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THE 
 
 FORM OF THE HORSE, 
 
 OPEN TO THE INSPECTION 
 
 ORDINARY OBSERVER 
 
 JAMES C. L. CARSON, M.D. 
 
 ^ttonti €Vitmx. 
 
 LONDON : 
 STMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO 
 
 MENZIES, EDINBURGU; & WM. R013ERTS0N, DUBLIN, 
 18G2. 
 
Duliliu ; rriutca I.y George Dhoi-l.iit, f?, Ba^j'.alci't walk. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In the commencement of the yeai- 1848, I pub- 
 lished a series of Letters on the Horse in the 
 columns of the Londonderry Standard, These 
 letters were thrown into a connected form in 
 1851, and some new matter, in the way of ex- 
 tracts from the writings of more recent authors, 
 having been added, they were published in a 
 separate volume in the year 1859. The favour- 
 able reception which this little work met with, 
 at the hands both of the advanced veterinarians 
 and the public, has induced me to issue a second, 
 enlarged, and improved edition. I may say, as 
 I said before, that the conciseness and simplicity 
 of this work must be its chief recommendation. 
 It is intentionally Avritten in that rough-and- 
 ready style, which has the immense advantage 
 of rendering the subject perfectly intelligible to 
 every class of the community. 
 
 CoLEPvAiNE, Ireland, 
 Januo.Di \st. 1862. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 The Horse 
 
 The Temperament 
 
 The Head 
 
 The Neck 
 
 The Chest 
 
 The Bones 
 
 The Muscles 
 
 The Shoulder 
 
 The Fore- Leg 
 
 The Fore-Feet 
 
 Growth of the Feet 
 
 Shoeing 
 
 The Fore-Legs 
 
 The Back 
 
 The Abdomen 
 
 Position of the Body 
 
 The Hind- Quarters 
 
 The Haunch, or Kump 
 
 The Thigh 
 
 The Tibia 
 
 The Hock 
 
 The Shank . 
 
 The Pasterns 
 
 The Hind-Foot 
 
 Judging the Horse 
 
 On Breeding 
 
 The Mare 
 
 The Stallion 
 
 Errors in Driving . 
 
 Treatment of Colic . 
 
 Laying Down the Foot 
 
 Page 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 48 
 
 61 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 105 
 
 108 
 
 112 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 119 
 
 119 
 
 123 
 
 132 
 
 135 
 
 141 
 
 143 
 
 146 
 
THE HOESE 
 
 There -svas no difficulty about thirty years ago, as I 
 am informed, in procuring a considerable nimiber of 
 sound, strong, active, and safe-stepping horses, in any- 
 fair in the province of Ulster, Connaught, or Munster ; 
 but the case is so far altered at present, that a person 
 might travel over a wide district of country before he 
 would find one sure-footed, well-proportioned, useful- 
 looking, and really sound animal. It is much to be 
 feared, moreover, that the last observ^ation might be 
 applied vnih great propriety to a large proportion of 
 England and Scotland. Let a person go where he may, 
 he will find some trouble in procuring a horse of the 
 right stamp — one that is properly adapted to the pm-- 
 pose for wliich he may be requii'ed. 
 
 In the days of our fathers, there was an invaluable 
 breed of horses in Ireland, which is now all but ex- 
 tinct. We will never, perhaps, look upon their like 
 again. No judge could avoid admiring them. They 
 had neat and lively-looking heads ; hght and well set- 
 
 B 
 
2 THE HORSE. 
 
 up necks ; elevated, sharp, and far laid-back shoulders ; 
 full and very deep chests ; strong, sinewy, and sound 
 legs ; good feet ; short backs ; and all-powerful quar- 
 ters, which were so placed under them, that they could 
 spring with ease over any fence. Their size, strength, 
 and shape fitted them, in an eminent degTce, for the 
 field, the road, and the farm. Besides, they were never 
 trained till they were four or five years old. Their 
 constitutions had then arrived at a pitch of gi'eat per- 
 fection. The extremities of the long bones were then 
 completely solidified, and, consequently, were less liable 
 to become diseased from the effects of labom* than they 
 would have been at a previous period, when in a state 
 of cartilaginous softness. 
 
 The severe work to which young horses are now sub- 
 jected is the chief cause of the present gTeat liabilty to 
 disease. If they were well fed, and allowed to mature 
 their constitutions before being trained, they would, in 
 all probabihty, remain sound for a considerable time. 
 This, I fear, however, is not likely to be attended to. 
 The /armer has so many demands on his pm'se that he 
 can scarcely afford to allow his horses to roam at large 
 till they reach their fourth year ; and the turfite finds it 
 more profitable to race his colts at two years' old, than 
 to keep them over, at heavy expenses, until such time 
 as humanity, and a due regard to the soundness of the 
 animals, would point out as the proper period for their 
 first appearance on the turf. The necessities of the 
 
THE HORSE, 3 
 
 one, and the avaricious disposition of the other, thns 
 render it next to impossible to get good sound stock, 
 either to use or to breed from. 
 
 Blood-horses are completely broken down ^^-ith the 
 severity of their early training and racing ; or else, if 
 they continue to rim on, and well, for three or four 
 years, they command such enoinnous prices, that few 
 locaHties would remunerate the pra'chaser of a first- 
 class stallion, unless the breeders could be induced to 
 change their present opinions and practice. This, per- 
 haps, is the point at which reform should commence ; 
 and I am inclined to think that those parties who keep 
 brood-mares would wiUingly incur a much gTeater ex- 
 pense than they do at present, if they were properly 
 alive to, and aware of, the importance of the matter. 
 In general, they have such ill-digested notions on the 
 subject, that they are better satisfied to pay a small sum 
 for the services of a wi-etched, weedy, useless animal, 
 than to give a remunerating retmn to the pm-chaser of a 
 first-rate, sound, and high-priced horse ; in fact, they 
 know so little about the points of a horse, that they 
 generally choose the one whose deformities are hid by 
 a mountain of beef. " Such men," says the sensible 
 author of 'The Pocket and the Stud,' "breed from 
 any mare that will breed, get a common country forty- 
 shilling su'e, or, if then* aspuing thought carries them 
 so high, some thorough-bred one, whose shape, make, 
 blood, and performance, bring liim to about the same 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 price ; they thus get a living beast, probably inberit- 
 ing all the combined imperfections of both parents, put 
 him to plough at two, ride him at three, and at four, 
 provided he wall cany you on his back (for mouth or 
 action is, of com-se, not attended to), he is sold as a 
 ' loickly thing.' " 
 
 The system of crossing which has been adopted since 
 the introduction of thorough-bred stallions into country 
 districts, appears to me to be a further cause of the 
 degeneration of om- general stock. Let his shape and 
 qualities be good, bad, or indifferent, the one which 
 possesses a sprinkling of blood is sm-e to be the animal 
 which will be selected as a su-e. His light action, 
 showy appearance, and high-sounding pedigi'ee, will be 
 a sufficient recommendation to those who are ignorant 
 of the various iwhits and quaUties which are connected 
 with the strength, substance, dm-ability, and disposition 
 of the animal. Besides, the same horse is certain of 
 being put to a great number of mares of all sorts, 
 shapes, and sizes, mthout the sUghtest regard to that 
 exact adaptation of form, in sire and dam, which is abso- 
 lutely necessary in order to secm-e a satisfactoiy result. 
 Breeding from blood-stallions is highly commendable, 
 provided it is done with judgment and discretion ; but 
 the practice of violent crossing is decidedly objection- 
 able, and cannot be too strongly condemned. "Extremes 
 in crossing," says a writer in the 5th volume of the New 
 Sporting Magazine, " are very rarely successful ; and it is 
 
THE HORSE. 5 
 
 really astonishing to see farmers so constantly putting 
 their complete cart-mares to thorough-bred horses, ex- 
 pecting to have foals of a class fit for hunters, whereas 
 nine times out of ten they are fit neither for di'aught 
 nor hunting ; for though they may be up to weight, 
 which is what they expect, there is always a lamentable 
 deficiency of pluck ; and the same mare, with a three- 
 parts bred horse, would be likely to produce a very 
 valuable class of horse — the coach-horse." By the 
 practice here refen-ed to, the breeders expect to produce 
 a horse combining both strength and action ; but they 
 are very frequently treated to an animal of such a non- 
 descript form, that he is fit " neither for the land nor 
 the sea." In place of being a fair medium between the 
 su'e and dam, he will take chiefly after the one in some 
 parts, whilst in other places he will lean entu-ely to the 
 opposite side ; and he is consequently so badly balanced 
 and proportioned, that he is comparatively useless. His 
 temper, moreover, is frequently characterized by a want 
 of conformity to the purpose for which his owner might 
 think him in other respects best adapted. 
 
 If a person is to depend upon his own judgment, 
 and wishes to become a successful breeder, he must 
 first make himself thoroughly acquainted with the pro- 
 per conformation and other peculiarities of the various 
 races, or classes, into which horses are divided. This 
 is the grand secret of success ; without this knowledge 
 he may occasionally stumble on what he wants ; but 
 
6 THE HORSE. 
 
 in nine cases out of ten his expectations will be grievously 
 disappointed. I therefore imagine it may serve some 
 useful pm-pose to place before my readers, whether they 
 may happen to be purchasers or breeders of horses, a con- 
 cise, plain, and simple review of the points of the horse 
 as they lie open to the inspection of an ordinary ob- 
 seiTer. Before commencing this task, however, I will 
 make a few cm-sory observations on the subject of 
 
 THE TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 Eveiy person understands what is meant by the tem- 
 per. Not so, however, with the temperament. Nor 
 will I attempt any scientific explanation of it at present, 
 as I could not do so without occupying a gi'eat deal 
 of time and space. Besides, it is a very difficult thing 
 to obtain an accurate knowledge of the temperaments ; 
 and such knowledge can be amved at only after minute, 
 careful, and extensive observation. Consequently, I 
 ynU. not enter further upon the subject here than I 
 consider ^dll be consistent with the general bearing 
 and intentions of this essay. 
 
 The temperaments are usually divided into four — the 
 nervous, bilious, sanguine, and lymphatic. They are 
 never found absolutely pure and distinct from each 
 other, but are combined in different proportions in dif- 
 ferent cases ; and the preponderance of one or more 
 over the remainder will always determine the constitu- 
 
THE TEMPERAMENT. / 
 
 tion of the animal under consideration. The success of 
 the Physician will depend yery much upon the estimate 
 which he forms of the temperament, or constitution, of 
 his patient; and I cannot see any reason why the 
 same thing should not hold good with regard to the 
 Veterinary Practitioner. The doctrine of the tempera- 
 ments, I am certain, is equally applicable to the horse, 
 and all other lower animals, as to man ; and if it were 
 properly attended to, it would modify the opinions 
 which are cmTently held upon many points. My only 
 astonishment is, that it has not received a gTeat deal 
 more attention than it has hitherto experienced at the 
 hands of veterinary writers — at least so far a^ I have 
 had an opportunity of judging, by consulting their 
 works. 
 
 The nervous temperament is connected with a large 
 development of the brain, spinal maiTow, and nerves. 
 From it result quickness of motion, nervous excitabi- 
 lity, and constitutional sensitiveness and delicacy. The 
 bilious is accompanied with a large muscular system. 
 The muscles, or fleshy masses, are well defined, and 
 both look and feel hard and fii-m. This state is essen- 
 tially connected with strength, dm-ability, and sustained 
 exertion. The sanguine, as its name imports, has its 
 origin in a large development of the lungs, heart, and 
 blood-vessels. It must therefore be evident, that it is 
 one of no trifling importance. On it, to a considerable 
 extent, depends the nourishment or support of all the 
 
8 THE HORSE. 
 
 Other parts of the body. The lymphatic is indicated by 
 large abdominal viscera, and a pecuHar disposition to 
 lay on a quantity of fat. The flesh is soft, and the 
 animal is languid, indolent, and sluggish in all its 
 actions. 
 
 These, then, are the leading peculiarities of the four 
 temperaments. They will be found in very different 
 degrees of development in the different breeds of horses, 
 and also in different horses of the same breed. The 
 relative proportion in which they exist will have a 
 marked effect upon the peculiar fitness of the animal to 
 the purpose for which he is designed. Any person who 
 takes the trouble of reflecting will easily see the cor- 
 rectness of this obsei*vation ; and he will also be able 
 to judge Avhich of the temperaments should predomi- 
 nate in an animal intended for any specific purpose. 
 They should all exist, more or less, in the same animal ; 
 but the exact balance in which they may be found is a 
 matter of oveii\^helming importance. For example, 
 activity, speed, and durability, are essentially connected 
 with the nei'vous, bilious, and sanguine temperaments ; 
 and therefore these temperaments are indispensable in 
 the racer, hunter, and roadster. If the nervous predo- 
 minates, he might possess great speed, but he will be 
 fit only for short distances ; whereas, if the bihous oc- 
 cupies the chief place, his peculiar forte will be distance, 
 or bottom. On the other hand, the lymphatic, bilious, 
 and sanguine are more particularly adapted to horses 
 
THE TEMPERAJIEXT. » 
 
 intended for slow work and heavy draught. If they occur 
 in the order in which I have phiced them, the animal will 
 be slow, quiet, strong, and dm-able. I do not mean to 
 state that any one of the temperaments can be dis- 
 pensed with altogether in any individual case. The 
 relative proportion which they bear to each other is the 
 point of importance, and it should always receive spe- 
 cial attention, as it will mainly determine the qualities 
 of the animal, and, taken together with his fonn, tvtII 
 enable a person to estimate his capabilities for any 
 particular pm-pose. 
 
 The temperament has a great deal to do with the 
 minute structure of the different parts of the body. If 
 it be active, the textm-e of the muscles, bones, &c., 
 will be fine, why, and compact ; if sluggish, the same 
 parts will be coarse, soft, and spongy. This is one es- 
 sential difference between the Clydesdale and thorough- 
 bred horses in their minute anatomical structure. It 
 shoidd always be kept prominently in view when we 
 make comparisons as to the strength, durabihty, and 
 other qualities of the different breeds. I T^-ill freely 
 admit that the size of any part of the animal is a 
 direct measure of its power, provided all other things, 
 such as temperament, &c., ai*e equal ; but I strenuously 
 maintain that the slightest alteration in temperament 
 wiU make a corresponding difference in the power, and 
 capability of endurance, of every individual part. For 
 instance, the muscle or bone of a thorough-bred horse, 
 
10 THE HORSE. 
 
 whose temperament is always active, is far stronger, 
 inch for inch, than the same part in a Clydesdale horse, 
 whose temperament is invariably sluggish. If the 
 Clydesdale, Suffolk, or Belgian horse was as strong as 
 he looks, in comparison with the thorough-bred, he 
 would be able to carry or di'aw a vast deal more than 
 he has ever been known to do. Let us take two ani- 
 mals with exactly the same temperament and the same 
 leverage, and we -will invariably find that the one which 
 has the thickest muscle will have the most strength ; 
 but if the muscle and leverage are the same in both 
 cases, and the temperaments different, there will be a 
 corresponding difference in power, &c. If comparisons 
 are to be made, they must be di-a^-n with gi-eat preci- 
 sion, and this is the proper way to amve at them with 
 accuracy. 
 
 No opinion could be more incorrect than the too ge- 
 nerally received one, that a horse draws by \^rtue of, 
 or in proportion to, his own weight and size. If this 
 were the case, the largest and heaviest animal could 
 always draw the most ; and his weight on the bridge 
 would be the best test of his capabilities. But facts 
 in abundance prove it otherwise. There is a small 
 genet in Coleraine, weighing exactly four hundred, 
 two quarters, and fourteen pounds, which has drawn 
 within a few pounds of a ton, besides its cart, for 
 upwards of forty miles, without the slightest apparent 
 diflficulty. It has also brought twenty-thi-ee hundred 
 
THE HEAD. 11 
 
 weight of iron a distance of five miles. I have 
 seen a small-sized ass di-awing half a ton weight of 
 goods from Portrush to Coleraine. Here, then, are two 
 animals which conld di'aw far more in proportion to 
 their size and weight than any di-aj-horse that ever 
 was foaled ; and tliis plainly proves that di'aught does 
 not depend altogether upon weight and size. It is in a 
 great measm-e the result of a vital power. Although 
 weight can render some assistance, the power of draught 
 is chiefly owing to muscular action and nervous energy ; 
 which again are intimately connected with, and greatly 
 dependent on, the temperament of the animal. The genet, 
 mule, ass, and blood-horse have much more energetic 
 temperaments than the Clydesdale or Belgian cart- 
 horse, and consequently possess more muscular power 
 than the latter, in proportion to theu' weight and size. 
 Their leverage, however, is not nearly so well suited 
 for draught, and in that respect, when compared with 
 the ordinary cart-horse, they labour imder a decided dis- 
 advantage. 
 
 Ha\'ing said thus much regarding temperament, I 
 will proceed with a detailed description of the points of 
 the horse ; and, for convenience sake, I will commence 
 with 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 The head of every horse should be as small as would 
 be in keeping mth the rest of his body. A large, 
 
12 THE HORSE. 
 
 coarse head is a defect in every person's eye, and it has 
 no advantages to counterbalance its deformity. The 
 muzzle should be fine, and of a moderate length ; the 
 mouth invariably deep for receiving and retaining the 
 bit; and the lips rather thin and finiily compressed. 
 A fine, tight lip is a pretty sure indication of an active 
 temperament, and consequently affords a measure of the 
 energy and dm-ability of the animal. Horses with short, 
 thick, flabby lips, lying wide apart, are proverbial for 
 sluggishness. The nostrils should be large, so as to be 
 capable, when open, of allowing the air to have free 
 access to the lungs. In conformity with the unifonn 
 condition of the Creator's works, it will be found that 
 there is a du-ect relation between the development of 
 the nostrils and the capacity of the lungs for air. 
 Hence arises the necessity of observing the size of the 
 nostrils. Capacious lungs would be of no use, if the 
 orifice which connects them with the external atmos- 
 phere were so contracted that they could not get pro- 
 perly filled. The race-horse must have very wide and di- 
 latable nostrils to admit a large volume of air, with the 
 utmost freedom and gTcatest speed, into his widely and 
 rapidly distended lungs ; but the horse of slow work 
 can take more time in his breathing, and consequently 
 does not requii-e such a very large nostril as the racer, 
 hunter, or steeple-chaser. Care must always be taken, 
 recollect, not to confound a natm-ally well- developed 
 nostril, with one which looks large in consequence of 
 
THE HEAD. 13 
 
 having been kept in a state of permanent distension by 
 disease of the kings or air-passages. The muzzle ought 
 to be fine a good way up, and then the parts should 
 enlarge suddenly, in order to give plenty of breadth to 
 the under- jaw, as well as thickness from side to side. 
 This is a point of gi-eat beauty, as it gives breadth to 
 the jaw-blade and breadth from eye to eye, whilst the 
 fineness of the head generally is maintained. A head 
 that is naiTow between the eyes, and nan'ow on the 
 side of the jaw, is painfully disagreeable to the eye of 
 eveiy judge. The space between the two blades of the 
 under- jaw ought to be so broad and so deep, as to freely 
 admit the lower edge of the neck when the chin is 
 reined in towards the counter ; but it should not be 
 wider than this, as it would then appear coarse. If 
 there is sufficient room in this locaHty, the horse can be 
 reined up to the proper pitch without stopping up his 
 windpipe. The face^ on a side view, should be dipped in 
 the centre between the eyes and the nose. This is ge- 
 nerally the case in the Ai'abian and English blood-horse, 
 and it is a much more beautiful formation than either 
 the straight or convex profile. However ornamental it 
 may be to the human face, a Roman nose certainly 
 does not improve the appearance of the horse. The 
 line of beauty in the one case is very different from the 
 other. A dish-faced horse is admu-ed on all hands, 
 but a pug-nosed man, with a projecting, upturned chin, 
 will have some difficulty in caiTying off the prize for 
 
14 THE HORSE. 
 
 beauty. The face must be very broad between the 
 eyes, but it should taper a little as it approaches the 
 ears. If the breadth is carried all the way upwai'ds, 
 the top of the head will be too wide, the ears ill set, 
 and the horse probably sulky. 
 
 As in the human being, so in the horse, a great deal 
 of the expression of the countenance depends on the 
 eye. It is a most marvellous index to the w^orkiug of 
 the mind within. A glance at it will often reveal the 
 benevolent feeling, the sulky disposition, or the vicious 
 propensity that is about to manifest itself. The reason 
 of all this must be obvious, when we remember that it 
 is in direct communication with the brain — the material 
 instrument through which the mind operates. The eye 
 of the horse should be kindly, strong, bold, and fiery, 
 yet gentle looking. It should not show much white, 
 as that often indicates a vicious disposition. A horse 
 that is looking back so far as to expose the white of 
 his eye, is generally on the alert for mischief, and is 
 not to be trusted with his heels. The absolute size of 
 the eye is said to be nearly the same in all full-sized 
 horses ; but its apparent size differs gi-eatly in different 
 cases. This difference is owing chiefly to its forward 
 or backward position in the socket, together with the 
 thinness and openness of the eyelids. The eye should 
 be well set out in a prominent socket, yet not so far 
 as to be exposed to external injury. It gives a strong 
 indication both of the temper and temperament of the 
 
THE HEAD. 15 
 
 animal. It is easy to judge from it whether activity 
 or shiggishness prevails most. 
 
 The ears should be long, fine, and very active. 
 They ought to be firmly and rather closely set on the 
 top of the head. If they are coarse, wide apart, low- 
 set, and di'ooping, they will give a nasty, indolent, and 
 heavy appearance to the horse. There could be no 
 greater ornament than long, fine, active-looking, up- 
 right, tolerably close-set ears, with the points a little 
 inclined towards each other. I never saw a soft-con- 
 stitutioned horse with ears of this description. 
 
 An examination of the ears, eyes, and lips mil en- 
 able us to estimate the temperament of the horse with 
 a tolerable degi-ee of accm-acy. The colour of the 
 hair should also be taken into account, although it 
 has frequently been said that a good horse is never of 
 a bad colom-, or, in plainer language, that it matters 
 not, beyond the mere item of taste, what his colour 
 may be. This, I imagine, is a decided mistake, as 
 the colour of the hau' has as much to do with the tem- 
 perament of the horse as it has with the temperament 
 of a man. Observation has led the public to this con- 
 clusion practically, as is proved by the everj^-day say- 
 ing, that such or such a horse is of a liardy colour. 
 How seldom do we find a jet black or a wishy-washy 
 chastnut with as much pluck as a rich chestnut, a 
 deep-blood bay, or a dark brown ! The former co- 
 lours are generally connected with soft, scrofulous con- 
 
16 THE HOESE. 
 
 stitutions, whilst the latter as often indicate fineness of 
 texture and capacity for endiu-ance. 
 
 To the part of the head, between the eyes and the 
 ears, which is occupied by the brain, I, as a phrenolo- 
 gist, and from practical observation, attribute very 
 great importance. I have never yet seen a horse with 
 a sweet temper and tractable disposition that was very 
 flat, or hollow, in the part of the forehead which lies 
 immediately under the front strap of the bridle, pro- 
 vided, at the same time, he was unusually wide be- 
 tween the ears. A horse of this description will be 
 savage, sulky, and ill to train. You will be constantly 
 teaching him, and after all he is never properly taught. 
 C I know (1848) a stallion with this defect, and he has 
 transmitted it to all his progeny which have come un- 
 der my observation. They are mostly all manageable 
 to a certain extent, but I never saw one of them 
 brought to have a comfortable, silky, gentle disposi- 
 tionjk On the other hand, a horse vdth. a moderate 
 breadth of cro^vn, and a very prominent forehead at 
 the region of the brain, will be good-natm-ed, kindly, 
 and docile. He can be taught anything, and when 
 once trained, he is trained for life. Hence the neces- 
 sity of teaching him gently and carefully at first, as 
 the habits which he may happen to acquire at the start 
 are seldom ever eradicated. Let it be particularly ob- 
 served, however, that an extremely naiTow skull is by 
 no means deskable, as the horse would then be so timid, 
 
THE HEAD. 17 
 
 that he would be a soiu-ce of constant annoyance to his 
 rider. A medium breadth at the base of the brain, 
 ^vith a prominent forehead, is the best development of 
 all, because it is the concomitant of corn-age and good- 
 natm-e, which are essential to our comfort and safety. 
 ( Some parties may think these notions are visionary, 
 but I am confident they are founded in natm-e, and will 
 be fully borne out by careful inspection and observa- 
 tion. I disregarded them in one instance lately, and, 
 contrary to my better judgment, pm-chased a mare 
 whose shape and action attracted my attention. In 
 the course of a short time, however, I found out my 
 mistake, and was obliged to " pocket my loss," as a 
 reproof for my temerity in running counter to the 
 plain and unerring laws of natm'e.3 I ^^ ^ot mean to 
 say that all trained horses, with certain marks which I 
 have mentioned, are quiet and tractable, because many 
 of them are trained by beings far more savage than 
 themselves, and the best temper may thus be spoiled ; 
 but what I state is, that a horse with a certain forma- 
 tion of brain is ly nature gentle and docile, and will 
 become ill-natm-ed and intractable only by brutality 
 and bad management. If any of my readers are in- 
 clined to judge for themselves in this matter, and ^vish 
 to put it to the test of practical observation, I would 
 suggest that they must be very careful to ascertain 
 the exact position of the parts which I have referred 
 to. The development of the hrain is the thing to 
 
18 THE HORSE. 
 
 be attended to ; and the best method of becoming ac- 
 quamted with its locality is to open the skull of a dead 
 horse, and then examine the points at which the brain 
 can approach the surface. In this way they will be 
 prevented from mistaking a projection of bone for a 
 prominent brain, and they will not be likely to look for 
 a protuberance of brain where no brain should exist. 
 
 THE NECK. 
 
 In all horses, the neck should be fine and arched- 
 looking where it joins the head. Fineness in this lo- 
 cality adds greatly to the beauty of the horse, and 
 generally speaks well for the purity of his breeding. 
 The setting-on of the head and neck should be such as 
 to cause the nose to project a little forward, otherwise 
 the head will look no better than it would if it were 
 nailed across the stump of a tree. Still the nose must 
 not be pushed so far forward as to constitute a star- 
 gazer, as the horse would then be both unsafe and un- 
 manageable. A star-gazing horse may run where he 
 pleases with his rider, because the bit will slip up into y 
 the angles of his mouth, in place of keeping a solict^\A' 
 and safe purchase on the lower jaw ; ia laxrt, the ana- 
 tomical relations between his head and neck are such, 
 that his chin can never be drawn in properly towards 
 his counter. 
 
 jt In place of being an objection, it is rather an ad- 
 vantage, that the windpipe should be large, and rather 
 
THE NECK. 19 
 
 loosely attached to the parts over which it passes. 
 This aiTangement vri]l increase the freedom of breath- 
 ing when the head and neck are stretched out in the 
 gallop, at the same time that the appearance of lightness 
 is presei-ved. When the windpipe keeps free and distinct 
 all the way from the head to the chest, the neck Avill 
 look thin and graceful. 
 
 The length and thickness of the neck may vary a 
 little, according to the purpose for which the horse is in- 
 tended. The racer, the hunter, the roadster, and the 
 hamess-horse, should have the neck a little longer, and 
 considerably lighter than the carter ; but still length 
 and lightness must not in any instance go to too great 
 an extreme, as that would be indicative of constitutional 
 weakness. In all cases the upper edge of the neck 
 must be thin, and it ought to be arched from the seat 
 of the collar forwards, or else the shape should be 
 such, that it can easily be thrown into an arch when 
 the reins are drawn moderately tight. The under 
 edge will be thin and gi-aceful-looking, if the windpipe 
 is sufficiently distinct and detached from the adjacent 
 parts. The centre should be much thicker than either 
 the upper or under edge, and it must increase in thick- 
 ness as it approaches the shoulder. If this is not the 
 case, the horse will most likely be generally defective in 
 muscle. The curv^e of the under edge must bear a pro- 
 portion to the curv^e of the upper — more especially as 
 it approaches towards the head. Nothing can be more 
 
20 THE HORSE. 
 
 unseemly than a horse whose neck, when reined up, 
 presents a straight line all along the top, and a con- 
 vexity at the under edge. He is then said to be ewe- 
 necked. A horse with a neck of this description might 
 be a good one, but he can never be a handsome one ; 
 in short, a nice, finely set-on head, and a tolerably 
 long neck, arched in such a way as to form a convexity 
 above, and a concavity below, would add to the beauty, 
 and most materially increase the value, of any horse. 
 
 The manner in which the neck is attached to the 
 shoulder is deserving of special consideration. In eveiy 
 case it should be set well up on the shoulder, so as to 
 allow a convenient seat for the collar below, and thus 
 avoid pressure on the windpipe, or abrasion of the 
 skin. This arrangement will also assist in making the 
 horse light in hand. In the hea\7 di-aught-horse, the 
 junction of the neck and shoulder may be strong and 
 thick throughout ; but in all other instances the spot on 
 which the collar rests above, in front of the shoulder- 
 top, must be hollowed out. This I insist upon as an 
 indispensable requisite in a horse for the saddle or light 
 harness. Such a confoimation enables the rider or 
 di'iver to raise the head of the horse to a considerable 
 height without altering, to any gi-eat extent, the posi- 
 tion of the shoulders and body ; whereas, if the neck 
 were strongly and fully made up at this point to the 
 level of the shoulder-top, the head and neck could not 
 be raised withoiit raising, at the same time, the shoul- 
 
THE NECK. 21 
 
 ders and body of the animal, which operation would 
 require a man of more than ordinary power, as he 
 would be obhged to lift a great portion of the horse's 
 weight, in addition to a share of the load that might 
 happen to be on his back at the time. I should Hke to 
 see the man who could recover a stumbling horse whose 
 neck was fully made up, and firmly united to the shoul- 
 der-top. If the shoulder is tightly bound in this lo- 
 cality, the animal has little control over it, and, con- 
 sequently, when he makes a mistake, he can do little 
 towards recovering his equilibrium. He cannot pro- 
 perly be called a tripper, as he is sm-e to go down all 
 of a piece. I am particular in insisting upon this 
 point, as I have so often observed men who were not 
 in the habit of riding much, but pretended to be gi-eat 
 judges, taking exception to the best formation, and 
 praising those animals which were particularly faulty 
 at the place referred to, because they considered them 
 so strong and well made up at the front of their shoul- 
 ders. In many instances it is vain to tell these indi- 
 viduals that their ideas are eiToneous, because they 
 have little practical experience, and are such perfect 
 judges in their own estimation that they requu*e no in- 
 structions on the subject. 
 
 The shape and position of the neck should be parti- 
 cularly obsei*ved by the person who trains, rides, or 
 drives the horse. It is rare to see two horses formed 
 so exactly alike, that they can bear to have then- heads 
 
22 THE HORSE. 
 
 elevated to the same height, without painfully interfer- 
 ing with the action and power of all parts of the body. 
 How unseemly and how barbarous is it, then, for some 
 ignorant trainers, riders, and drivers, to screw up all 
 the horses, no matter how diversified their shapes, that 
 unfortunately fall into theu' hands, to the same point, 
 for the pm-pose of giving them what they are pleased 
 to call a gi-aceful carnage! Do such people ever 
 imagine that gracefulness results from a peculiar and 
 appropriate adaptation of the different parts of the 
 animal to each other, and not from a partial distortion, 
 such as we often see exhibited under the influence -of 
 the heavy bit, or that most brutal invention, the bear- 
 ing-rein? Were it not for its cruelty, it would be very 
 amusing to observe the manner in which some men 
 in riding or di'iving prop themselves up, for the pur- 
 pose of pulling, with might and main, at the poor ani- 
 mals' mouths, in the foohsh hope of being thus able to 
 keep them from falling, at the same time that they ren- 
 der them so much more attractive to the passers by. 
 Then- task is certainly a very anxious and laborious 
 one, and, if persevered in, it is sure to end mth broken 
 knees, and, perhaps, a broken nose. The horse is 
 placed in such an unnatural position, that his entu-e ac- 
 tion is interfered with, and he gets such a habit of 
 leaning on his bit, instead of watching for himself, that 
 he is nearly certain of dropping the first moment his 
 governor forgets the pulling process. A sweet rein, 
 
THE CHEST. 
 
 with a quick hand, will have far the best chance of keep- 
 ing a stumbling horse on his feet. He will then de- 
 pend on his own vigilance and exertion, in the same 
 way as he would if he were mnning at freedom through 
 a field. The head and neck of every horse should be 
 raised just into that position which will comport with 
 the exact balancing of all the other parts of the same 
 animal. The poor creature will then be permitted to 
 do his work with gracefulness and ease, and the feel- 
 ings of the on-looker will not be harassed by the com- 
 passion which he must feel for a noble animal that is 
 constrained to assume an unnatural and intensely pain- 
 ful attitude. 
 
 THE CHEST. 
 
 The blood, which is circulated by the heart, and is 
 purified and vitalized by the reception of atmospheric air 
 in its passage through the limgs, is the only source from 
 whence the different parts of the body can derive nu- 
 trition. Hence it becomes a matter of vital consequence, 
 that the cavity of the chest should be of such a shape 
 and size as to afford perfect accommodation for its 
 precious contents — the heart and lungs. In a state of 
 quiescence, the blood circulates slowly, and respiration 
 is performed with ease ; but an increased exertion is 
 invariably accompanied, in a direct ratio, by a quicker 
 breathing, and a more rapid transmission of the vital 
 fluid, in order to make up, by the process of nutrition, 
 
 \ 
 
24 THE HORSE. 
 
 for the waste produced by exercise. Fiu'tlier, we must 
 bear in mind that the blood which has been sent round 
 the course of the general circulation to the heart, from 
 whence it started, has served its purpose, has become 
 impm-e, and is no longer capable of sustaining life, 
 until, after having received additions from the digested 
 food, it is again passed through the lungs, in which it 
 comes in contact with the air inhaled for the special 
 purpose of its purification. Every pound of blood cir- 
 culated by the heart must receive a stated quantity of 
 air in the air-cells of the lungs ; and, as the rapidity of 
 the circulation beai's a dii-ect relation to the amount of 
 exertion endured within a given time, it follows, as a 
 matter of course, that the capabilities of the horse 
 must depend, in no small degree, upon the capacity of 
 the lungs for air. Hence arises the necessity of paying 
 special attention to the size and shape of the chest, in 
 which the heart and lungs are placed. 
 
 Without entering upon a minute anatomical descrip- 
 tion of the CHEST, I may just say, that it is bounded in 
 front by the neck, on each side by the ribs and shoulder- 
 blade, below by the breast-bone, above by the spine, 
 and behind by the diaphragm which separates it from 
 the bowels. A line di-awn from the region of the 
 kidneys, immediately behind the saddle-seat, and ter- 
 minating at a short distance behind the girths at the 
 breast-bone, will point out, with tolerable accuracy, the 
 position of the diaphragm. It is a large expansion of 
 
THE CHEST. 25 
 
 muscular tissue, and stretches across from side to side 
 in such a way as completely to separate the body into 
 two gi'eat cavities. By its motion backwards and for- 
 wards, either of these ca\T[ties can be lessened or enlai'ged 
 as circumstances may require. 
 
 The large cavity called the chest, which intei*venes be- 
 tween the boundaries specified, is occupied almost entirely 
 by the heart and hmgs. The size of the heart alters little 
 at different periods in a state of health. Not so, how- 
 ever, with the lungs. They are very elastic in their 
 nature, and consequently are capable of being gi-eatly 
 collapsed, or enormously distended, at certain periods, 
 dming the process of respiration. 
 
 When the demand for breath arises, the ribs are 
 elevated, and the diaphragm is draTVTi back, for the 
 pm-pose of enlarging the cavity within. The limgs, being 
 elastic, immediately start up to fill the expanded chest ; 
 and the atmospheric air mshes into the now open air- 
 cells of the lungs, from whence it passes into, and 
 pm-ifies, the blood. So soon as the inhaled air has been 
 exhausted by the blood of its vitalising principle, it is 
 thrown out again by the pressm-e of the diaphragm 
 and ribs (whose action ceases) against the lungs. The 
 lungs are then reduced to then* original size, and the ca- 
 pacity of the chest is diminished. This constitutes the 
 process of respiration or breathing, and on its due per- 
 formance will chiefly depend the health and usefulness 
 of the animal. A horse calUng " bellows-to-mend " is 
 
26 THE HORSE. 
 
 fit for little. He may drag out a miserable existence 
 at slow work, but he is totally incapable of very ac- 
 tive exertion. " Wind," says a sensible old turfite, 
 "is the grand secret of a good race-horse. Good 
 lungs will cover a multitude of faults, as disproportion- 
 ate as ugly ; whilst, on the other hand, perfection of 
 shape and fpim are useless when the wind is out." 
 The shape and size of the chest are, therefore, matters 
 of no trifling importance ; because they will, in a great 
 measure, govern the condition of the lungs. 
 
 In every case the chest should be large and capaci- 
 ous ; but its exact shape may vary a little according to 
 the purpose for which the horse is required. In the 
 animal for slow work and heavy draught, it may ap- 
 proach towards the circular form, because this shape is 
 generally accompanied by gi-eat bulk and strength for 
 the collar ; whilst, at the same time, sufficient expan- 
 sion can take place to accommodate the slow and regular 
 action of the lungs which is required at a walking pace. 
 This sort of horse, however, is quite unfit for any kind 
 of work requiring speed. As Mr. Youatt very pro- 
 perly remarks, " He would not do for ordinary quick 
 exertion, and if he were pushed far beyond his pace, he 
 would become broken- winded, or have inflamed lungs." 
 Let it be particularly observed, moreover, that even 
 in the draught-horse the chest should be deep as well 
 as round, in order to afford sufficient space for lungs of 
 the proper magnitude. Depth of chest is not so much 
 
THE CHEST. 27 
 
 sought after as it should be in the cart-horse ; and 
 hence it is no unusual thing to see people breeding 
 from animals which are very faulty in this particular. 
 A horse with a shallow chest is not desirable for any 
 purpose. 
 
 In proportion as we pass from the di*aught-horse, 
 through the different degi'ees of speed, up to the racer, 
 in the same proportion must the depth of the chest, 
 when compared Tvith its roundness, increase. The 
 horse for harness should have a round and deep chest, 
 the roadster and hunter deeper still, and the racer or 
 steeple-chaser should be almost as deep as a gi-eyhound, 
 at the same time preserving a fair proportion of breadth. 
 Depth of chest is indispensable for speed combined 
 with distance. 
 
 The reason of all this is very obvious, for, as Mr. 
 Youatt observes, " the circular chest could not expand, 
 but every change of form would be a diminution of 
 capacity," because " the circle is a figure which con- 
 tains more than any other of equal girth and admea- 
 surement." A simple experiment will illustrate this 
 proposition. Take, for example, a piece of pasteboard, 
 and form it into a cylinder about six inches in length 
 and two inches in diameter, leaving it open at both 
 ends, so that it can be compressed equally from end to 
 end. Place one end on a table, and compress two of 
 its sides until the cavity assumes a perfectly oval or 
 elliptical form, and then fill it accurately with fine shot. 
 
28 THE HORSE. 
 
 When it is nicely filled and levelled on the top, re- 
 move the pressm-e from the sides, so that the paste- 
 board may again form a perfect cylinder, and it will be 
 found that the shot is not nearly sufficient to fill the 
 cavity. Now, as the quantity of pasteboard remains 
 exactly the same dming the entu'e experiment, it is 
 quite plain the change of capacity is owing solely to 
 the change of fonn. 
 
 Let us suppose, then, that a horse has a perfectly 
 circular chest, and it will follow, as a necessary conse- 
 quence, that the elevation of the ribs on the side, in 
 place of increasing its capacity, vnll actually lessen it, 
 by bringing it more or less into the elliptical form. In 
 this case the canity of the chest would be larger 
 when the breathing would be suspended than at any 
 other time, because its original shape was such as not 
 to admit of an increase of size by any change of form. 
 The farther it would be changed from the cylinder, the 
 smaller it would become. But if, in the first instance, 
 the chest were a great deal deeper than broad, the ele- 
 vation of the ribs on the side would just serve to bring 
 it into the circular shape, which is the most capacious 
 of all. Hence it must be evident, that depth of chest 
 is indispensable in all cases. 
 
 As the lungs of the horse occupy a much larger 
 space when he is in active exercise, than when he is at 
 rest, we are justified in concluding that he requires to 
 have the power of increasing the size of his chest in 
 
THE CHEST. 29 
 
 proportion as he is called upon to increase his speed. 
 Contrary to the popular opinion, the chest must, to a 
 certain extent, be flattened on the sides, in order that 
 it may be capable of being changed from the elliptical 
 into the circular form. The horse for very slow work 
 may have his chest approaching the circle, because the 
 trifling elevation of rib which is requu'ed by his quiet 
 mode of breathing will only be sufficient to complete 
 the circular shape. Whilst he may do with this kind 
 of chest, it cannot, however, be considered advan- 
 tageous, as a greater power of wind might often be of 
 decided semce to him, and could never be injurious. 
 The depth of the chest, when compared mth its width, 
 must invariably increase in direct proportion to the in- 
 crease of speed and distance required of the animal. 
 In the steeple-chaser, or the flat-racer, it should be of 
 enoi-mous depth, in order that the elevation of the 
 ribs may assist in forming a capacious circle, for the 
 purpose of accommodating the rapidly and frequently 
 distended lungs dm^ing the trying period of the race. 
 In such cases a round chest would be of no use, as 
 the wind would be completely pumped out of the horse 
 before he had gone half the requisite distance. 
 
 If we T\ash to form a correct estimate of the dimen- 
 sions of the cavity of the chest, it will be necessary 
 for us to make a minute and accm-ate examination ; a 
 partial inspection will not do. The direction of the 
 ribs, as they spring from the back-bone, must be par- 
 
30 THE HORSE. 
 
 ticularly attended to. If in place of being arched 
 above, they come sloping down like the roof of a 
 house, the upper part of the cavity must be greatly 
 narrowed, and the horse is said to be herring-ribbed. 
 This is a gi'eat defect, inasmuch as the form of the 
 ribs near the back-bone will not permit such an eleva- 
 tion as would be sufficient to change the upper region 
 of the cavity of the chest from the elliptical to the 
 circular shape. The extent of motion in this region is 
 exceedingly limited, and consequently the ribs, in their 
 quiescent state, should be very well rounded here. In 
 every horse they should come right out for a consider- 
 able distance from the back-bone, so as to present a 
 broad and flattish surface above. The condition of 
 the parts will be best obsei-ved by looking over the 
 back from behind. 
 
 The part upon which the saddle rests, immediately 
 behind the shoulder-top, should always be examined. 
 It ought to be well filled up, so as to place the saddle 
 in a comfortable position. If there is much of a dip 
 in this locality, the ribs will encroach upon the size of 
 the chest, and the action of the horse will be greatly 
 impeded by the constant shifting of the saddle on the 
 tops of the shoulder-blades. This is a common and 
 exceedingly annoying defect. It can be remedied only 
 by the use of the patent saddle-cloth, or by the anti- 
 quated plan of keeping the saddle in its place, by 
 means of a crupper attached to the poor animal's tail. 
 
THE CHEST. 31 
 
 Where the ribs commence their descent on the side, 
 hey should either preserve a tolerably rounded shape, 
 or become moderately flattened, according to the use 
 for which the horse is intended. The circle, however, 
 must be resumed as they approach the breast-bone 
 below, for the pui-pose of giving breadth to the floor 
 of the chest. The chest of the draught-horse ought 
 to be large every way, but it, even, should be consider- 
 ably deeper than broad. 
 
 The power of motion possessed by the parieties of 
 the chest is gi-eatest on the side, much less at the 
 breast-bone, and very limited, indeed, at the region of 
 the back. Now, as it is desu*able, during the period 
 of a fuU inspiration, to bring the entire cavity of the 
 chest as near as possible, for reasons aheady ex- 
 plained, into the foim of a cu'cle, it follows that, in a 
 quiescent state, the part next the back, which is the 
 least moveable, should be the most circular, the part 
 next the breast -bone a little less so, and the sides, the 
 most moveable of all, much less so still. Hence it is 
 evident that every horse for fast work, such as the 
 roadster, steeple-chaser, or flat-racer, must have his 
 chest wide above, tolerably wide below, and a little 
 flattened, but very deep, on the sides. If he does not 
 come pretty well up to this form, he will not be able 
 to go the pace for a long distance. He might have 
 plenty of speed for a short spm-t, but a couple of miles 
 at a rattUng pace would shut up his ^-ind. 
 
32 THE HORSE. 
 
 Observe, I do not advocate a chest as thin as a lath ; 
 I must have it big every way, but with the relative 
 proportions mentioned. If it follows this develop- 
 ment, the elevation of the ribs will form a most enor- 
 mous cavity for accommodating the highly-elastic and 
 widely-distending lungs, dm-ing the period of a rapid 
 and deep inspiration. This is exactly the shape of the 
 chest in that model of beauty, the greyhound ; and 
 where is the animal of the same size could go the 
 pace and keep up the steam with him ? A well-formed 
 gi'eyhound is one of the most beautiful and interesting 
 pieces of machinery in nature. 
 
 As the parieties of the chest are nearly fixed above, 
 and not very free below, how does it come that the 
 ribs, most of which are attached at both ends, can 
 move with freedom ? They might have a trifling mo- 
 tion from below ; but they certainly could not have a 
 sufficiently extensive range of action, were it not for a 
 peculiar and most beautiful contrivance, by which they 
 are permitted to have a sort of lateral elevation on 
 the side from behind foi-wards towards the shoulder. 
 Their power in altering the shape of the chest is chiefly 
 owing to the peculiarity of this an-angement ; but as 
 I could not explain it satisfactorily, unless it was illus- 
 trated by a practical examination of the parts on the 
 dead subject, I will not enter farther upon it in this 
 place. 
 
 The breadth of the chest may be estimated by the 
 
THE CHEST. 33 
 
 width of the counter, and by the fulness of the ribs 
 behind the foreleg and shoulder. A depression of the 
 ribs at the part where the leg is united to the shoidder, 
 has a material effect in lessening the breadth of the 
 floor of the chest. 
 
 The counter should be broad and weighty in the 
 cart-horse ; but its breadth ought to decrease in propor- 
 tion as we wish an increase of speed. This, of course, 
 must be understood Avithin certain limits, as the race- 
 horse, the swiftest of all, should not have an extremely 
 narrow counter. His shoidd be narrow only in com- 
 parison with that of the cart-horse. If it were ex- 
 tremely nan-ow, the chest would be light and the shoulders 
 weak, and the forelegs would be so close together that 
 there would be every probability of an interference in 
 the region of the feet and pasterns. The counter of 
 the race-horse should not be on either extreme. It 
 ought to be broad enough to give substance to the 
 shoulders, and capacity to the chest, without adding too 
 much weight to the fore-quarter, or separating the legs so 
 far from each other as to give a round and lubberly action 
 to the horse in the trot or gallop. In all cases, the 
 counter must be well supplied mth strong and promi- 
 nent muscles. 
 
 The sternum, or breast-bone, which forms the floor of 
 the chest, requkes to be long. It ought to di'op low both 
 between and behind the legs. There is nothing more to 
 be desu-ed than a long and well let-do^vn sternum, as it 
 
 D 
 
34 THE HORSE. 
 
 adds to the cavity of the chest both behind and below, 
 at the same time that it throws the girths of the saddle 
 far back, into a comfortable position. A shaUow- 
 chested horse may answer a very good purpose over a 
 half-mile com-se, where speed is of much more conse- 
 quence than bottom ; but he would have a poor chance, 
 in a four mile race, with such horses as Harkaway, 
 Chanticleer, Van Tromp, and the Flying Dutchman, 
 whose unmense chests would enable them to go a good 
 pace from end to end without getting out of wind. No 
 shallow-chested horse, it matters not what his speed 
 might be, could live with any of these over a long 
 com-se, with heavy weights. If these remai'ks are 
 coiTCct regarding the flat racer, they surely are equally 
 applicable to the hunter and steeple-chaser, who are 
 frequently obliged to go over several miles of heavy 
 country, at one burst, with such weights, and at such a 
 pace, as would be sufficient to test the wind of the best 
 horse that ever stepped on ii'on. 
 
 Before leaving this part of my subject, I may just 
 state that, according to my observation, the best way 
 to ascertam the condition of a horse's lungs is, to take 
 him fresh from the stable and run him quickly down, 
 not up, a hill. The pressm-e of the liver, stomach and 
 bowels, through the diaphragm, on the lungs, will 
 very soon tell, by the presence or absence of a cough 
 or a sneeze, " what way the wind blows." The ordi- 
 nary method of running him up the hill may be a 
 
THE BONES. 35 
 
 proper test for roaring or whistling, but it is not so 
 certain a criterion for a cough as the plan I have sug- 
 gested. 
 
 It may be well, perhaps, previous to the consideration 
 of the shoulder and foreleg, to make a few observa- 
 tions on the natm-e and uses of the bones and muscles. 
 
 are composed of a hard, dense, and inflexible material. 
 They are found either in rough, irregular, and flattened 
 masses, which are intended to serve for the origin and 
 insertion of muscles, as well as to incase and prote<jt 
 the internal ^-ital organs, such as the brain and spinal 
 maiTow, and the thoracic and abdominal viscera ; or 
 else they are roimded and elongated, as in the legs, to 
 act as convenient levers for the propulsion of the 
 machine. Their texture differs gi'eatly in the different 
 breeds of horses. In the thorough-bred, they are re- 
 markably dense ; whereas in the di'ay-horse, they are 
 open and spong}-. This is one reason why the strength 
 of the bone in the blood-horse is generally underA^alued. 
 It is never considered strong, at least by the pubHc, 
 because its cuxumference is less than it is in the 
 carter. There is a mistake made here, however, in 
 forgetting that the textiu-e of the one is much more 
 dense than that of the other, and consequently that, 
 inch for inch, the bone of the blood-horse is much 
 heavier and more substantial than the bone of the 
 
36 THE HORSE. 
 
 carter. If we wisli to make an accurate comparison, 
 we must keep up this distinction ; or else compare two 
 animals belonging to the same class. In the latter 
 case, the texture is nearly alike ; and therefore the one 
 which has the thickest bone should be the strongest, as 
 far, at least, as bone is concerned. 
 
 Any person who wishes to test the correctness of the 
 above statements, can easily do so by bui-ning the shank- 
 bones of a thorough-bred and a Clydesdale horse. 
 When the animal matter is consumed, the remaining 
 earthy portion will discover the textm-e. For the sake 
 of accm-acy, however, it will be necessary to choose the 
 shank-bone in each case, because the various bones in 
 the same animal differ very much in then- porosity, ac- 
 cording to the locality in which they are placed, and 
 the purposes for which they are required. 
 
 No man, let his pretensions be what they may, can 
 be a real judge of a horse, imless he is aware of the 
 position which the bones of the skeleton occupy. They 
 are the levers of the whole machine ; and on their 
 length, shape, and position will depend, in a great 
 measm-e, the fitness of the animal for the pm-pose he is 
 designed to fulfil. "The first requisite," says Mr. 
 Cawse, in his treatise on the art of painting, " for 
 di"aT\dng the horse, or any other animal, is to acquire a 
 knowledge of the skeleton, as on that depends the 
 power of making a good outline. The first sketch of 
 a horse should always determine the exact situation of 
 
THE BOXES. 37 
 
 the bones, in regard to their length and proportion." 
 These observations are veiy just, and should be kept in 
 mind by every person who undertakes to judge a horse. 
 If such things were properly understood and attended 
 to, the/a^ poi-poise would not carry away the prize so 
 often as he does. 
 
 In looking over the numerous plates of horses which 
 are published, I have frequently been surprised to see 
 the gi'eat dissimilarity which exists between the dif- 
 ferent plates of the same animal, when drawn by dif- 
 ferent artists. This is often the case, even although 
 the ai-tists are of the highest standing in then- profes- 
 sion. I do not attribute the defect to a want of natu- 
 ral talent on their part ; but I am decidedly disposed 
 to think it is owing either to a defective anatomical 
 and physiological knowledge of the animal, or to a 
 neglect in placing the horse, dming the time he is 
 under observation, in that exact position which throws 
 all the bones and muscles into an harmonious attitude. 
 But even supposing the horse is standing in a proper 
 position, an extra stroke of the pencil on an important 
 bone, muscle, sinew, or joint, would spoil or rectify the 
 whole. It must, therefore, be evident that an accurate 
 and minute anatomical and physiological knowledge is 
 indispensable. It is also important that we should get 
 a side view of the animal. Om- position for examina- 
 tion should be a little behind, rather than before, the 
 centre, as the slightest deviation from this would alter 
 
38 THE HOKSE. 
 
 the appearance of the hind and fore quarters. I need 
 scarcely obsei-ve, that the man who attempts to give 
 an accm-ate and faithful likeness of a horse, in any 
 other than a standing postm-e, deserves more credit for 
 imagination than discretion. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 The reddish-colom-ed substance which is commonly 
 called flesh, is not thrown over the bones in an uTCgu- 
 lar and imcertain manner ; on the contraiy, eveiy fibre 
 of which it is composed takes a specific direction for a 
 specific purpose. The fleshy fibres, or threads (such as 
 may be seen in a piece of diied beef), are thrown to- 
 gether into bundles of various sizes. These bundles, 
 or masses of flesh, are called muscles. 
 
 The muscles are very numerous, amounting to hun- 
 di-eds, and every one of them is running towards some 
 particular point, for a special use. On a cm-soiy ex- 
 amination, they may appear complicated and uTegular 
 in their aiTangement, but a more minute inspection 
 will discover the most beautiful and suitable design. 
 Theu' importance is so gTcat, that they cannot be dis- 
 pensed with ; it is by their means alone the bones are 
 put mto motion. They are frequently terminated at 
 one extremity by dense cords, called sinews. These 
 sinews are very strong, and incapable of being stretched. 
 If they were elastic, they would be quite useless. In- 
 
THE SHOULDEE. 39 
 
 Stead of stretching under the action of the muscles, 
 they are sure to move the bones to -which they are at- 
 tached, and they thus become a most useful instrument 
 in the act of progression. 
 
 The fibres, or threads, of which the muscles are 
 composed, are so aiTanged that they can contract upon 
 themselves to such an extent as to shorten the distance 
 between theii* extremities by one-third of their whole 
 length (Bostock). This is a fact which must be kept 
 steadily in view, as the action of the animal is greatly 
 influenced by the length of its muscles. For example, 
 if the muscles which move the leg in one horse are 
 double the length of those which perfonn the same 
 duty in another horse — and if in each case they contract 
 or shorten themselves by exactly one-third of then* own 
 length — it must follow that the horse with the long 
 muscles will cover double the space, at each stride, that 
 his opponent can do. The advantage of attending to 
 this point will be fully illustrated as I proceed. 
 
 THE SHOULDER. 
 
 There is no part of the horse receives so much at- 
 tention from the public as the shoulder, and yet I fear 
 the views which are entertained regarding it are not 
 generally coiTect. The fact that it should vary in 
 shape according to the pm'pose to which the horse is to 
 be applied, is too often overlooked. The carter and 
 
4:0 THE HORSE. 
 
 the racer should differ considerably in this particular 
 point ; the shape which would suit the one would be 
 worse than useless to the other. In this respect they 
 are diametrically opposed. 
 
 The heavy draught-horse requires an upright, thick, 
 and very weighty shoulder. This confoimation mil 
 give him as much muscular strength, " and weight in the 
 collar, as will be sufficient to assist the hind-quarters in 
 moving his enonnous load ; besides, the upright shoul- 
 der will fit the collar so accurately throughout, that 
 there will be a distribution of pressui'e over the whole 
 sui'face," in place of being confined to the spot from 
 whence the draught commences. 
 
 The hghter di-aught-horse should have a sti'ong and 
 thick, but moderately-slanted, shoulder, mth an ele- 
 vated wither. This will enable him to step lightly, 
 freely, and actively in his varied operations, whilst 
 sufficient strength and weight are retained for the sort 
 of draught to which he is put. He will be a strong, 
 and yet veiy handy sort of horse, for a variety of 
 operations about a farm. As his shape does not con- 
 fine him to one particular sort of work, he will be 
 found generally useful. He will have more speed, 
 lightness, and acti^dty, especially in turning, than the 
 dray-horse, although he may not have so much strength 
 for a straight, hea^y pull. 
 
 (In the hunter, the withers ought to be high, and the 
 shoulder well laid back. The high withers will ma- 
 
THE SHOULDER. 41 
 
 terially assist in raising his fore-quarters over the 
 fence, whilst the slanting direction of the shoulder will 
 increase his stride in the gallop, lie will also be light 
 in hand (the neck must be hollowed out in front of the 
 withers, as akeadj described) and safe to ride, as the 
 backward position of the saddle-seat ^yill thi'ow the rider's 
 weight to a proper distance behind the fore-leg. If 
 the rider were placed directly over the fore-leg, as he 
 would be with an upright shoulder, it would be impos- 
 sible for the horse to recover his balance in case he 
 might happen to make a stiunble. The lowering of 
 the fore-quarters dming the stumble, would place the 
 weight of the rider in front of the leg, and then it 
 would be out of the question for either the man or the 
 horse to make a recoveiy; they must inevitably go 
 down. Besides, if the horse never stumbled, the po- 
 sition in which he cames his weight would be very 
 unfavoiu-able for his action in the trot or gallop, as he 
 could never di'aw his hind-legs, from which alone he 
 pitches, sufficiently far foi-wards to get them, as a ful- 
 crum, under his rider. His action would be so much 
 interfered with by the weight on his shoulders, that he 
 would be easily fatigued, if kept at a fast pace. 
 
 There should be no difference in the shape of the 
 shoulder between the roadster, the hunter, and the 
 steeple-chaser. They aU require the same sort of ac- 
 tion in the fore-quarters. But the flat-racer differs 
 from them in one point — he should not be so high on 
 
42 THE HOESE* 
 
 the withers. In his case speed is a thing of primary 
 consideration, and therefore he requires to run close 
 to the ground, which he could not do if his withers 
 were very much elevated. If he nms close to the 
 ground, there will be little time lost in his stride ; and 
 this is sm-ely of immense importance, when one mo- 
 ment may determine the result of the race. Eclipse 
 was quite as high on the top of the rump as on the 
 shoulder, and so should every race-horse. An old turfite 
 {Sporting Magazine, vol. i.. New Series, p. 120) says, 
 for speed he prefers "the whole form lower before 
 than behind." Be this as it may, one thing is certain — 
 the withers should not be higher than the top of the 
 rump. A race-horse whose foim is higher before than 
 behind, will have a high and roundish sort of action, 
 which may please the inexperienced eye, but the good 
 judge will always consider it far inferior to the long, 
 low, sweeping, swimming stride of the low-shouldered 
 horse who runs close to the gi'ound. 
 
 Some parties may probably think me astray when I 
 say, that not only the gig-horse, but the carriage-horse 
 also, requii-es a well-slanted shoulder. However, I 
 ground my opinion on the fact, that the fashionable 
 carriage now-a-days is a very different machine from 
 what it was in the last generation. At present it 
 is built as light as possible for fast work, whereas 
 formerly it was a fair load for four horses. Never- 
 theless, the can-iage or gig-horse may do very well 
 
The shoulder. 43 
 
 with a shoulder a little less slanted than the saddle 
 horse. 
 
 The shoulder contains two important bones im- 
 bedded in a mass of strong muscles. One of these is 
 called the scapula, or shoulder-blade, and the other is 
 called the humerus. 
 
 The scapula runs from the point of the shoulder 
 below, to the edge of the withers above. Its outline is 
 well marked and easily traced, when the horse is thrown 
 into action. Its length bears an intimate relation to 
 the length of the animal's stride, and consequently it 
 can hardly be too long. The position of its upper ex- 
 tremity should be particularly observed. It ought to 
 lie as close as possible to the ribs and spine. If it is 
 80 wide set as to permit a person's fingers to be thrust 
 down between it and the withers, the action of the fore- 
 quarters will be lubberly and unsafe. 
 
 The length and slope of the shoulder are to be esti- 
 mated by the length and slanting position of the 
 shoulder-blade, and not, as is very often the case, by 
 the appearance of the shoulder-top. I have often been 
 amused listening to the obseiwations made by men, who 
 pass for judges, upon a neat little horse which I drive 
 in my gig at present (1851). The first point which 
 attracts their attention is the shoulder. In then- esti- 
 mation it is absolutely perfect ; and their astonishment 
 is great when I tell them it is one of the worst features 
 in his body. They are misled by the height of his 
 
44 THE HORSE. 
 
 withers and the remarkable depth of his shoulders. He 
 is so perfect in these two points, that they entirely over- 
 look the position of his shoulder-blades. In place of 
 being well slanted, the blades are nearly perpendicular ; 
 and this one defect has consigned to the collar an ani- 
 mal who, in many respects, would be particularly valu- 
 able for the saddle. So gi-eat is the effect of his 
 upright shoulder-blades, that he is not safe even in 
 harness. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in the attachment of the shonl- 
 der-blade to the body, which does not occur in any other 
 part of the animal. All other bones are united toge- 
 ther by the intervention of cartilages or joints ; but in 
 this case, the union with the body is effected solely by 
 means of muscular substance. There is nothing ap- 
 proximating to a joint. The shoulder-blade is slung, 
 as it were, in a mass of muscle. This arrangement 
 serves completely to break the shock of the gallop or 
 leap, and, at the same time, renders shoulder-lameness 
 a very rare occmTcnce, except as the consequence of a 
 direct local injmy. If the smith and farrier were aware 
 of this fact, they would not trace to the shoulder, as 
 they do, one-half of the diseases which are located in 
 the foot and leg. By referring the lameness to the 
 shoulder, the smith can easily get rid of the results of 
 bad shoeing. 
 
 The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder, is strong 
 and round in its shaft. It reaches from the lower end 
 
THE SHOULDEE. 45 
 
 of the scapula, at the point of the shoulder, to the top 
 of the foreleg. It is by its means that the shoulder- 
 blade is imited to the bones of the leg. Some parties 
 imagine it is an advantage to have this bone as short as 
 possible, for the pm-pose of keeping the point of the 
 shoulder light. But from this opinion I am disposed 
 to dissent. I think lightness in the shoulder-points is 
 quite compatible with a considerable elongation of the 
 humerus. If this is the case, it is a matter of some 
 importance, as an addition to the length of this bone 
 would increase the length of the stride, and add to the 
 elasticity of the fore-quarter. If the humerus were 
 long, and placed in the horizontal position, the leg would 
 undoubtedly be thrown a gi-eat deal too far back. 
 There would then be too much weight at the point of 
 the shoulder, which is an insuperable fault m a saddle- 
 horse. This conformation, moreover, is not favourable 
 even for the harness or draught-horse, because he will 
 be obhged to elevate his shoulders considerably every 
 time he puts forward his foot. He ^ill have a 
 sort of rocking action, which is rough and disagree- 
 able, and unfavourable for draught. But the case is 
 quite altered if the humerus is well slanted upwards 
 and foi-wards, in the opposite du-ection to that taken by 
 the shoulder-blade. This arrangement will permit it to 
 be long, at the same time that sufficient lightness is 
 preserved in front of the leg. Such a development is 
 most important for eyery horse but the carter. He 
 
46 THE HOESE. 
 
 will do veiy well ^nth a short humerus moderately 
 slanted. If his shoulder-points were veiy high, he could 
 not easily thi'ow his weight into the coUar; and on 
 the other hand, it is not by any means desirable that his 
 leg should be thrown far back from his counter by a 
 long, horizontal humenis. One of a moderate length, 
 and a little sloped, will answer hhai best. 
 
 A long, well-slanted scapula, and a tolerably long, 
 well-slanted humerus, must of necessity form a deep 
 and elastic shoulder, whilst the leg will be favourably 
 placed in reference to the weight it isdestmedto carry. 
 TVTiatever opinion may be foimed, however, as to the 
 advantages of a long or a short humerus, all will agree 
 on this point— it is necessary to have the points of the 
 shoulder hght, if we wish the horse to be kept without 
 broken knees. The leg must not, under any circum- 
 stances, be placed at a great distance from the front of 
 the counter ; nor should it, on the other hand, be brought 
 very far forward. A medium position is decidedly the 
 best, as that will insm-e a favom-able leverage with a 
 moderate weight. 
 TC^ The muscles which move the shoulder should be large, 
 long and powerful in every description of horse. To this 
 there can be no exception. They should even be strong 
 and thick on the -svithers, and on the top of the shoul- 
 der-blade, in the roadster, hunter, and racer. If there 
 is plenty of substance in this locaUty, there wiU surely 
 be a proportional strength in the shoulders, and con- 
 
THE SHOULDER. 47 
 
 sequently a gi-eater capacity for cariying hea^y weights 
 at long distances. Thin shoulders are generally admired, 
 but I confess I cannot see any advantage connected 
 with them. If they make the fore-quarters light, they 
 will render them weak in the same proportion. It re- 
 quires a great deal of power to raise the weight of the 
 fore-quarters, in addition to the weight of the rider, in 
 the act of galloping or leaping ; and this power cannot 
 exist without a con-esponding amount of muscular de- 
 velopment. It must therefore be plain, that a thick 
 shoulder is decidedly preferable to a thin one. 
 
 Muscular shoulders must not, on any account, be 
 confounded with wide-set, loose shoulder-blades. The 
 one increases and strengthens action, the other destroys 
 it. There cannot be too much muscle, provided the 
 shoulder-blades are well slanted, and lie close to the 
 ribs. This is a point of infinite importance, and should 
 never be overlooked. It is from neglecting it that all 
 the eiTors have arisen. A heavj-, upright shoulder will 
 suit well for the cart-horse ; but the roadster, hunter 
 and racer, must have their shoulders musculai', tight, 
 and very far throAvn back. This conformation will be 
 sure to produce light and safe action, with immense 
 power. 
 
 I prefer a thick to a thin shoulder only when the 
 thickness arises from muscular development. If it be 
 owing to any other cause, it wiU be an injury rather than 
 an advantage. It must be particularly obseiTed, that the 
 
48 THE HOKSE. 
 
 thickness is not caused by a projection of the shoul- 
 der-blade as far upwards as the top of the withers. 
 This happens in some cases, and it is a most indubitable 
 fault. In every case, the withers ought to be higher 
 than the top of the scapula. 
 
 The shoulder-blade should tenninate about the same 
 point in all horses, although the height of the withers 
 must vary in different cases. The difference in the 
 height must depend altogether upon the length of 
 those spinous projections which form the withers. 
 The heavy draught-horse, as well as the racer, ought 
 to have the "svithers considerably higher than the top 
 of the scapula. The harness-horse, hunter and road- 
 ster, must have them far higher still. But whether 
 they require to be long or short, they must be supplied 
 with powerful muscles, and these muscles ought to fill 
 up the space on each side of the spine so well that the 
 tops of the shoulder-blades would appear to be lost 
 in their substance. The shoulder, at this point, should 
 be thick from muscular development, yet even and 
 smooth. --/ 
 
 ^~^ THE FORE-LEG. 
 
 Perhaps the majority of those who undertake to 
 judge the horse will estimate the strength of his fore- 
 leg ahnost exclusively by the amount of substance 
 which he possesses under the knee. This however is a 
 mistake, as the part of primary importance is undoubt- 
 
THE FORE-LEG. 49 
 
 edlj the arm. I have even heard some men say, that 
 the defects of ttie^arai conld be compensated for by the 
 state of the shoulders, and the thickness of the leg. 
 In proof of the correctness of their opmion, they have 
 cited the performance of Lord George Bentinck's Dis- 
 cord, whose shoulders and legs were remarkably strong, 
 whilst his arms were wretchedly weak. Now, I readily 
 admit that Discord was a strong-constitutioned, game, 
 weight-carrying horse ; stiU, I am quite certain that if, 
 in addition to these valuable qualities, he had been 
 supplied with plenty of muscle in his arms, and had 
 possessed a favourable leverage in his hind and fore- 
 legs, he would have been a first, in place of a third- 
 class racer. He had so many good things about him, 
 that after ha\dng looked him carefully over, I can see 
 no way of accoimting for the many defeats he sus- 
 tained, except by referring them to the poverty and 
 shortness of his arms, the great distance at which his 
 hocks and knees stood from the gTound, and the 
 straightness and shortness of his thighs. 
 
 Those, however, who consider that the defects of the 
 arm can be compensated for by the state of the shoulder 
 and leg, must have a very imperfect idea of the na- 
 ture and uses of the parts concerned. This is clearly 
 demonstrated by the simple anatomical fact, that all the 
 muscles which move the leg and foot are located on the 
 arm. Now, as the muscles are the only moving power 
 in the animal, and as all the muscles which are engaged 
 
 £ 
 
50 THE HORSE. 
 
 in extending and flexing the foot and knee, are situated on 
 the arm, it mnst f oUow that the strength of the arm is a 
 matter of primary importance. Let any person take 
 the trouble of grasping his left aim below the elbow, 
 with his right hand, whilst the left hand is opened and 
 closed, and he wiU be fully satisfied that he gTasps the 
 muscles which flex and extend the fingers. This fact 
 will at once show him it would be quite ridiculous to 
 imagine that a strong shoulder and wrist could make 
 amends for a defective development of these muscles, 
 simply because they do not perform the same duty. So 
 is it with the horse. It is absm'd to lay such extraor- 
 dinary stress on the thickness of the leg, whilst the 
 condition of the ann is entirely overlooked. The one 
 cannot do the duty of the other, and, consequently, they 
 should both be as perfect as possible. 
 ^ It has been well remarked by Mr. Youatt, that " what- 
 ever other good points the animal may possess, if the 
 arm is naiTOw in front and near the shoulder, flat on the 
 side, and altogether deficient in muscular appearance, 
 that horse is radically defective. He can neither 
 raise his knee for rapid action, nor throw his leg suf- 
 ficiently forward." 
 X ThVarm should be very broad at its junction with 
 the body, for the purpose of affording an extensive 
 basis for the attachment of muscles. The projection 
 of bone called the elbow, which can easily be felt at 
 the back part of the top of the arm, demands special 
 
THE FORE-LEG. 51 
 
 attention. The advantage, in muscular action, which 
 is gained by the addition of an inch to its length, is 
 prodigious, as could easily be proved by a reference to 
 the principle of the lever in mechanics ; and therefore 
 it is a matter of great importance to have the elbow 
 thrown far back from the front of the arm. The more 
 breadth and strength there is in this locality the better. 
 ( There are three masses of muscle connected with the 
 arm which should be carefully inspected. They are all 
 capable of being seen and distinctly felt. Unless the 
 inspection is made in a very slovenly manner, thev can- 
 not be confounded with each other, or with the bone. 
 One of them is placed on the outer edge of the arm in 
 front ; the second is dii'ectly behind ; and the third is 
 inside, at the junction of the leg and chest. They must 
 all be large and strong, no matter to what purpose the 
 animal is to be applied. The first and second are en- 
 gaged in extending and flexing the limb, and the third 
 has the following very important office to fulfil : when 
 the horse is trotting or galloping, it confines the arm to 
 the side, keeps the leg in a straight line, and prevents the 
 limbs from being too widely separated, and thus spread 
 abroad by the hea\y pressm-e of the weight above. 
 Not one of these muscles can be dispensed with under 
 any circumstances, as the strength of the fore-leg, and 
 its power for carrying forward the machine, bear a 
 direct proportion to their development. Weakness 
 in them is unquestionably a radical defect. They have 
 
< 
 
 52 THE HORSE. 
 
 a most onerous duty to perfonn, and no otlier muscles 
 can fulfil it in theii' place. The first two must not 
 only be strong, but it is also absolutely necessaiy that 
 they be long. The longer the muscle, the greater wiU 
 be the amount of its contraction, and the amount of 
 the contraction determines the length of the stride. A^ 
 long aim, fm-nished with long muscles, is a decided 
 advantage to every horse intended for useful pmposes ; 
 and, in particidar, it is indispensable to the racerj If an 
 animal, however, is doomed to caiTy a dandy, the arm 
 reqmres to be short, in order to give a dancing, pranc- 
 ing, showy knee action, which T^dU attract attention to 
 the fancied importance of the empty-headed rider. It 
 is in this case alone I woidd advocate a short arm ; in 
 all other instances it is decidedly the better of being 
 
 long. ^^JfJt^ 
 
 ^ The knee shoidd be^flat and veiy broad. It is ex- 
 posed to frequent and Adolent concussions, and there- 
 fore requires a great breadth of surface for the pur- 
 pose of affording sufficient room for the msertion of such 
 powerful tendons and Ugaments as are required about 
 a joint composed of eleven different bones. It is worthy 
 of remai'k that, in nme cases out of ten, the seat of 
 lameness in the fore-leg will be found somewhere between 
 the knee and the ground, whereas in the hind-leg it 
 is ahnost invariably in the hock. ^ n<^ ^"^ ' 
 
 The part included between the knee and the pastern 
 is called the leg. It is composed entirely of bone, 
 
THE FOEE-LEG. 53 
 
 skin, sinew, and ligament. There are no mnscles at- 
 tached to it, and, consequently, it acts merely as a 
 lever for the support and propulsion of the machine. 
 I have already alluded to the erroneous opinion which 
 connects the idea of strength in the entii-e limb with 
 the thickness of the bone under the knee. I might 
 even go farther, and assert that a moderate-sized 
 shank-bone is the best, provided its extremities are 
 sufficiently expanded for the attachment of ligaments. 
 Large muscles and moderate-sized bones are a sure 
 indication of an active temperament, and vice versa. 
 The tissue of the small bone is dense and fiiTu, whereas 
 in the large one it is light and spongy. Does any per- 
 son ever think of comparing the ideas which he enter- 
 tams regarding the proper size and proportion of the 
 leg in the man and the horse ? Are large bones im- 
 mediately above the ankle and wrist- joints ever taken 
 as indications of the strength and mettle of the man ? 
 Certainly not. \ They are generally found largest in 
 men of soft, flabby constitutions. Let any person take 
 a look at the likeness of some of the pugilistic cham- 
 pions of England, and he will certainly admire the 
 smallness of his bones, when compared with the enor- 
 mous muscles of his legs and arms. Has it not always 
 been thought a point of gi-eat beauty, that the bone 
 above the ankle-joint should be small, and the ball of 
 the leg large ? And is not this conformation generally 
 foimd in persons of tight, wiry, active, and indomita- 
 
54 THE HORSE. 
 
 ble constitutions? What reason is there, then, for 
 wishing to see a fine shank-bone in the man, and a 
 thick one in the horse ? On what principle could we 
 argue for the difference ? I confess I never could see 
 the advantage of having the body of this bone large 
 in the horse ; and there are not many, I imagine, who 
 would admire the human leg, with the thick end of it 
 next the ground. 
 
 I must, however, guard against being misunderstood 
 upon this point. I will always protest against having 
 the body of the shank-bone too thick; but I must, 
 nevertheless, have a broad leg and a large joint. The 
 shaft of the bone ought to be flat and compact ; but 
 its ends require to be greatly expanded, for the pur- 
 pose of affording plenty of space for the attachment 
 of those ligaments which secure the joint, as well as 
 to give an advantageous position to the sinews which 
 terminate about, or run over it. J 
 
 Speaking of the shank, Niiffifod says, " I require a 
 large gi-asp of flat, ropey sinews, not caring so much 
 about the main size of the bone as the material of the 
 adjoining parts." — Sporting Magazine, New Series, 
 vol. xxiii. p. 129. With this opinion I entkely . 
 coincide. The leg should be thm, when viewed in 
 front, as that will show fineness and flatness of bone ; 
 but its side must be broad, otherwise the sinews which 
 belong to the muscles of the arm would act at a great 
 disadvantage. These sinews ought to be thrown far 
 
THE FORE-LEG. 55 
 
 back from the bone, in order to increase their leverage 
 power. They should also be thick, as large sinews are 
 always connected with large muscles. They should be 
 capable of being felt as so many distinct and separate 
 cords, running from the muscles of the arm to the fet- 
 lock. If they are surroimded with soft, elastic, puffy 
 material, they will not stand much work. The hard, 
 thick, wiry, and distinct sinews are the right sort for 
 tear and wear. 
 
 The soft, gimimy, round condition of the legs, may 
 be owing to an origmal defect in the constitution, or it 
 may be caused by a temporary state of ill health. In 
 the first case it will scarcely admit of a remedy, and 
 it is a very bad sign of the lasting qualities of the 
 animal. All the joints wiU be liable to disease, and 
 the sinews are not to be depended on for fast and se- 
 vere work. In the second case, however, there is more 
 hope. If we can an-ive at the cause of the deviation 
 from health, there is every prospect of a satisfactory 
 result from a rational treatment. But as this point 
 falls more immediately imder the cognizance of the 
 veterinary practitioner, it would be foreign to my pur- 
 pose to enter upon its various details. Still there is 
 one view of it which is often overlooked, and which is 
 so very important, that I must place it before my read- 
 ers, by quoting the following most excellent remarks 
 from Hany Hieover's ti'eatise on "Condition" — " Swell- 
 ed legs," says he, " are much oftener attributed to 
 
56 THE HORSE. 
 
 overfulness of habit than, I think, experience warrants ; 
 I have more usually found this predisposition to arise 
 from weakness. It may be said, and it is sometimes 
 found to be so, that the legs would not swell so 
 much with the horse at grass as in the stable ; it is 
 therefore inferred that the stable-feeding causes the 
 defect, in nine cases in ten. This is an error. The 
 legs do not swell, perhaps, in some cases, so much at 
 grass as in the stable. This arises from the constant 
 exercise the horse takes while at liberty ; but bring him 
 into the stable, and his legs wiU be foimd to swell far 
 more after his gi-ass-feeding than before. I have not 
 had many horses subject to swelling of the legs, but 
 such as I have had, I always found benefited or cured 
 by the very reverse of gTass — namely, beans in addi- 
 tion to their oats, and tonics as medicine. Dim-etics, 
 that gi'ooms are so fond of, will be found, in most 
 cases, to aggravate the ailment. If the swelling is ac- 
 companied Avith gi'eat heat and tension of parts, and 
 more particularly by cracked heels, then mild aperients 
 and fomentation is a good beginning ; but where any 
 flaccidity exists, stimulants^ and tonics I have foimd 
 the sovereign remedy." These remarks correspond 
 most completely with my own practical observations, 
 and they are in perfect accordance with soimd ^-iews of 
 animal physiology. 
 
 The farther the sinews are thrown out from the 
 shaft of the shank-bone, the better. If they are tied 
 
THE FORE-LEG. 57 
 
 down to it, they will produce such an injui'ious strain 
 upon the ligaments which bind them in their place, 
 that the horse will readily break down in his work. 
 When both extremities of the shank-bone are well- 
 developed, and the tendons run in a straight line from 
 end to end, there will be so much room for the inser- 
 tion of ligaments, and the leverage will be so favour- 
 able for the tendons, that the legs will stand an enor- 
 mous amoimt of work. This is the best foimation 
 that could be wished. 
 
 I think it is just as necessary to attend to the con- 
 dition of the parts next the pastern, as to that of the 
 spot under the knee, which has always commanded 
 special notice. They are both very important. It is 
 frequently owing to a small, confined, contracted de- 
 velopment at these localities, that horses give way in 
 their fore-legs. 
 
 There is an arch or bridge directly behind the knee, 
 thi'ough which some of the sinews belonging to the 
 muscles of the ami pass. If it is not placed at a pro- 
 per distance behind the end of the shank-bone, these 
 sinews must be tied in, by the transverse ligaments, at 
 the point wdiere they emerge below the joint. This is 
 certainly a gi*eat defect, as the ligaments will be sub- 
 jected to a greater strain than they are able to bear. 
 In judging of the state of matters here, however, we 
 must be careful to avoid mistakes. The arch, which 
 is composed of ligaments and a bone called the tra- 
 
58 THE HORSE. 
 
 pezium, requires to be thick and strong, and therefore 
 it must extend to some distance beyond the sinews 
 which are to pass under it. Besides the trapezium 
 ought to be very large and well thro^vn back, for the 
 purpose of affording a favom-able leverage, as well as 
 a large basis of attachment, for those muscles of the 
 arm which are connected with, and terminate in, 
 it. Hence it follows that we must expect a slight dip 
 rather than a perfectly straight sm-face, immediately 
 below the trapezium. The centre of the lower ex- 
 tremity of those muscles which lie on the back of the 
 arm, may be taken as the point from whence the 
 sinews start. The sinews should be permitted to run 
 in a perfectly straight line from their commencement 
 here, until they pass over the lower end of the shank- 
 bone towards the back of the pasterns. The less they 
 deviate from this line, the more perfect will be their 
 action, the less strain will there be upon the ligaments, 
 and the greater will be the amount of exertion which 
 the parts will endure with impunity. 
 
 I need scarcely remark here, that the leg-bone of 
 the cart-horse must be a great deal thicker than the 
 same part in the thorough-bred, in consequence of the 
 great difference which exists in the density of their 
 structure, as well as to preserve a due proportion in 
 the general outline of the animal. We should never 
 judge of the thickness of the legs in a blood-horse by 
 the look of the eye alone. They are always deceptive, 
 
THE FORE-LEG. 69 
 
 and will meastire far more than they look. But it is 
 very different with the low-bred horse. In his case 
 the legs, and the body too, will always measure less 
 than a person would be led to expect by their ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 In the racer, the leg must always be short, and the 
 arm long. Indeed this rule holds good in reference 
 to all animals in whom speed and durability require 
 to be imited ; and, for my part, I think this is by far 
 the most advantageous arrangement for every descrip- 
 tion of horse. 
 
 A good judge will invariably look to the length, 
 strength, and slanting direction of the pasterns. Bad 
 pasterns constitute an unpardonable defect. They 
 should be veiy strong in eveiy sort of horse ; but their 
 length and position must vary considerably in different 
 cases. In the carter, they should be short and slightly 
 laid back. The hackney requii'es an increase of length, 
 with a much more slanting position. The hunter need 
 not differ much from the hackney ; but the racer must 
 have very long, weU-slanted, and elastic, though not 
 weak or sinking, pasterns, to give him elasticity of 
 action, and extent of stride. "Experience among 
 horses," says Mr. Youatt, " will alone point out the 
 most advantageous direction of the pastern for the pur- 
 pose required ; but the slightest observation will show 
 the necessity of considerable variety in the structure of 
 this part. Let the reader imagine the hea^-y dray- 
 
60 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 horse, "with his short and upright pasterns, contending 
 in the race, or the race-horse, with his long and weak 
 pasterns, endeavouring to dig his toe into the ground, 
 in order to move some heavy weight. The concussion 
 which attends the common action of the cart-horse is 
 little, because his movements are slow ; and therefore 
 the upright and strong pastern is given to him, which 
 he can force into the ground, and on which he can 
 tlii'ow the whole of his immense weight. The oblique 
 pastern is given to the race-horse, because that alone 
 is compatible with extent of stride, and great speed." 
 
 A saddle-horse, with short, upright pasterns, will in- 
 variably feel stilty and uncomfortable under his rider ; 
 whilst the constant unbroken jars to which, in such 
 circumstances, he is subjected, will be quite certain of 
 inducing disease in the feet and legs. In fact, pasterns 
 of this description are altogether unsuitable for any 
 horse intended for fast work, either in saddle or 
 harness. Length alone, however, will not do ; it is in- 
 dispensable, also, that they be oblique. Let their length 
 be what it may, when they are upright they will want 
 elasticity ; and a horse, in fast work, might just as well 
 go on a pair of stilts as on them. The hackney, the 
 hunter, the steeple-chaser, the flat -racer, and the har- 
 ness-horse, all requu-e long, well-slanted pasterns ; but 
 they must not, under any circumstances, have them 
 small, weak, and sinking. Of all these, the flat-racer 
 requii'es the longest. If the pasterns are too long and too 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 61 
 
 small in the himter and steeple-chaser, they will not be 
 able to sustain their weight in dropping from their 
 fences. But if they are tolerably long, very thick, 
 and well-slanted, they will have plenty of strength, 
 combined with a sufficient degree of elasticity. An 
 upright pastern, whether long or short, is highly objec- 
 tionable in a horse for either saddle or harness, and a 
 weak one is, in all cases, unpardonable. 
 
 THE FORE-FEET. 
 
 The foot has, w^th great propriety, been considered a 
 very important portion of the horse. It matters not 
 what else may be good, if the feet are bad the horse 
 will be greatly deteriorated in value. The pace must 
 tell on them, as "it is the pace that kills." They 
 will be sure to get done-up on the road, or perhaps even 
 in the himting-field. Of what use are good legs and a 
 well-built carcase, when the animal is crippled in his 
 feet ? A man might become a useful member of 
 society, through the instnmientality of his brain, even 
 although he used an artificial foot ; but a horse is good 
 for nothing, if his feet are so badly fonned as to be 
 unfit for can-png him through his work. A wooden- 
 leg would not answer here. He would not even do to 
 breed from, as his own natural defect, in all probabi- 
 lity, would appear in his offspring. 
 
62 THE HORSE. 
 
 By what means are we to fonn an accurate estimate 
 of the qualities and condition of the feet ? Simply by 
 inspection. If the examination is made with care, we 
 will seldom be mistaken. 
 X The feet should always bear a neat proportion to 
 the size and weight of the animal they are destmed to 
 carry. It is just as bad to be too large as too small. 
 A very large foot, such as we frequently see in the 
 draught-horse, is particularly Uable to descent of the 
 sole, which is a most serious affair ; and a very small 
 one, such as we often find in the blood-horse, is 
 predisposed to contraction, which is by no means desir- 
 able. Here, as in many other cases, the medium size 
 is the best. 
 
 I do not pretend to be able to settle the point as to 
 
 whether or not ^contraction a/one may ever be able to 
 
 produce inflammation and lameness in the foot. To 
 
 do this would require a great deal more knowledge 
 
 than I possess. Moreover, I do not think it is capable 
 
 ) of being satisfactorily settled by any other person. To 
 
 those who are conversant with the nature of the parts 
 
 ^ concerned, it must appear very difficult, if not impos- 
 
 I sible, to determine, with perfect accuracy in every 
 
 \$ case, the exact point at which disease may commence. 
 
 No doubt, in most instances, contraction is the result of 
 
 internal inflammation ; but I think it is going too far 
 
 to assert, that it never can become the cause of the 
 
 internal disease. 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 63 
 
 It appears to me that wi-iters are not sufficiently 
 precise in the use of the tenn, contraction. They ap- 
 pear to apply it indiscriminately to a natm-al develop- 
 ment and a diseased condition of the heel. This I 
 think is not right. The one might be called a narrow, 
 and the other a contracted, heel. At all events, the 
 same tenn should not be used in both cases — more 
 especially as there is seldom any difficulty in distin- 
 guishing between a foot which is nan*ow by nature, and 
 one which is contracted by disease. 
 
 " I have yet," says Nimrod, " to see an instance of 
 contraction alone producing lameness in the foot of a 
 horse. On the contrary, my experience has justified 
 the conclusion, that the nan'ow, mule-like foot is the 
 foot most likely to stand, uninjm-ed, very severe work 
 on the road. Asses, mules, and ponies bear me out 
 here ; for they are never lame in their feet, though they 
 are contraction exemplified. I am convinced that con- 
 traction of the hoof, when not natmal, is the effect of 
 internal inflammation of it ; but I have never seen a 
 solitary instance of its being the cause of lameness." 
 Now, with all due deference to this celebrated writer, 
 I must take exception to this statement. The foot he 
 refers to must be a natural, sound, and healthy one, 
 which consequently has no right to be lame, and al- 
 though narrow, it shoidd never be called contracted ; 
 or else we are driven to the ridiculous necessity of 
 believing that a diseased foot is more " likely to stand, 
 
64 THE HOPvSE. 
 
 Tinmjiired, very severe work on the road," than a 
 healthy one. 
 
 The foot which is hy nature mule-shaped is not dis- 
 eased, and therefore is not lame. We may call it a 
 nan'ow foot, but we have no right to call it a con- 
 tracted one. It would just be as reasonable to ai:)ply 
 the same tenn to a naiTow counter, or a thin shoulder. 
 The word, contracted, should be used only when the 
 parts are diseased. The internal and external parts of 
 a natural, mule-shaped foot are all made on the same 
 scale, and consequently bear such a proportion to each 
 other, that they w^ork in perfect hai-mony. Not so, 
 however, with the real contracted, or diseased, foot. 
 In its case, the walls of the hoof, from some cause, ap- 
 proximate more closely to each other than they did in 
 their healthy condition, and thus come to press injmi- 
 ously upon the parts contained within their cavity. 
 Tenderness and pain are the inequitable result. If all 
 the internal parts would change their form and size at 
 the same time that the hoof was undergoing its change, 
 of course actual lameness would not follow ; but this 
 unfortunately does not take place. 
 
 The majority of people are fond of a veiy large 
 foot, but I am certain this is a great mistake. Leav- 
 ing the diseases to which it is exposed out of the ques- 
 tion, I look upon it as an indication that all the bones 
 of the animal are soft and porous. A moderate-sized, 
 neatly-proportioned foot, is just as good a sign in the 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 65 
 
 horse as in the man. If we were choosing a man for 
 walking, running, leaping, or wrestling, we would never 
 think of selecting a fellow with clock-killing platters 
 of feet. He would no sooner make his appearance 
 than he would he rejected as totally unfit for the work. 
 Why then should we prefer a similar development in 
 the horse ? Does he not require a tear-and-wear sort 
 of foot as much as the man ? He surely does ; and 
 one, too, that he can lift and lay in a lighter manner 
 than if it were a fifty-six pound weight he had attached 
 to his leg. The horse is not intended for passing over a 
 moving-sand or a quagmire, and therefore he does not 
 require an enormous foot. In this instance, as in many 
 others, the medium size is far the best. In fact, it 
 is the only safe one. A foot which is either very 
 large or very small, is liable to a variety of diseases, 
 which will be sure to impak its usefulness. The one 
 extreme is nearly as bad as the other. The bones of 
 the foot should bear a reasonable proportion in size to 
 the bones of the leg ; and the hoof should be just so 
 large and so strong, as to afi'ord perfect accommodation 
 and protection to all the bones, ligaments, vessels, and 
 nerves which are contained within its walls. Any 
 deviation from these proportions must be looked upon 
 as a radical defect. 
 
 The shape of the foot is of quite as much importance 
 as its size. The hoof should be rather longer than 
 broad on its ground surface ; and its breadth should 
 
 F 
 
66 THE HORSE. 
 
 die away very gradually and slowly towards the heel 
 and toe, so as to leave the greatest breadth across the 
 centre. It should be tolerably deep from the hair to 
 the point of the toe, and then lessen gradually in height 
 towards the heel, still, however, preserving a fair 
 amount of thickness. Avoid a very high heel quite 
 as much as a very low one. Both are decidedly 
 objectionable, y- 
 
 I cannot agree with the generally received opinion, 
 that the cu'cular foot is the best and most naturally 
 formed. I am quite satisfied a perfectly round foot 
 will not stand anything like the same amount of work 
 as one that is a little longer than broad. The differ- 
 ence, however, in length and breadth, should not be ex- 
 treme. Moreover, there is a great probability that 
 the elongated foot is the most natural for the full- 
 grown horse. I may be told the foal and the unshod 
 horse have both round feet, and therefore that the 
 round form must be the natural one. But I am not 
 satisfied with the correctness of this line of argument. 
 It is quite as unreasonable to argue that the foal's foot 
 should still preserve its shape, as it would be to affirm, 
 that its legs and head must always continue to bear 
 the same proportion to the rest of the body, as they did 
 at the time of birth. In short, the foal becomes greatly 
 changed as it passes into the horse, and I do not see 
 any reason why we should expect the feet alone to re- 
 main stationary in their form. 
 
THE FOEE-FEET. 67 
 
 If the horse were allowed to arrive at maturity 
 before being shod, the shape of his foot would proba- 
 bly, to a certain extent, depend upon the way in which 
 he was reared. If he were kept constantly roaming 
 over damp, marshy land, the moistm'e would encourage 
 the spreading, or circular foim. This would be well 
 suited for the circumstances in which he was placed ; 
 and nature would be sure to accommodate itself accord- 
 ingly. A broad, round, soft foot is all that a horse in 
 such a place could require. The case is entirely altered, 
 however, with the horse which has been reared on an 
 arid soil. There is so little moistm-e in the ground, 
 that the foot has no tendency to spread, or get soft. 
 It will be hard, firm, and more or less elongated. 
 This is the right tear-and-wear sort of foot for road- 
 work. The dryness of the road will not do it much 
 injury, because it has never been accustomed to an 
 excess of moisture. 
 
 "^ See that the external surface of the hoof is smooth 
 all over, as depressions and elevations lead to the sup- 
 position that the walls have sunk in consequence of in- 
 ternal disease. For the same reason, ring-like protu- 
 berances must be looked upon with a certain degree of 
 euspicion. The crust must be smooth and tough-look- 
 ing. A brittle hoof is a great di'awback, as it will 
 be very likely to get split by the nails ; and the slightest 
 strain upon the shoe will not only leave the horse bare- 
 footed for the time being, but also deprive him of 
 
68 THE HORSE. 
 
 portions of the crust. X This is very annoying, and if it 
 is allowed to be repeated from time to time, there will 
 be great difficulty in attaching the shoe to the foot at 
 all. Such a state of matters can be obviated only by 
 due care in the stopping and dressing of the feet with 
 appropriate applications. 
 
 The thickness of the crust can easily be ascertained 
 by paring the sole. A thin crust is an irremediable 
 defect. It is not strong enough to protect and sup- 
 port the parts within, and it is extremely difficult to 
 shoe the foot without causing lameness, by running the 
 nails too close to the quick. There is every probability 
 of the horse being tender-footed. 
 
 The cnist is covered by a thin outer coating or layer, 
 which should never be rasped off by the smith. The 
 removal of it is injurious to the foot, and ought to be 
 guarded against. It is generally difficult, however, to 
 prevent the smith from rasping it off, as he imagines 
 such an operation gives a tidy-looking finish to his work. 
 ^ The slant of the hoof requires particular attention. 
 It is said that it should form an angle of about forty- 
 five degi'ees. If the hoof is more upright than this, 
 and is very deep at the heel, inflammation and con- 
 traction will be liable to ensue ; but if it is very much 
 the reverse, flatness of sole, and weakness of the in- 
 ternal parts are indicated. A little practical observa- 
 tion will enable a person to judge of the proper slant 
 and direction of the foot and pastern. If the feet and 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 69 
 
 pasterns are well formed and favourably united, they 
 will stand an immense deal of work without the super- 
 vention of ring-bones, or any other disease. /. When 
 the heel is very low and the foot thin, the bones of the 
 pastern will observe such a direction as to produce a 
 sinking at the coronet, and probably a knuckling for- 
 ward at the lower end of the sSank besides. ^This will 
 cause a stress on the sinews and ligaments, and the 
 formation altogether is a very bad one.' On the other 
 hand, when the heel is too high, there will be a want 
 of proper elasticity in the pastern, and the parts are 
 predisposed to disease. 
 
 The ground-surface of the foot is deserving of con- 
 sideration. It should not be either very flat or very 
 hollow, ( A flat sole can hardly be prevented fi-om de- 
 scending so far as to cause lameness, by pressure against 
 the shoe, whilst an extremely hollow one is indicative 
 of contraction, present or future. Here, again, the 
 medium state is the best. 
 
 "^ The frog must be large, elastic, and healthy-looking. 
 It should be kept particularly free from thrushes. The 
 inflammation and discharge connected with them are 
 sure, if allowed to continue, to end in most seriouSy 
 and perhaps irremediable, injury to the delicate parts 
 within. They will cause lameness for the time being, 
 and idtimately contraction of the heel. A great deal of 
 the soundness of the foot depends upon the condition 
 of the frog."^ If it is allowed to get too dry and 
 
70 THE HORSE. 
 
 shrivelled, from the want of occasional stopping while 
 the horse is standing in the stable, there will be a 
 general hardening of the foot, which is by no means 
 conducive to its health ; but if from being constantly 
 exposed to moisture, either on damp pasture-land or in 
 a filthy stable, it is kept too soft, it will be affected by 
 thrushes, which, from their nature, must interfere with 
 the proper growth and nourishment of the foot. The 
 owner of the horse should take no excuse for the exist- 
 ence of thrushes, as they always supervene upon negli- 
 gence and bad management. 
 
 The frog should be neatly dressed, but not much 
 pared away, during the operation of shoeing. It is 
 probably intended by nature as an elastic cushion to 
 break the force of the shock which otherwise would 
 come on the sensible parts above it during the various 
 movements of the animal. Still I think the full extent 
 of its office is not very clearly understood. There is a 
 general opinion amongst the old Veterinarians, that it 
 materially assists in expanding the foot ; but I am sure 
 they are astray on this point. The opinion, perhaps, 
 originated from the wedge-shaped appearance of the 
 frog. White says, " It resembles a wedge ; but to- 
 wards the heel, where it becomes wide and expanded, 
 there is a separation in the middle, which is continued 
 to the heel. When the frog receives the pressure of 
 the horse's weight, this separation is increased, and 
 consequently becomes wider ; and, as it is connected 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 71 
 
 with the heels of the crust, the same effect must be 
 produced upon them." This theory is veiy beautiful ; 
 but I believe, with Nimrod, that a bit of spongy sub- 
 stance, such as the elastic frog of a horse, has very 
 little chance of resisting the united pressure of iron 
 and horn. In short, it is not to be supposed that an 
 elastic substance, which must yield to pressure, could 
 act as a wedge, in expanding hard and solid materials 
 like the bars and crust of a horse's hoof. Whatever 
 may be the use of the frog, I am certain this is not it. 
 No man would attempt to split a block of wood by a 
 wedge of india-rubber. Why, then, are we to suppose 
 that the elastic frog acts as a wedge ? I cannot pre- 
 tend to determine all its functions, but I believe it has 
 a great deal to do in keeping the delicate parts which 
 are placed above it in a healthy, natural condition. 
 ^ The bars, which are situated on each side of the 
 frog, are o>ddcii t ly composed of the same kind of ma- 
 terial as the hoof. They require to be very strong and 
 hard. Their structure and position render them emi- 
 nently fitted for preserving the shape of the heel. In- 
 deed, if it were not for them, the quarters would cer- 
 tainly fall in towards each other, and the horse would 
 get lame. The slightest inspection of the foot is suffi- 
 cient to convince any person of this fact. It therefore 
 behoves every individual who cares for the preservation 
 of his horse's foot, to take care that the bars are never 
 thinned and weakened, either on the side next the frog 
 
72 THE HORSE. 
 
 or the crust, by the smith's paring-knife. The rage 
 which exists for opening the heel, as it is called, is 
 most absurd and injurious. Smiths have been so ranch 
 in the habit of doing this, in order to satisfy the ig- 
 norance of their customers, that it is now like a second 
 nature to them, and it is frequently very difficult to 
 persuade them to spare the use of the steel. If any- 
 thing is sliced off the back of the heel, at the point 
 where the hoof turns in to form the bars, it must 
 weaken the arch most materially ; and thus, by allow- 
 ing the cmst to approach the bars or the frog, con- 
 traction will be encouraged, and in all probability corns 
 will be produced. 
 
 It appears to me very inconsistent in the old veteri- 
 nary writers to insist so much as they do upon keeping 
 the bars in their full thickness and strength, whilst 
 they hold the opinion that the heels, which are formed 
 by the union of the bars and crust, expand as soon as 
 the weight of the animal is thrown on the foot. 
 Surely, if there is any expansion here, the thinner 
 the bars are the better, as they could then expand the 
 more freely and readily. But the fact is, to those 
 who are not over-much given to theorising, it will at 
 once appear evident, after a careful inspection of the 
 prepared foot, that no such expansion takes place — 
 that the bars, like the diagonal rails on an iron gate, 
 are purposely intended to prevent either expansion or 
 contraction ; and therefore the stronger they are, the 
 
THE FORE-FEET. 73 
 
 more effectually will they perform their duty in keeping 
 the walls of the foot perfectly immoveable. The writers 
 referred to are quite right in insisting, at the hands of 
 the blacksmith, upon the preservation of the bars ; but 
 their directions on this head are inconsistent with their 
 own ideas about expansion. The antiquated notions 
 about expansion of the heels and descent of the sole 
 are almost completely exploded, as the Veterinarians of 
 the present day are making rapid strides towards the 
 adoption of all rational views on this as well as other 
 subjects. 
 
 ^ The sole is that part which intervenes between the 
 crust, the bars, and the frog. In a well-formed foot, 
 it is always a little concave. As I do not believe in 
 the current opinion about the descent of the sole under 
 the weight of the horse, any more than I do in the ex- 
 pansion of the heels, I would not, of course, be dis- 
 posed to allow the sole to be pared veiy thin at the 
 time of shoeing. So far from that, I think a thin sole 
 is a most serious defect. It will render the horse very 
 tender, in passing over broken stones — so much so, that 
 he will probably come off with a pah* of broken knees. 
 The sole should be pared a little lower than the 
 crust, but it certainly should not be made very thin. 
 If it is ever thought necessaiy, in the treatment of corns, 
 to lower it in the angle between the bars and the crust, 
 the operation ought to be done carefully with a small 
 instrument, so that neither the crust nor the bars may 
 
74: THE HORSE. 
 
 be in the slightest degree weakened. If they are 
 weakened, the pressure on the corns will become the 
 greater, and the disease, in place of being cured, will 
 be increased. 
 
 GROWTH OF THE FEET. 
 
 If young horses were to receive the attention they de- 
 serve from the time of their weaning, they would have 
 much better shaped and sounder feet than they have 
 under the present system of management. In place of 
 expecting a large number of well-formed feet, we 
 should rather be surprised to see one at all, when we 
 reflect upon the manner in which the poor animals are 
 generally reared. Young horses are often kept stand- 
 ing in moisture and filth, till their feet are ruined by 
 the ravages of thrushes, and their hoofs are seldom 
 dressed before they have grown to such an extent, that 
 the unfortunate creatures are obliged to walk almost on 
 the back of the pasterns. If the stall were daily swept 
 and littered, it would tend very much to the health of 
 the foot, as well as to the comfort of the animal. The 
 feet should not be kept either too moist or too dry, as 
 either extreme is injm-ious. They should be di'essed 
 regularly every fourth week, in the same way as if they 
 were to be shod. If this is done with judgment and 
 discretion, they will be brought into the most suitable 
 form, and the animal will turn out much more valuable 
 
SHOEING. 75 
 
 than if it had been neglected or injudiciously dealt 
 with. 
 
 SHOEING. 
 
 It would be foreign to my present pui-pose to enter at 
 any length on the question of shoeing, but I think it 
 advisable to make a few observations on one or two 
 points. 
 
 The operation of shoeing should be performed every 
 third or fourth week, according as the hoof may be 
 active in its growth, or othei'wise. If the gTowth of 
 horn is extremely rapid, the heels will require to be 
 lowered, and the toes shortened, at the end of three 
 weeks ; but if it is slow, the shoes should not be 
 changed before the end of the fourth week. Unless 
 there is some very special reason for it, however, they 
 must never be permitted to remain on longer than this. 
 I am quite certain many horses have the shape of their 
 feet completely spoiled by wearing their shoes beyond 
 the proper period for removing them. This they are 
 allowed to do by way of economy, but it is an ill-timed 
 attempt at saving. 
 
 I have a great objection to what is called removing 
 the shoes. It is far better to have a new set than to 
 re-apply the old ones. It is impossible to re-adjust 
 the old shoes to the feet with sufficient accuracy, without 
 taking nearly as much trouble as would suffice for the 
 making of a new set. Hence it will be found that 
 
76 THE HORSE. 
 
 horses never travel comfortably with them on. They 
 are not properly adapted to the feet, and consequently 
 the animal must suffer more or less pain from their ap- 
 plication. 
 
 When a horse is judiciously and suitably shod, he 
 will go -vvith ease and comfort immediately after he has 
 come from the forge. It is only an excuse for bad 
 workmanship to say, he will improve in his action after 
 his shoes are worn awhile. Instead of requiring time to 
 bring the hoof to the shape of the shoe, the shoe 
 should have been accurately adapted to the shape of 
 the foot at the first. 
 
 As it is not always possible to obtain the services of 
 a first-rate smith, it is a good plan to have a horse 
 shod at least a fortnight before he is exposed for sale, 
 or is submitted to the inspection of a Veterinary Sur- 
 geon. I have often seen horses with perfectly sound 
 feet showing lameness, or short action, at the very 
 critical moment, in consequence of some blunder in the 
 application of their shoes, which were put on the day 
 before. The operation is deferred to the last hour, in 
 order that the feet may look neat and tidy at the time 
 of sale. But an ill-fitting shoe, a tight clench, or a 
 nail too close on the quick, will frequently cause the 
 seller to wear his countenance rather long. This could 
 never have happened if the shoes had been worn ten 
 days or a fortnight, because there would then have 
 been plenty of time to discover and rectify mistakes. 
 
SHOEING. 77 
 
 The old shoes should be removed from the feet 
 with great care, after all the clenches have been cut. 
 If they are dragged off in an awkward and careless 
 manner, without cutting the clenches, the sole may be 
 bruised and injured, or the edges of the crust may be 
 cleft and broken. This part of the operation is seldom 
 done with the neatness and care which it requires. 
 
 There are some important points in reference to the 
 paring of the foot, and its preparation for the shoe. 
 The ground-surface of the crust should be made per- 
 fectly level all round, and its outer, thin, edge should 
 then be nicely rounded off, as recommended by Colonel 
 Fitzwygram, with the rasp, placed in such an angle as 
 to take off the feather-edge without touching the sole 
 or the outside of the hoof. To be properly performed, 
 this must be done before, and not after, the shoe is 
 attached to the foot. The sole ought to be kept a little 
 lower than the edge of the crust, so as to prevent it 
 from pressing on the shoe, but it must not be very 
 much thinned. Some Veterinary writers lay so much 
 stress on the descent of the sole, that they are very 
 urgent in directing it to be closely pared, for the pur- 
 pose of making it more elastic. I am quite confident 
 they are entirely astray on this point. There can be 
 no gi'eater drawback than a thin sole. It should always 
 be left as thick and strong as circumstances will permit. 
 It will then answer its intended purpose of protecting 
 the internal parts of the foot from injurious local pres- 
 
78 THE HORSE. 
 
 sure. When it is thin by nature, or is made so by the 
 knife, the horse will go very tender on broken stones, 
 and will probably drop suddenly, in consequence of the 
 pgin he feels in the foot. The sole should be left as 
 thick as is consistent with saving it from pressing 
 against the shoe. 
 
 It is not generally necessary to take much off the 
 frog. It should not be pared very close, nor yet left 
 too large. Either extreme is objectionable. 
 
 When the toes are disposed to grow long, and the 
 heels deep, they ought both to be well pared. If this 
 is attended to, the foot will preserve its proportions re- 
 markably well. Besides, a very long toe is uncom- 
 fortable and unsafe. Walking over it will fatigue the 
 horse ; and if the toe is not lifted high, the ani- 
 mal will be likely to strike it against the stones on 
 the road. The heel should be lowered to a reasonable 
 extent, but the paring must be confined entu-ely to the 
 ground-surface. The crust at the back of the heel, and 
 at the edges of the frog, should not be touched with 
 the knife. " Opening the heel," as it is called, is most 
 pernicious. The part of the crust which turns round 
 towai-ds the bars, and the bars themselves, should not 
 on any account be weakened. These parts are intended 
 to be firm, soHd, and unyielding, and therefore they 
 ought to be kept as strong as possible. As corns are 
 produced by the pressure of the shoe on the sole, the 
 smith must be careful not to weaken the bars or the 
 
SHOEING. 79 
 
 crust at the spot ivhere they occnr. If the crnst and 
 bars are in the slightest degi-ee weakened, they will yield 
 under the weight of the horse, and thus press so in- 
 juriously on the intervening sole that corns are nearly 
 certain to result. Mr. J. Gamgee, who is a high author- 
 ity on these matters, objects in the strongest terms to 
 paring the sole in the angle between the bars and crust. 
 I therefore at once yield to his good practical judgment, 
 and expunge the sentence, on this head, which I pub- 
 lished in the first edition. 
 
 After the operation of paring has been completed, 
 the shoe ought to be carefully adapted to the foot. 
 This cannot be done without a great deal of time and 
 trouble. Hence it is seldom properly done at all. If 
 the shoe does not sit perfectly level all round, and if it 
 extends so far outside the hoof that the nails are pre- 
 vented from entering the crust in the exact spot, and 
 in the very direction, which they should, there will be 
 a constant straining on the nails, which is injurious to 
 the foot, and will be liable to chip pieces oif the hoof. 
 The shoe ought to be made wide across the foot, at the 
 point where the two front nails are situated. The 
 greatest mistake, I think, frequently lies here. In place of 
 turning the shoe, at the toe, very carefully on the horn of 
 the anvil, the smith generally sets it up on its side, and 
 then strikes it with his hammer. The consequence is, 
 it yields at the centre of the arch, and, instead of being 
 nicely and regularly rounded in front, whilst the breadth 
 
80 THE HORSE. 
 
 from side to side is preserved, the nail-holes on each 
 side are brought nearer to the centre of the shoe than 
 they ought to be. As a necessary result, the shoe, at 
 the front nail-holes, is too narrow for the hoof, and, 
 when it is nailed on, the crust presses injuriously on 
 the internal sensible parts of the foot. 
 
 It is difficult to convince smiths of the possibility of 
 laming a horse, by having the shoe too narrow in front. 
 They generally think the whole difficulty lies about the 
 heel. I once had a horse with small feet. He usually 
 went very tender. When I complained to the smith 
 that the shoes were not sufficiently wide across the 
 front nails, and that they were di'iven and clenched a 
 great deal too tight on the foot, he merely laughed at 
 the matter as being visionary. He would not be per- 
 suaded that this was the cause of lameness. He always 
 insisted that the legs must be at fault. From this 
 opinion I begged to dissent. I thought the complaint 
 must be in the feet, as there was no possible trace of dis- 
 ease in the legs. The smith's opinion, however, could not 
 be changed, and, right or wrong, he followed his own 
 plan of shoeing. The horse at length became so use- 
 less, that I was going to sell him for whatever he 
 would bring. About this period, I fortunately had a 
 conversation with a smith who entirely coincided in my 
 own views. He asked me to give him one trial with the 
 horse. I did so, and accompanied him to the forge. 
 I saw the operation of shoeing performed, and ap- 
 
SHOEING. 81 
 
 proved of it highly in theory. In order to put the 
 matter faMy to the practical test, however, I got the 
 horse into harness directly after he was shod, and drove 
 him out a few miles. His action was so very percepti- 
 bly altered for the better, that I determined not to part 
 with him. My after-experience with him proved the 
 correctness of my views. 
 
 With the exception of the hunter, nearly all horses 
 should have the heels of the fore-feet shoes extended 
 well back. Theoretically, this may not be thought 
 necessary ; but practically, it will be found most im- 
 portant. I am quite confident long shoes are highly 
 advantageous. 
 
 Some parties are very fond of having the shoes to 
 stand wide at the heels. I cannot see any advantage 
 in projecting them much beyond the crust, provided the 
 turning-in commences behind the last nail-hole. It is 
 extremely difficidt, however, to get this properly done, 
 as the workmen generally, during the operation of 
 tm-ning the heels, bring the sides of the shoe closer 
 together, and thus run the hazard of squeezing the 
 sensible parts of the foot, by having the shoe too naiTow 
 at the seat of the last nails. 
 
 Since my manuscript was placed in the hands of the 
 printer, I have taken an opportunity of looking mto 
 Stonehenge's British Rural Sjwrts. I have not yet 
 had time to read much of the book ; but so far as I 
 have gone, it is just such a work as I would expect 
 
 G 
 
82 THE HORSE. 
 
 from the author of that valuable production, Tlie 
 Greijliound. lu his observations on contraction in 
 the foot of the horse, Stonehenge puts forward a new 
 idea, which appears to me both rational and un- 
 portant. "In many cases," says he, "contraction 
 comes on from improper shoeing, but not quite in the 
 way that is commonly supposed. It is said by most 
 of those who attribute its occuiTence to bad shoeing, 
 that when the shoe is allowed to remain on for more 
 than three weeks, the foot is bound within certain 
 limits, and cannot possibly expand, and therefore be- 
 comes contracted. But it is forgotten that in hundreds 
 of cases, with every care, and with constant removals, the 
 feet gradually assume the contracted condition. I am 
 satisfied that the cause is a very simple one. In 
 ninety-nine cases out of a hundi'ed the shoe is made 
 with the seating, or bevelled surface, carried out to the 
 heel, or veiy nearly so, instead of leaving fully half- 
 an-inch of the web perfectly level for the heel of the 
 foot to rest upon. Besides this defect, most smiths 
 make the shoe wider than the foot, whereby the heel 
 is placed still more upon this bevelled edge than it 
 othei-wise would be ; and the consequence is, that the 
 horse is constantly standing and working upon a bevelled 
 surface instead of on a flat one, and that surface has a 
 tendency to di'ive the heels in. It takes some months, 
 it is true, to produce the alteration ; but nevertheless, 
 though slow, it is sui-e, and if continued the horse is 
 
SHOEING. 83 
 
 almost to a certainty made a cripple by the long-con- 
 timied use of such a shoe. Corns are also constantly 
 produced by them. The remedy for contracted heels 
 is, to place the foot upon a flat Aveb, or sometimes even 
 upon one bevelled at the heel in the opposite dkection 
 to the seated shoe. With this I have succeeded in 
 two or three cases in rectifpng contraction to a degTee 
 which exceeded my most sanguine anticipations." 
 
 The advantage or disadvantage of having calkins 
 either on the fore or hind-shoes, or on both, will vary 
 in different cases. But there should be no difference, 
 under any pretence whatever, between the outer and 
 inner heel of the same shoe, in point of elevation. 
 A difference is frequently made for the purpose of pre- 
 venting brushing, or, probably, for some imaginaiy 
 reason ; but it is highly improper, because in the long- 
 run it will be sure to induce lameness in the leg, in 
 consequence of the weight of the body being thrown 
 more on the one side of the joint than on the other. It 
 is just as barbarous and injudicious to shoe a horse on 
 this plan, as it would be to oblige a man to walk in a 
 boot -^dth one side of the heel double the tliickness of 
 the other. If the smith was obliged to walk for a 
 month in a boot of this description, he would learn to 
 act with wisdom and compassion towards the poor 
 horse. 
 
 In putting on the shoe, the nails should be driven 
 with a gentle hand, and they ought not by any means 
 
84 THE HOESE. 
 
 to be clenched very tight. Hard driving and tight 
 clenching will bend the hoof, at the place where the 
 clenches are turned, inwards and downwards towards 
 the shoe in such a manner as to injure the tender parts 
 contained within the cavity of the foot. Besides, it is 
 not necessary for a man to forget he is working with 
 the foot of a living animal. The shoe will remam on a 
 sufficient length of time with gentle diiving and clench- 
 ing, provided it is properly fitted to the foot. If it has 
 a thoroughly even bearing, there will be little stress on 
 the nails. The nails are often made so coarse that 
 they split the hoof, and thus keep it constantly broken. 
 A fine nail will answ^' all the pm-poses requii'ed, if it 
 is made of the right sort of material. 
 
 I know of no worse fashion, in connexion with the 
 application of the shoe, than the one which the smith 
 has, of hammering the shoe on the one side or the 
 other, after three or four nails have been di'iven, for the 
 purpose of putting it straight on the foot. This is a 
 speedy method of making up for his total want of ac- 
 cm-acy in placing it at first ; but it should never be 
 suff'ered to be practised. It strains aU the nails which 
 have already been driven, and is thus calculated to do 
 serious damage to the foot. 
 
 As I do not intend to give full instructions about 
 shoeing, I will not pursue the subject any farther at 
 present. It would requii'e a special volume for its 
 due consideration. I must say it was to me a mat- 
 
THE FORE-LEGS. 85 
 
 ter of surprise that the celebrated " Nimrod " thought 
 it of comparatively Httle importance how the horse was 
 shod. He attributed nearly everything to the effects 
 of pace. No doubt, pace must always tell ; but there 
 is just as little doubt that the pace would not be 
 half so injurious as it is, if the horse were always as 
 well shod as he ought to be. 
 
 Shoeing has been regarded by some as a necessary 
 evil ; still I am certain it is an evil in the horse or in 
 the man only when it is improperly performed. I am 
 confident in both cases it would be advantageous, ra- 
 ther than the reverse, if the artisan could always be 
 made sufficiently acquainted with the theory of his 
 profession, and had hands, or rather a head, for its due 
 performance. 
 
 THE FORE-LEGS. 
 
 Having remarked thus much on the different parts of 
 the fore-legs, it now remains for me to say a few words 
 on theu' position, as a whole. 
 
 ^ When viewed in front, the distance between the 
 fore-legs ought to be, as near as possible, the same 
 from the chest to the gi'ound. This is the form which 
 is most consistent with neat, straight, and speedy 
 action. 
 
 On taking a side view, we should observe the per- 
 pendicular dii'ection of the leg. When it is directed 
 
86 THE HORSE. 
 
 backwards below, there will be too inucb weight in 
 front of it, and the horse will be liable to fall. If, on 
 the contrary, the foot is pointed far foi-wards, too much 
 stress will be thrown on the back-sinews, and the ac- 
 tion of the animal will be materially impeded ; besides, 
 this state of matters is sometimes indicative of disease 
 in the feet. The leg should di'op perfectly straight 
 from its junction with the shoulder to the gi'ound ; and 
 the point of the toe should come as near as possible to 
 a straight line under the point of the shoulder. 
 
 \The elbow can easily be felt at the upper and back 
 part of the arm. ( Its dii'ection must be attentively ex- 
 amined, as it is an important point. It should neither 
 be out nor in. When tmned in towards the ribs, it 
 will rub against the girths of the saddle or harness, 
 and thus become the seat of a troublesome and annoy- 
 ing sore. The inward direction of the elbow is also 
 accompanied by an awkward knee-action, and the toe 
 is invariably tm'ued out. It is a very common thing^ 
 for horses with this foiTnation to strike the toe against 
 the opposite pastern. They are then called brushers. 
 If they should happen to go free from brushing, how- 
 ever, they are generally very safe to ride or diive. 
 "When the elbow is turned out, the toe is turned in, 
 wliich is a very gTeat fault — decidedly much greater 
 than the reverse — as the horse is not usually safe to 
 ride, nor is he possessed of speed. I once had the 
 fastest trotting horse I ever saw ; he was also remark- 
 
THE FOEE-LEGS. 87 
 
 ably safe and seciu'e to ride, although his toes were 
 turned in. But in his case the elbows were perfectly 
 straight, and the turning-iu at the toe was owing en- 
 tirely to the peculiar setting-on of the foot, which made 
 all the difference. I do not recollect of any instance 
 of a fast and safe horse with his elbows turned out. 
 
 The knees should never be laid back, although many 
 people seem to be of a contrary opinion. They imagine 
 then* backward position is a point of gi'eat perfection. 
 They will frequently tell you such a horse cannot go 
 down, because he is so well back on the knees. In 
 this they are certainly mistaken. By this formation, 
 the back muscles and sinews of the leg are all inter- 
 fered with, and materially curtailed in their action. 
 Besides, the position of the knee has veiy little to do 
 in preventing a horse from falling. If it were other- 
 wise, what on earth would become of the horses which 
 have their knees bent completely foi-wards like a bow ? 
 If the opposite shape were necessary to stability, horses 
 of this description need not take the trouble of rising, 
 as they would be no sooner up than down again. Still 
 further, is it not a very singnilar thing that these 
 doomed animals are seldom seen with a broken knee ? 
 The leg, on a side view, shoidd be quite straight from 
 the shoulder to the pastern. But if in any instance 
 the knee is to diverge from the straight line, let it 
 always be forwards — never backwards. Some of the 
 fastest, safest, and best horses that ever appeared on 
 
88 THE HORSE. 
 
 the turf, the field, or the road, were forward on the 
 knees ; but I never knew of a right good one whose 
 .knees obsei'ved a decidedly backward position. 
 \ I think any person who takes the trouble of opening 
 his eyes may see that the safety of the horse's knees 
 depends chiefly on the slant of the shoulder and pastern, 
 together ivith the method in which the foot is brought into 
 contact icith the ground. On this last point I am at 
 variance with popular opinion, which says, that a horse, 
 in order to be safe, requkes to be a high lifter. I look 
 upon high lifting as a very gi-eat fault. Just imagine 
 a man walking do^ni one of the thoroughfares of Lon- 
 don or Dublin, and lifting his feet at every step half 
 way to his knee ! He would certainly gain a gi'eat 
 deal of admiration, at the expense of his corns, and, 
 perhaps, the point of his nose. Now, where is the 
 difference between a man and a horse, which should 
 make such a difference in the mode of their progi*es- 
 sion ? It is the laying down of the foot which renders 
 the animal safe. Of com'se, the foot should be raised 
 sufficiently high to prevent the toe from coming into 
 contact with the gi'ound; but this is very different 
 from what is called high action. My objections are 
 intended to apply entirely to those which are denomi- 
 nated high-steppers. I would avoid all such as much 
 as the daisy-cutter. The medium course is the only 
 safe one. If the horse Kfts his foot clear of the road, 
 and lays his heel first to the ground, he cannot fall, as 
 
THE FORE-LEGS. 89 
 
 Stumbling Is nsnallj occasioned by sticking the toe into 
 the road, or striking it against a stone, just as the foot 
 is being brought down into contact with the surface. 
 A horse seldom, if ever, falls in the act of lifting his 
 foot, simply because in that position he has no weight 
 depending upon it. He will fall only when he places 
 the toe on the ground before the heel. Under these 
 circumstances, a slight obstacle will bend the pastern 
 forward, and, as the weight of the body is now in- 
 tended to be thrown on the limb, away he goes. Let 
 the horse with a well-slanted shoulder and pastern 
 throw his foot well foinvard, and then bring his heel 
 first to the groimd, and I will answer for his safety. 
 He will also stand more work than the very high 
 stepper, whose peculiar action is certain to inflame his 
 feet, as well as to promote the development of a variety 
 of diseases to which the fore-legs are liable. Of course 
 the obsei'vations I have made are appHcable to shape 
 and action alone, and have no reference to those cases 
 where a fall is caused by the pressure of a shai'p stone 
 on a tender and diseased foot. It must be evident, a 
 case of that sort is very different from one of ordinary 
 tripping. The one is the result of disease, the other of 
 development or foim. 
 
90 THE HORSE. 
 
 THE BACK. 
 
 Public opinion lias long since decided that the weight- 
 carrTing properties of the horse depend, in no small 
 degi-ee, upon the length and shape of his back. The 
 carter, the hackney, and the hunter, must not be very 
 long in the back ; and, in my opmion, extreme length 
 in this part is not desirable even in the racer. It is a 
 maxim in the sporting world, with which I fully agree, 
 that the race-horse must have length somewhere, or 
 else he would be deficient in stride, which would be a 
 matter of serious consideration in a race of two or three 
 miles. The diflference of a few inches at each stroke 
 would make a decided difference at the end of the race, 
 unless the horse with the short stride could strike 
 oftener than his opponent. There can be no doubt 
 that a long stretch is of gi'eat importance. The ques- 
 tion, then, naturally arises, how is a moderate length 
 of back to be rendered compatible with gi-eat length of 
 stride ? Simply in this way — a deep, well-slanted 
 shoulder, and veiy long quarters, will place the legs in 
 such a position that there will be ample space below, 
 whilst the back may be of a moderate length and very 
 strong. This conformation is always connected with a 
 fair amount of stride, and great weight-caiTying abili- 
 ties. A horse of this description may not always 
 answer the purpose on a Leger-day ; but if he is fortu- 
 nate enough to have speed for this event, he is sure to 
 
THE BACK. 91 
 
 tiu'n out a valnable animal when he aftei'wards comes 
 to be entered for the different handicaps, where penal- 
 ties, in the form of additional weights, are placed upon 
 winning horses. His compactness may here carry him 
 thi'ough with flpng colom's, and be the means of rais- 
 ing his character to the highest pitch of celebrity; 
 whereas, the very long-backed Leger winner may be 
 a flyer on the day, and never aftei'wards do any good. 
 He may be first-rate with 8st. 71b. on his back ; but 
 12st. will probably bring him to a stand still. 
 
 The back is composed of a number of short bones 
 united together by an elastic substance, for the pm-pose 
 of giving elasticity and ease to the motions of the ani- 
 mal under the rider. It therefore resembles a spring, 
 which will be easily bent, or othei-wise, according to 
 its length. Every inch added to the length of the 
 spring, takes away from its power of canying a weight 
 attached to its centre. So is it vdih the back of the 
 race-horse. "When going at full speed, he can take in 
 twenty-one feet at each stride ; and, of course, when 
 he is extended in this way, a trifling difference of 
 weight on the centre of his back will make an enor- 
 mous difference in the amount of exertion requhed to 
 draw himself up speedily again for another stroke. 
 Hence, we can easily account for the well-known fact, 
 that two pounds extra added to one of them will inva- 
 riably deteimine the result of the race, where the horses 
 engaged are exactly matched at equal weights. In 
 
92 THE HORSE. 
 
 this view of the case, it must be evident that the 
 length of the back is a matter of considerable import- 
 ance. I have come to the conclusion that a horse, no 
 matter for what pui-pose he is intended, should not have 
 an extremely long back. 
 
 The cart-horse requii-es a short back, to enable him 
 to sustain his load ; and the long-backed hunter will 
 be sure to give up in heavy land during a long mn. 
 Just imagine a long-backed carter bending under a ton 
 and a-half, or a long-backed hunter ploughing through 
 wet land, with fifteen stone up, during a sharp bui'st 
 of eight or ten miles ! Let us not go, however, from 
 one extreme to another, by choosing a horse whose 
 back would be covered by an ordinary-sized saddle. 
 Of the two extremes, this is, perhaps, the worst. An 
 animal thus foimed could not possibly have speed, or 
 ease of motion. His hind-feet would be in constant 
 danger of catching on his fore-shoes dming the gallop 
 or trot. He would likely have recourse to what is 
 called " forging," and he would also run a good chance 
 of getting his feet entangled in such a way as to cause 
 a regular capsize, if going on deep, sticky ground. 
 This would be still more certain to occur, if his back 
 were elevated in the middle, which is a point of great 
 defonnity. 
 
 " We never can know," says Hany Hieover, " under 
 what weight a horse can go, but by trying him. We 
 may, in a general way, form a tolerably correct guess 
 
THE BACK. 93 
 
 at it ; but if we trust to appearance of strength, or 
 the want of it, cases will occiu- where we shall find 
 such appearances quite deceive us." To a certain ex- 
 tent, this obsei'vation is perfectly true ; but I am cer- 
 tain the mistake is often attributable to our careless, 
 inaccurate, and imperfect observation. It is question- 
 able if it is ever the result of an error in the formation 
 of the animal. In the very nature of things, struc- 
 ture must tell truth ; but it is often extremely difficult to 
 di'aw accm-ate conclusions where so many things are to 
 be taken into the calculation. The back is not the only 
 part concerned. The question is not what weight can 
 a horse stand under, but with what weight can he go? 
 This at once involves every imaginable particiilar about 
 the formation and temperament of the animal; and 
 hence opens up so wide a field, that it is often ex- 
 tremely difficult, if not impossible, to an-ive at precise 
 conclusions by mere inspection. Although inspection, 
 in the majority of cases, is of the greatest importance, 
 stiU it must be admitted that, owing to the imperfec- 
 tion of our powers of observation, trial is the best 
 proof. 
 
 It has long appeared to me, that the power of the 
 horse's back might be materially improved by having 
 him gradually accustomed to carry an increase of 
 weight. Training, or work, if judiciously conducted, 
 will increase the strength of the entu-e muscular sys- 
 tem. Consequently, I can see no reason why the 
 
94 THE HORSE. 
 
 muscles of the back should not be increased in power, 
 by being accustomed to a gradual increase of weight. 
 If this were done with sufficient caution, it would be 
 the means of adding to the thickness and strength of 
 the muscles of the back. The presei'vation of the legs 
 is the only obstacle in the way ; but this might be got 
 over by keeping the horse, during the time of his 
 work, at a moderate pace. At all events, the matter 
 is worthy of consideration and investigation. My at- 
 tention was first directed to the subject, by observing 
 the gi-eat facihty with which sacks of grain are carried 
 from place to place in the market on the backs of 
 practised individuals, when compared with men who, 
 although apparently strong, are inexperienced in the 
 work. There can be no doubt the muscles of the 
 back, by regular exercise, are brought to cany weights 
 with ease which they could not at first endm-e. 
 
 The back should present a gradual and gentle elevation 
 over the kidneys. If there is a hollow here, the part 
 must be weak. The elevation, however, requii-es to be 
 moderate and gi-adual — never sudden. A gTadual 
 sweep is indicative of strength ; an abrupt rise is con- 
 nected with weakness, as the bones of the back are 
 not well adapted to each other. 
 
 In order to fonn a correct estimate of the shape of 
 the back, we must view it on the side, from behind, 
 and in front. From these positions, we can see it on 
 every part. The withers ought not to stand very much 
 
THE BACK. 
 
 95 
 
 higher than the top of the rump ; in the racer and 
 carter, no higher at all. The back should be nearly 
 level on the saddle-seat, and then rise gradually over 
 the kidneys. The ribs, by all means, must stand 
 straight out from the back-bone all along. This is a 
 much stronger and better fonn than the herring-rib, 
 which makes a horse naiTow and thin along the back. 
 Some horses dip so much at the saddle-seat, that they 
 have the appearance of a high shoulder ; whereas, in 
 reality, the shoulder may be low when compared with 
 the top of the rump. The back-bone and ribs, behind 
 the shoulder, should be considerably lower than the 
 top of the withers, but the sweep should be gradual. 
 A sudden and gTcat dip at this locality is certainly a 
 defect, as it encroaches on the space allotted to the 
 lungs, and also permits the saddle to get forward on 
 the top of the shoulder-blades. The two points of 
 importance are, immediately behind the shoulders, and 
 over the Iddneys. The horse which is remarkably hol- 
 low in the first and weak in the second, is decidedly 
 faulty. 
 
 The strength of the back, at the kidneys, will de- 
 pend upon its gentle elevation, and also on the length 
 of the transverse processes of the bones of the spine. 
 The longer these processes are, the broader will the 
 back appear at this part. If these projections on the 
 bones of the spine are long and large, there will be 
 plenty of room for the attachment of muscles and li- 
 
96 THE HORSE, 
 
 gaments, on which the strength of the part greatly de- 
 pends. Although not by any means so often looked 
 to, this is a point of far more importance than the dis- 
 tance which intervenes between the last rib and the 
 bones of the hip. A horse may be strong, although 
 there should be a considerable space at the short rib ; 
 but no horse can be strong if his back is veiy narrow 
 over the kidneys. 
 
 When the ribs approximate closely to the bones of 
 the haunch, the horse is said to be ribbed home. This 
 is certainly an advantage in the carter, and if in a 
 moderate degree, in the hackney and hunter also ; 
 but it should never be the case in the racer. The 
 racer must have plenty of room to throw in his hind- 
 quai'ters in the gallop, and therefore reqim*es a consi- 
 derable space at the short rib. If he is tight here, he 
 will be so confined in his action, that his stride must be 
 short. Any person may be convuiced of this fact, by 
 obsemng a thorough-bred horse in his gallop. When 
 he is going well, and sweeping along smoothly, the 
 stifles will be seen to approach very nearly to the flaps 
 of the saddle at each stroke — a thing which could not 
 occm' if he were completely ribbed home. The hunter 
 can bear to be closer here than the racer, because he is 
 chiefly valuable for his diu-able, weight-carrying, and 
 jumping properties. 
 
THE ABDOMEN, 97 
 
 THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestines, 
 liver, spleen, kidneys, &c. As its contents are vari- 
 able in size and numerous, it is evident its parieties 
 ought to be both elastic and extensive. It is therefore 
 only in part suiTounded by bone. The back ribs 
 should be long and well arched, in order to afford a 
 wide and deep space for holding the stomach, liver, 
 bowels, &c. The condition of this part is a good and 
 well-known indication of the feeding propensities of the 
 animal. A puny appetite is the usual concomitant of 
 short back ribs ; but when they are long and wide-set, 
 the horse is generally a greedy feeder. In the latter 
 case, there will be sufficient room for large digestive 
 organs, without encroaching on the cavity of the chest. 
 There will be a good bread-basket. 
 
 I may just remark here, that horses frequently have 
 their wind broken by being put to fast work when their 
 stomachs are full of either food or di'ink. If a horse is 
 about to get a brash of a trot or a gaUop, he should be 
 allowed time to empty his stomach before being taken 
 out, and he should not, on any account, be permitted to 
 drink. There can be nothing more dangerous than the 
 common practice, about country stables, of galloping the 
 horse home from the river at which he has been al- 
 lowed to satiate his thrist. This practice should be 
 
 H 
 
98 THE HORSE. 
 
 considered an unpardonable offence on the part of the 
 servant, if persisted in, as it is extremely liable to in- 
 jure the horse's wind. 
 
 POSITION OF THE BODY. 
 
 In forming an estimate of the appearance of the horse, 
 we should pay attention to the relative position of his 
 body and limbs. The body should give a distinct im- 
 pression of being placed on the limbs — not suspended 
 bettveen them. If the body is placed on the limbs, 
 the horse will have the power of doing his work within 
 himself, as it is termed, and will not be easily fatigued. 
 But, on the other hand, the horse whose body is swing- 
 ing, as it were, between his limbs, will have a very 
 slack, uncomfortable gait, and will be very easily 
 fatigued. He will have a long, loose, showy action, 
 which would lead the casual observer to imagine he 
 was going at a tremendous pace ; but a few miles of 
 fast work would make him drag his legs heavily after 
 him, and, in a long run, he would give up with down- 
 right exhaustion before his journey would be more 
 than half-perfonned. He might have gi'eat speed for 
 flat, short races, but he would not be fit for any other 
 purpose. 
 
THE HIND-QUARTERS. 99 
 
 THE HIND-aUARTERS. 
 
 It is often said regarding the horse, " If his fore-quar- 
 ters are good, the hind-quarters wiU be sure to follow 
 them." This is a remark to which I cannot altogether 
 assent. It very properly places a high value on the 
 perfection of the fore-quarters ; but it does not follow 
 from this that the hind-quarters are to be overlooked 
 or undervalued. The horse which di*ags his hind-legs 
 after him will be good for nothing ; he is of no use on 
 the course, in the field, or on the road ; and his capa- 
 bilities in the cart will be very limited. He will 
 always be abroad in his gallop ; and his hind-legs will 
 be drawn along in the same way as if he had received 
 an injury in his spine. The man who would attempt 
 to ride him over a five-barred gate would require to 
 have his life insured. His action wiU be weighty, 
 sluggish, and disagreeable. Not so, however, with the 
 horse whose hind-legs are so placed that he can gather 
 them close under him in the trot or gallop — in such a 
 manner that he can pitch off* with freedom, making 
 use of the fore-limbs solely for the purpose of receiving 
 the weight of the body, which is propelled onwards by 
 the action of the hind-quarters. A horse of this dcr 
 scription will go beautifully, and with a freedom and 
 ease which cannot fail to strike the attention of the 
 observer. He will be light and corky in his action, 
 and leaping will give him no trouble. 
 
100 THE HORSE. 
 
 " The fore-limbs," says Mr. Percivall, " perform one 
 office in progression, the hind-limbs another. While the 
 latter are exerting themselves, after the manner of two 
 powerful levers, to propel the animal machine onward, 
 the former have little else to do but, while they are 
 keeping pace with the hind-hmbs, to caiTy the fore 
 parts of the body, together with the head and neck, in 
 their elevated position — support them, lest they fall to 
 the gi-ound." The slightest attention will enable a 
 practical obsei-ver to see that the spring in the leap is 
 always made from the hind-legs, and that too even 
 after the fore-quarters have been raised from the ground. 
 Hence the absolute necessity of power in this locality. 
 Still the fore-legs require to be strong also, for the 
 purpose of receiving the weight of the horse, with his 
 rider, when lighting on the off-side of the fence. A 
 horse whose fore and hind-quarters are both good 
 loses veiy little time by dwelling on his leap. The 
 steeple-chaser of this description has a veiy great ad- 
 vantage. If he comes to a head-and-head contest, at 
 the last fence, with one who is defective in the corres- 
 ponding pomts, he is quite sure to win. He loses so 
 little time at his leap that he will gain nearly a length 
 on his adversary before reaching the winning-post. 
 The horse which requires to dwell on his leap, or in 
 other words, which requu-es a length of time to gather 
 in his hind-legs after he has got over his fence, before 
 starting in the new, allows an advantage to his op- 
 
THE HIND-QUARTERS. 101 
 
 ponent that cannot easily be compensated for. The 
 animal with first-rate hind and fore-quarters will get 
 over his fences, and start again, so nimbly that a 
 person would almost imagine he was going on smooth 
 gi'ound. He will not dwell either in taking his leap, or 
 in recovering from its efi'ects. 
 
 It matters not for what purpose the horse is intended, 
 he is no favourite of mine unless he has a well-shaped, 
 lengthy, and strong hind-quarter. This must be the 
 point, or fulcnim, from whence his effort proceeds. 
 
 That the carter requii-es great power behind is 
 proved by the fact, that he cannot pull his load up 
 the hill, especially durmg frost, unless he is well pre- 
 pared in the hind-feet. He must have sharp toe- 
 pieces on the hind-feet shoes to catch the ground, 
 although such contrivances may frequently be dis- 
 pensed with on the fore-feet. Does not this prove 
 that the power comes chiefly from behind ? Again, 
 look at the waggon-horse starting his load on the rail- 
 way, when he is obliged to use the greatest effort of 
 which he is capable. Is it not plain to be seen, with 
 half an eye, that the great moving power resides in his 
 hind-quarters? The effort he makes with them is 
 prodigious. 
 
 Eveiy horse intended for galloping and leaping 
 must be furnished with good hind-quarters. Galloping 
 consists merely of a succession of leaps ; and no animal 
 
102 THE HORSE. 
 
 can leap weU if he is deficient behind. Look, for ex- 
 ample, at the kangaroo, the hare, the gi-eyhound, the 
 cat, and the tiger. Can any formation exceed their 
 hind-quarters in strength and leverage power ; and are 
 they not proverbial for their power of leaping and 
 running? As might be expected, theii' action is in 
 perfect accordance with their form. So is it also with 
 the horse. When suppUed with good hind-quarters, 
 he can perform wonderful feats. It is well authenti- 
 cated that Vainhope took a leap measuring thkty-four 
 feet in width ; and we are informed by the celebrated 
 Nimrod, that "In 1821, Mr. Mytton's horse, 'The 
 Hero,' cleared timber seven feet in height, with a very 
 short run to it, in Mr. Jellico's grounds in Shropshire, 
 with Mr. Mytton on his back." Such performances 
 could not be accomplished without an adequate power 
 behind. 
 
 If we wish to form a correct estimate of the develop- 
 ment of the hind-quarters, we must pay special atten- 
 tion to the length, shape, and position of the bones, as 
 weU as to the length, size, and direction of the muscles. 
 The bones constitute so many distinct levers ; whilst 
 the muscles are the powers by which these levers are 
 put in motion. When the bones are short and unfa- 
 vourably placed, the muscles cannot act upon them 
 with sufficient power, or to the best advantage. If 
 the muscles are long from theii' origin to theu' termina- 
 
THE HAUNCH OE ROIP. 103 
 
 tion, their contraction must be proportionally great. 
 On this depends the extent of the spring or stride. 
 Hence, length in every part of the hind-qiiai'ters where 
 muscles are located, is of infinite importance. 
 
 THE HAUNCH, OR RUMP, 
 
 should not be either extremely naiTow or extremely 
 broad. If it is very naiTOw, there will be a great want 
 of power ; and if it is too broad in proportion to the 
 rest of the frame, there will be much more force than 
 what is requked, or can be borne by the remainder of 
 the machine, and the horse consequently is caiTpng 
 useless lumber. The hauuch-bones should project a 
 little at each side of the flank, but not to such an ex- 
 tent as to make the horse ragged-hipped. When the 
 vertebra, at the kidneys, extend outwards on each side 
 as far as they ought to do, this is not likely to occur. 
 Great strength in this locality is absolutely necessary in 
 every description of horse. 
 
 The bones of the haunch, which extend from the 
 kidneys to the point of the hips, can hardly be too 
 long. This ought to be specially looked after in horses 
 intended for fast work. If they are short here, they 
 will be equally short in their stride. On a side 
 view, the top of the rump should present a moderately 
 arched form from the kidneys to the setting on of the 
 tail. This is a point of some utility and of great 
 
104 THE HORSE. 
 
 beauty. The tail ought not to be set either very high 
 up, or very low down. The side bones of the haunch 
 should descend considerably below the level of the 
 setting on of the tail, as they pass backwards to form 
 the points of the hips. This I insist upon as a vital 
 point, although I am at variance regarding it with 
 public opinion. By all means, give me a horse with a 
 moderately-di'ooped rump. Let other parties say what 
 they may, this is the sort of horse which will please the 
 turfite, and the fox-hunter. I hardly ever saAv a good 
 racer or hunter which had the side-bones of the haunch 
 perfectly level. If you look at a horse of this descrip- 
 tion taking his gallop, you will observe the legs stick- 
 ing out behind him, the root of the tail elevated, and 
 the back depressed at the kidneys. He drags the 
 hind-quarters after him, and is badly formed for carry- 
 ing weight. 
 
 Not so, however, with the horse whose rump is 
 drooped, or, in other words, whose haunch bones, as 
 they pass backwards, descend below the level of the 
 arch formed by the vertebrae of the back as they reach 
 the tail. This certainly is the horse to go. The on- 
 looker is delighted with the swimming action of his 
 gallop. He has not the slightest difficulty in getting 
 his hind-feet under the weight he has to carry, and he 
 is able to throw his stifle joints nearly as far forwards 
 as the flaps of the saddle. In every way, he^ has full 
 command of himself. When jumping, he will be able 
 
THE THIGH. 105 
 
 to pop off his hind-feet like a ball ; and when gallop- 
 ing, he ^dll be so collected in his stride, that his back 
 will never get depressed with the weight of his rider. 
 " It is worthy of remark," says Riddlesworth, at the 
 eighth page of The British and Foreign Booh of 
 Sports, for 1843, "that high hind-qnarters, and tail 
 set on low, are generally characteristics of good quali- 
 ties in a horse." Such is the formation of all om- best 
 racing and jumpmg horses. It is seen in perfection in 
 that model of a race-horse, the Flying Dutchman. To 
 prevent misapprehension, however, I may again obseiwe, 
 that it is the side-bone of the haunch which requires to 
 be di'ooped as it approaches the point of the hip. The 
 position of the vertebrae which join the tail is not nearly 
 of the same practical importance, although it may 
 affect the beauty of the outline. Many horses have 
 then- haunch-bones weU drooped, whilst their tails are 
 set-on high up, and nearly level with the top of the 
 rump. 
 
 THE THIGH 
 
 bone extends from the termination of the haunch- 
 bone, below the tail, or, more con-ectly speaking, from 
 the hip joint, to the lower edge of the flank, where its 
 end assists in fonning the stifle joint. This bone is 
 altogether imbedded in a dense mass of muscular sub- 
 stance. It does not attract much attention from the 
 cursory observer ; nevertheless, its importance is over- 
 
106 
 
 THE HOESE. 
 
 whelming. It is connected with the most powerful 
 muscles of the body — muscles which ai-e obliged to 
 propel the entire machine. The longer this bone is 
 the better. Its length assists in governing the stretch 
 of the hind-quarters. T\Tien it and the haunch-bone 
 are both short, the horse may probably possess suffi- 
 cient strength ; but he must imdoubtedly be short in his 
 action. He will have to strike very often to make 
 amends for this defect. But the case is reversed when 
 both these bones are long. The horse can then afford 
 to strike slower. He will have a long and sweeping 
 stride, and he will gallop with gi-eater speed, and much 
 more ease. 
 
 The muscles in this region should be both long and 
 large. The horse in whom they are weak is radically 
 defective. Short muscles, if they are strong enough, 
 may do for slow work ; but without length, they are of 
 no use for speed. Then* length can easily be ascer- 
 tamed by observing the distance which intervenes be- 
 tween the haunch-bone and the thigh-bone, as well as 
 the distance from this last point to their termination 
 above the hock. This is a correct measurement of 
 theii* length ; their size can be judged of by the thick- 
 ness of the parts which they compose. 
 
 When viewed from behind, the muscles which lie on 
 the thigh-bone should be very large and prominent, both 
 inside and outside. It is impossible for them to be too 
 strong. The horse that is veiy thin and flat here, and 
 
THE THIGH. 107 
 
 consequently scanty of muscle, is a regular weed — lie 
 is good for nothing. Strong muscles are requii-ed both 
 inside and outside the thigh in eveiy description of 
 horse. There can be nothing more important or beau- 
 tiful than a large development of muscle on the outside 
 of the thigh-bone. It is always a point of great at- 
 traction in the racer or hunter, in whom it must, of 
 necessity, be developed. In some cases this part ap- 
 pears better developed than it really is, in consequence 
 of a bend in the outline of the bones. This is no ad- 
 vantage, and it must not be confounded with a well- 
 thrown out muscle. The thigh-bones ought to lie at a 
 reasonable distance from each other ; the space between 
 them should be well filled up with muscular substance, 
 and the muscles on the outside should project in a very 
 prominent and well-marked form. 
 
 Havmg inspected the quarters from behind, we 
 must take a look at them on the side. We should see 
 that the stifle-joint extends far forwards, and is situ- 
 ated low down. This arrangement, by remo^^ng the 
 stifle to a greater distance from the pin-bone, as well 
 as from the front of the haunch-bone, increases the 
 surface for the attachment of muscles, adds to their 
 length, and improves their leverage position. The far- 
 ther these points are distant from each other, as a mat- 
 ter of course, the longer and more numerous mW. be 
 the muscular fibres which extend between them. 
 
 The distance from the stifle straight across to the 
 
108 THE HORSE. 
 
 back edge of the hip must be observed. The greater 
 it is, the more muscular substance will the space con- 
 tain. Some of the muscles at the back edge of the 
 hip are of gi*eat importance. They ought to be so well 
 defined, so prominent, and distinct, that their detection 
 on the living animal will present no difficulty. In the 
 high-bred horse they are generally extremely well de- 
 fined. They ought to be as long as possible ; the far- 
 ther they reach down towards the hock, the better. I 
 never like to see them turning in suddenly to the bone 
 a little below the stifle-joint. It adds greatly to the 
 beauty, as well as to the power, of the hind-quarter, to 
 have these muscles very long and prominent from their 
 origin, at the root of the tail and about the hip-joint, 
 to their termination in the bone above the hock. Length 
 in all the muscles of the hind-quarter is a particularly 
 gratifying thing in the eye of every judge of the horse. 
 To have sufficient speed and propelling power, there 
 must be length, substance, and favoiu-able leverage. 
 
 THE TIBIA, 
 
 or lower bone of the thigh, reaches from the stifle-joint 
 to the hock. For speed, it requires to be long ; the hock 
 can hardly be too close to the gi'ound. The stifle-joint, 
 corresponding to the knee in the human subject, is 
 formed by the connexion of the tibia with the upper 
 thigh-bone. It is a very important joint, and requu-es 
 
THE TIBIA. 109 
 
 to be both strong and sound. Injuries of it are very- 
 serious in their consequences. 
 
 Besides being long, and directed backwards, the 
 tibia must be fui-nished with plenty of muscle. All 
 the muscles which move the parts beneath the hock are 
 located on it. Hence it is evident, if it is defective in 
 muscle, the want cannot be supplied from any other 
 som'ce. There is no scarcity of sinews farther down, 
 but muscles there are none. Every horse should be 
 furnished with a sufficient mass of muscle on the tibia, 
 to give the appearance of great breadth and strength. 
 The one which is narrow and weak here is radically de- 
 fective. It is in vain to think that poverty in this lo- 
 cality can be compensated for by perfection elsewhere, 
 because no other part performs the same functions. 
 There is no such superfluity in nature, as that a good 
 part can compensate for a bad one in this sort of way. 
 Every part has its own peculiar office to fulfil, wliich is 
 quite sufficient for it without attempting to do the duty 
 of its neighbour. The muscles should be well deve- 
 loped mside^ as weU as outside, the tibia. The most 
 powerful formation of this description I have ever seen 
 was in Touchstone. His strength at this part was re- 
 markable — particularly as regards the muscles on the 
 inside. The muscles of the tibia teniiinate in sinews, 
 some of which are inserted into the point of the hock, 
 but the gi-eater part of them passes on towards the foot. 
 
 I have ah-eady said the extent of the stride depends on 
 
110 THE HORSE. 
 
 the length and position of the bones, or levers, as well 
 as on the length and position of the muscles which 
 move them. When they are all short, the stride will 
 be short ; but when they are all long, the stride will be 
 long also. This observation is particularly applicable 
 to the condition of the hind-quarter. Its mechanism 
 is most beautiful and important. All horses must have 
 plenty of substance here ; but all do not requke the 
 same length, just because all do not requii'e great 
 speed, although they aU need plenty of strength. Those 
 which are intended for slow work would not be injm-ed 
 by length, but still they can do well enough without 
 it. The chief thing for them is, to have abundance of 
 strength, which is connected with substance ; conse- 
 quently, it will answer our purpose to have them short 
 and thick. Not so, however, with racers, hunters, and 
 saddle-horses. As they requke weight-canying pow- 
 ers, combined with durabiUty and speed, they must, of 
 necessity, have both substance and length. The dif- 
 ference, in comfort and speed, between a short- actioned 
 horse and one with an immense sweeping stride, is far 
 gi-eater than any inexperienced person would ever 
 imagine. 
 
 The longer a horse is from the kidneys to the hip- 
 joint, from the hip-joint to the stifle, and from the 
 stifle to the hock, the greater wiU be the extent of 
 ground he can cover at a stroke. Just throw him into 
 action, and watch him carefully as he di'aws the stifle 
 
THE TIBIA. Ill 
 
 up towards his kidneys, and the hock towards his tail. 
 You Avill then be able to judge of the extent of pitch 
 he will get when these parts are all brought suddenly 
 back, like the spring of a bow, into their natural posi- 
 tion. If the haunch-bone and the two thigh-bones are 
 all long, and properly placed, they mil form such angles 
 as will give a crooked appearance to this part of the 
 quarter. This, so far from being a defect, is a matter 
 of great advantage, inasmuch as it places the hind-foot 
 in a favourable position for bearing the weight it is 
 obliged to sustain ; whilst, at the same time, a great 
 leverage power is j)reserved. A horse in whom the 
 outHne of these bones is straight, will not possess speed, 
 nor yet have the power of getting his hind-feet suffi- 
 ciently far forwards under his body ; in short, the horse 
 should be formed here very much after the model of 
 that most beautiful creature, the greyhound. I quite 
 agree with the celebrated Kimrod, who says, " You 
 may as well expect an ass to play the fiddle, as a horse 
 to carry his rider pleasantly, unless he have good 
 lengthy shoulders and well-bent hinder-legs. A friend 
 of mine, who is become fastidious in his judgment, goes 
 so far as to say, that no horse can have a good mouth 
 with straight hinder-legs. He is so far correct, inas- 
 much as no horse with straight hinder-legs can pull to- 
 gether ; therefore neither his head nor his heels can be 
 where they ought to be, and consequently he can never 
 be fit to carry a gentleman." 
 
112 THE HORSE. 
 
 THE HOCK 
 
 The public have very properly attributed as much im- 
 portance to the formation and soundness of the hock 
 as to that of any other joint in the body. This is not 
 to be wondered at, when we consider that in nine 
 cases out of ten it is the seat of all the lameness which 
 occurs in the hind-quarter. The case is just the re- 
 verse in the fore-quarter, as in the vast majority of in- 
 stances the lameness there is situated somewhere be- 
 tween the knee and the ground. 
 
 The leverage of the hind-quarter is so favourable, 
 and the propelling muscles are so powerful, that the 
 hock-joint, in order to remain sound, requires to be 
 remarkably well-formed. It must decidedly be large, 
 coarse, and well-developed in all its parts. No matter 
 how well and smooth it may look, if it is small it will 
 not stand severe work. Many parties are afraid of large, 
 coarse hocks ; but they are certainly astray. Without 
 size, the hock cannot have strength. Let it be large, 
 and, at the same time, properly proportioned in all its 
 parts. The gi-eatest evil arises from having some 
 parts large, whilst others are small. Such a formation 
 ynW not do. Everything shduld be on a balance. 
 The larger the bones are which enter into the composi- 
 tion of the joint, the more extensive will be the surface 
 presented by them for the attachment of those power- 
 ful ligaments which are required to keep them in their 
 
THE HOCK. 113 
 
 places ; and the greater will be the space over which 
 the concussion caused bv powerful action will be dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 The heel-bone, or the bone which forms the point of 
 the hock behind, can hardly be too long. Every inch 
 added to its projection upwards, adds greatly to the 
 leverage power of those immense sinews which are in- 
 serted into it. This is a positive advantage gained, 
 and it is a point well worthy of attention. It is also 
 highly desu-able to have this bone strong and large. 
 The sinew which runs from its point up towards the 
 thigh requires to be very thick, and it should stand 
 well out from the thigh-bone. 
 
 The end of the lower thigh-bone should run into the 
 hock-joint at an angle, and not in a perpendicular 
 manner ; but with this the angular form must cease. 
 The leg, from the point of the hock behind to the 
 upper end of the pastern, should be as straight as a 
 plumb-line. If it is rounded in the slightest degree, 
 the back sinews will work at a disadvantage. It is 
 extremely probable the horse will get curbed. 
 
 As the back-sinew runs down along the edge of the 
 hock-joint, it is kept fii-mly in its place by a special 
 ligament, called the annular ligament, which is thrown 
 directly across, at the lower end of the joint, from the one 
 side to the other, for this very purpose. If the position 
 of the bones allows this sinew to run in a perpendicular 
 line, the transverse, or annular ligament, will be quite 
 
 I 
 
114 THE HORSE. 
 
 able to bear the stress which is thrown upon it in 
 making the spring for the gallop or leap ; but if the 
 joint, at this locality, is rounded in its form, or if the 
 hocks are greatly tmned in towards each other whilst 
 the toes are turned out, the stress on the annular liga- 
 ment will be so great as to sprain it ; and perhaps the 
 sinew will start completely from its natural position, 
 and thus form a very unsightly tumour. This tumour 
 constitutes a curb, which is a most serious and intract- 
 able affair. After it is really formed, I believe it is 
 impossible for the joint ever to be made as good as it 
 was at first. The application of Major's remedy, blis- 
 ters, or the firing-irons, together with long-continued 
 rest, will improve it materially ; but still it can never 
 be fully depended on again. A sinew which is not 
 only severely sprained, but actually put out of its place, 
 will be nearly certain of giving way again when it is 
 called upon for sudden and severe exertion. 
 
 The best plan of judging whether or not a horse is 
 curbed, is to take a fair side-view of the joint. The 
 slightest elevation will then be distinctly seen. When 
 there is anything suspicious-looking, the part must be 
 carefully examined by the finger. Sometimes there is 
 an appearance of an incipient curb towards the outside 
 of the joint, although there has been no starting of the 
 sinew, or sprain of the ligament. A horse must not 
 always be rejected as unsound on this account, but he 
 is to be regarded with a deal of suspicion. His hocks 
 
THE HOCK. 115 
 
 are ill-formed. As there is no starting of the sinews, 
 or sprain of the ligaments, they are not really cm-bed ; 
 but their formation renders them natm-ally liable to 
 it, and then- capabilities for standing work are un- 
 certain. 
 
 I have already said the bones of the hock should be 
 large, strong, and coarse-looking. Those which lie at 
 the seat of spavin should not be an exception to this 
 rule. They are certainly much less liable to disease 
 when they are large, than when they are small. The 
 main point is, to see that they are precisely the same 
 size and form in each leg. Joints which are uniformly 
 strong and coarse-looking, are not very likely to go 
 astray; whereas the smooth, neat, small, and tidy- 
 looking joints, generally stand very little work without 
 becoming diseased. The diseases of the hock are nu- 
 merous and interesting ; but they are altogether foreign 
 to my present pm'pose, and therefore cannot be dis- 
 cussed. They are treated of in a very lucid manner 
 in the writings of Mr. Percivall, to which I have much 
 pleasure in refeiTing my readers. 
 
 I believe it has been shown by Mr. Percivall, Mr. 
 Goodwin, and Mr. Youatt, that it is a mistake to ima- 
 gine a horse is never spavined without exhibiting an 
 external enlargement of the joint. Theoretically, this 
 opinion is very probable, because there can be no reason 
 why inflammation, ulceration, or bony deposit might 
 not take place at any one point of the whole hock-joiiit. 
 
116 THE HORSE. 
 
 The enlargement occurs only when the osseous de- 
 posit commences at the surface, or extends itself out- 
 wards in that direction, after having begun internally. 
 I have a most interesting specimen of hock-joint dis- 
 ease in my possession. It was taken from a horse 
 which, when aHve, was decidedly and unequivocally 
 lame in the hind-leg, although there was nothing to be 
 seen to account for the disease. The joint looked and 
 felt quite smooth. I have preserved all the bones of 
 the hock. They are as regular and smooth as they 
 ought to be externally ; but the small bones, at the 
 seat of spavin, are finnly and permanently united, 
 by a very evident bony deposit, at different points on 
 their internal approximating surfaces. They are 
 thoroughly anchylosed. The inflammation connected 
 with this state of matters, and the union of the bones, 
 were quite sufficient to account for the lameness and 
 stiffness of the leg ; in fact, the horse, to all intents 
 and purposes, was spavined, although there was not 
 the slightest external enlargement to be observed either 
 before or after death. 
 
 In general, spavin arises from a defective formation 
 of the joint ; but this is not by any means uniformly 
 the case. I am certain some horses possess a scro- 
 fulous constitution, and therefore by natm-e are prone 
 to diseases of the bones and joints. In such instances, 
 if my opinion be well founded, spavins will frequently 
 occiu', no matter how perfect the shape and s,\z.q of the 
 
THE HOCK. 117 
 
 joint may be. To my thinking, this is a very fruitful 
 source of the disease. 
 
 Injudicious shoeing is another cause of spavin. 
 "When the horse is disposed to brush, the smith usually 
 raises him higher on the one side of the heel than on 
 the other. This may so far change his action as to 
 prevent the brushing; but it throws so much more 
 weight on one part of the hock-joint than on another, 
 that disease may almost be said to be the inevitable 
 result. I wish these smiths had the one side of their 
 boot raised an inch higher than the other, in order that 
 they might enjoy the same pleasm-e which they have 
 conferred upon the horse. They would then, especially 
 if forced to run and jmnp, have an opportunity of 
 knowing how long then* ankle and knee-joints would 
 continue sound. 
 
 The perfection of the hock further requires that the 
 end of the shank-bone which joins it should be large 
 and well developed in every direction. When the shank 
 is small, narrow, and contracted, the bones of the hock 
 have not a sufficiently extensive surface to rest upon. 
 This is a veiy frequent cause of spavin. Some horses 
 are so ill-formed here that a person, on taking a side 
 view, might almost imagine a piece had been pared off 
 the front of the shank-bone immediately below the 
 hock-joint. This is a formidable defect, as the bone 
 should be very broad here, for the purpose of carrymg 
 the joint. The greater the measurement, from before 
 
118 THE HORSE. 
 
 backwards, at this part, the better, and the less liable 
 >vill the animal be to curbs and spavins. Llanercost 
 was particularly beautiful in this point. There was 
 plenty of room for the attachment of ligaments, and the 
 hock had a broad, finn basis to rest upon. 
 
 It is a sign of bad feeding, constitutional weakness, 
 or a strong disposition to local disease, when the quan- 
 tity of sinovial secretion in the hock-joint is super- 
 abundant. If anything can add to the beauty of a well- 
 foimed, large joint, it is that of its being clean, hard, 
 and free from tumefaction of every kind. 
 
 THE SHANK. 
 
 The shank-bone should be short, broad, and flat. This 
 arrangement will give strength, and, at the same time, 
 bring the hock near to the ground. The back-sinews 
 ought to stand well out from the bone. In a well- 
 formed leg, these sinews are plain and distinct, and feel 
 as hard as cords. I have already alluded to the pro- 
 per form of the upper end of the shank-bone, where it 
 joins the hock. The lower end requires to be strong 
 also, in order to form a strong connexion -wath the pas- 
 tern. Taken as a whole, from the hock to the heel, 
 the shank should be short, straight, broad, flat, hard, 
 sinewy, and wiry-looking. It is a bad sign of the con- 
 stitution to see it round, gummy, and soft-looking. 
 
JUDGING THE HOKSE. 119 
 
 THE PASTERNS. 
 
 The hind-pasterns should be longer, stronger, and 
 more slanted than the fore ones. They require to be 
 very springy, still possessing plenty of strength to 
 prevent the end of the shank-bone, even under the 
 greatest possible efforts of the hind-quarters, from com- 
 ing into contact with the ground. 
 
 THE HIND-FOOT 
 
 is so much less Hable to disease than the fore one, and 
 the difference in its form is consequently so much less 
 important, that I do not think it necessary to dwell on 
 its peculiarities. 
 
 The hind-feet should be set down firmly under the 
 horse, and the hocks ought to incline a little towards 
 each other. It is a gi'eat indication of weakness, when 
 the hocks twist outwards dm'ing the motion of the 
 hind-legs. 
 
 JUDGING THE HOUSE. 
 
 I have now gone over all the points of the horse in de- 
 tail ; and I think those parties who take the trouble of 
 carefully reading my remarks, in connexion with a 
 practical examination of the various horses which daily 
 fall mider their notice, will be able to form an opinion 
 of the animal's development and peculiarities upon a 
 correct and rational basis. 
 
120 THE HORSE. 
 
 In forming an estimate of any particular horse, it is 
 a good plan at first to take a general and rapid survey 
 of bis outline. The first impression is frequently wor- 
 thy of attention ; but if it is not well founded, it can 
 easily be rectified aftei-wards. After this cursory in- 
 spection, it will be well to examine every important 
 point in detail, keeping steadily in view the peculiari- 
 ties of form which the animal should possess, for the 
 puipose for which he is designed. A horse ought al- 
 ways to present such distinctive features as will at once 
 set him down for some specific use. If he is a nonde- 
 script animal — fitted for one purpose in one part, and a 
 different purpose in another part, but for nothing on 
 the whole — if, in short, he has neither trade, profes- 
 sion, nor occupation, the sooner he is thrown to the 
 dogs the better. Let the perfections and imperfections 
 of evcjy point be carefully observed in detail, and then 
 the obsei-ver will be in a position to rectify or confirm 
 the first impressions which he received. It wiU even 
 be necessary to take a second look at the general out- 
 line, for the purpose of obsemng how the most impor- 
 tant parts are fitted for, and connected Tvdth each 
 other. Nothing could be of more consequence than 
 the proportional development and exact balancing of 
 the difi'erent parts of the machineiy. It is the rarest 
 thing imaginable to find a horse well proportioned 
 throughout ; but when he is found, I would recommend 
 the owner not to part with him on any account. 
 
JUDGING THE HORSE. 121 
 
 Before coming to a final decision, it is unquestionably 
 necessary to put the horse into motion. He is not to 
 be examined merely as a bullock in Smithfield; he 
 must be walked, trotted, or galloped, as the case may 
 requke. If we have made any mistake in regard to 
 his constitution and form, we will be materially assisted 
 in rectifying om' error by seeing him in motion ; be- 
 sides, independently of his natural action, we will then 
 have a good opportunity of judging of his soundness. 
 During the time he is under inspection, he ought to be 
 allowed to go along quietly, with a free head and a 
 loose rein. He will then show those defects which are 
 so frequently hid by the whip, hand, and spur of the 
 experienced jockey. 
 
 I have often been sm-prised to see that the horse 
 which is good in some parts, and defective in others, 
 will please the public much better than the one which 
 is well fonned and properly proportioned throughout. 
 It requires accurate judgment and close inspection to 
 form a correct estmiate of the perfect horse. He is 
 so evenly balanced, and so accurately put together, that 
 he does not present any special point to catch the eye ; 
 but the one which is gi-eat in some points, and bad in 
 others, will be sm-e to arrest the attention of the casual 
 observer. The good parts appear so remarkably fine, 
 in contrast with the bad ones, that they cannot be 
 overlooked ; in short, they frequently blind a person to 
 the animal's defects. This, however, does not happen 
 
122 THE HORSE. 
 
 to a really good judge. His keen and well-trained eye 
 at once lights upon the sore spots. In his estimation 
 a few good points cannot make amends for radical de- 
 fects. He will choose the horse which can bear minute 
 examination, although there will be less show with 
 him, in all probability, than with the one which is good 
 here, and bad there. Hence we can easily account for 
 the fact, that the horse which pleases a good judge does 
 not generally satisfy the public taste. 
 
 Although not by any means faultless in all his points, 
 the far-famed Flying Dutchman was one of the best- 
 proportioned horses I ever saw. His style of gallop- 
 ing was consequently nearly perfect ; his form was so 
 good, and his points were so accui'ately balanced, that 
 he gave a person the impression of his having both 
 pace and distance. He was neither too light nor too 
 heavy, too large nor too small ; his fore-quarters were 
 in proportion to his hind-quarters, and his hind-quar- 
 ters in proportion to his fore-quarters ; his body was 
 not too heavy for his legs, nor his legs too clumsy for 
 his body ; he always appeared to have his long and 
 beautifully-di-ooped hind-quarters well under him in the 
 gallop, whilst he had full command of his forelegs. His 
 action was so low, so smooth, so gi'aceful, and so per- 
 fect, that no person who saw it, as he swept along, 
 could fail to admu'e it, nor could he ever forget it. I 
 verily believe he never had a superior ; and if I had 
 been in the place of that most honom-able of sportsmen, 
 
ON BREEDING. 123 
 
 the Earl of Eglinton, who owned him during the entire 
 of his racing career, I would not have parted even with 
 a share in him for anj ordinary consideration. We 
 must all admire the noble spirit of the Marquis of 
 Westminster, who, when solicited to part with Touch- 
 stone to the Germans, sent the reply, that " A German 
 principality should not buy Touchstone." 
 
 ON BREEDING. 
 
 It would be foreign to my present purpose to enter at 
 full length into the subject of breeding. Nevertheless, 
 I think it advisable to make a few observations on this 
 most important question. 
 
 PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO BOTH SIRE AND DAM. 
 
 Breeding fi-om unsound stock is, perhaps, the most 
 serious, as well as the most usual, mistake into which 
 people have fallen. No mle in the li\'ing economy is 
 better established than the law of the hereditary trans- 
 mission of qualities. I do not wish to be understood 
 as asserting that the actual disease is communicated, 
 but merely that such a peculiarity of constitution or 
 form is handed down from generation to generation, as 
 renders the offspring extremely liable to the same dis- 
 eases as their parents, whenever they are exposed to 
 suitable exciting causes. Indeed, I might almost go 
 the length of saying that, viewed in this light, every- 
 
124 THE HORSE. 
 
 thing which is not purely accidental is hereditary. No 
 one, of course, would believe in the transmission of a 
 real accident, such as a fractured bone or a dislocated 
 joint. We must be careful, however, of admitting into 
 the list of accidents such things as spavins, curbs, 
 ringbones, roaring, wind-breaking, &c. These can 
 never properly be considered as accidental, although the 
 excuse is frequently made on their behalf, that they 
 occun-ed from a wrench, stress, fall, or some violent 
 and sudden over-exertion, for which the animal is not 
 to be blamed. For my part, I would never be hood- 
 winked by any excuse of the kind, no matter by whom 
 it may be preferred. I would invariably trust to the 
 horse who goes through all his trials and severe work 
 at all ages, and turns up quite sound at the last. This 
 LS the animal whose form and constitution are to be de- 
 pended on. He can speak for himself, and needs no 
 interested advocate. If two animals are getting the 
 same care, and doing the same amount of work, and 
 one of them bears it without injury, whilst the other 
 breaks up, there surely can be no question that the one 
 is more perfect in his construction than the other. I 
 would listen to no apologies for the bad one. There is 
 a reason in natm^e for his going astray ; and it makes 
 little difference whether that reason depends on softness 
 of constitution, defective structure, or imperfection of 
 form. It is somewhere in the organization, and is sure 
 to be hereditary. Some diseases are so trivial in their 
 
ON BREEDING. 125 
 
 nature, that we need not pay much attention to them ; 
 but many others are so serious in their consequences 
 that we should never overlook them. Broken wind, 
 ringbone, cm-b, spavin, scrofulous disease of the joints, 
 affections of the windpipe, and several diseases of the 
 eye, are so important and so decidedly hereditciry, that 
 they should unquestionably be avoided, except under 
 some very special ckcumstances. 
 
 The temper demands special attention. A fractious, 
 fretful, flighty, dogged, or vicious disposition, is so 
 vexatious, that it becomes a great cbawback on the 
 value and usefulness of the animal. All this depends 
 on the state of the brain, and consequently is heredi- 
 tary. In many cases it is easy to tell the sire or dam 
 by the temper of the offspring. I have verified this 
 obsei'vatioa in an immense number of instances. A 
 fair combination of gentleness with courage is an in- 
 valuable quality ; it makes amends for many other im- 
 perfections. 
 
 No consideration should induce any man to breed 
 from a soft-constitutioned or weedy animal. There 
 should always be firmness of texture, with plenty of 
 substance and size, to suit the pm-pose for which the 
 horse may be designed. The points which constitute 
 the most usefid parts must always be well developed. 
 It is much better to have them a little in excess than 
 deficient. Radical defects of all kinds are invaiiably 
 to be avoided. 
 
126 THE HORSE. 
 
 It is well to select animals of a medium age to breed 
 from. They generally produce a more vigorous, heal- 
 thy, and thriving offspring than those who are either 
 very young or very old. This rule, however, does not 
 always hold good, as there are some noted exceptions 
 to it ; for example, the Ugly Buck, winner of the two- 
 thousand-guinea stakes, was foaled when his dam was 
 only three years' old, and he was the best foal she ever 
 produced. Cressida had Priam when she was twenty 
 years of age, and Crucifix was foaled when her dam 
 was twenty-two ; Marske was thirteen when he got 
 Eclipse ; Orville twenty when he got Emilius ; Voltaire 
 twenty when he got Voltigeur ; Pot-8-os sixteen when 
 he got Waxy ; "Waxy sixteen Avhen he got Whalebone, 
 and twenty-one when he got Whisker; Whalebone 
 fourteen when he got Camel, and eighteen when he got 
 Sir Hercules ; Sir Hercules fourteen when he got 
 Faugh-a-ballagh, and twenty-seven when he got Gem- 
 ma-di-Vergy ; and Touchstone is still a favourite stal- 
 lion, at twenty-seven years of age. 
 
 There is not the slightest foundation for the strong 
 prejudice which exists in the public mind against in- 
 and-in breeding. On the contrary, Mr. Smith -has 
 plainly estabUshed that, within certain limits, this plan is 
 highly advantageous. Many of the best horses, as well 
 as the best short-horned cattle, we have ever had, were 
 very much and closely in-bred. To a certain extent 
 this was unavoidable, when the studs and herds were 
 
ON BREEDING. 
 
 12: 
 
 first formed ; but it makes little difference whether it 
 was the result of necessity, or of choice. It has fully 
 established the immense advantages of breeding in-and- 
 in, when the stock is of the right sort ; indeed, I can 
 see no other possible way of retaining the perfections 
 of any particular strain than that of retm-ning frequently 
 to the same blood. If this principle had not been 
 adopted, we would not now possess the advantage 
 which was gained by the Waxy blood. When the 
 out-and-out crossing is strictly pursued, the tenth 
 generation contains only the one-thousaud-and-twenty- 
 fourth part of the original stock, which is a mere nomi- 
 nal affair. A veiy sensible writer, who signs himself 
 *' An Old Turfite," in the Sjwrting Magazine, places 
 this in a very strong light, by adopting the following 
 tabular form : — 
 
 1st Cross contains 
 
 2nd 
 
 )i 
 
 »> 
 
 3rd 
 
 >» 
 
 >* 
 
 4th 
 
 >» 
 
 i» 
 
 6th 
 
 f* 
 
 »> 
 
 6th 
 
 » 
 
 »> 
 
 7th 
 
 »» 
 
 » 
 
 8th 
 
 >» 
 
 »» 
 
 9th 
 
 j> 
 
 a 
 
 10th 
 
 »> 
 
 » 
 
 
 The practical result may not always correspond pre- 
 cisely with the arithmetical ratio, because the horse may 
 
128 THE HORSE. 
 
 stamp his form so completely on his offspring, that it 
 will not be easily got rid of; bnt still it will unques- 
 tionably run out in the course of time ; and the more 
 complete and violent the cross, the sooner will the 
 peculiarities disappear. They can be retained only by 
 frequent returns to the same blood ; and by this plan 
 we can reap all the adA^antages of good stock, \Yithout 
 running in-and-in so very constantly and closely as 
 to run any hazard of ever deteriorating the constitu- 
 tion of the animal. We must be careful, however, to 
 observe that the individuals we select to breed from are 
 as near perfection as possible, both in themselves and 
 their ancestors. We will thus secure the transmission 
 of their good qualities. On the other hand, if there is 
 any special defect, it will be sure to pass down, when 
 it is thrown in-and-in, and will hardly ever be got rid 
 of. I think it is owing, in a great measm-e, to want of 
 attention to this mle, that there is so much prejudice 
 against close breeding. It will succeed only when the 
 good qualities bear an immense preponderance over the 
 bad ones. To those who wish for further information 
 on this important subject, I would strongly recommend 
 the perusal of Stonehenge's most admirable observa- 
 tions, in his " British Eural Sports." 
 
 Experienced breeders very properly place great re- 
 liance on blood. In short, this just amounts to the 
 fact, that good and bad qualities are all hereditary. 
 *' Like begets like." No person ever saw a Clydesdale foal 
 
ON BREEDING. 129 
 
 got by a blood-horse out of a blood mare, or a short- 
 homed calf bj a long-horned bull out of a long-horned 
 cow. Such a thing is never expected. If, then, these 
 general characteristics are invariably transmitted, have 
 we not some reason at least to conclude, that all things 
 are hereditary. In fact, that the offspring will inherit, 
 either in whole or in part, the most trifling peculiarities 
 of their ancestors, sometimes taking more after the one 
 parent, and sometimes more after the other, or being 
 a mixture of both, as the case may be. What- 
 ever the peculiarities are — ^whether soundness, disease, 
 form, temper, softness, strength, durabihty, speed, 
 wind, or any other thing — they pass down from gene- 
 ration to generation. For instance, the descendants of 
 Waxy and Oi-ville are characterised by pluck, distance, 
 and durability ; whilst the Selims are celebrated chiefly 
 for speed. Again, to take an illustration from a very 
 long line of the purest breeding, I may refer to the here- 
 ditary colour of Hereford and Devon cows. Who ever 
 saw a Hereford without a white face, or a Devon of 
 any other colom- than a rich red ? Here we see that 
 the very colour of the animal runs in blood. Those 
 who have an opportunity of inspecting Mr. Goodwin's 
 highly mteresting tables containing the pedigree of 
 thoroughbred horses, will see at a glance that blood is 
 most important. He arranges all the stallions of 185 G 
 under three heads — the Darley Arabian, the Byeriy 
 
130 THE HORSE. 
 
 Turk, and the Godolphin Arabian. From these tables 
 it appears that the Darley Arabian is represented, at 
 present, by two hundred and five stallions of repute ; 
 the Byerly Turk, by seventy-six ; and the Godolphin 
 Arabian by twenty-four. Does this not plainly prove 
 that the blood of the Darley Arabian is much more to 
 be prized than that of the Byerly Turk, and the Byerly 
 Turk than that of the Godolphin Arabian ? It should 
 surely lead us to place some confidence in pedigree. 
 Moreover, the same table shows that the lion's share 
 has fallen to the descendants of Waxy through his son 
 Whalebone. Indeed, it might safely be said, that 
 every good thoroughbred horse now in the world con- 
 tains Waxy blood either by his sire or dam. 
 
 Whilst good blood is indispensable, it is not every- 
 thing. " In breeding for the turf," says " Red Rover," 
 in vol. iv. of the Sporting Magazine, " above all things 
 it is necessary, in order to secure success, to consider 
 closely the old crosses of blood; and to cross judi- 
 ciously the stout with the speedy. Not that I think that, 
 for the sake of blood, the form of an animal selected 
 for stud-purposes should be held a second-rate consi- 
 deration ; but, each being well considered, the standard 
 of excellence may better be attained. The fault of 
 looking to blood alone is among many of our breeders 
 the cause of such ill-success ; as they look too much to 
 the horse throwing back in blood, as the term is, and 
 
ON BREEDING. 131 
 
 not stamping his own form, which may be, and very 
 often is, atrocious, but that of his sire, which might 
 have been first-rate, on the stock." We should, by all 
 means, keep to the good blood ; but, at the same time, 
 we must be careful to select the best specimens of that 
 blood, if we wish to attain to high success. It is 
 owing to a strict perseverance in this plan that Mr. 
 Booth now occupies an unrivalled position as a breeder 
 of short-horned cattle. He not only kept to the right 
 strain, but he also invariably selected the best specimens 
 of that blood for his own use, and refused to part with 
 them at any price. This was a wise com-se, and the 
 consequence is, his stock is now so highly prized, that 
 he can command the market as he pleases. The fact 
 of its having been bred by Booth is now sufficient to 
 create a demand for any animal ; and here, it appears 
 to me, the pubKc are running in du'ect opposition to 
 Mr. Booth's own principles of action. The state of 
 their pocket will some day point out thek mistake. 
 They will yet find that they not only requu'e Mr. 
 Booth's blood, but also that they must have such a 
 specimen of that blood as would satisfy ]\Ir. Booth for 
 his own use. This is the point to be looked to ; and 
 these observations are quite as applicable to the horse 
 as the cow. Take, for example, the case of own-bro- 
 thers. Although the blood is the same, they never 
 breed alike because they are not equally perfect in all 
 
132 THE HORSE. 
 
 other particulars. Thus, Whalebone was far superior 
 as a stallion to Whisker ; Touchstone to Launcelot ; 
 Irish Bii'd-catcher to Faugh-a-ballagh ; Selim to Rubens 
 and Castrel ; Epirus to Elis ; and Simoom to Sea 
 Horse. There are multitudes of facts to prove that, 
 whilst we do not forget the blood, we should look to 
 all other peculiarities. 
 
 THE MARE. 
 
 My previous observations embody general principles 
 which are applicable to both sire and dam, and, in a 
 gi'eat measm-e, to all the classes into which the horse is 
 divided. I must now advert to a few things which apply 
 exclusively to the brood-mare. 
 
 Unless the produce is intended for racing, or some 
 other specific purpose, there is no necessity for the 
 mare being clean-bred of her kind. In her case, a 
 mixture will not only do very well, but in some instances 
 it is actually desirable. It is important, however, that 
 the crosses which are to be found in her should not be 
 of a bad description, nor yet very violent, as she might 
 then throw her foals too much after the objectionable 
 strain, or else produce a cross-made, ill-proportioned, 
 and useless brute, in consequence of the violent and 
 incongruous crosses in her own pedigree. Daily obser- 
 vations, unfortunately, verify these facts. 
 
THE MARE. 133 
 
 No mare Is so valuable for breeding-purposes as 
 the one which throws her foals after the horse. 
 The more completely she does this the better. It will 
 then be our own fault if we do not get some valuable 
 stock, as we have an almost endless variety of stallions 
 to choose from. If she is an animal of the very first 
 stamp, we would, of com'se, be anxious for the repro- 
 duction of her own form and constitution ; but as mares 
 of this description are difficult to be obtained, it is 
 highly desirable to get one which will either throw 
 after the horse, or back into some good strain in her 
 own blood. 
 
 I never could understand on what principle those 
 parties who maintain that " like begets like," could in- 
 sist, as they all do, on the necessity of breeding from what 
 they call roomy mares. If they are so roomy as to be 
 out of proportion, their stock, both male and female, 
 may be of the same stamp. They should neither be 
 very roomy, nor very nan*ow ; but as near symmetri- 
 cal perfection as possible. The more evenly balanced 
 they are, the more perfect is theii* offspring likely to be. 
 If this is not the case, like does not^ beget like. It is 
 absurd to suppose the perfection of the offspring de- 
 pends on the extent of space it may happen to have 
 for its habitation before birth. Its qualities will de- 
 pend on the perfection of its ancestors, either immedi- 
 ate or remote. Unless we want an extremely roomy 
 
134 THE HORSE. 
 
 foal, we should not choose an extremely roomy dam. 
 There is nothing more required than that there shall 
 be sufficient room to prevent defonnity from position, 
 which latter is a remarkably rare occuiTence. If a 
 mare is so naiTOw as not to be able properly to contain 
 a foal, she is, in every point of view, such a thorough 
 weed, that no man but a fool would select her for breed- 
 ing-pm-poses. 
 
 The common, almost universal, practice of putting 
 all sorts of mares to the same horse, cannot be too 
 strongly reprehended. Breeding will indeed be a com- 
 plete lottery so long as this plan is pursued. It re- 
 quires a great deal of discrimination and judgment to 
 select the most suitable stallion for any particular 
 mare. On this hangs the chief part of our success. 
 The crosses of blood, the size, the temper, the consti- 
 tution, and the form, must all be well considered. 
 Whatever faults exist on the one side must, as far as 
 possible, be avoided on the other. If the same fault 
 exists on both sides of the house, it is nearly certain of 
 being handed down. It is a much better plan, how- 
 ever, to rectify an imperfection in the dam by selecting 
 a horse as nearly perfect as possible at the same part, 
 than to choose one who runs to the opposite extreme. 
 It is an old saying, and a true one, that extremes 
 never meet. The happy medium cannot be obtained 
 in this wav. 
 
THE STALLION. 135 
 
 THE STALLION. 
 
 Purity of blood is the very first consideration in a 
 stallion. He should not contain the slightest stain. 
 It matters not whether he is a racer, a Suffolk, a 
 Clydesdale, or any other sort, he must mvariably be 
 pure of his own breed. He will then suit for getting 
 either pure or half-bred stock. He requires to be 
 pure for mares of a mixed strain, because the first 
 cross is by far the best. When the crossing is conti- 
 nued, the quality is certain to deteriorate. I have often 
 heard people, after admu-ing a half-bred stallion, say they 
 would put their common-bred mares to him, as he was 
 just the sort of horse they would like to breed. Do 
 they ever succeed on this plan ? Certainly not. Their 
 only chance of obtaining what they want is, to put 
 their mares to a pm-e bred horse, and thus breed their 
 colts on the same principle as the half-bred stallion 
 himself was got. It has frequently strack me, that 
 want of attention to this rule has been the means of 
 brmging thorough-bred stalUons, as well as short- 
 homed bulls, into disrepute in country districts. The 
 result of the first cross is often a good-looking animal. 
 He is considered too good for castration, and conse- 
 quently is kept for a sire. His apparent strength, 
 good looks, and cheap price, added to a flaming pedi- 
 
136 THE HORSE. 
 
 gree all on the one side, are sure to command the 
 custom of the district. When the produce, how- 
 ever, comes to maturity, it is found to be of such an 
 inferior class, that there is nothing but loss and disap- 
 pointment. The foals may look well when they are 
 covered with fat ; but when they come to full size they 
 are a soiTy lot. I knew an instance where two or 
 three parties praised a foal of this description. A shrewd 
 countryman who was standing by said, " Had a wee ; 
 it will get like its own sort yet ;" and so it did. The 
 unfortunate breeders who follow this plan never think of 
 la}dng the blame at the door of then- own stupidity ; 
 but at once jump to the ridiculous conclusion, that the 
 fault lies entirely in their having too much blood. 
 
 There are so many requisites to constitute a right 
 good stallion, that he is extremely difficult to be found. 
 His blood, soundness, temper, temperament, form, size, 
 substance, action, and colour, must all be considered. 
 If he is for getting racing stock, he requu-es to run 
 close to the ground ; but if he is to be used as the 
 sire of hunters, roadsters, or harness-horses, he must 
 be a free and easy stepper, and lift tolerably high. A 
 stallion should not only have all the important points 
 well made, but he should also have them with more 
 than ordinary substance. In short, he ought to have 
 a great deal to spare. I feel pretty confident that 
 Touchstone owes a considerable part of his remarkable 
 
THE STALLION. 137 
 
 success as a stallion to the fact of his having an excess 
 of substance in his leading points. He has plenty 
 to spare ; and, therefore, throws power into his stock. 
 It is rather remarkable, that his fillies should be 
 very little worth, whilst his colts are of the first 
 stamp. On the other hand, Priam was the sire of the 
 renowned Crucifix, and several other celebrated mares, 
 whilst his colts were altogether unknown to fame. 
 
 Whenever it can be accomplished, it is an excellent 
 plan to breed from horses which are proved to be good 
 stallions. Their racing qualities do not always corres- 
 pond with their value in the stud. Blank and Old 
 England were own-brothers, being got by the Godol- 
 phin Arabian out of the Little Hartley mare ; Blank 
 was a good stallion, although a bad racer : Old Eng- 
 land was a capital runner, but a bad stallion. Again, 
 Lath and Cade were by the Godolphin out of Eoxana. 
 Lath was a first-class racer, and a bad staUion ; but 
 Cade, who was an excellent stallion, could scarcely be 
 called a racer at all. The far-famed Eclipse was by 
 Marsk out of Spiletta. Spiletta started only once, 
 when she was beaten ; and Marsk was such a miser- 
 able racer, that when he was tm-ned to the stud he 
 covered in Dorsetshire at half-a-guinea, and was sold 
 to Mr. Wildman for twenty guineas. Marsk proved 
 himself so good a sire, however, that he afterwards 
 covered at one hundred guineas a mare. Plenipoten- 
 
138 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 tiary, Charles XII., The Colonel, Harkaway, Cother- 
 stone, Launcelot, and Faugh- a-ballagh, were tip-top 
 racers, but miserable stallions, considering the oppor- 
 tunities they possessed. Others, again, such as Eclipse, 
 Highflyer, Waxy, Whalebone, Touchstone, and Or- 
 lando, were distinguished both as racers and stallions. 
 The gi'eat point for the breeder is to choose a stallion 
 that gets the right sort of stock ; and if his mare 
 happens to make a good hit with the horse he puts her 
 to, he should go on in the same line. We know that 
 Penelope produced Whalebone, Whisker, Woful, and 
 Web, by Waxy ; that Launcelot and Touchstone were 
 got by Camel out of Banter ; that Irish Bird-catcher 
 and Faugh- a-ballagh were own-brothers ; and that 
 Pocahontas threw both Stockwell and Rataplan to The 
 Baron. It is impossible to be certain of the value of a 
 race-horse or a mare, for breeding-purposes, until they 
 are proved. We may often come near the thing, but 
 we will sometimes be disappointed. Crucifix and her 
 dam, and the Hero and his dam, were sold for about 
 twenty guineas the pair ; and Martha Ljiin, with Volti- 
 gem* in her belly, was refused at twenty-five pounds ! ! 
 The value of a first-class thoroughbred brood mare may 
 be imagined from the fact, that the Duke of Grafton's 
 family cleared, according to Nimi'od, about one hun- 
 dred thousand pounds out of the produce of the re- 
 nowned Prunella. 
 
THE STALLIOX. 139 
 
 Sir Shafto Adair was so kind as to send me, in 
 March, 1860, a copy of the pamphlet on " The Breed- 
 ing of Domestic Animals," which was written hj the 
 late eminent surgeon, Mr. Cline of London. ^' AVhen 
 the male," says Mr. Cline, " is much larger than the 
 female, the offspring is generally of an imperfect form. 
 If the female be proportionally larger than the male, 
 the offspring is of an improved form. . . . "When 
 it became the fashion in London to drive large bay 
 horses, the fanners in Yorkshire put their mares to 
 much larger stallions than usual, and thus did infinite 
 mischief to their breed, by producing a race of small- 
 chested, long-legged, large-boned, worthless animals." 
 
 I cannot agi*ee with Mr. Cline in supposing that the 
 female should have a proportional excess of size over 
 the male, because this would be in opposition to the 
 rule of nature. If we look over all creation, we will 
 find the male decidedly preponderating in size over the 
 female ; and this should prevent us, in making our se- 
 lections, from endeavom-ing to bring them both as near 
 as possible to the same dimensions. But I do most 
 heartily concm* in the idea, that we should never at- 
 tempt to rectify the diminutive size on the part of the 
 dam, by putting her to an overgrown brute of a sire, 
 after the example of the different breeders which are 
 animadverted on in Mr. Cline's work. This plan 
 
 L 
 
140 THE HORSE. 
 
 comes dii'ectly under the objections which I have made 
 to violent crossing in general. It matters not whether 
 we are endeavoming to improve one point or the whole 
 body, we should never make the attempt by a violent 
 cross. K we do, we are nearly certain to fail. In 
 place of remedying the fault we have in view, we will 
 spoil the whole, for want of proportion through the 
 different parts. We cannot remedy defects by running 
 to opposite extremes. The improvement must be by a 
 gradual process, and earned out through a succession 
 of generations. If we want to increase the size of a 
 race of ponies, we will accomplish our object much 
 better by putting the mares to large-sized, strong-built 
 pony horses, than to horses sixteen or seventeen hands 
 high. The first plan would retain the good qualities 
 with an increase of size ; the last would totally ruin 
 the race. These observations are applicable in all 
 cases. Let our attempts at improvement be made on 
 a gradual scale, but never by an abrupt process. 
 
 I believe there is no horse for heavy draught at all 
 to be compared to the Clydesdale. He is a fast 
 walker, a strong puller, and he has a very hardy con- 
 stitution. Cart stallions are more frequently faulty in 
 their middle-piece, and in their feet, than anywhere 
 else. If they are faulty on these points, they must 
 certainly be avoided. It matters not what perfections 
 
ERRORS IN DRIVING. 141 
 
 he may have in other places, if a horse has bad feet, a 
 light heart, a weak back, and short back-ribs, he 
 should always be ranked amongst the veriest of weeds. 
 
 EERORS IN DRIVINa. 
 
 The common practice of laying on the whip at starting, 
 and thus springing a spirited horse into sudden and 
 rapid action, is hable to sprain the sinews, and if the 
 gi'ound be slippery, the poor animal is nearly certain of 
 coming to his knees. I have often seen horses brouglit 
 down in tliis way under their load. If a high-tem- 
 pered but tender-mouthed horse is treated in this man- 
 ner, whUst he is hauled up with a severe and powerful 
 bit just as the whip is being laid on, he is very likely 
 to acquire the habit of rusting. The whip makes him 
 dash forward, the heavy curb-bit stops his progress, 
 he is bewildered and becomes fractious, and then takes 
 the convenient course of going backwards. The start 
 should always be effected as gently as possible, and 
 the horse should be reined with a very tender hand. 
 There should also be a deal of caution used at the ter- 
 mination of the di'ive. It is much better to ease the 
 momentum by degrees, than to compel the unfortunate 
 animal to exert every muscle and sinew in his body, 
 whilst he endeavours to stop his own progi'ess and the 
 
142 THE HORSE. 
 
 progress of the vehicle, by propping himself up for a 
 strong resistance, when he is brought to a sudden 
 stand. There is no necessity for finishing a diive as 
 if life or death depended upon the last stride. 
 
 No horse should be driven with a tight rein. It is 
 a great mistake to suppose that hard holding will keep 
 him on his feet. It will only render his mouth so hard 
 that the bit will be of little use to him, unless it is 
 handled by a giant. A man with good touch and 
 capabilities for diiving, can keep a horse on his feet by 
 merely feeling that there is a bit in the mouth. Some 
 horses can bear to be driven against their bit, but 
 others are so constructed that they cannot stand it 
 without spoiling their method of going, and cm-tailing 
 their stride. They will perhaps break their trot for a 
 sort of half canter. ^Rlany horses have their mouths 
 ruined by the way in which they are driven in single 
 harness. The diiver sits on one side of the vehicle — 
 he strikes the horse on the same side ; the horse 
 flinches from the whip ; one rein is pulled to keep him 
 straight ; and in the coui-se of time his mouth is com- 
 pletely spoiled ; whereas laying the whip occasionally 
 over the horse on the off side from the driver would 
 have kept him straight for the road from the first. 
 
 It may often be remarked, that in approaching a 
 corner the driver takes his horse as far out from the 
 
TREATMENT OF COLIC. I* J 
 
 point of the comer as he can. He is then obliged, by 
 a sndden pull on the rein, to make the turn so sharp, 
 that he almost appears to be going round on a pivot, 
 and the horse is impeded in his progress and broken in 
 his action. But if the puU on the bit had been so 
 gentle — which it should always be — as to inform the 
 horse quietly of what was intended ; and if the tui-u 
 had been very gradually commenced fi'om the centre of 
 the road on the one side, and earned as close to the 
 comer as safety would penuit, and then finished on the 
 road on the other side by a gradual and still longer 
 sweep, the turn would scarcely have been felt ; and the 
 horse, being aware of what he was about, would have 
 been safely conducted on his course, without curtailing 
 his action and lessening his speed to any very marked 
 extent. 
 
 TREATMEin: OF COLIC. 
 
 I WOULD not presume to encroach on the province of 
 the veterinarian, in relation to the treatment of disease 
 in the horse. On the contrary, when anything goes 
 astray in my own stables, which seldom happens, I at 
 once have recourse to the advice of a properly qualified 
 veterinary surgeon, if he is within my reach, in place 
 of tmsting to my own judgment ; and I strongly re- 
 
144: THE HORSE, 
 
 commend all my readers to adopt the same plan. The 
 earlier proper advice is obtained, and the more carefully 
 and faithfully the instructions given are carried out, 
 the gi-eater is the certainty of a favourable result. At 
 the present time, however, I will venture to say a few 
 words on the treatment of colic. I am impelled to this 
 by the strong impression which has been made on my 
 mind by the perusal of a pamphlet on the subject, 
 which was kindly sent me by its author, Mr. Joseph 
 Gamgee. The views therein inculcated are so plain 
 and rational, and so consistent with the doctrines I 
 hold in regard to the human subject, that I will place 
 some of them before my readers. 
 
 Colic seldom, if ever, occurs in the horse except in 
 connexion mth a loaded state of the bowels, or the 
 presence of undigested food in the stomach. Hence 
 the very first indication of rational treatment is the 
 administration of purgatives, to clear the digestive 
 organs of all their ii'ritating contents. On this plan, 
 we strike at the foundation of disease, and remove the 
 cause of all the mischief, and relief is nearly certain to 
 ensue. Whereas, on the ordinary plan of merely re- 
 lieving the symptoms by the exhibition of opium to 
 deaden the sensibility of the parts to pain, the cause of 
 the disease i§ overlooked and remains untouched, and 
 obstinate constipation, accompanied with violent inflam- 
 mation, is very likely to follow. Horses and cows are 
 
TREATMENT OF COLIC. 145 
 
 often lost in this way. At the very outset, we should 
 administer a good purgative by the mouth, and have 
 recourse to the use of injections by tlie bowel. I be- 
 lieve the best purgative is a ball containing six drachms 
 of genuine Barbadoes aloes, two drachms of ginger, 
 and ten drops of oil of carraway ; and Mr. Gamgee 
 uses nothing for injections but plain warm water, in 
 two-quart doses, and repeated at short intervals five or 
 six times, as occasion may require. If I might venture 
 to give an opinion of my own on this matter, I would 
 recommend, in addition to the above treatment, the 
 administration of one ounce of laudanum and one ounce 
 of sweet spirit of nitre, unless the state of the bowels 
 forbids it. If the constipation is great, the laudanum 
 would only increase it, and therefore should not be given 
 till the bowels are opened ; but if the bowels are toler- 
 ably free, I would combine all the plans of treatment, 
 and thus hit the disease on every point. The purga- 
 tive ball and injection will carry off all offending mat- 
 ter ; the laudanum will relieve the spasm and pain ; 
 and the sweet nitre will equalize the circulation by 
 acting on the kidneys and skin. 
 
 The practice of forcing the horse to stand on his 
 feet, or walk about, when labouring under a fit of colic, 
 is most inhuman. The same remark is also applicable 
 to the plan of exercising the horse during the time he 
 is under the purgative action of a dose of physic. He 
 
146 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 should be moved gently about before the medicine com- 
 mences to operate, but never after. Do those barba- 
 rians who knock the animal about when enduring the 
 pains of colic, or when suffering from the strong pur- 
 gative action of medicine, ever think of what they are 
 doing ? If they were treated themselves on the same 
 plan, under similar circumstances, they would soon 
 come to their senses regarding the management of the 
 unfortunate animal which is placed under their charge. 
 
 LAYING DOWN THE FOOT. 
 
 My third Letter on the Horse, published in the London- 
 derry Standard for the 10th of March, 1848, contained 
 the following statement : — " I think any person who 
 takes the trouble of opening his eyes may see, that the 
 safety of the horse's knees depends entirely on the 
 slant of the shoulder and pastern, together with a pro- 
 per method of laying down the foot. . . . I assert, 
 most emphatically, that it is the laying down, and not 
 the lifting, of the foot, which renders the animal safe. 
 If he lays the heel first to the ground, he cannot fall. 
 . . . Let the horse with the well-slanted shoulder 
 and pastern throw his foot far foi-ward, and lay his 
 heel first to the ground, and I wiU answer for his 
 safety." 
 
LAYING DOWN THE FOOT. 147 
 
 I here propounded, in a few words, an entirely new 
 view of the horse's mode of progression. I never felt 
 satisfied with the cun-ent opinion on the subject, as I 
 Tvas always convinced, from the time I was able to 
 form an opinion of mj own from practical obseiwation, 
 that the horse and all other inferior animals moved, 
 like the man, from heel to toe. At the time I wrote, 
 I thought the universal belief was that the foot should 
 be laid down quite flat upon the road ; but I learned 
 in the year 1861, to my gi-eat astonishment, that a 
 large portion of the veterinarians actually maintained 
 that the toe was the part which should reach the 
 ground first. Such an idea as this last never entered 
 into my head, and it was with great difficulty I could 
 believe, when informed of the fact in 1861, that any 
 man in the exercise of his common sense could give 
 credence to such a doctrine ; and I am still at a loss to 
 know what on earth could have given rise to such a 
 view of progression — progi'ession by going first back- 
 wards and then forwards ! 
 
 I re-wrote these statements about laying down the 
 heel in 1851, and published them again in 1859, ex- 
 actly as they are to be found on the 88th and 89 th 
 pages of this work. The same sentiments were 
 brought, in a clear, distinct, and extended form, before 
 the notice of the veterinary profession by Mr. I. J, 
 
148 THE HORSE. 
 
 Lnpton, in the commencement of the year 1858, 
 through the columns of the Veterinarian ; and they 
 were adopted and very ably advocated by Mr. Joseph 
 Gamgee, in the Edinburgh Veterinary Review for 
 January, 1859. 
 
 As I never had the advantages of a good, nor yet 
 the very great disadvantages of an erroneous veteri- 
 nary education, I was obliged, to a large extent, to 
 pick up information regarding the horse from the use 
 of my own eyes. Hence I do not recollect of having 
 ever held any other opinion than the one I published 
 in 1848, that the horse lays his heel first to thegi'ound, 
 and moves like the man, from heel to toe. Indeed it 
 seems remarkable that veterinarians should have left the 
 discovery of this view to me. Their having held the 
 opposite opinion is quite unaccountable. To suppose 
 that the horse should both light on the toe and lift 
 from the toe — that the toe should be the first and last 
 point of contact with the gi'ound — appears an approach 
 to absurdity. The toe would require to be made of 
 something more durable than steel, to stand the tear 
 and wear which would result from such an an-ange- 
 ment. Besides, this construction would involve a 
 tedious and clumsy action, which is altogether incon- 
 sistent with the beautiful simplicity of natural organi- 
 sation. Just imagine the time spent in laying down 
 from toe to heel, and then lifting from heel to toe ! 
 
LAYING DOWN THE FOOT. 149 
 
 Any person who wishes to form an idea of this, may do 
 so by trying the action with his own hand on a table. 
 If he wants to go forsv-ard he will find it tedious, very 
 clumsy, and difficult, when the points of the fingers are 
 brought first into contact with the surface; but the 
 very reverse is the case when the heel of the hand, if 
 I may use such an expression, is laid first to the 
 table. 
 
 My opponents will admit that the horse sometimes 
 lays down the heel first. Now, I cannot understand 
 how it is possible for him ever to do so without showing 
 a decided halt or limp, unless it is the natural and proj^er 
 method. It is easy to see that, although the heel ought 
 to come first to the ground, it is possible for the toe, 
 in some instances, to do so, in consequence of defective 
 muscular action, or malformation. But if, on the other 
 hand, the toe, or flat of the foot, should come first, the 
 heel never could do so without a great and observable 
 defect in motion. It would then be about as awkward 
 for the horse to come first with his heel, as it would be 
 for the man to come first with his toe. The reversion 
 of the natural action, in either case, would be attended 
 with such decided defects, that it could not possibly 
 fail to attract attention. Xow, what do we find as the 
 result of observation ? If we see a man walking with 
 a firm, elastic, active, and powerful step, We will in- 
 
150 THE HORSE. 
 
 variably observe him laying the heel to the ground 
 first ; but the infant, whose muscular power is insig- 
 nificant, frequently uses its toes for a time before it can 
 deposit the heel ; and the very old man, who has lost 
 his action, or the man who is suddenly cut down with 
 severe illness, shuffles along the ground, and lays either 
 his toes or the flat of his foot to the surface of the road. 
 So is it with the horse. If we examine one which 
 evidently brings his toe first to the ground, we -will find 
 that he is either over- weighted in di'aught, or is so much 
 the worse of wear as to be nearly done, or that his form 
 was originally bad, and his muscular power defective. 
 On the other hand, I have seen hundreds of examples 
 in which the horse brought his heel quite perceptibly 
 first to the ground, and yet had a most powerful, active, 
 energetic, light, safe, and corkey action. A horse of 
 this kind, notwithstanding Mr. Dyer's opinion to the 
 contrary, will stand an immense amount of wear. One 
 of the greatest trotting horses I ever possessed, or in- 
 deed ever saw, was exactly of this description. There 
 was no mistake about his laying the heel first to the 
 ground ; a half-blind man could not miss observing it ; 
 and yet, although he got an immense amount of work 
 on the road, as all trotters will, as well as in his early 
 day in the field, his fore-feet and legs were as sound at 
 thirty-one years of age as when he was foaled. He 
 
LAYnrO DOWN THE FOOT. 151 
 
 died in the year 1850, -wathout ever having had a hair 
 oflf his knees. A friend of mine in Coleraine has at 
 present a pony, which I know to be twenty-seven years 
 of age, and which, for more than twenty years, carried 
 its master — a medical practitioner, and a heavy weight 
 — on the road ; and its legs, after all, were as sound as 
 a bell, although it was a well-marked example of laying 
 the heel first to the gi'ound. I never passed it on the 
 road without admii'ing the beautiful way in which it 
 did deposit the heel on the ground. Its action in this 
 respect was most beautiful. Hence one reason of its 
 great lasting powers and capability of endurance. 
 
 There can be only one right method of laying down 
 the foot. Whatever it is, eveiy deviation from it must 
 be a defect. This principle is so self-evident, that I 
 would never think of reasoning with any person who 
 would dispute it. The works of Xature are not so 
 clumsy and ill-arranged, as that there is no definite 
 method. Man can walk backwards ; but the only na- 
 tural and correct plan is forwards. They are not in- 
 terchangeable. The one cannot be substituted for the 
 other, with comfort, ease, and full speed. So is it with 
 the horse, and every other animal. Each has a right 
 method ; and every deviation from it must be unnatural 
 and defective. In regard to the horse, then, what is 
 the correct plan ? Let us just look at the three views. 
 
152 THE HORSE. 
 
 toe, flat, and heel, which are at present before the 
 public. 
 
 If the toe ought to come first, then the toe action 
 must be by far the best, safest, and most comfortable — 
 particularly when it is evident and well marked — and 
 the heel action must be the greatest possible defect. 
 Is it found to be the case that the evident toe-action 
 is extremely good, and the evident heel-action extremely 
 bad ? Is there any really practical horseman in the 
 world believes it ? Is it not always found that striking 
 the toe against the ground renders the horse so unsafe 
 that the rider would require to have his life insured, if 
 he has any regard to the welfare of his family ? 
 
 Supposing that the foot should come right flat, stump, 
 upon the ground, the centre of the foot must then be 
 considered practically as the point of contact ; and con- 
 sequently, if a deviation from the natural position takes 
 place at all, it must be a matter of perfect indifi'erence 
 whether it is the heel or the toe comes first. On this 
 view they are both perfectly on a par, because it in- 
 volves the idea of lapng do-v\ai and lifting a stump, and 
 excludes progression by an elastic spring from heel to 
 toe. Now, I ask, would those who advocate the flat 
 position take a horse which plainly puts his toe first to 
 the ground, as readily as the one which evidently brings 
 down the heel ? I am sure they would not. Still, to 
 
LAYING DOWN THE FOOT. 153 
 
 be consistent with theii* own views, they ought to hold 
 that a perfectly visible toe-action is quite as good as a 
 perfectly visible heel-action. If any person will take 
 the trouble of stooping down to the level of the road 
 whilst he watches a ^oof?-actioned horse going down a 
 hill, and if he plainly observes him laying the heel first 
 to the road, as I have often done, he will never, by any 
 chance, find him in the slightest degree impeded in his 
 action by laying down the heel, but the very reverse. 
 Then let him look at the other side of the picture, and 
 see the unsafe, clumsy, tedious, and defective action of 
 the horse which evidently sticks his toe into the ground, 
 either up the hill, or on the level road. If the toe, or 
 the flat of the foot, is brought first into contact with the 
 road, the bones of the pastern and foot must be in such 
 a position as to transmit the concussion right up to the 
 body of the rider, and the action of the animal will be 
 stilty in the very extreme ; whereas an inspection of a 
 perpendicular antero-posterior anatomical section of the 
 foot and leg will demonstrate that the heel position 
 allows the pasterns to assume the most favourable angle 
 for breaking the shock and obviating concussion. 
 
 With regard to my plan, or the heel first, I would 
 like to know how it is possible, even in theoiy, for it 
 to produce either stilty, unsafe, impeded, or disagree- 
 able action ; and I would like to see the man who will 
 
154 THE HORSE. 
 
 deliberately reject the horse for having such a method 
 of going. I have never yet met a man so foolish as 
 this comes to ; but if I do ever meet him, I will send 
 him up to the British Museum, as a specimen well 
 worthy of preservation. 
 
 Mr. Paton and Mr. Dyer object to a comparison with 
 man. If the comparison is put forward as a proof, 
 they have every right to reject it, because proof can 
 result only from careful, special ohservation on the 
 horse himself; but if it is used merely as an illus- 
 tration in connexion with previous obsei-vation, their 
 objection does not hold good. For instance, when I 
 wanted to account for the occasional deviation from the 
 natural action, where the toe is laid first to the ground, 
 it was quite allowable to take the example of man, in 
 whom all parties agree to the heel first as natural, for 
 the purpose of showing that even here we may some- 
 times have the toe or flat of the foot brought to the 
 ground, as the result of debility or bad formation. No 
 person would argue that the toe, or flat, is the natural 
 action in man, because he is occasionally found to lay 
 these parts first to the floor ; neither should any man 
 argue that the horse has no definite method, or that the 
 toe, or flat, is the natm'al plan, merely because we 
 sometimes find him planting these parts fii'st upon the 
 surface. The plan which, by observation, is found, in 
 
LAYING DOWN THE FOOT. 155 
 
 all possible circumstances, to be consistent vrith free, 
 safe, speedj, elastic, and powerful action, must be the 
 natural one, and all deviations from it are defects. If 
 any plan is ever proved inconsistent with good action, 
 in a healthy state, it cannot be the natui*al one. 
 
 Those who object to the comparison with man, would 
 do well to try their hand with those cases of animals 
 walking on all fours, which have been adduced by Mr. 
 Lupton and Mr. Gamgee. If, as alleged, the cow, dog, 
 camel, and elephant, plant their heel first, why may 
 not the horse do the same ? If such action does not 
 injm-e the former, why should it injure or impede the 
 latter ? 
 
 I confess I have little faith in the light to be derived 
 from the forge in this question — a question which must 
 be settled exclusively by practical observation on the 
 horse whilst in action. Suppose I take up a shoe in 
 the forge and find it greatly worn at the toe in com- 
 parison with the heel, am I justified, on that account, 
 in concluding that the wearer of the shoe brought his 
 toe to the gi'ound first ? Certainly not. If I did, I 
 would just make as childish a mistake as the bootmaker 
 would do, who would conclude that I did not place my 
 own heel fii-mly on the ground, because I wear two or 
 three pair of toes for one pair of heels on my boots. 
 The fact is, it is not the laying down, but the grinding 
 action of lifting, that wears the shoe. 
 
156 THE HORSE. 
 
 In the work on The Horse, by Stouehenge and 
 Lnptori, whicli was published in the month of October, 
 1861, two pages are devoted to the consideration of 
 the toe, and heel, action. In place of putting me down 
 as the originator of the idea of the heel action in the 
 year 1848, they have taken the entu-e credit of the 
 matter to themselves. Their conduct in this affair is 
 to be regi'etted much more on their own account than 
 on mine. Stouehenge claims that he brought the view 
 before the public in October, 1855, and Mr. Lupton, 
 before the profession in 1858. There is no doubt Mr. 
 Lupton stated the case very plainly in 1858 ; but it is 
 exceedingly questionable whether the language used by 
 Stouehenge in 1855, in his " British Rural Sports," 
 page 526, will bear the construction he noiv wishes to 
 put on it. At any rate, it is perfectly evident from 
 his observations on stumbling, at the 533rd page of 
 the same book, that the idea of the real heel action 
 had not then entered into his imagination. In place of 
 supporting the claim he now makes, his observations, 
 on the last-mentioned page, prove that he had not the 
 most remote conception of this mode of progression, 
 and did not understand the subject. After supporting 
 the exceedingly doubtful opinion that stumbling fre- 
 quently occurs in the lifting of the foot, he says, " The 
 next cause (of stumbling) is from the foot being put 
 down too far back, and too much on the toe, so that 
 
LAYING DOWN THE FOOT, 157 
 
 the pastern, instead of settling into its proper place 
 behind the perpendicular of the foot, knuckles over in 
 front." Now, in place of stating that, according to 
 the idea of the heel action, the mistake arises from ever 
 placing the toe on the ground till after the heel is de- 
 posited, he here states that it arises from putting down 
 the foot " too much on the toe," which indisputably 
 implies that he thought it ought to come a little on the 
 toe. This view is fully borne out by what he says 
 about settling the pastern in its place. On the old 
 idea of the toe or flat first, the pastern always requires 
 to settle back into its place ; but on the plan of the 
 heel first, the pastern is in its proper place before the 
 foot touches the ground, and requires no settling at all. 
 In short, it is as plain as possible Stonehenge knew 
 nothing of the heel action in 1855. As far as I am 
 concerned, however, it does not make the slightest dif- 
 ference what meaning could be taken out of the lan- 
 guage he then used, because my views were published 
 in the Londonderry Standard nearly eight years be- 
 fore his Rural Sports were written, and ten years 
 before Mr. Lupton's paper appeared. Hence my 
 claim for priority is incontrovertible, and my meaning, 
 as conveyed in the words quoted at the commencement 
 of this section, is beyond dispute. I republished the 
 same sentiments at the 88th and 89th pages of the first 
 edition of this work, in 1859 ; and again in the Edin- 
 
158 THE HORSE. 
 
 burgh Veterinarij Review, for August 1861. "Dr. 
 Carson," says tlie Editor of the Londonderry Standard 
 (August, 15th, 1861), "has pubHshed in the Veteri- 
 nary Review a letter claiming on his own account his- 
 toric priority in the matter, as he is justly entitled to 
 do, on the evidence of oui* own newspaper files." 
 
 After all this it certainly required a good deal of 
 assurance on the part of Stonehenge and Lupton to 
 come out, as they did in October, 1861, with a claim 
 of priority. They had then no excuse for ignoring the 
 existence of my views, because Stonehenge, as Editor 
 of " The Field," was sent a copy of my book, and Mr. 
 Lupton must have seen my letter in the Veterinary 
 Review. Under all the cii'cumstances, I am compelled 
 to regard their conduct as neither courteous nor honour- 
 able. 
 
 Again, at the 9th page of his last work, Stonehenge 
 says regarding the fore-leg, " It does sometimes happen, 
 however, that the toes are turned in or out without 
 aflfecting the elbow." Now, I must request him to 
 point out the place, either in his own writings or in the 
 writings of other men, where this peculiarity was 
 mentioned until it was published by me. If he is un- 
 able to do so, he must bear the reproach of appropri- 
 ating my views, in this matter also, without acknow- 
 ledgment. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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