amount of grain required. According to observations in North Carolina, 2 x /2 pounds of water are required by steers for each pound of dry feed when the ration consists of cottonseed meal and hulls. Steers re- quire an abundance of water at regular intervals, or in a constant supply; other- wise they become nervous and do not make satisfactory gains. It is inadvis- able, however, to attempt to make the steer drink more than a normal amount of water. Breeds most in favor with farmers — It is a delicate matter to make a choice among breeds of cattle for beef produc- tion. Each breed has its ardent cham- pions and the claims for each breed are strongly urged. The strong and weak points of the different breeds of beef cattle have already been discussed. In Illinois, according to Mumford, about 50 per cent of the beef raisers prefer Shorthorns, 20 per cent Herefords, 18 per cent Angus, and the remainder keep other breeds and grade stock by prefer- ence. A considerable number of these men, however, state that there is no particular choice among the true beef breeds. Mum- ford argues that the apparent greater popularity of the Shorthorns is best in- terpreted as meaning that the average Illinois farmer has a better opportunity to become familiar with them than with most other breeds of beef cattle, for the reason that they are most numerous in Tlinois and neighboring states. TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 413 In a comparison of different breeds in Kentucky, it appeared that Shorthorn grades made a pound of gain on each 10.88 pounds of grain and Angus grades on each 11.85 pounds of grain. Dur- ing recent years the Angus has carried away some of the chief prizes at fat stock shows, and in block contests, and many packers consider that the Angus is better fitted than other breeds to maintain a smooth, symmetrical form without the development of lumps of fat and without becoming patchy or irregu- lar, even to a considerable age. Beef vs. dairy type — If there is any point in beef production which is con- sidered by beef raisers as thoroughly es- tablished, it is that the beef type of ani- mal is better adapted for the profitable production of a fine quality of beef than is the dairy type. This point has been tested in numerous experiments and has been submitted to the final judg- ment of the butcher in an examination of the meat on the block. At the Iowa experiment station, Kennedy and others found, in a comparative feeding experi- ment, that the Angus required 9.18 pounds of grain and 4.1 pounds of roughage for each pound of gain, at a total cost of 8 cents a pound of meat; the Holsteins required 8.2 pounds of grain and 3.6 pounds of roughage for each pound of gain, at a cost of 7 cents a pound; the Jersey required 9.2 pounds of grain and 4.4 pounds of roughage, at a cost of 8 cents a pound of meat. Com- paring beef steers in general with dairy steers it was found that the cost of gain in beef steers was 7.8 cents and in dairy steers, 7.6 cents. The beef type of steer made slightly greater average gains, while the dairy steers made their gains at a considerably less cost a pound. The meat produced by the dairy steers was not distributed on the body in such a way as to command the highest price, while in the case of beef steers, the gains were distributed largely on the jack, loin and hindquarters, thus greatly increasing the weight of the prime cuts. The return from the slaughter of the teers, at wholesale prices, was appar- ently greater in the case of the dairy steers than in the beef steers; but this was largely due to the fact that the beef steers were bought at a higher price, and had to be handled on a narrower margin. The dairy steers carried 25.8 per cent of valuable cuts, while the beef steers carried 26.8 per cent of these cuts. The dairy steers showed a higher percentage of offal, a lower dressed weight, and a higher percentage of fat on the internal organs; while the beef steers carried a higher percentage of prime cuts, and the meat was more evenly and neatly cov- ered with outside fat, showing a su- perior marbling. Moreover, the color of the fat in beef steers was whiter and the lean meat was a brighter red. Lit- tle difference was observed, however, in the fineness of the grain of the meat. It was concluded from this series of ex- periments that it is not profitable or desirable to feed steers of the dairy type for beef purposes, for the reason that they are unsatisfactory to the butcher, who will pay considerably more for beef steers. At the Kansas experiment station, Cottrell found that Shorthorns dressed 63.5 per cent; Angus, 62.6 per cent; Jerseys, 59.5 per cent; and Holsteins, 59.6 per cent. In the set of experiments in which these percentages were obtained, Shorthorns produced 28.1 per cent of high-priced cuts; Angus, 27.5 per cent; Jerseys, 27.9 per cent; and Holsteins, 27.1 per cent. The beef steers and grades, as a whole, furnished 27.8 per cent of high-priced cuts, and the dairy steers, 27.5 per cent. The cost of feed- ing for each 100 pounds of gain was $15.41 for the Shorthorns, $17.31 for the Angus, and $15.16 each for the Jerseys and Holsteins. A comparison of Short- horns and Jerseys in Mississippi gave results which were quite satisfactory for both breeds, but the butchers to whom the meat was sold stated that the Shorthorn meat was worth 50 cents to 75 cents a 100 pounds more than that of the Jerseys. In a recent test at the Minnesota ex- periment station, a cross bred Jersey- Holstein steer cost less to raise to the age of 38 months than a beef steer at 22 months. The dairy steer dressed 5 per cent less, but actually carried a higher percentage of loin and other high- priced cuts, and, therefore, made good for the smaller percentage of dressed beef. It was also shown that steers from Jersey cows and Angus or Hereford bulls make excellent baby beef. Such cross bred steers closely resemble the bulls in color and form and may pass, except among experts, for Angus or Hereford. Eecently it has become a quite general practice to cross beef bulls 414 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK on dairy cows for the production of steers of the right form for the beef market. This practice has the great ad- vantage that dairying and beef raising may thus -be combined on the same farm, in a most economical manner. It is commonly believed by beef raisers that the so-called beef breeds are better for beef production than dairy breeds or scrubs. The reasons given for this superiority, however, are often incorrect. For example, a comparison of different breeds in Michigan showed no constant difference in meat produc- tion between them. Dairy breeds made poorer gains, laid on more fat around the internal organs, showed more shrink- age on shipment, and a higher percent- age of cheap parts than did the beef breeds; the beef breeds of cattle also matured earlier. In a comparative test in Missouri, the Shorthorns stood first in power of beef production and in the quantity of fat; the Angus was first in palatability of meat and in general excellence, followed by Shorthorns, grades and Herefords. All of the pure breeds and grades gave better results than scrubs. In North Carolina, however, scrubs proved more profitable than grades on cottonseed meal and hulls. The matter of profit in this and other similar cases depends partly on the estimated value of the steers at the beginning of the fattening period. In a comparison at the Minnesota ex- periment station, no constant differences were observed in the fattening qualities of grade stock from different breeds, and in Iowa, Angus and Shorthorns proved equally good. In one test made in Kansas, Shorthorns seemed to be slightly superior to scrubs in economy of gain and in percentage of dressed weight. In Utah, native steers gave bet- ter profit, in some instances, than pure breeds. It is apparent, as shown by compara- tive experiments, that 100 pounds of gain may be produced as economically by dairy breeds, grades or even scrubs, as by beef breeds. Nevertheless, there are good and sufficient reasons for choosing beef breeds for beef production. Beef breeds lay on fat in the best cuts of steaks and roasts, on the back, loins, ribs and hindquarters, while dairy breeds show a tendency to accumulate too much fat around the intestinal organs. The tallow may constitute as much as 30 per cent of the carcass of the Jersey steer. Moreover, the contour of such animals remain somewhat angular, even after they have been fattened to the full- est extent, and they bring a smaller price on the market. With regard to the experiments in which equally good results were ob- tained with dairy and beef breeds, it should be stated that these tests were carried out under such conditions that the butcher agreed to take both types of animals at their actual value. If, however, the butcher or packer is given the choice between the beef breeds and dairy breeds, he will never hesitate to choose the former, for the reason that he well knows that greater returns in beef can be obtained from the beef type than from the dairy type. Southern vs. western steers — Where the feeder buys all of his steers from outside sources, or has opportunity to feed more steers than he can raise on his own premises, he has two general localities outside of the corn belt in which to look for young stock for this purpose. Some doubt may be felt as to the relative value of southern and western steers for feeding. This mat- ter has been thoroughly tested at the Iowa experiment station and elsewhere, with the result that little difference was found in the economy of buying south- ern and western steers. The results ob- tained from feeding either of these classes of steers depend far more on the feeds used and the skill of the feeder than on the animals themselves. Fat beef, prime beef and baby beef compared — I n a comparison of these three kinds of beef by Otis, at the Kan- sas experiment station, several points were taken into consideration. A fat Steer 38 months of age at the time of slaughter was evenly covered with fat and of good symmetrical form; a prime steer, 23 months old at the time of slaughter, also showed a fine form, but less fat; the baby beef heifer, compared with these two animals, was not quite as fat as might have been desired, weigh- ing 775 pounds. The dressed weight was 66.5 per cent in the case of the fat steer 65.3 per cent with the prime steer and 52.7 per cent with the baby beef heifer, as compared with 41 per cent for a common canner. The weight of the tallow in the fat steer was 121 pounds, and in the prime steer 69 pounds. The THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 415 color of the lean meat in both the fat and prime steers was perfect, while that of the baby beef was somewhat lighter, but considerably darker than that of Veal. The color of the meat from the canner was very dark red. An elaborate cooking test was made of these different kinds of beef. In the boiling piece the baby beef was considered tender, but strangely enough the baby beef was pro- nounced tough in the broiling and roast- ing pieces. The fat steer received the largest number of votes for being ten- der in the broiling and roasting pieces, but stood lowest in the boiling pieces. With regard to the effect of roasting these different kinds of meat, that of the fat steer lost 43.7 per cent in the process, the prime steer 52.8 per cent and baby beef 47 per cent. It should be remembered that the standpoints from which the breeder, feeder, butcher and consumer look at beef are quite different. The breeder is likely to be occupied with the desire to produce an animal true to the type of the breed and showing no evidence of impurity. He should not loose sight of the fact, however, that the beef ani- mal is to be judged on the basis of qual- ity rather than of breed standards. The feeder may occasionally make the mis- take of selling his animals a little too soon in a desire to make the operation of feeding as profitable as possible. The butcher, as has been shown by Otis and others, buys beef animals for the amount of lean meat which he is able to obtain, especially from the high priced cuts; naturally he wants just as little waste as possible and must cater to the desires of the consumer. In other words, the consumer dictates to the butcher, the butcher to the feeder and the feeder in turn to the breeder. At present there seems to be a tendency to demand more lean and less fat, but numerous cooking tests have shown that there must be enough fat on the outside of the va- rious cuts and distributed through the fibers of the meat to make the meat tender and well flavored when cooked. Market grades as related to their fattening qualities — From the experi- ments of Mumford in Illinois, it ap- pears that more rapid and larger gains may be secured on good than on com- mon grades. The better the grade of cattle the higher the percentage of dressed beef obtained. Low grade cat- tle carrv relatively larger percentages of internal fat; while in high grade cat- tle the fat is better distributed, so as to add to the value of the meat. In gen- eral it may be stated that the greater the cost of the feed, the greater is the ad- vantage in favor of better grades of beef animals. In feeding high grade beef cattle there is opportunity for much greater profit and also for greater loss, if the operation is carelessly done. The factors upon which the relative profits depend are the grade and cost of the cat- tle, price of feeds, weight of the cattle at the beginning of the feeding period and length of the feeding period. In a comparison of scrubs and grade steers in Florida, it was found that the gain per day and the total profit was higher with the grades than with the scrub steers. The percentage of profit however, was higher with the scrubs steers, for the reason that their initial cost was very low. Grade steers were also compared with scrubs, in Missis- sippi, in an experiment by Hutchinson and Lloyd. The results obtained in this experiment indicate that it is de- sirable to use pure beef breed sires in the southern states, but that skill in feeding is perhaps of more importance than the sires. The dressed weight in the Mississippi test was 60 per cent with the scrub steers and 60.4 per cent with the grades; the scrubs made about as good gains as the grades and produced nearly as large an amount of choice cuts. In a test of this matter in Minne- sota, Shaw found that steers of the approved beef type showed no superior capacity of making gains over that of steers of more or less undesirable form, though the same breeding. Neverthe- less, there was more profit in finishing steers of the approved type, for the rea- son that the finished product had a greater value. The higher value of these steers, therefore depends, accord- ing to this experiment, on the superior value of the meat in the carcass rather than on the greater power of the steers to make gains. In a series of feeding experiments in Tennessee, Soule and Fain found that satisfactory gains were made when suit- able rations were used, even with native cattle. The gains made by scrubs com- pared very favorably with those made by animals of better quality, but the fat was not deposited in the most valuable cuts of meat, a higher percentage of of- fal was found at the slaughter test and 416 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the value of the animals was less from the standpoint of the butcher. It is recommended, therefore, that the south- ern beef raisers improve the quality of their animals by the use of pure-bred sires. Age to breed beef heifers — The tend- ency to secure as early maturity as possi- ble is becoming more and more pro- nounced and this leads to a desire to get rid of animals before they reach too high an age. In some instances this may work to a disadvantage, since cows which have shown themselves to be excellent breeders may as well be kept for this purpose as long as they produce a vigor- ous calf every year. In some in- stances a tendency is seen toward breed- ing heifers rather too young and there- fore lowering their vitality and final development. According to statistics collected by Mumford, in Illinois, about 50 per cent of the beef raisers keep heif- ers until they are mature before breed- ing. A number of beef producers are careful to select only the best heifers for breeding, but unfortunately this means of improving the quality of the stock is not always taken into account. About 9 per cent of the Illinois farmers breed heifers at 12 months; 14 per cent between 12 and 18 months; 17 per cent at 18 months; 14 per cent between 18 and 24 months; 42 per cent at 24 months, and 4 per cent at an older age. The youngest age for breeding in com- mon farm practice appears to be about one year, and the oldest three years. Percentage of pure bred bulls Dur- ing recent years the advantage to be de- rived from the use of pure bred sires has been forced upon the attention of beef raisers, so that the use of such bulls is more general than it formerly was. Oc- casionally we notice statements by farm- ers that the use of pure bred sires is un- profitable, since they have found it pos- sible to obtain about the same price for beef steers from grade bulls. This, however, is not generally the case, and perhaps in all instances the beef pro- ducer will find it to his financial advan- age to use only pure bred sires, even if he has but a small number of cows. If the number of cows which he can keep on his farm is too small to warrant buy- ing an expensive pure bred bull, the best way to secure the services of such an animal is for several men in the neigh- borhood to buy a fine sire in partnership, in order that his good qualities may be transmitted to the offspring of common cows. According to Mumford, it appears that in Illinois 87 per cent of the beef producers use pure bred sires; the other 13 per cent use grade bulls. The various breeds of beef bulls used for this purpose are as follows: Shorthorns, 56 per cent; Hereford, 19 per cent; Angus, 19 per cent; Red Polled, 4 per cent; Polled Durham, 1 per cent; Galloway, 1 per cent. Dehorning calves_At the present time there is a demand from all sides for hornless cattle. So strong is this de- mand that unusual efforts have recently been put forth to secure breeds which Fig. 272 — USING THE DEHORNING CLIP- PERS. STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION are naturally polled. In this field the Angus and Galloway were pioneers, fol- lowed by the Red Polled and Polled Durham and lately by the Polled Here- fords. The Polled Durham is, as is well known, a hornless form of the Short- horn, and we therefore have both horned and Polled Shorthorns. The advantages of dehorning are of much importance. The animals are not only rendered more docile and unable to injure one another in the feed lot or pas- ture, but butchers are willing to give a little more for polled than for horned cattle. This difference in price amounts to enough to make the operation of de- horning profitable. In some instances the difference in price may reach ^2 cent a pound. If the farmer is raising horned cattle, as, for example, Short- horns, Herefords and grades of these breeds, he may well take advantage of a simple method of dehorning calves at an early age. It is much easier and also much more humane to dehorn calves when they are young, preferably at the age of three of four days. The method of dehorning has been well described by Otis and others. The hair should THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 417 be clipped away from the horn button and a stick of caustic potash, wrapped in a piece of paper, with one end free, may be moistened on the free end and rub- bed over the horn button until the skin becomes somewhat sensitive. If the de- veloping horn is moistened with water to which soap or ammonia has been add- ed, the effect of the caustic potash is more immediately observed. The opera- tion of rubbing the stick of caustic pot- ash on the horn should be repeated five to eight times, but the whole operation need not require more than a few min- utes. A scab forms over the developing the caustic potash, it may be well to grease the hair immediately around the horn button. Many patented chemical dehorning substances are offered on the market, but caustic potash is the chief constituent of nearly all of them and it is far cheaper to buy the caustic potash in the pure form. Experiments have also been tried in dehorning calves at an early age by means of various other chemical preparations; for example: hydrochloric acid; sulphuric acid mixed with sulphur, glue or carbolic acid; chloride of zinc; and chromic acid oint- ment or solution. The best success, Fig. 273 — TEXAS STEER GERONIMO horn within a few days, if the work is properly done, and drops off within a month or six weeks, leaving a smooth poll The best results from the use of caus- tic potash are secured when this ma- terial is applied as soon as it is possible to locate the horn button on the calf's head. In case the first application is not entirely effective, it may be re- peated again as soon as it is noticed that the horns are growing. Care should be exercised in all cases to pre- vent the caustic potash from running down in the hair or getting into the eyes. In order to limit the action of however, has attended the use of caustic potash, and this is the only remedy to be recommended. If steers are allowed to develop with horns of usual size, it may be advisable to remove the horns before putting the steers in feed lots for the fattening pe- riod. The horns may be removed by means of dehorning clippers, a number of which have been patented, and are offered for sale by dealers in veterinary instruments. The dehorning clipper should remove the horn at a ^ single stroke. As a result of the operation the animals show a marked gentleness and docility, even if they had previously 418 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK been quite vicious. The operation of dehorning adult cattle should prefera- bly be performed in mild weather, neither during extreme cold nor during fly time. If flies cause trouble by de- positing eggs in the wounds where the horns are removed, these wounds may be protected by tar or some similar ap- plication. The removal of the horns from adult cattle has the effect of checking their growth for a few days. In steers some loss of weight may take place. Other- wise no serious bad effects are noted, and the animals usually recover entirely from dehorning within about two weeks. In dehorning steers it is usually neces- sary to confine them in some form of chute. In a dehorning experiment made in Arizona it was found that and which cannot be changed without legal procedure. Cattle bearing this brand belong to the man whose legal brand it is, wherever the cattle may be found. Local and in some cases quite extensive cattle associations have been formed to attend to the management of range cattle in a more economical man- ner. In the spring the first annual round-up occurs, at which time the calves are all branded, each calf receiv- ing the brand carried by its mother. Again in the fall, at the second round- up, those steers which are suitable for shipment to cattle markets are cut out from the herd, sold, and returns made for them to the righful owners, as in- dicated by the brands which they bear. Any calves which are found in the fall to have escaped branding are branded 274 — BRANDING steers lost about 50 pounds as a result of the process. Where the wounds were covered with a coat of cresylic ointment and pine tar, flies did no damage; otherwise some trouble was experienced with fly maggots; a treatment with the same ointment was sufficient to check the trouble. Branding — Throughout the western range country, conditions prevail which make it absolutely necessary to brand all cattle. The absence of fences and the fact that cattle are allowed to roam sometimes hundreds of miles from the owner's ranch house and mingle with the cattle of other range men precludes the possibility of identifying cattle ex- cept by the use of a brand. In order to prevent theft and irregularities it has been found necessary for each ranchman to adopt a brand for his cattle, which must be registered with state officials with a design adopted by the associa- tion and become the property of the as- sociation, being sold to help in meeting the expenses of the round-ups and branding. In branding cattle several methods have been adopted. They may be roped singly, without confining in chutes, and held by trained horses, to which the ropes are attached while the hot iron is applied. Some cattlemen, however, prefer to run the cattle into a corral, from which they are passed through a regular branding chute, in which they may be confined by a swinging gate while they are branded. Some injury is done to the hide by the process of branding, and on this account the hide is worth somewhat less than that of un- branded cattle; there seems, however, no way of avoiding this slight injury. On our western ranges, as well as in TEE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 419 Australia and other countries where range conditions prevail, attempts have been made to use a branding fluid, with the idea of avoiding injury to the hide. In New Zealand and Australia, a brand- ing fluid has been patented which is claimed to give a legible brand without injuring the hide for tanning purposes. A test of this material, however, showed that it produces about as severe an in- jury as the hot iron. In Arizona an ex- periment was made with a mixture of equal parts coal tar and barium sul- phide. An ordinary branding iron was dipped into the liquid and pressed firmly against the skin. No scab formed over the area with which the iron came in contact and the design of the brand could not be read. It was therefore shown to be practically useless. In an- other test of this material, a wooden branding form was used with much wider faced letters. The operation at first appeared to be a success, since scabs formed over the surface of the brands. After the scabs were shed however, the hair grew over a part of the brand, obliterating the design. Period of pregnancy and other physiological data, — In cows the aver- age duration of pregnancy is 285 days, the extremes being 240 and 336 days. It is commonly noticed that heifers, small cows and old cows usually calve a few days short of the average period. Bull calves may be carried two or three days longer than heifer calves. At the Maine experiment station, observations on this point showed that the average period for both bull and heifer calves was 282 days. The weight of calves at birth varies ordinarily from 50 to 130 pounds. At the Maine experiment station, the average weight was found to be 73.6 pounds for both sexes, the average for bull calves being 76.8 pounds and for heifers, 70.1 pounds. At the close of the period of gestation the cow ordinarily produces one calf, al- though instances are known where two or even three calves have been produced at a single birth. It is also worthy of mention that a certain percentage of cows are barren for one or another rea- son. The subject of barrenness or steril- ity and its treatment has been taken up under Diseases of Cattle. A curious fact has been observed in the case of twin calves, that where one is male and the other female, the bull calf is perfecL in all respects, while the heifer calf — called in such cases a free-martin — is sterile; otherwise the free-martin does not differ from normal heifers, and the meat is sometimes, though erroneously, supposed to be of superior quality. Dur- ing the last month or six weeks of preg- nancy, it is well to turn the cow on grass, if in the spring season, or to feed roots, silage or some laxative food if in winter. The breeding cow should not be either overfat or too poor. Both ex- tremes should be avoided, for the reason that the vigor of the calf is likely to suf- fer in either case. After calving, it is usually best not to return the cow to the bull until a period of four or five weeks has elapsed. Much speculation has been indulged in regarding the factors which deter- mine sex and a great number of theories have been proposed for explaining this matter. These theories have already been discussed in Part I. It is suffi- cient to say that none of them is satis- factory by means of which the sex of calves may be controlled at will. Oxen for draft purposes — Thus far cattle have been considered from the standpoint of meat production, and in the United States the use of cattle ex- cept for beef and milk purposes is of very slight extent. Formerly, however, oxen were used much more extensively for draft purposes throughout the coun- try, and the practice still prevails to a limited extent in many localities. Thus some farmers still find the ox a very satisfactory and economic animal for performing farm labor, in New England, the central states, as well as in the south, and, in fact, here and there throughout the country. In the early days the freighting done by large companies in the western states was chiefly by means of bull teams as they were then called. Large wagons or strings of wagons were hauled hundreds of miles by teams of eight to 20 oxen. In various foreign countries, oxen are used more exten- sively than in the United States. This practice is especially common among the Latin races. In India, the zebu is com- monly used for draft purposes, and in the Philippines, the caribou. Likewise, in Great Britain the ox was formerly much more used for draft purposes than at present. Occasionally, however, they are still used, especially in Scotland. A good ox, for plowing or other farm work, should be in medium condition. If too fat he is lazy, and if too poor is 420 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK unable to exert Lis whole power. The value of the ox as a beast of burden de- pends largely on his breaking and train- ing, and these matters cannot be dis- cussed in this connection. The strength of the ox, when properly trained, is very great, and he is also endowed with an unusual amount of patience. It has been found that oxen are especially valuable in hauling loads over miry or marshy places where horses would plunge and thus be unable to do the work. In securing oxen for a team, attention must be given to a proper matching in size, strength and temper; otherwise they may not work well to- The draft power of oxen depends on the method of harnessing them. In Great Britain and the United States, the ordinary method is by the use of a yoke or collar. The chief disadvantage of the yoke lies in the fact that the bows are ordinarily quite small and en- tirely uncovered with any material which would protect the shoulders of the oxen. It seems strange that no form of collar was ever adopted for oxen in this country which might fit the shoul- ders and protect them against the pres- sure of the hard bows. In Spain, Por- tugal and other Latin countries, as, for example, in Porto Rico and elsewhere, Fig. 275 — A PAIR OF DEVON OXEN gether. As a rule beef breeds of cat- tle are used for draft purposes, partly on account of the fact that the frame of beef animals is somewhat stronger than that of dairy cattle. In some parts of continental Europe, however, dairy cows, even during the period of lactation, are worked on the farm and for other purposes. The Devon, Hereford and Sussex are commonly recommended as best for draft purposes. In caring for draft oxen, it is a wise practice to wash and clean the feet at the end of each day's work, since other- wise the hoofs may become soft, tender or inflamed, as the result of filth which adheres to them and acciimulates in the cleft between the two parts of the hoof. oxen, as already indicated, are almost the only animals employed in agricul- tural labor, whether in the field or on the road, and in these countries oxen are invariably yoked by the head. It is argued in favor of this system, that the strength of the ox lies largely in his neck, and that he is at a considerable advantage, from a draft standpoint, by having the pull come on the head. If oxen are to be used year after year for draft purposes, it is necessary, as in the case of horses, to pay some at- tention to the preservation of the hoofs. For this purpose, shoeing is required. In shoeing oxen more elaborate devices are necessary than with horses, since they are spldom trained to lift the foot THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 421 or permit handling. Various devices have been used, including a chute and other means of confining the animals, and formerly they were thrown by means of ropes and shod while held down. It is obviously necessary to use two semi- circular shoes for each hoof, since other- wise the play between the two parts of the hoof would be prevented. Oxen show no tendency to the development of corns, contraction of the hoof or ten- derness of the frog, as in horses. Each half of the shoe may be fastened by three nails on the outer edge. It is customary to have both the upper and lower sur- faces of the shoe smooth, without calks. The shoes on the hind feet are usually made thinner than those in front; in fact, some farmers only shoe the fore feet. In the early history of Europe nearly all of the horses were required for war purposes and it was also considered quite beneath the dignity of a horse to do any common farm labor. The ox was there- fore used almost exclusively for this purpose. Our modern systems of farm- ing and transportation, however, re- quire more speed and also animals which are more amenable to discipline. These desiderata have been found in the horse and at the same time a more profitable use for the beef animal has been found in the production of meat. PART VIII Dairy Cattle I u I • 8 1 § § "g.H3 3 .2j=«a ,u 9S 'SI , o I :*a =53 !S£g£ SSSS 3 3 £ SS ^ 3SSSK8 SSSteSSSSSSSSSS 3* a.„ 2 § aS a 5 -2° ~ a S-ai lip fl !:iisg.f% ® ai^gl-l-si -a 1 1||| *jp% w fit tSi iKliili liiiini!! HfflhlftijhUgll <^ d .2° £ | o° -s I g „ .2« i §56 ^ S 3 I-" s I *S 1° j I »I t~i I 5 . S til 073 £« •££» -fel2 - s >^ , 2 P, "2—3 — <" -S3 •z'a So, .S6s3 cS "•a-tife'"- * u t^, °,a § i. ¥iJ ,f !=Ji !il!Jlsn:lC: S lilll! ^IllWlIIIplM P i IPs JilfitlSPl. Q S 3*3 „ o t -2 „| £S a g o S S I Sll 1 1 5 3 1! P. - g -Mil s £ o „ i^i § sii-5^- jiiisUg ist- ji-ssii^ss-si si— 1 „§ ^ b!t6i^aiiflI«5iirti^iiHl^|igaJfeSiiii»iliaS.|ii *"_■: w • «-a O c s £g o 2 u Pj § -=>a J -g „ ^---^ -?c| ^ s h * * j- limn * „§« -g g i: |vi : nii^b! < ll5§f^i|illall||l|&g S|g||| | s«ll^2fS^S :2s ls| S £ g^ll g§||||i a llfslll^illiSgsrS^^isllla-lIll^ls ; °~g- " E °» &a„ M ^"3 ^-a-a fc 111! ^|=3l1|sl|f. & ==^2f.? gllgil c : c s ; 'Z z J^ z ' ^ C\^^r ^ FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK DAIRY CATTLE Dairying has long been assuming more and more importance as a line of animal industry, keeping pace in thi3 respect with the growth of large cities and the consequent demand for great quantities of milk and other forms of dairy products. In the northern and eastern states, particularly, this develop- ment of dairying has been most pro- nounced. In the early history of the United States, dairying was of far less importance, relatively, than at present, largely for the reason that there was no steady market for large quantities of dairy products and consequently no in- ducement for farmers to keep a large number of cows for dairy purposes. The tendency then was for each farmer to milk as many cows as were required for the production of the milk, butter and cheese which he needed for his own fam- ily. Gradually, however, the concentra- tion of population in large cities fur- nished the demand for more dairy prod- ucts and this was the business reason for the extensive development which has taken place along this line. Statistics — According to estimates made for 1905, the total number of dairy cows in the United States was about 17,575,000, worth approximately $482,- 000,000. In the number of dairy cow3 New York leads with 1,721,000, followed by Iowa, with 1,335,000 ; Wisconsin with 1,095,000; Pennsylvania with 1,086,000, Illinois with 995,000; Texas with 838,- 000; Minnesota with 836,000, and Ohio with 790,000. On account of the scar- city of population in the extreme south- west of the United States, the number of dairy cows is very much less, being only 19,000 in Arizona and 16,000 in Nevada. The number of dairy cows has varied from year to year in relation to the number of inhabitants in the United States, but this variation has not been great and at present there is approxi- mately one dairy cow to each five inhab- 427 itants. This fits the requirements of the case quite satisfactorily, since on the farm one cow of the modern dairy type is sufficient for an ordinary family of five persons. The importance of the dairy industry is seen not only from the number of dairy cows and their value, but from the extent of dairy products; thus, ac- cording to the most recent available statistics, farmers sell annually about 2,250,000,000 gallons of milk, and butter and cheese factories buy annually about 1,500,000,000 galrons of milk. Within recent years, the development of cream- eries on a co-operative or some other basis has been rapid and extensive. They have naturally used large quan- tities of milk, as just indicated, in the manufacture of butter. Contrary to a widespread notion, however, there is more than twice as much butter made on farms at the present time as in fac- tories, the amounts being 1,072,000,000 pounds on farms, annually, and 420,- 000,000 pounds in factories. The oppo- site tendency is observed in cheese mak- ing. The process of cheese making is somewhat more elaborate than that of butter making and requires more skill and experience, as well as a more elabo- rate equipment in order to produce a first-class article. At present, about 16,375,000 pounds of cheese are annually made on farms, as compared with 281,- 975,000 pounds in factories. The quality of butter made on farms as compared with the factory made product is far better than the quality of farm cheese. This fact has led to a lowering of the price of farm cheese and a relatively small quantity is made on the farm for sale. The average prices received by farmers for dairy products are 8.7 cents a gallon of milk, 42.6 cents a gallon of cream, 17.7 cents a pound of butter and 9.1 cents a pound of cheese. 428 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Relative economy of milk and beef production — As indicated in a discus- sion of the beef industry, the relative economy in milk production is much greater than in beef production. Good dairy cows produce human food in the form of milk much more economically than food products can be obtained in the form of beef, pork or mutton. Nat- urally, the cost of production of milk and butter varies greatly in different localities, according to the price of farm labor and feeding stuffs, but the rela- tive economy of dairy and beef produc- tion varies in the same direction in nearly all localities. The only apparent exceptions to this rule are found in the two extremes of farming conditions found on the western ranges and in the neighborhood of large eastern cities. On the western ranges the distance from the market is so great that milk could not be delivered in a satisfactory condi- tion and dairying is practically impos- sible. In the neighborhood of large east- ern cities, on the other hand, the price of land and the cost of feeding stuffs are so high that the production of beef becomes altogether too expensive as compared with milk production. As indicated in discussing the economy of beef production, the amount of feed re- quired for the production of a pound of beef in the best type of modern beef steers is nearly, if not quite, ten times as great as the amount of feed neces- sary for the production of a pound of milk by the modern dairy cow. This should indicate without argument the great difference in the relative economy of beef and milk production in localities where conditions are favorable for both the beef and dairy industries. In Min- nesota, the average annual cost of keep- ing a dairy cow has been found to be about $38, while in Massachusetts the average cost of producing milk is about 2V-> cents a quart. More than half as much feed is required for a pound of beef as for a pound of butter, and while the cost of butter production varies greatly in different places, it may usu- ally be placed at from 8 to 12 cents a pound. Formation of dairy herd — In making a start in the dairy business, the first great problem is the formation of the dairy herd. In this operation the selec- tion of the cows and the bull to head the herd is by no means an unimpor- tant matter. It is ordinarily to be rec- ommended that a herd should not be composed of different breeds, but should contain only one pure breed or grade animals based on that breed. In prac- tice, however, dairy cows should be se- lected for their individual record rather than for their pedigree, color or form. For dairy purposes, dairy breeds should be chosen rather than beef breeds, for the reason that they produce milk fat rather than body fat from their food; while beef cattle, on the other hand, arc likely to become fat under forced feed- ing without increasing to a correspond- ing degree their milk yield. No one, however, should allow either breed or type to determine entirely his choice of cows for his dairy herd. The prime requisite is that they shall give a large quantity and a good quality of milk. BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS In the discussion of the breeds of cattle which may be used for beef, a description has already been given not only of the strictly beef animals, but also all of those breeds which are com- monly referred to as dual purpose cat- tle. Some of these breeds, as, for exam- ple, the Shorthorns, Devons, Brown Swiss, Red Polls and Polled Durhams are quite extensively used for dairy pur- poses and for a description of them the reader is referred to the list of breeds under beef cattle. All of the pure dairy breeds of cattle in the United States originated in Great Britain and the western parts of Europe, and apparently had a common origin in the wild cattle which existed in the forests of Europe in early times. They have been bred along pure lines, however, for such long periods that the breed type in each case has become firmly fixed with distin- guishing characteristics. For practical purposes it may be said that there are only three general types among the com- mon dairy breeds which have been in- troduced into this country. The IIol- steins and Dutch Belted constitute one type. They are relatively large, both being black and white in color, and orig- inated in Holland. The second type in- cludes the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire and French Canadian, all of English origin and all showing various mixtures of red and white with other variations in their color. The Kerry cow may be mentioned as the third type This ani- mal originated in Ireland and corre- sponds in the list of dairy animals to DAIRY CATTLE 429 the West Highland breed in beef cat- tle. It is a comparatively small animal of great endurance and capable of main- taining itself under conditions of unu- sual hardship and neglect. In the following notes on these dif- ferent breeds, an attempt is made to state the relative advantages and dis- advantages of each breed without preju- dice against or favor toward any par- ticular breed. The champions of each breed are prone to maintain that their particular breed is better in most re- spects than any other breed, and of course not all of these claims can be 1S40, but large importations did not take place until after 1850. Jerseys are the smallest in size of all the noted dairy breeds, the cows ranging in weight from 700 to 1,000 pounds, and the bulls from 1,200 to 1,800 pounds. A deliberate attempt has been made to in- crease the size of the Jerseys, so that in the United States they are somewhat larger than in their native island. The color of Jerseys varies extremely, show- ing all shades of brown, even to black, and various shades of yellow, fawn, tan and cream ; mouse color, light red and brindle are also observed. The head of Fig. 276 CHAMPION YEARLING JERSEY BULL AT PAX AMERICAN" EXPOSITIOX true at the same time and under the same conditions. For different purposes a different :election of breeds should be made. Thus, in point of milk yield, the Flolsteins probably stand at the head, while in point of milk fat the Jerseys and Guernseys are perhaps superior, and stand about on a par. Jerseys — I n point of numbers, the Jerseys are considerably in the lead bf other dairy breeds in the United States. This breed originated in the Island of Jersey and has gradually spread throughout the dairy regions of Europe and America. A small number of Jer- seys, then known as Alderneys. were introduced into the United States before the Jersey is small and usually dished, and the muzzle, including the under lip, shows a black or dark lead color. This at once distinguishes the Jersey from the Guernsey, which has a tendency to show a buff color about the head. Many breeders prefer solid colors in Jerseys. The majority of ihis breed are variously marked. The udder is of good size and ordinarily hangs lower than in Ayrshires, while the milk veins are well developed. Jerseys are likely to be irregular and angular in outline, rather quick and graceful in movement and deer-like in appearance. They are nervous and excitable, but when care- fully treated, are docile and easily man- 430 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK aged. The matter of temperament in all dairy cows may be said to be largely a question of breeding and treatment. Much effort has been made in Amer- ica to increase the milk yield of Jerseys while maintaining its high fat content. Jersey cows frequently give 3 to 4 gal- lons a day, and many Jerseys produce 300 pounds or more of butter annually. A few animals under careful test, have yielded from 9,000 to nearly 17,000 pounds of milk in a year. The amount of fat in the milk is usually from 4 to 5 per cent and sometimes higher. Guernseys — This breed originated in another of the Channel Islands known tinct breed in this country. The head of the Guernsey is long, the neck slen- der the body large and deep and the flanks thin. The color is light yellow and orange or buff predominating, with considerable white in patches on the body and legs. Dark colors approach- ing brown are seen on some cows and more frequently on bulls. The muzzle is most always buff or flesh color. The horns are small, curved and waxy, often showing a rich yellow at the base. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the Guernsey is the large secretion of yellow coloring matter throughout the skin, but especially where the hair is Fig. 277 — JERSEY CHAMPION AT ST LOUIS DAIRY DEMONSTRATION as the Island of Guernsey, and has prac- tically the same origin and history as the Jersey. In the development of the Guernseys, however, more of the original characteristics of the parent stock from Normandy have been preserved. At present, however, the Guernseys closely resemble the Jerseys in their general conformation and appearance. The Guernseys were first introduced into the United States, in numbers, in about 1850, being grouped together with the Jerseys at that time under the name of Alderneys. Between 1870 and 1S75 the Guernsey was recognized as a dis- white around the ears, eyes and udder. The udder and teats are well shaped. While the Guernsey is of a nervous tem- perament, the cows are gentle under proper management, and the bulls are probably less likely to become vicious than Jersey bulls. The Guernseys are economic feeders and excellent butter producers, the milk often showing from 5 to G per cent of fat. They are especially recommended by Alvord and others for butter cows and for the production of market milk, where quality secures a high price. They show great power of assimilating feed DAIRY CATTLE 431 and converting it into milk, but do not endure excessive forcing. Guernsey cows average about 1,000 pounds or a little more in weight, and being slightly larger than the Jerseys, may be expected to give more milk than the latter. On the farm a good Guernsey may be ex- pected to produce 5,000 pounds of milk, or 300 pounds of butter, without high feeding. In one case a herd of 104 cows averaged 318 pounds of butter each a year. Recently a Guernsey cow in Wis- consin made a new world's butter rec- ord of 1,000 pounds in the year, under a carefully supervised test. Ayrshire — This breed of dairy cows originated in the county of Ayrshire, in York in 1822, and began to be imported in considerable numbers about the mid- dle of the nineteenth century. With the exception of the Kerry cow, no other breed of dairy cattle can excel the Ayr- shire in obtaining a subsistence and thriving well on scant pasture and upon the coarsest of forage. "The natural hardihood of constitution renders these cattle admirably adapted to grazing on broken and rugged pastures and in sterner weather than would be conducive to the well being of cows of some other breed " The purpose of breeding in the Ayrshire has been to secure an animal which will give a large milk yield with- out extravagance of feeding, but this Fig. 278 — CHAMPION 2-YEAR-OLD GUERNSEY BULL the southwestern part of Scotland, and was brought to its present fixed form by careful breeding in that county. This is the most recent of well established dairy breeds. Even the cattle referred to as Ayrshires in 1825 bear little re- semblance to the present breed. The original blood for the production of this breed came from England, Holland and the Channel Islands, the exact methods used in the breeding up of Ayrshires being somewhat in dispute. There ap- pears to be a strong tendency in modern Ayrshires to become lighter in color, many being almost white and showing some relation in this respect to the wild white cattle of the British parks. Aryshires were first brought to New breed, while showing the greatest econ- omy in the utilization of feed, responds promptly to liberal feeding. The Ayrshire cow weighs from 900 to 1,100 pounds, and the bull from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds. They are short of leg, with small bone and active movement. The general form is good, without any weakness in the forequarters, but with an unusually strong development of the hindquarters. They do not carry any extra flesh during the period of lacta- tion The face is in most cases long and straight, and the horns curve out- ward, then inward and up, with the tips inclined backward. The muzzle is usu- ally black, although white is permissible. The prevailing color is red and white 432 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK in spots, not mixed, with a tendency at present toward more white. The red is bright and is frequently compared to that of the shell of the horse chestnut. The udder of the Ayrshire is somewhat characteristic, being flattened from side to side and extending far forward and backward. The teats are small and tend rather to a cylindrical than a conical form. The Ayrshire is nervous and the cows sometimes show a tendency to be quarrelsome, but the bulls are not par- ticularly vicious. In good hands, a herd of Ayrshires should average 5,500 pounds of milk a Guernseys, likewise, are most exten- sively maintained in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wisconsin, while tbe Ayrshires are mpst numerous in New York, Massa- chusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire and less frequently observed in the cen- tral states and west of the Mississippi. French Canadian — This breed, while of little importance in the United States, is mentioned in this connection on account of its evident relation and origin to other breeds from England and the Channel Islands. French Canadian cattle are the prevailing breed in nearly Eig. 279 — GUERNSEY COW DOLLY BLOOM WITH A RECORD OF 975 TOUNDS BUTTER IN ONE YEAR head annually. In some noted herds, the average yield has reached nearly 7,000 pounds and many cows have given from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds a year. The milk fat averages about 4 per cent, and the amount of butter in good herds should run from 300 to 320 pounds each a year. The milk of the Ayrshire is not especially rich in fat, but is above the average for all dairy cows. With regard to the distribution of the breeds thus far considered, Jerseys are found in all parts of the United States, but are kept most numerously in the eastern and middle states and less ex- tensively in the West and South. The all of the counties of Quebec, where they have been bred in a pure form for more than 250 years. In this country few of them are found outside of New York and New England states bordering on Canada. The breed is noted for its vigor and ability to withstand severe climates. They are light and active and therefore adapted to rough, hilly pas- tures. The average weight of the cow is about 700 pounds, and when well fed she should yield from 5,000 to 6,000 pounds of milk a year. The milk car- ries a fat content of 4 to 5 per cent. Their chief weakness is their small size and slowness of maturing. DAIRY CATTLE m The head is short, the horns turned inward somewhat and a little upward The loins are broad, the legs short and fine. The color of the cows is usually black, black with a yellow stripe on the back and around the muzzle, or brown with black points; while the males are almost uniformly black, or occasionally with yellow stripes. Holstein — The black and white cattle of Holland, or the Holsteins, are one of the very oldest of dairy breeds. Ac- cording- to some of the champions of the Holsteins, this breed can be traced no large well-known importations took place until about 1S50. The character- istics of the Holsteins are the large size and the contrasting colors, jet black and pure white. The weight of Holstein cows ranges from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, and the bulls often weigh 2,500. The black predomi- nates in some animals and white in others. The color of the animal, as a whole, may therefore be either white spots on a black background or black spots on a white background. In Amer- ica, breeders show a tendency to favor Fig. 2S0 — A PROUD AYRSHIRE BULL back for 2,000 years in the territory where it originated. Holland has long been noted for its dairy industry, and the Holsteins and Dutch Belted are its two famous dairy breeds. Holsteins have also been referred to as Holland cattle, North Hollanders, Dutch cattle, Dutch Friesians, Holstein Friesians and by other names. The large frame, rela- tively heavy bone, silken coat, remark- able docility and enormous milk yield of the Holsteins are commonly referred to as due in part to their origin in the fertile plains of Holland. It appears that the early Dutch settlers in America brought their cattle with them, but black rather than white. The arrange- ment of the spots varies in different animals, but the black and white are never mixed. As just indicated, the Holsteins are the largest of all dairy cattle. The neck is long and slender, the back line level, the hips broad and legs relatively long. The udder is large and frequently of phenomenal size, with prominent milk veins and cone shape teats. Both cows and bulls are exceptionally gentle and docile. This breed shows great constitutional vigor. The calves are large at birth and grow rapidly, maturing at an early age. Holsteins 434 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK can utilize profitably more feed than any- other breed o± dairy cows, and the milk yield corresponds to the abundance and quality of the feed. There are authen- tic instances of cows yielding 100 pounds of milk or more a day and a yield of 5 to 7 gallons a day is regarded as an average performance, the average annual yield being from 7,500 to 8,000 pounds In a few instances, cows have given from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds in a year. The milk does not average as high in butter fat as that of most other breeds, but with exceptional cows the fat content is high. In point of numbers, the Holsteins are second only to the of pure white encircling the central part of the body. This belt varies in width, but seldom reaches the shoulder blade or hip. According to modern standards, no white is permitted except in the belt. In size, Dutch Belted cattle are about equal to the Ayrshires; occasionally in- dividual animals are slightly larger. In Holland, a deliberate attempt has been made to keep this breed almost entirely under the control of the nobility. Partly for this reason the breed is not numer- ous, either in Europe or America. It was first introduced into New York about 1838, but may possibly have been brought over by settlers somewhat ear- Fig. 281 FINE TYPE OF AYRSHIRE COW (Courtesy of C M. Wiuslow) Jerseys in the United States and are kept in every state and territory in the Union. They are most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wiscon- sin, Illinois and Iowa, about in the order named. Dutch Belted_The Holsteins and Dutch Belted, as already indicated, both come from Holland and probably have a common origin, the colors being sharply contrasted black an white in both breeds. While, however, the black and white are irregularly arranged in patches on the Holsteins, these colors are placed with great regularity on the Dutch Belted cattle. The animals of this breed are jet black with a broad belt Her. At present, there are not more than a few hundred registered Dutch Belted cattle in the United States, but these are distributed in at least 26 states, being most numerous in New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Ohio. The average weight of cows is from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds, and bulls weigh about 1,800. The milk production of Dutch Belted is nearly equal to that of Holsteins and the quality is about the same. They are good feeders, maturing at a fairly early age, but are probably not quite so vigorous as Holsteins. Kerry cattle — The Kerry cattle orig- inated in Ireland, where they have been bred for centuries, but without much DAIRY CATTLE 435 improvement until lately. From Ire- land they have been exported to various parts of England, Canada and the United States. The Dexter cattle orig- inated from crossing the Kerry and Dev- on, and they are somewhat larger than the Kerry breed. Kerry cattle are the smallest of our dairy cows, averaging from 600 to TOO pounds in weight, and have not been widely tested in this coun- try. They yield a moderate amount of milk and are capable of thriving under very adverse conditions. The fat content of the milk is relatively high. The breed is slow in maturing, but the cows are 8,000 pounds of milk annually, and the fat content is satisfactory. Only a few of this breed have been imported into the United States. Normandies — A few representatives of this breed have been imported from France. The animals are rather large, cows weighing up to 1,500 pounds, and bulls 2,200. The color is brindle, with spots of red, reddish brown or a very dark brown. The milk yield ranges from 4,000 to 7,000 pounds annually and the breed is considered good for beef as well as dairy purposes. The above list, in connection with the Fig 282 — A GROUP OF" AYRSHIRES (Courtesy of C. M. Winslow) excellent grazers and ratten readily. They are vigorous, but their chief defect is small size. As described by Shaw the color is black, with a streak of white along the back and under the belly, and sometimes an admixture of brown. Simmenthalers — These cattle come from the canton of Berne in Switzer- land, and are an old breed. The cows average about 1,400 pounds in weight, while the bulls weigh from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds. The color is a creamy white, or white with large irregular patches of light yellow or cream color. This breed is gentle, easily managed and much used in Switzerland for draft pur- poses. The cows yield from 6,000 to breeds mentioned under beef cattle, con- stitutes the most important types of dairy cows in the United States. Among the numerous other breeds which have been developed in various parts of Eu- rope, a few representatives are occasion- ally imported into this country, but they are not of enough importance to merit consideration in this connection. FEEDING DAIRY COWS "While there are numerous details which must be learned in connection with successful dairying, the problem of feeding is by far the most important and may well be considered first. The FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK questions which arise regarding the de- tails of feeding apply equally to all breeds and no distinction is therefore made in this regard in the following account. For the production of milk in large quantities, it is necessary to feed liberal amounts of grain and attention is, therefore, first given to the discussion of the relative value of grains for dairy cows. The best results cannot be secured in dairying without feeding grain. Even when the pastures are in the best condi- tion and when soiling crops are fed in large quantities, the addition of a lib- Bran — Wheat is seldom fed to dairy cows without grinding, but in the form of bran it is generally utilized as the basis of a dairy ration and is an excel- lent feeding stuff, although it contains less protein than cottonseed meal. Soule has urged that since wheat bran costs nearly the same as cottonseed meal in the South, it may be relatively too ex- pensive in many localities of that sec- tion. In Canada, ground wheat has proved a wholesome and effective dairy feed, but not equal to mixed meal. In Vermont, bran was found about equal to buckwheat middlings, barley meai, Fig. 283 THE WELL-FORMED HOLSTEIN BULL, MERCEDES JULIP'S PIETERTJe's PAUL (Courtesy of Horace L. Bronson's Star Farm) eral grain ration increases the milk yield. If cows are on good pasture, the effect of grain may not be apparent at once, but as the pasture becomes short or dry, the grain ration may be grad- ually increased and will have uniformly beneficial effects in cows which have al- ready become accustomed to grain feeds. In order to secure the largest milk yield, cows should be stimulated to the best possible flow of milk during the early stages of lactation and this flow can be maintained by judicious feeding of grains. In the following paragraphs, notes are given on the value of the com- mon grain feeds used for dairy cows. corn meal or cottonseed meal and in Colorado this feed gave greater yields of milk than other grain feeds. In Iowa, the milk yield was always increased by feeding bran to cows on pasture, and in Maine, wheat meal proved somewhat su- perior to corn meal. In Massachusetts, bran was less effective, in some in- stances, when added to a silage ration. In Minnesota, ground wheat appeared to be equal to ground barley or corn meal. Wheat middlings and bran, mixed half and half, were found more effective than bran alone in tests at the North Carolina experiment station. Roller bran proved equal to corn meal and DAIRY CATTLE 437 nearly equal to linseed meal in Wiscon- sin and was a more economical feed than either. In Denmark, tests of wheat bran for dairy cows snowed it to be su- perior to mixed barley and oats. A comparison of bran and cottonseed meal was made by Michaels, in South Carolina, 1 pound of cottonseed meai being substituted for 2 pounds of bran in the daily ration. The substitution slightly increased the production of but- ter and effected a small saving in the cost of the ration. The fertilizer value of the manure was somewhat higher when cottonseed meal was used. Otis an effective and desirable dairy feed. In Minnesota, ground barley proved equal to ground wheat or corn meal. The Maine experiment station noted the fact that barley as well as peas made a rather soft butter. In New York, it has been found that either malt sprouts or brewers' grains may be substituted for oats or peas for milch cows. A test in Wisconsin showed that malt sprouts were slightly inferior to cottonseed meal or corn meal. Much attention has been given in Massachu- setts to the feeding value of malt sprouts for cows. This product may be fed in Fig. 284 COLANTHA 4th's JOHANNA, THE HOLSTEIN COW WITH A RECORD OF 110.833 POUNDS OF BUTTER-FAT, OR AN EQUIVALENT OF 129.3 POUNDS COM- MERCIAL BUTTER IN 30 DAYS (Courtesy W. J. Gillett of Wisconsin) suggests that when corn is high, ground wheat may be used as a feed for dairy cows. This investigator fed ground wheat in the place of corn and bran and obtained good results. When the amount of nutriment in bran is considered, it is often cheaper than corn and in some cases may be fed as the exclusive grain ration. It is usually best, however, to mix it with other grains, except when they are too high in price. Barley and its "by-products — Like wheat, barley is an economical dairy feed whenever the price which may be obtained for it is not too high. In Germany, barley meal has been found rations of 2 pounds or more to replace a slightly smaller quantity of gluten meal in the ration. Malt sprouts contain 25 per cent of protein, and are quite read ily digestible. They may constitute one- third of the grain ration and when used in that quantity are an economical dairy feed, as shown by Lindsey. Malt sprouts absorb a large quantity of water and it is recommended that they be moistened before feeding if more than 2 pounds are used. They are bulky and occasionally cows do not relish them at first. Brewers' grains are used more ex- tensively in feeding dairy cows than any other farm animal. A few objections FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK have been made against the quality of the milk from brewers' grains, but as a rule no bad results are noted. In Connecticut, brewers' grains have been fed in rations of ld 1 ^ pounds with good results, while in Massachusetts, they proved to be an excellent substitute for wheat bran. They contain about one- third more protein than wheat bran, and visually produce more live weight in the cows and a larger quantity of milk of better quality than is obtained from bran. As compared with the latter feed, brewers' grains are slightly more eco- nomical. Corn meal may be advanta- geously used as a part of the ration with brewers' grains. In the dry form, brewers' grains may be fed in rations of 2 to 5 pounds daily, large scale to milch cows in this country. In Scotland, horse beans were found to produce a good quality of butter. In Massachusetts, soy bean meal made more and richer milk, and butter of a better color and quality than cottonseed meal; although the butter from cotton- seed meal was firmer, it was inferior in texture. On account of the great im- portance of soy beans in a general sys- tem of farming in the South, they have been quite thoroughly tested for dairy purposes, and good results have been obtained from them in Kentucky and elsewhere. Buckwheat — This grain has been most extensively fed to dairy cows in New England and in the north central states. In Vermont, buckwheat middlings pro- Fig. 2S5 — the "big four" holsteins from star farm (Courtesy Horace L. Bronson) and in such rations are perfectly satis- factory in their effect on the health of the animals, and the quality and quan- tity of the milk. If brewers' grains are fed wet, the daily ration should be from 20 to 25 pounds. The wet grains con- tain from 75 to 77 per cent of water, and may usually be jfurchased at from 7 to 10 cents a bushel. In New Jersey, it has been found that 4 pounds of wet brewers' grains equal 1 pound of the dry grains. While no bad results in the quality of the milk have been noted when this material has been judiciously fed in this country, neither wet nor dried brewers' grains made good butter in certain tests which were carried out in Scotland. Beans — The common varieties of field and garden beans are rarely fed on a duced 4 per cent more milk than corn and bran, but 3 per cent less than cotton- seed or linseed meal. The quality of the milk from buckwheat was about equal to that from other feeds. Subse- quent tests confirmed these results and showed that milk from buckwheat mid- dlings contained more fat than that from any other feeds used in the com- parison. The middlings made a firmer butter than any other grain ration. Buckwheat middlings should be mixed with other feeds, since they may not be well relished alone. In New Hamp- shire, ground buckwheat has been found excellent for milk production, and in New Jersey, buckwheat bran free from hulls appeared to be about equal to buck- wheat middlings. At the Pennsylvania experiment station, buckwheat middlings DAIRY CATTLE 439 proved equal to dried brewers' grains. During the past two years, Hills, at the Vermont experiment station, has tested India wheat as a grain feed for milch cows. This is a variety of buck- wheat not much planted in the United States, and seems not to be a popular crop. In composition, India wheat is rather irregular, but its protein content is somewhat higher than whole buck- wheat or buckwheat flour. Hills con- siders that it is not well suited as a grain feed for narrowing the ration. In- shows the high efficiency and economy for which this grain is noted in feeding for other purposes. It may be fed un- husked and this is perhaps the cheapest method which the farmer can adopt. Or- dinarily, however, shock corn is put through a feed cutter before feeding to milch cows. If corn has been husked or shelled for a long time it becomes too hard and should then be ground. All dairy cows greatly relish corn meal and on this account it is sometimes fed to, excess. It should preferably be mixed "Fig. 286 PRIZE-WINNING DUTCH BELTED BULL dia wheat is freely eaten in rations of 2 or 3 pounds a day, and produces no bad effects. The meal from India wheat does not keep well, apparently on ac- count of its high moisture content. It seems to be a good substitute for wheat bran, cottonseed meal or linseed meal, pound for pound, when fed in rations of less than 3 pounds a day. In the ex- periments carried on by Hills, India wheat appeared to have more effective- ness in milk production than would be expected from its chemical composition. Corn — I n the production of milk, corn with bran, shorts, linseed meal or cot- tonseed meal for dairy cows. In recent experiments by Otis, it ap- peared that when corn is worth 10 cents a 100 pounds for milk production, barley is worth 11 cents, broom corn seed 9 cents, cowpeas 23 cents, lin- seed meal 37 cents and cottonseed meal 47 cents.' It has already been stated that_ corn should not be fed as the only grain to milch cows. In Maryland, Patterson found that the profits were in favor of feeding a balanced ration of mixed 440 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK grains rather than corn meal alone. The cows remained more healthy, in better breeding form and in better condition for the succeeding year when the corn ration was balanced with other grains. Although the small farmer may not al- ways have suitable grams for balancing the ration, the dairyman will find it uniformly profitable to do so. In many experiments corn meal has proved su- perior to whole corn. In one instance, corn meal gave 9 per cent more milk than whole corn, and it was observed A great variety of milling feeds and by-products are obtained from corn and all of them have been used in dairy ra- tions with good results. In Pennsyl- vania cerealine was found ■ equal to dried brewers' grains or buckwheat mid- dlings. Gluten meal has everywhere proved to be a valuable dairy feed. It yielded excellent results in Vermont, and various other states, as well as in Europe. Atlas gluten meal was found to make more milk and sustain the weight of cows better than a mixture of Fig. 287 — CHAMPION DUTCH BELTED AT NEW YORK STATE FAIR that 57 per cent of corn fed in the ear passed through the intestines undigested. Corn meal is not always satisfactory when fed with dry hay, but no objection can be raised on this score if silage is added to the ration. According to a number of German experiments, corn proved more effective for milk production than wheat bran or cottonseed meal, and in Denmark, corn was found nearly equal to a mix- ture of barley, oats and corn. These experiments, however, are not in har- mony with the usual results obtained by American dairymen. corn meal and bran. The butter from gluten meal may be slightly inferior to that obtained from corn meal, bran, cot- tonseed meal or linseed meal, but fre- quently the butter from gluten meal tests high. In Maine, it was found that gluten meal could be substituted for cot- tonseed meal, but that it must be used in slightly larger quantities. In this test also the butter was somewhat soft- ened by the gluten meal. Germ feed has been found in Ver- mont to have the same feeding value as a mixture of corn meal and bran, while sugar meal and cream gluten meal DAIRY CATTLE 441 proved more nutritious than this mix- ture and increased the fat content of the milk. Chicago maize feed also proved superior and corn germ feed about equal to the mixture. Atlantic gluten flour when fed in large quantities has little effect on the quantity or quality of the milk. Sugar meal will produce about 8 per cent more milk and 27 per cent more butter than corn and cob meal. As already indicated it has been found in Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, and elsewhere, that all gluten feeds which contain a large per- centage of oil have a tendency to soften the butter. Hominy feed has been thoroughly tested by Hills in Vermont. It appears that when 2 to 3 pounds of this feed are substituted for an equal weight of bran in an 8-pound ration, the amount of milk is increased 4 per cent, and the amount of butter 1 per cent. As compared with cottonseed meal, hominy feed produced more milk, but of a poorer quality. In fact, the quality of the milk was so badbj affected as to cause an unusual drop in the fat content. Cottonseed meal — This is an excellent dairy feed' and may be fed everywhere with fine results, if proper precautions are exercised. Otis and others have Fig. 288 — A PRIZE-WINNING KERRY COW In Kentucky, May found that gluten meal gave better results with corn and cob meal than with ground corn. The amount of milk obtained was somewhat greater when gluten meal was substi- tuted for bran with a ration containing liberal quantities of corn and cob meal. Germ meal frequently shows a fatten- ing tendency. When mixed with bran, germ meal has proved somewhat su- perior to a ration of gluten meal and corn meal. In New York, wet acid corn slump, dry slump and dry slump acidi- fied with acetic acid have been fed to cows without any harm to their health or to the quality of the milk. The dis- tillery products of corn, however, must be fed with some caution. called attention to the desirability of be- ginning gradually, perhaps with not more than *4 to % pound daily; the ration may be increased until a maxi- mum of 3 to 5 pounds is reached. In the southern states, where the cottonseed meal is fed most extensively, this ma- terial may be mixed with soy bean meal, in proportions so as to regulate the firm- ness of the butter, at will. Cottonseed meal always hardens the butter, as well as other animal fats, while soy bean meal has a softening tendency. It is a simple matter, therefore, to mix these materials so as to obtain butter of the requisite firmness. Compared with bran — In a recent test in Kentucky, cottonseed meal fed 442 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK to cows on pasture gave a larger milk yield than bran. It was found desirable to feed it in rations of 1 to 2 pounds while the cows were on pasture. Moore has also compared cottonseed meal with bran in Mississippi. In these tests, the cottonseed meal proved quite superior. The most effective ration was one con- taining 6 pounds of cottonseed meal and 4 pounds of bran. This ration was mucn better than one in which the proportions were reversed or than other rations in which not more than 3 or 4 pounds of cottonseed meal were fed. Amount to feed — In general, cotton- seed meal should not be fed as the only when cottonseed meal was fed in ex- cessive rations, but the milk yield was increased. For this purpose, cottonseed meal proved superior to linseed meal in Germany. In Vermont, gluten meal was somewhat more economic than cotton- seed meal, but produced less milk. The quantity of the milk was slightly reduced in Alabama when rations of 3 to 5 pounds of cottonseed meal were fed, but the fat content of the milk was in- creased. In almost all experiments with cot- tonseed meal, it has been found to in- crease the milk yield when added to a corn meal ration. In Pennsylvania, it Fig. -BROWN SWISS BULL PEDRO grain ration, and should not be used in large quantities until some preliminary experience has been had. At all of the agricultural experiment stations where cottonseed meal has been thoroughly tested, it has been found to raise the melting point of butter. This is a de- sirable point in hot climates. In Texas, however, it was found that cottonseed meal made a salvy and light-colored but- ter, while in Iowa the butter from cot- tonseed meal scored as high as that from corn meal and no bad effects were ob- served from rations of from 2 to G pounds a day. In Michigan and New Hampshire, the butter was badly affected made more milk than bran, but the but- ter from bran scored higher. In a test in Mississippi, 1 pound of cottonseed meal proved equal to 3 pounds of corn and cob meal for milk production, and cottonseed was found to be more econom- ical than cottonseed meal. The but- ter is of better quality when cottonseed is steamed than when it is fed raw or roasted. A series of experiments in Texas to determine the proper size of the ration of cottonseed meal showed that it is better economy to feed 6 pounds daily than 7, 8 or 10 pounds. Tn some localities in the northern states, cottonseed meal, while a very valuable DAIRY CATTLE 443 dairy feed, is too expensive to compete with native grains. Occasionally cotton- seed has been used as the whole ration for cows. Thus, in Tennessee, a ra- tion of 5 to 8 pounds cottonseed meal and 25 to 35 pounds cottonseed hulls produced no harmful effect on the milk or butter. According to Texas experi- ments, the hulls are considered the best form of roughage to feed with cotton- seed meal. Soule found that cottonseed meal is preferable to gluten meal for the reason that it gives equal results in milk pro- duction and a greater fertilizer value in the manure. The cottonseed meal corn- According to experiments by Duggar in Alabama, when cottonseed is $8 a ton, and cottonseed meal $20, butter is pro- duced at a smaller cost on raw cotton- seed. Cows do not greatly relish cotton- seed, however, and eat a somewhat smaller ration. The average amount of milk obtained in these experiments was 11V2 pounds daily from cottonseed, and 24.3 pounds from cottonseed meal. Nev- ertheless, the low cost of cottonseed made it rather more economical. In one case butter was produced at a cost of 6.4 cents a pound on a ration of cottonseed. Distillers' dried grains — I n Vermont, Fig. 290 — BROWN SWISS cow and her twin calves monly offered on the market is some- times adulterated and for this reason dairymen should insist upon a guar- anty of from 42 to 46 per cent protein. Lane found that 4^2 pounds of cotton- seed meal can be fed daily to cows with profit, providing it is thoroughly mixed with corn silage. It is believed that the injurious effects sometimes re- ported from the use of cottonseed meal may be due to feeding it by itself with- out mixing with other feeding stuffs. Of two rations tested in New Jersey, one supplying protein in the form of cottonseed meal produced milk for 12 cents less a hundred pounds, and butter for 3.3 cents a pound less than wheat bran or dried brewers' grains. Hills fed cows on a ration of 7 pounds of distillers' dried grains for a period of 175 days, as compared with an 8- pound ration of which two-thirds was dis- tillers' dried grains and one-third bran. No change in the quality of the milk en- sued as a result of feeding the grains, but they were not eaten quite so freely as an exclusive ration as when mixed with bran. Slightly more milk and but- ter was made from dried grains than from the mixture of bran and dried grains. The profit obtained from the mixture, however, was % of a cent a day greater. The results on the whole indicate that it is not desirable to feed distillers' dried grains as the exclusive ration for milch cows. 444 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In Massachusetts, Lindsey fed dis- tillers' dried grains from alcohol and spirit, Bourbon whiskey and rye whis- key. Distillers' dried grains containing 32 per cent of protein were found to have a high digestibility and were very economic feeds. They proved equal or slightly superior to gluten feed and were without bad effect on the health of the cows. The bulky nature of these grains is considered somewhat in their favor. The flavor and keeping quality of the milk was in no way affected when dis- tillers' dried grains constituted one-half of the grain ration. A suitable ration of this material is from 2 to 4 pounds more costly than the cottonseed meal. If the milk is sold on the basis of its fat content, the higher cost of the dis- tillers' grains may be in part compen- sated by the increase in the amount of fat. The butter produced from distil- lers' grains did not score quite as high as that from cottonseed meal. Kafir corn—Otis fed kafir corn in comparison with corn at the Kansas experiment station and obtained about equal results from both feeds. In point of yield, kafir corn had a slight advan- tage, the average yield per acre being 46 bushels as compared with 34.5 bush- els of corn. Some complaints have been Fig. 291 — PRIZE-WINNING DEVON COW WOODLAND mixed with other grains, such as flour middlings, corn, hominy meal, cotton- seed meal or bran. A comparison of these different forms of distillers' dried grains in Vermont indicated that rye grains make less but- ter and milk than alcohol grains. This result was expected from the fact that a chemical analysis shows them to con- tain less protein. Armsby substituted 5% pounds of dis- tillers' dried grains for 3 pounds of cot- tonseed meal and 2 1 /2 pounds of corn meal with the result that a slight in- crease in the milk yield was noted and a marked increase in the fat content. The distillers' grains, however, were made of poor flavor in butter from kafir corn, but Otis noticed no such effect in his experiments. At one time the herd was fed almost exclusively on kafir corn meal and the butter thus obtained was pronounced of excellenc quality by competent judges. In exceed- ingly dry seasons, some dust may be car- ried by kafir corn and may get into the milk if special care is not exercised. Linseed meal — The importance of this feed for milch cows is apparent from its high protein content and its laxative and regulative action upon the bowels. In Colorado, linseed meal produced a higher percentage of milk fat than any other grain compared with it, and in Iowa it DAIRY CATTLE 445 was found that either linseed meal of ground flaxseed could be safely fed in rations of 8 pounds a day. In Kentucky, it has been observed that when linseed meal is added to the ration, the coat of the cows is sleek and the animals appear thrifty. At ordi- nary prices it is not believed that more than 5 pounds can be fed daily with profit, and as a rule 1 to 2 pounds is more economic. When 1 pound of lin- seed meal is added to a ration of 6 to 8 pounds of corn and bran a consider- able increase is noted in the amount of milk and a slight increase in the fat percentage. Linseed meal may likewise be profitably fed to cows on pasture. As compared with an exclusive corn meal ration, the addition of linseed meal and bran will always increase the yield of milk and butter. The old and new process linseed meal are of about equal value. In Michigan, no specific effect of linseed meal was noted in the butter. In Pennsylvania, it proved equal to cot- tonseed meal, and in Wisconsin, slightly superior for producing milk when com- pared with either wheat bran or corn meal, and a rather better quality of butter was obtained. According to Ger- man experience, flaxseed may disturb the digestion unless fed in small quan- tities. Nutrene— This feed, acording to Hilla, contains molasses absorbed by oat clip- pings, together with cottonseed hulls, corn and a little cottonseed meal. Some of the cows to which Hills fed nutrene showed considerable aversion to it and only one ate a full ration of 8 pounds a day. The market price of nutrene during this experiment was $23, and the results from it indicate, that it was not a profitable feed at that price. Oats — This grain is quite extensively fed to milch cows. In Vermont, an oat feed was found equal to a mixture of bran and corn meal in equal parts. Quaker oat feed made 2 or 3 per cent less milk than a mixture of corn meal and bran, but the quality of the milk was the same. At the Maine experiment station, oats were found equal to wheat bran for milk production, while in Wis- consin, they proved rather more effective, but also more expensive. In Scotland, oats are considered as producing an ex- cellent quality of butter. ^ Ordinarily, this grain is too high in price to be used as an economic dairy feed. Peas — I n Scotland, peas are much prized as a dairy feed, but are not as much used for milch cows in this coun- try as in fattening rations for steers, sheep and hogs. Rye meal — This grain was tested at the Pennsylvania experiment station in a well-balanced ration. It checked the flow of milk slightly and proved to be inferior to corn meal. It is not much used as a feed for milch cows. Sorghum meal — I n experiments in New Jersey, this meal, when free from hulls, had no bad effect on the health of the cows and did not unfavorably influence the taste, color or composition of the milk. It produced 7 per cent less milk than corn meal compared with it under similar conditions. Spelt—Wilson, in South Dakota, has found that it required 2 pounds more of spelt to produce a pound of butter fat than when barley or corn is fed under the same conditions. The weight of the cows, however, increased some- what more on a spelt ration than on a corn ration. LARGE VS SMALL GRAIN RATION'S It is a matter of great importance to determine the relative economy in grain rations of different size. The ability of different cows to make a profit- able use of grain varies greatly, and the grain rations as actually fed by different dairymen vary from 2 to 12 pounds a day. It should be understood, however, that only the best dairy cows can utilize the large grain rations. It may be laid down as a general principle that the more grain the cow can utilize properly, the greater profit she yields to the dairy- man. The actual size of the profitable ration, however, must be determined by careful observation of each individual cow. This is a matter which depends entirely on the skill of the feeder. At the Vermont experiment station, a few cows on rations of 6 torl4 pounds a day of mixed meal, showed an increase in the quantity and fat content of the milk. The milk sugar was especially increased. Other cows, however, got off feed or showed no change. In these experiments, cows gave one-third more milk and butter fat on full grain ra- tions than without grain, and, as a rule, better results were obtained from heavy than from light grain feeds. Only good 446 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK cows, however, were able to make profit- able use of more than 8 pounds of grain a day. Similarly in Utah and Wiscon- sin, it has been found that it does not pay to feed more than 8 pounds of grain daily and that a ration of 12 pounds may be fed at a loss, and, in some in- stances, with bad effects on the animal. Experiments in New York, Kansas, Mis- sissippi and North Dakota show that the immediate effect of feeding grain to cows while on pasture may not be apparent, but that the weight of the cews is better maintained than without grain and tbat beneficial results are seen in the flow of milk late in the season, or even during the succeeding season. At the New Jersey experiment station, 10 pounds a day appeared to be the largest possible grain ration; while in Utah, S pounds was set down as the outside limit, and feeds of more than 6 pounds increased the cost of the milk. Hills, in Vermont, has given much attention to the question regarding the size of the grain ration. It appears from his experiments that the more grain fed, the more milk and total solids ob- tained, and the more fat in the milk. When very low grain rations were used, as, for example, 2 pounds or under, the quality of the milk was lowered. Hills finds that a pound of dry matter makes rather more milk in a low than in a me- dium ration, but when 2 pounds of grain were fed instead of 4 pounds, $13.32 were saved on grain bills and $3.74 lost in butter; when, however, 2 pounds of grain instead of 8 were fed, $8.40 were saved on grain bills and $6.42 lost in butter. The 4-pound ration, therefore, paid better than the 2-pound ration, both from the standpoint of butter produc- tion, skimmed mill? and fertilizer value of the manure; and since the 8-pound ration came within $2 of meeting the extra grain bills by the extra butter yield, and the fertilizer value of the manure exceeded that of the low ration by nearly $5, the heavy grain ration may be considered as justified. It is believed, however, that when abundant coarse forage is produced on the farm, early cut hay, containing clover, and corn silage may be fed in such liberal quantities that the extra milk and fer- tilizer value obtained by feeding 8 pounds of corn instead of 4 may often be insufficient to pay for the extra cost of the grain. It is obvious from this discussion that the feeder must take ail factors of the problem into consideration in determining upon the size of the ration for his cows. In careful tests carried on by Hills, it appeared that when 2 pounds of grain were added to a ration of hay, silage and 2 pounds of grain, thus making 4 pounds in all, 9 per cent more milk was produced and the fat content of the milk was somewhat increased. When some grain was dropped from an already low grain ration, the amount of milk was diminished, but the dry matter in the feed produced almost as much milk, pound for pound. The results of the experiments carried out in Vermont, were not always in harmony, depending greatly on the cost of the grain feeds. At times the experiments were in favor of a restricted grain ration, especially when grains were high and coarse fod- ders relatively cheap. The economy of milk production may be somewhat im- proved by restricting the grain ration in cases where nearly all of the grain has to be purchased from feed dealers. On the other hand, if the ration is re- duced too low, the cows fall off in live weight and ultimately the economy of milk production is affected. KTARROW VS WIDE BATIONS As a rule, nitrogenous grains are more effective in milk production than corn. Some of the feeding standards, how- ever, as adopted by Germans for dairy cows, contain too much protein to be economical. The ordinary American ra- tions are more economical, but some of them are somewhat too narrow, espe- cially when it is considered that in many sections corn and other carbo- naceous feeds may be produced very cheaply. As a rule, narrow rations are recommended for milch cows. Narrow rations have been found supe- rior to wide rations in experiments iu Maine, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Texas and elsewhere. In Vermont, no striking differences were noted between the effects of wide and narrow rations, while in New Jersey butter and milk were produced more economically on well balanced than on irregular rations, either too wide or too narrow. Storrs experiment station investigated the ra- tions in use among dairymen in Con- necticut and found that the amount of protein could be profitably increased in DAIRY CATTLE 447 almost every case. At Cornell univer- sity, it appeared that a medium ration gave a better yield of milk than a nar- row or wide ration. As the result of a continued study of narrow and wide rations at Storrs experiment station, it was found impossible to assume that the cost of a quart of milk was much influ- enced by changes in rations suggested by the experiment station authorities, which in all cases contained more pro- tein than was being fed by the dairy- men. The net cost of a quart of milk was less with the recommended than with the original rations fed by the dairymen, if account be taken of the increased value of the manure obtained from a narrow ration. It is believed, therefore, that rations containing more protein than those ordinarily fed to dairy cows, are the more economical of the two, but that, in this statement of relative econ- omy, more emphasis should be laid on the additional value of the manure ob- tained from the more nitrogenous ra- tions. ROOTS AND FRUIT FOR MILCH COWS In order to produce large quantities of milk in an economical way, it is necessary to add considerable succulence to the rations for dairy cows. This may be accomplished by the use of roots, windfall fruit, soiling crops, silage or pasture. Apples — This fruit, especially wind- falls or diseased specimens are often fed to dairy cows, but like other fresh fruit, they have but little feeding value. Their chief value is in adding palatabil- ity and succulence to the ration as a whole. In Canada, apples appeared to be inferior to apple pomace for main- taining the milk flow, and in some cases apples appeared to lend an undesirable flavor to the milk. The most extensive study of apple pomace for cows has been made by Hills in Vermont. In a series of tests ex- tending over four years, it appears that apple pomace is about equal to corn silage as a feed for dairy cows, when used in rations of about 15 pounds a day. Even when rations of 24 to 35 pounds a day were fed, no bad results were produced, either in the cows or in the milk, and the pomace appeared to be an economical feed in rations of that size. No special care is necessary in feeding apple pomace in rations of mod- erate size. Hills considers that pomace at $1 a ton is a bargain and that it still remains equal to corn ensilage when the price is considerably higher. Hills, therefore, recommends its use among dairymen, but suggests that cows should gradually be made accustomed to it. In a number of tests, apple pomace silage made more milk and butter than imma- ture corn silage, and the butter was not unfavorably affected. Artichokes—In a test at the Vermont experiment station, these roots showed a feeding value about equal to corn si- lage. Artichokes are more generally fed to swine than to cows, for the reason that swine are able to harvest them without any expense. Beets — Field beets or garden beets, in experiments in Ohio, made more milk than corn silage, but did not sustain the weight of the cows so well. In other tests, also, beets seemed to be slightly superior to silage. They tended to in- crease the consumption of other feeds, which may be interpreted as meaning simply an improvement of the appetite. As the result of all experiments with field beets, it is concluded that they are about equal to corn silage for milk pro- duction, but somewhat more expensive to raise. Cabbage — This vegetable is sometimes fed to cows. It was greedily eaten by cows in a test made in Iowa, and in- creased the yield of milk and butter. The quality of the butter from cabbage, however, was somewhat inferior and the butter did not keep well. Carrots — These roots are fed to all kinds of farm animals as an appetizer and to add succulence to the ration. When xised in Massachusetts to replace a portion of the hay ration, they in- creased the milk yield more than corn silage did under similar conditions. Mangel-wurzel—This root has been found equal to sugar beets as a milk producer in Canadian experiments. In Iowa, more milk was obtained from mangel-wurzels than from sugar beets, red table beets or turnips. The fat per- centage of the milk, however, was lower than from turnips. In Massachusetts, mangel-wurzels proved inferior to corn silage for milk production, while in Michigan they seemed to lessen some- what the digestibility of other parts of the ration. 448 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Potatoes — During quite extensive ex- periments in Vermont, Hills found that potatoes were eaten more freely than silage, but were somewhat inferior in effectiveness. Butter from a potato ration was salvy and of poor keeping quality. It was shown that potatoes at a price higher than 15 cents a bushel are a more expensive feed than silage. At present prices, therefore, they can scarcely be considered an economic dairy feed. In Iowa, it was found that high-grade butter could not be made from cows which received more than 10 pounds of raw potatoes daily. The butter from potatoes was colorless and lacked keep- ing qualities. In Michigan, potatoes lessened the digestibility of other parts of the ration, but produced no apparent effect on the milk or butter. According to French experience, dairy cows may be fed an exclusive ration of potatoes with increase in milk flow, but loss in weight. Pumpkins — Hills has thoroughly tested the feeding value of pumpkins for milch cows. For two years experiments were carried on, during which it ap- peared that pumpkins may be given in rations of about 40 pounds daily with good results. Six per cent more milk and more solids and fat in the milk were made when pumpkins were fed than when they were omitted from the ration, and since there was 5 per cent less dry matter fed, the value of the pumpkins was somewhat higher than just indicated. In one set of experiments, 2 1 /2 pounds of pumpkins were found equal in feed- ing value to 1 pound of silage. In the second test, 3,300 pounds of pumpkins with 700 pounds of silage took the place of 500 pounds of hay and 900 pounds of apple pomace. It is estimated that the actual feeding value of pumpkins is about $2 a ton, and it appears doubtful whether as much or as cheap dry matter can be produced in pumpkins as in corn fodder. The quality of the milk was not affected by pumpkins, and the cows were not injured in any way. According to German experience, pumpkins produce less milk, but rather more butter, than mangel- wurzels. Sugar beets — This is the most impor- tant root fed to dairy cows and recently has taken a larger place in dairy rations than ever before. Sugar beets may be fed sliced to cows, if the price is low, or if sugar beet factories are not con- venient, but where more money can be obtained for the beets from factories than in the form of milk, it is best to sell the beets and feed sugar beet pulp. Cossettes, molasses and sugar have also been fed to cows with favorable results. Perhaps the most extended account of the use of sugar beets for cattle feeding has been furnished by L. S. Ware. Ac- cording to Ware, sugar beet pulp or cos- settes may be fed in rations of 20 to 80 pounds, either fresh or ensiled, with a suitable quantity of grain and hay, say 6 pounds each a day. The pulp and cossettes differ in composition from the whole sugar beets in containing almost no sugar, but relatively larger quantities of other nutrients. In many cases, a ration has been used containing a small quantity of sugar beets and a much larger quantity of pulp in addition to hay and grain. In Canada, sugar beets proved equal to mangels as milk producers, but in Iowa they were found to be somewhat inferior. It appeared that the highest grade of butter could not be made from cows eating more than 20 pounds of sugar beets a day. The butter was of standard color, however, and kept well. Experiments in Massachusetts indi- cate that sugar beets used to replace a part of the hay ration may be expected to increase the milk flow rather more than corn silage. In Oregon, sugar beets proved equal to carrots and supe- rior to mangels in the flavor imparted to the butter. At Cornell university, sugar beet pulp was fed in rations of 50 to 100 pounds a day, and it was found that partly dried pulp was about equal in feeding value to corn silage. As it comes from the factory, however, this pulp is not worth more than half as much as silage. In Colorado, Buffum fed cows 24 pounds of sugar beet pulp a day for six weeks in addition to hay and grain and produced an average gain of weight of 6 pounds a week, while the weekly milk yield was 131 pounds on pulp and 127 pounds on sugar beets. The weekly butter production a cow was 6.7 pounds on beet pulp and 6.9 pounds on sugar beets. The milk contained a little more fat when the cows were fed sugar beets. At the ordinary price for beet pulp and sugar beets, more than three times as much profit was obtained from feeding 24 pounds of pulp a day, as from 12 pounds of sugar beets. In these experiments the feeding value of pulp for butter production was $2.60 a ton and that of sugar beets $5.06. DAIRY CATTLE 449 Smith, in Michigan, reports that cows eat beet pulp readily to the extent of 50 to 100 pounds a day and make a profitable yield of milk from it. Dried pulp — According to the expe- rience of Billings, in New Jersey, fresh sugar beet pulp is hard to handle in the natural state and must be used imme- diately in order to prevent its undergo- ing undesirable changes. The amount of water in fresh pulp used in these experiments was about S2 per cent. Bil- lings presents a number of arguments in favor of drying sugar beet pulp before feeding. The pulp may then be kept in- definitely without suffering harm; it is easy of shipment, one ton of dried pulp being equivalent to about 13 tons of fresh pulp and by soaking tbe dried pulp with water just before feeding, all the advantages of a succulent feed may be obtained. The dried pulp may be profit- ably fed in rations of 10 pounds and costs about $20 a ton. Dried beet pulp produced 10 per cent more milk and 9 per cent more butter than a corn silage ration, and at the same time seemed more effective in maintaining the weight of the cows. As compared with dried molasses-beet pulp, the plain dried pulp, was somewhat less effective, but more economical. In Denmark, it has been found that butter from sugar beet pulp is equal to that from mangels and that 12 pounds of pulp are equal to 1 pound of mixed barley and oats. It is evident from the numerous feeding experiments and from the experience of practical dairyman with sugar beet pulp, that this material constitutes an excellent means of adding succulence to the ration for dairy cows and may well take the place of corn silage in those western states in which corn is not extensively pro- duced. Turnips — According to Canadian ex- perience, turnips fed at the rate of ^ bushel a day, give no bad flavor to the milk, whether fed before or after milk- ing. When the daily ration is 1 bushel a day, however, a turnipy odor appears in the milk upon heating to a tempera- ture of 110° F. In such cases, the odor is more pronounced when the turnips are fed before milking, but is removed by pasteurizing the milk. Turnip tops have been fed with good results in the milk yield. In Iowa, more milk, but of an inferior quality, was obtained from turnips than from mangels, and in some experiments in Norway turnips fed even to the extent of 2V2 bushels a day gave no taint to the milk. The turnipy flavor may best be avoided by feeding the tur- nips after milking. FORAGE CROPS FOR MILCH COWS Dairy cows, like steers, can profitably utilize a large quantity of coarse mate- rial. The relative amount of succulent material in tbe ration, however, should always be considerably higher with dairy cows than with steers. The amount of grain as compared with the total amount of hay or other coarse forage and roots, silage or other green material, is, as a rule, perhaps somewhat lower in dairy feeding than in fattening steers. In the following paragraphs notes are given on the more common coarse fodders used for milch cows. Alfalfa — I n the arid regions, alfalfa is by all means the most important for- age plant for cows, serving as pasture and soiling crop, silage or hay. More- over, alfalfa is gradually gaining in favor throughout the eastern and south- ern states, where it has been cultivated in a proper manner. In some localities, the profits obtained from alfalfa in feed- ing dairy cows have exceeded that from any other crop. In Canada, it has been reported that alfalfa was eaten with more relish than green rye and gave a better flavor to the butter. Likewise in New York, alfalfa produced more milk than any other green forage, or even silage. The quality of the milk was sometimes poorer than that of milk from corn fodder or silage. In Utah, alfalfa has proved superior to mixed hay and cheaper and more effective than corn fodder. In New Jersey and vari- ous other localities, it has been shown beyond question that alfalfa hay or green alfalfa may be substituted for a part of the wheat bran, dried brewers' grains or other grains which would nat- urally be used in rations for dairy cows. When cows are allowed to eat alfalfa hay ad libitum, Otis found that each cow would consume as much as 43 pounds a day in addition to some kafir corn fodder. The results were somewhat better, however, when the alfalfa ration was reduced to 30 pounds a day. As a rule, it is a safe proposition to allow cows all the coarse forage they will eat, but with the best quality of alfalfaand clover hay they may consume relatively too much. Otis considers alfalfa at $7 450 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK a ton preferable to red clover at $6 a ton, prairie hay at $4 or millet hay at $5. Otis has pastured dairy cows on al- falfa in both the spring and fall seasons. Bloating — In the use of alfalfa pas- tures it should be remembered that this material may sometimes cause serious bloating. It is necessary, therefore, to allow the cows to become accustomed to it gradually. A form of alfalfa bit has been devised which, when placed in the cow's mouth, prevents her from eating the green alfalfa too fast and helps slightly in some instances in allowing the gases to escape. Otis failed to ob- tain entirely satisfactory results with the use of these bits, but considers them as a slight help. Cows on alfalfa pas- ture maintained a large milk flow and kept their weight well. In some cases they become so fond of the alfalfa as to need but little grain, or even to refuse the grain. The danger of bloating, how- even, on alfalfa pasture should be borne in mind, unless considerable experience has been had with this crop. For silage — Otis also experimented with alfalfa for silage, the first crop being used for this purpose. The chief reason for ensiling the first crop is that at this time of year the weather is less favorable for making a good quality of hay. The alfalfa silage appeared not to be as sour as corn silage and showed a tendency to dry on exposure rather than spoil. Otis reports very good results from his use of the silage and considers it as a suitable substitute for roots. Alfalfa hay is considered by Otis an indispensable factor in dairying. It con- tains about 11 pounds of digestible pro- tein for every 100 pounds of hay and may, therefore, be substituted to some extent for the grain ration. Economy of feeding is greatly improved by the use of liberal quantities of alfalfa hay. Likewise in Maryland, Doane found that alfalfa was superior to silage as a food for dairy cows. It is evident from these experiments that wherever alfalfa can be successfully raised, it constitutes a very effective ration for the dairy herd, being considerably better than any that can be purchased. The protein in al- falfa, however, is not quite as readily digested as that from grain, and, there- fore, the indicated value of commercial alfalfa meal, which is now offered on the market, must be slightly discounted for practical purposes. A comparison of alfalfa hay with wild hay, in Nebraska, showed that the al- falfa hay is more effective in the pro- duction of milk, and butter than wild hay and has a slightly greater power in maintaining the weight of the cows. In the experiments of Lyon and Haecker, in Nebraska, it appeared that alfalfa furnished less pasturage than many of the annual forage crops, but influenced the milk flow more favorably than any other crop, except cowpeas. The average daily production of milk and butter fat was greater when alfalfa was pastured than when it was fed as a soiling crop, but the relative economy from feeding the plant in these two forms will depend largely on the price of labor and land. Alfalfa has been thoroughly tested in New Jersey by Lang and Billings in various amounts, depending on the other materials fed at the same time. With an average yield of 4.78 tons to the acre of dry forage, valued at $14 a ton, the receipts from an acre would amount to $66.92, and the total cost of raising and harvesting this crop was about $28 an acre. With milk at the market price of $1 a hundred pounds, the alfalfa from one acre produced $117.20 worth of milk, which indicates a gain over the cost of production of 314 per cent. Alfalfa vs. grains — In a continued test of alfalfa in New Jersey, it ap- peared that a purchased ration contain- ing bran, dried brewers' grains, cotton- seed meal and corn silage produced 3.7 per cent more milk and 7.2 per cent more butter than a ration of alfalfa hay and corn silage. The home-grown al- falfa ration, however, produced a saving of 33.7 per cent in the cost of the milk, or 4.7 cents a pound in butter. In Tennessee, Soule and Barnes found that alfalfa would produce about 5 tons of hay to the acre at a cost of from $3 to $5 a ton. These investigators also found that alfalfa hay or cowpea hay could be substituted for considerable of the bran or cottonseed meal in the ration for dairy cows. In making this sub- stitution, V-/2 pounds of alfalfa were allowed for each pound of wheat bran and better residts were obtained when the alfalfa was fed in a finely chopped condition. Estimating the alfalfa hay at $10 a ton, and wheat bran at $20 a ton, the alfalfa saved $2.80 in the cost of every 100 pounds of butter and 20 cents in every 100 pounds of milk. When fed under favorable conditions, alfalfa produced a gallon of milk at a cost of 5.7 cents and a pound of butter for 10 cents. DAIRY CATTLE 451 The importance of supplying protein in home-grown crops, rather than buy- ing it, has been clearly shown by experi- ments in New Jersey in which it ap- peared that a ration containing 36 pounds of soy bean silage, 8 pounds of alfalfa hay and 6 pounds of corn meal produced more milk and at a cost of 8 l /2 cents less a 100 pounds than a ra- tion in which the protein was supplied in wheat bran, dried brewers' grains and cottonseed meal. Bermuda grass hay_This hay is fed quite extensively, especially in the southern states, and the grass is used as a pasture for dairy cows. Few feed- ing experiments have been made with it, but it appears that it is equal to tim- othy for milk production. Bronie grass_The chief advantage of this grass is that it starts early in the spring and is much relished by cows. In New Hampshire, brome grass pasture proved not quite equal to alfalfa or a mixture of blue grass and white clover. Brome grass is not raised extensively enough for the hay to become an impor- tant element of the ration for dairy cows. Clover occupies the same place in the northeastern portion of the country as does alfalfa in the West. It may be fed in the form of hay, silage, as a soiling- crop, or may be pastured. In Vermont, clover silage was found unequal to corn silage for milk production. It appeared to be superior to Hungarian grass for milk and butter production in experi- ments in Connecticut. In Iowa, red clover proved about equal to peas and oats as a soiling crop, and in Massa- chusetts rowen equaled peas and oats, but the cost of milk production on rowen was higher than on a combination of green vetch or oats or on green fodder corn. In Michigan, clover silage was well relished by cows and kept well, but apparently nothing is added to the value of clover by ensiling it, as some farmers have found that green clover, like green alfalfa, may be ensiled in outdoor stacks as well as in regular silos. In Wisconsin, a ton of clover hay was found to be equal to 3 tons of corn stalks. Ordinarily, when the term "clover" is used, reference is made to red clover. From New Jersey south- ward, however, crimson clover is an im- portant crop on stock farms and has been widely used for dairy purposes. According to Lane, in New Jersey, crim- son clover hay may be profitably sub- stituted for nitrogenous feeds. In these experiments, crimson clover hay showed a value of $16.50 a ton, when wheat bran cost $26 a ton and dried brewers' grains $20. The yield in milk from clover hay was $33.10 an acre, or 313 per cent over the cost of production. In these experiments the annual yield ranged from 1 to 3 tons to the acre. Corn. — The country over, corn fur- nishes probably the most important roughage for dairy cows and more ex- periments have been made with it than with any other crop used for this pur- pose. Like most other forms of rough- age for milch cows, corn may be fed dry in the form of corn stover or corn fod- der, ensiled, as a soiling crop, or occa- sionally green corn is pastured. Silage ordinarily means corn silage, since this is the chief crop preserved in silos. If corn is fed in the form of silage, the best results are obtained by feeding some hay with it. Conner, in South Carolina, found that corn stover had a greater feeding value than cottonseed hulls for dairy cows and produced milk at a cost of 6.8 cents a gallon. The estimated value of corn stover in these experiments was $4 a ton. According to Canadian experience, corn silage fed in quantities up to 60 pounds a day makes butter equal in quality to that from mixed, coarse fod- der. It is recommended, however, that not more than 50 pounds of silage be fed daily. A larger percentage of fat was obtained in milk from cows on Robert- son^ mixture than from those on straight corn silage. Nourse, in Virginia, found that great reliance may be placed on the corn plant when the hay crop is cut short by a dry spring. In some cases, where the early season is unsuited for plant growth, late planted corn will produce a cron which is far less expensive for feed than cot- tonseed hulls, but more effective in milk production. Corn shives — In Maryland, Patterson has tested corn shives for dairy cows. Cows fed on this material for a period of four months produced more milk and butter on less feed than when hay and corn fodder were used. Corn shives appeavs to be an economical feed for milch cows and usually produces more butter than is obtained from hay, even if the milk yield is no greater. 452 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In Vermont, Hills has carried on ex- tensive experiments with the corn plant, in various forms, as a roughage for cows. Corn fodder (stalks and ears) proved about equal to silage, the latter being slightly better on the whole. Both silage and corn fodder were better than corn stover. In Hills' experiments, green sweet corn fodder was somewhat better relished than dent corn and gave a larger yield of milk. Dent corn, how- ever, produced more forage per acre and was a more profitable crop. Hills also determined that the butts of corn stover the same from all four forms of the corn crop. As a rule, about 3 per cent more milk was obtained from whole silage than from stover silage and a sim- ilar difference was observed between dry fodder and stover. For milk production it was found that one acre of corn made into whole silage equaled 1.26 acres of stover or stover silage and 1.8 acres of corn fodder, while silage and stover si- lage were better relished by the cows than corn fodder or stover and the relative cost of preparing and feeding Fig. 292 DAIRY HERD IN BARE LOT NEAR SILO are equal to the tops and that corn stover, as a whole, is equal to timothy hay. In one experiment in Vermont, silage proved better than hay, but in this respect different experiments vary somewhat. Corn silage — As a rule, silage from frosted corn is inferior to that which is not affected by frost. In early tests at the Vermont experiment station, corn silage made more milk, but of a poorer quality than that obtained from corn fodder. The silage appeared to be supe- rior, however, to green corn fodder. Whole silage, stover silage, corn fodder, and stover were all relished by cows, and the quality of the milk was about the different forms of the crop was greatly in favor of whole silage. In New York, silage was found to increase the yield of milk and butter and to cheapen the cost; while in Iowa, corn fodder made a better showing than roots or silage. Sweet corn proved somewhat inferior to peas and oats, red clover, soy beans or cowpeas as a soiling crop, but the butter from sweet corn scored higher than any other soiling crop used in comparison. In Michigan, silage proved more economical than corn fod- der or roots. According to a test made in Maryland, there is least loss in feed- ing corn fodder shredded and mixed with the grain and moistened. DAIRY CATTLE 453 Hay proved more expensive than either corn fodder or silage in Massa- chusetts and was less effective. Silage produced the best results, when fed in rations of 35 to 50 pounds, in addition to small quantities of hay. A too ex- clusive ration of silage affected the gen- eral condition of the cows unfavorably. The Minnesota experiment station rec- ommends dent corn for silage for milch cows, but dent, sweet, southern and flint corn were found nearly equal. In New Hampshire, a change from a corn fodder to a silage ration increased the quantity of the milk and the amount of fat in it. Silage produced a softer butter than hay, but of better flavor. In one test however, in Missouri, corn fodder proved superior to silage. In New Jersey, cows showed no par- ticular preference between green and dry corn fodder and silage. The latter, however, was much more effective than fodder or roots, both in milk yield and in maintaining the weight of the cows. In one experiment, the cost of harvest- ing, storing and feeding dry corn fod- der was less than in the case of silage. In Pennsylvania, it appeared that dent corn cut when the kernels were mostly dented and while the husks and leaves were mostly green, made more milk fat than an equal amount cut earlier or later. Moreover, the yield to the acre is a little less when the corn is cut early. In Ohio, corn fodder and silage proved equal in milk production and it is rec- ommended that silage should be made before the corn is thoroughly mature. Experiments in Wisconsin, extending over several years, show that silage is more effective in milk production than dry corn fodder. Cows sometimes eat more silage than fodder, but the milk flow is usually greater on silage and the milk is sometimes richer and sometimes poorer. Both silage and fodder are equally digestible, but siloing is consid- ered the most economical way of han- dling the corn crop for milch cows. If corn fodder is allowed to stand in the field, it is less nutritious than if cut when the corn is mature. Silage is an exceedingly important material in dairying, and is used very extensively. It was first prepared in the United States in 1875, by Manly Miles of Michigan, and is now used throughout the dairy states of the corn belt. The advantages claimed for silage are that it makes possible a succulent ration during the winter or throughout the year, and enables the dairyman to preserve a larger percentage of the crop than can otherwise be saved. More ma- terial can be kept in the same space in the form of silage than by any other method. It is an economical process and increases the carrying capacity of the farm. Silage can be made in rainy weather when hay would take much harm and various crops which are un- suited for use as dry forage may be ensiled. Other crops for silage — The chief crops used for silage are corn, red clover, crimson clover, sorghum, alfalfa, cow- peas and sugar beets, the latter chiefly in the form of pulp. Millet, soy beans and other crops are occasionally used for silage, but of all these, corn is by far the most important. On the northern bor- ders of the corn belt, flint corn and some of the earliest dents are used, while in more southern latitudes the dent corn prevails. Silage is fully equal to roots in feeding value, and is much cheaper. It is pre-eminently adapted for milch cows, maintains and promotes the milk flow and does not taint the milk if fed just after milking. Perhaps the most satisfactory ration of silage is from 30 to 35 pounds per day, with grain and hay. For the con- struction of the silo and further points on the use of silage, see "Soiling Crops and the Silo," by Thomas Shaw, and ''Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture," pp. 374 to 384. Cowpea — The cowpea has been com- pared in New Jersey with common ni- trogenous grain feeds such as dried brewers' grains and cottonseed meal. Cowpea silage was used in rations of 36 pounds a day, together with 10 pounds of crimson clover hay. This ration costs 16Y 2 cents, but produced as much milk as a ration in which two- thirds of the protein was purchased in the form of dried brewers' grains and cottonseed meal, and which cost 17.1 cents. The cowpea crop was thus util- ized in an economic manner and gave a greater profit than could have been realized by selling it at the ordinary market price. In the southern states, cowpeas are extensively used as pasture or silage for cows. In Mississippi, cow- pea hay proved equal or a little better than Johnson grass. The results from cowpeas, however, are still more favor- able where the other parts of the ration contain less protein. In Nebraska, a large and profitable yield of milk and 454 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK butter was obtained from cowpea pas- ture, and in Delaware, cowpea pasture was found to be almost equal to prime June pasture. A ration of 25 pounds cowpea silage and 6 pounds of hay- proved excellent for winter feeding. This silage was slightly superior to wheat bran for milk production and the quality of the butter was equal to that obtained from bran. In Tennessee, Soule and Barnes ob- tained results which show the great im- portance of cowpeas in milk production. Cowpeas were compared in these experi- ments with cottonseed meal without intending to disparage the use of cot- tonseed meal, but to show the relative economy in feeding these two forms of nitrogenous materials. Eations contain- ing both cowpea hay and cottonseed meal produced the cheapest milk. The cowpea hay made a remarkably fine showing, proving to be an excellent sub- stitute for either wheat bran or cot- tonseed meal. It was not only effective, but it was found to be very palatable and greedily eaten by all of the cows. With the use of cowpea hay and cotton- seed meal it was found possible to pro- duce milk at 5.2 cents a gallon, and butter at 10 cents a pound. Since the usual retail price of milk in the south- ern states is from 25 to 30 cents a gal- lon and butter 25 to 30 cents a pound, it is obvious that the southern dairyman can make a good profit if he uses feeds in a rational manner. Duggar, in Alabama, estimating cow- pea hay at $10 a ton, found that, ex- cluding the coarse portion which was not eaten, the cowpea hay had a feeding value about equal to wheat bran. As ordinarily harvested, cowpea hay showed a feeding value 86 per cent that of wheat bran and the monthly profit a cow was $4.35 on a cowpea ration, the hay being fed at the rate of 6^2 pounds a day in connection with cottonseed meal. Running the cowpea hay through a feed cutter did not diminish the waste. Flat pea — (Lathyrus sylvestris.) This plant was not relished by cows in the test made in Michigan, either in the form of a soiling crop or as silage. The cows lost weight on it and the milk flow decreased. Similarly in Germany, flat pea has been found inferior to clover hay for milk production. Hay — Hay in some form enters into nearly all rations for dairy cows, except when they are kept on pasture or fed soiling crops. In the northern and east- ern states, hay is commonly made of timothy and clover. In Maine, when the change was made from a ration of 13 pounds of hay and 25 pounds of sil- age, with a suitable amount of grain, to 8 pounds of hay without alteration in the rest of the ration, a smaller milk yield was obtained, the cows lost weight and showed an unthrifty condition. A change from hay to silage, however, caused an increased production of milk in tests made in New Hampshire and Maine. In Massachusetts, and elsewhere along the Atlantic coast, salt marsh hay has been tested for cows and found to be less effective than ordinary hay. If this material is fed after milking, no taint is observed in the milk; the percent- age of fat in the milk, however, is less than on common hay. Marsh hay is so much cheaper than ordinary hay that an economical ration may be made of 12 pounds of marsh hay and one bushel of corn silage. Marsh grass hay has also been fed to cows quite extensively in various parts of Europe. In Sweden, when fed in rations not to exceed 20 pounds a day, it proved about equal to beets. Kafir corn — Kafir corn, either as fod- der or silage, is much relished by cows, and has been found to be nearly equal to corn. For further notes on its feeding value, see under Beef cattle. Lespedeza — This material is used to a considerable extent in the southern states. In Mississippi, leapedeza hay proved superior to either timothy or Bermuda grass hay. Millet — I n Michigan, millet silage was found to be much relished by cows, and had a favorable influence on the milk flow. In North Carolina, how- ever, millet hay added to a ration con- taining corn silage and grain had no observable effect on the yield of milk. Hungarian millet silage was greedily eaten by cows in a test in Vermont and proved equal to hay, but somewhat in- ferior to corn silage. Oats and peas — These crops are us- ually combined for cows, and fed green or as silage. According to Canadian ex- perience, oats and peas produce a larger yield to the acre than oats and vetch, but the two combinations were about equal as milk producers. Hills, in Ver- mont, found that sometimes oat and pea DAIRY CATTLE 455 hay is not much relished, hut when eaten readily gives better results than any other coarse fodder. Silage made of oats, peas and vetch was apparently su- perior to corn silage. The best early pasture for milch cows, in Nebraska, was obtained by sowing oats and peas,. and in Connecticut this combination proved to be the best forage crop for midsummer. In Michigan, oat-pea si- lage is highly recommended for milch cows. Oat hay alone was found to be inferior to timothy and clover in an experiment in New Hampshire. In Maine, a silage containing peas, sun- flowers and corn was found superior to corn silage. This mixture, however, can- not be used to replace all of the grain ration, but about 20 pounds of the mix- ture may be substituted for 3 pounds of the grain. Pea silage is also highly recommended in Minnesota and else- where. Rape — Ordinarily rape produces a good flow of mill?, but must be fed with caution, since otherwise it may taint the milk. It is to be considered a promising plant for use as silage. Ac- cording to Canadian experience, 55 pounds of rape per day will produce slightly more milk than corn silage and of a higher test. With this amount of rape, however, the milk will show a rape flavor, and cheese produced from it is gassy. In Iowa, a falling off in the milk yield was noted when cows were taken from pasture and fed rape as a soiling crop. Moreover, the butter was of a poor quality. Rape silage was greedily eaten by cows in an experiment in Michigan, and no bad taint was im- parted to the milk. Robertson's mixture silage — This mixture is highly recommended in Can- ada and has been tested in the United States, especially in Maine and Vermont. In one experiment it proved equal and in another decidedly superior to com silage. Robertson's mixture, as usually made, contains corn, sunflower heads and horse beans in the proportion of 1 acre corn, one-half acre horse beans and one-fourth acre sunflowers. When fed together with corn silage it has been found equal to a mixture of beets and carrots. The mixture may also be sub- stituted for a part of the grain ration. Rye — As a pasture, soiling or silage crop, rye is much used in dairying. Ac- cording to Canadian experience it is in- ferior to alfalfa in yield per acre and in milk production and palatability. Hills found that rye silage was drier, less greedily eaten and made 10 per cent less milk and butter than corn silage. In Alabama, however, rye proved about equal to silage. Rye is recommended as a pasture crop throughout the country, and in many localities is the earliest available crop which may be used for soiling purposes. Serradella — I n Massachusetts, it was found that cows would eat from 90 to 97 pounds of green serradella a day. This material greatly increases the milk flow when substituted for three-fourths of the ordinary hay ration. Sorghum — Curtiss places sorghum at the head of the list as a soiling crop for midsummer and early autumn. It is hardy, a vigorous grower, yields abun- dantly and adapts itself to localities of considerable rainfall and also of drouth. Any of the crop which is not needed for summer feeding may be cured for winter use. For milk production it may be sown from early spring until the middle of July. In Nebraska, sorghum produced the greatest amount of pasture among various crops which were tested. In Michigan, sorghum in the form of fodder or silage was readily eaten by cows, but proved inferior to corn. Sorghum silage was found to be an economical feed for dairy cows in Tennessee and far superior to cottonseed hulls in a test made in Georgia. Soy bean — The soy bean is an excel- lent forage crop for midsummer throughout the central states. It does not yield quite as heavily as sorghum, but is a vigorous grower and resists drouth even better than sorghum. It may be fed green during the summer months or the seeds may be allowed to ripen. Soy beans ensiled with corn were tested by Hills, but did not ma- terially improve the quality of the silage or increase the milk flow over that ob- tained by straight corn silage. A si- lage containing soy beans and cowpeas made less milk but of a higher fat per- centage. The mixed silage was less read- ily eaten and seemed more expensive to produce. The production of butter fat was considerably increased in Nebraska, by the use of a soy bean pasture, and in Massachusetts, soy beans have been found superior to peas and oats as a soiling crop; they were also better than 456 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK hay in milk production. In Alabama, 4V2 per cent more butter was produced on soy bean hay than on cowpea hay, the soy bean hay being fed in rations of Q.6 pounds a day in combination with cottonseed meal and wheat bran. Timothy — Attention has been called by Soule and others to the fact that large amounts of timothy hay are an- nually fed to dairy cows under the mis- taken notion that it is a nutritious form of roughage which cannot be replaced by other cheap home-grown products. Soule found, however, that corn stover could well be used to replace timothy hay with excellent results in milk pro- duction and with considerable saving in the feed bill. Timothy must be con- sidered as a poor dairy feed and should not ordinarily be used for that purpose. Farmers locating near a large town will find that they can secure more for their timothy hay as a horse feed than it is really worth for feeding purposes as com- pared with other home-grown materials. In Minnesota, timothy was found to be a less economical feed than prairie hay, and in Connecticut both timothy and redtop proved to be unprofitable feeds for dairy cows. It is strongly recom- mended that timothy be replaced by leguminous hays. Vetch — I n Alabama, Duggar found vetch hay fully equal in feeding value to the same weight of wheat bran. By sub- stituting vetch hay for bran, the cost of butter was reduced 25 per cent and a monthly saving was made of $1 in the feed bill for each cow. The cost of a pound of butter on vetch hay was 10 cents, as compared with 13.4 cents on bran. The waste in feeding vetch hay was about 6 per cent of the total amount offered to the cows. Vetch is quite ex- tensively used in mixtures, and has everywhere proved valuable for that pur- pose. In New Hampshire, vetch hay was found to be superior to timothy or oat hay. Wheat — In the western states, wheat is sometimes cut in the early dough stage and fed to dairy cows in the form of hay. In Connecticut, wheat was found to be, next to rye, the earliest available crop for soiling purposes. Wheat is better relished than rye and can, therefore, be fed to cows for longer periods. SOILING CROPS The practice of raising forage crops expressly for the purpose of cutting green and feeding in this condition, is known as soiling. This practice is more extensive in dairy farming than in any other line of animal industry. In a system of soiling as compared with pasture, a great increase in the carry- ing capacity of the farm is secured, a much larger amount of forage being produced on a given area of land than is possible by pasture. Moreover, less land and less grain are required, the land is maintained in a higher state of fertility and cultivation and the manure may be saved in a more available form. Soiling becomes necessary from a finan- cial standpoint as soon as the price of farm land rises from the influence of proximity of cities. It then becomes highly unprofitable to hold large areas of land for pasture. The system of soiling has been favorably reported on wherever it has been tested. It may be used as the exclusive form of summer feeding or merely to supplement pastures during the dry part of summer. No extra ma- chinery is required in introducing a soil- ing system upon the farm, but the labor involved is greater than where the land is left in pasture. System of rotation — I n order to have green crops for dairy cows from early summer until frost, it is necessary to adopt some system of rotation. Most soiling crops do not remain at their best for more than 10 days, corn and sorghum excepted. It is desirable, therefore, to sow a portion of each field at weekly intervals. If rye and wheat are sown in the fall, they will be ready to feed in May and June of the following year. At the opening of spring, barley may be sown, followed by four or five sowings of oats and peas ; these will serve for use in July. At the last sowing of oats and peas, corn and sorghum may be planted, and will then be ready in August and September. The land occu- pied by oats and peas will be free in June and may be planted to millet or barley for use in September and Oc- tober. Thus, in New Jersey and else- where it has been found that by a suit- able system of rotation, a continuous supply of green forage may be obtained from May 1 to November 1, and that during this period 25 cows may be fed from 7 acres of land. DAIRY CATTLE 457 Of the various crops used for soiling, alfalfa, crimson clover, sorghum, corn, rye, red clover, cowpeas, soy beans, oats, peas, millet, kafir corn, vetches, rape, mixed grasses, teosinte and various other plants have given good results. In Penn- sylvania, it appeared that from three to five times as much forage was pro- duced on an acre of ground in a soiling system as from pasture. These results have been abundantly corroborated by the practical experience of dairymen, who follow a soiling system. It is de- sirable to use some legume at frequent intervals in order to prevent the impov- erishment of the soil by continued crop- ping. The green forage may be fed in the stable or in yards according to con- venience. The great advantage of a soiling system is that the crops are fed in a succulent form at a stage of growth when they are also most pala- table and most nutritious. Dairy cows will readily eat from 40 to 60 pounds of green forage a day in addition to the grain ration. Some dairymen rec- ommend that cows be fed the green for- age four or five times daily. In Maryland, Doane found that while cows appeared to do better on pasture than on the same material fed to them green in the stable, it was possible to give enough better feed under a soiling system to compensate for the difference in favor of pasture. Rye is one of the most popular of early crops grown for soiling. In Mary- land, Doane made a comparison between rye, cowpea silage, corn silage and other materials. In tbis test, it appeared that the value of green rye has been much overestimated, and in many instances it will be profitable to provide silage for use during the early season when rye is green. In Massachusetts, Lindsey found that a mixture of wheat and winter vetch makes a desirable green fodder for spring. Good results were also obtained from mixtures of grass and clover, oats and peas, barnyard millet and peas, corn and soy beans, barley and peas, etc. In these tests it appeared that the chief ob- jection to a system of soiling lies in the time and labor consumed in the pro- duction of the crops. It is necessary to prepare numerous small areas of land at frequent inter- vals and to cut and draw quantities of green forage to the barn every two or three days. This work consumes so much time as to interfere with other farming operations, but this objection would not hold in the case of pure dairy farming, where no other line of farm work is carried on. If the products of the land are fed to dairy cows and the manure carefully preserved and returned to the land, the soil is soon brought to a high state of fertility, as has been shown by Doane and others. The great amount of humus thus restored to the soil favors the production of a large growth of stalk in the crops raised and thus furnishes more succulent material for dairy cows. Lane has called attention to the fact that three crops may be grown upon the same ground in one season, as, for ex- ample, rye, followed by a mixture of oats and peas, and this mixture followed by corn. If alfalfa is used for soiling purposes, from three to six crops a year may be cut, depending on the latitude. In a comparison of soiling crops with silage, the cows yielded more milk on green forage, but the fat percentage was higher on silage. Carrying capacity op various crops — In Pennsylvania, Watson and Mairs found that 1 acre of clover and timothy would carry 10 cows for 16 days; an acre of flat peas, 36 days; an acre of rape, 37 days; an acre of soy beans, 17 days; an acre of sorghum, 35 days; an acre of cowpeas, 21 days; and an acre of corn, 16 days. Among these various crops, cowpeas seemed to be one of the most effective in maintaining a large milk flow. For soiling purposes, alfalfa proved entirely satisfactory and pro- duced the largest amount of protein to the acre of any crop tested. Corn ranked second in the production of for- age to the acre, and mixtures of sor- ghum and cowpeas, and field peas and oats were very satisfactory. Rape was found somewhat objectionable in these tests on account of giving a bad flavor to the milk and not being particularly palatable to the cows. Extensive tests have been carried on in Wisconsin to determine the value of a soiling system and the relative im- portance of different crops for this pur- pose. As shown by Carlyle and others, it is important to have a constant suc- cession of crops, and the dairyman must therefore devise a scheme by which he can secure a constant supply of green forage for his locality. 458 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK PASTXJR The system of management com- monly adopted by farmers includes one or more pasture lots. These pastures may be allowed to remain in native grasses for years, without any attention, and of course this is the simplest sys- tem of pasturage, and one which requires the least work. It is also the least satis- factory, for the reason that the yield of grass is comparatively low, unless a par- ticularly productive variety of grass pre- dominates in the pasture. Better re- sults are obtained where pastures are seeded to tame grasses and plowed from time to time and planted to cultivated crops. While pastures are at their best a good milk flow can be obtained from them with small grain rations. As soon however, as the pasture begins to get dry, the results in milk yield are unsatis- factory. The pasture may be helped out at all times by other green feeds, roots, silage or hay, and particular atten- tion should be given to this side of the feeding operations late in the season. The great advantage of pasture is that cows may secure a succulent feed under cleanly and healthy conditions, com- bined with a proper amount of exercise. Kinds of pasture grasses—May found that in Kentucky the foundation of suc- cess with the average dairyman rests upon nutritious pastures of blue grass, supplemented by various introduced grasses. Rye pasture, when at its best, produced a satisfactory milk flow. In Kansas, Otis made observations on the value of various grasses for pasture. It appears that in Kansas, prairie grasses are well adapted for this purpose, since they are nutritious and capable of with- standing drouth. Excellent results are also secured from pasture containing orchard grass, English blue grass, red clover, brome grass and wheat. Alfalfa pasture produces enormous quantities of milk and keeps the cows in good condi- tion: the only objection to such pasture, as already stated, is the danger from bloat until the cows become accustomed to it. In Nebraska, Lyon and Haecker report good success from the use of pastures of cowpeas and brome grass, but soy beans and hairy vetch are not recommended for Nebraska. The largest amount of green substance was produced by rye and sorghum pasture, but cowpeas made a greater quantity of milk and butter fat than any other crop used in comparison. In Alabama, Duggar al- lowed cows to graze on cowpeas which had been drilled between the corn rows. On this pasturage the milk yield was 15 per cent greater, and butter produc- tion 9 per cent greater than on a good pasture of Bermuda grass or carpet grass. The returns from grazing 3 acres of cowpeas were $15.25. In this case the peas were planted for their fertilizing value, and since the butter removed none of this the butter obtained is con- sidered as a clear profit. Corn is sometimes planted for pasture, but it is usually more satisfactory to harvest this crop in another way. In Nebraska, it was found that two or three times as much feed was obtained when corn was used for soiling purposes as when it was pastured. According to experiments by Lyon and Haecker in Nebraska, German mil- let as a pasture did not have as favor- able an effect upon the milk flow or butter production as did leguminous crops or mixed grasses. According to Canadian experience, pasture produces more and better milk than soiling on rye, oats or alfalfa. Hills has shown in experiments extend- ing over a period of six years, that a change from dry feeding in the barn to the pasture produces an increase in the solid matters in milk, especially in fresh cows. Drouth affects cows on pasture by diminishing the casein in the milk and increasing the fat. In New York, greater returns were obtained from stall- fed cows than from those allowed on pastures affected with drouth. In Utah, grazing on a pasture of mixed grasses under irrigation has been found to be the most economical way of producing milk. A change from dry feed to pas- ture gave a greater increase in milk than a similar change to soiling, but the composition of the milk was not affected by pasture. Grain fed cows on pasture — Refer- ence has already been made to the use of grain with cows on pasture. The results obtained in experiments along this line are not all in harmony but indicate that under average conditions cows will yield a little more milk and maintain their weight better when re- ceiving small quantities of grain, even on the best pasture. In Mississippi, Moore found that the difference in milk yields in cows on good pasture, when fed grain, was not enough to justify the DAlttY CATTLE 459 use of grain. Lindsey calls attention to the fact that one reason why pasture grass is superior to many cereal fodders and cut green fodders is that it con- tains more protein, pound for pound. Pasture grass is also eaten in a very soft and succulent condition, and for that reason contains less woody fiber than coarser fodders which are allowed to reach a greater size before cutting. Apparently, also, pasture grass has a flavor which is better relished by cows than the flavor which appears in fodders when they come nearer to maturity. Pasture, soiling and silage compared — After this consideration of the rela- tive value and advantages of pasture, soiling and silage, it may be well to supplement what was previously said on silage by calling attention to some points in which it possesses advantages over any other system for obtaining suc- cident feed for dairy cows. The pas- ture will carry more stock during the spring than at any other season and it may well be helped out, even in the spring season, by some green forage or silage which may remain from the win- ter supply. It requires, however, a great deal of labor to cut green crops daily and haul them to the cows and a still greater disadvantage attaches to a soil- ing system as compared with the use of silage, in that, in a soiling system, it is necessary to feed the crops during a period of several days, thereby harvest- ing a part of each crop before it is mature; considerable loss is therefore suffered in the nutritive value of the crop. For silage, however, the whole crop may be cut at the stage of growth when the greatest amount of material and nutriment is obtained and considerable saving in the case of handling is also secured. With nearly all crops there is an increase in the amount of nutriment up to a certain stage, after which a gradual decrease takes place. Obviously, therefore, the greatest feeding value may be secured by cutting the crop for silage at the right stage of growth. According to experiments of Otis, in Kansas, the corn silage produced on ordinary corn land is worth about $33 per acre in milk production. This feed- ing value is obtained for far less labor than would be required in feeding cows green forage from the same area of land. In view of the fact that the prices for grain have become so high as to reduce the dairyman's profit to a dan- gerous point, in many localities it has become necessary to make various sub- stitutions of home-grown products for a part of the grain. Williams, in Ohio, compared two rations for dairy cows, in one of which more than 50 per cent of the dry matter was derived from silage; while in the other, 57 per cent of the dry matter came from grain and silage was omitted. On the ration containing silage, the cows produced 5 pounds of butter fat from 100 pounds of dry mat- ter in the ration; and on the grain ration only 4 pounds of butter fat from the same amount of feed. The cost of 100 pounds of milk on the silage ration was 68 cents, and on the grain ration $1.05. The cost of a pound of butter on the silage ration was 13 cents, and on the grain ration 22 cents. The average net profit on a cow a month was $5.86 on the silage ration and $2.46 on the grain ration. The gain in weight in the cows during this experiment was somewhat greater from the grain ration. It is apparent, however, from this ex- periment, that silage may be used to replace a considerable proportion of the grain ration, and for this purpose it is recommended that silage for cows be not made of corn alone but should also con- tain clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cowpeas, field peas or vetches. Occasionally silage is less palatable to cows than green forage or pasture. Now and then an animal will almost abso- lutely refuse to eat silage. As a rule, however, cows eat it very greedily. For example, in South Dakota, a compar- ison of different coarse fodders showed that silage was more palatable to cows than either alfalfa or brome grass hay, and butter was produced more cheaply when cows were fed all the silage they would eat than when alfalfa or brome grass hay constituted a considerable part of the ration. As a rule, silage is decidedly superior to roots in the economy of milk produc- tion, but where sugar beets can be grown successfully, the difference in the effectiveness of these two feeds is very little. Thus, in Nebraska, Haecker found that while corn silage gave slightly better results than sugar beets in milk production, the difference was so small that they may be considered practically equal. 460 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE ST OCR MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS In addition to the standard feeding stuffs, mentioned in connection with dairy cows, a large number of other ma- terials are occasionally fed to a greater or less extent, and brief notes may be given on a few of them in this con- nection. Sugar feed — This material has been tested in Maryland by Patterson. As used in his experiments it seemed to contain ground corn fodder or hay as a base; the taste was sweet and the odor agreeable. The manufacturers claim that it contains 12 per cent of sugar. None of the cows which received this ration seemed to be satisfied with it. Only one cow relished the food from the beginning, and 30 pounds seemed to be about the limit for any of the cows. The unsatisfactory nature of the ration appeared from the fact that the cows attempted to eat their straw bedding and seemed nervous and hungry. The cows which ate reasonable quantities of the feed gained in the size of milk flow and it appears, therefore, to be suitable for use as a complete ration, provided cows can be induced to eat proper quan- tities. Dried molasses beet pulp — I n an ex- periment with this feed in Vermont, Hills found that when 2 2-3 pounds were substituted for an equal quantity of wheat bran in an 8-pound grain ra- tion, 4 per cent more milk was pro- duced and 1 per cent more fat. The dried molasses beet pulp appeared to give economic results when the price was not above $12 a ton. Occasionally, however, the price asked for this mate- rial is $20 a ton, and Hills considers that at this figure it would not pay to feed it for milk. In fact, it seems doubtful whether it is advisable to use this material, even at the price of $12 a ton, if good corn silage is available. Cane sugar — Hills added sugar to the rations of dairy cows in Vermont, but little effect on the quantity of milk was observed and the quality of the milk was not changed at all. The economy of feeding sugar is therefore quite doubtful. Condimental feeds — As stated under the discussion of Beef Cattle, condimen- tal feeds have been found in nearly all careful tests to be worth much less than the price ordinarily asked for them. These feeds have been tested in Con- necticut, Maine, Massachusetts and else- where, and it appears beyond question that the claims made for them are absurd and the prices extravagant. Bone meal — Even herbivorous ani- mals like cows may be induced to eat considerable quantities of animal feed. Hills tested the use of bone meal in Vermont and has found that when added to rations for dairy cows it had but little effect on the ash content of the milk, but increased the quantity of phosphoric acid. Skim milk — If calves, pigs or chick- ens are not available for using skim milk, it may be fed to dairy cows. It has been found to exercise a favorable effect on the churnability of cream and on the quality of the butter. In Sweden, however, it appeared that coagulated skim milk had little value for this pur- pose. Salt — This is a necessary part of the ration with dairy cows, as with other animals. A supply of salt must be con- stantly accessible to the cows, either in the form of granulated salt or large pieces of rock salt. According to Cana- dian experience, the withholding of salt from cows soon causes a falling off in the milk yield to the extent of 14 per cent. Similar results have been obtained in Mississippi and elsewhere. Water — Cows appreciate an abundant supply of cool water in summer and water from which the chill has been taken in winter. Otis and others have observed that in summer cows prefer to drink where the water enters the trough thus getting it as cool as possible; and in winter near the tank heater, thereby getting water from which the chill has been removed. Cows cannot be expected to do their best if forced to drink cold water through a hole in the ice in some pond or creek during winter. It is really no more work to heat water enough to take the chill from it than to break the ice. Likewise in summer the best results cannot be obtained if cows are forced to drink stagnant water, overheated, and carrying a disagreeable flavor and odor. The average cow will drink from 60 to 100 pounds of water a day, according to the nature of the ration. Hills found that cows allowed to drink at will gave 2 per cent more milk that when watered at more or less frequent intervals. The quality of the milk was somewhat poorer when cows were watered in stanchions than when allowed to drink in a yard. DAIRY CATTLE 461 The numerous tests which have been made regarding the value of warming water in winter indicate that there is no advantage from heating the water more than merely to remove the chill. Maintenance ration — It is practically impossible to determine the relative amounts of the ration which the dairy cow uses in the production of milk and in the maintenance of her weight. _ In fact, this problem is ordinarily of little practical importance, since the ration must supply material, both for the main- tenance of weight and for the produc- tion of milk. As a rule, a decided fall- ing off in the milk yield before the nor- mal time for the period of lactation to close is also accompanied with a de- crease in weight. Conversely, rations which produce the largest and most sat- isfactory yields of milk are usually observed to maintain the cow in good condition or even to produce a slight increase in weight. Occasionally, how- ever, dry cows are carried over one sea- son, and it then becomes desirable to determine a good maintenance ration. This is likewise the case during the short, dry period between two periods of lactation. In Kansas Otis found that wheat straw with small quantities of ground wheat was sufficient to carry heifers through the winter in good con- dition. These feed stuffs are available on nearly every farm throughout that section of the country, and such a ra- tion can therefore be fed to heifers or dry cows conveniently and at a low cost. A maintenance ration of this sort need not cost to exceed $1.25 a month. The maintenance ration, however, need not be so simple as the one just indicated. All kinds of materials may be used, and rations may be compounded very similar to those used during the period of lactation. Naturally, however, the size of the ration should be smaller, and less succulence is required. Thus we may use as a maintenance ration for cows, corn fodder, kafir corn fodder, sor- ghum, alfalfa or red clover hay, prairie hay and other coarse fodders, according to the convenience with which they may be obtained. Rations — Hundreds of suitable ra- tions have been published covering the usual conditions met with in every state and territory of the union. These ra- tions contain materials which may be most conveniently and cheaply obtained in different localities. One of the most valuable lists of this sort was prepared by Woll, in Wisconsin. In general, for obtaining the best results from dairy cows it is necessary to keep the bowels in a fairly loose condition. This matter is easily regulated, if the effects of vari- ous feeds are kept in mind. According to the experience of dairymen, the fol- lowing may be considered as loosening feeds: Bran, soy bean meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, alfalfa, clover and other legumes, roots, silage and sorghum. The following is a partial list of con- stipating feeds : Kafir corn, corn, cot- tonseed meal, rye bran, corn fodder, kafir corn fodder and various grass hays, including timothy. Some attention must also be given in compounding ra- tions to their effects upon the firmness of the butter. As a rule, kafir corn and cottonseed meal produce relatively hard butter with a high melting point, while soy bean meal, gluten meal and linseed meal have a tendency to soften the but- ter. A ration which tends to produce an excessive development of body fat nat- urally hinders milk production. The protein in the feed is used for the repair of various tissues, the formation of casein in milk and the development of energy. A relatively large amount of protein can therefore be profitably util- ized by dairy cows. The ration may well be based on the ratio 1 :5 or 1 :6.5. As practical examples of rations for dairy cows, the following may be se- lected from those mentioned by Wheeler in Rhode Island: 4 pounds corn meal, 4 pounds middlings, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 7 pounds mixed hay and 7 pounds corn fodder; 3 pounds bran, 1 pound each of cottonseed meal and gluten meal, 9 pounds corn stover, 8 pounds mixed hay, 2 pounds clover hay ; 5 pounds bran, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 25 pounds corn silage, 8 pounds mixed hay; 4 pounds bran, 2 pounds each of chops and gluten meal, 17V2 pounds corn fodder, 7!/2 pounds mixed hay; 5 pounds gluten meal, 6 pounds corn and cob meal, 22V2 pounds corn fodder; 4 1 /2 pounds bran, 5 pounds corn meal, 2 1-3 pounds cotton- seed meal, 4 pounds corn silage, 6 2-3 pounds marsh hay. For Mississippi, Moore suggests the following rations: 20 pounds cowpea hay, 6 pounds wheat bran, 3 pounds corn meal ; 18 pounds Bermuda hay, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 3 pounds each wheat bran and corn meal; 10 pounds cowpea FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK hay, 15 pounds cottonseed hulls, 3 pounds cottonseed meal. For other states the rations should be compounded on a similar basis with the most conven- ient forms of nitrogenous and carbo- naceous elements, so balanced as to pro- duce a comparatively narrow ration. Feeding methods — One of the most important practical questions for the dairyman is whether cows should be fed in stalls, loose in pens or in yards. This question has been answered differently in different localities. According to Hayward's experiments in Pennsylvania, more bedding was required to keep the cows clean and comfortable in pens than in stalls and it appeared not to be economical to keep dairy cows loose in year, and occasionally men have found it possible to keep cows in fairly good health and productivity for eight or 10 years without ever allowing them to step outside of the stable. In such a system of management great care is required in the sanitation of the stable in order to maintain the cows in good health and comfort. Moreover, Eraser found that the keeping of cows in a stable in cleanliness involves a great amount of labor, since each animal must be carefully attended to. Fraser ad- dressed a series of questions to the dairy- men of Illinois regarding the relative advantages and disadvantages of keep- ing cows loose in a shed, and other prac- tical points of dairy management. These Fig. 293 — A JERSEY HERD IX THE BARN YARD pens on farms where the supply of bed- ding was limited. Hayward found that considerably less labor was required to care for cows in pens than in stalls, and that the cows remained cleaner in stalls and the milk contained fewer bacteria. In Illinois, on the other hand, Fraser came to the opposite conclusion as the result of his extensive observations on methods of keeping milch cows. It i3 admitted, in the first place, that milch cows cannot endure quite as much ex- posure as steers, and this well-known fact has led many dairymen to adopt the method of keeping their cows closely confined in stables, especially during se- vere weather. In some instances, the cows are kept in stanchions for 24 hours a day for six or eight months of each questions were answered by eighteen prominent dairymen, who had been in the business for two to nine years, and who kept a dairy herd of the ordinary size. Almost without exception, these men had found it necessary to have their cows dehorned, but it was not found that cows were any more likely to in- jure one another with their horns if kept loose in a shed than if maintained in a stable. The size of the sheds varied from 13x40 feet to 143x225 feet for herds varying in size from 13 to 150 cows. The dairymen reported that their practice was to use bedding in the shed daily, every other day, three times a week, or in some cases only once a week. As a rule, it was found that more bed- ding was required in sheds than in DAIRY CATTLE 463 stables. Where cows are kept in sheds, the frequency with which the manure is removed varies from once a day to once a year. With two exceptions, the dairy- men reported that the cows could be kept sufficiently warm in sheds, even in winter. Without exception, the dairy- men reported that the cows kept cleaner in sheds than if stabled; that the milk- ing stable remained in a more sanitary condition and that cleaner milk could be produced by this method. The an- swers returned by these eighteen dairy- men to the question regarding the chief advantages of keeping cows in the sheds are particularly interesting. The dairy- men reported that this method saves labor in cleaning stables and in feeding roughage; that the cows are kept more comfortable and cleaner; that labor is saved in handling manure and in bed- ding stock; that a larger amount of manure is made and preserved in a better condition. Advantages of open shed — On ac- count of the favorable report from dairymen who had used the sheds, Fraser conducted a test on this matter at the Illinois experiment station. It was found that there is less difficulty in providing cows with fresh air; that they remain more healthy and have bet- ter appetites than when kept in stables. A considerable saving was noticed in the mnnure and a great saving in the labor of caring for the cows. Fraser calls .attention to the fact that on many dairy farms the problem of getting sufficient help is a serious one and the saving of labor is therefore a strong point in fa- vor of keeping cows in sheds. Effect of the ration on the milk — It has long been the hope of the dairyman to devise a ration and a system of feed- ing by means of which the amount of milk and particularly the percentage of milk fat could be greatly increased. The almost innumerable experiments which have been made along this line indicate that the quantity of the milk can be greatly influenced by the amount and character of the ration, but that the percentage of fat in the milk is largely an individual matter with each cow, varying from time to time, but not much influenced by the character or size of the ration. Wheeler, in New York, found that the milk flow was most increased when the greatest increase in the total nutrients of the ration was made with- out regard to slight changes in its pro- tein content. The most striking shrink- age in milk flow occurred when the re- duction of total nutrients was greatest, although this was usually accompanied with a reduction of the amount of pro- tein. An increase in the total amount of nutrients in the ration resulted in a maintenance of the milk flow without diminution over a longer period than would otherwise have been the case; while a reduction of the amount of nu- trients below a ration of normal size oc- casioned twice the normal shrinkage in milk yield. It was observed that when the protein was increased, the milk flow was maintained at a high level for a longer period, while a reduction of the amount of protein caused a great fall- ing off in milk yield. In narrowing the ration after feeding what may be con- sidered a normal ration, the effectiveness of the feed remained about the same, while when the ration was made too wide more feed was required for each pound of butter fat. Feed and butter fat — Woll, in Wis- consin, made extensive experiments to determine the relation of feed to the production of milk and butter fat. In these experiments it appeared that the production of milk and butter fat de- pends upon a number of factors, but chiefly the individual capacity of the cow. Other factors worth mentioning are the age of the cow, amount and character of the ration and period of lactation. On an average, in Woll's ex- periments, cows consumed over and above the amount of feed required for maintenance, between 26 and 80 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds of milk and between Qy 2 and 18% pounds for each pound of butter. The amount of food required for a given amount of milk or butter fat was nearly three times as great toward the close of the period of lactation as at the begin- ning, and heifers required more feed a 100 pounds of milk than older cows. It appeared that the ration of the dairy cow influenced the quality of the milk to the extent that the cow will produce a maximum amount of milk of the highest fat content of which she is ca- pable on rations containing a relatively high percentage of nitrogenous sub- stances. •Source of mtlk fat — Jordan and others in New York have attempted to determine the exact source of milk fat in the feed. It was found that decided 464 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK changes in the protein or fat content of the rations did not produce noticeable changes in the composition of the milk. With some cows it was found that a considerable percentage of the milk fat must come from the carbohydrates in the feed. On the whole, it appeared that more than 40 per cent of the avail- able energy in the rations was necessary for maintaining the cow, while slightly more than 30 per cent was transformed into milk. This leaves a balance of about one-fifth of the ration, which is presumably used up in the work of milk secretion. Wing and Ford made some interest- ing experiments in increasing the fat content of milk by means of liberal feeding. The experiment was under- taken after having observed that, in many instances, dairymen were feeding their cows rations which were appar- ently deficient in nutrients and energy. It was found that in a herd of poorly fed cows a liberal ration of easily di- gestible feed, rather nitrogenous in character, and conducted for a period of two years, resulted in an increase of ^4 of 1 per cent in the fat content of the milk. This increase was accompanied by an increase of about 50 per cent in the total amount of milk and fat produced and was obtained economically in so far as the cost of feeding was concerned. This result indicates clearly the great capacity of good dairy cows to give prof- itable returns from liberal feeding. Relation of the size of the ration to economy of production — With dairy cows, as with other animals, it is gen- erally true that the more feed which they can utilize, the greater the profit. As a rule, cows which eat the most feed pro- duce the most milk and butter and most economically. This proposition has been clearly demonstrated in New York, Pennsylvania and elsewhere, as well as in the official test made at the world's fair in Chicago. The feeding power of cows is therefore an important matter to consider in selecting or building up a dairy herd. It is necessary, however, to make sure, in any case, of a cow which will consume large quantities of feed, and that this feed is utilized for milk production and not in laying on body fat. The period of lactation as related to milk yield — J n numerous experiments carried on in New York, Ohio, Wis- consin and elsewhere, it has been found that the greatest production of milk fat takes place soon after calving, say in the second and third weeks, and that the milk flow gradually diminishes after this period. In a careful test car- ried on in New York, it appeared that the milk yield for each month was about 9 per cent less than that of the preced- ing month. It is a matter of some im- portance to know at what time in the period of lactation the cow will make her best record. Some of the dairy as- sociations require the production of milk and butter at a certain rate in order to admit cows to advance registration. Haecker made a study of this matter in Nebraska and in looking over herd rec- ords found that considerable variation existed in the best week of lactation. It appeared than nine-tenths of the cows make their best record during the first 10 weeks of lactation and that with more than one-half of cases this occurs dur- ing the first month. On the whole, the second and third weeks were found to include the time of greatest production. The cow reaches her highest production of butter fat somewhat earlier than she does the greatest flow. Age of cows as related to their productivity — According to the observa- tions of Carlyle and Woll, the quality of the milk deteriorates somewhat as the cows advance in age, the average fat con- tent being 4.49 per cent during the first year of lactation; 4.4 per cent in the second year; 4.29 per cent in the third year, and 4.17 per cent in the fourth year. Dairymen have commonly ob- served that the milk yield increases up to about seven years of age, after which it remains nearly constant until about the twelfth year, when it begins to de- crease more rapidly. The average dairy cow is therefore at her best between the ages of seven and 10, and there is us- ually a slow and gradual decline in the milk yield after the seventh year of life, until the twelfth year. From this time on the cow is likely to be less profitable than the heifer. In New York, it was found that the cost of milk was greatest in two-year old heifers and decreased up to the age of four years, after which jt remained nearly constant. The gain in the amount of milk between the ages of two and three years was 5 per cent; between three and four years, 18 per cent, and between four years and the age of greatest production, 15 per cent. Like- wise in Ohio, it has been shown that the DAIRY CATTLE 1 465 cow gives a constantly increasing milk yield for the same amount of feed up to the age of seven years, after which a slow decline is observed until about the eleventh year. Breeds of cows as related to the milk yield — The champions of all breeds are anxious to show the great possibili- ties of their particular breed in milk production, and every year comparative tests are carried out under more or less carefully observed conditions, to deter- mine the relative milk yield of different breeds. The attempt has frequently been made to show that some particular breed is uniformly better for the production of milk, butter or cheese than any other breed. The results of such experiments, however, as well as the claims of the champions of different breeds, are so for Jerseys; 12 pounds for Guernseys; 14 pounds for Eed Polls, and 12 pounds for Holsteins. A test of several Ayrshire herds in New Hampshire showed that the daily milk yield per cow varied from 18 to 46 pounds. A comparison of breeds in Wisconsin, running over a period of one year, gave the following amount of but- ter: 461.8 pounds for Eed Polls; 351.6 pounds for Holsteins; 319.3 pounds for Guernseys; 301 pounds for Jerseys and 281.7 pounds for Shorthorns. The average net profit returned by the cows of these different breeds decreased in the same order in which they were first men- tioned. In other tests carried on in Wisconsin, to determine the milk yield the following results were obtained in daily milk production: Holsteins, 48.9 'm Pig. 294 COWS YIELDING LESS THAN 7,000 POUNDS OF MILK PER YEAR much at variance that no unqualified conclusions can be reached. In a series of experiments in New York, it was found that individual cows of the same breed may vary more in milk and butter production than cows of different breeds. Likewise in Con- necticut, experiments have shown that "the type of the cow is a much better index of her ability for economical pro- duction than is her pedigree." In a seven-day test of cows of different breeds in Wisconsin, Woll found an average fat content of 5.26 per cent for Jerseys; 4.79 per cent for Guernseys; 3.85 per cent for Eed Polls; 3.46 per cent for Shorthorns and 3.43 per cent for Hol- steins. In the same test, the average milk yield was 177.9 pounds for Jerseys ; 265.77 pounds for Guernseys ; 384 pounds for Eed Polls and 365.9 pounds for Holsteins. The total fat yield during the seven-day period averaged 9 pounds pounds; Brown Swiss, 37.3 pounds; Shorthorns, 39.1 pounds ; Guernseys, 28.9 pounds; Ayrshires, 27.7 pounds; Dutch Belted, 27.2 pounds; French Canadian, 27 pounds; Eed Polls, 26.6 pounds; Jer- seys, 24.5 pounds and Devons, 11.8 pounds. In a test regarding the per- centage of fat in the milk of different breeds, the Jerseys stood at the head, followed by Guernseys, Devons, French Canadians, Ayrshires, Eed Polls and Shorthorns. The cost of the feed per quart of milk as related to the breed has been studied in New Jersey. In these experiments it has been found that it cost 1.66 cents to produce a quart of milk from Aryshires ; 1.71 cents from Guernseys or Shorthorns; 1.75 cents from Holsteins and 1.91 cents from Jer- seys. In the same test the cost of a pound of butter fat was 15.3 cents from Guernseys ; 17.9 cents from Jerseys ; 20.6 cents from Ayrshires; 20.8 cents from m FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Shorthorns and 22.4 cents from Hol- steins. According to Canadian expe- rience, the breeds of cattle may be arranged as follows with regard to the quality of milk : Angus, Hereford grade, Shorthorn grade, Ayrshires, Hereford and Shorthorn. In the relative profit from milk, the breeds are arranged as follows, according to experimentsi in New York: Holstein, Shorthorn, Ayr- shire, Guernsey, Jersey and Devon. In the relative profit from butter, the breeds stood in the following order: Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire and Devon ; while in the rela- tive profits from cheese the breeds frequent intervals. When these tests have been applied in various localities, it has been found that almost every dairy herd contains some cows which do not produce enough milk to pay for their keep. This point has been studied in Illinois, by Eraser, who found that in that state there are vast differences m the efficiency and profit derived from different dairy cows. For example, one cow may produce twice as much butter fat in a year as another cow on exactly the same feed basis. A good dairy cow, well cared for, may produce from five to ten times as much as the average cow for the whole country, or about as Fier. 291 -MIXED HERD AT MILKING TIME ranked as follows : Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Holstein, Ayrshire and Devon. Hundreds of other experiments of a similar sort have been carried on, with the result that the relative rank of breeds varies greatly, according to the individuality of the cows, the period of lactation, age of the cows, method of handling and feeding and various other factors. It is apparent from these ex- periments that dairy cows should be se- lected not entirely for their breed, but for their ability to produce milk and butter in large quantities and with good profit for the feed consumed. Individuality in cows—Attention has frequently been called to the necessity of judging each cow on her merits and in order to do this fairly it is necessary to weign the milk and make fat tests at much as three average cows placed in the profitable class. On account of the fact that nearly all dairymen who have not tested their herds are keeping a number of cows at an actual loss, it is to be strongly urged that frequent tests be given at least not farther apart than every three months, in order to make sure that each animal is returning a profit for the feed con- sumed. The improvement of the dairy herd may best be accomplished by se- lecting for breeding purposes only those cows which have ancestors noted for their milk production and in using only those bulls which come from heavy yielding families. "Weedy flavors in milk — Disagree- able flavors due to weeds which cows oc- casionally eat, particularly in the spring, DAIRY CATTLE 467 are familiar to all milk consumers. A considerable number of weeds, as well as other plants which are used for forage purposes, are known to affect the flavor of milk unfavorably. Thus, as already mentioned, turnips and certain other roots, if fed in too large quantities just before milking, may lend their specific flavor to the milk. Chicory, if fed to milch cows, makes the milk bitter. A number of wild plants and weeds which are sometimes found in pastures may be instrumental in injuring the flavor of the milk. Thus, if cows eat large quan- tities of elderberry leaves, or bitterweed, the characteristic flavor of these plants Common cooking soda was also given foi the same purpose without avail. When mixed with water at the rate of twc parts to one before running through the separator, it was found that the bad fla- vor was removed from the cream when the water was used at a temperature of 150° F. and contained one ounce of salt- peter to 2 gallons. The flavor of the cream, however, was not good after this treatment, although the bitterness was removed. The same treatment without the addition of saltpeter gave practically the same result. A much better flavor in cream was obtained when the water was added at a temperature of 160° F., Fig. 296 — MODERN TYPE OF MILKING MACHINE AT WORK may be transmitted to the milk. Per- haps the most disagreeable of all the weed flavors commonly observed in milk is that produced by the wild onion or garlic. This flavor when strongest makes the milk almost unfit for food. The best way of getting rid of these weed flavors consists in a proper system of rotation by which the pastures will be plowed at not too long intervals and planted to some crop so that the weeds are kept down. In Alabama, Clark tried a number of experiments to get rid of the odor and flavor of the wild onion and bitterweed. A proprietary remedy recommended for an addition to the ra- tion proved to be absolutely useless. and when used at this heat the addition of saltpeter influenced the flavor of the cream unfavorably. It was found in further experiments that bitterweed taste was removed entirely from the cream by thoroughly mixing it with two or more parts of water at any tempera- ture above 70° F. If the milk or cream is heated to high temperatures to drive off bad odors and flavors, the bitterness is not entirely re- moved, and the milk may acquire a cooked flavor. While this method of washing cream is effective in removing the flavor of bitterweed so that it does not appear in the butter, it was found practically impossible to remove the 468 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK taste of bitterweed from whole milk. The flavor of wild onion was not re- moved from cream by mixing it with water and running it through the sep- arator, and saltpeter was also of no value. No method was discovered in this set of experiments by which onion flavor could be removed either from the milk or cream. Bedding — Too little attention is given by the ordinary farmer to the subject of bedding for his milch cows. Almost any dry material which cannot be other- wise used is often considered good enough for this purpose. Bedding for keep the cows in comfort and cleanli- ness. Cut straw is often considered superior to uncut, but it appeared to pack down readily and was more easily kicked about by the cows, leaving por- tions of the stable floor bare. Uncut wheat straw also proved superior to corn stover in convenience and effectiveness, but corn stover proved to be a very valu- able material for use as bedding; it remained in place quite well and did not given rise to dust. In a comparison of sawdust with shav- ings it appeared that each cow required 11 pounds of sawdust and 2.7 pounds Fig. 297 — WASHING THE UDDERS BEFORE MILKING milch cows, however, should be free from certain defects which are present in common materials. The two great prerequisites of an effective bedding are that it shall absorb liquid manure read- ily and create no dust. The materials commonly used on the farm are straw, the coarse and inedible portion of roughage thrown out from the mangers, corn stalks and other similar material. A careful study of the subject of bed- ding for dairy cows was made by Doane in Maryland. In this work, wheat straw cut or uncut, corn stover, sawdust and shavings were compared. It was found that considerably more cut straw was required than uncut wheat straw to of shavings a day to keep clean. Saw- dust cannot be obtained conveniently, except in the neighborhood of sawmills, and under such circumstances should not cost more than a cent a 100 pounds. In the comparative test under discus- sion, sawdust was found to be the best of all materials tested. It kept the cows cleaner than any other form of bedding, stayed in place better, was entirely free from dust and gave a neater, better ap- pearance to the stables. Another ad- vantage observed in the use of sawdust is that it increases the bulk of the manure, making it easier to spread and thus adding a coarse material to the DAIRY CATTLE 469 soil which improves its physical proper- ties. Shavings are practically equal to sawdust in their general usefulness, but cost considerably more. In the test car- ried on by Doane, the yearly cost for bedding for cows stabled sixteen hours per day was 11 cents for sawdust, $2.55 for cut corn stover, $3.11 for uncut wheat straw, $3.61 for cut wheat straw, $3.28 for shavings. The amount of bed- ding required to absorb the liquid ma- nure from each cow stabled 16 hours per day varied from 2.8 pounds in the case of corn stover to 8 1-3 pounds in the case of sawdust. Influence of weather on milk — Dairy cows, particularly those of a nervous Relative profit from, milk, cream and butter — The form in which the dairy products shall be marketed is a matter which must be settled by the individual dairyman according to his peculiar con- ditions. Many dairymen are so located that it would be quite impossible for them to run a daily milk route; while for others this is the simplest way in which the milk can be marketed. There are so many different schemes available that it is practically impossible to dis- cuss all of them in this connection. The milk may be separated on the farm and the cream sold to a regular list of cus- tomers or to wholesale dealers or cream- eries for use in the manufacture of but- Fig. 298 MODERN DAIRY BARN. REAR VIEW temperament, are very susceptible to the influence of the weather and in order to get the best results it is necessary to have some regard to measures for pro- tecting cows against sudden climatic changes and cold rains. Violent changes in the weather lower the milk yield, and in some instances, though not always, the fat content is also lowered. In a series of observations made in Kentucky, May found that the milk yield was more decidedly affected than the fat content by climatic changes, but that the loss of milk from exposure of the cows to cold rains was often a serious matter. The amount of feed required under cir- cumstances where exposure must be en- dured, is also greater than where the cows are better protected. ter. Likewise the milk may be sold along a regular milk route, to wholesale dealers or to creameries. In the latter case it must be collected oftener than is necessary with cream. One of the great- est drawbacks which has prevailed in the manufacture of butter on the farm is that such butter too often lacks qual- ity and uniformity. Many dairymen do not equip themselves with proper appa- ratus for producing butter of a standard quality, and do not employ persons who have the proper skill and experience for this work. The relative profits from marketing dairy products under these different forms depends to some extent on the amount of apparatus and equipment necessary for managing the business in 470 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK these different forms. Thus, if hutter is made at home, account must be taken of the expense of a churn and other butter-making apparatus, as well as cans and proper conditions under which to ripen the cream. Again, it should be remembered that creameries buy milk on the basis of its fat content, while the city dealers and customers pay for the milk by the quart or gallon without re- gard to its fat content, provided it is high enough to satisfy the standard. It is, therefore, obvious that, with city deal- ers, milk testing 6 per cent fat will bring no more than 4 per cent milk. Essentially the same point is true also ter and 70 cents a gallon for cream. When, however, cream brings 70 cents a gallon, butter fat should bring 40 cents a pound at the creamery, and butter must sell at least at 33 cents a pound to realize the same amount from the milk as would have been obtained by selling the cream outright. It is well known that country butter seldom brings as high a price as 33 cents, and cream- eries do not pay 40 cents a pound for butter fat. It would appear from this comparison, therefore, that the most profit is to be made from selling the milk or cream as such. Profits from dairy cows — I n order to Fig. 299 — INTERIOR OF A SANITARY DAIRY STABLE with regard to cream, for even where a 20 per cent standard for cream is maintained, 15 per cent cream is fre- quently sold without objection. In the vicinity of the District of Co- lumbia, the milk producer obtains from 14 to 20 cents a gallon for his milk in winter and from 13 to 16 cents in sum- mer; while for cream he receives from 70 to 85 cents a gallon in winter and from 55 to 75 cents in summer. The creameries in the neighborhood of Balti- more give from I6V2 to 30 cents a pound for butter fat and return the skim milk to the producer. Doane calls attention to the fact that it is easy to obtain from 17 to 19 cents a gallon for milk in win- estimate the profits from dairying, it is necessary to determine accurately the total cost and production of average cows under average conditions. Thus, in Missouri, the average returns a cow from milk sold to creameries was found to vary from $37.14 to $61.23 with dif- ferent dairymen. On a basis of these average figures, it is estimated that the income from each cow, when the milk is sold to a creamery, should be from $50 to $60 for the butter fat, $10 as the value of the skim milk and $4 for the value of the calf at birth. The annual production of individual cows varies enormously, as might be expected from the great variation in the productive DAIRY CATTLE 471 capacity of cows. Thus, one herd com- pared directly with those just mentioned from Missouri, produced on an average $74.40 worth of butter annually. The -Missouri state department of agricul- ture has estimated from an elaborate series of statistics that the average in- come from each cow, when the milk is sold in a city, is $51.25. In order to make a satisfactory profit from dairy cows it is necessary that the income should be somewhat more than $50 a year, for the average cost of keeping a cow ranges from $30 to $38 a year in different parts of the country. Protecting cows from flies — While too close confinement in the hot weather of summer, and for that reason manv remedies have been tried for the purpose of driving away the flies by disagreeable odors or actually killing them with con- tact poisons. In Kansas, Otis tested a number of fly mixtures, but obtained the best results from one containing l 1 /-} pounds of resin, two cakes common soap, i/2 pound of fish oil and enough water to make 3 gallons. This may be ap- plied with a brush, or, if sprayed on the cattle, % pint of kerosene may be added. The mixture costs 7 or 8 cents per gallon and is recommended for use on either cows or calves. Half a pint of Fig. 300 — COW STALLS IN A MODEL DAIRY some difference of opinion prevails re- garding the influence of worry by flies in lowering the milk yield, there can be little doubt as to the importance of using all convenient and inexpensive means for preventing the attacks of flies as far as possible. In most parts of the great dairy regions of the United States, the hornfly is the most serious pest of this sort with which we have to deal. The hornfly constitutes a serious source of worry, and in some localities it has been found necessary to keep the cows indoors, with the windows screened, dur- ing the heat of the day, in order to prevent the lowering of the milk yield. This method, however, keeps the cow away from pasture too much, or involves the mixture is enough for, one applica- tion to each cow. If the hornfly nui- sance is exceedingly bad, it may be necessary to spray the cows twice a week at first, but later the applications may be further apart. In Connecticut, Beach and Clark tested a number of remedies for keep- ing flies away from cows, most of them being proprietary remedies. It was found possible to protect the cows to a considerable extent by the use of pro- prietary ointments and other remedies referred to as fly removers, but they are rather expensive and their use ap- peared to have little or no effect on the amount of milk or butter yielded by the cows. Beach and Clark, therefore, come 472 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK to the conclusion that in Connecticut, at any rate, the annoyance caused to cows by flies has been somewhat over- estimated. In Virginia, flies were found to be so numerous in certain localities as to make necessary the use of an effective remedy for getting rid of them. After testing a considerable series of mixtures, the Virginia experiment sta- tion found that the best results could be obtained from the use of a kerosene mixture as a spray; after a few applica- tions of this mixture at short intervals to cows, the flies were so greatly reduced in numbers as to cause little further annoyance during the season. In order to make the application of this remedy under the most favorable conditions, the cows were driven into a small spraying shed and were there thoroughly sprayed with kerosene emulsion so as not to men. The variations in the manipula- tions which they apply to the cow's udder are not always constant, and it is frequently difficult to get a satisfac- tory description of the method from the individual milker. It has long been be- lieved that the milk yield must depend to some extent on the manipulation which the udder receives at the time of milking. Hegelund method — Within recent years, Hegelund, a Danish dairy school teacher, has introduced a new method of milking, and has described it in a satisfactory way. The method is every- where known as the Hegelund method. This method really consists of a series of manipulations applied to the udder as soon as the main flow of milk has ceased, in order to secure all of the milk secreted by the cow. This is the purpose 301 — A CEMENT DAIRY BARN frighten the flies away before they were touched with the spray. Likewise in Massachusetts, a number of tests have been made with fly preventives of a pro- prietary nature. In these tests, ten dif- ferent remedies were used and some were found to be satisfactory, while others were ineffective. Even with those which were satisfactory, the cost is alto- gether too great, although if other rem- edies are not available, it is believed that even an expensive proprietary remedy, if effective, is an economic proposition. Milking methods — All dairymen un- derstand that there is considerable dif- ference in the effectiveness of different men as milkers. Some men will obtain a slightly larger quantity of milk than others, and even maintain the milk flow at a high point for a longer period. Little attempt is usually made to de- scribe the different methods of milking which have been adopted by different of stripping, the method in common practice with farmers, but recent exper- iments indicate that the Hegelund method makes it possible to get more milk than by any other method thus far adopted. The method in question, as described by Woll and others, involves the follow- ing series of manipulations: In the first place, the right quarters of the udder are pressed against each other, the left hand being on the hindquarter and the right hand in front of the fore- quarter of the udder and the thumbs on the outside of the udder in the divi- sion between the two halves; the hands are pressed toward each other, at the same time lifting the udder; after each manipulation of this sort, the milk which has collected in the mill? cistern is milked out and the manipulation re- peated until no more milk can be ob- tained. The left quarters of the udder DAIRY CATTLE 473 are then treated in the same way. The second manipulation of the Hegelund method consists in pressing the udder together from side to side, the fore- quarters being treated first and milked out thoroughly, after which the hind- quarters are treated in the same man- ner. In the third manipulation of the method, the fore teats are grasped with the partly closed hands and pushed up quite firmly against the udder; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. After the fore teats have been milked out, the hind teats are treated in the same way. The Hegelund method has been quite thoroughly tested in various parts of the United States. In Wisconsin, Woll made a study of the method as applied to the experiment station dairy and to all of the cows in Wisconsin as the result of applying the Hegelund method, it would mean an average gain of 30,000,000 pounds of butter fat in a milk year of 300 days, with a value of $6,000,000, on a basis of 20 cents a pound for butter. Milk during the period of heat — At the present time much attention is being given by health officers and milk con- sumers to all the factors and conditions which may influence the quality or wholesomeness of milk. Doane, in Maryland, recently carried out a num- ber of tests with milk obtained from cows during the period of heat. It was found that with most cows there was no appreciable variation in any of the con- stituents of the milk during this period, 302 — OLD FASHIONED MILK MAID twelve other dairies in different parts of the state. The purpose of these tests was to determine the increased amount of milk obtained by the Hegelund method. In the university herd, the average daily production of milk was increased 4.5 per cent and the production of fat 9.2 per cent, the average gain in milk being 1 pound and in fat .9 of a pound a head a day. Practically the same re- sults were obtained from the application of this method to dairies in other parts of the state. The test was continued during a period of four months with cows in all stages of lactation and ap- parently the beneficial results of the method are manifest throughout the whole lactation period. Woll estimates that if the same relative increase of milk and fat production was obtained from but that occasionally there was a slight increase in the amount of fat during the first and second days of the period of heat. It appears, therefore, that milk from cows during heat is in a normal condition and quite fit for use. Milking machines — I n Europe and the English colonies, several types of milking machines have been tested, and with satisfactory results in many cases. These machines are operated by elec- tricity or other power, and for the most part depend for their action upon the production of a partial vacuum in a cup- like apparatus attached to the teats. The chief advantage claimed for milking ma- chines is that by their use the milk can be drawn from the udder through tubes into the milk pail without the possibility of contamination with dirt or bacteria. 474 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Milking machines have not been used as much in this country as in Europe, and the reports from their use have not been so favorable. In some instances, it has been claimed that the milk yield was slightly diminished when milking ma- chines were used. Eecent experiments by Lane and Erf indicate that milking machines are quite satisfactory if kept scrupulously clean. Improvement of dairy conditions — The inspection of dairies which furnish milk for public use indicates clearly that in many cases there is room for improve- from chemical preservatives, such as bo- rax, formalin, salicylic acid or carbon- ate of soda. Bacteriologically pure milk should contain less than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and must be strictly free from disease germs or bacteria which produce gas and pus. As com- pared with this standard, an inspection of the samples of market milk offered for sale in the District of Columbia, showed that only 21 out of 117 samples contained less than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while some showed more bacteria than the sewage water of Fig. 303 — MODERN MILK MAIDS WITH COVERED PAILS ment. It has become necessary to estab- lish a standard of purity and quality of market milk. Pure market milk, as stated by Kober and others, should be mechanically, chemically and bacterio- logically pure. In other words, mar- ket milk should be free from dirt and should show its proper percentage of fat without the removal of cream, or the addition of water or skim milk. The amount of total solids should be 12.5 per cent and the fat at least 3.5 per cent. Moreover, chemically pure milk must contain all of its normal constituents and must be free from pus, toxins, ptomains, leucomains and disagreeable odors and flavors. It must also be free the city. The diseases which may be carried by milk have already been referred to under the head of Milk In- spection. Dairy sanitation — In order to obtain sanitary milk, a number of sanitary re- quirements must be met. These re- quirements may be briefly mentioned in this connection: The milk should not be used for food until five days after calv- ing; the ration for milk cows should not contain materials which impart a bad odor or flavor to the milk ; stables should be thoroughly cleaned at frequent inter- vals, so as to contain no sour food or manure which might taint the milk by their odors; the udders must be washed DAIRY CATTLE 475 Or thoroughly brushed before milking; the milk should be removed from the stable as soon as drawn and strained through several layers of cheese cloth, or cotton batting, after which it is to be aerated and immediately cooled by the use of ice or water. If milk is held over night, it must be stored in a place free from odor. All dairy utensils must be thoroughly washed and scalded in order to render them sterile. The tem- perature at which the milk is held may range from 40° to 60° F. On many farms it is not easy to keep the tem- perature below 60° F. Great improve- ments in the points just mentioned with regard to the sanitary care of milk may while a portion of this section of the barn may be separated off as a milking stable. The rest of the barn may be so arranged that the forage is hauled in upon the second floor and stored so that it may be fed to cows without creating a dust in the milking stable, and without becoming contaminated with odors from cow manure. One necessary feature from a sanitary standpoint is that the floor of the milking stable shall be impervious to water and smooth enough to allow it to be flushed out at frequent intervals. The manure should preferably be taken out at one end of the stable and dumped in a wagon, which may be hauled away as soon as it is Fig. 304 — MILKERS IN SANITARY SUITS be made in a large percentage of dairies and when this is done the quality of the milk will be better and customers will be better satisfied. Dairy barns — The chief particulars to be remembered in the construction of a dairy barn are convenience in stabling the cows and storing feed, comfort and health of the cows and ease of handling milk under sanitary conditions. It is obviously quite impossible to suggest details of construction, since these will differ in each individual case, according to the local conditions. In some cases, it will be found very convenient so_ to construct the barn that the lower side, if on a side hill, will furnish an open shed for the protection of the cows, filled. The system of throwing the ma- nure through windows immediately be- hind the cows is very objectionable, for the reason that the inside of the stable will thus become smeared over with ma- nure, and the odor of the manure lying outside is constantly carried into the stable. Dehorning cows during lactation — As already indicated, in the discussion of Beef Cattle, it is best to dehorn all the calves at an early age, since the opera- tion may then be done without pain to the animal and they are thereafter ready for any work required. If cows are de- horned in full flow of milk, the milk yield is thereby diminished for a period of a week or two to the extent of 15 to 45 476 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK per cent. This loss in the milk flow may be avoided by dehorning calves while young. Contamination of milk with dirt and bacteria — Mention has already been made of certain rules by which sanitary milk may be obtained. It seems desir- able to call further attention to the ways in which milk may become con- taminated. Fraser, in Illinois, found that the amount of dirt which falls from the udder in milking varies according to the character of the dirt, the amount of hair on the udder, its shape and the length of teats. In these tests three and one-half times as much dirt fell from unwashed udders as the same udders after they had been washed; while in some cases where the udders were muddy, Fig. 305— RACK FOR MILK CANS nine times as much dirt fell from the udder before washing as after washing. With udders in average condition it was found that an ounce of dirt would fall from each udder in the course of thirty- two milkings or 1 ounce of filth. for each 275 pounds of milk. After washing, how- ever, there was only 1 ounce of filth in each 24,000 pounds of milk. All dirt on cows' udders and on the milker contain bacteria; consequently the number of bacteria which gain en- trance to the milk varies with the amount of filth. Washing dairy utensils — It is too often the case that the dairyman is sat- isfied with cleaning milk utensils like kitchen dishes. More care is required in cleaning dairy utensils, for the reason that bacteria multiply so readily in the smallest particles of milk which may be left in the corners of dairy utensils. Erf and others have repeatedly called atten- tion to the necessity of using a brush, and a good washing powder on every part of the cream separator after each using. All parts should then be rinsed in boiling water, or, still better, steamed and left to dry while hot. The use of wiping cloths is almost sure to contami- nate milk utensils, since they are not bacteriologically clean, except in the rarest instances. Erf found that the bacterial contamination of milk was in- creased three times by running it through a separator which had merely been flushed and not thoroughly cleansed. Various investigators have found that the separator slime, found in the separa- tor after the cream has been removed, contains a relatively large percentage of bacteria, and whenever this is used in feeding pigs, without previous boil- ing, tuberculosis develops in a large percentage of cases. Haecker and others have found it de- sirable to use special precautions to prevent the contamination of milk dur- ing milking. It is recommended by Haecker that the udder and teats be washed, after which an application of a vaseline ointment containing 5 per cent of carbolic acid is used. Fermentation of milk — The presence of bacteria or other filth in milk leads to rapid fermentation and souring. It is a comparatively simple matter to convince one's self that the exercise of special care in preventing the contam- ination of milk will yield milk which will keep much longer than that which has been carelessly handled, and, there- fore, contains filth. This is a matter of great importance to the dairyman who sells milk for use as such, since the cus- tomer naturally wants milk which will keep fresh as long as possible. If milk is intended for the manufacture of but- ter or cheese, harmless bacteria in it simply serve to hasten the ripening proc- ess. Some of these bacteria, however, may give a rancid or otherwise disagree- able flavor to the butter or cheese. Even when every possible precaution is taken, enough bacteria will gain entrance to the milk to produce a souring and ripen- ing of the cream. More than 200 species of bacteria have been found in milk. Fortunately, however, most of them are harmless, ex- cept that they cause the milk to sour. Some produce bitter flavors, others, gas, and still others, color changes. The best results in the souring of milk and ripen- ing of cream are obtained when bac- teria are excluded as far as possible by DAIRY CATTLE 477 cleanly methods of milking and han- dling the milk, and when starters are used which are known to produce a de- sirable flavor in the butter. Practical methods of handling milk — In dairying as conducted at present, the farmer is primarily interested in the Fig. 306 — CHAMPION MILK COOLER AERATOR production of fine milk. The technical operations by which butter, cheese or condensed milk and other milk products are manufactured, are chiefly of interest to expert butter or cheese makers in the factories to which the farmer delivers his milk. It is still true, however, that far more than half of the butter pro- duced in the United States is made on farms. The price obtained for farm butter is altogether too low, and this is due to the poor quality of such butter, and the many complaints which are made concerning it. It is of much im- portance to the farmer, therefore, to adopt improved methods in handling milk and making butter, since otherwise, he cannot obtain remunerative prices for these products. Thus, at present, in the southern states, well made creamery butter readily sells for 30 cents a pound, while average farm butter will bring but 10 to 12 cents. The cost of producing 10-cent butter is about the same as thai for 30-cent butter, and the desirability of giving more attention to^ modern methods in producing butter is, there- fore, apparent. Aerating milk — Mention has already been made of the desirability of aerat- ing the milk as soon as it has been drawn. This is practiced extensively by dairymen and milk dealers throughout the country. It is only recently, however, that particular attention has been called to this matter in the United States. The immediate purpose of aerating the milk is to remove the animal odor which is present in warm milk, and which is disagreeable to many persons. As a matter of fact, the animal odor of milk will disappear in the ordinary course of events if the milk is allowed to stand for some time under sanitary conditions, but the process is much hastened by the use of an aerator. The aerators in com- mon use are very simple in construction. In fact, the milk may be fairly well aerated by simply dipping it up from the can and pouring it back from some height above the can. Most of the aerators in general use consist essen- tially of a tin reservoir supported by legs and perforated with small holes. The milk is poured into the reservoir above and passes out through the small holes into the can below. The milk may also be made to run in a tin sheet over a metal surface which is cooled from be- hind with cold water. The milk is thus aerated and cooled off at the same time. Aeration of milk not only removes the animal odor but improves the keeping quality of the milk. In some compara- tive tests, it has been found that un- aerated milk keeps as long as that which has been aerated, but this, as a rule, is the case only when the milk is obtained in an unusually clean condition. The vcfjTiL^TiNio fuse MIIIV-- <== COOUrtC DP.UM-/ 7 /" wetfe^ Fig. PEfyofvtfiONj BOTTOM PlTCHCD f<(0M TOR WATER CENTER TO <\BO STRENGTH % ^ ^ 307 — SECTIONAL VIEW OF MILK COOLER AERATOR use of an aerator appears to have little effect upon the quality of butter or cheese made from the milk. Its chief value consists in the fact that aeration may be accomplished by a cheap appara- tus which cools the milk rapidly at the same time. 478 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Another type of aerator depends upon forcing the air through the milk. The animal odors are thus rapidly removed, but the milk is not thereby cooled and does not keep appreciably longer than unaerated milk. Marshall, in Michigan, found that in aerating milk a consider- able per cent of the carbon dioxide was removed and this was considered an un- favorable result of aeration. Carbon dioxide is not harmful when taken into the stomach, and its presence in the milk has a tendency to che^k the growth of bacteria and prevent the souring of the milk. In some of Marshall's experi- ments, the aerated milk soured more quickly than that which was not aerated. In these tests, however, the milk was in an unusually clean condition, and the results perhaps do not apply to milk which contains a relatively high num- ber of bacteria and considerable filth. Doane suggests that the chief use of the aerator should be in helping the city dealer to remove bad odors which milk may contain, while the farmer should strive to produce milk which does not need the aerator in order to eliminate bad smells. Pasteurization— Of the various meth- ods which have been adopted for elim- inating bacteria from milk, or greatly reducing their number, pasteurization occupies an important place. It may be assumed as certain that even under the best possible conditions a consid- erable number of bacteria will gain en- trance to the milk. The possibility cannot be excluded that among these bacteria there are some which belong to harmful species. The simplest and surest means of destroying these bac- teria is found in pasteurization. This may be accomplished by exposing the milk for 10 to 15 minutes at a tempera- ture of 158° F. This method has a dis- tinct advantage, since the milk does not thereby acquire a cooked taste, and its keeping qualities are greatly improved. It is desirable, however, immediately af- ter pasteurization that the milk be re- duced to a temperature of 50° F. and kept at that point. The recommenda- tions made by different dairy experts re- garding the length of exposure, and the temperature of pasteurization, vary con- siderably. In Michigan, pasteurization was successfully accomplished by heat- ing the milk to 155° F. and keeping it at that temperature for 20 minutes. Later experiments in Wisconsin showed that when milk was maintained at 140° F. for 15 or 20 minutes, about 99 per cent of bacteria were killed and the milk kept sweet for six days. On this point, however, opinions vary somewhat, and the results obtained depend upon the skill applied to the process of pasteuriza- tion. Thus Harrington estimates that about 75 per cent of ordinary bacteria in milk are destroyed by keeping the milk for one hour at 140° F., for 15 minutes at 150° F., or for 10 minutes at 158° F. If milk is carried above 158° F. it may acquire a cooked taste. For practical purposes, therefore, a temperature of about 155° F. for 20 or 30 minutes should be considered satisfactory for pas teurization. Many physicians claim that the use even of such low temperatures unfavor- ably influences the digestibility and nu- tritive value of milk for infant feeding, and that, for this reason, preference should be given to raw milk for infant feeding obtained under strict sanitary conditions. Kober and others, however, call atten- tion to the difficulty of obtaining raw milk in such a way as to guarantee its absolute wholesomeness for children, and, therefore, recommend pasteurization as the lesser evil of the two. In fact, many physicians believe that the dangers from the use of pasteurized milk have been greatly exaggerated. Pasteurization is commonly accom- plished by placing the milk in vessels surrounded by hot water. A considerable number of satisfactory pasteurizers have been placed on the market and may be obtained from dealers in dairy products. Detailed directions for their use are fur- nished with the apparatus. Bacteria in milk as related to tern perature — The chief purpose for cooling milk immediately after it is drawn is to check the growth of bacteria and thereby lengthen the time during which the milk will remain sweet. It has been found by the extensive investigations of Conn and others that variations in temperature have a striking influence upon the rate of multiplication of bacteria in milk. At a temperature of 50° F. bacteria mny multiply only fivefold in 24 hours, while in the same period at 70° F. they may multiply 750 times. It is obvious, there- fore, that temperature has a great in- fluence upon the keeping property of milk. Milk maintained at 95° F. will DAIRY CATTLE 479 curdle in 18 hours, while the same milk kept at 70° F. will not curdle until af- ter 48 hours, and at 50° F. may not curdle for two weeks. Conn has, there- fore, called attention to the fact thac the keeping quality of the milk depends more intimately upon the temperature at which the milk is kept than upon the original contamination of the milk with filth and bacteria. The use of refriger- ation, however, should not be allowed as a means of preventing the bad results of filthy habits in milking. Formalin as a preservative of milk — Special attention is called to formalin as a milk preservative for the reason thai this chemical has recently been used more extensively than any other for the pur- pose of preventing the souring of milk, and the development of bacteria in it. Numerous experiments with it have been carried on by European investigators and by the United States Department of Agriculture and agricultural experi- ment stations in the different states. It has been shown by Chester, that bacteria diminish rapidly in milk when it con- tains formalin at the rate of one part in 2,000. Even when formalin was added only to the extent of one part in 4,000 the multiplication of bacteria was much less rapid than in the case of untreated milk. Chester believes that the use of 1 teaspoonful of 40 per cent formalin for each 15 gallons of milk will improve the sanitary condition of the milk by pre- venting fermentation without causing any marked harm to persons who con- sume the milk. As already stated under the discussion of Beef Animals, Klein and others have found that the use of formalin in milk fed to calves may be depended upon to prevent or cure scours. The action of the formalin is obviously the same in this case as when used sim- ply for preventing the fermentation of milk. Moreover, Von Behring recom- mends the addition of formalin at the rate of one part to 20,000 to 40,000 parts of milk in order to destroy tubercle bacilli in the milk. The whole question of the use of preservatives, however, is at present subject to a bitter controversy and until some of the doubtful point3 are settled regarding their use, it seems best to recommend against the use of any preservative in milk, for the reason that by the exercise of due care milk can be obtained which will keep long enough for the purposes of the ordinary consumer. Babcock milk test — The only means of knowing the productivity of each cow consists in weighing the milk and testing it from time to time for fat con- tent. Reliable spring scales are inex- pensive and may be hung in positions so that the time occupied in weighing the milk of each cow is exceeding slight. The percentage of butter fat should also be tested once a month or oftener. The best and simplest apparatus for deter- mining the percentage of fat in milk is the Babcock tester. In making the test, the milk to be tested should be thor- oughly shaken so as to obtain a fair, average sample. The samples from dif- ferent cows are then mixed with strong sulphuric acid in Babcock test bottles and whirled at the rate of 850 to 1,000 revolutions a minute in the Babcock tester for about five minutes. The con- tents of each bottle should be well shaken before whirling in the tester and immediately after adding the sulphuric acid. The action of the acid is to digest the protein of the milk and set free the fat, which readily separates from the Test of the milk. After the machine has been whirled for five minutes it is stopped and pure hot water, preferably distilled water, is added so as to fill the bottles up to the neck. The machine is then whirled again for two minutes and hot water again added until the fat rises in the neck of the bottle, where the percentage may be read on a gradu- ated scale. The machine is again whirled for a minute to make sure that all the fat is separated, and the tempera- ture of the milk at this time should preferably range between 120° and 140° F. If too much acid is used or the milk is too warm at the time when the acid is added, some of the fat may be charred; on the other hand, if too little acid is used, white flocculent material may appear at the lower end of the fat column; again, if the water is impure or hard, there may be a mass of foam at the top of the fat column. The reading of the percentage of fat is a simple mat- ter, which may be done very accurately after a little experience has been had. Creaming of milk — After the milk has been somewhat cooled by the use of a cooler, or some other cooling device, it may be set in shallow or deep pans for the separation of the milk by gravity; or the milk may be run through a separator without any preliminary cooling. There are. therefore, two general systems of 480 PARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK cream separation, the gravity and cen- trifugal systems, both of which depend for their results upon the difference in the specific gravity between the fat and other parts of the milk. There are three modifications of the gravity system in common use, namely, shallow setting, deep setting, and water dilution. The shallow pan system consists in placing the milk in pans 2 to 4 inches in depth as soon as possible after milking and keeping the milk at a temperature of 40 to 60° F. in a room without dust and without any bad odors. Under or- dinary conditions it requires about 36 hours for the cream to rise by this sys- tem and at the end of this time the cream is removed by a milk skimmer, A considerable amount of cream, on an tern of obtaining cream consists in di- luting the milk with about an equal weight of pure cold water, and leaving the milk in tin cans for a few hours, at the end of which time the skim milk and water may be drawn away from the bottom, thus leaving the cream. The advantages of this system are that the cream rises more quickly than by the shallow setting or deep setting systems. The method suffers from several dis- advantages, however. It gives more vol- ume to the milk to be handled and prac- tically spoils the skim milk for feeding purposes. Moreover, the cream is of a slightly inferior quality and may be- come badly contaminated if the water used in dilution is not the best. The centrifugal separation of cream, Fig. 308 DOG POWER FOR RUNNING SEPARATOR average about .5 of 1 per cent remains in the skim milk even under conditions most favorable for the operation of this system. Deep setting for cream separation consists in placing the milk in shotgun or Cooley cans about 8 inches in diam- eter and 20 inches deep. The best re- sults are obtained if the milk is kept at a temperature of about 40° F. by plac- ing the cans in ice water. Under favor- able conditions not more than .2 per cent of fat should remain in the skim milk under this system and the cream is in bettei condition than that obtained from shallow setting. The time required for the operation of this system is about 24 hours and the amount of fat in cream obtained by the Cooley system is usually 18 to 20 per cent. The hydraulic or water-dilution sys- like the gravity systems, depends upon the fact that the cream is lighter than the rest of the milk, but the force supplied for separating the cream oper- ates in a horizontal direction rather than in a vertical direction, as is the case with gravity. Separation by the centri- fugal method is accomplished through the use of some form of separator. The chief advantage of the centrifugal meth- od is that the cream may be successfully separated under a considerable range of temperatures. Perhaps the best tempera- ture is that of the normal body heat of the animal, the milk being run through the separator immediately after milk- ing. A superior quality of cream can be obtained by the use of a separator, since the milk is not allowed to sour and the cream is therefore not subjected to the influence of bacteria which may DAIRY CATTLE 481 have gained entrance to the milk. More- over, the thickness of the cream, when the separator is used, may be regulated at will, whereas by the gravity system the amount of fat is never higher than 20 per cent. The fat is more completely removed by the use of a separator than by any gravity system and the skim milk is obtained sweet and in the best possible condition for feeding to calves and other animals. Separators — The idea of separating cream by centrifugal force was appar- ently first suggested in 1859, but the apparatus devised for this purpose was somewhat clumsy and unsatisfactory un- til 1879, when the Weston and De Laval separators were invented. The essential feature of all separators is the bowi which revolves in a vertical position, and may or may not be furnished with various devices on the inside. The milk may be allowed to enter the top or bot- tom of the bowl, but in most machines it enters at the top. It is at once acted upon by the centrifugal force in the re- volving bowl and separates into three layers, a thick layer, commonly known as the separator slime, next to the outer wall; the skim milk layer coming next, toward the center and the cream in the center; the richest cream being in the center of the bowl. The rate of feed may be regulated by a simple device, and directions for all the practical de- tails of operating separators are fur- nished with each machine. It is best to follow these directions closely, for the reason that they have been thoroughly tested by the manufacturers and others, and the recommendations are based on the results of these experiments. The rate of revolutions varies from 6,000 to 9,000 or more per minute in different machines and the manufacturers of each machine indicate the rate at which the best results are to be obtained. This recommendation must also be followed. The machine should be started slowly and the proper speed obtained by grad- ually increasing the rate of revolution. The milk should not be allowed to enter until the right speed has been attained. A considerable number of separators are ^advertised for use on the farm. These include the De Laval, the United States, Sharpies, Iowa, Simplex, Omega, Empire, Davis, National, Dairy Queen, Westphalia, Peerless and Skimclose. Naturally a keen rivalry exists among the manufacturers of these different machines in claiming superior advan- tages for each machine. It would be quite useless to attempt in this connec- tion to determine the relative value of different makes of separators. They dif- fer not only in strength, closeness of skimming, simplicity, and height of the receiving can, but also in the rate of speed required, durability, capacity, power required for turning and other points. The low position of the receiv- ing can is claimed by some makers as a great advantage, but it is obvious that this advantage is of little importance if it is obtained by sacrificing the mech- anical strength and durability of the machine. The amount of cream left in the skim milk by separators ranges from .1 to .2 per cent. Separating milk — Milk may be run through the separator fresh from the cows, or, if allowed to become cool, should be heated before separation. In general, the higher the temperature the more fluid the milk and the easier the fat is removed. When milk is heated after becoming cool the temperature should be raised gradually. If the milk has partially soured or the cream has partly risen so as to form stringy masses, these conditions may interfere some- what with the effective operation of the separator. Care must also be exercised not to overfeed the separator, or to change the speed during the operation of the machine. After a little experi- ence, this matter is learned so that the operator may maintain a uniform stroke of the handle. According to McKay and Larsen, the use of farm separators has increased enormously within recent years. Thus, hand separators were introduced into Iowa in 1894; in 1898 there were 904 farm separators in the state, while in 1904 there were more than 17,000 and the number has increased greatly since that date. The reasons for this rapid extension of the use of farm separators have been well stated by McKay and Larsen. In the first place, the farmer obtains his skim milk in the best con- dition for feeding. The cost and trouble of hauling the milk to a creamery are avoided. The use of farm separators puts the farmer in a more independent position. The chief objections to farm separators are due to their careless use by the average farmer. If the separa- tors are not kept in an absolutely clean 482 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK condition, the quality of the cream ob- tained is poorer than that secured in creameries from whole milk delivered by the farmer. The size and capacity of the separator to be used in any individual case natu- rally depends on the amount of milk to be separated. For small farm dairies a hand power machine is sufficient, while with large dairies, or in creameries, a larger machine, run by steam, gasoline or electric power is required. Care of cream on the farm — Before churning, cream must undergo a ripen- ing process. This may be accomplished as the result of extensive observation that natural ripening may or may not lead to the production of good butter. The quality and flavor of the cream de- pend in such cases on the kind and num- ber of bacteria present in it. In the spring and early summer, the predomi- nating bacteria in the milk are favorable to the production of a good flavor in the butter. Later in the season, however, various gas-producing bacteria and other micro-organisms may cause a highly dis- agreeable flavor in the cream and butter. Certain species of bacteria have been found especially suited to developing a Fig. 309 — THE NEW WAY — A MODERN CHURN either by the natural or artificial method. Natural cream ripening is the term applied to the process of allowing the cream to stand until it is soured by the action of the bacteria ordinarily present in the milk and cream. If the cream is separated by any one of the gravity systems it is nearly ripe at the time when it is removed from the milk. On the other hand, if the cream is re- moved in a sweet condition by means of a separator, it must be set aside to ripen for a certain period, which depends largely on the temperature at which it is kept and the number of bacteria present in it. Natural ripening — It has been found desirable flavor in butter. Cultures of these bacteria are known as starters and are now used almost exclusively in the manufacture of creamery butter. The starter may be added to the cream with- out previous treatment. In such cases the starter is depended upon to predom- inate over other bacteria which may chance to be present and thus to control the kind of fermentation in the cream. Where cream is received from different farmers and under varying conditions, it is practically impossible to obtain a uniform and desirable flavor in the but- ter without pasteurizing the cream so as to destroy the bacteria which are al- ready present. After pasteurization, the DAIRY CATTLE 483 starter is added to ripen the cream in the proper manner. A long series of observations by the dairy experts in Wisconsin indicate that by the ordinary methods of setting miiK on the farm, about 20 per cent of the total butter product is lost in the skim milk. This means that in the milk of cows which yield enough butter fat to make 300 pounds of butter fat annually, about 60 pounds of butter is lost. At an average price of 20 cents a pound, this gives a loss of $12 a cow, or $120 for a herd of 10 cows. The latter sum is suf- ficient to pay for a good separator. Quality op farm butter — As already indicated, the quality of cream obtained Commercial starters — A number of firms dealing in dairy apparatus and supplies have put on the market pure cultures of bacteria known as commer- cial starters, and these have given ex- cellent results in the production of but- ter of a fine flavor. The increased price obtained for butter made by their use, will far more than offset their cost and the slight extra time required in pre- paring the starters. Under ordinary conditions from 10 to 30 per cent of starter is sufficient to bring the best results. Churning — It is commonly recom- mended that cream be at a temperature of 58 to 62° F. when placed in the Fig. 310 — THE OLD WAY ANCIENT TYPE OF CHURN from the ordinary farm dairy and the quality of butter made on the farm is generally inferior to standard creamery butter or cream obtained under proper conditions. It should be obvious, with- out further argument, that the energy and thought expended in giving proper attention to the cream and butter largely determine whether dairy cows are kept at a profit or at an actual loss. Poor farm butter often cannot be sold for more than 10 cents a pound, whereas, with the same amount of physical labor and a little more head work, butter might be produced which will bring 30 cents a pound. This means a multi- plication of the profits by three. churn. This is an important matter and the farmer should provide himself with a good dairy thermometer to deter- mine the temperature and not merely guess at it. A high temperature makes the butter come more quickly but there is more loss of butter in the buttermilk. A low temperature increases the time required for churning, but yields a firmer butter with less loss in the butter- milk. At temperatures between 50 and 60° F. most cream can be churned in from 20 to 40 minutes. The time re- quired and the results obtained depend on the cows, the season of the year, the stage of lactation and other factors. It is well known that the churnability of 484 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK cream differs greatly under different conditions. In winter, especially if the cows are not receiving much succulence in the ration, it may be a difficult mat- ter to make the butter gather in the churn. The effect of churning is to bring the fat globules in the cream together into masses of greater or less size, so they may be readily separated from the buttermilk. The agitation necessary to produce this result may be accomplished by various forms of churns, but a re- volving churn is best for ordinary use. It should preferably be filled one-third to one-half full with cream, and should be revolved at the rate of 50 to 60 times a minute. The greatest agitation of the cream is obtained when the churn is about one-third full. It should be re- membered that if the quantity of the cream is too small, some difficulty will be experienced in collecting the butter. In general, the more completely ripe the cream is, the easier it churns. Sweet cream is sticky and the fat globules do not break so readily and separate from the buttermilk. With regard to the rate of turning the churn the directions furnished by the manufacturers of the churn should be followed, since this mat- ter varies with the style of churn and the diameter. After a little experience one may readily recognize by the sound when the cream begins to break and churning should cease as soon as the butter gran- ules are about the size of wheat kernels. It may be safer to continue churning a little past this stage in order to make it easier to collect the butter. If the granules are too small, some of the but- ter may be lost in straining out the but- termilk. Over-churning, however, should be avoided, for the reason that much of the buttermilk will be retained in the butter and is difficult to remove. The amount of moisture content in butter is somewhat increased by long churning, but more than 16 per cent of water in butter is not allowed according to mar- ket standards. As soon as the butter granules are of the right size, the buttermilk is drawn off and the butter washed at least twice with cold, pure water, the churn being revolved a few times at each washing. The butter should not be washed too long since its flavor and aroma are easily removed in the water. The tempera- ture of the washing water should be the same as that of the butter or slightly colder or warmer, depending on the con- sistency of the butter. The chief pur- pose of washing butter is to remove the buttermilk and, as soon as this is ac- complished, the washing should bo stopped. Salting butter_As stated by McKay and Larsen, the chief objects of salting- are to improve the flavor of butter, increase its keeping quality and help in removing the buttermilk. The amount of salt to be added to the butter depends upon the market. There is some demand for sweet butter, and certain purchasers prefer highly salted butter. The amount of salt varies, therefore, from nothing to 4 per cent. The quantity of salt to be added also depends to some extent upon the amount of moisture in the butter. If a large percentage of mois- ture is present, more salt may be added, since a part of it will pass into solution in the water and be removed in working the butter. The overrun is a term used to denote the difference between the amount of butter fat and the quantity of butter manufacured from the butter fat. The percentage of overrun is obtained by dividing the difference between the but- ter fat and butter by the amount of fat and multiplying it by 100. The over- run is commonly estimated at from 16.6 per cent to 18.7 per cent. Salt is well known as an antiseptic, and is used for this purpose in the pres- ervation of meats and various other arti- cles of food. It has been found by experiments that most bacteria, even spore-bearing species, are destroyed in a short time in butter which contains 4 per cent of salt. This explains the observed fact that in properly salted butter, which has been kept for a rea- sonable length of time, the number of bacteria capable of growth is very small. The quality of the salt used in butter making is an important matter. It should be perfectly pure and free from all harmful ingredients. It should also be in a finely granulated condition, so that it readily dissolves and becomes uniformly mixed through the butter; otherwise a gritty condition may de- velop. Working butter_The chief objects of working butter are to distribute the salt through it uniformly, to bring it into a compact condition and to work out any DAIRY CATTLE 485 excess of buttermilk and water. The grain of the butter is injured by over- working and as soon as the surplus but- termilk is removed and tbe salt uniform- ly mixed through the butter, any further working injures the quality of the but- ter. According to McKay and Larsen, about 12 revolutions of a combined revolving churn and butter worker are sufficient to distribute the salt evenly. The salt may be added while the butter is in a granular form and the churn revolved a few times, after which it is allowed to stand for five to 10 minutes and then revolved four or five times again. It is better, however, to wait until the butter is collected into coarse granules before the salt is added. If but- ter is slightly too warm when churned, it should not be cooled down rapidly, since this will injure its texture and an inferior grain will show in the fin- Fig. 311 BUTTER WORKER ished product. As a rule, from % ounce to 1 ounce of salt should be added for each pound of butter during the process of working, but the amount varies ac- cording to the demands of customers from a mere trace to 2 ounces to the pound. The salt should be dry and in a finely granular condition. Equally good results may be obtained by dis solving the salt in water before adding it to the butter and using it in the form of a brine. Packing butter_As soon as butter is properly worked it may be packed m tubs varying in size from 10 to 60 pounds. The large size is chiefly used in creameries. If the butter is intended for immediate use, it may be allowed to contain somewhat more water than if it is to be stored for long keeping. The objection to a large amount of water in butter is that when kept long in tubs, the water evaporates from the surface and leaves a deposition of salt in the top of the butter. It is generally con- sidered that well made tubs of ash or oak are the best packages for butter. Earthenware crocks are heavy and liable to break in shipment and tin packages are objectionable on account of the fact that the salt affects the metal. Tubs, if stored when not in use in damp places, are very likely to become moldy, and if allowed to dry out too much, they may let in air and permit too great an amount of evaporation from the butter. The best way of making the tubs tight and destroying all mold and disagree- able odor in the tubs before the butter is packed in them, consists in soaking them in a saturated solution of brine. Composition of butter — The average composition of butter as determined from a large number of analyses is, fat, 84 per cent; water, 12.73 per cent; curd, 1.3 per cent; salt and ash 1.97 per cent. Occasionally the curd may run as high as 4 per cent, but is rarely more than 2 per cent. The water content may vary from 6 to 16 per cent ; a greater amount than 16 per cent would be in violation of the law. It has been determined that water may be present in butter to the extent of 18 per cent or more with- out injuring its quality. Cheese making on the farm — As al- ready indicated, relatively less cheese is made on the farm at present than in the early history of dairy development in this country. This is largely due to the fact that in cheese factories a better quality of cheese is manufactured and a far greater variety. It is only under exceptional conditions that the farmer can undertake the manufacture of any except farm dairy cheese. The methods used in factories are not applicable to the farm dairy, for the reason that it takes too much time and is so com- plicated that the average dairyman is not familiar with the details. The necessary processes involved in the man- ufacture of farm dairy cheese have been well summarized by Alvord and are briefly described in the following par- agraphs. The milk should be aerated by pour- ing from one vessel to another whil it is still fresh and warm. It may then be placed in a vat or wash boiler and colored, if more than the natural color of the cheese is desired. For this pur- pose a teaspoonful of cheese color for 486 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK each 16 gallons of milk is sufficient. Rennet extract is then added at the rate of 1 ounce to each 12 gallons of milk, the rennet being first mixed with about a pint of water. If desired, rennet tab- lets may be used in the place of the extract, one tablet, for each five gallons of milk. The tablets are to be pre- viously dissolved in a small amount of cold water. The milk should be be- tween 86 and 90° F. when the rennet is added. After putting in the rennet, the milk should be stirred for a few minutes and then allowed to stand until the curd is solid enough to cut. The curdling should begin in about 12 minutes. As cheese should be about 3 inches thick and 10 inches in diameter. After being pressed into the mold it is taken out, turned upside down and replaced in the mold, after which a cover is put on and it is set to press. The simplest form of press for use on the farm is a weighted lever. The full pressure should not be brought to bear upon the cheese at once, but somewhat gradually. After the cheese has remained in the press for a few hours, it should be taken out, put in warm water for a few minutes and then rubbed dry. A piece of linen cloth is wrapped smoothly around the cheese and the cheese is replaced in the mold aud put under full pressure. After re- Fig. 312 SHORTHORN DAIRY HERD IN NEW ZEALAND soon as the curd breaks readily without leaving flakes on the finger, it is ready to cut. For cutting, regular cheese knives are best, but Alvord and others suggest the use of a wire toaster in an emergency. The curd should be cut in both directions until it is reduced to cubes about the size of kernels of corn. The curd is then gently stirred for a few minutes and heated slowly to a tem- perature of 98 or 100° F. keeping it at this temperature for about 40 minutes. If a handful of curd falls apart after being pressed together, it has been cooked long enough. The whey is now drawn off and the curd put into the cheese mold in double handfuls, press- ing it down gently until the mold is well filled. For ordinary purposes, the maining under pressure for 24 hours, the cheese is removed and salted with dry salt or brine, the latter being preferable. Cheese may be left for 2% days in a saturated solution of brine. Curing — The cheese is now ready for curing and for this purpose should be placed on a shelf in the cellar. During the curing process it should be turned and rubbed with the hand daily for a week or two, after which twice a week will be often enough. In the process of curing, the cheese should from time to time be wiped with a cloth moistened with .warm water. A moist atmosphere and a temperature ranging from 55 to 65° F. are best for satisfactory curing. A cellar not too dry and also not too musty and of an even temperature ia DAIRY CATTLE 487 therefore quite satisfactory. The curing process requires from two to four months, being shorter if the cheese is salted only slightly. The more the curd is cooked, the slower the process of ripening and the longer the cheese will keep. Pot cheese — Almost every farmer's wife understands that a palatable and Fig. 313 — MILK TANK IN USE nutritious article of food may be pre- pared from sour skim milk or butter- milk by allowing it to coagulate under the influence of the acid naturally pres- ent and then driving out the water by the aid of heat. The usual method con- sists in using sour buttermilk or skim milk which has already coagulated and heating it gently up to a temperature of 85 to 125° F. after which the whey is removed by the use of a strainer. The curd is then kneaded, salt added and in many cases also a little cream or butter to improve the flavor. This cheese is largely made for home use, but Wing and others have called attention to the increasing demand for it in cities and villages. Pot cheese also passes under the common names of Dutch cheese, Cottage cheese and Schmierkase. How to increase the profits from dairying — As stated at the beginning of this chapter, there is more profit in dairying in thickly settled regions than in beef production. This statement, however, implies that every reasonable effort is put forth to develop the indus- try on both a scientific and practical basis. The important factors in success- ful dairying are the production of nutri- tious dairy feeds on the farm and the increase of the milk yield of the dairy cows by judicious selection and breed- ing. Feed better rations — It has been shown in a discussion of _ the various feeds used in rations for dairy cows that a relatively high percentage of protein is desirable for milch cows. This can- not be purchased as cheaply in the form of cottonseed meal and bran as it can be produced on the farm in the form of clover, alfalfa or cowpeas. It has been demonstrated beyond question that the rational combination of farm le- gumes with the cheaper kinds of grain will increase the milk yield of the cows now being used for dairy purposes and at the same time reduce the feed bills. This is one direction in which consider- able improvement may be made, al- though a great awakening in this regard has recently taken place, especially in the South. Use better cows — Again, it has been shown that tremendous differences pre- vail in the milk yield of individual cows, some cows giving from eight to 10 times as much as others. According to the experience of practical dairymen, the milk yield does not depend entirely upon the breed or pedigree, but is an individual matter with each cow, which may be perpetuated in her offspring. The rational way to secure a heavy milk- ing herd consists, therefore, in a thor- ough test of every cow and the elimina- tion of all those which do not give more than an average amount of milk; the heavy milkers are then used for breed- ing purposes and their heifer calves raised to take the place of older cows Fig. 314— MILK TANK OPENED as they become less productive. It should be perfectly obvious that excel- lent dairy cows cannot be bought on the market under ordinary conditions. The best cows of each dairy herd are, of course, retained by the owner and the 488 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK less valuable ones are sold. The only exception is in the case of a general dispersion sale. This fact being estab- lished, it is apparent that each dairyman must set to work to build up his own herd. There is one advantage in this necessity, since in the process of build- ing up an excellent herd of milch cows, the dairyman becomes thoroughly ac- quainted with the problems of heredity concerned in the process and is then in a better position to maintain a higher standard with his herd than he would be if the herd had been purchased out- right. Better farm labor — Another factor in successful dairying is the quality of farm labor. The time has come when the dairy attendant should not be an unskilled laborer, but rather a highly skilled one. It is not an indifferent matter how and when cows are fed and how they are otherwise cared for. Then, too, the demands of the public regarding dairy sanitation cannot be properly un- derstood or met by ignorant attendants. Better sanitation — The use of milk and other dairy products will be largely increased by the strict observance on the part of the dairyman of all reasonable sanitary requirements in caring for the cows, constructing and managing stables and caring for the milk after it is ob- tained. The extension of a system of milk inspection to dairies which have been furnishing milk to the public, but which have not previously been in- spected, has shown in many instances that the dairymen, either through igno~ ranee or neglect, have failed to conform with the demands which the public may reasonably make regarding the care of their food. The regulations which must necessarily be enforced in the future with regard to the care and management of dairies will be stricter than in the past, and it therefore behooves all per- sons now engaged in dairying or who intend to enter into the business to take this factor into consideration. Other- wise it will be impossible for them to satisfy their customers and consequently impossible to make a profit of the busi- ness of dairying. When the points just mentioned as bearing directly upon the profits of dairying are all squarely met, there is no reason why dairying should not give as great returns from the time and money expended as any other line of animal industry. The time has passed, however, when the dairyman can make a profit from poor cows fed on high- priced grains bought in the market, cared for by ignorant attendants and maintained under insanitary conditions. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FAC- TORIES Butter factories or creameries were first established in the United Stales about 18G1 in New York, and cheese factories, 10 years earlier. Both have grown enormously, until now about 28 per cent of the butter and 94 per cent of all the cheese is produced in factories. Better price for creamery butter — The average selling price of farm but- ter is about 16 cents per pound and of creamery butter, 20 cents per pound. Normally a much better grade of butter can be made at the creamery than ori the farm because of the better equipment and the employment of skilled butter- makers. Establishment of creameries — A well equipped, modern creamery calls for an expenditure for buildings and equip- ment of between $4,000 and $5,000, while a cheese factory of similar dimensions and capacity would cost about $1,500 less because of the smaller outlay for equipment. A creamery of the above capacity could handle daily from 6,000 to 20,000 pounds of milk. A creamery will not pay unless the milk from at least 350 cows be delivered to it throughout the year. These should all be within a radius of about 5 miles of the factory. For a successful cheese factory, the milk from 150 to 200 cows should be assured. Many a neighbor- hood under the influence of enthusiastic agents has paid for a fully equipped creamery, only to find that not enough milk was produced in the district to keep it running at a profit. Kinds of creamery companies — Most of the creameries operated in the United States are organized on the stock com- pany or corporation plan. In the case of stock or proprietary companies, the shares may be owned partially or en- tirely by business men, who buy the milk outright from the patrons, paying from 2 to 2.5 cents per pound less for the but- ter fat delivered than the regular market price for butter, or they may simply make up the butter or cheese, charging a certain price per pound for each pound made, the owners paying the expense of DAIRY CATTLE 489 shipping and marketing. The price lor making butter varies from 2 to 4 cents per pound, and for cheese from 1% to 2 cents. The Albany Creamery Association, a stock company, operating in the Willa- mette Valley, Oregon, deal with their patrons on the following plan : From the gross receipts for the month there is de- ducted, "first, the general operating ex- penses of the creamery; second, 1 cent for each pound of butter fat delivered to be set aside as a sinking fund; third, an amount equal to the twelfth part of the annual interest on the paid-up stock at the rate of 8 per cent per annum. The amount remaining after these deduc- not available, in which case, they can give interest bearing notes for their shares and these can be deposited in a bank and the money secured on them. Or the patrons after forming an associa- tion can borrow the money on their joint note, each member becoming personally responsible for the entire amount bor- rowed. It is desirable to have ready money in buying building material and equip- ment in order to secure the best prices. The indebtedness on the building is paid off by the establishment of a sinking fund into which about 1 cent for each pound of butter fat delivered to the creamery or 5 cents for each 100 pounds m ' .** BjjPit Fig. 315 — MODERN CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY IN NEW YORK STATE tions are made is divided pro rata among the patrons, according to the number of pounds of butter fat each has delivered to his milk. Forming a creamery company — In the formation of a co-operative cream- ery, it is desirable that the patrons own all or the larger portion of stock, and that they enter into an agreement to de- liver to the factory the milk from a cer- tain number of cows throughout the year. If the patrons have sufficent money to pay for the shares of stock outright the establishment of a factory is a sim- ple matter. More often ready money is of milk is placed. This amount is so small that it is hardly noticed by the pa- trons; yet it is sufficient, where 10,000 pounds of milk is received daily, entirely to pay for the factory in three or four years. When the factory has been paid for, this fund may be used to pay annual dividends to shareholders by way of in- terest on their investment. Organizing a co-operative association — After the neighborhood has been can- vassed and the milk from at least 350 cows assured, the patrons should be called together for the purpose of form- ing themselves into a legal corporation. 490 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK and of adopting a constitution and by- laws. A successful Minnesota cream- ery organized according to the Minne- sota station as follows: Organization agreement — We the un- dersigned citizens of ■ County, state of Minnesota, do hereby agree to form ourselves into an associa- tion to be known by the name of Association, and we agree to borrow the sum of dollars or less to put up a building and equip it with the necessary machinery, and jointly, to become personally responsible for the sum borrowed, including interest. The money to be raised in a manner Article I. — Should give the name of the association and place of business. Article II. — State the object of the as- sociation. Article III. — Name the officers of the association. These are usually a presi- dent, vice-president, a secretary-treas urer and three trustees. State also term of office and time and method of election. Article IV. — Duties of officers. Pres- ident shall preside at all meetings of the association, sign all drafts and pay over to the treasurer all moneys that come into his possession by virtue of his posi- tion, taking the treasurer's receipts Fig. 316 — PLAN OF farmers' co-operative creamery agreed upon by the association. We also agree to furnish the milk from the num- ber of cows opposite our names. Articles of agreement — We, whose names are hereunto subscribed and whose residences are within the county of — in the state of -, do hereby asso- ciate ourselves together as a co-operative association under the laws of the state of , and have adopted the following constitution: Constitution — We need state here only a general outline constitution, as the details will vary with the locality and conditions. We follow, with some modi- fications, the form given in Minnesota Station Bulletin No, 35 ; therefor. He shall also have power to call special meetings whenever he deems advisable or upon the signed request of five shareholders. The vice-president shall perform the duties of the president when he is ab- sent or unable to attend to them. The secretary shall keep a record of all the meetings of the association and make and sign all orders upon the treas- urer. The treasurer shall receive and receipt for all moneys belonging to the associa- tion and pay out the same only upon orders which shall be signed by the sec- retary. He shall give bonds in such amount as the association shall provide, DAIRY CATTLE 491 The president, vice-president, secre- tary, treasurer and three^ trustees shall constitute a Board of Directors, whose duties shall be to audit and allow _ all iust claims against the association. They shall compute the expenses, and receipts and after allowing for the run- ning expenses and sinking fund here- after provided for, pay the remainder to the patrons on the 15th day of each month in proportion to the amount of milk or butter fat furnished by each. The Board of Directors shall cause the secretary to make a report in writing at each annual meeting, showing in detail the milk receipts, produce sales, running expenses and all other matters pertain- Article VII. — This constitution may be amended at any annual meeting or any special meeting called for that pur- pose, provided that two-thirds of all the members present vote in favor of such a change and provided further that one month's notice of such proposed amend- ment shall have been given in such man- ner as may be provided in the by-laws or otherwise by the association. By-laws of the Associa- tion — (1) The treasurer shall give bonds in the sum of dollars, the bond to be approved by the Board of Direct- ors. (2) Five cents on each 100 pounds of milk received at the creamery shall be reserved to form a sinkiug fund. Fig. 317 — DRAWING SKIM MILK AT THE CREAMERY ing to the business oi the association, a copy of which shall be posted in a con- spicuous place in the creamery. The Board of Directors shall borrow a sum of money not exceeding thousand dollars, to be used by them in the building and furnishing of a cream- ery building and for no other purpose. The money so borrowed shall be paid up from the sinking fund to be provided for in the by-laws. Article V. — The several members shall furnish all the milk from all the cows subscribed by each, all milk to be sound, fresh, unadulterated, pure and un- skimmed. Article VI. — Each member shall be entitled to 1 vote only at any meeting of the association. (3) No milk shall be received or busi- ness transacted at the creamery on Sun- day. (4) From May 20 to September 20 of each season, all milk shall be de- livered at the creamery by 9 o'clock, A. M., at other times of the year by 10 A. M. (5) Milk not sweet, clean, or in good condition when received may be condemned by the operator and in such case he shall notify the president thereof. The operator shall test the milk of each member and patrons at least three times a week. (6) Members and patrons fur- nishing whole milk may take from the separator or the tank at the creamery four-fifths of the quantity of milk de- livered at the creamery by them on that day. 492 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Other articles of the by-laws should provide penalties for violations of the rules regarding the delivery of pure, wholesome, unadulterated, clean milk, or for refusing to deliver the amount of milk agreed upon, or for taking more skim milk than he is entitled to. Pro- vision should also be made for admitting new members into the association and for the withdrawing of old members, etc. Patrons should build their own fac- tory — It is generally economy for the patrons to build and equip the creamery permit the arrangement of the intake so that the milk in the creamery can be p handled by gravity. A convenient sup- ply of pure, cold water is another essen- tial. Without pure water, well-flavored, long-keeping butter is an impossibility. Building material— It is advisable to build the creamery of brick with ce- ment floors, metal roof and lower por- tions of the walls cemented. This will give practically a fireproof building and permit of the free use of water in keep- ing the walls and floors clean. Such a factory will cost $1,500 to $2,000 to Fig. 318 — HANDLING EMPTY CANS AT A MILK DEPOT themselves, rather than intrust it to an agent to put up the building and equip it, turning it over to the patrons fully equipped. After a company has been formed, the same man who is to be in- trusted with the butter making and gen- eral management is usually capable of planning the building and installing the machinery, subject of course, to the orders of the Board of Directors. This board should be composed of the capable business men of the association, who know most about the creamery industry. Locating the creamery—The building should be centrally located on land suffi- ciently sloping to furnish good drainage. A slope of about 1 foot in 10 will also build, while the necessary machinery will cost $2,500 to $3,000. Provisions must be made for carrying away the large amount of drainage water. If it can be piped into a creek of running water, this is the most satisfactory method of disposal, otherwise cement septic tanks should be provided. Machinery required for a creamery — For a creamery of 15,000 to 20,000 pounds daily milk capacity, the equip- ment required will be about as follows: A 20-horse power horizontal boiler with fixtures; 400 fire brick and barrel of fire clay; 15-horse power horizontal engine; boiler feed pump with lubricator ; 4 x 6 steam well pump; separator of 3,000 DAIRY CATTLE 493 pounds capacity per hour; churn with 600 pounds working capacity; 300-gallon galvanized skim milk tank; 300-gallon galvanized water tank; 400-gallon milk receiving vat; twin cream vat; 300-gal- lon ice box on end; 24-bottle Ideal tester ; 600-pound five-beam scale ; 60-gal- lon weight can; milk strainer; 2 No. 1 rotary milk pumps; whole milk heater; pasteurizer for skim milk ; skim milk weigher; noiseless water heater; cream acid tester complete; test jars and brushes; butter packer, ladles and tryer; y% dozen floating thermometers; pails, scrub brushes, dippers, etc; soldering outfit, tool chest and tools ; testing tables and glassware; belts, pulleys, shafting, etc. For a cheese factory_A 10-horse power upright boiler will suffice. No engine or separator is necessary, thus greatly reducing the cost for equipment. Complete lists of materials for either a creamery or cheese factory can be ob- tained by applying to any creamery sup- ply house, the advertisements for which will be found in daily journals and farm papers. The head butter maker should be a man not only capable of making butter of high quality but also capable of ad- vising with the patrons on the whole matter of dairy farming, particularly in the feeding of cows and the handling of milk so that it will be clean and reach the factory in a wholesome, sound con- dition. It requires also a diplomat to reject a can of milk and not antagonize the patron furnishing it. Methods of delivering milk — The more common way has been to deliver the whole milk to the factory once every day, taking back about three-fourths as much sour skim milk for use on the farm. With the introduction of farm separators the practice has been grow- ing of sending only the cream to the factory, delivery being made about once every other day and twice a week in winter. The best butter is made when the whole milk is delivered but the daily delivery, especially when a patron lives four or five miles from the creamery, and the hauling back of the skim milk is a burden both in time and cost. The utilization also of cold, sour, often putrid milk for calf and hog feed- ing is unsatisfactory, and except in skilled hands dangerous and unprofit- able. The cost of delivering milk under such conditions is from 10 to 15 cents a 100 pounds. Some relief in time and cost is obtained where milk routes arc established and one man hauls the milk of a number of patrons. The farm separator—When the milk is separated on the farm as soon as milked the skim milk can be fed sweet and warm to calves and pigs. With delivery only every other day, the ex- pense of hauling is reduced more than one-half and double the time is given for home work. With a farm separator more calves can be milked, since there is more time for the work, and the separator must be made to pay for itself. The introduction of the farm separator in rural districts has tended greatly to increase the number of cows kept on each farm. The profits have been increased in a corresponding measure. It, therefore, has been an important factor in popularizing, making perma- nent, and developing the creamery in- dustry. For these reasons the method of de- livering cream rather than whole milk to the factory is growing in favor in many dairy sections. In fact, in many western localities where creameries were a failure by the old method of deliver- ing whole milk, they have been re-es- tablished on a permanent basis by the introduction of the farm separator and the delivery of cream. Besides, if care is taken to deliver the cream at the factory in a sweet condition as good butter can be made as when whole milk is delivered daily. Iaterature — See also Minnesota Sta- tion Bui. 35; Montana Bui. 53; Oregon Bui. 65; South Dakota Bui. 46; U. S. Dept Agr. Farmer's Bui. 201; Creamery Butter Making by John Michels, (1904) ; Principles and Practices of Butter Mak- ing by McKay and Larsen, (1906) ; Cheese Making by John W. Decker, 1900; Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products by Dr. L. L. Van Slyke, 1906; Practical Dairy Bacteriol- ogy by Dr. H. W. Conn, 1907. PART IX Swine 1 li - II ills -s* s f II Illll-llHI lit 1 1 111 111 iSlII -llgli .i^Ill w £ 26 Forearm extensors Extensor of foot Serratus magnus Sterno-humeral Outer oblique ab- dominal Rectus abdominis Lumbodorsal fascia 34 Gluteals Thigh extensor Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Superficial gluteal Section of skin Extensor of foot 44 Toe extensors 46 Flexors of foot Extensor pollicis 49 Tendons , 51 Flexors of foot Peroneal Extensor of third toe Extensor of fourth toe Flexor pedis 58 Muscles of lower leg Lnternal Organs Cerebrum Cerebellum Optic lobes Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Cross section verte- bral column Ligamentttm nucha* Turbinated bone* Pharynx SSSSSS Sg^fflfgfeSSS5)S^9SS Hcinvinto t~ooo> (— 1 £ _ a CO s-l ■3 " • "o o Profundi penis 30 Saphenous Outer tarsal Tarsea perforans Tibial Digital VEINS Anterior vena ca Jugular Posterior vena ca Hepatic Capillaries of pc Portal Pulmonary Muscles Orbicularis oris Levator naso-labia Zygomatic Pyramidal nasal Depressor of the Levator labii pri prius Buccinator Orbicularis palpe- brarum Buccal Masseter Parotid ■14 Neck muscles ear ■16 Brachio-cephali Cleidomastnideus Parotid gland Sternohyoid -22 Trapezius Latissimus dorsi Deltoid S3SS8S KSSSSSS ,_<*«•*.»«» t-=o « n S33 sssssss Ph Q "o a V. <& o O o Outer thoracic Coronary Tracheal Esophageal Omocervical Temporal Masseter branch same Anterioi auricula Facial Lower labial Upper labial Infraorbital Upper nasal Brachial Humeral Radial Digital Intercostal Anterior abdomi aorta Anterior mesente Renal Lumbar Branch to ureter Inner spermatic Posterior mesent Outer spermatic Gluteal Pelvic arteries Pudic Iliac Iliolumbar Circumflex iliac Deep femoral Epigastric Femoral Dorsal is penis Lateral caudal Rectal O ssassss SSSSS&8 SSSSg 8SSSJ8SS8 CO t~ 00 g> Q .— ' c- 1 M J* }G OR tr 3 o t— 1 H PL, Metacarpals Cannon bones Coronary Coffin bones Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Hock joint ■55 Tarsal bones Metatarsals Cannon bones Coronary bones Coffin bones Blood System Heart Trachea I Esophagus / Liver Stomach I Right fore foot II Right hind foot III Spleen £ Kidney Large intestines I Small rteries red, veins bl ARTERIES Aort.i Posterior aorta Brachio-cephalic Left subclavian Dorsal Deep cervical Yertebrarteiial Cephalic Inner thoracic ^SSSSSgiSSgSgK „ H ^«>^>M^ < ~<*a*>a>a> X! i . Under form, it is noted that a good °^7" ,, , t.,1 ._,i n width, depth and length of the hog are Chest, deep, broad large girth . 2 requ ired and these must be in symmetri- Sides deep, lengthy, full; ribs cal proportion . If a h were exceed _ close and well sprung ....... 6 ingly ^ at the [red WQ - u of 225 Back, broad straight, thickly and to 275 ^ the gize of ^ valuable ^ evenly fleshed 10 cut Hke the hamg would necessaril be Loin, wide thick, straight 10 reduced> Excessive width and short . Belly, straight, even 2 ness> on the other handj wouM ^^ Hind Quarters: excessive fatness and low priced meat. Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 Hair, skin and bones — The reasons Kump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, why we desire to see silky hair, a fine, straight 2 pliable skin, and clean, fine bones in the Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, hog, is because these outward signs in- deep, wide 10 dicate good feeding qualities, giving the Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 largest amount of gain for the least Legs, straight, short, strong; bone amount of feed. In a fat hog ready for clean; pasterns upright; feet market, these characteristics indicate a medium size 2 smooth, even covering of flesh, free from wrinkles and creases, and an animal in Total 100 which the proportion of marketable dressed meat to live weight is largest. Usefulness of score card — In select- As regards condition, it is expected of ing either pure bred or a grade boar, course that hogs will be fed until fin- this score card, while designed prima- ished for market, in which case the rily for a fat barrow, will be found ex- fiesh should be laid on evenly and neatly, ceedingly useful, as the more nearly the and should be especially abundant in the score is perfect, according to this scale regions of the valuable cuts, such as the of points, the more likely will the boar hams, the loins, the back and the sides, be to get stock of the lard hog type that The most expensive cuts are the hams, will meet the market requirements. In tenderloins and bacon. The bacon ig boars more masculinity about the head taken from the lower part of the sides, will be expected and rather heavier bone, from a line about two-thirds from the particularly of the legs, than for barrows, top of the back down. A large shoulder Strong bones are especially desirable in development is objectionable, as the meat the legs to carry the hogs when heavily from the shoulder is somewhat less valu- fattened, otherwise they are likely to able and any strong development here break down especially in shipping. usually indicates coarseness of the en- Explanation of score card — In ex- tire carcass, planation of some of the points men- A snout of medium length is desired tioned in the above score card, it may be because it has been observed that a stated that as regards weight, a typical long snout and long legs go together, lard hog in good condition should weigh and both indicate poor feeding powers. 225 to 275 pounds at seven to eight Similarly, a coarse snout indicates a poor months of age. This is the size at the feeder. The best feeders are short nosed, present time most in demand by the short legged hogs. packers. Sometimes when lard is high, Straight, strong, iipright pasterns heavier hogs, 275 to 350 pounds, bring and feet of medium size are desired in the best prices, but usually the very a hog for either feeding or breeding pur- heavy hogs, 300 to 400 pounds, are dis- poses. Weak bones usually result in a criminated against, number of cripples when the hogs arrive 502 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK in the market. While feeding has a marked influence on the strength of the bone, conformation is perhaps of even more importance. It is especially de- sirable that the pasterns be erect and that the hog should stand on his toes and only in the case of old animals should the dew-claws reach the ground. Medium sized feet are desired because large, heavy feet hamper the movement of the hogs and indicate coarseness. The neck should be short, well rounded, arched and increasing in size from the head to the shoulders. The shoulders should be full and square, the legs set well apart so as to afford ample room for the lungs and heart, and the heart girth just behind the shoulders should be nearly equal to the girth at any other point. The back should be broad and straight, and should be slightly arched, rather than swayed between the shoulders and hams. The ribs should be well sprung to make the back broad and should drop nearly straight at the sides. The belly should be wide and straight, not flabby nor drawn in at the flanks. The hams should be as wide as the shoulders, nearly flat across the top and drooping but a little to the root of the tail; they should be well rounded behind and come well down on the stifle, so as to make the lower part of the hams full and plump. Bacon type — Within recent years there has been considerable talk in re- gard to the bacon type of hogs. In Canada, a considerable export trade has been built up with England along this line. In Denmark, and also in Ireland, large quantities of bacon are annually shipped to England, and England itself produces considerable quantities of bacon. The lard type of hogs does not meet this demand as well as a longer- bodied, less fat hog. At present, the most of American bacon is produced from the lighter hogs of the lard type. The quality of meat produced by the lighter weight bacon hogs is considered superior to that of the heavy weight lard hogs and there is hardly a doubt that this type will continually increase in importance. The points of the bacon hog and their relative importance given by Craig are as follows : SCALE OF POINTS FOR BACON HOGS. BARROW. General Appearance: Weight, 170 to 200 pounds, largely the result of thick cover of firm flesh 6 Form, long, level, smooth, deep. . 10 Quality, hair fine, skin fine; bone fine; firm, even covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles 10 Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in regions of valuable cuts 10 Head and Neck: Snout, fine Eyes, full, mild, bright Face, slim Ears, trim, medium size Jowl, light, trim Neck, medium length, light Fore Quarters: Shoulders, free from roughness smooth, compact and same width as back and hind quar- ters -6 Breast, moderately wide, full .... 2 Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean ; pasterns upright, feet medium size 2 Body: Chest, deep, full girth 4 Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 Sides, long, smooth, level, from beginning of shoulders to end of hind quarters. The sides at all points should touch a straight edge running from fore to hind quarter 10 Bibs, deep 2 Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at flank 10 Hind Quarters: Hips, smooth, wide, proportionate to rest of body 2 Bump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail 2 Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low towards hocks 8 Legs, straight, short, strong; feet, medium size ; bone clean ; pas- terns upright 2 Total 100 Contrast of bacon with lard type — The most desirable weight of the bacon SWINE 503 hog ranges from 170 to 200 pounds and this weight should be mostly flesh rather than fat. The bacon hogs, however, must carry a reasonable amount of fat, but should never exceed a depth of 2 inches on the back. The form of the hog is entirely different from that of the lard type, since the choice cuts are in the sides, and hence a longer bodied hog is desired. Furthermore, the body is deep, rather than broad, and the depth carried well back from the front to the rear. The head as a rule is more trim, there is less fat on the jowl, but it is expected that the hind quarters will have the same rounded appearance as in the lard type. The sides should be long, smooth, statistics indicating that they are nearly twice as numerous as all other breeds put together and may, therefore, be considered first. Poland-Chinas—This hog originated in the Miami valley of Ohio, in Butler and Warren counties, from miscellaneous crosses of Big China, Poland, Byfield, Berkshire and Irish Grazier breeds on the common stock. In the early days the breed was vari- ously known under such names as But- ler County, Warren County, Poland, Dick's Crick, Magie, Moore, etc, and it was not until the year 1872 that the name "Poland-China" was permanently adopted. Fig. 319 — PRIZE WINNING POLAND-CHINA BOAR straight and deep, and the belly well developed. Since the bacon is taken en- tirely from the sides and belly, it is in these parts that we wish to see the most perfect development. The belly should not come to a sharp edge, as it often does in lard hogs, but be trim and firm without flabbiness. The principal bacon breeds are the Tamworth, Yorkshire, and, to a less extent, the Berkshire. BREEDS OF HOGS The breeds of hogs in the United States mentioned in the order of their importance are the Poland-Chinas, Berk- shires, Duroc- Jerseys, Chester Whites, Yorkshires, Essex, Victorias, Tamworths, Cheshires, Hampshires, etc. The Poland- Chinas lead all other breeds in numbers, Further improvement of the breed occurred in Illinois and Iowa, and they now constitute the most popular breed in the corn belt. The type is now firmly fixed and the breed undoubtedly pure. It is perhaps the best suited of all breeds to quickly convert corn into pork. It will stand close confinement and heavy feeding, perhaps better than any other of the large breeds, but is not as good a rustler and able to take care of itself as many other breeds. The sow is not as fertile as the Berkshire, though some strains are excellent breeders. The Poland-China is a black hog, with six white points, feet, face and tip of tail. The face is slightly dished and the ear broken about one-fourth, to one- third from the tip. The breed is char- 504 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK acterized by early maturity and nearly perfect form of the lard hog type, being very blocky and compact. Boars at two years of age should weigh 600 pounds and sows 500 pounds. There are five record companies in the United States which register Po- land-China hogs. (See appendix.) Berkshires_The Berkshire breed is of English origin and stands next to the Poland-China in popularity in America. It was first brought to this country about 1830. It is a black hog, with six white points, marked much like the Poland-China, white on feet, face and tip of tail. The face is dished, ears short and erect or slightly inclined for- is not positively known. Eed hogs were known to exist in New York as early as 1823 and in Connecticut in 1830. Red hogs were imported into New Jersey from Spain in 1832, and in 1850 into Kentucky from either Spain or Portu- gal. In New Jersey, they were first ad- vertised in 1870 as Jersey Reds. In New York, the breed was called Duroc, after a noted stallion, as early as 1823. These two families of hogs possessed like char- acteristics and were undoubtedly of the same origin. In form, the Duroc-Jerseys closely re- semble the Poland-Chinas, but are red in color. The standard is a cherry red without spots. It is a coarser breed Fig. 320 — champion poland-china sow ward, the neck very short and the back arched. The feet of the Berkshire are not as strong as those of the Poland- China. While the Berkshire in England is largely used for bacon, under Ameri- can influences it has developed into the lard hog type. They are of about the same size as the Poland-Chinas and pos- sess about the same qualities. Good hogs weigh 240 to 300 pounds nine to 12 months of age, and mature hogs 500 to 600 pounds. The specially good points in regard to the Berkshire are its early maturity, good grazing qualities, adapt- ability and excellent carcass. It is one of the most popular breeds in the South. Duroc-Jerseys — This is an American developed breed. Its origin, however, than either the Poland-China or Berk- shire, with lop ears and numerous wrin- kles and creases about the back and hind quarters. The breed is chiefly notable for its great fecundity and remarkably good grazing powers. At six months of age, good specimens of the breed should Weigh 150 pounds and at eight or nine months, the average should be 275 pounds. Mature hogs in good condition average 500 to 600 pounds in weight. The breed is of a quiet disposition, easily handled, have vigorous appetites and fatten rapidly. They are one of the best of all breeds for the South, as they never sun scald. The breed is most popular in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and New SWINE 505 York and is rapidly gaining in favor throughout the South and West. Chester White — This breed originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania. It appears that a sea captain, James Jef- feries by name, imported a pair of white hogs from Bedfordshire, England, in 1811. This stock, in connection with some Big Chinas, was used on the na- tive stock of the country, mostly de- scendants of the large Yorkshire breed, and formed the foundation stock of the present Chester White breed. This hog is the most popular of the white breeds, and its blood makes up a large portion of the mixed black and white grades seen throughout the country. The Ohio, or Todd's Improved Ches- ter White, has for its foundation Ches- ter County White hogs, crossed with a hog owned by S. II. Todd, which traced its ancestry back to the Norfolk Thin Rind hog of England and Irish grazer breeds, mixed with Normandy blood. In 1865 this hog was crossed with Chester Whites from which sprung the Improved Chester White. Yorkshire—This is an old English white breed. Its blood has entered into the formation of practically all modern breeds either of English or American origin. There are three breeds, the Im- proved Large Yorkshires or the Large Whites, the Medium Yorkshires or Me- Eig. 321 — BERKSHIRE BOAR The breed is white and the hogs among the largest, if not the largest, in the country, weighing at maturity 600 to 700 pounds and dressing 175 to 25G pounds when eight to nine months old. The hogs are of a quiet disposition, easy fatteners, with good grazing powers. The sows are prolific, but are incli led to a sullen disposition at pigging time. Like all other white breeds, the Chesters are not well adapted to southern condi- tions because of injury from sun scald, mange and other troubles. The Chester Whites, while a large hog, have strong, fine bones and a big, lengthy body. The face is slightly dished, snout fine and long, the ears pendent, jowl rather light, neck short and deep. dium Whites and the Small Yorkshires or Small Whites. These differ chiefly in matter of size. The Small Yorkshires owe their refine- ment to a cross with a Chinese hog, while the Medium Yorkshire is the out- come of the cross between the Large and the Small Yorkshire. The old York- shire is long in head, body and legs large, with coarse, erect ears, with a strong coat of white hair. There are usu- ally a few pale blue spots in the skin but the hair on these is white. They are prolific but slow in maturing. This old type has been considerably improved and the new form under the name of Improved Large Yorkshires has been recently imported into Canada and 506 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the United States in comparatively large numbers; Large Yorkshires of the old type have existed in the United States for nearly a hundred years. The Large Yorkshires are most numerous in On- tario, Minnesota and Iowa. The Large Improved Yorkshire is fully as large as the Chester White and represents the longest breed of hogs we have, though they are not so broad as the Chester Whites and do not generally grow to such heavy weights. They are especially suitable for the production of bacon, have good strong legs, are ex- cellent rustlers, impart a vigorous con- stitution to their offspring and are of great value in crossing on over-refined stock. The sows are prolific and good worth. The Tamworth resembles the large Improved Yorkshire, being practi- cally equal to it in size. They are a long-bodied, long-legged hog, of a red or chestnut color, and es- pecially suitable for the production of bacon. They possess great vigor and stamina, and impart these characteris- tics when crossed upon other breeds. They mature fully as rapidly as the larger breed of lard hogs when heavily fed. They are the equal of any breeds in grazing qualities and give good re- sults under a forced feeding. The pro- portion of lean to fat meat in this breed is usually high, which makes the pork and bacon produced of superior quality. No breed surpasses them in prolificacy. Fig. 322 — HERD OF BERKSHIRE3 mothers, being probably superior in these respects to the Chester Whites. As compared with the Chester Whites, they have somewhat longer heads with face dished, more pronounced jowl, longer sides, with less girth in proportion to length, and are slightly larger in limb, and rather more active. The Small Yorkshire is finer in qual- ity than the Improved, presents greater symmetry and is much more compact in form; they mature much earlier, but do not attain as heavy a weight as the Large Yorkshires. Tamworth — These pigs originated in England, and have been bred for many years, being one of the oldest and purest breeds of Britain. The blood of othei breeds has been used to but very little extent in the improvement of the Tam- The Tamworths have come into great prominence during recent years, espe- cially in Canada, where an extensive bacon trade is being developed with England. The breed is also increasing in favor in the United States. At pres- ent they are most numerous in Canada, Michigan, Iowa and Illinois. Cheshire — This white breed of swine originated in Jefferson county, New York. It is the outcome of crosses be- tween Large Improved Yorkshire and the Suffolk breeds upon native white hogs. They were first exhibited at fairs in New York state in 1859. They are smaller than any of the breeds described above, and possess early maturing qual- ities in a marked degree. They have fair grazing qualities, are docile, rank high among the medium breeds as bacon SWINE 507 producers, and are valuable in crossing upon the more slowly maturing breeds for the purpose of refining the bone and increasing early maturity. They con- siderably resemble the Berkshire in gen- eral appearance except that they are white, are not quite so heavy and are more refined in frame and bone. The ears are small, fine, erect and in old animals point slightly forward. In 1906, four volumes of the Cheshire Herd Book had been issued registering a total of 3,349 females and males oi which about 1,000 are alive. Hampshire or Thin-Rind — This hog traces its origin to Hampshire, England. It was introduced in Kentucky as early as 1835, where it has been carefully bred and other good qualities is very likely to increase in popularity. Suffolk — The hog known in England as the Suffolk is a black hog, while the hog called Suffolk in America, refers generally to a white breed. Good author- ities, however, consider the American strain of white pigs as merely the little Yorkshire under another name. The Black Suffolk is one of the smaller breeds of hogs. The head is short, snout turned up similar to that of the small Yorkshires, body deep, ribs well sprung, with short, small bones and legs. The breed possesses early maturing quali- ties in a marked degree, is medium in size, lays on fat rapidly and dresses out a high percentage of meat. Eig. 323 — DUROC JERSEY SOW ever since. These hogs are black in color with a band 4 to 12 inches wide en- circling the body and including the front legs, which are also white. This gives the breed a striking appearance. The head is small, ears of medium length, slightly inclined forward, light jowls, broad back of nearly uniform width, heavy hams, legs set well apart, active and muscular. The sows are pro- lific and uniformly good mothers. The breed has excellent grazing qualities and easily attains a weight of 300 pounds at 12 months of age. In crossing they transmit their qual- ities and markings with great uniform- ity. The breed is comparatively new, but owing to its handsome appearance What is known as the American or White Suffolk, is a hog somewhat simi- lar in general appearance except that the color is a pale yellowish white, perfectly free from spots or other colors. In general, it may be described as a short- legged pig, with a moderately long body, but wide and deep and a much dished head. It is adapted to intensive condi- tions where grazing lands are scarce and expensive, and for producing a good quality of quickly grown pork. Essex — The Essex is another rep- resentative of one of the smaller black breeds of England, originating in Essex. As bred in America, they attain a weight of 250 to 400 pounds at maturity. They have a fine head, short nose, nicely dished face, thin, erect ears, heavy jowl, 508 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK with the short, firm boned leg. Espe- cially good results have been reported with this breed in the South, but in the northern states it will never be a se- rious competitor of the larger breeds like the Poland-Chinas or Berkshires. Large Black — This is one of the Eng- lish breeds only recently brought into prominence, though it has existed in Cornwall, Devon, Essex and Suffolk counties for many years. The Large Black Pig Society was established in England in 1899, and a few of these pigs have appeared in America and Canada. to the more southern states. This breed is a long-bodied, long-legged, thin, long- nosed hog, exceedingly hardy and with remarkably good foraging powers, but too slow in maturing and too light in weight to compare with the improved breeds of swine. It has no place in modern agriculture. Victorias—There are two distinct breeds of Victorias, the Davis, originated by Geo. Davis in Indiana about 1870, from crossings between Poland- Chinas, Chester Whites, Berkshires and Suffolks, and the Cnrtis, originated by F. D. Curtis, in New York about 1S50, ob- Fig. 324 CHESTER WHITE BOAR The characteristics of this breed are a black color, a large, coarse, lop ear, falling well forward, medium, dished face, rather long body, partaking in gen- eral of the appearance, and counted as a bacon hog. The legs are strong, the breed very hardy, the sows docile, pro- lific and good mothers. In general, the breed has a rather coarse appearance. They dress 160 to 190 pounds at six to eight months old. We are not aware that any herd book has been established as yet in America. Razorbacks — The hog commonly known as the Razorback is a representa- tive of the unimproved breed in this country, and is confined almost entirely tained by crossing natives of the Graz- ier strain with the Bayfield, Yorkshire and Suffolk. Both are white breeds, with erect ears and are very nearly as large as the Poland-Chinas. They re- semble the Suffolk in general appear- ance, but are a little larger. The breed seems to be average, without striking qualities along any line. Breeds to grow—Under present con- ditions in the United States, farmers will find it most generally profitable to grow the larger breeds of hogs, since they gain as rapidly as the smaller breeds up to a marketable weight of 180 to 250 pounds and if not marketed at this time will continue to grow, while 8 WINE 509 the smaller breeds will reach their limit of growth at about this age. Popularity op different breeds — Some idea of the popularity of the dif- ferent breeds can be obtained from the number of pure bred animals registered in the different associations and which are now alive. In 1905 the figures for the Poland-Chinas were 113,000; for Berkshires, 30,000; Duroc-Jerseys, 20,- 040; Chester White, 8,400; Yorkshires, 4,600; Essex, 1,300; Victorias, 1,200; Tamworths, 1,200; Cheshires, 1,000; Hampshires, 500. These figures indicate that the Po- land-Chinas are much in the lead, fol- lowed at some distance by the Berk- ing surpasses all others in good qualities. The experiment stations of the country have secured good representatives of the different breeds and have made exten- sive observations and tests to determine which breeds can be fattened for market most economically. Rommel has sum- marized the data secured at the Maine, Vermont, New York state, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa experiment sta- tions, and the Ontario Agricultural Col- lege and Central Experimental Earms in Canada, with reference to the feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain. The data are given in the following table : Fig. 325 — CHESTER white brood sows shires, the Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites. The Poland-Chinas are partic- ularly satisfactory to hog growers in the corn belt. Outside of this region they are no more popular than a number of other breeds. In the South, the Berk- shires are probably most popular and numerous. So far as can be learned, there is no special market and no special demand by packers in this country for bacon breeds of hogs like the Tamworth and Yorkshires. These breeds sell as well on the market as any other, but do not bring any higher price at present. Ow- ing, however, to the large proportion of lean to fat in the carcasses of these hogs, the pork is superior and these breeds are likely to increase in popularity. Test of breeds — Swine growers and breeders have their favorite breeds of hogs and believe that in their hands the particular breed that they are rais- FEED REQUIRED FOR 100 POUNDS OF GAIN BY DIFFERENT BREEDS. Si E o . Breed "g« -g £| _• * _• © .5 Tamworth 16 92 344 Chester White 13 71 347 Poland-China 22 96 357 Berkshire 23 121 369 Large Yorkshire .... 11 67 407 Duroc- Jersey 11 66 418 The table shows the food requirements for 100 pounds of gain to vary with the different breeds from 344 pounds in the case of the Tamworths to 418 pounds for the Duroc-Jerseys. Tests at Iowa station — Very exten- sive experiments have been made by the Iowa station in feeding different breeds of hogs. The cost of producing 1 pound of gain after weaning with the different 510 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK breeds for three years was as follows: Yorkshires, 2.14; Poland-Chinas, 2.23; Duroc- Jerseys, 2.27; Berkshires, 2.33; Tamworths, 2.42, and Chester Whites, 2.46 cents. Before weaning it cost less to produce a pound of gain with the Yorkshires than with any other breed. In the slaughter tests, Yorkshires gave a larger percentage of dressed weight than other breeds. In quality and suit- ability for the export trade, the Tam- worths stood first, followed by Berk- shires, Chester Whites, Duroc-Jerseys, Poland- Chinas and Yorkshires, in the order named. Tests at Central Experimental Farms — A large number of feeding ex- periments have been reported by the Central Experimental Earm in Canada, with different breeds of hogs. In this work no one breed has been found con- stantly superior to any other. There was often a greater difference in the gains made between different animals of the same litter, than between animals of different breeds. Eor fattening purposes, however, cross bred swine and grades have given better results than pure bred hogs. The Ontario Agricultural College has also carried on extensive feeding ex- periments with different breeds of hogs. Six of the leading breeds have been tested by the college for a number of years, to determine the economy of gain and value for bacon. The following table shows the rank of the different breeds for the years 1896 to 1900. In each case the breeds are arranged in order of economy of production. ^ ** ^Jjj# #388 wr % r -$&^"- ■ 1 .* i*tf l Bw^"' -»" -'•''-«" : ""~ W'W* ' ~^?ii^m '" ^h^h f'iiif^Hr W$L JBf SK Hr,JBralI CkP Fig. 326 — YORKSHIRE SOW RANK OF BREEDS IN ECONOMY OF PRODUCTION. 1896 Berkshire, Tamworth, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Yorkshire. 1897 Berkshire, Tamworth, Poland-China, Chester White, Yorkshire, Duroc-Jersey. 1898 Yorkshire, Berkshire, Duroc-Jersey, Tamworth, Chester White, Poland-China. 1899 Berkshire, Tamworth, Yorkshire, Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, Poland-China. 1900 Berkshire, Yorkshire, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Tamworth, Poland-China. In all five tests, Yorkshire took the lead as to suitability for the export bacon trade. Tamworth stood next, Berkshire easily ranked third in the five years' work, while for economy of pro- duction they stood first in four out of five tests. In these experiments the grain re- quired to produce 100 pound of gain averaged 379 pounds for the Berkshires, 390 for the Tamworth, 369 for the Duroc-Jerseys, 395 for the Yorkshire, 400 for the Chester White, and 401 pounds for the Poland-Chinas. SWINE 511 At the Minnesota station, first cross Improved Yorkshire pigs made slightly better gains in a test than second cross Improved Yorkshire pigs, but the dif- ference was too slight to indicate any superiority of one cross over the other for fattening. Tests of a number of breeds and crosses resulted in showing that pork could be produced more cheap- ly from the Large Improved Yorkshire and Tamworth than from the Poland- Chinas. A cross of these breeds on the Poland-Chinas produced vigorous, shape- ly pigs that gained more rapidly and tests of breeds and crosses op pigs. .Sa | fe2 I O H Razorback- lbs. lbs. lbs. Poland-China ..4.3 433 166 $5.00 Razorback- Berkshire .... ..2.9 505 119 5.78 Small Yorkshire ..3.5 400 148 4.56 Razorback ..2.7 547 110 6.23 This table brings out clearly the smaller amount of food eaten by the Fig. 327 — A GOOD TYPE OF TAMWORTH SOW fattened more perfectly than Poland- Chinas. These experiments did not sustain the views sometimes advanced that the re- sults will be less satisfactory from each succeeding cross with Yorkshire or Berkshire. The lard types did not grow faster up to 196 days from birth than swine of the bacon type. At the Wisconsin station tests were made of Razorbacks, small Yorkshires, and Razorbacks crossed on Poland- Chinas, and on Berkshires. The amount of grain eaten daily, the total gain of the pigs and the cost per 100 pounds of gain is shown in the following table: Razorbacks in comparison with the im- proved crosses and the pure bred York- shire, the smaller gain made during the same feeding period and the much great- er cost per pound of gain. The experi- ment also emphasizes the fact that all of our improved breeds are much heavier eaters than the unimproved breeds and they make much better use of the food, gaining more rapidly and reaching a marketable size much sooner than the unimproved forms. A farmer must never make the mis- take of thinking that because he has pure breeds or improved breeds he can feed them less and that they will make better gain than with unimproved stock. 512 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK They are improved breeds simply be- cause they can utilize much more feed to advantage than the common unimproved stock. Poland-Chinas at the Oregon station made a gain on wheat of about 0.7 pound per day as compared with 0.57 pound per day made by Tamworth-Po- land-Chinas. The cross bred pork in this case was superior in quality for cur- ing because of a thinner rind, less fat and a larger percentage of lean. The cooking test of the meat showed it to be of superior quality also. The Kansas station reports that it re- quires from 23 to 30 per cent more feed to produce 100 pounds of gain with hogs dryness, which greatly adds to the clean- liness and comfort of the animal. Where large numbers are kept, the pens may be built on either side of the building with an alleyway running through the center containing feed bins, scales for weighing, and, if need be, a kettle for cooking and heating food and water. In such cases, the long way of the house should extend north and south. This will insure plenty of sun- light for each pen at some period of the day. The pens may be made 8x10 feet square, with a section divided off for sleeping. Cement floors are generally recom- mended now as being the cheapest and Fig. 328 — CHESHIRE PIGS of mixed breeding than with pure bred hogs. BUILDINGS FOR HOGS For the economical production of pork, in the northern states, some form of comfortable pen in which the hogs may be housed in winter, is essential. These houses need not be made of ex- pensive material, but they should be made tight and comfortable, with sepa- rate spaces for feeding and sleeping. In all good hog houses, attentionmust be paid to suitable lighting, ventilation, clean- liness and warmth. The building should be located on high, well-drained ground, so that the pigs will have to ascend an incline to enter the pen. This insures most serviceable material for flooring. The sleeping quarters for the hogs, how- ever, should be made of boards laid on the cement. Bare cement floors are ex- ceedingly objectionable if hogs are re- quired to make their nests on them dur- ing the winter season. Even when an abundance of bedding is used in these floors they are cold and bad results are likely to follow. At farrowing time it is especially dangerous, as the newly born pigs wriggle around onto the bare floor, which is slippery, and prevents them from getting on their feet, where they soon become chilled and die. For these reasons, therefore, cement floors should always have a portion overlaid with wood, on which the hogs may make their beds. SWINE 513 Ventilation — Provision should be made for ventilation on sunny days in winter. The air which enters the open windows is usually sufficient for this purpose, but it should be directed up- ward and especial care be taken that no drafts come on the pigs. From two to five hogs may be kept in each pen, 8x16 feet square, but for sanitary rea- sons, no more than 50 should be main- tained in one building. Small yards should be attached to the pens in which the pigs can take ex- ercise in pleasant weather. This is par- ticularly desirable for breeding and stock hogs. Floors — Where it is possible to keep the floors of the pens dry and clean, there is nothing better for flooring than well-packed earth. Where the floors are thus constructed the ground must be Eunning along the whole front of the building is a passage way with feed bins, troughs and feed floor. In the center of the building is a driveway and manure pile, and back of this the beds for the hogs. The location of the manure pit in the center and below the level of the sleeping and feeding floors, with all the drainage running into it is a conspicuous feature of the pen, which materially aids in maintaining good san- itary conditions. The manure is easily removed, as the pen is so arranged that a wagon can be driven through it. At such time the gates are simply swung around and the pigs fastened in their sleeping or feeding quarters. The swing- ing fronts of the pens allow food to be placed in the trough and evenly dis- tributed so that the pigs all have an equal chance at feeding time. This .¥' Fig. 329 — HAMPSHIRE HOGS well drained both underneath and on the surface. Good houses are in most de- mand at farrowing time. Then the pens should be warm and comfortable or the pigs may become chilled and the litter lost. Maryland pig pen— I n the latitude of Maryland, where the winters are more open, a more open and less expensive form of pen may be constructed. The Maryland experiment station de- scribes a pen erected at that institution which has proved exceedingly satisfac- tory and at the same time easy of con- struction and convenient. The pen faces the south, in order to permit the sun to shine upon the beds of the pigs at the farthest end of the pen, in the winter season, and to give shade in that portion during the summer. The illus- tration shows the general form of this pig pen, and the diagram the details of the ground floor. form of front is shown in Fig. 337. In the southern states buildings for pigs are exceedingly simple contrivances. There, hogs can run out all winter and it is seldom necessary to build any expen- sive pens. A simple shelter in time of storm answers practically all purposes. This, however, should be in a dry and comfortable place. Portable hog houses— I n recent years the portable hog houses in the more ex- tensive swine growing districts of the north have become exceedingly popular. These are small houses which can be moved by one or two men or by attach- ing a team to the runners under them from one location to another. They vary in size from 6x6 to 8x8 feet, are built of good lumber and well roofed. They are made without floors and when lined are sufficiently warm for brood sows and pigs even in zero weather. The advantage of these houses is the greater 514 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK control of the grower over disease, as any outbreak which may occur may be promptly isolated, and a few pigs to- gether do better than when in large herds. Figure 338 shows the one form of these cots which is especially satisfactory in winter, but objectionable in summer, as it does not afford sufficient protection against heat. It is considered an espe- cially good form of cot for breeding sows as at farrowing time the sow cannot lie down so close to the sloping roof but that the pigs can get behind her and thus prevent themselves from being crushed. The house is arranged on skids so that it may be easily moved by hitching a Shaw at the Michigan station. It i9 6x8 feet at the foundation, with the sides raised perpendicularly 3 feet be- fore receiving the half pitch roof board. The center boards on the sides are hinged so that they can be swung open in hot weather; the opening thus made is cov- ered with strong woven wire clamped above and below with inch boards; the inner clamp boards project an inch above the outer boards, thus breaking joints and preventing any draft when the openings are closed. The roof boards are also hinged so that they can be opened during hot weather. These openings permit a free circulation of air which lowers the temperature and contributes to the comfort of the pigs. These open- Fiff. 330 — ESSEX BOAR team to it. These skids should not be attached to the house as they soon rot out. Another form of these pens is shown in Fig. 342. This house is built 6x8 and is formed of five separate pieces so constructed that they can be bolted together, and taken down and removed when desired. This form is especially warm in summer unless raised up slightly from the ground. The sections are also difficult for one man to handle and on this account it is not moved as fre- quently as it should be. On this account also it is desirable that all portable hog houses be built on skids so that they can be removed by one man and a team. Fig. 341 shows an improved form of these portable hog houses, designed by ings close down tightly, leaving warm quarters during the coldest weather. "This form of house is rather expensive as it contains 160 feet stock lumber, 60 feet matched, 20 feet 4x6-inch, 12 feet 4x4-inch and 44 feet 2x4-inch." FENCES FOR YARDS AND PAS- TURES Good fences are absolutely necessary to peace of mind in growing hogs. For the small runs adjacent to the pens, tight board fences are perhaps the most satisfactory of anything, but lumber is becoming so expensive that this kind of a fence is more costly than a wire fence. A woven wire fence 3 feet high will be sufficient to retain the hogs at SWINE 515 all times, provided good posts are used. A number of firms manufacture special hog fences. Wire fences are also the cheapest to erect around the small hog lots, and if one or two wires are stretched above these the fence will be sufficiently high to turn cattle and horses. The lower wire of the fence should be placed tight to the ground and the first four or five spaced not more than 2y 2 to 3 inches apart. Midway between the posts the bottom wire should be se- curely stapled to a well-grounded stake to prevent the pigs from working their way underneath. Barbed wire should never be used as a fencing material for hogs and is dangerous for any stock. Where hogs are pastured on forage crops like rape or peas and oats, it will The vermin are usually most numer- ous around the ears, in the fold of the skin on the jowls, sides and flank, and on the inside of the leg. If only a few hogs are affected, they can be eradicated by washing or spraying, but if the whole herd is infested, more thorough work can be done by dipping in a vat similar to that used for sheep. The common to- bacco dips are effective for this purpose; all loose bedding should be burned in the case of badly infested herds, and the pens or yards thoroughly disinfected by spraying with a solution of creolin or similar material. With dry and clean yards, pure drinking water, and good pastures, the danger from various se- rious diseases which affect hogs is re- duced to a minimum. Fig. 331 PRIZE-WINNING ESSEX SOW be desirable to confine them to small portions of a field at a time, since they are wasteful, and trample down much feed unnecessarily. For this purpose, small, light movable fences made of lumber are usually very convenient. See Fig. 348. Dipping vats — Hogs may become in- fested with vermin of various sorts, which are not only a source of great an- noyance to them, but prevent, often- times, their rapid growth, and their economic utilization of feeding stuffs. The herd may become infested by the in- troduction of new stock, as a boar or sow into the flock, or by other means. Lice are especially serious, often causing losses among the herd, especially among the young pigs. THE BOAR AND HIS MANAGE- MENT The boar used should be a typical rep- resentative of his breed. It is better to use pure bred boars than to use grades or crosses, because normally a pure bred boar will transmit his characteristics to the offspring with greater certainty than grades or crosses. In selecting the boar the character of the sows which are to be bred should be considered and one secured which will offset any very great defects in the sows, to as great an extent as possible. Thus, fine boned, delicate sows should be bred to strong, rangy boars to impart vigor to the offspring, and coarse, slow maturing sows to fine boned, quick ma- turing, meat producing types of boars. 516 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The breeding sows can be selected from among the best in the herd each year, but new boars should be selected from outside stock as soon as the sows have passed their prime, and are re- placed by their progeny. If a man is growing hogs for sale as pure bred animals, he cannot be too careful in buying a boar that corre- sponds in every detail of form, vigor, marking, etc, to the standard set for the breed; but in growing hogs for pork, less expensive boars — those that are cor- rect in form but may be slightly off in marking or defective in some minor re- spect, which would debar them as show animals, but in no wise injure them for are four or five months old, as they do not show their form fully before this time. Keep the boars away from the sows — The boar should never be al- lowed to run with the sows, as he is likely to be a source of continual worry to them. He should be kept in a pen and lot by himself, entirely away from the sows. He should be given pasture and some grain like oats, barley, bran, mid- dlings and a little corn and kept in good condition, but not fat and unwieldy. Grazing on a pasture will give him ex- ercise and keep him in good condition. With old sows he may be used for breed- ing when eight to 10 months old, but Fig. 332 — CHAMPION VICTORIA BOAR breeding, may be selected. Good, typi- cal boars, slightly off in marking, can usually be gotten for from $10 to $20 each at two to four months of age, while fancy representatives of the same litter, such as the grower of pure bred hogs would want, might sell for ten times these prices. Kind of boar to buy— The kind of boar that the producer of pork should look for is one of good size and form, active, with short, strong legs, short neck and vigorous constitution. Boars with a long head, neck and leg, are likely to be slow growers, and to require much more feed to produce a pound of gain than when of the low, blocky type. Boars should not be bought until they with young sows, older boars should be used. Boars give their best service when two to five years old. SOWS, SELECTION AND BREEDING The sows used to breed pigs for the production of pork should be selected from the best animals in the herd, and from mothers that are prolific and good milkers. They should all be of uniform type and of as nearly the same color as possible, since uniformity in the herd at the market adds to the selling price of the animals. Desirable characteristics of a sow-- The sows should have all the prominent characteristics of the market hog, such as the wide, straight, deep fleshed back, SWINE 517 well sprung ribs, straight deep sides, deep well rounded hams, and a body long for the breed with moderately short and strong legs. A wide, deep chest should be looked for, as this indi- cates well developed vital organs. The sow should be a good feeder^ otherwise the litters will be small and she will give but little milk, and unless young pigs get all the milk they need during the first six weeks of life, they are often stunted in growth and require a long time for recovery. It is not the fat, plump sows in the herd that should be picked out, but rather the longer bodied and more vigorous animals which show good grazing and feeding powers. Breeding — For pork production, sows may be bred any time after they are tory, which may be until they are six to eight years old. It is claimed that an aged sow mated with a young boar will produce pigs that will mature earlier than those pro- duced when the sow is young and the boar aged. Size of litters — I n ne experiment re- ported by the Wisconsin experiment sta- tion, the litters of eight breeds of hogs ranged from six to 10 pigs each, and weighed from 13.5 to 22.5 pounds per litter. At birth the pigs weighed from 1.3 to 3.1 pounds each. In another ex- periment, at the same station, observa- tions were made on 12 Poland-China and Berkshire sows, or crosses of these, one to four years old. The average weight at birth in this instance was 2.2 HfHHH i^^pppppj ■ W" ; "**|bi hB HflBBEB Fig. 333 — VICTORIA SOW AND PIGS eight months old, but in case of pure bred stock for breeding, better results will be obtained if the sow is not bred until at least 12 months old. The period of pregnancy for young sows or sows in poor condition is about 16 weeks. Old sows may carry their pigs two or three days longer. It is the general practice to breed twice a year, having one litter come in early spring, and the other about September or Oc- tober. Good breeding sows should be kept as long as they produce satisfactory litters. The second litter will usually be larger than .the first, so that it is advis- able to keep promising sows until they have had their second litter at least. If then they prove good mothers they may be kept as long as they prove satisfac- pounds per pig or 16.7 pounds per lit- ter. In only two instances was the last pig farrowed the smallest. Recently, Carlyle at the same station, made observations on the litters of large, medium and small sows. There were four sows representing the Poland- China, Berkshire, Razorback and crosses between these in each group. The re- sults obtained are shown in the follow- ing table: SIZE OF SOWS AS RELATED TO LITTERS PRODUCED. -^5 Size of Sow w> Large sows 482 Medium sows .... 307 Small sows 238 fc.S £S 9.2 27 6.7 16 5.5 14 518 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The table shows that the large sows produced a greater number of pigs in a litter, and that the total litter weighed considerably more than in the case of either medium sows or small sows. While the large sows produced over nine pigs per litter, small sows produced only 5.5 pigs per litter. Fig. 334 — hog house for the south Old vs. young sows — Old sows usually produce more pigs and larger litters than young sows; this is brought out in the work of Carlyle and is shown in the table below. SIZE AND WEIGHT OF LITTERS AS INFLU- ENCED BY THE AGE OF SOWS. Sows 4 and 5 years old .... 9.0 Sows 2 and 3 years old ... .7.5 Sows 1 year old 7.8 26.0 19.7 14.2 The table when considered with the one above shows that older and larger sows make better mothers than younger and smaller sows. < BEO ' 1 "V" OfllVCWAYK \«v £-. AND MANURE \ \ A FEED FLOOR PASSAGE FEED 8IN3 1 1 II > Fig. 335 — FLOOR PLAN OF HOG HOUSE FOR THE SOUTH In the light of these data it would seem unwise to dispose of old brood sows to replace them each year with young and immature animals. Experiments have generally shown that sows three to five and six years old are much more profitable and satisfactory breeders than sows one or two years old. Gains made by litters — The weight of pigs at birth and the subsequent gains made have been determined in several instances at the Oklahoma station. The average weight of nine litters was 2.65 pounds per pig. The weight of six lit- ters when seven days old averaged 4.8 pounds ; of nine litters when 28 days old, 12.1 pounds; and of nine litters six weeks old, 23.8 pounds. On this matter of growth of litters, investigations by Carlyle at the Wiscon- sin station show that with five sows which had litters averaging 23y 2 pounds in weight, each pig of the litter gained 4 pounds per week for the 12 weeks be- fore weaning. With three sows which had litters averaging 16 pounds each, each pig gained on the average 3.6 pounds per week, and with three other sows with litters averaging only 13 i^ 1 ^N^ 11 >^^ i ^^ i „. i r^^ !§/ 5 I rsco i >FLOOR 1 fc7 DR/rEhtor BED \ i' i a I Fii 336 SIDE ELEVATION OF HOG HOUSE FOR THE SOUTH pounds each, each pig in the litters gained only 2.9 pounds per week during the 12 weeks before weaning. From these data it appears that the pigs in large litters, owing to the vitality transmitted to them from their prolific mother, or to some other physiological cause, are more thrifty and better feed- ers than those in small litters. The prac- tice, therefore, of some breeders of kill- ing off some of the pigs where large lit- ters are produced in order to give a better chance to the remaining ones, is of doubtful economy. The data here given are also a further argument for the desirability of using the more ma- ture sows for breeding purposes. Milk of sows — The milk yield of sows in one experiment at the Wisconsin station, in which four sows ranging in weight from 220 to 458 pounds were observed, was found to vary from 4.1 SWINE 519 to 5.8 pounds per day and in one in- stance reached 8.7 pounds. When ana- lyzed, seven samples of sows' milk showed an average composition of 81 per cent water, 7 per cent fat, 6.2 per cent casein and albumen, 4.8 per cent sugar, 1 per cent ash and 12 per cent solids not fat. Carlyle, studying the milk yield of sows further at the Wisconsin station, found that four Berkshires ranging in weight from 274 to 532 pounds each gave, on the average, 6.31 pounds ot milk per day for 84 days. Four Poland- China sows gave an average daily yield of 4.86 pounds per day for the same period and four Bazorback sows 5.44 pounds daily during the 84 days. The average for the 12 sows was 5.44 pounds daily for the 12 weeks. Some sows were found to yield almost double as much milk as others. The most milk is found Fig. 337 — PEN WITH SWINGING FRONT, OPEN FOR FILLING TROUGHS in the front teats. From the fourth to the eighth week there was an average falling off of 3 per cent in the milk yielded. Care of sows — The pregnant sows should be kept on pasture and forage crops as much as possible during the growing season, because of the cheapness of this method of feeding and of the de- sirability of keeping the sow in good form by exercise, fresh air and sunshine. Such bulky and succulent foods, how- ever, must be supplemented with some more concentrated feed like grain, as the period of pregnancy advances if the best results are to be obtained. At the Michigan station, five brood sows weighing 158 to 360 pounds each were maintained on blue grass and rape pasture for 105 days and just about maintained their weight. The maintenance ration for 12 sows made up of Berkshire, Poland-China, Bazorback and crosses between these, was found by Carlyle at the Wisconsin station to average daily for each 100 pounds weight of sow 1.19 pounds of grain and 2.4 pounds of skim milk. Fig. 338 — hog cot The best pasture for the brood sow is alfalfa, clover and rape. These pas- tures, however, furnish but little, if any, more than a maintenance for mature hogs, and in case of a brood sow must be supplemented with liberal allowances of muscle, bone and flesh, making foods such as shorts, middlings, ground oats, bran, etc. It is not desired to make the sow fat but she must be kept in a good, thrifty condition. The sows should be allowed a lot by themselves and not be put in with a mixed herd. Exercise is essential to the produc- tion of vigorous offspring and easy par- Fig. 339 — individual hog house turition and can be obtained by the pas- turing method or in the winter time by distributing the feed in the straw or by having the pen at one end of the lot and the feeding ground at the other. More difficulties will be experienced in cold weather in keeping the sows in good con- dition than in warm weather when at 520 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK pasture. Kitchen slops, skim milk, and some roots furnish succulence and keep the bowels in good condition. In addi- tion, they may be given some bulky food like clover or alfalfa hay, either cut into short lengths or fed whole in a rack. Fig. 340 — INDIVIDUAL HOG HOUSE, TAKEN APART A BOX OP CHARCOAL, ASHES AND SALT should be within reach of the brood sow at all times, either summer or winter. These materials act as a vermifuge and preventive of disease and tend to meet the craving of the hog for mineral mat- ter in the feed. The use of these mate- rials in connection with a varied ration is one of the best means of preventing the sow from eating her young at pig- ging time. Before the pigs come — The condition of the bowels should be noted carefully as the farrowing time approaches, since at this time sows are likely to become constipated. A good feed of bran will usually overcome this. About a week before farrowing time the sow should be separated from the other hogs and put in a pen by herself. It is extremely de- sirable that during this period and, in fact, all during her life, she should be accustomed to being handled. A small amount of bedding should be given her and the farrowing pen should have a 10xl2-inch plank running round the sides of it, 6 or 8 inches above the floor, as a protection for the young pigs, so that the sow cannot crush or smother them. The pigs soon learn to creep under this protection when the sow lies down. At farrowing time the sow will seldom need any attention. In cold weather, however, it may be necessary to take the pigs as fast as they are born, and keep them covered up and warm un- til the last one is born, when they should be at once put back with the sow and placed at the teats. Sometimes a blanket thrown over the sow will suffice. The afterbirth should be taken and burned. If the sow is allowed to eat this it may be the beginning of the habit of eating her pigs. After farrowing, for the first 24 hours the sow will require little, if any, food. If she show signs of hunger, however, Fig. 342 — hog cot she may be given plenty of water and a thin slop of bran or shorts, or oatmeal gruel. Tepid or warm water should always be given in winter. The laxative effect of a little oil meal will be found beneficial at this time. For the first three or four days, the rations should be light and the sow put on full feed very gradually. Feeding the sow_Within a wee* or 10 days the sow should be getting a good ration of nutritious milk-producing foods, such as skim milk, middlings, shorts, ground barley, or peas, pasture or roots, but she should not be put on full, heavy rations before three weeks. During the whole after period in which the sow is giving suck to her pigs she should be fed heavily. At the Wisconsin station, Henry found it profitable to feed suckling sows so heavily that they gained in weight. The gains thus pro- duced in the suckling pigs indirectly through the sow, were cheaper and more economical than later gains. SWINE 521 When the pigs are three or four weeks old they will begin to eat a little grass and take notice of the sow's feed. At this time a low trough should be ar- ranged to which the young pigs can have access, but away from the sow, in which a little skim milk or thin gruel may be placed two or three times a day. Rations for the pigs — As the pigs learn to eat, the feed may be increased. Skim milk is one of the best rations to feed at this time. It may be mixed with cornmeal or meal of any of the grains in the proportion of about 1 pound to 6 to 12 pounds of milk. The pigs should 12 weeks. It is not advisable to wean as early as four weeks, since at that time the young pigs will only have just begun to learn to eat solid food. If the pigs are not well accustomed to skim milk rations, grass and grain, the time of weaning may well be delayed until eight to 10 weeks of age. If the sow is not to be bred again, the pigs may be allowed to run with her as long as 12 weeks; by that time all the pigs should be eating well and will scarcely miss the sow's milk when taken away from her. At weaning time, if the sow is giving considerable quantities of milk, two or Fig. 343 — HOGS GRAZING ON SOY BEANS (Courtesy Tennessee Exper. Station) be kept growing constantly from the time they are born until the time they are taken to market at eight or nine months of age, and in order to do this satisfactorily and economically it will be necessary to feed them a small amount of grain every day. Scours and thumps, which often cause serious losses among young pigs are largely due to overfeeding or the feeding of unsuitable foods during the early life of the pig. Plenty of exercise and a reduction in the ration will usu- ally correct these troubles. Weaning pigs_The pigs are usually allowed to run with the sow from four to three of the smaller pigs in the lot should be left with her a few days to gradually dry her off. Breeding the sow again — Within two or three weeks from the time of weaning, the sow will come in heat and be ready to breed again. It is advisable where only one litter of pigs is raised to plan the breeding as to have the litter come in the spring, in April or May, when the weather begins to moderate, anJ when they can be allowed to run on pas- ture at once. If two litters are to be raised the first litter should come in March and the second litter in Septem- ber. This gives the second litter a FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK chance to run on grass during the fall and get a good start before winter sets in. There is no reason why two litters should not be produced by the same sow every year she is used for breeding. Fig. 344 BREEDING CRATE FOR HOGS Care of the young pigs — As stated above, the young pigs will begin to take a small amount of food in addition to the sow's milk at three or four weeks of r.ge. From now on, they should be fed an abundance of such substantial muscle, bone-making, and growing foods as skim milk, shorts, pea meal, ground barley, and pasture. They should gain on the average a pound a day up until the time they are slaughtered for market at eight or nine months of age. Of be no loss in growth; if not done at this time, the operation should be delayed until about a month after weaning, or until the pigs have become accustomed to eating solid food. After castration, a young boar pig is known as a "barrow." All the female pigs up to the time they are bred are commonly called "gilts," "yelts," or "hilts." The term "gilts" is most com- monly used in America. If wanted for pork the gilts should be spayed when about three months old. (See Spaying in Chapter III.) The pigs intended for breeding pur- poses should be fed nutritious growing rations, consisting of pasture, skim milk and some of the more nitrogenous grains or mill feeds. They need plenty of ex- ercise and fresh air and such rations as will keep them growing well without the production of an excessive amount of fat. They must be kept growing. A pig stunted in growth never satisfac- torily recovers. The object in the case of breeding stock is to build up a strong framework, good, healthy, well-developed vital organs and digestive system. The boars should be kept separate from the sows after the third or fourth month of age. All pigs, whether for breeding purposes or for pork, need grain while at pasture. Skim milk is not so essen- Fig. 345 — FARROWING PENS AT THE KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION course, during the first few weeks of growth, they will not make so large a gain as this, but towards the end of the feeding period they should gain much more than this. Castrating — When four to six weeks of age, or about a month before weaning, all the male pigs intended for pork should be castrated. If done at this time, while sucking the sow, there will tial and, in fact, can well be dispensed with when hogs have good and sufficient pasture. For young pigs, however, two to three months old, skim milk will be found very useful when at pasture. FOOD EATEN BY PIGS FROM BIRTH TO MATURITY Professor Carlyle at the Wisconsin station investigated the amount of feed SWINE required to grow pigs from birth to ma- turity, that is, to eight months of age, when they were ready for market and slaughter. The hogs consisted of Po- land-Chinas, Berkshires, Razorbacks, and crosses between these. The net gain made by each pig and the average cost of feed per 100 pounds of gain is shown in the table below for weekly periods: AVERAGE NET GAIN OF PIGS AND AVERAGE COST OF FEED PER 100 POUNDS GAIN FROM BIRTH TO MATURITY. First four weeks 8.8 $1.17 Second four weeks ....12.6 1.71 Third four weeks 21.4 2.06 Fourth four weeks 20.0 2.74 Fifth four weeks 23.3 3.34 Sixth four weeks 29.1 3.19 Seventh four weeks 29.3 3.95 Eighth four weeks 32.4 4.20 Average 176.9 $2.80 The table brings out clearly the in- crease in weekly gains made as the hogs increase in age to the eighth month. For the first four weeks it will be seen that the gain is but 8.8 pounds, while the eighth month the gain is 32.4 pounds per pig. The cost of gain, how- ever, per 100 pounds, increases regularly with the age of the animal. In the be- ginning it costs but $1.17 per 100 pounds of gain, while for the eighth month the cost is $4.20 per 100 pounds, the average being $2.80 for the whole period. In the above work Carlyle fed four different rations to the different lots of pigs. The following table shows the kinds of foods fed, the amount of diges- tible nutrients they contained, the gains made on each ration, the amount of digestible material required per pound of gain, and the nutritive ratio of the different rations. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS CONSUMED AND GAINS MADE BY PIGS FROM BIRTH TO MATURITY. Ration, Corn Corn, shorts, corn and skim Corn and and beef beef meal, and milk 1:6.25 shorts 1 :1.5 meal 2 :1 milk 8:6:2:25 Pounds nutrients fed ,...3,536.4 2,214.3 2,714.3 3.335.3 Pounds net gain 1,251.4 927.2 877.0 1,192.0 Pounds nutrients for each pound of gain made 2.82 2.38 3.10 2.80 Cost of nutrients for 100 pounds gain $3.29 $2.36 $3.61 $3.24 Nutritive ratio in rations fed 1:4.5 1:5.4' 1:2.6 1:3.4 GRAIN REQUIRED FOR 100 POUNDS OF GAIN. Corn Kafir corn Oats Peas Wheat Barley Mixed grain lbs lbs lbs 485 529 472 lbs 439 lbs 452 lbs 418 lbs 432 RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF HOGS, GAINS MADE AND FOOD REQUIRED. Feed Average Feed required No. of No. feed eaten daily Aver- to make Average states No. of ani- eaten per 100 lbs age gain 100 lbs weight reporting of trials mals fed per day live weight per day of gain Weight of pigs lbs 15-50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 lbs 39 79 123 178 • >•> ii 209 322 45 112 133 110 76 51 21 190 508 635 509 316 247 115 lbs 2.41 3.62 5.03 5.98 6.60 7.34 7.54 lbs 5.82 4.58 3.96 3.44 2.96 2.71 2.39 lbs 0.78 0.94 1.20 1.26 1.35 1.48 1.47 lbs 305 402 439 479 493 509 532 In examining this table it will be seen that the pigs fed corn and shorts in the proportion of 1 :1.5 required the least nutrients for a pound of gain. This lot also makes the cheapest gain of any in the test. The nutritive ratio of this ration is seen to be about 1:5.4, which is the widest of any in the test. The group fed the beef meal and corn in the proportion of 2 :1 had the narrowest ration 1:2.6, made the least gain, re- quired the greatest amount of nutrients 524 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK per pound of gain, and made gains at the greatest cost of any of the pigs in the test. On the average, it required 277 pounds of digestible feed to produce 100 pounds of gain from birth to ma- turity. The average cost is $3.12 for each 100 pounds of gain made. Gains before and after weaning — In an experiment at the Michigan station, it required on the average 2.8 pounds of dry matter per pound of gain for the four weeks before weaning and 2.35 pounds for the four weeks after wean- ing. In experiments at the Wisconsin sta- tion, it required 316 pounds of corn meal to make 100 pounds of gain in sows and pigs before weaning, while pigs alone after weaning required 384 pounds of meal per 100 pounds of gain. It is Professor Henry's judgment that the gain in young pigs is never made so Fig. 346 FARROWING PEN WITH FENDERS cheaply as when they are sucking the dam. In the case of the four sows and 28 pigs used in the test made above, the gains were 21 per cent more economical before weaning than after weaning. At the Alabama station, however, Duggar found that the pigs made the more economical growth just after wean- ing than the sow and pig did just before weaning. While these results are conflicting, the practical point in the matter is that the sows require heavy nutritious ra- tions while they are sucking their pigs. They are oftener underfed at this time than overfed. PASTURE FOR HOGS The cheapest pork on the farm is made on grass. Young and growing pigs as well as fattening hogs should have plenty of pasture, pure water and some grain. Hogs will gain in weight on pasture alone, but the gains are too slow for the greatest profit. On pasture alone, hogs cannot be brought to a mar- ketable condition within six to eight months, but if fed a small amount of grain with pasture they can be made to weigh 175 to 250 pounds at this time, which is usually more economical than to keep them pastured on grass and run- ning in the woods for six to eight months without grain, then bring them up for Fig. 347 DOUBLE PEN FOR SUCKLING PIGS. THE PIGS CAN RUN UNDER CENTRAL PAR- TITION finishing off with two or three months' corn feeding. The benefits of pasture for pigs have been shown in many experiments reported by the experiment stations. At the Utah station, pigs at pasture on a full grain ration made 33 per cent better gains than pigs on the same ration with- out pasture. The average daily gain3 were 29 per cent greater with pasture than without and there was a saving of more than 10 per cent in the feed re- quired to produce 100 pounds of gain. At the Central experimental farm in Canada, pigs at pasture made 10 per cent larger gain and 11 per cent cheaper gain than when fed in pens. The Arkansas station reports an ex- periment in which five pigs farrowed in March were fed 10 months on a suc- cession of green crops harvested by themselves. The land was such as to produce about 25 bushels of corn per acre. The green crops pastured were red clover, sorghum and Spanish peanuts. i [ — j>-z< ' — Fig. 348 — wing's portable hog fence Up to the age of six months, the pig were given, in addition, a total of 21 pounds of bran and 5 bushels of shelled corn and had made an average daily gain of 1.3 pounds per head. These pigs were then taken off pasture and fed 19 bushels of corn to harden them up, and slaugh- tered. The average weight at this time SWINE 525 was 240 pounds per pig. The total cost of thus producing pork on these forage crops, with a small amount of gain from birth to 10 months of age, was but V/2 cents per pound. The important fea- ture of this whole experiment is that only 6.6 bushels of corn was required for each pig, a fact of great importance to southern farmers in pig production. Pasture crops — There are any number of plants suitable as pasture crops for hogs. Among the most valuable are al- falfa, clover, rape, peanuts, cowpeas and blue grass. Throughout the northern states, clover, alfalfa, rape, peas and oats ivill furnish the best kind of pasturage throughout the season. Eye can be sown for early spring pasturage and nothing better can be found late in the season than rape or peas. The southern states are rich in forage plants for hogs. Fall sown Dwarf Essex rape will furnish a pasture from Decem- ber to April and if spring sown, from May to June. Vetch and oats may be had for pasture from March to May, cowpeas from July to November, Span- ish peanuts from August to December, sorghum from July to November and chufas from November to March. Arti- chokes, sweet potatoes and various other roots and forage crops, besides grasses and clover, are also available. Hogs are wasteful grazers and the fields in which they are pastured should be arranged with movable fences so that the hogs can be confined on limited area and when this is well grazed off can be moved to new and fresh pasture. Every hog raiser should plan to have a suc- cession of forage crops for his hogs from early spring until late fall, and the fat- tening should be done while the pigs are running at pasture, in so far as it is possible. Alfalfa for pasture — At the Arkansas station, alfalfa was ready for pasture 10 days before red clover. It could ha?e been cut four times during the season and produced considerably more feed than clover. At the Montana station, nine brood sows with 44 pigs maintained their weight on alfalfa pasture without other food from August 22 until October 10. The Oklahoma station pastured four pigs averaging about 62 pounds each on a field of alfalfa. They were turned in- to the pasture April 27 and given no other feed. In five weeks they had gained about 5 pounds each. During the next three weeks they gained a little less than 2 pounds each. The season was favorable and there was a good stand of alfalfa. It was kept well eaten down, however, by these four pigs. During the same time these pigs were being fed, four others averaging about 68 pounds each, were turned into a field of alfalfa and were given at the same time full feed of kafir corn meal or shelled corn. The first five weeks they gained on an average 50 pounds each and for the next three weeks about 31 pounds each. They required but 2.2 pounds of grain with the alfalfa to produce a pound of gain. The alfalfa lot used to pasture the pigs fed grain, carried at the same time a half more stock than the other lot and the alfalfa remained green and fresh. At the Utah and Mississippi sta- tions, alfalfa proved simply a main- tenance ration for hogs. Hogs on this pasture produced large, coarse frame3 and large stomachs. At the Kansas station, hogs without pasture required 371 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of gain. On rape pas- ture, 301 pounds of grain and on alfalfa pasture 300 pounds. The area of rape required was about twice as great as in the case of alfalfa. In this experi- ment we see, therefore, that alfalfa was fully as valuable as rape and supplied twice as much food on the same area. In another experiment at the Kansas station, 1 acre of alfalfa pasture pro- duced 776 pounds of pork. In general, it may be stated that in the corn belt, wherever alfalfa can be grown, the combination of alfalfa pas- ture with corn produces about as cheap pork as it is possible to produce in America. And so far as experiments have shown alfalfa is the equal of any crop grown in the country as a hog pas- ture. Brome grass has been used as a pas- ture for pigs, with satisfactory results. It was greatly relished by hogs at the Ottawa station and gave good returns. Clover pasture — Common red clover, white clover, alsike and mammoth clover are all available throughout the North for hog pasturage. In some of the east- ern states, crimson clover is also success- fully grown and used as a pasture for hogs. In speaking of clover pasture, common red clover is usually meant. 526 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK At the Oregon station, 12 hogs, three months old, were fed for three months hurdled on clover pasture and given shorts and skim milk in addition. Dur- ing this period they gained 253 pounds, from which it is calculated that 1 acre of good clover pasture has a feeding value of $44.36 for growing pigs, valu- ing the gains made at 4 1 /2 cents per pound. Generally speaking clover may be regarded as the equal of alfalfa for hog pasture. Cowpeas for pasture — Cowpeas are available for pasturing throughout the South from July to November, and in the North from July 20 to September 20. At the Alabama station, hogs gained at the rate of 229 pounds per acre, on cowpeas, consuming at the same time 3 pounds of gain, while on corn alone 586 On a field in which cowpeas were about half matured and yielded at the rate of 13.2 bushels per acre, pigs required but 307 pounds of corn to produce 100 pounds of gain, while on corn alone 586 pounds were required. On this basis it is calculated an acre of cowpeas would replace 1662 pounds of corn. The qual- ity of the pork made on cowpeas and corn was equally as good as that made on clear corn, and the lard of about equal firmness. In another test at the same station, pigs averaging about 57 pounds in the beginning of the experiment were grazed for 35 days on ripe cowpea vines of the Whippoorwill variety. They were given no grain during this time and made a total gain of 51 pounds, or an aver- age of 0.48 pound per day per pig. There was considerable loss in grazing the ripe cowpeas, as many of the peas fell to the ground and sprouted. These results and others show that much better results will be secured if cowpeas are pas- tured a little before they are ripe, and a small amount of grain fed in addition. Experiments in pasturing cowpeas at the Maryland station also show thai this crop is well suited to young and growing hogs. The ground is put in fine condition by pasturing off with hogs as it is worked over, manured, and the vines well trampled down. At the Mississippi station, 14 young pigs made an average daily gain of 1 pound per day on 1.7 acres of cowpeas for 23 days without grain. Peanuts for pasture — As a result of investigations at the various southern experiment stations, the use of peanuts as a grazing crop for hogs is becoming more general throughout the South. Ex- periments have shown that this crop is satisfactory during the early stages of feeding, but that the pork produced on peanuts is softer than that produced on corn and for this reason it is usual to take the pigs off the peanuts a month before marketing and harden them up on corn. Peanuts are available for pas- turage from about August to December. In seven tests at the Alabama station, hogs raised on Spanish peanuts and fed one-fourth to one-half the usual grain ration gained on the average 333 pounds per acre. In two tests when young pigs were pastured on peanuts and given no other food in addition the gains were 281 pounds per acre. In the cases where grain was fed with peanuts, it required 2^ pounds to produce a pound of gain. The crop was much more profitable when fed with grain. Peanuts tend to produce an oily pork and soft lard. Cowpea meal was found a little more effective in raising the melting point of the lard from pigs grown on peanuts than corn meal. In experiments at the station when pigs were hurdled on peanuts not quite come to full maturity, and fed corn in addition, they made an increased growth sufficient to give a value of $13.34 per acre for the peanuts, valuing pork at 3 cents per pound. The Arkansas station reports an ex- periment in which hogs weighing 124 pounds at the beginning of the test were pastured 132 days on peanuts and made an average gain of 73.5 pounds each. A similar lot of pigs pastured for the same time on soy beans made an aver- age gain of 22.75 pounds, and another lot on chufas, 39.33 pounds. Hogs the same size gained 76.75 pounds when shut up and fed dry corn in a pen dur- ing the same period. On the basis of this work it is estimated that 313 pounds of pork was produced on one-fourth acre of peanuts. The yield of peanuts with 87 per cent of a good stand was 90 bushels per acre. Peanuts in this experiment made soft pork and oily fat, but the meat was of good flavor. Other experiments at the same station have shown that when pigs were raised on peanuts and chufas, either alone or combined, and fed corn in addition, as good a quality of ports and lard was produced as when the pigs SWINE 527 were fed exclusively on corn. By feed- ing pasture-fed pigs corn exclusively for a month, the pork was made much firmer and the melting point of the lard was raised a few degrees. In these experiments the melting point of the fat in hogs pastured on peanuts was 87.6° F., while on corn it was 114° F. Peas for pasture—Canada field peas make an excellent pasture for hogs. They may be used green, that is, just as the vines are coming into blossom, or pasturing may be deferred until the pods are filled and the peas begin to harden. In the latter case, the grain itself fur- nishes an excellent fattening ration. At the Montana station, an acre of peas produced at the rate of 35 bushels per acre. Pigs turned onto pea pasture when the peas were beginning to harden consumed all the peas and a portion of the vines as well, furnishing a fattening ration for ten 150 to 200 pound hogs for from 40 to 45 days. In Montana, and a number of western states, climatic conditions permit of pea harvesting by pigs even as late as December. This is one of the easiest fattening methods now practiced. In order to make the best use of forage in this condition, the station holds that winter litters of pigs must be raised. "Pigs from spring litters do not reach a large consuming capacity soon enough to take advantage of the early forage. Both late fall and early spring litters should be raised in order to get the most out of the food and the market condi- tions." In one experiment at the sta- tion 10 pigs pastured on an acre of nearly ripe peas gained 277 pounds in 47 days. At the Oregon station, when pork was selling at $6 per hundredweight, pea pasture had a value for pork production of $59.56 per acre. With the peas, it required 2.2 pounds of grain and 4.4 pounds of skim milk to produce a pound of gain. In these experiments, Black- eyed Marrow-fat were found superior to the Canada field peas. Peas and oats when mixed in the proportion of three parts peas to one part oats and seeded at the rate of 2^4 bushels per acre, make an excellent for- age crop for hogs. At the Michigan experiment sta- tion, such pasture when the crop had nearly reached maturity, and the peas were just past cooking stage, maintained 2,340 pounds of live hogs and produced 210 pounds of pork in 27 days. The following year, 1 acre maintained 3,963 pounds of live hogs for 13 days and produced I66M2 pounds of gain. The vines in these experiments were heavy in proportion to the grain. Purslane— Prof. Plumb fed purslane to sows confined in pens. They were fed 21 days and given a part grain ra- tion in addition. The pigs made fairly good gains on this material at a cost of 2.2 cents per pound. The pigs did not appear to relish the purslane. Rape for pasture— The Wisconsin station was one of the first to point out the value of rape for hogs. It has long been used in England and Canada as a soiling crop for both sheep and swine. Good results have also been reported for this crop when cut and fed green. It is greatly relished by hogs as soon as they learn to eat it. Hogs at the Wis- consin station, four to 10 months old, fed grain and hurdled on rape, have made more rapid and cheaper gains than hogs fed grain alone. An acre of rape fed in connection with grain showed a feed- ing value equivalent to about 40 bushels of grain, estimating grain at about 60 pounds to the bushel. In another test at the same station, an acre of rape proved equal in feeding value to 3,318 pounds of corn and shorts mixed, and in still another test, it proved equivalent to 2,767 pounds of grain. On rape alone, without any grain whatever, hogs did not make satisfactory gains in one experiment reported along this line; 36 pigs averaging 6.5 months old lost a total of 60 pounds when fed for two weeks on rape alone. As a pasture crop, rape at the Wiscon- sin station proved a little better than good clover pasture for hogs. It re- quired on an average of two trials, 33.5 pounds less grain to make 100 pounds of gain on rape than on clover. On tb is basis, the rape pasture was about 7 per cent more valuable than clover. That station recommends Dwarf Essex rape, planted in drills 30 inches apart, pasturing to begin when the plants are from 4 to 12 inches high. The crop does not cause scouring or bloating when properly fed. At the Ontario agricultural college, rape was fed to hogs in pens to deter- mine its value in hog rations. In one instance it was fed with corn and in another with peas, barley and shorts. In FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK both oases it constituted about one-third of the ration. The tests show that 7 pounds of rape had a feeding value of 1 pound of grain. The average daily gain when rape constituted a part of the ra- tion was 1.4 pounds. On grain alone it was 1.3 pounds. The Oregon station reports an experi- ment in which 10 pigs, between four and five months old, were pastured on rape, without any other feed from August 2 to October 1, and gained 164 pounds in weight. During all this time they kept in a thriving, healthy condi- tion. At the South Dakota station, rape had a value of $7.04 per acre for swine fed barley in addition. Professor Duggar of the Alabama sta- tion, reports a gain of 452 pounds per acre for hogs consuming at the same time 2.7 pounds of grain per pound of gain. In two tests it proved more valu- able per acre than chufas, cowpeas or peanuts by 25 to 50 per cent. These experiments show rape to have a very high feeding value as a pasture for swine, scarcely being equaled by any other plant for this purpose, except al- falfa. (See Alfalfa.) Sorghum and kafir corn — Both these crops are exceedingly valuable pasture crops for hogs and have been used ex- tensively for this purpose throughout the West and South. Kafir corn is es- pecially valuable for the drier south- western states. Sorghum is available throughout most of the southern states from July to November. When fed with grain at the Alabama station hogs gained 174 pounds per acre, con- suming 3.7 pounds of grain per pound of gain. This was, however, only 12 per cent less grain than was required by hogs fed entirely on grain. The sor- ghum was fed when partly headed out. When the sorghum was cut and carried to hogs, using it as a soiling crop, there was much less waste of food, and an acre went much farther. Sorghum should be grazed any time between early bloom and late maturity, for best results. Grazing may, however, be begun as soon as the plants have reached 10 to 12 inches in height and continued until late fall. Kafir corn, on the other hand, is of greater value after it is headed out. Stubble field—After the harvesting of wheat, oats, barley, peas, rye, etc, is over, hogs should be turned in the stub- ble field to pick up the scattered gram. At the Oregon station, young pigs were turned on barley, wheat and pea stubble fields without other grain, ex- cept a limited amount on stormy days. In one month they made an average gain of 22.8 pounds, 17.5 pounds of which was credited to the grain picked up in stubble, and which would have otherwise gone to waste. The percentage increase secured at the Montana station when 24 pigs, 230 lambs and 11 steers had the run of a 212- acre field of oats, wheat, peas and barley stubble, was 32.1 per cent for hogs, 19.2 for lambs, and 5.2 per cent for steers. These results show considerable value for stubble field from the standpoint of hog feeding. It will be noted in the experiments above, that hogs made better gains than either sheep or steers on this kind of pasturage. Soy bean pasturage— Soy beans were pastured at the Arkansas station when the pods were filled and some were changing color. On this pasture, hogs weighing 124 pounds each, at the begin- ning of the experiment, gained but 22.75 pounds in 32 days; while on Spanish peanuts, during the same test, the gains were 73.5, and on chufas, 39.3 pounds. The soy beans were clearly not equal to either peanuts or chufas in this ex- periment for pork production. The yield of soy beans was about 27.2 bushels per acre. The melting point of the fat of hogs pastured on soy beans was 103.3°F., while on corn it was 114° F. This is not a very satisfactory pasture crop for hogs, because the leaves soon drop after maturing, leaving only woody stems. Vetches — This crop has been found an excellent green food for hogs at the Oregon station. Hogs seem very fond of vetches and frequently leave their grain to eat them. Less waste occurs when the vetches are cut and fed to the hog. The hogs were also successfully hurdled on small portions of the vetch field at a time. Vetches are strongly recom- mended at that station, where clover is unavailable for pasturage. This crop succeeds throughout the eastern states from June on and in the southern states from March to May. It is usually ad- visable to plant some grain, like oats, with the crop, to hold up the vetches. SWINE 529 ROOTS AND OTHER SUCCULENTS FOR PASTURAGE AND FEED In experiments at the Ontario college to determine the feeding value of roots, it was found that when equal weights of roots and meal were fed together, the hogs made more rapid and economical gains than when meal alone was fed, and the bacon produced was superior in quality. This and many other experi- ments at the station show that succu- lent foods, whether roots or green for- age, tend to keep animals thrifty, and, therefore, to produce firm bacon. The amount to use is about equal weights of succulent foods and grains. Apples — Windfall apples are often used as succulent food for hogs in the fall. Even at the low price of 10 cents per bushel they were not found an economi- cal food at the New Hampshire sta- tion. At the Oregon station three eight- months-old shotes were confined in a pen and fed all the apples they could eat for one month. At the beginning of the test they weighed 408 pounds and at the end 443.5 pounds, showing a gain of 35.5 pounds. This gain, however, was mostly due to filling up, showing that the apples were no more than a maintenance ration. The hogs during the test kept in excel- lent condition. At the Illinois station, apple pomace when too much fermented was not relished by hogs. When fresh it may be used, but has a low feeding value. Artichokes—The tubers of this crop are frequently pastured by hogs, the hogs being allowed to root them out. The crop is available in late fall and the tubers that remain in the ground over-' winter can be pastured in the spring. Hogs greatly relish these roots. At the Oregon station, where the tu- bers were left in the ground and the hogs allowed to root them out, but little gains were made when no other feed was given. When, however, a small grain ration was fed in addition, an average daily gain of 0.81 pound per head was made. This gain for hogs weighing all the way from 133 to 215 pounds when the experiment began, is considered very satisfactory. The pigs were healthy and vigorous on artichokes and their use is commended to farmers. At the Ottawa station, pigs fed on artichokes were allowed a daily grain ra- tion of 1.5 pounds of mixed grain and made an average daily gain of 1.6 pounds, requiring 93 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain. The cost of the gain in this test was $1.80 per 100 pounds. Professor Grisdale, who conducted the experiment, estimates that after deducting the cost of the meal fed, the artichokes had a value of about $140 per acre. At the Missouri station, a bushel of artichokes and 3 bushels of corn proved superior to 4 bushels of corn for hogs. Good results are also reported by the Arkansas, Alabama, Indiana and Mary- land stations in the use of artichokes for swine. Cassava — This plant promises to be an exceedingly valuable forage crop for Florida and the immediate coast region westward to Texas. The starchy roots of the plant grow 1 to 3 feet in length and from 2 to 3 inches in diameter and are readily eaten by hogs. Under ordi- nary field conditions the yield is 5 to 8 tons per acre. In experiments at the Florida station, hogs fed on cassava made gains at the cost of only 1.4 cents per pound, while on corn the cost was 3.6 cents per pound. Pound for pound, cassava proved 35 per cent better than corn. This plant promises to be ex- tremely useful as a forage crop for hogs wherever the season between frost cov- ers a period of eight months. Chufas — This root crop was compared at the Arkansas station with peanuts and soy beans as a pasture crop for hogs. The yield of chufas was at the rate of 184 bushels per acre, of peanuts 90 bush- els per acre and soy beans 27.2 bushels per acre. The gain on the chufas was 50 per cent less than on the peanuts and about 80 per cent more than on the soy beans. The fat from hogs pastured on chufas melted at 98.4° F., which was about 10 degrees higher than that made on peanuts and 5° lower than that made on soy beans. In two tests, at the Alabama station, of this crop, pigs gained on the average 307 pounds per acre when given one- fourth to one-half the usual grain ra- tion. The average amount of grain required to produce a pound of gain on chufas was 2.3 pounds. Estimating pork at 3.5 cents per pound, chufas had a value of about $13.09 per acre and were fully equal to Spanish peanuts for pas- turage. Mangels — At the Indiana station, man- gels were fed with corn meal and shorts 530 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK m comparison with the same grains without mangels for hogs. The lot re- ceiving the mangels ate less food and made smaller gains at a greater cost than where no roots were fed. At the Central experimental farm at Ottawa, mangels have been found of considerable value as a winter food for stock hogs. They have also been fed to fattening hogs without any injurious effect on the quality of pork produced. See also sugar beets for comparative tests. Potatoes — This crop when fed to hogs is usually given cooked, since hogs relish them to a greater extent in this form, and make better use of them. The crop is too valuable usually to grow as a pasture crop for hogs, but it is a fre- quent practice with farmers to utilize the small tubers by cooking them and mixing them with ground corn meal or other ground grain. At the New York Cornell station, Clinton fed potatoes both raw and cooked to hogs, which received at the same time a light ration of skim milk and grain, in addition. Over 400 pounds of potatoes were thus fed but the pigs made no gains, due it is thought, to a low temperature, ranging between 29 and 30° E. At the Oregon station well-cooked po- tatoes formed part of the ration in one of the station experiments. Pigs weigh- ing 175 pounds each were fed 12.4 pounds of potatoes and 2.8 pounds of shorts per day per head and made a daily gain of 1.3 pounds. Another like lot of hogs consumed 6.8 pounds of mixed grain per day and made a daily gain of 1.8 pounds. This shows that the extra 4 pounds of grain fed to the second lot of pigs more than counter- balanced the 12.4 pounds of potatoes fed to the first lot. In another experiment at the station, 100 pounds of cooked potatoes, fed as a part of the ration, had a value of 21 to 31 pounds of wheat or 27 pounds of barley. Experiments with hogs at the Wiscon- sin station indicate that it requires about 4.4 pounds of cooked potatoes to equal in feeding value 1 pound of corn meal. At that station, 1 bushel of corn was equal to 4.5 bushels of potatoes. Professor Henry holds that potatoes should be cooked before feeding. The Minnesota station found that potatoes were no more digestible when cooked than when raw, but that pigs ate more cooked potatoes than raw ones. At the Ottawa experiment station, po- tatoes either raw or cooked, were unsat- isfactory rations for hogs. Even when fed with skim milk, grain had to be added in order to make satisfactory gains. At the Central experimental farm, also, potatoes fed raw have proved of but little value. When cooked they were about one-fourth as valuable as mixed grain. The experiment on the whole goes to show that in feeding potatoes to hogs they should be cooked and fed with grain and that the best results are se- cured when only a small portion of the ration is made up of potatoes. Pumpkins — The New Hampshire sta- tion reports that pumpkins fed with corn meal and milk have considerable feeding value for hogs, and are about equally valuable raw or cooked. On the other hand, the Ottawa station found cooked pumpkins more satisfactory for hogs than raw pumpkins, and reports that pigs made exceedingly economical gains on rations containing pumpkins. The average of experiments at the Ottawa, Oregon and New Hampshire stations in feeding pumpkins, show that it required 273 pounds of grain and 276 pounds of pumpkins (raw) to make 100 pounds of gain in hogs. When the pump- kins were cooked it required 222 pounds of grain and 1,150 pounds of pumpkins for each 100 pounds of gain. These results rather favor feeding the pumpkins raw and preferably mixed with corn meal. When pumpkins were used for hogs at the Oregon station, they were first cut up, the seeds removed and the pieces thoroughly cooked. The pigs were in- duced to eat as much pumpkin as they would and the ration then filled out with shorts. In two months' time, pigs eight months old gained 125 pounds each on this ration, consuming about 13 pounds of pumpkins, and 1.9 pounds of grain per pound of gain at a cost of 2.9 cents. These gains were entirely satis- factory and the meat produced on pump- kins was of excellent quality. Sugar beets — The value of sugar beets as pasture for hogs fed grain in addi- tion, was found at the Michigan station to be $37.77 per acre, and for sugar beets and mangels, half and half, $39.60 per SWINE 531 acre. The yield in this experiment was at the rate of 19 tons of sugar beets and 37.4 tons of mangels per acre. The hogs were allowed to gather the crop them- selves. It is stated that hogs scour con- siderably when turned onto roots in this way unless considerable dry food is given the first few days. "Butcher hogs come off this kind of feed paunchy and require three or four weeks' feeding to fit them for market. This method should bring breeding stock into winter condition in strong, vigorous shape." The pigs dug the roots out to the very tip. Sugar beets proved superior to either turnips or mangels at the Ottawa station. At the Colorado station, Buffum and Griffith fed sugar beets and sugar beet pulp to hogs, and arrived at the conclu- sion that sugar beets for swine feeding, either alone or in combination with grain, are unprofitable, since green pas- ture would probably serve the purpose of furnishing succulent foods at a less ex- pense. When fed alone, sugar beets were a little more than a maintenance ration. In the station experiments, sugar beets and sugar beet pulp proved equally valuable for feeding, and be- cause of the cheapness and effect on growth it is thought that pulp may be profitably fed to growing pigs in con- nection with a grain ration, or during the first part of the fattening period. When fed with grain, sugar beets or sugar beet pulp had a. value of about $1.50 per ton as a food for hogs. It was necessary to mix the pulp with grain in order to teach the pigs to eat it. The station recommends that not more than 2 pounds of pulp to a pound of grain be given in a ration for hogs weighing from 100 to 200 pounds. At the Montana station, 100 pounds of sugar beets saved 38 pounds of grain worth 1 cent per pound, which gave the sugar beets a value of $7.60 per ton for hog feed. The sugar beets were fed raw and were greatly relished. The station holds that while a straight grain ration produced gain rapidly, it is the most expensive method of feeding, and that roots or some similar material should be fed with it. Sugar beets are stated to be just as valuable raw as cooked for hogs and should not be fed in larger quantities than 2 to 2.5 pounds per day to hogs weighing 150 pounds. Ped too freely they have a laxative ef- fect. They have given good results when fed in larger quantities with store hogs, receiving very little grain during the winter, and for brood sows. "They have a tendency to prevent a torpid condi- tion of the digestive tract, render partu- rition more easy, increase the flow of milk, and produce vigorous offspring." They should be fed to the sow only in small quantities during the first week after farrowing; otherwise they arc likely to affect the milk, causing bowel trouble among the young pigs. The station experiments show conflict- ing results in regard to the use and value of sugar beets. A study of the data, however, indicates that in small amounts, 2 to 5 pounds per day, sugar beets may serve a very useful purpose in the rations for hogs, cheapening the gain, giving tone to the system of the hog, and reducing the cost of the gains. The pulp seems to answer every purpose of the original sugar beet and when available may be used in place of the sugar beets. The beets should be fed sliced. Cooking is probably without benefit for this crop. Sweet potatoes — Sweet potatoes are fed more or less extensively throughout the South to hogs. They are available from September to November and the hogs do their own harvesting. Professor Duggar reports that sweet potatoes are eaten with but little relish. When two shotes were fed five weeks on sweet potato pasture with one-half ra- tion of grain in addition, they gained but 67 pounds, requiring 3.1 pounds of grain for a pound of growth. In another experiment at the station, 1 pound of corn was found considerably more valuable than 3 pounds of sweet potatoes for hogs. Valuing corn at 40 cents per bushel, sweet potatoes were worth about 13 cents per bushel for hogs. That station believes that sweet potatoes cannot be profitably grown, stored and fed to hogs, even if each bushel could be converted into pork worth 10 to 15 cents. Sweet potatoes, however, may be cheaper food for hogs than corn if the hogs are allowed to gather the potatoes themselves, and soils are used that yield 10 to 15 times as many bushels of sweet potatoes as corn. Sweet potatoes are of greatest value when supplemented with liberal allowances of cowpeas or peanuts. The Arkansas station also re- ports that pigs do not take readily to sweet potatoes or gain as rapidly in flesh as pigs on peanuts. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK At the Maryland station small sweet potatoes and sweet potato strings were fed alone to hogs. It required about 5 tons of the product to produce 100 pounds of gain. This gives the sweet potato a value for pig feeding of about 60 cents per ton. When the sweet pota- to strings were fed in combination with gluten meal and milk, they made con- siderably better returns and had a feed- ing value of about 40 cents per 100 pounds. These data show sweet potatoes to have a very low feeding value for hogs. Like other roots, their greatest^ useful- ness will be obtained when fed in small amounts with a liberal allowance of grain in addition. Turnips — This crop at the Ontario station was not found profitable when replacing one-half of a mixed meal ra- tion. They were even inferior to corn silage. When fed at the Nevada sta- tion with alfalfa, small gains were made. At another station when sliced turnips constituted two-thirds of the ra- tions fed to hogs, they were used at a loss. Conclusions regarding roots — A study of the experiments recorded above in the use of roots for hog feeding, indi- cates that their feeding value is not high, but that they have a marked bene- ficial effect on the digestive organs of animals, enabling hogs to utilize the dry grains fed with them to greater ad- vantage. Eoots act in a manner simi- lar to pasture crops or skim milk. On the whole, it may be calculated that it requires from 400 to 800 pounds of roots to equal 100 pounds of grain in feeding value. They are most useful when fed in small amounts, 2 to 3 pounds per day. SOILING HOGS Hogs put up in a pen at the Ontario college in summer, and fed for 123 days on mixed meal, gained 64 per cent on their first weight. When green fod- der was substituted for one-third the meal ration, the gain of another like lot of hogs was 50 per cent on their first weight, and when fodder cut green and mixed with the meal at feeding was sub- stituted for two-thirds the meal ration, the gain was but 13.4 per cent on the first weight. Taking the expense of feeding into account there was a gain in feeding meal alone of 4.56 per cent. From feed- ing two-thirds meal and one-third green fodder the gain was 2.71 per cent, and from feeding one-third meal and two- thirds green fodder, there was a loss of 27 per cent. From this experiment it is concluded that if bulky fodder has any value as an aid to digestion in fat- tening hogs, it must be fed in a smaller amount than used in this experiment. The green foods used consisted of clover, oats, vetches, corn and millet, in their season, and was cut into half-inch lengths and mixed with the meal in . feeding. Vetch and rape — Day, in Canada, se- cured slightly better gains when pigs were fed soiling crops of vetch followed by rape, than when the hogs were pas- tured on these crops. Cummings found soy beans about 10 per cent better for soiling than rape. Soiling hogs with alfalfa, at the Oregon station, did not prove satisfac- tory, owing apparently to the tendency of the alfalfa to become woody. Eape and other tender succulence gave satis- factory results. In one experiment at the station, Withycombe fed soiling crops of crimson clover and alfalfa to mature hogs for one month, during which time they re- quired 85.5 pounds of green feed, and 1.4 pounds of grain mixture for each pound of gain. During the succeeding month it required 328 pounds of green al- falfa to produce a pound of live weight. It is believed much better results would have been secured had the hogs been al- lowed to run on alfalfa pasture. Grass — When pigs were fed grass alone in pens without any grain what- ever, they lost in weight V^ pound each per day for a feeding period of 90 days, at the Utah station. When allowed to run in pasture without grain they gained in weight on an average 0.36 pound for three seasons in succession. On an av- erage of four years' experiments at that station pigs confined in pens on full grain rations and given grass in addi- tion gained 1.13 pounds per pig per day. Without the grass the gain was 1.09 pounds per day. Pigs having a full grain ration in yards and given grass in addition gained 1.07 pounds per day; without the grass the gain was 1.17 pounds per pig per day. This gives the grass, which consisted of about 50 per cent alfalfa, a slight feeding value for SWINE 533 hogs confined in pens, but no value what- ever for hogs fed in yards. In a later review of the above work by the station it is suggested that the hogs in yards gathered up a considerable amount of roughage in the form of hay, which may account for this curious result. When hogs were given a full grain ra tion and allowed the run of an 18-acre pasture, they gained 1.3 pounds per head per day. This is a considerably larger daily gain than was made by the hogs fed either in pens or in yards. When pigs were confined in pens and fed one- fourth of a full grain ration in addi- tion to all the grass they would eat they gained 0.32 pound each per day. On the same grain ration and pasture the gain was 0.64 pound each per day. Pigs confined in movable pens on pas- ture and the pens moved twice a day re- quired 20 per cent more grain to make a pound of gain than pigs allowed to run loose in the pasture. The pigs fed grass in these movable pens did not gain as rapidly even as those confined in pens or yards and fed cut grass. The experiments taken as a whole hardly show a sufficiently high feeding value for cut grass for hogs confined either in pens or in yards to pay for the trouble of feeding it. It is but just to state, however, that when the hogs fed grain and grass were subsequently fed on full grain rations alone, they did much bet- ter than those that had been fed nothing but grain. In the Utah experiments the feeding of hogs at pasture was satisfac- tory under all conditions. Averaging the results secured in feeding full grain rations, one-fourth grain rations and grass alone to hogs at pasture and com- paring these with the results secured in feeding the same grain rations with grass to pigs confined in pens, a gain of 92M> per cent is found in favor of the pasture. The amount of grain eaten by the pigs at pasture was but 2 per cent more than the amount eaten by the pigs in the pens. Prickly comfrey was f 0( j to hogs at the New York state station at a loss. The hogs did not relish this green forage plant. Even young pigs fed the prickly comfrey chopped and dusted with meal would not eat enough to produce any gain. Many other plants have been used as soiling crops for hogs, but on the whole this method of feeding is never so satis- factory as pasture. It has a value, how- ever, in the case of hogs which are being fed grain only. In such cases soil- ing crops sufficient to add variety, suc- culence and bulk to the ration will gen- erally prove beneficial. Silage — A number of the experiment stations have fed different kinds of silage to swine, usually with unfavorable results. At the New York station a good quality of silage made from corn ripe enough to husk was fed to shotes for a period of five months. Preliminary trials had shown that the pigs fed silage alone would not eat enough to make any gain unless fed in such large quantities that the grain it contained furnished all the food required. As a maintenance ration for mature hogs during the winter and spring, silage served very well. In feeding the silage the hogs first picked out the grain ; the remainder was chewed over but never all swallowed, even when fed in small quantities. The hogs in one experiment were given nearly a maintenance ration of bran and mid- dlings and in addition as much silage as they would chew over. When the silage constituted about 40 per cent of the ra- tion the cost of producing pork was about the same as where no silage was fed. When 70 per cent of the ration was made up of silage, the cost of producing pork was considerably more than its market value (estimating silage to be worth $1 a ton) and 23 per cent higher than where corn was substituted. The Kentucky station records an ex- periment in which silage made of corn and soy beans was used, not as a partial substitute for grain, but as a kind of appetizer and tonic in addition thereto. Pigs in this experiment, on shelled corn alone, gained on the average 0.7 pound a day. While on shelled corn with silage the gain was 0.87 pound a day. Here it is seen that silage had a value in increasing the gains. Based on the figures obtained, a ton of silage repre- sented a gain of 64 pounds of pork. Its chief purpose, in the opinion of the sta- tion, is to supplement the full grain ration as a corrective. In eating it the hogs first picked out the grain and then chewed the remaining portion, swallow- ing only a small part of it. At the Ottawa station, in Canada, well prepared pea silage fed with grains to pigs appeared to have no feeding value. When fed alone pigs steadily FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 534 lost in weight on it for nine weeks. At Guelph, in a test lasting about six weeks, hogs fed a ration of middlings alone made TO per cent better gains than a like lot of hogs fed only one-third as much middlings with the remainder of the ration made up of rape silage. In this test a pound of middlings equaled 5.12 pounds of rape silage in producing gains. In another trial corn silage was fed to hogs at a loss, and when sliced turnips constituted two-thirds of the ration the gains were but little better. The Virginia station found silage eco- nomical when fed with corn in a main- tenance ration, but not so when used alone. At the Utah station silage proved inferior to dried fodder corn. On the whole we see that silage is not a desirable feed for hogs except in small amounts, when it should be fed in ad- dition to a full grain ration. Silage, however, made from well-ripened corn may be made to serve as a maintenance ration if fed in sufficiently large amounts. GRAINS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS FOR SWINE Barley i s quite extensively used as a food for hogs in Minnesota, Canada and some northwestern states where corn is not a certain crop. At the Minnesota station it was found that during the early stage of feeding 100 pounds of barley meal produced as great a gain as 119.5 pounds of corn meal; and 100 pounds of barley meal and shorts (half and half) as great a gain as 105.2 pounds of corn meal and shorts. After the pigs had attained a weight of 125 pounds, 100 pounds of corn and shorts produced as much gain as 119 pounds of barley and shorts. For fattening hogs weigh- ing 160 to 300 pounds each it required 5.9 pounds of bright meal to 10.3 pounds of barley of poor quality to produce a pound of gain. Similar hogs fed corn required but 5 pounds to produce a pound of gain. At the Michigan station hogs weigh- ing 138 pounds each required 5 pounds of barley meal to make a pound of gain, while another lot weighing 148 pounds required but 4.4 pounds of corn meal to produce a pound of gain. At the Montana station hogs weighing 120 to 125 pounds were fed 53 days on barley alone and required 4.96 pounds of grain for each pound of increase in weight ; on barley and wheat, equal parts, 4.8 pounds; on barley and peas, 4.7 pounds; and on barley, wheat and peas, equal parts, 4.55 pounds. At the South Dakota station the pork produced on a ton of barley was worth $13.60, or 33 cents a bushel; on barley and shorts $13.70 a ton; and on barley and corn $12.04 a ton. At the Wash- ington station it was found that barley chops alone was more valuable than wheat chops alone and that barley and wheat mixed was more effective in pro- ducing gain than either alone. At the Wisconsin station ground bar- ley has proved to be 8 per cent less valu- able for producing gain in hogs five to 14 months old than ground corn. That station states that pigs relish barley meal most when soaked in a comparatively large amount of water, at least 3 pounds of water to each pound of meal. Barley is thought especially valuable for grow- ing hogs and for adding variety to the ration. When whole barley was fed to pigs at the Central experimental farm, in Canada, 12.5 per cent passed through the animal undigested, none of which ger- minated. In experiments at the Ontario college barley alone has given good gains and produced exceptionally firm bacon. "A two-thirds ration of barley with all the rape the hogs would eat, followed by about three weeks exclusive barley feed- ing at the close, gave economical gains on the whole and produced bacon of good quality, but scarcely so firm as that produced by barley or that produced by peas and middlings. Barley appears to be an exceptionally safe and valuable food for swine, whether fed alone or in combination with other feeds." Beans — Common white, navy, field beans are usually much too expensive to be used as a feeding stuff for hogs. From 5 to 10 per cent of the crop usually falls into the class known as damaged or cull beans, as a result of which more than 100,000 bushels are annually put on the market at a low price for stock foods. These beans should be thoroughly cooked before feeding. Large feeders be- gin on about three parts corn and one part beans and gradually increase the beans until they constitute from one-half to two-thirds of the ration. On an ex- clusive bean ration pigs are likely to scour or get off feed. Besides, beans are a highly nitrogenous ration, containing 20 to 25 per cent of protein and an all SWINE 535 bean ration would be an unnecessary use of tbis expensive food material. Beans have the reputation of making soft pork and pork that shrinks from 4 to 8 per cent more in slaughtering than that made on corn. At the Michigan station the dry beans were cooked in sufficient water and when thoroughly done the beans and water were transferred to a barrel and the proper amount of corn meal added, the whole being then thoroughly mixed. With beans at $12 a ton there was a good profit in feeding them to hogs weighing between 50 and 125 pounds each. Fattening hogs made a gain of about a pound a day on beans alone and 1.5 pounds where an equal amount of corn was fed with the beans. It is rec- ommended that in feeding beans they be salted for hogs to about the same extent as required for man. It is noted that a single feed of half-cooked beans may rob the hogs of their appetite and relish for this food, if indeed it does not put them off feed entirely. Cooking can be hastened if the beans are soaked over night. Bran i s a bulky and fibrous food of but little value in fattening hogs. It is very useful in lightening such heavy rations as corn meal. Breeders use it extensively for brood sows, to prevent fattening. It is not nearly as effective a supplemen- tary feed to use with corn as middlings, yet gives better results when used in small amounts with corn than when corn alone is fed. At the Nebraska station, bran did not prove equal to either shorts or cut alfalfa, when fed as one-fourth of the ration for pigs, even when fed with corn meal. Nothing was gained by fer- menting the bran. Buckwheat i s seldom fed to hogs. It should never be made to constitute over one-half the grain ration for swine. In larger amounts it may cause skin dis- eases and other unfavorable symptoms. Kellner recommends that when the whole grain is fed it be cooked. Canadian ex- periments indicate that feeding a ra- tion of one-half buckwheat is not a cause of soft bacon. Larger amounts appear to produce soft pork. At the Ot- tawa station it required 4.45 pounds of ground and soaked buckwheat to produce one pound of gain and 4.1 pounds of wheat to produce a pound of gain. Hogs fed buckwheat, dressed out a larger percentage of live weight than when fed wheat. Such data as are available indi- cate that buckwheat has a high feed- ing value for hogs and the best results are secured when it constitutes only a part of the grain ration. Cerealine — At the Hatch station in Massachusetts, corn meal proved equal to hominy meal when fed with skim milk to pigs and from 5 to 10 per cent better than cerealine, a by-product obtained in the preparation of the breakfast food known as Cerealine Flakes. The mate- rial consists of the hull and a portion of the starch of corn. 'Corn — This is the chief grain fed to hogs in the United States. It is usually the cheapest grain and when fed with skim milk, pasture or some nitrogenous food it is the most effective of all grains in producing rapid and cheap gains. As a single grain ration for growing ani- mals it is lacking in mineral matter and when pigs are confined in pens and fed corn alone they should have access at all times to hard wood ashes, bone meal or like material. According to Snyder, the ash of corn is entirely undigestible by swine. As a result the bones of hogs fed exclusively on corn are weak and not developed to the full extent, the muscles are not well attached and in shipping, hogs break down and arrive in market cripples. Hogs fed on corn shrink less when killed and are more desirable and profit- able from the packers' standpoint than a hog fed bulkier rations. They are much less profitable, however, to the farmer, than when the corn is supplemented by pasture, skim milk or other material used to give variety to the ration or add protein to it. When hogs are closely con- fined in pens they will make satisfactory gains on either ground or whole corn for a few weeks, but the gains are not long continued. Growing pigs are not able to secure from corn the elements necessary to build up their bones and muscles and when fed on corn continu- ously lose their appetite, gain but slowly, and show marked evidence of unthrift and malnutrition. On the average a bushel of corn will make about 12 pounds gain in live weight of hogs. When a ration made up of two-thirds corn and one-third oil meal, barley meal and bran was fed at the Iowa station, the gain was 17.3 pounds for a bushel of corn. This large addi- tional increase was obtained by the use S36 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK of the more nitrogenous feeds as a sup- plement to the corn and brings out dearly the great desirability of supple- menting the all-corn diet with more ni- trogenous feed. Stated in another way, the use of this supplementary nitroge- nous food made the corn about 40 per cent more valuable for the production of P° rk - . 1 X J At the Michigan station, hogs ted corn meal made 15.9 per cent better gains for a period of four weeks than similar hogs fed the same amount of corn on the cob. Like results were also secured at the New York state station. The Kentucky station made a com- parison of shelled corn alone with shelled corn combined with a number of other supplements. On shelled corn alone the average gain was 0.7 pound a day; on two-thirds shelled corn and one-third soy beans 1.16 pounds; on one-half shelled corn and one-half dried distillery grains 1 pound a day. When the ration was made up of two-thirds shelled corn and one-third dried distillery grains the av- erage gain was 0.63 pound a day. The New Hampshire station found ground corn and cob to have a slightly higher feeding value for pigs than corn on the ear. Nevertheless, it was more economical to feed corn on the ear than to draw it to the mill and grind it. The Kentucky station found corn and cob meal a rather inferior food for hogs and it was but little relished. Corn and cob meal must be ground much finer for hogs than for cattle if as good results are to be obtained. If the proportion of cob to grain is high the feed is bulky and unpalatable to hogs. When corn shells out 6 to 12 pounds of cob to the bushel of grain it can be profitably used for hogs, but when it goes much above these limits, hogs do not do as well on it as on corn meal alone. When the amount of cob constituted 14 pounds per bushel the Missouri station found that much more profitable results were se- cured when wheat bran was used as a lightener of the meal than when ground cob was used. It contains too much bulky, unpalatable and undigestible fiber to make it sought for as a feeding stuff for swine. At the West Virginia station hogs fed soaked old grain required but 385 pounds to produce 100 pounds of gain, while another similar lot fed dry corn, re- quired 410 pounds to produce 100 pounds of gain. At the Ontario agricultural college, exclusive corn feeding to hogs intended for bacon, for a somewhat extended pe- riod, produced bacon of an extremely soft and undesirable character. No evil effects were noted from the corn when fed to hogs that had plenty of exercise until they had reached 100 pounds live weight, or had been fed skim milk with a mixed grain ration until they had reached 100 pounds live weight. Corn meal — Generally speaking, ground corn is more effective in produc- ing gains than whole grain. In experi- ments at the Wisconsin station with nearly 200 medium sized hogs, the gain from grinding varied from 8 to 17.6 per cent. Only in two cases was there a loss from grinding. Usually the gain did not exceed 8 per cent, an amount which usually does not exceed the cost of grinding. The gains are usually a little more rapid on ground grains. With cheap grains it probably will not pay to grind, but when grains are expensive and pork high, grinding may prove profit- able. At the West Virginia station, hogs fed four weeks on ground corn gained about 28 per cent more than similar hogs fed whole corn. It is explained, how- ever, that the hogs had been previously getting ground corn and the change to whole corn was not relished. The re- sult of 12 experiments at eight differ- ent stations along this line show an average of 505 pounds of whole corn, or 472.9 pounds of ground corn for 100 pounds of gain. This shows an average of about 6 per cent less ground corn to make a pound of gain than of whole corn. It is generally held that unless a farmer is located near a mill, it will not pay to have corn ground, the extra cost of grinding more than counterbalancing the extra feeding value of the corn. Corn meal, like whole corn, gives the best results when supplemented by some more nitrogenous material like skim milk, tankage or soy beans. Hogging corn — I n many of the west- ern states where corn stover is not of special value, farmers make a practice of letting the hogs gather the grain from the standing corn. The hogs are turned into the fields as soon as the grain begins to form and while they are apparently wasteful feeders, they usually get about every kernel of corn in the field. The stover is, of course, practically a com- plete loss, but the hogs make rapid gains SWINE 537 and are vigorous and thrifty and the farmer is saved the expense of gather- ing and husking the corn. No reliable figures on this method of feeding are at hand, but the practice is a common one with many successful farmers. Corn shives or Marsden feed — This material is the ground outer portion of the corn stalk after the pith has been removed for manufacturing purposes. Several experiments were made with this material at the Maryland station. As a part of the ration this coarse fod- der had considerable value for older pigs, but much less value for young pigs. It was more valuable when fed without skim milk than when fed with it. When fed with rich foods like linseed meal or gluten meal it materially lessened the amount of these feeds required and cheapened the rations. From five or six tests along this line that station con- cludes that it is desirable to mix with hog rations some such coarse material as this as a substitute for grazing when pigs are fed in confinement. Cottonseed and cottonseed meal — Ex- periments with this material as a hog food are unanimous in showing that in large amounts it acts as a poison, result- ing sooner or later in death. In small amounts, properly combined with other feeds, it is an excellent food and may be used for balancing a ration of corn and of increasing the rapidity of the gains. In the following record of ex- perimental data, the best methods of us- ing it are pointed out. One of the first stations to study the value of cottonseed and cottonseed meal for hogs was the Texas station. In the first experiments rather large amounts of this material were fed, either boiled, roasted or raw in the ration, as a result of which the station came to the conclu- sion that "there is no profit whatever in feeding cottonseed in any form or cottonseed meal to hogs of any age." In other experiments at the same station, hogs following cattle fed cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal required 4.4 pounds of grain additional to make a pound of gain, while hogs following cattle fed silage, hay, corn in the ear and raw cottonseed required 3.2 pounds of grain in addition to make a pound of gain. More recently, Marshall at the same station has shown that cottonseed meal in small amounts may be fed to hogs in- definitely and that if the meal is first fermented and fed in the form of a slop larger amounts can be used than if fed dry, especially if some green food is fed at the same time with the slop. Forbes at the Missouri station found that corn meal and fermented cottonseed meal fed in the proportion of 8 :1 killed three out of 15 hogs at the end of 51 days' feeding. Experiments at the Iowa station in feeding hogs cottonseed meal with corn show that while good gains were made on these feeds, the hogs uni- formly died when they consumed from 27 to 33 pounds of cottonseed meal per hog. The hogs in the experiments weighed about 100 pounds each. It was about six weeks from the time the meal was first fed until the hogs began to die. The Mississippi station investigated the value of cottonseed meal raw and cooked for hogs, but with unfavorable results in both cases. The Kentucky station, finishing hogs off, for three weeks used cottonseed meal with other grain at the rate of one-half pound daily per head. Its use in this amount is recommended for finishing off hogs, but it should only be given alternate weeks. At the Alabama station, Duggar found that when cottonseed meal con- stituted one-fifth to one-half of the grain ration for shotes weighing 60 to 118 pounds each, sickness or death followed within from 34 to 38 days. The result was the same whether the cottonseed meal and grain were fed alone or with a bountiful supply of grain, sorghum or peanuts. No ill effect was noticed ear- lier than the 31st day of feeding. With young pigs the poisonous effects were noticeable when they consumed 9.2 pounds per 100 pounds of weight. With older shotes the effects were noticeable after consuming a little more than 21 pounds. Experiments have been reported by the Kansas station in feeding cottonseed meal to hogs. The pigs refused to eat a mixture of two-thirds corn meal and one-third cottonseed meal. They did eat a mixture of five-sixths corn meal and one-sixth cottonseed meal and after a few davs appeared to improve in appe- tite. They made rapid gains and finally were fed a ration consisting of one- fourth cottonseed meal. All died within 45 days from the time feeding began and some within three weeks. Two sows, however, weighing 135 and 308 pounds respectively, were made to consume a 538 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ration of one-fourth cottonseed meal and three-fourths corn meal for 45 days without apparent injury and gained on the average 2 pounds a head daily. On this ration it required but 3.16 pounds of the mixed grain to produce a pound of gain, while on corn meal other like hogs required 7.3 pounds to produce a pound of gain. Following this experi- ment some scrub pigs that had made poor gains on such feeds as corn meal and wheat were fed rations of one-fourth to one-half cottonseed meal and corn; the pigs weighed 40 to 50 pounds each; they made rapid gains from the first on these feeds. With the smaller amount of cottonseed meal they required but 3 pounds of mixed grain to produce a pound of gain, and with the larger amount but 2.6 pounds of the mixed grain for a pound of gain. They com- menced dying off after feeding 25 days while still gaining rapidly. The con- clusion is drawn from these experiments that "cottonseed meal produces very rapid gains with both pigs and large hogs, and if the feed is changed before symptoms of disease appear, hogs can be fed cottonseed meal for a short time with the best results." In a later report by the station it is stated that it is now the practice to begin by feeding one- fourth pound cottonseed meal per day to each 100 pounds of live weight. This is gradually increased to 3 pounds per 100 pounds of live weight at the end of 10 days. The meal is mixed with other grain and may be profitably fed three or four weeks. Experiments with cottonseed meal at the Oklahoma station indicate that when it is properly fed it is an exceedingly valuable feeding stuff for hogs. In one experiment 17 shotes were fed for 67 days, on 46 of which the grain ration consisted of four-fifths kafir corn and one-fifth cottonseed meal. All lived and made good gains. Part of them were then fed 47 days longer on the same ra- tion ; one died at the end of 21 days ; the remainder lived and were sold at the end of the feeding period as fat hogs. That station now recommends that not more than one-fifth the grain ration fed to hogs be made up of cottonseed meal and that a rather light grain ration be fed. It is believed that pigs running on green range and given a light grain ration consisting of one-tenth to one- fifth cottonseed meal can be fed for an indefinite time. "After feeding the ra- tion two or three weeks, drop the cotton- seed meal for two or three weeks, after which return to the cottonseed mixture for a like duration, to be followed by the omission of the cottonseed as before." As a result of extensive experiments in feeding cottonseed products to hogs at the Arkansas station, Dinwiddie states that in small amounts cottonseed meal may be fed indefinitely to hogs and in larger amounts for a limited period only without inducing poisonous symptoms. The amount to feed daily depends on the age and weight of the hogs. He gives the following amounts which may be fed with safety to pigs of different ages : Pigs under 50 pounds, x /± pound per day; pigs from 50 to 75 pounds, 1-3 pound per day; pigs from 75 to 100 pounds, 2-5 pound per day; pigs from 100 to 150 pounds, V2 pound per day. If fed a full grain ration, one-eighth of the ration for 50-pound pigs may con- sist of cottonseed meal ; one-seventh for pigs weighing from 50 to 75 pounds; one-sixth for pigs weighing from 75 to 100 pounds; and one-fifth for pigs weighing from 100 to 150 pounds. "A meal ration containing cottonseed meal should also contain at least an equal amount of wheat bran to supply bulk." The cottonseed meal should be used simply as an adjunct and to balance a highly carbonaceous ration like corn or corn meal. "In the amount prescribed above cottonseed meal may be fed in- definitely as to time, just as any other food." This station did not find that cottonseed meal had any especially in- jurious effect on breeding stock inde- pendent of its general poisonous effect. Chopped cottonseed may be used in the same manner as recommended for cot- tonseed meal above. "Cottonseed and corn make probably the best combina- tion, about 1 :6 or more if on full feed, or 1 :3, 4 or 5 if on short allowance of grain." "Cottonseed hulls are not toxic for hogs. They are only available for hog feed when ground into bran, and at the prices charged this cotton hull bran is unprofit- able. Cottonseed feed should also be avoided. Crude cotton oil, when fed apart from the kernels, has not occa- sioned symptoms such as we have found in cottonseed meal poisoning, although in the quantities fed (3 to 4 ounces per day) it seemed to act harmfully, giving rise to unthriftiness and possibly even death." SWINE 539 From all these data we may conclude that cottonseed meal used to balance a carbonaceous ration like corn and corn meal or kafir corn is an exceedingly val- uable feeding stuff used in the propor- tions recommended by the Arkansas sta- tion or in the way suggested by the Ok- lahoma station. Evidently the younger the pig the more injurious the meal. Very rapid gains are made when the meal is fed in small amounts for short periods. Cowpeas — Cowpea grain is too expen- sive to feed to hogs under present meth- ods of harvesting. The great value of this crop will be found as pasturage, (see Cowpeas for Pasturage). At the Ala- bama station a comparative test was made between corn and cowpeas alone and mixed as food for pigs. The food re- quired to produce a pound of gain on corn alone was 4.87 pounds; on cowpeas alone 4.80 pounds; on corn and cowpeas (half and half) 4.33. In these experi- ments the manure from hogs fed cow- peas contained about 50 per cent more nitrogen than that from the hogs fed corn. The liver, kidneys, heart and spleen of the hogs fed the cowpeas were considerably larger than the same organs in corn fed hogs and the bones were stronger. On the whole there was a greater proportion of lean meat in the hogs fed cowpeas than in those fed corn. This work shows the value of mixed grain for fattening hogs and the neces- sity for such nitrogenous food as cow- peas for building up healthy, vigorous internal organs and a strong frame- work. In a test at the same station of ground cowpeas and corn, versus corn alone for hogs, it required a little more than 8 pounds of corn to make a pound of gain and less than 5.3 pounds of tho mixture. Distillers' grains— These grains were not relished by hogs in any amount when fed at the Kentucky station. The hogs would not eat this feed until the ration consisted of four-fifths corn and one- fifth distillers' grains. Gluten feed^ while a fairly cheap source of protein, is not especially pal- atable to the hogs, nor is it as cheap or valuable as linseed meal. When fed in small amounts, say one part to 10 of corn, much better results will be ob- tained in rapidity and cheapness of pork production than when corn alone is fed. As a supplementary ration with corn at the Missouri station, gluten feed proved superior to either gluten meal or germ oil meal for hogs. None of these feeds proved equal to linseed meal as a supplement to corn. Kafir corn—The Kansas station was one of the first to demonstrate the value of kafir corn as a grain for hogs. That station has fed kafir corn whole, ground, soaked, alone and in combination with corn, soy beans, alfalfa hay and alfalfa pasture. It has been fed to pigs in all stages of growth. In all 10 or more tests with nearly 400 hogs have been re- ported. These tests show on the whole that kafir corn pound for pound does not equal corn for hogs. Hogs do not relish it as well nor gain so rapidly on it as upon corn. With pigs about 7% months old, red kafir corn had a feed- ing value equal to 84 per cent of that of corn. With pigs six months old, kafir corn fed dry equaled in feeding value 93V2 per cent of that of dry shelled corn. Notwithstanding this result, an acre of upland kafir corn at the station produced on an average 487 pounds of pork as against 410 pounds for an acre of up- land corn. This was due to the fact that on the average kafir corn yields better per acre on uplands than corn. The average for 10 years at the station being 46 bushels per acre as against 34 a /2 for corn. Equal parts of corn meal and kafir corn meal mixed gave as good re- sults in one experiment as corn meal alone. Hogs relish kafir corn at first, but after about four weeks, if not given other feed become tired of it and long for something else. It should therefore al- ways be fed with some other food like skim milk, alfalfa or soy beans. Grind- ing kafir corn increased its feeding value in one experiment 13 per cent. In two other experiments there was a loss of 14 and 9 per cent respectively from grind- ing. Soaking the kafir corn for about 30 hours resulted in a loss of feeding value of 7 and 17 per cent respectively in two tests. The present method ob- served by the station in feeding kafir corn is to put the whole grain dry into a trough and pour over it enough water or skim milk to thoroughly wet it. Millet seed_The South Dakota sta- tion found a bushel of 56 pounds of millet about equal in feeding value to a 540 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK bushel of 48 pounds of barley. The mil- let yielded at the rate of 30 bushels per acre, while barley went 32.7 and wheat 30.3 bushels per acre. In feeding tests of 84 days the gain of hogs on barley averaged 105.5 pounds, on millet 95.5 pounds and on wheat 140.5 pounds. The color of the fat and the quality of the meat produced on millet seed was excel- lent, though the pork was a little softer than that produced on either barley or wheat. The millet proved very pala- table to the hogs. It should be fed ground. Oats — This grain is not commonly fed to hogs excepting in moderate amounts to brood sows and growing pigs. It is of less value in fattening than most of the other grains. Oats either chopped or whole were not relished by hogs at the Oregon station to the same extent as wheat under sim- ilar conditions. When soaked whole oats were fed to hogs as much as 50 per cent by weight of the entire dry excrement was frequently found undigested. The feeding of oats to swine is not recom- mended unless combined with some other feed like ground wheat, barley or shorts. When fed whole at the Ottawa station one-seventh of the grain passed through the intestines undigested. At the Wisconsin station, oats in the proportion of one-third ground oats and two-thirds corn meal were fed with good results. Whole oats scattered thinly on the floor are reported excellent for brood sows when maintenance and not rapid gain is desired. Better results were secured from ground oats than from whole grain. At the Utah station, oats produced fat meat of excellent appear- ance and firmer than that from other grain. When oats were fed as the only grain at the Minnesota station they caused a loss of appetite and small gains. Oat feed — When oat feed was used at the Hatch station in Massachusetts it proved only 84 per cent as valuable for fattening hogs as corn meal. In experi- ments reported by the Mississippi station about 20 per cent more oat feed than corn meal was required to produce a pound of gain. Oats were much more valuable as an adjunct to lighten rations than when used alone. Forbes states that cheap grades of oatmeal are very largely used in fattening fine hogs for show, and steamed whole oats are highly valued by some breeders of pure bred swine. From the above data we see that oats should be made to form only a small portion of the ration for hogs. They are better ground than whole and better for growing, breeding or stock animals than for fattening, although they produce a good quality of pork and lard. Peanuts — At the Alabama station, growing pigs fed for six weeks in pens on unhulled Spanish peanuts made a gain of 9 pounds for each bushel of peanuts fed. One pound of gain was made on the remarkably small amount of 2.8 pounds of peanuts. At the same time other like hogs required 3.7 pounds of peanuts and corn mixed half and half to produce a pound of pork and 10.7 pounds of corn alone to make a pound of gain. The pigs fed peanuts produced soft oily pork, but of good flavor. The melting point of the lard produced on peanuts was 76.1° F., while on clear corn or corn and cowpeas the melting point varied from 109 to 114.8° F. The lard made on peanuts solidified only dur- ing the coldest weather of February. In one experiment pigs that had been fed exclusively on peanuts were given nothing but corn for a month previous to killing. This had the effect of rais- ing the melting point of lard from 76.1 to 101° F. (See also Peanut Pasture.) Peas — Northern or Canada field peas fed at the South Dakota station gave much better results with growing than with older hogs. At the T T tah station where these peas were fed with bran, half and half, they had a value for feed- ing purposes of $1.02 per bushel, while corn had a value of but 70.4 cents and barley 59 cents per bushel. Peas, like barley, are one of the stand- ard grains for hogs in Canada. When whole peas were fed at the Central ex- perimental farm only three-quarters of 1 per cent of undigested grain was found in the excrement. As rapid gains were made on whole soaked peas as on ground peas soaked, but 17 per cent less ground grain than whole grain was required for a pound of gain. In one test at the On- tario agricultural college it cost $3.97 to produce 100 pounds of gain on hogs fed peas and barley ground and $4.25 when they were fed whole. Pea meal alone at this station resulted in unthrifty ani- mals and poor gains, but when mixed with middlings in the proportion of three parts pea meal to one part mid- dlings, good gains and an excellent qual- SWINE 541 ity of bacon were produced. It is recom- mended that peas always be fed in combination with other grains for hogs. At the Wisconsin station, ground peas proved more valuable for pork produc- tion than corn. Corn, however, being so much cheaper, was the more profitable feed. The thigh bones of pigs fed on peas were 26 per cent stronger than those of corn fed hogs. Pea meal at the Maine station did not prove as valuable in a ration for young pigs as skim milk, but with older ani- mals the substitution of pea meal or pea and oat meal for skim milk, either wholly or in part, did not materially change the results. Peas are exceedingly valuable feed for growing hogs and for the production of prime bacon. They contain about 23 per cent of protein and the greatest amount of good is obtained from them when they are fed in small amounts with a more carbonaceous grain like corn. They are especially valuable for growing pigs and should always be fed either ground or soaked or both. (See also Peas for Pasture.) Pigeon grass seed w l ien fed alone to hogs at the Wisconsin station was not relished, but when mixed in the propor- tion of one-third pigeon grass seed and two-thirds corn meal, hogs made nearly as good gains on it as on corn meal alone. When pigeon grass seed was cooked it appeared to be more palatable than when fed raw. When cooked it may constitute two-thirds of the ration. Rice by-products — At the Massachu- setts station a good quality of rice meal proved equal in feeding value to the same quantity of corn meal fed hogs weighing from 65 to 190 pounds. At the Vermont station, corn meal proved 25 per cent more valuable for pigs than rice meal. At the South Carolina station rice meal and milk proved equal in feeding value to corn meal and milk. In this experiment 2^2 pounds of rice meal and 10 pounds of skim milk pro- duced 1 pound of gain. In a number of experiments at the Alabama station, Professor Duggar found rice polish decidedly superior to corn meal as a food for hogs. The average of five experiments shows that a pound of increase was obtained with 3.7 pounds of rice polish, while with corn meal 4.7 pounds was required. Rice bran at the same station fed in mixtures was unpalatable and resulted in slow growth. R y e — This grain is seldom used for hogs in the United States. In Danish feeding tests with 110 animals, rye grain was about equal to barley for pork pro- duction. Rye shorts, however, pro- duced slow gains and had an unfavor- able effect on the quality and softness of the pork. The Massachusetts station considers rye meal a very unsatisfactory feed for hogs for long time feeding, as the animals lose their appetites and have digestive troubles. It is recommended that it be fed with wheat meal or corn meal and in small amounts. Screenings—The Minnesota station fattened hogs on ground screenings, cost- ing $6 a ton and corn costing 30 cents a bushel at a cost of $2 a hundredweight. The pigs were fattened in pens for 11 months and not allowed access to blue grass or clover pasture in the summer. These results show that screenings may be very profitably used for feeding pur- poses. Sorghum seed { s similar in composi- tion and feeding value to kafir corn seed but proved slightly less valuable at the Kansas station for hogs. At the Wis- consin station sorghum seed meal proved about 55 per cent as valuable a feed for hogs as corn meal. Soy beans have been found exceed- ingly valuable as a supplement to kafir corn at the Kansas station. The in- creased gains obtained where soy beans constituted one-fifth to one-third of the grain ration have varied from 14.8 to 96.4 per cent and there has been a sav- ing in the amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain of from 13.2 to 37.5 per cent. The best results at this station have been obtained by feed- ing the beans whole. When they were ground in one experiment, 11 per cent of their feeding value was lost. The use of soy beans in the ration conduces to strong, thrifty and continuous growth and keeps the hair and skin of the hog glossy and of good appearance. The hogs fatten much more rapidly and less feed is required to produce a pound of gain. They are a highly nitrogenous food, as may be seen in the table of anal- yses, and should be made to constitute only about one-fifth to one-fourth of the grain ration. The Kentucky station re- ports a test of corn alone versus a grain ration composed of two-thirds corn and 542 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK one-third soy beans. The average daily- gains for 10 weeks on corn alone was 0.7 pound and on the corn and soy beans 1.16 pounds. The addition of soy beans to a corn ration at the Wisconsin sta- tion has also resulted in increased gains over that made on corn and middlings. Sunflower seed — These are seldom fed to swine. The cake made after the oil has been expressed from the seed was used in some Danish feeding tests and proved about equal to rye or barley. The whole seed is readily eaten by swine and possesses considerable feeding value, as is shown in the table of analyses. Wheat i s seldom fed to hogs except when the price is less than 50 cents a bushel. The grain, however, is relished by hogs and they make rapid gains on it, producing pork of good quality. A large number of experiments have been reported with this grain. In a feeding test extending over 105 days, at the Indiana station, the average daily gain on corn was 1.16 pounds, on wheat 1.02 pounds and on corn and wheat 1.12 pounds, while on soaked wheat alone it was 1.05 pounds. The vital organs of the hogs did not appear to be developed to any greater extent on the wheat diet than on the corn diet, but the bones were appreciably stronger. In this ex- periment the excrement was so rich in grain that the pigs ate it as fast as voided. In one instance a five-ounce sample of dung contained 1167 unbroken grains and when soaked wheat was fed 1003 grains. It is concluded that whole wheat is fed at an unjustifiable loss and that it should be well broken or crushed before feeding to pigs. At the Michigan sta- tion, pigs fed ground wheat with skim milk made 7 per cent better gains than on whole soaked wheat and skim milk. The Missouri station reports results of experiments made to test the value of wheat as follows: One bushel of wheat chop soaked in water, produced 13.2 pounds of pork; 1 bushel of wheat chop dry, produced 12.6 pounds of pork ; 1 pound of whole wheat, produced 11.2 pounds of pork; 1 pound of corn chop, produced 10.3 pounds of pork. These gains were made with growing pigs and the conclusion is drawn that wheat is superior to corn for producing gain in growing pigs. The New York station at Cornell fed wheat ration in comparison with a corn ration mixed with gluten meal in such proportion as would give both rations the same nutritive ratio. The wheat was fed ground. About 10 per cent bet- ter gains were made on the corn meal and gluten ration. The Oregon station reports a gain of from 12 to 14 pounds for a bushel of wheat fed to hogs. The lean meat from the wheat fed hogs was characterized by light color and juiciness, the quality was excellent and there was a good thick- ness of fat laid on. The same station compared the relative merits of wheat in the sheaf with mixed grain for hogs. The wheat was cut high and yielded 35 per cent of grain. The pigs did not relish the sheaf wheat. They worked three to four hours daily in getting out the grain and their appetites appeared never to be satisfied. During a feeding period of two months the hogs fed a soaked and mixed grain ration required but 4 pounds of grain to produce a pound of gain, while the hogs fed sheaf wheat required 7.4 pounds and made only one-fourth as large a total gain. With pork at 3 cents a pound, 60 pounds of the ground mixed grain was worth 31 cents more for pork production than 60 pounds of sheaf wheat. This is more than enough to pay for the threshing of the wheat. In another like test where wheat chop was fed against sheaf wheat, a bushel of the wheat chop was worth 15 cents more than a bushel of wheat in the sheaf. The average of the experiments at that station show that 4.5 pounds of grain were required to make a pound of gain. In the beginning of the feed- ing only 3.8 pounds were required; in later stages 5.1 pounds, showing that it required 34 per cent more grain the last half of the test than the first half for a pound of gain. These re- sults indicate that wheat is better adapted for producing butcher or bacon hogs than lard hogs. The South Dakota station has shown that when hogs weighing about 100 pounds can be bought for $4.50 per hun- dredweight and fed wheat for three months and then sold at $5.50 per hun- dredweight, the wheat would return from 56 to 58 cents per bushel. At that station it required 4.8 pounds of ground wheat or 4.9 pounds of whole wheat to produce a pound of gain. The gains were more rapid and uniform on the ground grain. At the Utah station, SWINE 543 when wheat was fed with bran (half and half) and pork was worth 4 cents per pound live weight, a bushel of wheat had a feeding value of 89.4 cents. Considerable work has been reported by the Wisconsin station in feeding wheat to hogs. Ground wheat has been found to have about the same feeding value as corn. That station holds that wheat for hogs should be ground and fed moistened either with water or milk. Dry whole wheat has not been found satis- factory. Even when soaked, a large percentage of the grain was found to pass tli rough the hogs and appear un- broken in the droppings. The best re- sults have been obtained when wheat has been fed ground with ground corn. Wheat shorts produced rather dark meat and favored the development of liver and kidneys. At the South Dakota station, wheat damaged by frost and shrunken was fed to hogs. The weight per measured bushel in one instance was 57 pounds, and in another 44 pounds. With pork worth 4 cents per pound the heavier wheat had a value for pork production of 63 and the lighter 57 cents. The Cen- tral experimental farm in Canada re- ports experiments in which pigs weigh- ing 61 pounds at the beginning of a test required but 4.23 pounds of frozen wheat to produce a pound of gain. Older pigs averaging 186 pounds each required about 6 pounds of frozen wheat to make a pound of gain. In some Dan- ish experiments wheat proved slightly more valuable than barley. Frozen wheat at the Montana station proved equal in feeding value to a mix- ture of wheat, barley and peas The frozen wheat even when subsequently heated by fermentation was profitably and safely fed, 1 pound of the frozen wheat proving equal in feeding value to 7.9 pounds of skim milk. Wheat middlings are considered one of the best of all common feeds to sup- plement a ration of corn for hogs and has the further advantage of being pro- duced in all parts of the country. It is usually fed with corn in the proportion of one part middlings to two or three parts corn. Even when the proportion of middlings is much smaller than this it adds greatly to the effectiveness of the corn feed. At the Ottawa station in Can- ada it required 4.4 pounds of middlings to produce 1 pound of gain. The conclusion reached at the Ne- braska station as a result of feeding wheat is that it should be first either soaked or ground before feeding. Soak- ing is the more economical of the two unless grinding can be done for about 2 cents per hundred pounds. Wheat can profitably be fed to hogs when the price is not more than 9 per cent above that of corn. Wheat should always be fed in troughs or on the feeding floor. On this point the Washington station states that "to expect to reap returns by throwing wheat on the ground, in the mud, or without crushing or soaking it or in some way making it more palatable and digestible is sure to result in failure." Mixed grains — No single grain ordi- narily gives as good results when fed alone to hogs as when fed in combina- tion with other grains. This point is well brought out in the data summarized in the Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agricul- ture, in which the amount of the differ- ent grains and of mixed grain required to produce 100 pounds of gain is shown. These data are given in the table below and represent the result of about 75 experiments with 500 animals: GRAIN REQUIRED FOR 100 POUNDS GAIN Kafir Bar Mixed Corn corn Oats Peas Wheat ley grain Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs The table shows that less mixed grain is required to produce 100 pounds of gain than of any single grain except barley and the number of experiments reported with this grain is rather lim- ited. On an exclusive grain ration pork is produced at the greatest expense. Hogs should be fed as mixed and varied a ration as possible and for cheap gains should always have access to pasture. At the Central experimental farm the firmest pork was produced on mixed grain, peas, oats and barley in equal parts. Linfield, at the Montana station, gives the following data showing the value of mixed rations: On grain alone it re- quired 528 pounds to produce 100 pounds of gain; on grain and clover 487 pounds of grain and 200 pounds of clover; on grain and pasture 401 pounds of grain; on grain and roots 376 pounds of grain and 280 pounds of roots; on grain and skim milk 311 pounds of grain and 888 pounds of skim milk. 544 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The effectiveness of corn meal was greatly increased at the Maine station by adding pea meal or gluten meal both during growth and during the fattening period. The addition of milk to the ra- tion always reduces the amount of grain required. Hogs fed on cassava, wheat middlings and cowpeas made gains at half the cost of those made on grain alone at the Florida station. All through this book the fact is emphasized that the best gains are made on mixed grain and varied rations. PREPARATION OF GRAINS FOR SWINE The best method of feeding each of the different grains to hogs is considered under the grains themselves. Here the subject is considered in a general way. Whole vs. ground grain — Generally speaking, strong, vigorous hogs do not require that the grain be ground, espe- cially corn. The amount of pork pro- duced, however, on ground grains, is us- ually from 8 to 10 per cent greater than on whole grains and if the cost of grind- ing does not equal or exceed this amount, it will be profitable to grind most grains for hogs. Some exceptions are noted un- der soy beans and kafir corn elsewhere. When whole dry wheat is fed to hogs there is an unjustifiable loss, since so large a portion passes through the ani- mals undigested. This undigested grain, however, is usually eaten again by the hogs and the greater part of its nutri- tive value obtained in this manner. Wet vs. dry feed — Generally speaking, better results are obtained from soaked grain than from grain fed dry. This is particularly true when the grain is old and either very hard or very dry. On the average experimental results show that soaking grains is nearly equal to grinding. Hogs usually eat more soaked grain than dry grain and hence gain more rapidly. The Ottawa station rec- ommends soaking all grains, whether ground or whole, for 24 to 30 hours be- fore feeding. The results of tests at the Indiana station indicate no differ- ence in the results whether the grains are fed dry or wet. When fed wet grains the hogs have eaten their rations more rapidly and have been more subject to indigestion. They more frequently got off feed also. At the Oregon station it required 4.46 pounds of soaked grain and 4.64 pounds of dry feed to produce 1 pound of gain. That station notes that hogs fed on wet feed seemed to relish it more than those fed dry grain. They ate considerably more feed and made larger gains during the same time. The Wisconsin station reports that in feeding corn meal and shorts better results were secured when the ration was fed wet than when fed dry. At the Ottawa sta- tion both grinding and soaking grains have added materially to their efficiency. The North Carolina station notes that sloppy feed gave poorer results than feed- ing barley moistened, but dry grain gave better results than either. At the In- diana station the best results were se- cured when about twice as much water as dry grain was used in mixing the feed. On the whole it appears to be desirable and advantageous to soak grain for hogs. The exceptions are noted under the different grains them- selves. Cooking feed for hogs — The average results of 10 different trials in cooking such feeds as barley meal, corn, corn meal and shorts at the Wisconsin station show them to be about 10 per cent less effective when cooked than when fed raw. These results have been confirmed in experiments at the Kansas, Iowa and Maine stations and Ontario agricultural college. At the Ottawa station grain steamed and fed warm was no more ef- fective in producing gain than grain fed raw and cold. Cooking the feed at that station seemed to slightly increase the softness of the fat, while practically no difference in the quality of the meat was noticeable whether the grains were fed dry or wet. At the Ontario agricultural college feed fed at a temperature of 80° F. gave slightly better gains than at 40° F. The Montana station found sugar beets just as valuable raw as cooked for hogs. Potatoes, on the other hand, have generally given the best . results when fed cooked. Generally speaking, it is wholly unnecessary and inadvisable to cook feeds for hogs, with the possible exception of roots; field beans also are an exception and should always be fed cooked. (See Beans.) ANIMAL BY-PRODUCTS FOR SWINE The most important animal by-pro- ducts in swine feeding are those from the dairy, like skim milk, butter milk, whey, etc, and those from the slaughter house such as tankage, beef scrap, blood meal and the like. SWINE 545 Skim milk i s one of the most valuable adjuncts of the farm for fattening swine. Used with corn, kafir corn or any of the common grain by-products an almost ideal ration is formed. Hogs like it and relish rations mixed with it. As a re- sult of five years' work in feeding skim milk at the New York station at Cornell, it is concluded that the most economical returns are secured when the milk is fed with corn meal. The proportion of corn meal to skim milk may be varied without apparently affecting the result, but in no case should the amount of skim milk fed be greater than the pigs can quickly and easily consume. At the Kansas station skim milk when used to supplement a ration of kafir corn increased the gains made over 109 per cent, valuing hogs at 3 cents per pound live weight, the skim milk at a value of 29 cents per 100 pounds. In another experiment the increased gain from the use of skim milk was 58 per cent, giving the milk a value of 15.7 cents per 100 pounds, which is more nearly its normal value for hog feeding. The Massachusetts station reports the results of 19 experiments in the use of skim milk for pigs. Based on this work the following proportions of milk to grain are recommended for the produc- tion of pork at minimum cost : Pigs weighing 20 to 80 pounds, 2 ounces corn meal to each quart of skim milk; pigs weighing 80 to 125 pounds, 4 ounces corn meal to each quart of skim milk; pigs weighing 125 to 190 pounds, 6 ounces corn meal to each quart of skim milk. That station holds that when skim milk can be sold at 1 cent or more per quart it is more profitable to sell it than to use it in the production of pork. In feeding growing pigs skim milk at the Wisconsin station, about 5 pounds of skim milk has proved equal in feed- ing value to 1 pound of corn meal. Skim milk has produced the strongest bones in hogs of any food given them. The most economical mixture of skim milk and grain has been 1 to 3 pounds of skim milk to one pound of corn meal. Many experiments have been reported by the Ottawa station with general con- clusions as follows: "Skim milk may form the largest part of the feed for young and growing pigs with advantage and economy. For the fattening of swine weighing on the average over 100 pounds each, live weight, it is economi- cal to give an allowance of skim milk not exceeding 5 pounds per head per day." It is most effective when it forms a comparatively small part of the total food fed. Milk-fed hogs in every in- stance, have been lustier, more vigorous and healthier in appearance than swine fed wholly on grain. Generally speak- ing, skim milk is worth from one-sixth to one-fifth as much as mixed grain. At the Ontario agricultural college the use of skim milk has uniformly re- sulted in the production of firm bacon. As to whether the milk should be fed sour or sweet the Michigan station re- ports that in one test hogs weighing on the average 74 pounds each at the be- ginning of the test and fed sweet skim milk for five weeks gained 63 pounds per head, while hogs averaging 73 pounds at_ the beginning and fed sour skim milk gained during the same time 54.6 pounds each. These figures are consid- erably in favor of the sweet skim milk. This is probably a larger difference than will usually be obtained unless the sour skim milk is old and putrid, in which case it should not be fed to hogs. At both the Vermont and Ohio stations sour skim milk has given better results than sweet skim milk. Generally speak- ing it is equal to sweet milk in feed- ing value. The average of many experiments show that pasture with skim milk is not of much value when grain is fed, the average gain on skim milk, pasture and grain being 291 pounds and on skim milk and grain without pasture 301 pounds. Buttermilk at the Wisconsin station, in one test, proved about 80 per cent as valuable as sweet skim milk in produc- ing gain. Generally speaking, butter- milk is considered about three-fourths as valuable as skim milk for hogs. Ex- periments at the Iowa station indicate that there is nothing saved by adding the wash water from churns to buttermilk, as it is too weak to be of any value as food. The hogs lose more in drinking the excess water than the little milk it contains is worth. Whey — I n experiments at the Wiscon- sin station it required about 7.6 pounds of whey to equal in feeding value 1 pound of corn meal and shorts as a par- tial ration. That station was not suc- cessful in maintaining pigs on whey 546 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK alone. Five experiments have been re- ported in different years by the Ontario agricultural college on the relative values of sweet and sour whey for hogs. The average of these experiments shows that 100 pounds of sweet whey has saved 11.9 pounds of grain and that 100 pounds of sour whey has saved 10.9 pounds of grain. The meat produced has been equally firm in both cases. In four of the foregoing tests sour whey gave slightly better gains than sweet whey. In one test, however, the sweet whey lot gave phenomenally large gains and this brought up the average sufficiently to make a better showing than for the sour whey. Analyses of the sweet and sour wheys indicated that fermentation took place entirely at the expense of the sugar in the whey. In general the tests and analy- ses indicated that sour whey is about equally as valuable for pig feeding as sweet whey. Subsequent experiments show the feeding value of 100 pounds of whey to be equivalent to 14 pounds of meal. In the test about 2 pounds of whey was fed to each pound of meal. It is usually regarded as about one-half as valuable as skim milk. Tankage — Some of our most valuable concentrated nitrogenous feeding stuffs are obtained as by-products in the slaughter of animals at the large pack- ing centers. Among the most impor- tant of these are tankage, meat meal, meat scraps and dried blood. Tankage is made of scraps of meat, bone, sinews, lungs, intestines and other like wastes. These materials are cooked in a tank under very heavy pressure for a number of hours or until all the various sub- stances are entirely broken down and the fat liberated. Upon standing, the fats rise to the top and are skimmed off. The more solid portions sink to the bot- tom, while the liquid portion, which is also very rich in nitrogenous matter, is drawn off. The solid portion at the bottom, after it has been thoroughly dried and ground, is known as "tankage," and contains from 55 to 60 per cent of protein, 15 to 18 per cent of ash and 12 to 15 per cent of fat. The tank water which is drawn off is evaporated down and thoroughly dried and is known as "digester tankage." This contains about 70 per cent of pro- tein in a form well suited for quick as- similation by the feeding animal. This material is largely used to reinforce or- dinary tankage when it contains less than about 60 per cent of protein. A large number of experiments with tankage as a feeding stuff for swine has been reported by the experiment stations. At the Indiana station tankage was fed in the proportion of one part tankage to five and 10 parts corn meal or corn meal and shorts mixed. Better and cheaper gains were made on the meal and tankage than when the meal was fed alone. The animals which received the tankage had silkier coats of hair, fresher appearing skin and a keener ap- petite than those receiving only corn meal and the use of tankage by farmers as a supplement to corn in swine feeding is urged. At the Iowa station the addition of tankage to a ration of corn increased the net profits over 34 per cent in one in- stance and 7 per cent in another. At the Nebraska station in one experiment the cost of pork production was lessened 68 cents per hundred pounds by adding to the ration 5 per cent of tankage. Somewhat better results were obtained with younger hogs when 10 per cent of tankage was used. In the experiments at that station hogs fed tankage have con- sumed more feed, made larger gains and were less easily put off feed than hogs fed straight corn ration. That station ad- vises the adding of the tankage to soaked corn just before feeding rather than mix- ing with corn before soaking and allow- ing the tankage time to soak and possibly become rancid before feeding. The tankage also had a marked effect in in- creasing the strength of the bones of the hogs as compared with those of hogs fed on a corn ration or on shorts and alfalfa pasture. Experiments at the Michigan station indicate that digester tankage can be used successfully as a substitute for skim milk in the ration for growing pigs from the weaning time on. It is very valu- able also during the fattening period. On the average experiments indicate that the most economical gains will be made when the tankage is used in the proportion of about one part tankage to 10 parts grain. A little more rapid gains may be made when the proportion is one to five or six, but the greater rapidity is secured at an increased cost for the gain. SWINE 547 Meat meal is very similar in compo- sition to tankage and is made from like materials. For practical purposes the two terms are nearly synonymous. It should be used in small amounts as a highly nitrogenous supplement to more starchy rations like corn in the propor- tion of about one part meat meal to 10 parts other grain. Like tankage, the feeding of meat meal in small amounts seems to result in a healthy, vigorous growth throughout the entire life of the pig. Beef meal when fed at the Wiscon- sin station in the proportion of two parts corn and one of beef meal caused se- rious digestive disturbances, a number of the pigs in the experiment dying from this cause, when three to seven months old. The nutritive ratio in this case was 1 : 2.6. This ration was ex- pensive and unsatisfactory. To be of value beef meal must be fed in much smaller amounts, as noted above. Dried blood or blood meal is the most highly concentrated nitrogenous feeding stuff we have. It contains on the aver- age about 85 per cent of protein in a very valuable form for animals. It should be fed in even smaller amounts than tankage, primarily as a tonic and appe- tizer and to produce a well balanced ra- tion. At the Ontario agricultural col- lege blood meal and tankage proved about equally valuable and fully equal to skim milk in the production of firm bacon. Not more than one part blood meal to 15 or 20 parts grain should be used. CONDIMENTAL OR PATENT FEEDING STUFFS — There are a large number of condi- mental or patent stock foods on the mar- ket. These are widely advertised and wonderful claims made for them. The more important of these have been tested experimentally at a number of the differ- ent stations. Generally speaking, no better results are secured from them than by the use of well compounded rations which the farmer himself can easily pre- pare, while the cost for them is entirely out of proportion to their value either as feeds or tonics. The chief constit- uents of the larger number of these con- dimental stock feeds are common salt, sulphur, charcoal, pepper and gentian, while fenugreek is present in practi- cally all of them and is the most im- portant constituent they contain. It is, however, usually present in such small amounts as to be of really very little value from a medicinal standpoint. There is no especial objection to these stock foods other than the excessively high prices paid for them. There is hardly a doubt but that in many cases the use of oil meal or of tankage or skim milk will give fully as good results as these high priced condimentals. American Stock Food, fed in small amounts with shorts and hominy at the Indiana sta- tion, did not result in as heavy gains as when it was omitted as shown in the following table: American No Stock condi- Food mental Total gain in 12 days. .682 lbs. 689 lbs. Average daily gain . .1.42 lbs. 1.43 lbs. Cost of production per lb 3 cts. 2.6 cts. It is thus seen that American Stock Food increased the cost of gain 15.3 per cent. In another experiment at the same station Eauh's Stock Food fed with the grain ration at the rate of a tablespoon- ful per feed for part of the test followed by Standard Stock Food for the remain- der gave a slightly increased total gain over no stock food, the profits for 3V2 months being 48 cents in favor of the stock food. At the Iowa station the use of Standard Stock Food for Swine in- creased the feeding value of each bushel of corn fed 1.2 per cent. HAY AND MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS FOR SWINE Alfalfa, clover, cowpea and soy beans are frequently fed to pigs in winter to add bulk and variety to the ration, as well as nutriment, with very good re- sults. Alfalfa — When shotes were fed al- falfa hay at the Kansas station, 100 pounds of the hay saved 64 pounds of grain. It is calculated that one ton of alfalfa hay would make 235 pounds of pork. In one experiment at this station it is shown that an acre of alfalfa hay would produce 868 pounds of pork. Good results in the use of alfalfa hay for swine are also reported by the Mon- tana station. At that station the al- falfa hay was cut and moistened and mixed with the meal. It is believed, however, that hogs will do better when they are allowed access to alfalfa in racks rather than to force it into the ration. The latter method may do for •548 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK store hogs, but for fattening purposes it makes too bulky a ration. At the Wisconsin station alfalfa hay was cut into half-inch lengths, being run through a silage cutter and com- pared with the results obtained when the hay was ground into meal. Both were fed with grain. When the grain and alfalfa were fed mixed and mois- tened, ground alfalfa gave practically the same results as cut alfalfa hay. The gain on three-fourths corn and one- fourth shorts was 1.1 pounds per day, while on three-fourths corn and one- fourth cut alfalfa it was 1.07 pounds per day, but 100 pounds of gain was made on the alfalfa for $2.02, while on the shorts and corn it cost $3.03, both being valued at $8 a ton. Better gains were made when one-fourth the ration was cut alfalfa than when half of it was made up of alfalfa or where the whole ration was corn. At one station brood sows weighing on the average 258 pounds each main- tained their weights on 2 pounds of grain and 6 pounds of alfalfa hay daily throughout the winter, keeping in fine condition and producing large litters of healthy pigs. Young sows also fed rations of one-fourth corn and barley and one-half cut alfalfa hay made excellent gains and at farrowing time produced strong, healthy pigs, showing that such rations are nearly ideal for breeding sows. At the Wyoming station sows weigh- ing about 340 pounds maintained their weights practically on a ration of 6 pounds of alfalfa hay and 6.24 pounds of roots daily. When growing hogs weigh- ing about 65 pounds each were fed ra- tions consisting of two-thirds alfalfa and about one-third corn or barley they grew scrawny and lost appetite ; some of them died, apparently from digestive troubles. The hay was fed both dry and chaffed in swill. Likewise at the Nevada station where alfalfa hay was fed to four pigs weigh- ing from 130 to 150 pounds each as the only food for 21 days, the hogs lost in weight from 16 to 26 pounds each. When turnips were added to the alfalfa hay the pigs gained 7 to 8 pounds each dur- ing a feeding period of 21 days. When corn and peas were added to the turnips and hay the grain was from 41 to 47 pounds each for a feeding period of 42 Where hogs have been pastured on al- falfa they readily learn to eat the hay without cutting. Experiments at the Nebraska station show that alfalfa chaff, consisting mostly of leaves, can be sub- stituted for shorts at the same price per pound, for fattening pigs. Generally speaking the third or fourth cutting of alfalfa is considered best as hay for # hogs, since it is finer and less woody. Good results are secured when the hay is fed in a trough or a rack with a floor in it, although the more common method of feeding it is to cut it in half- inch lengths and feed it moistened mixed with the grain ration. Clover hay i n winter should first be run through a feed cutter and the chaffed material softened by pouring scalding water over it. The meal fed to hogs should be mixed with this chopped material, which may profitably be fed once a day. Besides furnishing nutri- ment the hay serves to distend the stom- ach, as at pasture, and exercises a bene- ficial influence. Boiled clover hay proved about 20 per cent more effective than clover silage as a feed for hogs getting grain at the Oregon station. At the Montana station hogs made better gains when skim milk was used as a supple- ment to the ration fed them than when clover hay was fed, but much better gains were made when clover hay was fed than when grain alone was fed. In another experiment 100 pounds of clo- ver hay saved 33 pounds of grain worth 1 cent per pound, which gives clover hay a value of $6.54 per ton. Cowpea hay when well cured and used just as it came from the stack was fed to hogs at the Oklahoma station receiving grain, in comparison with hogs receiving the same grain ration without the hay. With hogs weighing about 155 pounds each, from 8 to 10 pounds of hay per day was fed. The hogs relished the hay and ate from one-third to one-half the amount fed them. In one experiment the hogs receiving the hay made 150 per cent better daily gains than those fed grain alone, and in another experiment 91 per cent better daily gains. The sta- tion points out that this result should not be taken as justifying the abandon- ment of good range and plenty of green feed, when these are available, but if hogs four months old must be shut up and fed, a little good cowpea hay will be a great help. SWINE 549 At the Tennessee station chopped cow- pea hay was fed to hogs that received a small allowance of skim milk. In this instance the hogs ate the hay reluc- tantly and made good but less profitable gains than where more skim milk was fed. Soy bean hay — One of the most suc- cessful hog growers in Illinois winters all his pigs over on a light grain ration with soy bean hay. Acorns — When hogs were fed acorns at the Tuskegee agricultural college the meat produced was soft and the lard oily and did not harden readily except when corn was fed. The flavor, however, was good. The acorns had a tendency to produce constipation. They were suc- cessfully stored by collecting and plac- ing in cool, well ventilated barrels. Many hogs are fattened in some por- tions of the South on beech mast, the pork thus produced being considered of superior flavor and quality. Molasses — I n feeding cane molasses it is recommended that only a small amount be fed at first, say 1 ounce daily for a pig weighing 50 pounds, and grad- ually increasing the ration up to 4 pounds daily at a weight of 200 to 230 pounds. When waste molasses from a beet sugar factory was fed to pigs at the New York station at Cornell, unsat- isfactory results were obtained. Two out of five hogs fed the molasses died, apparently from some form of poison- ing. Recently at the Utah station beet molasses in small amounts up to 4 pounds for hogs weighing 130 pounds gave good gains, having a feeding value of about $1 per 100 pounds. At the Wis- consin station hogs maintained them- selves and made some gain on sorghum sirup skimmings alone. When fed with corn meal very good gains were made on this material. Cottonseed oil—Crude cottonseed oil was fed by Dinwiddie at the Arkansas station for 20 weeks in amounts exceed- ing that contained in fatal rations of cot- tonseed meal without injurious results. Lamb's quarters (Chenopodium album) boiled and fed to hogs as one-fourth of the grain ration at the Canada station had very little value. Giant lily_The bulb of this lily (J)y- anthes excelsa) was readily eaten by hogs in New South Wales when cooked and a little ground corn added. Ashes, salt, copperas, etc, for hogs At the Minnesota station fattening hogs which had access to charcoal during the fattening period made considerably bet- ter gains than hogs fed without char- coal. Hard wood ashes or charcoal should be available to hogs being fat- tened on corn at all times. The experi- ments of Henry have shown that if ashes or bone meal are fed in addition to corn alone to hogs the strength of the bones is doubled and about 25 per cent less food is required. Hard wood ashes are best. Corn cob ashes also give good results. Sifted coal ashes and even soft coal are effective, especially for hogs on an exclusive corn diet. One feeder gives the following mix- ture which may be fed with advantage to hogs as a kind of tonic : Two parts linseed meal, four parts soft coal, four parts wood ashes or charcoal, one part air slaked lime, one part salt; feed all they will eat once a week. Pigs fed salt with their rations at the New York state station have made better gains than those not receiving salt. The Michigan station recommends small amounts of salt, especially when cooked beans are fed to hogs. Large quantities of salt should not be fed, since it may reduce the gains. Bone meal was fed by Forbes at the Missouri station to hogs being fattened on corn alone, with very beneficial re- sults. About two pounds of bone meal was fed to each hog every month, or about an ounce a day. If, however, mixed grain rations are given or skim milk or pasture, all of which supply ash material, it is doubtful whether bone meal would be of value. Copperas is occasionally added to the drinking water of swine as a kind of tonic. Salt and ashes — A good mixture to keep in a box to which hogs may have access at all times is made of salt and hard wood ashes in a proportion of two pounds salt to a bushel of ashes. Some- times a few ounces of copperas is added to this mixture, which acts as a kind of tonic. Pure, clean water should be given in abundance to fattening hogs, aside from the swill they receive. At the Maine station pigs weighing 109 pounds each drank approximately 7 quarts of water daily and made nearly as good gains as pigs receiving but half this quantity of 550 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK water, thus showing that unusually large quantities of water, as in slops, are not a serious matter. Pigs following steers — Large cattle feeders usually provide a large number of shotes to run in the fattening yards to utilize the undigested grain in the droppings of the steers. When steers are fed shelled whole corn, about one shote can profitably be used to follow each steer. Shotes following steers for about seven months at the Iowa station gained from 122 to 125 pounds each. In another test the gain was 124 to 140 pounds over a feeding test of 223 days. At the Illinois station hogs following steers gained from 0.6 to 3.8 pounds for each 100 pounds of grain fed to steers. In one experiment at the Kansas sta- tion hogs following steers fed soaked corn for 150 days gained 635 pounds, while hogs following steers fed dry shelled corn during the same period, gained 747 pounds. Hogs have also made good gains at the same station following steers fed kafir corn. From 11 to 14 per cent of kafir corn was found to pass through the steers undigested. The hogs readily picked out the undigested grain and made good use of it. At the Okla- homa station "five pigs having access to droppings of a lot of steers full fed on corn and kafir corn meal gained only 195 pounds in 56 days. In another case five pigs gained 100 pounds in 56 days. In the third case six moderate sized sows gained 245 pounds in 56 days. While these gains are small, they are worth saving. The difference between profit and loss in feeding cattle often depends on the use made of the food wasted or undigested by them." When hogs are bought to follow steers being fattened on corn, there is always a profit even in figuring the grain at cost price. The younger the hogs, or the lighter, provided they are sturdy and healthy, the more rapid will the gain9 be and the greater the profit. Hogs must not follow tuberculous steers, for they will thus become infected. Scrubs vs. pure breeds— I n some ex- periments reported by the Kansas sta- tion with kafir corn it required from 23 to 30 per cent more feed to produce 100 pounds of gain with hogs of mixed breeding than with pure bred hogs. Barrows vs. sows f like age were fed at the New Hampshire station similar rations for 120 days, during which time the sows or gilts gained 110 pounds and the barrows 120 pounds. At the Utah station about as good gains were made by sows as by barrows. In Denmark no constant difference has been found in the fattening quality of sows and bar- rows. Unspayed sows at the Utah sta- tion have made slightly better gains than spayed sows. The Indiana station reports that the periods of heat in the sows had no apparent effect on gains. Pigs vs. calves—Calves at the Michi- gan station ate less grain, consumed considerably more milk and required ap- preciably less dry matter to make a pound of gain than pigs. Relation between age and gains made by hogs — Experiments at the Wisconsin station have shown that the cheapest pork is made with growing pigs. Pigs weigh- ing between 50 and 100 pounds do not require within 40 to 80 per cent as much food to make a pound of gain as Fig. 349 — CONSTRUCTION OF FEEDING TROUGH weighing 300 to 350 pounds. This fact is now so well understood by feeders that only a few definite examples need be cited. At the Utah station it required 62 per cent more food to produce a pound of gain with hogs weighing be- tween 200 and 255 pounds than it did when they weighed from 38 to 100 pounds. At the Hatch station in Massa- chusetts it has not been found profitable to feed hogs beyond a weight of 180 to 190 pounds. The daily food consumed after these weights have been reached has cost more than the value of the gains made. Kesults of experiments at the Central experimental farm in Ottawa indicate that the most economical time to slaughter swine is when between 175 to 200 pounds. The following table, mod- ified to include recent work, is adapted from the work of Henry in Feeds and Feeding and brings out clearly the re- lation between the age of hogs and the SWINE 551 food required to produce a pound of The Wisconsin station reports the re- gain, suits of a number of experiments in RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF HOGS, GAINS MADE AND FOOD REQUniED d •n m ° bo o o 0) 10 »*> «-. bo So •§, *> -h in O) (a o c3.d la 6o oj >" > « fe •J En ftS cS G > d oj oo — . £1^ lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs 15- 50 39 10 45 190 2.41 5.82 .78 305. 50-100 79 21 112 508 3.62 4.58 .94 402. 100-150 123 19 133 635 5.03 3.96 1.20 439. 150-200 178 13 110 509 5.98 3.44 1.26 479. 200-250 227 13 76 316 6.60 2.96 1.35 493. 250-300 269 10 51 247 7.34 2.71 1.48 509. 300-350 322 21 115 7.54 2.39 1.47 532. The last column of this table brings out clearly the fact that it requires about two-thirds more food to produce 100 pounds of gain with hogs weighing about 300 pounds than with hogs weighing 40 pounds, and that there is a uniform in- crease in the amount of food required to produce a pound of gain as the pigs increase in weight. Wide vs. narrow rations — A number of experiments have been reported in feeding carbonaceous rations in compari- son with more nitrogenous rations. Nar- row rations are sometimes fed also with the belief that the proportion of lean meat can be increased. At the Virginia station a lot fed on corn meal, bran and beef scraps, having a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.8 made 18 per cent better gains than a lot fed on corn meal alone having a nutritive ratio of 1 :9. Not the slightest difference in the proportion of fat and lean could be detected in the meat of these two lots of hogs. At the New York station at Cornell hogs fed a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 :3 made practically the same gains as another lot fed a ration with a nutritive ratio of 1:9; and so far as looks and chemical analysis could de- termine, the meat produced in both cases was of the same character. The only striking difference in the two lots was that the livers of those fed the narrow ra- tion were nearly twice as heavy as those on the wide ration. In another test where corn meal was fed against corn meal and meat scraps, 67 per cent better gains were made on the latter ration, yet there was no marked difference in the character of the meat produced. The proportion of lean meat, however, was somewhat larger on the narrow ration. "feeding for fat and for lean." The results indicate that if fed mixed ra- tions the muscles of the hogs reached their fullest development and thus in- creased the proportion of lean to fat meat over that obtained when a carbo- naceous ration like corn alone is fed. They did not indicate, however, that the muscles can be increased beyond their normal size. Generally speaking, the ration for growing pigs should be com- paratively narrow, from 1 :5 or 6, while for fattening hogs the ration can vary within quite wide limits without marked results either way. Maintenance rations— The Wisconsin station reports experiments on the amount of food required to maintain the weights of pigs at different stages of growth. With such common foods as corn meal, middlings and skim milk the amounts shown in the following table were required: AMOUNT OF FOOD REQUIRED DAILY TO MAINTAIN HOGS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS Pigs averaging 50 lbs in weight. . Hogs averaging 10 lbs in weight. . Hogs averaging 150 lbs in weight. . Hogs averaging 200 lbs in weight... .67 Corn- meal lbs Mid- dlings lbs Skim- milk lbs Wa- ter lbs . .15 .15 1.2 2.3 . .40 .40 1.6 2.0 . .80 .80 1.6 3.0 6.5 Pigs fed on the rations given in the table were active and did not show much greater signs of hunger than when on full feed. Other experiments at the same station indicate that a maintenance ration for hogs amounts to about 1 552 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK per cent of the live weight of the ani- mals when middlings are fed. Small pigs require relatively smaller amounts Of feed for maintenance than large hogs. Full vs. scant rations — In some feed- ing experiments reported by the Central experimental farm to determine the ad- visability of feeding a full ration, all the animals will eat up clean, or a scant ration, i. e., a considerable amount less than they will eat up clean, the results were 7 per cent better on the limited ra- tion in the case of whole grain and 12 per cent in the case of ground grain; besides the pigs fed a limited ration were livelier and thriftier and of better appearance than the hogs fed a full ra- tion and did not get off feed so easily. Shelter for fattening pigs — Two like lots of pigs were fed in midwinter at the Michigan station on corn meal and skim milk to test the necessity of shelter in fattening. The lot fed in doors re- quired 2.9 pounds of dry matter to pro- duce a pound of gain, while the lot fed out doors required 3.5 pounds to produce a pound of gain. Generally speaking, hogs require comfortable quarters if good gains are to be made in winter feeding. The pens should be dry and protected from cold winds, rain and snow. They need not be expensive. At the Canada experimental farm young pigs wintered in doors made slightly larger and consid- erably cheaper gains than when wintered out-of-doors. The feeding yard for pigs should be dry at all times. Dry lot feed- ing is not as profitable as feeding at pasture, but spring and fall dry lot feed- ing are more profitable than feeding in a dry lot in midsummer. Effect of rations on the internal or- gans — Professor Henry of the Wisconsin station has clearly demonstrated in nu- merous experiments that the kind of food fed to growing pi^s has a remarkable influence on the development of the bones, internal organs and blood. The work of Carlyle and McConnell at the same station has fully confirmed Pro- fessor Henry's earlier observations. While corn is the great American hog food, Professor Henry has shown that if this grain is made the sole ration for young pigs it stunts their growth, they have less blood in their bodies, smaller livers, kidneys, lighter skeletons and hide and a smaller proportion of lean to fat meat than hogs fed more nitrogenous rations. With hogs that have matured their growth there is no better or cheaper grain for finishing them off on than corn. Por growing hogs and the pro- duction of the largest percentage of lean meat in the carcass, strong bones, smooth healthy skin, full sized internal organs, etc, skim milk, peas, barley, tankage, dry blood or some similar nitrogenous concentrate should be fed with corn. This is especially true with hogs intended for breeding purposes where vigorous, active, well developed, strong boned pigs are desired. All these points have been fully confirmed in feeding experiments at the various stations with such nitrog- enous concentrates as soy beans, cow- peas, tankage, skim milk, etc, and are discussed under each of the different feeds. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON FEEDING Young hogg or stock hogs in rather thin condition can usually be bought to fat- ten and then sold for the same price per pound paid for them and a profit made, because 4 to 5 pounds of grain alone will produce a pound of gain with grow- ing hogs. If pasture or skim milk is supplied a pound of gain can often be made on half this amount of grain. With pasture crops and intelligent grain feeding pork can be produced either Xorth or South for 2 cents to 3 cents per pound. It is usually more profitable to keep a pig growing continually from birth until maturity by the use of a little grain with pasture than it is to keep it all summer on pasture without grain with tbe idea of giving it all the grain it wants for a couple of months in the fall and then turn it off. On the other hand, hogs fed nothing but grain make about as ex- pensive pork as it is possible to put up. A successful Illinois grower has found that by the extensive use of clover pas- ture in summer, followed by a light grain ration, with soy bean hay in win- ter and with further pasture and grain during the following spring and early summer, he is able to market hogs a little more than a year old, weighing 300 to 350 pounds, at a considerable profit. By this method of feeding he is able to keep about six hogs per acre and produce most of his pork on cheap clover pasture. For a complete account of this hog farm, see United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers Bui. No. 272. SWINE 553 The only purpose for which hogs are used is meat. The faster they can be made to grow on cheap food the sooner can they be marketed and the more prof- itable they are. The more they eat of the right kinds of food the faster they grow. If skim milk, good pasture or mixed clover and grasses are available, most any grain can be fed and the hogs will balance up the ration properly for rapid gains. A good feeder, however, never gives one kind of feed until the appetites of the hogs cloy on it, but varies the ration as much as possible. The greater the variety of feed given the more the hog will eat and the faster will the gains be. Grain should be fed on a feeding floor rather than on the ground. Ground feed should be moistened and fed in troughs. When hogs of different sizes are fed to- gether the smaller ones suffer. Separate During the whole of this period the gain should not be less than 1 pound per day. During early feeding it should be iVz to 2 pounds per day. Even during the fattening period it will always be advisable to feed a small amount of such material as oil meal or tankage with the other grain. FEEDING FOR QUALITY OF POBK Pork of the best quality is produced from medium sized hogs; that is, hogs weighing 105 to 250 pounds. Pork from young hogs is likely to be soft and watery and does not keep or cure up well. In hogs over 250 pounds there is likely to be too large a proportion of fat to lean meat. Hogs should be gaining in flesh when killed. The muscles at this time are firm, plump and juicy. If killed when the hogs are losing weight the mus- cles are soft and dry and the meat is Fig. 350 — PIGGERY AT CENTRAL EXPERIMENTAL FARMS, CANADA lots should be provided. So long as hogs are making fair gains on cheap feeds it will be profitable to keep them, but once they begin to draw heavily on the grain bin they should be fattened and sold. With pasture or cheap feeds it will usually pay to feed hogs until they weigh between 180 to 300 pounds. Most of the fat hogs should be marketed by about the first of December, since winter fat- tening is much more expensive than summer feeding when pasturage is abun- dant. Pigs farrowed in March should weigh 200 to 250 pounds at this time and it is usually better to sell them than to winter over unless the market is un- commonly low. The brood sows and the fall pigs should usually be the only stock wintered over. When hogs have reached a weight of 180 to 200 pounds they can be finished for market in 4 to 8 weeks on heavy feeding. Corn is the best single grain to give at this time. flabby and greatly inferior. The man- ner of feeding and the character of the food has a marked influence on the qual- ity of the meat. In the United States corn is counted one of the best feeds for making a firm quality of pork. Ca- nadian experiments, however, indicate that, for the purpose of firm bacon pro- duction, corn is not as valuable as mixed grain, though much superior to such foods as beans, buckwheat, cowpeas or peanuts. Bacon — The best bacon is made from the bacon type of hogs when killed at a weight between 160 to 220 pounds. At this stage of growth if the hogs have been properly fed the flesh is firm, qual- ity of the best and the proportion of lean to fat meat about right. A great deal of bacon is made from the lighter hogs of the lard type, but the proportion of lean to fat meat is not so great as in the bacon type and the market price not so 554 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK good. In shipping different types of hogs to England the Iowa experiment station found that the breeds most de- sirable for the production of English bacon are the Tamworth and Berkshire. The Canadian experiment stations have made extensive investigations to determine what the characteristics of firm bacon are and how to produce it. The bacon trade of England demands a firm product. Soft bacon brings only secondary prices and cannot be exported from this country at a profit. Soft bacon and fat bacon are not synonymous terms. In fact, softness is more likely to develop in lean, underfed pigs than in well fed fat hogs. According to Shutt, softness is easily determined by the touch alone and is plainly visible when firm and soft sides are hung on the hooks together, the "drag" of the soft sides on the hooks being much greater than that of the firm sides. When also firm and soft sides are lifted from a table by either end, the firm bacon re- mains fairly straight, while the soft one doubles up more or less. Day states that the softness in bacon develops while it is in the salt and that when the bacon is taken out of the salt the fat is soft and spongy. The value of the bacon is re- duced in proportion to the degree of softness. In the beginning of the investigations into soft bacon at the Canadian stations, two sides of bacon, one of which was classed by the trade as "firm" and of excellent quality and the other "soft" and of poor quality, were analyzed. The olein content or liquid portion of the fat from the firm bacon averaged about 64 per cent and in the soft bacon about 80 per cent of the fat. The melting point of the fat in the firm bacon aver- aged about 37.6° C, and the soft bacon 27.4° C. The olein content of the fat and the melting point were therefore taken as a standard by which to judge firmness or softness of the meats made on different kinds of feed. It was early discovered that breed has but little to do with firm pork, since firm bacon from pigs of the lard type and soft bacon from pigs of the bacon type were fre- quently obtained. It was also discovered that the fat of young or immature pigs (pigs weighing less than 100 pounds) contained a relatively high percentage of olein and was considerably softer than the fat of more mature pigs killed at a weight of 180 to 200 pounds. The results of the investigations show clearly that the controlling factor in the quality of the pork lies primarily in the character of the food employed. The firmest pork in the stations' experiments were produced on a mixture of peas, oats and barley in equal parts. Corn and beans both tended to produce a soft pork. Beans produced the softest pork of all. Skim milk when used with the different rations produced a much firmer fat in every instance than when the same grain ration was fed without it. Ex- clusive corn feeding, for a somewhat ex- tended period, produced bacon of an ex- tremely soft and undesirable character. No evil effects were noted from its use when fed to fattening hogs that had had plenty of exercise until they had reached about 100 pounds live weight or had been fed skim milk with a mixed grain ration until they had reached 100 pounds live weight. The softening ef- fects of corn, which were quite pro- nounced in nearly every experiment, were in a large measure counteracted by the use of skim milk. "When oats, barley and peas (equal parts) were fed until the pigs weighed 100 pounds and then corn used to finish the fattening period a much poorer qual- ity of pork was produced than when the reverse method of feeding was observed. Cooking the feed seemed to slightly in- crease the softness of the fat. The qual- ity of the meat w?s not affected by giv- ing the feed wet rather than dry. Fin- ished pigs from the western part of Ontario were not found to yield softer pork when fed the same foods than hogs of eastern origin. Such succulent feeds as rape, pumpkins, artichokes, sugar beets, turnips and mangels were success- fury fed in the different rations without injuring the quality of the pork pro- duced. Hogs confined in pens and fed wheat middlings during the early stages of growth and finished off on peas, barley and shorts, had a marked tendency to- wards softness. When these same foods were given, but the hogs allowed to have plenty of exercise, much firmer bacon was produced. The evil effect of lack of exercise was largely overcome by the use of skim milk and whey. From 2 to 2 1 /2 pounds of whey is recommended for each pound of grain fed. Barley alone has given good gains and produced remarkably firm bacon. When SWINE 555 pea meal has been fed alone it has re- sulted in unthrifty animals and poor gains, but when mixed with middlings in the proportion of three parts pea meal and one part middlings, good gains and an excellent quality of bacon has been obtained. It is recommended that, for firm bacon, peas always be fed in combi- nation with other grains to hogs. Experiments at the Canadian agri- cultural college have also shown that un- thrifty hogs are more likely to produce soft bacon than vigorous, well fed hogs. When roots equal in weight to the grain ration have been fed an excellent qual- ity of pork and firm bacon have been produced. In general, feeds which keep the animals in a thrifty, vigorous con- dition are likely to result in the pro- duction of firm bacon. Plenty of ex- ercise, the use of succulent feeds, skim milk and other dairy products also favor the production of firm bacon. In Can- ada the Tamworth and Yorkshire are the breeds most commonly used for the pro- duction of bacon for the English and Canadian markets. Dressed weight of hogs — The dressed weight of well fattened hogs in many experiments has averaged 76.44 per cent (fasted live weight). When hogs have been fed on concentrated feeds like corn, the dressed weight may equal 80 per cent of the live weight. On the average, the blood constitutes about 2.5 to 3 per cent of the live weight of hogs; the liver 1.3 to 1.5 per cent; heart 0.2 per cent; stomach and contents 4.5 to 5 per cent; intestines 6.5 to 8 per cent; kid- neys 0.3 per cent; spleen 0.1 per cent; intestinal fat 1 to 2 per cent; kidney fat 4 to 4.5 per cent. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SWINE The regular shipper and the larger farmers who accompany their stock to market, come to understand the expres- sions used in the stock yards with refer- ence to the different classes and grades of stock. Without a visit to the stock yards it is difficult to interpret the stock market quotations. In a recent bulletin from the Illinois station, Dietrich has reported compre- hensively on this subject. The follow- ing is the classification reported by Dietrich as used in the principal stock markets : Classes. Prime heavy hogs, 350 to 500 pounds. Butcher hogs, 180 to 350 pounds. Packing hogs, 200 to 500 pounds. Ught hogs, 125 to 220 pounds. MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF SWINE Subclasses. Heavy butchers, 280 to 350 pounds Medium butchers, 220 to 280 pounds ) Light butchers, 180 to 220 pounds ) Heavy packing, 300 to 500 pounds ) Medium packing, 250 to :tfK) pounds > Mixed packing, 200 to 280 pounds » English, 160 to 220 pounds Bacon United States, 155 to 195 pounds Light mixed, 150 to 220 pounds Light light, 125 to 150 pounds Pigs, 60 to 125 pounds . Roughs. Stags. Boars. Miscellaneous: Roasting pigs, 15 to 30 pounds. Feeders. Governments. Pen holders. Dead hogs. Grades. Prime. ( Prime. (Good. ( Prime. \ Good. ( Common. (Good ' Common ( Inferior ( Choice. \ Light. (Fat. ( Choice {Good ( Common ( Good. < Common. ( Inferior. ( Good. •' Common. ( Inferior. ( Choice. \ Good. I Common. 556 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK In looking over this classification, we see that there are 13 general classes of hogs, beginning with prime heavy and ending with dead hogs. Butcher hogs, packing hogs, and light hogs, have sub- classes and these sub-classes are again divided into prime, good and common. Prime heavy hogs — Taking up the main classes, a "prime heavy hog" is a hog weighing from 350 to 500 pounds and represents the extreme of the fat or lard hog type. The number of hogs of this class found on the market are not as numerous to-day as formerly, owing to the tendency of the market toward the lighter hogs. There are still enough, however, to form a class. show marked evidence of ripeness and maturity. The two must go hand in hand. A hog may be mature without having been fed so as to show that bloom of condition that is necessary for a prime hog, or he may have been as well fed as possible, and not be suf- ficiently mature, consequently he would not grade as prime. The high state of finish required for a hog of this grade is brought about by liberal grain feed- ing to maturity. Maturity in general means that condition in which develop- ment is complete." More specifically it means "that stage in the process of feed- ing where growth ceases under a given system of feeding and the animal takes Fig. 351 — CHOICE BACON CLASS (UNITED STATES) (Courtesy of Illinois Exper. Station) Butcher hogs weigh from 180 to 350 pounds and as a class are mostly bar- rows. Barrows usually sell more readily and bring better prices than sows. This class of hogs is principally used for the fresh meat trade. They range in age from six months in the case of the light butchers to a year old for the heavy butchers. Heavy butchers weigh from 280 to 350 pounds, medium butchers 220 to 280 pounds and light butchers 180 to 220 pounds. Prime hogs — In order for a hog to grade "prime" in either the heavy, me- dium or light butcher classes, it must be perfect in quality and show evidence of ripeness in condition and maturity. A "prime" hog means the best of its class. "To grade as 'prime,' a hog must on the form and appearance, as well as the high state of finish, of an ordi- narily well-fed, mature animal. This may be at different ages and weights, thus giving the prime heavy hogs, and prime, heavy, medium and light butch- ers ranging in weight from 500 down to 200 pounds." A "prime" butcher hog should have the ideal form of a fat or lard hog, with a broad back, wide, well-filled hams and shoulders, short, heavy neck, heavy jowls, and short legs. The degree of fatness of the hog is of prime impor- tance in determining the grade to which it belongs. "Prime butcher hogs must be well covered with a thick layer of fat on the outside of the carcass, be well rounded out at the rump, thus making SWINE 557 a socket in which the tail is set, be well filled on the neck up to the face, have a broad, fat back with much fat on sides and on belly, and be well filled in flanks and in twist. Besides this, they must be free from flabbiness and show a firm, even and symmetrical development." Good butcher hogs, as compared with prime butchers, may be slightly deficient in form or a little lacking in quality, maturity or condition. Common butcher hogs are found only in the medium and light butcher classes. They are among the better grades of hogs and show evidence of having been well fed and are compact, smooth and firm. These animals may not be mature and may be considerably more deficient in form, quality and condition than prime butcher hogs. Other names some- times applied to this class of hogs are "heavy shipping," "selected," "mediums and butchers," "mediums and heavys." The term "shipping hogs" usually refers to hogs that are bought in the larger markets and shipped elsewhere for butch- ering. Packing hogs as a class are of poorer grade than butcher hogs. It may in- clude old brood sows, and all other hogs except the roughs, boars, and coarse stags that are heavy enough for this class, and not good enough for the butcher hogs class. Dietrich states that about 40 per cent of the hogs coming to the Chicago mar- ket are of this class. From this class of hogs the packers make mess pork, dry salt sides, while the hams and shoulders are cured. These hogs are usually above nine months in age. This class of hogs is subdivided into the heavy packing class, consisting of hogs weighing 300 to 500 pounds, medium packing, weighing 250 to 300 pounds, and mixed packing, weighing 200 to 280 pounds. Droves of hogs are sometimes sent to market in which there are heavy pack- ing, medium packing, some light hogs and even a few butcher hogs, and may be sold as "mixed packing" or "mixed hogs." These mixed droves are fre- quently bought in carload lots by spec- ulators, re-sorted into their proper grades and sold. In each of these sub-classes of heavy, medium and mixed packing hogs, there are three grades, good, common and in- ferior. Good packing hogs of either the heavy, medium or mixed class, must be fitted in good condition and show that they belong to the fat hog type in form and breeding, but may be too much off in form, quality or condition to go into the butcher hog class. Highly finished old sows that bear evidence of once hav- ing had pigs may be in this class, or barrows, not sufficiently up in form and condition, or mixed lots of sows and bar- rows, varying in quality and condition, but still showing evidence of good breed- ing, form and quality. Common packing hogs are not quite as good a grade of hogs as the good packing hogs, while the inferior pack- ing hogs include hogs poor in form, coarse in quality and much lacking in condition, but still good enough to be fit for the block. Light hogs include all those within the weight limits, 125 to 220 pounds, except roughs, stags and boars. This class makes up about 15 per cent of the hogs coming into the market. In it are found the bacon hogs, weighing for the English trade 160 to 220 pounds, and for the American trade 155 to 195 pounds, light mixed hogs, weighing 150 to 220 pounds, and light light hogs, weighing 125 to 150 pounds. For the English bacon trade, much of the bacon is cut into what is called the Wiltshire sides, which is the whole side of the hog with simply the head and feet cut off. Bacon hogs are sub-divided into choice bacon, light bacon, and fat bacon. In the choice bacon class are in- cluded all those hogs which conform to the bacon hog type and have quality and condition in the highest degree for the class. "Choice bacon hogs — The bacon hog is not a fat hog, consequently when a ba- con hog is in good condition for market he is an entirely different looking hog froin a fat or lard hog when in such condition. To be in good condition, a bacon hog must have a good develop- ment of lean meat or muscle, with the proper amount of fat. He must be smooth, well developed and have a large proportion of edible meat, while the proportion of fat and other offal must be small. Hams, shoulders, jowls and neck must also be small in proportion to length and depth of sides. If a hog has all these characteristics of form, quality and condition, developed to a >58 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK marked degree, it would be considered a choice bacon hog." When hogs have been well bred and cared for, and weigh between 160 to 220 pounds, they furnish the best quality of bacon. Hogs weighing less than this are likely to be younger and the meat more watery, while hogs weighing more are likely to be too fat. The light bacon hog resembles the choice bacon, but is lighter in weight and usually poorer in condition, and may be coarser in quality, while a fat bacon hog resembles a choice bacon hog but is too fat. The United States bacon hog is a hog ranging in weight from 155 to 195 pounds and in age from 6 to 8 months. They conform in a general way to the bacon hog type but are simply selected from light hogs in general. About 20 per cent of the light hogs that come into the Chicago markets are of this type. The best of this class of hogs are Fig. 352 — ROASTING PIGS (Courtesy of Illinois Esper. Station) handled as choice United States bacon, and are made up mostly from shipments outside of the corn belt. These hogs have more fat on the outside and less lean meat on the inside than typical bacon hogs of the English type. "Good bacon hogs of this class may be of poorer quality, may be lower in conditions, may be too fat or too much of the fat hog type. . . . If there is still more marked de- ficiency in these characteristics the hogs will grade as a common bacon hog." Pigs as a market class range in weight from 60 to 125 pounds and in age from 3^2 to 6 months. All hogs of this weight are included in the pig class. The greatest demand for these pigs is in winter, since they are hard to preserve fresh in summer and are too young to cure. They constitute about 10 per cent of the hogs coming to the Chi- cago market, and grade as choice, good and common. They are choice when they approach the ideal fat hog in form and condition, and good or common as these qualities are less marked. Roughs include hogs of all sizes that are coarse, rough and lacking in condi- tion. If too inferior to be classed as packing hogs or as light mixed hogs, they go into the class of roughs. "The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper class of trade for both packing and fresh meat purchasers. In market reports, pigs and roughs are frequently classed together, not because they be- long in the same class, but because they sell approximately at the same price." Stags are castrated old boars and sell with a dockage of 80 pounds. If of good quality and condition, they may go in with some of the various grades of packing hogs, but when coarse and staggy in appearance, they are sold in the same class with boars. "Boars are always sold in a class by themselves and bring from $2 to $3 per hundred weight less than the best hogs on the market at the same time. They always sell straight with no dockage. There is no distinction as to grade, they simply sell as boars." These ani- mals are used to supply pork to the cheaper class of trade and for sausage making. Roasting pigs include pigs from three to six weeks old weighing from 15 to 30 pounds each. They come to market in relatively small numbers, chiefly during the holiday season. They are usually of a nearly uniform grade and are taken directly from their dams, dressed with head and feet on and served like chicken or turkey. Prices for roasting pigs range from regular live hog prices to that paid for poultry. Feeders are hogs bought in the mar- kets to be taken back to the country for further feeding. Only a comparatively small number are re-shipped for this purpose, owing to the small chances of profit and the possibility of contracting disease in passing through the large markets. Governments are hogs inspected by the government officials and rejected as not being sound in every respect. Such hogs are tagged by the inspector and re- SWINE 559 tained for further inspection, and are known as "Governments." Penholders are hogs of poor form, and coarse quality that are kept at the stock yards by commission men and specula- tors simply for holding pens. They have no influence on the market. Dead hogs refer to hogs that have been killed on the cars in transit and like- wise have no influence on the market. Summarizing for the Chicago market — It will be seen that butcher hogs con- stitute about 25 per cent of all the hogs sent to that market; packing hogs, 40 per cent; light hogs, 15 per cent; pigs, 10 per cent, and other classes, 10 per cent. For details as to marketing hogs, quo- tations for the different classes, etc, see Chapter IV on Marketing Live Stock. PART X Sheep -is o $ oa?» .O O II |i l=f «1is|=f ai itlilll Iljl.i I-IH l| i l?f I*ti s i S SS3S! 88 S,88SS 8 £g & 8 8 SssSSSSSSSsssssSSgEs B JslllFl - 1 !%U §11 S 1 Wl C 111 |iHl4l«li! 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It appears that sheep were first raised chiefly for their milk, later for their skins, which were used for clothing, then wool became a primary consideration, and finally Great Britain, chiefly through the work of Robert Bakewell, produced the mutton type of sheep. Up to about 20 years ago, sheep were grown in the United States chiefly for wool. The low price of wool for a period of years has led to the more rapid development of mutton flocks, especially in the East. At the present time the mutton flocks are rapidly increasing, largely through the crossing of rams of the mutton type on ewes of the Merino or wool breeds. ' Feeding qualities of sheep — Sheep stand next to hogs in their ability to produce meat from a given quantity of food. They are superior to hogs in their ability to utilize coarse fodders and bulky food, even excelling cattle in this respect. It requires 9 to 11 pounds of dry matter to produce a pound of gain with steers, while sheep on the same feed will make a pound of gain on 7 to 9 pounds of dry matter. The Iowa sta- tion found that 1,000 pounds of cattle on full feed ate 19.6 pounds of dry mat- ter a day, and gained 2.14 pounds ; while 1,000 pounds of sheep ate 29.7 pounds of dry matter a day and gained 3.73 pounds in weight. In other words, the sheep ate 48 per cent more feed per 1,000 pounds weight and made 75 per cent bet- ter gains. Not only this, but while sheep are making these gains they will grow a fleece in addition, worth from 75 cents to $1.50 a head. General usefulness on farm — The fact is that properly managed, a medium sized flock of sheep will bring in more profits to its owner under a system of mixed farming than any other animal on the farm, certainly more than cattle. They normally eat a great variety of herbs and are of great value in keeping the farm clean from weeds. For de- stroying brush, they are nearly equal to goats. They will thrive better on poor pasture than either hogs or cattle, and when given richer feed will gain correspondingly. Systems of sheep farming — There are several systems of sheep farming. Sheep may be raised for wool alone, in which case, the gross annual returns under west- ern range conditions are about $2 a head. Of this, the fleece brings about $1.50 and the mutton, when finally sold, 50 cents. Profits in ranching — The expenses under the better systems of ranching for wool alone are as follows: Interest on capital invested, 84 cents a head; taxes, 7.5 cents a head; shearing, 10 cents; la- bor and winter feed, 41.5 cents; total, $1.43, leaving 57 cents profit a head. These are actual figures, taken from the Bower Ranch in Montana, where about 40,000 sheep are kept for wool alone. In this case the profits are reduced 15 cents more a head, because of the neces- sity of renting additional summer range. Returns in general sheep farming — When general purpose sheep are raised for both mutton and wool, the gross re- turns are, a fleece at about $1, and lamb, which, after eight or nine months feed- ing, will bring $4.50 to $6.50. Where a flock of ewes is kept and winter lambs raised, the gross receipts are a fleece worth about $1, and a lamb or two, which after two or three months feeding will bring $6 to $12 a carcass. If pure bred sheep are raised, the profit a sheep, besides the wool, may amount to $15 to $20 a head, and frequently much more than this. (See also Systems of Sheep Farming in Chapter IV.) Statistics— The largest number of sheep ever reported in the United States was in 1903, when there were 63,964.* 566 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 876 head. In 1905 the number reported was 45,170,423. The average for the past 10 years is 47,633,316. The large wool flocks are produced in the West under range conditions. In 1905, Mon- tana led in numbers, reporting 5,638,- 967 head, followed by Wyoming with 3,267,887; Idaho with 2,978,068; New Mexico, 2,856,745; Ohio, 2,601,010; Ore- gon, 2,546,662; and California, 2,180,- 399. The average weight of the fleece pro- from Canada, and 250,000 exported. About 17,000,000 sheep are each year slaughtered in the United States. Both Europe and Australia surpass the United States in sheep and wool production. In 1905 it is estimated that Australia contained 93,072,331 sheep, mostly of the Merino type. The most recent data show a total of 121,424,- 000 head of sheep in Europe. The lead- ing countries of production are Russia, with about 45,000,000 head; Great Fig. 353 — MERINO BUCK, DON'S CHAMPION duced in the United States is 6.5 pounds. In cleaning and scouring, the wool shrinks from 40 to 70 per cent, depend- ing upon the amount of dirt and sand in it. Western wool shrinks most on ac- count of the large amount of sand in it. The total production of washed, un- washed, and pulled wool in 1904 was 291,783,032 pounds. This produced 123,- 935,147 pounds of scoured wool. The farm value of the sheep in 1904 was es- timated at $127,331,850, and the value of wool about $37,000,000. About 337,- 000 sheep are imported each year, chiefly Britain, with 29,000,000; France, with 17,000,000; and Germany, with 10,000,- 000. The most serious competitor of the United States is Australia, which not only competes in the wool market, but has an enormous trade with Europe in frozen mutton. BREEDS OF SHEEP The leading breeds of sheep in the United States, mentioned in the order of their importance, are the Merinos, Shropshires, Cotswolds, Oxfords, Ram- SHEEP 567 bouillets, Southdowns, Hampshires, Lin- colns, Dorset Horns, Cheviots, and Lei- cester. There are more Merinos raised in the United States than of all other breeds combined. Twenty-five years ago, they probably constituted 95 per cent of the flocks of the United States. The decrease in the price of wool and the growing taste for mutton in recent years has resulted in greater attention being given to the development of the mutton breeds. At this time it is prob- able that the Merinos do not make up over 75 per cent of the flocks in the United States. The mutton breeds are becoming of increasing importance in nearly all of the smaller farms in the United States, especially in the East and North. The various breeds of sheep may be roughly classified as fine wool, medium Fig. 354 — 2-YEAR-OLD DELAINE MERINO RAM wool, and. coarse wool sheep. The fine wools include the various Merinos and Eambouillets. The medium or short wools include the Southdown, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk, Hamp- shire, Oxford, Welsh and Tunis; and the coarse or long wool, the Leicester, Lincoln, Cotswold, Romney Marsh, and Black Face Scotch or Highland. Merinos — The Merino sheep was evolved in Spain, and has been reared there for centuries. From Spain they have been exported into the various countries of Europe, United States, Aus- tralia, etc. The first importation into the United States was made in 1802 by Col. Davis Humphreys of Derby, Connecticut. Under the influence of American and French breeders, the old Spanish Merino has been improved so that the forms now known in the United States are the American Merino, the Delaine Merino, and the French Merino or Rambouillet. The Delaine Merino has been evolved from the American Merino and differs from it in the longer fleece and improved mutton form. The American Merino is one of the smallest breeds in the United States. The ewes at maturity weigh from 90 to 125 pounds and the bucks, when in good condition, from 140 to 175 pounds. The skin of the Merino is characterized by heavy folds, especially about the neck; wool is fine and very dense. The fleece will weigh 10 to 15 pounds in the ewes and considerably more in the rams. It is one of the hardiest sheep in the United States and adapts itself to va- rious conditions of climate and food products better than any other breed. It can be herded in flocks of thousands where the mutton breeds cannot be suc- cessfully herded in flocks of over 200. They are the sheep par excellence for grazing under western conditions. They do not become fully mature until the age of three or four years, and their feeding qualities are inferior to those of the mutton breeds. The meat is lack- ing in tenderness and flavor, and con- tains a large proportion of bone to meat. Within recent years mnny of the eastern flocks of Merinos have been crossed with the mutton breeds, for the purpose of producing an all-around wool and mut- ton sheep. The Wisconsin station found that if Merino ewes were crossed with a pure Shropshire buck and pure Shropshire bucks were used thereafter on the grade ewes, the progeny of the second and third crossing could scarcely be distin- guished from pure Shropshires. The pure Merino produces the finest wool and heaviest fleece in proportion to its weight of any sheep in the country. Delaine Merinos — The Delaine Me- rino has been produced from the Ameri- can Merino. It has a larger carcass, a better mutton form, is nearly free from wrinkles and folds and carries a longer fleece, though not quite as fine nor as well glued together on the sur* face as the American Merino. The chief sub-types of the Delaine Merino are the Standard, the National and the Improved Delaine. Closely re- lated to these in their leading character- istics are the Black Top Spanish Me- rino, the Improved Black Top Merino, 568 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK and the Dickinson. All the Delaine Merinos have horns, and more or less wrinkles or folds about the neck and breast. The Black Top Merinos, like- wise, have horns in the rams, but do not have wrinkles and the fleece is more of a black. The Dickinson or polled Me- rinos have neither horns nor wrinkles. They are a little larger in size and the fleece is longer than the Delaines. Ewes of the Delaine type, when ma- ture, will weigh from 100 to 150 pounds, the rams from 140 to 190 pounds. They are practically equal to the American Merinos in hardiness and grazing powers, but are superior to them in early ma- Merino Sheep Breeders' association with a registration of 217,850. Mexican Merinos — The Mexican Me- rino is a descendant of Spanish flocks and has been bred in Mexico for al- most 200 years without any outcross or improvement. These sheep have long legs, long, slim bodies, small, rather long necks and a long, thin head, carried high. The wool is fine and thin, and to the eye they appear almost worthless as mutton sheep and of still less value for wool. They are remarkably hardy, however, are excellent travelers, keep in good condition on the poorest and dryest of ranges, are fairly prolific and can Fig. 355 — POLLED DICKINSON DELAINE MERINO RAMS turing qualities, in the quality of the mutton produced, and in feeding quali- ties. The Delaines are used extensively for crossing on western range sheep, where the fleece has become light and open. The fleece in ewes will weigh from 9 to 15, and in the bucks, 12 to 18 pounds. The minimum length of the fleece is 3 inches. Twelve or fifteen associations have been organized in the United States to look after the interests of the American and Delaine Merinos. Some of the or- ganizations in the case of the American Merinos are in a decadent condition. On the whole more than 300,000 sheep of these breeds have been registered. One of the largest of these is the Vermont be herded in bunches of almost any size. They fatten easily, though never look plump, and bring top prices in the Chicago market, since they shrink very little in dressing, while the meat is of excellent flavor. Yearling ewes and wethers when in good condition will weigh about 90 pounds. New Mexico Merinos — The old Mexi- can Merinos as above described have been graded up with American Merino rams in New Mexico and Southern Colorado, and greatly improved in appearance. From these improved Merinos, excellent feeding lambs are obtained, which are extensively fattened in Colorado and some of the states farther east for the Chicago market, where they bring top SHEEP 569 prices for the same reasons as the Mexi- can sheep. Kambouillets — In 1786 the French government imported from Spain 383 selected Spanish Merinos. These sheep were kept chiefly at Rambouillet, where they have been carefully bred by rigid selection and liberal feeding and greatly improved in mutton form, quality of meat and weight, without the introduc- tion of any outside blood; both the weight of the carcass and the weight of the fleece have been increased from 100 so good a mutton form, though very similar in other respects. The Rambouillets have the same hardi- ness and feeding qualities as the Ameri- can Merinos, and, while the quality of the meat is excellent, it is not quite equal to that of the mutton breeds. These sheep are specially valuable for crossing upon range stock for the pur- pose of securing a larger carcass and heavy fleece of wool. They are at pres- ent largely used alternately with Cots- wold rams on western range flocks. Fig. 356 — RAMBOUILLET YEARLING BUCK to 150 per cent over the old Spanish Merino. These sheep were introduced into the United States in 1840, but did not become specially prominent until during the last 20 years. Full grown rams of this breed will weigh up to 225 pounds and the ewes up to 175 pounds. These sheep are much taller, stronger limbed and more rangy than the Ameri- can sheep, have a better mutton form, are less wrinkled, and the wool is longer though not quite so dense or fine, and freer from yolk than the American Merino. They are also taller and heav- ier than the Delaines, but have not quite The American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders' association was organized in Pontiac, Michigan, in 1889, and the number registered in 1906 was 34,075. The sheep occasionally referred to as German Rambouillet, are descendants of the French Rambouillet, which were bred in Germany by Baron von Home- yer. Sheep from this flock were brought to the United States in the eighties and nineties, and have become quite widely distributed. The International von Homeyer Rambouillet club look af- ter the interests of these sheep, of which about 300 have been registered. 570 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Southdowns — The Southdown origi- nated in England, and was imported in- to this country at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It is a smooth, round bodied, symmetrical sheep with a brown, gray or mouse colored face and feet. The fleece is rather dry, coarse and light. They are hornless and, while the smallest of the medium breeds, a me- dium fat, two-year-old wether will weigh from 130 to 140 pounds. They are es- pecially well adapted to hilly lands with a dry soil and dry, short herbage. They stand in the first rank among early ma- turing breeds, and the meat is of the than the Southdown. The ewes will weigh up to 175 pounds, and the rams up to 225 pounds. It is of English origin and was evolved out of the South- down, Cotswold and Leicester breeds. It was first imported into the United States in 1855. They are especially adapted to general farm conditions, where the land is well drained and where pasturage is good. The ewes are very prolific, producing on the average about 40 per cent of twin lambs. The unwashed fleece will average 9 to 10 pounds in weight in ewes, and 12 to 15 pounds in the rams. The face , < , ;.. •■■■ ■ ". Eig. 357 — RAMBOUILLET EWE best quality. They are vigorous and es- pecially desirable for crossing where mutton is chiefly sought. They have been used to a greater extent in the production of various other pure, dark faced breeds, than any other of the Down breeds. They are inferior in wool production, giving an unwashed fleece that will average from 5 to 7 pounds in weight. The American Southdown Breeders' association has registered 19,- 933 sheep. Shropshires_The Shropshire is the most popular mutton breed produced in the United States. It is well propor- tioned, symmetrical, and a little heavier is grayish black and the legs still darker ; in recent years there is a tendency to- wards somewhat lighter faces. As compared with the Southdowns, the Shropshires have a longer and heavier body and a heavier fleece. The head is more completely covered with wool, and the wool is longer, though not so fine; it is what is known on the market as medium Delaine or half combing wool. It is one of the best general purpose sheep for farm flocks, since it produces a high quality of mutton, a good grade of wool which brings nearly top prices, and a large percentage of lambs. The American Shropshire Eegistry associa- SHEEP 571 tion had recorded 234,000 animals in 1906. Hampshires — The Hampshire is a hornless, black faced, black legged sheep. Like the Southdown and Shropshire, it originated in England and is the out- come of a cross of the Improved South- down upon the Wiltshire and Berkshire Knot sheep. It is much larger than the Southdown, more prolific, produces a heavier fleece, and has better grazing qualities. It is larger than the Shrop- The Hampshire Down Breeders asso- ciation of America was organized in 1889. About 18,500 sheep have been registered. ' Suffolks — This is a medium wool, hornless, mutton breed, with a long, black face, and a general absence of wool on the head and between the ears, which constitutes the principal difference in appearance between the Suffolk and Hampshire breeds. The body is rather long, the legs jet black. The Suffolks "-"MM, Fig. 358 — 2-YEAR-OLD RAMBOUILLET EWE shire and the lambs grow more rapidly to maturity. They are especially adapted to an intense system of farming, and for crossing where early, quick maturing large sized lambs are desired. The un- washed fleece will weigh from 7 to 10 pounds in the ewes and a little heavier in the bucks. The wool corresponds to that of the Shrortshire, but is perhaps a little coarser. They are a stylish, hand- some sheep of the mutton form, and are quite widely distributed throughout the United States and Canada. occupy an intermediate place between the Shropshire and the Hampshire. They have not been extensively bred in the United States. The American Suf- folk Begistry association has recorded 1,013 sheep. Oxfords—The Oxford Downs origi- nated in England as a result of crossing Cotswold rams upon Hampshire Down ewes and the selection and mating of the progeny. These sheep since 1857 have been known as Oxfordshire Downs or 572 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Oxford sheep. They are widely dis- tributed over the United States and Canada. They are the largest and heaviest of the Down breeds. When in good flesh, the rams should weigh 250 to 275 pounds, and the ewes from 200 to 225 pounds. The wool is rather coarser than any other of the medium wools and the fleece is heavier, weighing from 10 to 12 pounds unwashed. The Oxfords resemble the Hampshires in general form, but are a larger breed and the face is not so dark. It is usually ai even dark gray or brown, with or with- for mature ewes, 165 pounds. The wool is short and will average 6 to 8 pounds unwashed to the fleece. The Dorset is a solidly built sheep, and especially es- teemed for its prolificacy. When prop- erly managed, two lambing seasons a year are possible with this breed. This makes the Dorset especially popular for the production of winter lambs. When bred in May, they produce lambs for the Christmas market, and will breed again soon after dropping their lamb. They frequently produce twins and often trip- lets. The ewes are frequently bred to £59 — PEN OF SOUTHDOWN LAMBS out a gray spot on the tip of the nose. They are best adapted for lands fur- nishing good pasture and do not suc- ceed as well under range conditions or on rugged, broken pastures as either the Shropshires or Southdowns. The Ameri- can Oxford Down Sheep Record associa- tion was organized in 1884. In 1906, 36.210 had been registered. Dorsets— The Dorsets are one of the oldest English breeds of sheep. Both sexes are horned. The face is white with a tendency toward a slight Roman nose. They are considerably larger than Southdowns. The average weight for a mature ram is about 215 pounds, and Southdown or Hampshire rams to give the market lamb a black face, which is generally preferred by tke butchers. The Dorset is generally regarded as the most prolific of the sheep breeds. The Wisconsin station found that by crossing common grade ewes with a pure bred Dorset ram for two or three generations, and preserving their earlier dropped lambs for breeding purposes, a flock could be built up which would drop their lambs in the fall and early winter instead of spring. The ewes are excep- tionally Tood milkers. They are a hardy sheep ; good rustlers ; have early matur- ing qualities, and the mutton is su- SHEEP 573 perior. They stand unrivaled among the sheep breeds for the production of winter lambs, i. e., unweaned lambs which can be marketed during the holi- days and winter months. The Dorset Horn Sheep association was established in 1891, and has regis- tered about 10,750 sheep. The Conti- nental Dorset club has registered 5,098. Cheviot — The Cheviot is a mountain breed of sheep, hardy and does well on scant pasture. They are native to the Cheviot Hills of England. These sheep are distributed in nearly all the states east of the Mississippi river and in Can- Tunis_The Tunis or Broad Tail sheep is a native of Tunis in Northern Af- rica. They are a mountain or semi- mountainous breed and were first im- ported into the United States in 1799, and no importations have been made since then. _ They are about equal to the Dorset in size, the rams in good form weighing about 180 pounds, and the ewes 135 pounds. They stand ex- tremes of heat and cold well and seem likely to spread southward rather than northward. The wool may be compared with that of the Dorset in quality, the unwashed fleece weighing about 7*4 Fiff. 360 — SHROPSHIRE RAM ada. They are a medium sized sheep, the rams weighing 175 to 200 pounds, and the ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. The wool is rather coarse, the fleece weighs 8 to 10 pounds. They are es- pecially sought where hardihood is im- portant. The breed is pure white, in- cluding a white face and white legs. Occasionally there are small black spots on the head and ears. The end of the nose is dark. They do not bear close confinement as well as some of the other breeds. The mutton, though of good quality, is not equal to that of the South- down. The American Cheviot Sheep society has registered 10,700 animals. pounds. They have a small head, horn- less or nearly so, a clean face and nose, brown and white in color, and the same colored legs. The ears are broad and drooping and brown or light fawn in color. They mature early, have good grazing and feeding quality and the quality of the meat is of the very best. They are very prepotent when crossed on other breeds. They are probably bet- ter than any of the Down breeds for southern conditions. By many they are considered second in importance only to the Dorset in early breeding habit and for the production of winter lambs. Leicesters — The Leicester is one of the long wool native English breeds which, 574 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK though popular in England, has never made much headway in America. There are two types of Leicesters, the Bakewell and the Border Leicester. They both have the same general style, but the Border Leicester is a little the larger and not quite so compact as the Bake- well. They are a white faced, square bodied, hornless breed. The mature bucks weigh from 225 to 250 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. The unwashed fleece will weigh from 9 to 11 pounds. The wool is of good length and fibre, and hangs in spirals at the outer surface, covering the whole carcass except the United States in 1836. They are the heaviest of all the breeds of sheep raised in this country, the mature rams in good flesh weighing 275 to 300 pounds, and the ewes from 225 to 250 pounds. The unwashed fleece should weigh from 12 to 14 pounds on the average. And the staple should not be less than 8 inches in length. It hangs in large and wavy spirals. This breed has a white face and a conspicuous tuft on the forehead. Both sexes are hornless. In experiments at the Iowa station, Lincoln sheep produced the heaviest fleece of 10 breeds under domestication Fig. 361 — YEARLING HAMPSHIRE RAM head and legs. They are especially suited to thickly settled conditions where there is an abundance of succulent vege- tation. They are easy keepers, mature early and make excellent use of the food given them. They are only fairly well adapted for rough grazing purposes. In prolificacy they are not equal to some of the other breeds. The American Leices- ter Breeders' association, formed in 1888, has registered about 8,975 animals. Lincoln — This is probably the most popular of the long wool breed of sheep. It originated in Lincolnshire, England, and has been distributed all over the world. They were first imported into the and the fleece sold for the most money. They are especially well adapted to an intensive system of agriculture, are good grazers, dress out well on the block and the quality of the meat is good, though not equal in flavor to that of the middle wool breeds. The Lincoln has been ex- tensively used by ranchmen in America and Australia for crossing upon Merinos to improve their size and mutton qual- ities. The National American Lincoln Sheep Breeders' association was organ- ized in 1891 and has registered about 14,000 animals. SHEEP 575 Cotswolds— The Cotswold is the most popular of the long wool breeds in America. It is one of the old English breeds, first brought to the United States in 1832. They are distributed in every state in the Union, as well as Canada. They stand next to the Lincolns in size. The bucks weigh from 250 to 275 pounds when in good flesh, and the ewes 200 to 225 pounds, the fleece is 8 to 10 inches long and should weigh on the average 10 to 14 pounds unwashed. The breed has a well poised head with a character- try association was organized in 1878, and has registered 36,670 animals. Romney Marsh—The home of this breed is the low, marshy lands of south- eastern England. It is a hardy breed and survives under conditions of neglect where many of the other breeds would fail. It is perhaps the best of the breeds for marshy conditions. The character- istics of the Romney Marsh, according to Stewart are: "A thick, broad head and neck, long carcass, flat sides, broad loins, full and broad thigh, neither heavy nor full fore-quarter, thick, strong legs .' Mf^^k. Hywfcv t mm KSmS^^—m ■<:■-. • : \ • £9 Fig. 362 istic foretop coming well down over the eyes, a straight, broad back, well round- ed body with full brisket. It has a hardy constitution, good grazing and feeding qualities and is specially well adapted for crossing on smaller Down and Merino breeds for increasing the weight of the lamb, lengthening the fleece and improving the quality of the mutton. They are popular on the range for crossing on Merino ewes. The face and legs are white, or slightly mixed with gray. The fleece covers the whole body. The American Cotswold Eegis- CIIAMPIOX OXFORD EWE and broad feet; wool long, somewhat coarse, and coarsest on the thighs, much inside fat, and favorite animal with the butcher. There is a tuft of wool on the forehead. The fleece weighs from 7 to 10 pounds, is of long staple, sound qual- ity, bright and glossy." Three-year-old wethers should dress 100 to 120 pounds, the ewes from 70 to 90 pounds. Black-faced Scotch or Highland sheep — This is one of the oldest breeds of Scotland. They are a black-faced breed with large spiral horns, a square, com- pact body, very muscular and active and 576 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK remarkably hardy. It is said that they are sometimes buried under snowdrifts in the mountains for one or two weeks at a time, and under such conditions herd together and form a cave, in which they feed upon the scanty herbage until rescued by the shepherd. They may be kept in large flocks of several thousands in the same manner as the Merino. The mutton furnished by this sheep is of' exceptionally fine quality. The sheep will weigh 100 to 125 pounds and the fleece averages about 33 poimds of un- washed wool. The breed is fitted for have white or rusty brown faces and weigh 50 to 70 pounds. They have a small head, rather long neck with a nar- row chest and flat sides. The bucks have horns, but the ewes rarely. They pro- duce 2 to 3 pounds of wool. The mut- ton is claimed to be unexcelled by any breed in England. They are a very active sheep, delight in lofty situations. A flock of 57 ewes and 2 bucks were im- ported by a Connecticut firm in 1902. It is believed to be the first importation of tins sheep to America. The Welsh Mountain sheep cross with Fig. 363 — PRIZE OXFORD YEARLING RAM rugged mountain conditions under which most other flocks would be a failure. Welsh Mountain_Tbis is another of the native breeds of Great Britain, grown extensively only in the mountain- ous regions of Wales. There appears to be three varieties of this sheep, the Higher Mountain, the Soft Wool and the Radnor. The Higher Mountain sheep are a small breed weighing 40 to 50 pounds and of black, gray or brown color; both sexes have horns. The Soft Wool breed is the sheep usually referred to as the Welsh Mountain. These sheep the larger breeds and seem to carry to the offspring some of the delicate flavor of the meat. The Radnor sheep have some of the characteristics of the Soft Wool sheep, but more closely resemble the Higher Mountain, except that they are larger, weighing 60 to 70 pounds. Suffolk rams crossed on mountain ewes in England produced better results than when Wiltshire, Shropshire, Southdown, Leicester or Oxford rams were used. Barbadoes sheep — This is a medium sized, fawn colored, woolless sheep with- out horns. Its habits are much like the SHEEP 577 goat. This sheep is raised extensively in Barbadoes and other parts of the West Indies for mutton. They are thought to be of African origin, though this is not known. Four ewes and a ram were imported by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1904, and are being tested to determine their adaptability to extreme southern con- ditions, where heavy fleeced sheep might suffer from the heat. These sheep weighed 75 to 80 pounds each, were de- cidedly leggy, with fairly deep bodies and well sprung ribs. Ears are large Perfect scale Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 Face, wrinkly; covered with soft, velvety coat 1 Forehead, broad, full 1 Ears, soft, thick, velvety 1 Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1 Forequarters: Shoulders, strong, being deep and broad 4 Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 1 Legs, straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and flne 2 Body: Chest, deep, full, indicating consti- tution 10 Back, level, long, round ribbed 4 Fig. 364 DORSET RAM LAMB and drooping and there is a tendency toward the Roman nose. The ram has a decided beard. JUDGING WOOL Professor Craig gives the following scale of points which may be used in scoring the wool breeds of sheep : SCALE OF POINTS FOR FINE WOOLED SHEEP. Perfect scale General appearance: Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square 8 Quality, clean, fine bone, silky hair; fine skin 6 Head and neck: Muzzle, fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white 1 Loin, wide, level 4 Flank, low, making underline straight 2 Hind quarters: Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 Rump, long, level, wide 4 Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 2 Wool: Kind — Domestic, clean and bright. Territory, dirty or discolored — Carpet. 1 Hairy or having dead Blanket | fibers — Class — Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or unsound — Delaine, fiber two or three inches in length — Combing, fiber over three inches in length and sound — Grade — Fine, medium or coarse — Quantity — Long, dense, even cover- ing, especially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs and belly 15 578 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Perfect scale Quality — Fine fiber, crimp close, regular, even quality including tops of folds 15 Condition — Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distribution of yolk, with even surface to fleece. 15 Total 100 JUDGING MUTTON BREEDS For judging mutton sheep, the follow- ing scale of points given by Professor Craig may be used: SCALE OF POINTS FOR MUTTON SHEEP — FOR WETHER. Perfect scale General appearance: Weight, score, according to age 8 Perfect Shoulder, covered with flesh, com- pact on top, smooth l Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide i Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore arm full; shank smooth and fine 1 Body: Chest, wide, deep, full, indicating . constitution 8 Back, broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs arched 10 Loin, thick, broad, long 10 Hind quarters: Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 Rump, long, level, wide to tail head 3 Thighs, full, deep, wide 3 Twist, plump, deep 3 Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 1 Fig. 365 — DORSET EWE Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish 10 Quality, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, yielding large percentage of meat 10 Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition or ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full low flank, plump breast 10 Head and neck: Muzzle, fine: mouth large, lips thin; nostrils large 1 Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 Face, short, clean cut features. ... 1 Forehead, broad, full 1 Ears, fine, erect 1 Neck, thick, short, throat free from folds 1 Fore quarters: Shoulder vein, full 1 Wool: Kind, domestic, territory, carpet or blanket — Class, clothing, delaine or combing. — Grade, fine, medium or coarse — Quantity, long, dense, even 4 Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4 Condition, bright, round, clean, soft, light 4 Total 100 SHEEP ON WEEDY AND BRUSH LANDS Sheep are the weed scavengers of the farm. No animal consumes so wide a range of forage, including all weeds, and even thistles, when young, as sheep. SHEEP 579 This gives them a special value for turn- ing upon stubble fields, and pastures badly infested with weeds which they will clean out in a season or two. They are also of considerable value in clearing out brush on new lands. Sheep can be made to live entirely on brush, but will not do their best under such conditions. If confined entirely to brush, they are apt to get poor and the lambs will not make the best growth. An all brush pasture seems to shorten the milk- supply of the ewes. If confined upon brush in sufficient quantities, the sheep will quickly destroy it, but it is not to be expected that sheep be bought at this time for $3.50 to $4.50 a head. Start with good sheep — The beginner should start with grade sheep, preferably fine wooled ewes, having a large per- centage of mutton type blood. It will not usually pay to start with full blooded ewes, since there are many things in sheep farming that must be learned by experience, and these lessons can be learned more economically with cheaper sheep. By starting with grade ewes and using pure blooded bucks, a flock can be built up within four or five years which will be practically pure bred. Pure bred ewes cost about $15 a head. Fig. 366 CHEVIOT RAM will get fat on this material. Better re- sults will be obtained if the sheep are browsed on brush up until the middle of July or while it is succulent or tender. After this the brush becomes dry and un- palatable, and the sheep should be turned upon other pastures. BEGINNING SHEEP FARMING The late summer, when pastures are short and it looks as though some fodder must be fed to the flock to keep them growing, is a good time to go into the sheep sections to buy up a flock of ewes. Ewes are usually cheaper then than at any other time of year. Good grade ewes, two to three years old, can usually In selecting the ewes, see that they have good udders and give promise of being good milkers. Ewes that have plenty of milk for their lambs and have a dense fleece for their own protection are the most profitable for lamb raising. If it is intended to grow sheep for both wool and mutton, select grades of good size that have a dense, compact fleece. A compact fleece insures better protection against storm and indicates a hardy animal, capable of withstanding exposure. The body should be well cov- ered all over with a close, even fleece. Look well to the denseness of the fleece on the belly, head and inside of the legs where it is likely to be thinnest. A 580 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK barefaced and barelegged sbeep is a light shearer, and even if the primary purpose is mutton, there is no reason why a good fleece should not be obtained at the same time. Three or 4 extra pounds of wool a head makes a difference in the profits worth striving for, when wool is bringing 25 to 30 cents a pound, as it now is. In selecting the ewes, soundness and vitality should be carefully considered. If sheep are thin and ragged looking, unless the cause of their condition be known beyond question, they should be passed by. When the sheep reach the home farm, it is a wise precaution to dip them im- mediately to kill all ticks which they fences, the bottom wires should be spaced from 2Y 2 to 3 inches apart and the top ones not more than 6 inches apart. Barbed wire, spaced 5 to 6 inches apart all the way up, makes a useless fence against sheep. They walk through it as easily as if the gates were open. No man should ever buy a flock of sheep until he has first put up suitable fences, else he will be continually in hot water from the day the sheep are brought to the farm until the fences are fixed. Fall care of the ewes — The care of the farm flock of ewes during late sum- mer and fall is simple. If they are given good pasture, pure water and ac- cess to salt, they will need little, if any further attention, except a daily visit Fig. 367 — CHEVIOT EWE LAMBS are likely to have on them, and again about 10 days later to effectually free them from this pest which would other- wise annoy them and keep them poor. Directions for dipping sheep are given in Part III. With the mutton type of sheep, no more than 200 should be main- tained in a single flock. The Merinos, Rambouillets and Black-faced Scotch sheep may be herded in bands of 1,000 or more. A flock of 50 to 100 is enough for the beginner, and is about the right number to carry with other stock on an eighty-acre farm. Fences — Under eastern conditions farm fences are necessary for sheep raising. These need not be more than Sy 2 to 4 feet high, but they must be made tight enough to prevent a lamb from creeping through. With wire to the pasture to see that all is going well. Frequently a sheep gets down on its back and cannot get up. Without assistance at this time, the sheep will die. This is quite a common occurrence with the heavier mutton breeds, espe- cially when they are fat. There is also danger from dogs, which sometimes chase the flock, lacerate and kill many of them. In a number of states, sheep raising is of minor impor- tance simply because of the number of dogs kept in the state. In some states, a dog tax is levied to reimburse sheep owners for sheep which have been killed by dogs, where the responsibility for the killing cannot be placed. A piece of fresh meat drawn across the fields and left with some strychnine in it, makes a warm trail, which the dog will generally SHEEP 581 follow and usually has the desired effect of eliminating some of the dogs. Sheep are not injured by a summer shower, but if cold drizzling rains set in, they should be brought up and herded in yards with access to open sheds, and fed hay until fair weather returns. Ewes in fair condition will require no grain at pasture at this time. If the grass be- comes short, owing to drought or over- stocking, other crops should be used to supplement the pasture. Green corn is to get in the crops at this season. On this account, it may be advisable, in many cases, to have the lambs come in March or April, when farm work is less pressing. In such cases, the ewes should be bred during October or November. Farther south, the ram is usually turned in with the ewes in August or September. Flushing ewes_Sheepmen like to have their ewes in good condition at breed- ing time and gaining a little in flesh. It is believed that more ewes will breed M4kt» &;#*>:*-^*,-~ Fig. 368 — BROADTAILED RAM (Courtesy of J. H. Barber) relished by sheep as well as pea and oat mixtures, rape, etc. Breeding the ewes — Under ordinary farm conditions in the northern states, the ewes should not be bred before De- cember. This would bring the lambing period in May, when the weather is warm and the grass is beginning to start. It is easier to care for the lambs at this time; there are less losses from chilling and the bite of green grass, available at this time, will insure the ewes a full supply of milk. May is, however, the month in which spring work usually begins, and there is a rush and that a larger number of lambs will be produced. The English have a method of feeding ewes at breeding time, which they call flushing. It is practiced for the purpose of securing twin lambs. For two or three weeks before breeding, the ewes are given an extra supply of nutritious, palatable food, so that they may be gaining in weight when breeding takes place. A little extra good pasture at this time and the addition to the ration of half a pound of some grain, like oats, mixed with a little oil meal — perhaps a tablespoonful 582 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK each daily — will put them in good gain- ing condition. Where sheep are being grown for mutton, twin lambs are very- desirable, as it has been shown that ewes can raise twin lambs without losing any more flesh than in nursing a single lamb. At the Wisconsin station, twin lambs nursing one mother gained as rapidly as when only one lamb was nursing. Un- der average western conditions, however, where sheep are raised in flocks of 2,000 or more, and less attention can be given to each ewe and her lambs, one lamb per ewe has been found more satisfac- tory than twins, as the ewe will often be satisfied if she has but one lamb with pure bred buck, one year old, will cost from $20 to $30, and a show buck consid- erably more. The general farmer, how- ever, does not want a show buck, but rather a strong, vigorous animal, strong- ly bearing the stamp of the breed to which he belongs. The breed markings are indications of good blood, and they should be unmistakably present. The buck is fully half the flock. The shep- herd depends upon him to build up and improve the flock. The money spent in a good buck soon repays itself. Selecting a buck— On the subject of selecting a buck, Professor Curtis of Iowa, states as follows: "In selecting Fig. 369 CHAMPION LEICESTER RAM AND EWE her, leaving the other to go hungry or die for want of attention. The buck and his management — The buck should be bought at least a month or two before he is needed for breeding, in order that he may become acquainted with his surroundings, and be in good condition for breeding. It is advisable to get him early in the season when the number to pick from is large. He should be a full blooded buck. A grade buck should never be used if a full blooded buck can be obtained, as the improvement in the flock with grade bucks will be less pronounced or even altogether wanting, since grade sheep usually lack the power of getting off- spring similar to themselves. A good a sire look urst at the head. If deficient there, look no further, but reject at once. Insist upon a head that faces you boldly with a wide face, clear prominent eyes, and a robust character throughout. The head should be joined to a well filled round, muscular neck, wide at the poll and back of the ears, and gradually en- larging in all lines with strong, full junction at the shoulders, as seen from top, sides, or bottom. This should be accompanied by a wide chest, a promi- nent, well filled brisket, and a full heart girth, giving straight, even lines from the shoulders back. A depression either in front of, or behind the shoulders, whether at the top, side, or bottom line, is an indication of weakness. The back SHEEP 583 should be strong, wide and well meated from shoulder point to tail, the hind- quarters should be full and well let down in the leg and flank in order to yield well of high-priced meat. The legs should be placed wide apart and stand straight; sickle-shaped hocks and weak, sloping pasterns afford sufficient reason for condemning an otherwise good sheep." He should have a good, compact fleece and be well wooled all over. One buck is required for every 30 to 50 ewes. The flock only at night when they are herded in the sheep fold. At the Wisconsin station, ewes bred early in the mating season to a single ram, dropped a larger percentage of lambs than when bred near the end of the season. When a yearling lamb was used at that station, the average increase in six years was 150 per cent. When two-year and three-year-old rams were used the average increase of lambs was 180 per cent. It is commonly held by sheepmen that a well grown, vigorous Pig. 370— YEARLING LINCOLN RAM (Courtesy of J. T. Gibson) amount of service required of the ram in breeding was found by the Wisconsin station to have a marked influence on the percentage increase in offspring, thus, the first 10 ewes bred gave an average increase in lambs of 171 per cent, while the fourth 10 bred gave an average increase of only 140 per cent, or a decrease of more than 30 per cent. As to the management of the buck, he is sometimes turned in with the flock at the breeding season and allowed to run with them day and night. The more careful breeders, however, keep the buck penned up and let him run with the yearling lamb is at its best as a sire. These data do not bear out that opin- ion, and they further show that in vigor the sire has an apparent influence on the percentage increase. During the breeding season the buck should have a pasture by himself and be fed in addition a grain ration of peas, oats, bran, etc. If he is kept up without pasture, he should have chaffed alfalfa or clover hay, and be given roots or si- lage and plenty of daily exercise. The latter is especially important and is best obtained by the pasturing method. It is not desired that either buck or ewe 584 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK should be fat, but they should be kept in a good healthy condition. Late fall and winter shelter for ewes • — Sheep require no shelter from the standpoint of warmth. In clear weather they can sleep out of doors the coldest night without suffering from cold. They do need shelter to protect them from the drizzling rains of late fall, from snow and from bleak winds. A well covered shed, closely boarded up with matched lumber so that winds do not blow and colds, snuffles, and other disorders follow. In case sheep are bred so that the lambs come in the winter, it will be necessary to have comfortable quart- ers so that the lambs do not become chilled before they are able to get up and suck the ewe. But with May lambing, no special provision for warm shelter need be made. Attached to the sheep shed, or adja- cent to it, should be a large, dry yard in which the sheep may take daily ex- Fig. 371 — CHAMPION LINCOLN EWE through the cracks causing drafts on the sheep, will suffice. This shed may be entirely open on the south, but it is better to have it arranged so that it can be closed up in case of a storm. The sheep door should be 8 to 12 feet wide to prevent crowding in going in and out, and should be made in two parts, so that the bottom half can be closed if desired to keep the sheep in. If the flock is left out in chilling rains and heavy snowstorms, the fleece becomes wet through, the sheep chilled ercise. It should have a sunny exposure and be protected from bleak, cold winds and driving storms. In clear weather, the sheep should be fed in the open yard. A common mistake, according to Professor Hays, of the Minnesota sta- tion, and one always attended with fatal consequences to the lamb, is to keep the ewes too warm in winter. Any crowd- ing of the ewes in the sheds sweats them so that they take cold when turned out. In one instance when sheep were thus confined, out of 50 lambs born in the SHEEP 585 spring, only six were strong enough to live in spite of the utmost care during lambing. The same ewes in the suc- ceeding seasons, when allowed more shed space and exposure to dry cold, made strong, healthy lambs. The keeping of breeding ewes in un- ventilated, basement barns, or in stables warm enough for dairy cows, is a mis- take always attended by losses in the lamb crop. About 10 square feet of floor space should be allowed to each sheep weigh- ing 100 pounds or 15 square feet to each sheep weighing 150 pounds. Racks for feeding_I n feeding the ewes from racks, a rack space of 18 to 24 inches should be allowed for each sheep, either for feeding grain or hay. sometimes create a panic. Some sheep- men make a habit of whistling or talk- ing to the sheep as they approach them unexpectedly. Whenever sheep are han- dled, gentleness and quietness should be insisted upon. This may prove of the utmost value at lambing time, when it may be necessary to give assistance to the ewes. A shepherd's crook should always be used in catching sheep at lambing or shearing time. Winter feeding breeding ewes — The ideal winter rations for breeding ewes ccnsist of well cured clover or alfalfa hay, with a small grain ration and some roots or silage in addition. Good mixed hays stand next in value, followed by well cured pea and oat hay mixtures. Well put up corn fodder, especially if Fig. 372 — cotswold ram and ewe Racks in which grain are fed, should be broad, shallow and flat, and 4 to 5 inches deep. The hay rack should be so arranged that chaff and dirt cannot fall down upon the backs of the sheep while feeding as the dirt works its way into the wool and decreases its selling price, 4 to 10 cents a pound. Handling ewes— I n the handling of ewes, and in fact, all sheep, it must be remembered that they are naturally timid and of a nervous disposition. And the highest success in sheep raising can- not be expected unless the breeder by his quiet manners and gentleness inspires confidence in them. A sudden distur- bance of any kind, like the bark of a dog, will startle the whole flock and fed with some of the more nitrogenous grains, makes an excellent roughage for sheep, and one which they relish. It proved superior in feeding value and cheaper at the Wisconsin station when fed with oats and bran than either oat straw or blue grass hay. The cost of the ration on corn fodder was 1 cent daily for each ewe. Following corn fodder in value came good prairie hay, cut oat straw, pea straw, barley straw, sorghum, etc. Grain rations — In addition to these coarse fodders, each ewe should be given a fourth to a half a pound of grain daily. If alfalfa, clover, or pea hay is used, less grain will be required. In fact, many feeders give no grain what- ever with these hays. It is advisable, 586 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK however, to feed a little bran or oil meal even with these hays, while with the more carbonaceous fodders, like corn- stalks, sorghum and prairie hay, nitrog- enous grains should always be fed. The ewes require rations that will supply nourishment to the developing foetus and the production of wool, rather than a fattening ration. It should, therefore, contain a liberal percentage of protein, and have a nutritive ratio of about 1 :4 or 1 :5. The grain ration should be made up preferably of wbole peas, oats, or bran or a mixture of these. At the Wisconsin station, a ration of one part corn, one part bran, and one part oats, with corn silage and hay as a roughage, proved entirely satisfactory for breeding ewes, giving as good results as whole oats, wheat bran or dried brew- cise. The aim of the successful herds- man is to secure vigorous, firm fleshed ewes, which are the result of liberal feeding and abundant exercise. Rela- tive to succulent foods, not more than about 3 pounds of either roots or silage should be fed daily before the lambing period. If fed in too liberal quantities, weak lambs are likely to result. After lambing, however, these succulent foods may be fed in unlimited quantities to stimulate the milk flow. The cost of wintering breeding ewes — The Iowa station carried on extensive experiments to determine the cost of wintering ewes of different breeds. They were wintered in a comfortable barn, where foo;l and water were handy. The cost per day a head was as follows: Merino, 1.3 cents; Cotswold, 1.35 cents; Fig. 373 — WELSH MOUNTAIN SHEEP ers' grains. The dried brewers' grains, however, were more effective for milk production, and also one of the cheap- est rations fed. The ewe should have some succulent food like silage or roots; corn silage proved as efficient and considerably cheaper for breeding ewes at the Wis- consin station than clover silage or sugar beets. Superior results were ob- tained when the ewes were fed */2 pound of grain each daily with 2*4 pounds of corn silage and 2 pounds of mixed hay. In a general way, the shepherd should regulate the quantity of food, accord- ing to the condition of the ewes. If they are poor and thin when going into win- ter quarters, they should be fed more heavily than otherwise. As the lambing time approaches, the grain ration should be increased, provid- ing the ewes have plenty of daily exer- Dorset, 1.21 cents; Oxford, 1.32 cents; Hampshire, 1.36 cents; Shropshire, 0.97 cent ; and Southdown, 0.6 cent. These data show the Southdowns, Shropshires and Merinos to be most easily kept. The ewes were given sufficient hay and grain to maintain them in good breeding con- dition. At the Mississippi station it cost 99 cents a head to winter sheep on cotton- seed meal and hulls for about four months. Period of pregnancy — The records of 524 ewes bred at the Wisconsin station, shows a period of pregnancy varying from 140 to 156 days. Seventy-seven per cent of the ewes dropped their lambs between the 144th and 150th days. The usual time is given as 21 weeks. The record shows that male and female lambs are carried about equal lengths of time. The proportion of males was 49.9 per SHEEP 587 cent and the females, 50.1 per cent. Large lambs are carried a little longer by ewes than medium or small sized lambs. Single lambs at birth are much larger than twins and twins larger than triplets. In records secured at the Missouri sta- tion, the size of the lamb at birth ap- pears to be influenced entirely by the size of the mother, large lambs being produced by heavy ewes and vice versa.' The size of the rams or breed appear to have no influence on the size of the lamb at birth. Male lambs at birth are usually a little larger than ewe lambs. The heavy lambs make more rapid gains for the first few weeks than lighter lambs. Vitality of lambs of different breeds — This varies considerably. At the Wis- consin station, Southdowns dropped 78 per cent of strong lambs; Shropshires, 59 per cent; Shropshire-Merinos, 73.4 per cent; Dorsets, 60 per cent. With the Shropshires, however, 19 per cent were triplets, which probably accounts in a measure for the number of weak lambs. The Shropshire Merino ewes gave 15 per cent of triplets. Milk yield of ewes — At the Wisconsin station, Oxfords yielded 3.1 pounds of milk a day; Southdowns, 1.9 pounds; Dorsets, 4.5 pounds; Grade Dorsets, 4 pounds, Shropshire and Grades, 3.5 pounds; Merinos, 1.9 pounds; Shrop- shire-Merinos, 2.5 pounds; the average of 14 ewes of all breeds was 2.8 pounds daily. The milk contained on the aver- age, 7 per cent of fat and 18.1 per cent of solids. Age and productiveness of ewes — The age of the ewe appears to have an influence on the number of lambs pro- duced. Thus two-year-old ewes at the Wisconsin station gave an average in- crease of 158 per cent; three-year-old ewes an increase of 174 per cent; four, five and six-year-old ewes, 178 per cent, while with seven-year-old ewes, the per- centage increase dropped again to 150 per cent. The older ewes at the station drop the larger proportion of ram lambs. Generally speaking, when ewes have reached an age of seven or eight years, they have passed their period of great- est usefulness and should be fattened for market. The increase secured with the differ- ent breeds was as follows : Shropshires, 169 per cent; cross-bred Dorset-Shrop- shires, 162 per cent; cross-bred Shrop- shire-Merinos, 153 per cent; Southdowns, 151 per cent. The average increase from all ewes in station flock for 12 years was 163 per cent. The increase secured in the flock noted above is for the mutton type of sheep under well managed conditions. The ordinary farm flock will not aver- age over 100 per cent increase, while under western range conditions an in- crease of about 80 per cent is considered a fair average. There is no reason, however, why every farmer should not secure an increase of at least 125 to 160 per cent in his flock annually. Expe- rience shows that in ordinary flocks about 4 per cent of the ewes are barren and about 3 per cent to 4 per cent more abort. Such ewes should be culled out of the flock immediately and be fat- tened for mutton. By careful attention to this matter, and the selection of stock for breeding, born from mothers which produced twin lambs, the annual in- crease in the flock can be greatly aug- mented. Feed of ewes after lambing — When ewes lamb before they en be turned out to pasture, they should be liberally fed on grain, hay and some succulent foods like roots or silage. Roots are preferable, but silage is the cheaper. About 2 pounds of good clover or al- falfa hay a day will be required for each ewe and 1 to 2 pounds of grain. The grain should be made up largely of oats, barley or bran with a little oil meal added. The oil meal is especially desirable if succulent foods are not available. For succulent foods 4 to 5 pounds of silage or 5 to 8 pounds of sliced roots may be given; such a ration will produce a heavy flow of milk. Ewes with twin lambs should receive heavier grain rations than ewes with a single lamb. The ewe should be turned out to pas- ture as soon as the grass gets a start and the grain rations gradually reduced, and finally omitted entirely, as the pas- ture becomes more abundant. Careful experiments at the Wisconsin station for a number of years in feeding lambs at pasture has shown that it is not profit- able to feed grain to the ewes at this time, as the lambs do not make any greater gain where the ewes are fed grain than where they are not. The ewes do not get quite so thin if grain 588 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK is given them, but this is not a matter of importance and the ewes quickly re- cover after weaning the lambs. English breeders rather prefer to have the ewes in a thin condition, so that when they commence the feeding preparatory to breeding, the ewes quickly respond and are gaining in weight when mating takes place. Shearing ewes_It is desirable that shearing be done after the ewes have dropped their lambs rather than before, since any rough handling or crowding of pregnant ewes may result in serious loss of lambs. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS Lambing — The lambing period is the most critical time in the life of the flock. At this time the shepherd should be in constant attendance day and night. is first sprinkled over the lamb. An- other practice which is more common among sheepmen is to remove the skin of the dead lamb and tie it onto the lamb which is to be adopted. Cow's milk for lambs—Sometimes the ewe dies in giving birth to her lamb, in which case it may be necessary to give the lamb to another ewe or to bring it up on cow's mill?. The milk should be fed whole and warm and preferably with a little sugar added. At first it should be fed 12 to 15 times daily, at the end . of the week, five to six times daily and within two or three weeks, three times daily will suffice. The milk may be fed from a bottle, using a rub- ber nipple. Reviving chilled lambs — Should a lamb become chilled it can often be resuscitated by putting it into a pail of water as hot as it can stand. It should Fig. 374 LAMBS IN MAY If the lambing season occurs in cold winter, the lambs may become chilled before they are able to suck. If twins are produced, the ewe may give atten- tion to only the stronger one. The shep- herd should see that the weaker one gets its full supply of nourishment. If the young lamb is unable to suckle with- in a few minutes after birth it should have help, and it is often necessary to hold the ewe for this purpose. Some- times the ewe refuses to own her lamb. She can usually be made to do so by shutting her up in an individual pen, with only the lamb for company and out of sight of the other sheep. It may be necessary to hold her for a few days for the lamb to suck. Should a ewe lose her lamb, one may be taken from an- other ewe which has produced twins or triplets and given to her. The ewe is sometimes more easily induced to own the strange lamb if some of her milk be covered entirely with water, leaving only the nose exposed. When the water becomes cool, more warm water should be added. It may be necessary to warm the water two or three times if the lamb is chilled, after which the lamb should be rubbed dry with a towel and fed with warm milk heated to 100° F. In severe cases it may be desirable to give a couple of drops of whiskey or brandy, diluted with a teaspoonful of water, be- fore the lamb is given milk. It can usually be put in the flock within an hour or two and requires no furthpt attention. Docking, castrating and dipping lambs — Lambs should be docked and the males castrated when they are two to six weeks old. The tail may be cut off with a good, sharp jack-knife, leaving a stub of about 2 inches. With show sheep a neater job can be done by pull- ing up the skin of the tail toward the SHEEP 589 body and then cutting off with a chisel on a block. The loose skin falls back over the cut stub and heals over neatly. The tail of the sheep is a useless ap- pendage, difficult to shear and likely to get besmeared and unsightly in time of diarrhea. All males should be castrat- ed except those kept for breeding pur- poses. Details for castrating lambs are given in Part III. With farm flocks, docking and cas- trating the lambs are done when the ewes are sheared. Under northwestern range conditions this is a separate oper- ation, usually done before shearing the ewes. About 10 days after shearing, the whole flock, including the lambs, should be dipped to free them from ticks. Most of the ticks will have left the shorn ewes by this time and be on the lambs. If not dipped, the ticks will annoy the lambs all summer and hin- der their growth. Details for dipping are given in Part III, under sheep dis- eases. Feeding young lambs — To secure a rapid, strong vigorous growth in lambs, they should be fed a small amount of grain in addition to the milk of the ewe. They learn to eat when two or three weeks old, and should have a pen or lamb creep by themselves. A pen can easily be arranged with openings into it wide enough for the lambs, but too narrow for the ewes. The pens should be arranged with racks and troughs into which grain, minced roots, and a fine quality of hay may be put. The best grains for feeding at this time are ground corn, whole oats, linseed meal and bran. A little salt sprinkled on the grain in the trough will aid in teaching them to eat. They will learn to eat hay almost as soon as they do grain. If only a little grain is fed each time and the remainder taken away after feeding, they will soon look forward eagerly to feeding time. When lambs are about eight weeks old, 100 will eat about 17 pounds of grain daily; at 10 weeks of age 25 pounds, and at 12 weeks 50 pounds or % pound each daily. Many sheepmen feed no grain whatever, but it is desirable in the case of breed- ing stock or show animals, or if the lambs are to be sold on an early fall market. Weaning lambs — Lambs are usually allowed to run with the ewes from three to four months. At the end of four months at least they should be weaned both for their own sake and that of the ewe. At weaning time, the lambs should be separated entirely from the ewes, and the two kept so far apart that the ewes cannot hear the bleating of the lambs. If the lambs have been taught to eat grain and can be placed on a good, fresh pasture of clover, they will suffer prac- tically no loss of gain at weaning time. The ewes at this time should be kept on short pasture to dry up the milk. Each day they should be carefully observed, and if the tidders become too full, should be milked out by hand. This, however, will seldom be necessary. Feeding lambs at pasture — I n order to avoid stomach worms, lambs should be given fresh pasture rather than turned into old sheep pastures. This matter is discussed more in detail under the Diseases of Sheep in Part III. While the feeding of grain to ewes at pasture has not been found profitable, the result of five years' tests at the Wis- consin station in feeding lambs grain at pasture, shows that grain at this time is very desirable and more profitable re- sults are secured with than without grains. The station experiments show further that it is not profitable to feed lambs at pasture more than about V2 pound of grain daily per head. On good clover, alfalfa or rape pasture, even this amount of grain may be les- sened. The profit in feeding grains comes from the higher price that the mutton from the grain fed lambs brings in the market, and the fact that the lambs are always ready for market. Ad- vantage can therefore be taken imme- diately of any rise in price to market the lambs. If such lambs are wanted for winter fattening, Wisconsin station experiments have shown that the grain fed lambs fatten just as rapidly as lambs that have never received grain and weigh as much four to seven weeks from the end of the fattening period as grass lambs do at the end. Grains for lambs before and after weaning — A very careful study has been made at the Wisconsin station to deter- mine the kind of grain that is best suit- ed for lambs, both before and after weaning. For this purpose the station has fed corn, whole oats, bran, cracked peas, corn and oats, and corn and peas. Estimating corn at 30 cents a bushel, oats at 20, peas at 45 and bran at $13 590 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK a ton, the cheapest gains in every test, either before weaning or after weaning have been made on ground corn._ This is especially true of all the experiments before weaning. Just as good or even better gains have been made before weaning on coarsely cracked peas, and the lambs appeared to relish peas more, especially as they grew older. But the cheapest gains have been made on corn. Next in cheap- ness to corn is bran, but this feed has never given very good results when fed to very young animals. It seems to be too bulky and not easy of digestion. With older lambs it is entirely satisfac- tory. In feeding a ration consisting wholly of ground corn, greater watch- fulness has been found necessary, as there is more likelihood of sickness among the lambs than when a mixed ration was fed. The addition to the corn of oats or peas has made a ration which the lambs seem to relish, but aside from this the mixture had no appre- ciable benefit, while it regularly in- creased the cost. Oats and peas were about equally valuable and the gains on these feeds were about equal to those made on corn, either before or after weaning, but they were more expensive rations. Coarsely ground feeds seem to be much more relished by the lambs than finely ground. Winter care of the breeding lambs — Ewe lambs that are to constitute the breeding flock should be fed liberally during the winter months. The aim is to get as much growth as possible dur- ing the first nine or 10 months of the life of the lamb. Craig states that "the growth and development of the lamb the first year of its life determines very largely the size, weight of the fleece and the vigor and power it will attain. In every case the better the lambs are cared for the first year, the more satis- factory they will prove as breeders in the flock." Fully as good attention should be given to the buck lambs. By the system of farming here described, it will be seen that the ewe lambs born in May or June are wintered over and not used for breeding purposes until the following fall, when they are about a year and a half old. Some breeds of sheep, more especially the Hampshires, may be safely bred when a year old without injury, but as a general thing, a better flock can be built up and maintained if the ewe lambs are not bred until 16 to 18 months old. Water and salt — Sheep require a sup- ply of pure, fresh water. Owing to the danger from stomach worms they should never be required to drink stagnant wa- ter. In very wet weather or when there are heavy dews, or when succulent feeds are given, water may not be necessary, but it is wise to plan liberally for a daily supply of pure water, allowing from 1 to 6 quarts a head for each sheep. At the Montana station in some winter fattening experiments, lambs allowed access to fresh water gained over 2 pounds each a month more and made gains a cent a pound cheaper than lambs fed the same food, but allowed water only once a day. On the arid ranges of the Southwest sheep, when grazing on certain succulent plants, like singed cacti, sometimes go 60 days or more without water. In the northwestern states sheep are watered once, twice or three times a day, or more rarely every other day. In a test at the Colorado station, cold water proved as satisfactory in fattening ex- periments" as warm water. Salt is essential for sheep and should be fed at regular intervals. Rock salt, in lump form left where the sheep can get at it at will, is a very satisfactory method of feeding it. With sheep at pasture, many shepherds make a prac- tice of salting once a week with coarse barrel salt. When it is desired to clean out a batch of Canada thistles the salt may be thrown on the wet plants and the sheep will usually keep them well grazed down. In some French experiments recently reported, three lots of sheep were fed like rations except that one lot was given no salt, another lot a /2 ounce daily each, and the third lot % ounce daily. The lot fed \'-2. ounce gained 4Vo pounds more than the lot fed no salt, and 1.2 pounds more than the lot fed 3 /4 of an ounce. The sheep fed the salt also produced l 1 /! pounds more wool than those not fed the salt. On the western ranges some sheep raisers never salt their sheep, but allow them to eat alkali. The belief is gain- ing ground, however, that salt is better than alkali and that salted sheep are less likely to become locoed. When the alkali contains as much as 80 per cent of salt it is then quite safe for sheep. SHEEP 591 FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS ON FALL PASTURE Lambs that come in May and June may, with liberal feeding, both before and after weaning, be made to weigh 90 to 100 pounds by the last of November, if given good pasture, with grain. At the Iowa station, on good blue grass pas- ture, lambs without grain made an aver- age daily gain of 0.4 pound a head at a cost of but 2.12 cents a pound of gain. When corn was fed in addition to the blue grass pasture, the daily gain was 0.46 pound a head; on oats and pasture the gains were 0.42 pound daily; on bar- ley and pasture, 0.39 pound daily a head. From these data it is seen that sheep may make practically as large gains on grass alone as on grain and grass. The lambs in this experiment, however, were a year old. At the Minnesota station, wethers fed a small grain ration, while on good pas- ture made 60 per cent better gains for 112 days than wethers without grain. On the partially dried up grass pas- tures that had not been cut or pastured during the summer, sheep at the South Dakota station of mixed ages made only one-third to one-fourth as heavy gains as when grain was fed in addition. In this test, there was considerable rain, which probably decreased the gain on grass alone. Rye seeded in August makes a fairly good pasture for lambs in the fall, and if not cropped too closely will furnish ex- cellent early pasture the following spring. Blue grass pasture is available for fattening lambs after the rains start it into growth in the fall and is excellent for this purpose. Clover i n many states makes one of the best fall pastures for lambs. Where it is cut in late June or early July the second crop or aftermath will be avail- able in September. If the lambs are turned upon the field late in the after- •noon when the clover is dry, being first well filled upon blue grass or other for- age, there will be no danger from bloat. The lambs may be pastured on the clover continuously. They should not be per- mitted to pasture too closely, however, or the roots may be exposed and the plants winterkill. In an experiment carried ori at Wo- burn, England, sheep on clover pasture alone gave an increase of 264 pounds an acre. When 680 pounds of undecorticated cottonseed cake was fed in addition to the pasturage, the average increase per acre was 376.5 pounds ; when 728 pounds of corn meal was fed, the average in- crease was 377 pounds to the acre. These data show that the rate of gain was in- creased about 42 per cent by the use of grain with pasture. Clover is especially valuable for lambs because it is rich in protein, is greatly relished by them and puts them in good condition for fattening on grain. Alfalfa for pasture—Alfalfa is used extensively as a pasture for lambs and sheep, but is not quite so safe as clover, as there is greater danger from bloat. A few sheep are practically certain to be lost on alfalfa pasture, but the dan- ger can be gradually overcome and the loss reduced to at least 5 per cent by the careful observation of certain pre- cautions. These are stated by the Colo- rado station as follows: "The field should be large enough to supply them with an abundance of food with but lit- tle effort, they should be left in the field night and day and not removed when the field is irrigated. Keep water and salt within their reach all the time and provide shelter from the sun. The sheep should be well filled up with some other food and not thirsty when turned upon the alfalfa. Old sheep are much more liable to bloat on alfalfa than lambs." Alfalfa, like clover, is rich in protein, and the plant is greatly relished by lambs and they make good gains on it. Corn or other grain should be fed with the alfalfa to secure the largest gain in the proportion of *<£ to iy 2 pounds a day. Whether grain should be fed or not, depends upon the price of grain and whether the lambs are to be fed in the fall, or fattened during the winter. If fattened during the winter, the grain ra- tion at pasture may be very light or omitted altogether. Ordinarily the lambs should be made to make most of their gain on the cheap alfalfa pas- ture, rather than the more expensive grains. Rape for pasture—Within recent years, Dwarf Essex rape has grown in favor and importance as a full pasture crop for fattening sheep, particularly in the northern states and Canada. The crop has been very successfully grown as far south as Louisiana, Texas and Alabama. Good results have also been 592 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK reported in its use as a summer soil- ing crop for breeding ewes. When the crop is seeded in May it is ready for the first cutting in about two months, and two more cuttings can be obtained by snowfall, yielding in all about 30 tons of green forage to the acre. It is exceptionally good as a fall pasture crop for fattening lambs. It is best if fed in the early fall. Lambs are very fond of it, and the crop withstands early frosts better than most succulent fodders. In some English experiments, sheep pastured on rape six weeks made an average gain of 2 pounds a head weekly. In extensive trials with this crop at the Ontario Experimental farm in Canada, an acre of rape sustained 12 lambs for two months, and had a feeding value of $16.80. In another trial, 60 lambs were pastured on 2.2 acres of rape for 25 days without other food, during which time they increased in weight 390 pounds, making a weekly average increase a head of 1.8 pounds. Again, six lambs were pastured 42 days on one- sixth of an acre, from which it is cal- culated that one acre would pasture 36 lambs two months, and make 762 pounds of gain. As a fall pasture crop for fat- tening lambs at the Wisconsin station, the average results show a weekly gain of 2V 2 pounds a head. In this case about 1 pound of grain was fed in ad- dition to each sheep. In a comparison at that station be- tween blue grass pasture and rape pas- ture, two lots of 48 lambs each were fed the same amount of grain and one lot pastured on blue grass and the other on rape. In four weeks the rape fed lot had gained 501 pounds and the lot pastured on blue grass but 325 pounds. The lambs were then put up for the winter and fed like grain and hay ra- tions. In 12 weeks the rape pastured lambs had gained 952 pounds, and the lot pastured on blue grass 858 pounds, thus giving evidence of the value of rape in preparing lambs for winter feed- ing. Extensive experiments have also been reported from the Michigan station on the use of rape for fall pasturing lambs. In one experiment, 125 grade Shrop- shires were fall pastured for five weeks on 15 acres of rape and made an average weekly gain of 3 pounds a head. Rape fed lambs at this station have inva- riably been in better condition in No- vember than grass fed lambs, and in comparison have made practically as good gains in winter grain feeding. That station states that as a rule lambs may be pastured on rape in that latitude from September 15 to November 15 in the proportion of 15 to 20 lambs to the acre and gain 20 pounds each. It is advised that lambs never be put on rape without first pasturing them a few hours on grass or giving them a feed of hay and grain. The flock should be ac- customed to the rape gradually and in the beginning should not be left on more than two hours at a time, otherwise they are liable to bloat and some of them be lost. After five or six days they may be left on all the time, but must be care- fully watched and if signs of bloat ap- pear should be promptly driven from the field. It is much safer if some other pasture is fed in connection with the rape. Be- fore turning the lambs on the rape they should be docked and trimmed, as the rape has a loosening effect. Ideal con- ditions are supplied when the blue grass pasture is adjacent to the rape. Bloat on rape — Should bloat occur, a tablespoonful of spirits of ammonia given in a half pint of warm water will usually relieve the first stages; if the lamb is down and the stomach greatly extended it should be punctured at the point of greatest swelling on the left side with a trocar and canula or with a knife. The advantage of feeding pasture with rape is well brought out in experiments in the Ontario station, in which 15 lambs pastured on an acre of rape alone for 58 days, gained 23 pounds a head, while 15 other lambs during the same pe- riod on both rape and grass pasture gained 28 pounds a head, a gain of more than 20 per cent for the grass and rape pasture. When oats were fed with rape, at the same station, at the rate of i/2 pound a head daily, the gain of 15 wethers pastured 58 days on an acre of rape was about 24 pounds a head, or a weekly increase of 2.8 pounds each. The experimental result noted above with rape shows quite conclusively that this is one of the most valuable of all the pasture crops we have, being on the whole superior to either alfalfa or clo- ver, from the standpoint of palatability and gains made. On the other hand, it SHEEP 593 is an annual, while alfalfa does not re- quire reseeding for a number of years. Peas for pasture — Field peas are be- ing extensively grown in many of the northern and western mountain states as a fall pasture for sheep. The use of this crop has grown into a great industry in the San Luis valley in Colorado. It is estimated that in 1904, fully 200,000 sheep were made ready for market in this valley by pasturing on peas. The peas are sown at the rate of 40 to 50 pounds to the acre along with a small quantity of barley or oats, which are used chiefly to furnish a support for the pea crop. Sheep and lambs are turned in to graze upon the crop as soon as it is ripe. They thus get both grain and forage. It requires from 70 to 90 days to put the lambs in fine condition for market and a little longer period for ewes or older sheep. Lambs make an increase of about 8 pounds a head monthly while grazing off the peas and an acre will fatten 10 to 15 lambs. On this basis, estimating the increase in gain at 4 a /2 cents a pound, an acre of peas has a value of about $13 for mutton production, and the sheep do their own harvesting. Better results are secured where the lambs are hurdled on small areas at a time, rather than al- lowed to roam over the entire area. This calls for movable fences. There is no danger from bloat on this crop. The peas being rich in protein are well suited to produce growth in lambs. The crop at the same time greatly improves the fertility of the land. One hundred lambs pastured on field peas seven weeks at the Colorado station, when fit for harvesting, gained on the average 17 pounds each. In Colorado, ideal conditions are fur- nished for this sort of fall grazing be- cause of the long, dry, sunshiny season at this time. Throughout the northern states it will probably be advisable to put on a larger number of sheep to pasture off the peas more rapidly so that they will be all harvested before fall rains set in ; otherwise, the trampling of the sheep on heavy, clay soil would be likely to work considerable damage. There is no reason, however, why this practice of fattening lambs for market on peas should not be widely extended through- out the North. It has proved a great boon for farmers throughout the San Luis valley, where many have become independently rich by fitting lambs for market on field peas. Tagging sheep and trimming hoofs — Sheep at pasture are likely to have loose bowels and get besmeared behind; the feces adhering to the wool. Tags thus formed should be kept trimmed off. Likewise, when sheep run on soft ground, the toes may grow long or turn up, caus- ing lameness. They require paring down from time to time with a sharp knife. On gravelly ground the hoofs are kept worn down without paring. FATTENING SHEEP IN WINTER About half the lambs in the home flock each year are males and will ordi- narily be marketed as mutton. The ewe lambs will be reserved for the most part to replace the older sheep in the flock for breeding purposes. Sheep never make such rapid gains as when they are growing as lambs. And the common method throughout the eastern and northern states is to graze the lambs on pasture till fall and then put them up for winter and feed them for two or three months on grain, hay, silage or roots, marketing them when they are from nine to 12 months old. It is desirable to ship to market in carload lots, since it is much less expen- sive proportionately for freight to ship in this manner than to send only a few sheep. Therefore if the home flock does not supply enough lambs for winter feeding, it may be advisable to buy lambs to put with them. These can usually be obtained in the fall at a weight of 50 to 60 pounds for $2.50 to $2.75 a head. Western lambs can also be pur- chased in any of the large stock mar- kets through commission men. What- ever the source of lambs, whether home grown or purchased, they should be dipped twice about 10 days apart to rid them of ticks before putting them on fattening rations. Shearing before fattening — There has been considerable discussion as to the desirability of shearing sheep before or during the fattening period with the purpose in view of securing more rapid gains. This matter was tested experi- mentally at the Wisconsin station, and it was found that where the lambs were shorn early in the season, about October, they made more rapid gains for the next six or seven weeks or until the wool had 594 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK reached the length of 1 or 2 inches, and at a slightly cheaper rate than unshorn lambs. When, however, the fattening period extended over a period of three or four months, there appeared to be no practical advantage whatever in fall shearing. The unshorn lambs made as good gains in the long run as the shorn lambs and the increased length of the wool fiber counterbalanced in value the slightly greater weight of wool from the lambs sheared both in the fall and in the spring. In experiments at the South Dakota station, lambs that had been fed 16 weeks and were ripe for market were shorn and fed heavily four weeks longer. Practically no return whatever was ob- tained for the grain fed and conse- quently all the food, labor and risk in- volved in keeping the sheep during this extra period was a total loss. There seems to be nothing gained from taking off the fleece after the sheep have reached ripeness and are ready for mar- ket, from the standpoint of securing further gains. When the sheep were sheared earlier in the season, greater gains were made during two years' ex- periments than were made by unshorn lambs. The Michigan station also reports an experiment in which lambs were fed for 13 weeks, then sheared and kept in a warm barn for three weeks longer. In this case they made slightly increased gains. In another test, however, when they were sheared in December and fed until the latter part of February, they suffered considerably from cold, required more feed to make a pound of gain and made less total gains than unshorn lambs. The conclusions from these experi- ments seem to be that, under ordinary conditions, it is not advisable to shear lambs with the expectation of securing an increased profit on the greater gains they will make. If lambs are shorn, they should be shorn as early in the season as October, rather than later when they suffer from the cold of winter. Sheltsr for fattening sheep — Sheep can be successfully fattened out of doors without shelter, but more economical and rapid gains are made when shelter from rain and snow is provided. Under western conditions, where sheep are fed in large feeding lots by the thousands, for only a limited period, they are fed out of doors, the cost of putting up the sheds being more expensive than any slight increase in gain the sheep might make. Another question which is frequently asked is whether it is advisable to keep fattening sheep closely confined in pens or to allow them to run in yards part of the time for exercise. The reports on this phase of the question are conflict- ing. In two tests at the Wisconsin sta- tion, exercise gave the best results in one instance and confinement in the other. In fattening hothouse lambs for market, one of the largest feeders in the West states that the lambs are kept confined entirely after they go into winter quarters. Satisfactory conditions will be found in the use of open sheds with compara- tively small yards for exercise. The pens or sheds may be cheap structures with earth floors, and a little litter sprinkled over each day to keep the pens clean. Where succulent foods like sugar beet pulp are fed, good drainage about the yard should be had so they can be kept dry, clean and comfortable. Self-feed for fattening sheep — By self-feed is meant an arrangement by which sheep can supply themselves with grain at any time. It is a convenient way to feed grain to sheep, since all that is required is to see that the feed is sup- plied with grain at all times. At the Michigan station, lambs fat- tened with a self-feed made an average weekly gain of 1.87 pounds a head, and required 9.57 pounds of dry feed to pro- duce a pound of gain. Other lambs fed the same rations under like conditions, but at regular intervals, according to the usual practice, gained 2.28 pounds a head a week and required but 6.97 pounds of dry feed for I pound of gain. The Minnesota station reports like re- sults. The difficulty with the self-feed seems to be that the feed is nosed over and be- comes stale and as such is not relished to as great an extent as fresh feed. The results show that while lambs can be successfully fattened with a self-feed, it is more expensive and smaller gains are made than when they are fed at regu- lar intervals. By the latter method, also, closer attention can be given to the variations of the appetites of the lambs than the self-feed permits. SHEEP 595 Feeding qualities of lambs — There is a marked difference in the feeding qual- ities of lambs. All the larger mutton breeds and crosses eat more, mature faster, and are ready for market earlier than the fine wool Merino type. In buying lambs for feeding, preference should be given to grades which show signs of mutton blood. Many of the mutton breeds have a black nose, a mark generally transmitted to the crosses. "Well bred lambs of any breed when well fed and cared for grow more rapidly and make cheaper gains than scrub stock given indifferent care. This is well shown in experiments re- ported by the Wisconsin station, in which the influence of breeding on the feeding qualities of the lamb was in- vestigated. Shropshire grade lambs, which had been grown under indifferent management, were fed in comparison with the average wether lambs of the station flocks which had been carefully reared and well sired. Both lots were given all the corn fodder they would eat and a mixture of equal parts corn and peas. The scrub lambs made an average weekly gain of 2.3 pounds a head, while the well bred lambs gained 3.6 pounds a head. The cost of gain with the scrub lambs was at the rate of $4.58 a hundred pounds, and the net profits 65 cents a head. With the well bred lambs the cost of gain was $4.08 a hundred pounds and the profit $1.13 a head. The sire was in a large measure responsible for this greater gain and profit on the well bred lambs. There is a marked difference also in the feeding qualities of different types of sheep, thus at the Iowa station, sev- eral of the pure mutton breed required 8.5 pounds of dry matter, costing 2.96 cents on the average to produce a pound of mutton. The gain with these pure bred sheep on the average was 0.53 pound a head a day. With 443 range lambs, mostly of the Merino type, fed 108 days, it required on the average 10.45 pounds of dry matter to produce 1 pound of gain, and the gain a day was but 0.24 pound a head, or only about half as rapid a gain as that made by the mutton breed. In Minnesota, also, Merino grade lambs, made poorer and more costly gains than Shropshire, Oxford, or Cots- wold grade lambs. Lambs vs. yearlings, wethers and old sheep— Sheep, like all other animals, make gains more rapidly and cheaply while young and growing. A consider- able amount of data has been secured on the economy of gain on these differ- ent classes of sheep which illustrates this point. At the Montana station, a comparison was made between lambs and wethers. They were fed for 95 days on clover and grain. The lambs in the experiment made an average gain of 25 pounds each, at a cost of $1.13 ; the wethers during the same period gained 25.6 pounds at a cost of $1.43. The dressed weight of the lambs was 54.8 per cent of their live weight, while that of the wethers was 52.5 of the live weight. From 12 hours fast the lambs shrank 1.6 per cent and the wethers, 3 per cent. In shipping the lambs from Montana to Chicago, the average shrinkage was 8.3 per cent for the lambs and 7.8 per cent for the wethers. The Iowa station also made a compari- son between lambs and yearlings. Shrop- shires were used in both cases. The lambs required on the average 7.18 pounds of dry matter for a pound of gain at a cost of 2.88 cents. The year- lings required 11 pounds of dry matter for a pound of gain at a cost of 4.44 cents. The lambs also gained much more rapidly than the yearlings, the average being 0.48 pound a day for the lambs, and 0.33 pound a day for the yearlings. On the whole it cost 56 per cent more to produce gain with year- lings than with lambs of the same breed. As a rule lam 1 s always make more rapid gains on smaller amounts of food for a pound of gain than older sheep. The meat also sells for a higher price in the market. It is necessary to buy year- lings and older sheep at a considerably smaller price a hundred pounds if they are to be fed at a proportionate profit. Both the Missouri and Colorado stations have shown that large lambs of the same age make more rapid gains than small lambs. In tests reported by the Colorado sta- tion, Mexican lambs were fed at a greater net profit than Mexican year- lings, grade Merino lambs or grade Merino yearlings, whether figured on the amount of money invested or the amount of hay fed. Lambs in these ex- periments shrank less in shipping to Chicago and in dressed weight than yearlings. 596 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK The Montana station in experiment- ing with the feeding qualities of lambs and wethers found that owing to the growthy tendency of lambs their ration must possess more fat producing mate- rial than that of mature sheep. When grain is not available the pure wethers will fatten more rapidly than lambs on clover or alfalfa alone. Lambs in one test made 37.7 per cent gains on their first weight; yearlings, 24.7 per cent; two-year wethers, 20.9 per cent; and ewes, 17 per cent gains on their first weight, during the same feeding period. The lambs required 10 pounds of air- dried food to a pound of gain, the one- year wethers, 16.6; two-year wethers, 17 pounds; and the ewes, 17.5 pounds to a pound of gain. The lambs and wethers shrank about 8.7 per cent of their weight when shipped 1,400 miles on full feed. The ewes shrank 11.3 per cent. There was a profit in feeding the lambs of $1.73 a head; of the one-year wethers, $1.40 a head; of the two-year wethers, $1.70; and of the aged ewes, 1.8 cents a head. Wethers vs. bucks for fattening — In. feeding experiments, Prof. H. W. Mum- ford found that on the average, wethers in 60 days gained 2.25 per cent in live weight and 4 per cent in dressed weight more than bucks of the same age. This difference is slight and not likely to be constant. Locoed sheep — Frequently under west- ern conditions sheep eat plants known as loco weed, mostly species of astragalus. This has the effect of making them act in a drunken manner, difficult to man- age, and undesirable feeders. Such sheep are known as locoed sheep. At the Montana station a band of 29 locoed sheep were fed 123 days and gained as rapidly and made as economical gains as a band of healthy wethers. Putting sheep on fattening rations — Lambs that have received grain at pas- ture are easily put on fattening rations when shut up in the feeding yards. Be- ginning with about }4 pound of grain daily, or perhaps more if the lambs have been receiving larger rations than this while at pasture, the amount may be gradually increased at the rate of about J /4 pound a week until the end of the fourth week when they may be getting 1V± pounds of grain a head daily. At the end of the eighth week, they should be getting l 1 /^ to 2 pounds a head daily. It will seldom be advisable to feed more at any time during the feeding experi- ment than 2 pounds a head. In very cold weather, the amount of grain fed can be slightly increased, de- creasing again when a warm spell sets in. The bulk of the lambs put in the fat- tening pens have never been fed grain and do not know what it is. With such lambs not more than one-tenth to one- sixth pound of grain should be fed daily a head in the beginning of the fattening period. This amount may be slowly in- creased to about 1 pound of grain in four to six weeks and this grain gradually in- creased until they are receiving as much at the end of eight to 12 weeks as lambs fed grain at pasture. The shepherd watches the feeding of each lamb daily and so regulates the amount that they are always ready for their feed and their appetites never cloy. Should they lose their appetites by over feeding it may require six weeks or more to get them back on feed again, during which time they will have gained nothing or actually lost in weight to the great loss of the feeder. Fattening rations_For fattening lambs or for older sheep that have made their growth, a ration having a nutri- tive ratio of 1 :6 or 1 :8 is best. What- ever the nutritive ratio either for lambs or sheep, the ration compounded should be palatable. Rations the sheep eat with relish are most effective in producing gains whatever the nutritive ratio. The character of the grain fed will depend in large measure on the kind of rough- age available. With clover, alfalfa, cow- pea, or other leguminous hays or rough- age rich in protein, no single grain either for lambs or older sheep will be found superior to corn for fattening purposes. On the average, it takes about 500 pounds of corn and 400 pounds of leguminous hay to produce 100 pounds of gain. The amount of grain to feed in the ration will depend upon the price of the grain, and the rapidity of gain desired. When grain is high and rapid gain not a matter of importance, less grain may be fed and the roughage increased proportionately. Generally speaking, the more gain that can be made on cheap roughage, the greater will the profits be. Many feeders never give over 1 pound of corn a head daily, when feeding such material as good alfalfa or clover hay. SHEEP 597 Amount lambs eat daily — Fattening lambs eight to 10 months old will eat from 1.5 to 3 pounds of hay daily in ad- dition to 1.5 to 2 pounds of grain and 1 to 2 pounds of sliced roots or silage. In feeding roughage to sheep it must be remembered that they are dainty feeders and do not eat everything up closely. It is advisable to feed them more roughage than is required, allowing them to pick out what they want and then clean out the racks between each feeding, giving what remains to cattle or horses. Balancing up the roughage with grain — If the only roughage available is corn stalks, millet, hay, oat straw, timothy, sorghum or cereal hays, it will be necessary to balance up the ration with some grain or mill product richer in protein than corn. Otherwise the ration will be too wide for growing sheep and not satisfactory for mature sheep. Coarsely cracked field peas or ground soy beans are excellent for this purpose and may be mixed with corn, barley, screen- ings, millet seeds, oats or other more starchy grains in the proportion of one part peas or soy beans to three or four parts other grains. Among the mill feeds which are ex- ceedingly valuable for balancing up the rations, are cottonseed meal, linseed meal, or the gluten feeds. These should be used in the proportion of about one part to four to eight parts of corn or other grain. Bran and middlings are also excellent and they may constitute as much as one-fourth to one-third of the grain ration by weight with economy and profit. The higher the price of the other grains like corn, the more desirable will it be to use some of the more concen- trated feeds like the oil meal for balan- cing up the ration. Order of feeding rations — Fattening sheep are fed usually two or three times a day. Under ordinary conditions twice a day is sufficient, once in the morning at daylight, and again late in the after- noon. It is a rule among sheepmen never to waken the flock to feed them in the morning. In feeding, the grain ration is usually given first, followed by the hay and later in the day by silage or roots if these feeds are available. In the afternoon, grain is again given fol- lowed by hay. Where sheep are watered by hand this is usually done in the morn- ing alter they have been fed hay. If silage or roots are given, watering is done after these are given. If fresh water is available at all times so much the better, otherwise, one watering is sufficient. Gentleness and quietness is essential in the fattening pen. No stranger or dog should ever be allowed in the pens if it can be prevented. Sheep are easily frightened and the fright manifests itself in shrinkage and loss. The slamming of doors or other needless noise should be avoided. Time required to fatten lambs — With lambs that have never received grain at pasture it requires from 12 to 15 weeks' feeding to fit them for market. With palatable, well balanced rations and un- der good conditions, lambs should gain on the average about Vi pound a day, or from 25 to 30 pounds in 14 to 16 weeks. It requires on the average 8 to 9 pounds of dry matter to produce a pound of gain with lambs and from 30 to 40 per cent more than this with older sheep. Way the fat is laid on — Sheep put on fattening rations begin to show the in- fluence of feed at the end of the third or fourth week. During this time they seem to be simply getting into good con- dition to put on flesh, though it ap- pears that some flesh is being deposited internally. According to Craig: "To- ward the end of that time, many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely in the sun in a partially stretched pos- ture. This pose in the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening process seems to extend from the internal re- gions, and is first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back over the shoulder and reaches the neck; from this line it seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in front." Feeding after sheep are ripe — If the feeding has been well done at the end of 14 to 16 weeks, lambs will be ripe for market. That is, they will be so fat and well filled out that further gain cannot be made at a profit. In experiments at the Minnesota station it cost 4.17 cents to make 1 pound of gain at the begin- ning of the feeding period, and 23.17 cents a pound after the lambs were ripe. At the North Dakota station, lambs fed a heavy grain ration for four weeks after they were ripe gained but 5 pounds during the whole period, thus showing that any feeding done after the lambs 598 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK are ripe is done at a loss. The main fact holds true also with older sheep. When they are ripe or ready for market, they should be marketed without further delay. How to tell a fat sheep — The points observed by judges in estimating the condition of fat sheep are the tail, the middle of the back, the neck, the flank, the purse and the throat. According to Craig, "at any of these points, more especially the back, the covering should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling the sharp projections of the back- bone. In fact, it can hardly be said that a lamb is really prime unless instead of a projection of the backbone there is a distinct trough or groove running from the tail to the shoulders and this cover- ing should extend well down over the sales without softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do not fat- ten as smoothly or as uniformly as here- in indicated. In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of the loin and lightness in the hindquarters. With these parts well covered and fully devel- oped, a rather sharp shoulder and peaked brisket may be overlooked. Not only should the flesh be thick over the valu- able cuts, but it should be firm. Very often it may be found that soft, rough patches will be present about the head or the tail, owing to the depositing of too much soft flesh on the back, which may slip from there on the over-ripe l"mb and gather at the flank or along the sides in long, soft rolls." FOR FATTENING ROUGHAGE SHEEP Under this heading will be discussed the results of experiments and practice in the use of various roughages for fat- tening sheep. Alfalfa — Nothing exceeds alfalfa hay in value as a roughage for fattening sheep. On alfalfa hay alone lambs at the New Mexico station consumed 2.3 pounds per week and gained 23.7 pounds in 128 days, requiring about 11.8 pounds of hay per pound of gain. At the Wyoming station, where al- falfa was compared with native hay as a roughage for fattening lambs, they made 25 per cent better gains than the lambs on native hay. Stated in another way, an acre of native hay produced 476 pounds of gain, and an acre of alfalfa, 1,756 pounds. At the Montana station also, alfalfa hay gave about 40 per cent better results than grain hay, made up of a mixture of equal parts wheat, oats, barley and peas cut in the milk stage. At the Colorado station it required about 400 pounds of alfalfa hay and 120 pounds of grain to put range lambs in good condition for the market. In experiments at the Ne- braska station, lambs fed alfalfa hay and grain made 52 per cent better gains than like lambs fed the same grains and prairie hay. When sorghum was substituted for the prairie hay, the lot fed alfalfa made 72 per cent better gains than the lot fed sorghum. In these tests the lambs on both prairie hay and sorghum were fed at a profit. All these results show clearly the high feeding value of alfalfa hay for fat- tening sheep, due not only to its large protein content, but also to its great palatability to sheep. The third and fourth cuttings are tisually considered most satisfactory for sheep, because the stems are finer and more leafy. There is no danger whatever from bloat in feeding alfalfa hay. Clover — This has been a standard hay for sheep in the East for many years. On clover alone at the Montana station, sheep in one test gained 7 pounds a head monthly and in another 8.1 pounds. It required 14 pounds of clover hay or 18 pounds of grain hay to produce a pound of gain. On grain hay alone the gain was but 5.34 pounds a month. That station concludes that while fairly good gains can be secured from feeding lambs on clover alone, some grain in addition is required to impart a good finish to them for shipping pur- poses. Alsike clover was found superior by the station to either alfalfa or red clover for fattening lambs, but the range of growth and the yield of this crop is not so great as either alfalfa or red clover. There is considerable waste in feeding clover to fattening sheep, but they should not be forced to eat it too closely as they will not do as well as with more liberal feeding. They select out the ten- derest and most nutritious parts of it and the remainder should be cleaned out of the racks and given to cattle or horses. Cowpea hay — This is one of the im- portant leguminous hay plants of the SHEEP South, taking the place of alfalfa and red clover in a large measure. But one experiment has been reported in feeding this crop to sheep, where at the West Virginia station it was found to be much superior to timothy and at $5 a ton was found more valuable for fatten- ing lambs than mixed hay at $10 a ton. Corn fodder—Well cured corn fodder is widely available and an excellent roughage for fattening sheep. It makes the best fodder and furnishes the most grain if cut when the grain is beginning to dent and the lower leaves are begin- ning to turn color. It may be cut and fed whole, stalks, leaves, ears and all in racks. The sheep will eat a little more of the butt if the stalks are shred- ded, but under western conditions the cost of shredding is more than the in- creased feeding value of the stalk will amount to. By this method of feeding, the sheep will get a considerable amount of corn; in fact, all the grain they will require. To make a well-balanced ra- tion, it will be advisable to feed with the corn fodder some good alfalfa or clover hay to add protein and make it a more evenly balanced ration. Toward the end of the feeding period, some shelled corn mixed with a little oil meal, bran or cottonseed meal, might be fed with profit in addition to the fodder. By this method of feeding, corn fodder makes one of the cheapest rations there is for sheep, under western conditions. If the grain is husked and the corn stover fed alone, it is still very palata- ble to sheep and practically the best of the more carbonaceous roughages that can be given them. In experiments reported by the Utah station, well cured corn fodder cut up before feeding gave equal or better gains with sheep than corn silage and the flesh produced on the fodder corn was not so watery. For breeding ewes at the Wisconsin station, cut corn fodder proved superior to either corn silage, oat straw or blue grass hay as a winter ration. Miscellaneous fodders — Timothy hay is occasionally used as a fodder for sheep, though it is more generally given to horses. It has about the same feeding value as oat straw. On timothy and grain, sheep gained 2 1 / 4 pounds a head weekly at the Dakota station and on oat •straw and the same grain ration the gains were 2% pounds a week. Where sheep are kept for wool, stock wethers are frequently given no other roughage during the winter than oat straw. They will just about maintain their eights on this feed. Brome grass proved more effective as a sheep ration at the South Dakota station than prairie hay. While good clover hay or alfalfa makes the best winter roughage for sheep, there are a number of plants which may be substituted for them, es- pecially if a little grain is fed in addi- tion. At the Michigan station cheap and substantial gains were made on all the following roughages: Millet hay, oat straw, bean straw and corn stalks. The least effective of these was millet hay. Bean straw is about equal to corn stalks. Considerable care was necessary in feed- ing the millet hay, as the sheep easily scoured on it. Sorghum hay is about equal in value to timothy hay or corn stover. The best results with this class of feeds cannot be expected unless they are supplemented with some grain or fodder richer in protein, like oats, bran, alfalfa, etc. SILAGE AND BOOTS FOR SHEEP The mutton sheep industry of Eng- land is largely based on roots, and the feeding of these has become a science in English sheep husbandry. The greater expense of roots, as compared with silage in the United States, and the different conditions under which sheep are reared here, has conduced to a greater use of silage than of roots. Generally speaking, the two are about equal in feeding value. The main pur- pose of feeding silage or roots in the rations of sheep is not so much on ac- count of the food constituents they con- tain, as for their tonic and regulating effects. Sheep relish both and when fed in a limited amount, both are extremely valuable, and no one should fatten sheep or raise lambs without one or the other of these succulents. Hay or other fibrous foods should always be fed with roots to regulate digestion. Silage — The healthfulness of silage for sheep was investigated at the Oregon station, with 25 breeding ewes and a ram. The sheep were fed all the steamed vetch and clover silage they wanted, with about J /2 pound of oats a head daily in addition. On this ration they gained 122 pounds in 48 days, and with the 600 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK exception of one animal all kept in the best of health, consuming /about 6.6 pounds of silage and V2 pound of oats a head daily. As the result of experiments at the Massachusetts and New York Cornell station, it has been shown that 4 pounds of corn silage is about equivalent in feeding value to a pound of mixed hay. The Wisconsin station made a test of the value of succulent vs. dry rations for fattening lambs. One lot was fed on hay and grain and gained 2.6 pounds a head weekly. The other lot was fed this same ration with silage in addition and gained 2.3 pounds a head weekly. When roots were fed, the gain was 2.4 pounds weekly. The flesh of the lambs fed on the dry ration contained 43.11 per cent of water and on the succulent ration about 49 per cent of water, which indicates that succulent rations tend to produce a watery flesh. Similar results with succulent rations on the watery character of the flesh, were noted at the Utah station, when sheep were fed beets and turnips. At the Michigan station corn silage was compared with sugar beets for fat- tening lambs fed alike in other respects. The lambs on silage gained on the aver- age 2 1 /2 pounds a week, and on sugar beets 3 pounds a week. In another test at the same station, good corn silage was compared with cut rutabaga for fat- tening lambs. In this experiment the gains were the same with both lots, 1.7 pounds a week, but the root fed lot gave a profit of only 22 cents a head, while on the corn silage the gain was 63 cents a head. In experiments reported from the Ontario agricultural college, lambs fed silage with hay and grain gained 1.8 pounds a week, and when roots were fed with the same rations, the gain was 2.12 pound a week. In this experi- ment the proportion fed was two parts hay with one of silage or roots. In experiments reported by the New York Cornell station with lambs, the gain when roots were fed in the ration was about 3.4 pounds a head weekly, while when a good quality of corn silage was fed, the gain was about 3.8 pounds a head weekly. Conclusions relative to silage — The experiences of sheep farmers are gen- erally concordant in showing that silage is a very useful winter feed for sheep, for adding succulence and palatability to the rations. While it is possible to maintain sheep entirely on a good qual- ity of corn silage, it is not advisable to do so. It should be used rather as only a part of the rations, feeding some good hay with it. The experiments noted above are not decisive either way. As compared with roots, owing, however, to its much great- er cheapness, corn silage is likely to be used to a much greater extent than roots. On sandy lands, however, where tur- nips or beets can be grown, the English method of pasturing them off might be used to a much greater profit in this country than it is. On the heavier lands it is probable that Dwarf Essex rape will continue to take the lead as a suc- culent fall pasture crop. Boots — The principal roots grown for sheep in this country are mangels and rutabagas or swedes. Some experiments have also been made in the use of sugar beets, sugar beet pulp, turnips and pota- toes. In some English experiments sheep gained faster when hurdled on turnips than when fed turnips on pas- ture. In either wet or dry weather it has been found that sheep fatten more readily on turnip land than on grass. Some other experiments carried on at Wye college, England, indicate that sugar beets are not as good as mangels for fattening sheep. The wool of the sheep fed mangels was superior to that of the sheep fed sugar beets. In two experiments reported by the English Board of Agriculture, mangels proved 20 to 30 per cent better than sugar beets and it cost less to grow them. Sugar beet pulp, a by-product ob- tained in the manufacture of beet sugar, has been extensively used for feeding to sheep at the Colorado station. Sheep fed sugar beets, in connection with a small grain ration, slightly increased the gains made, giving a return of about $3 a ton for the sugar beets. When the sheep were fed all the sugar beets they would eat or about 4 pounds a head daily, the beets had a feeding value of about $2 a ton — an amount too small to pay for raising them. When pulp was used instead of the whole beet, as good gains were made as when the whole beets were fed. The pulp contains about 90 per cent of water, so that in a ton of pulp there is about 200 pounds of dry SHEEP 601 matter. The dry matter in sugar beet pulp was found to be equal in feeding value, pound for pound, to corn. That is, a ton of sugar beet pulp containing 90 per cent water, was equivalent in feeding value to 200 pounds of corn. In other experiments at the station, a pound of pulp was found equal in feed- ing value to 2 pounds of sugar beets. When sugar beet pulp was fed with alfalfa at the Utah station, it had a feeding value of $1.86 per ton. A pound of gain was made on 8 pounds of alfalfa and 18 pounds of pulp. Bet- ter results were secured when a small grain ration was fed in addition. When fed in limited quantities with alfalfa, the results were not as good as when fed ad libitum. Successful feeders in Utah assign to sugar beet pulp . a value of about $2.5"0 a ton as a feeding stuff for sheep. Owing to the bulky nature of sugar beet pulp, lambs cannot consume enough in the later stages of fattening to finish off well. Hence it should be fed only in limited amount for its physiological ef- fects. When fed in large amounts dur- ing the finishing off period at the Colo- rado station, it produced a soft flesh and in shipping many of the lambs were crippled. Owing to the succulent nature oi the pulp, special care must be taken to keep the yards of the sheep dry by means of drains and plenty of litter. Potatoes were tested at the Minnesota station as a feeding stuff for fatten- ing lambs in comparison with sugar beets and mangels. All the lambs were fed like grain rations of corn, barley and oil meal and hay. In addition, each lot was given all the roots they would eat. On the average this was about Z x /z pounds a day. The sheep were fed 110 days, at the end of which time the lot fed potatoes had gained 32.9 pounds, the lot fed mangels 30.6 and the lot fed sugar beets 34.6 pounds. These results are slightly in favor of the potatoes and sugar beets. The data are useful in indicating the value of the small, unmerchantable po- tatoes for sheep feeding. Ordinarily, the cost of raising potatoes is too great to permit of their use as a feeding stuff in comparison with other roots which yield much heavier, hence only the small, unsalable potatoes can be used profitably in the ration for sheep. The Maine station found that roots do not have any peculiar feeding value, other than that of adding variety and succulence to the ration. Conclusions relative to roots — The experiments noted above are not entirely harmonious as regards their compar- ative values. Roots do not show any ad- vantage over silage, while the cost of growing them is usually in excess of silage. They should not be fed ordi- narily in quantities greater than 4 to 6 pounds a day. And the best results will be secured when they are fed in smaller amounts than 2 to 3 pounds a day, sliced, and in combination with hay or grain. If roots are grown, mangels are the cheapest kind to grow and are as efficient practically as any other kind. GRAINS FOR SHEEP The grains commonly given to sheep are corn and oats. Barley is frequently fed and peas in the northern states and Canada. Mill feeds are fed less com- monly. It is not necessary or desirable usually to grind grains for sheep, with the exception of old ewes, which may have lost their teeth, and for winter lambs which are being forced. Many experiments have been reported in re- cent years relative to the use and value of different grains and mill products for feeding purposes, a brief review of which will serve to bring out their use- fulness and value as compared with other grains. Barley — The Colorado station made a test of the relative merits of bald and common barley for fattening lambs. Bald barley is slightly richer in protein than common barley. Li the experi- ments reported bald barley produced slightly more gains in lambs than when they were fed corn. The lambs, how- ever, were unable to eat more than a pound of barley a day without getting off feed. Common barley on the other hand did not prove quite as effective for fattening purposes as corn, but was fully equal to wheat. In these experi- ments whole barley gave better results than ground barley. At the Wyoming experiment station, also, barley fed lambs made larger gains than corn fed lambs. In experiments at the Minnesota station in feeding range lambs, barley, corn and oats were found about equally valuable in producing gains. When fed with timothy hay, the 602 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK gains at the Dakota station on barley- three parts, bran one part was at the rate of 2^4 pounds a head weekly. On barley and hay alone at the South Da- kota station, the gains were 2^ pounds a head weekly. In this experiment it required about 5 pounds of grain to make a pound of gain; the average of many experiments shows that it takes about 453 pounds of barley with hay to produce 100 pounds of gain. For fat- tening lambs barley may be considered fully equal, if not superior, to corn. It is richer in protein than corn and well adapted to producing both growth and fat in lambs. It is relished by sheep. The bald barley must be fed with cau- tion to prevent the lambs from getting off feed, usually not in excess of 1 pound per head daily. Corn — This grain is probably superior to all others in producing gains during the final stages of fattening sheep. Sheep are exceedingly fond of it. It is usually fed whole and shelled, though as mentioned in another place, it is fre- quently fed on the stalk, unhusked, as corn fodder in racks, which is one of the best ways of utilizing it. From experiments reported by the Wisconsin and other stations, corn alone does not appear to be as safe a feed, especially for lambs, as some of the other feeds like peas or oats. It causes digestive disorders and the lambs get off feed on it. This is not noticed to the same extent with older sheep. Figuring corn at 30 cents a bushel, no other grain can compare with it in pro- ducing cheap mutton, either before or after lambs are weaned, or in fattening mature sheep. The Colorado station re- ports an experiment in which corn was compared with wheat for sheep. Dur- ing the early stages of feeding, wheat gave the larger gains, but later in the experiments better gains were made on corn. That station believes it best to feed wheat the first third of the feeding period, then half wheat and half corn the next third, finishing off on clear corn. In fattening older sheep, corn is considered by far the best grain to feed. Corn need not be soaked for sheep; but fed dry and whole. For old sheep, corn is sometimes cooked. One feeder reports the fattening of 2,600 old sheep, in which cooked corn was used. The belief is expressed that the gains made were enough faster to pay for the extra cost of cooking the corn since the sheep ate a greater quantity of the cooked than of the dry corn. Usually, however, if corn is ground for old sheep, it will give satisfactory results and this is likely to be a cheaper method of .preparing it than cooking. Corn at the Iowa station at 33 cents a bushel was a more econom- ical grain to feed to sheep on grass than oats at 23 cents or barley at 40 cents. Cottonseed meal — Both cottonseed meal and cottonseed cake are used more or less extensively for sheep. As is well known, cottonseed meal is a rich, pro- tein feed. It should be used only in very small amounts and preferably with other grains to balance up the ration. It should seldom, if ever, be fed in greater amounts than % pound a head daily and better results will be secured if only about Vs to ^4 pound is fed in combination with corn and mixed grains. In some English experiments of Bom- bay vs. Egyptian undecorticated cotton- seed cake, better gains were made on the Bombay cake. Both of these cotton- seed cakes contain more hulls and lint than the American cottonseed meal and are not equal to the American meal in feeding value. Emmer — This grain is frequently re- ferred to as spelt. Spelt, however, is not grown in this country, except in an experimental way. Emmer is a kind of wheat, (Triticum dicoccum). It weighs from 41 to 45 pounds a bushel and is enclosed in the chaff the same as barley. At the South Dakota station it re- quired one-fourth more emmer and one- fifteenth more wheat to produce a pound of gain in fattening lambs than of corn. Generally speaking, the station has found that from 1 to 2 pounds more of emmer is required to produce a pound of gain in sheep than of the other common grains. It is more useful when mixed with other grains than when fed alone. It was found about two-thirds as valuable as barley for fat- tening lambs and had a value of about 76 cents a hundred pounds when corn was worth 82 cents. For fattening wethers at the Iowa station, emmer proved, pound for pound, practically as valuable as corn. At the Colorado station likewise, emmer proved cheaper, pound for pound, than corn, and produced larger gains, with fatten- ing lambs. SHEEP 603 These results indicate a fair feeding value for emmer and in dry situations or on soil too poor for wheat, it may prove a valuable crop to grow for sheep feeding. Flaxseed — Flaxseed whole or ground is seldom used for feeding sheep until after the oil is expressed, when it be- comes known as linseed meal. At the Wyoming station it was found that flax- seed might be used in place of flaxseed meal as a supplement to the corn rations for fattening lambs. It was fed heavily without expressing the oil and no uri- nary troubles resulted. In other experi- ments when flaxseed was ground and fed to lambs it was not as valuable as bar- ley. For finishing sheep, however, whole flaxseed may be used successfully with- out other grains. Not more than Yi to z /± pound a head should be fed daily. Gluten meal and feed — Gluten meal and gluten feeds are by-products in the manufacture of starch from corn. They are much richer in protein than the original corn grain or corn meal and are used principally for balancing the ration and in increasing the protein con- tents. For composition see page 75. At the Illinois station, lambs fed glu- ten meal with corn gained more rapidly than on corn alone or corn and oats or whole oats alone. On corn and gluten meal two to one, and clover the gain was .52 pound a day, while on clover alone it was but .39 pound a day. Gluten feed is not greatly relished by sheep, it is too dusty to be fed alone and should be mixed with other feeds. In English experiments the average gains were 14.1 pounds on gray peas, as compared with 15.1 pounds on gluten feed and 15.8 pounds on chick peas dur- ing the same feeding period. The sheep did not care for the gluten feed in this experiment. The chick peas were great- ly reb'shed by the sheep, either whole or split. And it is stated that chick pea mutton is considered a delicacy in India, where the peas are fed to sheep in large quantities. In other experiments reported from England, gluten feed proved about equal in feeding value to split peas, or to a mixture of equal parts barley meal and undecorticated cottonseed cake, and it was a little cheaper. Kafir corn — This grain has not been extensively fed to sheep so far as we are aware. At the Oklahoma station, a wether lamb fed 2 pounds of kafir meal a day with prairie grass hay gained 13 pounds in four weeks. A Shropshire ram on the same ration gained 17 pounds during the same period. In another experiment, three wether lambs and three rather inferior yearlings were fed kafir grain for 52 days and made an average gain of 2.57 pounds a head weekly, giving 5.82 pounds of grain for each pound of gain. These are good gains and show a comparatively high feeding value for kafir corn grain and meal. Linseed meal—This is a by-product in the manufacture of linseed oil from flaxseed. It is one of the most useful protein feeds we have, not only on ac- count of its high food value, but also be- cause of its physiological, tonic, and laxative effects. It should be used only in small quantities. From Ys to % pound a head daily is sufficient and Y'i a pound should be considered the maximum amount to feed at any time. It is especially valuable for breeding sheep and for show animals, adding lus- ter to the fleece and softness to the skin and generally producing a well-condi- tioned sheep. It is especially valuable for feeding to sheep not receiving roots or silage or other succulent foods. In experiments in Scotland, cotton- seed cake and maize in equal parts gave slightly better results than linseed cake, either alone or mixed. At the Wisconsin station, when lambs were fed one part oil meal and two parts corn meal, they gained 3.3 pounds a head weekly. When cottonseed meal was substituted for the oil meal, the gain was 2.95 pounds a head weekly. Even at $27 a ton, linseed meal has been found profitable when fed in small amounts for fattening lambs. The Mas- sachusetts Hatch station found old and new process meals about equally valu- able for sheep feeding. In experiments reported by the Mas- sachusetts state station, it was found that linseed meal, cottonseed meal and Chicago gluten feed could be substitut- ed, one for the other, without materially changing the cost of the ration or its feeding value. Chicago maize feed and Buffalo gluten feed were found equally valuable as feeding stuffs. Millet seed — Some varieties of millet produce a large quantity of seed which 604 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK has considerable value for sheep feed. The Black Veronezh variety (Panicum milliaceum), when ground coarsely, was found excellent for fattening lambs by Watson and Skinner at the South Da- kota station, proving fully equal, pound for pound, to wheat, oats, emmer or mixed grain. Oats — Oats are greatly relished by sheep and are especially valuable for lambs and breeding ewes. They are usu- ally fed whole. At the North Dakota station lambs fed whole oats and timo- thy gained 2V 2 pounds a head weekly for eight weeks. When oats, corn, bran and hay were fed to lambs at the Minne- sota station, 36 per cent better gains were made than when the oats were omitted from the ration. The total amount of grain consumed was the same in each case. "Oats usually are too ex- pensive to constitute the whole grain ra- tion for fattening sheep. Added to corn they give variety and palatability to the ration. The grain is more nearly like barley in composition and is therefore better adapted to growth than fattening. Sheep make good gains on oats and an excellent quality of mutton. When they are cheap enough they may be prof- itably fed. Ordinarily they should con- stitute only part of the grain ration for fattening sheep. For breeding ewes or in the production of wool, they make one of the best grain rations." Peas — Northern field peas constitute one of the very best grains for sheep. When coarsely cracked, they are espe- cially valuable for growing lambs .and are greatly relished. Their value for pasturing in the fields when ripe has been treated elsewhere in this chapter. Peas are rich in protein. They are usu- ally too expensive to be made the sole ration for sheep, and should, therefore, be mixed with corn, oats or some cheap- er grain in order to secure their great- est value. At the Wisconsin station when peas were fed in equal parts with corn 20 per cent better gains were made with lambs than when corn was fed alone, or corn and oats mixed. In one test at the Ontario agricul- tural college, lambs gained 2.1 pounds weekly on peas, while on corn and oats the gains were 2.29 pounds. In another test, lambs fed corn alone gained 2.5 pounds a head weekly; on peas 2.9 pounds; and on equal parts corn and peas, 2.6 pounds. When peas alone were fed, it required 3.3 pounds to produce a pound of gain; when corn was fed alone, 3.8 pounds was required; and when corn and peas were fed together 3.7 pounds. Screenings — At the large wheat ele- vators enormous quantities of screen- ings accumulate in recleaning the wheat. These cleanings consist largely of broken and shriveled grains of wheat, weed seeds, chaff and broken pieces of straw. They have been used extensively in the vicinity of the larger elevators of Minnesota and Wisconsin, etc, for fat- tening sheep. At the Minnesota station, when corn was worth $13 a ton for fattening sheep, screenings made up of about 90 per cent small wheat grains and edible weed seeds had a value of $10.35 a ton. Whole buckwheat seed had a value on the same basis of $9.56 a ton and pigeon grass seed of $9.40 a ton. This gives screen- ings a value about two-thirds that of good grain. In experiments at the North Dakota station lambs fattened on wheat screen- ings gained 2 pounds a head weekly at a cost of 5.2 cents a pound of gain. Much better results have been obtained in feeding lambs screenings at the Mon- tana station than in feeding wheat, oats, barley or mixed grain, but for wethers the screenings have not proved as val- uable as barley or mixed grain. Sheep on clover and damaged wheat at the Montana station made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $3.22. Slightly better gains were made on clover and screen- ings than on clover and grains, and the cost of a 100 pounds increase was $1 less on the screenings. The better gain on the screenings was thought to be due to the greater variety afforded by this feed, which was greatly relished by the sheep. In experiments at the Utah station, the gains on screenings varied from 1.44 to 1.68 pounds a head weekly. Soy beans — This feed, while rich in protein and excellent for balancing ra- tions for sheep fed corn and hay, is usu- ally too expensive to be fed as the sole grain to fattening sheep. In experiments at the Wisconsin sta- tion, a pound of soy beans produced as large gains as 1.2 pounds of oats. The greatest value from soy beans will be found in using them in small amounts SHEEP 605 — about % pound a head daily, in com- bination with corn or other grains. Dried sugar beet pulp_Some of the sugar beet factories are kiln drying the pulp and offering this material for stock feed. Occasionally the molasses from the sugar beet factory is mixed with the feed. The Michigan experiment station reports the results of feeding these materials to sheep. Both the beet pulp and the dried molasses beet pulp, possess feeding values comparing very favorably with corn. When these ma- terials were fed in grain mixtures, more mutton was produced at less cost than on similar amounts of grain mixtures alone. The dried molasses beet pulp possessed a little higher feeding value than dried beet pulp without the mo- lasses; but in the experiment noted this difference was not great enough to offset the greater price paid for the molasses beet pulp. The gain on dried molasses beet pulp three parts and linseed meal one part averaged 2.4 pounds a week. The mo- lasses beet pulp cost $13.70 and dried beet pulp $11.60. On the dried beet pulp the gain was 2.3 pounds a week. Sugar beet molasses wa s fed with a ration of alfalfa and bran to lambs at the Utah station and gave very satisfac- tory results both as regards economy and rapidity of growth. The molasses was poured over the alfalfa and about one-third pound a head fed daily. The weekly gains on this ration were 1.4 pounds per head, while on alfalfa and best screenings, the gain was 1.59 pounds a head. These figures indicate a satis- factory feeding value for sugar beet mo- lasses. Wheat — This grain is not fed to sheep except when the price is very low or when it is off grade. Frequently, how- ever, it is fed in small amounts to add variety to the ration. For fattening purposes it appears to be about 10 per cent less valuable than corn, though in the early stages of fattening lambs it is fully equal to corn. (See Corn For Sheep.) From experiments reported by the Utah station, frosted wheat or unmar- ketable shrunken wheat seems to be fully as valuable as the best marketable wheat. Macaroni wheat proved equal to bread wheat, pound for pound, as a fattening grain for lambs at the South Dakota station. Whole macaroni wheat made cheaper gains than the ground macaroni wheat and bran or whole macaroni wheat and bran. That station found that it may be profitably fed to lambs when worth 65 cents a bushel. Wheat bran [ a an excellent feed for fattening sheep, but for young lambs should be used only in small amounts. Wheat middlings f a one f the best of the mill products for sheep, being espe- cially valuable for young lambs and also for old sheep. Sheep fattening on a large scale — I n some of the western states, especially in Colorado and Nebraska, the sheep feed- ing industry has been developed on an enormous scale. Range sheep are pur- chased and brought to the corn and al- falfa sections, where they are fed for a few months in bands of thousands and then marketed. The sheep are divided into lots of 400 to 500 and fed in cor- rals, in the open, without shelter, except some kind of windbreak protection. The yards are so arranged as to minimize labor. A common method of feeding is to have the lot divided by driveways in the middle. Grain troughs are then placed in each lot sufficient to accom- modate the whole band at one time. The lots are so arranged that the sheep can be herded in the one while the troughs are being filled with grain in the other. Hay is placed along the fence on the outside of the lot, a space about 7 inches between the first and second boards of the fence being left so that the sheep can reach through and get it. Where possible, the alfalfa is stacked between the yards and if not thus convenient it is drawn in wagon loads and distribu- ted. Water troughs are placed usually alongside of the driveways and some filled by windmills and others by hand. With a feeding plant thus convenient- ly arranged it is possible for four men to take care of 10,000 head of sheep. Sometimes the yards are made in zigzag or cross fashion and thus broken up so the sheep cannot run freely from one end of the lot to the other, as they fre- quently do when feeling good, often to their injury. Shelled corn is the grain chiefly fed and alfalfa constitutes the principal roughage. In favorable years enormous profits are made by this meth- od of feeding. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK MARKETING AND SHIPPING SHEEP Fat sheep should be shipped to market when they reach mature condition. A prime fat sheep has been described else- where in this chapter. (See page 508. ) Fat lambs usually bring the highest price of any sheep on the market. The most desirable weights are between 90 and 95 pounds, and the best prices are usually obtained in May or June. The shrinkage i n shipping varies from 1 to 2 pounds a head for a short shipment of 100 or 200 miles, to 7 to 8 pounds a head when shipped 1,400 to 1,800 miles. A single deck car w iH carry about 100 sheep and a double deck car, 150 to 200. Details as regards shipping, etc, have been discussed in Chapter IV. Sheep of the same size and class should be shipped together in order to thus make a better appearance and are likely to bring a better price on the market than a mixed lot. Sheep dress out from 50 to 65 per cent of their live weight. Directions for slaughtering are given in Chapter V. HOTHOUSE OR WINTER LAMBS This is probably the most profitable phase of the sheep industry when prop- erly managed. It consists in the pro- duction of fat lambs weighing 35 to 60 pounds live weight and the marketing of these during the period between Christmas and the following March or April. The lambs are dressed and bring between $6 and $12 apiece. The chief markets are the larger cities like Phil- adelphia, New York, Chicago, etc, but there is a growing yearly demand in all the smaller cities for winter lambs. A few lambs can be sold at Christmas time, but the market is rather limited at this period, owing to the large amount of poultry then on the market. The best market comes in January and February and up to about March 15. From March on the price for winter lambs, while a little higher than for lambs born earlier in the season, is not so good as in January and Febru- ary. Best breeds for winter lambs — The chief difficulty in the production of early winter lambs is in getting the ewes to breed, so that they will drop their lambs in October, November and December. The two pure breeds appar- ently best suited for this purpose are the Dorsets and the Tunis. The Dorset is much the more popular of the two. Various other breeds of sheep are also used to produce winter lambs, but are not so satisfactory as the Dorsets, be- cause there is no uniformity in the early breeding. A few may breed in May and along during the summer, but most of them will not begin breeding until September and October, which is too late for the best prices of winter lambs. The Dorsets are big mill?; yield- ers, leading all other breeds in this re- spect. The lambs are sent to market while sucking the ewe and a large and Fig. 375 — CHAMPION" WETHER LAMB AT CHICAGO IN 1905 continuous supply of milk is a vital fac- tor in their rapid growth. On this ac- count, Dorset lambs grow faster and ar- rive at a marketable age sooner than most other pure breeds. Dorset and Shropshire ewes — I n ex- periments reported by the New York Cornell station, pure bred Shropshires were compared with pure bred Dorsets to determine their relative value for winter lambs. The Shropshire lambs averaged 9.7 pounds in weight at birth, and 42.75 pounds a head nine weeks later, thus making an average weekly gain of 3.5 pounds a head. The Dorset lambs averaged 10.6 pounds at birth and weighed 53.5 pounds a head when nine weeks old, having made an average weekly gain of 4.8 pounds a head. SHEEP' 607 The following year, when the experi- ment was repeated, the Shropshire lambs gained on an average 2.87 pounds apiece for 12 weeks, and the Dorsets 4.47 pounds. In both experiments the lambs of both breeds were given all they would eat. The Dorset ewes ate more food than the Shropshire ewes, stood forced feeding better and were less affected by changes in the weather than the Shropshires. When grade Shropshire and grade Dorset ewes were compared, the lambs from the grade Shropshire ewes made an average weekly gain of 2.66 pounds a week and from the grade Dorset ewes 3.64 pounds. Here again the advantage of Dorset blood in the ewes for produc- ing rapid growing lambs is shown. Shropshire vs. Merino ewes — The Col- orado station investigated the relative merits of Shropshires crossed on Meri- i' \ hi Fig. 376 — PRIZE DORSET LAMBS nos as compared with Dorsets crossed on Merinos for producing early lambs. In these experiments the Dorset-Merinos produced about 20 per cent more lambs than the Shropshire-Merinos, and on this account' were about 16 per cent more profitable. The gains in feeding were about the same for both crosses, as were also the prices received for them. Establishing a breeding flock — It is generally conceded that the best results in growing hothouse lambs are secured by the use of Dorsets or their grades. Pure Dorset ewes are too expensive for this purpose. Fortunately the Dorset bucks are no more expensive than those of any other breed, and experiments at a number of stations in crossing grade ewes with a pure Dorset buck show that the characteristics of the Dorset ewe to breed fully three months earlier than the other breeds is transmissible through the male line to the first cross, and more strongly still to the second cross of the Dorset on the first cross ewe, re- serving each year the ewes which breed earliest. Not only is the tendency to breed earlier transmitted to the off- spring, but also the tendency to produce twins and triplets. Mr. J. S. Woodward, writing on this subject in a recent number of the; American Agriculturist, states that the most satisfactory combination for win- ter lambs is the pure bred Dorset bucks crossed on American Merino ewes. This produces plump, fat lambs, not so large as lambs of a similar age from mutton breeds, but one that is plump and fat, and one that will bring the highest price in the market. A 30-pound lamb with a kidney as fat as a goose egg sells for more than a 40 or 45-pound lamb with a kidney only as large as a quail's egg. Age of ewes—The ewe should be not less than two or more than six years old, and have a good mouth; she should be short legged, large bodied with a clear, bright eye, good udder and sound teats, and a heavy milker. High grade Dorset ewes may sometimes be kept until eight to 10 years old, even when they are gummers, and still produce profitable lambs. In some of the west- ern states, old ewes are bought, fed and bred for winter lambs, and mother and lambs sold together for $6 to $8, when the ewe alone if sold in the fall would bring but $2.25 to $2.50. As a result of six years' experiments at the Minnesota station, Professor Shaw found that the breeding habit of common grade ewes, which usually drop their lambs in the spring, may be so changed in two or three generations of judicious crossing and selection that they will produce lambs in the fall and early winter. This change was brought about most quickly by mating the ewes with pure bred Dorset rams and always reserving the earlier dropped lambs for breeding uses. Professor Shaw also found that dams that have suckled winter lambs may usually be bred more readily before being turned out on grass than subsequently. This is especially true if they are fed a stimulating grain ration while yet in the shed. When the early breeding habit has once been es- tablished in the ewes the quality of the lambs produced can be improved by us- ing Southdown and Shropshire bucks. Breeding for hothouse lambs — I n the production of winter lambs, if the ewes FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK are bred about May 1, only a few will normally take tbe buck at this time; per- haps not more than 5 per cent. By shutting the ewes up for a time on scant feed, then turning on good pas- ture with supplementary nitrogenous feed, like gluten meal, wheat bran, etc, turning with them at night a Dorset buck in good, vigorous condition, the percentage that breed will be consider- ably increased. With care in feeding along these lines, 10 per cent more will be with lamb by the middle of June and 50 per cent by the middle of Aug- ust. By October the buck should be removed from the flock. With pure Dorset sheep or with high-grade Dorset ewes, Miller and Wing, in the Winter Lamb, lay down the following rules rel- ative to breeding: (1) Have the ram with ewes not ear- lier than middle of March, not later than the middle of May. (2) Put ram with ewes nights, not days. (3^ Use young ram and feed him well while in service. (4) Do not have ram too fat. (5) Do not have ewes too thin. (6) If ewes were not shorn in the fall shear as early as you dare. (7) Feed ewes green food, such as ensilage, turnips, carrots, mangels, etc, and some corn. Whatever the condition of the ewes, the quantity of the feed given them at breeding time should be increased. Dur- ing the natural breeding period of sheep in the fall, the ewes are normally gain- ing in flesh. The nearer we can ap- proach normal fall breeding conditions in spring, the more likely the ewes are to breed. Summer and fall feeding of pregnant ewes — The ewes will require but little attention during the summer other than a good supply of pasture, pure water and shade. If pastures become short and dry they should be supplemented with other feeds. One of the best for this pur- pose is pumpkins. Pumpkins possess considerable nutriment, especially the seeds, and are highly palatable to sheep. In addition, the seeds are a vermifuge of considerable value. They are usual- ly fed by simply hauling them to the pasture and breaking and allowing the sheep to gnaw them at will. If fed in excessive quantities, the ewes may be- come too fat. For milking ewes, pump- kins are considered especially valuable. They may be kept on hand for feeding purposes until about Christmas. In addition to pasture, ewes giving suck to their lambs should receive a liberal grain ration, made up of corn, oats, barley, bran, etc. Gluten feed or linseed meal is especially valuable at this time. Since it is intended that the lambs shall be marketed after running from two to three months with the dam, the necessity of giving heavy rations to the ewes for milk production is readily understood. Feeding hothouse lambs — The lambs will begin to eat when about three weeks old. It is very desirable that they be given fresh pasture, such as clover, al- falfa, rape, peas and oats or some sim- ilar forage which they relish. They learn to eat grain just as soon as they learn to eat forage. The best grains are ground corn mixed with ground peas, oats or barley. When about four weeks old they will eat as much as a pound of grain a head daily. They may be given all they will eat up clean without fear, as at that age they practically never overeat. A little sugar sprinkled on the grain may aid in teaching them to eat it. The grain should be varied every two or three days, to keep up their appe- tites and interest. It has been noticed that lambs will eat a particular kind of grain with con- siderable relish for a day or two and then seem to tire of it and consequently consume less. Before this stage is reached a change in the grain ration should be made. The observant feeder will soon note the kind of grain relished best by the lambs. Whole oats and whole wheat are readily eaten. A lamb creep should be provided so that the lambs can be fed away from the ewes. A self-feed arrangement is not desir- able with the lambs since they muss over much of the feed, which thus be- comes unsavory and often ferments. Cleanliness in feeding, while desirable for all sheep, is especially so for winter lambs. Lambs born in the late fall and early winter, in addition to the ewes' milk and grain, should be liberally fed with the best quality of clover and alfalfa hay and given silage or sliced roots in addition. In a test at the Cornell ex- periment station, of the relative value of these two succulent foods for winter lambs, a lot fed all the roots (mangel- wurzels) it would eat, in addition to other feeds, gained on an average 3.44 SHEEP pounds a head weekly, while another similar lot fed corn silage of good qual- ity gained 3.85 pounds a head weekly. These results are in favor of the silage. Many feeders, however, prefer roots. The latter, however, are more expensive. Winter feed for ewes — Watson states that "whenever the ewes go into win- ter quarters in good flesh, very little or no grain and but few roots should be fed before lambing time. This will en- able the owner to carry his ewes through a critical period with less trouble than if grain and roots are fed liberally be- fore the lambs are born." After lambing, the ewes should be fed a small quantity of grain at first and this gradually increased to a pound and a half or two pounds a head daily. In addition good clover or alfalfa hay should be fed liberally and a liberal ra- tion of silage or roots given. A little extra grain and care at this time during the eight to nine weeks after lambing, will bring greater profits than at any other time during the year. The extra food "may bring the lamb into prime condition and cause it to sell for the highest market price, while the same lamb without this increased nourish- ment would be only in fair condition and sell in the market for not more than two-thirds the price of prime lambs. It is of the utmost importance that the lambs be well fattened. No matter how large and thrifty the lamb may be, it will not sell for the highest price if it is not fat." Shelter in fall and winter — Some shelter should be provided to protect the lambs from cold rains. In fact, it is best never to let the lambs get wet. On this account it is desirable to have them up nights. A cold rain which wets them through is a serious check to their growth. When freezing weather comes and they are kept up all the time, they require comfortable quarters such a3 have been described for the regular flock. The term hothouse used in connection with winter lambs is a misnomer, as they do not require any warmer shelter than the regular breeding stock. Of course, when the lambs are dropped in the winter time, the pens should be warm enough so that the lambs will not chill. Sometimes the shepherd can tell in advance when the ewe is about to lamb and in such cases the ewes may be put in small, comfortable pens by themselves. A lantern hung up in this pen, providing the pen is tight, will keep the lamb comfortable on the coldest night. By going the rounds of the flock about 10 o'clock at night and again about 4 o'clock in the morning, the shepherd can usually save all the lambs dropped. Marketing hothouse lambs — Winter lambs must be marketed in a fat con- dition. This is of much greater im- portance than size. Large lambs not well conditioned present what is known as a staggy appearance and never bring top prices in the market. Early in the season, smaller weight lambs bring the best prices. As the winter advances heavier lambs are in demand. The early lambs are usually sold by the piece, later in the winter they are all sold by the pound. Great pains must be taken in dressing the lambs that they present a neat and clean appearance on the market, other- wise it is impossible to get top prices. It will usually be desirable to make arrangements with a commission man beforehand, to whom the lambs may be sent for sale. Usually the lambs should be sent so that they arrive in the mar- ket between Wednesday and Friday. Miller, in the Winter Lamb, states that he formerly shipped from Ohio to New York by express, paying at the rate of $1.50 a 100 pounds. Tn recent years, however, he has shipped by refrigerator rates at half this price and the lambs have gone through in equally good con- dition. For the New York market Wat- son states as a rule Tuesday or Wednes- day market is the best. The wholesale market closes Friday noon and the lambs should reach New York before this time. As noted before, the early season market is best, the price being sometimes double what it is later in the winter. Dressing lambs for winter market — . Especial care must be taken in dressing the lambs for the winter market. In order that they may be perfectly bled and that the wool may not be smeared about the head and neck with blood, it is advisable to suspend the lamb by the hind feet so that its head clears the floor by a foot or more. The lambs may be prepared by simply removing the stom- ach and entrails, leaving the feet and head on and the pluck undisturbed. 610 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Sometimes the head is removed. Mar- kets vary in their requirements as re- gards dressing. The prevailing methods can be learned by writing to the com- mission man. In bleeding the lamb an opening is made with a sharp pointed knife on one side of the neck, immediately back of the head. The opening need not be large but the blade should be given a considerable sweep in order to sever the artery. The appearance of bright red blood is proof of this. The wool should be clipped from the brisket up the belly and between the hind legs, after which the lamb is opened from tail to brisket. The skin on the inside of the hind quarters should, be cut up about four inches and loosened from the muscles for two inches on either side for the at- fully spread over the exposed flesh, being attached in place by good toothpicks. A small slit is made in the caul over the kidneys, which are pulled through. Where backsets or spreaders are used, each end of the spreaders should have a shoulder and a projecting point. On the use of these Watson states as fol- lows: "One of these points should be inserted from the outside at the flank near the opening made for the removal of the intestines, the spreader crossing the back diagonally and the point at the other end inserted in a similar man- ner in the opposite side of the lamb near the chest. In like manner a second spreader is inserted so that the two cross each other in the form of an X on the back of the lamb." After the caul fat is spread in place, Fig. 377 BAND OP SHEEP ON THE RANGE tachment of the caul fat. "This should be removed from the stomachs before they are detached and in very cold weather placed in warm water until ready to be used." The stomach and intestines should be removed without disturbing the heart, lungs or liver. In warm weather, how- ever, these will also have to be removed to keep the meat from spoiling. "As soon as the intestines are removed spreaders should be inserted to give the lamb the best appearance when offered for sale. For lambs weighing from 30 to 40 pounds dressed weight, spreaders about 14 inches long will be about the right length. If too long spreaders are used, there is danger of breaking the ribs and thereby injuring the appear- ance." After the stomach and intestines have been removed the caul fat is care- the lamb should be left to cool for 12 to 24 hours. In very cold weather 12 hours may be enough. When all the animal heat is out of the carcass it should be neatly wrapped for shipment. For this purpose a square yard of clean muslin should first be sewed on so as to cover all the exposed surface, af- ter which a covering of burlap may be put on. Some shippers, however, put two or three lambs, wrapped in muslin or paper, in a neatly made crate, and simply cover over the top of the crate with strong burlap. Whatever method is employed the point to be remembe-red is that the lambs must be so handled as to arrive in the market in a neat, clean presentable condition. Watson states as a result of consid- erable inspection on the market, that very often insufficient provision is made for removing all the bloody liquid from SHEEP 611 the chest. By the ordinary method of slaughtering lambs a considerable amount of liquid will accumulate at this point and unless it is removed it will seri- ously injure the appearance of the lamb when shown for sale. This can be ef- fectually removed by making an open- ing with a knife at the lower part of the chest and keeping it free until all the blood is completely drained out. This should be done while the carcass is hanging. SHEEP RANCHING IN THE WEST- ERN STATES Nearly half of the sheep grown in the United States are produced under range conditions, and primarily for wool. The Within recent years, however, sheep men have found it desirable to provide some winter food for the sheep to tide them over during heavy snowstorms or for a prolonged period when the ground is covered with snow. Location of sheep ranches — The sheep ranches, as a rule, are so located that the range which each man controls may be divided into a summer and winter pas- ture. The summer range is located at the higher altitude, usually in the mountain valleys and high plateaus, where a comparatively large amount of rainfall occurs. A large portion of the best range is found in United States forest reserves. Sheep in . New Mexico and Arizona are usually driven to the Fig. 378 GOOD TYPE OF SHEEP DOG management of western sheep is there- fore totally different from that observed by eastern shepherds. Individual sheep owners under range conditions, may own from 2,000 to 100,000 sheep, which are maintained in bands of 2,000 to 4,000 head by a herdsman attended by a couple of dogs. The sheep are grazed, partially on lands owned or rented by the ranger, but more largely on the free, government lands. In many localities the sheep are suc- cessfully grazed the year around with- out shelter. This is especially true in the southwestern portion of the United States. Farther north shelter becomes more desirable, though even in Montana some localities may be found where sheep can be grazed the year around. summer range along in April, and in Montana and Wyoming some time in June or July. This summer range where the ewes can get fresh green feed to maintain their milk supply, is con- sidered absolutely essential in most lo- calities. The sheep remain in the moun- tains until danger from snowfall, when they are brought back again to the win- ter range at lower level. This usually occurs about September 15. Method of grazing — Under the best condition of management the sheep are allowed to feed in a rather open forma- tion, to give each sheep an equal show and to prevent too close grazing. Each day the sheep are driven from one to three miles from camp and brought 612 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK home at night. When the grazing be- comes short in that locality the camp is moved some distance away and the new camp made a center for further grazing. Herders are always assisted by sheep dogs ; in fact, it would be practically im- possible to handle the sheep without them. The winter range i s usually located conveniently near to the ranch house or to large sheds or hay stacks. In regions where heavy snows are expected they must be maintained near covered corrals or a supply of hay, in order to prevent disaster from heavy snows. Under the dry atmospheric conditions of the West, the grasses on unpastured ranges cure in recent years, however, it has been found desirable to grow a sheep that will produce mutton as well as wool. The Merino breeds have therefore been extensively crossed with the different types of the mutton breeds, using prin- cipally Cotswold and Lincoln bucks. A buck of the mutton type is used until the wool of the sheep begins to appear too coarse, when the flock is crossed back again with Merino bucks using chiefly the Delaine or Rambouillet type. The time of shearing varies accord- ing to the latitude. In the southwestern states, the sheep are sheared twice a year, while in the northern states they are sheared but once, usually in June, Fig. 379 — SHEARING BY HAND up into a very nutritious kind of hay on which sheep maintain themselves in good condition during the winter. The chief forage plants are the legumes, especially lupines, various species of sage-brush and numerous wild grasses. Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium) is one of the very best green winter pasture plants. Running water is not essential for sheep in winter time where snow is plentiful, since the sheep can feed on the snow. This makes it possible to range sheep on land that could not be used in the summer time for want of water. Breeds raised_I n the early days the Merino was the breed principally grown, usually mixed with other crosses. With- after cold weather is past. The shearing is done by professionals who travel from the southern part of the country north- ward with the season. In shearing by hand, an expert can handle from 90 to 150 sheep a day, while some of the best shearers have sheared as many as 250 sheep in a day. On a good many ranches a sheep shearing plant run by gasoline or some other form of power is main- tained. The sheep cannot be sheared any faster by machines than by hand, but it is believed that a little more wool can be obtained than by hand shearing and that a novice is less likely to cut the sheep in shearing. Large companies have also been formed for the purpose of shearing sheep. SHEEP 613 The fleeces are tied up and are put in large sacks. For the purpose of sacking, a platform is built with a cir- cular opening, underneath which the sacks are fastened. The wool is thrown into the sacks and is there tramped down until the sacks are filled as full as possible. The sacks contain from 300 to 400 pounds. They are then sewed up and are ready for hauling away to market. No sorting of the wool is done on the ranch except that the wool from the black sheep is usually kept separate. small flocks as soon as the lambs are dropped. The bands are watched nights by a night herder and lambs which may be born then are separated with their mother from the rest of the band, which might otherwise trample the lamb to death. The ewe and lamb are placed in an individual lambing pen of scarcely sufficient size to hold them. Here they are kept for a few hours until it ap- pears that the lamb is owned or moth- ered. Fig. 380 — HAND SHEARING MACHINE WITH FLEXIBLE SHAFT This brings a little higher price than the white wool. Lambing — The lambing season is the earliest period in the year when suitable climate and feeding conditions may be expected. It is not desirable to have the lambs come before grass in the spring, since without green grass ewes do not give sufficient milk. Late snow- storms or cold rains may also seriously increase the death rate of the lambs. At the lambing season a large number of extra men are required, since the h.ands of ewes must be divided up into Daytimes a lambing wagon follows each lambing band. The wagon is di- vided into small pens on either side in- to which the lamb and ewe are placed as soon as the lamb is born. When the wagon is full they are hauled to the lambing shed. The ewes with young lambs are kept for the first few days in bands of 25 to 100, usually called lamb- ing bands. These bands are purposely kept small to make sure that the lambs are owned by their mother. Each band is under the care of a herder. Were the ewes and lambs allowed to run in large 614 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK bands at this time, it would be an easy matter for the lambs to become sepa- rated from their mothers. Where they are thus separated for 24 hours, the ewe frequently fails to recognize and own her lamb. This is not only a serious matter from the standpoint of the lamb but also on account of the ewe whose unmilked udder may become perma- nently injured thereby. At the end of a week or 10 days the small lambing bands are brought together into a herd of 2,500 to 3,000. At this age the lambs are ready for docking, castrating and marking. From now on the lamb band may be driven to greater distances from the home ranch. The increase in the fall, that is, when three to six months old. The ewes at this time are nearly dry and require but little or no atten- tion when the lambs are separated from them. At weaning time ewes and lambs are put in separate bands and kept far enough apart so that they do not hear each other bleating. The bucks are maintained in separate bands of from 50 to 1,000 or more until the season of service. In Montana and Wyoming they are turned in with the ewes about December 1, which brings the lambing period in May. Farther southwest they are turned in earlier; about one buck is provided for each 50 Fig. 381 — SHEEP SHEARING PLANT FOR 30 SHEEP flocks under western conditions varies from 50 to 100 per cent, averaging about 80 per cent. Single lambs are pre- ferred to twins under range conditions, since the ewes frequently fail to own the second lamb, which necessitates bringing it up as a "bum" lamb. These lambs have to be brought up on a bot- tle or an ewe must be caught and held for them until they learn to steal milk from other ewes. Where possible, of course, they are given to ewes that have lost lambs. The lambs are not usually separated from the ewes until the bands return from the summer mountain range in the Winter feeding on the range — At the present time the most cautious sheep- men provide considerable forage for winter use. Of the cultivated forage crops, alfalfa is by far most commonly employed. It cannot be grown, however, under ranch conditions, except by irri- gation. On the better lands it may be grown and stacked for 75 cents to $1.25 a ton, while its feeding value is from $5 to $7 a ton. Some sheepmen raise from 100 to 1,500 acres of alfalfa yearly, and feed it during the winter. Usually three crops are obtained, which necessi- tates a continuous haying from June to October. SHEEP 615 Where sheepmen are not favorably located for growing alfalfa many use simply the native hays, which are fre- quently found in very great abundance. Lupines are the more important of these. To prevent lupine poison, which sometimes occurs from eating the ripe seed, the plants are not harvested imtil late in the season, after the seeds have fallen. Stock sheep are fed simply a maintenance ration during the winter. Either lambs or sheep that are to be marketed are placed in corrals and not allowed to run upon the range. They are fed all the alfalfa hay they want. This is placed on the outside of the fence, leaving space for the sheep shipped to market. (See Sheep Fatten- ing on a Large Scale.) Cost and profit in sheep ranching — Where winter feeding is unnecessary, and public lands are used for grazing, the annual cost of caring for sheep in the West is about 25 cents a head. Where, however, an expensive plant is necessary with buildings and winter feeding, the cost is considerably in- creased, varying from 25 cents to $1.25 a head yearly. The income, of course, de- pends upon management, season, and the price and condition of wool. At the present time, the income from the fleece varies from $1 to $1.50 a head, and the lambs sell in the fall for from $2 to Fig. 382 — ANGORA GOATS (Courtesy of John Frye) to stick their heads through to get it. The hay is fed directly on the ground, as it has been found that less loss occurs in this manner than when fed in racks. The corrals are usually built so that a stream of water runs through a por- tion of it. Salt is supplied in large lumps and sometimes roots or grain are fed in addition. On alfalfa alone sheep will gain 6 to 8 pounds a month, requiring about three months to put them in good marketable condition. Many of the sheep, however, are sold to feeders who make a specialty of buying range sheep and carrying them farther east to the grain belt, where they are fattened and $3 a head, depending upon their con- dition. This amount for lambs can be considerably increased by feeding for a longer period with alfalfa hay. Under the better conditions a net profit of 50 cents to $1 a head is sometimes ob- tained, which makes the business enor- mously profitable where it is managed on a sufficiently large scale. The more responsible sheepmen have permanent locations with land and buildings of their own, and additional lands which they rent. There are, how- ever, many wandering sheepmen who have no permanent location, but travel from the southern ranges northward with the season, driving their flocks 610 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK wherever they can find pasture. Such sheepmen constitute a distinct menace to the legitimate sheep industry. A number of these men with large bands all aiming for the same point, tend to greatly overgraze certain areas, denud- ing them of grass and forage plants and greatly injuring the range. It has been shown again and again that where the land is not leased and where no indi- vidual or set of individuals can control the range, the results are disastrous to the grass. The rent for grazing land varies from 1 to 2 cents an acre, and the land can often be bought for from $3 to $4 an acre. for their fleeces as those do who grow sheep for wool alone. In years past Merino wool lias been the chief wool on the American market. The medium and coarse grades, supplied largely by the mutton type of sheep, have been offered in very much smaller quantities, as a result of which better prices have been paid in recent years than for Merino wool. By far the larger proportion of woolen goods is manu- factured from Merino wool; but for some purposes longer wools are superior, and for one purpose or another every grade and length of wool can be used. Fig. 383 — ANGORAS IMPORTED IN 1901 RAISING SHEEP FOR WOOL ALONE Sheep cannot be profitably grown for wool alone on high priced agricultural lands when wool brings but 20 to 25 cents a pound. In large flocks, under western range conditions, where land is cheap and one man can handle from 2,000 to 4,000 sheep, there is often con- siderable profit in growing sheep for wool alone; but even under western con- ditions a very large number of ranch- men believe in growing a general pur- pose sheep which will not only yield a good fleece, but also a good mutton car- cass. Mutton growers in the eastern states frequently obtain as much money For all grades of wool, however, there is apparently a bright future. Statistics — The United States pro- duces about one-eighth of the wool of the world and the average weight of the fleeces produced in this country is 7.2 pounds. At the present time the price varies from 15 cents for unwashed Me- rino wool to 35 cents for the various grades of unwashed combing wool, mak- ing the value of the fleece average from $1 to $2 each. The wool of sheep grows contin- uously throughout the year. If the feed of the sheep is uniform and nutritious, SHEEP 617 a uniform quality of wool will be pro- duced according to the breed of sheep. Anything which affects the health of the animal also affects the quality of the wool. During a period of sickness or scant rations, the wool may temporarily stop growing. When the animal recov- ers, or when better rations are fed, the wool begins growth again. As a result, however, of this interruption, a weak spot is produced in the wool which greatly decreases its strength and value for manufacturing purposes. The particular kind of ration fed, so long as it is nutritious, apparently has but little influence on the quality of wool produced. Craig at the Wisconsin station found that lambs fed grain at an early age grew faster and produced about 1 pound a head more wool than those not fed grain. When the wool was scoured, however, the amount of washed wool produced by the different lots was practically the same, showing that the grain feeding had produced more yolk in the wool but not more wool. In another experiment, Craig fed a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 10 in comparison with a more nitrogenous ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 3.6. The sheep fed the narrow ration clipped 2.8 pounds unwashed and 0.8 pound washed wool more than those fed the wide ration. The difference in weight, however, was found to be due almost en- tirely to the greater yolk in the fleece of the sheep fed the narrow ration. The amount of wool produced is apparently more a matter of breeding than of feeding, other factors being equal. Yolk — By yolk in the wool is meant the natural grease or oil secreted by the skin. Under normal conditions the yolk passes down through the fiber and escapes apparently at the end where it gradually works its way back into the fleece, giving it a kind of creamy ap- pearance. In healthy sheep the yolk con- stitutes about one-third of the weight of the fleece. At the factory, the fleeces are scoured and the yolk washed out be- fore the wool is used for manufacturing purposes. We have seen that grain feeding or the feeding of nitrogenous rations con- tributed to the production of the yolk and consequently a heavier fleece. The feeding of foods rich in oil also seems to favor the secretion of yolk. The yolk is of great importance in the fleece, as it keeps it soft and compact, clean and bright on the inside and is a protection to the sheep in turning water. It is a characteristic index of the healthfulness of the sheep, since in sheep underfed or unthrifty it may be nearly lacking, while if present in excessive quantities, indi- cated by accumulations in flakes, it may be taken as a sign of unthriftiness, due to overfeeding. Examining the fleece — The score card for the wool breeds of sheep is given on page 577. In examining the fleece on the sheep, it is first opened over the shoulder. This is the point where the finest and soundest wool of the fleece is likely to be found. In parting the wool, the hand should be used in a flat position. The poorest, coarsest wool on the fleece is found on the thigh, while the thinnest wooled portion is likely to be found on the belly. The more nearly the fleece approaches in length, thick- ness and fineness the % wool on the shoul- ders, the greater is the value of the fleece. A dense fleece is especially desirable, as it affords greater protection to the sheep from cold and exposure to wind and rain, and protects the inner wool from dirt and dust. Shearing sheep— Sheep are sheared once a year in all portions of the United States, except the southwest, where they are sheared twice a year, in April or ]\fay, and again in October. The shear- ing is done either by hand or by ma- chinery. Good shearers in the East can shear from 40 to 60 sheep a day, on the average, and the price for shearing is from 8 to 10 cents a head. Hand machines — On small farms or where there are less than 400 or 500 sheep to shear, the use of sheep shearing machines is of very doubtful economy. On a small scale shearing machines are run by hand power, requiring one strong boy or man to turn the machine and another to handle the clippers. The clippers work on the principle of the sickle of a mowing machine, the knife moves very rapidly, the power being transmitted through a flexible shaft. Sheep cannot be sheared any faster by machine than by hand; with care, how- ever, the wool can be cut closer and perhaps a little more secured a fleece than by hand shearing. The extra man, however, required to run the machine, more than offsets any greater value of 618 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK the wool. Where, however, a man has a flock of 1,000 or more to shear, and can supply the power for running the machines by steam or gasoline, it may be found economical. In the hands of the novice a little better job can be done with the machine clippers perhaps than with hand shears, otherwise there is no advantage in them. A further disad- vantage is that the knives must be re- turned to the factory for sharpening, oftentimes causing delay at a critical time in the shearing. fective from the manufacturer's stand- point and practically as good prices are secured for unwashed wool now as for the so-called washed wool. Of course, if shearing is done in the latter part of April, washing is generally out of the question, as at that early time of the year it would endanger both the health of the sheep and the men employed to wash them. When sheep are wasbed, they are usu- ally driven to some river or creek, where the water is waist deep, and then taken Fig. 384 YEARLING ANGORA (Bur. Anim. Ind. Bui. 27) The time to shear sheep in the north- ern states is April or May. The earlier the sheep can be sheared in the season, without causing discomfort from cold to the sheep, the greater the weight of fleece is likely to be and the better the quality of the wool. Washing sheep — Some years ago, sheep were generally washed before shearing. This practice has almost en- tirely gone out of vogue. The washing in creeks or otherwise is entirely inef- one by one into the stream. When a sheep is thoroughly soaked, the fleece \s shaken and squeezed so that the dirt is washed away. The head of the sheep should, of course, be held above water, and after they are washed they should be turned on a clean, grassy lot to dry. Oftentimes the fleece is so hea^y with water that the sheep will need assistance in getting on their feet. Ewes in lamb must be handled with especial care, though in most flocks the washing will SHEEP 619 not take place until June, when the lambing season should be over. Clean wool — Great care must be taken in the winter feeding of sheep and hous- ing to prevent the wool from becoming filled with chaff, burs, etc. The wool is valued always on the basis of its scoured weight, and the buyer always allows for whatever dirt may be present in it. The wool of sheep that have ac- cess to a straw stack in winter is likely to be filled with chaff and will not bring Tying wool — Sheep should be sheared on a clean floor or bench, free from dust, chaff or other litter in order that the fleece may be kept perfectly clean. If the wool is put in sacks or bales, no tying is required. Otherwise, the sides of the fleeces should be turned in and the fleece rolled together inside out and tied with a light, strong string, using as little as possible to securely hold the fleece together. The use of common, heavy, large sized sheep twine is espe- ~F'lg. 385 — GOAT KIDS IN" CORRAL (From U. S. Dept. Agric. Year Book) within 2 to 5 cents a pound as much as it would if the wool was free from chaff. Likewise wool which is full of sand or burs is docked by the buyer. The dock- age is not so much on account of the weight of the burs and chaff itself, as of the difficulty in separating these sub- stances from the fleece. This is usually a very tedious and expensive process and cannot be done without more or less in- jury to the wool fiber. Racks should be provided for sheep, at which tbey may eat without getting their necks full of chaff, seeds and dust. cially objectionable, not so much be- cause it increases the weight of the fleece 2 or 3 ounces, but because the fiber becomes mixed with the wool and must be combed out before the wool can be used for manufacturing. Mumford found that the lower price of Michigan wools as compared with Pennsylvania and Ohio wools was largely due to the old square method of doing up the fleece and the use of heavy, coarse sheep twine in tying it. The best twine to use is about No. 18 hemp or small linen. If the box is used 620 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK to do tip the fleece, it should he a little longer than usual and smaller and much less twine used. The tags should be trimmed off the fleece and sold separately. They should never be done up in the fleece. When sheep die of natural causes, the wool may be pulled off and sold. This pulled wool is not as valuable as sheared live wool, as it will not take dye as well and should always be sold separately as pulled wool. Likewise the pelt of a dead sheep is much less valuable than from one that has been killed. Paint marks on the wool represent so much loss to the manufacturer and con- sequently lower the price for the wool. Classification of wool — The grower will seldom be in a position to sort his wool in such a manner that it would be any benefit to the manufacturer. It should, however, be graded uniformly as regards fleeces of different breeds, put- ting those together of the same breed and character. Beyond this the grower will seldom be able to go. Wool is clas- sified in several different ways and in order that the grower may interpret the market prices of these different grades, a brief account will be given of them. In a broad way, wool is classified as Domestic, Territory and Carpet or Blanket wool. By Domestic wool is un- derstood the kind of wool generally ob- tained from sheep grown under general farm conditions. It should be bright, free from sand, dirt, burs, etc. Should it contain these materials, it would fall into the Territory class. The Territory wools are so called be- cause they are produced most abundantly in the territories and are generally discolored and dirty with sand, burs, seed, etc. Where, however, range wool is clean, it falls into the Domestic class. The Carpet or Blanket wool is com- posed of wools containing a large amount of hairy fiber and kemp. By kemp is meant the coarse white hairs which are found mixed with the wool in greater or less quantity. Kemp is usu- ally prominent in the face, the forearm and the inside of the flank. Whenever kemp is found in these latter places, it is likely to be more or less abundant throughout the whole breed. This kemp or hair does not take dye readily and on this account injures the fleece for manufacturing, except for the coarser grades of goods like carpets and blank- ets. In breeding sheep for wool, those which exhibit kemp should be fattened for market. The Domestic and Territory wool may be divided into three classes, desig- nated as clothing or m carding wool, De- laine and combing wool. This classifi- cation is based entirely on the length, quality and strength of the wool. And each one of these classes may be graded as fine, medium or coarse. Generally speaking, clothing wools are short wools of relatively fine quality and less than 2 1 2 inches in length. The Delaine wools are also fine wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos, which grow a long, strong wool staple, 2 1 2 to 3 inches in length, while combing wools are those over 3 inches in length which are sound. Nearly all of the coarser long wools are graded as combing wools. However, a wool which may be long enough for combing, if it be unsound, is classed as clothing or carding wool. These three different classes of wool are subdivided according to quality or size of fiber as follows : Clothing wools Combine: wools Delaine wools ¥ Picklock XXX XX Xo. 1 or 1 o blood Xo. 2 or % blood Xo. 3 or 3 i blood % blood y 4 blood Coarse or common Braid Pine Medium Low In this classification the Picklock is the highest grade of clothing wool; it is now rarely found on the market since usually only the wool from pure Saxony Merinos grade Picklock. The XXX is next highest in grade and is also scarce. It is sometimes found when Saxony Me- rinos are crossed with the common American or Spanish Merinos. The XX grade is a little lower than XXX and is the standard grade usually produced by the pure bred Merino. The three- fourths blood Merino, all high grade Merinos, and the coarser pure blood Merino wools grade as X. '"The terms one-half, three-eighths and one-fourth blood do not necessarily SHEEP 621 mean that the wools were grown on sheep posses-:::.: just that fraction of Merino blood. Many sheep containing no Merino blood grow wool grading three-eighths and one-fourth blood. Xumber 1 or one-half blood is the next coarser grade thai: X. Number $ is coarser than Xuniber 1. and so on." 1 .arse and grade wool are invariably combing wools and are the grades most frequently produced by Lincolns. L ters and is, which have fleeces coarse and long in staple but bright and lustrous. Fine Delaine wool is Merino wool fine enough to grade X, or above, and long in staple. '"Medium Delaine is the grade next coarser than the above, while Low De- laine is long enough to be combing but a grade finer than the finest combing wool, namely, three-eighths blood." In addition to these grades of wool noted above, other grades known as felt- ing wools and Xoils are occasionally quoted. The felting wools usually pos- - short staple and are adapted to felting purposes, because they felt- quickly. In felting "the fibers are in- terlocked in such a way that a solid is produced without the interme- ; rocess of spinning and weaving." 1 " Xoils refers to the dead and tender wools which are broken off in the proc- - ?ombing wool fibers between fine needles. They may also be called comb- ing waste. "The long and healthy fibers are carried along through the combing process and formed into what are called jps." The long staple wool usually includes the Lincoln, the Leicester. Cotswold. Romney Marsh and Blackface or High- land. The short staple includ-- Southdown. Hampshire. Suffolk, Shrop- shire, Oxford, Cheviot and Welsh. The Delaine, of course, comes from the De- laine and Improved Merinos. Prof. H. W. Mumford. whose classi- fication of wools has been followed above, secured typical ewe fleeces from a large number of sheep breeders. The fleeces were believed to be representative of the various breeds. The following table shows the weight of these fleeces, the percentage of shrink in washing, their commercial grade and the pri pound. WEIGHT OF FLEECE A>T> COMMERCIAL GRADE OF 1" IFFEREXT BREEDS. ~" - - - r ■ . , :-■ American Merino . . 17.1 National Delaine Merino 9.6 American Rambouillet. S.l H ...v.; s.-.:r- - _" :?- : ". i ;: Southdown 7.7 Shropshire 10.7 Suffolk (Ram) 6.9 Hampshire 9.4 Oxford Down 15.1 Oxford Down 18.fi ster (Ram) 12.5 Cotswold 12.3 Lincoln 14. T Tunis B.8 Dorset Horn B.9 Cheviot 9.1 Rambouillet- Am. Merino 7.3 an* Pnee Price f : —■-. ' <: ".---: '. n G^i« F.eeee Scoured per St. per lb. Fleece t i t xClothir.r - Fine Delaine 81% 51 8.04 xClothing 14% 1.61 :h:ng 19 18% 8.11 % combing 23 .37% : " -_ : TV." .:._ .. .42-.* - - Low Sg combing. .23 .53 % 1.61 mbing 23 .41 i . " i ■ ir.s 19 .32*4 2.88 Brai ". : ml rag - 12% 2.58 , blood 19 Braid combing. . . .19 Braid combing . . .. mbing ..... -- - 1.69 mbing sa 12% 2.34 y:r? 22^ .31 . 5 % ;r..bing 21*- .31 L.4C The table shows the percentage shrink - .ring different wools to vary from 27.4 per cent in the case of C sheep to 72.4 per cent in Merinos. The Lincoln produces the most valuable fleece, followed by the Oxfords, both breeds yielding combing wools, GOATS :s are more or less familiar ani- mals in the Unit I Si I - 3 pets for children. In the southwestern states Angoras are grown under range condi- tions for mohair. There are also a many common goats in the S among the negro farmers. According to the last ecu- - 5 goats for the whole country, of which 78 were reported from cities. Aboul 700,- 000 of the total are of the Angora breed, the remainder are all sorts of animals, except distinct breeds of milch goats of which there are so few as not to affect the total materially. 622 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK It is thus seen that by far the most important goats in the country are of the Angora breed. These were intro- duced into the United States about 1849 from Turkey. Other importations from tbat country followed until 1876. Some were also obtained from Cape Colony. For the most part the Angoras found their way into the southern and south- western states, principally Texas, New Mexico and California, where they con- stitute an important feature of animal industry. At the present time, consid- erable increased interest is manifested The demand for mohair in the United States for manufacturing purposes is far in excess of the amount produced, so that where favorable conditions exist for goat raising, there is assurance of a market for the product. The mohair from high-grade Angoras brings from 30 to 50 cents a pound and the fleece weighs from 2 to 4 pounds each. The meat of the common goat also is eaten extensively while young, and is considered equal to mutton. With the older common goats the meat is less de- sirable, as it acquires a strong flavor. mm i :-,: ? Fig. 386 — BRIDGE FOR SEPARATING DOES FROM KIDS (From U. S. Dept. of Agric. Year Book) in them and they are now found in prac- tically every state in the Union. Angora goats are useful from several different standpoints. Their skins are largely used in the manufacture of leather or for rugs. The fine hair of the Angora is known as mohair, and is ex- tensively used in the manufacture of various dress goods and plushes. Their habit of browsing is utilized profitably by farmers in clearing up brush land. Their flesh is delicate, palatable and nutritious, and their milk, though not as abundant as in the milch breed of goat, is superior to cow's milk in richness and is especially valuable for invalids and children. This is not true, however, with the An- gora breed, whose meat is much less pro- nounced in flavor, resembling more that of mutton in all stages of growth. The price paid a pound, however, is usually 1 to 2 cents less than that paid for mut- ton. The meat is usually bought as goat meat and sold as mutton. Some- times, however, it is sold under its true name, as Angora mutton or Angora venison, the term venison being espe- cially applicable when the goats are fat- tened on a wide range of forage plants, such as is obtainable in browsing. The use of one or two goats of either Angora or common breed in a flock of SHEEP sheep, is sometimes maintained as a pro- tection against dogs and wolves, as the goats will defend themselves and the herd against attacks of these animals. Goats readily adapt themselves to a wide range of conditions. They prefer, how- ever, rather high, dry land and love to sport about on rocks and logs. On lowlands they are, like sheep, subject to foot rot and lung worms, and for these reasons goat raising on lowlands is likely to prove unprofitable. Considerable interest has been man- ifested in the raising of goats for skins, since the United States imports about $25,000,000 worth of goat skins annually. Goat skins properly dried and cured are worth from 30 to 40 cents a pound, and it is a heavy skin that will weigh 4 pounds when dried. The conditions in the United States where goats could be raised for their skins alone are ex- ceedingly limited, since the cost of rais- ing them would more than equal the value of the pelt. Angora pelts are not as valuable as some of the other breeds, as they are more tender and not suitable for use in shoemaking. The skins that are imported come chiefly from India and other countries in which labor is very cheap, and it is doubtful whether under present conditons America can compete with the foreign market. In case of death, however, the skin of goats grown for mohair or for milk should be saved, as it represents a large part of the investment. American goat raising — The best con- ditions for goat raising in the United States are probably in the Rocky moun- tains and Pacific coast states. In these states the climate is generally dry and foot rot and lung worm are very uncom- mon. Goats apparently relish a much wider range of forage plants than sheep, they also travel much faster and in a day get over much more territory than does a band of sheep. They seem to pre- fer brush, briars, weeds and other coarse fodders, which are seldom eaten by cat- tle or sheep, to the best pastures of clover and alfalfa. This makes them of greater value in clearing new land than sheep. Both the common and An- gora goats are equally valuable for this purpose, and if combined in sufficient number on the brush lot will in two or three years kill out the brush entirely, and by their droppings enrich the land to such an extent that blue grass and other desirable pasture grasses will take complete possession, thus fitting the land for sheep or cattle that may follow. The general care and management of goats in the eastern states is practically the same as that of sheep. In the west- ern states they may be herded like the wool breeds of sheep in bands of 2,000 to 3,000. Considerable difference, however, is observed in the manner of treating the kids, as they are much more delicate than lambs. Description of Angora goat — Accord- ing to Thompson, it is exceedingly doubtful whether there is anywhere an absolutely pure bred Angora goat. This is due to the fact that the Turkish grow- ers in order to increase the output of mohair, crossed the Angora extensively on the common Kurd goat of that coun- try. What is today called the pure bred Angora is the product of crossing and recrossing. According to Hoerle, the American Angora goat should have a long, round body, straight bnck and shoulders and hip equally high from the ground, shoul- ders and quarters heavy and fleshy, chest broad, legs short and strong, head shaped like that of the common goat but less coarse and cleaner cut, the horns heavy with an outward twist inclining backward and to the outside. The entire animal should be densely covered with mohair, with the exception of the face and legs, and in the finest specimens, the mohair tuft on the forehead should be well developed. The mohair should be in long, curly ringlets. The more even in length and quality the mohair is on all parts of the body, the better. The larger part of the Angoras shed their hair annually if not sheared to prevent it. Occasionally they do not. The offensive odor in the common goat is practically entirely absent in the An- gora, except in the rutting season, and even then it is noted only to a slight degree. The female goat is called a doe and the male a buck, while the young is termed a kid. The term wether is used in the same sense as with sheep. The mohair on the goat becomes coarser as the animals grow older. With the better bred animals the best fiber is found upon the kid, followed by the yearling wethers and does. Eelative to the amount of mohair produced by An- goras, Mr. C. P. Bailey states that "half w I B «« o •< E-c M I s SHEEP 625 breed goats scarcely shear enough to pay for the shearing; three-fourths-bred goats shear 1 to IV2 pounds, worth 15 to 20 cents. Seven-eighths-bred goats shear 2 to 3 pounds, worth 20 to 30 cents. Fifteen-sixteenths-bred goats shear 3 to 5 pounds, worth 30 to 40 cents." The fourth cross or fifteen-sixteenths F/FTH Y£Xf? Fig. 388 — TEETH OF GOATS OF DIFFERENT AGES blood, is the lowest grade that he would use exclusively for mohair. The aver- age length of the year-old fleece is prob- ably about 10 inches, though lengths of 18 to 20 inches have been reported. It is claimed that goats running together in small herds will shear 30 to 40 per cent more than when running in large herds, showing that they require plenty of room. Breeding Angora goats — I n growing Angora goats for mohair, does must be secured which are at least fifteen-six- teenths Angora blood. The use of such animals will cost from $8 to $12 each and bucks from $50 to $100. It can be readily seen that this requires a large amount of capital to go into the busi- ness on an extensive scale, and unless there is sale for the surplus goats for breeding stock, the profits would not be great on the investment. The method commonly suggested for building up a flock of Angoras, is to secure pure bred Angora bucks and cross them upon the common goat. In select- ing common goats for stock only those should be used which are pure white. Any other color is objectionable. The does should be of the short hair variety, since the long haired ones persist in throwing out hairs among the mohair which greatly decreases its value. With a first-class buck, the flock should be in- creased at least 100 per cent the first year, since many of the common goats will have twins. The kids reach matur- ity when about 16 to 18 months old, though both the bucks and does will breed when about six months of age. The doe kids from the first cross should be crossed with another pure bred An- gora buck. This will give three-fourths- bred animals. With about the fourth cross a high grade of mohair can be ex- pected. By examining this method of produc- ing a flock it will be seen that it is rather a slower process and more expen- sive than is apparent at first. For in- stance, if 100 common does are bought, and they drop 100 kids, the chances are that only about 50 of these will be fe- males. If the second year these 50 half breeds are crossed,, they may also drop 50 kids, only 25 of which will be fe- males. The third cross will likewise give 12 or 13 females, and the fourth cross only six or seven females. Of course, the flock by this time will be made up of three or four different grades MBIXATIOX si AXD TABLE [EARIXG TROUGH of does and each year thereafter will see an additional number of high-grade An- goras added to the flock. Goats are in prime condition when from two to six years old, but may be bred up to 10 or 12 years old. The verage life is a little longer than that of the sheep. In-and-in breeding or the crossing together of the related animals is not generally considered advisable, as FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK it tends to weaken the constitution of the stock. It is practiced, however, by- some Angora goat breeders with success. It is a matter which requires great skill and judgment, and in the hands of the ordinary breeder is likely to be a failure. ig. 390 — PLAN OF GOAT HOUSE FOR Mil CH GOATS The bucks should not be put with the does until October or November. The period of gestation with the ewes is the same as that for sheep, being practically 21 weeks. The does will breed twice a year if given an opportunity, but usu- ally this is not desirable. One buck is allowed to 50 does, and if placed with only part of the flock at a time, may be satisfactorily used for 100 does. The pure bred Angora goats seldom ever drop more than one kid. The pro- duction of twins is looked upon as an indication of common blood. Goats are sheared once or twice a year, depending upon the climate and locality. In Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and sometimes in California, shearing takes place in March or April and again in September or October, the reason being that owing to the warm climate the fleece will often be shed in the fall if not clipped. In other parts of the country they are usu- ally sheared in the months of April or May. The summer fleeces in the South- west are rather short and much less de- sirable for manufacturing purposes. The price of these fleeces is not as high as for the yearling fleeces and the com- bined weight of the two fleeces is but a little more than the weight from annual shearing. Shearing goats_Goats are sheared with sheep shears or with machinery in the same manner as sheep and the argu- ments there presented as to the merits of these two methods apply also to goats. They are seldom washed before shearing. After shearing the fleece should be packed and sacked without being tied. The practice of some shear- ers in tying with coarse twine is objec- tionable, as the fiber gets mixed with the mohair, making considerable extra work to remove it, thus reducing the price. If the fleeces are tied, only a small, hard, smooth twine should be used. The amount of mohair annually im- ported is about 1,200,000 pounds, while the amount produced in the country is a little over 1,000,000 pounds. The Fig. 391 — MILCH GOAT STALLS tariff of 1897 puts a duty of 12 cents a pound upon mohair, and a duty on dressed and finished goat skins of 20 per cent. There are two registration associa- tions in the United States for Angora goats, the American Angora Goat Asso- ciation, with headquarters at Kansas SHEEP 627 City, Mo., and the National Angora Eecord Association, with headquarters at Salem, Oregon. Relative profits with Angoras and sheep — Under the agricultural condi- tions in eastern and northern United States, it is very doubtful whether An- gora goats can compare favorably as an investment with sheep. A good two or three-year-old ewe will cost $3.50 to $4.50. She will produce one, two or tbree lambs yearly, besides a fleece worth $1 to $1.50. The lambs if allowed to Fig. 392 — SCHWARZWALD MILCH GOAT run with the ewe and not given grain, will sell for $1.50 to $2 apiece in the fall, and if fed grain and fattened will sell for $3 to $5 apiece. A goat on the other hand will cost $8 to $12 apiece, will drop but one kid and the fleece is worth no more than that of the sheep. The cost of production is about the same in both cases. The investment and the risk in the goats is a little larger than in sheep. It is only in exceptional circumstan- ces that Angoras will equal sheep in profitableness; certainly, not under gen- eral farm conditions. Care of Angoras_As before noted, Angoras are great travelers and will run all over the farm inside of half a day unless fenced in. A wire fence 4 feet high, with the wires spaced close enough so that they cannot get their heads between them, will confine them satisfactorily. If the fence is made of rail and slants the least bit outward, they will readily climb it. They should not be closely herded and do best when given absolute freedom, except as con- fined by fences. They require shelter from rain and storm. This is much more necessary for Angoras than for sheep. Dry cold does not injure them in the least, but when their heavy fleece becomes soaked with cold water or heavy with sleet, many deaths are sure to follow. If given access to shelter, goats will seek it to avoid the coming rains. It is claimed that they are good barometers and can foretell stormy weather. Dur- ing the night time goats should be kept in confinement, whether pastured or on the range. They require a dry place in which to sleep and eat, and this is also necessary on account of the fleece which would otherwise become filthy with dirt. Considerably more shed room should be allowed than for sheep. Where the winters are open, goats will browse all winter. In winter feed- ing they require much the same man- agement and care as sheep, and may be given straw and fodder of any kind. Oats constitute one of the best grains and may be fed whole. In fattening goats for market, they may be fed in exactly the same manner as recom- mended for sheep and lambs. With clo- ver or alfalfa roughage, little or no grain need be fed. No other animal is so particular in regard to cleanliness in feeding. Salt is required in even greater abundance than for sheep and is best given as rock salt in the form of lumps under shelter. Kidding_The first two or three days after the kid is dropped it is exceedingly weak and delicate and will die from very Fig. 393 GERMAN FORM MILCH GOAT little exposure and neglect. They are much more delicate than lambs. Later on when they are able to follow the does, they are stronger than lambs. If the kids come in cold weather, especially warm stables must be provided, as well 628 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK as succulent feed, for the does to main- tain a good milk supply. The does should be kept together at kidding time in limited numbers, perhaps not more than 20 in a pen. If the kids are dropped on the range or at pasture, they must be carried home and special care given to see that the does own them. After dropping the kid the doe hides it and will go off and feed half a day or more before returning to it. The kid is so weak that it is unable to follow the doe until two or Fig. 394 AFRICAN DWARF MILCH GOAT three days old, and then makes but little headway. For this reason, in handling Angora goats, the kids are kept at the stables for eight to ten days after they are dropped. Sometimes each kid is tied to a stake in the shed with a string about 14 inches long. The string is shifted from one leg to the other to avoid lameness and should be provided with a swivel to prevent twisting. By another method, a board from 12 to 20 inches high is placed across the bottom of the door. When the does go out to feed they easily jump over this, but the kids being weak are retained in the shed until the does come back. A bridge is sometimes used instead of the board. By this method the does jump up onto the bridge and are less likely to injure their udders than by jumning over the board. The kids ordinarily are not al- lowed to run with their mothers, partic- ularly under range conditions, until six to eight weeks old. The kids are weaned when about 4!/2 months old. The bucks should always be weaned as early as five months, as they begin breeding soon after this age. Those not wanted for breeding purposes, should be castrated when about four weeks old. Milch goats_The milch goat indus- try is entirely in its infancy in this country. So far as the writers know, there are only a few herds kept es- pecially for milk, and these are near the larger cities. In Europe, particlarly in Switzerland, Germany and France, as well as some of the countries of southern Europe, goats are extensively reared for their milk and a large number of milk breeds have been developed. It is claimed that the milk of goats is peculiarly val- uable for invalids. It is richer in sugar and fat than cow's milk, and it more nearly approaches' mother's milk in com- position than that of any other animal. On this account it is especially valuable for nursing infants and also for invalids. At Palisades Park, N. J., an Italian colony keep about 500 goats, from which a good revenue is derived from the sale- of milk, butter and kids. A good milch doe should yield two quarts of milk a day. The period of lactation varies from six to seven months in the year. With some breeds a yield of 4 to 5 quarts of milk a day is com- mon and 3 quarts may be regarded as the average of the better breeds. The cost of keeping milch goats is very small as compared with that of a cow, since they relish a very much wider range of forage and will eat a large proportion of the waste of the kitchen. For this rea- son it is believed they have an impor- Fig. 395 — NUBIAN GOAT tant place as a milch animal for the poor man who cannot afford to keep a cow, and especially for poor people who live in the suburbs of large cities, or who work in mining districts. For invalids also they have an impor- tant place. On this account it would seem that their numbers might be in- creased at sanitariums, where a hicrh ouality of nutritious milk is especially desired. In this connection goats have SHEEP 629 a peculiar value in that they can be easily transported on the cars and can be taken from place to place at a small cost. It is well known that the milk of cows varies greatly in composition, and while that of one animal may agree with an invalid, the milk supplied by another animal would disagree, this of course would be overcome if the invalid should take his milk animal along with him. Goat milk has a distinct flavor and character of its own. The fat globules are exceedingly small, rising to the sur- face very slowly. The color of the milk is nearly always pure white. It contains on the average about 85.6 per cent water, Fig. 396— TOGGENBURG MILCH GOAT 4.6 fat, 4.3 sugar, 1.3 albumen, 3.5 casein. The flavor of the milk is affected by the character of the feed and the surroundings. The goat is a scavenger, and if allowed to eat all that it can pick up on the street and in the garbage pail, the milk is liable to have a decided flavor. In addition, the milch goat has a peculiar odor and requires unusual care to keep it clean. The chief factor influencing the flavor of the milk is the dirt which falls from the body of the animal into the milk at milking time. The buck has an espe- cially strong odor and if the doe is milked near the buck this odor is ab- sorbed by the milk. The goats should never be milked in the stable, but out- side in the open air. Does in full flow of milk should be milked three times a day, later, twice a day will be sufficient. Goats' milk is extensively used in the preparation of various cheeses, particularly Roquefort, Ricotto, Schweitzer and various other cheeses. One of the special features claimed for goats is that they are immune to tuberculosis. Careful investigations have shown that where goats are allowed to roam at will out of doors, less than 1 per cent have tuberculosis. When kept in stables, however, under the same conditions as dairy cows, they develop tuberculosis to an equal extent. The claim, therefore, that they are less tuber- culous than dairy cattle depends entire- ly upon the conditions under which they are kept. Ordinarily they are allowed more freedom than dairy cattle and there is much less likelihood of produc- ing tuberculous milk. Breeding milch goats_The milch breeds should be bred twice a year, since their period of lactation is only from six to seven months. In order to have a continuous supply of milk a flock of two or three goats will be necessary. The bucks should never be allowed to run with the does except at breeding time. Teed for milch goats should be the same as that for dairy cattle. Goats relish grains, oats, dry fodders and roots. Where it is desired to raise the kids and at the same time use the goat's milk for family purposes, the kid may be brought up on a bottle with cow's milk, in the same manner as lambs. As with Angoras, the average life of the milch goat is about 12 years, and they are at their best from five to seven years old. They may be used as brush wood destroyers, like Angoras, and are equally valuable. The number of breeds of milch goats is quite large. Thompson in The Milch Goat, describes over 30. Toggenburg breed— Probably the most valued European breed is the Toggen- burg, from Switzerland. It is a brown colored animal with a white bar down each side of the face. There are both long haired and short haired strains. They are lanky and lean in appearance and comparatively free from odor. The teats are usually very large and long. The breed is generally hornless. These goats give from 4 to 5 quarts of milk a day, while the best does yield from 4 to 6 quarts. The Saanen goat i s another valued Swiss breed. This is one of the largest milch breeds of goats produced in Swit- zerland. Its color is pure white, the hair 630 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK short, except a strip dong the spinal column, and down the flank. It is prac- tically a hornless breed. All the better does are considered excellent milkers. Other important Swiss breeds are the Appenzell and Schwarzthal goat. The Maltese goat is the important milk breed produced on the island of Malta in the Mediterranean sea. Among the important German milk breeds are the Schwarzwald goats, which is a fawn colored breed with a black stripe down the middle of the back; the Langensal- zaer goat, a hornless breed of various colors, Harz Mountain goats, etc. For •an extended account of Milch goats see United States Department Agricul- ture, Bureau Animal Industry Bui. No. 68, by George F. Thompson. The American Milch Goat Record Associa- tion was organized in 1903. PART XI Poultry EXPLANATION OF COLORED PLATE ON THE FOWL The Exterior Upper bill Lower bill Cleft of bill Nostrils Comb Forehead Crown of head Occiput Eye Ear lobes 12 Wattles Throat Nape of neck Upper neck Lower neck Neck covers Fore breast Lower breast Belly Rump and anus Upper back Lower back Saddle Angle of wing Wing coverts Shoulder coverts Primaries of wing Small wing coverts Saddle feathers ■32 Tail feathers Knee Lower part of thigh Hock Tarsus Spur •41 Toes Skeleton 1 Intermaxillary 2 Lower mandible 3 External nares 4 Nasal 5 Frontal 6 Cranium 7 Eye socket 8 Interorbital foramen 9 Quadrate 10 Cervical vertebrae 11 Dorsal 12 Lumbar 13 Sacral 14 Caudal 15 Clavicle 16 Sternum 17 Body of same 18 Spine of same 19 Anterior process of same 20 Costal process of same 21 Styloid process of same 22 External process of 23 Coracoid 24 Scapula 25 Humerus 26 Radius 27 Ulna 28 Carpals 29 Metacarpals 30 Thumb 31 Middle finger 32 Third finger 33 Ribs 34 Uncinate processes of 35 Sternal ribs 36 Ilium 37 Ischium 38 Pubis 39 Acetabulum 40 Femur 41 Patella 42 Tibia 43 Fibula 44 Calcaneum 45 Tarsals 46 Metatarsal 47 Spur core 48-51 Toes Exterior without Feathers 1 Upper bill 2 Lower bill 3 Cleft of bill 4 External nares 5 Comb 6 Forehead 7 Crown of head 8 Occiput 9 Eyelids 10 Ear lobes 11. 12 Wattles 13 Throat 14 Nape of neck 15 Upper neck 16 Lower neck^ 17 Fore breast 18 Lower breast 19 Belly 20 Upper back 21 Lower back 22 Rump 23 Shoulder joint 24 Arm 25 Elbow 26 Forearm 27 Carpus 28 Middle finger 29 Thumb 30 Knee 31 Lower thigh 32 Hock 33 Tarsus 34 Spur 35-38 Toes 39 Skin with feather Muscles 1 Masseter 2 Temporal 3 Trachea 4 Esophagus 5 Crop 6 Neck muscles 7 Keel of sternum 8 Pectorals 9 Latissimus dorsl 10 Intercostals 11 Abdominal muscles 12 Tail muscles 13 Fat tissue 14 Wing muscles 15 Lower wing muscles 16 Thumb 17 Middle finger 18 Third finger 19 Thigh muscles 20 Leg Internal Organs 1 Upper bill 2 Lower bill 3 Cleft of bill 4 External nares 5 Comb 6 Cerebrum 7 Cerebellum 8 Medulla oblongata 9 Spinal cord 10 Cross section spinal cord 11 Cross section muscu- lature 12 Pharyngeal cavity 13 Larynx 14 Trachea 15 Bronchi 16 Lung 17 Heart 18 Aorta 19 Pulmonary artery 20 Posterior vena cava 21 Sternum 22 Esophagus 23 Crop 24 Thoracic part of esophagus 25 Entrance into stomach 26 Fore stomach 27 Gizzard 28 Pancreas 29 Jejunum 30 Cloaca with anus 31 Kidney 32 Vas deferens 33 Testicle 34 Suprarenal bodies 35-36 Oil gland 37 Fat tissue FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK POULTRY The poultry industry ; n the United States is a very important one. On farms, the care of poultry is largely left to the women, the farmer not consider- ing it worth his while to look after so small a matter. The census of 1900 furnishes some startling figures on the importance of this industry in the United States. In that year the number of fowls of all kinds was placed at 250,- 681,673, having an estimated value of $85,784,996. In one year this number of fowls produced poultry worth $136,- 891,877, and eggs worth $144,286,370, a total value of $281,178,247, or an annual gross income on the investment of 380 per cent. The egg product alone for that year was greater than the combined gold and silver product of the United States for any year since 1850, while the value of poultry and eggs together was worth more than either the gold or silver pro- duction of the world for any year since the beginning of records with but two exceptions, 1898 and 1899. As compared with other animals, the poultry and eggs of that year outvalued the total exports of animals and animal products during all the years down to and including 1900. These figures are startling in their magnitude and bring out strongly the importance of the poultry industry. CHICKENS Profits in the business — The profits to be made in the poultry business seem most alluring to the man who figures it out on paper. Theoretically, a hen will lay on the average 150 eggs a year, which, at two cents apiece would bring in $3. The cost of maintaining the hen is $1, leaving a net profit of $2. To secure an income of $1,000, therefore, it is only necessary to have about 500 hens. The truth of the matter is that many have made this sum and more than this with 500 hens, while more than 90 per cent of those who have attempted it have failed. The poultry business is a trade and an art and the man who suc- ceeds in it must serve his apprenticeship and perhaps make many failures before he finally makes the profits exceed the losses. Cost of producing eggs — Some inter- esting figures on the cost of producing eggs are supplied by the New York Cor- nell experiment station which made a ttst in co-operation with practical com- mercial poultry growers in that state to determine the average cost of producing eggs in the winter and the amount of food consumed. In the experiment no restrictions were placed upon the owners as to how the fowls were to be fed, cared for or managed. They were simply asked to produce by the usual method of feeding, the greatest possible number of eggs at the lowest possible cost. In all, records were kept of 5,200 fowls for the four months, December to March inclusive. The average cost of a dozen eggs with these hens was 18 cents, ranging from a minimum of about 6 cents a dozen to a maximum of $6 a dozen. The average price of eggs dur- ing the experiment was 25 cents a dozen. The cost of food consumed during the four months was at the rate of $35.33 for 100 hens. And the net profit $16.30 or about $4 a month on 100 hens. Each 100 hens on the average laid daily 22.8 eggs; or about one egg for each five hens. In these experiments one flock of 500 White Leghorn hens laid 4,504 eggs which sold at $389.38. The cost of pro- duction was $159, thus leaving a net profit of $230.38 for four months work. Another man with a flock of 387 fowls secured 3,716 eggs during the test, which sold for about $55.52. The cost of pro- duction was $65.50. Thus there was an actual loss of $9.98 for four months' work. Both flocks laid well but the first 636 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK flock produced the larger part of their eggs during early winter when prices were high, while the other flock laid the most of their eggs in late winter when eggs were cheaper. A conservative estimate of the profits to be made in a well managed flock of chickens, is about $1 a hen a year. Some people make a comfortable living on from 200 to 300 hens, by selling eggs, raising pullets and fattening cockerels. But a man must understand his busi- ness and attend to it, if he does this well. It requires a considerable amount of cap- ital to go into the poultry business on a sufficiently large scale to make a living from it. He should have between $1,500 and $2,000 capital, besides owning his ground. His hens one to two years old will cost 50 to 75 cents apiece, while the cost of housing and yarding them will average close to $1.75 apiece in the northern states and proportionately less farther south, where cheaper winter buildings will suffice. Generally there is more money in egg production than in any other form of poultry farming. Each hen will consume about 75 pounds of food a year, which it will usually be necessary to buy and pay for. And if more than about 500 hens are kept, an assistant will be necessary, with wages from $20 to $35 a month. No other form of animal industry has been more extensively studied in the United States than the poultry industry and in the following pages an attempt will be made to present the more important facts relative to the present best prac- tices. BREEDS OF CHICKENS There are about 40 breeds and a hun- dred varieties of chickens now grown in the United States. These may be con- veniently classified into (1) General purpose breeds, many of which are of American production, the most impor- tant being the Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- dottes, Rhode Island Reds, Dorkings, Dominiques, Javas, Orpingtons, and, perhaps, Indian Games; (2) Egg breeds mostly of Mediterranean origin, and in- cluding the Leghorns, Minorcas, Anda- lusians, Hamburgs and Spanish breeds; (3) Meat breeds, mostly of Asiatic ori- gin, and including the Cochin, Brah- mas, Langshan, Faverolles, etc, and (4) Fancy breeds, of which the game and bantam breeds are best known. Egg breeds—These include all the small or medium sized breeds of chick- ens that have a strong tendency toward egg production. They have an active, nervous disposition, a trim appearance, seldom desire to sit, do not take on an excessive quantity of flesh, and require plenty of liberty and exercise to produce the best results in egg yield. The meat is rather inferior for table purposes, ex- cept when the birds are young. They mature quickly and up to 10 or 12 weeks of age make good broilers. Leghorn — The White Leghorn is probably the best of the egg breeds for & L $mmt': Eig. 307 — SINGLE COMB WHITE LEGHORN laying in both winter and summer. In addition to the white form there are al- so Black, Brown, Buff, Dominique, Silver Duckwing and Pyle, varieties of Leghorns and single and rose comb forms. They do best when given free range. They have an active, nervous disposition, mature early, lay large white eggs when four to six months old and make good broilers. When well managed, no other breed will excel them in egg production, the average production running between 150 and 200 eggs a year. Minorcas — These are larger fowls than the Leghorns, though similar in build and not as wild and nervous in disposition. They are second only to POULTRY 637 Leghorns in egg production. The black variety is most commonly bred but there is also a white variety and single and rose comb sub-varieties. The cocks of standard size will weigh 8 pounds. The hens 6y 2 pounds. They lay very large white eggs and are non-sitters. Blue Andalusians — This is a hand- some bird marked with light and dark blue plumage but has a white skin and blue shanks. The hens are non-sitters Fig. 398 — SINGLE COMB WHITE LEGHORN and lay large white eggs, equal in size to those of the Minorcas. The chicks are very hardy and the pullets begin laying when five to six months old. They easily rank with the Leghorns and Mi- norcas for farm purposes. In size they are about equal to the Leghorns. Black Spanish — This is one of the oldest breeds of poultry. They have a large red comb and wattles with large white face and lobes, that contrast strikingly with their glossy black plum- age. Pullets lay from 150 to 180 large white eggs a year and are above the av- erage as winter layers. In size the breed is about equal to the Leghorns. Hamburgs are in general appear- ance much like the Leghorns. There are six varieties, the Golden Spangle, Silver Spangle, Golden Pencil, Silver Pencil, Black and White. They are all very attractive in appearance and stand in the front rank as egg producers. They are non-sitters and produce rather small white shelled eggs. The Silver Spangle Hamburg is perhaps the most popular. Meat breeds_As the term indicates, the chief value of the meat breeds of poultry is for meat. They lay compara- tively few eggs, are slow in movement, persistent sitters and require a full year to reach maturity. They have a rather sluggish nature, short, heavy legs, and a tendency to become fat. The Light Brahma is the largest of these breeds. The plumage of the male is pure white excepting the hackle, tail and flights which are black and white, striped with black. The cocks will weigh about 12 pounds, the hens 9^ pounds. They are a very hardy breed and fair layers, producing eggs of a rich brown color, weighing about seven to the pound. The dark Brahmas are much less popular and are about a pound lighter. Cochins stand next in popularity to the Brahma. The Buff Cochin is the variety most generally bred. There are also Partridge, Black and White varie- ties. The cocks weigh about 11 pounds and the hens 8V2 pounds. The legs and feet of this bird are heavily feathered The eggs are of a rich brown color and medium size. Skin and legs yellow. Langshans are the smallest of the Asiatic class. They have white flesh and dark legs, are good foragers and sit- Fig. 399 — single comb black Minorca ters, hardy, and fairly good layers. The cocks weigh about 10 pounds at matu- rity and the hens about 7. There are black and white varieties of Langshans. Faverolle is a French breed noted for, quick maturity and the excellent quality of the young broilers and roast- ers. They have white skin and light colored shanks. They are usually five toed and the shanks are feathered. The breed is about equal in size to the American Plymouth Kock. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Other French meat breeds are the La Fleche and Creve-coeur, both black breeds with Y-shaped combs. The La Fleche breed is rather tall, gaunt look- ing, delicate constitutioned, furnishing flesh of excellent quality, second only to the Game in delicacy. They are moder- Fig. 400 SILVER SPANGLED HAMBURG COCKEREL ate layers of large white eggs. The Creve-coeurs are more compact in form and are crested, but are likewise weak constitutioned. Cocks weigh about 8 pounds, hens 7 pounds. The La Fleches are about ^2 pound heavier. General purpose breeds — As the name indicates these breeds occupy a middle ground between the small ' egg laying breeds and the large meat breeds. They are intermediate in size and while not as good layers, perhaps, as the strictly egg breeds, are much better layers than the meat breeds. Plymouth Rock — This is one of the best and most popular of the general purpose breeds. There are several strains. The Barred Rock which is per- haps the most popular, with both single and double comb strains, White Ply- mouth Rock, Buff Plymouth Rock, Par- tridge, and Silver Pencil. In the Barred Rock the color is gray-white, regu- larly crossed with parallel bars of blue black. This breed is especially valuable for farmers and market poultrymen. They are of medium size, well propor- tioned, with a deep, full breast, hardy and mature early. They are good winter layers, and one of the best breeds for set- ting. The eggs are brown colored, run' ning about eight to the pound. The standard weight of the cock is 9^2 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7V2 pounds, pullets 6^ pounds. The Wyandotte stands next in im- portance to the Plymouth Rock in pop- ularity. They are a much later developed breed than the Plymouth Rock and are somewhat more blocky in shape. They are especially sought after for the production of broilers. For utility pur- poses they may be regarded as the equal of the Plymouth Rock. The farmer who selects either of these breeds will make no mistake. There are Black, Buff, Golden, Partridge, Silver and White varieties, the White Wyandotte being most popular. The chicks are exceed- ingly hardy and mature early. The hens are excellent sitters and good mothers and as good layers as the Plymouth Rocks. The eggs, however, are not quite so attractive in color or so uniform in shape as those of the Plymouth Rock, being a somewhat lighter shade of brown. The standard weight of cocks is 8V2 pounds ; cockerels, 7V2 ; hens, 6V2 ; and pullets, h x /i. Fig. 401 — LIGHT BRAHMA HEN The Rhode Island Red closely re- sembles the White Wyandotte in gen- eral form. While bred more particu- larly for roasters and broilers they are equally as good layers as the Wyandotte. The color is a reddish buff, and there are both single and rose comb varieties. They are hardy and good layers and rapidly growing m popularity in New POULTRY England. The Khode Island Whites closely resemble the Wyandotte, both the Eeds and Whites are a little smaller than the Plymouth Rock. Dominique — While this is one of the oldest American breeds it is similar in Fig. 402 — BUFF COCHIN appearance though slightly smaller than the Plymouth Rock and on this account has been largely supplanted by the Ply- mouth Rock in recent years. The Java is also one of the oldest of the American class but has been sup- planted in recent times by the more modern varieties. They are an excellent general purpose fowl, in size about equal to the Plymouth Rock and are likewise good layers, sitters and mothers. There are three types of this breed, the Black, Mottled and White. The standard weight of the cocks is 9 1 /2 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens T 1 /^ and pul- lets 6%. Dorking — There are three varieties of this English breed, the White, Sil- ver Gray and Colored. All are charac- terized by having five toes and producing flesh of excellent table qualities. They are all good layers and sitters and ex- cellent farm fowls. The standard weight of the cocks is as follows : Colored, 9 pounds; Silver Gray, 8 pounds; White, 7 : /2 pounds. The hens weigh from 6 to 7 pounds. Orpington — A very promising, re- cently introduced English breed. There are Buff, White, Black and Spangled varieties with single and rose combs. The Buff is most popular. In size they are about equal to the Plymouth Rock. They are excellent layers, hardy and an excellent farm fowl. The skin is white. Shanks are pink. Indian Game — This is a popular breed of aristocratic looking birds weighing about the same as the Plymouth Rocks. The meat is of unexcelled flavor; but they are only medium layers. There are both Black, (Cornish) and White varieties. The breast of the . breed is very white, round and prominent with well rounded, tapering thighs. Breeds to select on the farm — For general farm conditions, where both eggs and meat are desired, we know of no breed superior to the Barred Ply- mouth Rock, though there are a num- ber of other varieties, perhaps just as good. Where a specialty is to be made Fig. 403 — BLACK LANGSHAN of eggs, some of the egg breeds should be chosen and our preference is for the White Leghorns. We assume that the farmer is not interested in the produc- tion of fancy breeds such as the Polish, the Game, Silkies which have hair -like feathers, Frizzles, with feathers that curl backward at the end. Yokohamas, 640 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK noted for tneir great length of tail and hackle feathers, Bantams, etc. Neither will the farmer ordinarily desire to con- fine himself to the heavy meat breeds, since they mature too slowly and pro- Fig. 404 — SALMON FAVEROLLE HEN duce too few eggs to make them profit- able, under general farm conditions, in comparison with the general purpose breeds. Tests of Breeds — A good many ex- periments have been reported in which the value of the different breeds for egg production have been tested. At the Michigan station, three pens, contain- ing 25 fowls each, laid the following number of eggs during the year : Golden Wyandottes, 3,555; Barred Plymouth Rock, 3,360; Brown Leghorns, 3,225. In another six months' test at the same station, tbe average number of eggs laid by the different breeds was as follows: Single Comb Brown Leghorns, 80.6; Rose Comb Brown Leghorns, 84.4; White Plymouth Rock, 75.8; Golden Wyandotte, 102.8; Silver Pencil Ham- burg, 86.7; Partridge Cochin, 92.5; Dark Brahmas, 59.2; Cornish Indian Game, 63.2. In a test at the Canada experimental farms, White Leghorns laid the most eggs, then Plymouth Rocks, followed by Black Minorcas. At the West Virginia station, White Leghorns laid on the average 20 more eggs a hen and were 53 cents more profitable a hen during tbe year than mongrel fowls. White Leghorns, however, weigh only about 3 V& to 4 pounds each. The meat is white and of inferior quality. For these reas- ons the heavier general purpose breeds are recommended for the farm. Color op eggs — Some markets make a distinction in price between white and brown eggs. The Boston market will pay from 2 to 5 cents a dozen more for brown eggs than for white ones; in New York City, white eggs are pre- ferred. The following breeds produce brown eggs: Plymouth Rock, Wyan- dotte, Rhode Island Red, Orpington, Langshan, Java, Indian Game, Fave- rolles, Brahma, Cochin, Dominique, English Game, etc. The following breeds produce white shelled eggs : Leghorn, Spanish, Minorca, Andalusian, Hamburg, etc. One breed on the farm — Whatever breed is selected, it should be adhered to strictly, since if the poultry is mar- keted alive, a uniform lot makes a better impression and brings a better price than a mixed lot of fowls. A uniform lot of fowls on the farm advertises the Fig. 405 — creve-coeur cock place to a much greater extent than a mixed lot. If all the fowls are white or buff or barred, they attract the atten- tion of passers-by, and create a demand for eggs for breeding purposes. These, POULTRY 641 of course, always bring a much better price than eggs sold for eating or cook- ing, ranging from 75 cents to $2 a set- ting. We strongly recommend pure breeds for the farm. Pure-bred cocks should Pig. 406 — BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLET always be used and only those hens re- tained for breeding purposes which show in a striking degree tbe markings of the breed to which they belong. Both the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes are as hardy, as good foragers, and as good layers as the scrub and mixed breeds commonly seen throughout the country. They are as easily raised, much more uniform in size, more attractive and more profitable. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION Under natural conditions, fowls lay the most of their eggs in the spring, and under domestication this tendency is still strong in all breeds. The greatest profit from eggs is secured when they are laid in late fall and early winter. In order to induce hens to lay during this period, we should surround them with conditions approximating those of the spring months. Eggs are quite similar to lean meat in composition, and hence, in feeding for egg production, we should feed a comparatively large amount of nitrog- enous material. This is best secured by feeding mixed grains, succulent feeds, like green grass, cut and steamed clover and alfalfa hay, roots, etc., and also some kind of meat. In the spring and summer months hens at liberty con- sume an enormous quantity of bugs, worms, flies, etc., and in feeding for egg production in the winter a substitute in the form of ground bone, meat meal, beef scraps, etc, should be provided. So far as experiments go, they indicate that the nutritive ratio of the rations fed to hens should be about 1 :4. Nitrogenous vs. carbonaceous rations for hens — I n a test reported by the West Virginia station, 100 hens re- ceiving a nitrogenous ration laid 7,555 eggs in a year, while 100 hens fed. a car- bonaceous ration laid but 3,431 eggs. The Utah station reports that it secured more eggs on a nitrogenous ration hav- ing a nutritive ratio of 1:4.9, than on a carbonaceous ration with a nutritive ra- tio of 1:6.7. At the Rhode Island sta- tion more eggs were produced when the nutritive ratio of the ration was 1 :2.8, than when 1:5 or 1:8.4, respectively; Fig. 407 — WHITE WYANDOTTE COCKEREL the fewest eggs were produced on the widest ration, 1 :8.4. On the other hand, at the Massachu- setts Hatch station, hens fed a ration rich in corn, 1 :6.5, laid 25 per cent more eggs in winter and 33 1-3 per cent more 642 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK in summer than hens fed a ration with a nutritive ratio of 1 :4.7. The hens fed the more carbonaceous corn ration gained more in weight than those fed a nitrogenous ration and the eggs pro- Fig. 408 SINGLE COIIB RHODE ISLAND RED HEX duced were of superior quality, though a trifle smaller. Likewise in a comprehensive test at the New York Cornell station, a nitrog- enous ration of oats, corn-on-cob, and a mixture of linseed meal, bran and ground oats, was fed to a lot of hens for one year in comparison with a carbona- ceous ration of corn meal, corn-on-cob and oats. Clean, comfortable quarters, green feed, and a small run were given to both lots and meat scraps fed occa- sionally. The hens fed the more nitrog- enous rations were always in better health and their plumage was full and glossy, while the other hens were oftener sick and their plumage often ragged and dull and the vices of feather pulling and egg eating more common among them. Nevertheless, the hens on the more carbonaceous ration laid 28 per cent more eggs in number and 24 per cent more in weight than the other lot. In the case of the smaller breeds of fowls in the test the number of eggs laid was 57 per cent better on the car- bonaceous than on the nitrogenous ra- tion. The amount of dry feed con- sumed was about the same in both lots. In the opinion of the station the re- sults of the test as a whole indicate: "That for laying fowls of the smaller breeds Indian corn or corn meal can be fed in quite large proportion with a considerable margin in its favor over certain more nitrogenous foods; but that while smaller fowls even when con- fined, suffer little serious disadvantage under the ration, larger breeds will not endure for a long period a very large proportion of corn meal in their food and unless at liberty will do better on a somewhat more nitrogenous ration. For exhibition stock a highly nitrog- enous ration is recommended, except perhaps, for a short period when extra weight is to be desired." In this exneriment the bones of the corn meal lot were as well developed as those of the lot fed linseed meal. At the New York state station a small amount of tallow was fed to lay- ing hens without apparent beneficial or harmful results as regards egg produc- tion. The tallow ration has an appar- ent tendency to delay molting and on this account it is believed that summer rations should be highly nitrogenous to encourage early molting and a new growth of feathers. Fig. 409 — ROSE COMB DOMINIQUE COCK Grain for laying hens — For growing chicks and fattening fowls, grain is most economically fed ground. With laying hens opinions differ as to the necessity of grinding grains. At the POULTRY 643 New York state station a test was made during two years with White Leghorns and Cochins to compare whole grains with ground grains. On the average it cost about 7 cents more per hen when whole dried grain was fed than when 37 to 50 per cent of the grain was ground and fed moistened. The amount Fig. 410 — MOTTLED JAVA of eggs produced, however, was practi- cally the same on both rations. The Cochins, however, regularly laid about 30 per cent more eggs on the whole grain rations than on the ground ra- tions. With the Leghorns the results were practically the same the first year but about 16 per cent better on the ground moistened ration the second year. At the West Virginia station consid- erably better results were secured with both old and young hens as regards egg production, when about one-third of the grain ration was fed ground moist, than when all the grain was fed whole and scattered in the litter. Corn is the standard grain for chick- ens. It uniformly produces eggs of ex- cellent quality and yellow corn has the additional advantage of producing a rich, yellow yolk. It is also usually the cheapest grain. Corn has been fed in comparison with various other grains, at a number of the experiment stations. At the Massachusetts Hatch station it was found fully as efficient as wheat in producing eggs when these grains were fed in combination with beef scraps. Usually it should be fed cracked and scattered in the litter. A ration entirely of corn is wholly unsatisfactory for either laying hens or fattening fowls. It may, however, form a large proportion of the grain ration. At the New York state station laying hens fed continuously for about two months on corn and corn meal picked the feathers and flesh from each other so that two of the hens were killed, while on a mixed diet, the hens kept in perfect plumage. At the Utah station the number of eggs produced was practically the same whether corn or sunflower seed was fed. But a wheat ration resulted in a larger production of eggs than a corn ration. Exceptionally glossy plumage was pro- duced on the sunflower seed. Buckwheat is generally highly prized as a food for laying hens. In a test at the Massachusetts Hatch station, decid- Fig. 411 — SINGLE COMB BUFF ORPINGTON edly more eggs were produced on a corn ration than on a buckwheat ration, when both of these grains were fed with milk albumen as the principal source of animal food. Buckwheat whole or ground is highly recommended by the Canadian stations for egg pro- duction. 644 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Cowpeas make an excellent stimulat- ing feed for chickens and experiments have shown that they give nearly as good results when fed whole as when ground. Kafir corn has given better results in station experiments when fed whole than when ground. For growth or fat it has proved superior at the Oklahoma sta- tion to either maize or corn meal. Whole oats are not greatly relished by hens. Only heavy oats should be used. Ground oats give good results in mashes and nothing is better for young chicks than rolled oat meals. When ground without the hulls oats are an excellent ration either for laying or fat- tening. Barley is better than oats for hens, because it has a smaller percentage of hulls. It gives very good results either whole or ground. Many place barley next to wheat for eggs. Whole wheat, or wheat screenings make an ideal ration for hens. Bread wheat is usually too expensive compared with other grains to constitute the larger part of the ration. Both wheat shorts and bran are widely and profit- ably used in mashes for hens, tending to maintain the hens in a healthy condi- tion. Mash for laying hens — It is generally conceded by poultrymen that some kind of a soft food should form a part of the daily ration of laying hens. It has been argued that the digestive organs of hens contain the least amount of food in the morning and that therefore this is the best time to feed the soft feed as it will be digested and assimilated quicker than whole grain. On this point rela- tively little difference in egg produc- tion was observed by the Massachusetts Hatch station either in summer or win- ter, whether chickens were fed mash in the morning or in the evening. The hens fed mash in the evening voided more droppings during the night, show- ing that the digestive action on mash was very rapid. So far as the experi- ment went it was considered most favor- able to feed the mash in the morning. The West Virginia station also re- ports about the same results as regards egg production whether mash was fed in the morning or in the evening. Feeding mash at evening — Gowell at the Maine station, however, states that after a number of years' observation, he gave up the morning mash and fed it late in the afternoon and with far better results. "The full meal in the morning had produced laziness, fatness and soft shelled eggs in our Plymouth Rocks, but these bad conditions and results were not encountered when the birds were re- quired to eat slowly and exercise by dig- ging the hard grains out of the straw bedding." The daily method of feeding hens at that station is stated by Gowell as fol- lows: "Each pen of 22 received 1 pint of wheat in the deep litter early in the morning. At 9:30 a. m. ^2 pint of oats was fed to them in the same way. At 1 p\ m. V2 pint of cracked corn was given in the litter as before. At 3 p. m. in winter, and 4 p. m. in summer they were given all the mash they would eat up clean in half an hour. "The mash was made of the following mixture of meals: 200 pounds wheat bran ; 100 pounds corn meal ; 100 pounds wheat middlings; 100 pounds linseed meal; 100 pounds gluten meal; 100 pounds of beef scraps. The mash con- tained one-fourth of its bulk of clover leaves and heads obtained from the feed- ing floor in the cattle barn. "The clover was covered with hot water and allowed to stand for three or four hours. The mash was made quite dry and rubbed down with the shovel in mixing, so that the pieces of clover were separated and covered with the meal. Cracked bone, oystershell, clean grit and water were before them all of the time. Two large mangels were fed to the birds in each pen daily in winter. They were stuck on a large nail which was partly driven in the wall a foot and a half above the floor. Very few soft shelled eggs were laid and so far as known not an egg has been eaten by the hens dur- ing the last five years." Feeding mash dry — More recently the station has been feeding the mash made as above described, dry. It is fed in troughs and kept constantly before the birds at all times. The dry mash is not relished to the same extent as the wet, but is eaten a mouthful or two at a time whenever the hens feel like it. When thus fed the hens do not gorge them- selves and do not get overfat or lazy or lay soft shelled eggs, as is so commonly the case in Plymouth Rocks when given warm mashes and corn in the morning. TOULTEY 645 Much less labor is required in feeding the mash this way and so far as ob- served there has been less sickness than ever before and an even larger produc- tion of eggs. Animal food for laying hens — Hens should always have some animal food for the best results in egg production. There is some question as to the best form in which it should be fed. Ex- cellent results are secured from the feed- ing of fresh ground bone or meat scraps. The supply of this material is frequent- ly inadequate and hence reliance must be had on some of the commercial prep- arations, like meat meal, dried blood, meat scraps, milk, milk albumen, etc. Fresh meat — Chickens relish the fresh meat scraps most. This material is more watery, less concentrated and hence can be fed in much larger quan- tity than meat meals and dried blood. At the Utah stations hens fed fresh meat scraps averaged 201 V2 eggs per fowl during the year, while those fed beef meal laid 133 eggs. The fresh meat was fed three times weekly, while the meat meal was given in the mash daily. There was 40 per cent more fat in the fresh meat fed than in the meat meal. At another station tallow was added to the ration without influencing egg production either favorably or un- favorably. At the "West Virginia station veiy similar results were obtained with meat meal and ground fresh meat and bone. At that same station, hens fed beef scraps produced a few more eggs than when fed milk albumen or ground fresh meat and bone. The difference was not significant and the fertility of eggs was equally high in each case. Milk albumen — At the Utah station, when hens were fed milk albumen in comparison with fresh meat scraps, the hens on the milk albumen ration aver- aged 101 eggs a fowl, while those fed fresh meat scraps averaged 143V2 eggs. The Utah work taken as a whole indi- cates that both meat meal and milk al- bumen, which is a by-product of milk sugar factories, are inferior to fresh meat scraps or cut bone for egg produc- tion. In a three months' test at the Canada experiment farms pullets fed 1 ounce of green bone each in addition to other feeds, laid about 60 per cent more eggs than pullets not fed green bone. Out of five experiments at the Massa- chusetts Hatch station two were in fa- vor of cut bone and three in favor of animal meal for egg production. The latter proved the safer food also. Dried blood — In a test reported from New South Wales, dried blood used to supplement a grain ration and green food, was cheaper and resulted in a larger egg production than when either ox liver or cut green bone was fed. In another experiment hens receiving dried blood in the ration began laying earlier in the season and laid more eggs than when it was omitted. Meat meal — At the New York state station a ration containing about 19 per cent of meat meal was fed to laying hens in comparison with a ration con- taining the same amount of protein, but derived solely from vegetable sources. About 23 per cent more food was re- quired to produce a pound of eggs on the ration wholly of vegetable origin than when the meat was used. When, however, bone ash was added to the vegetable ration, so that the ash con- tent of the two rations was alike, nearly as good results were obtained as on the animal meal ration. On the whole, the results of experiments with 90 hens at the station has been in favor of animal food in the rations. Amount to feed — In feeding either dried blood, meat scraps or meat meal, these materials would ordinarily not be made to constitute more than 10 per cent of the total rations fed. They can generally be mixed with the mash given the hens to advantage. Skim milk can be substituted, either wholly or in part, for any of the other animal foods without decreasing egg production. It may be fed either sweet or sour, alone or mixed with the mash. It must never be made, however, to take the place of fresh water and plenty of it. At the West Virginia station, Stewart and Atwood mixed a mash for laying hens with skim milk. The egg produc- tion was increased about 20 per cent thereby, and the milk had a feeding value of iy 2 to 2 cents a quart. This is three to five times its value as a food for hogs. Stimulating feeding stuffs for hens Feeding warm meal mixtures in winter, ground meat, red pepper, etc, to stim- ulate laying is a common practice among poultrymen. Experiments along 646 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK this line at the Central experimental farm in Canada, resulted in showing that stimulating and fattening foods, which tend to produce eggs in Minorcas, Leg- horns and Andalusians, made Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans so fat as to lay soft shelled eggs. Plymouth Kocks and Wyandottes should be fed like the Asiat- ic meat breeds. Foods good for late hatched pullets make older hens too fat for good laying and such hens should, therefore, be kept separate. Condition powders for hens — A large number of condition powders or proprie- tary poultry foods are offered on the market as food to make hens lay. An- alysis of these foods at the Connecticut station shows that they are much alike in composition, containing meat, bone, pepper, various seeds, meals, sulphur, iron compounds, salts and other familiar substances and sell for enormous prices, as compared with their nutritive value. Tests at the Massachusetts Hatch station during three years indicate no advan- tage from feeding this material. It is believed that poultry keepers throw away money when they purchase these arti- cles. A little care in compounding suitable rations on the part of the far- mer will make it entirely unnecessary to purchase these feeds. Alfalfa and clover meals for hens — Alfalfa hay and clover hay are ground and put on the market in the form of meal and sold as feed for hens and chicks. Both are rich in protein and val- uable foods, but the cost in this form is double or treble what it is in the chaffed form and is practically no better for hens than the cut and moistened ma- terial. Green food for laying hens — Some kind of green food is essential for the greatest egg production. Where the hens are kept in pens throughout the year, this should be supplied to them either in the form of cut grass, roots, or cabbage. During the winter and early spring months, mangels are as ef- ficient as anything, and are easily grown. They should be fed cut in half lengthwise rather than in slices, as when cut small the pieces are likely to become soiled before eaten while large pieces keep clean until eaten. During the growing season clover or alfalfa either in the form of pasture or cut and given to hens will be found exceedingly useful. In experiments at the Massachusetts Hatch station there was not much difference in egg produc- tion when clover or cabbage was fed to hens in winter time, though slightly the more eggs were produced on the cabbage ration. The flavor of the eggs on this ration was slightly inferior. In one ex- periment hens receiving green feed, such as cabbage, rape and apples, averaged 115 eggs each a year and without green food, 90 eggs each. Cabbage should be bung up so that the hens can easily get at it. Alfalfa or clover hay should be chaffed into half-inch lengths and soft- ened with boiling water or steam before feeding. It is usually fed mixed with the mash given. Kale and beet leaves are relished by chickens, as well as pumpkins, and in fact any green food. Grit and oyster shells — Hens must have a supply of grit. On gravelly farms, if they run at large, they will secure an abundance, but on clayey farms it may be necessary to supply grit the year around, summer and win- ter, whether the hens run out or not. Small pieces of crushed stone, pebbles, crockery ware or pounded glass will prove satisfactory. The ordinary grains and green foods do not contain enough lime to produce egg shells. Coarsely ground oyster shells furnish lime in a readily available form for egg production. A pound of oyster shells is sufficient to furnish enough lime for about seven dozen eggs. "Fine gravel containing limestone will probably as well supply the deficiency of lime existing in most foods, but the use of some sharper grit with it may be of advantage. An unlimited supply of pounded glass has been fed without any bad results following but it was found that the hens would eat an abnormal amount unless grit or some other mate- rial containing lime was available." Transparent glass contains about 5 per cent of lime, but is wholly unavailable for egg production, as it is insoluble in any of the ordinary acids. Salt for hens — Very small amounts of salt will suffice for hens. At the New York state station it was found that about 1 ounce of salt might be fed daily to each 100 hens. As much as 4 to 6.3 ounces a hundred hens was fed without affecting egg production in- juriously, though the latter amount pro- duced diarrhoea in two of the hens. POULTRY 647 Water for hens — Hens require a rel- atively large amount of water. And this should be supplied to them fresh daily. There are a number of forms of good watering cans on the market, or a cheap one can be made by making a hole in a two-quart pail V2 inch from the rim, filling it full of water, covering with a pan a little larger than the pail and inverting both. The water will run out in the pan until it covers the hole. Self-feed for hens — Where whole grains are used it is not advisable to use a self-feed for hens, since they will fill up their crop so soon that there is no inducement to exercise, and exercise is another one of the essentials of egg production. It has been found, how- ever, that ground feed including meat meal, or other animal foods may be kept before the hens constantly with good results. At the Maine station this meth- od of feeding was used in part in place of feeding a mash, with good results. Much less labor is involved, the egg production seems to be fully as great and the hens are just as healthy. The dry meal does not appear to be relished to the same extent as the mash, but is eaten a mouthful or two at a time. The hens are always ready to scratch for their grain rations and finish out the meal on the ground feed in the self-feed troughs. The troughs should be covered with slats, so that the hens will not soil the feed. Under these conditions, sef-feeds for hens seem to be practical. Food consumed by laying hens — One hundred hens weighing from 5 to 8 pounds each will require about 3V 2 pounds of absolute dry matter daily, and smaller hens up to 5.5 pounds daily. At the Utah station, Leghorns con- sumed on the average a total of 75 pounds of feed a year, containing 55 pounds of dry matter; Wyandottes 100 pounds a year, containing 73 pounds of dry matter; and Plymouth Eocks about 110 pounds, containing 80 pounds of dry matter. At the Maine station, each hen con- sumed during the year 50 to 55 pounds of ground grains made into mash and in addition about 18 pounds of wheat, 6 pounds of cracked corn, 6 pounds of oats, 6 pounds of oyster shells, 3 pounds of dry poultry bone, 3 pounds of mica grit and 40 pounds of mangels. The straw for litter averaged 36 pounds a bird. With this food, the hens laid about 150 eggs each a year. Chicken manure — As noted in another chapter, poultry manure is the richest of all farm manures in fertilizing ele- ments. At the New York state station it was found that the amount of manure produced by one cockerel was at the rate of 43 pounds a year. It had a value be- tween 10 and 14 cents. It is best pre- served under shelter mixed with either acid phosphate, kainit, land plaster, dry earth, or muck. Sand and sawdust are valueless. Lime must be avoided as it drives off the nitrogen. Composting with loam or leaf would give good results. Age of hens as influencing egg pro- duction — Pullets generally produce more eggs than older hens, especially during the winter months. At the Utah sta- tion, the profits from feeding young pullets for eggs was six times as great as from hens three years old. In Can- ada, pullets from January to March laid about 40 per cent more eggs than old hens. In experiments in New York with 5,200 fowls, pullets laid a considerably larger number of eggs than old hens, especially in the early part of the win- ter, when eggs were highest in price. The records kept at some of the sta- tions show that in exceptional cases more eggs may be laid the second year than the first. Por breeding purposes, of course, two-year-old hens are pre- ferred to pullets. At the Utah station, 41 hens representing five breeds, aver- aged 178 eggs a fowl the first year and 125 eggs the second year. At the West Virginia station on the other hand, 100 pullets produced 6,209 eggs, while the same number of hens three to four years old laid 6,349 eggs. Generally speaking, hens should be fat- tened and disposed of at the end of their first year or just before they molt. Influence of cock on egg production — A number of experiments have been made to determine the effect of the cock on egg production. At the Massachu- setts station and Canada experimental farm, flocks in which cocks were main- tained produced no more eggs than flocks without a cock. At the New York sta- tion two pens without males began to lay one to two months earlier than pens with males and laid from 22 to 32 per cent more eggs during a feeding period of about eight months. On the whole, eggs were produced about 30 per cent 648 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK cheaper than where males were allowed with the hens. There is no object in keeping cocks in the laying pens, un- less, of course, the eggs are to be in- cubated. Otherwise, cocks add to the expense and the eggs do not keep as well as when cocks are absent. Early molting of hens — When a spe- cialty is to be made of producing win- ter eggs, it is desirable to have the hens molt early in the season. Normally, hens shed their feathers once a year. Usually this is at the end of the laying period in the summer time or early fall. It is a trying time and they require especial feed and care. If the molting period is delayed until cold weather, it is such a drain on the vitality of the fowls that few or no winter eggs are produced. Some years ago a noted egg could pick up in their runs, which had been sown to oats in the spring, and amounted to practically nothing. Other pens were fed as usual in comparison. At the end of the 13 days all the hens were fed liberally. The hens stopped laying on the seventh day. Within about 30 days after the test began, all the hens had a new coat of feathers and in about a week from that time half of the hens were laying regularly. The Leghorns were a trifle slower in molt- ing than the Rhode Island Keds. The hens which had been fed regu- larly during this time were just begin- ning to molt. The conclusion is drawn that "mature hens which are fed very sparingly for about two weeks and then receive a rich nitrogenous ration, molt more rapidly and more uniformly, and Fig 412 — COLONY HOUSES AT THE WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION raisei in New York, Mr. Van Dreser, announced a method of inducing hens to molt early. His method consisted es- sentially in feeding only about one- fourth of their usual ration for a few days. This tended to stop egg produc- tion and reduce the weight of the fowls, after which they were fed a ration suit- able for the production of feathers and the building up of the system. When the feed is reduced, growth in the feather follicles stops, resulting in a loosening and rapid shedding of the feathers. A study was made of this method of inducing early molting by Stewart and Atwood at the West Virginia station. On August 5, a pen each of Rhode Is- land Eeds and White Leghorns was given no food for 13 days, except such as they enter the cold weather of winter in bet- ter condition than similar fowls fed continually during the molting period on an egg producing ration." Molting usually occurs earlier with pullets than with old hens. Gilbert in Canada reports experiments in which the rations of hens were reduced one- half during the first two or three weeks in July. The cocks were removed and the hens allowed to run in the fields. The immediate effect of this treatment was practically to stop laying. The hens rapidly shed their old feathers. At the end of July full rations were re- sumed. By this method of treatment all of the hens were through molting by the end of September and in some cases much earlier and were ready for laying. Extra care at the molting period should POULTRY be given the hens, and will usually re- pay itself in increased egg production. As winter approaches, the fowls will be more closely confined to their winter quarters. When 70 fowls were shut up early in November at the Canada exper- imental farm, they laid 192 eggs; while 147 fowls allowed to run at large in a field at this time laid but 133 eggs, which indicates that early penning may hasten winter laying. BUILDINGS AND YARDS FOR POULTRY Buildings are being made much less expensive for poultry than formerly. The beginner, especially, should build cheap houses. In the north, however, the roosts, and the roosts so arranged that they can be raised up out of the way when cleaning the dropping boards. The nests will ordinarily be arranged under the dropping board and so con- structed that they can be easily removed and cleaned. No floor other than the bare earth is necessary and this should be covered with straw 3 to 6 inches deep. Floored vs. unfloored coops — At the West Virginia station as many eggs were produced and the chickens were as healthy in unfloored coops as in floored coops. In a test at the Canada experi- mental farm of straw litter vs. sand and gravel on the floor, the results were Fig. 413 — MIDSUMMER ON AN OHIO POULTRY AND TRUCK FARM the houses must be comfortable in win- ter in order to secure egg production. They should be built in a dry situation with a front elevation of 7 to 9 feet and a back elevation of about 5 feet. About 14 inches roosting space should be al- lowed a hen. A covered scratching shed for use in winter should be attached to the roosting pen, with relatively long running yards for summer. A cheap roof is made of rough boards covered with tarred paper. The paper will last longer if the slant of the roof is not more than 1 foot in 8. The roosts should be about 2V2 to 3 feet from the ground and all on a level. They should be removable, so they can be easily taken out and cleaned. A dropping board should be extended all along underneath in favor of the straw, which induced the hens to exercise more and when it was removed, all of the feces and other litter went with it. Curtain front houses—The Maine sta- tion reports excellent result* in the use of a curtain front poultry house with curtained roosting closets. In this house the rear walls and the 4 feet of the lower part of the rear roof were sealed on the inside and packed with sawdust, so that there were no slack places around the roof to admit cold air. Each 20-foot section of the house had two 12-light outside windows screwed on the front, while the 8-foot space be- tween the windows 3 feet down from the plate was covered during rough winter storms and cold nights by a light frame 650 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK covered with 10-ounce duck closely- tacked on. This door or curtain was hinged at the top and could be swung in and up to the roof. The roosting platform was made 3 feet above the floor and the whole roost closed in by a light framework covered with light drilling covered and glazed with boiled linseed oil. The front of this was hinged at the top and opened out into the coop in the daytime. This framework about the roost was made as near air-tight as a carpenter would or- dinarily make it. The roosts were made of 2 by 3-inch stuff, placed on edge about 10 inches above the platform. The hens were shut in this curtained is now being used extensively by poul- trymen who believe in fresh, cold air for their hens. In a 150 days' test at the West Vir- ginia station, hens in a warm house laid 52 eggs each and in a cold house 41 each. A test of shutting in with cur- tains around the roosts at night showed no advantages where the average lowest temperature outside was 35.5° F., and inside the curtain 41.5° F. "Winter poultry houses should be warm >and comfortable, but not necessarily much above freezing point. Heating house— I n a short test at the North Dakota station, in heating the poultry house in January, February and Fig 414 — HOUSES AND YARDS OF AN UP-TO-DATE POULTRY PLANT front roost at night-time and the curtain raised in the morning. On comfortable days the whole front 8 feet of the house was also opened. In such a coop as this pullets began laying in November. When a number of cracks were left to give ventilation, ice frequently formed in the roosting closet and the hens did not begin to lay till March. The fowls in this coop laid as well as their mates in a large, warm house. Their combs were red and plumage bright and they gave every evidence of vigor. "The birds seemed to enjoy coming out of the warm sleeping closet down into the cold straw, which was never damp, but always dry, because the whole house was open to the outside air and sun every day." The curtain front house March, the food requirements were re- duced about one-half and the number of eggs laid was about doubled. At the Montana station, experiments indicate that houses may profitably be heated to an average temperature of 45 to 50° F., but in properly constructed houses little heat is needed while the sun is shining. Dust material and yards — Plenty of dust material should be provided for the use of the hens in winter. This is one of the ways they have of freeing them- selves from vermin, hence a good sup- ply of road dust should be stored in summer for the use of the hens in win- ter. Where hens have to be penned dur- ing the summer, as well as winter, they should have running yards adjacent. POULTRY 651 If the yards are long, they can he plowed when they become befouled. Under the better conditions of manage- ment, each flock has two running yards, one of which may be in crops, while the other is being used. Chickens and fruit growing go well together and it is a common practice to plant a row of fruit trees down the chicken yard, both for shade and profit. CHARACTERISTICS OF EGGS Weight — The weight of hen's eggs varies considerably. Hens lay from 3 to 4 per cent larger eggs usually than pullets. Hens with exercise lay larger Composition — Relative to the compo- sition of eggs many analyses show that a 2-ounce egg contains on the average 10.7 per cent shell, Q6 per cent water, 12 per cent protein, 10.5 per cent fat and 8 per cent ash. The Michigan station found there was practically no difference in the composition of eggs laid by six different breeds of hens. Feeding wide- ly different rations did not affect the composition of the eggs. White and brown shelled eggs have practically the same composition and food value. In- vestigations at the Minnesota station indicate that hard boiled eggs are as easily digested as soft boiled eggs. • .;' - '" secretary, P. O. Box 445, Indianapolis, Ind. HORSES Belgian Draft... Cleveland Bay. . . Clydesdale French Coach . . . American Register of Bel- gian Draft Horses. American Cleveland Bay Studbook. American Clydesdale Stud- book. French Coach Studbook. Do French Coach Horse Register French Draft . . National Register of French Draft Horses. American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses. J. D. Conner, Jr., secretary, Wabash, Ind. Cleveland Bay Society of America, R. P. Stericker, secretary, 80 Chestnut avenue, West Orange, N. J. American Clydesdale Association, R. B. Ogilvie, secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. French Coach Horse Society of Amer- ica, Duncan E. Willett, secretary. Maple avenue and Harrison street, Oak Park, Chicago, 111. French Coach Horse Registry Com- pany, Charles C. Glenn, secretary, 1319 Wesley avenue, Columbus, Ohio. National French Draft Horse Associa- tion of America, C. E. Stubbs, sec- retary, Fairfield, Iowa. STOCK BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS 703 Name of breed. German Coach . . Book of record. German, Hanoverian, and Oldenburg Coach Horse Studbook. Hackney American Hackney Studbook. Oldenburg Oldenburg Coach Horse Reg- ister. Percheron Percheron Studbook of Amer- ica. Do Percheron Register Do The American Breeders' and Importers' Percheron Reg- ister. Shetland Pony. . . Shire Suffolk Thoroughbred .... American Trotter. Morgan Saddle Horse By whom published. German, Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of Ameri- ca, J. Crouch, secretary, Lafayette, Ind. American Hackney Horse Society, A. H. Godfrey, secretary, 61st and Broadway, New York, N. Y. Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of America, C. E. Stubbs, secretary, Fairfield, Iowa. Percheron Society of America, George W. Stubblefield, secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. The Percheron Registry Company, Chas. C. Glenn, secretary, 1319 Wesley avenue, Columbus, Ohio. The American Breeders' and Import- ers' Percheron Registry Company, John A. Forney, secretary, Plain- field, Ohio. American Shetland Pony Club, Morti- mer Levering, secretary, Lafayette, Ind. American Shire Horse Association, Chas. Burgess, Sr., secretary, We- nona, 111. American Suffolk Horse Association, Alex. Galbraith, secretary, Janes- ville, Wis. American Studbook The Jockey Club, W. H. Rowe, reg- istrar, 571 Fifth avenue, New York, N. Y. American Trotting Register Associa- tion, William H. Knight, secretary, 355 Dearborn street, Chicago, 111. American Morgan Register Associa- tion, H. T. Cutts, secretary, Middle- bury, Vt. American Saddle Horse Breeders' As- sociation, I. B. Nail, secretary, Louisville, Ky. Pony American Shetland Club Studbook.l American Shire Horse Stud- book. American Studbook. American Trotting Register. American Morgan Register. American Saddle Horse Reg ister. ASSES Jacks and Jennets American Jack Stock Stud- book. American Breeders' Association of Jacks and Jennets, J. W. Jones, sec- retary, Columbia, Tenn. SHEEP Cheviot #••• American Cheviot Sheep Flock Book. Cotswold American Cotswold Record.. Dorset Horn Continental Dorset Club Rec- ord. Hampshire Down. Hampshire Down Flock Rec- ord. Leicester American Leicester Record.. Lincoln National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Record. Oxford Down American Oxford Down Rec- ord. Shropshire American Shropshire Sheep Record. Southdown American Southdown Record. Suffolk American Suffolk Flock Rec- ord. American Cheviot Sheep Society, F. E. Dawley, secretary, Fayetteville, N. Y. American Cotswold Registry Associa- tion, F. W. Harding, secretary, Waukesha, Wis. The Continental Dorset Club, Joseph E. Wing, secretary, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. Hampshire Down Breeders' Associa- tion of America, Comfort A. Tyler, secretary, Nottawa. Mich. American Leicester Breeders' Associa- tion, A. J. Temple, secretary, Cam- eron, 111. National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' As- sociation, Bert Smith, secretary, Charlotte, Mich. American Oxford Down Record As- sociation, W. A. Shafor, secretary, Hamilton, Ohio. American Shropshire Registry Asso- ciation, Mortimer Levering, secre- tary, Lafayette, Ind. American Southdown Breeders' Asso- ciation, Frank S. Springer, secre- tary, 510 East Monroe street, Springfield, 111. American Suffolk Flock Registry As- sociation, George W. Franklin, sec- retary, Des Moines, Iowa. 704 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Name of breed. Merino (Delaine) . Book of record. Dickinson Spanish Merino Sheep Register. Improved Delaine Register. Merino National Delaine Merino Reg- ister. Merino (French) . American Rambouillet Rec- ord. Merino (German). International Von Homeyer Rambouillet Club Record. Merino (Spanish) . Register of the Michigan Merino Sheep Breeders' As- sociation. Do Register of the New York State American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association Do Register of the Ohio Merino Sheep Breeders' Association Do Register of the Standard American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association. Do Register of the Vermont Me- rino Sheep Preeders' Asso- ciation. By -whom published. Dickinson Merino Sheep Record Com- pany, H. G. McDowell, secretary, Canton, Ohio. Improved Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, George A. Henry, secretary, R. F. D. 8, Belle- fontaine, Ohio. National Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, J. B. John- son, secretary, 248 West Pike street, Cannonsburg, Pa. American Rambouillet Sheep Breed- ers' Association, Dwight Lincoln, secretary, Milford Center, Ohio. International Von Homeyer Rambouil- let Club, B. M. Moore, secretary, Orchard Lake, Mich. Michigan Merino Sheep Breeders' As- sociation, E. N. Ball, secretary, Ann Arbor, Mich. New York State American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, J. H. Earll, secretary, Skaneateles, N. Y. Ohio Merino Sheep Breeders' Asso- ciation, Wesley Bishop, secretary, R. F. D. 1, Delaware, Ohio. Standard American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, J. P. Ray, secretary, R. F. D. 3, East Bloom- field, N. Y. Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders' As- sociation, C. A. Chapman, secretary, Middlebury, Vt. HOGS Berkshire American Berkshire Record. . Tamworth American Tamworth Swine Record. Yorkshire American Yorkshire Record. . Cheshire Cheshire Herdbook. Chester, Ohio Im- O. I. C. Record proved. Duroc Jersey Do American Duroc Jersey Rec- ord. National Duroc Jersey Rec- ord. Hampshire (Thin American Hampshire Record. Rind). Poland China American Poland China Rec- ord. Do National Poland China Rec- ord. Do Southwestern Poland China Record. Do Standard Poland China Rec- ord. American Berkshire Association, Frank S. Springer, secretary, 510 East Monroe street, Springfield, 111. American Tamworth Swine Record Association, E. N. Ball, secretary, Ann Arbor, Mich. American Yorkshire Club, Harry G. Krura, secretary, White Bear Lake, Minn. Cheshire Swine Breeders' Associa- tion, Ed. S. Hill, secretary, Free- ville, N. Y. O. I. C. Swine Breeders' Association, J. C. Hiles, secretary, Cleveland, Ohio. American Duroc Jersey Swine Breed- ers' Association, T.. B. Pearson, secretary, Thorntown, Ind. National Duroc Jersey Record Associ- ation, Robert J. Evans, secretary, Peoria, 111. American Hampshire Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, secretary, Armstrong, 111. American Poland China Record Com- pany, W. M. McFadden, secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. National Poland China Record Com- pany, A. M. Brown, secretary, Drawer 16, Winchester, Ind. Southwestern Poland China Record Association, H. P. Wilson, secre- tary, Gadsden, Tenn. Standard Poland China Record Asso- ciation, George F. Woodworth, sec- retary, Maryville, Mo. FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK INDEX Aberdeen Angus cattle, 360 popularity, . >: . 360 prepotency, 361 strong and weak points 361 value on range, 361 Abortion in cattle, 124 in sheep, 139 Absorption of feeds, . 23 Aconite, .... 159 as a poisonous plant, 169 Acorns, analysis, 74 digestibility, 79 for bogs, 549 Actinomyces, 117 Actinomycosis in cattle, . 117 in meat inspection, 270 Adulteration of milk, 274 Advanced registry of stock, 202 Adzuki beans, analysis, 74 Aerator for milk, 477 Aerobic ferments in manure, 178 African goose, 15 millet, analysis, 76 Afterbirth in cattle, retained, 125 Age and economy of gain, 64 and gains in hogs, 550 of cows and productivity 464 of horses, 33S, 339 Agricultural colleges, work of, 198 Agropyron spp., analysis, . . 76,79 Air sac mite in chickens, . 155 supply for stock, . 92 treatment for milk fever 125 Aitchbone, 237 Albion cattle, 369 Albumen from blood, 250 Alderney cows, . 429 Alfalfa, analysis, 74 and grains for steers, 387 bloating from, 450 digestibility, 79 for cows, . 449 for horses, 321 for mules, 347 for ostriches, . 695 for soiling hogs, 532 for steers, 397 hay for hogs, 547 Page Alfalfa hay for sheep, . . 598 hay for steers, . 388,389 meal for hens, . . . 646 pasture for hogs, . . 525 pasture for sheep, . . 591 protein equating factor, . 83, 84 silage for cows, . . 450 time to cut for steers, . 398 vs. alfalfa and prairie hay for steers, . . . 398 vs. sugar beet pulp for steers, 406 Alfilaria, analysis, ... 74 Alimentary tract of farm ani- mals, .... 18 Alkali for sheep, ... 590 meadow grass, analysis, . 74 Alligation in calculating rations, 71, 73 Almond hulls, analysis, for horses, Aloes, Alsike clover, analysis, digestibility, hay for sheep, protein equating factor, . Alteratives, .... Altering (see Castration) American Angora goat associa- tion, .... bison, .... Merino sheep, . National live stock associa- tion, .... poultry food, analysis, . short cut ham, Stock Food for hogs, Ammonia for refrigeration, Amoeba meleagridis, . Anaerobic ferments in manure, Anas boschas, .... Anatomy of animals, . of cattle, of chickens, of horses, .... of sheep, .... of swine, .... Ancestors, influence of Ancon sheep, origin of Andalusian jack, 74 327 159 75 80 598 83 159 626 682 567 201 74 239 547 261 156 178 15 16 425 633 281 563 497 30 33 342 roe FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Anaesthetics, 159 Arctic cold air machine, . 261 Anglesey cattle, . 366 fox, .... 694 Angora cat, 693 Ardennes horse, . 300 goat, 14, 621 Areca nut, 159 Angus (see Aberdeen Angus) Argali, 13 Animal food for ducklings, 664 Army mules, 344 food for egg production 644 Aromatic ammonia, 159 food for hogs, . 544 Arsenic dips for sheep scab, 147 husbandry teaching, 199 poisoning, 166 meal, analysis, 74 Arthritis in lambs, 141 parasites, . 196 Artichokes, analysis, . 74 products, . 231-278 for cows, . 447 Animals, anatomy of, 16 for hogs, . 529 as machines, 63 for horses, 327 breeding of, 28 Artillery horse; . 305 characters of, . 3 Ascaris equorum in horses, 103 chemical composition of 45 suilla in pigs, 133 contribution to nath mal Ash in bones, . 60 wealth, . . 6 in plants, . 48 duty of man toward, 4 of animal tissues, 47 feeding capacity of, 64 Ashes for cattle, 412 fondness for, . 7 for hogs, . 549 importance in civilization 4 for sows, . 520 improvement of, 5 Aspergillosis in sheep, 143 number domesticated, 3, 7 Asses, . . . .11, 340, 348 origin of, . 9 Assimilation of feeds, 23 productive capacity of, 64 Asthenia in chickens, 154 relations to man, . 3 Asthma in horses, 105 study of, . 4 Astragalus mollissimus, 167 useful, 681 Atavism, .... 30 Anoa, 13 Atlas gluten feed, analysis, 74 Anodynes, .... 159 gluten feed, protein equa ting Anssr cinereus, 15 factor, 84 cygnoides, 15 gluten meal, digestibility 79 Antelope, .... Anthelmintics, 684 Atropine for plant poisoning, 170 159 Auction sales of stock, 209 Anthrax in cattle, in horses, . in pigs, in sheep, . Antidotes for poisonous plants Antiseptics, Aphthous fever, . 117 97 131 142 170 159 116 Auctioneering off stock, . Aurochs, .... Australian saltbush, analysis, 185 11 78 Auto-cure for bacon, Avenine in oats, Aylesbury ducks, Ayrshire cows, . Azoturia in horses, . 244 313 662 431 104 Apoplexy in horses, . 106 Babcock milk test, . 479 Appetite, loss of 91 Baby beef, breeds for, 382 in horses, . 332 beef, defined, 371 in pigs, 137 beef, dressed weight, 383 Apple pomace, digestibility, 79 beef, farming, 191 pomace, for cows, 447 beef, production, 381, 383, 384 pomace, for hogs, 529 beef, rations for, 382, 383 pomace, silage for cows, 447 beef, system of feeding, 383 Apples and pomace, analysis, 74 Bacillus hotulinus, 272 for cows, . 447 bovis morbificans, . 272 for horses, 327 cyanogenes, 277 for hogs, . 529 enteritidis, 272 Apricots for horses, 327 erythrogenes, 277 Arab horse, 284 necrophorus, 141 origin of, 10 suipestifer, 128 Arabian camel, . . 686 suisepticus, 130 Aragallus spicatus, . 167 tuberculosis, 113 INDEX 707 Page Backsets in dressing lambs, . 610 Bacon and lard hogs compared, 502 curing, 244, 246 effect of feeds on firmnes s, 553 English, Danish and other methods of curing, 245 hogs, 502, 557 home curing, . 245 Bacteria in cow's teats, . 276 in milk, . 276, 474 in milk at different temper- atures, 478 Bactrian camel, . 686 Bakewell Leicester sheep, . 574 Balanced rations, 73 rations, calculation of, 69 Baldness in chickens, 155 Bang system for eradicating tuber- culosis, . 115 Banteng, .... 12 Barbadoes sheep, 576 Barb horse, 284 Barley and products, analysis, 74 and peas, digestibility, 79 digestibility by swine, 82 fertilizing value, 175 for chickens, 644 for cows, . 437 for hogs, . 534 for horses, *313, 328 for sheep, 601 for steers, 385, 395 grass, analysis, . 74 hay and grain, digestibil- ity. 79 malted for horses, 314 protein equating factor, 83, i straw, fertilizing value, 175 Barns for cows, . 475 Barnyard to preserve manure, 179 millet, analysis, 76 millet, digestibility, 79 Barrenness in animals, 164 Barrow, definition of, 522 vs. sow. 550 Beans, adzuki, analysis, . 74 analysis, 74 carob, analysis, 74 digestibility, 79 for cows, . 438 for hogs, . 534 for horses, 320 for steers, 385 silage, digestibility, 80 Bearded hog, 14 Bedding for cows, 438 Beech nuts for steers. 385 Beef, amount from acre of silage, 400 and milk, relative Bcon- omy, 428 Page Beef, baby, economy of, . . 381 breeds, . . . 353-369 cattle, . . . 349-421 cattle classification, . . 371 cattle, cutters and can- ners, .... 372 cattle defined, . . . 371 cattle economic impor- tance, .... 351 cattle farms, . . . 190 cattle, increasing profits from, .... 410 cattle industry, . 349-421 cattle, market classes, . 369 cattle, market grades, . 369 cattle, market quotations, 224 cattle, market require- ments, .... 371 cattle, points of, . . 371 cattle, statistics, . . 353 cuts of, ... 236 cuts on farm, . . . 252 cuts, percentage of, . 237 early maturity of, . 381-383 extract, .... 250 farming systems, . 188-192 fat, prime and baby com- pared, . . . 414, 415 hams, curing, . . . 244 heifers, age to breed, . 416 industry, precautions in, 351 measles in meat inspec- tion, .... 271 money value of corn for, 396 on the farm, . . . 251 parts, percentage, . . 238 refrigeration of, . . 262 tallow, .... 242 tongues, .... 244 vs. dairy type for feeding, 413 Beets, analysis, ... 74 for cows, .... 447 protein equating factor, . 84 Beggar weed hay, analysis, . . 74 hay, for horses, . . 322 hay, for mules, . . 347 Behring system of vaccinating against tuberculosis, . 115 Belgian draft horse, . . . 300 hares, .... 689 Bell-Coleman system of refrigera- tion, .... 261 Benzine for stomach worms, . 151 Berkshire hogs, .... 504 Knot sheep, . . . 571 Bermuda grass, analysis, . . 74 hay for cows, . . . 451 hay for mules, . . 347 Bernicla canadensis, ... 15 708 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK sheep Bighead in horses, in sheep, . Big jaw in cattle, Bilious fever in horses, Biological survey, Bishoping teeth, Bismuth, Bison, .... American, European, Bitches, spaying, Bitter milk, Black East India duck, faced Scotch hawk, head in turkeys, leg in cattle, leg in sheep, quarter in cattle, Spanish chickens, Suffolk hogs, . Top Spanish Merino Bladder worm in sheep, Bladders for casings, . Blanket wool, Blanketing horses, Bleeding at nose in horses at slaughtering, in cattle, Blending of characters ity, . . . Blistering agents, Bloat in cattle, . in sheep, . in sheep on rape, Bloating caused by alfalfa due to careless feeding. Block hog, . Blomo feed, analysis, feed, digestibility, feed, for horses, Blood albumen, . amount in animals, clotting, diseases in cattle, diseases in horses, diseases in sheep, dried, analysis, dried, for steers, dried, protein equating tor, function of, meal, analysis meal for hogs molasses feed, analys poisoning in pigs in hered- spavm, system of farm animals, use of, fac- Page Page 110 Blooded stock raising, 184 141 Bloody urine in cattle, 124 117 urine in horses, 104 96 Blue Andalusian chickens, 637 681 fox, .... 694 340 grass, analysis, . 74 159 grass hay, digestibility, 80 682 grass pasture for sheep, 591 12 joint hay, analysis, . 74 12 milk, 277 162 Swedish ducks, 662 277 Boars, .... 558 663 castration of, . 161 575 kind to buy, 516 290 management of, 515 156 selection of, 515 117 wild of Europe, 499 142 Bob-white quail, . 696 117 Bog spavin, 108 637 Bokhara clover, analysis, . 75 507 Bologna bulls, 372 567 sausage, 247 149 Bone and bone meal, analysis, 74 249 ash for chicks, 655 620 green for chicks, 659 338 meal for cows, . 460 105 meal for hogs, . 549 233 meal for steers, 406 123 sour and bone-stink in - meat, 262 32 spavin, 108 159 Bones, ash in, . 60 122 use of, . 250 138 weakness in pigs, 136 592 Bookkeeping on the farm, . 7 450 Boophilus annulatus, . 120 90 Borax, effect of, . 251 500 in milk, 276 74 Border Leicester sheep, 574 80 Bos bison, .... 12 330 bonasus, 12 250 bubalus, 13, 687 233 caffer, 13 24 frontalis, . 12 123 gaurus, 12 106 grunniens, 12 139 indicns, 12, 688 74 longifrons, 11 406 planifrons, 11 primigenius, 11 85 23 sondiacus, 12 taurus, . . . . 12 74 urns, 11 547 Boston shoulder of pork, . 239 74 Botfly in horses. 110 132 in sheep, . . . . 147 248 Bourbon red turkey, . 671 108 Box stalls for horses, 337 19 Brahma chickens, 637 250 Brahmin cattle, . 12, 688 INDEX 709 Page Brain congestion in horses. 106 sausage, homemade, . 256 Brainard system of refrigeratioi i, 259 Bran, analysis, . 79 and shorts, digestibility T, 80 fertilizing value, 175 for cows, . 436 for hogs, . 535 for horses, 317 for mules, 348 for sheep, 605 for steers, 385 Branch grass, digestibility, . 80 Branding cattle, . 418 Braunschweiger sausage, . 249 Bread for horses, 317 Breaking mules, 345 Breathing, rate of, 24 Breeders, associations of, . 310, 702 requirements of, 184 Breeding animals, rations for 58 farm animals, . 28 horses, 308 mules, 340 practical methods, . 38 records, 185 sheep, 581 swine, 517, 521 theories of, 28 Breeds of chickens, . 636 cows and productivity, 465 dairy cows, 428 ducks, 662 geese, 667 goats, 622, 629 guineas, 677 hogs, .... 503 hogs compared, 508-512 horses, 284 pigeons, 674 sheep, 566 turkeys, 671 improved, . 5 pets and freaks, 4 prepotency of, . 32 Brewers' grains, analysis, . 74 grains, digestibility, 80 grains, fertilizing value o: 175 grains, for cows, 437 grains, for horses, . 318 grains, for steers, 385 grains, protein equ? iting factor, 84 Brisket of beef, . 237 Broad tail sheep, 573 Broiler chicks, 657, 658 chicks, celery for, 657 Broken knee in horses.- 109 wind in horses, 105 Brome grass, analysis, 75 hay for cows, . 451 Brome hay for horses, . hay for sheep, hay for steers, pasture for hogs, Bromide of potash, Bromus spp., analysis, Bronchitis in cattle, . in chickens, in horses, . in sheep, . Broncos, Bronze turkeys, . Brooders, care of, Broom corn hay and seed sis, corn millet, analysis Brown Swiss cattle, . Brush for sheep, Buck (see Ram) Buckwheat and products sis, digestibility, for chickens, for cows, . for hogs, . for horses, middlings for cows protein equating factor wild, analysis, Buffalo, African, American, gnat, . . grass, digestibility, grass hay for steers grass, protein equat tor, Indian, uses, . water, Buildings for hogs, for poultry, Bull frog, . Bulls, castration of, percentage of pure Bum lambs, Bungs for casings, Bur clover, analysis, Bureau of Animal Industry of Plant Industry, Burmese cattle, . Burros, 'Bus horse, Butcher hogs, stock cattle defined, stock market quotations. Butchering, packing house gang Butter, churning, composition, fat, feeding for, in cold storage, 322 599 398 525 159 75 123 156 104 139 285 671 656 75 76 368 578 analy- bred 75 80 643 438 535 319 438 84 75 13 12 121 80 398 fac- 83 13 682 687 512 649 699 161 416 614 249 75 195, 273 196 12 343 304 556 372 225 213 483 485 463 266 710 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Butter maker, qualifications of 493 on farm, . 483 overrun, 484 packing, 485 salting, 484 statistics, . 427 working, . 484 Buttercup hay, analysis 75 digestibility, 80 Butterine, .... 243 Buttermilk, analysis, . 76 for hogs, . 545 Buttons from bones and horns 250 Cab horse, .... 303 Cabbage, analysis, 75 for cows, . 447 Cactus, analysis, . 75 (see also prickly pear.) Cairina moscha, . 15 Calculi in cattle, . 124 Calf-kneed horse, 303 Calves, amount of skimi nilk for, 375, 376 boiling milk for, 378 castration of, . 161 cocoa shell milk for, 378 cocoanut oil cake for, 378 cod liver oil for, 378 colostrum for, . 375 corn meal as cream substi tute for, 379 corn oil for, 379 cost of gain, 410 cottonseed meal as cream sub- stitute, . 379 cream substitutes for, 378 curds for, . 379 defective rations for, 378 dehorning, 416 diphtheria. 118 dried blood for scours, 378 dry matter for pound of gain, 378 eggs for, . 378, 381 English method of raising 377 feeding for dairy stock 384 feeding for veal, 380 flaxseed for, 379 formalin for scours, 379 gains as compared -v pith pigs, 379 germ oil meal for, 379 ground bone for, 378 hay for, 383 hay tea for, 374 importance of grain in ra- tion, . 383 joint-ill in, , 126 kafir corn meal for, . 379 Kalberrahm for, 378 Unseed meal for, 379 ] Page Calves, manure value, . 176 market quotations, . . 225 method of raising, . 182 objections to natural feed- ing, 377 objections to skimmilk for, . 380 oleomargarine for, . 378 379 quantity of manure, 176 range management, 373 rearing, 373 rice meal for, . 377 rickets in, 127 scouring, . *126 ,378 skimmilk and grain vs. whole milk, 374 skimmilk substitutes, 376 skimmilk system of feed- ing, 375 slaughtering, 240 ,254 soy bean silage for, . 403 starch as cream substitute 378 teaching to drink, 375 teaching to eat grain, 376 weight at birth, 419 whey vs. skimmilk for, 377 California frog, 699 ham, , 239 Calk for horseshoes, . . 166 wounds in horses, . 109 Call ducks, . 663 Calomel, .... 159 Calorie defined, . 56 Camels, .... *685 ,686 Canada geese, 15 ,668 Canary birds, importation, 681 Canker in horses, 109 in pigeons, 157 Cantharides, 159 for ring bone, 108 Capercailzies, importation, 682 Capons as mothers, 660 character of, 657 removing testes, 660 Capped elbow, 109 hock, 109 knee, 109 Capra falconeri, 14 hircuSj .... 14 Capsules for insemination, 163 for medical treatment, 158 Carabao, .... 687 Carbohydrates, absorption of, 23 for protecting protein, 53 in feeds, . 49 Carbolic acid, . 159 dips for sheep scab, . 147 Carcasses, burning and burying 95 Caribou, .... 684 Carmon trotting stallion, . 287 INDEX 711 Carob beans, analysis, 74 beans, for horses, 321 Carpet wool, 620 Carriage horse, American, 306 horse, classes of, 307 Carrots, analysis, 75 fertilizing value, 75 for cows, . 447 for horses, 327 for steers, 405 protein equating factor, 84 Cars for shipping, 217 refrigerator, 260 Cart horse, 305 Casein in milk, . 26 Cashmere goats, . 14 Casings for sausage, . 249 Cassava, analysis, 75 digestibility, 80 for hogs, . 529 for horses, 327 for mules, 347 for steers, 405 Castle Martin cattle, 366 Castor oil, 159 Castration of animals, 161 of mules, 345 of swine, 522 precautions in, 162 Catalo, .... 13, 6S2 from Galloway cross, 683 Catalonian jack, 342 Catarrh in cats, 693 in cattle, 123 in chickens, 156 in horses, 104 in sheep, 138 Catarrhal fever in horses, 96 Catechu, .... 159 Cathartics, 159 for colic, . 103 Cats, 693 diseases of, 693 Cattail millet, analysis, 76 digestibility, 80 Cattle (beef) 349-421, (dairy) 423-493 abortion in, 124 actinomycosis in, 117 age and cost of gain, 410 anatomical points, . 524 anthrax in, 117 blackleg in, 117 bloat in, 122 branding, 418 breeds, 352, 425 breeds for baby beef, 382 buffalo gnat on. 121 butcher stock defined. 372 commission for buying and selling, 220, 221 corn stalk disease in, 123 Page Cattle, cost of growing on range, 189 cost of shipping abroad, 228 cowpox in, ... 117 creeps in, ... 127 dehorning, . . 417, 418 digestive diseases in, . 122 dipping before shipping, 214 diphtheria in, . . 118 diseases of, . . 111-127 dressed weight of different breeds, 413 farming, systems of, 188 fatness and price, 224 fattening range, 189 feeding standards, . 65 fertilizing value, 175 foot and mouth disease in, 116 garget in, ... 126 hemorrhagic septicemia in, .... 116 hides, .... 241 hides, prices for, 224 horn fly on, 121 horns as affecting price, 224 loading on cars, 222 loss of cud in, 122 malignant catarrh in, 118 malignant edema in, 118 mange of, ... 121 manure, characteristics of, 177 market grades for fatten- ing, . ^ . 415 market quotations, . 224, 225 milk fever in, 125 mycotic stomatitis in, 120 nagana in, 129 nervous diseases, 124 Oesophagostoma i n fl a t u m in, .... 120 origin of, ... 11 oversoiling and watering, 221 parasites of, . 120 percentage of pure bred bulls, .... 416 plague, .... 115 preferences of packers, . 223 prices for different kinds, 222 ,223 prices in different mar- kets, .... 224 rabies in, ... 117 ranching, 189 respiratory diseases in, . 123 rinderpest in, 115 salt for, .... 412 sex and age as affecting price, .... 224 shipment to Chicago, 212 shipping, 221 shrinkage in shipment. 228 slaughtering, . . 233,251 712 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Cattle, space required on ship- Chickens, age for breeding pur board, 227 poses, .... 647 stockers and feeders, 372 age of hens for eggs, 647 stomach worms in, . 120 alfalfa meal for, 646 teeth of, . 18 animal food for eggs, 645 test of breeds for beef, 413, 414 animal food for fatten- Texas fever in, 118 ing, .... 658 ticks, 120 animal meal vs. cut bone, 645 tuberculosis in, 111-115 asthenia in, 154 urinary diseases, 124 barley for, 644 warble flies in, 121 Black Spanish, 637 water for, 412 Blue Andalusian, 637 weight as affecting price 223 bone ash for chicks, 655 Caustic potash for dehon ling bone development on corn, 642 calves, 417 bowel trouble in chicks, 657 Cavalry horse, 306 Breeds for farm, . 639 640 Cayuga ducks, 662 broilers, .... 657 Cayuse ponies, 295 broken glass and crockerj Celery for broilers, 658 for, . . . . 646 Celtic pony, . 9,295 brooder care, 656 Cement floors for hogs, 512 buckwheat for, 643 Cerealine, digestibility, 80 buildings for, 649 for cows, 440 caponizing, 659 for hogs, . 535 care of breeding stock, 660 Cerebritis in horses, 106 cholera in, ... 154 Cerebro-spinal meningitis in classification of breeds, 636 horses, 101 clover meal for, 647 Cervelat sausage, 249 Cochins, .... 637 Ceylon jungle fowl, 15 cold storage of eggs, 652 Chaffed hay for mules, 348 color of eggs, . 640 Chalk for diarrhea, 160 color of egg yolk, 651 Champignon after castration, 162 condition powders for, 646 Charbon (see Anthrax) corn for eggs, 641 Charcoal, .... 160 corn for hens, 643 for sows, 520 cost of eggs, 635 Cheat (see Chess) cowpeas for, 644 Cheddar cheese, 485 cramming in fattening, . 659 Cheese, cold curing of, 266 Creve-Coeur, 638 curing, 486 curtain front houses, 649 factory, machinery for, 493 cut clover for, 644 fertilizing value of, 175 daily method of feeding, 644 goats' milk for, 629 desiccated eggs, 652 making on the farm, 485 diseases of, . 153-156, 657 statistics, 427 Dominique, 639 Chenopodium album for hogs, 549 Dorking, 639 Cheshire hogs, 506 dressing for market, 661 Chess, analysis, 75 dried blood for, 645 digestibility, 80 dry mashes for, 644 for steers, 398 dry meals for, 647 Chester White hogs, . 505 dust for, 650 Cheviot sheep, 573 early fall penning for eggs 649 Chicago beef cuts, 236 early molting, 648 horse market, . 211 effect of cabbage on eggs, 646 pork cuts, 238 effect of milk on flesh, 658 Chicken corn for mules, 347 egg breeds, 636 corn seed, analysis, . 75 eggs, period of incubation, 654 farming, systems of, 194 eggs produced in winter, 635 lice, 155 exercise and fertility of pox, 154 eggs, .... 653 Chickens, 635-661 fancy breeds, . 639 age as affecting gains, 659 fattening in crates, , 659 INDEX 713 Page Page Chickens, fattening methods, . 658 Chickens, moisture for incubator, 655 fattening on ground vs. whole molting, Van Dresser meth- grain, .... 658 od, .... 648 Faverolles, 637 mortality in incubator feather eating, 660 chicks, 657 feather value, . 661 nitrogenous vs. carbonaceous feed consumed by hens, 647 rations, .... 641 feeding hens, . 641 normal growth of chicks, 657 feeding for soft roasters, 657 nutritive ratio for eggs, 641 feeding in brooder, . 656 oats for, 644 feeding young chicks, 654 operating incubators, 655 fertility of eggs, 653 Orpington, 639 flavor of eggs, 651 overfeeding chicks, 657 floored vs. unfloored oyster shells for, . 646 ,654 coops, 649 packing and shipping, 661 fresh meat for, . 645 packing hatching eggs, 6.52 fries, .... 657 plumping, 661 general care of chicks, . 656 Plymouth Rocks, 638 general purpose breeds, . 638 preserving eggs, 652 gluten meal in fattening, 658 price of eggs, 635 grading eggs,_ . 652 profits, .... 635 grain for laying hens, 642 pure breeds on farm, 640 grain required for pound of quality of meat and feed, 658 gain, 659 raising, capital required, 636 grain vs. grain and green raising cross-bred, . 660 bone, .... 659 resting eggs before setting, 654 green food for hens. 646 Rhode Island Red, 638 grit for, .... 646 roasters, .... 657 Hamburgs, 637 rock phosphate for chicks, 654 hatching eggs under hens, 654 roup in, . 153 hatching frozen eggs, 653 sand for, 654 hatching in incubators, . 655 salt for hens, 646 heating houses, 650 self feed, 647 Indian Game, 639 selling day-old chicks, 656 influence of cock on egg pro- sex of eggs, 653 duction, 647 skimmilk for, . 645 ,658 Java, .... 639 sore head in, 154 kafir corn for, . 644 squab broilers, 658 La Fleche, 638 statistics, 635 Langshans, 637 stimulating feeds for eggs, 645 Leghorns, 636 straw vs. gravel floors, . 649 leg weakness in chicks, 657 summer rations, 642 leukaemia in, 155 sunflower seed for, 643 light Brahma, 637 tallow for, . . 642 ,645 lime for, 646 temperature of sitting loss in incubator, 155 hens, .... 656 loss in weight in dressing, 661 test of breeds for eggs, . 640 loss in weight of eggs in test of breeds for fatten- hatching, 654 ing, .... 659 mangels for, . . 644 ,646 tuberculosis in, . 154, 657 manure, amount produced, 647 turning eggs in hatching, 655 marketing, 660 vegetable vs. animal protein marketing eggs, 652 for, .... 645 mashes for, 644 vs. ducks, .... 664 meat breeds, 637 warm vs. cold houses, 650 meat meal for, . 654 ,655 water for hens, 647 meat vs. vegetable diet, 658 wheat for, 644 milk albumen, 645 whole vs. ground grains, 643 Minorcas, 636 Wyandottes, 638 moistening rations for yards for, . . , 650 hens, .... 643 Chicks (see Chickens) ri4 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK drilling 1 (see Refrigeration) Cockerels, caponizing, 660 Chine of mutton, 239 Cockle seed for horses, 317 Chinese geese, 668 Cocoa shell milk for calves, 378 hog, 14, 499 Cocoanut cake analysis, 75 pheasant, 697 oil cake for calves, 378 Chloral hydrate, 160 Cod fat of beef, 237 for colic, 103 liver oil for calves, . 378 Chloride of lime in refrigeration 264 Coefficients of digestibility, 69 Choke in cattle, 122 Cold air machines for refrigera in horses, 102 tion, .... 261 in sheep, 138 blooded horses, . 294 Cholera in chickens, 154 storage houses, construction L in ducks, 156 of, .... 267 in hogs, 128 storage houses, insulation L in geese, . 156 of, .... 267 Chops of mutton, 239 storage (see also Refrigera- Chuck of beef, . 237 tion.) Chufas for hogs, . . ■ 529 Colds in horses, 104 Churning, .... 483 Colic and defective feeding, 90 ; 333 Cicuta maculata, 168 engorgement, 102 occidentalis, 168 flatulent, 103 vagans, 168 in horses, .... 102 Circulation in cold stoi •age obstruction, 102 rooms, 263 spasmodic, 103 Cladonia rangeferina, 684 worm, . ' . 103 Classes of beef cattle, 369 Colleges, agricultural work of, . 198 of hogs, 555 Colostrum for calves, 375 of horses, 301 Colt-ill in horses, 96 of mules, 346 Colts (see also Horses) Classification of farm stock, 7 care of, . 334 Classifying stock in shipping, 216 castration of, . 161 Clear back of pork, 239 grain for, 334 belly of pork, 239 milk for, .... 328 Cleveland bay horse, 292 Coluniba Uvea, .... 9 Clothing, wool, 620 Combing wool, .... 620 Clover (see also Crimson clover and Commission charges, . 220 Red clover) Composition of animal tissues, 45 Clover, all kinds, analyses, . 75 of feeds, table, . . 74-79 and timothy, digestibility 80 of plants, .... 47 for chickens, . 644 Compound lard, 242 for cows, . 451 Compression machines for refrig- for steers, 398 eration, 261 hay, analysis, . 75 Condemned meat, 270 hay for hogs, 548 stock, .... 216 hay for horses, . 322 Condimental feeds for cows, 460 hay for sheep, . 598 feeds, for hogs, 547 hay for steers, 388 feeds, for steers, 395 meal for hens, . 646 Condition powders for hens, 646 pasture for hogs, 525 Conestoga horse, 296 pasture for sheep, 591 Connemara ponies, 295 silage, analysis, 75 Constipating feeds, . 91 silage for cows, 451 Constipation in pigs, 137 steamed for geese, 668 Consumption in cattle, 112 Club foot in horses, 109 Contagion, prevention of, 95 Clydesdale horse, 296 Contagious abortion in cattle, 125 Coach horse, 291, 303 Contamination from previous Coal for hogs, . 549 sire, .... 34 Cob horse, . 303 Cooking feeds, 51 Cob meal for steers, . 387 feeds for hogs, 544 Cochin chickens, 637 Cooler for milk, 477 Cocked ankles in horses, 109 Coolers, 262 INDEX 715 Page Oooley cans for milk, 480 doling (see Refrigeration) Co-operative cold storage for farm- ers, .... 269 creameries, 489 Copperas for hogs, 549 Cork in cold storage construc- tion, .... 267 Corn, amount undigested by steers, .... 389 and alfalfa for steers, 387 and cob meal, digestibility, 80 and corn products, analy- sis, .... 75 and corn products, digesti- bility, ... 80, 82, 83 and corn products, protein equating factor, . . 83, 84 and stock, relation, 388 belt bog, 500 cobs, digestibility, . 80 chops for steers, 386 dry vs. soaked for steers, 389 fertilizing value, 175 flour as sausage fiHei, 247 fodder, analysis, 75 fodder, digestibility, 80 fodder, equivalent in si- lage, .... 399 fodder for cows, 452 fodder for sheep, 599 fodder for steers, . 398,399 for cows, 439 for egg production, 641 for hens, 643 for hogs, 535 for horses, 314 for sheep, 602 for steers, frosted for steers. 386 386 grinding for horses, 315 ground vs. whole for steers, 387 hogging, 536 horse beans and sunflower silage, 80 husking for steers, . 389 in shock vs. silage for steers, 400 meal as cream substitute, 379 meal for cows, 439 meal for hogs, 536 meal for horses, 315 meal for mules, 347 meal for steers, 387 meal vs. ear corn for steers, 389 money value for beef, 396 oil for calves, . 379 preparation for steers, 387 shelled vs. ground for steers, .... 389 Page Corn shives for cows, . . 451 shives for hogs, . . 537 shives for horses, . . 324 shives for steers, . . 399 silage, analysis, . . 75 silage, digestibility, . 80 silage for cows, . . 452 silage for horses, . . • 323 silage for steers, . . 387 slump for cows, . . 441 stalk disease, . . . 122 stalks, fertilizing value, . 175 stalks, pasturing with steers, ... 399 stover for cows, . . 451 stover for horses, . . 324 stover shredded for steers, 390 white flint for geese, . 670 with supplemental feeds for steers, ... 386 Corned beef, .... 255 Corns in horses, . . . 109 in mules, . . . 109 Correlation of variations, . . 38 Corrosive sublimate, . . 160 sublimate as disinfectant, 94 Cots for hogs, .... 514 Cotswold sheep, . . . 575 Cotton field pasture for steers, 402 mules, .... 347 Cottonseed, analysis, . . 75 protein equating factor, 84, 85 digestibility, ... 81 for cows, . . . 443 for hogs, ... 537 for steers, ... 389 hulls for cows, . . 443 hulls for hogs, . . 538 meal and hulls for steers, 390 meal as cream substitute, 379 meal, effect on butter, . 442 meal, fertilizing value, . 175 meal for cows, . . 441 meal for hogs, . . 537 meal for horses, . . 316 meal for mules, . . 347 meal for sheep, . . 602 meal for steers, . . 389 meal, poisonous effects, . 537 oil for hogs, . _ . 538, 549 roasted and boiled for steers, .... 390 Couch grass, analysis, . . 76 Cow manure, composition, . 176 Cowpea hay for hogs, . . 548 hay for horses, . . 324 hay for mules, . . 347 hay for sheep, . . . 598 hay for steers, . . 400 hay vs. timothy for steers. pasture for hogs, 526 716 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Cowpea silage digestibility, 81 Cows, kafir corn for, 444 Cowpeas, analysis, 76 kafir corn fodder for, . 454 digestibility, 81 lespedeza for, 454 for chickens, 644 linseed meal for, 444 for cows, 453 malt sprouts for. 437 for hogs, 539 maintenance, 461 for horses, 321 mangels for, 447 for mules, 347 middlings for, 436 protein equating factor, 83,84 milking methods, 472 Cowpox, .... 117 millet hay for, 454 Cows (see also Dairy Cows) narrow vs. wide rations, 446 age and productivity, 464 nutrene for, 445 alfalfa for, 449 oats for, 445 apple pomace for, 447 oats and peas for, 454 apples for, 447 open shed for, . 463 artichokes for, 447 pasture for, 458 average profits from, 470 peas for, 445 barley for, 437 period of pregnancy, 419 beans for, 438 potatoes for. 448 bedding for, 468 protection from flies 471 beets for, 447 pumpkins for, 448 Bermuda hay for, 451 quality and value of ma- bone meal for, 460 nure, 176 bran for, 436 rape for, . 455 breeds and productivity, 465 rations for, 461 brewers' grains for, 437 relative profit from milk, brome grass for, 451 cream and butter, 469 buckwheat for, 438 roots for, 447 cabbage for, 447 rye meal for, 445 cerealine for, . 440 rye pasture for, 455 clover for, 451 salt for, 460 commission for selling, 220 serradella for, 455 condemned for food, 216 size of ration, 464 condiment|l feeds for, 460 skimmilk for, . 460 corn for, . 439 soiling crops for, 456 corn shives for, 451 sorghum for, 455 corn slump for, 441 soy bean hay for, 455 corn silage for, 452 soy beans for, . 438 corn stover for, 451 spelt for. 445 cottonseed for, 443 statistics of, 427 cottonseed hulls for, 443 sterility in. 164 cottonseed meal for, 441 sugar for, 460 cowpeas for, 453 sugar beet pulp for, 448 dehorning, 475 sugar beets for. 448 distillers' grains for, 443 sugar feed for, 460 dried beet pulp for, 460 timothy for, 456 feeding in stalls, pens and turnips for, 449 yards compared, . 462 various kinds of silage feeding standard, 65 for, 453 fiat pea for, 454 vetch for, 456 fruits for, 447 water for, 460 germ feed for. 440 wheat for, 436, 456 gluten flour for, 441 Coyotes and sheep diseases 158 gluten meal for, 440 Crab grass hay, analysis, 76 grain at pasture, 458 digestibility, 81 grain rations for, 445 Crating stock, 208 hay for, 454 Craven cattle, 366 hominy feed for, 441 Cream, care of, . 482 increasing profits from, 487 ripening, 482 India wheat for, 439 starters for, 482, 483 individuality in, 466 Creameries, 488 INDEX 111 Page Page Creameries, building materials for, 492 Death camas, » » . 168 location of, 492 Deer, .... 684 machinery for, 492 Dehorning calves, 416, 417 Creamery companies, 488 cows, effect on milk yielc 475 companies, formation of, 489 Delaine Merino sheep, 567 companies, constitution and wool, 620 bylaws, 490 Delphinium hicolor, . 168 Creaming of milk, 479 glaucum, 168 creeps in cattle, 127 Demodex folliculorum suis, 135 Creole ponies, 296 Deodorizers, 159 Creolin for sheep ticks, 149 Devon cattle, 367 Creosote for stomach worms, 151 cattle, popularity, . 367 Crested White ducks, 663 cattle, standard require- Creve-Coeur chickens, . 638 ments, 367 Crimson clover, analysis, 75 cattle, value in crossing, 367 clover, digestibility, 80 Dexter cows, 435 clover, for cows, 451 Diabetes in cattle, 124 clover, protein equating factor, 83 in horses, 104 Crooked foot in horses, 109 saccharine, 104 Crop bound in chickens, 156 Diamond skin disease, 130 Crops, fertilizing value, 173-175 Diarrhea in cattle, 123 Cross breeding, 40 in chickens, 156 Crosses in animals, 33 in ducks, 156 Croton oil, 160 in turkeys, 156 Croup in lambs, 139 Dickinson Merino sheep, . 568 Crude fiber in plants, 49 Dicotyles torquatus, 14 Cud in ruminants, 27 Digester for tankage, 250 loss of, . 27,122 tankage for hogs, 546 Cumberland cuts of pork, 239 Digestible matter in feeds, . 83-85 Curd for cheese, 486 Digestibility, coefficients of, 69 Curds for calves, 379 of feed stuffs, 50 Cured hay, digestibility of, 51 of feeds, determination, 51 Curing meats, 244, 254 of feeds, table, . 79-83 Cutlets of mutton, 239 Digestion, 21 Cuts of beef, 236, 252 factors affecting, 51 of mutton, 239 of different nutrients, 22 of pork, 238 of feeds by different ani- of veal, 239 mals, 51 Cygnas musicus, 698 time required for, . 23 nigripennis, 698 Digestive diseases of cattle, 122 olor, 698 Diphtheria carried in milk, 278 Cysticercus ceUulosae, 134 in fowls, 153 tenuicollis, 135 Dipping diseased stock, 214 Cytodites nudus, 155 plants for sheep scab, 146 Dairy barns, 475 vats for hogs, . 515 cattle, 427-493 Dips for sheep scab, 145 conditions, 474 Diseased stock shipment, 214 cows (see Cows) Diseases due to careless feeding 90 division, IT. S. Dept. Agri 196 of carabao, 687 farming, example of, 186 of cats, 693 farming pasture system, 187, 188 of cattle, 111-127 herd, formation of, 428 of dogs, 157 maids, 372 of ducks and geese, 156 sanitation, 474 of goats, 152 Dairying, importance of . 427 of horses, 95-111 increasing profits from, 487 of mules, 111 literature on, . 493 of ostriches, 695 Dan Patch, . _ . 287 of pigeons, 156 Dartmoor ponies, 295 of poultry, 153-157 Deacon calves. 239 of rabbits, 690 Dead bodies, disposal of . 95 of reindeer, 685 hogs, 559 of sheep, 137-152 718 FARMERS CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Diseases of swine, 127-137 Ducks, cost of growing, 661 of turkeys, 156 diseases, 156 transmitted by milk, 277 dry land strain, 661 Disinfectants, 94, 159 eggs, hatching under hens, 663 Disinfection of premises, 94 eggs, period of incubation, 663 Distemper in cats, . . 693 extent of industry, . 661 in dogs, 157 feeding breeding birds, 666 in horses, 96 feeding older ducklings, 664 Distillery cattle defined, 372 green food for . 665, 666 grains, analysis, 75,76 handling in brooder, 663 grains, digestibility, 81 incubating eggs, 663 grains for cows, 443 killing age, 665 grains for hogs, 539 marketing, 666 grains for horses, 318 mixing grit with food, 664 grains for steers, 389, 391 method of feeding, 664 grains, protein equating :ac- necessity of soft food for 664 tor, .... 84 number of drakes to, 663 grains, various kinds for origin of, 15 cows, 444 picking, 666 slop, analysis, 76 setting eggs under hens 664 Dochmius cernuus, 151 vegetable rations only for 664 Dogs, .... 690 vs. chickens, 664 as food, 691 water for, 665 diseases of, 157 Durham cattle (see Shorthorns and origin and breeds, 691 Polled Durhams) skins, 257 Duroc-Jersey pigs, 504 skins for rugs, 258 Durra, analysis, 76 uses, 692 Dutch Belted cows, 434 vs. sheep, 580 rabbits, 690 vermifuge for, 692 Dyanthes excelsa for hogs, 549 Domestic wool, 620 Dysentery in cattle, 123 Domestication of animals, 3 Dziggetai, 11 influence on variation, 37 East Friesland horse, 292 Dominant characters in hybrids 32 Prussian horse, 292 Dominique chickens, 639 Echinococcus disease from meat 271 Dorking chickens, 639 in pigs, 135 Dorset sheep, 572 Eczema in cattle, 127 for winter lambs, 606 in horses, 109 Doves, .... 674 in sheep, 140 Draft horses, 296, 304 Edema in sheep, 141 horses for farmers, . 305 Egg meat, frozen, 264 Dragoon pigeon, . 674 Eggs, age and fertility, 653 Drenching, .... 158 boiled for ducklings, 664 Dressed weight of beef, . 237 commission charges, 652 weight of hogs, . 239, 555 composition of, 651 Dried beef, 255 color in different breeds, 640 blood for calves, 378 color of yolk, . 651 blood for eggs, 645 cost in winter, 635 blood for hogs, 547 cost of producing, 635 blood for steers, 406 desiccated, 652 distillery grains for steers ? 391 determining fertility, 656 Dromedary, 686 digestion of hard and soft Dropsy in sheep, . 139 boiled, 651 Dry lot for nodular disease, 152 duck, period of incuba- matter in feeds, . 83,85 tion, 663 Duchess pigeons, 674 early molting of hens for 648 Ducklings, feeding, 664 effect of freezing on hatch- Ducks, amount to feed. 664 ing, 653 animal feed for, 664 effect of light on hatching 654 breeds, 662 factors affecting fertility 653 buildings for, . . 665 feeding for, 641 INDEX m Page Page Eggs, fertility influenced by exer- Equus, onager, ... 11 cise, 653 prejvalskii, 11 fertilization of, 27 quagga, 11 fertilizing value of, 175 somaliensis, 11 flavor, 651 zebra, .... 11 flavor from cabbage, 646 Ergot, cause of abortion, . 125 for calves, 378, 381 injurious to horses, 336 geese, time required for hatch- poisonous, 169 ing. 669 Eriscoma cuspidata, analysis, 77 hatching under hens, 654 Erysipelas in horses, 109 humidity in cold storage, 263 Essex hogs, .... 507 influence of cock on fer- Estrum, effect on milk, 473 tility, 653 Ethan Allen, .... 290 keeping in cold storage, 652 Ether extract in feeds, 49 loss of weight in hatch- Ewes, breeding, 581 ing, . 654 flushing, 581 marketing, 652 for winter lambs, 607 methods of grading, 652 selection and care of, 580 methods of preserving, 652 (see also Sheep) moisture in incubating, 655 Examination of the horse, 95 moisture in refrigeration 264 Exercise for sows, 519 onion flavor, 651 importance of, 94 packing hatching, 652 Exmoor ponies, 295 period of incubation for Expansion machines for refrigera- chicken, 654 tion, .... 261 preserving, 652 Experiment stations, 197 price of, . 635 Expositions and fairs, educationa L production in U S., 635 value, .... 204 rations for, 58 Express rates for shipping stock, 208 refrigeration of, 263 Extract of beef, 250 resting before setting, 654 Fagopyrism in sheep, 140 sex of, 653 Eainting in horses, 106 temperature in cold s tor- Eairs, live stock, 204 age, 263 management, 205 temperature in incubation 656 state and county, 204 turkey, hatching, 672 state appropriations for, 205 turning in hatching, 655 Farcy in horses, 98 weight of, 651 Farm crops, fertilizing value, . 175 Egyptian corn, analysis of, 76 horse breeding, 192 wild cat, 693 hygiene, . . . . 1 39-95 Electioneer trotting stallion, 286 Farmer sausage, 249 Electric shock in horses, 106 Farmers' Institute specialist, 200 Elk, 684 institutes, work of, 199 Embden geese, 667 Farrowing of sows, . 520 Emmer, analysis, 76 Fasciola hepatica in sheep, 150 for sheep, 602 Fat animals, greater value of, . 47 Enemas, .... 158 content of milk, 25 Energy, net of food, . 56 in animal tissues, 46 production, 55,56 on sheep, 598 sources of in animal body 57 percentage in cattle, 238 used up in animal body 55 Fatness, effect on price of cattle, 224 English long cut ham, 239 Fats, absorption of. 23 pork cuts, 238 compared with carbohydrates Epilepsy in horses. 106 for energy value, 57 Epizootic in horses. 96 for protecting protein, 53 Epsom salts. 160 function, of. 62 Equus asinus, 11 in feeds, function of. 49 caballus, 11 of feeds and of animal hemionus, 11 body, .... 54 hemionus Jciang, 11 origin of in animal body, 54 libycus, 11 storage in body, 55 m FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK: Fattening chickens, horses, limit of, . rations for sheep, steers, time required Faverolle chickens, Favus in chickens, Feather eating chickens, treat- ment, on legs of Shire horse, . Feathers (see the various kinds of fowls) Fecundity in breeding animals, Feeder cattle, hogs, Feeding and diseases, dairy cows, hogs, horses, mares, methods for cows, methods for steers, mules, principles of, . sows, stallions, standards, stock, literature on, stuffs, composition table, stuffs, fertilizing value, Feeds, affected by moisture, constipating, digestibility of, digestibility table, . effect on animals, hygiene of, influence on offspring, influence on sex, laxative, medicinal effects of, moldy or otherwise defec- tive, Feet, bones of, diseases in horses, Felis caligata, . . , catuSj lyncus rufus, . Fell cutting in slaughtering, Fences for hogs, for sheep, Fermentation of milk, Fertility of eggs, Fertilization of eggs, Fertilizers, methods of valuation Fescue grass, analysis, Festuca scrabrella, analysis, Fetus calf meat, Fiber in plants, Fibrin in blood, Figs for horses, 658 670 331 63 596 407 637 155 660 298 164 373 558 90, 333 435 552 312-337 335 462 406 346 45-85 520 336 64,68 74 74-79 175 89 91 50 79-83 37 89 29 36 91 91 89 17 109 693 693 693 234 514 580 476 656 27 174 76 76 240 49 24 327 Page Fillet of veal, .... 240 Firm bacon, .... 554 Fish culture and distribution, 700 fry, where to obtain, . 701 hatching stations, . . 701 meal, analysis, . . 76 Fisheries, Bureau of, . . 700 Fistula in horses, . . . 109 Fits in pigs, .... 136 Flank steak, .... 237 Flat foot in horses, . . . 109 pea, analysis, ... 76 pea for cows, . . . 454 pea for horses, . . 321 Flaxseed, analysis, ... 76 as cream substitute, . 379 for sheep, . . . 603 Fleas on dogs, .... 158 Fleece (see also Wool) weight of, . . . 566 Flies, protecting cows against, 471 Floating horses' teeth, . . 102 Flukes in sheep, . . . 150 Flushing ewes, .... 581 Food, Stuffs) changes in body, chief function of, necessity of, (see also Feeding use of, ... Foot and mouth disease, carried in milk, .... and mouth disease, in cattle, and mouth disease, in meat, and mouth disease, in pigs, and mouth disease, in sheep, rot in cattle, rot in sheep, Forage for cows, for steers, Forest service, .... Formalin, .... for fumigation, for scours in calves, for treating tuberculous milk, . in milk, Fowl cholera, diphtheria, Fowls, diseases of, origin of, Foxes, .... Frankfurt sausage, Freemartin, French Canadian cows, Coach horse, Draft horse, Kanuck horse, Eambouillet sheep, Fries, chicken, .... Friesian cows (see Holstein cows'* 55 50 50 278 116 270 131 141 127 140 449 404 196 160 94 379 115 275, 479 154 153 153-156 14 694 248 419 432 291 300 569 657 INDEX ?2i Page Page Frogs, raising, . 700 Germ feed for cows, 440 varieties and uses, . 699 Germ oil meal as cream substi Frozen meat, 267 tute, .... 379 Fruits for cows, 447 German clover (see Crimson Clover ) for horses, 326, 327 Coach horse, 292 Fuel value of feeds, 83-85 feeding standards, . 35, 68 Fuller's earth for bleaching lard 242 Rambouillet sheep, . 569 Gaits in saddle horses, 289 Giant lily for hogs, 549 Gallinaceas, 7 Giblets, pickle for, 247 Galloway cattle, 362 Gid in sheep, .... 149 cattle, popularity, 362 Gilts, definition of, . 522 cattle prepotency, 364 Ginger, 160 horses, .... 294 Glanders in horses, 98 skin rugs, 258 in meat, .... 270 Gallus tankiva, . 14 treatment of, . 99 gallus, .... 14 Glauber salts, .... 160 lafayettii, 15 Gleet, nasal in horses, . . 98, 105 sonneratii, 15 Glucose feed, analysis, 75 varius, 15 Glue from pig feet and bones, . 250 Gambel's partridge, 696 Gluten feed and meal, analysis, 75 Gambrel in dressing hogs, 254 feed and meal, digestibil Game, preservation of, 683 ity, .... 79-81 reserves, 683 feed for cows, 441 Gapes in chickens, 155 feed for hogs, 539 Garget in cattle, 126' feed for sheep, 603 in sheep, 140 feed for steers, 391 Garlic flavor in milk, 467 flour for cows, 441 sausage, 248 meal for cows, 440 Gasoline for stomach worms, 151 meal for fattening chick Gastric juice, .... 22 ens, .... 658 Gastritis in cats, 693 meal for mules, 347 Gaur, 12 meal for sheep, 603 Gayal, 12 meal for steers, *391 Geel dikkop in sheep, 142 meal, protein equating fac Geese, 667 tor, .... 84 breeding mongrels, 668 Goats, .... 621-630 breeds of, ... 667 age and teeth, 625 care of goslings, 669 as brush killers, 623 crossings, 668 Angora breeding, 625 diseases, 156 Angora, care of, 627 eggs, fertility, 669 Angora, care of kids, 628 eggs, hatching in inci ba- Angora, cost and profits, 627 tor, .... 669 Angora, description of, . 623 eggs, hatching under hens, 669 Angora, introduction, 622 eggs, production by different Angora, kidding, 627 breeds, 668 Angora mohair, 622, 623 ,626 fattening, 670 Angora registration socie- feeding breeding birds, 668 ties, .... 626 feeding goslings, 669 Angora shearing, 626 feathers, .... 670 Angora statistics, 621 gains in goslings, 670 Angora, uses of, 622 green feed for, 668, 669 Angora venison, 622 killing and picking, 670 Angora vs. sheep, 627 mating, .... 668 Angora, winter feeding, . 627 nesting habit, 669 disease immunity, 629 origin of, ... 15 diseases of, 152 preparing for market, 670 farming, systems of, 194 white flint corn for, 670 fattening, 627 Gelding vs. mares, 338 kids bottle fed, 629 Gentian 160 literature on. 630 Geographical races of animals, . 38 milch as brush destroyers. 629 722 FA&MER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Goats, milch breeding, 629 milch feeding, 629 milch herd, 628 milch, period of useful- ness, .... 629 milch, record associations, 630 milch, value of, 628, 629 milk, characteristics of, 629 milk for cheese, 629 milk yield, 628 Maltese breed, 630 mountain, 684 origin of, 13 period of gestation, 626 Saanen breed, 629 salt for, .... 627 skins, .... 623 'skins, duty on, 626 statistics, 621 takosis in, 153 tallow, .... 242 Toggenburg breed, 629 tuberculosis in, 153 Going light in fowls, 154 Golden pheasant, 697 rod poisonous to horses, 337 Goslings (see Geese) Gothair sausage, 249 Gourd vine, analysis, 76 Governments (hogs), 558 Grade breeding, 41 Grading up, 41 up sheep, 579 Grain and roughage mixed for steers, 395 for baby beef, 383 for cows on pasture, 458 for fattening chickens, 658 for hogs, 534, 543 for lambs, 589 for laying hens, 642 for sheep, 601 rations for cows, 445 rations for ewes, 585 required for chickens, 659 stubble field for steers. 395 whole vs. ground for horses, . 319 Grama grass, analysis, 76 grass for horses, 324 Grasses, digestibility, 81 for soiling hogs, 532 mixed, protein equating fac- tor, 83 Gray African geese, . 667 jungle fowl, 15 Graylag goose, 15 Grazing sheep, 611 Grease from lard and tallow, 243 in horses, 109 Greasewood, analysis, . 76 Page Great horse of England, 297 Grinding grains and digestibility. 52 Grit for chickens, 646 Grooming horses, 338 Ground bone for calves, 378 Grouse, ruffed, . 696 Growth, stage of in plants and di- gestibility, 51 Grunting in horses, . 105 Guernsey cows, 430 Guinea grass, analysis, 76 Guineas, .... 676 Farmers' Bulletin on, 677 feeding the chicks, 677 marketing, 677 origin of, 16 vs. hens for hatching, 677 Guttural pouches, pus in, 105 Gypsum as a manure prese rva- tive, 179 Hackney horse, 291 Haematobia serrata, . 121 Haematopinus urius, 135 Hair grass, analysis, 76 of hogs for mattresses, 250 Ham curing, 245, 246 Hambletonian horses, 286 Hamburg chickens, 637 Hampshire hogs, 507 sheep, 571 Hanoverian horse, 292 Haslet of veal, 240 Hautgout, .... 272 Hay, analysis, 76 cut vs. uncut for steers, 404 cutting for horses, 323 digestibility, 81 for cows, . 454 for hogs, 547 for horses, 325 tea for calves, 374, 375 Head cheese, 248 cheese, homemade, . 256 meat, pickle for, 247 scab in sheep, 147 Heart beat, rate of, . 24 diseases in horses, 106 meat, pickle for, 247 Hearts, preservation of, 244 Heat, measurement of, 56 period of in cows as affec ting milk, 473 production of in animals 55 used up in animal body 55 Heaves in horses, 105 Heavy butcher hogs, 553 Hebridean ponies, 295 Hedysarum, analysis, 76 Hegelund method of milking. 472 Heifers (see also Cows and Cai tie) age to breed beef, 413 INDEX 723 Page Page Heifers, spaying, 162 Horse farming, systems of, 192 Hemlock poisoning, 168 manure characteristics, 177 Hemoglobin for Texas fever, . 119 manure composition, 176 of blood, 23 market, Chicago, 211 Hemorrhagic septicemia in cat markets, rules of, 210 tie, .... 110 ranching, 192 Hemp for pigeons, 675 tail rush injurious to seed, effect on plumage, . 37 horses, . 337 Hen manure, composition anc L Horses, 283-340 value, .... 176 affected by poor feeds, 102 Hens (see Chickens) age of, . 338 Herd books, .... 202 alfalfa for, . 321 Heredity, . . . . . . 28 almond hulls for, . 327 tendencies of, 29 anatomy of, . 281 Hereford cattle, 355 and farming, . . 283 crossing with other breeds, 356 anthrax in, . 97 Polled, .... 356 artichokes for, . 327 Polled clubs, 359 Ascaris equorum in, 103 strong and weak points, . 355 asthma in, . 105 Herpes in horses, 109 azoturia in, . 104 Hides for rugs, 257 barley for, . 131 of cattle, care of, 241 beans for, . 320 of cattle, percentage beggar weed for, . 322 weight, 238 Belgian draft, . 300 tanning, .... 257 big head in, . 110 High-blowing in horses, • . 105 bilious fever in, . 96 meat, .... 272 blankets for, . 338 Higher mountain sheep, . 576 blomo feed for, . 330 Highland cattle, 364 blood diseases in, . 106 sheep, .... 575 bloody urine in, . 104 Himalayan rabbits, 690 box stalls for, . 337 Hinnies from burros, 343 bran for, . 317 value of, ... 345 bread for, . 317 Hobbling to induce pacing gait, 289 breeding, . 308 Hobby horses, 294 breeding associations, 310 H. 0. feeds, analysis, 76 breeds of, . 284 feeds, digestibility, . 81 brewers' grain for, 318 Hog cholera, .... 128 broken wind in, 105 louse, .... 135 brome hay for, . 322 Hogging corn, .... 536 bronchitis in, . . 104 Hogs (see Swine) buckwheat for, . 319 Holderness cattle, 368 'bus, 304 Holland cattle (see Holstein Cows) cab, . 303 turkeys, .... 671 carob bean for, . 321 Holstein cows, 433 carriage, . 306 Homer pigeon, 674 carrots for, . 327 Hominy feed for cows, 441 cassava for, . 327 feed or meal, analysis, 75 catarrh in, . 104 meal, digestibility, 81 catarrhal fever in, . 96 Hoof of horses, 165 cerebo-spinal meningit is Hoofed animals, 7 in, . 101 Hoose in sheep, 152 choke in, . 102 Hordeum jubatum, analysis, . 74, 78 Cleveland bay, . 292 Horn fly on cattle, 121 clover hay for, . 322 Horns, use in manufacturing, . 250 Clydesdale, 296 Horse beans, analysis, 74 coach, . 291, 303 beans and sunflower seeds, colds in, . . 104 digestibility, 80 colic in, . 102 chestnuts for horses, 316 colt-ill in, . 96 chestnuts for steers, 391 corn for, . 314 doctor, .... 95 corn meal for, . . 315 724 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Horses, corn shives for, 324 Horses, lupines for, 316 corns in, 109 lung fever in, 105 cost of feeding, 333 maintenance ration, 332 cottonseed meal for, 316 mangels for, 327 cowpea hay for, 324 market classes of, 300 cowpeas for, 321 maturity of, 339 cutting hay for, 323 meat for, 331 determination of tempera method of handling, 182 ture in, ... 95 milk for, 328 diabetes in, 104 millet for, 321 digestibility of feeds for, 83 millet hay for, 325 digestive capacity of, 336 miscellaneous feeds for, 328, 331 digestive diseases of, 101 molasses for, 329 diseases of, 95-11 Morgans, . 290 distemper in, . 96 nasal gleet in, 98, 105 distillery grains for, 318 nerve diseases in, 106 draft, .... 304 new corn product for, 324 draft type of, 296 nose bags for, 335 duration of pregnancy, 312 number of meals per day 335 examination of, 95 numbers of, 283 exclusive grain ration for, 332 oats for, . 312 farcy in, ... 98 origin of, 9 fattening, 331 Orlov trotter, 290 feeding, . . . 312-337 pacers, 287 feeding standards, . 65 parasites of, 110 fistula in, ... 109 pasture for, 326 five-toed, 9 peas for, 320 flat pea for, 321 Percheron, 298 French Draft, 300 peritonitis in, 103 fruits for, . . 326,327 pink eye in, 96 glanders in, . 98 pneumonia in, . 97,105 grama grass for, 324 points of, 308, 311 grinding grain for, 319 ponies, 294 Hackney, 291 potatoes for, 327 hay for, 325 pox in, . 97 heaves in, 105 proportions of, 311 heavy species of northern pulse of, 312 Europe, 10 pumpkins for, 327 hoof of, . 165 purpura hemorrhagica in, 106 horse chestnuts for, 316 quantity and value of ma- hunter, .... 293 nure, 176 improvement of, 283 quittor in, 109 in early history of Amer - rabies in, 100 ica, .... 284 rations for, . 332, 334, 335 in England, 283 respiratory diseases in, 104 in France, 284 rice for, 320 inflammation of urinary or - ringbones in, 107 gans, .... 104 roaring in, 105 influenza in, . 96 roots for, 326 injurious feeding stuffs, 336 rutabagas for, 328 irregularities of teeth, . 102 rye for, 316 jaundice in, 103 Saddle, ... 289 kafir corn for, 321 scalma in, 97 laceration of mouth, 102 shipment to Chicago, 212 lameness in, . . 107 shipping, 217, 218 lampas in, ... 102 shipping abroad, 227 lentils for, 320 Shire, 297 linseed meal for, 318 shoeing, 165 lockjaw in, 100 silage for, 323 loco in, . 337 sirup for, 330 loss of appetite, . , 332 skin diseases in, 109 INDEX 725 Page Page Horses, sorghum hay for, . 326 Impregnator, 163 sources of, ... 283 Improved Black Top Merino soy beans for, 320 sheep, . . 567 spavin in, ... 108 Delaine Merino sheep, 567 species of, ... 9 large Yorkshire hogs, 505, 506 splints in, ... 107 Inbreeding, 39 stover for, 324 Incubator chicks, losses in, 155, 657 strangles in, 96 Incubators for hatching eggs , . 655 straw for, 325 operating, 655 Suffolk Punch, 297 supplying moisture to, 655 sugar beets for, 328 India wheat for cows, 439 sunstroke in, . 106 Indian cattle, . 12, 688 surra in, ... 100 Game chickens, 639 sweet clover for, 326 hemp, 160 sweet potatoes for, . 328 hemp for colic, 102 tallow, .... 242 millet, analysis, . 76,77 teeth, .... 18 ponies, 284 teeth in determining age, 339 Runner ducks, 662 temperature of, 312 Indigestion in cattle, 123 tetanus in, 100 Influence of previous sire, 33 Thoroughbred, 284 Influenza in horses, 96 timothy for, 326 in sheep, 143 Trotter, .... 285 Inhalation of medicines, 159 turnips for, 328 Insemination, artificial, 163 typhoid fever in, 96 Inspection of meat, 270 ventilation for, 337 of milk, . 274-278 vetches for, 320 Institute train specials, 200 water for, 333 Interbreeding, 39 wheat for, 317 Interference in horses, 109 Hot blooded horses, 294 International Live Stock Exposi- Hothouse lambs, 606 tions, 204 Humidity in cold storage rooms, 263 von Homeyer Rambouillet Humped cattle, 688 sheep, 569 Humus, importance of, 173 Intrauterine influences in hered- Hungarian hay, fertilizing value, 175 ity, 34 millet, analysis, 76 Iodide of potash, 160 millet, digestibility, 81 Iron peroxide, 160 millet, protein equating fac salts, 160 tor, .... 83 Italian jack, 342 Hunter horse, .... 293 Itch in dogs, 158 Hunting, regulation of 683 Jack bean meal for steers, 385 Hurford wheel in hoisting swine, 236 rabbits, 689 Hybrids, 32 Jacks, .... 340-34S Hybridization, .... 32 breeding mules from, 343 Hydrochloric acid, 160 breeds of, 342 Hydrophobia (see Rabies) selection of, 341 Hygiene of farm animals, 89-95 Jalap, .... 160 Hygrometer to determine mo is Japan clover, analysis, 75 ture, .... 263 pig, . • • # • 14 Hypoderma lineata, . 121 Japanese millet, analysis, 76 Hypodermic syringe, . 158 peafowl, 698 Ice, amount required in refrigera- Jarque, .... 256 tion, .... 262 Jaundice in horses, 103 bacterial contamination of, 259 Java chickens, 639 for refrigerator cars, 260 jungle fowl, 15 houses on the farm, 267 Jennet jacks, 341 on the farm, . 260 Jerked beef and venison, . 256 use in refrigeration, 258 Jersey cows, 429 Tcterohematuria in sheep, 142 Red hogs, 504 Illness, detection in horse, 95 Jewish slaughtering, 233 Impregnation artificial, , . 163 Johnson grass, digestibility, 81 726 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page i Johnson grass, digestibility, . 81 Lambs, castration" by western meth- grass for steers, *401. 402 od, . Joint-ill in calves,. 126 cow's milk for, in pigs, 132 daily ration, Judging hogs, *500-5G docking, castrating and dip- sheep, 577 ping, . stock, students' work, 199 dressing and marketing, J uncus balticus, analysis, . 79 fattening period, species, digestibility, 80 feeding, .... Jungle fowl, 14 feeding qualities of, Kafir corn and products, analysis, 76 grains for, corn and products, digesti- market quotations, bility, . 81 marketing Christmas, corn and sorghum for method of feeding, steers, 387 reviving after chilling, corn fodder for cows, 454 (see also Sheep) corn for chickens, 644 shelter for, corn for cows, 444 tongues, curing, corn for hogs, *528 ,539 vs. old sheep, . corn for horses, 321 weaning, .... corn for sheep, 603 white scours in, corn for steers, . 391 winter, .... corn meal for calves, 379 winter care of, corn meal for cows, 444 Lambs' quarters for hogs, corn, protein equating fac- Lamellirostres, .... tor, . 83, 1 Lameness in horses, . corn stover for steers, 401 Lampas in horses, Kalberrahm for calves, 378 Lampblack in cold storage construc- Kemp in wool, 620 tion, . . Kentucky blue grass, analysis, 76 Langshan chickens, blue grass, digestibility, 80, 81 Lard hog, blue grass, protein equating homemade, factor, . 83 in hogs, .... red turkey, 671 manufacture of, Keratitis in cattle, 127 Large Black hogs, . Kerosene emulsion as fly repel- White hogs, lant, 472 Larkspurs, .... for roup, 154 Laryngitis in horses, Kerry cows, 434 in sheep, Kiang, .... 11 Lathy rus sylvestris, analysis, Kidney worm in pigs, 133 for cows, Kidneys, function of, 24 Laudanum, .... Killing animals on farm, . 251 Laws on importing stock, . Kindness to animals and diges- on stock shipments, tion, 52 Laxative feeds, King system of ventilation, 92 Laxatives, .... Knee-sprung horse, 303 Lead poisoning, Knuckle of veal, 240 Leaf lard, .... Knuckling in horses, 109 Leather from various animals, . Kola nut for horses, . 328 Leg, bones of, Kreatin in urine, 25 ulceration in sheep, La Fleche chickens, . 638 Leghorn chickens, . 4 Lactation period in cows, . 464 Lehigh valley summer sausage, Ladies' hack horse, 306 Leicester sheep, saddle horse, 306 Lentils for horses, Lambing period, 588 Lespedeza for cows, wagon, 613 hay, analysis, Lambs, arthritis in, 141 (see also Japan Clover) at pasture, 589 Leukaemia in fowls, care of, . 588 Lice on chickens, castration, , , 161 on pigs, . Page INDEX 727 Lice on turkeys, Light butcher hogs, effect on aninials, 672 556 37 557 74 94 94 Lima beans, analysis, Lime as a disinfectant, chloride as a disinfectant for absorbing moisture in re- frigeration, . . . 264 for chickens, . . . 646 in the ration, . . - 60 sulphur dips for sheep scab, 145, 146 water, . . . . 160 water for preserving eggs, 652 Lincoln sheep, .... 574 Line breeding, . . . • . 39 Linseed meal, analysis, . . 76 meal as cream substitute, 379 meal, digestibility, . . 81,82 meal, fertilizing value, . 175 meal for chickens, . . 642 meal for cows, . . 444 meal for horses, . . 318 meal for sheep, . . 603 meal for steers, 386,388,391,392 meal, protein equating fac- tor, .... 85 oil, 160 Litters of pigs, size of, . . 517 size of in animals, . 28 Live stock courses in agricultural colleges, . . . 199 stock exchange, . . 216 stock exposition and fairs, 204 stock farming, broadening influence, . . . 206 stock, importance in farm- ing, . . . . 6 stock importation, laws on, .... 195 stock, inspection at yards, 215 stock, local buyers, . 207 stock marketing, . 206-229 stock marketing locally, . 208 stock organizations, 190-206 stock papers, . . . 205 stock regulations, . . 202 Liver flukes in pigs, . . . 134 flukes in sheep, . . 150 sausage, . . . 248 Livers, preservation of, . . 244 Lockjaw in horses, . . . 100 Loco disease in horses, . . 337 in sheep, . . . 596 weeds, .... 167 Logger horse, .... 305 Loin of beef, .... 237 of pork, .... 239 London beef cuts, . . . 237 Longhorn Leicestershire cattle, 366 Lop-eared rabbit, . . . 690 meat mspec- Luinpy jaw in cattle, Lung diseases in horses, fever in horses, fluke in pigs, worms in pigs, worms in sheep. Lupines for horses, poisonous, Lymphadenitis and tion, in sheep, . Lyon sausage, Mail order sales, Maintenance rations, rations for cows rations for hogs, rations for horses Maize feed, digestibility Majorca jack, Male fern, Malignant catarrh in cattl edema in cattle, Mallard duck, . Mallein test for glanders Malt sprouts, analysis, sprouts, digestibility, sprouts, for cows, sprouts, protein equating fac tor, .... Malt skimmings, analysis, Maltese cat, .... jack, .... Mammitis (see Garget) Mange in dogs, in horses, in pigs, .... of cattle, Mangels, analysis, digestibility, fertilizing value, for cows, for hens, for hogs, .... for horses, protein equating factor, Manure, applying on land, ■ . chicken, amount and preser- vation, composition of, checking injurious fermenta- tion, .... covered yards for, effect when fresh on plants, European methods of pre- serving, fermentation, fertilizer value of, fire-fanging, from different aged stock, 117 105 105 134 134 152 316 169 270 143 249 185 63 461 551 332 81 342 160 118 118 15 99 74-76 81 437 84 76 693 342 158 109 135 121 76 81 175 447 644, 646 529 327 84 180 647 177 178 180 180 178 178 64 178 175 728 FARMER' 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Manure from different animals, characteristics, . . 177 from different animals, com- position, . . . 176 heap, care of, . 179, 180 losses from leaching, . 179 plowing in on different soils, .... 181 preservation of solid and liquid portions, . . 178 preserving barn cellars, . 180 preservatives, . . . 179 quantity produced by farm animals, . . . 176 relative value of solid and liquid portions, . . 177 yards for preserving, . 179 Manx cat, 693 Mares, feeding, .... 335 spaying, .... 162 sterility, .... 164 Market classes of beef cattle, . 369 classes of hogs, . . 555 classes of horses, . . 300 classes of mules, . . 346 Marketing, best time, . . 217 chickens, . . . 660 ducks, .... 666 eggs, .... 652 live stock, . . 206-229 pure breeds, . . . 208 (see also Shipping) sheep, .... 606 squabs, .... 676 turkeys, .... 673 Markets for horses, rules of sale, 210 Marsden feed for hogs, . . 537 Marsh grass, analysis, . . 76 hay for cows, . . . 454 Maryland pig pen, . . . 513 Mashes for hens, . . . 644 Meadow hay, fertilizing value, 175 fescue, protein equating fac- tor, .... 83 Measle worms in pigs, . . 134 Meat by-products, .- . . 241 curing on the farm, . 254 diseases transmitted by, 270 for horses, . . . 331 fresh for eggs, . . 645 importance in diet, . 6 inspection, . . 270-274 inspection, federal, . 272,273 inspection, state and munici- pal, .... 273 meal, analysis, . . 76 meal for chickens, . . 645 meal for ducklings, . 664 meal for hogs, . . 547 poisoning, . . 271 Page Meat rations for fattening chicks, 658 scraps, analysis, 76 scraps, protein equating fac- tor, .... 84 tuberculous, 113 Meats, curing, .... 243 home dressed, market for, 213 Medicines, .... 158 Medium butcher hogs, 556 ratio in feeds, 66 Yorkshire hogs, 505 Megrims in horses, 106 Meleagris gallopavo, . 15 mexicana, 15 ocellata, .... 15 Melilotus alba, analysis, 75,78 Melophagus ovinus, 148 Mendel's law, .... 33 Meningitis, cerebro-spinal in horses, .... 101 in horses, 106 Merino sheep, .... 567 wool, .... 616 Merinos for winter lambs, 607 Mesquite beans, analysis, . 74 Mess pork, .... 239 Metabolism, .... 62 of feeds, .... 20-23 Mexican sheep, Merino, 568 Middlings, analysis, . 79 fertilizing value, 175 for cows, 436 for pigs, .... 543 for sheep, 605 Milk, abnormal conditions in, . 277 adulteration, 274 aeration of, . 477 albumen for ducklings, 664 albumen for eggs, 645 analysis, 76 and beef, relative economy, 428 as affected by heat in cows, .... 473 bacteria in, . . 276,475 boiled for calves, 378 care of, . 475 centrifugal separation of, 480 composition, 274 contamination of, 276 contamination with dirt and bacteria, 476 cooling, .... 477 deep setting of, 480 dirt in, ... . 476 diseases transmitted by, . 277 effect of rations on, 463 effect of weather on yield of 469 examination of, 275 INDEX 729 Page Milk, fat and feeds, . . 463 fat content of, . . 25 fat source of, . . 57, 463 fermentation, . . . 476 fertilizing value, . . 175 fever, .... 125 for cows, . . . 460 for horses, . . . 328 goat's, character of, . 629 heavy rations for, . . 58 influence of cold on, . 265 inspection, . . 274-278 methods of delivering to fac- tories, ... 493 pasteurization of, . . 478 physiology of production, 57 practical methods of han- dling, .... 477 preservation with forma- lin, . ^ . . . 479 preservatives in, . 275, 474 preventing contamination of, .... 277 pure market, . . . 474 relation of heat and bacte- ria, .... 478 removal of weedy flavors, 467 secretion of, . . . 25 shallow setting, . . 480 skim vs. whole for calves, 378 statistics of, . . . 427 sugar, .... 26 teeth in colts, . . . 339 tester, .... 479 tuberculous, . . 113, 115 utensils, care, . . 475 utensils, washing, . . 476 vessels, cleaning, . . 277 water-dilution system of creaming, . . . 480 weedy flavor in, . . 466 (see also Skimmilk) Milker, hygiene of, . . 277 Milkers, market quotations, . 225 Milking machines, . . . 473 methods, .... 472 Millet, analysis, ... 76 digestibility, . . . 81,82 and soy bean silage, digesti- bility, .... 81 hay for cows, . . . 454 hay for horses, . . 325 seed for hogs, . . . 539 seed for horses, . . 321 seed for sheep, . . 603 Milo maize, analysis, ... 77 digestibility, ... 81 Minced ham, . . . 248 Mineral matter for animals, . 60 poisons, .... 166 Minorca chickens, . . . 636 Page Mites on chickens, . . . 155 Modiola decumbens, analysis, . 77 Mohair, 622 Mohair tariff on, ... 626 Moisture absorption in cold stor- age, .... 264 Molascuit, analysis, ... 77 Molasses, beet for cows, . . 460 for curing meat, . . 255 for hogs, . . . 549 for horses, . . . 329 for mules, . . . 348 for sheep, . . . 605 for steers, . . . 406 protein equating factor, . 85 Moldy feeds, .... 89 feeds cause of heaves, . 105 Mongrel geese, .... 668 Mouflon, 13 Moniezia expansa in sheep, . 150 Morgan family of horses, . 286 horse, .... 290 Morphine, 160 for colic, . . . 102 Morse gray horse, . . . 298 Mortadella sausage, . . . 249 Mountain goat, . . 14, 684 Mule breeding by artificial insemi- nation, jacks, mares, breeding, Mules, .... beggar weed hay for, breeding, cassava for, castration of, . chicken corn for, classes of, corn meal for, cowpeas for, diseases of, feeding, gluten meal for, industry of raising, molasses for, oats for, rations for, shipment to Chicago, silage for, sweet potatoes for, . uses of, wheat for, Muscovy ducks, . Muscular system of farm mals, Musk ox, Mustang, Mute swan, Mutton, cuts of, cuts on farm, . tallow, 164 341 345 340-348 347 340 347 345 347 346 347 347 111 346 347 344 348 347 348 212 348 347 344, 345 347 15, 662 ani- 17 . 13, 685 284, 295 298 239 253 242 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Mutton tongues, curing, 244 Oat and oat products, analysis, 77 Nagana in cattle, 120 and peas for cows 454 Narcotics, . ... 159 digestibility, . 81,83 Narragansett pacers, 289 fertilizing value, . 175 turkeys, 671 for chickens, . 644 Narrow ratio in feeds, 66 for cows, . 445 National Delaine Merino sheep, 567 for goats, 627 Native jack, 343 for hogs, . . 540 Natural breeding, 39 for horses, . 312 Neapolitan hog, 499 for mules, . 347 Needle grass, analysis, 77 for sheep, . 604 Nellies, .... 372 for steers, . 392 Nerve diseases in cattle, 124 protein equating factor, 83,84 diseases in horses, 106 sheaf, for steers, 392 diseases in sheep, 139 straw, fertilizing value, . 175 Never-slip calks, 166 straw for steers, 404 Nervous exhaustion in sheep, 94 Oesophagostoma columbianum, 152 system of farm animals, 17 dentatum, . 134 Nettle rash in horses, 109 inflatum, . 120 New forest ponies, 295 Oestrus ovis, . 147 horse disease, 101 Offal of sheep, 238 Jersey ham, 248 Offspring, influence of maternal Mexico Merino sheep, 568 fluids on, . 30 York shoulder of pork, 239 size of and feed, . 29 Neurectomy for ring bone, 108 vigor of, . . 29 Nicotine dip for sheep scab, 145 Oilmeal fertilizing value 175 Niter, .... 160 (see also Linseed meal) Nitrogen free extract of plants 49 Oldenburg horse, . 292 Nodular disease of sheep, 152 Oleo oil and fat, . 242 Noiles, wool grade, 621 Oleomargarine, . 243 Non-conductor in cold storage 3on- for calves, . . 378 struction, 267 Olive oil, . 160 Norfolk polled cattle . 366 pomace, analysis, . 77 trotters, 291 Onager, . 11 Norman horse, . 298 Onion flavor in eggs, . 651 Normandy cows, 435 flavor in milk, . 467 Nose bags for horses, 335 Opium, .... 160 Numida meleagris, 16 for peritonitis, . 103 Nutrene for cows, 445 Oranges for horses, . 327 Nutrition, laws of, . 62-64 Orchard grass, analysis, 77 of farm animals, 20 grass hay, digestibility, . 81 principles of, . 45 grass, protein equating fac- study of, . 45 tor, . 83 Nutritive ratio of feeds, 83-85 Oreamnos montanus, . 14 ratio, denned, 66 Origin of farm animals, . 9 substance in feeds, . 21 Orlov trotter, . 290 Nux vomica, 160 Orpington chickens, . . 639 Oak leaves, analysis, . 77 Osteomalacia in cattle. . 127 leaves for steers, 401 Osteoporosis in horses, . 110 moss analysis, . 77 Ostertag system for eradicat ng forage analysis, 77 tuberculosis, . 115 sawdust for smoking meat 245 Ostriches, care and use, 695 Oat and pea forage, analysis, 77 feathers, . 695 and pea fodder, digest bil- Outcrossing animals, 40 ity, 81 Overloading the paunch in sheep, 138 feed for hogs, . 540 Overreaching in horses, . 109 forage, digestibility, 81 Overrun in butter, 484 forage, protein equating fac- Ovibos mosr.hatus, 685 tor, 83 Ovis amnion, 13 hay for horses, 326 aries, 13 straw for horses, 325 canadensis, 13 INDEX 731 Page Ovis musimon, .... 13 Oxen, care of, . . . 420 for draft purposes, . 419 shoeing, .... 420 Oxford sheep, .... 571 Oyster shells for chickens, . 646 shells injurious for chicks, 654 Pacers, 287 Packing house methods of slaugh ter, hogs, Palatability of feeds and diges- tion, Paloverde twigs, analysis, Palpitation in horses, Pancreas, .... Pancreatic juice, Panicum molle, analysis, . Papers, stock, ... Paragonimus westermanii, Para grass, analysis, Paralysis in horses, . Parasites in meat, Parental tendencies, . Parents, equality of in heredity Park cattle of England, Parsnips, analysis, Partridges, Parturient apoplexy or paresis, Pasteur treatment for rabies, Pasteurization of milk, Pasteurized milk, Pasture, carrying capacity steers, crops for hogs, for cows, . for hogs, for horses, for sows, . for steers, grasses, digestibility, grasses for, compared with soiling silage, hygienic care of, Pasturing steers with grain, Pavo cristatus, . muticus, nigripennis, Pea and oat pasture for hogs, Pea bean, digestibility, fowl, meal, bran, etc., analysis, meal, digestibility, . meal, protein equating fac- tor, .... 84 pasture for hogs, . . 527 silage, analysis, . . 77 Peas, analysis, .... 77 digestibility, . . . 80,82 for cows, . . . 445 233 557 51 77 106 240 22 77 206 134 77 106 271 29 30 11 77 696 125 158 478 478 for 401, 402 525 458 524 326 519 401 81 458 ind 459 95 402 698 698 698 527 81 698 77 81 Page Peas for hogs, .... 540 for horses, . . . 320 for sheep, . . . 604 for sheep pasture, . . 593 oats and vetch fodder, diges- tibility, ... 81 straw for horses, . . 325 Peanut by-products, analysis, . 77 forage, analysis, . . 77 hay for steers, . . . 403 pasture for hogs, . . 526 Peanuts, digestibility, . . 81 for hogs, .... 540 Pearl disease in cattle, . . 112 guineas, .... 677 millet, analysis, . . 76 millet for steers, . . 402 Peat as manure preservative, . 179 Peavine hay, analysis, . . 77 Peccary, 14 Pedigrees, how recorded, . . 202 meaning of, . . . 42 Pekin ducks, .... 662 Pelts of sheep, .... 241 Pelvic girdle, bones of, . . 17 Pencillaria for steers, . . 402 Penholders, .... 559 Penicillium in sheep, . . 143 Pepper, effect on plumage, . 37 Percentage composition of feeds, 74-79 Percheron horse, . . . 298 horse and the farmer, . 299 Pericarditis in cattle, . . 123 in horses, . . . 106 Peritonitis in horses, . . 103 Persian cat, . . . . 693 Perspiration in animals, . . 25 Pharyngitis in horses, . . 105 Phasianus torquatus, . . 697 Pheasants, 697 importation, . . . 681 Phthisis in cattle, ... 112 Physiology of farm animals, . 20 Pickle for bacon, . . . 245 Pickled pier's feet, homemade, 256 Pickling, effect of, . . . 244 solutions, . . . 243 Pie melon, analysis, ... 77 Pigeon grass seed and hay, analy- sis, .... 77 grass seed for hogs, . 541 Pigeons, 674 breeds of, ... 674 buildings for, . . . 674 determining sex, . . 676 diseases, . 156 hatching and feeding squabs, hemp for, marketing squabs, mating, 675 675 676 676 732 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Pigeons, pox of, ... 157 training flyers, 676 Pigs (see also Swine) Pigs' feet for glue, 250 feet, 248 skins, 257 snouts, 250 Pinworms in pigs, 134 Pink eye in horses, 96 Pip in chickens, 156 Pirosoma bigeminum, 118 Pitchy mange in pigs, 136 Pithing animals, 233 Plant food, elements, 174 poisons, 166 Plants, composition of, 47 poisonous to horses, 337 water in, . 47 Plate of beef, . 237 Pleurisy in sheep, 139 Plymouth Rock chickens, 638 Pneumonia in chickens, 156 in horses, 97, 105 in pigs, 132 in sheep, . 139 Poisoning in pigs, 137 Poisonous plants, 166, 167 Poisons, 166 Poitou jack, 343 Poland-China hogs, 503 Poll evil in horses, 109 Polled Albion cattle, 369 Durham cattle, 368 Hereford cattle, 356 Hereford clubs, 359 Kansans, 359 Merino sheep, . 568 ox, . 11 Pollution from previous sir e > 34 Polo ponies, 295 Polygamy in animals, 37 Polypus, nasal in horses, 105 Ponies, 294 Pork, cuts of, 238 cuts on farm, . 254 measle worms, '. 134, 271 microscopic examination, 273 production, statistics of, . 500 refrigeration of, 262 sausage, 247 sausage, homemade, 256 trichina in, 271 Portulaca oleracea, analysis, 77 Pot cheese, 487 Potatoes, analysis, 77 digestibility, . 81, 82 fertilizing value, 175 for cows, 448 for hogs, . 530 for horses, 327 for sheep, 601 194 74 264 635 177 176 672 697 Page Potatoes for steers, . . . 405 protein equating factor, . 84 Potassium permanganate for plant poisoning, . . . 169 Potential energy defined, . . 55 Poultry, capital required, . . 636 diseases of, . . 153-157 drawn vs. undrawn, . 265 farming, systems of, . food, American, analysis, in cold storage, industry, statistics, . manure, characteristics of, manure, composition of, . (see also Chickens, Ducks, Geese, Turkeys, etc.) Poults, turkey, .... Prairie chickens, grass, protein equating fac- tor, .... 83 hay, digestibility, . . 81 hay for steers, 388,389,397,398 Pregnancy, duration of, . . 28 period in sheep, . . 586 Prejvalsky's horse, ... 9 Premiums at fairs, . . . 205 Prenatal influences in heredity, 34 Prepotency, .... 31 of breeds, ... 32 Preservatives in milk, . 275, 474 proprietary, . . . 255 Prickly comfrey, analysis, . 77 for hogs, . . . 533 pear for steers, . . 403 Prime heavy hogs, . . . 556 Pritch, use in slaughtering, . 234 Probang for choking, . . 102 Products of animals, . . 231-278 Proprietary feeds for steers, 395, 396 Protein equating factor of feeds, 83-85 function of , . . . 53, 62 in animal tissues, . . 46 in animals, source of, . 48 in plants, ... 48 Provender, analysis, ... 77 Prunes for horses, . . . 327 Pseudo-tuberculosis in sheep, . 143 Psoroptes communis ovis, . . 144 Psychrometer, .... 263 Public domain, overgrazing of, 616 Pulse rate, .... 24 Pumping bacon, . . • 245 Pumpkins, analysis, ... 77 for cows, .... 448 for hogs, .... 530 for horses, . • • 327 Pure bred sires, prepotency of, 31 bred stock farming, . 183 Purgatives, .... 159 Purpura hemorrhagica in horses, 106 Purslane, analysis, ... 77 INDEX 733 Page Page Purslane for nogs, 527 Rations, size of and milk proc uc- Pyemia in meat, 271 tion, . 464 in pigs, . 132 trial, 70 Quack grass, analysis, 77 Rats as carriers of trichina, 133 grass, digestibility, . 82 Rauh's Stock Food for hogs, 547 Quagga, 11 Rawhide, making, 257 Quail, 696 Ray fungus, . 117 Quaker oat feed, analysis, 77 Razorback hogs, 508 oat feed, digestibility, 81 Record books, 202 oat feed for cows, . 445 Red clover, analysis, . 75 Quarantine district, . 214 clover, digestibility, 80 line for Texas fever, 118 clover hay, fertilizing Fal- Quinine, .... 160 ue, ... 175 Quittor in horses, 109 clover, protein equating Eac- Babbits, 689 tor, . 83 for meat, 689 dog flour, analysis, . 79 Eabies in cattle, 117 hogs, 504 in dogs, 157 milk, 277 in horses, 100 Polled cattle, . 366 in meat, . 270 top, analysis, . 77 in pigs, 131 top, digestibility, 81 in sheep, 142 top, protein equating fac- Races of animals, geographical, 38 tor, 83 Rachitis in calves, 127 water in cattle, 118 Rack gait in horses, . 289 Refrigeration and the farmer, 269 Racks for feeding sheep, . 585 importance of, 261 Radnor sheep, 576 machines for, . 261 Raisins for horses, 327 of animal products, 258 Rams, castration of, . 161 of beef, . 262 during service, 583 of butter, 266 selection and management, 582 of cheese, 266 Rambouillet sheep, 569 of cream, 266 Rana areolata, 699 of dairy products, . 265 catesbiana, 700 of eggs, . 263 clamata, . 699 of milk, . 265 palustris, . 699 of pork, . 262 septentrionalis, 699 of poultry, 264 silvatica, . 700 on the farm, . 267 virescens, . 699 on vessels, 267 Range required for one steer, 397 period of, 262 (see also Sheep, Cattle and plants using ice, 259 Horses) shrinkage of meat in, 262 Rangifer tarandus, 684 temperature and humi iity Rape, analysis, . 77 in, ... 263 and corn silage, analysis, 77 Refrigerator cars, 260 for cows, . 455 Registration advanced, 202 pasture for hogs, 527 of stock, . 201 pasture for sheep, . 591 Regulations in stock yards, 220 protein equating factor, 83 Reindeer, .... 684 Rations, balanced, 69 training of, 685 faulty and disease, . 90 Rennet extract for cheese, 486 for cows, . 461 Reproduction in animals. . 27 for horses, 333 Reproductive diseases in cattle 124 for mules, 348 organs of farm animals, 20 for pigs, . 521 Respiration, purpose, 24 for sheep, 597 rate of, . 24 light, medium and heavy for Respiratory diseases in cattle, 12^ steers, 395 diseases in sheep. . 139 narrow vs. wide for cows 446 organs of farm animals, 20 narrow vs. wide for horses 332 Retail beef cuts. 237 processes in computing, 69 Reversion in heredity, 30 734 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Rheumatism in cattle, Rhode Island bent hay, analysis Island Red chickens, Ribs of beef, Rice and by-products, ity, bran for steers, by-products for hogs flour as sausage tiller. for horses, hulls for steers, meal for calves, polish for steers wild, analysis, . Rickets in calves, in pigs, Rinderpest, Ring bones in horses, Ringneck pheasant, Ringworm in cats, in horses, Roadster horse, . Roaring in horses, Roaster chickens, Roasting pigs, Robertson's silage for cows silage for steers, Rock phosphate for chicks, Rocky mountain sheep, Rodents, Romney Marsh sheep, Roots for cows, for hogs, for horses, for sheep, for steers, vs. silage for steers, Ropy milk, Rouen ducks, Roughage, amount to feed steers for steers, Roughs (hogs), . Round casings, . of beef, worm in pigs, . Roup, Rowen hay, digestibility, hay, protein equating Royal Siam cat, Rubber pad in horseshoeing Rugs from hides, Rumination, Ruminants, digestibility for, Rump of beef, . Runt pigeon, Russian thistle, analysis, Rutabagas, analysis, . digestibility, for horses, for steers, gestibil of feeds Page 127 77 638 237 factor, 81 392 541 247 320 392, 393 377 392, 393 77 127 135 115, 687 107 697 694 109 302 105 657 558 455 403 654 13, 684 7 575 447 529 326 600 404 404 277 662 408 396 558 249 237 133 153 81 83 693 166 257 26 79-82 237 674 77 77 82 328 405 Rutabagas, protein equating factor, Rye and by-products, analysis, and by-products, digestibil ity, . . bran, fertilizing value fertilizing value for horses, for hogs, . for soiling, for steers, grass for steers, hay for horses, Italian, analysis, meal for cows, pasture for cows, pasture for sheep, pasture for steers, perennial, analysis, protein equating factor straw for horses, Saccalin, analysis, Saddle gaits, horse, of mutton, Sainfoin hay, analysis, St Vitus dance in horses, . Salami sausage, Saliva, action of, Salt, amount to feed for butter, for cattle, for chickens, for cows, . for goats, for hogs, . for pickling, for sheep, for sows, for steers, for stock, marsh hay, analysis, marsh hay, digestibility, Saltbushes, analysis, . digestibility, Saltpeter for curing meat, for pickling, Sand for chickens, Sanitation on farm, Sarcolactic acid meat, Sarcoptes scabei suis, mutans, Sausage, absorption of water by casings for, fillers for, formulae for, making, poisoning, smoking, . time of cooking, Sawdust for bedding, Page 84 77 175 175 316 541 457 393 403 326 77 445 455 591 403 77 83,84 325 77,78 289 289-306 239 78 106 249 21-22 62 484 412 646 460 627 549 244 590 520 412 61 78 82 78 255 244 60, 554 4 in ripening 262 135 155 247 249 247 247 246 272 247 248 468 INDEX T35 Page Page Sawdust in cold storage construc- Sheep as browsers, 578 tion, 26S Barbadoes, 576 Scab in sheep, . 144 barley for, 601 Scabies of cattle, 121 big head in, 141 Scalding hogs, 236 bloat in, . 138 on farm, . 254 blue grass pasture for, 591 Scalma in horses, 97 botfly, 147 Scaly legs in chickens, 155 bran for, 605 Scarlet clover (see Crimson C] over) breeding for winter lambs 607 Scarlet fever carried in milk 278 breeds of, 566 Score card for bacon hog, 502 breeds on ranges, 612 card for lard type, 500-502 buildings for, . 584 card for mutton sheep, 578 care and selection of ram 582 card for fine wooled she 3p, 577 care of lambs, . 588 Scours in calves, 126 cars for, . 606 formalin for, . 379 Cheviot, 573 in steers, 387 classification of breeds, 567 pigs, 137, 521 clover hay for, 598 treatment, 378 clover pasture for, 591 Scrag end of mutton, . . 239 commission for selling, 220 Scraping hogs, 236 commission for buying, 221 Screenings, analysis, 79 condemned for food, 216 for hogs, . 541 corn for, . 602 for sheep, 604 corn fodder for, 599 Screw worm fly in horses, . 111 cost of wintering ewes, 586 Scrubs vs. pure bred hogs, 550 Cotswold, 575 Selection, artificial in breedi] ig, 28 cottonseed meal for, 602 Self feed for hens, 647 cowpea hay for, 598 feed for sheep, 594 deposition of fat on, 597 Selling at stock yards, 219 dipping before shipping, 214 stock at auction, 185 diseases of, 137-152 Separator for milk, . 480, 481 Dorset, 572 milk, analysis, 76 eczema in, 140 on farm, . 493 emmer for, 602 Septicemia in meat, . 271 farm, description of, 192 in pigs, 132 farming, beginning, 579 Serradella, analysis, . 78 farming systems, 192-565 for cows, 455 fattening in winter, 593 Sesame meal, analysis, 78 fattening on a large scale 605 Sesbania macrocarpa, analysis 78 fattening on pasture, 591 Sex and age of parents, . 35 fattening rations for, 596 and food, 29, 36 feed of ewes after lambing 587 determination of. 35 feeding ability of, . 565 influence of sire anc dam feeding standards, . 65 on, 35 fences for, 580 Shank beef, 237 fertilizing value, 175 Shavings for bedding, 468 flaxseed for, 603 Shearing ewes, . 588 flukes in, . 150 machines, 617 foot and mouth disease in 141 sheep, 617 foot rot in, 140 sheep in west, 612 for wool alone, 616 Shed for cows, . 463 garget in, 140 for sheep, 584 gentle handling, 585 steers, 411 gid in, 149 Sheep, .... 561-621 gluten meal for, 603 Sheep, abortion in, 139 grains for, 601 age and productivene ■ss of grains for ewes, 585 ewes, 587 grazing, 611 alfalfa hay for, 598, 615 Hampshire, 571 alfalfa pasture for, . 591 head scab in, . 147 anatomy of, 563 Highland, 575 736 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Sheep, influenza in, 143 Sheep, shelter in fattening, 594 judging fatness, 598 shipment to Chicago, 212 kafir corn for, . 603 shipping, . 217 killed by dogs, 580 shipping abroad, 227 lambing in the west, Leicester, 613 shrinkage on shipment, 606 573 Shropshire, 570 Lincoln, 574 silage for, 599 linseed meal for, 603 skins, 257 locoed, 596 slaugbtering, 235 lung worms in, 152 slaughtering on farm, 252 malignant edema in, 141 sore eyes in, . 140 manure, characteristics, 177 sore mouth in, 137 manure, composition and val- Southdown, 570 ue, ... 76 soy beans for, . 604 market quotations, . 227 statistics of, 565 market ripeness of, 597 sterility in, 164 marketing, 226, 606 stomach worms, 150 Merino, 567 Suffolk, . 571 middlings for, 605 sugar beet pulp for, 600 milk yield of, . 587 summer and winter ranges 611 millet seed for, 603 tagging and trimn ling molasses for, 605 hoofs, 593 nodular diseases in, 152 tapeworms in, . 149 oats for, . 604 teeth of, . 18 order of feeding, . 597 tick, 148 origin of, 13 Tunis, 573 Oxford, . 571 twin lambs, 582 pasture for, 591 usefulness of, . . 565 pea pasture for, 593 vs. Angora goats, . 627 peas for, . 604 vs. lambs, 595 pelts, 241 vitality of lambs, 587 period of pregnancy, 586 washing, . 618 potatoes for, 601 weight of fleece, 621 pox, 142 weight of scoured wool, 621 pox in meat, . 270 Welsh Mountain, 576 profits in, 565 wethers vs. rams, 596 pseudo-tuberculosis in, 143 wheat for, 605 quantity and value of ma- winter feeding for ewes, 585 nure, 176 winter feeding in the west, 614 racks for feeding, . 585 winter lambs, . 606 Rambouillet, 569 wool grading, 620, 621 rams in west, 614 worms in, 151 ranching, 611 Shelter for ewes, 584 ranching, profits of, 565, 615 for hogs, . . . 552 rape pasture for, 591 for steers, 411 Rocky Mountain, 684 winter lambs, . . 609 Romney Marsh, 575 Shetland ponies, 294 roots for, 600 Shipment of stock to leading cit- roughage for, . 598 ies, 212 rye pasture for, 591 subdividing, 220 salt and water for, . 590 Shipping (see also Marketing) scab, 144 bill of lading, . 218 score cards for, 577 diseased animals, 214 screenings for, 604 liability of railroads, 218 self-feed for, . 594 Tates, 218-219 shearing, . 617 securing cars for, . 217 shearing before fattening 593 stock, laws on, 214 shearing before mar ket- stock, time on road, 215 ing, 226 Shire horse, . 297 shearing in the west, 612 Shoeing horses, . 165 shelter for ewes. . , 584 Short clears of pork, . 239 INDEX m Page Short ribs of pork, ... 239 Shorthorns, description, . . 353 on the range, . . . 355 popularity, . . . 354 standard colors, . . 355 strong and weak points, 354 Shropshire sheep, . . . 570 for winter lambs, . . 606 Siberian rabbits, . . . 690 Side bones in horses, . . . 108 Silage, beef produced on acre, 400 compared with soiling pasture for cows, for cows, for hogs, for horses, for mules, for sheep, for steers, 387, 399, improper fermentation of. Silver fox, Silver nitrate for roup, Silverside cut of beef, Simmenthaler cows, Simulium pecuarum, Single foot gait, Sire, defects of in horses, importance of in horse breed- ing, Sirup for horses, Size, increase of in animals, Skeleton, description of, Skimmilk, analysis, and grain vs. whole milk calves, for chickens, for hogs, . money value for calves, objections to for calf food quantity for calf, . substitutes for calves, temperature for calves, Skin diseases in horses, of farm animals, Skinnecl ham, Skull bones of, Skunks, Slaughtering, beef, hogs, lambs, on farm, tools for, Slimy milk, Slobbering caused by clover, Small Yorkshire hogs, Smallpox and cowpox, Smelter fumes, effect on sheep fumes, poisonous, Smoke house, materials for, . and 459 453 533 323 348 599 400, 403 89 694 154 237 435 121 289 309 308 330 52 16 76 for 374 645, 658 545 376 380 375 376 375 109 20 239 16 694 233-258 233 236 609 251 251 277 323 505, 506 117 139 167 246 245, 246 Smoking meat, .... 245 methods in curing meats, 246 sausage, .... 247 Snail clover, analysis, . . 75 Snuffles in sheep, . . . 138 Soapy milk, .... 277 Sodium carbonate in milk, . 276 iodide for tetanus, . . 100 Soft bacon, .... 554 roaster chickens, feeding, 657 wool sheep, . . . 576 Soil fertility and stock raising, 173 fertility, loss under different systems of farming, . 174 Soiling and pasture compared, . 457 compared with pasture and silage for cows, . . 459 crops for cows, . . 456 crops, systems of rotation, 456 hogs, .... 532 system for dairy cows, exam- ple of, . . . . 186 Somali wild ass, . 11 Sonnerat's jungle fowl, . . 15 Sore eyes in sheep, . . . 140 head in chickens, . . 154 mouth in cattle, . . 122 mouth in pigs, . 130, 136 mouth in sheep, . . 137 throat in horses, . . 105 Sorghum, analysis, ... 78 digestibility, . . . 82,83 for cows, .... 455 for Eogs, .... 528 for steers, . . 388,403 hay for horses, . . 326 meal for cows, . . 445 protein equating factor, . 83 seed, analysis, ... 78 seed for hogs, . . . 541 Southdown sheep, . . . 570 Southern cattle fever, . . 118 Sows at farrowing time, . . 520 care of, . . . 519 during pregnancy, . . 520 exercise for, . . . 519 feeding of, ... 520 milk of, . . . . 518 pasture for, . . . 519 selection and breeding, . 516 spaying, . . . 162 Soy bean hay for cows, . . 455 bean hay for hogs, . 549 bean meal for steers, . 393 bean pasture for hogs, . 528 bean silage, analysis, . 78 bean silage for steers, . 403 Soy beans, analysis, ... 78 beans, digestibility. 79,80,82 738 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Soy beans for cows, beans for hogs, . beans for horses, beans for sheep, Page 438 541 320 604 beans, protein equating fac- tor, . . . 83,84 Spanish fly, .... 159 merino sheep, . . . 569 Spare ribs of pork, . . . 239 Spavin in horses, . . • 108 Spaying animals, . . . 162 Spear grasses, analysis, . . 78 Spearing animals, . . . 233 Spelt (see also Emmer) analysis, .... 78 for cows, .... 445 straw for steers, . 403, 404 Splenetic fever in cattle, . . 118 Splints in horses, . . . 107 Sports in breeding, ... 33 Springers, market quotations, . 225 Sprung knees, .... 109 Spurry, analysis, ... 78 Squabs, 674 Squab broiled chickens, . . 658 Squashes, analysis, ... 78 Squirrel tail grass, analysis, . 78 Staggers in sheep, . . . 149 Stags, hogs, .... 558 Stallions, castration of, . . 161 feeding, .... 336 Standard Delaine Merino sheep, 567 Stock Food for hogs, . 547 Standards for feeding, . . 64 Starch as sausage filler, . . 247 feed, analysis, . . 78 for calves, . . . 378 Starters for ripening cream, . 476 Statistics on beef cattle, . . 353 Steam for colds, ... 105 Steaming feeds and digestibility, 51 Stearin, ..... 242 Steers, acreage of pasture required for, . . . 401,402 age and cost of gain, . 410 alfalfa and grains for, . 387 alfalfa for, ... 397 alfalfa vs. sugar beet pulp for, . . . . 406 amount of corn undigested by, .... 389 amount of roughage to feed, 408 barley for, 385, 395 beans for, 385 beechnuts for, . 385 beef vs. dairy type, 443 bone meal for, 406 bran for, 385 branding, 418 breeds favored by farmers 412 Brewers' grains for, 385 Page Steers, brome grass hay for, . 398 buffalo grass for, . . 398 carrots for, . . . 405 cassava for, . . . 405 chess for, ... 398 clover for, . . . 398 clover hay for, . . 388 coarse fodders for, . . 404 cobmeal for, . . . 387 condimental feeds for, . 395 corn and supplemental feeds for, .... 386 corn chopped for, . . 386 corn fodder for, . . 398 corn for, .... 386 corn meal for, . . . 387 corn meal vs. ear corn for, 389 corn preparation for in Illi- nois, .... 387 corn required for pound of gain, .... 389 corn shives, . . . 399 cost of gain, . . . 409 cost of gain on different ra- tions, .... 394 cotton field pasture, . 402 cottonseed for, . . 389 cottonseed meal for, . 389 cottonseed meal and hulls for, .... 390 cowpea hay for, . . 400 cowpea vs. timothy hay for, .... 388 cut vs. uncut hay for, . 404 daily gains, . . . 408 dehorning, . . 417,418 distillery grains for, . 389 dressed weights of different breeds, .... 413 dried blood for, . . 406 dried distillery grains for, 391 dry vs. soaked corn for, 389 fattening in the south, 390 fattening on range, 189, 190 fattening season, . . 407 fed silage, followed by swine, .... 400 feed required for pound gain, .... 408 feeding loose vs. tied, . 409 feeding methods, . . 406 followed by hogs, . . 389 frosted corn for, . . 386 frosted wheat for, . 393,394 gluten feed for, . . 391 gluten meal for, . . 391 grain and roughage mixed for, .... 395 grain feeding at pasture, 402 ground vs. whole corn for, 387. 388 INDEX 739 Page Steers, heavy vs. light for feed- ing, .... 409 home grown vs. purchased feeds, ... 410 horse chestnuts fur, . 391 increase in weight at pas- ture, .... 402 increasing profits from, . 410 Johnson grass for, . 401, 402 kafir corn and sorghum for, .... 387 kafir corn for, . . . 391 kafir corn stover for, . 401 length of fattening period, 407, 409 light, medium and heavy ra- tions for, . . 394,395 linseed meal for, 386,391,392 market grades for fatten- ing, .... 415 mature, feeding, . . 385 method of feeding on stock farm, .... 182 molasses for, . . . 406 number of feeds per day, 407 number pastured on an acre, .... 401 oak leaves for, . . 401 oats for, .... 392 pasture for, . . 401,402 pasturing on corn stalks, 399 peanut hay for, . . 403 pearl millet for, . . 402 points of, ... 371 potatoes for, . . . 405 prairie hay for, . 388, 380 prairie hay and alfalfa, . 397 prices for different kinds, 222, 223 prickly pear for, . . 403 range required in N. M., 397 rice bran for, . . 392 rice hulls for, . 392,393 rice polish for, . 392,393 roasted and boiled cotton seed for, .... 390 roots for, . . . 404 roots vs. silage for, . . 404 roughage for, . . . 396 rutabagas for, . . . 405 rye for, . . . . 393 rye grass for, . . . 403 rye pasture for, . . 403 salt for, .... 412 scours on corn alone, . 387 scrubs vs. grades for fatten- ing, .... 415 sheaf oats for, . . 392 sheaf wheat for, . . 393 shelled vs. ground corn for 389 Steers, shelter for, shipping, shock corn for, shock corn vs. silage for, shrinkage in dressing, Page 411 221 387 400 9, 390 silage for, size of rotation for, southern vs. western, soy bean meal for, . soy bean silage for, stubble fields for, sugar beets and pulp 387, 399, 400, 403 407 414 393 403 395 for, 405, 406 411, 412 404 tied vs. loose, . timothy for, timothy vs. corn fodder, . 399 unhusked corn for, . . 389 value of succulence in ration for, .... 410 velvet beans for, . . 393 vetch hay for, . . . 404 water for, . . . 412 wheat for, . . . 393 wheat and alfalfa for, . 387 wheat bran for, . . 393 wheat meal for, . . 394 wild rye grass vs. oats for, 392 wood ashes for, . . 412 Stephanurus dentatus in pigs, . 133 Sterility in animals, . . . 164 Stipa nelsonii, analysis, . . 77 Stock and corn, relation between, 388 breeders' associations, objects of, .... 201 care on shipboard, . . 229 cars attendant, . . 215 cars, improved, . . 217 classification of. 7 classifying in shipping, . 216 commission for buying, . 221 condemned, . . . 216 crating for shipment, . 208 dipping diseased before ship- ment, .... 214 farmer, qualifications, . 6 farming, advantage of, . 181 farming, pure bred, . 183 system of, . . 181-194 farms, general, crops grown, . . . . 187 farms, general sample of, 181 farms, number in TJ. S., 181 government inspection, 214, 227 raising, a science, . . 7 registration of, . . 201 selling, .... 185 shipping abroad, . . 227 space required on ship- board, .... 228 time to ship, . . . 216 unloading in transit, . 217 740 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Stock, yardage charges, 221 Sugar in milk, 26 yards, rules of, 220 Sulphur, .... 160 Stocker and feeder cattle, 372 Sulphuric acid as a disinfectant 94 Stockers and feeders, market quota- ether for refrigeration, 261 tions, .... 225 Sulphurous acid for refrigeration 261 Stomach staggers in sheep. 138 Summer range for sheep, 611 worms in cattle, 120 Sunflower seed for chickens, 643 worms in goats, 153 seed for hogs, . 542 worms in ostriches, 695 Sunflowers and seed, analysis, 78 worms in sheep, 150 Sunstroke in horses, 106 Stomatitis, mycotic in cattle, 120 in sheep, . 139 Strangles in horses, . 96 Surra in horses, 100 Straw for bedding, 468 Sus barbatus, 14 for horses, 325 indica, . 14 for sheep, 599 scrofa, . 14 for steers, . . 403 ,404 verrucosus, 14 String gang in slaughtering sheep, 235 Sussex cattle, account of breed 365 Stringhalt in horses, . 106 standard requirements, 366 Stripping cows, 472 Swale hay, digestibility, . 82 Strongylus contortus in sheep 150 Swans, .... 698 douglasi in ostriches, 695 Sweat, excretion of, . 25 filaria, .... 152 Swedes (see Rutabagas) filicollis, .... 151 Swedish medwurst, . 249 micrurus in cattle, . 123 Sweeny in horses, 109 paradoxus, 134 Sweetbreads, 240 ventricosuSj 151 preservation of, 244 Stubble field for hogs, 528 Sweet clover, analysis, . 75,78 Succulence value in rations foi for horses, 326 steers, .... 410 Sweet corn, analysis, . 75,78 Suet, 237 silage, analysis, 78 Suffolk hogs, .... 507 silage, digestibility, 80 horse, .... 297 Sweet potatoes for hogs, . 531 sheep, .... 571 for horses, 328 Sugar beet molasses, analysis, 78 for mules, 347 beet molasses, protein equat- tubers and vines, analysis 78 ing factor, 85 Swill, poisonous effects on pigs, 137 beet pulp, analysis, . 78 Swine, .... 495-559 beet pulp, dried for cows, 449 acorns for, 549 beet pulp ensiling, 405 actinomycosis in, 131 beet pulp for cows, 443 after steers fed wheat, 394 beet pulp for hogs, 531 age and gain, . 550 beet pulp for horses, 328 alfalfa hay for, 547 beet pulp for sheep, 605 alfalfa pasture for, 525 beet pulp vs. corn stover for anatomy of, 497 steers, .... 406 animal feeds for, 544 beet silage, analysis, 78 apples for, 529 beet pulp for steers, . 405 406 artichokes for, 529 beets, digestibility, 82 bacon type, 502 beets, fertilizing value, 175 barley for, 534 beets for cows, 448 beans for, 534 beets for hogs, 530 Berkshire, 504 beets for horses, 328 blood meal for, 547 beets, protein equating fac- bone meal for, 549 tor, . # . . . 84, £ bran for, . 535 cane analysis, 78 breeds of, 503 for cows, .... 460 breeds compared, 508-512 for horses, 329 brome grass pasture for. 525 for mules, .... 347 buckwheat for, 535 for pickling, 244 buildings for, 512 in the urine, 104 buttermilk for, 545 meal for cows, . . 440 care of sows, . 520 INDEX 741 Page Page Swine, cassava for, 529 Swine, grain for 100 lbs. gain^ 523 castration of, . 161, 522 grains for, 534 cerealine for, . 535 hair of, 250 Cheshire, 506 Hampshire, 507 Chester White, 505 hay for, 547 Chinese, 499 kafir corn for, 528, 539 cholera in, 128 killing and marketing on chufas for, 529 farm, 225 clover hay for, 548 lambs' quarters for, 549 clover pasture for, . 525 lard type, 500 commission for selling, 220 large black, 508 condemned for food, 216 lice on, 135 condimental feeds for, 547 maintenance ration for, 551 cooking feed for, 544 management and selection of corn for, 535 boar, 515 corn meal for, . 536 mange in, 135 corn shives for, 537 mangels for, 529 cost of feed per 100 lbs. manure, characteristics of 177 gain, 523 manure, composition and cots for, . 514 value, 176 cottonseed for, 537 market classes of, . 555 cottonseed meal for, 537 market quotations, . 226 cottonseed oil for, . 549 Maryland pen for, . 513 cowpea hay for, 548 measle worm in, 134 cowpea pasture for, 526 meat meal for, 547 cowpeas for, 539 method of handling, 182 digestibility of feeds for, 82,83 milk of sows, . 518 dipping vats for, . 515 millet seed for, 539 diseases of, 127, 137 minerals for, 549 distillery grains for, 539 mixed grains for, . 543 domestication of, 499 molasses for, 549 dressed weight of, . 555 muscles of, 497 dry and wet feed for, 544 Neapolitan, 499 Duroc-Jersey, 504 oat feed for, 540 economy of breeds, 508-512 oats for, . 540 English, 499 organs "of, 497 erysipelas in, . 130 origin of, 14 Essex, 507 origin of American, 499, 500 exterior of, 497 pasture for, 524 farming systems of, 193 pea pasture for, 527 feed consumed from birtl 1 to peanut pasture for, 526 maturity, 522 peanuts for, 540 feeding, 552 peas for, . 540 feeding for quality of period of pregnancy, 517 pork, 553 pigeon grass seed for, 541 feeding standards, . 65 plague, 130 fences for, 514 pneumonia in, 132 fertilizing value, 175 poisoned by swill, . 137 fits in, 136 poisoning, 137 following steers, 389, 550 Poland-China, 503 foot and mouth disease in 131 portable houses for, 513 full vs. scant rations for 552 potatoes for, 530 gains as compared \ pith preparation of grain for, 544 calves, 379 prickly comfrey for, . 533 gains before and after w< ?an- pumpkins for, 530 ing, . . . 524 purslane for, 527 gains made by litters, 518 quantity and value of ma- giant lily for, . 549 nure,* 176 gluten feed for, 539 rape pasture for, 527 grade of. 555 rations and internal or- grading in marketing, 225 gans. 552 742 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Page Swine, razorback, 503 Symptomatic anthrax in cattle, 117 relation of weight, gain and Syngamus trachealis, 155 feed, 523 Taenia coenurus in sheep, 149 rice by-products for, 541 echinococcus, 271 rickets in, 135 fimbriata in sheep, . 149 roots for, 529 marginata in sheep, 149 rye for, 541 saginata and meat inspec- score card for bacon type 502 tion, 271 score card for lard type 500 solium and meat inspec- scours in, 137, 521 tion, 271 screenings for, 541 Tails of beef, .... 244 scrubs vs. pure breeds, 550 Takosis in goats, 153 selection of sows, 516 Tall oat grass, analysis, . 78 shelter for, 552 Tallow, ... 242 shipment to Chicago, 212 for chickens, 642, 645 shipping, 217, 225 Tamarau, 13 shipping alive, 225 Tamworth hogs, 506 shipping diseased, 215 Tankage, analysis, 78 silage for, . . . 533 for hogs, .... 546 size of litters, . 517 manufacture of, 250 sizes preferred in market 226 Tanks for tankage, . 250 skeleton of, 497 Tanning hides, .... 257 skimmilk for, . 545 Tapeworms in dogs, . 158 slaughtering, 236 in sheep, .... 149 slaughtering on farm, 253 in turkeys, 156 soiling, . 532 Tar for sheep botfly, . 148 sore mouth. 130 Tarpan, .... 9 sorghum for, 528 Tawing method of tanning, 257 sorghum seed for, . 541 Teeth, bishoping, 340 soy bean hay for, 549 diseases of in horses, . 102 soy bean pasture for, 528 of farm animals, 18 soy beans for, 541 of horses at different ages, 339 statistics of production, 500 Telegony in heredity, 33 stubble field for, 528 Temperature, effect on animals, 37 Suffolk, . 507 of animals, 25 sugar beets for, 530 Teosinte, analysis, 78 sunflower seed for, . 542 Territory wool, .... 620 sweet potatoes for, . 531 Testing cows (see Tuberculin) Tamworth, 506 fertility of eggs, 656 tankage for, 546 Tetanus in horses, 100 teeth of, . 18 in pigs, .... 131 Thin-Kind, 507 in sheep, .... 142 thumps in, 136, 521 Texas cattle defined, . 223 trichina in, 132 Thick wind in horses, 105 tuberculosis in, 131 Thin-Rind hogs, 507 turnips for, 532 Thorn-headed worm in pigs, . 133 utilization of, . 499 Thoroughbred horse, 284 ventilation of pens, 513 influence of, . 293 vs. calves, 550 types of, . 285 vetches for, 528 Thoroughpin in horses. 108 Victorias, 508 Throwing-back in heredity, 30 water for, 549 Thumps in pigs, 136, 521 weight at birth, 517 Thymus, 240 wetting down in shipping 225 Ticks, eradication of, 119 wheat for, 542 on cattle, 120 whey for, 545 on chickens, 155 wide vs. narrow rations, 551 on sheep, 148 wild of Europe, 499 Timothy, analysis, 78 worms in, 133 digestibility, 82,83 yards for, 513 for cows, . . . 456 Yorkshire, 505 for horses, 326 Page Page Timothy for steers, 401 Turkeys, selection of breeding flock, 671 hay fertilizing value, 175 white flint corn for, 673 hay for sheep, 509 Turnips, analysis, 79 hay vs. corn fodder for digestibility, 82 steers, 399 fertilizing value, 175 protein equating factor, 83 for cows, 449 vs. cowpea hay for steers 388 for hogs, .... 532 Tobacco for sheep scab, . 145 for horses, 328 Tongue of beef, 237 protein equating factor, . 84 sausage, 248 Turpentine enemas in colic, 102 Tornillo beans, analysis, . 74 Tympanites in cattle, 122 Tortoise shell cat, 693 in sheep, .... 138 Toulouse geese, . 667 Typhoid fever carried in milk, 278 Tram horse, 304 fever in horses, 96 Transportation and marketing live Udder of veal, .... 240 stock, 206-229 Ungulates, .... 7 Trichinella spiralis in pigs, 132 United States Department of Agri- Trichina in pork, 271 culture, live stock investi- Trichinosis in pigs. 132 gations, 195 Trichocephalus crenatus, . 134 Urinary diseases in cattle, 124 Tripe, preparation, 244 organs of farm animals, 20 Triticum dicoccum for sheep, 602 Urine, bloody, .... 104 Trotter horse, 285, 305 secretion of, . 24 and the farmer, 287 sugar in, . 104 Tsetse fly, . 120 Vaccination for blackleg, . 117 Tubercle bacillus, 113 for Texas fever, 119 Tuberculin test for cattle, 114 for tuberculosis, 115 Tuberculosis carried in meat, 270 Van horse, English, . 304 carried in milk, 278 horse, Scotch, . 305 in cattle, 111-115 Variation, 28 in fowls, . 154 as affected by domestica- in goats, . 153 tion, .... 37 in pigs, 131 correlative, 38 in sheep, . 142 laws of, . 29 transmission from cattle to Varicose veins in horses, . 106 man, 113 Variola in cattle, 117 Tuberculous milk treated with for- Veal cuts, ... 238 ,240 malin, 479 feeding calves for, . 380 Tumors in pigeons, 157 on farm, .... 254 Tunguse reindeer, 684 Velvet beans, analysis, 79 Tunis sheep, 573 beans, digestibility, . 82 sheep for winter lambs, 606 beans for steers, 393 Turkeys, .... 670 Ventilation for horses, 337 breeds of, 671 importance of, 93 diseases of, 156 of barns, .... 92 feathers, 673 of cold storage rooms, . 263 feeding incubator poults 673 of hog pens, 513 feeding poults, 672 Vermifuges, .... 159 hatching eggs, 672 Verminous bronchitis in cattle, 123 inbreeding, 671 bronchitis in sheep, 152 literature on, . 674 Vesicants, ..... 159 management of breeding Vessels, fitting up for stock, 228 flock, 671 Vetch, analysis, 79 marketing, 673 and rape for soiling hogs, 532 nesting habits, 672 digestibility, 82 new corn injurious to, 673 for cows, 456 origin of, 15 for hogs, .... 528 outdoor roosting, 672 for horses, 320 protection from lice, 672 hairy, digestibility, 81 rain protection for poults 673 hay for steers, 404 range for, 671 Veterinary medicines, 158 744 FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK Page Victor corn and oat feed, digesti- bility, . Victoria hogs, Vomiting, Vulpes lagopus, War horse of England, Warble flies in cattle, Warthog, Warts in horses, Washing dairy utensils, Water, absorption of in animals and body temperature, as source of disease, bacteria in, buffalo, ... cause of indigestion, for adulterating milk, for cows, for hens, for hogs, . for horses, for sheep, for steers, for young animals, . function in animals, glass for preserving eggs, grass, analysis, hemlock, in animal tissues, in plants, in sausage, requirements of animals, supply for animals, temperature of for mals, Watermelons, analysis, Weaklings among breeds, . Weaning pigs, . (see also Calves, Lambs and Colts) Weather and milk yield, . Weedy flavors in milk, Weight, increase of in animals, Welsh cattle, .... Mountain sheep, ponies, .... West Highland cattle, Highland cattle, popular- ity, .... Westphalian hams, Wet vs. dry feed for hogs, Wetting feeds and digestibility, Whale flesh meal, analysis, Wheat, analysis, and alfalfa for steers, . and by-products, protein equating factor, . bran, fertilizing value, . bran for steers, by-products, analysis, 508 26 694 297 121 14 109 476 618 23 59 91 91 687 101 275 460 647 549 333 590 412 59 58 652 79 168 46 47 247 59 59 79 521 469 466 52 366 576 295 364 364 256 544 51 79 79 387 84 175 393 79 Wheat, by-products, digestibility digestibility by hogs, fertilizing value, for chickens, for cows, for hogs, . for horses, for mules, for sheep, for steers, frozen for steers, grasses, analysis, hay for cows, . hay for horses, in sheaf for steers, . meal for steers, middlings, fertilizing ue, ... straw, fertilizing value, straw for horses, Whey, analysis, . for hogs, vs. skimmilk for calves, Whip worm in pigs, Whistling in horses, swan, White blood corpuscles, cat, .... clover, analysis, clover, digestibility, clover, protein equating tor, comb in chickens, . Pekin ducks, . scours in calves, scours in sheep, turkeys, Whitewash as a disinfectant, Whole vs. ground grain for hogs. Wholesale beef cuts, . Wide ratio in feeds, . Wild boar, cattle of England, geese, rice, analysis, . rye grass for steers turkey, Wiltshire sheep, Wind gall in horses, . Windpipe meat, curing, Windpipes for casings, Winter fat, analysis, . lambs, lambs, dressing, lambs, feeding, lambs, marketing, range for sheep, Wire fences for hogs, grass, analysis, Witch grass (see Quack Grass) Page 82 82 175 644 436 542 317 347 605 393 393, 394 79 456 val- fac- INDEX 745 Page Page Wolff-Lehmann feeding stand- Worms in pigeons, 156 ards, 65 in pigs, 133 Wooden tongue in cattle, 117 in sheep, . 151 Wool as affected by the ration 617 Wounds in horses, 110 classification of, 620 Wyandotte chickens, 638 clean, 619 Yak, 12 felting, 621 Yardage charges in shipping, 221 fertilizing value, 175 Yards for hogs, . 513 grading, 621 hygienic care of, 93 growth of, 616 Yelts, definition of, 522 injured by dips, 147 Yolk of wool, 617 prices, 621 Yorkshire coach horse, 292 scoured weights, 621 hogs, 505 shrinkage of, . 566 Young, number of in animals, 28 statistics of, 616 Zebras, .... 11 tying fleeces, . • 619 Zebroids, .... 341 weight of fleece, 566 Ewart's experiments with 34 yolk of, 617 Zebu, .... 12, 688 Wolves and sheep diseases, 158 Zinc carbonate, . 161 Work, production by animals, 55 Zygadenus venenosus, 168 Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University